Department of Home Economic: University of C ia 405 K 1 C\ A THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT FOOD PRODUCTS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO FOOD PRODUCTS HENRY C. SHERMAN, Pn.D. PROFESSOR OF FOOD CHEMISTRY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Neto gorfc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1917 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotypcd. Published October, 1914. Reprinted January, July, September, 1915; February, August, 1916; March, August, 1917. Norfnooti J. 8. Cnshlng Co. Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. V PREFACE BOTH food legislation and the scientific investigation of certain important aspects of the composition and value of food have undergone an exceptionally rapid development during the past few years. In this volume it is sought to incorporate in the subject matter of a general study of foods the results of these recent advances which heretofore have been too widely scattered to be readily accessible. The general plan is to devote a chapter to each important type of food covering (i) an account of its production and preparation for market with such brief statistical data as will indicate the relative economic importance of the industry, (2) the proximate composition and general food value, (3) ques- tions of sanitation, inspection, and standards of purity, (4) spe- cial characteristics of composition, digestibility, nutritive value and place in the diet. The study of milk affords opportunity for the correlation of all these aspects and may therefore serve to set standards for the study of the other types of food. Since a detailed discussion of each aspect under every article of food would have made the present volume too large for its main purpose, it has seemed best to distribute the emphasis differently in different chapters according to the nature of the food and the state of development of the industry. Lists of references appended to the different chapters will facilitate the extension of the work covered by the text along either chemical, economic, sanitary, or nutritional lines. To add to the usefulness of the book for reference the tables of composition of foods have been made as complete as is prac- VI PREFACE ticable and a considerable compilation of data relating to food legislation and inspection has also been included in the appendix. The author would here make grateful acknowledgment to the authorities whose lectures and reports have been freely quoted in describing the different food industries, and to many friends for helpful suggestions. Special thanks are due to his colleague Mr. A. W. Thomas and his former students Miss Lucy H. Gillett and Miss Ethel Ronzone each of whom has critically examined the entire work either in manuscript or in proof. Corrections or suggestions from others who may use the book will be appreciated. H. C. S. JULY, 1914. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOODS . . 1 Carbohydrates. Fats. Proteins. Ash constituents. Sum- mary of the functions of food. References. CHAPTER II FOOD LEGISLATION 24 Principles of food legislation. The food and drugs act. Notes on the law and the rules and regulations for its enforcement. State and municipal food control. References. CHAPTER III MILK 48 Production and handling of milk. General composition. Adulteration and inspection. Standards of purity. Detailed composition. Nutritive value and place in the diet. References. CHAPTER IV CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS .... 86 Manufacture of American Cheddar cheese. Other varieties of cheese. Relation of microorganisms to cheese making. Com- position, adulteration, standards of purity. Nutritive value of cheese and its place in the diet. Fermented milks. Evaporated and condensed milk. Dried or powdered milk. Cream. Ice cream and related products. References. CHAPTER V EGGS 128 Production. Chemical composition. Nutritive value and place in the diet. Trade practices in the egg industry. Cold storage and its regulation. Frozen and dried eggs. References. vii Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 161 Beef. Veal. Mutton and lamb. Pork. Legislation and in- spection. Standards of composition for meat products. Nutri- tive value of meats and meat products. Relative economy of different cuts of meat. Place of meat in the diet. References. CHAPTER VII POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 220 Poultry. Game. Fish. Preserved fish. Shellfish. Com- parison of poultry, fish, and shellfish with other flesh foods. References. CHAPTER VIII GRAIN PRODUCTS 251 Barley. Buckwheat. Maize or Indian corn. Manufacture of starch and other products from corn. Oats. Rice. Rye. Wheat. Flour and bread. Breakfast cereals. Composition of grain and bakery products. Nutritive value of grain products and their value as food. References. CHAPTER IX VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 303 Legumes. Canning of peas. Digestibility and nutritive value. Physiological effects of peas greened with copper. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams. Other vegetables. Composition of vegetables. Fruits and nuts. Composition of fruits and nuts. Digestibility and nutritive value. Place of nuts in the diet. Place of fruits and vegetables in the diet. References. CHAPTER X EDIBLE FATS AND OILS 366 Butter. Composition of butter. Process butter. Oleomarga- rine (margarine). Vegetable fats as butter substitutes. Olive oil. Other edible oils. Lard and lard substitutes. Place of fats in the diet. References. CONTENTS IX CHAPTER XI PAGE SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 397 The cane sugar industry. Sugar refining. The beet sugar industry. Extent of the sugar industry. By-products of sugar manufacture. Molasses, sirups, honey. Confectionery. Place of sugars in the diet. References. CHAPTER XII FOOD ADJUNCTS AND UNCLASSIFIED FOOD MATERIALS . . . 448 Salt. Spices. Flavoring extracts. Unclassified food mate- rials. Tea, coffee, cocoa. Other beverages. Vinegar. Refer- ences. APPENDIX A RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT 479 APPENDIX B FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 501 APPENDIX C METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBU- TION OF CERTIFIED MILK 533 APPENDIX D MEAT INSPECTION LAW AND REGULATIONS 545 APPENDIX E TABLE OF 100-CALORiE PORTIONS 561 FOOD PRODUCTS CHAPTER I THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD THROUGH the food the body obtains the substances which enter into its structure, which yield energy for its activities, and which regulate the processes essential to life and health. Most articles of food contain water, as shown by the fact that they lose weight on drying. The dry residue consists mainly of combustible matters, but when these are burned off there usually remains some ash. The combustible portion of the food may comprise a variety of organic compounds, but in the great majority of staple foods nearly all of the organic matter is found to be comprised within three groups of substances the carbohydrates (such as the starches and sugars), the fats (such as those of butter, olive oil, corn oil, lard, and meat fat), and the proteins (such as the al- bumin of egg, the curd of milk or cheese, the muscle fiber of meat, the gluten of flour or bread). Meat extracts and many vegetables contain nitrogen compounds simpler than proteins, the so-called " nitrogenous extractives " or " nitrogenous non- proteins." In green vegetables and berries a small part of the organic material consists of coloring matters, resins, and waxes. In the main, however, the organic matter of food consists essen- tially of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and in the methods commonly used for the routine analysis of foods the minor organic constituents are apt to be ignored, all nitrogenous 2 FOOD PRODUCTS material being counted as protein ; all material soluble in ether, as fat ; and all other organic material, as carbohydrate. If we consider the composition of food materials in terms of elements rather than compounds, we find that the plant and animal tissues which we use as food are composed mainly of the same twelve chemical elements which chiefly compose the tissues of the body ; namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. Iodine, fluorine, and probably silicon and manganese are also essential to the body and so must be supplied by the food ; but the amounts of these latter ele- ments are so small that they are usually scarcely measurable by the ordinary methods of food analysis. While the ash of foods is composed of relatively simple inor- ganic (mineral) compounds such as the chlorides, phosphates, sulphates, and carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, it does not follow that these elements exist in the form of the same inorganic compounds in the food. In many cases the inorganic compounds found in the ash are to a large extent formed during the burning of the food, the base-forming elements having existed in combination with organic acids or with proteins, while the acid radicles may also have existed in organic combination or may have been formed by the oxidation of the sulphur, phosphorus, or carbon of the organic matter. The principal chemical elements of foods and the most im- portant kinds of compounds in which they are found may there- fore be summarized as follows : Hydrogen \ , . } forming Water. Oxygen J forming Carbohydrates, Fats (and Hydrogen ) * . * sometimes Organic Acids). Oxygen PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 3 Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Phosphorus (sometimes) Iron (sometimes) Sulphur Phosphorus Chlorine Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Iron forming Proteins. forming Ash Constituents which exist partly as mineral salts and partly in combination with carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and other organic compounds. The ultimate composition of a food is its composition as ex- pressed in terms of the chemical elements into which it might ultimately be resolved, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- gen, sulphur, etc. The proximate composition is the composition in terms of the compounds actually present proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, water. These five groups of compounds have sometimes been called the " proximate principles " of food, or the " five food principles." As a precaution against ambiguity this use of the term " principles " is now generally avoided, but there is frequent occasion to use the terms " ultimate " and " proximate " in speaking of the composition and analysis of foods and it is well to keep the exact chemical significances of these terms in mind. The word " proximate " must not be confused with " approximate." Food materials and foodstuffs. The term " food materials " is 4 FOOD PRODUCTS synonymous with the expression ' ' articl es of foods . ' ' Thus bread, meat, eggs, milk , are spoken of as food materials. The term ' ' food- stuffs " as a scientific term, and as it will be used in this work, means the stuffs that foods are made of, or, in the terms which we have been using, the substances of which the food materials are composed. Thus the proteins, fats, and carbohydrates and the various organic and inorganic compounds of phosphorus, potassium, iron, etc., which occur in food materials are food- stuffs. The chemistry and nutritive significance of the foodstuffs, both organic and inorganic, has been discussed by the writer in another volume (Chemistry of Food and Nutrition) and cannot be repeated here in any detail. A brief summary of some of the facts having most relation to what follows in later chap- ters may, however, be advantageous at this point. Carbohydrates. The carbohydrates include the simple sugars and all the substances which can be split (by hydrolysis) into simple sugars. The simple sugars, having only one sugar radicle in the molecule, are called "mono-saccharides." Sugars whose molecules contain two sugar radicles, and from each molecule of which two molecules of monosaccharide can be obtained by hydrolysis, are called disaccharides. Substances like starch and dextrin which can be hydrolyzed to simple sugars but which are of high molecular weight, each molecule containing many monosaccharide radicles, are called polysaccharides. The monosaccharides are given group names according to the number of carbon atoms in the molecule, as will be seen in the classification which follows : Monosaccharides Hexoses (CeH^Oe) Glucose (dextrose, grape sugar, starch sugar) Fructose (levulose, fruit sugar) Galactose Mannose PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 5 Pentoses (CsHioOs) Arabinose Xylose Disaccharides (C^H^Ou) Sucrose (cane sugar, saccharose) Lactose (milk sugar) Maltose (malt sugar) Trisaccharide (CisHsaO^) Raffinose (meletriose) Polysaccharides Hexosans (CeHioOs)^ Starch Dextrin Glycogen Inulin Galactan Mannan Cellulose Pentosans (C&HsO^f Araban Xylan Some of these carbohydrates are of very great, and others of relatively little, practical importance. Glucose is widely distributed in nature, occurring abundantly in many fruits and plant juices, often mixed with other sugars. Since most of the other carbohydrates yield glucose when split by the digestive ferments the total amount of glucose which is absorbed into the body is much larger than that of any other sugar. Normal blood always contains glucose (usually about o.i per cent) which is constantly being burned to yield energy to the body. Any surplus of glucose absorbed from the digestive tract is normally stored in the body in the form of glycogen which latter is converted back into glucose as needed to replace that which has been burned. Com- 6 FOOD PRODUCTS mercially glucose is made by hydrolysis of starch as explained in Chapter VIII. Fructose occurs with glucose in plant juices and especially in fruits and honey. It is formed along with an equal weight of glucose when cane sugar is hydrolyzed ; hence its occurrence in molasses and sirups as well as honey. (See Chapter XI.) When cane sugar is eaten it is not absorbed as such, but i.; changed into equal parts of glucose and fructose in digestion. The fructose absorbed into the body serves the same purposes as glucose and like glucose may be changed into glycogen for storage. Glucose and fructose are the only monosaccharides which occur as such in foods. Galactose does not occur free in nature or in commercial food products, but as a product of digestion of milk sugar it is of some importance in nutri- tion. It is utilized like glucose in the body. Mannose also is not found free. It may result from the digestion of mannan, occurring, for example, in certain Japanese foods, and when ab- sorbed into the blood it is utilized like glucose or galactose. Arabinose and xylose are not found free in nature nor in commercial food products. Sucrose occurs commonly in the vegetable kingdom, being found in considerable quantity in many familiar fruits and vegetables. Usually these sweet fruits and plant juices contain glucose and fructose along with the sucrose, and also other substances which make it difficult to separate the sucrose in crystalline form. The juices of the sugar cane, the sugar beet, and to a less extent certain maple and palm trees, contain enough sucrose and little enough of other substances to make it practicable to manufacture sugar from them commercially. (See Chapter XI.) On hydrolysis a molecule of sucrose yields one molecule each of glucose and fructose. The process is often called " inversion " and the product " invert sugar." When eaten, sucrose is digested into glucose and fructose, the nutri- tive functions of which have been mentioned above. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 7 Lactose occurs in milk and is made commercially from the whey of milk used in the manufacture of cheese or casein. In the body lactose is digested into equal parts of glucose and galac- tose, the nutritive functions of which have been noted above. Maltose occurs in malted or germinated grains, in malt ex- tracts, etc., but the amount of maltose eaten as such is not likely to be large. It is formed in quantity by the digestion of starch by the saliva or the pancreatic juice. Maltose, however, whether eaten or formed in the course of digestion is not ab- sorbed as such to any important extent, but is split by a diges- tive ferment of the intestinal juice, each molecule of maltose yielding two molecules of glucose. Raffinose occurs in small quantity in the germs of several seeds. It is of no practical importance for its own sake, but occasionally acquires technical importance through developing in sugar beets (especially when the latter are unhealthy or injured) in sufficient amount to interfere with the crystal- lization of the sucrose. When hydrolyzed one molecule of raffinose yields one molecule each of glucose, fructose, and galactose. Starch is the chief form in which most plants store their reserve supply of carbohydrate material. It constitutes over one half of the solid matter of the cereal grains and an even larger proportion of the total solids of some other starchy foods such as potatoes, bananas, and chestnuts. In the processes of digestion, starch (especially when it has been cooked) is changed to maltose and the latter (as stated above) into glu- cose. In addition to the direct use of starchy materials as food, much starch is separated on an industrial scale (Chapter VIII) and used as such or as a source of dextrin, maltose, commercial glucose, or fermentation products. Raw starch is easily seen under the microscope to consist of distinct granules, the size and shape of which differ greatly in the starches formed in different types of plants. Figure i represents starch granules from potato, wheat, and corn (maize), all magnified in the same proportion. 8 FOOD PRODUCTS Dextrins are formed from starch by the action of ferments, acids, or heat. Although usually represented by the same empirical formula as starch, the dextrins appear in general as ^ Potato starch. Wheat starch. Corn starch. FIG. i. Starch granules magnified 300 diameters. intermediary products in the hydrolysis of starch to maltose or glucose ; hence no further discussion is required here. Glycogen is the chief reserve form of carbohydrate in animals as starch is in plants. For this reason and because of its physi- cal properties and its chemical relationship to maltose and glucose, it is often called " animal starch." It is stored prin- cipally in the liver and to a small extent in the muscles. Inulin is a white powdery substance, found in a few vegetables, which on hydrolysis yields fructose. It is of practically no importance as food. Galactans are found in small quantity in many plants and in larger amounts in the seeds of legumes. On hydrolysis they yield galactose. Mannans, yielding mannose on hydrolysis, occur in some food materials, but are not of practical importance in this country. Cellulose is familiar as a woody or fibrous material occurring in the cell walls of all vegetable tissues. It yields glucose on hydrolysis, but is not digested to a sufficient extent to make it of much nutritive value to man, though it is often of value in giving proper bulk to the diet. The pentosans, araban and xylan which yield arabinose and xylose re- spectively on hydrolysis, are quite widely distributed among plant products, but as a rule occur only in small quantities in those parts of plants which are commonly used as human food. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 9 From what has been said above it will be clear that the various digestible carbohydrates of the food, having been split by the digestive ferments to monosaccharide, are absorbed into the blood. Any surplus is stored temporarily in the form of glycogen, chiefly in the liver, though to some extent in the muscles. The glucose which circulates in the blood is burned in the muscles and other active tissues as fuel, the burned glu- cose being constantly replaced by new glucose derived from the stored glycogen so that under ordinary conditions the carbohy- drate of the food is entirely burned as fuel. When more carbo- hydrate is received than is burned, the surplus is stored as gly- cogen but only to a limited extent, the total amount of glycogen which the body can store being estimated at less than one pound or only about as much carbohydrate as might be contained in the food of one day. A surplus of carbohydrate, in addition to being stored as glycogen, may also be converted into fat, and this transformation of carbohydrate into fat can be carried on to a very large extent and with almost no loss of energy. The energy value to the body of average carbohydrate in the food is 4.0 Calories per gram, or 1814 Calories per pound. Organic acids. Some foods contain considerable quantities of organic acids or their salts. Oranges and lemons, for instance, are rich in citric acid ; grapes contain potassium acid tartrate ; apples and other fruits contain malic acid, and many fruits contain succinic acid. A few foods contain oxalic acid or oxalates, but these are probably of little food value. Fermented foods may contain appreciable quantities of lactic acid as in sauerkraut and sour milk, buttermilk, etc., or acetic acid as in vinegar. With the exception of oxalic acid, these organic acids appear to be very readily burned in the body and doubtless their energy is used in practically the same way as the energy of the carbohydrates. The fuel values of some of these acids have been determined as follows : acetic acid, 3.5 Calories per gram; citric acid, 2.5 Calories per gram; lactic acid, 3.7 Calories per gram; succinic acid, 3.0 Calories per gram; tartaric acid, 1.7 Calories per gram. While these values are somewhat lower than those of the carbo- hydrates, it is not uncommon in reckoning the fuel value of a food to count the organic acid as carbohydrate, especially as in routine analyses the acids 10 FOOD PRODUCTS are often not determined nor are the carbohydrates determined directly, but all of the material not found to be moisture, protein, fat, or ash is often considered to be carbohydrate for the purposes of ordinary estimations of food values. Fats The fats are all glycerides; that is, substances consisting of combinations of glycerol (commercially called " glycerin ") with fatty acids. Many of these fatty acids belong chemically to the same series with acetic acid. The members of this series occurring naturally in fats are butyric acid, C 4 H 8 O 2 ; caproic acid, CeHi 2 O 2 ; caprylic acid, CgHieC^ ; capric acid, QoHaoC^ ; lauric acid, C^H^C^; myristic acid, Ci4H 28 O 2 ; palmitic acid, Ci 6 H 3 2O 2 ; stearic acid, Ci8H 36 O 2 . Butyric acid is a liquid which mixes in all proportions with water, alcohol, and ether, can be boiled without decomposition, and is readily volatile in steam. With increasing molecular weight, the acids of this series regularly show increasing boiling or melting points, decreasing solubility, and become less volatile. Those up to capric acid are liquids at ordinary temperatures ; those above are solids. The higher the molecular weight, the harder the solid. Stearic acid is a hard paraffin-like crystalline solid insoluble in water and only moderately soluble in alcohol and ether. The properties of the fats themselves depend upon and run parallel with those of the fatty acids. In addition to the fatty acids of the series to which acetic, butyric, and stearic acids belong, all of which are saturated compounds, there are several unsaturated fatty acids, capable of combining chemically with hydrogen, oxygen, or iodine by direct addition. The most important of these contain eighteen carbon atoms to the molecule and therefore resemble stearic acid in molecular size. The most important of these unsaturated fatty acids are : oleic acid, Ci^H-^Oz', linoleic acid, CiaH3 2 O 2 ; linolenic acid. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 1 1 CisHsoC^. All of these acids and their glycerides are liquid at ordinary temperatures. Commercial fats consisting mainly of the glycerides of these acids are therefore liquids and are usually called oils. The chief chemical difference between olive oil and lard is that the former contains more olein (glyceride of oleic acid) and the latter more of palmitin and stearin (glycerides of palmitic and stearic acids). Olein or linolein (glyceride of linoleic acid) may be converted into stearin by direct chemical union with hydrogen, and this is now done on a commercial scale for the hardening of fatty oils so as to give them the consistency of lard. (See Chapter X.) The body fat of man and of the animals commonly used as food consists chiefly of glycerides of palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids. Since palmitin and stearin are solids, while olein is a liquid, the hardness or softness of these fats is principally due to the proportion of olein which they contain. Butter fat con- tains all of the fatty acids listed above in the series from butyric to stearic acid and is distinguished from the other food fats principally by this fact. Olive oil consists chiefly of palmitin, stearin, and olein, but contains much more olein and much less stearin than the ordinary solid fats. In cottonseed oil, sesame oil, and other seed oils used as food, the quantities of palmitin and stearin are still smaller and, in addition to large quantities of olein, considerable quantities of linolein and in some cases even linolenin may occur. In ordinary food analysis, fat is determined by extraction with ether. All ether-soluble substances are therefore likely to be counted as fat. In this way some small quantities of mate- rials of less food value are likely to be counted along with the fat of the food. The commercial food fats are nearly free from other substances (except that butter contains water and salt) and have therefore nearly the same composition and food value. Descriptions of the edible fats and oils and discussion of their digestibility and place in the diet will be found in Chapter X. 12 FOOD PRODUCTS The fat of the food after digestion and absorption is again found in the blood in the form of glycerides or neutral fat which disappears partly by being burned in the muscles and other active tissues where it is used as fuel for the same pur- poses as carbohydrate and if in excess of the fuel requirements of the body, the fat obtained from the food may also be stored in the tissues. The body fat obtained thus directly from the food may show somewhat different characters from the fat which has been formed in the body from carbohydrate, but its nutri- tive relations appear to be exactly the same. In either case, the fat thus stored in the body may be drawn upon for use as fuel at any future time when the energy requirements of the body demand it. The energy value to the body of average food fat is 9.0 Cal- ories per gram, or 4082 Calories per pound. Proteins (Nitrogen Compounds) Among the nitrogenous constituents of foods, the proteins usually so far predominate that the term protein is often used as practically synonymous with the nitrogen compounds of food materials. For this reason, and because the great majority of proteins contain from 15 to 18 per cent, averaging about 16 per cent, of nitrogen, the protein content of food materials is usually estimated by determining nitrogen and multiplying the percentage of nitrogen found by 6.25. The proteins are very complex substances and in no case is the chemical constitution of a natural protein fully and exactly known. It has, however, been determined that the typical proteins are essentially anhydrides of amino acids. Thus the relation of the protein molecule to the amino acids, from which it is derived and into which it can be resolved, is analogous to the relation of starch to glucose. There is, however, this striking difference : that the molecules of monosaccharide derived from the complete hydrolysis of the starch are all alike PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 13 (glucose), whereas the complete hydrolysis of a protein always yields several different amino acids, usually from twelve to fifteen. The names J of the amino acids commonly met as products of hydrolysis of proteins are: glycin (glycocoll), alanin, serin, valin, leucin, prolin, phenylalanin, tyrosin, aspartic acid, glu- tamic (glutaminic) acid, lysin, arginin, histidin, tryptophan, cystin. The strict chemical names and structural formulae of these amino acids are given in Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chapter I. Classification. There has been considerable confusion in the classification and terminology of the proteins, and even in the publications of the present day, the same terms may sometimes be found employed with different meanings by different writers. The classification now generally approved is as follows : I. Simple proteins. Protein substances which yield only amino acids or their derivatives on hydrolysis. (a) Albumins. Simple proteins soluble in pure water and coagulable by heat. Examples: egg albumen, lact-albumen (milk), serum albumen (blood), leucosin (wheat), legumelin (peas). (b) Globulins. Simple proteins insoluble in pure water, but soluble in neutral salt solutions. Examples : muscle globulin, serum globulin (blood), edestin (wheat, hemp seed, and other seeds), phaseolin (beans), legumin (beans and peas), vignin (cow peas), tuberin (potato), amandin (almonds), excelsin (Brazil nuts). (c) Glutelins. Simple proteins insoluble in all neutral solvents, but readily soluble in very dilute acids and alkalies. The best known and most important member of this group is the glutenin of wheat. (d) Alcohol soluble proteins. Simple proteins soluble in rela- 1 The names of the amino acids may be spelled either with or without the final t, e.g., glycine or glycin, alanine or alanin. 14 FOOD PRODUCTS lively strong alcohol (70-80 per cent) but insoluble in water, absolute alcohol, and other neutral solvents. Examples: gliadin (wheat), zein (corn), hordein (barley). (e) Albuminoids. These are the simple proteins characteristic of the skeletal structures of animals (for which reason they are also called scleroproteins) and also of the external protective tissues such as the skin, hair, etc. None of these proteins is used for food in the natural state, but collagen when boiled with water yields gelatin so that these two are of considerable im- portance in food chemistry. (/) Histones. Soluble in water, and insoluble in very dilute ammonia, and in the absence of ammonium salts insoluble even in an excess of ammonia; yield precipitates with solutions of other proteins and a coagulum on heating which is easily soluble in very dilute acids. On hydrolysis they yield several amino acids among which the basic ones predominate. The only members of this group which have any considerable importance as food are the thymus histone and the globin derived from the hemoglobin of the blood. (g) Protamines. These are simpler substances than the preceding groups, are soluble in water, uncoagulable by heat, possess strong basic properties and on hydrolysis yield a few amino acids among which the basic amino acids greatly pre- dominate. They are of no importance as food. II. Conjugated proteins. Substances which contain the protein molecule united to some other molecule or molecules otherwise than as a salt. (a) Nudeo proteins. Compounds of one or more protein molecules with nucleic acid. Examples of the nucleic acids thus found united with proteins are thymo-nucleic acid (thymus gland), tritico-nucleic acid (wheat germ). (b) Gly co proteins. Compounds of the protein molecule with a substance or substances containing a carbohydrate group other than a nucleic acid. Example : mucins. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 15 (c) Phosphoproteins. Compounds in which the phosphorus is in organic union with the protein molecule otherwise than in a nucleic acid or lecithin. Examples: caseinogen (milk), ovovitellin (egg yolk). (d) Hemoglobins. Compounds of the protein molecule with hematin or some similar substance. Example: hemoglobin of blood. (The redness of meat is due chiefly to the hemoglobin of the blood which the meat still retains.) (e) Lecitho proteins. Compounds of the protein molecule with lecithins or related substances. III. Derived proteins. 1. Primary protein derivatives. Derivatives of the protein molecule apparently formed through hydrolytic changes which involve only slight alterations of the protein molecule. (a) Proteans. Insoluble products which apparently result from the incipient action of water, very dilute acids or enzymes. Examples: casein (curdled milk), fibrin (coagulated blood). (b) Metaproteins. Products of the further action of acids and alkalies whereby the molecule is sufficiently altered to form proteins soluble in very weak acids and alkalies, but insoluble in neutral solvents. This group includes the substances which have been called " acid proteins," " acid albumins," " syntonin," " alkali proteins," " alkali albumins," and " albuminates." (c) Coagulated proteins. Insoluble products which result from (i) the action of heat on protein solutions, or (2) the action of alcohol on the protein. Example : cooked egg albumin, or egg albumin precipitated by means of alcohol. 2. Secondary protein derivatives. Products of the further hydrolytic cleavage of the protein molecule. (a) Proteases. Soluble in water, not coagulable by heat, precipitated by saturating their solutions with ammonium sul- phate or zinc sulphate. The products commercially known as " peptones " consist largely of proteoses. 1 6 FOOD PRODUCTS (b) Peptones. Soluble in water, not coagulable by heat, and not precipitated by saturating their solutions with ammonium sulphate or zinc sulphate. These represent a further stage of cleavage than the proteoses. (c) Peptids. Definitely characterized combinations of two or more amino acids. An anhydride of two amino acid radicles is called a " di-peptid " ; one having three amino acid radicles, a " tri-peptid " ; etc. Peptids result from the further hydro- lytic cleavage of the peptones. Many peptids have also been made in the laboratory by the linking together of amino acids. Substances simpler than the peptones but containing several amino acid radicles are often called " polypeptids." Behavior in Nutrition. 1 The digestion products of the protein absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood stream are rapidly distributed through the body and taken up by the muscles and other tissues. A part of the nitrogenous material thus received may be utilized for the growth or repair of tissue material ; the remainder is split up, the nitrogen being eliminated chiefly as urea and the non-nitrogenous residue being either burned as fuel or converted into carbohydrate or fat. It should be kept in mind that in the full-grown, well-nour- ished organism, no increase of protein tissue ordinarily occurs ; hence all the protein received from the food is burned as fuel, whether it first serves for the repair of the body tissue or not. The exact nature of the repair process in the tissues is not fully known. It is also uncertain to what extent the food must supply the exact amount of each individual amino acid which is to enter into the constitution of the body proteins. It is certain that the body can make glycin (glycocoll), while it cannot make tryptophan (certainly at least not at a sufficient rate to meet its needs). Hence the protein of the food need not contain glycin radicles but must contain tryptophan radicles if it is to serve fully the nutritive requirements of the body. The evi- 1 For fuller discussion, see Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chapter IV. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 17 dence in regard to the ability or inability of the body to make certain other amino acids is less clear. It is possible that this ability may vary with the species and it is altogether probable that it differs with age and development, since Osborne and Mendel have found that a protein which does not furnish the amino acid lysin may serve as the sole nitrogenous food for a full-grown animal but does not support growth. The subject is still under active investigation and attempts to generalize at this time would be premature, but some further discussion will be found in Chapters III and VIII. The energy value to the body of average food protein is 4.0 Calories per gram, or 1814 Calories per pound. Ash Constituents Sulphur compounds. Sulphur occurs in the food, as it does in the body, chiefly as a constituent of proteins. Since sul- phur is essential to the constitution of the body proteins, it is obviously important that sufficient of this element shall be supplied by the food ; but all food proteins also contain sulphur and though the percentages of sulphur in individual proteins show considerable differences, the different proteins of the same food material usually tend to balance each other in this respect so that the sulphur content of the total protein (or the ratio of sulphur to nitrogen) is about the same for most staple , foods as for the body. Hence it is believed that under ordinary conditions food which supplies adequate protein will thereby supply adequate sulphur so that sulphur need not ordinarily be considered as a separate factor in determining food values, but may usually be regarded as sufficiently provided for when the protein requirement is covered. When the digestion products of the food proteins are burned in the body, the greater part of the sulphur is oxidized to sul- phuric acid and excreted as sulphates. 1 8 FOOD PRODUCTS Phosphorus compounds. Phosphorus compounds are essen- tial to all the tissues of the body and it is important that they be adequately supplied by the food. The various articles of food differ greatly in phosphorus con- tent, nor does the amount of phosphorus run even approximately parallel with the protein content (as does the sulphur). Hence the phosphorus compounds of food materials should be care- fully considered in forming judgments of nutritive values. The phosphorus compounds of foods may be grouped into four general classes, one inorganic and three organic : (i) inor- ganic phosphates; (2) phosphorized proteins, including the phosphoproteins such as casein and the nucleoproteins char- acteristic of cell nuclei ; (3) phosphorized fats or phospholipines, such as egg lecithin ; (4) combinations of phosphoric acid with carbohydrates or with closely related substances such as inosite. Some of the organic compounds of phosphorus are believed to be of greater food value than the simple phosphates. All three groups of organic phosphorus compounds are more or less completely oxidized in the body, the phosphorus being finally excreted almost entirely in the form of phosphate. The phosphates of the food while entering and leaving the body in essentially the same form are nevertheless utilized in some very important nutritive functions such as furnishing material for bone structure and facilitating the maintenance of the normal neutrality of the blood and the body tissues. Chlorides. Sodium chloride (common salt) is an essential and a prominent constituent of the blood and other body fluids. Carnivorous animals, eating the blood as well as the flesh of their prey, obtain in this way sufficient salt for their needs along with their organic foodstuffs ; man and the herbivora take salt in addition to that naturally contained in their food. Salt is now such a cheap and popular condiment that it is commonly added to the food in such quantities as to make the natural chloride content of the food a matter of no practical consequence PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 19 While sodium chloride enters and leaves the body in the same form, it performs important functions. From it the hydro- chloric acid of the gastric juice is made and chiefly to it the normal solvent power and osmotic pressure of the blood and other body fluids are due. The nature of these functions makes plain the imperative need for salt but also suggests that too much may be almost as objectionable as too little. The quan- tities of salt now commonly eaten are certainly larger than necessary and probably larger than are desirable. Sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Sodium occurs in the food chiefly in the form of sodium chloride; potassium chiefly as phosphate, as salts of organic acids and perhaps in other organic combinations. The quantity of sodium present naturally in foods is usually not of great significance because of the large amounts in the form of common salt used as a condi- ment. Potassium is particularly abundant in many of the vege- tables. To a certain extent sodium and potassium appear to act antagonistically in the body so that the large quantity of potassium taken in when such vegetables are eaten freely must be balanced by the taking of common salt. There must also be maintained in the body a proper balance between sodium and calcium. For example, the rhythmical contraction and relaxation of heart muscle which constitutes the normal beating of the heart is dependent upon this muscle being bathed by a fluid containing the proper concentration and quantitative proportions of sodium and calcium. In another direction there appears to be a somewhat analogous balancing of calcium and magnesium. Since these elements are not only not interchangeable but are in some respects mutually antagonistic, it is evident that each must be supplied in sufficient quantity to permit the proper performance of its specific functions. In the case of sodium, the liberal use of salt as a condiment insures a more than ample supply. Potassium and magnesium appear to be sufficiently 20 FOOD PRODUCTS abundant in most staple foods so that it is not usually necessary to specifically consider these elements in estimates of food values. Calcium is not always sufficiently abundant even when the food is freely chosen; hence the richness of a food in calcium is a factor affecting its value. It was seen above that the sulphur entering the body in the protein of the food is mainly burned to sulphuric acid. This acid must of course be neutralized as fast as formed, and while the body has other resources which can be drawn upon to effect this neutralization, it appears to be distinctly advantageous that the food shall furnish a sufficient amount of the base-forming elements, in addition to those already in the form of mineral salts, to neutralize the fixed acids which are produced in me- tabolism. The most available source of base for this purpose is found in the compounds of the base-forming elements (chiefly potassium) with the organic acids or other organic matter of the foods. The significance of the balance between acid-form- ing and base-forming elements will be discussed more fully in Chapter IX. Iron. Iron occurs in the food almost entirely in organic form as a constituent of certain proteins. The simpler forms, chiefly inorganic, in which iron is given medicinally do not seem to have the same nutritive effect as the food-iron. The greater part of the iron in the body exists as an essential constituent of the hemoglobin of the blood, the remainder being chiefly in the chromatin substances of the cells. There is no con- siderable reserve store of inactive iron in the body corresponding to the stores of phosphorus and calcium in the bones. Hence if the food fails to furnish as much iron as is expended in the nutri- tive processes and excreted by the body, there must soon result a diminution of hemoglobin which if allowed to continue is marked by a greater or less degree of anaemia. Thus although only small amounts of iron are contained in the food or involved in the nutritive processes, its function as a building material for PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 21 the red blood cells is conspicuously important. Iron salts and other simple compounds of iron have long been used medicinally in the treatment of anaemia and it has often been held that the iron so used must enter directly into the construction of hemo- globin, but very extensive investigation indicates that this is not the case. The inorganic or medicinal iron appears to act as a stimulus to the blood-forming organs while the actual material from which the hemoglobin is made appears to be the iron-protein compounds of the food. With our present knowledge we must look to the food and not to medicines or mineral waters for the supply of iron needed in normal nutrition and since freely chosen food does not always furnish enough iron to meet satisfactorily the requirements of the body it follows that the iron content is a factor of some importance in the consideration of food values. Summary of the Functions of Food Much the largest part of the total solids of the food is burned in the body and yields energy for the support of its activities. Even during growth most of the fat and carbohydrate and the greater part of the protein is so used. Part of the protein of the food is used as a source of body protein, or, as it is often expressed, is used to build tissue. Several elements not contained in most proteins are also essen- tial to the tissues of the body and these are derived from the so-called ash constituents of the food. The calcium and phos- phorus of the bones, the potassium and phosphorus of the soft tissues, the iron of the red blood cells are just as necessary " building materials " as are the proteins, though the amounts required are much smaller. Upon the presence in the body of salts derived from the food, either directly or as the result of its oxidation in the tissues, depend such important properties and processes as the solvent power and osmotic pressure of the body fluids, the elasticity of 22 FOOD PRODUCTS the muscles, the maintenance of the normal neutrality or slight alkalescence of the blood and tissues. 1 These latter functions, and many others which might be men- tioned as primarily dependent upon water and the salts, are hardly suggested by the phrase " tissue building," since they have to do not so much with the actual construction or repair of the tissues as with the regulation of the processes on which the nutrition of the body depends. It may therefore be said that the functions of food are (1) to yield energy (2) to build tissue (3) to regulate body processes. It is not to be inferred that any given food substance can be assigned once for all to some one of these three general functions. Thus the protein digestion products may serve both to build tissue and to yield energy ; phosphates may serve both to build tissue and to assist in regulating the neutrality of the blood and tissues. Moreover, it has very recently been established that certain important functions are performed by food constituents hitherto unknown and of which the amounts involved are so small that the chemical nature of the substances has not yet been fully established. Some of these substances appear to be nitrogen compounds and have received the group name vitamines. In other cases the active constituent has been described as a lipoid, that is, a fatlike substance. These little known, but apparently very significant, food constituents will receive fur- ther attention in the chapters which deal specifically with the different types of food. 'The normal condition of the blood and tissues is described either as neutral or as slightly alkaline, according to the definition of neutrality used. PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 23 REFERENCES ARMSTRONG. The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides. ATWATER. Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. CHITTENDEN. The Nutrition of Man. DAKIN. Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body. GLIKIN. Chemie der Fette, Lipoide, und Wachsarten. HOWELL. Textbook of Physiology. LEATHES. The Fats. LEWKOWITSCH. Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and Waxes. LUSK. Elements of the Science of Nutrition. OSBORNE. The Vegetable Proteins. OSBORNE AND MENDEL. Feeding Experiments with Isolated Food Sub- stances. PLIMMER. The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins. ROSE. Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics. SHERMAN. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. STILES. Nutritional Physiology. VON NOORDEN. Metabolism and Practical Medicine, Vol. I. Physiology. CHAPTER II FOOD LEGISLATION Principles of Food Legislation FOOD is more nearly a fixed requirement than most other necessities of life. The smaller the income the larger the per- centage of it which must be spent for food. For the majority of the people it is approximately true that " half the struggle of life is a struggle for food." In this chapter we have to consider in a general way the necessity for legal control of the food industry and the chief features of the pure food laws. At the present time, more than half the total value of natural products of the United States is represented by the food prod- ucts whose annual value is about twice that of all other farm products and over twice that of the combined products of the mines and forests. The products of the mines and forests may be subjected to more elaborate processes of manufacture and so may be in- creased in value in greater ratio before reaching the consumer than are the food products ; but even so we find from the census returns that in value of finished as well as of natural products the food industries lead all others. Among the manufactures as classified by the United States Census, the greatest is that of slaughtering and meat packing. The annual product of the meat packing establishments exceeds in value that of the foun- dries and machine shops. The product of the flour and grist mills is about equal in value to that of either the rolling mills, the lumber mills, or the cotton mills of the country. The enormous size to which many of the food manufacturing 24 FOOD LEGISLATION 25 establishments have grown during recent years (as for example a sugar refinery turning out daily from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 pounds of sugar, or a butter factory producing 25,000 pounds of butter per day) makes it possible to effect great economies or make great advances, through what are apparently quite modest improvements in process or product. Hence the food industries are rapidly being brought under chemical control for the sake of economy in processes, improvement of staple products, and advantageous utilization of by-products. Scientific control of the food industries has also been greatly stimulated in recent years by the rapidly growing tendency of consumers to fix requirements for food supplies through legis- lation. With the development of modern industry population has concentrated in cities and towns to such an extent that the majority of people have ceased to produce any appreciable part of their own food or even to obtain it from their immediate neighbors. Most people must buy practically all of their food, and the food is brought from greater and greater distances and distributed under conditions which make it increasingly difficult for the consumer to exercise any direct individual con- trol over the methods by which his food is produced and handled. When the majority of the people in any community find them- selves in this position, they naturally tend to substitute for the individual control which is no longer feasible a collective control of their food supplies through legislation and official inspection. In the United States the legal regulation of the food industry is accomplished partly through the Federal Government by virtue of its constitutional power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states; and partly through the police power inherent in the state (and often dele- gated in large measure to the city) to pass such laws and pro- vide such regulations as are necessary to protect its citizens in their rights as to health, morals, and property. 26 FOOD PRODUCTS Many communities had laws or ordinances for the prevention of milk adulteration long before making any attempt at general regulation of the entire food supply. General food legislation was enacted and systematic inspec- tion of food of all kinds was begun in Massachusetts about thirty years ago. Legislation of this character spread gradually, and in 1905 about half of the states had general food laws. The National law for prevention of adulteration or misbranding of foods or drugs was passed in 1906, and went in effect January i, 1907. This stimulated further state legislation with the result that now nearly every state has a general food law and is making an attempt at its enforcement. Thus the people, while no longer able to produce their own food or buy it of neighbors who have produced it under known conditions, may still through legislation seek to insure that the food they buy shall be : (1) What it purports to be, in kind and amount ; (2) Free from deterioration or unwholesome additions; (3) Possessed of full nutritive value. Most of our food laws take the form of prescribing what the food shall not be rather than what it shall be ; and these prohibitions are usually classified under the two heads of adul- teration and misbranding. Anything which makes a food unwholesome or lowers its nutri- tive value is usually considered adulteration; while to offer a food under false or misleading claims as to its source, kind, quality, or amount is usually called misbranding. In view of the diversity of methods used in handling different kinds of foods, and the constant changing of methods to keep abreast of scientific developments and economic conditions, it is plain that there will often be room for difference of opinion as to whether or not a given trade practice shall be held to be adulteration or misbranding. The attempt to settle such questions in advance by writing FOOD LEGISLATION 27 detailed specifications into the law itself, may defeat its own purpose, since in general the more specific the wording of the law, the more literally (and hence narrowly) it must be con- strued. Thus in the Pennsylvania Food Act of May 13, 1909, the addition of alum to food is prohibited ; but it was held by the courts that the word alum as used in the law means only potassium aluminum sulphate and not sodium aluminum sul- phate nor simple sulphate of aluminum. The latter, being cheaper, are commonly used in the making of " alum " baking powders and for preserving the crispiness of pickles, and the introduction of aluminum into the food in these two ways is therefore allowed to continue, although it was for the express purpose of preventing this that the word alum was included in the list of forbidden substances in the law. The Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, commonly known as " The Pure Food Law," and on which subsequent legislation by most of the states has been largely based, defines the main types of adulteration and misbranding, but, except in the case of confectionery and of habit-forming drugs, does not name the specific substances which are to be prohibited or restricted in use, nor does the law itself contain standards of composition for foods. According to this law a food is deemed adulterated : (1) If any substance has been mixed or packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted, wholly or in part. (3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it be mixed, colored, coated, powdered, or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain any added poisonous or other added dele- terious ingredient which may render it injurious to health. (6) If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an 28 FOOD PRODUCTS animal unfit for food, or if it be the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. And a food is deemed to be misbranded: (1) If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the dis- tinctive name of another article. (2) If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the contents shall have been substituted in whole or in part, or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or pro- portion of any narcotic or habit-forming drug which it contains. (3) If, when sold in package form it fails to bear a correct statement of weight, measure, or numerical count of its con- tents; provision being made for reasonable variations and for certain exemptions. (4) If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement, design, or device which is false or misleading in any particular. The exact wording of the definitions and the corresponding definitions of adulteration and misbranding as applied to con- fectionery and drugs may be seen by consulting the text of the law which is quoted in full below. The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, as Amended August 23, 1912 AN ACT For preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adul- terated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture within any Territory or the District of Columbia any article of food or drug which is adulterated or misbranded, within the meaning of this Act; and any person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and for each offense shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not to exceed five hundred dollars or shall be sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or both such" fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court, and for each subsequent offense and conviction FOOD LEGISLATION 29 thereof shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars or sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the dis- cretion of the court. SEC. 2. That the introduction into any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or from any foreign country, or shipment to any foreign country of any article of food or drugs which is adulterated or misbranded, within the mean- ing of this Act, is hereby prohibited ; and any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment from any State or Territory or the District of Columbia to any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or to a foreign country, or who shall receive in any State or Territory or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or foreign country, and having so received, shall deliver, in original unbroken packages, for pay or otherwise, or offer to deliver to any other person, any such article so adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States any such adulterated or misbranded foods or drugs, or export or offer to export the same to any foreign country, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and for such offense be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for the first offense, and upon conviction for each subsequent offense not exceeding three hundred dollars or be imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court : Provided, That no article shall be deemed misbranded or adulterated within the provisions of this Act when intended for export to any foreign country and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is intended to be shipped ; but if said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the opera- tion of any of the other provisions of this Act. SEC. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of this Act, including the collec- tion and examination of specimens of foods and drugs manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia, or in any Territory of the United States, or which shall be offered for sale in unbroken packages in any State other than that in which they shall have been respectively manufactured or produced, or which shall be received from any foreign country, or intended for shipment to any foreign country, or which may be submitted for ex- amination by the chief health, food, or drug officer of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or at any domestic or foreign port through 30 FOOD PRODUCTS which such product is offered for interstate commerce, or for export or import between the United States and any foreign port or country. SEC. 4. That the examinations of specimens of foods and drugs shall be made in the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, or under the direction and supervision of such Bureau, for the purpose of determining from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act ; and if it shall appear from any such examination that any of such specimens is adulterated or mis- branded within the meaning of this Act, the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from whom such sample was obtained. Any party so notified shall be given an opportunity to be heard, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed as aforesaid, and if it appears that any of the provisions of this Act have been violated by such party, then the Secretary of Agriculture shall at once certify the facts to the proper United States district attorney, with a copy of the results of the analysis or the examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or officer making such examination, under the oath of such officer. After judgment of the court, notice shall be given by publication in such manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid. SEC. 5. That it shall be the duty of each district attorney to whom the Secretary of Agriculture shall report any violation of this Act, or to whom any health or food or drug officer or agent of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia shall present satisfactory evidence of any such violation, to cause appropriate proceedings to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the United States, without delay, for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case herein provided. SEC. 6. That the term " drug " as used in this Act, shall include all medicines and preparations recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary for internal or external use, and any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for the cure, mitigation, or pre- vention of disease of either man or other animals. The term " food," as used herein, shall include all articles used for food, drink, confectionery, or condiment by man or other animals, whether simple, mixed, or compound. SEC. 7. That for the purposes of this Act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated : In case of drugs : First. If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity, as determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary official at the time of investigation : Provided, That no drug defined in the United States Pharma- FOOD LEGISLATION 31 copceia or National Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of strength, quality, or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle, box, or other container thereof although the standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. Second. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery : If it contain terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other mineral substance or poisonous color or flavor, or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the case of food : First. If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. Second. If any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article. Third. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. Fourth. If it be mixed, colored, powdered, coated, or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. Fifth. If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious in- gredient which may render such article injurious to health : Provided, That when in the preparation of food products for shipment they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner that the preservative is necessarily removed mechanically, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for the removal of said preservative shall be printed on the covering or the package, the provisions of this Act shall be construed as applying only when said products are ready for con- sumption. Sixth. If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. SEC. 8. That the term " misbranded," as used herein, shall apply to all drugs, or articles of food, or articles which enter into the composition of food, the package or label of which shall bear any statement, design, or device regarding such article, or the ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be false or misleading in any particular, and to any food or drug product which is falsely branded as to the State, Territory, or country in which it is manufactured or produced. 32 FOOD PRODUCTS That for the purposes of this Act an article shall also be deemed to be misbranded : In case of drugs : First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article. Second. If the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed, in whole or in part, and other contents shall have been placed in such package, or if the package fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein. Third. If its package or label shall bear or contain any statement, design, or device regarding the curative or therapeutic effect of such article or any of the ingredients or substances contained therein, which is false and fraudulent. In the case of food : First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article. Second. If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the pur- chaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in such package, or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, canna- bis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any derivative or preparation of any of such substances contained therein. Third. 1 If in package form, the quantity of the contents be not plainly and conspicuously marked on the outside of the package in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count : Provided, however, That reasonable variations shall be permitted, and tolerances and also exemptions as to small packages shall be established by rules and regulations made in accordance with the provisions of section three of this Act. Fourth. If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement, design, or device regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein, which statement, design, or device shall be false or misleading in any particular : Provided, That an article of food which does not contain any added poisonous or deleterious ingredients shall not be deemed to be adulterated or misbranded in the following cases : 1 The act of March 3, 1913, provides that no oenalty of fine, imprisonment, or confiscation shall be enforced for any violation of its provisions as to domestic products prepared or foreign products imported prior to eighteen months after its passage. FOOD LEGISLATION 33 First. In the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from time to time hereafter known as articles of food, under their own distinctive names, and not an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article, if the name be accompanied on the same label or brand with a statement of the place where said article has been manufactured or pro- duced. Second. In the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to plainly indicate that they are compounds, imitations, or blends, and the word " compound," " imitation," or " blend," as the case may be, is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale : Provided, That the term blend as used herein shall be construed to mean a mixture of like sub- stances, not excluding harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring only : And provided further, That nothing in this Act shall be construed as requiring or compelling proprietors or manufacturers of proprietary foods which contain no unwholesome added ingredient to disclose their trade formulas, except in so far as the provisions of this act may require to secure freedom from adulteration or misbranding. SEC. 9. That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this Act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manufacturer, or other party residing in the United States, from whom he purchases such articles, to the effect that the same is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, designating it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines and other penalties which would attach, in due course, to the dealer under the provisions of this Act. SEC. 10. That any article of food, drug, or liquor that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, and is being transported from one State, Territory, District, or insular possession to another for sale, or, having been transported, remains unloaded, unsold, or in original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories, or insular possessions of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, or if it is intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to be proceeded against in any district court of the United States within the district where the same is found, and seized for confiscation by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned as being adulterated or misbranded, or of a poisonous or dele- terious character, within the meaning of this Act, the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale, as the said court may direct, and the proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury 34 FOOD PRODUCTS of the United States, but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this Act or the laws of that jurisdiction : Pro- vided, however, That upon the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this Act, or the laws of any State, Territory, District, or insular possession, the court may by order direct that such articles'be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as may be, to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in any such case, and all such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States. SEC. n. The Secretary of the Treasury shall deliver to the Secretary of Agriculture, upon his request from time to time, samples of foods and drugs which are being imported into the United States or offered for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee, who may appear before the Secre- tary of Agriculture, and have the right to introduce testimony, and if it appear from the examination of such samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into the United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into, or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from which it is exported, or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect, the said article shall be refused admission, and the Secretary of the Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction of any goods re- fused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three months from the date of notice of such refusal under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver to the consignee such goods pending examina- tion and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice value of such goods, together with the duty thereon, and on refusal to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose of excluding them from the country, or for any other purpose, said consignee shall forfeit the full amount of the bond : And provided further, That all charges for storage, cartage, and labor on goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in default of such payment shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner or consignee. SEC. 12. That the term " Territory " as used in this Act shall include the insular possessions of the United States. The word " person " as used FOOD LEGISLATION 35 in this Act shall be construed to import both the plural and the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations, companies, societies and associations. When construing and enforcing the provisions of this Act, the act, omission, or failure of any officer, agent, or other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company, society, or association, within the scope of his employment or office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the act, omission, or failure of such corporation, company, society, or association as well as that of the person. SEC. 13. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of January, nineteen hundred and seven. Approved June 30, 1906. Notes on the National Law and the Rules and Regulations for its Enforcement Since in the chapters which follow there will frequently be occasion to refer to decisions which have been rendered or stand- ards which have been established under the National law, it will be advantageous at this point to refer to some of its more prominent features and to the provisions for its interpretation and enforcement. Scope and penalties. On account of the limitations placed by the Constitution upon Federal legislation of this sort, the law can directly prohibit the manufacture of adulterated or misbranded food only in the District of Columbia or the Ter- ritories. Indirectly, however, the manufacture of such food on a large scale anywhere in the country can be made difficult if not impracticable through the control of interstate and foreign commerce. Food manufactured and sold exclusively within the borders of any one state is subject only to state or municipal control, but any lot or package of food which passes from one state to another is subject to the provisions of the National law. Moreover, in all such interstate transactions in food products both the consignor and the consignee are liable unless one of them assumes complete liability under the provisions of Sec- tion 9. Often a shipment of food is seized and the prosecution 36 FOOD PRODUCTS is brought against the goods, the interested parties being given opportunity to appear as claimants and answer the charge of adulteration or misbranding. The first case under the law which was carried through the Supreme Court of the United States related to the powers of the Government under this section. Preserved eggs were shipped from St. Louis, Mo., to Peoria, 111. They were intended not for sale (as such) but for use in baking and were placed in the storeroom of the bakery along with other supplies. The Gov- ernment seized the eggs as adulterated food in interstate commerce; the egg company which had prepared them appeared as claimant and defended the suit but did not enter into a stipulation to pay costs. The case was tried in the United States District Court which found the eggs adulterated within the meaning of the act in that they contained about 2 per cent of boric acid which the court held to be a deleterious ingredient. The egg company contested the jurisdiction of the Court, claiming (i) that the law does not apply to an article which has been shipped not for sale but solely for use as a raw material in the manufacture of some other product, (2) that the United States District Court had no jurisdiction because the goods had passed out of interstate commerce and become mingled in the general mass of the property in the State of Illinois, and (3) that the Court had no juris- diction to enter a personal judgment against the egg company for costs. The Supreme Court found the position of the egg company untenable on each of these points and stated in its decision upholding the Government that the adulterated eggs were illicit articles which could not acquire im- munity by becoming a part of the general mass of property of the State and that the confiscation or destruction of such articles is the especial concern of the law. By comparison of Sections i and 2, it will be seen that the penalties for interstate commerce in adulterated or misbranded foods are somewhat less severe than for the manufacture of such food in those parts of the country which are under the direct jurisdiction of the Federal Government. Rules and regulations. Section 3 of the law makes it the duty of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce to formulate uniform rules and regulations for the carrying out of the provisions of the law. As already mentioned, most of the provisions and definitions in FOOD LEGISLATION 37 the law are general in character. It therefore became necessary for the three Secretaries in the Rules and Regulations, not only to provide a plan for the collection and examination of samples, but also to interpret many of the definitions of adulteration and misbranding. The Rules and Regulations adopted by the Secretaries are given in full at the back of this book (Appendix A). These rules and regulations are of course subject to review by the Courts and they do not have the force and effect of law except in so far as they interpret the law correctly. They are, however, of great importance as constituting the working basis for the enforcement of the law and will be frequently referred to in the discussions which follow. Food inspection decisions. The actual administration of the law and of the rules and regulations is the duty of the Secretary of Agriculture. Notwithstanding the adoption of the Rules and Regulations, several questions of interpretation requiring decision by the administrative officers have arisen. These decisions are published from the Office of the Secretary, United States Department of Agriculture, in a series of num- bered leaflets called Food Inspection Decisions (F. I. D.). A few of these decisions have been signed by the three Secre- taries and are practically amendments of the Rules and Regu- lations. In most cases, however, the " decisions " are simply declarations of the attitude of the Department of Agriculture and are signed either by the Secretary of Agriculture or by the Board of Food and Drug Inspection, which is a committee appointed by the Secretary from among the officials of the Department of Agriculture and who act as the representatives of the Secretary in the enforcement of the food law. These decisions of the administrative officers must not be confused with the decisions reached by the courts. The latter are found under Notices of Judgment (see below). Many of the Food Inspection Decisions will be quoted in 38 FOOD PRODUCTS later chapters in the discussion of the particular types of food to which they relate. Those of more general scope will be found at the back of this book (Appendix B). Collection of samples. Samples are collected only by author- ized agents of the Department of Agriculture or by some health, food, or drug officer commissioned by the Secretary of Agriculture for this purpose. The collectors must purchase representative samples. Samples purchased in bulk are divided into three parts ; when in the original unbroken packages three such pack- ages are usually taken. One of the three samples is delivered to the chemist or examiner and two are held under seal by the Secretary of Agriculture, " who, upon request, shall deliver one of such samples to the party from whom purchased or to the party guaranteeing such merchandise." (Regulation 3.) The term " original unbroken package " as used in the law is denned, in the Rules and Regulations, as " the original pack- age, carton, case, can, box, barrel, bottle, phial, or other recep- tacle put up by the manufacturer, to which the label is attached, or which may be suitable for the attachment of the label " and it is held that the original package contemplated includes both the wholesale and the retail package. Examinations or analyses of samples are made in the labo- ratories of the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agri- culture or under its direction and supervision. Unless other- wise directed by the Secretary of Agriculture, foods are analyzed by the methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chem- ists, and drugs by the methods of the United States Phar- macopoeia. Standards of purity. The Pharmacopoeia gives standards of purity for drugs along with the methods of analysis. The methods of analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists do not provide corresponding standards, but a set of standards drawn up by a committee of this Association was published as Circular No. 19, Office of the Secretary, United FOOD LEGISLATION 39 States Department of Agriculture, and these are usually, though not necessarily, followed in interpreting the analytical results. The food chemists of the different states are also apt to govern their decisions by these standards unless some other standard is provided for by state law. These standards, therefore, carry considerable weight and will be considered in connection with the discussions of the composi- tion of food materials in the chapters which follow. They are variously designated as " United States Standards," " Govern- ment Standards," " Federal Standards," " Department of Agriculture Standards," or " A. 0. A. C. Standards." The latter term is the more accurate since these standards for foods, while often cited in Federal prosecutions, are not established by law nor referred to in the Rules and Regulations, but represent the action only of the Association of Official Agricultural Chem- ists (A. O. A. C.). In connection with the Federal law and the laws of many states the force of these standards is practically that of expert testimony. In some states these or similar stand- ards have been written into the law itself and it has been pro- posed that the Federal law be amended to include such standards. Hearings (Regulation 5). When the examination or analysis indicates that a sample is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the law, notice is given to the party or parties re- sponsible for the food and opportunity is given for a hearing before the Secretary of Agriculture or his representative. These hear- ings are confined to questions of fact (as distinguished from ques- tions of law). The interested parties may appear in person or by attorney and may submit evidence to show any fault or error in the findings of the analyst or examiner and may present questions to be propounded to analysts by the officer conducting the hearing. The Secretary of Agriculture may order a reexam- ination of the sample or have new samples drawn for exami- nation. Prosecutions. If, after a hearing, it appears that a violation 40 FOOD PRODUCTS of the law .has been committed, the Secretary of Agriculture reports the case to the Department of Justice for prosecution, and action is brought by the proper United States attorney, the cases being tried in the Federal courts. Notices of judgment. Not less than thirty days after a judg- ment of the court shall have been rendered, the findings are published in such form as the Secretary of Agriculture may direct. Usually the result of each trial is published under a separate number and distributed in leaflet form, each leaflet containing one or more notices. These notices are numbered in series and designated as Notices of Judgment (N. J.) . Up to the beginning of 1914, when the law had been seven years in effect, there had been issued from the Office of the Secretary of Agriculture 2762 such Notices of Judgment. 1 Of these cases more than nine tenths had been decided favorably to the Government. If an appeal is taken from the judgment of the court before the pub- lication of the Notice of Judgment, notice of the appeal must accompany the publication. Definitions of adulteration and misbranding. The types of adulteration and misbranding recognized by the law were summarized above and their exact wording may also be seen from the text of the law. Some types of adulteration and mis- branding can be demonstrated directly, while others are detected through the fact that analysis shows the article to be of inferior composition. The latter cases require the acceptance of some standard for comparison. For this purpose the standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists already re- ferred to, have generally been upheld by the courts. Some of the Rules and Regulations and many of the Food Inspection Decisions are also in the nature of interpretations of the defini- tions of adulteration and misbranding. The clause which declares a food adulterated if it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which 1 In April, 1014, the number had reached 3096. FOOD LEGISLATION 41 may render such article injurious to health, has given rise to more discussion than any other part of the law. It had become a custom of the trade to use in the preparation of food a number of substances which had been found helpful in securing the de- sired color or keeping qualities of the foods, but whose whole- someness had sometimes been questioned. Congress declined to include in the food law any specific authorization or prohibition of any particular substance so used, leaving this to be covered by the rules and regulations which the three Secretaries were directed to prepare, and appropriating money to the Department of Agriculture for investigations as to the wholesomeness of these substances. The three Secretaries then provided (Regulation i5b) that: " The Secretary of Agriculture shall determine from time to time, in accordance with the authority conferred by the agri- cultural appropriation act, Public 382, approved June 30, 1906, the principles which shall guide the use of colors, preservatives, and other substances added to foods ; and when concurred in by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce, the principles so established shall become a part of these regu- lations." Regarding the wholesomeness of colors, it is the practice to permit the use of any natural vegetable or animal color which is not known to be impure or injurious, but to be much more stringent with respect to the use of artificial (synthetic) colors. Only seven artificial colors have so far been authorized and of these the purity of each batch must be attested before it can legally be used. (See Appendix.) Whether the presence of an authorized color must be declared upon the label will depend upon the nature of the food and will be considered in studying the different types of food in the chap- ters which follow. Any coloring which is intended to mislead is illegal and in most other cases the fact that the food has been artificially colored must be plainly stated. 42 FOOD PRODUCTS Under these regulations many manufacturers who formerly used artificial coloring have ceased to do so. Thus one of the good effects of the law is that it results in foods being marketed in more nearly their normal appearance. The establishment of principles to guide the use of preserva- tives has presented greater difficulty than in the case of colors, partly for the obvious reason that the preservation of food is necessary while the coloring of food is not. It is true that by drying, by heating and canning, and to a certain extent by refrigeration, foods may be preserved from the season of abun- dance to the season of scarcity without the addition of any preservative substance, but such a restriction of method of preservation would often be unnecessarily burdensome and costly and would in many cases involve a loss of the flavor for which the food is chiefly prized. The prohibition of all pre- servative substances would be as unsatisfactory to the consumer as to the producer and has never been seriously contemplated. What has sometimes been attempted is to divide all preservative substances into two classes, those in one class to be freely per- mitted and those in the other class to be strictly forbidden. The fact that the law defines food in such a way as to include condi- ments has been construed as tacitly authorizing the unlimited use of such preservatives as have condimental properties (like salt, sugar, vinegar, and woodsmoke) and the question of whole- someness has as yet been officially raised only with respect to the noncondimental preservatives such as saltpeter, sodium benzoate, salicylic acid, and sulphur dioxide. To assist the Secretary of Agriculture in determining the wholesomeness of certain of the preservative substances used, a Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts consisting of five prominent scientists, not otherwise connected with the Government service, has been appointed. In general such Rules and Regulations governing the use of preservatives as have been formulated by the three Secretaries have been based on the find- FOOD LEGISLATION 43 ings of the Referee Board or have been made tentatively pending investigation. The regulations at present in force are given in full in Appendix B. As might be anticipated, when the different (noncondimental) preservative substances are treated each on its own merits the regulations deemed necessary are not the same in all cases. Regarding the four substances just mentioned the present Federal regulations are as follows : Saltpeter may be used without restriction ; sodium benzoate may be used with no restriction except that the presence and true amount must be stated on the label ; salicylic acid is forbidden; sulphur dioxide may be used only in those foods in which its use was already common and only in strictly limited amounts. Guaranty. In order to secure justice in the fixing of re- sponsibility, the law provides (Section 9) that the manufacturer or wholesaler may assume responsibility for his products so that he and not the retail dealer shall be held responsible in case of adulteration or misbranding. Formerly this was done by filing a general guaranty which was recorded under a Serial Number. Each package then bore a label showing the serial number and name and address of the party responsible for the guaranty. This guaranty was simply to fix responsibility and to protect the retail dealer. It afforded no additional protection to the consumer and added nothing to the penalty in case the food was found to be adulterated or misbranded. This, how- ever, was not always understood, many purchasers supposing that they derived some additional protection from such guar- anty. Notice has now been given of an amendment to Regulation 9, relating to guaranty, which amendment, effective May i, 1916, abolishes the issuing of serial numbers and forbids their use or the printing of the " guaranty legend " on the labels. Under the new regulation the guaranty should be incorpo- rated in or attached to the bill of sale, invoice, bill of lading, etc., and should not appear on the labels or packages. 44 FOOD PRODUCTS Imported foods. Section n of the law provides for the inspection o\ foods while still in the hands of the customs officers or under bond. This greatly facilitates the prevention of importation of adulterated food, and it is believed that comparatively little adulterated food is now imported. When adulterated food bearing labels indicating a foreign origin is found in the American market the possibility of fraudulent labeling is also to be considered. Note that, as an additional precaution in the case of imported foods, the law forbids the importation of any kind of food which is forbidden entry to, or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in, the country in which it is made or from which it is exported. Private importations. In Food Inspection Decision 88 it is held that no food or drug which is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the act shall be brought into the United States from abroad even if only for the consumption of the importer or for free distribution. Such private importa- tions are subject to the same rules and restrictions as ordinary commercial imports. State and Municipal Food Control Since the Federal authorities cannot inspect or control any food which is produced and consumed in the same state, it is evident that each of the forty-eight states must have adequate legislation and inspection if its citizens are to obtain the full benefit of the pure food movement. In order fully to realize the importance of state and municipal control, one must remem- ber that some of the foods most readily subjected to fraudulent adulteration (e.g. milk) and some of those most subject to dan- gerous contamination (e.g. meats and shellfish) are largely handled by producers and dealers who do a local business and so do not come under the authority of the Federal government. Slaughtering and meat packing is now a highly centralized in- dustry and is regulated both by the Food and Drugs Act and by a special Meat Inspection Law (see Chapter VI and Appendix D), yet about half the meat consumed in the United States is slaughtered in local establishments which are never visited by the Federal inspectors because they do no interstate business. The rural population and the residents of small towns, who together make up about one half the people of the United FOOD LEGISLATION 45 States, derive relatively little direct benefit from the Federal law. Indirectly they benefit in proportion as the Federal legis- lation and inspection serves to stimulate and standardize that of the states. At the present time most of the states have on their statute books food laws which are modeled more or less directly after the Federal law and which are fairly satisfactory in so far as they are enforced. Rarely, however, are sufficient funds appropriated to make possible a strict enforcement of the state law. On the other hand, state laws may be more stringent in some respects than those of the Federal government. Thus several states limit the time that food may be held in cold storage. The new (1914) Sanitary Code of New York State makes it unlawful for any person " affected with any communicable disease to handle food or food products in any manner what- ever." The responsibility of the enforcement of state food laws is lodged sometimes with health officers, sometimes with the commissioner of agriculture, sometimes with a food commis- sioner independent of either the department of agriculture or of health. Not infrequently the office of " dairy and food com- missioner " has developed through the fact that legal regulation of the milk supply and dairy industry antedated general food legislation. Whatever the organization, it is important that the enforcement of the state food laws be in the hands of perma- nent officials, scientifically trained, gifted with good judgment and administrative capacity, and entirely independent of politics. State legislation and inspection may be supplemented by municipal ordinances enforced by distinct corps of officers. In New York City, for example, the board of health has the power to enact a sanitary code which becomes law on publication with- out requiring the approval of any other body or official. This code contains general rules for food control, and additional rules and regulations to govern certain industries are also promul- 46 FOOD PRODUCTS gated by the board and thus become part of, and have the legal force of, the code. The board of health has the power to control any food industry by requiring that it be carried on only under permits granted by (and revokable by) the board. Violations of the sanitary code may be punished either by criminal prose- cution or civil suit. The policy has been to bring criminal prose- cution in all cases of actual adulteration. In 1913 there were 118 inspectors connected with the New York City division of food inspection, of whom 41 were assigned to general food inspection, 19 to country milk inspection, 29 to city milk inspection, and 18 were sanitary inspectors engaged in the supervision of physical conditions in establishments where food is prepared or sold; there were also 4 medical inspectors and 7 veterinarians. For the laboratory examination of food the city employed 8 chemists with 7 technical and clerical assist- ants and 4 bacteriologists with 10 assistants. Furthermore, the city requires that the following food industries be carried on only under official permits and specific regulations : dealers in milk and all places where milk is sold; slaughterhouses, including poultry-killing establishments; sausage factories; egg-breaking establishments; establishments for the bottling of " soft drinks " ; or for the manufacture of ice cream and other frozen products. In all probability the next few years will see a marked devel- opment of state and municipal food control along lines consis- tent with the Federal food inspection, but in some cases even more exacting, as, for example, in requiring the grading and classification of market milk and not simply that it be free from adulteration or misbranding. REFERENCES ABBOTT. Food and Drug Inspection. Article in Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, Vol. 3, pages 162-180. BELL. Sale of Food and Drugs Act (British). FOOD LEGISLATION 47 BIGELOW. Foods and Food Control. United States Department of Agri- culture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 69. BUCHKA. Die Nahrungsmittelgesetzgebung in Deutschen Reiche. DUNLAP. Food Laws of the United Kingdom and their Administration. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin H3- DUNN. Pure Food and Drug Legal Manual. LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. NEUFELDT. Der Nahrungsmittelchemiker als Sachverstandiger. PARRY. Foods and Drugs, Vol. 2. Proceedings of the Association of State and National Dairy and Food De- partments. United States Department of Agriculture. Food Inspection Decisions and Notices of Judgment. WESTERVELT. Pure Food and Drug Laws, Federal and State. WILEY. Foods and Their Adulterations. CHAPTER III MILK MILK is the one article of diet whose sole function in nature is to serve as food. Each species of mammal produces a milk especially adapted to the nutritive requirements of its own young, but it was early learned that the milk of other species is also an excellent food for man, and several different species are used for dairy purposes in various parts of the world. In general only cows' milk is of much commercial importance, and the statements which follow refer always to cows' milk unless otherwise explained. The amount of milk consumed as such 1 in the United States is estimated at one half pint to one third of a quart per person per day. This amounts to some 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 quarts per day for the country as a whole. If the average retail value is about 5 cents a quart, the milk industry of the country will be seen to amount to over $1,250,000 a day or over $400,000,000" per year. The importance of the milk industry to the community is much greater than its money value (as compared with other industries) would imply. It is probable that the quality of the milk supply bears a closer relation to the public health than does that of any other food. This is partly because of the excep- tional nutritive qualities of milk and the prominent part which it plays in the diet of children and others to whom the quality of the food is of special importance, and partly because the 1 A much larger quantity is used for the manufacture of butter and cheese. These industries will be described later. 48 MILK 49 fluidity and opacity of milk offer unusual opportunity for adul- teration; and the fact that bacteria readily grow and multiply in it makes it especially important that the milk be carefully guarded from contamination. It is therefore important that the milk industry be controlled with all possible care and with reference both to the nutritive and to the sanitary qualities of the product. In the present chapter the production and handling of milk will first be outlined, then its composition and standards of purity will be discussed, and finally its nutritive value, pecu- niary economy, and place in the diet will be considered. Production and Handling of Milk The cows. A milch cow should produce an average of over 2 gallons of milk per day for eight months of each year with a smaller yield for about two months longer, making a total of at least 600 gallons or at least 5000 pounds of milk for the year. Many high-grade cows produce three or four times this quan- tity, and Wing cites the case of one cow which produced over 30,000 pounds of milk in a year; but the average for all the milch cows in the United States at the present time would doubtless be below the 5000 pounds suggested. Increased yield of milk per cow may be obtained both by breeding and selection and by superior care and feeding. Ac- cording to a recent estimate the annual yield of milk per cow in Denmark, where the dairy industry is well developed and highly systematized, has increased from 4480 pounds in 1898 to 4884 pounds in 1901, 5335 pounds in 1904, and 5874 pounds in 1908. Since the fat of the milk is commercially its most valuable constituent, the productiveness of a milch cow is perhaps as often expressed in terms of fat or butter yield as in terms of weight of milk. Those races of cattle which have been devel- oped with special reference to milk or butter production are called the dairy breeds, and those which are chiefly useful for 50 FOOD PRODUCTS meat production are known as beef breeds. A recent investi- gation in Wisconsin l showed a higher food consumption on the part of the more productive dairy cows, but the value of the milk produced increased much more rapidly than the cost of feed so that the more productive cows proved very much more profitable. Good health of the cow is of great importance and should be insured by semiannual veterinary inspection. Annual or semiannual testing with tuberculin with elimination or segre- gation of all cows which give evidence of tuberculosis serves to protect the herd from the ravages of the disease as well as to remove one source of possible danger to the consumer of the milk. When new cows are to be added to a dairy herd, care should be taken to ascertain that they are free from disease, particularly tuberculosis. Dirt and dust adhering to the cow constitute one of the most serious sources of contamination of milk. It is therefore very important that the cows be kept clean and especially that the udder and adjacent parts of the body be thoroughly clean at the time of milking. The stable should be free from contaminating surroundings, well drained, well lighted and ventilated, as clean and comfort- able as possible. It should be used for no other purpose than the keeping of cows, and if there is a loft overhead the ceiling should be tight to prevent the falling of dust. The feeding of the cows should be so planned that there will be no dust from hay or other feed in the air of the stable at milking time. The floor should be tight, constructed preferably of cement and properly guttered ; walls and ceilings should be whitewashed twice a year. The milk house should be separate from the stable and so located as to be free from dust and odors. It should be used for no other purpose and should be light, clean, and well screened. 1 Studies in Dairy Production, based on the Records secured in the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, 1909-1911. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 26 (October, 1912). MILK 51 All utensils which come in contact with the milk should be of metal with smoothly soldered joints. In addition to being thoroughly washed the utensils should be sterilized by means of steam or boiling water and then kept either closed or inverted in a clean place free from dust until used. ' By furnishing the farmers with sterilized utensils for each milking and insisting upon the use of covered milking pails (see below) Dr. North effected an enormous reduction in the bacterial contamination of milk. Milking is performed sometimes by machine, but usually by hand. Cleanliness of the milker and his clothing are essential to cleanliness of the milk. On well-conducted milk farms the milker puts on a special washable suit for milking and washes and dries his hands immediately before commencing to milk each cow. The cows having previously been cleaned, the udders and flanks should be wiped with a moist cloth preparatory to milking. As a further precaution against the falling of dust and bacteria into the milk a covered or hooded milking pail should be used. Machines by means of which one man may milk several cows at a time are now on the market. These have the advantage of reducing the number of employees required in milking and diminishing the opportunities for contamination of the milk through contact with the air of the stable or the hands of the milker ; among the disadvantages are the cost of the equipment necessary for machine milking and the difficulty of preventing the rubber parts of the' mechanism from becoming a breeding place for bacteria. A recent extended study at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station * led to the conclusion that machine milk now compares favorably with ordinary hand milking in its effect upon the milk flow and upon the germ con- tent of the milk ; that machine milking has proven practicable and is of interest mainly because of the labor problem. 1 Bulletin No. 353, November, 1912. 52 FOOD PRODUCTS Handling the milk. The milk is removed from the stable to the milk room as quickly as possible and (after clarifying or straining through sterile cotton or cloth if deemed necessary) is promptly cooled to prevent the growth and multiplication of such bacteria as it may contain. 1 The importance of early and thorough cooling was well shown in an experiment by Conn, in which it was found that the multiplication of bacteria in 24 hours in milk kept at 50 F. (10 C.) was only fivefold, while at 70 F. (21 C.) it was seven hundred and fifty fold. Usually the milk is first poured into a mixing tank, then run over a metal cooler, and the cold milk filled into cans or bottles and kept cold both in storage and during transportation. In many localities it is required by law that milk be held at a tem- perature not above 50 or 55 F. until delivered to the consumer. Preferably the milk is bottled in the country, the bottles packed in cracked ice and kept so until delivered to .the consumer. General sanitation. In recent years much attention has been given to improvements in the sanitary conditions surrounding the production and handling of milk, largely because it is real- ized that contaminated milk may undergo such deterioration as to become unwholesome, or may be the means of transmitting specific infectious diseases. As an aid to dairy farmers the Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture has published for free distribution Twenty Dairy Suggestions with Special Reference to Sanitation, which are printed on cloth in poster form suitable for posting in barns and milk rooms. The rules for the production and handling of certified milk, which may be taken as representing ideal conditions, are given in full at the back of this book. (See Appendix C.) As an example of the influence of sanitary precautions upon the keeping qualities of milk, it may be noted that three Ameri- 1 The multiplication of bacteria in milk does not begin as soon as the milk is drawn, but is preceded by a short period in which there is an apparent decrease in the number of bacteria. This is attributed to a " bactericidal property " of freshly drawn milk. MILK 53 can dairy farms exhibited raw milk at the Paris Exposition of 1900, one of them sending weekly shipments throughout the summer, each of which was kept on exhibition in the raw state without spoilage until the next shipment arrived. It was difficult to convince the jury of European experts of the fact that " cleanliness and cold " were the only preservatives needed to accomplish the keeping of raw milk in a fresh sweet condition for two to four weeks in midsummer. In order to provide definite standards for judging and record- ing sanitary conditions, dairy score cards have been formulated and are widely used. The one published by the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1 is given on pages 54 and 55. The ratings obtained by dairies under the score card system of inspection are often employed as one means of classifying milks with regard to their degrees of excellence. Usually the sanitary quality of the milk as judged by laboratory methods runs approximately parallel with the sanitary care exercised in its production and handling, but there are sometimes discrep- ancies ; and at present there is difference of opinion among san- itarians as to the relative weight which should be given (i) to the dairy score, (2) to the results of laboratory examinations, for the purpose of fixing the sanitary quality of the milk offered for sale. In this connection the following statement recently author- ized by the United States Department of Agriculture is of interest : Information has come to the Department of Agriculture that persons, representing certain milk dealers, are circulating the statement that the United States Department of Agriculture has abandoned all bacteriological examination of milk as a test for its cleanliness and fitness for human con- sumption. The Department, therefore, has issued the following statement of its position. 1 Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, p. 120. 54 FOOD PRODUCTS Score for equipment . DAIRY SCORE CARD _ + Score for methods __ _ = _ ..Final score EQUIPMENT SCORE METHODS SCORE Perfect Allowed Perfect Allowed cows Health 6 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 cows Cleanliness of cows . . STABLES Cleanliness of stables Floor 2 8 6 6 2 2 3 8 9 Apparently in good health I If tested with tubercu- lin once a year and no tuberculosis is found, or if tested once in six months and all reacting ani- mals removed . . 5 (If tested only once a year and re- acting animals found and removed, 2.) Comfort . . . . . Walls i Ceiling and ledges . i Mangers and parti- Window .... i Stable air at milking time Barnyard clean and well Bedding I Removal of manure daily to field or proper pit .... (To 50 feet from stable, i.) MILK ROOM Cleanliness of milk room UTENSILS AND MILKING Care and cleanliness of Temperature of stable i Food (clean and wholesome) Water Clean and fresh . . i Convenient and abun- dant i STABLES Location of stable . . Well drained . . . i Free from contaminat- ing surroundings . . i Construction of stable . Tight, sound floor and proper gutter . . 2 Smooth, tight walls and ceiling . . . i Proper stall, tie, and manger . . . . i Light: Four sq. ft. of glass per cow . . . (Three sq. ft., 3 ; zsq.ft., 2; isq.ft.,i. Deduct for uneven distribution.) Ventilation : Automatic Thoroughly washed and sterilized in live steam for 30 minutes . . 5 (Thoroughly washed and placed over steam jet, 4; thoroughly washed and scalded with boiling water, 3; thoroughly washed, not scalded, 2.) Inverted in pure air . 3 Cleanliness of milking . Clean, dry hands . 3 Udders washed and (Adjustable win- dow, i.) Cubic feet of space for cow : 500 to 1000 feet (Less than 500 feet, 2 ; less than 400 ieet, i ; less than 300 feet, o; over 1000 feet, o.) (Udders cleaned with moist cloth, 4 ; cleaned with dry cloth at least 15 minutes before milk- ing, i.) MILK 55 DAIRY SCORE CARD Continued Score for equipment + Score for methods = Final score EQUIPMENT SCORE METHODS SCORE Perfect Allowed Perfect Allowed UTENSILS Construction and condi- tion of utensils . . Water for cleaning . . (Clean, convenient and abundant.) Small-top milking pail . Facilities for hot water or i i 3 i I I 2 2 HANDLING THE MILK Cleanliness of attendants Milk removed immediately i Prompt cooling (cooled im- mediately after milking Efficient cooling ; below 50 F 5 3 3 (Should be in milk house, not in kitchen.) Milk cooler .... Clean milking suits . . MILK ROOM Location of milk room . Free from contaminat- ing surroundings . I Convenient . . . . i Construction of milk (Si toss , 4; 56 to 60, 2.) Storage; below 50 F. . . (Si to 55, 2; 56 to 60, i.) Transportation ; iced in (For jacket or wet blanket allow 2 ; dry blanket or covered wagon, i.) Total Floor, walls, and ceil- Light, ventilation, screens . . . . i Total .... 40 60 1. All statements that the Department has abandoned, or will abandon, the bacteriological examination of milk shipped in interstate commerce as a means of determining its cleanliness and fitness for human consumption are without foundation. While the Department has not fixed any specific bacteriological count as a standard in the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, it does use bacteriological examinations in reaching its conclusions, and will continue to use these methods irrespective of what action any Associ- ation may take. The Department has never stated that it will not use such methods. 2. The only change in policy in the Department in regard to bacteriologi- cal examinations has been to discontinue basing prosecution upon the bacteriological examination of a single sample. It now collects a number of samples at different times and examines them bacteriologically. If the bac- 56 FOOD PRODUCTS teriological examination shows that the milk is not clean, but is not a serious menace to health, and the bacteriological deviation from clean milk is a small one, the Department, through the Bureau of Animal Industry, en- deavors to teach the dairyman how to produce clean milk. If he then neglects to take measures to make his milk clean and safe for human con- sumption, the Department, by taking action in the case of milk shipped in interstate commerce, endeavors to force him to bring his milk to a point of safety and food excellence through prosecutions under the Food and Drugs Act. Certified milk. This term is properly applied only to milk produced under sanitary conditions of exceptional excellence, by the most painstaking methods and under the constant super- vision and inspection of a Medical Milk Commission. It is understood as meaning that the milk is certified as to its quality and wholesomeness by a properly constituted medical milk commission. The medical profession was led to engage in the certification of milk in order that there might be made avail- able for infant feeding at least a limited supply of milk of excep- tional excellence which should be as nearly as possible absolutely safe. The requirements placed upon the producer and handler are such as to make the cost of certified milk about twice that of ordinarily good bottled milk. Although less than i per cent of the market milk of commerce is of this grade, the certified milk movement has had great influence in improving dairy prac- tice and raising the sanitary quality of the general milk supply. The detailed requirements for the production and handling of certified milk are given in Appendix C at the back of this book. The North system of sanitary milk production differs from the system in which certified milk is produced in that much of the responsibility which the certified milk system imposes upon the farmer is by the North system transferred to the receiving station. The farmer must keep only healthy cows and must clean them before milking, and the milk must be drawn by a clean milker into covered pails, transferred without straining MILK 57 to the milk cans and kept in icewater until sent to the receiving station. At the receiving station all pails and cans are. thor- oughly washed, sterilized with live steam, dried with a blast of hot air, covered and delivered back to the farmer who must keep them unopened until the next milking time. Other fea- tures of the North system are daily laboratory tests of each farmer's milk at the receiving station and payment according to the quality of the milk as shown by these tests. Pasteurization of milk by heating it to a temperature of 60 to 63 C. (140 to 145 F.) and holding at this tempera- ture for 20 to 30 minutes serves to destroy any bacteria of diseases regarded as transmissible by milk. The use of higher temperatures in order to shorten the time required for pasteuri- zation is often permitted, but is undesirable ; partly because of the possibility that higher temperature may cause chemical changes in certain of the substances in the milk ; partly because higher heating kills an undue proportion of the lactic acid bac- teria while the spores of certain bacteria which decompose the proteins of the milk are not destroyed and, if the milk be kept too long, may render it unwholesome before it becomes sour. As a precaution against subsequent contamination it is desirable that the milk be pasteurized in the sealed bottles in which it is to be delivered to the consumer. This can be done commer- cially at little cost on a large scale by means of apparatus already on the market for the pasteurization of bottled beer. There is a growing tendency on the part of public health authorities to require the pasteurization of all market milk which is not ob- tained under good sanitary conditions from tuberculin-tested cows. General Composition of Milk The qualitative composition has been concisely stated by Richmond as follows : " It is essentially an aqueous solution of milk-sugar, albumin, and certain salts, holding in suspension 58 FOOD PRODUCTS globules of fat, and in a state of semi-solution, casein l together with mineral matter. Small quantities of other substances are also found." Under the microscope the fat globules are readily seen floating in the fluid portion or serum of the milk. (See Fig. 2.) These globules vary considerably in size from an FIG. 2. Fat globules in milk magnified 300 diameters. average of about 0.0025 millimeter or o.oooi inch in diameter. A single drop of milk contains many millions of these fat globules. The yellowish tint of milk is due to a small quantity of color- ing matter contained in the fat, and its opacity in part to the fat and in part to other constituents, particularly the caseinogen and the calcium phosphate. The reaction of fresh cows' milk is practically neutral to litmus and slightly acid to phenolphthalein , due chiefly to the presence of phosphates and carbonic acid. Colostrum, the fluid secreted from the mammary glands for a short time after giving birth to the young, is different in composition and physiological properties. Under the micro- scope colostrum shows characteristic corpuscles in addition to the fat globules seen in milk. The quantitative composition of milk varies with a number of conditions the most prominent of which are the breed and the 1 For this protein as it exists in milk the term "caseinogen" is perhaps preferable, the term "casein" being more strictly applicable to the coagulated protein as it exists in curd or cheese. MILK 59 individual characteristics of the cow. It is difficult to make fair comparisons of breeds because there may be within the same breed different strains or families which differ markedly in the composition of their milk. The following figures obtained by averaging the results of independent breed tests made at the Agricultural Experiment Stations of New York and New Jersey are believed to be fairly representative : TABLE i. COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT BREEDS OF CATTLE BREED TOTAL SOLIDS FAT SOLIDS-NOT-FAT Per cent Percent Percent Jersey . 14.87 C.IQ 9.68 Guernsey .... 14.69 5.16 9-53 Durham .... I3-38 4-05 9-33 Ayrshire .... 12-73 3-64 9.09 Holstein .... 11.96 3-43 8-53 Among the conditions other than breed and individuality which may influence the composition of cows' milk may be mentioned advancement in lactation, the season of the year, feeding and care, time and completeness of milking. After a cow has been three or four months in lactation there is usually a decrease in the milk and a gradual increase in the richness of the milk as the period of lactation advances. At the end of the lactation period when the cow is " going dry " there is sometimes a marked increase in the richness of the milk, but the quantity produced at such times is usually too small to exert much influence on the average composition of the mixed milk of the herd. Other conditions being the same, the milk of well-kept cows is usually richer in winter than in summer, in cooler than in warmer weather, and on rich dry food than on pasture, except that on first admitting the cows to pasture in spring or early summer a richer milk may be obtained for a short time. The 60 FOOD PRODUCTS milk of late autumn or early winter usually averages from 0.25 to 0.50 per cent higher in fat and also in protein than the milk of midsummer. Doubtless reasonably good feeding and care are necessary to secure from each cow as rich a milk as she is normally capable of producing, and there are indications that by changes of food, liberal feeding with special foods or perhaps other special treat- ment, a cow may be made to produce for a time a milk above her normal standard of richness. In general practice, however, the dairy farmer depends upon breeding and selection to secure milk of high richness and expects the return for liberal feeding and exceptional care to take the form of an increased yield of milk rather than a permanent change in its composition. In general a longer interval of time between milkings results in a slightly decreased fat content. This is often the cause of a fairly constant difference of 0.25 to 0.50 per cent of fat in the morning and afternoon milk of the same herd. All statements regarding the composition of cows' milk ordi- narily refer to the product of complete milking. In partial or fractional milking the first portions drawn are much poorer in fat content than the average, and the last portions, or " strip- pings," are much richer. The extreme variations in composition of milk from cows apparently normal have been compiled by the writer elsewhere. 1 Since market milk is nearly always the mixed product of many cows and often of many herds, a knowledge of these extremes is for practical purposes much less significant than is a knowledge of the usual variations. The following table includes a state- ment of (i) the variations which may be considered not unusual, (2) an estimate of average composition based on all available data, (3) a convenient approximation to the estimate average which is sufficiently accurate for most purposes and is generally used in estimates of the food value of milk. 1 Methods of Organic Analysis, Revised Edition, page 351. MILK 6l TABLE 2. COMPOSITION OF MILK; USUAL LIMITS AND AVERAGE CONSTITUENT USUAL LIMITS OF VARIATION ESTIMATED AVERAGE CONVENIENT APPROXIMATION Per cent Per cent Per cent Fat .... 3.0-6.0 4.00 4.0 Protein . 3.0-4.0 3-33 3-3- Carbohydrate . 4.6-5.0 4.85 5.0. Ash .... 0.70-0.78 0.72 0.7 Solids-not-fat . 8-5-9-5 8.90 9.0 It will be noted that the fat is much the most variable con- stituent and that the protein varies about one third as much as the fat. In general the variations in the protein content are in the same direction as the fat. Thus genuine milk with 3 per cent fat averages about 3 per cent protein ; with 4 per cent fat about 3.33 per cent protein ; with 5 per cent fat about 3.66 per cent protein ; with 6 per cent fat about 4 per cent protein. Such differences in fat and protein content are usually accompanied by very little variation in the percentages of milk sugar and ash. Another way of expressing the relationship of the constituents is that the proteins usually constitute about one fourth of the total solids, the remainder of the fluctuations in total solids being almost entirely due to the fat. 1 Such statements as the above express average relationships. It is not to be expected that they will hold true for every sample. Marked departure from these relationships is, however, an occa- sion for suspicion when observed in market milk, because such milk is nearly always the mixed product of an entire herd (often of several herds) and is therefore not normally subject to such fluctuations in composition as is the milk of individual cows. Another fact worthy of note is that very rarely if ever are minimum or maximum percentages of all constituents found in any one sample of genuine milk. For this reason the figures 1 For further data see Methods of Organic Analysis, Revised Edition, pages 340- 352. 62 FOOD PRODUCTS for usual limits of variation in solids-not-fat in the above table do not exactly coincide with the summation of the corresponding data for proteins, carbohydrate, and ash. In many cases it is convenient to consider the solids of milk simply in terms of fat and of solids-not-fat. In fact this is usually considered sufficient in the formulation of legal standards of composition, as will be seen below. Adulteration and Inspection Milk may be deliberately adulterated or it may become an adulterated product (within the present meaning of the term) through contamination or deterioration. The principal forms of deliberate adulteration to which milk is subjected are watering, skimming, the addition of preserva- tives, and attempts to conceal inferiority by the use of artificial color or thickening agents, and by the addition of sodium bi- carbonate to disguise the fact that the milk has begun to sour. In most localities all these practices are made illegal either by specific prohibition or by some general provision that milk to which anything has been added or from which anything has been abstracted shall be deemed adulterated. Watering is of course the simplest form of adulteration and is objectionable both as a fraud and as a source of contamina- tion. A large part of the contamination of milk comes from the use of impure water in washing utensils, etc., and if such water is added to the milk in any quantity, the contamination will of course be much more serious. In most localities the watering of milk is much less common now than formerly. Skimming, by which is meant either the removal of a part of the cream or the addition of skimmed or partially skimmed milk, is probably more common than watering. As the same farmer often sells both milk and cream, the temptation to remove a part of the cream before selling the milk (especially if the milk originally contains considerably more fat than the law requires) MILK 63 is obvious. The fact that some state standards require a high content of solids-not-fat and a relatively low fat content con- stitutes an incentive to partial skimming. Artificial color is occasionally added to restore the yellow tint of milk which has been partially skimmed or to make a milk which is naturally of poor quality appear richer than it is. Addition of preservatives is not as common now as formerly, at least in cities having systematic milk inspection. The preservatives chiefly used are formaldehyde and boric acid or borax. At present these preservatives appear to be less com- monly sold by dairy supply houses, and their use is largely re- stricted to small towns having no milk inspection and to hotels and restaurants which may add preservatives to their milk after purchase in order to diminish the necessity for strict refrigeration and the chances of souring when kept on hand to meet an uncer- tain demand. An investigation in Chicago showed a much larger proportion of cases of added preservatives in the samples of milk from hotels and restaurants than in the samples taken from milk dealers. Contaminated or deteriorated milk can be treated as adulter- ated under that clause of the Food and Drugs Act which declares a food to be adulterated, if it consists in whole or in part of " a filthy decomposed or putrid animal or vegetable substance." As will be evident from the section which follows, the sanitary quality as well as the chemical composition of milk is now re- garded as a proper matter for standardization. The conduct of inspection. Practices differ greatly in regard to milk inspection. Municipal authorities usually have wide discretion in the matter, under their general " police powers," and city ordinances often go much farther than state legislation in attempts to control the milk supply. City boards of health often have inspectors in the country to visit farms and receiving stations as well as in the city to inspect the milk as it comes to market and as it is offered for sale. FOOD PRODUCTS The sanitary conditions of production and handling reported by the country inspectors may be made the basis of renewal or revocation of the per- mit to sell milk in the city or of the classi- fication or designation under which it may be sold. The city in- spectors seek to detect or prevent unsanitary practices in the city and the sale of milk which has been skimmed or watered or is other- wise adulterated or de- teriorated. Thermometer and lactometer tests. As preliminary tests the city milk inspector often takes the temperature of the milk and its read- ing on the lactometer, which is merely a hy- drometer so constructed as to cover a sufficient range in density to in- clude all qualities of milk. Milk showing too high a temperature is sometimes destroyed FIG. 3. Lactometer scales: A, hydrometer; forthwith. In other B, New York City Board of Health lactometer ; fc i , i temDera _ C, Quevenne lactometer. (From Wing's Milk { 1.000 10- 1.005- - 20- ; 1.010 80 40- ^ 1.016 60- 80- 19- - 1,020- 70- E 20- - 1.025- 80- 25- ~ 90 - ~ 100 3 - 1.030 i 30- 110- - - 1.035 .120- S- - 40- - v A e c and its Products.) ture is construed simply MILK 65 as requiring a laboratory examination for bacteria. A low lactometer reading is not sufficient in itself to condemn milk, but aids the inspector to judge whether further examination is necessary. The lactometer may be graduated to read specific gravity or on an arbitrary scale. The New York Board of Health lac- tometer has an arbitrary scale of which the zero point coincides with a specific gravity of i.ooo and the 100 point with a specific gravity of 1.029. Figure 3 shows the different lactometer scales side by side. Whole milk normally has a specific gravity of 1.029 to 1.035 > usually 1.030 to 1.033, anc l should therefore read more than 100 on the New York Board of Health lactometer. The specific gravity or lactometer reading of milk is lowered either by addition of water or addition of cream; but milk which is naturally rich in fat, being usually rich in protein also, ordinarily has a higher specific gravity or lactometer reading than the average. If in addition to the lactometer reading the viscosity and opacity of the milk be observed by carefully watch- ing the lactometer bulb on lifting it out of the milk, it is possible for an experienced inspector to form a fairly reliable impression as to whether the milk is open to suspicion and should be sampled for laboratory analysis. Chemical analysis when made for purposes of inspection consists usually in determining the percentages of fat and of total solids or solids-not-fat and testing for preservatives. (See Methods of Organic Analysis, Revised Edition, Chapters XVII and XVIII.) The sediment test consists usually in straining a pint of the milk through a cotton disk one inch in diameter and then noting the appearance of the disk, which may be pure white, light gray, or brown, according to the cleanness of the milk. The disks can easily be dried and mailed to the farmer or milk dealer concerned, and their significance may be appreciated without a 66 FOOD PRODUCTS knowledge of chemistry or bacteriology. This test is fully described and illustrated in Circular of Information 41, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. The bacteria test consists in mixing a known small volume of the milk (previously diluted with sterilized water if necessary) with a nutrient medium in a flat-bottomed glass dish (Petri plate), keeping covered at a favorable temperature for one or two days, and then counting the number of colonies as an indi- cation of the number of bacteria originally present. These methods are fully described in text books of bacteriology, and in a special bulletin of the American Public Health Association. Standards of Purity Since skimming and watering are the two chief forms of adul- teration which directly affect the composition and food value of milk, any specific standard of composition should set a mini- mum limit for fat to guard against skimming and a minimum limit for solids-not-fat to guard against watering. The National law sets no such specific standards but in the administration of the law the following standard proclaimed by the Department of Agriculture on recommendation of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists is commonly followed : Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten days after calving, and contains not less than 8.5 per cent of solids-not-fat and not less than 3.25 per cent of milk fat. Most of the state laws definitely prescribe that all milk offered for sale shall contain not less than certain percentages of fat and of total solids or solids-not-fat. The principal state standards are shown in Table 3 : MILK TABLE 3. STATE STANDARDS FOR MILK STATE FAT SOLIDS- NOT-FAT TOTAL SOLIDS Per cent 1 2? Per cent 8 ? Per cent California 3.O 8.c ii ? 1 O Connecticut 3.2? 8 117? District of Columbia 3.? Q O 12 ? Florida 2.21; g.c 117? Georgia 2.21; 8 c IT 7? Hawaii 2.O 8 c II ? Idaho 3.2 80 112 Illinois 3.O 8.c II ? 1 2? 8 ? 3 O Kansas 3.2? 8 c 117? 3 2? 8 ? 1 ? 8 c. Maine 3.2? 8.c 117? 1 ? Michigan . 1 O 12? Missouri 3 25 8 7? I 2 O Montana 3 2? 8 ? II 7? TT C New York IT C Nevada . 3 2? 8 ? II 7? North Carolina 2.2? 8 < II 7? North Dakota 3.O O O I2.O Ohio 3.O 12. Oklahoma . 32? 8 ? 32S Porto Rico 3 O Q O I2.O Rhode Island 2 ? South Dakota 3 ? 8 e; Tennessee 1 8 <; 68 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 3. STATE STANDARDS FOR MILK Continued STATE FAT SOLIDS- NOT-FAT TOTAL SOLIDS Utah Per cent 3 2 Per cent o o Per cent 12 O Vermont 92C T 2 C * Virginia 2.2C 8.-; II 7^ Washington 2.2? 8.7* I2.O Wisconsin 8 ? Wyoming 8 <: Texas 1 2? 8 1 1 During May and June, 12.0 per cent. It will be seen that there is considerable diversity of standards among the states. Since the fat content of milk is so variable some difference of opinion as to the proper legal minimum of fat is readily understood, but there is no justification in the natural composition of milk for setting a low standard for fat and at the same time a high standard for solids-not-fat, or total solids as is still done in several states. The explanation for such disproportionate standards is to be found in the fact that methods of milk analysis formerly used tended to underestimate the fat and overestimate the other solids. The Commission on Milk Standards appointed with a view to securing uniformity of requirements among the different states and cities of the United States has recommended the general adoption of the standard calling for not less than 3.25 per cent of milk fat and not less than 8.5 per cent of milk solids-not-fat as proposed by the Association of Official Agricul- tural Chemists. The Commission also recommended the adoption by communi- ties of regulations providing for the sale of milk on a basis of guaranteed composition. The advantage of such a system is apparent from the fact that any single legal minimum must MILK 69 necessarily be set considerably below the average in order to provide for natural variations in composition. Average milk and milk considerably below the average are thus equally legal, though of a very different value. It would obviously be fairer both to producer and to consumer if all milk could be sold on the basis of its true value. In addition to standards of chemical composition several com- munities have adopted sanitary or bacteriological standards. Thus milk which contains visible dirt or more than a certain number of bacteria may be forbidden sale, or (as in the case of New York City) a maximum temperature may be prescribed on the ground that in warm milk bacteria multiply so rapidly as to make it a " decomposed substance " if not an actual menace to health. In the past such sanitary and bacteriological stand- ards as have existed have varied much with the locality and have generally been regarded as more or less tentative. The Commission on Milk Standards devoted special atten- tion to the matter of sanitary and bacteriological standards and recommended the following classification of milk in which the definition of each class includes a statement of the maximum number of bacteria to be permitted and of the sanitary precau- tions to be prescribed. Classification recommended by Commission on Milk Standards GRADE A Raw milk. Milk of this class shall come from cows free from disease as determined by tuberculin tests and physical examinations by a qualified veterinarian, and shall be produced and handled by employees free from disease as determined by medical inspection of a qualified physician, under sanitary conditions such that the bacteria count shall not exceed 100,000 per cubic centimeter at the time of delivery to the consumer. It is recom- mended that dairies from which this supply is obtained shall score at least 80 on the United States Bureau of Animal Industry score card. Pasteurized milk. Milk of this class shall come from cows free from disease as determined by physical examinations by a qualified veterinarian and shall 70 FOOD PRODUCTS be produced and handled under sanitary conditions such that the bacteria count at no time exceeds 200,000 per cubic centimeter. All milk of this class shall be pasteurized under official supervision, and the bacteria count shall not exceed 10,000 per cubic centimeter at the time of delivery to the consumer. It is recommended that dairies from which this supply is ob- tained should score 65 on the United States Bureau of Animal Industry score card. (Note. The above represents only the minimum standards under which milk may be classified in grade A. The commission recognizes, however, that there are grades of milk which are produced under unusually good conditions, in especially sanitary dairies, many of which are operated under the supervision of medical associations. Such milks clearly stand at the head of this grade.) GRADE B Milk of this class shall come from cows free from disease as determined by physical examinations, of which one each year shall be by a qualified veteri- narian, and shall be produced and handled under sanitary conditions such that the bacteria count at no time exceeds 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. All milk of this class shall be pasteurized under official supervision, and the bacteria count shall not exceed 50,000 per cubic centimeter when delivered to the consumer. It is recommended that dairies producing grade B milk should be scored and that the health departments or the controlling departments, whatever they may be, strive to bring these scores up as rapidly as possible. GRADE C Milk of this class shall come from cows free from disease as determined by physical examinations and shall include all milk that is produced under conditions such that the bacteria count is in excess of 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter. All milk of this class shall be pasteurized, or heated to a higher temperature, and shall contain less than 50,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when de- livered to the customer. It is recommended that this milk be used for cook- ing or manufacturing purposes only. Whenever any large city or community finds it necessary, on account of the length of haul or other peculiar conditions, to allow the sale of grade C milk, its sale shall be surrounded by safeguards such as to insure the re- striction of its use to cooking and manufacturing purposes. MILK 71 The above recommendations have been indorsed by the American Public Health Association, the American Medical Association, and the Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America. Detailed Composition The fat of milk is characterized both by its emulsified form and by containing 5 to 7 per cent of butyrin which when split yields butyric acid, the volatile acid to which the odor of rancid butter is largely due. Smaller quantities of other volatile acids are also present in combination as fats. While these acids are vola- tile when free, the compounds (glycerides) in which they occur in milk and sound butter are not volatile. Of the three substances of which most edible fats are chiefly composed palmatin, stearin, and olein the amount of palmatin in milk fat is fairly large ; of stearin very small ; of olein there is less than in most edible fats. The chemical composition of the fat is more fully considered under butter in Chapter X. The proteins of milk. From three fourths to four fifths of the nitrogenous matter of milk consists of caseinogen (casein, calcium- casein), while most of the remainder is in the form of lactalbumin. Casein or caseinogen is the best known of the phosphoproteins. The chemical relationship between the caseinogen (or calcium- casein, or milk-casein) of normal milk and the casein of curd as obtained by acidulating the milk is not entirely clear. Studies of the composition of this protein have been made upon material purified by repeated precipitation. Its elementary composition is about as follows: carbon, 53.1 per cent; hydrogen, 7.0 per cent; oxygen, 22.5 per cent; nitrogen, 15.8 per cent; sulphur, 0.8 per cent; phosphorus, 0.8 per cent. The amounts of amino acids which have been obtained from it by hydrolysis are shown in Table 4. FOOD PRODUCTS Lactalbumin being present in milk in so much smaller quantity than caseinogen has not been so extensively studied. Its prod- ucts of hydrolysis thus far determined are shown in Table 4. It will be seen that some of the amino acids probably present have not yet been determined ; it is also probable that further study will show larger quantities of many of those amino acids for which figures have been reported. TABLE 4. PERCENTAGES OF AMINO ACIDS FROM MILK PROTEINS ' AMINO Aero CASEIN LACTALBUMIN Glycin o.o Alanin 1.5 Valin 7.2 Leucin 10.5 Prolin 6.7 Aspartic acid 1.4 Glutamic acid iS-55 Phenylalanin 3.2 Tyrosin 6.5 Serin 0.5 Oxyprolin 0.23 Histidin . . 2.5 Arginin 4.8 Lysin 7.6 Tryptophan 1.5 Cystin o.i Ammonia 1.6 o.o 2-5 0.9 19.4 4.0 i.o IO.I 2.4 4-9 8.1 By comparison with the corresponding data given in later chapters it will be seen that the yields of several of the more complex amino acids such as tryptophan, tyrosin, and lysin are distinctly higher from the milk proteins than from food pro- teins in general ; while the amino acids lacking or present only in small quantity in milk proteins are those of which the body 1 In general the highest yield of each amino acid is given since it is known that the methods used tend to give results below the truth. MILK 73 may readily derive abundant supplies from other sources. (See also the sections on nutritive value and place in the diet in this and succeeding chapters.) The ash constituents of milk include all of the so-called inor- ganic elements necessary to the normal nutrition of man. Some of these exist in the milk as salts, some as constituents of the organic matter, some in both forms. Sulphur, of which milk contains about 0.03 per cent, exists almost entirely as a constituent of the milk proteins. Phosphorus constitutes about o.io per cent of the fresh weight of milk (equivalent to 0.23 per cent phosphoric acid) and is present in at least four forms. About 65 per cent of the phos- phorus of milk is in the form of phosphate in the sense that it is precipitable by phosphate reagents, but to what extent this is free phosphate and to what extent loosely combined with organic matter has not been determined; about 25 per cent exists as an essential organic constituent of the casein (the latter containing 0.8 to 0.9 per cent of phosphorus after having been purified by dissolving and reprecipitating until ash-free) ; about 3 per cent is in the form of lecithin ; and about 7 per cent is in the form of organic compounds of other types (including the so-called " nucleon " of Siegfeld). Chlorine exists in milk in the form of sodium chloride, possibly in part also as potassium chloride. The base- forming elements, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, are present in milk in slightly greater amounts than would be necessary to neutralize the acids obtainable from the sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine present, and in distinct excess over what would be required to combine with the ready-formed acid radicles. This excess of base is combined in part with the casein and in part with citric acid, a small quantity of which is a normal constituent of milk and is counted with the carbohy- drates in the usual proximate analysis. The percentages of these elements, calculated as oxides, in average cows' milk are 74 FOOD PRODUCTS as follows: calcium oxide, 0.168 per cent; magnesium oxide, 0.019 per cent ; potassium oxide, 0.171 per cent ; sodium oxide, 0.068 per cent. Noticeable here are the high calcium content as compared with other foods and the richness of milk in calcium and potas- sium as compared with magnesium and sodium. In these re- spects the composition of milk ash resembles that of the ash of the animal body. The iron of milk is small in amount (0.00024 P er cent) but of high food value. It will be considered in the section on the nutritive value of milk and the place of milk in the diet. Milk sugar and minor constituents. Milk sugar (lactose) is the only known carbohydrate of milk. The small amount of citric acid already mentioned as occurring in milk is usually counted with the milk sugar as carbohydrate. Summary of constituents. The following tabular summary (p. 75) is added in order that the constituents already men- tioned may not be understood to be the only substances which milk contains. Readers who wish further information regarding substances which can be merely mentioned here are referred to the books and journal articles listed at the end of the chapter. Nutritive Value and Place in the Diet Average milk with 4 per cent fat furnishes about 314 Calories per pound or 675 Calories per quart. Milk naturally so poor as to contain only 3 per cent fat would furnish 268 Calories per pound ; natural milk with 5 per cent fat would furnish 360, and that with 6 per cent fat, 407 Calories per pound. In any of these cases from 18 to 20 per cent of the Calories would be fur- nished by protein. The quantitative relations between protein content and fat content or fuel value are readily altered by separating the " top milk " or cream from the " skim milk." Milk skimmed so as MILK 75 CONSTITUENTS OF MILK Glycerides of volatile acids Glycerides of non-volatile acids Proteins Caseinogen Lactalbumin Lactoglobulin Fibrinogen Ami no acids Vitamines Enzymes Fats Butyrin Caproin Caprylin Caprin Laurin Myristin Palmitin Stearin Olein I Lipoids (fatlike substances) Lecithin Cholesterin Probably other lipoids Care tin (lipochrome) . Milk Sugar Citric acid Ash Constituents Sulphur Phosphorus (calc. as P 2 O 5 ) Chlorine Sodium (calc. as Na 2 O) Potassium (calc. as KjO) Calcium (calc. as CaO) Magnesium (calc. as MgO) Iron [odine Water Per cent 3-3 4.0 4.8 o.l 0.7 87.1 76 FOOD PRODUCTS to contain only i per cent fat would yield about 200 Calories per pound and protein would furnish approximately one third of the Calories ; while a thin cream obtained from the same milk and containing 10 per cent fat would yield about 550 Cal- ories per pound, of which only one tenth of the Calories would be furnished by protein. Even from the standpoint of gross proximate composition and fuel value, milk is a fairly economical food, especially when compared with other foods of animal origin, a quart of milk being approximately equivalent to a pound of steak ' or to eight or nine eggs. Such a comparison, however, fails to do justice to the true nutritive value of milk, which is largely due to the peculiar nature of its constituents. The carbohydrate of milk (lactose) is already in solution and like other sugars does not require the action of the salivary or pancreatic juice, but only of the intestinal juice, for its diges- tion. It has the advantage over sucrose and glucose of being less susceptible to fermentation and less liable to irritate the stomach. The fat of milk is already emulsified and so is more readily available to the body than the fats of other common foods except eggs. The fact that milk fat is fluid at body temperature also aids its digestibility. Whether the presence of glycerides of the volatile acids is of any special advantage aside from flavor is not clear. The proteins of milk are of high nutritive value. When 1 That the standard tables of analyses give an exaggerated impression of the fuel value of meats, especially beef, is explained in Chapter VI preceding Table 12. In that table it will be seen that sirloin steak as purchased is given a fuel value of 960 Calories per pound, but this includes all the fat originally belonging with the cut, and two thirds of the Calories come from the fat. If, as is often the case, the butcher and consumer remove one half or more of the fat originally present, then the steak as actually eaten furnishes not over 640 Calories for each pound of material purchased. MILK 77 milk is taken under normal conditions (even in relatively large quantity and in connection with only a small amount of bread or other solid food), about 97 to 98 per cent of the milk protein is digested and absorbed. Numerous recent digestion and me- tabolism experiments indicate that under normal conditions it is as completely digested and absorbed as any of the food pro- teins, and has the advantage of not containing the substances which yield uric acid in the body, nor being readily susceptible to intestinal putrefaction. Not only do the milk proteins show a high coefficient of diges- tibility, but metabolism experiments and clinical observations show that milk furnishes a form of protein food particularly adapted to bring about a storage of protein in the body. This may be due in part to the fact that casein contains phosphorus as an essential constituent, since Rosemann has shown that storage of both nitrogen and phosphorus is more readily ob- tained with a diet of phosphoproteins than with mixtures of simple proteins and inorganic phosphates, but it is doubtless more largely due to the amino-acids content of the milk proteins. If the data on page 72 be compared with the corresponding data for proteins of other foods as given in later chapters, (Tables 9, 18, 26, 38, 41, 44), it will be seen that the milk pro- teins are relatively rich in the amino-acid radicles of more com- plex structure, which apparently are not readily formed in the body, and especially tryptophan and lysin, which are known to play an especially important part in nutrition and growth. The ash constituents of milk are important not only for their property of being adequate in the absence of all other ash constituents, as in the experiments just cited, but also in their bearing upon the adequacy of the phosphorus, calcium, and iron supply in a mixed diet. Phosphorus compounds are present in milk in relative abun- dance and in a variety of forms, as was shown in the discussion of the chemical composition of milk (page 73). 78 FOOD PRODUCTS Calcium is present in still greater relative abundance. Milk contains slightly more calcium, volume for volume, than does limewater. As a rule the calcium content of the diet depends mainly upon the amount of milk consumed. In family dietaries where ordinary quantities of milk are used, the milk is apt to furnish about two thirds of the total calcium of the diet. With- out milk it is unlikely that the diet will be as rich in calcium as is desirable either for the child or for the adult. Iron is present in milk in only small quantity, but evidently in a form exceptionally favorable for assimilation. Notwith- standing the low iron content, a diet of milk and white bread appears to be adequate for the maintenance of iron equilibrium in man, whereas white bread alone in larger quantity or a diet of bread and iron-free protein is much less efficient. So far as our present knowledge indicates, this favorable influ- ence of milk upon the iron metabolism in spite of the small amount of iron which it contains would seem to be due in part to the particular organic form of combination in which the iron is present and in part to the fact that it is associated with a large amount of calcium which in some way appears to be favorable to the economy of iron in the organism. 1 Recent research makes it plain that milk contains substances other than the known proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts which perform important nutritive functions especially in rela- tion to growth. Osborne and Mendel in their feeding experi- ments with isolated foodstuffs found that when the fats and proteins are removed from milk the residue is more efficient in nutrition than is a mixture of milk sugar and salts. Still more recently it has been found both by McCullom and Davis and by Osborne and Mendel that milk (or butter) contains a fatlike (or fat-soluble) substance, whose presence or absence in an otherwise adequate diet determines the continuance or cessation 1 For discussion of the iron content of milk in relation to infant feeding sse Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chapter IX, pages 253-255. MILK 79 of growth in young animals. Hopkins showed that even small amounts of milk exert a very marked influence upon the growth of young animals kept on a diet of artificially " purified " food materials. Some of Hopkins' results are shown in the accom- panying cuts. Figure 4 shows the growth curves of rats with and without a small <70 10 so amount of milk when the rest of the diet was of artificially puri- fied food. Figure 5 shows the results of a similar experiment in which on the i8th day the milk was transferred from one set of rats to the other. Note in both cases the failure of growth on the diet of artificially purified foodstuffs alone and the rapid growth when a small amount of milk was fed. Taking into con- sideration the many and important factors which increase the value of milk as food, above that indicated by its mere proximate composition and fuel value, and also the fact that it requires no preparation and has no waste, it is be- lieved to be true economy to make liberal use of milk in the diet so long as the milk does not cost more than twice as much in 30 20 FIG. 4. Growth curves of rats. Lower curve six rats on artificial diet alone. Upper curve six similar rats receiving in addition 2 cc. of milk each per day. Abscissae time in days ; ordi- nates average weight in grams. (Courtesy of Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins.) 8o FOOD PRODUCTS proportion to the energy it furnishes as the average of the food eaten. On this basis families who must live on as little as 1 6 to 20 cents per person per day for food may wisely use reasonable quantities of milk at 8 to 10 cents per quart, balancing this by a larger use of such food as bread, which furnishes energy much FIG. 5. Growth curves of rats. Lower curve (up to i8th day) represents rats on purified food ; upper curve similar rats having 3 cc. milk each per day in addition to this food. On the i8th day, marked by the vertical dotted line, the milk was transferred from one set to the other. Abscissae time in days ; ordinates average weight in grams. (Courtesy of Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins.) more cheaply than the average food of the diet. Those who are able to spend 30 to 40 cents per person per day for food are practicing true economy when they buy and use liberally the best milk obtainable even at a price of 15 to 20 cents per quart. MILK 8 1 Especially in the feeding of children should milk be used freely, because of its many advantages as a " tissue-building'" and " growth-promoting " food. " A quart of milk a day for every child " is a good rule easy to remember. In no other way can the food habits how prevailing, especially in the cities, be so certainly and economically improved as by a more liberal use of good milk. REFERENCES 1 BUCHANAN. Household Bacteriology. CONN. Bacteria in Milk and its Products. ECKLES. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. FARRINGTON and WOLL. Testing Milk and its Products. LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. RICHMOND. Dairy Chemistry. ROSENAU. Milk in Its Relation to the Public Health. United States Public Health Service, Hygienic Laboratory, Bulletin 56. ROSENAU. The Milk Question. ROTHSCHILD. Bibliographia Lactaria. SAVAGE. Milk and the Public Health. SHERMAN. Methods of Organic Analysis. SOMMERPELD. Handbuch der Milchkunde. STOHMANN. Milch und Molkerei-produkte. SWITHINBANK and NEUMANN. Bacteriology of Milk. VAN SLYKE. Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products. WING. Milk and its Products. II ALVORD. Breeds of Dairy Cattle, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, i5th Annual Report, pages 137-200 (1899). PEARSON. Market Milk : A Plan for its Improvement. United States De- partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Reprint from i7th Annual Report (1901). 1 The first group (I) contains books (and a few of the more comprehensive bulletins) arranged alphabetically by authors. The second group (II) contains con- tributions to scientific journals and other periodicals, reports, bulletins, etc., ar- ranged chronologically. Similar lists will be found at the end of each of the chapters which follow. G 82 FOOD PRODUCTS ALVORD. Statistics of the Dairy. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 55 (1903). SHERMAN. On the Composition of Cows' Milk. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 25, pages 132-142 (1903). CONN and ESTEN. The Effect of Different Temperatures in Determining the Species of Bacteria which Grow in Milk. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station, pages 27-88 (1904). JORDAN. Analyses of Chicago Market Milk A Report by the Health and Sanitation Committee of the Civic Federation of Chicago, July, 1904. MARSHALL and WRIGHT. The Care and Handling of Milk. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 221, 2 parts (1905). PENNINGTON and MCCLINTOCH. A Preliminary Report on the Pasteurized and Clean Milk of Philadelphia. American Journal of the Medical Sciences, Vol. 130, pages 140-150 (1905). FREAR. American Milk and Milk Standards. Proceedings of the Associa- tion of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, loth Annual Convention, pages 172-194 (1906). PEARSON. Facts about Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 42 (1906). SHERMAN. Seasonal Variations in the Composition of Cows' Milk. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 28, pages 1719-1723 (1906). Sanitary Milk Production. Report of a Conference appointed by the Commissioners of the District of Columbia. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 114 (1907). COIT. The Origin, General Plan, and Scope of the Medical Milk Commis- sion. Proceedings of the American Association of Medical Milk Com- missions, Vol. i, pages 10-17 (1908). HAECKER. Investigation in Milk Production. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 106, pages 147-169 (1908). KASTLE. On the Available Alkali in the Ash of Human and Cows' Milk and its Relation to Infant Nutrition. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 22, pages 284-308 (1908). PENNINGTON. Bacterial Growth and Chemical Changes in Milk kept at Low Temperatures. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 353-393 (1908). VAN SLYKE. Conditions affecting the Proportions of Fat and Proteins in Cows' Milk. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30, pages 1166-1186 (1908). MILK 83 COLWELL and SHERMAN. Chemical Evidence of Peptonization in Raw and Pasteurized Milk. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 247- 251 (1909). American Public Health Association. Standard Methods for the Bacterial Examination of Milk. American Journal of Public Hygiene, August, 1910. Also available in reprint form. HARDING, WILSON, and SMITH. The Modern Milk Pail. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 326 (1910). KERR. The History, Development, and Statistics of Milk Charities in the United States. United States Public Health Service, Public Health Reports, Vol. 25, pages 1451-1467 (1910). LANE and PARKS. Improved Methods for the Production of Market Milk by Ordinary Dairies. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 158 (1910). Proceedings, Conference on Milk Problems held in New York City, December, 1910. Published by the New York Milk Committee (1910-1911). AYERS and JOHNSON. Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Raw Market Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 126 (1911). ECKLES and REED. Causes of Variation in Milk Production by Dairy Cows. Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 2 (1911). FINGERLING. Influence of Food Poor in Calcium and Phosphorus upon Milk Production. Landwirtschaftliches Versuchs-Stationen, Vol. 75, pages 1-152 (1911). HARDING. Publicity and Payment based on Quality as Factors in improv- ing a City Milk Supply. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 337 (1911). KOEHLER and TONNEY. The Control of Pasteurization. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 56, pages 713-718 (1911). LINDSEY. Influence of Protein Feeding on Milk Production. Massachu- setts Agricultural Experiment Station, Report 23, Part 3, pages 86-121 (1911). LUXWOLDA. Growth and Action of Certain Milk Bacteria at Different Temperatures. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie und Parasitenkunde, II Abth., Vol. 31, pages 129-175 (1911). MILNER. The Use of Milk as Food. United States Department of Agri- culture, Farmers' Bulletin 363 (1911). New York Milk Committee. Completion of a Successful Practical Experi- ment in Milk Production. 5th Annual Report, pages 25-30 (1911). NORTH. Pasteurization of Milk in the Bottle on a Commercial Scale. Medical Record, July 15, 1911. 84 FOOD PRODUCTS SCHOLBERG and WALLIS. Chemical Changes produced in Milk by Bacteria and Their Relation to the Epidemic Diarrhoea of Infants. Local Governments Board's Medical Officers' Report, 1911, pages 504-543 (1911). WHITAKER. The Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 170 (1911). AYERS. The Pasteurization of Milk. United States Department of Agri- culture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 184 (1912). HOPKINS. Influence of Accessory Constituents of Diet upon Growth. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 44, pages 425-460 (1912). JORDAN. The Case for Pasteurization. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 59, pages 1450-1457 (1912). New York Milk Committee. Infant Mortality and Milk Stations, Special Report (1912). Report of the Commission on Milk Standards. United States Public Health Service, Public Health Reports, Reprint No. 78 (1912). ROGERS. Bacteria in Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 490 (1912). ROGERS and DAVIS. Methods of Classifying the Lactic Acid Bacteria. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 154 (1912). ROGERS. Directions for the Home Pasteurization of Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 197 (1912). SCHORER. Experimental Studies on Milk, with Especial Reference to the Uniformity of Different Grades of Milk and the Effects of Storage upon Certified, Inspected, and Pasteurized Milks. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. n, pages 295-337 (1912). AYERS and JOHNSON. A Study of the Bacteria which Survive Pasteuriza- tion. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 161 (1913). ECKLES and SHAW. Influence of Breed and Individuality and the Stage of Lactation, upon the Composition and Properties of Milk. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulle- tins 155, 156, 157 (1913). HOPKINS and NEVILLE. Note concerning the Influence of Diets upon Growth. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 7, pages 97-99 (1913)- FUNK. An Attempt to Estimate the Vitamine-Fraction in Milk. Bio- chemical Journal, Vol. 7, pages 211-213 (1913). LYTHGOE. Quality of the Massachusetts Milk Supply as shown by the In- MILK 85 spection of the State Board of Health. Journal of Industrial and En- gineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 922-927 (1913). SCHRYVER. On the Clotting of Milk. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B, Vol. 86, pages 460-481 (1913). United States Public Health Service. Second Report of Commission on Milk Standards. Public Health Reports, Vol. 38, pages 1733-1756 (AugUSt 22, 1913). WING. Milking Machines : Their Sterilization and their Efficiency in Producing Clean Milk. Cornell Experiment Station, Circular 18, pages 65-74 (1913). BOWEN. The Cost of Pasteurizing Milk and Cream. United States De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 85 (1914). KUDLICH and SACHS. Biological Reactions of Raw and Cooked Milk. Zeitschrift fur Immunitatsforschung und experimentelle Therapie, Vol. 20, pages 317-335 (iQH)- PALMER and ECKLES. Carotin, the Principal Natural Yellow Pigment of Milk Fat. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 17, pages 191-250 (1914). PALMER and COOLIDGE. Lactochrome, the Yellow Pigment of Milk Whey. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 17, pages 251-264 (1914). SCHROEDER. Dirt Sediment Testing A Factor in Obtaining Clean Milk. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 4, pages 50-64 (1914). TILLMANNS, SPLITTGERBER and RIFFERT. Determination and Significance of the Ammonia Content of Milk. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs und Genussmittel, Vol. 27, pages 59-76 (1914). CHAPTER IV CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS Cheese CHEESE was probably the first product manufactured from milk and the first form in which milk was preserved for future use. It has for centuries been an important article of diet in many countries, and is made in a great variety of forms. A recent compilation by Doane and Lawson describes no less than 350 varieties of cheese. Until the middle of the last century the making of cheese was a household or farm industry. The first cheese factory was started by Jesse Williams, a farmer of Oneida County, New York, who, finding that his cheese sold readily at more than the average price, began in 1851 to buy the milk of his neighbors and manufacture cheese from it as well as from the milk pro- duced on his own farm. Within fifteen years his example had been followed to such an extent that there were about five hundred cheese factories in New York State alone. It is estimated that in 1850 there was made in the United States about 100,000,000 pounds of cheese, all of it on farms or in the household ; in 1900, about 300,000,000 pounds, of which 96 to 97 per cent was made in factories. The census of manufactures of 1909 (which of course would not include the cheese made on farms) estimates the production for the United States at about 311,000,000 pounds worth at wholesale at the factory $43,000,000. The amount of cheese 86 CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 87 88 FOOD PRODUCTS imported exceeded that exported by about 29,000,000 pounds. The cheese consumption in this country was therefore about 3^ to 4 pounds per person per year, a low figure in comparison with the amounts of meat and butter consumed. During the past few years the United States Department of Agriculture has given considerable attention to the cheese industry and to the use of cheese as a food, and it is probable that this will result in a larger per capita consumption of cheese for the country as a whole. Cheese is roughly divided into two main types: the hard cheeses such as Cheddar, Edam, Emfnental (or Swiss), Par- mesan and Roquefort; and the soft cheeses such as Brie, Camembert, Gorgonzola, Limburg, Neufchatel, and Stilton. Much the largest part of the cheese made in this country is of the type of the Cheddar cheese and is therefore properly known as American Cheddar cheese, although frequently called simply " American cheese " or, in the trade, " standard factory cheese." In addition to this standard type of cheese smaller quantities of other types are made. Some New York factories make cheeses of the Brie, Camembert, and Neufchatel types, while cheeses of the Swiss and of the Limburg types are made in Wisconsin. The principal importations of cheese into the United States are of Parmesan and Gorgonzola cheese from Italy ; Emmental cheese from Switzerland; Roquefort, Camembert, and Brie, from France; and Edam cheese from Holland. Many other varieties are imported in small amounts. Since these cheeses are imported largely as delicacies, they are more costly than standard American cheese. The chief cheese-producing states are New York and Wiscon- sin, the main cheesemaking centers very nearly coinciding with the regions having greatest numbers of dairy cows as shown on the accompanying map (Fig. 6). CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 89 Manufacture of American Cheddar Cheese This process is divided into several fairly distinct steps as follows : (i) inspection of milk, (2) ripening of milk, (3) addition of color when color is used, (4) coagulating the milk, (5) cut- ting the curd, (6) stirring and heating the curd, (7) removing whey, (8) cheddaring the curd, (9) milling the curd, (10) salting and pressing the curd, (u) ripening or curing the cheese. Inspection of milk. Each can of milk received for cheesemak- ing should be examined for acidity, dirt, and abnormal flavors (odor or taste). Sometimes a rapid examination by the senses of sight and smell is deemed sufficient; sometimes a roughly quantitative determination of the acidity is made. When the cheesemaker is troubled with abnormal fermentation or defec- tive curd, it may be necessary for him to make a test of each farmer's milk to determine the nature of the fermentation which it shows and of the curd which it yields, in order that the par- ticular milk which is responsible for the trouble may be located and excluded. Ripening of milk. This consists in keeping the milk at about 86 F. (30 C.) until the desired amount of lactic acid has formed. " Starters," consisting of commercial cultures of lactic acid bac- teria or of milk in active lactic acid fermentation, are sometimes added to facilitate the ripening process. The lactic acid is important in its influence on the operations of cheesemaking and its presence also tends to repress abnormal fermentations. The proper degree of ripeness is judged either by titrating for acidity or by testing a portion of the milk with rennet to see whether it coagulates as readily as is desired. Acidity equiva- lent to 0.20 per cent of lactic acid usually marks the completion of the ripening process. Addition of color. When coloring matter is used in cheese- making, it should be added to the ripened milk just before coagulating it with rennet. 90 FOOD PRODUCTS Coagulating the milk. Rennet is the most useful reagent for the precipitation of the curd, that prepared from the calves' stomachs being most highly prized for cheesemaking. Rennet is now prepared on a large scale and is purchased from the makers for use in the cheese industry. The quality of the rennet is very important, as an inferior grade gives a bad taste to the cheese. The amount of rennet to be added depends, of course, upon the strength of the preparation, but should be sufficient so that when mixed with the milk and kept at 84-86 F. the milk will be curdled in 15 to 20 minutes if it is to be used for a quick-curing cheese, and in 30 to 40 minutes for a slow-curing cheese. The rennet extracts commonly used are added in the proportion of from 2 to 5 ounces per 1000 pounds of milk. Be- fore adding, the extract should be diluted with 40 times its volume of water at a temperature of 85-90 F. so as to prevent the production of a lumpy curd. Previous to adding the rennet the milk is thoroughly stirred in order to distribute the fat evenly, and the rennet is added evenly and slowly with constant stirring, which is continued for several minutes. After this, the milk is stirred gently near the surface to prevent separation of cream. All stirring is stopped as soon as (or before) coagulation begins, and the milk is then left covered and undisturbed while the coag- ulation gradually continues until the whole mass forms one coherent curd and is ready for cutting. Cutting the curd. In order that the whey may be separated it is necessary that the curd be cut into pieces ; the smaller the pieces of curd, the more rapidly will the whey escape. As soon as the curd is formed it tends to contract and force out a portion of the whey. By cutting the curd the surface from which the whey can exude is increased and so the separation of the whey from the curd goes on much more rapidly. The time for cutting the curd is important and is determined by the skill and experi- ence of the cheesemaker. If the curd is cut when it is too soft, there may be a large loss of fat, with a resulting decrease in the CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 91 yield and quality of the cheese. If the curd is allowed to be- come too hard before cutting, the whey is removed with greater difficulty ; and if incompletely removed, a cheese of low quality results. The cutting is accomplished by drawing specially devised cutting knives through the mass of curd, both horizon- tally and vertically, so as to cut it into cubes of one quarter to one half inch size. Stirring and heating the curd. As soon as the curd is cut, the whey begins to separate, and the mass of cut curd is then kept in gentle motion by stirring, taking care to avoid breaking the cubes. This results in the separation of a clear whey, free from fat or small particles of curd. The curd contracts and hardens during this process and soon reaches a condition in which the surfaces do not readily adhere. During this process of separa- tion of the whey, the temperature is raised to about 90 F. and finally toward the last to about 98 F. Removing the whey. The precipitated curd is left in contact with the whey for some time, during which time there is some action of the acid of the whey upon the protein of the curd, which is allowed to continue until a small mass of the curd, which has been squeezed in the hand to remove the whey and then pressed against a bar of iron heated a little below redness, will leave adhering to the iron fine, silky threads, the length of which indi- cates roughly the extent to which the desired combination of acid and protein has taken place. Usually the curd is separated when the hot iron test shows strings about one eighth of an inch long ; but other tests are also used to aid in judging when the whey should be removed. The whey is run off gradually while the stirring of the curd is continued. Cheddaring the curd. Most of the whey having run off, the cubes of curd are left piled in the bottom of the vat until they mat or pack together, which process is technically known as " cheddaring." Sometimes the " cheddaring " is accomplished in a special apparatus called the " curd sink." When the ched- 92 FOOD PRODUCTS daring of the curd is complete, it is cut into blocks, 6 to 12 inches in each dimension, which are turned in the vat in order to facili- tate the further removal of whey, and are then carefully placed, one over the other, until they form a large mass. The process of solidifying or " cheddaring " has two results : first, the more complete removal of the whey, and second, the formation of a characteristic texture in the curd which becomes less rubber- like and more velvety and forms strings of an inch or more in length when tested with the hot iron. During the cheddaring a considerable increase of acidity occurs, the last of the whey which drains from the piled curd showing usually an acidity equal to 0.6 to 0.9 per cent of lactic acid. Milling the curd. The milling process consists in cutting the lumps of curd into small pieces of uniform size in order that it may be salted more evenly and handled more readily when it is placed in hoops for pressing. This is done by means of curd- mills designed to avoid as far as possible the loss of fat which would result from crushing or squeezing the curd. Salting and pressing. Salt is added chiefly for flavoring, but also it aids in removing the whey, it hardens the curd, it checks the further formation of .lactic acid, and it helps to pre- vent the development of undesirable fermentation. Excessive salting is, however, injurious. Usually from i to 3 pounds of salt are added to the curd obtained from 1000 pounds of milk. After filling the curd into the mold it is pressed in the proper form by a uniform pressure which is continued for 24 to 48 hours. Usually a light pressure is applied at first and gradually increased during about an hour, when the cheese is removed, trimmed . turned, wrapped in cloth, and replaced for the final pressing. Ripening or curing the cheese. When taken from the press cheese is said to be unripe, green, or uncured. It must be stored for weeks or months to become properly ripened. The higher the temperature to which cheese is exposed in ripening, the more rapid the process will be, but this is attained usually at the CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MTLK PRODUCTS 93 expense of the quality of the cheese. For the best results, the ripening is conducted at a temperature not above 55 F. and requires a comparatively long time. During the ripening the cheese undergoes some loss of weight by evaporation of moisture, but the chief object of the ripening process is to secure certain changes in texture and flavor which depend essentially upon a gradual hydrolysis of the cheese protein, the changes being very similar to those which take place in digestion. The increase of soluble proteins, and of the products of further cleavage, which takes place at the expense of the insoluble pro- tein of the original curd, is shown in Table 5, which is condensed from data given by Van Slyke and Publow. 1 TABLE 5. SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF PROTEIN CLEAVAGE PRODUCTS IN CHEESE NITROGEN, EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL NITROGEN OF THE CHEESE, IN THE FORM OF: . CHEESE Soluble Pro- teins and De- Proteoses Peptones Amino Acids Ammonia rivatives Months i Per cent 21.44 Per cent 3-15 Per cent 3-84 Per cent 9.88 Per cent 1.56 3 30.98 4-56 4-65 14.36 2-45 6 36.15 4.92 4.22 19.96 3-52 9 43-45 4-59 3-56 26.53 4-74 12 44-75 4.16 3-95 28.38 5-41 18 47-25 3-88 .2-57 30.46 6.62 The changes which take place in the cheese protein during the ripening process are doubtless due to a combination of factors. Van Slyke holds that (i) the lactic acid, (2) the rennet enzyme, (3) the milk enzyme (galactase), (4) microorganisms, chiefly bacteria, all play important parts in the ripening process. The 1 The Science and Practice of Cheesemaking, page 337. 94 FOOD PRODUCTS exact part played by each of these factors is still a subject of investigation. Other Varieties of Cheese Since about three fourths of all the cheese used in the United States is of the Cheddar type, only that type can be considered at all fully here. The following statements regarding a few other varieties of cheese are abbreviated from the descriptions given by Doane and Lawson. 1 Brie. This is a soft rennet cheese made from cows' milk. The cheese varies in size and also in quality, depending on whether whole or partly skimmed milk is used. The method of manufacture closely resembles that of Camembert. This cheese has been made in France for several centuries. Mention was made of it as early as 1407. It is made through- out France, but more extensively in the Department of Seine et Marne, in which it doubtless originated. More or less success- ful imitations of this cheese are made in other countries. It was estimated that 7,000,000 pounds of Brie cheese were sold in Paris during 1900. The export trade is also very important. Camembert. This is a soft rennet cheese made from cows' milk. A typical cheese is about 4^ inches in diameter and i\ inches thick and is usually found on the market in this country wrapped in paper and inclosed in a wooden box of the same shape. The cheese usually has a rind about one eighth of an inch in thickness which is composed of molds and dried cheese. The interior is yellowish in color, and waxy, creamy, or almost fluid in consistency, depending largely upon the degree of ripeness. Camembert cheese is said to have originated in 1791 in the locality from which it derives its name in the Department of Orne, in the northwestern part of France. The industry ex- tended soon into Calvados, and these two departments are 1 Varieties of Cheese : Descriptions and Analyses, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 105. CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 95 still the principal seat of the industry. Very successful cheeses of this type have been made at the Storrs Agricultural Experi- ment Station in Connecticut. Cheshire. This cheese is one of the oldest and most popular of the English varieties. It is a rennet cheese made from un- skimmed cows' milk, and is named for Chester County, Eng- land, where it is largely produced. It is made in cylindrical shape from 14 to 1 6 inches in diameter, and weighs 50 to 70 pounds. In making this cheese sufficient annatto is used to give the product a very high color. Cheshire-Stilton. This is a combination of the Cheshire and Stilton varieties of cheese in which the general characteristics of size and shape and manufacture of the Cheshire are retained, and a growth of the mold peculiar to Stilton is secured. The mold is propagated by keeping out each day a portion of curd and mixing it with some older curd in which the mold is growing well. Edam. This is a hard rennet cheese produced in Holland ; it is also known as Katzenkopf, Tete de Maure, and Manbollen. The best of the product is made of unskimmed cows' milk, but much of it at the present time is made from milk which has had at least one half of the fat removed. The cheeses are round and are colored deep red on the surface or wrapped in tin foil. When the cheese is one month old it is washed in water at 70 F. for twenty minutes and then placed in the sun to dry, after which it is rubbed with linseed oil. Before shipping the cheese is colored, usually red, but for some markets it is colored yellow with annatto. This coloring is done with a watery solution of litmus and Berlin red, or with carmine. A considerable quantity of this cheese is imported into the United States. At the present time some Edam cheeses are inclosed in air-tight tins for export. Emmental. This is a hard rennet cheese made from un- skimmed cows' milk, and has a mild, somewhat sweetish flavor. It is characterized by holes or eyes which develop to about the 96 FOOD PRODUCTS size of a half inch in typical cheeses and are situated from i to 3 inches apart. Cheese of the same kind made in the United States is known as Domestic Swiss, and that made in the region of Lake Constance is called Algau Emmental. Emmental cheese is a very old variety. In the middle of the fifteenth century a cheese probably of this type was manufac- tured in the Canton of Emmental. In the middle of the seven- teenth century the industry was well developed and genuine Emmental cheese was being exported. In 1722 its manufacture under the name of Gruyere is recorded in France, two cooperative societies having been organized for this purpose. Emmental cheese is now manufactured in every civilized country. In the United States there are many factories, lo- cated principally in Wisconsin, New York, and Ohio. In Switzerland the greater part of the milk produced is made into this product, and large districts in France and northern Italy are devoted to its manufacture. The best of the product made in Switzerland is exported, about 5,000,000 pounds coming to the United States annually. Gorgonzola. This variety, known also as Stracchino di Gor- gonzola, is a rennet Italian cheese made from whole cows' milk. The name is taken from the village of Gorgonzola, near Milan ; but very little of this cheese is now made in that immediate locality. The interior of the cheese is mottled or veined with a penicillium much like Roquefort, and for this reason the cheese has been grouped with the Roquefort and Stilton varieties. As seen upon the markets in this country, the surface of the cheese is covered with a thin coat resembling clay, said to be prepared by mixing barite or gypsum, lard- or tallow, and coloring matter. The cheeses are cylindrical in shape, being about 12 inches in diameter and 6 inches in height, and as marketed are wrapped in paper and packed with straw in wicker baskets. The manufacture of Gorgonzola cheese is an important industry in Lombardy, where formerly it was carried on prin- CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 97 cipally during the months of September and October, but with the establishment of curing cellars in the Alps, especially near Lecco, the manufacture is no longer confined to this season. At an early stage in the process of ripening the cheese is usually punched with an instrument about 6 inches long tapering from a sharp point to a diameter of about one eighth inch at the base. About 150 holes are made in each cheese. This favors the development of the penicillium throughout the interior of the cheese. Well-made cheese may be kept for a year or longer. In the region where made, much of the cheese is consumed while in a fresh condition. Gruyere. This name is applied to Emmental cheese manu- factured in France, the name originating from the Swiss village of Gruyere. The cheese was first mentioned in 1722, when two societies were reported to have been organized for its manu- facture. The Gruyere cheese is made in three different qualities whole milk, partly skimmed, and skimmed. It is usually made from partly skimmed milk, and this is supposed to distin- guish it from Emmental, which is supposed to be made from whole milk. The manufacture of Gruyere cheese is an exten- sive industry in France, about 50,000,000 pounds having been manufactured annually the latter part of the last century. Limburg. This is a soft rennet cheese made from cows' milk which may contain all of the fat or be partly or entirely skimmed. The best Limburg is undoubtedly made from whole milk. This cheese has a very strong and characteristic odor and taste. The cheese is about 6 by 6 by 3 inches and weighs- about 2 pounds, Limburg cheese originated in the province of Luttich, Belgium, in the neighborhood of Herve, and was marketed in Limburg, Belgium. Its manufacture has spread to Germany and Austria, where it is very popular, and to the United States, where large quantities are made, mostly in New York and Wisconsin. According to Doane and Lawson no Limburg is imported into 98 FOOD PRODUCTS this country at the present time, this type of cheese being made so cheaply and of such good quality in this country that the foreign make has been crowded out of the market. Neufchfitel. This is a soft rennet cheese made extensively in the Department of Seine-Inferieure, France, from cows' milk either whole or skimmed. The milk, preferably fresh, is set at 85 F. with only so much rennet as is necessary to secure the desired coagulation in twenty- four hours in summer and from thirty-six to forty-eight hours in winter. The curd is then inclosed in cheesecloth and drained for twelve hours, after which it is subjected to pressure for an- other period of twelve hours. It is then thoroughly kneaded by hand, or in the larger factories by means of a curd mill, and pressed into tin cylinders about 2 inches in diameter and 3 inches high. The cheeses are removed soon from the molds, salted, and replaced. After draining for twenty-four hours they are transferred to the so-called " drying room," where they become covered with white and later with blue molds. They are then taken to the curing cellar, where the ripening process is continued for three to four weeks. The appearance of red spots on the surface is taken as an indication that the ripening has progressed far enough. The cheeses are then wrapped in tin foil and marketed. Parmesan.. This name is in common use outside of Italy for the cheese made and known in that country for centuries as Grana, the term " grana " or " granona " referring to the granular appearance of the cheese when broken, as is necessary on account of the hardness of the cheese, which makes cutting practically impossible. There are two quite distinct varieties of Parmesan cheese, one made in Lombardy and the other in Emilia, the centers of production being separated by the River Po. Parma, situated in Emilia, has long been an important commercial center for both varieties, and to this fact the name Parmesan is due. The use of the term " Parmesan," however, CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 99 is sometimes restricted to the cheese made in Lombardy, the term " Reggian " being used to designate that made in Emilia. The Lombardy cheese made from April to September is known locally as Sorte Maggenga and that from October to March as Sorte Vermenga. The Reggian cheese is made only in summer. Parmesan cheese when well made may be broken and grated easily and may be kept for an indefinite number of years. It is grated and used largely for soups and with macaroni. A con- siderable quantity of this cheese is imported into this country and sells for a high price. Pineapple. This cheese, which is said to have had its origin in Litchfield County, Conn., about 1845, is so named from the fruit which the cheese is made to resemble in shape. It is a hard rennet cheese made from whole cows' milk. The cheese is quite hard and is rather highly colored. The early process of manu- facture is the same as with Cheddar, except that it is made much harder. The curd is pressed in the desired shape in various sizes up to 6 pounds in weight. After pressing, the cheese is dipped for a few minutes in water at 120 F. and is then put in a net for twenty-four hours, which gives it the diamond-shaped corrugations on the surface. It requires several months to ripen and during this time the surface is rubbed with oil, which makes it very smooth and hard. Roquefort. This is a hard rennet cheese made from the milk of sheep. There are, however, numerous imitations or varieties closely resembling Roquefort, such as Gex and Septmoncel, made from cows' milk. One of the most striking characteristics of this cheese is the mottled or marbled appearance of the inte- rior, due to the development of a penicillium, which is the prin- cipal ripening agent. The manufacture of Roquefort cheese has been carried on in the southeastern part of France for at least two centuries. The industry is particularly important in the Department of Avekron, in which is situated the village of Roquefort, from which the cheese derives its name. It is 100 FOOD PRODUCTS also made in Corsica. Imitations of Roquefort cheese are made in various countries. Formerly the manufacture of the cheese was carried on by the shepherds themselves, but in recent years centralized factories have been established and much of the milk is collected and there made into cheese. The cheese is then taken to the caves. These are for the most part natural caverns which exist in large numbers in the region of Roquefort and the air circulates freely through them. Recently, artificial caves have been constructed and used. When the cheeses reach the caves they are salted, which serves to check the growth of the mold on the surface. One or two days later they are rubbed vigorously with cloth and are afterwards subjected to thorough scraping with knives, a process formerly done by hand, but now much more satisfac- torily and economically by machinery. The salting, scraping, or brushing seems to check the development of mold on the surface. In order to favor the growth of mold in the interior, the cheese is pierced by machinery with 60 to 100 small steel needles, which process permits the free access of air. The cheese may be sold after thirty to forty days or may remain in the caves as long as five months, depending upon the degree of ripening desired. The cheese ' loses during ripening by scraping and evaporation as much as 25 per cent of the original weight. The weight when ripened is about 4^ to 5 pounds. Stilton. This is a hard rennet cheese, the best of which is made from cows' milk to which a portion of cream has been added. It was first made near the village of Stilton, Hunting- donshire, England, about the middle of the eighteenth century. It is now made principally in Leicestershire and West Rutland- shire, though its manufacture has extended to other parts of England. Its manufacture has been tried, though without success, in the United States. The cheese is about 7 inches in diameter and 9 inches high, and weighs 1 2 to 1 5 pounds. It has a very characteristic wrinkled or ridged skin or rind, which is CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS IOI likely caused by the drying of molds and bacteria on the surface. When cut it shows blue or green portions of mold which give its characteristic piquant flavor. The price in this country is about 45 cents a pound wholesale. The cheese belongs to the same group as the Roquefort of France and the Gorgonzola of Italy. Relation of Microorganisms to Cheesemaking That there should be hundreds of varieties of cheese all made from milk, rennet, and salt, but each having a characteristic flavor, is chiefly due to the differences in the microorganisms which take part in the ripening of the different varieties. As a rule in the hard cheeses the ripening agents are distrib- uted throughout the cheese mass at the beginning of the ripen- ing process and therefore act in a more or less uniform way throughout the cheese whatever its size ; while in the soft cheeses the ripening process is largely due to organisms growing on the surface and producing products which only gradually penetrate the cheese mass, so that it is practically necessary that these cheeses be made in small sizes. It will be recalled from the above description of Cheddar cheesemaking that lactic acid bacteria are active in the ripen- ing of the milk before curdling, in the whey and curd during the cheesemaking process, and in the ripening cheese. Accord- ing to Hastings 1 the maximum number of bacteria is found when the cheese is one to five days old and may be as high as 1,500,000,000 per gram of moist cheese. While no one species is considered entirely responsible for this lactic acid fermenta- tion, it is essential that the desirable types producing a clean lactic acid fermentation without gas production shall predomi- nate over the undesirable gas-producing types. During the ripening process the number of active lactic acid bacteria becomes considerably reduced and it is believed that 1 Marshall's Microbiology, page 354. 102 FOOD PRODUCTS the substances liberated in disintegration of these bacteria may play a part in the development of the characteristic flavor. Emmental cheese (" Swiss " or " Schweitzer " cheese) differs from Cheddar cheese in that the lactic acid fermentation is much less pronounced during the process of making the cheese, while the fermentation during the ripening process is of a some- what different type and gives rise to a different flavor. Lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid or lactates which in turn are attacked by organisms of a different type with the production of carbon dioxide to which the characteristic holes or " eyes " are due. Roquefort cheese owes its mottled appearance and much at least of its characteristic flavor to the growth of a mold, Penicil- lium roqueforti (Thorn), which is introduced by sprinkling the curd with crumbs of bread on which this mold has grown. The growth of the mold in the cheese is favored by punching holes to admit the air. Gorgonzola and Stilton cheeses resemble Roquefort and are supposed to contain either the same mold or a related type, Penicillium glaucum. Camembert cheese owes its characteristic flavor and consist- ency chiefly to the growth of two molds, Oidium (Oospora) lactis, which covers the cheese during the first few days of ripen- ing, and Penicillium camemberti, which appears later. These molds utilize organic acids as food, thus reducing the acidity of the cheese, while they produce proteolytic (protein-digesting) enzymes which gradually penetrate and soften the cheese. The reduction of acidity, however, also renders the cheese more susceptible to attack by putrefactive bacteria which, if allowed to multiply in the cheese, will soon change its flavor. The man- ufacture of Camembert cheese is particularly difficult because the development of the desired consistency and flavor depends upon such a close control of conditions as will maintain a deli- CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 103 cate balance in the development of the different organisms involved. Brie also owes its flavor and consistency to molds, while the red coloration of the surface is attributed to a bacillus. Limburg cheese is characteristic of the type in which devel- opment of putrefactive bacteria is allowed to continue to a con- siderable extent with a corresponding development of putrefac- tive odor. These statements regarding the role of microorganisms in cheese ripening are based largely upon Marshall's Microbiology, pages 354-362, and Buchanan's Household Bacteriology, pages 297-301, which works, as well as the more special papers listed in the bibliography at the end of this chapter, may be con- sulted for more detailed discussions. Commercial Quality The commercial quality of cheese depends upon the flavor, texture, body, color, and " appearance." By flavor is meant the quality which is perceptible to the taste and smell. " Tex- ture " refers chiefly to compactness or appearance of solidity. " Body " means the consistency or firmness as revealed by pressing a piece of the cheese between finger and thumb. Color should be uniform whether the cheese is artificially colored or not. " Appearance " as the term is here used applies to the exterior finish of the cheese and its package. The technical terms used in describing these qualities, to- gether with other practices relating to the commercial grading and scoring of cheese, are described and explained in Van Slyke and Publow's Science and Practice of Cheese-making, Chapter VIII. The following are typical scales of points used in judging and scoring cheese : IO4 FOOD PRODUCTS EXPORT CHEESE HOME-TRADE CHEESE Flavor 4.C CO Texture I c I Body I c *5 Color Appearance 15 10 15 10 Composition, Adulteration, Standards of Purity Qualitative composition. As is readily seen from its method of manufacture, cheese contains the casein and fat of the milk and so much of whey as does not drain out of the curd. The retention of portions of whey will of course keep in the cheese appreciable but small amounts of lactalbumin, of the soluble salts of the milk, and of milk sugar or the lactic acid resulting from its fermentation. Quantitative composition. The composition of the milk and the details of manipulation in the manufacture of the cheese naturally influence the composition of the product. In a series of analyses covering 156 samples of green cheese of the Cheddar type made in various factories in New York State in 1892-1893, Van Slyke found: moisture, 32.7 to 43.9 per cent; fat, 30.0 to 36.8 per cent; protein, 20.8 to 26.1 per cent. Samples from more widely scattered sources would doubtless show greater variation. The approximate average composition of the prin- cipal types of cheese is shown in Table 6. Except that the soft cheeses like Brie, Camembert, and Neuf- chatel are wetter and the hard pineapple cheese is dryer, it will be seen that the different varieties do not differ greatly from an average composition of about one third water, one third fat, and one fourth protein. These statements, of course, relate to whole milk cheese. The fat of cheese, while not so perfectly emulsified as it origi- CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 105 nally existed in the milk, is still in a finely divided state and should be quite uniformly distributed throughout the cheese- mass. Chemically it has the composition of milk fat or butter fat and shows but little change as the result of the ripening process, TABLE 6. APPROXIMATE AVERAGE COMPOSITION or DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEESE * VARIETY WATER FAT PROTEIN (NX6.2S) SALT, MILK SUGAR, LACTIC Aero, AND ASH Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Brie . . . 5- 28. 18. 4- Camembert . 45- 30. 2O. 5- Cheddar . 35- 34- 25- 6. Edam . 33- 29. 2 9 . 9- Emmental 34- 3 1 - 30- 5- Limburg . 35- 3- 29. 6. Neufchatel 5- 27. 18. 5- Parmesan . 35- 21. 36. 8. Pineapple 24. 38- 3- 8. Roquefort 35- 32. 25- 8. Stilton . . 33- 37- 25- 5- . The protein of cheese consists chiefly of the more or less digested casein (though to a small extent of the albumin also) of the milk. It has already been shown in the paragraph on the ripening process that much of the casein is digested, not only into a soluble protein, but to proteoses, peptones, and even amino acids and ammonia. Of the successive analyses shown in Table 5, the one made when the cheese was six months old most nearly represents the stage of digestion at which it is ordinarily sold and eaten. The ash of cheese varies greatly in composition according as much or little salt has been added during manufacture. It is Based on analyses given in Bulletin 105, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 106 FOOD PRODUCTS always high in calcium, phosphorus, and sulphur, and fairly high in iron, these elements of the milk being largely constituents of the curd; while the potassium, sodium, and chlorine of the milk are largely removed in the whey, but the sodium and chlo- rine are later more than restored in the added salt. Adulteration and misbranding. The chief forms of adulter- ation and misbranding of cheese are deficiency (or substitution) of fat, excess of moisture, and misuse of geographical names. Cheese made from milk which has been wholly or partially skimmed is known as " skimmed milk cheese " or " skim cheese." This is a wholesome and nutritious food, but less palatable and of much less fuel value than whole milk cheese. Unless its sale is carefully regulated it is apt to be substituted to a greater or less extent for whole milk cheese, at least in retail trade, which is considered serious both as an imposition upon the consumer and as an inury to the cheese trade. Van Slyke and Publow point out that skim-milk cheese is not only deficient in fat but must also contain an excess of water in order to be salable, since a skim-milk cheese with only the same amount of water as a whole-milk cheese would be too hard and tough to be acceptable, and that because of this high moisture content it does not possess the keeping qualities of whole-milk cheese. They suggest that the sale of skim-milk cheese should be prohibited in the interest of the cheese industry. In many localities the restrictions placed upon skimmed milk cheese are in fact so stringent that it is practically driven out of the market. Cheese made from skimmed milk and added fat is called " filled cheese." The trade in this cheese is also subjected to restric- tions which are very nearly prohibitive. The United States cheese law requires that filled cheese shall be packed only in wooden containers which must be very conspicuously branded with the words " filled cheese " in several places, and retailers must sell only from these original packages and must deliver each portion of such cheese sold in a marked and branded pack- CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 107 age. (See Wing's Milk and Its Products, pages 382-387, where the full text of the law is given.) Sometimes the cheese curd is soaked in cold water before the final draining, salting, and pressing. This practice is declared fraudulent by the Board of Food and Drug Inspection (Food Inspection Decision 97) on the ground that it introduces an un- due amount of water into the cheese and also gives it a soft texture and an appearance of superior quality which deceives the purchaser as to its real nature. The Board further states that such cheese is of inferior quality in that it develops less of the desirable cheese flavor and that it deteriorates during the curing process, and therefore rules that such cheese may not enter interstate commerce unless under some such name as " soaked curd cheese." Standards of purijty. According to the definitions and stand- ards recommended by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists : Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not less than 50 per cent of milk fat. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain added coloring matter. It will be noted that this standard sets no specific limit to the water content, but requires that the fat in the cheese shall be milk fat and shall constitute not less than 50 per cent of the total solids of the cheese. (Cheese with a lower fat content may be sold as skimmed milk cheese.) This is based on the proportions of fat and casein in whole milk and on analyses of cheese made by the New York State Experiment Station in cooperation with cheesemakers of the state and in Wisconsin in connection with a cheese-scoring contest. In the New York analyses the percentage of fat in the water- 108 FOOD PRODUCTS free substance varied from 50.39 to 56.83 ; in the Wisconsin analyses from 51.35 to 56.4. Evidently therefore the requirement that 50 per cent of the solids shall be fat sets a high standard and assumes not only the use of normal milk but also skillful making of cheese to avoid loss of fat. Minnesota has a standard calling for 45 per cent fat in the solids of cheese. Colorado requires only 35 per cent. Missouri requires that cheese be made of milk having at least 3 per cent fat. In Ohio any cheese having less than 20 per cent fat (in the moist substance) must be sold as skimmed milk cheese. Van Slyke estimates that cheese made from normal whole milk rarely contains less than 32 per cent fat in the moist sub- stance, even when green. Nutritive Value and Place in the Diet A pound of cheese represents the casein and fat of a gallon of average milk. The high nutritive value of casein has been ex- plained in the preceding chapter. Cheese is thus a concentrated and economical food, especially when compared with other foods of animal origin. Generally speaking cheese sells at no higher price per pound than the ordinary cuts of meat, while it is considerably richer in both proteins and fat. While fluctuations in price and in the proportions of fat and bone in the meats make exact comparisons impracticable except for individual cases, yet it is a fair general estimate that a given amount of money spent for American cheese at ordinary prices will buy about twice as much food value as it would if spent for meat. In most localities cheese gives a greater return in food value for the money expended than other staple foods of animal origin, but in some places milk may be obtained at such prices as to make it a cheaper food than cheese. Cheese is very rich, not only in protein and fat, but also in CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 109 calcium and phosphorus, since these elements in milk are largely in combination in or with the casein and so are concentrated with the casein in the process of cheesemaking. The iron- protein compounds of the milk are also retained in the cheese. Digestibility of cheese. The discomfort which sometimes follows the eating of cheese may be due in part to irritation of the stomach by the volatile acids and some of the protein cleav- age products developed during the ripening, but is doubtless very largely attributable to the unsuitable way in which cheese is often eaten as at hours other than meal times or at the end of a meal already sufficient. When given a rational place in the meal, and thoroughly chewed, cheese is usually well digested. In a large number of digestion experiments carried out by the United States Department of Agriculture, it was found that on an average about 95 per cent of the protein and over 95 per cent of the fat of the cheese were digested and absorbed. 1 Hence so far as the coefficients of digestibility are concerned the various kinds of cheese tested were found to compare favorably with the average food of an ordinary mixed diet. Even when fed in relatively large quantity the cheese did not, in these experi- ments, cause constipation "or other physiological disturbances." The general belief that cheese is difficult of digestion is attrib- uted by Langworthy to its being digested to a less extent in the stomach than many other foods, the digestion of the cheese taking place chiefly in the intestine. In order to determine whether the digestion of cheese requires a greater expenditure of energy than the digestion of meat, Langworthy measured accurately by means of the respiration calorimeter 2 the energy metabolism of the same man after eating a meal consisting chiefly of beef and again under circumstances otherwise the same after eating a meal containing instead of the beef a corresponding amount of cheese. The results differed by only 2 Calories per 1 Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1910, page 366. 1 Described in Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chapter V. 110 FOOD PRODUCTS hour, which is about the margin which must be allowed for exper- imental error in such measurements. Langworthy therefore concludes that " it seems fair to believe that there was practi- cally no difference between the cheese and the meat with respect to ease of digestion, at least in such quantities as are commonly eaten." Place of cheese in the diet. Langworthy records a case of a young man who " for the sake of such considerations as ease of preparation and relative economy " lived for over two years on a diet of cheese, bread, and fruit. The man enjoyed good health and did not tire of his diet. A quantitative record cover- ing a part of the time indicated that the man was accustomed to consume slightly over one half pound of cheese, one pound of whole wheat bread, and two pounds of fresh fruit per day. The amounts of cheese eaten by the various men who took part in the experiments of the United States Department of Agriculture were usually from one third to one half pound per day. These quantities were taken with relish and were well digested even though the men as a rule had previously not been accustomed to eat any considerable quantity of cheese. The bulletin by Langworthy and Hunt already referred to contains many specific suggestions for the use of cheese in a variety of ways and includes the following conclusions: Experiments have shown that when eaten either raw or carefully cooked, cheese is as thoroughly digested as other staple foods and is not likely to produce physiological disturbance. The fact that cheese, like meat, contains neither starch nor cellulose suggests that, like meat, it should be combined with bread, potatoes, and other starchy foods, with vegetables and with sweets. The concentrated character of cheese and many cheese dishes suggests the use of succulent fruits and vegetables with them. The high percentage of fat in cheese suggests the use of correspondingly small amounts of fat in the accompany- ing dishes, while the soft texture of cheese dishes as compared with meat makes it reasonable to serve the harder and crustier breads with them. CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS III Though cheese is so generally used in some way in most families, yet the making of menus with cheese as a central dish is less well understood than more usual food combinations, since there is less experience to serve as a guide. More thought is therefore usually required to arrange such cheese meals in order that they may be palatable and at the same time reasonable in nutritive value. In order that the diet may remain well balanced, cheese, if used in quantity, should replace foods of similar composition rather than supplement them. This means that the housekeeper, in suitable ways, can use cheese, meat, fish, eggs, and other foods of similar composition as substitutes for one an- other, being governed by their relative market value at different times and seasons, by the tastes of her family, and similar considerations. If she uses the different foodstuffs with reference to their nutritive value and is skillful in preparing foods in appetizing ways and in serving them in attractive combinations, the daily fare may be both adequate and pleasing, whether she selects cheese or meat or fish or eggs or other foods to supply nitrogenous material and fat. As already suggested, cheese should be eaten with intelligence to avoid danger of irritation of the stomach, and a warning may also be added against eating large quantities at a time of cheese which has been so highly ripened as to contain a considerable percentage of ammonia. With these precautions cheese may well be used as a regular staple article of food, interchangeably with such foods as meats and fish. As the food value and diges- tibility of cheese become better known it should come to occupy a much more prominent place in the typical dietary than it does at present. Fermented Milks We have seen that the making of cheese is a very old method of preserving milk for future use as food. Another old method, yielding a product less permanent than cheese, but more perma- nent than fresh milk, is to allow the milk to undergo fermentation of such a character that the fermentation products are not unwholesome or unpleasant for human consumption, yet serve as preservatives to prevent undesirable types of decomposition. 112 FOOD PRODUCTS The fermentation product chiefly depended upon in such cases is lactic acid, although in certain types alcoholic fermentation may also be prominent. Fermented milks have long been a prominent article of diet in Southern Russia, Turkey, Bulgaria, and neighboring countries, and in recent years various products of this type such as kumiss, kefir, yoghurt, and fermented milks sold under proprietary names have come into increasing use in Western Europe and in America. Buttermilk is a food of the same type, and until recently the demand for fermented milk in this country was readily met by the sale of a part of this by-product of buttermaking. As the manufacture of butter and the handling of market milk and cream grew to be separate industries, dealers in milk and cream sometimes met the demand for buttermilk by fermenting the skim milk which remains as a by-product of the cream trade. Such fermented skim milk is, of course, not literally buttermilk, although it may be indistinguishable in composition and prop- erties and equal in food value. On the other hand, the products made by fermenting whole milk are of considerably greater food value because of their higher fat content. It is, however, not simply because of the amounts of nutri- ents which they contain that these fermented milks have at- tracted special attention in recent years, but because of belief that the finely coagulated casein of these preparations is more easily digested than the curds which are formed in the stomach after drinking ordinary milk, and especially because of the possible therapeutic or prophylactic value of the lactic acid or lactic acid bacteria which they contain. In some cases it is possible that the fermentation products (lactic acid, alcohol, carbonic acid) may have a slight stimu- lating or tonic action in the digestive tract; otherwise any increased digestibility of the fermented milk is due not so much to changes in the chemical nature of the milk constituents as to CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 113 the fact that the casein is furnished in a precipitated and finely divided condition. The fermentation does not involve any material digestive cleavage of the casein such as occurs in the ripening of cheese. The fat is almost unchanged and only a part of the milk sugar is converted into organic acids, alcohol, and carbonic acid. In certain disorders of the stomach in which there is much difficulty in retaining food, it has frequently been found possible to use one or another of the fermented milks with good results. As the result of the studies of Metchnikoff and his associates at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, there has recently been much interest in fermented milks as a possible means of preventing or controlling excessive intestinal putre- faction. It is for this purpose that cultures supposed to give a purer lactic acid fermentation than that of buttermilk have been introduced. In buttermilk or in ordinary milk which has been allowed to sour freely, there is usually developed only about i per cent of lactic acid; but certain selected species of lactic acid bacteria, notably B. bulgaricus, may carry the fer- mentation to such a point that the milk may contain 2 per cent of lactic acid or even more. The use of fermented milk in combating the putrefactive bac- f teria of the large intestine is based on the theory that the intro- .duction of lactic acid bacteria or of lactic acid itself into the I intestine makes the conditions unfavorable for the putrefactive bacteria. The question therefore arises whether the lactic acid taken in the food reaches the large intestine in sufficient quan- tity to be effective or is absorbed from the small intestine, and whether it is possible to establish a predominance of lactic acid bacteria in the intestinal tract by taking rich cultures of such bacteria in the food. The evidence on these points is conflicting, some observers reporting much diminution of intestinal putre- faction as the result of drinking fermented milk, while others find little if any effect. Herter held that the total amount of protein in the food is an important factor in the problem and FOOD PRODUCTS that the mere addition of fermented milk to the diet may do as much harm as good through making the total amount of protein excessive, whereas improvement may result if the fermented milk is substituted for some high-protein food so that the total protein eaten is either kept constant or diminished. The evidence at present available leaves the therapeutic value of fermented milks somewhat uncertain, but there is no doubt that they are valuable foods especially for those who either relish or digest the fermented milk better than the unfermented. The advantages of milk as a food (see latter part of last chapter) apply in general to fermented milk also. Some representative analyses of fermented milks are given in Table 7. TABLE 7. ANALYSES OF SOME FERMENTED MILKS BUTTERMILK (LARSEN AND WHITE) Kmnss OR KEFIR (HAMMARSTEN) 2 days old 4 days old 6 days old Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Water . . . 00-39 88.12 88.79 89.00 Fat. . . . 0.50 3.62 3-63 3-63 Protein . . 3.60 3.03 3-07 3-7 Milk Sugar . 4.06 3-70 2.24 1.6 7 Lactic Acid . 0.8o 0.66 0.83 0.90 Alcohol 0.23 0.81 I.IO Ash ... o-7S 0.64 0.63 0.63 Evaporated or Condensed Milk By evaporating a large proportion of the water from milk, the keeping property is much improved and the labor and ex- pense of subsequent handling and transportation of the product are further reduced through the saving in bulk and weight. Sugar is often added as a preservative. Condensed milk, whether sweetened or unsweetened, may be marketed in bottles like ordi- nary milk, in which case it is intended for use within a very CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 115 few days, or it may be sealed in tin cans for indefinite keeping like other canned foods. The condensed milk industry began with the granting of a patent for " concentrating sweet milk by evaporation in vacuo " to Gail Borden, Jr., in 1856. In 1880 the total production (United States Census) in the United States was 13,033,267 pounds valued at $1,547,588 ; in 1890, 37,926,821 pounds valued at $3,586,927; in 1900, 186,921,787 pounds valued at $11,888,792 ; in 1909, 494,796,544 pounds valued at $33,563,129. It is evident that the industry is growing very rapidly and the present production is doubtless much above that of 1909. The census returns for that year show about equal amounts of the sweetened and the unsweetened product. Sweetened condensed milk is manufactured by a carefully regulated process which in brief outline may be described as follows: Fresh cows' milk is heated to 160 to 180 F. to expel the dissolved gases and then run into vacuum pans, about 16 pounds of sugar per 100 pounds of fresh milk is added, and the mixture evaporated in vacuo at a temperature of 130 to 150 F. until the desired concentration is reached, usuaTTy until" one pound of the final product represents about 2\ to 2\ pounds of fresh milk. This final product is of semiliquid consistency with a specific gravity of about 1.29 and averages about 30 per cent water, 30 per cent milk solids, and 40 per cent cane sugar. The products of individual manufactures may vary consider- ably from this average. In 24 analyses compiled by the United States Department of Agriculture, 1 the variations were as follows : water 21.6 to 37.3, average 26.9 per cent ; protein 6.0 to 10.5, average 8.8 per cent; fat 0.4 to 10.6, average 8.3 per cent; carbohydrates, 44.4 to 56.9, average 54.1 per cent; ash. 1.5 to 2.1, average 1.9 per cent. Here the most noticeable variation is in the fat content, due to the fact that some of the analyses represent the product obtained from milk which had 1 Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations. Il6 FOOD PRODUCTS previously been skimmed. Under present regulations such a product must be labeled " condensed skim milk " to avoid confusion with the whole milk product. The latter has been standardized by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists as follows : " Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) has been added, and contains not less than 28 per cent of milk solids of which not less than 27.5 per cent is milk fat." (Note. Twenty-seven and five tenths per cent of twenty- r eight per cent equals seven and seven tenths per cent of fat in V the condensed milk.) Unsweetened condensed milk, commonly called evaporated milk, is prepared in essentially the same manner as described under sweetened condensed milk above, except that no sugar is added, the ratio of concentration is usually slightly less, and the final product, after sealing in cans, is sometimes sterilized by heating at 226 F. to 240 F. for from 30 to 60 minutes. The final product has a creamy consistency and a specific gravity of about 1.065. According to the standards recommended by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists in 1906, it must contain not less than 28 per cent of milk solids with a minimum of 7.7 per cent fat. More recently, 1 as the result of further study, the Board of Food and Drug Inspection has revised the requirement, raising the fat standard slightly and allowing a somewhat lower degree of concentration, and therefore somewhat lower percentage of solids-not-fat, in the case of milk having more than the required amount of fat. This is accomplished by requirement that the percentage of fat shall be not less than 7^8, and the sum of the percentages of total solids and fat shall be not less than 34.3. In the same decision it was specified that evaporated milk should be prepared from milk of good quality and contain no added 1 Food Inspection Decision 131. CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 117 butter or butter oil incorporated either with the whole or skimmed milk before evaporation or with the evaporated milk at any stage of manufacture. To make 100 pounds of evaporated milk which shall meet the requirements of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection, in solids and fat, will require 240 pounds of milk which contains 3.25 per cent of fat and 8.5 per cent of other solids, or 204 pounds of milk containing 4 per cent of fat and 8.9 per cent of other solids. Whether the evaporated milk can be sold at retail at a price which makes it more economical to the consumer than an equiv- alent amount of fresh milk of corresponding sanitary quality will depend upon local conditions. In the markets of the large cities at present (and naturally to a still greater extent in the small towns of the agricultural regions) the fresh milk appears to be more economical for the retail consumer. In markets at a distance from dairy districts the economic advantage will more often lie with the evaporated product. The fact that evaporated milk is less perishable than fresh milk is a decided advantage to purchasers who use milk for the manufacture of other products for which there is a fluctuating demand, such as ice cream and special bakery products. Dried or Powdered Milk Several processes have been invented for reducing milk to the form of a dry powder. The advantages of this are of course the great saving in bulk and weight and the fact that the pow- dered milk is even less subject to contamination or deterioration than evaporated or condensed milk. Among the devices for drying milk on a commercial scale are: (i) passing the milk in thin layers over heated surfaces preferably in vacuo, (2) blow- ing air through layers of milk which have been partially evapo- rated on perforated drying cylinders, (3) spraying partially Il8 FOOD PRODUCTS evaporated milk into warm, dry air. The latter process as described by Merrill 1 is in outline as follows : Fresh whole milk is partially evaporated in a vacuum pan with precautions to prevent any of the albumin from coagulat- ing on the walls of the chamber. The milk, still in a fluid con- dition, is then drawn from the vacuum pan and sprayed into a current of hot air. The remaining moisture is thus instantly evaporated and the particles of milk solids fall like snow. This milk powder is said to contain less than 2 per cent moisture and to consist of particles from ^innr to Tdhnr mcn m diameter, in which the fat, sugar, and albumin of the milk exist in a dry state, chemically unchanged. This process appears to be well established commercially, the product being purchased largely by bakers. According to data published by Wells in the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, there had already, in 1911, been granted over 60 patents covering devices for the manufacture of dried milk, and 10 factories were engaged in carrying on the industry in the United States. It was estimated that about 8,500,000 pounds of milk powder were made in this country in 1910. Most of this was skim milk powder, because legal restrictions hamper the sale of skim milk as such to the consumer, while on the other hand it is more easily dried than whole milk and yields a product which is more readily kept, the fat of the whole milk powder being liable to become rancid on storage unless kept under special precautions. It is believed that the industry of drying both whole and skimmed milk has grown much since the above statistics were collected and is still growing rapidly. Cream Cream may be obtained from milk either by gravity or by centrifugal force. The prevailing method at present is by means 1 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, August, 1909, CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 119 of centrifugal separators in which the milk flows continuously into a rotating bowl containing thin metal plates which separate the milk into inclined sheets in which by centrifugal force the heavier " skim " milk is thrown toward the outer rim 1 and the lighter fat globules are forced toward the center. Thus while the separator is in operation a continuous stream of cream and another of skimmed milk are obtained from the inner and outer layers respectively of the rotated bowl of milk. In order that the skimmed milk shall not be thrown out of the machine with too great force, the tubes which receive it from the outer portion of the bowl are carried back toward the center of the bowl where they discharge into an outlet pipe. The size of the skim milk outlet may be made to bear any desired relation to the size of inlet, size of bowl, and speed of rotation, and thus any desired proportion of the whole milk may be drawn off as skimmed milk while the remainder is forced to the center of the bowl and dis- charged through the cream outlet. If the skimmed milk outlet is set to discharge only one half of the milk entering the bowl, the other half must discharge through the cream pipe and a large volume of very thin cream having only twice the fat content of the original milk will be obtained. If the skimmed milk tube be set to take nine tenths of the amount of milk which flows in, a small amount of rich cream having about ten times the fat content of the original milk will result. To a considerable extent these proportions and the resulting amount and richness of the cream may be controlled by regulat- ing the rate of inflow of milk without changing the size of the discharge pipes or the rate of running the machine. Thus, as illustrated by Wing : " If the milk is turned into the bowl at such a rate that 0.8 escapes through the skimmed milk outlet, 1 Suspended solids heavier than the skim milk are forced against the outer wall and result in a deposit of "separator slime." 120 FOOD PRODUCTS we shall have 0.8 skimmed milk and 0.2 cream. If now we reduce the rate of inflow by o.i, we shall get just as much skimmed milk as before, but only half as much cream; or if the inflow is increased by o.i we shall get the same amount of skimmed milk and one and one half times as much cream." In the first case, we should get from 100 pounds of milk with 4 per cent fat, 80 pounds of skimmed milk with, say, o.i per cent of fat, and 20 pounds of cream with 19.6 per cent fat ; in the second case from 90 pounds of the same milk, 10 pounds of cream with 35.2 per cent fat ; in the third case from no pounds of the same milk, 30 pounds of cream with 14.4 per cent of fat. This assumes that the completeness of the separation will be tho same, which should be true so long as the separator is run within the range of its capacity. McKay and Larsen state that in skimming milk for buttermaking, separators are usually run to yield cream with 25 per cent to 50 per cent fat, but that most separators will do good skimming even up to a cream of 60 per cent fat content. When the separator is well managed, the skim milk does not contain over o.i per cent fat. Since cream is an artificial product of such variable composi- tion, it is obvious that any standard which may be set for the fat content of cream must necessarily be rather arbitrary. The standards which have been adopted appear to have been based largely on the fat content of the cream formerly obtained by the gravity process. The standard recommended by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists requires not less than 18 per cent of milk fat ; and this has been adopted 1 by the states of California, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisi- ana, Maine, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, Nevada, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, 1 All these statements regarding state standards are based on Circular 218 (Re- vised) of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, dated November i, igi3. CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 121 South Dakota, Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, and the District of Columbia require 20 per cent fat ; Colorado, Iowa, and New Jersey require 16 per cent; Massachusetts and North Dakota require 15 per cent of fat ; Colorado and Kansas have standards of 25 per cent fat in cream for buttermaking. Market cream is apt to be at least half a day older than the corresponding grade of market milk and almost invariably has a higher bacteria content. The Commission on Milk Standards recommends that cream be classified on the same plan as milk except for the number of bacteria permitted, which may be five times the number per- mitted in the corresponding grade of milk. The Commission recommended that all cream be sold either on a guaranteed fat content or with a minimum standard of 1 8 per cent milk fat ; also that cream should contain no con- stituent foreign to normal milk. Ice Cream and Related Products According to the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, the output of the ice cream industry in the United States is valued at considerably more than $100,000,000 annually. The ice cream trade has grown enormously in recent years and ap- pears to be still increasing. Creameries which are favorably located find it often much more profitable to convert their cream into ice cream than into butter. The term " ice cream " is commonly applied to a variety of products, including what would more accurately be called frozen custards and water ices. There is not yet a consensus of opinion among food control authorities as to whether the wider applica- tion of the term " ice cream " is justified by common usage or whether the narrower and more literal usage should be insisted upon. 122 FOOD PRODUCTS The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists in 1906 proposed the following standards: Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than 14 per cent of milk fat. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than 12 per cent of milk fat. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, non-rancid nuts. and contains not less than 12 per cent of milk fat. In 191 1 the Board of Food and Drug Inspection ruled against the use of " homogenized " (finely divided by mechanical means) butter fat in making ice cream. As yet there has not been any general tendency throughout the country to adopt and enforce these stringent standards. Neither is there yet any general agreement as to whether or to what extent such materials as starch, flour, eggs, gelatin, and gums should be permitted. Those who desire to follow this subject further will find refer- ences at the end of this chapter. Special attention may be directed to Bulletin 155 of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, in which the making of ice cream is discussed in detail, and to the article on ice cream standards by Wiley in Bulletin 56 of the United States Public Health Service, in which are dis- cussed numerous trade practices which the standards above given were designed to control. Until the matter of terminology and standards is more defi- nitely settled, statements regarding the composition and food value of these products cannot be very definite. An ice cream which meets the standards of the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists is evidently a fairly concentrated food mate- rial, while many of the ices commonly called ice creams are essen- tially frozen beverages. Frozen products made from fermented CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 123 milk, sugar, eggs, and fruit, fruit juices, or other flavoring have recently been introduced under the general name of " lacto." REFERENCES BUCHANAN. Household Bacteriology. CONN. Bacteria in Milk and its Products. DOANE and LAWSON. Varieties of Cheese : Descriptions and Analyses. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 105. KONIG. Chemie der Menschlichen Nahrungs und Genussmittel. LANGWORTHY and HUNT. Cheese and its Economical Uses in the Diet. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 487. LARSEN and WHITE. Dairy Technology. MARSHALL. Microbiology. STOHMANN. Milch und Molkerei-produkte. VAN SLYKE and PUBLOW. The Science and Practice of Cheesemaking. WASHBURN. Principles and Practice of Ice-cream Making. Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 155. WILEY. Foods and their Adulterations. WING. Milk and its Products. II Papers and Special Bulletins on Cheese ALVORD, BABCOCK, RUSSELL, and VAN SLYKE. The Cold Curing of Cheese. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 49 (1903). BABCOCK, RUSSELL, and BAER. Shrinkage of Cold-Cured Cheese during Ripening. Experiments in Paraffining Cheese. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 101 (1903). VAN SLYKE, SMITH, and HART. Experiments in Curing Cheese at Different Temperatures. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 234 (1903). VAN SLYKE and HART. Conditions Affecting Chemical Changes in Cheese Ripening. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 236 (1903). ROGERS. The Relation of Bacteria to the Flavors of Cheddar Cheese. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 62 (1904). 124 FOOD PRODUCTS RUSSELL and HASTINGS. Relation of Bacterial Life to Development of Flavor in Cold-Cured Cheddar Cheese. Wisconsin Agricultural Ex- periment Station, 2 1 st Annual Report, pages 155-163 (1904). RUSSELL and HASTINGS. A Swiss Cheese Trouble caused by a Gas-forming Yeast. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 128 (1905). VAN SLYKE and HART. Some of the Relations of Casein and Paracasein to Bases and Acids and their Application to Cheddar Cheese. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 261 (1905). THOM. Fungi in Cheese Ripening ; Camembert and Roquefort (with bibliography). United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 82 (1906). DOANE. The Cold Curing of American Cheese, with digest of previous work on the subject. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 85 (1906). ISSAJEFF. Directions for Making Camembert Type of Cheese. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 98 (1907). VAN SLYKE and BOSWORTH. Some of the First Chemical Changes in Ched- dar Cheese. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Techni- cal Bulletin 4 (1907). DOANE. Development of Lactic Acid in Cheddar Cheese Making. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin no (1908). Dox. Proteolytic Changes in the Ripening of Camembert Cheese (with bibliography). United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 109 (1908). HARDING and PRUCHA. The Bacterial Flora of Cheddar Cheese. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 8 (1908). DOANE. The Influence of Lactic Acid on the Quality of Cheese of the Cheddar Type. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 123 (1910). LANGWORTHY. Cheese and Other Substitutes for Meat in the Diet. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1910, pages 359-370. SAMMIS, SUZUKI, and LAABS. Factors controlling the Moisture Content of Cheese Curds. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 122 (1910). DOANE. The Digestibility of Cheese. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 166 (1911). Dox. The Composition of True Roquefort Cheese. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 22, pages 239-242 (1911). CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 125 VAN DAM. The Cheese Mass of Edam Cheese. Centralblatt fur Bakteri- ologie und Parasitenkunde, II Abtheil, Vol. 32, pages 1-40 (1911). HASTINGS, EVANS, and HART. The Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 150 (1912). HASTINGS, EVANS, and HART. Studies on the Factors Concerned in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 25 (1912). LANGWORTHY and HUNT. Cheese and its Economical Uses in the Diet. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 487 (1912). NIERENSTEIN. Contribution to the Chemistry of Cheddar Cheese. Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 4, pages 225-244 (1912). SAMMIS and BRUHN. The Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese from Pas- teurized Milk. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 27 (1912). REICH. Cheese as a Food and its Economy. Archiv fiir Hygiene, Vol. 80, pages 169-195 (1913). THOM and CURRIE. The Dominance of Roquefort Mold in Cheese. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 15, pages 249-258 (1913). CURRIE. Flavor of Roquefort Cheese. Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 2, pages 1-14 (1914). HART, HASTINGS, FLINT, and EVANS. Relation of the Action of Certain Bacteria to the Ripening of Cheese of the Cheddar Type. Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 2, pages 193-216 (1914). Fermented Milks FUHRMANN. On Yoghurt. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 13, pages 598-604 (1907). ENGEL. Yoghurt or Sour Milk and its Method of Manufacture. Mol- kerei-Zeitung, Vol. 22, pages 1461-1463 (1908). HASTINGS. A Preliminary Note on a Group of Lactic Acid Bacteria not previously Described in America. Science, Vol. 28, page 656 (1908). HERSCHELL. On the Use of Selected Lactic Acid Bacilli and Soured Milk in the Treatment of Some Forms of Chronic Ill-health. Lancet, Vol. 175, pages 371-374 (1908). HERTER and KENDALL. The Fate of B. bulgaricus in the Digestive Tract of a Monkey. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 293-302 (1908). KLOTZ. Bacteriology of Yoghurt. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Par- asitenkunde und Infectiouskrankheiten, II Abtheil, Vol. 21, pages 392-398 (1908). 126 FOOD PRODUCTS LUERSSEN and KUHN. Yoghurt, the Bulgarian Sour Milk. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infectionskrankheiten, II Abtheil, Vol. 20, pages 234-248 (1908). PIFFARD. A Study of Sour Milks. New York Medical Journal, Vol. 87, pages 1-9 (1908) STANISLAUS. Kefir and its Preparation. American Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. 80, pages 20-26 (1908). BALDWIN. Influence of Lactic Acid Ferments upon Intestinal Putrefaction. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 7, pages 37-48 (1909). HASTINGS and HAMMAR. The Occurrence and Distribution of Organisms similar to the B. bulgaricus of Yoghurt. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infectionskrankheiten, II Abtheil, Vol. 25, pages 419-426 (1909). HEINEMANN. Lactic Acid as an Agent to Reduce Intestinal Putrefaction. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 52, pages 372-376 (1909). HEINEMANN and HEFFERAN. A Study~of B. bulgaricus. Journal of Infec- tious Diseases, Vol. 6, pages 304-318 (1909). HERTER. On the Therapeutic Action of Fermented Milk. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 74, pages 31-42 (1909). METCHNIKOFF. The Utility of Lactic Microbes with Explanation of the Author's Views on Longevity. Century Magazine, Vol. 79, pages 53- 58 (1909). WHITE and AVERY. Observations on Certain Lactic Acid Bacteria of the so-called Bulgaricus Type. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Parasi- tenkunde und Infectionskrankheiten, II Abtheil, Vol. 25, pages 161-178 (1909). ROGERS. Fermented Milks. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 171 (1911). HOHENADEL. Yoghurt, with especial Reference to Yoghurt Dried Prepara- tions. Archiv fiir Hygiene, Vol. 78, pages 193-218 (1913). Condensed and Dried Milks BOOTH. Dry Milk. Chemical Engineer, Oct., 1905. HISSEY. (Use of Dried Milk as an Infant Food in Summer.) Archiv fiir Kinderheilkunde, Vol. 46, pages 63-95 (1907). MERRILL. Economic Reasons for the Reduction of Milk to Powder. Jour- nal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. i, pages 540-545 (1909). JORDAN and MOTT. Condensed Milk and its Value for General Use and for CHEESE AND MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 127 Infant Feeding. American Journal of Public Hygiene, Vol. 20, pages 391-402 (1910). BALLNER and VON STOCKERT. Milk Powder. Zeitschrift fur Unter- suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 22, pages 648-651 (1911). FLEMING. Analysis of Dried Milk and Cream (with results on 10 samples). Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 543-544 (1912). STEWART. On Some Dried Milks and Patent Foods. Original Communi- cations, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 329-338 (1912). KUHL. Dried Milk Products. Hygienische Rundschau, Vol. 23, pages 709-713 (1913). WELLS. Condensed and Desiccated Milk. United States Department Agriculture, Yearbook for 1912, pages 335-344 (1913). Cream, Ice Cream, and Lacto MELICK. Variations in Fat Content of Separator Cream. Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 137 (1906). WILEY. Ice Cream. United States Public Health Service, Hygienic Labo- ratory, Bulletin 56, pages 249-312 (1909). ALEXANDER. Effect of Gelatin in Ice Cream. Zeitschrift fur Chemie und Industrie der Kolloide, Vol. 5, pages 101-103 ( I 99)- WHITE. The Grading of Cream. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1910, pages 275-280 (1910). MORTENSEN and GORDON. Lacto : A New and Healthful Frozen Dairy Product. Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 118 (1911). PENNINGTON, HEPBURN, et al. Bacterial and Enzymic Changes in Milk and Cream at o C. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 16, pages 331- 368 (1913)- CHAPTER V EGGS DOUBTLESS eggs of various kinds were among the very earliest of human foods. At the present time only the eggs of hens, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and turkeys are commonly used for food ; and of these, hens' eggs are so much more abundant than all others that, unless otherwise explained, all statements made here may be understood as referring to hens' eggs. Production The production of eggs is widely distributed. It is estimated that about nine tenths of all farms in the United States keep chickens and produce eggs. It will be seen from Fig. 7 that in poultry culture there is less tendency toward concen- tration in particular regions than is the case with many other food industries. It is difficult to measure the egg production of the country, Because eggs are so largely consumed by the producer or sold at retail without going through trade channels from which accurate statistics can be obtained. The United Census Bureau esti- mates the egg industry at seventeen and one half dozen eggs per capita per year, i.e. an average of 210 eggs per year or 4 eggs per week for each person in the United States. The value of these eggs (at point of production) is estimated by the Census Bureau at somewhat over $300,000,000 annually (for the year 1909, $306,689,000). ', 128 EGGS 129 130 FOOD PRODUCTS According to Pennington and Pierce l only the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mis- souri, Texas, Tennessee, and Kentucky produce more eggs than are consumed within their own borders, and this surplus pro- duction does not continue throughout the year, but only during those months which are most favorable to laying. From Ten- nessee and Kentucky most eggs are sent to market during the period from December to April ; from Southern Ohio, southern Kansas, Missouri, and Texas many eggs are shipped during March and April; in the later spring northern Kansas, Iowa, Illinois, and the Central States generally show their heaviest production, while for Michigan and Minnesota the season is still later. For the country as a whole, as judged by the data of the large markets, the months of March, April, May, and June are those in which the largest number of eggs are shipped by the producers. During these months many eggs are placed in cold storage to be sold later when the supply is less abundant and the price higher. Eggs are graded in the market chiefly according to freshness, cleanliness, size, cracks, and color. Freshness in this connec- tion means the firmness and state of preservation of the egg, rather than the mere length of time since laying. This freshness is determined chiefly by the process known as candling, which consists in looking through the egg against a bright light, such as an incandescent electric light, surrounded by an opaque shield in which is a hole shaped like an egg but slightly smaller in size. The egg is pressed firmly against this hole and, as the light shines through it, the yolk, the white, and the air-chamber may be ob- served. Figure 8 shows the appearance of a fresh scund egg and of eggs which have undergone different types of deterioration. Eggs sufficiently sound to pass the candling test may still be subdivided into many grades according to age, color, size, and 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1910. EGGS 131 cleanliness. It is these qualities rather than chemical composi- tion and nutritive value which determine the very different prices at which eggs are sold in the same market and at the same time. Chemical Composition Since the price of eggs is determined entirely by considerations other than chemical composition, and eggs are never produced primarily for industrial uses in which the components are separated from each other, there has been no economic reason for the study of the causes and extent of variations in composi- tion, and our information on these points is very meager as compared, for example, with the corresponding data for milk. Differences in composition seem usually due to different pro- portions of white and yolk. According to Langworthy the proportion of yolk (and therefore of fat) is greatest in the eggs of those breeds which are best adapted to fattening. Other things being alike, the edible portion of white-shelled and dark- shelled eggs shows essentially the same composition and nutritive value. The average composition of eggs of different kinds is given by Langworthy on page 132, the fuel values being recal- culated by the use of the now accepted factors.' The figures given for hens' eggs in the following table are the average of 60 American analyses compiled by Atwater and Byrant x in which the protein varied from 1 1.6 to 16.0 per cent and the fat from 8.6 to 15.1 per cent. The estimated averages of European writers fall well within these limits, but are apt to be somewhat higher in fat than the American average as given above. Thus the estimate of Konig, which is widely quoted, allows 12.55 P er cen t protein and 12.11 per cent fat. Speaking in round numbers we may say that the edible por- 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bul- letin 28. 132 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 8. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EGGS (LANGWORTHY) DESCRIPTION REFUSE .(SHELL WATER PROTEIN FAT ASH FUEL VALUE PER POUND Hen: Whole egg as purchased Whole egg, edible portion . White Percent II. 2 Percent 65-5 73-7 86 2 Percent 11.9 13-4 12 3 Percent 9-3 10.5 O 2 Percent 0.9 1.0 06 Calories 596 672 22T Yolk 40. c ltr.7 22.2 i.i 164^ White-shelled eggs as pur- chased IO.7 6<;.6 11.8 10.8 0.6 6qs Brown-shelled eggs as pur- chased IO.Q 64.8 II. II. 2 O.7 67; Duck: Whole egg as purchased . . Whole egg, edible portion . White 13-7 60.8 70.5 87.0 12. 1 13-3 II. I 12.5 14-5 O.O^ 0.8 I.O 0.8 730 835 20^ Yolk 45) . . . Per cent o-33 0-37 Chlorine (calc. as Cl) .... Per cent O.OQ O.IO Sulphur (calc. as S) Per cent O I 7 O. IO Iron (calc. as Fe) Per cent O.OO27 O OO3 Weight of loo-Ct^lorie portion . Grams 7 6. 68. Weight of loo-calorie portion . Ounces 2.7 2.4 Fuel value pe. pound .... . Calories 596. 672. Weight per average egg . . . . Grams 56. SO. Weight per average egg . . . . Ounces 2. 1.8 Fuel value per average egg . . . Calories 74- 74- The yolk is very much richer than the white in the calcium, phosphorus, and iron compounds which (for reasons explained in Chapter I) are especially significant in human nutrition. 138 FOOD PRODUCTS The phosphorus of the egg, and especially of the yolk, is pres- ent chiefly as phosphoproteins and phosphorized fats (" phos- phatids," " phospholipines ") in which form it is believed to be of greater food value, at least for the growing organism, than in the form of simple phosphates. (See Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chapter X.) The iron of the egg yolk is also present in organic combination, chiefly if not entirely as a constituent of protein. Bunge separated from egg yolk a protein substance having the com- position : Per cent Carbon 42.11 Hydrogen 6.08 Nitrogen 14-73 Sulphur 0.55 Phosphorus 5.19 Iron 0.29 Oxygen 31.05 This appeared to be the substance which during incubation is changed into haemoglobin and for this reason Bunge named it hamatogen. This is believed to be typical of the iron-protein compounds which, in a well-balanced diet, furnish all the iron needed for normal nutrition, and which apparently cannot be satisfactorily replaced by the iron of medicines and mineral waters. The function of these latter forms of iron seems to be that of a drug to stimulate the blood-making organs in the body, while the iron-protein compounds of the food furnish the material from which the haemoglobin of the blood is actually made. The richness of the egg yolk in this food-iron should therefore be recognized as adding much to the food value of the egg. The calcium compounds of the egg have been less studied than the iron and phosphorus compounds, perhaps because the utilization of calcium in the body seems to be less dependent upon the form in which it exists in the food than in the case of iron or phosphorus. It is certain that the calcium of the egg EGGS 139 is well utilized and the richness of egg-yolk in calcium con- stitutes another important factor in the resemblance between eggs and milk as food. The sulphur content of eggs is high higher even than would be anticipated from the protein content, since the chief protein of the white of egg (ovalbumin) is particularly rich in sulphur. This abundance of sulphur probably has its function as a source of supply for the sulphur-rich substances of the skin, claws, and feathers of the chick. From the standpoint of human nutrition, such a high sulphur content is not altogether an advantage, since it results in a considerable preponderance of the acid- forming elements (see Chapter I) over the base-forming elements of the egg. This makes the egg an " acid-forming " food. In this respect the egg is similar to meat and unsimilar to milk. In other respects, notwithstanding the fact that milk contains about 5 per cent of carbohydrate and eggs almost none, 1 there is an essential similarity between milk and eggs in those features of their chemical nature which are most directly connected with their food value. Nutritive Value and Place in the Diet That the egg is a food of high nutritive value will have been inferred from the above discussion of its chemical composition, and the nature of the nutrients which it contains. The digestibility of eggs has been studied experimentally but not in such detail as with some other articles of food. The results indicate that egg-protein is digested and absorbed to practically the same extent as milk or meat protein, about 97-98 per cent ; and that the fat of egg is digested about as thoroughly as milk fat and rather more thoroughly than meat fat. It is probable that eggs " soft cooked " at a temperature below that of boiling water are the most readily and rapidly digested, but 1 It is estimated that hens' eggs contain 0.25 to 0.5 per cent of glycogen, which, however, is not shown in the usual analyses. 140 FOOD PRODUCTS the ultimate thoroughness of digestion does not seem to be greatly influenced by the method of cooking. Thorough mastication is naturally most important in the case of eggs which have been " hard boiled " or cooked at a higher temperature. Nutritive value. There can be no doubt that the nutrients of the egg when absorbed from the digestive tract are of ex- ceptional value in the nutrition of the body tissues. The rich- ness of eggs in protein and fat and in compounds of phosphorus, iron, and calcium, all in forms especially adapted for conversion into body tissue, make the food value much greater than a com- parison based simply on amounts of protein and energy would indicate. Eggs are more nearly interchangeable with milk in nutritive value than is any other food, and they are richer than milk in iron. On account of this richness in iron (as well as the nature of the proteins and fats), eggs are among the first foods to be added to the milk diet of the young child, and if circumstances should arise in which no form of milk enters into the child's diet, the egg will come nearer furnishing a satisfactory substitute than will any other food. Normally, however, eggs should only supplement the milk of children's dietaries and should not be allowed to displace the milk to any appreciable extent. For the same reasons that it is adapted to the needs of the growing organism, the egg is also a very valuable food for adults who need to be " built up " ; hence eggs are usually prominent in well- arranged dietaries for undernourished anemic people and espe- cially for tuberculosis patients. In addition to their well-known high nutritive value, eggs are popular for other reasons. They are easily cooked in a variety of ways and by their admixture it becomes possible to make many modifications in the texture, flavor, and appearance of other food materials. Doubtless it is largely because the egg facili- tates so many things in cookery which would otherwise be diffi- cult or impracticable, that the demand for eggs keeps the price EGGS 141 almost always higher than their food value, for general use, would seem to warrant. We have seen, however, that the real food value of eggs is much greater than a mere statement of the protein and fat content and energy value would indicate. When all the factors of food value are taken into account, a dozen eggs may fairly be considered worth as much in the dietary as two pounds at least of meat, so that, except in times of special scarcity, eggs are apt to be more economical than meat though not so economical as milk. Trade Practices in the Egg Industry The great value of eggs as food, the importance of keeping them in the best possible condition until consumed, and the desirability of preserving a considerable proportion of the eggs produced in time of abundance in order that undue scarcity at the time of minimum production may be avoided, make the trade practices in the egg industry a matter of large public importance. For the individual consumer who wishes to preserve eggs when cheap, for use in time of scarcity, the best method is probably to keep the eggs immersed in a solution of water glass (sodium silicate) in a cool place. The water glass is usually purchased in the form of a concentrated (sirupy) solution of the sodium silicate which is diluted ten times its volume by addition of pure water. According to Bartlett, the diluted solution should not be strongly alkaline, and should have a specific gravity of about 1.045, m which case, fresh eggs readily sink and remain submerged. The silicate seals the pores of the eggshell and so prevents the entrance of organisms and greatly retards the passage of gases, so that oxygen is practically excluded. If the silicate is of the right composition and the eggs are kept com- pletely submerged in a cool place, the eggs should remain with- out apparent change in weight, composition, or flavor for many 142 FOOD PRODUCTS months, provided the eggs are clean, sound, and fresh when placed in the solution. Unless the consumer knows the origin of the eggs and is sure of their freshness at the start, the attempt to preserve cheap eggs by household methods is apt to result in disappointment. Whether they are to be used as soon as they reach the market, or preserved on a small scale in the household or on a large scale in cold-storage warehouses, it is in any case highly important that eggs be promptly and properly collected and handled so as to reach the consumer or the storage warehouse in good condition. At the present time are offered to the consumer, living in a large city, eggs of all degrees of freshness, from those which are guaranteed to have been laid within 24 hours of delivery to those which have been weeks in the hands of farmers and country merchants and perhaps after that several months in cold storage. Naturally the poultryman who makes eggs his chief crop is likely to market them much more systematically than is the general farmer who produces only a few more eggs than he uses. If a local egg dealer visits the farms frequently, he may be able to get the eggs to a refrigerated warehouse while still fresh, and if subsequent shipment is in refrigerator cars and storage always at low temperatures, the eggs may travel hundreds of miles and remain weeks or months in the hands of dealers without serious deterioration. At present, however, the bulk of the eggs going into wholesale trade is not so well handled. Pennington and Pierce estimate that there is a total loss of 7.8 per cent of the eggs marketed, as a result of improper han- dling, and of course this must be accompanied by a great decline in value of a large proportion of the eggs not totally lost. Irreg- ular gathering of eggs on the farm and storage at too high a temperature result in much deterioration. There is also apt EGGS 143 to be delay and exposure to too high a temperature in the ship- ment of the eggs from the small dealer to the large packer, since eggs in " less than car lots " (technically known as " 1. c. l.'s ") are apt to be handled as ordinary local freight. When the eggs reach the packer, they are cooled and candled. On the basis of their appearance on candling, they are classified as " fresh," " weak," " spots," and " rotten " (see Fig. 8) and sometimes still other categories. The marketable eggs are graded according to size, cleanliness, and to some extent fresh- ness. The eggs are then packed in cases or crates, usually hold- ing thirty dozen each, and shipped to a commission man at the market center from whom they pass to the wholesaler or jobber, and finally (perhaps after being kept in a cold-storage warehouse) to the retailer. Some of the methods which are being employed for the im- provement of conditions in the general egg trade are : better care of eggs on the farm and prompt delivery to egg dealers who will purchase for cash and base the price upon the quality of the eggs so that the farmer who uses good methods will profit accordingly ; early cooling and consistent maintenance of low temperature somewhat as in the marketing of milk ; reduction or elimina- tion of middlemen, even to the extent of direct contracts between the farmer and consumer for regular shipments either in dozens by parcel post or in crates by express. For the latter purpose crates holding 15 dozen (half the usual commercial size) are now being made. When direct contracts between producer and consumer are not practicable, it has been found that the losses and deteriora- tion involved in the old methods may be largely eliminated by making use of the facilities of the dairy industry for the prompt marketing of the farmers' eggs. Such marketing of eggs " through the creamery " has been described by Slocum l as follows : 1 Farmers' Bulletin 445, United States Department of Agriculture. FIG. 8. Appearance of different grades of eggs before the candle. A, fresh egg ; B, ^shrunken (old) egg ; C, " spot " egg (fungous growth) ; D, rotten egg. EGGS 145 How Eggs are Marketed through a Minnesota Creamery The marketing of eggs in this particular instance is accomplished through a creamery in the northern part of Minnesota. Because of the fact that farmers must take their milk or cream to the creamery at frequent and regular intervals, it is an agency especially well suited to obtaining the egg in a fresh condition from the farmer. As it seems that there must be other creameries so situated that they could readily put their eggs directly in the hands of a retailer in a fair-sized city with only a short shipment, it seems well to describe in detail the methods used in this case. The volume of eggs handled in this way would, of course, probably never become so great as to make them a factor in the mass of eggs now handled commercially. As stated before, the eggs are brought by the farmer directly to the cream- ery when bringing his milk. While this particular creamery is privately owned, it is essentially cooperative, in that its owner and manager is a far- sighted business man with other interests in the village, and he sees that the increased agricultural prosperity of the community will eventually be to his advantage. In consequence he is content to take a small profit for himself and to pay the farmers as liberally as possible for both their cream and eggs. Any patron of the creamery of any other person who will sign a required agreement may market his eggs in this way. At present about one hundred and thirty-five farmers are taking advantage of this method of disposing of their eggs. These egg patrons are scattered over quite a wide territory, one man finding it to his advantage to drive in 14 miles with his eggs. The agreement reads as follows : For the privilege of selling eggs to the creamery company and getting a market established for guaranteed fresh eggs, I, the undersigned, hereby pledge myself to comply in every way with the following rules : I agree to deliver eggs at the creamery that will not be to exceed 8 days old and to be picked in (gathered) twice every day. Eggs to be of uniform size (no under size or over size eggs). Eggs to be clean and to be kept in a cool, dry cellar. Brown eggs to be put in one carton and white in another and so marked. Each egg to be stamped on the side and carton to be stamped on the top. I agree not to sell any eggs that I have marked with the creamery com- pany's trade-mark to anyone else but the creamery company, and to return stamps and other supplies that have been furnished, in case I should decide to discontinue to sell eggs to the creamery company. It is readily discernible from the provisions of this agreement that the aim is to get a grade of uniform, clean, dependable eggs, of reasonable fresh- L 146 FOOD PRODUCTS ness. It might seem that requiring delivery once in eight days would not be frequent enough, but the nights in Minnesota even in summer are said to be usually cool, and this condition, together with the gathering twice a day and the storage in dry, cool cellars, must account for the fact that no complaints have been received on the score of staleness. To every person signing the agreement quoted above a small rubber stamp is given for use in stamping the eggs and the container. This stamp plays an important part in the system of marketing. It contains the name of the creamery, the creamery brand, and a serial number for each producer. By means of the stamp which thus appears on each egg and on each package it is possible to trace the product back to the individual producer, and in consequence to place the blame for any carelessness or poor quality where it belongs. A repetition of any offense of this nature may be sufficient ground for refusing to handle the eggs of that particular producer. When the creamery patron signs the agreement, and at such times there- after as may be necessary, he is furnished with a supply of cartons or con- tainers in addition to the rubber stamp. These cartons are the ordinary one-dozen size pasteboard egg boxes which are so shaped that they may be packed in a regular 3o-dozen egg case. The farmer takes these cartons home, and as the eggs are gathered each day, the clean, good-sized eggs are stamped and placed in them. When a carton is filled it is stamped on its upper side just the same as the eggs. When the farmer comes in to the creamery with his milk or cream he brings along as many cartons or dozens of eggs as he has. The man in charge of the creamery takes these eggs, examines the packages, and gives the farmer a check for the eggs delivered that day. The cartons are then packed in substantial returnable 3o-dozen egg cases and shipped to market by express. The shipping charges are paid by the consignee. The labor and cost of handling the eggs at the creamery are thus reduced to a minimum. The eggs are never candled, reliance being placed on the farmer to bring in good eggs. The cost of handling the eggs, including the cost of the carton, which is about one-half cent, is estimated to be i cent a dozen. The farmer in turn feels bound to be particular, knowing that any carelessness can be traced back to him and realizing that he thus jeopardizes his chances of continuing to dispose of his eggs in this manner. The advantage of this system of marketing, to the farmers or producers^ has come about in two ways : First, it has increased the price paid to them by compelling an improvement in quality, by selling more directly to the con- sumer, and by establishing a reputation for the eggs sold under the creamery brand. Second, it has brought about the realization that poultry raising by the general farmer is profitable, that the income from this source is consider- EGGS 147 able, and that it is capable of increase by keeping better fowls and giving them better care. In this particular Minnesota village during the year 1907, which was just previous to marketing the eggs by the new method, the eggs received by the storekeepers hardly more than supplied the local demand. In fact, during the whole of that year only 15 cases, or 450 dozen eggs, were shipped out of the village. During the year 1909 nearly $4,000 was paid out by the creamery for eggs, all of which were shipped away. The impetus which has been given the poultry business during the short time this method of market- ing has been practiced may be judged from the statement of the proprietor of the creamery that from present indications he expected the egg business to double or treble during the year 1910. The publication of this account by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture in 1910 gave an impetus to this method of marketing eggs and it is said to be extending rapidly. Special attention to the handling of eggs is not a new project. In Denmark a farmers' cooperative egg export association was organized in 1895 to better the market for Danish eggs by guaranteeing that eggs delivered under the association's trade- mark are strictly fresh and clean. This association handled in 1909 over 9,000,000 pounds of eggs. In Canada both the Dominion government and the Quebec government have taken up the matter and are doing what they can to forward similar cooperative work. In Australia one state has a system by which twenty-one associations of farmers each maintain a center at which a Secretary receives, tests, and grades the eggs, pays cash for them at the current market rate, and sends them to the government cold stores, receiving one cent per dozen eggs for his services. The government does the marketing and at the end of each quarter any profits are divided among those who supply the eggs (Powell). For several years the United States Department of Agriculture has been working through both the Bureau of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Chemistry for the improvement of the egg trade and now through the newly established Office of Markets, will doubtless be able to con- 148 FOOD PRODUCTS tribute still more toward the solution of the problems of this industry. Cold Storage and its Regulation The cold storage industry as now understood is a relatively recent development. While statistics of the industry in its earlier stages are not available, it is generally accepted that only since about 1893 have the quantities of food materials placed in cold storage been large enough to have an appreciable effect upon market conditions. It should be kept in mind that statements regarding the quantity of food " put in cold storage " do not include food kept cold while in preparation or transportation or while in the hands of the retailer, but refer, as a rule, specifically to the busi- ness conducted by cold storage warehousemen who rent space for the storage of food, which the owners wish to withhold from the market for a longer or shorter time. It is obvious that the owner's chief object in thus withholding his goods from the mar- ket is to await an increase of price; it should be equally plain that the owner cannot wish to hold the food so long as to have it lose value through deterioration. Hence the influence of cold storage in the food industry is more largely economic than hygienic, though occasionally there may be cases in which food becomes unwholesome in cold storage, either through being stored too long, or under improper conditions, or because the food was not suitable for storage in the first place. Of the total egg production of the United States it is estimated that about one seventh (13.5 to 15 per cent) are placed in cold storage in the sense explained above, i.e. are sent to storage warehouses to await higher prices instead of being sent directly to the retail trade. Referring to the estimates of egg production quoted earlier in this chapter, it will be seen how great is the quantity represented by one seventh of this total. The cold storage warehouses are apt to be located in close proximity to EGGS 149 some large market. On the occasion of an official investigation by a committee of the State Legislature it was reported that hundreds of millions of eggs were found in the cold-storage ware- houses of Hudson County, New Jersey, awaiting a rise of price in New York City. That egg production is much larger and prices much lower in spring and early summer than in autumn and winter is a well- JULY I AUG. I StPT. I OCT. I NOV. 1 DEC. I JAN. I FEB. FIG. 9. Relative quantities of eggs put in cold storage each month (by a Chicago firm). Reproduced by permission from Taylor's Prices of Farm Products (Bulletin 209 of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station). recognized condition which recurs regularly year after year. The supply of eggs received by a large city is more nearly in proportion to the surplus production than to the actual produc- tion of the large areas from which the supply comes. While the price of storage eggs is always below that of fresh eggs, it usually reaches a point sufficiently above the prices ruling in spring to yield a profit to the owner after paying the warehouse charges and insurance, and allowing for interest on the money value of the eggs. It is of course in anticipation of 150 FOOD PRODUCTS this profit that eggs are placed in storage at the time of greatest abundance in the spring and early summer. According to statistics of the United States Department of Agriculture four fifths (79.4 per cent) of all the eggs placed in cold storage are stored during April, May, and June. In the Chicago market, where large quantities of eggs are received from the Southwest as well as from the surrounding country, storage begins in March and (normally) nearly all the eggs stored are placed in storage during a period of four months. The relative quantities of eggs put into storage each month for a year by one Chicago firm are shown in Fig. 9. Since midsummer eggs do not keep well, few eggs are placed in storage in July and August even though the price may con- tinue low. Of the eggs placed in storage it appears from the statistics of the United States Department of Agriculture that only 22.6 per cent are taken out within 4 months of receipt, but that 75.8 per cent are taken out within 7 months, and 99.9 per cent within 10 months. Thus it appears that more than three fourths of all the eggs which are stored remain in storage over 4 months, but practically none remain in storage longer than 10 months. The average length of storage of eggs was found to be 5.9 months. The total cost of storage was estimated at 0.57 cent per dozen per month or 3.5 cents per dozen for the average length of storage. In general the stored eggs must sell, as Professor Taylor has pointed out, at a sufficient advance on their original price to pay all the costs of storage, and in addition " enough profit to induce a business man to give his attention to this business instead of doing something else." In the case of eggs as of other perishable foods the introduction of cold storage facilities has changed considerably the relative monthly consumption and made it more uniform throughout the year. Cold storage also tends toward greater uniformity of prices throughout the year, keeping up prices in the season EGGS 151 of maximum production, and diminishing somewhat the in- crease of price which occurs at the season of natural scarcity. The cold storage industry tends to raise the average or annual price level both because the costs of storage must in the long run be paid by the consumers and, because as the result of the steadying effect of cold storage upon prices a larger proportion of consumers now use eggs throughout the year, so that there is a much larger volume of business during the season of high prices. So far as this last factor is concerned it may fairly be considered that the standard of living is raised with the cost. The conclusion drawn from the statistical investigation con- ducted by the United States Department of Agriculture (1909- 1911) was that there is no just ground for complaint against the men who keep foods in cold storage except in so far as they sometimes speculate. Since the power to withhold goods from the market obviously constitutes a temptation to try to raise prices by creating an artificial scarcity (or exaggerating a scarcity which already exists), it was recommended that storage warehouses be required to make monthly reports to the govern- ment and that official estimates of the quantities of foods in storage be made public each month somewhat as the govern- ment crop reports now are. As yet there has been no action upon this recommendation, nor does the Federal government set any time limit upon cold storage. Several of the states however have laws which set such limits. Thus the laws passed by New York and New Jersey in 1911 limit the time of storage to ten months except in some particular instances. Effect of cold storage upon eggs. Meats and poultry when stored are often kept hard frozen, but this of course is not practicable for eggs. Eggs are best stored at temperatures just above their freezing point, which of course is below that of water. From 29 to 32 F. is the usual temperature for egg storage. At such temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become musty or moldy. To prevent this, the air in well- 152 FOOD PRODUCTS regulated storage rooms is kept moderately dry, as the result of which moisture evaporates through the shell and the contents of the egg shrink, the size of the air chamber becoming larger. This condition is detected by candling as already explained. Other results of long storage are an increased tendency of the egg albumen to adhere to the shell membrane, and sometimes a slight crystallization of certain of the components of the egg. One of the earliest prosecutions by the government after the Food and Drugs Act became effective in 1907 was against a dealer in Washington, D. C., for selling eggs " misbranded in that they were sold as strictly fresh when not so," the evidence against the eggs being " that the albumen clung to the shell membrane, that the air chamber was greatly enlarged, and that minute rosette crystals were found in the albumen and larger rosette crystals in the yolk." During storage the white of egg loses moisture not only by evaporation through the shell, but also by an osmotic transfer of water from the white to the yolk. Greenlee * has studied this point quantitatively and proposed a formula by means of which the length of time an egg had been in storage could be judged from the water content of the white if the temperature and humidity of the storage room were known. As a result of the transfer of water from the white to the yolk of the egg, the latter expands somewhat and the membrane which separates the yolk from the white is stretched and weakened and may break and permit a spreading of the yolk into the white, especially if the egg is carelessly handled. These results of storage may interfere seriously with the ap- pearance and behavior of the eggs when boiled or poached, and eggs showing these properties are rated considerably below fresh eggs in market value, but it should be noted that none of these effects is indicative of decomposition or unwholesome- ness or indeed of anything but purely physical changes. 1 Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 34, page 539. EGGS 153 That slight chemical changes may occur during the time that eggs are ordinarily held in storage seems probable in view of the somewhat different flavor and strength of white in fresh and storage eggs. Normally the change in flavor is no different from that which takes place in a much shorter time when the eggs are kept under household conditions. Just why the white of the storage egg shows somewhat less strength than that of the fresh egg is not entirely clear, but may be due to slight self- digestion (" autolysis ") such as occurs in animal organs and tissues generally when removed from the body and protected from the action of microorganisms. The slight changes in flavor and in behavior on cooking and the fact that storage eggs are sometimes fraudulently sold as fresh in the retail trade are sufficient to explain the prejudice against cold storage eggs which exists among many if not most consumers. But these properties should not be confused with those which are indicative of decomposition and unwhole- someness. As regards wholesomeness, there is no presumption against the cold storage egg as such. In general, storage eggs may be regarded as less desirable than those which are in reality " strictly fresh," but superior to many of the so-called " fresh " eggs which have not had the benefit of refrigeration. Many species of organisms, both bacteria and molds, have been found in decaying eggs. In general the spoilage which takes place rapidly at high temperatures is apt to be due chiefly to bacteria, while the mustiness which develops slowly at low temperatures is often due more largely to molds. An initial infection with bacteria may occur while the egg is still within the oviduct of the hen ; or organisms may gain entrance after the egg is laid, especially if it be allowed to lie in an unclean nest. The properties of the white and yolk with reference to bacterial growth are summarized by Buchanan as follows : 1 Egg white has been shown to possess distinct antiseptic properties. Many 1 Household Bacteriology, page 484. 154 FOOD PRODUCTS species of bacteria are quickly destroyed when mixed with it. This is not true of the yolk, for this is a favorable growth medium for many species of bacteria. It is not probable that this bactericidal property of egg white persists indefinitely, but it is doubtless responsible for the fact that the egg keeps as well as it does. Certain types of spoilage are due to developing embryos and are therefore avoided in the case of infertile eggs. Frozen and Dried Eggs Freezing and drying are the two general methods of preserving eggs when removed from their shells. Pennington and also Stiles and Bates, of the United States Department of Agriculture, have made special investigations of frozen and dried eggs and the following is based chiefly on their findings. Since the centers of egg production and egg consumption are now so widely separated, it is believed that, properly conducted, the freezing and drying of eggs is an industry which is economically desirable, especially so long as the prevalent methods of handling bring to the dealers in the producing sections great numbers of eggs which are wholesome but not available for long hauls. An- other important consideration is that frozen eggs can be stored at very much lower temperatures than can eggs in the shell. As Pennington points out, the handling of eggs which have been removed from their shells is somewhat analogous to the handling of milk, and like the milk industry, should be char- acterized by the most scrupulous cleanliness throughout. As in the case of milk, the sources of contamination are best demon- strated by bacteriological methods and can in the main be eliminated by the adoption of such precautions as a knowledge of sanitation would suggest cleanliness of surroundings and workers, frequent cleansing and drying of the fingers, use of appliances and containers which have been sterilized by means EGGS 155 of live steam, prompt freezing or drying of the egg after removal from the shell, etc. A complicating factor in this industry is that eggs do not come directly from the farm to the breaking establishment and even though the eggs be sorted by candling before going to the breakers, some of the eggs which have passed the candler prove to be distinctly bad when broken. In legit- imate establishments, such an egg is rejected and the receptacle into which it was broken as well as the fingers of the breaker are rinsed before being used again. Mere rinsing, however, is not sufficient to prevent the contamination of the next egg, since large numbers of bacteria from the bad egg remain in the re- ceptacle even though it looks and smells clean. Pennington rec- ommends that all the fittings of the room in which eggs are broken and all the appliances and receptacles used be of metal or other non-porous material adapted to easy and thorough clean- ing and steam sterilization. Each egg should be cracked on a steel blade and broken into a smooth clear glass cup. When a bad egg is encountered, the blade on which, and the cup into which, it was broken are at once replaced and sent away to be thoroughly washed and steam-sterilized. It is further recom- mended that all eggs received by the breaking establishment be first chilled below 40 F. for 24 hours, then candled and broken in cooled rooms and the liquid egg, while still cold (preferably below 45 F.), sent in its final container to a quick freezer. It is hardly necessary to say that such precautions have not always been observed in the past. Stiles and Bates describe the commercial process as they found it in 1911 in Bulletin 158 of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. Methods of drying eggs. Eggs which have been removed from the shell may, instead of being frozen, be dried and preserved in solid form. According to Stiles and Bates, the drying expels over nine tenths of the water originally present and one pound of the dry product represents the solids of from 36 to 40 average- 156 FOOD PRODUCTS sized eggs. They describe as follows four general methods found in commercial use : Instantaneous method. In many respects the instantaneous method is highly satisfactory from the sanitary point of view because of the quickness of drying. The high temperature used probably'destroys or retards the develop- ment of the less resistant organisms present in the liquid material. The liquid eggs are sprayed into a heated chamber at a temperature of about 160 F., where they are immediately reduced to a fine powder which is carried on by currents of air through cotton bags or other filtering devices, on which it is retained and finally falls down into bins. The powdered product usually contains from 3 to 5 per cent of moisture, and is ready to be packed in suitable containers for sale. Belt method. As suggested by the name, the belt method consists in dry- ing the liquid egg on an endless belt, made of zinc or galvanized iron strips. The belts vary in length according to the size of the rooms and amount of output. The liquid egg may be held in vats and artificially refrigerated with circulating brine, or the feeding device of the drying machine may be equipped with brine pipes to keep the product cold. The liquid egg is applied to the revolving belt through a feeding device which permits a thin film to spread evenly over its surface. This drying belt is inclosed within suitably constructed chambers into which heated filtered air is introduced. The temperature of the inclosed air surrounding the egg is about 140 F., and the time of drying can be largely governed by regulating the temperature of the air, the length of the belt, and the rate of its revolution. Each film of egg applied is usually dried in one complete revolution, and there are a large number of such films wound around the belt before separating the product from the drier. This is done by adjusting suitably-tipped metal scrapers in contact with the belt so as to remove the dried product, which then falls into drawers or bins. It requires from one and one-half to two hours to complete the first stage of the drying. The product is next spread on wire screens and further dried by placing it in a " finisher," which is a large metal cabinet kept at 100 to 110 F. After remaining in the finisher two or three hours, the dried product is sifted and graded according to the size of the flake, or it may be ground to a uni- form size or powdered. The finished product usually contains from 3 to 8 per cent of moisture. The goods are packed in suitable containers and placed in storage at low temperatures pending sale. Disk method. The disk method consists of exposing the liquid egg in a vat to a series of large slate disks arranged on a slowly revolving shaft or axis. There are serious objections to this method as ordinarily practiced, since the EGGS 157 egg is not fully protected from the outside air, and more frequent handling is necessary, thus subjecting it to greater exposure to contamination. Each drying requires several dippings, which are treated at about 100 F., the hot air being blown under the disks from the side. A much longer time is required to dry eggs by this method ; the machine may be run all day and the material further dried at room temperature during the night, to be scraped off the following morning and subsequently treated like other dried-egg products. Tray or board method. The tray or board constitutes one of the simplest methods of drying and is perhaps the least satisfactory. Liquid eggs are spread by hand over boards or trays and placed on shelves in especially con- structed cabinets. Hot air is forced through this cabinet, entering on one side and escaping on the other. It requires about six hours to make one drying at a temperature of 110 to 120 F. Several films are applied in each drying, and the whole coat is allowed to dry further overnight at room temperature, to be removed on the following morning, when it is graded and packed for market. From a sanitary viewpoint this method is highly unsatisfactory on ac- count of the accumulation of egg material in the cracks or crevices of the boards and trays, which are not washed, but simply " cleaned " by scraping off the residual matter. Stiles and Bates as the result of a large number of experiments to determine the bacterial content of frozen and dried products from eggs of different grades when made and stored under known conditions reached the following conclusions : (1) Under normal conditions, strictly fresh eggs contain few if any bacteria, and no appreciable numbers of B. coli in i cc. quantities. (2) Frozen egg products prepared in the laboratory in Wash- ington from second-grade eggs comprising " undersized," " cracks," " dirties," and " weak eggs " generally show a total bacterial content of less than 1,000,000 organisms per gram, while dried eggs prepared from the same grades usually contain a total bacterial content of less than 4,000,000 organisms per gram, both kinds containing but a very small number of B. coli; from a bacteriological standpoint they are considered an edible product. 158 FOOD PRODUCTS (3) Frozen products made from " light spots," " heavy spots," " blood rings," and " rots " show bacterial counts generally ranging from about 1,000,000 to 1,000,000,000, while dried eggs made from the same grades usually contain from 4,000,000 to more than 1,000,000,000 organisms per gram with a relatively high proportion of B. coli and streptococci in both the frozen and dried material, indicating an unwholesome article, unfit for food, and only useful for tanning leathers, or for other technical purposes. It should be noted, however, that testimony offered in the Federal courts, in a case in which condemnation of a shipment of frozen eggs was contested by the owner, tended to show that market eggs such as are accepted without question as food may contain many more bacteria, both in total numbers and of the B, coli type, than would be expected from the results found in the government laboratories. The frozen eggs in question contained large numbers of bacteria, a considerable proportion of which were of the B. coli type. The eggs, however, showed no taint in taste or odor and no bad effects when eaten. The ammonia content, which was held to be the best chemical evidence of decomposition, was about the same as in ordinary market eggs, viz., about 3 parts in 100,000. The Federal court decided in favor of the egg company, holding that the government had not shown the eggs to be filthy, decomposed, putrid, nor unfit for human food. REFERENCES I ATWATER and BRYANT. Composition of American Food Materials. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 28. HUTCHISON. Food and Dietetics. KONIG. Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. LANGWORTHY. Eggs and their Uses as Food. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 128. EGGS 159 LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. POWELL. Cooperation in Agriculture. TAYLOR. The Prices of Farm Products. Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 209. TIBBLES. Foods : Their Origin, Composition and Manufacture. WATSON. Farm Poultry. WILEY. Foods and Their Adulteration. II OSBORNE and CAMPBELL. Proteins of Egg Yolk and Egg White. Journal American Chemical Society, Vol. 22, pages 413-422, 422-450 (1900). PRALL. Preservation of Eggs. Zeitschrift Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 14, pages 445-481 (1907). WILEY, PENNINGTON, STILES, HOWARD, and COOK. Effects of Cold Storage on Eggs, Quail and Chickens. United States Department of Agricul- ture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 115 (1908). HASTINGS. The Egg Trade of the United States. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 140 (1909). SLOCUM. Marketing Eggs through the Creamery. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, 26th Annual Report, pages 239-246 (1909). PENNINGTON. A Chemical and Bacteriological Study of Fresh Eggs. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 7, pages 109-132 (1910). PENNINGTON and PIERCE. The Effect of the Present Method of Handling Eggs on the Industry and on the Product. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1910, pages 461-476 (1910). BERGER. Preservation of Eggs. Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 493~495 (iQ 11 )- HEPBURN. Handling, Transportation and Storage of Perishable Foodstuffs. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 171, pages 585-598; Vol. 172, pages 173-1^3, 369-398 (1911). LAMON. The Handling and Marketing of Eggs. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1911, pages 467-478 (1911). BARBIERI. The Coloring Matter of Egg Yolk. Comptes rendus, Vol. 154, pages 1726-1729 (1912). BARTLETT. Eggs preserved with Silicate of Soda. Original Communica- tions, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 51-56 (1912). BRYCE. Physics of Refrigeration. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 2, pages 829-833 (1912). 160 FOOD PRODUCTS GREENLEE. Osmotic Activity in the Egg of the Common Fowl. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 34, pages 539-545 (1912). McCoLLUM, HALPIN, and DRESCHER. Synthesis of Lecithin in the Hen and the Character of the Lecithin Produced. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 219-224 (1912). PENNINGTON. Practical Suggestions for the Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 98 (1912). PENNINGTON and ROBERTSON. A Study of the Enzymes of the Egg of the Common Fowl. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 104 (1912). Report of the Commission to Investigate the Subject of Cold Storage of Food. Boston: State, 1912, pages 308. RETTGER and SPERRY. Antiseptic and Bactericidal Properties of Egg White. Journal of Medical Research, Vol. 26, pages 55-64 (1912). STILES and BATES. A Bacteriological Study of Shell, Frozen and Desic- cated Eggs. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 158 (1912). WILSON. Economic Results of Cold Storage. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1911, pages 23-32 (1912). DE KEGHEL. Industrial Preservation of Eggs. Revue chimie industrielle, Vol. 24, pages 12-18; Abstracted in Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 7, page 3170 (1913). HOLMES. Cold Storage and Prices. United States Department of Agri- culture, Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin 101 (1913). EPPLER. Investigations on the Phosphatids of Egg Yolk. Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie, Vol. 87, pages 233-254 (1913). TRIER. Hydrolyses of Egg Lecithin. Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie, Vol. 86, pages 141-152 (1913). BEHRE and FRERICHS. Control of Trade Practices in the Egg Industry. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 27, pages 38-59 (1914). PENNINGTON. A Study of Commercial Eggs. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 51 (1914). CHAPTER VI MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS THE industry of slaughtering and meat packing is the largest manufacturing industry in the United States, its value of product for the year 1909 being estimated by the United States Census of Manufactures at $i,37o,568,ooo. 1 This includes only the products of the 1641 slaughter houses which were of such size as to be classified as manufacturing establishments ; it does not include the meats slaughtered by local butchers or on farms, which must of course be added if the estimate is to represent the value of the meat industry or the amount that consumers pay for meat. It was recently estimated by the United States Department of Agriculture that the annual meat bill of the United States approximates $2,300,000,000 and that an advance in price of i cent per pound costs consumers about $167,533,000 a year. The meat-packing industry as we now understand it began about fifty years ago, with establishments for the curing and packing of pork at Cincinnati, which was then the center of the corn belt. The close connection between corn growing and swine raising is illustrated by a comparison of Figs. 10 and n. With the development of railroad transportation, and the westward extension of the corn belt, the center of the pork- packing industry moved to Chicago; and with the introduction of refrigerator cars, slaughter of beef for transportation in cold storage has grown to be a business of great magnitude. 1 The second and third largest industries for the same year according to the same authority were: foundry and machine shop products, $1,228,475,000; lumber and timber products, $1,156,120,000. M l6l 162 FOOD PRODUCTS MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 163 I 64 FOOD PRODUCTS Beef Slaughter house methods. The animals are driven up an incline to the upper stories of the packing houses so that after slaughter the carcasses may be run from place to place by gravity. A few beeves at a time are let into the slaughter pen, where each is killed by a blow with a sledge-hammer. The floor of the pen then drops like an elevator, the beeves are rolled out upon the cement floor of the slaughter house, and the slaughter pen is raised into position again. The dead animal is at once strung up by the hind feet and, hanging head downward from a wheel on a track which runs from room to room, is bled, dressed, skinned, and the carcass divided in half without the necessity of any lifting or the use of power to transport it. The animal is bled by cutting the carotid artery, the blood being collected by itself and for the most part dried for fertilizer) though a part of it may find its way into food products. In Europe blood sausage is a common article of food; here it is not generally popular, but a small amount of blood is sold at a large profit in dried or condensed form in patent foods. Com- mercial albumen may also be made from this blood. Next the stomach and intestines are removed, the fat which adheres to them serving for the preparation of oleo oil or tallow, their contents going into the cheaper grades of tankage, their muscular walls after thorough cleaning being available for food as " tripe." The lining of the stomach, particularly of calves, may be used as a source of rennet. Then the hide, horns, and hoofs are removed and worked for oil, gelatin, glue, leather, hair, and horn, the trimmings going into the tankage for fertilizer. Finally the carcass is split down the backbone and the halves sent to the refrigerating room to be thoroughly chilled. Although not more than twenty minutes may elapse between the felling of the animal and the arrival of the dressed sides at MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 165 the refrigerator, the carcass has been through the hands of a dozen or more men, each one performing some particular opera- tion in a place arranged with special reference to the work to be done, and the convenience of handling the by-product obtained, the carcass being carried from place to place by the slight incline of the track on which its overhead trolley travels. In beef slaughtering, the " dressed weight " usually approxi- mates 60 per cent of the " live weight." That part of the beef which is to be sold in a fresh state is cut into quarters which, when properly trimmed and chilled, are loaded into refrigerator cars in which the quarters are hung from the ceiling as in an ordinary cold storage room; the properly refrigerated car is shipped under seal to the market where the meat is to be retailed. Here it may remain in cold storage for some time longer before being actually sold to the consumer. There is as yet no general concensus of opinion as to whether a limit should be set to the length of time which meat may be kept in cold storage. That some states set limits to the time of storage of all food was explained in the preceding chapter. Naturally meat which is frozen will keep with less change than that which is merely cold, and when it is to be kept for a considerable length of time, it should be not simply chilled to the freezing point of water, but actually frozen and kept in a hard-frozen condition. Cold storage. Richardson and Scherubel, chemists of one of the large packing houses in Chicago, have published 1 an ex- tended chemical, histological, and bacteriological investigation of beef kept frozen for over eighteen months. These investigators find, as had previously been found to be the case in plant tissues, that when the moist protoplasm freezes, the ice forms outside rather than inside the cell so that the 1 Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30, pages 1515-1564. I 66 FOOD PRODUCTS microscopic examination of frozen beef shows the muscle fibers shrunken and distorted and separated by layers of ice. Richard- son holds that even if bacteria could retain their activity at the temperature of frozen meat, they would be practically prevented from penetrating into the meat by these layers of ice which separate the muscle fibers, and that the histological changes which have sometimes been reported as occurring in frozen meats may be due to the mere physical effects of freezing, especially if followed by too rapid thawing, rather than to any bacterial change or other deterioration. Richardson and Scherubel's examinations of frozen meat for bacteria both by direct microscopic and by cultural methods indicated that beef which had been kept frozen even so long as 600 days was free from bacteria at a depth of one centimeter or more from the surface. On the other hand, in meat kept at 2-4 C. bacteria had penetrated to a depth of about one centi- meter in thirty days. The principal result shown by chemical analysis of a large number of samples of beef which had been kept frozen from 33 to 554 days (in a room whose temperature varied from 9 to 12 C.) was that the exterior of the meat dried to a depth of from 2 to 4 millimeters in the course of a year in the open freezer, after which the progress of the drying was extremely slow. The moisture content of the portion thus dried was about 30 per cent ; .that of the frozen meat as a whole was about 76 per cent the same as for corresponding cuts of fresh meat. There was no increase of ammoniacal nitrogen in the stored meats, which is considered by these investigators as strong evidence that there was no bacterial decomposition of the proteins. Neither was there any difference between the fresh and frozen meats as regards cold water extract, total nitrogen of cold water extract, or the coagulable proteins, the albumoses, or the nitrog- enous extractives. It is hardly necessary to point out that such good preservation MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 167 over long periods of time is not to be expected of meat which is merely refrigerated without being hard frozen. Other methods of preservation. Aside from cold storage, the principal means of preserving meats are drying, canning, and the application of preservative substances. Drying is, when applicable, a very effective method and has been long used. In some climates it is only necessary to cut the meat into strips and hang it out of doors. The " jerked beef " of the West was prepared in this way, and a mixture of dried lean meat with fat known as " pemmican " is concentrated food largely used by explorers. Dried meat is, however, by most people considered less attractive than fresh meat, and as a com- mercial process, the drying is slow and troublesome. Canned meat is now put up in large quantities. Often all of the meat of the fore quarter and the cheaper cuts of the hind quarter are canned. There is a tendency to use the leaner carcasses for canning, both because the fat beeves can be sold at better prices in the fresh state and because the leaner meats are more attractive than the fat meats when canned. Sometimes the beef is cured with salt, and usually also a little saltpeter, and then canned and sold as " canned corned beef." When preserved by canning alone without salting the product is sometimes called " canned roast beef "and sometimes simply " canned beef . " The following is an outline of the latter process. The meat selected for canning is cut into pieces usually one to four pounds each, depending upon the size of cans to be filled. It is then parboiled by putting into a tank with water and cook- ing with steam. Or the meat may be parboiled in larger pieces, then trimmed free from gristle and superfluous fat, and cut by machinery into approximately uniform pieces of a size pro- portioned to the size of the cans. The parboiling causes a shrinkage of the meat so that (while being cooked in water) its water content is diminished. That part of the fat which is cooked out of the meat rises to I 68 FOOD PRODUCTS the top and is skimmed off ; the extractives, the salts, and the very small amounts of protein which are extracted remain in solution in the water in which the meat is cooked, which thus becomes of value for the making of soup stock and meat extract. Wiley estimated that this cooking extracts a little over one part in one hundred of the protein of the meat, about one third of the " extractives," and up to one half of the salts. After the parboiled meat has been packed in the cans, enough of the " soup liquor," made by concentrating the water in which the meat was cooked, is added to fill the spaces between the pieces and to restore so far as is practicable the flavoring con- stituents lost in parboiling. This added " soup liquor " may also contain salt, sugar, or molasses as a flavoring. In canning tongue and in other cases in which the form of the product is to be preserved, the cans are filled by hand. In the case of corned beef and potted or deviled meat, the cans are filled by means of the " stuffing machine," which presses into the can approximately the required amount of meat, the weight being tested and adjusted as each can leaves the machine. The cap of the can is then soldered on by means of the " capping machine " which leaves the can completely sealed except for the small vent hole in the top. The cans are then tested for leaks and any leaks found are repaired by hand. The cans are then sent to vacuum machines by means of which the air is exhausted from within the can and the vent holes sealed while the can is in the vacuum chamber. From the vacuum machines the cans are run out on tables and again inspected to make sure that they are free from leaks. 1 The cans are now ready for " processing," which simply means the heating of the can and contents to a sufficient temperature to insure its keeping. The temperature and time of heating depend chiefly upon the size of the cans, but also to some extent 1 Any can found leaky at this point is repaired by hand, the vent reopened, and the can returned to the vacuum machine. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 169 upon other conditions. Probably the most usual temperature is between 225 and 250 F. (io7-i2i C.) which is usually attained by the use of superheated steam in large iron or steel boilers or " retorts." Sometimes an oil bath is employed as a means of maintaining the high temperature. In case the nature of the product makes it desirable to avoid a temperature above boiling, the processing may be accomplished by placing the cans for a sufficient length of time in large open kettles or tanks of water which are kept at the boiling point by means of steam coils. As the cans come hot from processing, the ends are slightly bulged outward owing to the expansion of the contents by the heating. They are now subjected to a cold spray until the contents are thoroughly chilled, when the ends of the can should be slightly concave and should remain so until the can is opened for use. Finally the cans are washed in alkali to remove any grease, then in water, dried, painted, and labeled. Many establish- ments maintain warm " test rooms " at a temperature of 100- 1 10 F. to which is sent a sample batch of each " run " of canned meats to make sure that no cans prove defective when kept for several days at this high temperature. A sound can should have slightly concave ends and should give only a dull sound when struck on the top or bottom ; a can which shows bulging ends and emits a hollow or drum-like sound when struck on the top or bottom is likely to be leaky, or improperly packed, or to contain material which has under- gone decomposition with production of gas. Application of preservative substances is another common and important method of preserving meats. The substances which have been used to any considerable extent for this purpose are salt, saltpeter, boric acid or borates, sulphites, vinegar, wood smoke, and sugar. Salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke are condimental as well as preservative in their properties, and 1. "Neck. 2. Chuck. 3. Elba. 4. Shoulder clod. 5. Fore shank. 6. Brisket. 7. Cross ribs. 8. Plate. 9. Navel. 10. Loin. 11. Flank. 12. Rump. 13. Round. 14. Second cut round. 15. Hind shank. FIG. 12. Cuts of beef. (Atwater and Bryant.) U. S. Department of Agriculture MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 171 there is no restriction upon their use. Saltpeter, in addition to its preservative action, has the property of maintaining or even intensifying the red color of beef. Under the present laws it has been ruled that saltpeter may be used pending further in- vestigation regarding its wholesomeness. Boric acid and borax, which when used are employed purely for their preservative effect, and sulphites, which act both to preserve and to give the meat a bright appearance, are not permitted under the pres- ent United States meat inspection law. In England and Canada, on the other hand, no objection is made to the use of limited amounts of boric acid or of borax. Composition of beef. The data given in Table 12 on the composition of the various cuts and preparations of beef are based on the American analyses compiled by Atwater and Bryant. Their designation of cuts was less detailed and in some respects slightly different from that shown earlier in the chapter. The designations used by Atwater and Bryant and in the table which follows here, are as indicated in Fig. 12. In the analyses recorded by Atwater and Bryant and sum- marized here, all the fat found on the respective parts of the dressed carcasses was included, whereas in practice much of this fat is trimmed off by the retail butcher, usually still more is removed during the preparation of the meat in the kitchen, and any distinct layers of fat which remain on the meat when served at the table are quite likely to be left uneaten or at least less completely eaten than is the lean portion of the beef. For these reasons the composition of the various cuts, as shown by the averages of all analyses, or analyses of samples classified as medium fat, are apt to show a very much higher fuel value than is in practice available to the consumer of the meat. The accompanying tables show the averages of all analyses for each cut and also, wherever available, average analyses for those specimens of the cut which were described as lean or very lean. 172 FOOD PRODUCTS The lean samples contain more than an average amount of protein while the average samples contain more fat than is usually eaten, so that each exaggerates the food value in one way or the other. In dietary calculations or in comparing the nutritive economy of beef and other foods it might perhaps be wise to credit the beef with the protein content shown by the average of all analyses and the fuel value shown by the analyses of the lean specimens. TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF 1 DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF 1 ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H < h CARBOHYDRATES >9 B Sa 5? in "* NX 6.25 Sg T3 C V >> BEEF, FRESH Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Col. Brisket, medium fat : Edible portion .... 3 54-6 15-8 16.0 28.5 9 1450 As purchased .... 3 23-3 41.6 I2.O 12.2 22.3 .6 1130 Chuck, including shoulder, very lean : Edible portion .... i 73-8 22.3 21-3 3-9 I.O 564 As purchased .... i 18.4 60.2 18.2 17.4 3-2 .8 461 Chuck, including shoulder, lean : Edible portion .... 2 7i-3 20. 2 19-5 8.2 I.O 702 As purchased .... 2 19-5 57-4 I6. 3 15-7 6.6 .8 565 Chuck, including shoulder, all analyses : Edible portion .... 13 65.0 IQ.2 I8. 7 iS-4 9 978 As purchased .... 12 17-3 54-o 15-8 15-5 12-5 7 797 Chuck rib, very lean : Edible portion .... I 75-8 22.2 21.7 1.4 i.i 460 As purchased .... I 16.7 63.1 18.6 18.1 1.2 9 387 Chuck rib, lean : Edible portion .... II 7i-3 19-5 19.4 8-3 I.O 693 As purchased .... II 22.7 SS-i 15-1 15-0 6. 4 .8 535 'Based on Atwater and Bryant's Composition of American Food Materials. Bulletin 28 (Revised). Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 173 TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H to CARBOHYDRATES ' FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence BEEF, FRESH Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Col. Chuck rib, all analyses : Edible portion .... 21 66.8 19.0 18.8 13-4 1.0 892 As purchased .... 21 19. 1 53-8 15-3 15.2 II. I .8 730 Flank, very lean : Edible portion .... 3 70.7 25-9 24.8 3-3 1.2 605 As purchased .... 3 3-5 68.2 24.9 23-9 3-3 I.I 587 Flank, lean : Edible portion .... 3 67.8 20.8 19.9 "3 I.O 840 As purchased .... 3 1.4 66.9 20.5 19.7 II.O 1.0 821 Flank, all analyses : Edible portion .... 16 59-3 19.6 18.7 21. 1 9 1217 As purchased .... 16 5-5 56.1 18.6 17.7 19.9 .8 1148 Loin, very lean : Edible portion .... 3 70.8 24.6 24.2 3-7 i-3 593 As purchased .... 3 23.0 54-6 18.8 18.5 3-o 9 463 Loin, lean : Edible portion .... 12 67.0 19.7 19-3 12.7 I.O 877 As purchased .... II 13-1 58.2 17.1 16.7 ii. i 9 764 Loin, all analyses : Edible portion .... 56 61.3 19.0 18.6 19.1 I.O 1125 As purchased .... 55 13-3 52.9 16.4 16.0 16.9 9 988 Loin, boneless strip : * . . 6 66.3 17.8 16.2 16.7 .8 IOO2 Loin, sirloin butt : x . . 6 62.5 19.7 18.9 17.7 9 IO8O Loin, porterhouse steak : 1 Edible portion .... 7 6b.o 21.9 18.6 20.4 I.O 1230 As purchased .... 7 12.7 52.4 19.1 16.2 17.9 .8 1075 Loin, sirloin steak : 1 Edible portion .... 21 61.9 18.9 18.6 18.5 I.O IIOO As purchased .... 21 12.8 S4-o 16.5 16.2 16.1 9 960 Loin, tenderloin .... 6 59-2 16.2 15-6 24.4 .8 1290 Navel, very lean : Edible portion .... I 68.6 3-7 29.4 .6 1.4 582 As purchased .... I 2.9 66.6 29.8 28.5 .6 1.4 565 All loin parts are included under analyses of " loin." 174 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF Continued DESCRIPTION (K c a > M jj PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES ' FUEL VALUE PER POUND y ^ gz !"= B M X X I* BEEF, FRESH Per Per Per Per Per Per Co/. cent cent cent cent cent cent Neck, lean : Edible portion .... 2 7O.I 21.4 20.5 8.4 I.O 731 As purchased .... 2 2Q-S 49-5 I5-I 14.4 5-9 7 515 Neck, all analyses : Edible portion .... IS 66.3 20.7 2O.O 12.7 I.O 894 As purchased .... IS 31.2 45-3 14.2 13.6 9.2 7 633 Plate, very lean : Edible portion .... 3 69.1 22.8 22.1 7-7 i.i 728 As purchased .... 3 37-4 43-o 13-6 13-2 5-7 7 479 Plate, lean : Edible portion .... 3 6S-9 15-6 14.6 18.8 7 1051 As purchased .... 3 17-3 54-4 13.0 12.2 iS-5 .6 869 Plate, all analyses : Edible portion .... I? 56.3 16.8 16.0 26.9 .8 1390 As purchased .... 17 19.8 44.4 i3-i 12.5 22.7 .6 1165 Ribs, very lean : Edible portion .... 4 70.9 25.0 24.4 3-5 1.2 597 As purchased .... 4 23-3 54-2 19.4 18.9 2-7 9 462 Ribs, lean : Edible portion .... 6 67.9 19.6 19.1 12.0 I.O 845 As purchased .... 6 22.6 52.6 iS-2 14.8 9-3 7 654 Ribs, all analyses : Edible portion .... 35 57-o 17.8 i?-5 24.6 9 1338 As purchased .... 34 2O. I 45-3 14.4 13-9 2O.O 7 1078 Rib rolls, lean, as purchased 3 69.0 20. 2 19-5 10.5 I.O 795 Rib rolls, all analyses, as purchased .... ii 64.8 19.4 18.8 15-5 9 985 Rib trimmings, all analyses, as purchased . . . ii 34-i 35-7 II.O 10.5 19.2 5 984 Ribs, cross, very lean : Edible portion .... i 65-8 18.0 18.4 14.9 9 935 As purchased .... i 12.8 57-4 15-6 1 6. i 13.0 7 814 Ribs, cross, all analyses : Edible portion .... 2 54-9 iS-9 1 6.1 28.2 .8 1440 As purchased .... 2 12.5 48.0 13-8 14.0 24.8 7 1260 MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 175 TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H fe CARBOHYDRATES ' FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 IB I* m BEEF, FRESH Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent Round, very lean : Edible portion .... 6 73-6 22.6 22.3 2.8 1-3 525 As purchased .... 6 10.6 65-9 2O.2 IQ.Q 2.4 1.2 464 Round, lean : Edible portion .... 3i 70.0 21-3 21.0 7-9 i.i 709 As purchased .... 29 8.1 64.4 IQ-5 lp.2 7-3 I.O 652 Round, all analyses : Edible portion .... 62 67.8 2O.9 20.5 10.6 I.I 812 As purchased .... 54 8-5 62.5 19.2 18.8 9.2 I.O 724 .Round, second cut: Edible portion .... 2 69.8 2O.4 20.5 8.6 I.I 721 As purchased .... 2 iQ-5 56.2 16.4 16.5 6.9 9 58o Rump, very lean : Edible portion .... 4 71.2 23.0 22.5 5-i 1.2 626 As purchased .... 4 14-3 60.9 19-5 19.1 4.6 I.I 542 Rump, lean : Edible portion .... 4 65-7 2O-9 IQ.6 13-7 I.O 938 As purchased .... 3 14.0 56.6 I9.I i?-5 II.O 9 796 Shank, fore, all analyses : Edible portion .... IS 70.3 21.4 20.7 8.1 9 719 As purchased .... IS 38.3 43-2 13.2 12.7 5-2 .6 452 Shank, hind, all analyses : Edible portion .... 14 69.6 21.7 20.7 8-7 I.O 749 As purchased .... H 55-4 31-0 9-7 9-3 3-9 4 335 Shoulder and clod, very lean : Edible portion .... 4 76.1 21.3 21.5 i-3 i.i 440 As purchased .... 4 23-3 58.3 16.3 16.5 I.O 9 337 Shoulder and clod, lean : Edible portion .... 5 73-1 20.4 20.4 5-4 i.i 59i As purchased .... 4 18.8 59-4 16.4 16.5 4-4 9 477 Shoulder and clod, all analyses : Edible portion .... 28 68.9 2O.O 19.7 10.3 i.i 784 As purchased .... 23 17.4 57-0 I6. S 16.3 8.4 9 643 176 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES 1 1 PROTEW H & CARBOHYDRATES w FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence BEEF, FRESH Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Col. Fore quarter, very lean : Edible portion .... 2 74-1 22.1 21-3 3-6 I.O 548 As purchased .... 2 30-3 51-5 15-4 14.8 2.7 7 390 Fore quarter, lean : Edible portion .... 4 68.6 18.9 18.4 12.2 .8 841 As purchased .... 4 22.3 53-3 14.7 14-3 9-5 .6 655 Fore quarter, all analyses : Edible portion .... 18 62.5 18.3 17.7 18.9 9 IIOO As purchased .... 18 2O.6 49-5 14.4 14.1 15-1 7 878 Hind quarter, very lean : Edible portion .... 2 72.0 24.0 23-3 3-5 1.2 578 As purchased .... 2 2I.O 56.9 19.0 18.4 2.8 9 459 Hind quarter, lean : Edible portion .... 4 66.3 2O.O 19-3 13-4 I.O 910 As purchased .... 4 16.6 55-3 I6. 7 16.1 II. 2 .8 760 Hind quarter, all analyses : Edible portion .... 18 62.2 19-3 18.6 I8. 3 9 IIOO As purchased .... 18 16.3 52.0 16.1 15-5 IS-4 .8 921 Sides, very lean : Edible portion .... 2 73-i 23.0 22.3 3-5 i.i 560 As purchased .... 2 26.0 S4-o 17.0 16.5 2.7 .8 419 Sides, lean : Edible portion .... 4 67.2 19-3 18.7 13.2 9 890 As purchased .... 4 iQ-S 54-1 iS-5 I5-I 10.6 7 7H Sides, all analyses : Edible portion .... 18 62.2 18.8 18.1 18.8 9 IIIO As purchased .... 18 18.6 50.5 15.2 14.7 iS-5 7 909 Miscellaneous cuts, free from all visible fat . . . u 73-8 22.4 22.1 2.9 1.2 525 Clear fat 7 1 1 A. 41 A A.I 82.1 4 3421; Soup stock / I J-O'T 1 89.1 T** S.8 I.e ?.6 O" o 1 66 BEEF ORGANS J *** .j O Brain, edible portion . . I 80.6 8.8 9.0 9-3 i.i 54 Heart, edible portion . . 2 62.6 16.0 16.0 20.4 I.O 1125 MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 177 TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS or BEEF Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN a CARBOHYDRATES n < FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX6.2S By differ- ence BEEF ORGANS Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Cal. Kidney, as purchased . . I 19.9 63.1 13-7 1.9 4 I.O 333 Beef liver, as purchased . . I 7-3 65.6 20. 2 3-i 2-5 i-3 539 Lungs, as purchased . . I 79-7 16.4 16.1 3-2 I.O 438 Marrow, as purchased . I 3-3 2.2 2.6 92.8 i-3 3830 Sweetbreads, as purchased I 70.9 16.8 15-4 12. 1 1.6 800 Suet, as purchased . . . 9 13-7 4-7 4.2 8l.8 3 3420 Tongue : Edible portion .... 3 70.8 18.9 19.0 9.2 I.O 719 As purchased .... 3 26.5 Si.8 14.1 14.2 6. 7 .8 530 BEEF, COOKED Round steak, fat partly removed 18 63.O 27.6 27.1 7 7 1.8 8i<; Sirloin steak, baked . . . i V O ' v 63-7 / * v 23-9 /J 24.7 it IO.2 1.4 " J 850 Loin steak, tenderloin, broiled, edible portion 6 54-8 23-5 23.6 2O.4 1.2 1260 Sandwich meat .... 3 58.3 28.0 27.9 I I.O 2.8 958 BEEF, CANNED Chili-con-carne i 7C.4 13. 3 A 6 4..O 2 7 ^O2 Collops, minced .... i / J **T 72.3 *j*O 17.8 . T..VS 6.8 T" v I.I * / 1.9 y* m 611 Corned beef IS 51-8 26.3 25-5 18.7 4.0 1240 Dried beef 2 44-8 39-2 38.6 5-4 II. 2 932 Kidneys, stewed .... 2 71.9 18.4 5-i 2.1 2-5 57 Luncheon beef .... I 52.9 27.6 26.4 15-9 4.8 1150 Roast beef 4 S8'q 2? O 2f o 14.8 i ? 1070 Rump steak ^ I O'-'-y c6 3 *3y 24. 3 ~ j *** 2 ? C 18 7 ^o T C 1 200 Sweetbreads I O^-O 69.0 ^O 20. 2 ^ J'J 10 ? x "* / O ^ **0 2.O 7ce Tongue, ground .... 6 49-9 21.4 J y-j 21.0 y*o 25.1 4.0 / jo 1410 Tongue, whole e CT -Z IQ C 27 ? 22 2 _ A O T 2OO Tripe 2 o A *o 7/1 6 V'3 16.8 *'J 16.4 i O"' 8 t; ZJ..VJ e X O 6C2 BEEF, CORNED AND PICKLED /T" w f*3 "0^ Corned beef, all analyses : Edible portion .... IO 53-6 15-6 15-3 26.2 4-9 1350 As purchased .... IO 8.4 49.2 14-3 I4.O 23.8 4.6 1230 178 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 12. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF BEEF Continued h PROTEIN 1 g g w N M , i 11 DESCRIPTION 3i B a < 5 Is H te i B 1 > II A ? X "ri D s w 5 W < BEEF, CORNED AND PICKLED Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per eenf Ca/. Spiced beef, rolled . . . i 30.0 I2.O II.8 51-4 6.8 2320 Tongues, pickled : Edible portion .... 2 62.3 12.8 12.5 20.5 4-7 1070 As purchased .... 2 6.0 58.9 II.9 n.6 19.2 4-3 IOOO Tripe A. 86.? II. 7 11.8 1.2 .2 .7 26? BEEF, DRIED, ETC. ^ ""Jj / O o Dried, salted, and smoked : Edible portion .... 7 54-3 30.0 30.1 6-5 9.1 810 As purchased .... 2 4-7 53-7 26.4 25.8 6.9 8.9 761 Veal Veal is the meat of calves which under the United States Meat Inspection Regulations must be not less than three weeks old at the time of slaughter. 1 Meat of calves less than three weeks old is popularly known as " bob veal." As a food veal is generally regarded in this country with less favor than beef, and with greater suspicion the younger the animal. Thus Gilman Thompson writes : " Veal, especially when obtained from animals killed too young, is usually tough, pale, dry, and indigestible." According to Friedenwald and Rlihrah: "Veal is tough and indigestible, especially when obtained from animals that are killed too young. It differs considerably in flavor from beef, and contains more gelatin than the latter. As in many persons veal has a tendency to 1 In Europe no objection is raised to the use of veal from younger calves. Edel- mann states that in Germany calves are commonly slaughtered at from three days to three weeks of age. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 179 produce indigestion, it is to be avoided in all cases of digestive debility." Laboratory experiments upon the digestibility and whole- someness of veal are now (1913-1914) in progress in the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agri- culture. The method of cutting up a side of veal is quite different from that followed in the case of beef. The cuts recognized in the tables of Atwater and Bryant are shown in Fig. 13. 1. Neck. 2. Chuck. 3. Shoulder. 4. Fore shabk. 5. Breast. FIG. 13. Cuts of veal. 6. Ribs. 7. Loin. 8. Flank. 9. Leg. 10. Hind shank. (Atwater and Bryant.) Agriculture. U. S. Department of The average composition of the various cuts of veal, based on the results of American analyses compiled by Atwater and Bryant, is given in Table 13. 1 80 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 13. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF VEAL DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF 1 ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN & CARBOHYDRATES H >s. U4 fc NX6.2S By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Breast, very lean : Edible portion .... I 73-2 23.1 23.1 2-5 1.2 522 As purchased .... I 46.8 38.9 12.3 12.3 i-3 7 276 Breast, lean : Edible portion .... 3 70.3 21.2 20.7 8.0 I.O 711 As purchased .... 3 23-4 S4-o IS-7 1 6. 1 6.2 7 538 Breast, all analyses: Edible portion .... 8 68.2 20-3 19.8 II.O I.O 8l 7 As purchased .... 8 24-5 Si-3 15-3 14.8 8.6 .8 629 Chuck, lean : Edible portion .... i 76.3 2O.6 1.9 1.2 451 As purchased .... i I9.O 61.8 16.7 1.6 9 368 Chuck, all analyses : Edible portion .... 7 73-8 19.7 19.4 5-8 I.O 595 As purchased .... 7 IQ.O 59-8 16.0 15-7 4-7 .8 483 Flank, all analyses, as pur- chased 6 66.9 20. i 19.4 12.7 I.O 884 Leg, lean : Edible portion .... 9 73-5 21.3 21.2 4.1 1.2 554 As purchased .... 9 Q.I 66.8 19.4 IQ-3 3-7 I.I 503 Leg, all analyses : Edible portion .... 19 71.7 20.7 20.5 6-7 I.I 649 As purchased .... 18 II.7 63-4 18.3 18.1 5-8 I.O 569 Leg, cutlets : Edible portion .... 3 70.7 20.3 20.5 7-7 I.I 683 As purchased .... 3 3-4 68.3 20. i 19.8 7-5 I.O 671 Loin, lean : Edible portion .... 5 73-3 20.4 19.9 5-6 1.2 599 As purchased .... 5 22.0 57-1 iS-9 I 5 .6 4-4 9 468 Loin, ah 1 analyses : Edible portion .... 13 69-S 19.9 19.4 10.0 I.I 770 As purchased .... 13 l8.p 56-3 16.1 15-7 8.2 9 627 Neck: Edible portion .... 6 72.6 20.3 19.5 6.9 I.O 650 As purchased .... 6 31-5 49.9 13-9 13-3 4-6 7 440 MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 181 TABLE 13. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF VEAL Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H to in a I O u H < FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Rib, medium fat : Edible portion .... 9 72.7 20.7 20.1 6.1 I.I 625 As purchased .... 9 25-3 54-3 15-5 15-0 4.6 .8 469 Rib, all analyses : Edible portion .... 12 69.8 20.2 19.7 9.4 i.i 750 As purchased .... 12 25.0 52.3 15-2 14.8 7-i .8 566 Rump : Edible portion .... I 62.6 19.8 2O.I 16.2 i.i IO2O As purchased .... I 30.2 43-7 13-8 I4.O n-3 .8 712 Shank, fore : Edible portion .... 6 74.0 2O.7 IQ.8 5-2 I.O 588 As purchased .... 6 40.4 44.1 12.2 n.8 3-i .6 347 Shank, hind, medium fat : Edible portion .... 6 74-5 2O.7 19.9 4.6 I.O 563 As purchased .... 6 62.7 27.8 7-7 7-4 i-7 4 209 Shoulder, lean : Edible portion .... 2 73-4 20.7 20.7 4.6 i-3 563 As purchased .... 2 18.3 59-9 16.9 16.9 3-9 I.O 466 Fore quarter : Edible portion .... 6 71.7 2O.O 19.4 8.0 9 690 As purchased .... 6 24-5 54-2 IS-I 14.6 6.0 7 519 Hind quarter : Edible portion .... 6 70.9 20.7 19.8 8-3 I.O 7iS As purchased .... 6 20-7 56.2 16.2 15-7 6.6 .8 565 Side, with kidney, fat, and tallow : Edible portion .... 6 71-3 2O.2 19.6 8.1 I.O 698 As purchased .... 6 22.6 55-2 IS-6 I5-I 6-3 .8 540 VEAL ORGANS Heart, as purchased . . i 73-2 16.8 16.2 9.6 I.O 697 Kidneys, as purchased . . 2 75-8 16.9 16.5 6.4 i-3 568 Liver, as purchased . . . 2 73-o 19.0 20.4 5-3 i-3 S6i Lungs, as purchased . . . I 76.8 17.1 17.1 S-o i.i Si4 182 FOOD PRODUCTS Mutton and Lamb Sheep and lambs are slaughtered by bleeding and then dressed in much the same manner as cattle. The dressed weight is usually 45 to 50 per cent of the live weight. According to Atwater and Bryant the cuts in a side of mutton or lamb number but six, three in each quarter. The " loin " 1. Neck. 2. Chuclc. 3. Shoulder. 4. Flank. 6. Loin. 6. Leg. FIG. 14. Cuts of lamb and mutton. (Atwater and Bryant.) of Agriculture. U. S. Department extends forward to the shoulder blades and the " flank " is made to include all the under side of the animal. (See Fig. 14.) The term " chops " is used to designate portions of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder which are cut or " chopped " by the butcher into pieces suitable for broiling or frying. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 183 The following table (Table 14) gives the composition of cuts of mutton and lamb according to Atwater and Bryant. TABLE 14. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF LAMB AND MUTTON DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE M H PROTEIN n KDRATES 1 M >l $M p W 6* ^ >o X fe "a g 18 PQ h CARBOH- Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col cent cent cent cent cent cent cent vu. LAMB, FRESH Breast or chuck : Edible portion .... I 56.2 19.1 IQ.2 23.6 I.O 1310 As purchased .... I 19.1 45-5 15-4 15-5 19.1 .8 1057 Leg, hind, medium fat : Edible portion .... 2 (>3-9 IQ.2 I8. 5 16.5 I.I IO22 As purchased .... 2 17.4 52.9 15-9 15-2 13-6 9 844 Loin, without kidney and tallow : Edible portion .... 4 53-i 18.7 I 7 .6 28.3 I.O 1495 As purchased .... 4 14.8 45-3 16.0 15.0 24.1 .8 1274 Neck: Edible portion . . . . I 56.7 17.7 17-5 24.8 I.O i33'4 As purchased .... i 17.7 46.7 14.6 14.4 20.4 .8 1098 Shoulder : Edible portion .... I 5i.8 18.1 17-5 29.7 I.O i54i As purchased .... I 20.3 41-3 14.4 14.0 23.6 .8 1225 Fore quarter : Edible portion .... I SS-i 18.3 18.1 25-8 I.O 1386 As purchased .... I 18.8 44-7 14.9 14.7 2I.O .8 1128 Hind quarter : Edible portion .... I 60.9 19.6 19.0 I9.I I.O "37 As purchased .... I iS-7 Si-3 16.5 16.0 r6.i 9 957 Side, without tallow : Edible portion .... 3 58.2 17.6 17.6 23.1 i.i 1263 As purchased .... 3 iQ-3 47.0 14.1 14.2 18.7 .8 IO2O LAMB, COOKED Chops, broiled : Edible portion .... 4 47.6 21.7 21.2 29.9 i-3 l6lS As purchased .... i I3-S 40.1 18.4 I8. 5 26.7 1.2 1425 Leg, roast i 67.1 19.7 19.4 12.7 .8 876 1 84 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 14. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF LAMB AND MUTTON Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER i'j PROTEIN $ u. CARBOHYDRATES 1 11 ~ j - - 2 NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per C/tl cent cent cent cent cent cent cent VflPl Fore quarter : Edible portion .... IO 52.9 15-6 15-3 3-9 9 i54S As purchased .... 10 21.2 41.6 12.3 12.0 24-5 7 1224 Hind quarter : Edible portion .... IO 54-8 16.7 I6. 3 28.1 .8 1451 As purchased .... IO 17.2 45-4 13.8 13-5 23.2 7 1198 Side, including tallow : Edible portion .... 25 54-2 16.3 16.0 28.9 9 1475 As purchased .... 25 18.1 45-4 13.0 12.7 23-1 7 1180 MUTTON, COOKED Mutton, leg roast, edible portion 2 SO.Q 2S.O 2?.? 22.6 1.2 H77 MUTTON, ORGANS J 7 j*** j j \J 1 1 Heart, as purchased . . . 2 69-5 16.9 17.0 12.6 9 821 Kidneys, as purchased . . I 78.7 I6. S 16.8 3-2 i-3 430 Liver ; as purchased . . . 2 6l.2 23.1 9.0 5-o i-7 878 Lungs, as purchased . . . 2 75-9 20. 2 20.1 2.8 1.2 481 MUTTON, CANNED Corned ...... I 4^.8 28.8 27.2 22.8 4.2 14X4. Tongue I Ho* 1 - 7 47.6 24.4 mfim 23.6 24.0 ^ 4.8 Ai tO*r 1423 Pork The slaughtering and packing of pork is carried on largely in the same establishments with the beef-packing industry, but the processes are quite different. The hog is killed by bleeding and then scalded by dropping into a tank of hot water from which the carcass is drawn up through a tower in which mechanical scrapers remove the bristles, thence through the hands of sue- i86 FOOD PRODUCTS cessive workmen who dress and trim the carcass, split it in half, and send the halves to the refrigerating room. This entire process is completed in about 12 minutes, the carcasses follow- ing each other over the same track with almost incredible rapid- \ty, sometimes as many as 400 hogs per hour. 1. Head. 2. Shoulder. 3. Back. 4. Middle cat. 5. Belly. 6. Ham. 7. Eibs. 8. Loin. FIG. 15. Cutsofpork. (Atwater and Bryant.) U. S. Department of Agriculture. The by-products of slaughter are utilized according to the same general principles as in the beef industry, but with many differences in detail which need not be considered here. Hogs are dressed without removal of the heads, and being fatter than cattle show a larger yield of dressed weight usually 75 to 85 per cent of the live weight. After having hung a couple of days in the chilling room the MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 187 sides of pork are taken out, cut into the usual market pieces, a part sent to the refrigerator cars to be marketed fresh and a much larger part, generally about nine tenths of the whole, is cured in various ways chiefly by salting or smoking or both. The fat from the abdominal cavity of the hog furnishes the " leaf lard " of commerce. Lower grades of lard are rendered from trimmings and various parts not suitable for making into sausage. Besides supplying the home market, this country exports hundreds of millions of pounds of lard each year. Lard will be discussed further in connection with other edible fats in a later chapter. In general about one eighth of the live weight is obtained in lard and about the same in hams, while the yield of shoulders is slightly less (about one tenth of the live weight) and the remainder, aside from the head, is cut into different proportions of loin, back, ribs, middle cut, and belly according to circum- stances and demands. One division of the side of pork is shown in Fig. 15, and the average composition of the cuts thus repre- sented is given by Atwater and Bryant as follows (Table 15) : TABLE 15. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF PORK h PROTEIN en ^1 w W a! i DESCRIPTION P S E H W 5? Is H < g s 1 ^ |l f* X ">," i * H a fe 6 - Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Co/. cent cewi cent cen* cent ce/ cent PORK, FRESH Ham, fresh, lean : Edible portion .... 2 6o.O 25.0 24-3 14.4 1.3 1042 As purchased .... 2 9 59-4 24.8 24.2 14.2 1.3 1030 Ham, fresh, medium fat : Edible portion .... IO 53-9 15-3 16.4 28.9 .8 1457 As purchased .... IO 10.7 48.0 I3-S 14.6 25-9 .8 1302 i88 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 15. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF PORK Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN & CARBOHYDRATES 3 FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX6.2S By differ- ence PORK, FRESH Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Col. Head: Edible portion .... 3 45-3 13-4 12.7 41-3 7 1930 As purchased .... 3 68.4 13.8 4.1 3-8 13.8 .2 638 Head cheese : Edible portion .... 3 43-3 19-5 16.9 33-8 3-3 1734 As purchased .... I 12. 1 42-3 18.9 18.6 24.0 3-o 1323 Loin (chops), lean: Edible portion .... I 60.3 20-3 19.7 19.0 I.O 1144 As purchased .... I 23-5 46.1 IS-5 I5-I 14-5 .8 873 Loin (chops) , medium fat : Edible portion .... 19 52.0 16.6 16.9 30.1 I.O IS30 As purchased .... 19 19-7 41.8 13-4 13-5 24.2 .8 1230 Loin, tenderloin .... ii 66.5 18.9 19-5 13.0 I.O 874 Middle cuts : Edible portion .... 3 48.2 iS-7 14.8 36.3 7 1768 As purchased .... 3 19.7 38-6 12.7 12. 1 28.9 7 1391 Shoulder : Edible portion .... 19 51.2 13-3 13-8 34-2 .8 1638 As purchased .... 19 12.4 44-9 12.0 12.2 29.8 7 U35 Side, lard and other fat in- cluded : Edible portion .... 3 29.4 9-4 8-5 61.7 4 2691 As purchased .... 3 II. 2 26.1 8-3 7-5 54-8 4 2388 Side, not including lard and kidney : Edible portion .... ii 34-4 9.1 9.8 55-3 5 2424 As purchased .... ii ii-S 30-4 8.0 8.6 49.0 5 2147 Clear backs : Edible portion .... 8 25.1 6.4 6.9 67.6 4 2878 As purchased .... 8 5-7 23-7 6.0 6.4 63.8 4 27IS Clear bellies : Edible portion .... 8 3i-4 6.9 7.8 60.4 4 2592 As purchased 8 6.2 29-5 6-5 7-3 56.6 4 2429 PORK ORGANS, ETC. Brains, as purchased . . . i 75-8 11.7 12.3 10.3 1.6 633 MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 189 TABLE 15. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF PORK Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN to CARBOHYDRATES ' FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Col. PORK ORGANS, ETC. Heart, as purchased . . . I 75-6 17.1 I7.I 6-3 1.0 568 Kidneys, as purchased . . 2 77.8 15-5 4.8 0.7 1.2 490 Liver, as purchased . . . I 71.4 21.3 4-5 1.4 1.4 590 Lungs, as purchased . . . I 83-3 II.Q u.8 4.0 9 379 Marrow, as purchased . . 6 14.6 2-3 4.2 81.2 ? 3357 PORK, PICKLED, SALTED, AND SMOKED Ham, smoked, lean : Edible portion .... 3 53-5 19.8 2O.2 20.8 5-5 1207 As purchased .... 3 "S 47.2 17-5 I7. 9 18.5 4-9 1073 Ham smoked, medium fat : Edible portion .... 14 40.3 I6. 3 16.1 38.8 4.8 1880 As purchased .... 14 13.6 34-8 14.2 I4.O 33-4 4.2 1621 Ham, luncheon, cooked : Edible portion .... 2 49.2 22.5 24.0 2I.O 5-8 1266 As purchased .... 2 2.1 48.1 22.1 23-5 2O.6 5-7 1243 Shoulder, smoked, medium fat: Edible portion .... 3 45-o IS-9 I 5 .8 32.5 6-7 1615 As purchased .... 3 18.2 36-8 13.0 12.9 26.6 5-5 1322 Pigs' tongues, pickled : Edible portion .... 2 58.6 17.7 18.0 19.8 3-6 1130 As purchased .... 2 3-2 56.8 I7.I i?-5 I9.I 3-4 1090 Pigs' feet, pickled : Edible portion .... 2 68.2 I6. 3 16.1 14.8 9 900 As purchased .... 2 35-5 44.6 IO.2 10.0 9-3 .6 565 Dry-salted backs : Edible portion .... 2 17-3 7-7 7.2 72.7 2.8 3110 As purchased .... 2 8.1 15-9 7-i 6.5 66.8 2.7 2858 Dry-salted bellies : Edible portion .... 2 17.7 8.4 6.7 72.2 3-4 3100 As purchased .... 2 8.2 16.2 7-7 6.2 66.2 3-2 2842 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 15. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CUTS OF PORK Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H fan CARBOHYDRATES H 1 FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent PORK, PICKLED, SALTED, AND SMOKED Salt pork, clear fat . . . 7 7-9 i. 9 2.O 86.2 3-9 3575 Bacon, smoked, all analyses : Edible portion .... iQ 20. 2 10.5 9-9 64.8 S-i 2836 As purchased .... iQ 8.7 18.4 9-5 9.0 59-4 4-5 2597 Ham, deviled 6 44-1 19.0 18.5 34.1 3-3 1738 SAUSAGE Aries : Edible portion .... i 17.2 26.8 24.9 50.6 7-3 2554 As purchased .... i 5-2 I6. 3 25-4 23-6 48.0 6.9 2422 Bologna : Edible portion .... 8 6O.O 18.7 18.4 17.6 3 3-7 1063 As purchased .... 4 3-3 55-2 18.2 18.0 19.7 3-8 H34 Frankfort 8 . . ?7.2 19.6 I 9-7 18.6 i.i 3.4 1034 Pork, as purchased . . . ii j i 39-8 13.0 12.7 44-2 i.i 2.2 2052 Pork and beef chopped to- gether, as purchased . i 55-4 19.4 iQ-5 24.1 I.O 1327 Summer : Edible portion .... 3 23.2 26.0 24.6 44-5 7-7 2289 As purchased .... 2 7.0 20.9 24-5 23.0 42.1 7.0 2163 Legislation and Inspection Since meats vary so greatly in fat content it is impracticable to set standards for percentages of nutrients. Moreover, as ordinarily sold by the butcher there is little chance for any such robbing of nutrients as is involved in the skimming and watering of milk. Standards of quantitative composition have therefore not been adopted for meat itself, although there are such stand- ards for certain manufactured products of meat as will be seen later. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 191 Standards for meat itself relate chiefly to the healthfulness of the animals from which obtained and the sanitary conditions in which the meat is handled. These are matters of great im- portance. In the preface to their translation of Edelmann's Textbook of Meat Hygiene, Mohler and Eichhorn of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry write : " Of the various classes of foods, meat is one of the most important, and it is certainly the one most subject to conditions rendering it un- wholesome or even dangerous." Not only are certain diseases of animals communicable to man through eating of the flesh, but also there is always danger through lack of cleanliness in the slaughter house, exposure to dust or flies, handling by men who are " carriers " of disease germs, or by other accident, that meat may be infected with organisms such as the Bacillus enteritidis which according to Buchanan multiply in the meat, producing poisonous products which are not destroyed by cooking, and which are now con- sidered to be the commonest cause of food poisoning, including what is ordinarily called ptomaine poisoning. The flesh may become infected with Bacillus enteritidis either before or after the slaughter of the animal. Veterinary in- spection seeks to exclude animals thus infected as well as those diseased in other ways. To prevent the infection of the meat during slaughter house operations and subsequent handling requires strict sanitation. Experiments cited by Buchanan * have shown that when Bacillus enteritidis is placed upon the surface of fresh meat, it rapidly penetrates to the interior of the tissues even when the meat is stored at a relatively low temperature. Since this organism may occur in the intestinal contents and feces of even healthy animals it is plain that every precaution should be used to see not only that the animal is not diseased but also that fecal material is never allowed to come in contact 1 Household Bacteriology, pages 386-389. 192 FOOD PRODUCTS with the healthy tissues. This means the rigid exclusion of flies and a high degree of cleanliness in all the operations. Veterinary and sanitary inspection and control of slaughter houses and meat packing establishments is therefore extremely important. For the establishments which send products into interstate or foreign commerce, this is provided by the United States Department of Agriculture under the meat inspection law of 1906. Official records show that a total of over 55,000,000 cattle, sheep, goats, and swine are thus inspected annually. There are, however, about as many more which are slaughtered for food in establishments doing business entirely within one state and which therefore do not come under the jurisdiction of the national authorities. Thus there is urgent need of ade- quate state and municipal inspection to supplement the Federal inspection in order to ensure the wholesomeness of all meat sold to consumers. Only the provisions of the Federal inspection can be discussed here. Federal meat inspection. In an amendment to the law making appropriation for the United States Department of Agriculture (Public Number 382, approved June 30, 1906) Congress au- thorized the Secretary of Agriculture to provide for inspection of all packing houses whose products enter into interstate or foreign commerce, to inspect all animals before and after slaugh- ter and condemn all carcasses or parts thereof found unfit for food. It was provided that inspectors shall have access to all parts of the packing houses at all times of the day and night to examine all meat food products prepared " and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as ' Inspected and Condemned ' all such products found unsound, unhealthful, and unwholesome, or which contain dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit for human food : Provided, that subject to the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, the MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 193 provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food products for export to any foreign country and which are prepared or packed according to the specifications or direc- tions of the foreign purchaser, when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported." Meats from healthy animals prepared in sanitary establishments in accordance with all requirements are labeled " Inspected and Passed," and only meat products so labeled are allowed in inter- state or foreign commerce. The penalties provided for violation of this meat inspection law are more severe than those for vio- lation of the general food law, and the sum appropriated for the work of meat inspection ($3,000,000 a year) is much greater than has yet been provided for the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act. The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to furnish " certifi- cates of exemption " to farmers and retail butchers, who are exempted under the law. The regulations governing the meat inspection of the United States Department of Agriculture are published in Order No. 211 of the Bureau of Animal Industry of the Department, to which Bureau is delegated the conduct of this work. Among these regulations are detailed require- ments as to sanitary arrangements in slaughter and packing houses, and the sanitary conduct of all the operations; also explicit provision as to what diseases (and in what degrees) shall cause a carcass to be condemned, what may be passed, and what intermediate grades may be rendered for lard or tallow but not used for meat. Condemned meats are treated with such colors as would prevent their sale for food, and as soon as possible are placed in rendering tanks and " a sufficient force of steam is turned into the tank and maintained a sufficient length of time effectually to render the contents unfit for any edible product." The regulation regarding preservative substances and colors provides that common salt, sugar, wood smoke, IQ4 FOOD PRODUCTS vinegar, pure spices, and saltpeter may be added. Sodium benzoate may be used when its presence and amount are shown on the label. Only such coloring matters as may be designated by the Secretary of Agriculture as being harmless may be used and these only in such manner as the Secretary of Agriculture may designate. The full text of the meat inspection law and some of the regulations for its enforcement, especially those which are in the nature of requirements as to sanitation, and the sanitary handling of meats and other slaughter house products intended for food will be found in the Appendix. Federal inspection is now (1914) maintained at about 800 slaughtering and packing establishments. The need of adequate state and city meat inspection to sup- plement the work of the Federal authorities has already been mentioned. This is important both to secure proper conditions in local slaughter houses and to insure proper handling of the meat in wholesale and retail markets and shops. The flesh of a healthy animal should be practically sterile at slaughter, and we have seen (page 165) that in good meat kept frozen the multiplication and penetration of bacteria is slow ; but in a recent study by Weinzirl and Newton, the bacteria content of Hamburg steak as sold was found to range from 269,000 to 525,000,000 bacteria per gram, about half the samples examined showing over 10,000,000. Plainly consumers should demand a more careful handling of meat products. Standards of Composition for Meat Products Meat is defined by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists l as " any clean, sound, dressed and properly prepared edible part of animals in good health at the time of slaughter, and if it bears a name descriptive of its kind, composition, or 1 Standards of Purity for Food Products. Circular No. 19, Office of the Secretary United States Department of Agriculture. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 195 origin, it corresponds thereto." It has already been explained that variations in fatness make it impracticable to set stand- ards as to actual percentages of nutrients in meat itself. Such standards have, however, been established or proposed for a number of the manufactured products of meat. Sausage, according to a regulation promulgated by the Secretary of Agriculture, must not contain cereal in excess of 2 per cent, nor added water or ice in excess of 3 per cent, and if water and cereal in excess of such percentage be present, the material should be labeled " sausage, water, and cereal." This standard guards against two forms of adulteration of sausage which were more or less prevalent : (i) the direct addi- tion of water to tough, fibrous sausage meat which under certain mechanical treatment could be made to take up a considerable quantity of added water ; (2) the mixing of sausage meat with cereal products such as cracker crumbs which are cheaper in the first place than meat and which are also capable of absorbing much added water, thus adding still further to the weight. In order to simulate the appearance of ground meat such cereal products are sometimes reddened by means of special dyes ("blood color," etc.). Beef extract was highly recommended by Liebig, who at one time supposed to it be of great nutritive value because it con- tained much nitrogen in a form readily absorbed from the digestive tract. Later he realized that this was an error and said that the extract " does not give us strength but makes us aware of our strength." In other words he realized that the effect of the meat extract is that of a stimulant rather than a food. Manufacturers of beef extract still frequently apply the term " Liebig's extract " to their product. In South America, especially before the country was thickly settled and before facilities for transportation of meat for long distances under refrigeration had been introduced, large factories 196 FOOD PRODUCTS for the manufacture of beef extract were established and droves of cattle were slaughtered for their hides and the extract ob- tained from their flesh, the rest of the flesh being merely a by- product. Beef is now shipped from South America not only to Europe, but also to the United States, where it is now (1913-1914) in commercial competition with home-grown beef; but large quantities of beef extract are still made in South America and it is also of considerable importance as one of the numerous secondary products of the beef-packing industry in the United States. Pieces of meat removed in trimming quarters and sides for market, as well as cuts for which there is less market demand, are cut small and put in water in a closed digester (generally with the addition of salt) and heated under a pressure of i^ atmospheres of steam for several hours until the extraction is judged to be complete, then allowed to cool, the fat removed from the surface, and the liquid strained to remove the solid pieces. The aqueous solution thus obtained may be used either for soup stock or for making beef extract. In the latter case the liquid is concentrated in a partial vacuum to the consistency of a pasty solid or of a viscous liquid. About 35 pounds of meat are supposed to yield i pound of concentrated extract which on dilution makes about 7 gallons of beef tea. Creatin has usually been considered the characteristic nitrogen compound of meat extract. Purin bases are, however, als^ present and may have greater physiological significance. Potas- sium phosphate is the principal salt (unless extra sodium chloride has been added) and this doubtless plays a part* in the stimulating effects of the extract. The acidity of the extract is usually attributed to lactic acid. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists has pro- MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 197 posed the following definitions and standards for meat and bone extracts, meat juices, commercial peptones, and gelatin. Meat extract is the product obtained by extracting fresh meat with boiling water and concentrating the liquid portion by evaporation, after removal of the fat, and contains not less than 75 per cent total solids, of which not over 27 per cent is ash and not over 1 2 per cent is sodium chloride (calculated from the total chlorine present) ; not over 0.6 per cent is fat, and not less than 8 per cent is nitrogen. The nitrogenous compounds contain not less than 40 per cent of meat bases and not less than 10 per cent of creatin and creatinin. Fluid meat extract is identical with (solid) meat extract, except that it is concentrated to a lower degree and contains not more than 75 per cent and not less than 50 per cent of total solids. Bone extract is the product obtained by extracting fresh trimmed bones with boiling water and concentrating the liquid portion by evaporation after removal of fat, and contains not less than 75 per cent of total solids. Fluid bone extract is identical with bone extract, except that it is concentrated to a lower degree and contains not more than 75 per cent and not less than 50 per cent of total solids. Meat juice is the fluid portion of muscle fiber, obtained by pressure or otherwise, and may be concentrated by evaporation at a temperature below the coagulating point of the soluble proteins. The solids contain not more than 15 per cent of ash, not more than 2.5 per cent of sodium chloride (calculated from the total chlorine present), not more than 4 per cent nor less than 2 per cent of P^Qs, and not less than 12 per cent nitrogen. The nitrogenous bodies contain not less than 35 per cent of coagulable proteins, and not more than 40 per cent of meat bases. Peptones are products prepared by the digestion of protein material by means of enzymes or otherwise, and contain not less than 90 per cent of proteoses and peptones. 198 FOOD PRODUCTS Gelatin (edible gelatin) is a purified, dried, inodorous product of the hydrolysis, by treatment with boiling water, of certain tissues, as skin, ligaments, and bones, from sound animals, and contains not more than 2 per cent of ash and not less than 15 per cent of nitrogen. Many of the products which have been commonly sold as meat extracts and meat juices would not meet the require- ments of these definitions and standards. Yeast extracts and perhaps other plant extracts are coming into increasing use as substitutes for or adulterants of meat extracts. Plant extract is distinguished from meat extract by the absence of creatin and creatinin. In a recent examination of " bouillon cubes " as sold in the United States, Cook finds large quantities of salt and a considerable substitution of plant extract for meat extract. The results of Cook's analyses are as follows (Table 16) : TABLE 16. THE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL BOUILLON CUBES (COOK) CUBE No. 1 SOURCE or MANUFACTURE SALT WATER AND FAT APPROX- IMATE AMOUNT OF MEAT EXTRACT PRESENT APPROX- IMATE AMOUNT OF PLANT EXTRACT PRESENT I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 United States Per cent 62 65 65 67-S 59-2 49-25 53 72 72.5 72 Per cent 5-25 9 8 5 7 5-75 4.1 5-5 8-5 8-5 Per cent 28 23 18 17.8 17.8 15-33 14.6 14 8-33 8.17 Per cent 4-75 3 9 9-7 16 29.66 28.3 8-5 10.92 n-33 Germany United States United States United States United States United States Germany United States United States 1 Cubes arranged in table in order of content of meat extract. MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS 199 While regarded as adulterants when found in meat extracts, plant extracts may prove to be important food adjuncts on account of their " vitamines." It remains to be seen what the ultimate status of plant extract will be. Nutritive Value of Meats and Meat Products Although meats differ greatly in the nutrients which they contain, these differences are due in the main to simple varia- tions in fatness. The protoplasm of the muscle cells consists mainly of proteins swollen and partially dissolved in 3 to 4 times their weight of water, in which are small amounts of other organic compounds and about i per cent of ash. The fat of meat is usually deposited partly in the cells, but more largely in the connective tissue between the cells, where it often forms layers of considerable thickness. Since fat neither dissolves in nor absorbs water, it is evident that the deposition of fat either in or between the muscle cells does not alter the composition of the actual protoplasm. When an animal is killed, the muscular protoplasm coagu- lates (rigor mortis), but without essential change in the amount or distribution of moisture, protein, or fat. A piece of meat may therefore be regarded as mainly a mixture of fat and coagulated protoplasm, the latter being chiefly composed of protein with 3 to 4 times its weight of water. We should there- fore expect the fat-free substance of fresh meat to contain from 20 to 25 per cent of protein regardless of the amount of fat which is or was present. In the following table are given the average proximate com- position and the percentage of protein in the fat-free substance of the entire edible portion of different meats and fish. The data are taken from the tables of analyses in Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations, the figures for proteins being the mean between those given in the bulletin as " protein by difference " 2OO FOOD PRODUCTS and that obtained by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen by 6.25. TABLE 17. SHOWING RELATION OF WATER, PROTEIN, AND FAT IN MEATS (AND FISH) KIND OF MEAT OR FISH WATER PROTEIN FAT ASH PROTEIN IN FAT-FREE Beef (fat) .... Beef (lean) .... Veal Per cent 59-7 67.2 71. t Per cent 17-75 I9.O 10. Per cent 22.O 13.2 8.1 Per cent 0.9 0.9 I.O Percent 22.8 21.9 21 7 Mutton a i ] C* 5 bj u,* ^6 X fe By differ- ence Per Per Per P* Per Per Per Col cent cent cent cent cent cent cent i^w. Chicken, broilers : Edible portion .... 3 74.8 21.5 21.6 2-5 I.I 492 As purchased .... 3 41.6 43-7 12.8 12.6 1.4 7 289 Fowls : Edible portion .... 26 63-7 19-3 ig.o 16.3 I.O 1016 As purchased .... 26 25-9 47.1 13-7 14.0 12.3 7 75i Goose, young : Edible portion .... i 46.7 16.3 16.3 36.2 .8 1774 As purchased .... i I 7 .6 38.5 13-4 13-4 2Q.8 7 1460 Turkey : Edible portion .... 3 55-5 21. 1 2O.6 22.9 I.O 1318 As purchased .... 3 22.7 42.4 16.1 15-7 18.4 .8 1043 Chicken gizzard, as pur- chased i 72. C 24.7 2d 7 1.4. 1.4. SCK Chicken heart, as purchased i / *'J 72.0 "f / 20.7 ^*T'l 21. 1 **T 5-5 **T 1-4 o v o 600 Chicken liver, as purchased i 69.3 22.4 4.2 2.4 i-7 621 Goose gizzard i 71.8 IQ.6 IQ.d 5.8 I.O CQ7 Goose liver, as purchased . i /O'*-' 62.6 16.6 i y.if 0**-* iS-9 3-7 1.2 OVO 1018 The nature of the nutrients is, so far as known, not different in any important respect from that of other meats. The chemi- cal nature of the protein as shown by its products of hydrolysis has been studied in comparison with the flesh of widely dif- ferent species by Osborne, whose results are tabulated farther on in this chapter. (Table 26.) The light meat, such as breast, is composed of more tender fibers less firmly held together by connective tissue than is the dark meat, such as the leg muscle. Usually also the light meat contains less fat. For both these reasons it is apt to be somewhat more rapidly digested, at least in the stomach, and is therefore preferable for people having weak digestion. The impression POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 225 that light meat furnishes less of the substances which give rise to uric acid in the body does not seem to have been confirmed. Neither have we any evidence that the ash constituents differ in any important degree either as between light and dark meat or as between chicken meat and that of other animals. Game Formerly game was exceedingly abundant in the United States and played a large part in the diet of the people generally. Now the amount of game is so diminished and its sale is so restricted that it has become a negligible factor in the food supply, and need not be considered here further than to point out that the flesh of game animals and game birds does not differ in nutritive value to any important degree from the meats and poultry already considered. Fish The fish products of the United States as they leave the hands of the fishermen are estimated by the Bureau of Fisheries to approximate 2,169,000,000 pounds in weight, and $58,000,000 in value annually. The total sum paid by consumers is of course much larger than that received by the fishermen. Fish to be sold " fresh " may be sent directly to market or may be kept in cold storage either chilled to ice temperature or hard frozen. Recent experiments begun by C. S. Smith and con- tinued by Perlzweig and Gies indicate that fresh fish may be preserved frozen, by the best cold storage processes, for at least two years without undergoing any important change. The American analyses of the commercially important kinds of fresh fish are shown in Table 23. 226 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 23. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FISH DESCRIPTION NUHBER or 1 ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H b CARBOHYDRATES j FUEL VALUE PER POUND j NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Cal. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent FISH, FRESH Alewife, whole : Edible portion .... 2 74-4 19.4 IQ.2 4-9 i-5 552 As purchased .... 2 49-5 37-6 9.8 9-7 2.4 .8 276 Bass, black, whole : Edible portion .... 2 76.7 2O.6 20.4 i-7 1.2 448 As purchased .... 2 54-8 34-6 9-3 9-3 .8 5 2OI Bass, red, whole : Edible portion .... I 81.6 16.9 16.7 5 1.2 327 As purchased .... I 63.5 29.8 6.2 6.1 .2 4 121 Bass, sea, whole : Edible portion .... I 79-3 19.8 18.8 5 i-4 380 As purchased .... I 56.1 34-8 8.7 8.3 .2 .6 166 Bass, striped, whole, edible portion 6 . 77.7 18.6 18.1 2.8 1.2 4?2 Bass, striped, entrails re- / / / * ** _/ *f- j moved, as purchased . I Si-2 37-4 8.8 8-7 2.2 -5 249 Blackfish, whole : Edible portion .... 4 79.1 18.7 18.5 i-3 i.i 393 As purchased .... 2 60.2 31-4 7-4 7-3 7 4 163 Blackfish, entrails removed, as purchased .... 2 55-7 3S-o 8.4 8.3 5 5 173 Bluefish, entrails removed : Edible portion .... I 78.5 19.4 19.0 1.2 i-3 401 As purchased .... I 48.6 40.3 IO.O 9.8 .6 7 206 Buffalo fish, entrails re- moved: Edible portion .... I 78.6 18.0 17.9 2-3 1.2 430 As purchased .... I 52.5 37-3 8-5 8-5 i.i .6 205 Butter-fish, whole : Edible portion .... I 70.0 18.0 17.8 II.O 1.2 776 As purchased .... I 42.8 40.1 10.3 IO.2 6-3 .6 444 Catfish : Edible portion .... I 64.1 14.4 14.4 20. 6 9 IIO2 As purchased .... I 19.4 Si-7 n.6 n.6 16.6 7 888 POULTRY, GAMP:, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 227 TABLE 23. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FISH Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF | ANALYSES REFUSE I WATER PROTEIN h CARBOHYDRATES ' M- >! is &*" NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per C'al cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Cfl*. FISH, FRESH Cod, dressed, as purchased 3 29.9 58.5 II. I 10.6 .2 .8 2IO Cod, sections, edible portion 3 82.5 16.7 I6. 3 3 9 315 Cod, steaks : Edible portion .... i 79-7 18.7 18.6 5 1.2 37 As purchased .... i 9.2 72.4 17.0 16.9 5 I.O 3 2 9 Cusk, entrails removed : Edible portion .... i 82.0 17.0 16.9 .2 9 317 As purchased .... i 40-3 49.0 IO.I IO.I .1 5 1 88 Eels, salt water, head, skin, and entrails removed : Edible portion .... 2 71.6 18.6 18.3 9.1 I.O 709 As purchased .... 2 20. 2 57-2 14.8 14.6 7.2 .8 562 Flounder, whole : Edible portion .... 3 84.2 14.2 13-9 .6 i-3 282 As purchased .... 2 6l. S 32.6 5-4 5-1 3 5 no Flounder, entrails removed, as purchased . . . I 57-o 35-8 6.4 6.3 3 .6 128 Haddock, entrails removed : Edible portion .... 4 81.7 17.2 16.8 3 1.2 324 As purchased .... 4 51.0 40.0 8.4 8.2 .2 .6 1 60 Hake, entrails removed : Edible portion .... i 83-1 iS-4 15-2 7 I.O 308 As purchased .... i 52.5 39-5 7-3 7.2 3 5 145 Halibut, steaks or sections : Edible portion .... 3 75-4 18.6 18.4 5-2 I.O 550 As purchased .... 3 17.7 61.9 iS-3 I5-I 4-4 9 457 Herring, whole : Edible portion .... 2 72.5 I9-S 18.9 7-i 1-5 644 As purchased .... 2 42.6 41.7 II. 2 10.9 3-9 9 362 Mackerel, whole : Edible portion .... 6 73-4 I8. 7 18.3 7-i 1.2 629 As purchased .... 5 44-7 40.4 IO.2 IO.O 4.2 7 356 Mackerel, entrails removed, as purchased .... I 40.7 43-7 n.6 11.4 3-5 7 353 228 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 23. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FISH Continued h PRO- FEIN 8 S DESCRIPTION NUMBER c ANALYSE! REFUSE WATER NX 6.25 By differ- ence 5 to CARBOHYDR; 1 Si -I i5 u. " Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Cal. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent FISH, FRESH Mullet, whole : Edible portion .... i 74-9 19-5 IQ-3 4.6 1.2 542 As purchased .... I 57-9 31-5 8.2 8.1 2.O 5 230 Muskellunge, whole : Edible portion .... I 76.3 20. 2 ig.6 2-5 1.6 469 As purchased .... i 49.2 38.7 IO.2 IO.O i-3 .8 238 Perch, white, whole, edible portion 2 *7C *7 C 1 A 75-7 19-3 19.1 4.0 1*2 5*4 Perch, yellow, whole : Edible portion .... 2 79-3 I8. 7 18.7 .8 1.2 372 As purchased .... I 62.7 30.0 6.6 6.7 .2 4 127 Perch, yellow, dressed, as purchased J j r T rn 7 i , X T? 6 26l Pickerel, pike, whole : 35- 1 5-7 1 O i m*v 9 Edible portion .... 3 79.8 l8. 7 18.6 5 i.i 360 As purchased .... 2 47.1 42.2 9-9 9-9 .2 .6 1 88 Pickerel, pike, entrails re- moved, as purchased . I 42.7 45-7 10.7 10.7 3 .6 206 Pollock, dressed : Edible portion .... I 76.0 21.6 21.7 .8 i-5 425 As purchased .... I 28.5 54-3 15-4 15-5 .6 i.i 34 Porgy, whole : Edible portion .... 3 75-o 18.6 18.5 5-i 1.4 546 As purchased .... 3 60.0 29.9 7-4 7-4 2.1 .6 220 Salmon, whole : Edible portion .... 6 64.6 22.O 21.2 12.8 1.4 922 As purchased .... 4 34-9 40.9 15-3 14.4 8.9 9 642 Salmon, entrails removed, as purchased : 29-5 48.1 13-8 13-5 8.1 .8 582 Shad, whole : Edible portion .... 7 70.6 18.8 18.6 9-5 i-3 727 As purchased .... 7 50.1 35-2 9-4 9.2 4.8 7 367 Shad roe, as purchased . . i 71.2 20.9 3-8 2.6 i-5 582 Sheepshead, edible portion 2 75-6 20.1 19-5 3-7 1.2 5i6 POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 229 TABLE 23. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FISH Continued DESCRIPTION- h W 0! W > W W H | PROTEIN H CARBOHYDRATES 1 H i > ^g fn * J? ft # H X S3 u o c * 8 Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent FISH, FRESH Sheepshead, entrails re- moved, as purchased . I 56.6 31.2 9.0 8.8 2.9 5 282 Smelt, whole : Edible portion .... 2 7Q.2 I 7 .6 17-3 1.8 i-7 393 As purchased .... 2 41.9 46.1 IO.I IO.O I.O I.O 224 Spanish mackerel, whole : Edible portion .... I 68.1 21.5 21.0 9.4 i-S 774 As purchased .... I 34-6 44-5 14.1 13-7 6.2 I.O 59 Sturgeon, anterior sections : Edible portion .... I 78.7 18.1 18.0 1.9 1.4 406 As purchased .... I 14.4 67.4 iS-i 15-4 1.6 1.2 339 Tomcod, whole : Edible portion .... I 81.5 17.2 17.1 4 I.O 328 As purchased .... I 59-9 32-7 6.9 6.8 .2 4 133 Trout, brook, whole : Edible portion .... 3 77-8 19.2 18.9 2.1 1.2 434 As purchased .... 3 48.1 40.4 9-9 9.8 I.I .6 225 Trout, salmon or lake : Edible portion .... 2 70.8 17.8 17.7 10.3 1.2 743 As purchased .... 2 48.5 36.6 9.1 9.2 5-i 6 373 Turbot : Edible portion .... I 71.4 14.8 12.9 14.4 i-3 857 As purchased .... I 47-7 37-3 7-7 6.8 7-5 7 446 Weakfish, whole : Edible portion .... I 79.0 17.8 17.4 2.4 1.2 421 As purchased .... I 5i-9 38.0 8.6 8.4 i.i .6 2OI Whitensh, whole : Edible portion .... I 69.8 22.9 22.1 6-5 1.6 680 As purchased .... I 53-5 32.5 10.6 10.3 3-o 7 3IS AMPHIBIA Frogs' legs : Edible portion .... 2 83-7 iS-S IS -I .2 I.O 289 As purchased .... 2 32.0 56.9 i-5 10.3 .1 7 194 230 FOOD PRODUCTS Preserved Fish Many kinds of fish are preserved in large quantities by drying, salting, smoking, canning, or by combinations of these processes. As illustrative of these industries the preparation of salt codfish, canned salmon, and sardines in oil will be outlined. Preparation of salt cod. This is a New England industry centering at Gloucester, Mass. The annual product (including cusk, haddock, hake, and pollock which are caught and handled with the cod) is estimated to represent a catch of about 225,000,000 pounds. In a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, Bitting describes the process as follows : The cod are separated into three classes, snappers, medium, and large, according to their size. All codfish less than 16 inches from the curve of the nape to the hollow of the tail are designated as snappers ; those more than 16 but under 22 inches are called medium, and those above 22 inches are rated as large. The codfish generally run snappers 4 per cent, medium 41 per cent, and large 55 per cent. The cusk and hake are generally divided into two sizes, the snappers under 19 inches and the large above that. Each class is weighed and kept separate, being examined for any evidence of spoil- age as they are pitched out. . . . The curing of salt fish depends upon drying, and this is accomplished in three ways by the use of salt, by pressure, and by exposure to the air, either in the open air or in a drier. In this country all three agents are employed, as it is not possible to dry the fish in the air alone, as is done in certain parts of Norway. Salt acts as a drier as well as a preservative, as it abstracts moisture wher- ever it comes in contact with the tissue, whether this be in the kench in the boat or in the butt at the factory. In the strictly full-pickle fish (that is, fresh fish placed in the butt) the maximum effect of drying by means of salt is accomplished. All the water abstracted in making pickle is so much dry- ing. Kenching and air drying are necessary to complete the operation, though the amount of water abstracted by the latter operations is not so great as is generally supposed. In the " kench cure " there is a combination of salting and pressure. . . . A very large proportion of the fish is cured by a combination of these two processes, being salted and kenched on board the boat and the work com- POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 231 pleted in pickle at the factory. One of the advantages of the pickle cure is that the fish can be handled at all seasons and at such a rate as the trade may demand. For the slack-salted fish the salt is used as a preservative and the drying is accomplished by pressure and in the air. This can be done only when the weather is favorable. The more fully the drying is done by salt or by pressure, the less time is required on the flakes. Those dried for domestic consumption are not nearly so dry as those packed for export trade. In the former class the moisture content is usually between 43 and 5 1 per cent, while in the latter it is between 28 and 35 per cent. . . . The fish are dried on flakes and the drying yard is known as the flake yard. The flake consists of a lattice bed about 8 feet wide, 30 inches high, and as long as the requirements may demand. The lattice used on this bed is made of triangular strips i inch on the base, and these are placed about 3 inches apart. The fish therefore rest upon a sharp edge about every 4 inches. This is for the purpose of giving the maximum circulation of air about the fish. One double-deck flake yard was seen, the space between decks being 18 inches. At regular intervals along the flakes, crosspieces are provided over which to stretch a canvas to protect the fish from sunburn during hot weather. Boxes or coops are also provided to cover the fish during rains and at night. . . . The fish are spread out carefully on the flakes with the face side up, and the drying is continued as long as may be necessary for the particular grade of fish. The full-pickle fish are dried for the shortest period, as they cannot be skinned readily if too dry, and, furthermore, the trade seems to desire fish which are moist and not too hard, and these retain practically 50 per cent of their water. If the sun is fairly warm and there is a good breeze, the drying can be accomplished in about ten hours as the minimum time, but this may be greatly increased with unfavorable weather conditions. Only one drying is usual for the full-cured fish. The slack-salted fish are generally dried for two days, kenched for two or three days to " sweat " them, then placed on the flakes again for one day. Porto Rican or hard-dried fish are dried for three days," sweated " for two days, and then again dried for two days. The object of the " sweating " is to bring the moisture out of the interior of the fish. The drying on the flakes removes the moisture from the surface and crystallizes the salt, but to get the moisture out of the center of the meat the fish must be piled in the kench, where the dry salt takes up some of the remaining moisture, so that the second drying on the flakes has a greater effect. The full-pickle fish lose about 9 per cent of their weight in drying on the flakes. When 232 FOOD PRODUCTS cured, they retain about 50 per cent of their moisture, the slack-salted retain 35 to 40 per cent, and the hard-dried from 25 to 30 per cent. The fish are taken to the skinning department according to the orders to be filled. If the fish are to be put up as " absolutely boneless," then the fins are pulled out and the skin pulled off. The skin is started at the napes and pulled in toward the middle of the back and then pulled toward the tail. If the fish has been properly cured, the skin can be stripped off clean without tearing the flesh. If it has been sunburned, the skin will not hang together well. After the back has been skinned the fish is turned over and the dark lining membrane of the napes is stripped forward so that the whole fish is clean. The remaining portion of the backbone is cut out and the fish is passed to the bone pickers, who remove with forceps the ribs and any pieces of bone left in the body. If the fish are to be packed as so-called " boneless," then the fins are only cut off and the thick part of the backbone cut out closely, the small pieces of the fins, ribs, and backbone being allowed to remain. The term " boneless " as used in the trade is hardly appropriate and should be changed for one more nearly descriptive of the real conditions. From bone picking to cutting is a short step. The table at which this is done is made of boards with openings between them at regular intervals. The fish are laid on the cutting table so that the best parts come between the openings. A half dozen pieces or more may be stretched out at a time across these openings, then a long-bladed knife is swept through them and they are ready to be packed into fish cakes, etc. A trough or miter box is also used for securing the same result. The pieces of fish are passed to girls, who sort them and weigh out exactly a pound or two pounds, whatever the cake or package is to be. Two good slices are selected to make the outside of the packages, and short or narrow strips to make up the middle part. . . . The mold is pressed tightly by foot power, held for a few seconds, and a twine string tied securely around near each end. . . . The package is completed by wrapping first in paraf- fined paper and then in the labeled wrapper. Preparation of canned salmon. The salmon of the North Pacific coast has now become one of the most important fishery products. It is said that in the Northwest the catching and packing of salmon is an enterprise second only to the lumbar industry in size. The output in 1911 amounted to 290,000,000 cans. The canned salmon put up in this region is used through- out America and also to a considerable extent abroad. The outline of the industry which follows is based upon a paper by POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 233 Loomis of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, presented at the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry. There are five principal varieties of salmon packed along the Pacific coast, each of which is known by several names, depend- ing upon the locality in which it is caught. The fish with reddest flesh and most oil are usually preferred by consumers, the follow- ing-being the commonly accepted order of preference: (i) Red salmon, sockeye, or blueback ; (2) chinook, king, or spring salmon ; (3) medium red salmon, cohoe, or silverside ; (4) hump- back or pink salmon ; (5) chum or dog salmon. The salmon spend most of their lives in the sea but spawn in the fresh water of the rivers. They are caught in seines and traps of various forms, placed along the shores of the mainland or islands at points which the large schools of fish pass on their way from the ocean to the rivers. As many as 50,000 salmon are sometimes taken in a trap at once. The sockeye salmon weighs usually from 5 to 10 pounds, while the other varieties are larger, the chinook being largest and averaging about 30 pounds. At the cannery the fish are unloaded and carried by conveyor to a machine which removes the heads, tails, fins, and entrails. The fish are then cleaned, washed, and sliced transversely into pieces of the right size to fit the cans. Salt is first placed in the cans, then the sections of salmon are packed in, the can covers put on, and the whole heated in a steam retort for one half hour, sealed while hot, tested for leaks, heated again at 240 F. to sterilize the contents, and the cans finally retested, cleaned, lacquered, and labeled. The details vary somewhat, depending upon whether a soldered can or a so-called sanitary can is used. The salmon canning industry is regulated by the Bureau of Chemistry under the Food and Drugs Act and by the Bureau of Fisheries under the provisions of the Alaska Fisheries Law. Loomis finds that the methods in use are generally adapted to the production of a fresh, clean, and high-grade product and 234 FOOD PRODUCTS that there is little if any attempt at misbranding, the cans being generally labeled to show the variety of salmon contained in them. The sardine industry. The fish packed in France under the name sardine is the Clupea pilchardus; while the Maine sardine is the Clupea harengus. In the opinion of the Bureau of Fisheries and of the United States Department of Agriculture the name sardine is equally applicable to either species. Sardines need not therefore be labeled to show their origin, but of course must not " purport to be a foreign product when not so." Also if packed in any other than olive oil, the fact must be stated. French sardines are usually packed with much care in olive oil and sold at a high price. Maine sardines are usually handled rapidly in large quantities, packed in cottonseed oil and sold at such low prices as to make them an economical food. The following outline of the industry as carried on in Maine is taken from reports made by Buswell to the Maine Experiment Station in 1911, and by Hanson to the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry in 1912. Sardines are canned in about fifty-five factories along the Maine coast, the total annual output being between 125,000,000 and 200,000,000 cans valued at from $5,000,000 to $7,000,000 according to the season. The fish are trapped in weirs and are taken by seining the weir shortly before low tide. As many as three hundred hogsheads of herring have been caught in a single weir at one time. At the factory they are scooped into tubs with scoop nets or shovels, and hoisted to the sluicing troughs, which run on an incline either through a separator to the pickle tanks or directly to the tanks without separating. The separator is a simple device for separating those to be packed in oil 3 to 7 inches in length from the larger ones which are to be packed in mustard sauce. It consists of an inclined revolving drum made up of hoops of steel pipe placed closer together at the upper than at the lower end. As the fish are sluiced through the separator the smaller ones drop through the openings at the upper end while those larger pass on to the lower end. From the separator the fish fall into sluices which convey them to the pickle tanks. The lower end of these sluices is made of coarse wire netting which allows the water to drain off and prevents the dilution of the pickle. POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 235 The pickle tanks are of wood and hold about three hogsheads. They are filled about one third full with a 90 to 95 per cent saturated salt solution. This solution is strong enough to float the fish. If it becomes so weak due to the loss of the salt taken up by the fish that the fish sink, it is consid- ered a sign that they are beginning to take up water, which is most undesir- able. The length of time the fish are left in the pickle is variable, but the most common practice is to leave the fish in the pickle from one and one half to three hours. The object of the pickling is to toughen the fish and give flavor. Fat fish take the salt much less readily than do lean fish, hence re- quire a longer time in the pickle. From the pickle room the fish are sluiced or carried in baskets to the flaking room where they are laid in rows on wire trays or flakes. This is usually done by machine, but sometimes by hand. The flaking machine when properly operated does the work much faster than it can be done by hand. The flakes of fish are next placed in racks running on rollers and these are pushed into the steam boxes where they are cooked with live steam for from 8 to 15 minutes. The object of steaming is to cook the fish. A well-cooked fish should not show blood along the backbone. After steaming the fish are dried, either in air driers or in ovens. The air driers are in general of two types : First, a long low-ceiling room with a large fan at one end which blows heated air over the racks of fish ; second, a cir- cular chamber with a fan in the center. From the first type the dried fish are taken out by a door at the fan end of the drier while at the same time wet fish are being put in at the opposite end. Two or three hours are re- quired for drying. In the second type the floor of the chamber revolves slowly so that as they pass a certain point the racks of dry fish are taken off and wet fish put on. There are two types of ovens, the older or reel oven and the track oven. The reel oven is of brick having a large reel revolving over a hard coal fire. As the pans which hang from the arms of the reel come to the front of the oven the flakes of dried fish are taken off and wet fish put on. The time of one revolution varies with the heat of the fire and the size of the fish, but as a rule about 20 minutes are required to dry the fish thoroughly. The other type of oven has steel tracks arranged so that the racks of flakes can be pushed in over the fire ; 15 to 30 minutes are required to dry the fish in this kind of an oven. The dried fish are next distributed to the packing tables, where they are beheaded with shears and packed in tin boxes, holding 4 or n ounces of fish. In general the small fish are packed in oil in the 4-ounce boxes, the larger fish in mustard sauce in i i-ounce boxes. Fish of intermediate size are brought to the proper length for the smaller boxes by cutting off the anterior portions. 236 FOOD PRODUCTS (These anterior sections, which of course are just as good as the part used for canning, furnish the material for the manufacture of " deviled sardine.") The cans then go to the sealing machine, where the covers are sealed on, after which they are " bathed." The bath is a rectangular steel tank about three and one half feet deep, filled with water and heated by a perforated steam coil in the bottom. The object of " bathing " is to sterilize the con- tents of the can and to soften the bones. To accomplish this the four ounce cans are bathed from one and one quarter to two hours, and the eleven ounce cans from one and one half to three hours. Long bathing tends to " chowder " the fish. The sardines packed in oil in the four ounce cans are called by the trade " quarter oils." A few are packed in mustard sauce in the same size cans and these are called " quarter mustards." Most of the fish packed in mus- tard sauce, however, are packed in the n ounce size and these are called " three-quarter mustards." Composition of preserved fish. The results of American analyses of canned, dried, salted, and smoked fish as compiled by Atwater and Bryant are as follows : TABLE 24. COMPOSITION OF PRESERVED FISH h PROTEIN 01 B DESCRIPTION H P H D h Id H 5 V ua u 5 I H w >! < M ^ X '^ g o n g <5 fa n 9 fcl ** u Per Per Per Per Per Per Per FISH, PRESERVED AND cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Cats. CANNED Cod, salt, "boneless," as purchased . . . I 1.6 54-8 27.7 28.6 3 14.7 515 Haddock, smoked : Edible portion . . . I 72.5 3-3 23-7 .2 3-6 431 As purchased . . . I 32.2 49.2 15-8 16.1 .1 2.4 291 Halibut, smoked : Edible portion . . . 2 49.4 20.7 20.6 15.0 '15.0 988 As purchased . . . 2 27.0 46.0 19-3 19.1 14.0 13-9 922 Herring, smoked : Edible portion . . . I 34-6 36.9 36.4 15-8 2 13.2 I3IS As purchased . . . I 44-4 19.2 20.5 2O.2 8.8 7-4 731 'One sample contained 12.1 per cent common salt. * Contained 11.7 per cent common salt. POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 237 TABLE 24. COMPOSITION OF PRESERVED FISH Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN b CARBOHYDRATES 1 d fl % NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col FISH, PRESERVED AND cent cent cent cent cent cent cent \j!M. CANNED Mackeftl, salt, entrails removed : Edible portion . . . I 42.2 21. 1 22.O 22.6 1 13-2 1305 As purchased . . . I 22.9 32.5 16.3 17.0 17-4 IO.2 1005 Mackerel, salt, canned, as purchased . . . I 68.2 19.6 IQ.Q 8. 7 3-2 711 Mackerel, salt, canned in oil: Edible portion . . . I 58-3 25-4 23-5 14.1 4.1 1037 As purchased . . . I 2 3i-5 39-9 17.4 16.1 9-7 2.8 722 Mackerel, salt, dressed : Edible portion . . . 2 43-4 17-3 i?-3 26.4 3 12.9 1392 As purchased . . . 2 19.7 34-8 13-9 13-9 21.2 = 10.4 1118 Pilchard in tomatoes, canned, Russia, as purchased .... I 52.7 27.9 27-5 15-8 4.0 1152 Salmon, canned : Edible portion . . . 7 63.5 21.8 21.8 12. 1 2.6 889 As purchased . . . 3 14.2 56.8 19.5 19-5 7-5 2.0 660 Sardines, canned : Edible portion . . . 2 52.3 23.0 22.4 19.7 5-6 1221 As purchased . . . I 2 5-0 53-6 23.7 24.0 12. 1 5-3 924 Sturgeon, dried, Russia : Edible portion . . . I 50.6 31.8 32.2 9.6 7-6 969 As purchased . . . I 12.7 44.1 27.8 28.1 8-4 6-7 848 Sturgeon, caviare, pressed, Russian, as purchased I 38-1 30.0 19.7 7.6 4.6 1487 Tunney, as purchased I 72-7 21.7 21.5 4.1 i-7 560 Tunney, canned in oil, Russia : Edible portion . . . I 51-3 238 20.0 0.6 4-3 I26o As purchased . . . I 16.7 42.7 20.3 I6. 7 3-6 I4OO 1 Contained 9.2 per cent common salt. 3 Contained 10.4 per cent common salt. * Refuse, oil. 238 FOOD PRODUCTS Shellfish The principal shellfish used for food are divisible into two classes : (i) mollusks, including oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops; (2) crustaceans, including lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and crawfish. Of all of these the oyster is by far the most important as a factor in the general food supply. It is estimated that the oyster crop of the United States (representing about two thirds of the world's supply) approx- imates 25,000,000 bushels annually, valued at about $20,000,000. The total amount paid at retail would of course be much larger. The shores of Long Island and of Chesapeake Bay produce oysters abundantly. According to statistics collected by Stiles, the chief oyster-producing states are, in order of rank : New York, Virginia, Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Louisiana, Mississippi. A considerable proportion of the oyster crop, perhaps one fifth, is preserved by canning. The oyster-canning industry grew up around Baltimore, but is now carried on to an even larger extent in some of the more Southern states, where there are areas well suited to oyster culture but not readily accessible to the large markets. Although still classified with the fisheries, the oyster industry is rapidly becoming a kind of farming. Submerged lands suit- able for oyster culture are either owned or rented from the state, and many people devote themselves exclusively to the care of these oyster farms, which in some cases are natural oyster beds which have been conserved and in other cases are the result of artificial planting. The oyster reproduces by eggs which on hatching yield free-swimming larvae, but when about two weeks old the young oysters have secreted shells of sufficient weight to cause them to sink and they then " set " on any object with which they come in contact, and thereafter are stationary. By the end of the first season the young oyster is from one to POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 239 FIG. 19. Seed oysters. 240 FOOD PRODUCTS two centimeters, or about one half to three fourths of an inch in diameter and at this stage in their development are often sold as " seed oysters " (Fig. 19) to be replanted in other beds. This transplanting of oysters is a matter of growing importance and appears to make possible a great development of the industry, since there are large areas on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as in other countries, where the conditions are unfavorable for spawning but entirely suitable for the raising of transplanted oysters. The rate of growth of the oyster is dependent upon its environment, but in general it is expected that the oysters will be marketed when from three to five years old. It is partly for the sanitary protection of the shellfish grounds of the estuaries and inland waters that the state and federal governments are now taking steps to prevent or regulate the discharge of raw sewage into rivers and harbors. The feeding habits of oysters, clams, and mussels make it probable that they will contain considerable numbers of bacteria of the types characteristic of the waters in which they live. Hence when these shellfish are taken from (or have been kept in) sewage-polluted waters, they may easily contain bacteria of the intestinal types and thus may become carriers of typhoid fever as well as less serious intestinal disorders. This was first clearly demonstrated by Conn, in the investigation of an epi- demic of typhoid among the students of Wesleyan University in 1894. The epidemic was confined to members of the various college fraternities which had held banquets in their several houses, but all on the same evening. Each of these banquets had included raw oysters and all the oysters came from one dealer and had been " floated " or " fattened " at the mouth of a stream. This stream was found to be highly polluted, and further investigation showed that in one house near by there were two cases of typhoid the discharges of which passed through the hpuse drain into the stream without disinfection. There POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 241 was left no room for doubt that the typhoid bacteria passed from the patients in the house near the stream to the oysters and so to the students at the banquet. In 1902 there occurred simultaneous outbreaks of typhoid fever at Winchester and at Southampton, England, which were traced to contaminated oysters from a common source. In 1912 two epidemics of typhoid and other intestinal disorders were clearly traced by Stiles 1 to oysters obtained from a dealer who was accustomed to store his shellfish in water which on investigation was found to be contaminated. As Prescott and Winslow point out : 2 " It should be noted that it is unfortunately not only raw shell- fish which are responsible for the spread of disease. Most of the processes of cooking to which these foods are subjected are insufficient to destroy pathogenic germs." These authors quote results showing that, with steamed clams, the bacteria present could not be destroyed except by a temperature high enough and prolonged enough to ruin the clams for eating and that oyster stew, fried oysters, and fancy roast oysters may still contain active bacteria of the types indicative of sewage pollution. Clams in chowder, on the other hand, were found to be practically sterilized. When shellfish are carelessly opened and handled, they may receive additional contamination in the process. Stiles, in 1911, found enormously greater numbers of bacteria in the " shucked " than in the corresponding " shell " oysters. Gorham 3 has found that oysters taken from the same beds show much less contamination in winter than in summer. He believes that during the cold weather the oysters assume a condition of rest or hibernation, during which the process of feeding is suspended. In such a condition no organisms would be taken in from the outside water and those within the oyster 1 See references at the end of the chapter. 2 Elements of Water Bacteriology (3d ed.), page 248. 3 See references at the end of the chapter. R 242 FOOD PRODUCTS are gradually destroyed. These observations upon seasonal variations were made with oysters taken from Narragansett Bay ; whether the same holds true in the warmer waters farther south does not appear to have been determined. It would seem only a reasonable precaution not to eat shellfish taken from contaminated waters at any season of the year; at least not until after such thorough cooking as to insure the death of any bacteria present. Oysters are often kept for a time after gathering, on rafts constructed with false bottoms where they remain immersed in the water. This is called " floating." Except where the practice is forbidden by law, it is common for the dealers to " float " oysters in waters of a less salt content than that in which they were grown, with the result that the fresher water enters the oyster, increasing its plumpness and weight and giving it a whiter appearance. If the water in which the oysters are floated is less pure than that in which they were grown, the dan- ger of disease bacteria in the oyster is of course increased, and vice versa. How long it would be necessary to float polluted oysters in pure water in order to make them safe cannot be stated with any degree of certainty at the present time. The composition of the principal shellfish used for food is shown in Table 25, in which the percentages of nutrients are those given by Atwater and Bryant and the fuel values are re- calculated as explained in earlier chapters. POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 243 TABLE 25. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SHELLFISH DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF I ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H h CARBOHYDRATES 1 FUEL VALUE PER POUND NX 6.25 By differ- ence Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent SHELLFISH, ETC., FRESH Clams, long, in shell : Edible portion . . 4 85.8 8.6 I.O 2.O 2.6 233 As purchased .... 4 41.9 49-9 S-o .6 I.I 1-5 135 Clams, round, in shell : Edible portion . . . I 86.2 6-5 4 4.2 2.7 210 As purchased .... I 67.5 28.0 2.1 .1 1.4 9 68 Clams, round, removed from shell, as purchased I 80.8 10.6 I.I 5-2 2-3 332 Crabs, hardshell, whole : Edible portion . . . I 77.1 16.6 2.0 1.2 3-i 405 As purchased .... I 52.4 30-7 7-9 9 .6 i-5 191 Crayfish, abdomen, whole : Edible portion . . . I 81.2 16.0 5 I.O i-3 329 As purchased .... I 86.6 10. () 2.1 .1 .1 .2 44 Lobster, whole : Edible portion . . . 5 79-2 16.4 1.8 4 2.2 379 As purchased .... 5 61.7 30-7 5-9 7 .2 .8 139 Mussels, in shell : Edible portion . . . i 84.2 8.7 i.i 4.1 1.9 277 As purchased .... i 46.7 44-9 4.6 .6 2.2 I.O 148 Oysters, in shell : Edible portion . . . 34 86.9 6.2 1.2 3-7 2.O 228 As purchased .... 34 81.4 16/1 1.2 .2 7 4 43 Oysters, solids, as pur- chased 9 88.3 6.0 J -3 3-3 i.i 222 Scallops, as purchased . 2 80.3 14.8 .1 3-4 1.4 334 Terrapin : Edible portion . . . I 74-5 21.2 21.0 3-5 I.O 528 As purchased .... I 75-4 18.3 5-2 5-2 9 .2 131 Turtle, green, whole : Edible portion . . . I 79.8 19.8 18.5 5 1.2 380 As purchased .... I 76.0 19.2 4-7 4-4 .1 3 89 244 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 25. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SHELLFISH Continued h PROTEIN i Ba w ri >J *! DESCRIPTION ^ c/3 ! IK i B 5 ^ o I I M 1 >l < F4 p X " S S g 'Z fc w" < fa * O Per Per Per Per Per Per /v Co/. SHELLFISH, ETC., CANNED cent (C/;/ cent cent cent cent ce< Clams, long, as purchased I 84.5 9.0 1-3 2.9 2-3 269 Clams, round, as purchased I 82.9 10-5 .8 3-0 2.8 277 Crabs, as purchased . . 2 80.0 IS-8 i-S 7 2.O 360 Lobster, as purchased . . 2 77-8 18.1 i.i 5 2-5 382 Oysters, as purchased . . 4 834 8.8 2.4 3-9 i-S 328 Shrimp, as purchased . . I 70.8 25-4 I.O .2 2.6 SOS Ash constituents of oysters. The fact that the oyster secretes such a large amount of calcium in its shell suggests that the edible portion may be relatively rich in calcium as compared with other flesh foods, which, as we have seen, are strikingly poor in this element. According to Albu and Neuberg the edible portion of the oyster is strikingly rich in calcium, but an investigation now in progress shows the following preliminary results : PER CENT Calcium oxide 0.06 Magnesium oxide 0.06 Potassium oxide 0.06 Sodium oxide 0.59 Phosphorous pentoxide 0.37 Chlorine 0.67 Sulphur 0.18 This analysis shows a calcium content somewhat above that of meat but much below that of milk, and a preponder- ance of acid-forming elements as great as that found in lean meats. POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 245 Comparison of Poultry, Fish, and Shellfish with Other Flesh Foods Attention has been called to the similarity of all these flesh foods and to the fact that the differences in general composition are chiefly attributable to varying fat content. That there is also a general similarity in the structure of the proteins of shellfish, fish, and fowl and of ordinary meat protein such as beef is shown by the following table based on the work of Osborne : TABLE 26. PERCENTAGES OF AMINO ACIDS FROM THE FLESH OF WIDELY DIFFERENT SPECIES SCALLOPS HALIBUT CHICKEN BEEF Glycin o.oo O.OO 0.68 2.06 Alanin 2.28 3.72 Valin 0.70 0.81 Leucin 8.78 IO.?3 II. IQ 1 1. 6s Prolin 2.28 ?.I7 4-74 S.82 Phenylalanin 4..QO 3.04 3.C? -2.1 C Aspartic acid 2.4.7 2.73 3.21 4.ci Glutarnic acid' 14.88 io.i3 16.48 I ^-40 Tyrosin I.QC 2.3Q 2.l6 2. 2O Arginin 7.38 6.^4. 6.=;o 7.47 Histidin 2. 02 2.SS 2.47 1.76 Lysin c.77 7.4S 7.24 7. en Ammonia. i. 08 1.2-2 1.67 I O7 Tryptophan present present present present Summation S2.SI SO.2S 62. i? 67.30 The digestibility of fish and poultry was studied quantitatively by Milner in a series of experiments in which the coefficient of digestibility was determined with four different men for each of the four foods, canned salmon, fresh cod, canned chicken, and roast duck. The average coefficients of digestibility found were as follows : 246 FOOD PRODUCTS PROTEIN FAT 06.23 Q7.OI Cod QC.Q-2 07.4O Chicken 06.74. l O7.I-2 Duck 04.66 07.32 The digestibility as thus determined is seen to be approxi- mately equal to that of meats and appreciably higher than that of average mixed diet. While these coefficients represent digestibility in the only sense in which it can be measured quantitatively, it is well known that the term digestibility is also used to indicate the relative ease and comfort with which foods are digested and the readiness with which gastric digestion is completed as evidenced by the time elapsing between the eating of the food and its entire passage from the stomach into the intestine. In these respects oysters, lean fish, and chicken are held to be even more digestible than lean beef, while fat fish, duck, goose, lobsters, and crabs are held to be of about the same order of digestibility with ham and pork. (See for instance the Table of Comparative Digesti- bility in Gilman Thompson's Practical Dietetics.) Place in the diet. From most standpoints poultry, fish, and shellfish may be regarded as interchangeable with the ordinary meats. The comparative economy of these different types of flesh food varies widely with locality and season. While game has become so scarce and costly as to be no longer an important factor in the food supply, the prices of poultry, fish, and shellfish appear at present to be rising less rapidly on the whole than the price of beef. The breaking up of the great cattle ranges into small cultivated farms naturally tends toward the four experiments with chicken gave a result (93.13) so much lower than the others as to suggest that it may not have been representative. If this result be omitted, the average becomes 97.93. POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 247 a relative (perhaps not absolute) decrease in beef production and an increase (both absolute and relative) in poultry culture. Oyster culture is becoming systematized so that, while oysters will doubtless remain an expensive food, the supply will probably increase. The fishery industries are also capable of great develop- ment both by improved methods of handling the species now regarded as important and by utilizing as food the flesh of species which in the past have been neglected. Thus it is said that a few years ago sturgeon was so little prized as food that much of it was used as fertilizer, while now smoked sturgeon is in good demand, and that still more recently the garfish, formerly re- garded merely as a pest, has begun to find a market as a food fish. Since in the nature of the case the meat production of the country cannot be greatly increased except at the cost of a restricted output of other farm crops, we may anticipate a con- stantly increasing tendency towards better conservation and more economical utilization of the fishery products as food. REFERENCES ATWATER and BRYANT. The Composition of American Food Materials. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 28 (Revised). KONIG. Die Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmitteln. LANGWORTHY. Fish as Food. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 85 (Revised). PRESCOTT and WINSLOW. Elements of Water Bacteriology, Chapter XII. THOMPSON. Practical Dietetics. TIBBLES. Foods : their Origin, Composition and Manufacture. United States Bureau of Fisheries. Reports and Bulletins. WILEY. Foods and their Adulteration. 248 FOOD PRODUCTS II Poultry and Game MILNER. Experiments on the Digestibility of Fish and Poultry. Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station, Seventeenth Annual Report, pages 116-142 (1905). WILEY, et al. A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Cold Storage on Eggs, Quail, and Chickens. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 115 (1908). PENNINGTON. Studies of Poultry from the Farm to the Consumer. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 64 (1910). HOUGHTON. Effect of Low Temperatures on Ground Chicken Meat. Jour- nal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 497-506 (1911). OLDYS. Game Market of To-day. United States Department of Agri- culture, Yearbook for 1910, pages 243-254 (1911). PENNINGTON and HEPBURN. The Occurrence and Permanence of Lipase in the Fat of the Common Fowl (Gallus domesticus). United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 75 (1911). PENNINGTON, WITHER, and PIERCE. The Comparative Rate of Decom- position of Drawn and Undrawn Market Poultry. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular 70 (1911). PENNINGTON and HEPBURN. Studies on Chicken Fat. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 34, pages 210-222 (1912). PENNINGTON. The Hygienic and Economic Results of Refrigeration in the Conservation of Poultry and Eggs. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 2, pages 840-848 (1913). PENNINGTON. The Handling of Dressed Poultry a Thousand Miles from the Market. United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1912, pages 285-292 (1913). PENNINGTON, GREENLEE, et al. The Refrigeration of Dressed Poultry in Transit. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 17 (1913). Fish and Shellfish CONN. The Outbreak of Typhoid Fever at Wesleyan University. Con- necticut State Board of Health, Report for 1894, pages 243-264 (1894). MILNER. Digestibility of Fish and Poultry. Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station, Seventeenth Annual Report, pages 116-142 (1905). POULTRY, GAME, FISH, AND SHELLFISH 249 BRUHNS. Bacteriological Condition of Market Fish. Archiv fur Hygiene, Vol. 67, pages 209-236 (1909). SUZUKI and YOSHIMURA. Extractive Substances of Fish Flesh. Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie, Vol. 62, pages 1-35 (1909). BUCHAN. Typhoid Fever and Mussel Pollution. Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 10, pages 569-585 (1910). MILLARD. Salmon Fishing in Pacific Waters. The Outlook for February, 1910, pages 171-181. NEWLANDS and HAM. Report to the State Board of Health of Connecticut on the Sanitary Investigation of Oyster Grounds in the New Haven Harbor (1910). STILES. The Value of the Shellfish Industry and the Protection of Oysters from Sewage Contamination. United States Department of Agri- culture, Yearbook for 1910, pages 371-378 (1910). BIGELOW and BACON. Tin Salts in Canned Foods of Low Acid Content, with Special Reference to Canned Shrimp. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 832-834 (1911). BITTING. Preparation of the Cod and Other Salt Fish for the Market. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulle- tin 133 (1911). BUTTENBERG. Clams. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 22, pages 81-88 (1911). STILES. The Bacteriological Examinations of Shucked and Shell Oysters. Journal of the American Public Health Association, Vol. i, pages 623- 631 (1911). FAHRE-DOMESQUE. Bacteriological Purification of Oysters in Filtered Water. Comptes Rendus de 1'Academie des Sciences, Paris, Vol. 154, pages 1257-1259 (1912). GORHAM. Seasonal Variation in the Bacterial Content of Oysters. Ameri- can Journal of Public Health, Vol. 2, pages 24-27 (1912). GORHAM. Sanitary Regulation of the Oyster Industry. American Jour- nal of Public Health, Vol. 2, pages 77-85 (1912). HANSON. The Packing of American Sardines. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages I3I-I3 8 (1912). LOOMIS. Salmon Canning Industry of North America. Ibid., Vol. 18, pages 239-243 (1912). STILES. Sewage-polluted Oysters as a Cause of Typhoid and Other Gastro- intestinal Disturbances. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 156 (1912). PEASE. Hygienic Results of Refrigeration in the Conservation of Fish and 250 FOOD PRODUCTS Mollusks. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 2, pages 849-854 (1912-1913). SMITH. Oysters; The World's Most Valuable Water Crop. National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 24, pages 257-281 (1913). SMITH. A Study of the Influence of Cold-storage Temperatures upon the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value of Fish. Biochemical Bulletin, Vol. 3, pages 54-68 (1913). PERLZWEIG and GIES. A Further Study of the Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value of Fish Subjected to Prolonged Periods of Cold Storage. Biochemical Bulletin, Vol. 3, pages 69-71 (1913). KONIG and GROSSFELD. Fish Roe as Food for Man. Biochemisches Zeitschrift, Vol. 54, pages 351-394 (1913)- POLIMANTI. Fat Content of Fish and its Biological Significance in Relation to their Habitat. Biochemisches Zeitschrift, Vol. 56, pages 439-445 (1914). WILSON. The Comparative Chemistry of Muscle : The Partition of Non- Protein Water-soluble Nitrogen. Journal of Biological Chemistry Vol. 17, pages 385-400 (1914). YOSHIMURA and KANAI. Nitrogenous Constituents of Dried Cod Fish. Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie, Vol. 88, pages 346-351 (1914). CHAPTER VIII GRAIN PRODUCTS THE cereals are much the most important of the grains used as food for man, but since a few grains not belonging botanically to the cereals are used for food (and also because " cereals " suggests only breakfast cereals to some readers) the term " grain products " is here used as the general designation to cover barley, buckwheat, corn or maize, oats, rice, rye, and wheat, and the various mill products made from them. The raising of grain plays a very large part in the agriculture of nearly all countries, and for the great majority of people grain products furnish more nutriment than does any other type of food material. Langworthy estimates from the results of about 400 dietary studies that grain products furnish 43.0 per cent of the protein, 9.1 per cent of the fat, and 61.8 per cent of the carbohydrates of the average American dietary. Thus the quantities eaten furnish more carbohydrate and more than two thirds as much protein as all other food materials together. In the United States, according to the last census (Census of 1910 covering the year 1909), the grains represented approxi- mately one half (exact estimate, 48.6 per cent) of the entire value of all farm products. Much of this grain is fed to domestic animals, and the amount used as human food is not known. The amount of grain ground or milled in mills large enough to be classified as manufacturing establishments was estimated at 806,247,961 bushels and the product valued at $883,584,405. 251 252 FOOD PRODUCTS The grains of most importance as human food and the chief mill products of each will be considered separately in the para- graphs which follow. It may, however, be said of all these grains that they consist chiefly of starch embedded in a network of protein material and protected by a fibrous coating known as the bran. A small part of the grain consists of the germ, which is usually much less starchy and much richer in protein and fat than the body of the kernel (the endosperm). In milling the grains for human food the outer layers and the germ are usually removed to a greater or less extent, as will be shown more fully below. Only in the case of wheat shall we take space to de- scribe the milling process. Barley The cultivated barleys belong to two or three different species of the genus Hordeum. The barley crop of the United States in 1909 was estimated at 173,000,000 bushels, valued at $92,459,000. It was grown principally in the states of Minnesota, North Dakota, California, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The grain is about as large as wheat, one hundred kernels weighing about 4 grams. As human food it appears in this country chiefly in the form of " pearled barley," used mainly in soups, and " patent barley flour " for infant feeding. In making pearled barley the germ and most of the bran is removed without grinding the remainder of the grain. " Patent " barley flour is a finely ground product representing the grain from which the outer layers have been removed more completely than in making pearled barley, but perhaps not so completely as in making " patent " flour from wheat. The following are com- parative analyses of barley (the entire kernel), pearled barley and patent barley flour (Table 27). GRAIN PRODUCTS 253 TABLE 27. COMPOSITION OF BARLEY AND BARLEY FLOUR BARLEY (ENTIRE GRAIN) PEARLED BARLEY " PATENT " BARLEY FLOUR Moisture Per cent I I.O Il.t 10.3 Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) . Fat (ether extract) .... Carbohydrates (by difference) Fuel value, Calories per pound Weight of loo-Calorie portion, in grams Per cent Per cent Per cent 10.5 2.2 7 2.8 1610. 28. 8-5 i.i 77.8 1615. 28. 8.0 i-7 79-35 1650. 28. in ounces I.O I.O I.O Total ash Per cent 2.6 o.6< Phosphorus (calc. as PiO^) . Iron (calc. as Fe) .... Per cent Per cent o-95 0.004 0.46 0.0013 0.30 O.OOIO Notice in what respects the mill products differ from the original grain, and compare the corresponding data for other grain products beyond. Osborne found in barley an alcohol soluble protein, different from that of wheat or of rye, to which he gave the name " hor- dein." The products of hydrolysis and the ultimate composi- tion of hordein are given in comparison with some other grain proteins beyond. The albumin, the globulin, and the proteose extracted from barley were judged by Osborne to be probably identical with the corresponding proteins found in wheat and rye. Barley which has begun to sprout (called malted barley or simply " malt ") is rich in an enzyme which digests starch with production of maltose. Enzymes which digest starch are called amylases, commonly also " diastases." The characteristic enzyme of malted barley is commonly called malt diastase. On account of its high " diastatic power," due to abundance of this enzyme, barley malt is largely used in the fermentation industries as a means of digesting the starch (of the barley itself and often also of other grains) into fermentable sugar. More 254 FOOD PRODUCTS of the barley grown in the United States is used for this latter purpose than for food. Buckwheat Buckwheat, the seed of Fagopyrum esculenium, is not strictly a cereal (since the plant which bears it does not belong to the true grasses) but for practical discussion is usually grouped with the cereal grains. Although more popular as a food in the United States than elsewhere, the amount grown is small as compared with other grains. The production of 1909 was estimated at 14,849,000 bushels, and valued at $9,331,000. The buckwheat kernel is about as large as that of wheat or barley and is characterized by its different shape and higher proportion of fiber due to its thick protective covering. The latter is rejected in milling the grain so that the " fine " buck- wheat flour has like " fine " wheat flour only a negligible amount of fiber about one half of one per cent. Typical American analyses of buckwheat and buckwheat flour are as follows (Table 28) : TABLE 28. COMPOSITION OF BUCKWHEAT AND BUCKWHEAT FLOUR BUCKWHEAT (ENTIRE GRAIN) BUCKWHEAT FLOUR Moisture . Per cent 12.3 11.9 Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) . . . . Per cent 10.7 8-7 Fat . Per cent 2.O 1.6 Carbohydrates (other than fiber). . Per cent 62.8 76.2 Fiber . Per cent 10.7 0.6 Ash . . . . Per cent 1.8 I.O In order to comply with the standard of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, buckwheat flour must contain not more than 12 per cent moisture, not less than 1.28 per cent nitrogen, and not more than 1.75 per cent of ash. GRAIN PRODUCTS 255 Maize or Indian Corn (Zea mays) Maize or Indian corn (commonly called " corn " in the United States, though the word corn in English literature usually refers to the wheat plant) is a native American plant and has long been (economically) the most important single crop raised in the United States. The area annually planted to maize in this country is said to be nearly equal to the entire area of France or Germany. A normal crop is estimated by the United States Department of Agriculture at 3,000,000,000 bushels and valued at something over $1,500,000,000. The Census returns for 1909 showed 2,552,000,000 bushels valued at $1,439,000,000. According to Census reports, corn occupied, in 1909, 20.6 per cent of the improved farm land of the country and contributed 26.2 per cent of the total value of crops. In Illinois and Iowa about one third of the improved farm land is occupied by corn, and in Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri over one fourth. The relative distribution of corn culture throughout the United States is shown in Fig. 10 (Chapter VI). Of the total corn crop from 85 to 90 per cent is fed on farms and only 10 to 15 per cent comes to market. According to Census returns for 1909 only 209,281,237 bushels of corn were ground in mills large enough to be classed as manufacturing establishments. In addition to this, however, 2,240,508,915 pounds (about 40,000,000 bushels) of corn were recorded as used for the manufacture of cornstarch and glucose. From the corn ground in the mills covered by the Census returns, there were produced 21,552,737 barrels of corn meal and corn flour valued at $66,941,095. It will be seen that in the corn crop there is an enormous reserve supply of material suitable for human food. To any extent that the demand for corn meal makes it more profitable for the farmer to sell his corn to the miller than to use it in rais- ing and fattening farm animals, the supply of corn meal can be 256 FOOD PRODUCTS increased up to about ten times the amount now milled without necessarily increasing the amount of land devoted to corn raising. To use for human food a large proportion of the corn now fed to farm animals, would of course diminish somewhat the amount of meat produced, but as was pointed out in Chapter V, one can never recover in the edible flesh of the carcass more than a small fraction of the protein and energy which was required for the growth and fattening of the animal. The following approximate analyses (Table 29) indicate the more significant differences in composition between (i) the kernel as a whole, (2) the " old process " corn meal made by grinding the entire kernel and sifting out only the larger particles of bran, (3) the " new process " corn meal in the making of which the bran is more completely removed and the germ is also rejected. TABLE 29. ANALYSES OF CORN AND CORN MEAL CORN (EN- TIRE KERNEL) OLD PROCESS CORN MEAL NEW PROCESS CORN MEAL Moisture . Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 10.7 10.0 4-3 71.8 i-7 i-5 0.7 n.6 9.0 4-3 72.S i-5 i-3 0.7 I2.O 7.8 i-3 78.5 0.8 0.6 O.22 Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) . . Fat Carbohydrate fiber) (other than Fiber . Ash Phosphorus (calc. as P2O 5 ) . To meet the requirements of the standards proposed by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, corn meal must contain not more than 14 per cent of moisture, not less than 1. 1 2 per cent of nitrogen, and not more than 1.6 per cent of ash. The establishment of official grades and standards for corn itself is now under consideration in the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. GRAIN PRODUCTS 2 57 The composition of the corn kernel can be altered by breeding and selection. Hopkins and Smith of Illinois Agricultural Ex- periment Station starting with corn containing 10.92 per cent protein and 4.70 per cent fat have by breeding and selection through ten years (ten generations of the corn plant) produced a " high protein " strain with 14.26 per cent protein and a " low protein " strain with 8.64 per cent of protein ; also a " high fat " strain with 7.37 per cent, and a " low fat " strain with 2.66 per cent of fat. Osborne finds that corn contains an albumin, at least three globulins, a proteose similar to that in wheat, an alcohol-soluble protein (different from those of other grains) to which the name zein has been given, and an insoluble glutelin. The zein and glutelin are included in the discussion of chemical structure and food value of grain proteins beyond. A maize kernel of the varieties chiefly cultivated in the United States has about ten times the weight of a kernel of wheat. Like the latter it has a fibrous outer skin beneath which is a layer rich in protein and phosphorus compounds which is often called the gluten layer; within these outer layers lie the germ, constituting about one tenth, and the endosperm, which makes up between eight tenths and nine tenths of the entire kernel. TABLE 30. COMPOSITION OF CORN KERNEL AND ITS PARTS (WAGNER) CARBO- PROPOR- HYDRATE PART TION OF PROTEIN FAT OTHER FIBER ASH THE WHOLE THAN FIBER Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Ptr cent Per cent Original kernel IOO.O 12.6 4-3 79-4 2.0 1.7 Skin 5-5 6.6 1.6 74.1 16.4 i-3 Germ . IO.2 21.7 29.6 34-7 2.9 ii. i Endosperm 84.3 12.2 i-S 85-0 0.6 o-7 258 FOOD PRODUCTS The bran obtained in the ordinary grinding of corn includes along with the fibrous hull a considerable proportion of the so- called gluten layer. When the corn kernel is soaked to loosen the skin, the latter may be removed alone, leaving the starchy and the " glutenous " parts of the endosperm together. Wagner gives the above analyses of the skin, the germ, and the en- dosperm as thus separated (Table 30). We have spoken of the hull as fibrous covering, yet the above analysis indicates that the fiber constitutes only about one fifth of the total carbohydrate of the hull. This is partly be- cause only the fiber sufficiently resistant to remain after suc- cessive boiling with acid and alkali is reported as " fiber " in the analysis, while all the material (other than protein, fat, and ash) which is dissolved by the acid or the alkali is reported as " car- bohydrate other than fiber " or as " nitrogen-free extract." The latter therefore includes not only the starch, but also the pen- tosans and much of the so-called lignin or lignone substances, which in their chemical nature are not strictly carbohydrate but which are usually grouped with the carbohydrates because of their close association with cellulose. The material designated in the table as carbohydrate other than fiber is therefore quite different for different parts of the kernel : in the hull it is chiefly pentosan; in the endosperm, chiefly starch; in the germ there is much less starch and an appreciable amount of sugar. The chief differences in composition among the different parts of the corn kernel may be summarized a follows : The hulls contain much fiber and wood gum (pentosans) and relatively little starch, protein, or fat ; the endosperm is rich in starch, low in fiber, relatively poor in fat and ash, and has about the same percentage of protein as the entire kernel ; the germ contains little starch, but is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The fat is liquid at ordinary temperatures and therefore usually referred to as oil. It is classed as a " semi-drying " oil, being intermediate GRAIN PRODUCTS 259 in properties between olive oil and linseed oil. The chemical nature and nutritive value of the proteins and ash constituents will be discussed along with those of wheat farther on in this chapter. The industrial process of separating and refining the chief components of corn will now be described in brief outline. Of an average corn crop of about 3,000,000,000 bushels it is esti- mated that about nine tenths will be used on the farms and about one tenth or 300,000,000 bushels will be sold. The corn sold is sometimes referred to as " cash corn." Of all the corn which leaves the farm, the milling and fermentation industries together take about five sixths, and nearly one sixth, or 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 bushels per year, is used for the manufacture of corn starch, corn sirup, etc., as described below. A^ Manufacture of Starch and Other Products from Corn The corn is first cleaned and sent to steeping tanks, where it is soaked (steeped) for about 2 days in warm water to which has been added a small amount of sulphurous acid to prevent putrefaction and assist in the loosening of the hull. This steeping causes the corn to swell, and brings about a softening of the endosperm which facilitates the subsequent separation of the germ. The steeped grain is then coarsely ground in mills so arranged as to disintegrate the kernel without breaking the germ. The type known as the Foos or Fuss mill, in which the grain is torn to pieces by passing between parallel studded plates which revolve in opposite directions, is generally used. The ground mass is then run into the " separators," which , are long tanks or vats containing a mixture of starch and water of a density of 8 Baume (1.06 specific gravity). The germs, on account of the oil which they contain, float on this liquid, while the hulls and starch granules tend to settle to the bottom. The 260 FOOD PRODUCTS separation is a continuous process, the ground mass being in- troduced at one end of the tank while at the other end the germs float off at the top and the other constituents are drawn off from the bottom. The germs are repeatedly washed with water to remove any adhering starch, then dried in revolving steam dryers and the oil extracted by pressure. At present the oil is employed to only a small extent for food, the greater part being used in making soaps and soap powders, in the tanning industry, in paint and putty, and in the manufacture of rubber substitutes and water- proofing and insulating materials. Oil cake, as the mass remain- ing after pressing the dried germs for oil is called, contains still a considerable amount of fat and is very rich in protein. At present most of this oil cake is exported to Europe, where it is used in stock-feeding, perhaps after removal of a further portion of oil. In view of the high food value of the germ and the fact that it constitutes about one tenth of the entire grain, it seems unfortunate that it enters so little into human consumption. The coarsely ground mass drawn off from the bottoms of the separator tanks as described above, and which represents all of the corn except the germ and the water-soluble substances, is reground in burr-stone mills (" Buhr " mills) and the semi- liquid mass passed over " shakers." These are mechanically shaken sieves of bolting cloth of about 200 mesh which sift out the particles of hull while the starch granules and most of the protein pass through. The hulls are sprayed with water while on the sieves and are usually reground and the process repeated two or three times to complete the removal of the starch fronTlhe particles of hull. The final disposition of the hull is described in the paragraph on by-products below. The liquid which has passed through the " shakers," and which contains practically all of the starch and most of the pro- tein of the corn, is known as the raw starch liquor. This is adjusted to density of 4 to 5 Baume (1.03 to 1.045 specific GRAIN PRODUCTS 261 gravity) and then passed into very long flat-bottomed tanks known as " runs " or " tables." These are almost level, being usually 100 to 120 feet long and inclined only about 4 inches. As the raw starch liquor flows slowly down the run, the starch granules settle out gradually and in rolling along the bottom before finally coming to rest they tend to rub each other free from adherent protein. The length and inclination of the " runs " and the concentration of the raw starch liquor are so adjusted that nearly all of the starch settles before reaching the lower end of the run, while most of the protein remains suspended in the water which flows out and which is known as the " gluten, liquor." The solids of this " gluten liquor " are recovered in the gluten feed described in the paragraph on . by-products below. ' -^ When the " gluten liquor " has been drained off from the " run " the starch which has settled is found in a^very compact deposit which may be dug out in blocks like stiff wet clay. As taken from the " tables " or " runs " it is known as " green starch." This may be utilized directly for the manufacture of glucose or corn sirup. To refine the " green sjtarch " for eating or for industrial use it is stirred with water and again sent over the " run," or washed more quickly by decantation, according to the degree to which the starch is to be freed from protein ; or in preparation for certain purposes it may be washed with dilute alkali. The latter is more effective in removing the protein than is water alone, but the subsequent removal of the alkali from the starch is difficult. Being used for many industrial purposes as well as for food, starch and dextrin are prepared in a variety of forms the description of which does not come within the scope of this book. For the manufacture of commercial glucose, the " green starch " is stirred with water to make a suspension of a density of about 20 to 22 Baume (1.16 to 1.18 specific gravity), to which is added hydrochloric acid in such proportion as to make 262 FOOD PRODUCTS about nTTpr_ipt n f artujtljicicLin.. the entire mixture. This mixture is treated with superheated steam in strong metal cylinders called converters. The converters now in use are six feet in diameter and may be as much as twenty feet high. By running in superheated steam up to a pressure of 35 pounds per square inch, the hydrolysis of the starch is greatly accelerated and is brought to the desired point in a few minutes. The pressure is then released and the acid neutralized with sodium carbonate. The neutral solution is then filtered clear, concen- trated by evaporation, decolorized by running through bone- black filters like those used in the refining of cane sugar (Chapter XI), and finally evaporated further to a viscous sirup containing 80 per cent or more of solids. The average composition of this sirup according to Wagner is : PER CENT | Water ............ 19.0 Glucose (Dextrose) ........ 38.5 Dextrin ... ......... 42.0 Ash ............ . 0.5 In this case it is assumed that glucose (dextrose) is the only reducing sugar present. According to Rolfe and Defren, how- ever, there would be present at the stage of hydrolysis reached in this process, a considerable amount of maltose, so that the actual percentage of glucose would be less than that given by Wagner. In any case it will be seen that considerably less than half of the carbohydrate material is actually in the form of glucose. This product is called " commercial glucose " or " corn sirup " ; to call it simply glucose is obviously inaccurate and contrary to the regulation that a food product which is a mixture must not be sold under the name of a single constituent. The manufacture of purified corn starch and of corn sirup or commercial glucose are usually carried on in the same factories. Both industries have developed rapidly in recent years. Accord- ing to the Census report there were produced in the United GRAIN PRODUCTS 263 States, in 1909 : 638,825,366 pounds of corn starch valued at $15,962,916; 769,660,210 pounds of commercial glucose sirups valued at $17,922,514; 159,060,478 pounds of solid glucose valued at $3,620,816; 8,164,175 gallons of corn oil valued at $2,802,768; $6,013,968 worth of stock food and $924,422 worth of miscellaneous by-products of this industry. The characteristics and uses of commercial glucose sirup will be considered further in Chapter XI. By-products. In addition to the starches, sirups, and glucose sugars which may be considered the direct products of this in- dustry, we have already discussed the utilization of the corn oil and the oil cake or germ meal. The washed hulls, the " gluten liquor," and the soluble substances extracted when the corn was steeped in warm water at the beginning of the process remain to be considered. While giving the composition of the isolated skin of the corn kernel as in Table 30 above Wagner states that the corn hulls obtained in the process just described contain when dry as much as 14 per cent protein and may therefore be considered as a cattle food of considerable value. The custom, however, is not to market the hulls alone, but to mix them with the protein obtained from the liquor which has passed over the runs. When the solids of the " gluten liquor " are dried alone, there is obtained a " gluten meal " which averages over 40 per cent of protein. Usually, however, the gluten meal, the hulls, and the concentrated steep-water are dried together. The steep-water contains the greater part of all the constit- uents of the corn which are readily soluble in slightly acidulated water, such as the ready-formed sugars of the kernel, some of the proteins, the " nitrogenous extractives," much of the organic phosphorus compounds such as phytin, and the greater part of the ash constituents. The following partial analysis of the solids of the steep- water (also called " corn solubles ") is given by Wagner : 264 FOOD PRODUCTS PER CENT Nitrogenous substances 38-43 Reducing sugars as dextrose 25-30 Phosphorus (calc. as P2Os) 6-8 Potash (K 2 O) 5-6 Magnesia (MgO) 2-3 The general similarity of this material to meat extract and yeast extracts suggests that it may have an interesting future in the food industries. At present the steep-water is concentrated, mixed with the wet hulls and the solids of the " gluten liquor," and the whole dried, ground, and sold as " gluten feed." The average composition of this gluten feed is given by Wagner as follows : PER CENT Moisture 10.36 Protein 25.95 Fat 2.18 Starch 18.09 Fiber 6.50 Other carbohydrates 33-22 Ash 3.70 The more efficient the factory the higher is the percentage of protein and the lower the percentage of starch and vice versa. Oats Oats belong to different species of the genus Avena, the kind commonly ' cultivated being Avena saliva. Oats culture is widely distributed over Europe and America, and the grain very generally used both as human food and for feeding farm animals. According to census reports the oat crop of the United States in 1909 was 1,007,000,000 bushels valued at $415,000,000. Of the total oat crop about one twentieth (50,241,598 bushels) was reported among the materials used by the milling industry, and an unknown amount was used in the manufacture of specially prepared " breakfast foods." The husk of the oat adheres closely to the grain and is not GRAIN PRODUCTS 265 usually removed before sending the grain to market. The following analyses" of oats with and without the husks and of oatmeal as ordinarily ground are from bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. TABLE 31. ANALYSES OF OATS AND OAT PRODUCTS OATS, EN- OAT TIRE KER- NEL WITH KERNEL WITHOUT OATMEAL ROLLED OATS HUSK HUSK Moisture . . Per cent 10.06 6.0? 7.a 7.7 Protein . Per cent 12. 1 Na 2 C 4 H 4 O6 + 2 CO 2 + 2 H 2 O and with cream of tartar (acid potassium tartrate) ; NaHCOa -* NaKC 4 H 4 O 6 + C0 2 + H 2 O 282 FOOD PRODUCTS In phosphate powders the acid component is calcium acid phosphate and the reaction is : CaH4(P0 4 ) 2 + 2 NaHC0 3 -+ CaHPO 4 + Na 2 HPO 4 + 2 CO 2 + H 2 O The calcium acid phosphate is made by acting upon rock phosphate (tricalcium phosphate) with sulphuric acid. This reaction produces also calcium sulphate which may or may not be left in the acid phosphate when the latter is made into baking powder. Alum powders react in the manner indicated by the following : NaAl(SO 4 ) 2 + 3 NaHCO 3 -* 2 Na 2 SO 4 + A1(OH) 3 + 3 CO 2 Formerly potassium and ammonium alums were used inter- changeably according to price; now calcined sodium alum is said to be commonly used. Mixed baking powders having more than one component which reacts with the bicarbonate are sometimes used. Thus with an alum and phosphate powder both the prompt action of the acid phosphate and the more continued evolution of gas due to the slow action of the alum may be obtained. A moderate amount of starch or flour in baking powder is considered permissible because of its value in keeping the powder dry and thus preventing its deterioration. Breakfast Cereals The great variety of forms in which the grains are prepared as breakfast foods and the extravagant claims which have some- times been made by the manufacturers have directed so much attention to these products that it is now generally understood that they resemble closely the staple grain products in composi- tion and nutritive value. Further discussion of these products seems therefore hardly necessary here. For 4etailed discussion of these products with analyses of GRAIN PRODUCTS 283 the different brands, the reader is referred to the following publications : Atwater. Digestibility of Cereal Breakfast Foods. Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station, i6th Annual Report, pages 180-209 (1904). Harcourt. Breakfast Foods ; Their Chemical Composition, Digestibility and Cost. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 26, pages 240-243, and Ontario Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 162 (1907). Woods and Snyder. Cereal Breakfast Foods. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 249. Composition of Grain and Bakery Products The composition of most of the grains and of several of their mill products have been given in the preceding sections of this chapter. The table which follows contains a compilation of analy- ses of raw and cooked grain products, taken chiefly from At- water and Bryant and arranged according to their classification: TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) ^ k s si 1 2 T- d ss Sd? III CH DESCRIPTION 3 g 3 5 z 1 o v a 5 IN j S O !!l 1 II |i 5 PH Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cenl FLOUR, MEALS, ETC. Barley meal and flour . . . 3 11.9 10.5 2.2 72.8 (1)6.5 2.6 1603 Barley, pearled i II " 8.5 I.I 77.8 ,0) -J I.I 1615 Buckwheat flour j 17 13.6 6.4 1.2 77-9 ( 8 ) .^ 9 1577 Buckwheat preparations, self-raising 14 n.6 8.2 1.2 72.4 () .4 " 6 I S ^O Corn meal, granular . . . 19 12.5 9-2 r.g / o ^ 75-4 0)7.0 I.O 1620 Pop corn 2 A..-1 10.7 5.0 78.7 1.4 1.3 1826 ^ o 284 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES WATER PROTEIN (NX 6.25) a TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) a w < ( S| <1 >& S, FLOUR, MEALS, ETC. Corn preparations : Cerealine 5 17 i 2 I 16 i 2 2 21 3 2 8 I 3 9 13 29 14 28 in 57 210 Per cent 10.3 n.8 79-3 5-2 16.8 7-3 84-5 91.6 96.0 12.3 72.5 9-5 12.9 11.4 13-8 11.4 n-3 10.8 11.9 12.8 ii-S 12.4 12.0 Per cent 9.6 8-3 2.2 "S 6.6 16.1 2 1.2 7 8.0 2.8 7-9 6.8 13.6 7-9 13-8 13-3 10.2 13-3 10.8 11.4 II. 2 II.4 Per cent I.I .6 .2 8. 4 3-8 7.2 S 4 .1 3 .1 4 9 2.O 1.4 i. 9 2.2 1.2 1-5 I.I I.O I.O I.O Per cent 78-3 79.0 I 7 .8 72.3 70.6 67.5 "5 6-3 2.9 79.0 24.4 81.9 78.7 71-5 76.4 71.9 71.4 73-o 72.7 74.8 75-6 74-9 7S-i Per cent ( 4 ) -4 ( 12 )-P Per cent 7 3 5 2.6 2.2 i-9 7 5 3 4 .2 3 7 i-S 5 I.O 1.8 4.8 .6 5 5 5 5 Cat. 1640 1608 371 1865 1557 1811 280 152 69 1591 498 1647 1588 1626 IS8S 1630 1628 1560 1623 1600 1620 1603 1610 Hominy Hominy, cooked .... Parched . Kafir corn 7.7 ( 9 ) -9 \ Oatmeal Oatmeal water C 3 ) -2 Rice Rice boiled Rice, flaked ( 4 ) '-4 1.8 Rye flour Rye meal Wheat flour, California fine . Wheat flour, entire wheat Wheat flour, Graham . . . Wheat flour, prepared (self- raising) ( 3 ) -9 ()/.p ( 3 ) -4 ( 6 ) -7 () .2 () .2 (") .2 ( 41 ) -3 Wheat flour, patent roller pro- cess, bakers' grade . . Wheat flour, patent roller pro- cess, family and straight grade Wheat flour, patent roller pro- cess, grade not indicated Wheat flour, patent roller pro- cess, high grade . . . Average of all analyses of high and medium grades and grade not indicated . GRAIN PRODUCTS 285 TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER or ANALYSES g 5 PROTEIN (NX 6.25) N < h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) 1 i g ^g 3& * i c FLOUR, MEALS, ETC. Wheat flour, patent roller pro- cess, low grade .... Wheat breakfast foods : l Cracked and crushed . . Farina 13 II 9 7 6 6 n 2 3 15 5 21 I I I I 3 27 3 Per cent I2.O IO.I 10.9 8. 7 8.6 8.1 10.3 10.7 10.6 II.O 38.9 35-7 35-3 23.6 27-5 36.7 29.6 35-7 3 2 -9 Per cent 14.0 II. I II.O 13-4 I 3 .6 10.5 13-4 II.7 12. 1 IO-9 7-9 9.0 11.9 9-4 6.7 7-9 8.1 8.9 8-7 Per cent 1.9 1-7 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 9 I.O 4 2.O 4-7 .6 3 7.2 7-6 4.8 6.9 1.8 2.6 Per cent 71.2 75-5 76.3 74-3 74-5 77-9 74.1 75-6 76.3 72.0 46.3 53-2 Si-5 59-i 57-6 49-7 54-2 52.1 55-3 Per cent CO .8 ( 7 )i-7 C) -4 1.8 .8 (3)1.7 Per cent 9 1.6 4 2.2 9 2.1 i-3 I.O .6 4.1 2.2 1-5 I.O 7 .6 9 1.2 i-5 5 Cat. 1625 1635 1640 1648 1696 1660 1625 1625 1620 IS87 "75 "S3 1163 1537 1488 1242 1413 1189 1268 Flaked Parched and toasted . . Shredded Wheat preparations : Noodles 4 ( 2 ) -4 Spaghetti BREAD, CRACKERS, PASTRY, ETC. Bread, corn (johnnycake) . . Bread rye ( 9 ) -5 Bread, rye and wheat . . . Bread, etc., wheat: Buns, cinnamon, as pur- Buns, currant, as purchased Buns, hot cross, as purchased Buns, sugar, as purchased Graham bread, as purchased Biscuit, homemade, as pur- chased i.i C) -3 ()i.i O -7 1 The different groups of wheat breakfast foods contain various brands, which have been arranged as far as possible according to similarity in method of prepara- tion. The varieties under each group differ only slightly from the average in per- centage composition. 286 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) Continued DESCRIPTION 2 a a gs WATER 1 S TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) 1 d CL, Per Per Per Per Per Per BREAD, CRACKERS, PASTRY, ETC. cent cent cent cent cent cent Col. Biscuit, Maryland, as pur- chased 2 > < 6 8 A ft 60. 1 T "2 7O Rolls, French, as purchased 2 32.0 8.5 2-5 55-7 1 J .6 i-3 1267 Rolls, plain, as purchased . 5 25.2 9-7 4.2 59-9 ( 2 ) -3 I.O M35 Rolls, Vienna, as purchased I 3 1 -? 8-5 2.2 56.5 4 i.i 1270 Rolls, water, as purchased 2 32.6 9.0 3.0 54-2 1.2 1268 Rolls, all analyses, as pur- chased 2O 29.2 8.9 4.1 56.7 C 2 ) -6 I.I 1357 Toasted bread, as purchased 5 24.0 "5 1.6 61.2 1.7 1385 White bread, cheap grade . 6 33-2 10.9 1.3 53-6 I.O 1224 White bread, homemade 38 35- 9.1 1.6 53-3 ( 2 ) -2 I.O 1198 White bread, milk, as pur- chased 8 36-5 9.6 1.4 51.1 i-4 1160 White bread, New England, as purchased .... 7 36-6 9.1 1.2 52.1 I.O 1160 White bread, Quaker, as pur- chased 3C 8 I I r 2 7 /3\ i.i ii 70 White bread, Vienna, as pur- 35. ' 56' i ' chased f\ A I 2 A T (9\ f i.i 1 200 White bread, all analyses, as ' 9-4 54- L V / O purchased, average J . . 198 35-3 9-2 1.3 53-i C 7 ) -5 i.i 1182 Analyses of similar bread made f lorn different grades of flour, from high to low grade : WATER PRO- TEIN FAT CAR- BOHY- DRATES FIBER ASH FUEL VALUE ' PER POUND White bread from high-grade patent flour Per cent 32.9 Per cent 8.7 Per cent 1.4 Per cent S6.S Per cent Per cent 0.5 Col. 1235 White bread from regular patent flour White bread from baker's flour 34-1 39-1 Q.O 10.6 1-3 1.2 54-9 48-3 7 9 1212. 1117 40.7 44-3 1-3 GRAIN PRODUCTS 287 TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES WATER PROTEIN (N X 6.25) H h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) > B ga II j H B PH BREAD, CRACKERS, PASTRY, ETC. Whole wheat bread, as pur- chased 12 Per cent 38.4 Per cent 0.7 Per cent .0 Per cent 4.0.7 Per cent Ml 2 Per cent I 1 Ca/. ill? Zwieback, as purchased Crackers, Boston (split) crack- ers, as purchased . Butter crackers .... Cream crackers .... Egg crackers 4 2 3 9 2 5-8 7-5 7-2 6.8 5.8 9.8 II.O 9.6 9-7 12.6 9.9 8-5 IO.I 12. 1 14.. O 73-5 71.1 71.6 69.7 66.6 0) * ( 2 ) -4 ( 5 ) -6 ,d I.O 1-9 i-5 i-7 I O 1915 1837 1885 1935 2OO8 Flatbread 3 0.8 14.. O .e 73.6 I 2 162 c Graham crackers .... Oatmeal crackers .... Oyster crackers .... Pilot bread 4 2 7 2 5-4 6-3 4.8 8.7 IO.O n.8 "3 iii 9-4 ii. i 10.5 So 73-8 69.0 7-5 74. 2 ( 2 )/-5 0)r.p 0) -2 ( 2 ) ? 1.4 1.8 2.9 I O 1904 1920 1914 T 7C2 Pretzels 2 Q.6 9.7 7.O 72 8 ( 2 ) ? 4. O l6?7 Saltines 2 5.6 10.6 127 68.5 j -> 6 IO?2 Soda crackers C C.Q 9.8 9. T 77.1 (i) . ? 2 I l87? Water crackers .... All analyses .... 6 71 6.4 6.8 11.7 IO 7 5- 88 75-7 71 O 4 (48) r 1.2 T 8 1790 l84.7 Cake: Coffee cake e 21. \ 7 I 7 5 6? 2 ( 4 ) 4 o i<;8* Cup cake 2 15.6 e o 9O 68 5 (0 ? I O 1716 Frosted cake 7 18 2 SO 64 8 Fruit cake 4 17. T. c n IO.O 64.1 T 8 171 c Gingerbread 2 18.8 5.8 Q.O 6? <; 0) .0 2.0 1625 I C 1 6 T. TO 7 i 8 I 7A8 All analyses, except fruit . Cookies 27 20 19.9 8 T 6.3 7.O 9.0 0.7 63-3 72.7 .4 ._J i-5 i.e 1630 i860 Doughnuts 18.1 6.7 21 O C? I ( 2 ) 7 o IO42 Fig biscuits or bars .... Ginger snaps I 7 17.9 6.1 4.6 6.5 6.6 8.6 69.8 76.O i-7 ( 5 ) 7 I.I - 6 l62O 1848 Lady fingers 3 I5.O 8.8 c.o 70.6 ( 2 ) 2 6 l641 Macaroons 4 12.1 6.5 I 5.2 6?. 2 I.I 8 IQ2I 288 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 37. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (AMERICAN ANALYSES) Continued (H 0-jfl ^^ fl bjj 1 DESCRIPTION u 2 | ^ ox fc 1 III 1 t% =>< ^ * JH ~~* * < j^ o a 2 2Q 2 H fi Per Per Per Per Per Per Cols BREAD, CRACKERS, PASTRY, ETC. cent cent cent cent cent cen/ Pie apple AI f 08 42 8 i 8 -,, Pie cream T T A CT 2 I O 6? Pie custard 6 a I O 800 Pie lemon A.1 A. > 6 77 A I e II r7 Pie mince e g 2 C 1298 Pie raisin A7 2 T C I 37? Pie squash 8 A I 7 817 Pudding, Indian meal . . . I 60.7 54 4.8 27-5 i. S 795 Pudding, rice custard . . . I 59-4 4.0 4.6 31-4 .6 830 Pudding, tapioca .... 3 64-5 3-3 3-2 28.2 .8 702 Wafers, miscellaneous . . . 5 6.6 8-7 8.6 74-5 4 1.6 1860 Wafers, vanilla 6 6.7 66 14.0 71.6 ( 5 ) ? i.i 1990 Nutritive Value of Grain Products and their Economy as Food The quantitative composition of the grains and of the chief food products made from them has already been given. The grains themselves, their chief mill products, and the dry cereal preparations made from them show considerable similarity in the general features of their chemical composition, and they vary but little from an average fuel value of about 1650 Calories per pound. The loo-Calorie portion of all these (dry) products is very nearly one ounce (varying only from 25 grams for oatmeal to 29 grams for rice). The cooked products naturally show greater differences, chiefly because of the presence of added water or fat. The chemical nature and nutritive value of the carbohydrates GRAIN PRODUCTS 289 (chiefly starch in all of the grains) and of the fat do not offer any problem requiring further discussion. The chemical structure of the proteins of the cereal grains has been investigated with great thoroughness by Osborne from whose results are taken the percentages of amino acids obtained on hydrolysis of these proteins as shown in Table 38. TABLE 38. AMINO ACIDS FROM PROTEINS OF GRAIN PRODUCTS (OSBORNE) HON- ZEIN GLU- PRO- GLIA- GLU- LEU- EDES- DEIN (BARLEY) (CORN) TELIN (CORN; LAMIN (RYE) DIN (WHEAT) TENIN (WHEAT) COSIN (WHEAT) TIN 1 (HEMP) Glycin . . . o 0.25 0.13 o 0.89 0-94 3-8o Alanin . . 0.43 9-79 ? 1-33 2.00 4-65 4-45 3.60 Valin . . . 0.13 1.88 ? 3-34 0.24 0.18 6.20 Leucin 5-67 19-55 -6.22 6.30 6.62 5-95 "34 14-50 Prolin . . . 13-73 9-04 4-99 9.82 13.22 4-23 3-l8 1.70 Phenylalanin 5-03 6-55 1-74 2.70 2-35 1-97 3-83 2.40 Aspartic acid . ? 1.71 0.63 0.25 0.58 0.91 3-35 4.50 Glutamic acid . 43.20 26.17 12.72 38.05 43.66 23-42 6-73 14.50 Serin .... ? I.O2 ? 0.06 0.13 0-74 0-33 Tyrosin . . . 1.67 3-55 3-78 1. 19 i. 20 4-2S 3-34 2.13 Cystin . . . I. CO 0-45 O.O2 I .00 Lysin . . . o o 2-93 0.15 1.92 2-75 1.65 Histidin . . 1.28 0.8*2 3?oo 0-39 0.61 1.76 2-83 2. IQ Arginin . . . 2.16 i-SS 7.06 2.22 3.16 4.72 5-94 14.17 Ammonia 4.84 3-64 2.12 5-ii S-22 4.01 1.41 2.28 Tryptophan Present Absent Present Present Present Present Present Present Summation . 78.17 85-27 45-44 67-55 82.69 59-68 50-32 76.95 1 Edestin occurs also in wheat. That glycin is absent in some cases is, as has been seen in earlier chapters, a matter of no consequence so far as food value is concerned. When, however, we find little or no lysin as in gliadin, hordein, and zein, or find tryptophan absent as in zein, we are confronted with a deficiency which we are not sure that the animal body can supply, and serious doubt is thrown upon the adequacy of such a protein as food. Osborne and Mendel have used these proteins largely in their feeding experiments with isolated food substances and have found: (i) that when zein (lacking tryptophan) is the 2QO FOOD PRODUCTS only protein of the diet, it does not suffice for the needs either of a growing or a full-grown animal ; (2) that when hordein or gliadin (containing tryptophan but little or no lysin) is the sole protein fed, full-grown animals can be maintained, but young animals cannot grow. That these deficiencies in food value are actually due to the lack of the amino acids named has been shown by experiments in which the simple addition of the amino acid to the dietary was found to correct the deficiency. This successful correlation of the chemical structure and nutri- tive function of the proteins is an accomplishment of the greatest importance to the scientific development of food chemistry. It does not follow, however, from the fact that gliadin, hordein, or zein is inadequate as a sole protein food, that wheat, barley, maize, or their mill products would be correspondingly inade- quate even if fed alone. Each of these grains (and of the staple mill products made from them) contains a mixture of proteins and the other proteins with which gliadin, hordein, and zein are always mixed in wheat, barley, and maize, do not show these same peculiarities of chemical structure, so that we have no reason to fear that either lysin or tryptophan would ever be wholly lacking in any staple food product made from grain. Thus glutenin, which is always present in wheat flour, has been shown to be adequate for both maintenance and growth even when it was the only protein in the diet. It is, however, only reasonable to expect that the mixture of proteins found in corn meal or even wheat flour will be of somewhat less value in nutri- tion than an equal weight of the mixture of proteins which we find in milk, eggs, or meat. Experimental observations confirm this inference and indicate that when bread is the sole source of protein in the diet, a larger amount of protein is required for equilibrium than when milk or meat is eaten. Fortunately the proteins of milk (page 72) are relatively rich in those amino-acid radicles in which the grains are poor. Os- GRAIN PRODUCTS 291 borne and Mendel have found that their animals are not only maintained in health and vigor, but also make a normal rate of growth when three fourths of their protein is zein and one fourth is lactalbumin. If bread be made with skimmed milk instead of water, or if breakfast cereal or even corn meal mush be eaten with cream or milk, it is possible that the protein of the combination may have fully as high a value in nutrition as the average protein of ordinary mixed diet. The digestibility of the grain proteins when fed free is prob- ably not inferior to that of animal protein. It is evidently very largely because of the associated substances such as cell walls which still enclose the grain proteins to a certain extent in ordi- nary mill products, that the coefficient of digestibility of the protein of bread for example is lower than that of average mixed diet. Partly for the same and partly for other reasons, it was anticipated that the coefficient of digestibility of whole grain products might be somewhat lower than that of the finer prod- ucts representing only the inner portion of the kernel. This question was of particular interest as affecting the com- parative food values of patent, " entire wheat," and Graham flours and the breads made from them. The average results of a long series of digestion experiments carried out under the auspices of the United States Department of Agriculture were as follows: COEFFICIENT OF DIGESTIBILITY OF Protein Carbohydrate Standard patent flour Per cent 88.6 Percent O7 7 '' Entire wheat " flour 82.0 O3. ? Graham flour 74.0 89.2 The lower coefficients of digestibility of the " entire wheat " and Graham flours almost exactly offset their higher protein 292 FOOD PRODUCTS contents, so that it may be said that the amount of protein digested and absorbed from a pound of one of these or from a pound of patent flour is practically the same. The amount of available energy is also about the same in either case. However, as Woods and Merrill have pointed out, it does not follow that a larger amount of digestible nutrients may not be obtained from a given amount of wheat when milled as Graham flour or as entire wheat flour than when ground for patent flour, because 100 pounds of cleaned and screened wheat will yield 100 pounds of Graham flour, or about 85 pounds of " entire wheat " flour, but only about 72 pounds of patent flour. It follows that if milled on an equally large scale, i.e. if there were an equally large demand, Graham and " entire wheat " flours could be sold at a lower price than patent flour, but at present they usually cost as much, or in some cases even more. Regarding the coarser and finer flours simply as sources of protein and energy, they are so nearly equal both in digestible nutrients and (at present, to the individual consumer) in pecu- niary economy l that they may be regarded as substantially equivalent and interchangeable. They are, however, quite different in the ash constituents which they contain and some- what different in their effect upon the digestive tract. The coarser wheat products stimulate peristalsis more than do the fine flour products, an effect which is desirable in some persons and undesirable in others. This property of the whole wheat products is often attributed to mechanical irritation, but cannot be due entirely to this, because " bran mash " is used as a laxative with horses whose other food (hay, for example) would certainly furnish more mechanical stimulation than the bran. The wheat kernel contains two distinct substances re- ported as having laxative effects which are largely rejected in the preparation of fine flour. These are the oil of the germ and 1 This, of course, does not apply to certain proprietary "whole wheat" products sold at very high prices. GRAIN PRODUCTS 293 the phytin (one of the phosphorus compounds) which is especially abundant in the bran. It is probable that in man the stimu- lation of peristalsis by whole wheat products is due in part to direct mild laxative action by one or both of these constituents, and in part also to the mechanical effect of the fibrous particles. The ash constituents of the grains are largely concentrated in the germs and outer layers. This has been pointed out with respect to barley, maize, and rice earlier in the chapter. We shall therefore consider wheat chiefly at this point. Bran yields 10 to 20 times as much ash as patent flour. Comparing the patent flour with the whole wheat, the discrepancy is still large, the wheat containing 3 to 5 times as much of iron, of phosphorus, of calcium, or of total ash as the fine flour made from it. Thus three fourths of the ash constituents of the wheat kernel are lost to man in the process of manufacturing the wheat into white flour. Doubtless the loss in digestion is somewhat greater for the coarser than for the finer products in the case of the ash constituents as of the proteins, but there is no reason to suppose that the loss in digestion would in any case approach the loss involved in the ordinary milling process. The body probably absorbs from a pound of genuine whole wheat bread at least twice as much phosphorus, iron, and calcium compounds as from a pound of white bread. No adequate experiments upon this point appear to have been made with man, 1 but Bunge 2 has tested the value of the ash constituents of the bran for growing rats. Eight young rats of the same litter and approximately the same size at the beginning of the experiment were divided into two groups of four each. One group was fed on white bread which contained 0.0015 P er cent Fe, 0.045 P er cent CaO, and 0.28 1 The ordinary digestion experiments taken alone are useless if not positively misleading for this purpose because of the excretion in the feces of ash constituents which have been absorbed and utilized in the body. s Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie,Vol. 25, page 36 (1898). 2Q4 FOOD PRODUCTS per cent PsOs ; the other group on whole wheat bread which contained 0.0055 P er cen t Fe, 0.077 P er cen t CaO, and 0.90 per cent PgOa. The rats receiving the whole wheat bread grew much better than those fed on white bread, and were found to contain at the end of the experiment both a larger amount and a higher percentage of haemoglobin. It was clear that the ash constituents of the outer layers of the grain were utilized for the production of bone, muscle, and blood, and that the rats receiving the whole wheat bread were much better nourished than those which were fed on white bread, though all had appeared equally well nourished at the beginning of the experiment. In view of recent studies on rice and beriberi (page 267 and references at the end of this chapter) the probable effect upon the " vitamine " content of rejecting all but the white interior portion of the grain naturally suggests itself as a subject possibly worthy of consideration. Some writers and teachers treat the losses incurred in the ordinary milling processes as a matter of indifference or even object to any serious discussion of the problem, calling it a " fad " on the ground that with the mixed dietary prevalent in the United States there is no danger of the " deficiency diseases " from any mode of milling the grains. This is probably true as regards the pronounced diseases such as beriberi, but it is also true that many American family dietaries show little margin of safety as regards iron, phosphorus, and calcium, 1 which makes it only reasonable that we should wish to include in the products used for human food as much as is practicable of those parts of the grain which are rich in these elements. Moreover, one should not overlook the great wastefulness of making from 100 pounds of wheat only 70 to 75 pounds of white flour when the same wheat will yield 85 to 95 pounds of flour 1 Bulletins 185 and 227, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. GRAIN PRODUCTS 295 practically equal pound for pound if the ash constituents be ignored, and more than equal if these constituents be considered. Pecuniary economy. The grain products, including flour, bread, corn meal, and oatmeal, constitute the most economical of the general groups of foods. A pound of bread or 12 ounces of flour, corn meal, or oatmeal is equal in fuel value to 5 or 6 ounces of butter or fat bacon, i to 2 pounds steak, 2 to 3 pounds halibut or other lean fish. In an extended series of dietary studies made at the State University of Maine, the grain products while costing only 17 per cent of the total expenditure for food furnished 40 per cent of the fuel value, 25 per cent of the protein, and 18 per cent of the phosphorus compounds. As a rule a free use of bread and other grain products makes for both an economical and a well-balanced dietary. REFERENCES AMOS. Processes of Flour Manufacture. GRANT. The Chemistry of Breadmaking. HUNT. The Cereals in America. JAGO. The Technology of Breadmaking. KLOTZ. Die Bedeutung der Getreidemehle fur die Ernahrung. LEACH. Food Inspection and Analysis. OSBORNE. The Proteins of the Wheat Kernel. SIMMONS. Book of Bread. SNYDER. Studies in Bread and Breadmaking. Bulletins 67, 101, and 126 of the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture. WILEY. Cereals and Cereal Products. Part 9 of Bulletin 13 of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. WILEY. Analyses of Cereals Collected at the World's Columbia Exposition. Bulletin 45 of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. WINTON. The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods. 296 FOOD PRODUCTS WOODS and MERRILL. The Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread. Bulletins 85 and 143 of the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture. II Barley and Malt OSBORNE. The Chemical Nature of Diastase. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 17, pages 587-603 (1895); Vol. 18, pages 536- 542 (1896). OSBORNE and CAMPBELL. The Proteins of Malt. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 18, pages 542-558 (1896). LECLERC and WAHL. Chemical Studies of American Barleys and Malts. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 124 (1909). SMITH. The Sulphur Bleaching of Commercial Oats and Barley. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 74 (iQ 11 )- MENDEL and FINE. Utilization of the Proteins of Barley. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 10, pages 339-343 (1911). SHERMAN and SCHLESINGER. Experiments upon the Purification of the Amylase of Malt. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 35, pages 1617-1623 (1913). SHERMAN and GETTLER. The Forms of Nitrogen in Amylase Preparations from the Pancreas and from Malt as shown by the Van Slyke Method. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 35, pages 1790-1794 (1913)- Corn or Maize OSBORNE. Amounts and Properties of the Proteins of the Maize Kernel. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 19, pages 525-532 (1897). HOPKINS, SMITH, and EAST. Breeding Corn. Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 100 (1905). MERRILL. Indian Corn as Food for Man. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 131, pages 133-145 (1906). HANUSEK. Maize Studies. Archiv fur Chemie und Mikroskopie, Vol. 4, pages 213-224 (1911). MENDEL and FINE. The Utilization of the Proteins of Corn. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 10, pages 345-352 (1911). DUNNINGTON. The Grinding of Corn Meal for Bread. Original Communi- cations, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages H9-/I27 (1912). GRAIN PRODUCTS 297 SMITH. Breeding Maize for Industrial Purposes. Original Communicar tions, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 261-264 (1912). ALSBERG and BLACK. Contributions to the Study of Maize Deterioration, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 270 (1913). OSBORNE. The Nutritive Value of the Proteins of Maize. Science, Vol. 37, pages 185-191 (Jan. 31, 1913). RAMMSTEDT. Composition and Digestibility of Corn Meal Products. Archiv fiir Hygiene, Vol. 81, pages- 286-306 (1913). DUVALL and DUVALL. Shrinkage of Shelled Corn while in Cars in Transit. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 48, pages 1-21 (1914). FUNK. Influence of the Milling of Maize on the Chemical and Nutritive Value of Maize Meal. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 47, pages 389-392 (1914). LANGWORTHY and HUNT. Corn Meal as a Food and Ways of Using It. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 565 (1914). OSBORNE and MENDEL. Nutritive Properties of Proteins of the Maize Kernel. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 1-16 (1914). Oats and Oatmeal WATSON. Oatmeal in the Dietary of Children. British Medical Journal for 1907, pages 985-986. HUNT. The Effects of a Restricted Diet and of Various Diets upon Resist- ance of Animals to Certain Poisons. Hygienic Laboratory of the United States Public Health Service, Bulletin 69 (1910). SMITH. The Sulphur Bleaching of Commercial Oats and Barley. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 74 (1911)- TRIER. Phosphatids of Oatmeal. Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, Vol. 86, pages 153-173 (iQH)- Rice and Beriberi FLETCHER. Rice and Beri-beri. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Vol. 12, pages 127-134 (1909). ARON et al. (Phosphorus Metabolism and Beri-beri.) Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 5, pages 55-144 (1910). KAJIURA and ROSENHEIM. Contribution to the Etiology of Beri-beri. Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 10, pages 49-55 (1910). 298 FOOD PRODUCTS ARON and HOCSON. Rice as a Food. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Metab- olism with Rice and Other Foods. Biochemische Zeitschrift, Vol. 32, pages 189-203 (191 1). CHAMBERLAIN. The Eradication of Beri-beri from the Philippine (Native) Scouts by Means of a Simple Change in their Dietary. Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 6, pages 133-146 (1911). GREIG. Rice in Relation to Beri-beri. Scientific Memoirs of the Medical and Sanitary Departments, India, New Series, No. 45, pages 1-43 (1911). SIMPSON and EDIE. Relation of the Organic Phosphorus Content of Various Diets to Diseases of Nutrition, particularly Beri-beri. Annals of Tropi- cal Medicine and Parisitology, Vol. 5, pages 313-345 (1911). BREAUDAT and DENIER. Use of Rice Bran in the Prevention and Cure of Beri-beri. Annales de 1'Institut Pasteur, Vol. 25, pages 167-189 (1911- 1912). FUNK. Chemical Nature of the Substance which cures Polyneuritis in Birds Induced by a Diet of Polished Rice. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 43, pages 395-400 (1912). CHAMBERLAIN and VEDDER. (Rice Bran Extracts in Relation to Cure of Beri-beri.) Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 6, pages 251- 258 (1912). CHAMBERLAIN and VEDDER. Second Contribution to the Etiology of Beri- beri. Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 6, pages 395-404 (1912). CHAMBERLAIN, VEDDER, and WILLIAMS. Third Communication on the Eti- ology of Beri-beri. Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 7, pages 39-52 (1912). CUSHMAN and FULLER. A Chemical Investigation of Asiatic Rice. Original Communications, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 73-81 (1912). FUNK. Effect of a Diet of Polished Rice on the Nitrogen and Phosphorus of the Brain. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 44, pages 50-53 (1912). FUNK. Substance from Yeast and Certain Foodstuffs which prevents Polyneuritis. British Medical Journal, 1912, II, page 787 (1912). KAJIURA. The Proteins of Rice. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 6, pages 171- 181 (1912). SUZUKI, SHAMIMURA, and ODAKE. Oryzanine, a Component of Rice Bran and its Physiological Significance. Biochemische Zeitschrift, Vol. 43, pages 89-153 (1912). SCHAUMANN. Preparation and Mode of Action of a Substance m Rice Hulls which is Active in Experimental Polyneuritis. Archiv Schiffs und Tropin Hygiene, Vol. 16, pages 349-361 (1912). GRAIN PRODUCTS 299 FUNK. Chemistry of the Vitamine Fraction from Yeast and Rice Polishings. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 46, pages 173-179 (1913). VEDDER and WILLIAMS. Concerning the Beri-beri preventing Substances or Vitamines Contained in Rice Polishings. Philippine Journal of Science, Series B, Vol. 8, pages 175-195 (1913). COOPER. Protective and Curative Properties of Certain Foodstuffs against Polyneuritis induced by Diet of Polished Rice. Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 14, pages 12-22 (1914). FUNK. Is Polished Rice plus Vitamine a Complete Food? Journal of Physiology, Vol. 48, pages 228-232 (1914). Wheat, Flour, and Bread OSBORNE and VOORHEES. The Proteins of Wheat. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 16, pages 524-535 (1894). GUESS. The Gluten Constituents of Wheat and Flour and Their Relation to Breadmaking Qualities. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 22, pages 263-268 (1900). SNYDER and WOODS. Wheat Flour and Bread. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1903, pages 347-362. BRAHM. Flour Bleached by Ozone. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nah- rungs und Genussmittel, Vol. 8, pages 669-673 (1904). SNYDER. Wheat and Flour Investigations. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 85 (1904). CARLETON and CHAMBERLAIN. Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 70 (1905). HARPER and PETER. Protein Content of the Wheat Kernel. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 113 (1905). SNYDER. Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and Macaroni. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experi- ment Stations, Bulletin 156 (1905). HUMPHRIES. Modern Developments of Flour Milling. Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. 55, pages 109-126 (1906-1907). LADD and STALLINGS. Bleaching of Flour. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 72, pages 219-235 (1906-1907). NORTON. Crude Gluten. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 28, pages 8-25 (1906). ALWAY. Effect of Bleaching upon the Quality of Wheat Flour. Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 102, pages 1-56 (1907). AVERY. The Bleaching of Flour. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 29, pages 571-574 (19?)- 300 FOOD PRODUCTS ALWAY and PICKNEY. The Effect of Nitrogen Peroxide upon Wheat Flour. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30, pages 81-85 (1908). BAKER and HULTON. Considerations Affecting the Strength of Flours. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 27, pages 368-376 (1908). LADD and BASSETT. Bleaching of Flour. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 6, pages 75-86 (1909). SNYDER. Flour Bleaching. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin in, pages 101-143 (1909). WESENER and TELLER. Flour Bleaching, its Relation to Bread Production and Nutrition. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. i, pages 700-711 (1909). WOOD and HARDY. Physical State of Gluten. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Vol. 81, pages 38-43 (1909). ATWATER (H. W.). Bread and Breadmaking. United States Department . of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 389 (1910). HALE. The Bleaching of Flour and the Effect of Nitrites upon Certain Medicinal Substances. United States Public Health Service, Hygienic Laboratory, Bulletin 68 (1910). HARCOURT and PURDY. Flour and Breadmaking. Ontario Agricultural College, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 180 (1910). ROCKWOOD. Effects of Bleaching upon the Digestibility of Wheat Flour. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 8, pages 327-340 (1910). WARDALL. Relation of Yeast to Flavor in Bread. Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 2, pages 75-91 (1910). WILLARD. Changes in Weight of Stored Flour. Kansas State Board of Health, Vol. 7, pages 9-14 (1910-1911). HILL. Nutritive Value of White and Standard Bread. British Medical Journal, 1911, No. 2627, pages 1068-1069; (discussion) No. 2628, page 1151 (1911). HUMPHREYS. Wheat Flour. Chemical News, Vol. 104, page 117 (1911). LADD and BAILEY. Wheat Investigations ; Milling, Baking and Chemical Tests. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 89 (1911). MENDEL and FINE. The Utilization of the Proteins of Wheat. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 10, pages 303-325 (1911). SHAW and GAUMNITZ. California White Wheats. California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 212 (1911). THATCHER, OLSON, and HADLOCK. Wheat and Flour Investigations. Wash- ington Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 100 (1911). GRAIN PRODUCTS 301 OSBORNE and MENDEL. The R61e of Gliadin in Nutrition. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 12, pages 473-510 (1912). TELLER. The Carbohydrates of Wheat and Wheat Products and Changes in the Same during Development of the Grain. Original Communica- tions, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 273-278(1912). WESENER and TELLER. Aging of Flour and its Effect on Digestion. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 91 2-919 (1911). United States Department of Agriculture. Bleached Flour. Notice of Judgment 722. Office of the Secretary. DEAN and SWANSON. Effect of Common Mill Fumigants (Hydrocyanic Acid and Carbon Bisulphide) on the Baking Qualities of Wheat Flour. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 178, pages 155-207 (1911-1912). WILLARD and SWANSON. Milling Tests of Wheat and Baking Tests of Flour. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 177 (1911-1912). KOHMAN. Salt-rising Bread and Some Comparisons with Bread Made with Yeast. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 20-30, 100-106 (1912). NEWAN et al. Some Experiments on the Relative Digestibility of White and Wholemeal Breads. Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 12, pages 119-143 (1912). SNYDER. Wheat Flour. Original Communications, 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 323-328 (1912). STEWART and HIRST. Comparative Value of Irrigated and Dry Farming Wheat for Flour Production. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 270-272 (1912). SWANSON. Acidity in Flour ; its Relation to Phosphorus and Other Con- stituents. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 274-275 (1912). WILLARD and SWANSON. Baking Qualities of Flour as influenced by Certain Chemical Substances, etc. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. 23-24, pages 201-207 ; Chemical News, Vol. 105, pages 97- 99(1912). BAILEY. Minnesota Wheat Investigations. I. Milling, Baking and Chemi- cal Tests. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 131 (1913) POWER and SOLWAY. Chemical Examination of Wheat Germ. Pharma- ceutical Journal, Vol. 91, pages 117-120, 176 (1913). STREET. Diabetic Foods. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Report, Section i, Part i, pages 1-95 (1913). 302 FOOD PRODUCTS SWANSON. Chemical Composition of Wheats compared with Resultant Flours. American Miller, Vol. 41, pages 218-222 (1913). WHITE. Influence of Bran Extracts on the Baking Qualities of Flour. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 990-993 LECLERC and JACOBS. Graham Flour. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 164 (1913). LECLERC and YODER. Environmental Influences on the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. i, pages 275-291 (1914)- McCoRMACK. Milling of Wheat and the Testing of Flour. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, pages 423-428 (1914). WILLARD and SWANSON. Influence of Certain Substances upon the Baking Qualities of Flour. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 190, pages 237-285 (1914)- CHAPTER IX SINCE it is difficult to draw any logical line of demarcation between vegetables, fruits, and nuts, because of the many im- portant characteristics common to articles belonging to more than one of these categories, they will here be discussed in one chapter. The descriptive matter relating to these food mate- rials will be taken up first; and the more critical discussion of the group as a whole, its nutritive importance and place in the diet, will follow. Vegetables According to Langworthy, vegetables furnish 8.7 per cent of the protein, i.o per cent of the fat, and 12.0 per cent of the carbo- hydrate of the average American dietary. The Census Reports show $450,000,000 worth of vegetables grown in the United States in 1909. The actual value was probably greater, since this figure is based on returns which were probably not entirely complete, and on the values at the farm rather than in the market. Vegetables are therefore an important factor in the food supply and are likely to play an increasingly prominent part as their importance as food becomes better understood, and as agri- culture becomes more intensified. Of the food materials commonly known as vegetables, some are seeds, some fruits, some leaves, stems, or bulbs, and some are roots and tubers. The plants whose seeds are commonly used as foods and classed as vegetables belong chiefly to the Leguminosae, or pulse family. 33 304 FOOD PRODUCTS Such seeds include the various kinds of beans, peas, and lentils and are known collectively as legumes or pulses. Seeds of the Graminaceae, or grass family, which includes the common cereals, and which have been studied under the general name of " grains " in the preceding chapter, are sometimes grouped with the vegetables. Thus sweet corn is commonly classed as a vegetable, and rice, though handled as a grain crop commercially, is sometimes given the place of a vegetable on the table. The cases in which a fleshy fruit enveloping the seeds is eaten as a " vegetable " rather than as " fruit " fall chiefly in the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family, which includes cucumbers, pumpkins, and squashes, the only exception of much importance being the tomato, which belongs to the Solanaceae. The plants of which the leaves, stems, bulbs, roots, or tubers are eaten are widely distributed through the vegetable kingdom. Thus beets, chard, and spinach belong to the Chenopodiaceae ; cabbage, to the Cruciferae; onions and leeks, to the Liliaceae; the potato, to the Solanaceae ; carrots, parsnips, and parsley, to the Umbelliferae. Since among the materials commonly called vegetables there is so little relation between the botanical position of the plant and its use as food, it seems best to follow here the common grouping of the vegetables rather than their botanical classi- fication. Legumes or Pulses Beans, peas, and legumes are marketed as food both in the green condition (fresh or canned) and in the dry state, the dry legumes being sometimes classed as " grains.." The Census Bureau reports the production of dry edible beans in the United States in 1909 at 11,251,000 bushels valued at $21,771,000 and that of dry peas at 7,129,000 bushels valued at $ 10,964,000. Fresh legumes do not appear separately in the census reports. Hence we have no statistical data as to the extent to which the VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 305 green and dry legumes together enter into the food supply of the country as a whole. From the data of about 400 studies of families and other groups of people, Langworthy estimates that they supply 3.3 per cent of the protein, 0.2 per cent of the fat, and 2.0 per cent of the carbohydrate in the average Ameri- can dietary. On account of the recent growth of the pea-canning industry, it seems likely that the legumes may now be playing a larger part in the food supply than at the time of the observations upon which Langworthy's estimates are based. The present methods of canning peas are described by Bitting in Bulletin 125 of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States De- partment of Agriculture, from which the following paragraphs are taken : Pea canning is one of the most important lines of the canning industry, being third in order of output, tomatoes and corn being, respectively, first and second, although peas are second in point of value. The pea pack for iQoy is estimated at 6,505,961 cases, valued at $14,650,000. The first labor-saving device of importance in pea canning was the podding machine invented by Madame Faure in France in 1883. The invention was practically duplicated in this country in 1889. The American podding machine was improved, and in 1893 it was patented as a vining machine. The whole pea-canning industry was changed by this invention. Practically all of the peas canned in this country are passed through these vining machines, so that their use has virtually changed the growing of peas in small patches market-garden fashion, with hundreds of persons going over the vines and picking the pods to the cultivating of large fields which are cut by a machine. The viner occupies the same relation to hand picking in the pea-canning industry that the thrashing machine does to the flail in the thrashing of wheat. The first operation through which the peas pass after leaving the viner is that of washing. This is accomplished in what is known as the squirrel cage, which is a wire cylinder about 3 feet in diameter and 12 feet long. The cylinder is set on a slight incline so that when the peas are admitted at one end they will tend to roll to the other as the cylinder revolves. On the inside is a perforated pipe that sprays a stream of water upon the peas, which insures their being well washed provided the spray has some force. When the 306 FOOD PRODUCTS VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 307 weather is very warm and the peas accumulate more rapidly than they can be passed through the filler, it may be necessary to wash the shelled peas in cold water every few hours in order to prevent fermentation. After the peas pass through the washer, they should be graded according to the degree of maturity or hardness. This is accomplished by passing them through tanks containing salt solutions of different densities. It has been found that the young tender peas will float in a salt solution somewhat heavier than water and those more mature will sink, while the very mature peas will sink in a heavy salt solution. Peas, therefore, may be sorted very readily into different grades according to their density by using different strengths of salt water. In practice three grades have been made. The first grade consists of all peas which will float in a solution having a specific gravity of i .040. The second grade consists of those peas which will sink in a solution of this density but which will float in a solution having a specific gravity of 1.070. The third grade consists of the peas which will sink in the latter solution. Grading. The grading of peas for quality is as sharp and clear as that for size. The lightest weight peas are the finest, being even in quality, succulent, and tender. The heaviest peas are the poorest, being uneven in quality, hard, overripe, and of bad color. The middle-weight peas are good, but harder than the first grade, of darker color, and not so uniform. These differences are most apparent before the canning is done, though they are readily distinguishable in the can, and also show on chemical examination. A chemical examination of peas graded for quality as well as for size gave results as shown in the table on page 308. The table shows more total solids and higher protein and starch content in the third-grade goods. This might be expected, as the third grade repre- sents the more mature product. If canned peas were purchased for their nutritive properties only, then the third grade would be the preferable one to buy, but they are usually selected for their delicacy and flavor, which are found in the highest degree in the youngest and tenderest peas, or the first grade. The grading for size is a very simple matter. The peas are passed over sieves, or into a revolving cylinder having four sections with perforations of different sizes. The perforations in the first sieve or section measure nine thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. The peas which pass through this size opening are known as No. i, or " petits pois." The next size of perfora- tion is ten thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter, and the peas passing through are known as No. 2, " extra sifted," or " extra fins." The third size of per- foration is eleven thirty-seconds of an inch, and the peas which pass through are known as No. 3, " sifted," or " fins." The last size is twelve thirty- 308 FOOD PRODUCTS seconds of an inch, and the peas which pass through are known as No. 4, or " early June " peas. The peas which are too large to pass through this sieve go over the end and are known as No. 5, or " marrowfats." Some packers add one more sieve for late peas, with perforations thirteen thirty- seconds of an inch in diameter for the No. 5, and those which pass over this sieve are called No. 6, or " telephone peas." The sizes of these perforations are standard and in general use. Some packers have attempted to make sizes of their own by reaming out the holes, while others do not use all four sieves, but group two sizes together ; and some peas are ungraded. TABLE 39. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF PEAS GRADED FOR SIZE AND QUALITY [Analyses made in the Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemistry.] GRADE ^ 55 s & o Hc/3 W < 1 fl H fi PENTO- SANS STARCH SUCROSE REDUCING SUGAR UNDETER- MINED Per cent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Per cent Percent Per cent Petits pois First . . 14.23 1.03 3-44 1.68 0-75 5-57 0.72 o.oo 1.04 Second 18.80 I. 7 8 4.19 1.84 .92 8-53 93 .00 .61 Third . . 18.04 1.82 4-4.1 2.28 94 8-53 .81 .00 35 Sifted : First . . 22.o6 1.36 5-31 2.21 .96 10.23 .98 .00 I.OI Second 24.32 1.04 5-69 2.05 I.OI 11.52 57 .00 2-44 Third . . 27.74 i-37 5-63 2.18 1.50 I3-52 .48 .00 3.06 Marrowfat : First . . 22.22 1.02 5-13 2.18 .98 10.48 94 .00 1.49 Second 24.10 1.30 6.69 2-55 i-55 8.77 63 .00 2.60 Third . . 27-IS 2.03 5-94 2.00 1.27 12.91 36 .00 2.63 After the peas have been graded into sizes they are usually run in thin layers over slowly moving belts, so that pieces of foreign material, broken, fully matured, and defective peas may be seen easily and removed. Low- grade peas are not so carefully picked over. Blanching. There are two objects in blanching peas : (i) To remove the mucous substance from the outside and a part of the green coloring matter, so as to have a clear liquor in the can ; and (2) to drive water into the peas, so that all will be tender. In the^young, juicy pea, the water content is at its maximum, so that the cleaning df the surface is all that is necessary. The time required for blanch- VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 309 ing is from one-half to one minute for No. i and No. 2, or " petits pois " and " extra sifted " ; one and a half minutes for No. 3, or " sifted " ; two minutes for No. 4, or " early June "; and two and one half minutes for No. 5, or " marrowfat " peas. To get the best results, peas which are very old and hard will need a blanch approximately five times as long as young peas of the corresponding grade, while those in the intermediate stages will require a blanch proportional to their development. It is evident, therefore, that among peas that are good, but ungraded as to quality, there will be a greater or less number which will be hard because of under blanching, and some above size because of swelling during the blanch- ing and after processing. There is no part of the work of canning peas which requires so much judgment as that of blanching if the best quality of goods is to be obtained. When the peas leave the blancher, they are sometimes washed, and this is desirable in order to insure a clear liquor, especially if the peas have been blanched in wire baskets suspended in a tank of water. The peas are filled into the cans by special machines, although in very small factories this may be done by hand. The modern machines do the work with a fair degree of accuracy, insuring a uniform quantity in each can, then adding liquor to fill, so that the caps will just go on. A can is said to be well filled when the contents are within three eighths inch of the cap and the peas are just covered with liquor. Peas of excellent quality when covered to too great a depth with liquor deteriorate in appear- ance as can be determined by inserting a spoon and raising the peas gently but without appreciably disturbing the liquor. On the other hand, if there is not sufficient liquor to cover the peas, they are not generally attractive, and if very short of liquor, they become pasty. It is important, therefore, to use just enough liquor to cover the peas. The No. 2 can generally used is popularly supposed to mean a 2-pound can, and is often so billed and referred to in market reports, but it does not hold 2 pounds and should be given its proper designation. The average fill of a can is such that after processing there will be 14 ounces of peas (400 grams) and 7j ounces (200 grams) of liquor. The can weighs 100 grams, making a total of 700 grams or 25 ounces. Any very marked deviation from these figures in the direction of reducing the proportion of peas would evidently be an adulteration with water, while any considerable increase in the proportion of peas would result in dryness. Cans containing only n or 12 ounces of peas are evidently short weight, though a customer cannot reasonably demand more than 1 5 ounces as a maximum and expect a good appearance. A can of marrowfat or telephone peas will not weigh as much by about three fourths ounce (20 grams) as a can of the smaller-sized peas if the fill be 310 FOOD PRODUCTS the same. The " sifted " pea, or No. 3 size, is the heaviest in the commercial grading. The " extra sifted " and the " petits pois " are the most expensive to the canner, and the tendency is to cut slightly in the weight, usually about three fourths of an ounce, although it is not uncommon to get cans from 15 to 2 ounces short on peas and correspondingly overweight on liquor. The liquor used on peas is usually composed of water, salt, and sugar. At one time saccharin was used by many packers instead of sugar, but this practice has been almost entirely discontinued. The proportion of salt and sugar used varies greatly with the different packers. The lowest amounts given were 2 pounds of salt and 2 pounds of sugar to 100 gallons of water. The largest quantities used were 40 pounds of sugar and 16 pounds of salt per 100 gallons, while the average seems to be about 10 pounds of salt and 10 of sugar per 100 gallons of water. There is undoubtedly a tendency to reduce the amount of sugar used, and a few canners have left out both salt and sugar in some lots of peas to determine whether there is a market for an unseasoned product. The heavy sirups are used in the fancy and extra fancy brands of goods, the amount of sugar added to the sirup being often the only difference between the " superlatively good " and the " best." A fairly sweet sirup is sometimes used to give a weak, insipid, sugarless pea some semblance of quality, also to make the smooth pea as sweet as the sweet wrinkled variety. Analyses of 35 brands of peas purchased in the open market show the sugar content of the liquor to vary between 0.46 and 4.17 per cent, the average being 2.62 per cent. More sugar is found in eastern than in western packed peas, and in the domestic than in the foreign peas. After being filled the can is passed through the wiping machine, the cap is put on and soldered in the automatic capper, the tipping follows, and then comes the final inspection in the water bath for leaks. At one factory the cans were passed through an exhauster for the double purpose of heating them uniformly and of driving off a certain characteristic odor which is objection- able. Peas are processed in retorts under pressure, or in a solution of a calcium salt, in order to secure a temperature above that of boiling water. The time and temperature necessary to sterilize peas cannot be given with cer- tainty because of the variation in factory practice and conditions which must be taken into account. If all factories handled their material promptly after being cut in the field, allowed no delays, such as standing on wagons or in piles to ferment, washed the peas well as soon as thrashed, graded them equally well, blanched them according to their needs, siruped and filled the cans the same, tipped the cans at the same temperature, and brought them to the process tank under like conditions, it would be possible to develop a process'which might be safe for nearly all localities. Such ideal conditions VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS are not to be found in practice, and hence it is that one factory will employ a a process of 240 F. for twenty minutes and do it successfully, while another must double the time before being reasonably successful in preventing spoilage. The effect of long processing is to cause a gradual decrease in the amount of free liquor in the can and to cause the peas to become sticky and adherent. This effect is shown in the following table : TABLE 40. EFFECT OF VARIATION IN TIME OF PROCESSING ON LIQUOR CONTENT OF CAN GRADE OF PEAS GRAMS OF LIQUOR IN CANS PROCESSED FOR 20 Minutes 25 Minutes 30 Minutes 35 Minutes 5 Minutes .55 Minutes Marrowfat Sifted Petits pois . . . 215 155 155 212 I4O ISO IQO 125 125 i6 5 "5 us 70 90 60 60 85 SO The peas were sufficiently cooked in twenty-five minutes, and at each succeeding step they became thicker and stickier. Examination of commercial canned peas. Peas were purchased from 15 groceries, representing 135 brands, 125 of which were of domestic production and 10 were imported. With the exception of 5 brands, the domestic peas were put up in standard No. 2 cans. The average weight of a can of peas was found to be 705 grams (25.2 ounces) ; the can, 103 grams (3.66 ounces) ; the peas, after the liquor was allowed to drain through a sieve for one minute, 394 grams (14 ounces) ; and the liquor, 208 grams (7.5 ounces). The varia- tion in the total weight was between 650 and 735 grams ; the can between 95 and no grams; the peas between 301 and 605 grams; and the liquor between o and 300 grams. In the experimental work it was determined that a well-filled can should have 400 grams of peas and 200 grams of liquor, and the average for the com- mercial brands is essentially the same. When a can contains less than 385 grams, it is usually a slack fill, unless it contains marrowfat or telephone peas ; if it contains more than 415 grams, *.he peas will be overcrowded or the liquor will be poor. Spoilage. The spoilage in canned peas may be classified under three heads : (i) That due to leaks in the :an ; (2) to insufficient processing ; and (3) to spoilage prior to the canning. The spoilage due to leaks is largely a matter of carelessness in inspection. 312 FOOD PRODUCTS Goods spoiled owing to insufficient processing are generally classed as " swells " and " sours." Formerly spoilage of this character was a serious matter, but the discovery of the cause and the means of prevention has decreased the loss from this source. At first No. 2 cans were boiled in open kettles from one to three hours, and the losses were not considered large, although the percentage would probably be considered high at this time. Later the processing was done in a retort at a higher temperature than that of boiling water, in order to reduce the time. The spoilage occurring before the peas enter the can is due to allowing them to stand in piles, on the wagons or after thrashing, until they heat and start fermentation. If the peas are kept moving from the vine to the can, the spoilage from this source is very small. Composition of legumes. The legumes are characterized by high protein content, as will readily be seen from the table beyond, where these and other vegetables are arranged alpha- betically. It will be seen that beans, lentils, and peas are not only richer in protein than other vegetables, but when dry they show higher percentages of protein than does fresh or canned meat. Since the dry legumes contain also considerable amounts of carbohydrate and small amounts of fat, they are in general of higher fuel value than meats. Meat fat enough to equal the dry legumes in energy value would be considerably below them in protein content. Legumes also furnish important quantities of iron, phos- phorus, and, to a less conspicuous degree, calcium. Notwith- standing the high protein content, the base-forming elements predominate. Digestibility. Legumes in the green state seem to be more readily digested than dried legumes. The latter have been sta- ple articles of diet since ancient times, but have almost always been considered more or less difficult of digestion. This im- pression is based more upon consciousness of the digestive process than upon measurements of actual losses in digestion, since the latter have been made only in recent years and s*how VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS the losses are not so large as might be supposed. Only the more recent experiments will be cited here. Snyder, feeding a porridge made from dried peas as the prin- cipal part of a simple mixed diet, found the coefficient of di- gestibility for the peas alone : protein, 80 per cent, and carbo- hydrates, 96 per cent, the amount of fat in the peas being too small for an accurate measurement of its digestibility. Woods and Mansfield, in an experiment in which baked beans furnished about one fourth of the total protein, estimated the coefficient of digestibility of the protein of the beans at 78 per cent. Wait, in a very extended series of digestion experiments, 1 in which legumes were fed as a prominent constituent of simple mixed diets, found the following coefficients of digestibility for the legumes : PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATE Kidney beans White beans Per cent 77 78 Per cent 94 06 Cowpeas, " whippoorwill " 7O 87 Cowpeas, " clay " 74 88 Cowpeas " lady " 82 QC The comparative low digestibility of protein is not entirely a matter of the nature of the protein itself, but is at least partly due to the associated substances, for when the isolated protein is fed, a much higher coefficient is obtained. Thus in a Japanese experiment cited by Oshima 2 in which a soy-bean preparation consisting chiefly of the bean protein was fed, the coefficient of digestibility for the protein was 96 per cent, and Salkowski found a coefficient of 94 per cent for the isolated protein of the horse bean. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 187. 1 United Stated Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 159. 3*4 FOOD PRODUCTS Mendel and Fine, 1 feeding a man with a simple mixed diet of which 90 per cent of the protein was in the form of a commercial soy-bean meal " which betrayed no cellular structure under the microscope," found a coefficient of digestibility of 85.3 for the protein of the diet as against 87.9 and 88.0 for mixed diets in which the protein was furnished chiefly by meat and eggs. Utilization in metabolism. In the experiment of Mendel and Fine just quoted, the nitrogen balance showed a smaller storage of nitrogen during the soy-bean period than during the preceding and following periods, in which the source of protein was meat and eggs, indicating a slightly less favorable utilization of the legume protein in metabolism. With the exception of the early work of Rutgers 2 this appears to be the only investigation in which nitrogen balance was studied. Osborne and Mendel have, however, shown that young rats can make active growth and normal development on a diet with glycinin of soy-bean as the sole protein. TABLE 41. AMINO ACIDS FROM PROTEINS OF LEGUMES (OSBORNE) PHASEOLIN VlGNIN LEGUMIN VlCILIN LEGUMELIN (Bean) (Cowpea) (Pea) (Pea) (Pea) Glycin 0-55 O.OO 0.38 O.OO 0.50 Alanin . . . 1. 80 0.97 2.08 0.50 0.92 Valin . . . 1.04 o-34 0.15 0.69 Leucin . . . 9-6S 7.82 8.00 9-38 9-63 Prolin . . . 2.77 5-25 3-22 4.06 3-96 Phenylalanin 3-25 5-27 3-75 3.82 4-79 Aspartic acid 5-24 3-97 5-3 5-30 4.11 Glutamic acid 14-54 16.89 16.97 21.34 12.96 Serin .... 0.38 o-53 Tyrosin . 2.84 2.26 i-55 2.38 1-56 Arginin . 4.87 7.20 11.71 8.91 5-45 Histidin . 2.62 3-o8 1.69 2.17 2.27 Lysin .... 4.58 4.28 4.98 5-40 3-03 Ammonia 2.06 2.32 2.05 2.03. 1.26 Tryptophan . present present present present present Summation . 56.19 59-65 62.21 65-44 5i-i3 1 Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 10, pages 435-438. 2 Cited in Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, page 308. VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 315 The chemical nature of legume proteins as indicated by the amino acids obtained on hydrolysis has been investigated by Osborne with the results as shown on previous page. In these cases no attempt was made to determine cystin. These results indicate that the proteins of the legumes are very similar in chemical constitution to those of meat. Physiological effects of peas greened with copper. Canned peas, particularly those prepared in France for export to Eng- land and to the United States, have to a large extent been treated with small quantities of copper salts to preserve or intensify the green color. Under the Food and Drugs Act, the question of the whole- someness of vegetables thus greened with copper was raised and was referred to the Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts for investigation, with the result that the importation of such coppered vegetables has been forbidden. The following abstract of the report rendered by the Referee Board is from the Experiment Station Record published by the United States Department of Agriculture and is here given verbatim to show the experimental methods employed and the reasoning by which the conclusion of the Board was reached. Influence of vegetables greened with copper salts on the nutrition and health of man. I. REMSEN ET AL. ( U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 97, pp. 461). This report of the Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts presents in detail and discusses the experimental data obtained in the four series of investiga- tions, summarized below : Action of coppered vegetables on the health and nutrition of men, A. E. Taylor (pp. 0-208) . In these experiments normal young men were given mixed diets containing measured quantities of canned vegetables (notably peas) colored by copper, and the usual means were taken for measuring and analyzing the food and excreta during a period of about 3 months. The author summarizes the results as follows : " The sole results that are clinically apparent in the subjects who ingested coppered vegetables in amount carrying up to 0.025 gm. of copper per day were possibly slight disturbance of the alimentary tract in one ; possibly a slight increase in unresorbed nitrogen in a second ; and possibly a slight reduc- 316 FOOD PRODUCTS tion in the retention of nitrogen in the same individual. These data are of very doubtful value. The important fact that has developed in these inves- tigations is the retention of copper. In all the subjects there was retention of copper, varying from individual to individual ; in i subject very high con- sidering the dosage, in 2 marked, in others low. These data parallel those that have been obtained by Professor Chittenden in animals. And, by analogy, we may infer that the retention was in the liver. By further analogy with lead and mercury, we may infer that a later redistribution may occur through- out the body. I do not believe such a retention of a heavy metal can be a negligible matter even in the complete absence of present symptoms referable thereto; the whole tenor of the pharmacology of the heavy metals is con- trary to such an interpretation. It will be only safe to exclude the retention of a metal like copper from the body. The retention in the case of the sub- jects of this experiment followed ingestions of copper that could not be called large. And apparently such retention might be expected to follow any ingestion of coppered vegetables. Under these circumstances the ingestion of vegetables colored with copper constitutes a menace to health." Investigations of the effects of foods containing copper compounds on the general health and metabolism of man,]. H. Long (pp. 209-430). The method of experimenting was similar to that used in the series conducted by Taylor, but the tests were continued for 4 months, made up of periods in which the copper dosage was varied. The author reached the following conclusions : " During the lower dosage periods with copper in peas our records point to nothing which may be clearly applied in showing a harmful action of the metal. It appears that 100 gm. daily of peas containing 10 mg. of copper occasioned no marked disturbance beyond the distaste for the peas them- selves. . . . " About the only conclusion that we may legitimately draw from our low dosage experiments is that it may be difficult to feed enough peas and this may be even more truly the case with certain other vegetables to ingest copper in amount sufficient to produce a harmful action, as shown by clinical and metabolism observations. " On the other hand, it is certainly true that copper sulphate as ingested with milk or beer through periods of some weeks is far from being harmless or free from easily observed effects. The copper in this form has apparently a physiological action distinct from that in the peas, and is unquestionably more active. . . . " The addition of copper salts to peas and other vegetables has unques- tionably the effect of suggesting to the user greater freshness than may be actually the case. While a very old pea may not be easily colored, it is true that peas which have begun to harden, and are far from the young or fresh VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 317 stage, may be given enough copper materially to brighten their appearance. In this way it is clear, a certain kind of inferiority is covered up. . . . " If, in the coppering of vegetables, an excess of the metallic salt is em- ployed, an injurious action of this copper may certainly be affirmed. This danger is not a remote one, as a high copper content of cans of peas, with copper in the liquor as well as in the solid, has frequently been reported. In our laboratory experiments we have been able to show that an excessive amount of copper may be easily added and loosely held, in some other than the ordinary chlorophyll combination. As long as this possibility is present the whole coloring process, involving the use of a heavy metallic salt, must be looked upon with distrust, and must be considered as highly objectionable." Absorption and distribution of copper when coppered vegetables are eaten, R. H. Chittenden (pp. 431-448). In these experiments dogs and monkeys were fed with coppered- vegetables in order to ascertain " how far copper is absorbed and to what degree it is deposited in the organs and tissues of the body when taken in small doses in combination with a food such as canned peas." The conclusions of the author are that " when coppered vegetables are eaten with the food a certain proportion of the copper is absorbed and may be temporarily deposited in the liver. Even when taken in very small amounts, copper ingested in this way is prone to be absorbed in some degree, and thus constitutes a menace to good health. The conclusion seems obvious that vegetables which have been greened with copper salts are adulterated, because .they contain an added poisonous or deleterious ingre- dient which may render such articles of food injurious to health, whether taken in large quantities or in small quantities. In any event, there is an element of danger in coppered foods which, from a physiological standpoint, should not be ignored." Histological examination of the tissues of dogs and monkeys, T. Smith (pp. 449-46 1 ) . This report gives the results of autopsies made on animals used in the feeding experiments conducted by Chittenden. " A comparison of the gross and minute pathological conditions found in the 8 dogs shows a relatively slight yield from these methods of inquiry. A few facts, however, seem worthy of note. " There has been no noticeable influence of the copper salts on the para- sites in the digestive tract. Thus, dogs Nos. i and 3 were from the same litter and probably infested alike with worms at the start. But the autopsy showed no difference, although No. 3 had been fed with coppered peas and No. i with uncoppered peas. Parasites were also present in the other dogs fed with coppered peas. ... In general it can be stated that the feeding 318 FOOD PRODUCTS with coppered peas did not have any decided vermifuge action. . . . Even the copper sulphate did not completely remove intestinal parasites. " Very little, if any, appreciable differences were found between the con- trols on the one hand (Nos. i and 2) and the dogs fed with coppered peas on the other (Nos. 3 to 6). There was some fat in the liver of No. 3 as com- pared with his (control) brother No. i. More than this cannot be stated. There is, however, a distinction to be drawn between the dogs fed with cop- pered peas and those fed with copper sulphate. No. 8 was chloroformed before the close of the experiment because ill. In both No. 7 and No. 8 there was present an interstitial inflammation of the kidneys localized in the cortex, which was absent in all the others. The kidney lesions in Nos. i and 3 were, as already stated, due to parasites. In No. 8 there was also other lesions (extensive, fresh pigment in the spleen, leucocytosis)." In the case of monkeys " the microscopic examination, as far as it went, did not reveal any differences between control and treated monkeys. It would seem as if this species of animal was better able to neutralize the poison- ous action of copper sulphate than the dog." From a study of these 4 reports, the Referee Board reached the following conclusion : " Copper salt^s used in the coloring of vegetables as in commercial practice cannot be said to reduce, or lower, or injuriously affect the quality or strength of such vegetables, as far as the food value is concerned. " Copper salts used in the greening of vegetables may have the effect of concealing inferiority, inasmuch as the bright green color imparted to the vegetables simulates a state of freshness they may not have possessed before treatment. " In attempting to define a large quantity of copper, regard must be had to the maximum amount of greened vegetables which might be consumed daily. A daily dose of 100 gm. of coppered peas or beans, which are the most highly colored vegetables in the market, would not ordinarily contain more than 100 to 150 mg. of copper. Such a bulk of greened vegetables is so large, however, that it would hardly be chosen as a part of a diet for many days in succession. Any amount of copper above 1 50 mg. daily may therefore be considered ex- cessive in practice. A small quantity is that amount which, in the ordinary use of vegetables, may be consumed over longer periods. From this point of view, 10 to 12 mg. of copper may be regarded as the upper limit of a small quantity. " It appears from our investigations that in certain directions even such small quantities of copper may have a deleterious action and must be con- sidered injurious to health." VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 319 Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Yams Langworthy estimates that potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams furnish 3.8 per cent of the protein, 0.3 per cent of the fat, and 8.3 per cent of the carbohydrate of the average American dietary. Census reports show for 1909 a production in the United States of 389,000,000 bushels of potatoes valued at 8166,000,000 and 59,232,000 bushels of sweet potatoes and yams valued at $35.429,000. Since relatively small quantities of potatoes or sweet potatoes are used for stock feeding or for the manufacture of starch or alcohol, in the United States, the yearly consumption as food must be nearly the amounts produced or about 4 bushels per capita. The potato is a native of America, said to have been first found in Chili, and it was not commonly cultivated in Europe until the eighteenth century. At present potatoes are raised in large quantities in Europe both for food, for industrial purposes such as starch, glucose, and alcohol manufacture, and for stock-feeding. Estimates of per capita consumption of potatoes as human food in European countries are not at hand. For description of the potato industry, the reader must be referred to books on agriculture and horticulture. A very com- prehensive discussion will be found in " The Potato Industry of Colorado," published as Bulletin 158 of the Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Composition. The averages of American analyses are tabu- lated with those of other vegetables beyond (Table 42). In round numbers the potato contains 2 to 2.5 per cent of protein ; 1 8 to 20 per cent of carbohydrates, chiefly starch; almost no fat ; about i per cent of ash ; and 75 to 79 per cent of water. Or, in still simpler terms, about three fourths of the potato is 320 FOOD PRODUCTS water, and of the solids there is about eight times as much starch as protein, a little fiber, a very little fat, and an amount of ash which is relatively large in comparison with most other foods. Digestion experiments with potatoes fed in considerable quantity to healthy men have been reported by Rubner, by Snyder, and by Bryant and Milner, who found respectively 68, 72, and 73 per cent of the protein and 92, 93, and 99 per cent of the carbohydrate utilized. Thus the fuel value of the potato is as well utilized as that of most foods, and at least 70 per cent of the protein is digested and absorbed. The nutritive economy of potatoes as food will be discussed later in this chapter. Structure of the potato. Since the potato tuber is in reality a thickened stem, it can be seen to consist of fairly definite an- atomical parts. The following description is taken from Lang- worthy, Farmers' Bulletin 295 of the United States Department of Agriculture : The outer skin of the tuber consists of a thin, grayish brown, corky substance and corresponds roughly to the bark of an over- ground stem. If a crosswise section of a raw potato is held up to the light, three distinct parts besides the skin may be seen. The outermost one is known as the cortical layer and may be from o.i 2 to 0.5 inch in thickness. This layer is slightly colored, the tint varying with the kind, and turns green if exposed to the light for some time, thus showing its relation to the tender green layer beneath the bark of overground stems. It is denser than the other parts of the potato and contains many fibro- vascular bundles, especially on the inner edge, where a marked ring of them plainly separates this layer from the next. The interior or flesh of the tuber is made up of two layers known as the outer and inner medullary areas. The outer one forms the main bulk of a well-developed potato and contains the greater part of the food ingredients. The inner medullary area, some- VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 321 times called the core, appears in a cross section of the tuber to spread irregular arms up into the outer, so that its outline roughly suggests a star. It contains slightly more cellulose a FIG. 23. Transverse and longitudinal sections of the potato: a, skin; b, corti- cal layer ; c, outer medullary layer ; d, inner medullary layer. (U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.) and less water and nutrients than the outer medullary portion. These four parts of the tuber are shown in Fig. 23. The corky skin of the potato makes up about 2.5 per cent of the whole, and the cortical layer 8.5 per cent, leaving 89 per cent for the medullary areas. . . . 322 FOOD PRODUCTS As in all other plant forms, the framework of the tuber is made up of cellulose. Cellulose forms the walls of a network of cells, which in turn form the body of the tuber. These cells vary in shape and size in different sections of the tuber according to the part they play in its life. In the flesh they serve mainly for storage, and in them lie the starch grains. (See Fig. 24.) In young tubers there is a larger proportion of sugars and less starch than when they have become mature. As the tuber lies in the ground the starch content increases. When it begins to sprout, however, part of the starch is converted by a ferment in the tuber into soluble glucose. Thus, young or early potatoes FIG. 24. Changes of potato starch cells in cooking : a, raw ; b, partially cooked ; c, thoroughly cooked. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) and old ones both have a smaller proportion of starch and more soluble sugars than well-grown but still fresh tubers. The effect of cooking on the mechanical condition of the potato cells is shown in Fig. 24. The figures show the great changes in the mechanical condi- tion of the potato flesh under the influence of heat, the broken cell walls and the increased bulk of the starch grains being particularly noticeable. The sweet potato plant (Ipomaa batata or Batatas edulis) is not closely related to the white potato, botanically, but in com- position and use as food the tubers are much alike, the sweet potato having in general about the same nutrients as the white potato and in addition from 5 to 8 per cent of sugar. VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 323 Recently the canning of sweet potatoes has developed into an important industry, and has made these vegetables available as a staple food throughout the year. For further accounts of potatoes and sweet potatoes, reference may be made to Farmers' Bulletins 295 and 324 of the United States Department of Agriculture. Other Vegetables The Census Bureau reports that except for potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams, which are generally grown in considerable quantities, it is practically impossible to obtain a correct total of the acreage, production, or value of individual kinds of vege- tables. The value of vegetables reported for the census year 1909 amounted to $216,257,000 (exclusive of potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams and dried beans and peas). The largest industry here involved is that of canning tomatoes, of which there were put up in canning factories in the United States, in the census year 1909, a total of 12,800,000 cases of 1 2 cans each. This is exclusive of the tomatoes canned at home and also of the manufacture of ketchups, sauces, etc. The canning of tomatoes presents no special features requiring detailed description. The acidity of the material makes it possible to sterilize the canned product with greater certainty and at a lower temperature than in the case of peas or of canned meat. The Board of Food and Drug Inspection has ruled that the water naturally present in tomatoes is ample to serve as a medium for the cooking and packing processes involved in tomato canning, and that the addition either of water or of juice in the canning of tomatoes shall be judged an adulteration. In the absence of data which would permit a discussion of the relative amounts grown and used, it seems unnecessary here to enter into any description of the sources and technology of the different kinds of vegetables. 3 2 4 FOOD PRODUCTS Composition of Vegetables The average composition of practically all vegetables used for food to any important extent in the United States is shown in the following table, which is based chiefly on analyses compiled by Atwater and Bryant, and published by the United States Department of Agriculture : TABLE 42. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN VEGETABLES * >. P zw DESCRIPTION MBER OF SI ALYSES H a 1 ROTEIN H Si 3& (NUMBER RMINATIO VRENTHES < g i 1% >& 5< P4 ^ A d H^ U, ] ~ i; z H 2 s n JS (< ** H "" fa Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cen/ Per cent Per cent Ca/. Artichokes .... 2 79-5 2.6 .2 16.7 .8 I.O 358 Asparagus, fresh . . 3 94.0 1.8 .2 3-3 .8 7 IOI Asparagus, cooked . Beans, butter, green : i 91.6 2.1 3-3 2.2 .0 213 Edible portion . As purchased . . . i i 50.0 29.4 9-4 4-7 3 - ' ). I 14.6 2.O I.O 723 361 Beans, dried .... ii 12.6 22.5 1.8 59-6 (*)4-4 3-5 1564 Beans, frijoles (New Mexico) .... 4 7-5 21.9 1.3 65-1 4-2 1633 Beans, Lima, dried . . 4 10.4 18.1 i-5 65-9 4.1 1586 Beans, Lima, fresh : Edible portion . . i 68.5 7.1 7 22.O !-7 1-7 557 As purchased . . . 55-o 30.8 3-2 3 9-9 .8 .8 250 Beans, mesquite, dry i 4.8 12.2 2-5 77.1 3-4 1723 Beans, string, cooked : Edible portion . . . i 95-3 .8 i.i 1.9 9 94 Beans, string, fresh : Edible portion . . . 5 ^9.2 2-3 -3 7-4 ( 2 )7.p .8 189 As purchased . . . 7.0 83.0 2.1 3 6.9 1.8 7 176 1 Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc. The amount varies with the method of prepar- ing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately estimated. The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods as ordinarily prepared. VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 325 TABLE 42. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN VEGETABLES Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) a, 35 < ll >! a as ^ s u. * Leeks : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Lentils, dried . . . Lettuce : Edible portion . . . As purchased . . . Mushrooms .... Okra: Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Onions, fresh : Edible portion . . . As purchased . . . Onions, cooked . . . Onions, green (New Mexico) : Edible portion . . . As purchased . . . Parsnips : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Peas, dried .... Peas, green : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Peas, green, cooked Peas, sugar, green . . Cowpeas, dried . . . Cowpeas, green, edible portion .... Potatoes, raw or fresh : Edible, portion . . As purchased . . . I I 3 8 Per cent Per cent 91.8 78.0 8-4 94-7 80.5 88.1 90.2 78.9 87.6 78.9 91.2 87.1 42.6 83.0 66.4 9-5 74.6 40.8 73-8 81.8 13.0 65-9 78.3 62.6 Per cent 1.2 I.O 25-7 1.2 I.O 3-5 1.6 1.4 1.6 i-4 1.2 I.O 5 1.6 i-3 24.6 7.0 3-6 6-7 3-4 21.4 9-4 2.2 1.8 Per cent 5 4 I.O 3 .2 4 .2 .2 3 3 1.8 .1 .1 5 4 I.O -5 .2 3-4 4 1.4 .6 .1 .1 Per cent 5-8 5-0 59-2 2.9 2-5 6.8 7-4 6-S 9-9 8.9 4.9 II. 2 5-5 13-5 10.8 62.0 16.9 9.8 14.6 13-7 60.8 22.7 18.4 14.7 Per cent Per cent 7 .6 5-7 9 .8 1.2 .6 5 .6 5 9 .6 3 1.4 i.i 2-9 I.O .6 ,* . -7 3-4 1.4 I.O .8 Col. 147 125 1581 87 72 203 172 152 220 200 184 225 H3 294 236 1612 454 251 525 327 155 603 378 302 15.0 15.0 12-5 IO.O .6 ( 7 ) -7 ii 2 C) -8 V3-4 15 I 2 3 8 5 O -8 51.0 2O.O 4S-o 0)2-5 ( 2 )4-5 O/-7 i i 13 i 136 2O.O 1.6 4.1 (") -4 VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 327 TABLE 42. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN VEGETABLES Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE I PROTEIN H h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) & < 5 3 >& s* & Id fa * Potatoes, evaporated Potatoes, cooked, boiled Potatoes, cooked, chips Potatoes, cooked, mashed, and creamed Potatoes, sweet, raw, or fresh : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Potatoes, sweet, cooked Pumpkins : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Radishes : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Rhubarb : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . Rutabagas : Edible portion . . . As purchased . . . Sauerkraut .... Spinach, fresh . . . Spinach, cooked . . . Squash : Edible portion . . As. purchased . . . Tomatoes, fresh . . . ^omatoes, dried . . . Turnips : Edible portion . . As purchased . . . 3 II 2 4 95 i 3 Per cent Per cent 7-1 75-5 2.2 75-i 69.0 55-2 Si-9 93-i 46.5 91.8 64-3 94.4 56.6 88.9 62.2 88.8 92-3 89.8 88.3 44-2 94-3 7-3 89.6 62.7 Per cent 8.5 2-5 6.8 2.6 1.8 1.4 3-o I.O 5 i-3 9 .6 4 i-3 9 i-7 2.1 2.1 1.4 7 9 12.9 i-3 9 Per cent 4 .1 39-8 3-o 7 .6 2.1 .1 .1 .1 .1 7 4 .2 .1 5 3 4.1 5 .2 4 8.1 .2 .1 Per cent 80.9 20.9 46.7 17-8 27.4 21.9 42.1 5-2 2.6 5.8 4.0 3.6 2.2 8-5 6.0 3-8 3-2 2.6 9.0 4-5 3-9 62.3 8.1 5-7 Per cent ( l }.6 Per cent 3-1 I.O 4-5 i-5 i.i 9 9 .6 3 I.O 7 7 4 i.i .8 5-2 2.1 1.4 .8 4 5 9.4 .8 .6 Cat. 1638 429 2598 493 558 447 903 117 59 133 9i 105 63 1 86 129 120 109 252 209 103 IO4 1695 I 7 8 124 20.0 SO.b 30.0 40.0 30.0 50.0 30.0 (*)i.3 1.2 4 ( 2 ) -7 2 O/./ 5 1.2 2 3 I 10 27 I 19 9 ( 6 ) -8 n .6 O/.j 328 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 42. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN VEGETABLES Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER or ANALYSES REFUSE WATER 1 5 P-, TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER or DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) 1 FUEL VALUE PER POUND Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent VEGETABLES, CANNED Artichokes ... 3 92-5 .8 5-o .6 i-7 105 Asparagus id. QA. A I.c .1 2.8 .j 1.2 82 Beans, baked .... *-*T 21 VT-'T 1 68.9 x *o 6.9 2-5 19.6 ( 12 )2.J 2.1 583 Beans, string .... 29 93-7 I.I .1 3-8 ( 18 ) -5 1-3 93 Beans, little green . . I 93-8 1.2 .1 3-4 .6 I5 87 Beans, wax .... I 94.6 I.O .1 3-i .6 1.2 78 Beans, haricots verts . 7 95-2 I.I .1 2-5 5 I.I 69 Beans, haricots flageolets 3 81.6 4.6 .1 12.5 I.O 1.2 3H Beans, Lima .... 16 79-5 4.0 3 14.6 (")I.2 1.6 350 Beans, red kidney, shelled i 72.7 7-o .2 18.5 1.2 1.6 471 Brussels sprouts, as pur- chased .... i 93-7 i-5 .1 3-4 5 i-3 93 Corn, green 1 . . . . 52 76.1 2.8 1.2 19.0 () .8 9 445 Corn and tomatoes . . 2 87.6 1.6 4 9.6 5 .8 220 Macedoine (mixed vegetables) . . . 5 93-i i-4 4-5 .6 I.O 107 Okra 2 . .... 4 QA. A. .7 .1 1.6 .7 1.2 82 Peas, green 3 . . . . 88 VT-'T- 85-3 3-6 .2 O*^ 9.8 ()/.* I.I 251 Potatoes, sweet . . . 2 55-2 1.9 4 41.4 0) -8 I.I 802 Pumpkins 7 01.6 .8 .2 6.7 ( 5 )/.7 .7 144 Squash . . . ' . / e y " 87.6 .0 .c IO.? (2) ./ .C 227 Succotash 3 12 7C.Q 7 1.6 'J I.O m. v. J 18.6 \ / */ (10) .g J .0 444 Tomatoes * IO / J'y Q4..O o* v 1.2 .2 4.0 \ / *y (11) r 7 .6 103 PICKLES, CONDIMENTS, X V yT" w *f \ / ./ ETC. a/> Q Catsup, tomato Horseradish .... 2 2 O2.O 86.4 I -5 1.4 .2 .2 12.3 10.5 3-2 i-5 2 59 224 1 Thirty-two samples contained an average of 0.4 per cent NaCl. 'Three samples contained an average of i.i per cent NaCl. ^Eighty samples contained an average of 0.7 per cent NaCl. 4 Seven samples contained an average of o.i per cent NaCl. VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 329 TABLE 42. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN VEGETABLES Continued h s g'M W $ M g d ^ u 3 DESCRIPTION i p fe H Id 1 PH CP % ^-, N a g <^ w U w " ^ 3 W 1 1 PICKLES, CONDIMENTS, ETC. Olives, green : Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Co/. Edible portion . . . i 58.0 I.I 27.6 n.6 1-7 I3S7 As purchased . . . i 27.0 42.3 .8 20. 2 8-5 1.2 994 Olives, ripe : Edible portion . . . i 64.7 1-7 25-9 4-3 3-4 1166 As purchased . . . i 19.0 52.4 1.4 2I.O 3-5 2.7 947 Peppers (paprica), green, dried i - o I C C 8.5 63.0 8.0 1771 Peppers, red chili . . 5 5-3 - 1 O'O 9-4 7-7 vy^.w 70.0 7-6 II 1756 Pickles, cucumber . . 3 92.9 5 3 2.7 3-6 66 Pickles, mixed, as pur- chased .... i 93-8 i.i 4 4.0 7 100 The nutritive economy of vegetables and their place in the diet is discussed in connection with fruits and nuts further on in this chapter. ' Fruits and Nuts Census reports show for 1909 a production of fruits and nuts (exclusive of peanuts) in the United States amounting in value to $222,024,000. Of this, " small fruits " contributed $29,974,000 ; orchard fruits, $140,867,000; grapes, $22,028,000; citrus fruits, $22,- 711,000; other tropical and subtropical fruits, $1,995,000; nuts, $4,448,000. The value of the peanut crop was reported at $18,272,000. Of the " small fruits," strawberries represented over half the total acreage and about three fourths of the total value ; next 33 FOOD PRODUCTS in order of value of product among the small fruits follow rasp- berries, blackberries (and dewberries), currants, gooseberries, and cranberries. Among the orchard fruits, apples are much the most important, being about three fifths of the total. Peaches and nectarines rank next, followed by plums and prunes, pears, cherries, and 11.000,000 9 PSO.OOO to $1.000.000 '9 1500.000 to 1750.000 O 1250.000 to 1500.000 .O Less than 1250.000 M Line bttttfta geographic divisions. FIG. 25. Production of fruits and nuts in the United States. (Census of 1910.) apricots and quinces in the order named. From 150,000,000 to 175,000,000 bushels of apples are produced in the United States each year. Among the citrus fruits, oranges lead with a production of 19,487,481 boxes valued at $17,566,464; then follow lemons with 2,770,313 boxes valued at $2,993,738, and grapefruit (pomeloes) with 1,189,250 boxes valued at $2,060,610. The production of grapefruit showed a very rapid increase between 1900 and 1910. The production of the other citrus fruits, limes, tangerines, mandarins, and kumquats is so far below that of oranges, lemons, and grapefruit as to play no significant part in the fruit supply. VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 331 Olive culture in the United States is practically confined to California and Arizona. The crop of 1909, 16,405,000 pounds, was more than three times as great as that of 1899. The widely varying extent to which the different states con- tribute to the fruit and nut supply is shown by Fig. 25. The growing, packing, and ordinary handling of fruits is discussed in works on horticulture and need not be taken up here. There are, however, certain modern practices in the fruit industry which may be worthy of note because of their influence in systematizing the fruit supply, particularly in facilitating the marketing of California fruit in the eastern cities. The following notes on this industry are based on the account given in Powell's Cooperation in Agriculture: California oranges and lemons are handled differently from any other American fruit. They are staple products ripening less quickly than most fruits, and the distribution and marketing have been reduced to a systematic basis. The crop now amounts to about 50,000 carloads, or 20,000,000 boxes, a year. This is the product of more than 1 2,000 growers, about three fourths of whom are organized into cooperative associations, sixty-five per cent of which are federated into the California Fruit-growers' Exchange. These associations build packing-houses in which the fruit of the members is assembled, graded, packed, and made ready for shipment, these operations being usually done at cost prorated on the number of boxes shipped by each grower. On the average one packing-house suffices for about 500 acres of orange or lemon groves. Many of the associations pick the fruit, and some of them prune and fumigate the trees for the members. The as- sociations have brands for each grade of fruit, and when a carload is ready for shipment, it is marketed in cooperation with the district exchange of which the association is a member through the agents and facilities pro- vided by the central exchange. The local associations have (1913) formed seventeen district exchanges. Among other functions, it is the duty of the district exchange to act as the business medium between the local associa- tions and the central exchange, to order cars and see that they are placed by the railroads at the various packing-houses, to keep records, and to distribute to the local associations the information gathered by the central exchange. The function of this central exchange is to furnish marketing facilities for the district exchanges and associations at a pro rata share of 332 FOOD PRODUCTS the cost. The exchange maintains its own agents in the principal markets in the United States and Canada, supervises these agents, gathers daily information through them of conditions in each market, and furnishes this information daily in bulletin form to the associations. The central ex- change also performs other functions for the protection of its members and the extension of the industry, but makes no attempt to regulate shipments or to influence prices. Each shipper has entire control of its own ship- ments, reserving the right of free competition with all other shippers even within the same organization, and the agent in the market acts directly under the order of the shipper. There is no uniformity of price among the different brands, each brand selling on its own merits. This system is the result of twenty years' development and has been a large factor in changing the status of the orange from a luxury to a staple article of diet. Formerly about $ 1,000,000 worth of oranges and lemons were lost yearly by decay during shipment to market from California. This loss has been practically eliminated by im- proved methods of picking and handling the fruit. At the same time the introduction of " precooling " makes it possible to market a fruit which is of superior quality through having come more nearly to maturity before picking. The fruit is cooled to 35 F. before shipping, loaded in cars having bunkers filled with ice, and shipped thus without re- icing to any part of the United States. The cold storage plants operated in connection with the pre-cooling system make possible also a better classification of the fruit in shipment from the larger accumulation of packed fruit in the storage rooms. The production of dried fruit is a very large industry in Cali- fornia, where many thousands of tons of peaches, apricots, prunes, and raisins are dried annually, the wholesale value of the combined product (at point of production) being estimated at about $20,000,000 a year. During most of the year California dried fruit is much cheaper (in proportion to the solids contained), even in the eastern markets^ than is the corresponding fresh fruit of near-by origin. Much is also exported to European countries and sold at prices within reach of those who cannot afford to buy their native VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 333 fresh fruits. Since it was found that the sunshine and dry air of California make out-door drying on a large scale practicable, the drying of fruit has become a " primary industry " and not simply a means of utilizing a surplus crop. Large orchards are planted specifically for the production of fruit for drying, and very large amounts of capital (aggregating millions of dollars) are invested in drying establishments. It is claimed that the fruit which is to be dried is as carefully chosen and handled with as much care in every way as that which is sold fresh or canned. The fruit is graded so that all the fruit on a drying tray shall be approximately the same size. The freshly cut fruit is placed on trays and the trays placed in large boxes or small houses under which sulphur is burned. This treatment of the fruit with sulphur dioxide (called sulphuring) prevents darkening and fermentation during the subsequent air-drying and, as at present conducted, is said also to protect the fruit from insects. It is also claimed that the sulphured fruit dries more rapidly than the untreated. For these reasons it is feasible to dry larger pieces when the sulphuring process is used. Whether the sulphuring process shall be permitted, and if so what limit shall be placed upon the amount of sulphur dioxide which the fruit may contain, are questions not yet finally decided by those charged with the administration of the Food and Drugs Act. After the fruit is sufficiently dried it is piled in houses or placed in boxes or bins, where it goes through a " sweating " process during which it must be frequently turned. When dan- ger of further sweating is past, the fruit is packed in boxes of which one standard size is 6 X 9 X 15 inches holding 25 pounds of the dried fruit. This description applies, with varying details, to the drying of peaches, apricots, nectarines, apples, and pears. Of these peaches and apricots are dried in largest quantity. Prunes are handled somewhat differently, since they are not cut before drying. As a rule the prunes are dipped for 334 FOOD PRODUCTS about a minute in boiling lye to thin and crack the skin, then washed to remove the lye and dried in the sun. To insure a sterile surface they may be dipped after drying into a boiling solution of prune juice, glycerin, or salt. Raisins are also dried by special processes ; and these differ too much according to locality and conditions to permit of a concise general description. Olives are grown in California both for use as fruit and for oil. In a study of 26 varieties of olives at the University of Cali- fornia it was found that the percentage of oil in the whole fruit varied from 11.23 to 29.34 per cent, the pits constituted from 12.0 to 30.0 per cent of the weight of the fruit. The olives varied in size to such an extent that the number of olives per pound ranged from 36 to 398 ; usually one pound contains from 100 to 250. The pickling of olives is a troublesome process, often involving much loss. Green olives are more easily pickled, but are much inferior to ripe olives as food. Ripe olives canned in dil-ute salt solution are being put up to some extent in Cali- fornia. Such a product is obviously of much greater food value than the usual immature olive impregnated with strong brine. The production of olive oil will be considered in Chapter X. Nut growing in California. Almonds and English walnuts are the nuts chiefly grown. The crop varies much from year to year, especially in the case of almonds, but: is estimated at about 5,000,000 pounds of almonds and 16,000,000 pounds of walnuts per year. Almonds are gathered soon after the hulls burst and before the . shells become discolored. Hulls are removed by special machinery. The nuts are then dried in the sun, after which they are generally exposed to fumes of burning sulphur in order to insure the light color of shell which the market demands. It is claimed that if the shell has been properly dried, the sulphur dioxide does not penetrate it sufficiently to affect the kernel. Walnuts are dried and passed over a revolving grader having VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 335 a wire screen of one inch mesh ; those that fall through are graded as seconds. The shells are commonly bleached either by sulphur dioxide, hypochlorite, or chlorine. Composition of Fruits and Nuts The average composition of fruits (fresh, dried, and preserved), as found in the American markets, and of such kinds of nuts as are of commercial importance, is shown in the following table, based chiefly on data compiled by Atwater and Bryant. TABLE 43. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS g > P H -, jjijj w H 2 11- 1 3 % DESCRIPTION w > < B H Si s H U^ if! 1 >& M > < JU, t=> M ^ H 2 m w 3 JJJ a2 ^03 Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Co/. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent FRUITS, BERRIES, ETC., FRESH Apples : Edible portion . . 29 84.6 4 5 14.2 C)l.2 3 285 As purchased . . 25.0 63.3 3 3 10.8 3 214 Apricots : Edible portion . . II 85.0 I.O 13-4 5 263 As purchased . . 6.0 79-9 I.O 12.6 S 247 Bananas : Edible portion . . 6 75-3 1.3 .6 22.O Or.o .8 447 As purchased . . . 35.0 48.9 .8 4 14-3 .6 290 Blackberries .... 9 86.3 1.3 I.O IO-9 0)2.5 5 262 Cherries : . Edible portion . . 16 80.9 I.O .8 l6. 7 0) -2 .6 354 As purchased . . S-o 76.8 9 .8 IS-9 .6 337 Cranberries .... 3 88.9 4 .6 9.9 ( 2 )/.5 .2 212 Currants , 85.0 T C 12.8 ,7 ' "<> Figs, fresh .... 28 79.1 a r-5 18.8 / .6 368 Grapes : Edible portion . . 5 77-4 1.3 1.6 19.2 ( l )4-3 5 437 As purchased . . . 25.0 58.0 I.O 1.2 14.4 4 328 336 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 43. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H < h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) B 1 FUEL VALUE PER POUND Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col FRUITS, BERRIES, ETC., cent cent cent cent cent cent cent 1<(M. FRESH Huckleberries, edible portion .... I 81.9 .6 .6 16.6 3 336 Lemons : Edible portion . . 4 89.3 I.O 7 8-5 (2)7.7 5 2OI As purchased . . 30.0 62.5 7 5 5-9 4 I4O Lemon juice . . . 22 9.8 I 7 8 Muskmelons : Edible portion . . I 89-5 .6 9-3 2.1 .6 1 80 As purchased . . . I SO.O 44.8 3 4.6 3 90 Nectarines : Edible portion . . I 82.9 .6 iS-9 .6 299 As purchased . . . I 6.6 77-4 .6 14.8 .6 280 Oranges : Edible portion . . 23 86.9 .8 .2 ii.6 5 233 As purchased . . 27.0 63-4 .6 .1 8-5 4 169 Peaches : Edible portion . . 2 89.4 7 .1 9-4 ( l )3-6 4 1 88 As purchased . . . 2 18.0 73-3 S .1 7-7 3 i53 Pears : Edible portion . . 2 84.4 .6 5 14.1 0)2.7 4 288 As purchased . . . IO.O 76.0 5 4 12.7 4 245 Persimmons, edible por- tion .... I 66.1 .8 7 3i-5 1.8 9 6iS Pineapple, edible portion I 89-3 4 3 9-7 4 3 196 Plums : Edible portion . . 3 78.4 I.O 2O.I 5 383 As purchased . . . S-o 74-5 9 I9.I 5 363 Pomegranates, edible portion .... 2 76.8 i-5 1.6 19-5 2-7 .6 447 Prunes: Edible" .portion . . 24 79.6 9 18.9 .6 359 As purchased . . . 2O 5-8 75-6 7 17.4 5 328 VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 337 TABLE 43. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN H < ft) TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES (INCLUD- ING FIBER) FIBER (NUMBER OF DETERMINATIONS IN PARENTHESES) 1 8 '! > w * (*,* Per Per Per Per Per Per Per fat FRUITS, BERRIES, ETC., cent cent cent cent cent cent cent Cfl*. FRESH Raspberries, red . . I 85.8 I.O 12.6 2.9 .6 247 Raspberries, black . . 3 84.1 1-7 I.O 12.6 .6 300 Strawberries : Edible portion . . 22 90.4 I.O .6 7-4 ()i. 4 .6 177 As purchased . . S-o 85.9 9 .6 70 .6 168 Watermelons : Edible portion . . 2 92.4 4 .2 6-7 3 136 As purchased . . 59-4 37-5 .2 .1 2.7 .1 57 FRUITS, ETC., DRIED Apples 2 28.1 1.6 2.2 66.1 2.O 1318 Apricots o 2 >JC\ A 47 I .O 62 c 2 A. 1260 Citron 2 ^V'4 IO.O / T e I e "^O 78 i *'*f Q 14.8? Currants, Zante . . 4 17.2 * o 2-4 *a i-7 /J.i 74.2 V 4-5 *MfV ^ I4S9 Dates : Edible portion . . 2 15-4 2.1 2.8 78.4 i-3 1575 As purchased . . IO.O 13.8 1.9 2-5 70.6 1.2 I4l6 Figs 18.8 4-3 .3 74.2 2.4 1437 Prunes : dg Sg fe * Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cent cent cent NUTS Peanuts : Edible portion . . 4 9.2 25-8 38.6 24.4 2-5 2.O 2490 As purchased . . . 24-5 6.9 IQ-S 29.1 I8. S i-5 1858 Peanut butter, as pur- chased .... 2 2.1 2 9-3 46.5 I7.I 5-o 2741 Pecans, unpolished : Edible portion . . I 2.7 9.6 7-5 IS-3 1.9 3330 As purchased . . I 46.3 i-5 5-i 37-9 8.2 I.O 1788 Pine nuts : Pignolias, edible por- tion I 6 4. 2 2 fl Af) A 6 o 1 A. 27C7 Piniones (Pinus mo- U.^J. oo-y t\*j.t\ "y O't ^ / / nophytta) : Edible portion I 3-8 6.5 60.7 26.2 2.8 3060 As purchased . . I 41.7 2.2 3-8 35-4 IS-3 1.6 1792 Pinon (Pinus edulis) : Edible portion I 3-4 14.6 61.9 17-3 2.8 3105 As purchased . . I 40.6 2.O 8-7 36.8 IO.2 i-7 1905 Sabine pine nut (Pi- nus sabiniana) : Edible portion I 5-i 28.1 53-7 8.4 4-7 2855 As purchased . . I 77.0 1.2 6-5 12.3 1.9 i.i 655 Pistachios : First quality, shelled, edible portion . . I 4.2 22.3 S4-o 16.3 3-2 2905 Second quality, shelled, edible por- - tion J A 2 22.8 ZA n 1A O 30 2928 Walnuts, California: 4-o o4'9 *^*y .V Edible portion . . I -- r - 2-;5 l8.4 64.4 13.0 1.4 i-7 3200 - As purchased . . . I 73-1 .1-7 4-9 17-3 3-5 5 859 VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 341 TABLE 43. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS Continued (u gg ill w a H a. s aS J z DESCRIPTION a 2 p In H w H 5 ^-E^ & 2 z H > M *" H ,, a Ed u 2 S < ^J g< & 9 CL, -> gf"< "1 oil |o2 cent cent cent cent cent cen/ Co/. NUTS Walnuts, California, black : Edible portion . . 2 2-5 2 7 .6 56.3 II.7 i-7 1.9 3012 As purchased . . . 74-i .6 7.2 14.6 3-0 5 78l Walnuts, California, soft shell : Edible portion . . 4 2-5 16.6 63.4 16.1 2.6 1.4 3182 As purchased . . . 58.1 I.O 6.9 26.6 6.8 .6 I33S Chemical changes in the ripening of fruits. During ripening many fruits undergo distinct changes in composition, and these changes may continue after the gathering of the fruit. In general the ripening involves a decrease in acid and starch with an increase in sugar content. Oxidation processes also go on in the fruit with the development of " ethereal " substances (probably esters) and evolution of carbon dioxide. Quite elaborate investigations of the changes which fruits undergo during ripening have been carried on by Bigelow and by Langworthy and their associates, in the United States De- partment of Agriculture. With winter apples, for example, it was found that the starch content reaches its maximum about midsummer and then decreases and finally disappears almost entirely. This change is strikingly shown by treating the cut surface of specimen apples with iodine, which colors starch deep blue. The decreasing depth of color with decreasing starch 342 FOOD PRODUCTS I VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 343 content as the apple approaches maturity is readily seen in Fig. 26. The acid content of the apples was found to decrease from early summer until maturity, while the sugar content increases. In bananas also .there is a marked conversion of starch into sugar as the fruit ripens. The peach, on the other hand, contains no appreciable amount of starch at any time, but shows a steady increase in sugar content as it approaches maturity. In fruits generally there is an apparent decrease of the pectin substances as the fruit ripens, as indicated by the fact that under- ripe fruit yields firmer jelly. Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Fruits and Nuts In dietary studies and digestion experiments fruits and nuts are often considered together, largely because a large proportion of the accurately recorded data has been gathered by Jaffe in connection with his investigations upon California fruitarians whose diet is one of fruits and nuts. In 28 digestion experi- ments with 2 men and i woman upon fruit and nut diet the average coefficients of digestibility were: for protein, 90 per cent ; for fat, 85 per cent ; for carbohydrate, 95 per cent. Apparently the fruit and nut diet was as readily and almost as completely digested as would be expected of ordinary mixed diet. The fact that consistent fruitarians, both adults and children, maintain a well-nourished condition on diets of fruits and nuts which are of moderate total food value and low protein content is strong evidence that the nutrients of the fruits and nuts must be well digested and also efficiently utilized in metabolism. This is in harmony both with the belief that man is descended from ancestors whose chief food was fruit and nuts, and with the results of modern -investigations of the chemical structure of the nut proteins. 344 FOOD PRODUCTS The nut proteins have not been analyzed extensively, but Osborneand his associates report the hydrolysis of two as follows. Excelsin is the principal protein of Brazil nuts, and amandin of almonds. TABLE 44. PERCENTAGES OF AMINO ACIDS FROM NUT PROTEINS (OSBORNE) AMANDIN (ALMONDS) EXCELSIN (BRAZIL NUTS) Glycin O.^I 0.6 Alanin ' I.AO 2 "? Valin 0.16 .* Leucin A.AZ 8.7 Phenylalanin Tyrosin Prolin 2-53 1. 12 2.AA 3-5 3-i 1.6 Oxyprolin Aspartic acid Glutamic acid Arginin 5-42 23-I4 ii 8<: ? 3-8 12.9 16 i Lysin o 70 i 6 Histidin Tryptophan Ammonia 1.58 present 3-70 2.5 present 1.8 Summation CQ.OO 62 o Further and more conclusive evidence of the high food value of at least one of the nut proteins is found in the recent experi- ments of Osborne and Mendel in which rats are fed on known mixtures of isolated food substances. Excelsin of the Brazil nut has been shown in these experiments to be one of the proteins which is in itself ample for all the requirements of protein metabolism in normal nutrition. Not only does excelsin as a sole protein food maintain protein equilibrium, but young animals make a normal growth and development upon diets in which .excelsin is the only nitrogenous food. It is plain that fruits and nuts are to be regarded as staple VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 345 articles of food and by no means as simply relishes or accessories. By a consideration of composition and cost it will also be found that many of the fruits and nuts are quite economical as com- pared with many other staple foods. Place of Nuts in the Diet From the tables of composition given above it is apparent that nuts vary considerably in composition, some (as chestnuts) being starchy, others (as coconuts and walnuts) being especially rich in fat, while many (as almonds, Brazil nuts, butternuts, and peanuts) are rich in both protein and fat. Nuts in general, being rich in both protein and fat, are com- parable with meats as food and may be used interchangeably with meat in the diet ; in fact they are being so used to an in- creasing extent. With the constant tendency toward higher cost of meat, which must be anticipated for reasons already ex- plained (page 214), and with growing knowledge of nut culture, we may look for a much larger use of nuts as " meat substitutes l " in the future. Even at present prices the economy of nuts both as sources of energy and of protein will doubtless be surprising to many who have not previously compared the composition and cost of typical articles of these groups. Thus 10 cents spent for beefsteak at 25 cents per pound will buy about 400 Calories with about 30 grams of protein, while the same amount spent for shelled almonds at 50 cents a pound will buy about 600 Calories with about 25 grams 01 protein ; if spent for peanuts at 10 cents a pound it would buy about 1800 Calories with 90 grams of protein ; or spent for peanut butter at 33 cents a pound (25 cents for a jar containing 12 ounces net) the same amount would buy 750 Calories with 35 grams of protein. 1 To speak of nuts as " meat substitute " is natural under present conditions and reflects the prominence which has been given to meat and the casual way in which nuts have been regarded for some generations. Looking at the matter in evolutionary oerspective it might be more logical to speak of meats as "nut substitute" instead. 346 FOOD PRODUCTS Thus not only the roasted peanuts but the best grade of almonds or of carefully prepared peanut butter is plainly a much more economical food than the steak, even when the latter is not charged with the cost of preparing it for the table. The reader may extend the comparison to other nuts at the prices found in the local markets. The Place of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet Fruits and vegetables vary too much in their chemical com- position and other properties to permit many broad generaliza- tions in regard to their place in the diet. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and bananas are easily comparable with each other, but difficult to compare in many respects with celery, tomatoes, or grapefruit. Differences in food value are due largely to the wide variations in water content, but also to the different quantitative pro- portions which the nutrients bear to each other, and in some instances to the presence of characteristic substances. Considered as sources of energy potatoes and dry beans and peas are at ordinary prices about as economical as grain prod- ucts and much more economical than the meats; while the dried fruits are comparable in economy as fuel with milk, butter, and the fatter and cheaper kinds of meat. Even those fruits and green vegetables which are eaten for flavor with little thought of food value and which are often thought of as luxuries because of their high water content will often be found to furnish energy at no greater cost than many of the familiar cuts of meat when account is taken of the extent to which the fat of the meat is usually rejected or lost in cooking or at the table. That the dry legumes are both absolutely and relatively rich in protein is a fact so well recognized as not to require elaboration here. Less generally realized is the fact that while the gre"en vegetables contain too much water to show high absolute values or percentages by weight of protein, yet they VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS 347 show as much or more of the total food value in the form of protein as is customary or desirable in ordinary dietaries. In fruits, on the other hand, the relative proportion as well as the absolute amount of protein is usually low. The proportion of energy furnished by protein, as well as numerous other data, may be found for all the common articles of food in the table of loo-Calorie portions at the back of this book (Appendix E). Taking the fruits and vegetables as a whole, while often more economical as sources of energy and protein than is generally considered, yet they are probably even more significant for their ash constituents than for the organic nutrients which they contain. The percentages of individual ash constituents in the edible portion of each of the important fruits and vegetables (in so far as trustworthy analyses are available) are given in the accompanying table. TABLE 45. ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN PER- CENTAGE OF THE EDIBLE PORTION (Compiled from various sources) FOOD CaO MgO KjO NaiO P0s Cl S Fe Apples .... .014 .014 .1C .02 .03 .004 .00? .000 ? Apricots .... .018 .018 .28 .06 .06 .00? .on Asparagus . Bananas .... .04 .01 .02 .04 .20 .CO .OI .02 .09 .occ .04 .20 .04 .01 3 .0010 .0006 Beans, dried lima, dried . lima, fresh . string .... .22 .IO .04 .07? 25 31 .11 .043 1.40 2.1 7 .28 .26 33 .12 O3 1.14 77 .27 .12 03 .025 .009 .018 .22 .16 .06 .04 .0070 .0070 .0025 .0016 Beets . . * . .03 .O?? .AC .IO OO O4 .QIC 0006 Blackberries . . Blueberries . Breadfruit . Cabbage .... .08 4S .12 .068 035 .015 .OI .026 .20 S .28 .AC .04 ,oc .08 .02 .16 .OO .10 .07 .01 .07 .001 1 Carrots .... O77 O34 .2C .1? .IO .0*6 .022 .0008 Cauliflower . 17 .02 .27 .10 .14 S .085 348 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 45. ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN PER- CENTAGE OF THE EDIBLE PORTION Continued FOOD CaO MgO K 2 O NajO PzOs Cl S Fe Celery .... .10 .04 .27 .11 .10 17 .02 ? Chard .... .22 ii .46 .12 .00 .04 .12 Cherries .... O2. .027 .26 .02. .07 .OI OI Cherry juice . . Chicory .... 025 -O? .02 .03 15 .27 .02 .11 03 .00 .004 .06 .006 Chives .... .20 O1 .-2-2 OA .20 .04 Citron .... .17 .02. ,2< ,O2 .08 .OI O2 Coconut pulp . Corn, sweet, dried sweet, fresh . Cranberries . . . Cucumbers . Currants, fresh . Zante .... .09 3 .008 .024 .022 OS .14 .10 .20 5S .on .015 .04 .08 77 5 137 .09 17 25 I.O .IO .2 05 .013 .015 .02 .1 38 .8 .22 3 .08 .10 .-I 25 05 .014 .005 03 .OI .06 3 .16 .044 .008 .022 .OI .06 .0029 .0008 .0006 .0005 Currant juice . Dandelion greens . Dates . . . 3 .IO .02 .12 .2 5 .12 .22 .005 .066 .0027 001 Endive .14. O2 .Ai .1? .IO .02. Figs, fresh . . . dried . .074 2OO .036 I4S .365 1.478 .Ol6 .06 A .082 3,32 .OI4 .o?6 .374)5 tons f 1,146,773 [ 624,064 (?) Java 1,331,180 tons (8) France (9) Holland .... (10) Belgium .... 960,900 tons 316,177 tons 298,584 tons 424 FOOD PRODUCTS and the Philippines, and somewhat less than half (about 800,000 tons) in the continental United States. The total amount of sugar used in the continental United States is nearly 4,000,000 tons or 8,000,000,000 pounds, or about 85 pounds per capita, annually. Only England and Denmark show an apparently larger per capita consumption of sugar than the United States. Since England exports considerable quantities of jams and marmalade, and Denmark of sweetened condensed milk, and the sugar enter- ing into these products is not deducted in estimating the apparent per capita consumption, there is some doubt whether the actual per capita consumption is larger in any other civilized country than in the United States. The money value of the sugar consumed in the United States is usually about $400,000,000 per year. vStifIA Q^fJlAUffK, c Mf^ntfy-prgducts of Sugar Manu , of molasses and refinery sirup as human food will be considered later. The following account of the agricultural and industrial utilization of other by-products is condensed from a paper by Browne in the School of Mines Quarterly for July, 1913. It may be stated as a general rule of all manufacturing that the number of by-products and the means for their utilization increase with the improve- ments in technical processes. This is particularly the case with the sugar industry. The by-products of sugar manufacture in the more progressive countries are so numerous that it is possible to cover the field of their utilization only in the most superficial manner. In treating our subject we shall find it in many ways more convenient to subdivide it according to the character of by- product, a follows : 1. The utilization of the cellular refuse of beet and cane. 2. The utilization of the impurities removed in clarification. 3. The utilization of the waste molasse^ sSud SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 425 Utilization of the Cellular Refuse of Beet and Cane In discussing this topic, we must bear in mind the differences between the physiological structure of these two plants, and also the differences in method of extracting the sugar. The pulp that remains in the diffusion batteries after washing out the sugar from the sliced beets forms an important by-product which is also used for feeding cattle. If there is a large cattle farm or ranch near the sugar factory, the wet pulp can be fed out just as it is emptied from the diffusion cells. The farmers who supply a sugar factory with beets frequently stipulate for a return of the beet pulp for feeding purposes, and a considerable amount of the pressed pulp is sent out from the sugar factories in freight cars, frequently to a distance of 50 or even 100 miles. When local conditions are unfavorable for feeding the pulp or converting it into ensilage, many factories dry the pulp, using for this purpose the heat of the flue gas escaping from the boilers. The dried beet residue consists of a crisp brittle material which is packed in bags and sold as a cattle food ; it is much relished by farm animals. In the cane sugar industry a large amount of waste cellular matter also results from the harvesting and milling of the crop. The leafy portion of the cane top is sometimes fed to farm animals. In Louisiana, owing to the limited period of harvest and the haste to get the cane all pressed before winter, no time is available for utilizing the cane tops ; they are therefore left upon the ground and are afterwards burned. The bagasse, or cellular matter of the cane stalk, which is left after milling, is a very important by-product and many schemes have been proposed -for its utilization. In most cane-producing countries the bagasse is used as a fuel to supply steam for the engines and heat for the evaporators. In many places the bagasse is the only supply of fuel available, and when this is the case other methods of utilization are impracticable. Bagasse, as it leaves the cane mill under good systems of extraction, contains about 50 per cent mois- ture and ; r> this condition has a fuel value about one quarter that of soft coal. The employment of bagasse as fuel has appeared to many a very wasteful procedure, and attempts have been made to use it in the manufacture of paper. Under good conditions of manufacture, four tons of wet bagasse will give one ton of paper. In this connection mention should be made of a new process which is being tried at present, which, if successful, promises to revolutionize present methods of sugar manufacture. This process consists in shredding the cane near the fields where it is cut, drying the shredded stalks, pressing the sub- 426 FOOD PRODUCTS stance into compact bales, and shipping it to factories in the United States or elsewhere. The dry material is there extracted with water in diffusion batteries, and the sugar which is washed out is manufactured directly into refined sugar. The residue of fiber, in another department of the same fac- tory, is made into paper. The sugar world is watching the developments of this new experiment with great interest. Utilization of Impurities removed in Clarification The quantity of filter-press cake obtained in sugar manufacture varies greatly according to the amount of lime and other agents used in clarifica- tion, and according to the purity of the juices. The amount of wet press- cake obtained in Java by the ordinary process of clarification was found to be about i per cent of the weight of cane ; the press-cake contained about 70 per cent of moisture and 10 per cent of sucrose, whence the actual amount of impurities removed from the juice is only about 0.2 per cent of the weight of the cane. The material consists of fine particles of bagasse ground off in milling, with an admixture of wax, proteins, gums, calcium sulphate and phosphate, iron oxide, and alumina, and considerable earthy matter which was brought in on the cane stalks from the field. Where the carbonatation process of clarification is used, as is the case with beet-sugar manufacture, the press-cake is mostly calcium carbonate, the re- mainder consisting of the wax, proteins, gums, etc., found in the ordinary press-cake. Great benefit has been derived from the use of filter-press cake as a fertili- zer, the nitrogen existing in a form which is readily available. The excess of calcium carbonate in carbonatation cake has also been found beneficial upon certain soils. Utilization of Waste Molasses The word molasses has many shades of meaning ; chemically speaking, we may consider it as the sugar factory mother liquor from which a part of the sucrose has been crystallized. The molasses from the first crystallization may yield, upon evaporation, a second crop of sugar crystals, and the molasses from this may even yield a small amount of impure third sugar. The approximate average composition of beet and cane molasses, from which no more sucrose will crystallize, is given in the following table : SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 427 BEET MOLASSES CANE MOLASSES Water 20% 20% Sucrose 5 to Invert sugar Salts Trace 10 (5 % K 2 O) 30 8 (4 % KoO) Nitrogenous substances Gums, acids, etc. . . . 10 (2 % N) 10 2 (0.4 %N) 10 100 IOO It is seen from the table that beet molasses is distinguished from cane molasses by a higher percentage of sucrose, by a much higher percentage of nitrogenous substances, and by a comparative absence of invert sugar. The table shows 5 per cent of potash and 2 per cent of nitrogen in beet molasses and 4 per cent of potash and 0.4 per cent of nitrogen in cane molasses ; these figures suggest at once that molasses might have some value as a fertilizer ; and such in fact has been demonstrated to be the case upon certain kinds of soil, more especially those deficient in humus. The applica- tion of molasses to other soils, however, has caused an acid fermentation with souring of the soil alul loss of fertility, so that this method of utilizing molasses is not uniformly successful. But the greatest objection against this use of molasses is its wastefulness. There are more profitable methods of using the sugar and other organic solids of molasses than employing them as a supply of humus. A second use for molasses is as a fuel. Molasses containing 20 per cent moisture has a thermal value about three eighths that of coal. By means of specially constructed furnaces it is possible to secure a perfect combustion of the carbonaceous matter of molasses, 8 Ib. of molasses supplying the same heat as 3 Ib. of coal. A residue of ash, very rich in potash, is left, and this can find a use either as fertilizer or as a raw material for making potash salts. Molasses, as we have seen, contains 50 per cent or more of sugar, and the use of such a valuable food material as a fuel is wasteful if other more profi- table means of its disposal are available. Unquestionably the most perfect utilization of molasses is as a food. The odor of beet molasses is enough to convince one that it is unfit for human consumption. Waste cane molasses is much more palatable l . . . and its use as a stock food, whether for work- ing animals, for milk production, or for fattening, is attended with splendid For discussion of molasses as human food see later sections of this chapter. 428 FOOD PRODUCTS results, provided overfeeding, which might cause derangement of the digestive system, is avoided. The higher percentage of salts in beet molasses renders it somewhat less desirable as a cattle food than cane molasses. The stable manure from animals fed upon molasses contains the valuable potash and nitrogen of the latter, and the use of such manure as a fertilizer has all the advantages and none of the disadvantages which result from the direct application of molasses to the soil. From the sugar manufacturer's viewpoint, the dried leaves and pulp of the sugar beet and the bagasse of the sugar cane make most excellent and convenient materials for preparing molasses feeds. By combining them with molasses in suitable proportions a successful utilization of two by-products is accomplished in one operation. The percentage of molasses in mixed molasses feeds, according to analyses by Halligan, varies from 10 to 60 per cent. If more than 25 per cent of molasses is used, the feed must be heated in driers to remove the excess of moisture, which should not exceed 1 2 per cent. If too much moisture is present, the feed becomes sticky and is very liable to spoil through fermentation. One of the most common methods of using molasses is the manufacture of alcohol and rum. In many tropical countries the sugar house and dis- tillery are side by side, and the chemist is required to have a practical knowl- edge of fermentation and distilling as well as of sugar manufacture. In manufacturing alcohol from molasses, the latter is first diluted to a sugar content of about 12 per cent. This solution, or " wash," is usually acidified slightly with sulphuric acid to prevent the growth of injurious bacteria, and then, after adding yeast, is fermented until no further decrease in density is observed. The fermented liquid is then distilled and the alcohol or rum collected in receivers. Two gallons of cane molasses should give a yield of one gallon i So-proof alcohol (90 per cent strength) which is the usual standard for denaturing. Such alcohol, according to the last quotations, has a commercial value of 38 c. per gallon. The cost of manufacture may be set at S-c. a gallon, which leaves 30 c. as the value of the raw molasses, or 15 c. per gallon. Sugar-cane molasses in tank cars, according to the last New Orleans quotations, has a commercial value of 6 c. a gallon, so that there is a profit of about 9 c. a gallon in operating a molasses distillery, provided the output of denatured alcohol finds a ready market, which at present is not always the case. The present high price of denatured alcohol prevents its competing with gasoline, and other petroleum products, as a source of power, light, or fuel. In tropical countries the distiller of molasses must turn his attention almost entirely to the manufacture of rum. Although we may not advocate its use as a beverage, rum is a commercial SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 429 product which the food chemist is called upon to inspect, analyze, and in other ways to reckon with. A few words may therefore be devoted to the methods peculiar to rum manufacture. Rum is valued not simply by its alcohol content but also by its flavor. The flavor of rum is due to the presence of alcoholic esters of acetic, butyric, and other higher fatty acids; the first requirement in the production of flavor is the formation of the acids for esterification. Acetic acid is prepared by allowing cane juice, skimmings from the clarifiers of the sugar house, and other refuse, to undergo an alcoholic fer- mentation, and then pumping the liquid on to cane trash in cisterns. An acetic fermentation sets in, just as when cider is poured over shavings in the quick vinegar process, and the solution becomes strongly acid. For the production of butyric, caprylic, and the other fatty acids, a putre- factive fermentation is necessary, and this is carried out by dumping the dead yeast from the stills, cane refuse, lees from the retorts, and other adven- titious matter, into a receptacle called the " muck hole." A putrefactive fermentation sets in with formation of butyric and other fatty acids. To neutralize the excess of free acid, which would retard fermentation, powdered marl is added from time to time. When the liquid in the muck hole is ripe, it is added to the acid cisterns, the free acetic acid thus liberating the butyric and other acids from their lime salts. The mixture of acids, thus produced, constitutes the basis for flavor production. In conducting the fermentation, the wash is prepared by mixing molasses, skimmings, and cane juice with a certain amount of " dunder," which is the spent liquor obtained from the stills after distillation. The dunder is rich in nitrogenous compounds and salts, and serves as a nutrient for the growth of the yeast. After fermentation has begun, a requisite amount of the acid flavoring mixture is added ; a part of the alcohol, formed by the action of the yeast upon the sugars, unites with the acids of the flavor to produce ethyl acetate, ethyl propionate, ethyl butyrate, and the other higher esters, all of which, passing over with the alcohol when the wash is distilled, give the resulting rum its characteristic aroma and flavor. High flavored Jamaica rum may contain as high as i or 2 per cent of esters, while the low flavored rums contain less than half of this amount. Over 95 per cent of the esters consists of ethyl acetate; the remainder is principally ethyl butyrate, the ester of chief importance as regards flavor production, with small amounts of other fatty acid homologues. Methods for utilizing sugar-beet molasses. Germany has made the greatest advancement in this regard. Of a total production of 400,000 tons of beet molasses in Germany, about 55 per cent is desaccharified for sugar production, about 30 per cent is used as a cattle food, about 10 per cent is fermented into 430 FOOD PRODUCTS alcohol, and the remaining 5 per cent is utilized in various miscellaneous ways. Among the latter we may mention the use of molasses for manufacturing dye stuffs, shoe blacking, yeast, molds and briquettes, and numerous other commodities. The residues from the desaccharification factories, 1 best known under its German name of molasses schlempe, has been a subject of special study from the standpoint of utilization. If we subtract the sucrose from the composi- tion of beet molasses given in the previous table, we shall form a fair idea of the composition of schlempe. From 1000 kg. of beet molasses are obtained about 350 kg. of concentrated schlempe, containing about 30 per cent of mineral matter, mostly potash salts, some 20 per cent or more of nitrogenous- substances, and a remainder of acids, gums, caramelization products, and other organic residues. Molasses schlempe contains 12 to 15 per cent of potassium and 4 per cent or more of nitrogen, and its conversion into derivatives of these elements constitutes at present the chief method of utilization. The schlempe is first heated in retorts, by which means it is decomposed into a mixture of volatile products consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, ammonia, methyl amine, methyl alcohol, water, and other sub- stances. The volatile decomposition products escape from the retorts at a temperature of about 400 C. and are led through a system of tubes heated to a temperature of about 1000 C. The effect of this heating is to convert the volatile nitrogenous compounds into ammonium cyanide. After leaving the hot tubes, the gases, which are always kept under reduced pressure, are cooled, freed from tar, and then washed over sulphuric acid to break up the ammonium cyanide, the ammonium sulphate, which is formed, being re- covered. The hydrocyanic acid is then absorbed in water and the residue of combustible gases is led back to the furnaces for heating the retorts. The hydrocyanic acid is then distilled, and absorbed in sodium hydroxide ; the solution of the latter, after evaporating and crystallizing, yields solid sodium cyanide. By the above method about three fourths of the nitrogen in molasses schlempe is recovered as ammonium sulphate and sodium cyanide, the remaining one fourth escaping as gaseous nitrogen. A small amount of pyridine is also obtained by this process, in connection with the ammonia. The residue of mineral matter in the retorts, after distilling the schlempe, is worked up into potash, of which some 15,000 tons are made annually in GermanV from this source. 'The desaccharification of beet molasses is accomplished by precipitating the sucrose as strontium saccharate, which, after separation from the molasses, is decomposed by carbon dioxide and the sucrose recovered as commercial sugar. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 431 Two factories in Germany produce annually, by the process of distillation described, about 5000 tons of ammonium sulphate and 5000 tons of sodium cyanide, with a commercial value of about $1,750,000. The sodium cyanide thus manufactured is nearly all exported to the Transvaal, where it is used for extracting gold by the well-known cyanide process. Chemists in Germany are making further efforts towards improving the utilization of molasses schlempe. By the present methods of distillation about one fourth of the nitrogen is lost, and this is wasteful from the stand- point of highest economy. It has been felt by 'some chemists that efforts should be made towards removing some of the valuable organic constitutents of the schlempe before making the distillation. Among the more important of the nitrogenous organic substances we may mention 10 to 12 per cent of betaine, 5 to 7 per cent of glutamic acid, i to 2 per cent of leucin and isoleu- cin, and various other amino-acids, etc. Search is being made for uses to which these substances may be put, and with the discovery of such uses we may look for greater refinements in the processes of utilization. Molasses, Sirups, Honey Molasses was formerly the mother liquor remaining after the removal of one crop of sugar crystals from the boiled-down juice of the sugar cane. Since the removal of cane sugar by one crystallization is far from complete, the molasses thus obtained was rich in sucrose and contained also much the greater part of the other constituents of the cane juice. Atwater and Bryant, in 1896, report the average of (12) American analyses published before that date as follows : PER CENT Water 25.7 "Protein" (Nitrogen X 6.25) 2.7 Carbohydrates 68.0 Ash 3.6 The introduction of modern methods into sugar house practice has tended steadily to remove the sucrose more and more completely, with the result that the amount of molasses is decreased, its sugar content is lowered, and its content of impurities is increased. The term " impurities " is somewhat misleading, since the constituents other than sucrose which cane 432 FOOD PRODUCTS juice naturally contains are unquestionably of food value; in fact, the molasses is a much less one-sided food than the sugar removed from it. When, however, the ash constituents and amids (or other " nitrogenous extractives ") of the cane juice are concentrated to such an extent as in the final molasses of a modern raw sugar factory, the product is too strong in flavor to be attractive as human food, and may contain such a high concentration of salts as to throw doubt upon its wholesomeness when eaten in any considerable quantity. To illustrate the difference in composition between molasses from successive crystallizations of sugar Wiley gives the following typical analyses of " first," " second," and " third " molasses, the com- position being reduced to a uniform basis of water content : TABLE 51. COMPOSITION OF FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD MOLASSES (WILEY) FIRST MOLASSES SECOND MOLASSKS THIRD MOLASSES Water Per cent 20 oo Per cent 20 oo Per cent 20 oo Sucrose (cane sugar) c? 60 41 7O ?! 7O Dextrose (glucose) . . . . 8 76 12 2O I ? OO Levulose (fructose) 8 oo I 2 CO 16.50 Acids and gums 4?o 6 50 8.20 Proteins o 20 O 2C O. ?O Amids .... . I CO 2 OO Ash A OO c.?e 6. 30 According to the definitions and standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists : Molasses is the product left after separating the sugar from masse cuite, melada, mush sugar, or concrete, and contains not more than 25 per cent of water and not more than 5 per cent of ash. This standard would practically confine the term molasses as a commercial designation for human food to material of the nature of the " first molasses " of modern sugar manufacture. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 433 Refiner's sirup is, as already explained, the "mother liquor" or residual liquid product obtained in the process of refining raw sugar. According to the standards of the Official Agricultural Chemists, it contains not more than 25 per cent of water and not more than 8 per cent of ash. This product is also called " sugar refinery molasses " and sometimes " sugar-house molasses." The latter expression is ambiguous since the term " sugar house " is more commonly applied to the raw sugar factory than to the refinery. Mixed sirups. Refiner's sirup contains the coloring and flavoring substances which distinguish the brown or yellow raw cane sugar from the white refined sugar (which latter, as it ap- pears in commerce, may have been made either from the cane or the beet). The characteristic flavor of the raw cane sugar which is thus left in the sirup in the refining process is preferred by many people to the mere sweetness of sucrose or glucose. Hence the refiner's sirup is in demand for mixing with com- mercial glucose sirup (made from corn as described in an earlier chapter) for the production of " corn sirup with cane flavor " of which it is estimated that about 350,000,000 pounds are con- sumed annually in the United States. Other mixed sirups are made from commercial glucose or corn sirup with refined cane sugar sirup (the product in this case being practically colorless), with sorghum sirup made by boiling down the juice of the sorghum cane, or with sirups made by concentrating the juice of the sugar cane without removing any of the sugar. More expensive mixed sirups are those made by mixing either glucose or sucrose sirup with maple sirup. Maple sirup is the most highly prized of all table sirups. It is made by evaporating the sap of the sugar maple to such a point that the product contains only about 30 per cent of water. The standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists specify that maple sirup shall contain not more than 32 per cent 434 FOOD PRODUCTS of water and not less than 0.45 per cent of maple sugar ash. The reason for setting a minimum limit for ash in this case, whereas in the case of molasses and refiner's sirup the limit is set in the other direction, is that the maple sirup is prized for the flavor imparted by its " impurities " (constituents other than sugar), and there is no likelihood that the maple sap will be subjected to any such refining processes as might introduce an excessive amount of ash constituents, whereas a low ash content would be an indication that the maple simp had been " extended " by diluting with a solution of refined sugar (a not uncommon method of adulteration, since refined cane sugar is much cheaper than unrefined maple sugar or even than the concentrated maple sap). The census returns show 4,106,418 gallons or about 40,000,000 pounds of maple sirup, and 14,000,000 pounds of maple sugar made in the United States in 1909. Open kettle cane sirup, made by boiling down in open vessels the juice of the sugar cane to a consistency similar to that of molasses, is said x to be a common article of food in the Southern States. The product contains all the sugars and ash constit- uents of the cane juice, and their relative proportions are changed only in so far as the sucrose is in part hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose, and in part caramelized, giving the sirup a reddish tint. Honey. Before sugar became a common article of commerce, honey was the chief sweetening material in use. Honey con- sists chiefly of a mixture of sugars gathered from flowers and more or less changed by the honeybee. It is the only common food material which contains more fructose than glucose. The average of 92 analyses of normal honeys 2 shows : 1 Wileyjs Foods and Their Adulteration. 2 Browne, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin no. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 435 PER CENT Water 17-70 Sucrose 1.90 Fructose (levulose) 40.50 . Glucose (dextrose) '.... 34.48 Dextrin 1.51 . Ash 0.18 Undetermined 3.73 In some instances genuine honey has been found to contain as high as 8 per cent of sucrose ; more than that would usually be taken as an indication that the honey is either abnormal or adulterated. The differences in flavor are largely due to the characteristic esters (" ethereal " substances) found in the nectars of different flowers. With the production of sucrose and glucose on a large scale and at a low price, honey has become relatively a luxury, and, except as prevented by legislation, has been largely adulterated with sucrose and glucose sirups. These adulterations are readily detected by chemical analysis, since genuine honey almost always contains enough fructose (levulose) to make it levo-rota- tory to polarized light, whereas both sucrose and commercial glucose are dextro-rotatory. Adulteration of honey with " invert sugar," a mixture of equal parts glucose (dextrose) and fructose (levulose) obtained by hydrolysis of sucrose, is much more difficult of detection, since the main constituents of the honey and the adulterant are here the same. Confectionery The term confectionery covers a variety of products, all arti- ficial or manufactured, consisting largely of sugar of some kind, with flavoring and usually also coloring material either added or developed by cooking processes. Under the terms of the Food and Drugs Act confectionery is adulterated "if it contain terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other mineral substance or poisonous color or flavor, 436 FOOD PRODUCTS or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug." Since adulterated foods are illegal even if truthfully branded, the above provision amounts to a specific prohibition against the use in confectionery of any one of the substances named. It is of interest to note the prohibition of alcohol in confectionery, whereas in ordinary foods and drinks its presence and amount are not restricted, and in the case of drugs it is only required that the proportion present be stated on the label. In addition to these special provisions, the purity of confectionery is further protected by all the general provisions of the law against adul- teration and misbranding of food, since the term food as used in the law is defined as including " all articles used for food, drink, confectionery, or condiment." Since all confections are artificial products, there is no natural guide to the establishment of any direct standards of food value, and as yet no standards other than those intended to exclude deleterious substances have been established. Methods of making the different types of candies and other confections do not come within the scope of this work. The manufacture of the sugars, sucrose and commercial glucose, which are the chief ingredients of confectionery, has already been discussed. Perhaps the only other ingredient which is commonly used in confectionery in sufficient quantity to have a significant bearing upon the food value of the product is chocolate. Chocolate is made from the cocoa bean, the seed of Thcobroma cacao, a tree native to Central America and grown only in tropical regions. The seeds are borne in large pulpy fruit, each about 10 inches long and 4 inches thick and containing 20 to 40 seeds. At the proper stage of maturity, the fruit is cut from the tree, split open, and the seeds (cocoa beans) removed. These seeds are sometimes dried at once in the sun, but for the pro- duction of a better-flavored product are commonly first allowed to undergo a fermentation process. After drying in the sun, SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 437 the beans are roasted in revolving steel cylinders, after which the hulls are removed by machinery. The beans are then crushed and freed from the germs. The roasted and coarsely crushed product freed from hulls and germs is known as cocoa nibs. The nibs are thoroughly ground in stone mills, the material being reduced to a thin paste which on cooling sets to a hard cake. This is known as unsweetened or plain chocolate and has approximately the composition : PER CENT Water 3 Protein 12 Theobromine i Fat 50 Fiber 3 Carbohydrates (other than fiber) 28 Ash 3 About one half of the fat contained in plain chocolate can be removed by pressing. The fat thus obtained is a soft solid at ordinary temperatures and is known as cocoa butter. Breakfast cocoa is obtained by grinding to an exceedingly fine powder the residue from which more or less of the cocoa butter has been expressed. In confectionery sweetened chocolate is often mixed with cocoa butter, especially when a glossy chocolate covering for candies is desired. According to the definitions and standards formulated by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and more recently (Food Inspection Decision 136, June 1911) indorsed by the Board of Food and Drug Inspection, the names " chocolate" " plain chocolate," " bitter chocolate," " chocolate liquor" and " bitter chocolate coatings " are applied to the solid or plastic mass ob- tained by grinding cocoa nibs without removal of fat or other constituents except the germ, containing not more than 3 per cent of ash insoluble in water, 3.50 per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of starch, and not less than 45 per cent of cocoa fat. 438 FOOD PRODUCTS " Sweet chocolate " and " sweet chocolate coatings " are terms applied to chocolate mixed with sugar (sucrose), with or without the addition of cocoa butter, spices, or other flavoring materials, and contain in the sugar and fat-free residue no higher per- centage of either ash, fiber, or starch than is found in the sugar and fat-free residue of chocolate. Cocoa and powdered cocoa are terms applied to cocoa nibs, with or without the germ, deprived of a portion of its fat and finely pulverized, and contain percentages of ash, crude fiber, and starch corresponding to those in chocolate after correction for fat removed. Sweet cocoa and sweetened cocoa are terms applied to cocoa mixed with sugar (sucrose), and contain not more than 60 per cent of sugar (sucrose), and in the sugar and fat-free residue no higher percentage of either ash, crude fiber, or starch than is found in the sugar and fat-free residue of chocolate. Cocoa nibs and cracked cocoa are the roasted broken seeds of the cacao tree freed from shell or husk. Milk chocolate and milk cocoa, in the opinion of the Board, should contain not less than 12 per cent of milk solids, and the so-called nut chocolates should contain substantial quantities of nuts. If sugar is added, for example, to milk chocolate, it should be labeled "sweet milk chocolate," "sweet nut chocolate," etc. When cocoa is treated with an alkali or an alkaline salt, as in the so-called Dutch process, and the finished cocoa contains increased mineral matter as the result of this treatment, but no alkali as such is present, the label should bear a statement to the effect that the cocoa contains added mineral ingredients, stating the amount. Cocoas and chocolates containing an appreciable amount of free alkali are adulterated. In the opin- ion of ,the Board, cocoa not treated with alkali is not soluble in the ordinary acceptance of the term and after treatment with alkali shows essentially the same lack of solubility. To designate the alkali-treated cocoa as " soluble " cocoa is therefore held to be misleading and deceptive. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 439 The manufacture of confectionery has become an industry of considerable magnitude. According to the Census of Manu- factures the wholesale value of confectionery made in manu- facturing establishments in the United States in 1909 was $134- 796,000. Manufacturers of corn sirup estimate the annual production of candy in the United States at about 800,000,000 pounds and the amount of corn sirup or commercial glucose used in making this candy at about 200,000,000 pounds. The average composition of miscellaneous sugars, starches, and confectionery as estimated by Atwater and Bryant is shown in Table 52. The fuel values have been recalculated by the use of the modern factors as already explained. TABLE 52. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SUGARS, STARCHES, ETC. 1 , u, ^ M 5 O lyr W M o 3 o w 2 8 8 M DESCRIPTION U^w ^ S w i w 2 B H a s S s ^ >e pa a B W H H H Oi |: p ! ij S g Z JH 1 O 3 fc giS (i| ' a (i,* 1 Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Co/. cent cent cent cent ce/ <(/ cent SUGARS, STARCHES, ETC. Candy 06.0 1743 Honey 17 18.2 y v " 8l.2 .2 1480 Molasses, cane .... 15 25-1 2.4 3-2 1300 Starch, arrowroot . . . I 2-3 97-5 .2 1770 Starch, cornstarch . . . 90.0 1635 Starch, manioca . . . I 10.5 5 .1 88:8 .1 1625 Starch, tapioca .... 7 11.4 4 .1 88.0 ( 5 )./ .1 1608 Sugar, coffee or brown sugar 328 01-O 1723 Sugar, granulated . . . ^j " v 7 J 100.0 1814 Sugar, maple 1 .... 5.0 93-c 1685 Sugar, powdered . . . fOO.O 1814 Sirup, maple 1 .... 34-2 64.0 1160 Chocolate 2 1.0 12.0 48.7 ,Q 2 2.2 2772 Cocoa 2 O'V 4.6 * v 21.6 t*-T' / 28.0 27.7 7.2 2256 O *T*" o / / 1 Data from Snell. 440 FOOD PRODUCTS Place of Sugars in the Diet Dogmatic statements regarding the proper place of sugars in the diet are apt to be seriously misleading. The problem is complicated and the evidence in many respects is still obscure. Until relatively recent times sugar was too expensive to be used freely by most people but with the development of the industry and the cheapening of the product the con- sumption of sugar has increased at an exceedingly rapid rate. The thoughtful student of food problems must regard this development with mixed emotions. The cheapening of a staple article of food, which is almost universally popular and which, like the refined sugar of commerce, is of uniform and well-known composition and practically free from danger of adulteration or harmful deterioration, would be a source of great satisfaction but for the fact that refined sugar constitutes an extreme case of a one-sided food, its sole nutritive function being to serve as fuel so that, as the energy requirement of the body is met to a larger and larger extent by the consumption of refined sugar there is a constantly increasing danger of unbalancing the diet and making it deficient in some of .the substances which are needed for the building and repair of body tissue and for the regulation of physiological processes. The fuel value of sugar is about 1800 Calories per pound, so if as estimated the consumption of sugar in the United States now amounts to 85 pounds per capita per year, the energy obtained from eating sugar must amount to about 420 Calories per capita per day. If the per capita energy requirement be estimated at about 2000 Calories per day 1 it follows that about 1 If 3000 and 2400 Calories per day be accepted as the average requirements of working men and women respectively, it seems probable that the per capita require- ment of the entire population, of which 20.5 per cent are below 15 years of age, will not exceed 2000 Calories per day. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 441 one fifth of the energy requirement is being met by eating sugar (of course not all of this sugar appears on the table as such) and that the intake of protein, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, iron, and other essential elements, and of such important though imperfectly understood substances as the lipoids and vitamines is on the whole about one tenth lower than would be the case if the sugar were reduced one half and the energy now derived from sugar were supplied by an increased consump- tion of the other articles of food. Are we to assume that the ordinary dietary of the people of the United States furnishes such an abundance of all the essential elements and each specific necessary compound that a difference of 10 per cent in the intake is of no consequence? The investigations of recent years in- dicate clearly that no such assumption is justified. As regards some of the elements such as calcium and phosphorus there is very little margin of safety in the majority of American dietaries. From this standpoint it would be an improvement if without other change in dietary habits the sugar consumption were reduced, say to one half the present rate, and the same amount of energy obtained by increasing the consumption of other food materials. It is doubtful whether in any other country the increase in consumption of refined sugar during the past two or three genera- tions has been so rapid as in the United States. The present per capita consumption of sugar in several of the chief countries of the world is given by Browne as follows : POUNDS England 95 United States 85 Germany 49 France 43 Austria 28 Russia 24 Turkey 20 Spain 16 Italy ii 442 FOOD PRODUCTS It will be seen that the per capita consumption of sugar in continental Europe is not over half that in the United States. England reports a larger per capita consumption but it is to be noted that these statistics include both the sugar eaten as such and that used in the preparation of manufactured foods. Since England exports large amounts of jam, marmalade, and other food products containing much added sugar, it may be doubted whether the actual per capita consumption of sugar is any larger in England than in the United States. The objection to the too free use of sugar, on the ground that it serves only as fuel and may replace to an undue extent other food materials which meet other nutritive requirements, applies equally to commercial glucose and to most candy. It does not hold to the same extent as regards molasses and those sirups which contain the natural ash constituents of the plant juices. Probably the most desirable of all materials with which to satisfy a desire for sweet-tasting foods are the fruits several of which contain from 10 to 15 per cent of sugars in the fresh state and from 50 to 75 per cent when dried. Some of the ad- vantageous characteristics of fruit as food have been discussed in Chapter IX. In addition to the question to what extent sugar may be allowed to displace other foods without danger of making the diet one-sided, there are several other considerations which should be kept in mind in attempting to assign to sugar its proper place as a food. Sucrose entering the blood as such is not utilized; only the products of digestion are normally absorbed into the body. The digestion of sugar is a relatively simple process since it involves only one hydrolysis. This digestive hydrolysis, how- ever, isqiot effected until the sugar reaches the intestine. Hence nearly all the sugar eaten remains as such in the stomach unless it is decomposed there by the action of micro-organisms. Herter found that cane sugar is more apt to undergo fermentation in SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 443 the stomach than is milk sugar. The products yielded by the more common types of fermentation, of which lactic acid is perhaps the best example, are not in any ordinary sense poison- ous but may be irritating when formed in large amount. Aside from the question of fermentation, sugar is often directly irritat- ing to the stomach, for unless much diluted with other food or with water it is likely in some part of the stomach to furnish a sugar solution of sufficient concentration to result in a distinct abstraction of water from the mucous membrane. The effect of such abstraction of water from the mucous membrane on a small scale is easily observed by holding a piece of hard candy in one side of the mouth for some time without moving it. When the same action takes place on a much larger scale in the stomach and especially when, from frequent free use of sugar, it occurs repeatedly, some injury to the stomach must be anticipated. The fact that sugar may have a disturbing influence upon digestion does not imply that the sugar itself is at all likely to escape digestion. The readiness with which sugar is hydrolyzed by the sugar-splitting enzyme of the intestinal juice combined with the susceptibility of sugar to the attack of bacteria makes it unlikely that much sugar will pass through the digestive tract unchanged. In a recent bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1 Mrs. Abel cites experiments in which 5 ounces of sugar per day, fed to healthy men as part of a simple mixed diet, showed an average digestibility of 98.9 per cent. According to the same authority 3 or 4 ounces per day " seem to be digested by the healthy adult without difficulty." Athletes and farm laborers at hard work have in many in- stances been observed to take large quantities of sugar, often as lemonade or in admixture with other fruit juices, without any apparent ill effects. In such cases the sugar is employed to furnish the extra energy required for the muscular activity and so does not necessarily tend toward a sub-normal intake 1 Farmers' Bulletin 535, June, 1013. 444 FOOD PRODUCTS of the foods which are valuable for their ash constituents as well as their energy. In fact when the sugar is taken with fruit juices the consumption of the latter may thereby be increased. The paragraphs which follow are taken from Mrs. Abel's general conclusions in the Government bulletin referred to above. One may say in general that the wholesomeness of sweetened foods and their utilization by the system is largely a question of quantity and concentration. For instance, a simple pudding flavored with sugar rather than heavily sweetened is considered easy of digestion, but when more sugar is used, with the addition of eggs and fat, we have as the result highly concentrated forms of food, which can be eaten with advantage only in moderate quantities and which are entirely unsuited to children and invalids. It is true that the harvester, lumberman, and others who do hard work in the open air consume great amounts of food con- taining considerable quantities of sugar, such as pie and dough- nuts, and apparently with impunity; but it is equally true that people living an indoor life find that undue amounts of pie, cake, and pudding, with highly sweetened preserved fruit, and sugar in large amounts on cooked cereals, almost always bring indigestion sooner or later. From a gastronomic point of view it would seem also that in the American cuisine sugar is used with too many kinds of food, with a consequent loss of variety and piquancy of flavor in the different dishes. The nutty flavor of grains and the natural taste of mild fruits are very often concealed by the addi- tion of large quantities of sugar. REFERENCES I ABEL. Sugar as Food. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 535. BLAKEY. The United States Sugar Beet Industry. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 445 BROWNE. Handbook of Sugar Analysis. CLASSEN. Beet Sugar Manufacture (translated by Hall and Rolfe). DEERR. Cane Sugar Manufacture. DEERR. Sugar and the Sugar Cane. ELLIS. An Introduction to the History of Sugar as a Commodity. GEERLINGS. Cane Sugar and its Manufacture. GEERLINGS. The World's Cane Sugar Industry, Past and Present. LIPPMANN. Chemie der Zuckerarten. ROGERS and AUBERT. Industrial Chemistry. THORPE. Outlines of Industrial Chemistry. TOLLENS. Handbuch der Kohlenhydrate. WALKER. The Sugar Industry in the Philippine Islands. WARE. Beet Sugar Manufacture and Refining. WICHELHAUS. Der Starkezucker : Chemische und technologisch behandelt. II BROWNE and BLOUIN. The Chemistry of the Sugar Cane and its Products in Louisiana. Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 91 (1907). BROWNE. Chemical Analysis and Composition of American Honeys. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin no (1908). . SY. History, Manufacture, and Analysis of Maple Products. Journal Franklin Institute, Vol. 166, pages 249-280, 321-352, 433-445 (1908). ZERBAN. Investigations on the Use of Sulphur and its Combinations in the Sugar House. Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 103 (1908). COWLES. Suggested Standards for Maple Sugar and Syrup. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. i, pages 773-775 (1909). HORNE. The Sugar Industry and its Relation to the United States. Jour- nal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. i, pages 3-4 (1909). WAGNER. The American Industry of Corn Products. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 28, pages 343-348 (1909). BRYAN. Maple Sap Syrup. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 134 (1910). KAUFMANN. Maize Products and Maize Starch and its Products. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 29, pages 527-531 (1910). Shredded Sugar Cane. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 2, page 558 (1910). 446 FOOD PRODUCTS BROWNE. The Chemistry of Raw Sugar Production. School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. 32, pages 217-234 (1911). BRYAN. Composition of Commercial Glucose and Starch Sugars. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 172, pages 337-342 (1911). HERSTEIN. Centenary of Glucose and Early History of Starch. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 158-168 (1911). HORNE. Sugar Refining. School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. 32, pages 235-243 (1911). KOPPESCHAAR. Requirements of the Beet Sugar Factory as Compared with the Cane Sugar Establishment. International Sugar Journal, Vol. 13, pages 527, 593 (1911). KUSTENMACHER. Chemistry of the Formation of Honey. Biochemisches Zeitschrift, Vol. 30, pages 237-254 (1911). WACHTEL. Development of the Sugar Industry. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 335-339 (1911). Wisconsin Cane Fiber Experiment. Louisiana Planter, Vol. 46, page 39; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 5, page 1205 (1911). BAUER. Effect of Acidity and Time in the Roasting of Dextrins. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 9-14 (1912). BRYAN. Composition of Imported Honeys. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 154 (1912). BRYANT. Composition of Commercial Glucose. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 47-56 (1912). DEERR. Cane Sugar Manufacture in the Hawaiian Islands. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 8, pages 7-12 (1912). DEFREN. Presence of Maltose in Acid Hydrolyzed Starch Products. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 111-112 (1912). HUMPHREYS. The Corn Products Industry. Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 13, pages 189-193 (1912). ROLFE. Notes on Commercial Dextrins. Ibid., Vol. 13, pages 237-245 (191 2). ROLFE. Sugar Manufacture in Porto Rico. Ibid., Vol. 8, pages 59-74 WARREN'and GROVE. Malic Acid in Maple Sugar "Sand." Ibid., Vol. 6, pages 265-271 (1912). BROWNE. Manufacture of Raw Sugar in the Philippine and Hawaiian Islands. School of Mines Quarterly, January, 1913. SUGARS, SIRUPS, AND CONFECTIONERY 447 BROWNE. By-Products of Sugar Manufacture and their Utilization. School of Mines Quarterly, July, 1913. DAVOLL. Technical Accounting and Chemical Control in Sugar Manufac- ture. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 231-234 (1913). BROWNE. The Development of the Sugar Industry. School of Mines Quarterly, April, 1914. SNELL and SCOTT. The Range of Variation of Analytical Values in Genuine Maple Sirup. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, pages 216-222 (1914). SNELL and LOCKHEAD. Composition of Maple Sugar "Sand." Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, pages 301-302 (1914). CHAPTER XII FOOD ADJUNCTS AND UNCLASSIFIED FOOD MATERIALS MANY articles commonly classed as foods are consumed rather for their condimental properties than for nutritive value. In commerce and in food legislation there is usually no attempt to define the boundary between foods and condiments. Thus it will be remembered that the Food and Drugs Act so defines the word food as to cover all articles used as food, drink, con- fection, or condiment. Some of the condiments offer consider- able opportunity for adulteration, and in the enforcement of the pure food laws this group of materials usually receives a large share of attention. Since condiments and other food adjuncts are with few exceptions not of great importance either economically or as factors in the food supply, no attempt will be made to discuss them here in the manner in which the different types of food have been discussed; only brief descriptive statements will be given and in many cases these will be limited to the official definition or standard, since interest centers in the question of adulteration. Salt Salt is prepared in many localities throughout the world, sometimes by mining rock salt, sometimes by pumping brine out of salt wells, sometimes by impounding the water of salt lakes O"P of the ocean and allowing, it to evaporate in the sun, then refining the product by recrystallization. In the United States, salt is produced chiefly by Michigan, 44 8 FOOD ADJUNCTS 449 New York, Kansas, and Ohio, which together furnish about nine tenths of the total output. 1 According to Bailey most of the salts on the market contain from 97 to 99 per cent of sodium chloride. In order to avoid the introduction of impurities which would alter the flavor, careful butter-makers pay much attention to the purity of the salt which they use, and thus the term "dairy salt" has come to signify as high a degree of purity as is usually attempted commercially. An analysis of high grade dairy salt has been given in the account of butter manufacture (page 371). According to the standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists : Table salt, dairy salt, is fine-grained crystalline salt containing, on a water-free basis, not more than 1.4 per cent of calcium sulphate, nor more than 0.5 per cent of calcium and magnesium chloride, nor more than o.i per cent of matters insoluble in water. In order to prevent salt, which is to be exposed to atmospheric conditions on the table, from becoming caked through ab- sorption of moisture, it is sometimes mixed with a small amount of starch or of calcium phosphate. In order to avoid conflict with the standard set by the Official Chemists, salt thus pre- pared should be labeled to show its nature and composition. Spices The spices owe their condimental properties most often, probably, to volatile oils, but also in several cases to other sub- stances, as will be seen from the descriptions which follow. Adulteration of whole spice usually takes the form of abstracting a part of the valuable component, while ground spices are often adulterated by addition of ground hulls (or other fibrous material) or of starchy materials such as flour, and sometimes of mineral 1 Bailey, International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 1903. 2 G 450 FOOD PRODUCTS matter. Where standards have been adopted it will be seen thai: they usually set limits to one or more of these components. Allspice, or pimento, is obtained from an evergreen tree, belonging to the same family with the clove, which is found in the West Indies and is cultivated chiefly in Jamaica. The commercial spice is obtained by drying the berries, which, in order to avoid loss of aroma, are gathered when they have grown to full size but before they are fully ripe. The average percentages of some constituents in samples of pure whole allspice analyzed by Winton, Mitchell, and Ogden at the Connecticut Experiment Station were as follows : PER CENT Moisture 9.78 Total ash 4.47 Ash soluble in water 2.47 Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid .... 0.03 Volatile oil 4.05 Nonvolatile oils and fats 5.84 Alcohol extract n-79 Starch (by diastase method) 3.04 Crude fiber 22.39 Protein (Nitrogen X 6.25) 5.75 Quercitannic acid 9.71 The volatile oil of allspice is similar to that of jcioves and according to Leach is composed of eugenol (CioH^C^) and a hydrocarbon belonging to the sesquiterpenes whose exact chemical constitution has not yet been determined. According to the definition and standard of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists: Allspice, pimento, is the dried fruit of the Pimento, pimento. (L.) Karst., and contains not less than 8 per cent of quercitannic acid, not more than 6 per cent of total ash, not more than 0.5 per cent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 25 per cent of crude fiber. Anise is the fruit of the Pimpinella anisum L. Bay leaf is the dried leaf of Laurus nobilis L. FOOD ADJUNCTS 451 Capers are the flower buds of a shrub, Capparis spinosa L., and are commonly pickled in vinegar. Caraway is the fruit (so-called seed) of Carum carui L., an umbelliferous plant growing chiefly in the northern and central parts of Europe and Asia. The dry caraways yield 3 to 6 per cent of a volatile oil which is said to contain cymene, cymene aldehyde, carvone, and limonene. Cassia is the dried bark of Cinnamonum cassia and some other species of the same genus. Its condimental properties are due to the volatile oil, which may be obtained as such in commerce under the name of oil of cassia, and of which the chief component is cinnamic aldehyde. Cassia buds are the dried immature buds of species of Cinnamonum. Cayenne, or cayenne pepper, is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum baccatum, or some other small fruited species of capsicum, and owes its pungency largely to the pres- ence of a characteristic alkaloid capsicine. Cinnamon in the stricter use of the term (true cinnamon) is the dried inner bark of Cinnamonum zeylanicum (Beyne). Commonly, however, the term cinnamon is applied to the dried bark of any species of Cinnamonum from which the outer layers may or may not have been removed. Cinnamon, like cassia, owes its characteristic properties to a volatile oil of which cin- namic aldehyde is the chief component. Ground cinnamon or ground cassia is a powder consisting of cinnamon, cassia, cassia buds, or a mixture of these. Cloves are the dried flower buds of the clove plant (Caryo- phyllus aromaticus, or Eugenia caryophyllata) which is an ever- green tree growing 20 to 40 feet high and cultivated largely in Brazil, Ceylon, India, Zanzibar, Mauritius, and the West Indies. The average percentages of the more prominent constituents as found by Winton, Ogden, and Mitchell in analysis of eight samples of whole cloves of known purity were as follows : 452 FOOD PRODUCTS PER CENT Moisture * . 7.81 Total ash 5.92 Ash soluble in water 3.58 Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid .... 0.06 Volatile oil 19.18 Nonvolatile oils and fats 6.49 Alcohol extract 14-87 Starch (by diastase method) 2.74 Crude fiber 8.10 Protein (Nitrogen X 6.25) 6.18 Quercitannic acid 18.19 The condimental property of cloves is chiefly due to the volatile oil, which consists mainly of eugenol with smaller quantities of a sesquiterpene known as caryophylene. Probably however the fixed oils and resins and the tannin may also contribute to the characteristic pungency of the clove. According to the standard of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists cloves must contain not more than 5 per cent of clove stems, not less than 10 per cent of volatile oil, not less than 12 per cent of quercitannic acid, not more than 8 per cent of total ash, not more than 0.5 per cent of ash insol- uble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 10 per cent of crude fiber. Coriander is the dried fruit of Coriandrum satiwm L. Cumin seed is the fruit of Cuminum cyminum L. Dill seed is the fruit of Anethum graveolens L. Fennel is the fruit of Foeniculum foeniculum. Ginger is the rhizome or root-stock of Zinziber officinde or Zinziber zinziber, an annual plant growing 3 to 4 feet high, a native of India and China, now cultivated also in tropical America, Africa, and Australia. The'Toot is either washed or peeled (decorticated) then dried and sometimes bleached or sprinkled with carbonate of lime. Preserved ginger is prepared by boiling the root and then treating it with sugar or honey. FOOD ADJUNCTS 453 Ginger is distinguished by high starch content and by its volatile oil and its resinous matter. The latter is most abundant in the outer layers, and so is largely lost when the roots are peeled or decorticated. Winton, Ogden, and Mitchell analyzed 18 samples of whole ginger representing both white and black varieties with the following results : MAXIMUM MINIMUM AVERAGE Moisture Total ash . 11.72 Q. -ze 8.71 1.61 10.44 C 27 Ash soluble in water 4-OQ i.7i 2.71 Ash insoluble in HC1 2. 2O O.O2 O.4.4. Lime (CaO) j. e? 0. 2O 0.80 Volatile oil ?.OO O.Q6 1. 07 Nonvolatile oils and fats C.42 2.82 4. IO Alcohol extract 6.58 .6 5.18 Starch (by diastase method) .... Crude fiber " Protein " (Nitrogen X 6.25) . . . . Cold water extract 60.31 5-5 9- 75 17 5 S 49-05 2-37 4.81 10.92 54-53 3-9i 7-74 11.42 According to the standards of the Official Agricultural Chemists, ginger must contain not less than 42 per cent of starch and not more than 8 per cent of crude fiber, 6 per cent of total ash, i per cent of lime, 3 per cent of ash insoluble in hydro- chloric acid; while limed ("bleached") ginger must contain not over 4 per cent of lime or 10 per cent of total ash and in other respects should conform to the standard for ginger. Horseradish is the root of Roripa armoracia either by itself or ground and mixed with vinegar. Mace is prepared by drying the arillus which surrounds the nutmeg kernel. Mace contains notable quantities of fixed oils and of resinous matter. Its volatile oil resembles that of nut- meg. It contains a considerable amount of carbohydrate, 454 FOOD PRODUCTS which behaves like starch in analysis but gives only a red reaction with iodine and is called an amylodextrin. Four samples of pure Banda or Penang mace examined by Winton, Ogden, and Mitchell gave the following average results : Moisture 11.05 Total ash 2.01 Ash soluble in water 1.13 Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid .... 0.07 Volatile oil . 7.58 Nonvolatile ether extract 22.48 Alcohol extract 23.11 Amylodextrin (as starch by diastase method) . 27.87 Crude fiber 3.20 "Protein" (Nitrogen X 6.25) 6.47 According to the standard of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists mace should contain between 20 and 30 per cent of nonvolatile ether extract and not more than 3 per cent of total ash, 0.5 per cent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, or 10 per cent of crude fiber. Marjoram is the leaf, flower, and branch of Major ana major ana. Mustard seed is the seed of Sinapis alba (white mustard), Brassica nigra (black mustard) , Brassica juncea (black or brown mustard). These are annual plants belonging to the family Crucifera. The seeds contain a considerable proportion of fatty oil of the same general character as rapeseed oil. In preparing the ground spice the seeds are crushed and the hulls are usually separated more or less completely. A part of the fatty oil is then pressed out and the residual mustard cake is broken up and reduced to a fine powder which is the mustard flour of commerce. Winton and Mitchell made partial analyses of 18 samples of commercial mustards, believed to be pure, with the following results : FOOD ADJUNCTS 455 MAXIMUM MINIMUM AVERAGE Total ash Per cent 7 I? Per cent 4 81 Per cent Z OQ Volatile oil I.OO 0.00 0.56 Nonvolatile ether extract 28.10 17.14 20.61 Starch (by diastase method) .... 2.08 0.28 1.07 Crude fiber 4.87 1-58 2.58 "Protein" (Nitrogen X 6.25) .... 43-56 3S-63 39-57 While mustard seeds contain very little volatile oil as such, there are present substances which, under the influence of enzymes also present, readily undergo hydrolysis with formation of volatile oil. Black mustard seed contains sinigrin (potassium myronate, KCioHi6NS 2 O 9 ), a glucoside which splits yielding glucose, potas- sium acid sulphate, and allyl isothiocyanate (C 3 H 5 CNS). The last named is called " mustard oil " and is a volatile oily liquid of very strong odor and capable of forming blisters when dropped on the skin. White mustard contains a different glucoside, sinalbin, CjoHttNjSsOu. This substance undergoes hydrolysis in a manner analogous to sinigrin, and when thus hydrolyzed yields glucose, sinapin acid sulphate (CieH^NOsHSO^, and sinalbin mustard oil (CyHyONCS). The latter resembles the volatile oil from black mustard (allyl isothiocyanate) in pungency. According to the standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists : Ground mustard is a powder made from mustard seed, with or without the removal of the hulls and a portion of the fixed oil, and contains not more than 2.5 per cent of starch and not more than 8 per cent of total ash ; prepared mustard, German mustard, French mustard, mustard paste, is a mixture of ground mustard seed or mustard flour with salt, spices and vinegar, and contains in the material other than water, 456 FOOD PRODUCTS fat, and salt, at least 35 per cent of protein and not over 12 per cent of crude fiber. Nutmeg is the dried seed of the Myristica fragrans, a tree native to the Malay archipelago, which somewhat resembles the orange tree in appearance. The nutmegs are prepared for commerce by drying, usually after washing in limewater, or are powdered with air-slaked lime after drying. Winton, Ogden, and Mitchel analyzed 4 samples of nutmeg of known purity with the following maximum and minimum results : MAXIMUM MINIMUM Moisture Per cent 10.83 Per cent C.7Q Total ash 3.26 2.13. Ash soluble in water i.j.6 0.82 Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid . . . Volatile oil Nonvolatile ether extract O.OI 6.94 36 O4. 0.00 2.56 28.71 Alcohol extract 17. 38 IO 4.2 Starch (by diastase method) .... Crude fiber 24.2O 7 72 14.62 2.l8 "Protein" (Nitrogen X 6.25) .... 7-OO 6.56 As standardized by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, nutmeg should contain not less than 25 per cent of nonvolatile ether extract, not more than 5 per cent of total ash nor more than 0.5 per cent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 10 per cent of crude fiber. Paprika is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum annuum, or some other large fruited species of Capsicum, excluding seeds and stems. Pepper is the berry of a climbing plant (Piper nigrum) which is cultivated in tropical countries. Black pepper is ob- FOOD ADJUNCTS 457 tained by picking the berries while immature ; white pepper, by allowing the berries to ripen and become more starchy. The condimental properties are attributed chiefly to the volatile oil, a hydrocarbon of the formula CioHi 6 , and the nitrogenous bases piperidine and piperine. Piperine is extracted by ether and may be estimated approximately by multiplying the nitrogen of the nonvolatile ether extract by the factor 20.46. Analyses by Winton, Ogden, and Mitchel, and by Winton and Bailey, covering 20 samples of black and 10 samples of white pepper, and representing the leading varieties imported into the United States, gave the following average results : BLACK PEPPER WHITE PEPPER Moisture Per cent 11.86 Percent 1-2.47 Total ash ?.IO 1.77 Ash soluble in water 2.60 O.47 Ash insoluble in HC1 0. 7O O. IO Volatile oil 1.28 0.77 Nonvolatile ether extract 8.4.1 6.91 Alcohol extract Q.A.A 7.66 Starch (by diastase method) . . . . . 57.28 ^6.4.7 Crude fiber 13.62 2.14. Total nitrogen 2,'2< 2. 04. Nitrogen in nonvolatile ether extract .... " Protein " (Nitrogen other than that of ether extract X 6.25) o-33 "93 0.30 10.89 To meet the standards of the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists : Black pepper must contain not less than 6 per cent of nonvolatile ether extract, not less than 25 per cent of starch, not more than 7 per cent of total ash, not more than 2 per cent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 15 per cent of crude fiber, and 100 parts of the nonvolatile ether extract must contain not less than 3.25 parts of nitrogen ; 458 FOOD PRODUCTS white pepper must contain not less than 6 per cent of non- volatile ether extract, not less than 50 per cent of starch, not more than 4 per cent of total ash, not more than 0.5 per cent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 5 per cent of crude fiber, and 100 parts of nonvolatile ether extract must contain not less than 4 parts of nitrogen. Saffron is the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L. Sage is the leaf of Salma qfficinalis L. Savory, summer savory, is the leaf, blossom, and branch of Satureja hortensis L. Thyme is the leaf and tip of blooming branches of Thymus vulgaris L. Flavoring Extracts A large number of flavoring extracts are available in the market, the extracts of vanilla and of lemon being most commonly used. Vanilla extract is made from the vanilla bean, the fruit of a climbing vine, Vanilla planifolia, which belongs botanically to the orchids and is indigenous to tropical America. The vanilla beans grown in Mexico are considered the finest. When the pods turn brown they are gathered and allowed to under- go a process of fermentation which develops the characteristic aroma. The beans are then dried for market and the commercial extract is made by cutting them up and soaking them in alcohol, usually with addition of sugar. The odor of vanilla and vanilla extracts is due chiefly to vanillin (C 8 H 8 O 3 ). Lemon extract is made by soaking lemon peel in strong alcohol and owes its flavor chiefly to the volatile oil of the lemon peel, of which the chief component is citral (CioHi 6 O). Adulteration of flavoring extracts usually takes the form either of substituting artificial or inferior substances or of making the extract unjustifiably dilute. The question of the proper concentration must necessarily be fixed somewhat arbi- FOOD ADJUNCTS 459 trarily. The limits fixed by the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists have usually been upheld by the courts. The definitions and standards for flavoring extracts as adopted by that Association are as follows : 1 . A flavoring extract x is a solution in ethyl alcohol of proper strength of the sapid and odorous principles derived from an aromatic plant, or parts of the plant, with or without its coloring matter, and conforms in name to the plant used in its preparation. 2. Almond extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of bitter almonds, free from hydrocyanic acid, and contains not less than one (i) per cent by volume of oil of bitter almonds. 20. Oil of bitter almonds, commercial, is the volatile oil obtained from the seed of the bitter almond (Amygdalus communis L.), the apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), or the peach (Amygdalus persicaL,.). 3. Anise extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of anise and contains not less than three (3) per cent by volume of oil of anise. 3<2 | p H H Per Per Per Per Per Per Col. cent cent cent cent cen< cen/ Soups, homemade Beef soup 2 O2 O 4 4 A I.I 1.2 116 Bean soup I g ' 32 . ^ T- 1.4 0.4 1.7 286 Clam chowder 2 88.7 1.8 .8 6.7 / 2.O 187 Meat stew I 84."; 4.6 4.7 , " / c.c I.I ***f 7 CO Soups, canned o *-"T*O *T" " *t"O JO O JV Asparagus, cream of .... I 87.4 2-S 3-2 5-5 1.4 276 Bouillon .... 7 96.6 2.2 .1 .2 o 47 Celery cream of .... o I 88.6 2.1 2.8 y i.c *r / Chicken gumbo 2 89.2 3.8 .0 4.7 A O 1.4 IQI Chicken soup 2 93-8 1.6 y .1 ^* / i.e **t I.O y 0-' Consomm6 I VO* W ' O6.O o 2.C j 4 I.I 3 ;/ J 464 FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE 53. COMPOSITION OF UNCLASSIFIED FOOD MATERIALS Continued DESCRIPTION NUMBER or ANALYSES REFUSE WATER PROTEIN (NX 6.25) H h TOTAL CARBOHY- DRATES w ai g go 3 > p ^ g b Per Per Per Per Per Per Cal cent cent cent cent cent cent Soups, canned Corn cream of ..... I 868 2 C 7 8 I O 2b< Julienne I QC O 2 1 r o s7 Mock turtle 2 89 8 52 2 8 i i 18? Mulligatawny 2 80 ? 37 r 7 I 2 I7C Oxtail : Edible portion .... 2 88 8 i ? A. 1 6 2 O4 As purchased .... I I 8 87 8 -, g e 42 Q 1 66 Pea soup 869 i 6 7 76 2 2T.2 Pea, cream of green . . . . I 87.7 2.6 2.7 5-7 3 26l Tomato soup 2 no o i 8 I I e 6 r 170 Turtle green I 866 6 i I O 1 Q c 2 CO Vegetable I nc 7 2 O e Q 62 Miscellaneous Mincemeat, commercial . . 3 27.7 6.7 1.4 6o.2 4.0 1271 Mincemeat, homemade . . . 3 54-4 4.8 6.7 32.1 2.O 943 Salad, ham, as purchased . . i 69.4 15-4 7-6 5-6 2.0 691 Sandwich, egg, as purchased i 41.4 9.6 12.7 34-5 1.8 1319 Sandwich, chicken, as pur- chased i 48.1; 12.3 e.4 32.1 1.7 1026 Cereal coffee infusion (i part boiled in 20 parts water) ' 5 98.2 0.2 i-4 O.2 29 Yeast, compressed, as purchased i 65-1 II.7 2I.O 1.8 610 1 The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is: Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however',.enter into the infusion. The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the cereal coffee infusion. Infusions of eenuine coffee and of tea contain practically no nutrients. FOOD ADJUNCTS 465 These three materials so largely used in making beverages are alike in having a certain stimulating property due to alkaloid and so are often discussed together. Tea consists of the prepared leaves and leaf buds of the tea bush belonging to different species of Thea, chiefly TheaChinensis. The choicest teas are made from young leaves only, the Chinese teas being classified according to the position of the leaf on the young shoot. Thus the very highest quality of tea (not to be found in ordinary trade) is the pekoe tip or flowery pekoe, made of the leaf buds at the very end of the twig ; the leaf next this bud, that is, the youngest leaf which has opened, makes the orange pekoe; the next older leaf, the pekoe; the third leaf the souchong first, and so on through several grades. The difference between green and black teas is due to the mode of preparation. Green tea is made by steaming and drying the leaves while fresh, while black tea is prepared by allowing the leaves to undergo an oxidative fermentation which darkens their color. More than half the tea consumed in the United States comes from China, most of the remainder from Japan, smaller quanti- ties from India, Ceylon, and the East Indies, and about one part in ten thousand of what we use is grown in South Carolina. A special law governs the importation of tea into the United States, and each shipment must be tested and found to comply with the standard of the grade claimed for it before it is allowed to pass through the custom house. So little of the tea enters the infusion which is consumed that it seems unnecessary for the purposes of this book to quote analyses of the tea leaf. The stimulating property of the infusion is attributed to the alkaloid first called theine and later found to be identical with caffeine, the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. This alkaloid is chemically a tri-methyl-xanthine, C 8 Hi N4O 2 , belonging to 2 H 466 FOOD PRODUCTS the same group of substances with xanthine and hypoxanthine of meat extract. The flavor of tea is also influenced by the tannin, and probably by the small amount of volatile oil which it contains. Co fee is the seed of Cojfea arabica or Co/ea liber ica. It was originally grown in Africa and Arabia, and afterward introduced into the East and West Indies and tropical America. It is estimated that at present Brazil furnishes over half the world's supply of coffee and nearly three fourths of that consumed in the United States. The constituents of chief importance in coffee are the alkaloid caffeine which has just been described as occurring in tea, the caffetannic acid (Ci 5 Hi 8 O 8 ), and the volatile oil known as caffeol (CsHioC^) to which the characteristic flavor and aroma of coffee are chiefly attributed. Cocoa in addition to the stimulating property due to the alkaloid theobromine (CyHgN^), and the flavor which makes it popular both as a beverage and in confectionery, has a con- siderable food value. A brief description of the chief cocoa products was given in the last chapter (page 436). Other Beverages Fruit juices, sometimes classed as beverages, are about equally entitled to recognition as foods with the fruits from which they are obtained. The fruits used commercially for this purpose are in most cases so juicy that what has been said of fruits as food in Chapter IX applies almost equally to the fresh fruit or its unfermented juice. Several analyses of fruit juices and references to the literature regarding them will be found in pages 335-365. It seems therefore unnecessary to discuss them separately here. Wines have received much attention both from the standpoint of their place in the diet and in connection with pure food legislation. A discussion of the former topic would lead much FOOD ADJUNCTS 467 beyond the scope of this work ; regarding the latter it will be sufficient to give the definitions and standards of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, which are as follows : 1 . Wine is the product made by the normal alcoholic fermentation of the juice of sound, ripe grapes, and the usual cellar treatment, 1 and contains not less than seven (7) nor more than sixteen (16) per cent of alcohol, by volume, and, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20 C.), not more than one tenth (o.i) gram of sodium chlorid nor more than two tenths (0.2) gram of potassium sulphate; and for red wine not more than fourteen hundredths (0.14) gram, and for white wine not more than twelve hundredths (0.12) gram of volatile acids produced by fermentation and calculated as acetic acid. Red wine is wine containing the red coloring matter .of the skins of grapes. White wine is wine made from white grapes or the expressed fresh juice of other grapes. 2. Dry wine is wine in which the fermentation of the sugars is practically complete and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20 C.) less than one (i) gram of sugars and for dry red wine not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of grape ash and not less than one and six tenths (1.6) grams of sugar-free grape solids, and for dry white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of grape ash and not less than one and four tenths (1.4) grams of sugar-free grape solids. 3. Fortified dry wine is dry wine to which brandy has been added but which conforms in all other particulars to the standard of dry wine. 4. Sweet wine is wine in which the alcoholic fermentation has been ar- rested, and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20 C.) not less than one (i) gram of sugars, and for sweet red wine not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of grape ash, and for sweet white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of grape ash. 5. Fortified sweet wine is sweet wine to which wine spirits have been added. By act of Congress, " sweet wine " used for making fortified sweet wine and " wine spirits " used for such fortification are defined as follows (sec. 43, Act of October i, 1890, 26 Stat., 567, as amended by section 68, Act of August 27, 1894, 28 Stat., 509, and further amended by Act of Congress approved June 7, 1906) : " That the wine spirits mentioned in section 42 of this act is the product resulting from the distillation of fermented grape juice to which water may have been added prior to, during, or after fermenta- tion, for the sole purpose of facilitating the fermentation and economical distillation thereof, and shall be held to include the products from grapes or 1 The subject of sulphurous acid in wine was reserved for future consideration. 468 FOOD PRODUCTS their residues, commonly known as grape brandy ; and the pure sweet wine, which may be fortified free of tax, as provided in said section, is fermented grape juice only, and shall contain no other substance whatever introduced before, at the time of, or after fermentation, except as herein expressly provided ; and such sweet wine shall contain not less than four per centum of saccharine matter, which saccharine strength may be determined by testing with Balling's saccharometer or must scale, such sweet wine, after the evaporation of the spirits contained therein, and restoring the sample tested to original volume by addition of water : Provided, That the addition of pure boiled or condensed grape must or pure crystallized cane or beet sugar or pure anhydrous sugar to the pure grape juice aforesaid, or the fermented product of such grape juice prior to the fortification provided by this Act for the sole purpose of perfecting sweet wine according to commercial stand- ard, or the addition of water in such quantities only as may be necessary in the mechanical operation of grape conveyers, crushers, and pipes leading to fermenting tanks, shall not be excluded by the definition of pure sweet wine aforesaid : Provided, however, That the cane or beet sugar, or pure anhydrous sugar, or water, so used shall not in either case be in excess of ten (10) per centum of the weight of the wine to be fortified under this Act : A nd pro- vided further , That the addition of water herein authorized shall be under such regulations and limitations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may from time to time pre- scribe ; but in no case shall such wines to which water has been added be eligible for fortification under the provisions of this Act where the same, after fermentation and before fortification, have an alcoholic strength of less than five per centum of their volume." 6. Sparkling wine is wine in which the after part of the fermentation is completed in the bottle, the sediment being disgorged and its place supplied by wine or sugar liquor, and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20 C.), not less than twelve hundredths (0.12) gram of grape ash. 7. Modified wine, ameliorated wine, corrected wine, is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation, with the usual cellar treatment, of a mixture of the juice of sound, ripe grapes with sugar (sucrose), or a sirup containing not less than sixty-five (65) per cent of sugar (sucrose), and in quantity not more than enough to raise the alcoholic strength after fermentation, to eleven (n) per cent by volume. 8. Raisin wine is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of an infusion of dried or evaporated grapes, or of a mixture of such infusion or of raisins with grape juice. FOOD ADJUNCTS 469 Brandy is spirit obtained by the distillation of wine. It usually contains from 40 to 50 per cent of alcohol. Gin is a distilled spirit flavored with volatile oil of juniper and sometimes other aromatic substances. It usually contains 30 to 45 per cent of alcohol. Rum is made by distillation of the product obtained by fer- mentation of cane sugar molasses as described in connection with the sugar industry (page 428). It contains about 50 per cent of alcohol. Cordials are made by steeping fruits or aromatic herbs in brandy or neutral spirit and distilling the product. Absinthe is a cordial made by distilling an infusion of wormwood and therefore contains oil of wormwood on account of which it has been forbidden importation into the United States as adulterated under. the Food and Drugs Act inasmuch as it contains an " added poisonous or deleterious substance." Malt liquor has been denned as a beverage made by the alcoholic fermentation of an infusion of barley malt and hops, with or without unmalted grains. Whether the term beer should be used in a similar broad sense or be more closely denned has been much discussed but not officially determined. Beer ordi- narily contains 3.5 to 4 per cent of alcohol. Low alcohol beers are being manufactured to an increasing extent to meet the demand for a temperance drink having a beer flavor. In some parts of the United States the sale of ordinary alcoholic beverages is prohibited or severely restricted while those of alcohol content below a specified limit (often 2 per cent) are not subject to the prohibition or restriction. In some countries of Europe ordinary beer is taxed while beer of alcohol content less than 2.25 per cent is tax-free. Whisky is distilled spirit made from grain, colored and flavored by storage in charred barrels or by addition of caramel and suitable flavor. It usually contains from 40 to 50 per cent of alcohol. 470 FOOD PRODUCTS Vinegar The term vinegar, originally implying a product made from wine, has now come to be used much more broadly. The kinds of vinegar recognized officially in the United States are shown by the following definitions and explanation taken from Food Inspection Decision 140 issued February 27, 1912 : Vinegar, cider vinegar, apple vinegar, is the product made from the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the ex- pressed juice of apples. Wine vinegar, grape vinegar, is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes. Malt vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subse- quent acetous fermentations, without distillation, of an infusion of barley malt or cereals whose starch has been converted by malt. Sugar vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subse- quent acetous fermentations of solutions of sugar, sirup, molasses, or refiner's sirup. Glucose vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and sub- sequent acetous fermentations of solutions of starch sugar or glucose. Spirit vinegar, distilled vinegar, grain vinegar, is the product made by the acetous fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol. Several questions regarding these definitions have been raised and after investigation the board has reached the following conclusions : Meaning of the term " vinegar." While the term " vinegar " in its etymological significance suggests only sour wine, it has come to have a broader significance in English-speaking countries. In the United States it has lost entirely its original meaning and when used without a qualifying w r ord designates only the product secured by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentation of apple juice. FOOD ADJUNCTS 471 " Second pressings" It is held that the number of pressings used in preparing the juice is immaterial so long as the pomace is fresh and not decomposed. The practice of allowing the pomace from the presses to stand in piles or in vats for a number of days, during which time it becomes heated and decomposed, and then pressing, securing what is ordinarily called " second pressing," in the opinion of the board produces a product which consists in whole or in part of a filthy and decomposed material and is therefore adulterated. Vinegar from dried-apple products. The product made from dried-apple skins, cores, and chops, by the process of soaking, with subsequent alcoholic and acetous fermentations of the solution thus obtained, is not entitled to be called vinegar with- out further designation, but must be plainly marked to show the material from which it is produced. The dried stock from which this product is prepared must be clean and made from sound material. Addition of water. When natural vinegars made from cider, wine, or the juice of other fruits are diluted with water, the label must plainly indicate this fact; as, for example, "diluted to per cent acid strength." When water is added to pomace in the process of manufacture, the fact that the product is diluted must be plainly shown on the label in a similar manner. Dilu- tion of vinegar naturally reduces, not only the acid strength, but the amount of other ingredients in proportion to the dilution, so that reduced vinegars will not comply with the analytical constants for undiluted products; but the relations existing between these various ingredients will remain the same. Diluted vinegars must have an acid strength of at least 4 grams acetic acid per 100 cubic centimeters. Mixtures of vinegars. As different kinds of vinegar differ in source, flavor, and chemical composition, mixtures thereof are compounds within the meaning of the Food and Drugs Act, and if they contain no added poisonous or other added deleterious 472 FOOD PRODUCTS ingredients, will not be held to be misbranded if plainly labeled with the word " compound," together with the names and proportions of the various ingredients. Addition of boiled cider and coloring matter. The Food and Drugs Act provides that a product shall be deemed to be adul- terated if it be mixed, colored, powdered, coated, or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed; and, in the opinion of the board, the addition of coloring matters, boiled cider, etc., to. vinegar, wine vinegar, and the other types of vinegar, or mixtures thereof, is for the purpose of concealing damage or inferiority or producing an imitation product. In the first instance, the use of such products is an adulteration and therefore prohibited. Products artifically colored or flavored with harmless ingredients in imitation of some particular kind of vinegar will not be held to be misbranded if plainly labeled " Imitation vinegar " in accordance with the provisions of the law. Mixture of distilled and sugar vinegars. The product prepared by submitting to acetous fermentation a mixture of dilute alcohol (obtained, for example, from molasses by -alcoholic fermentation and subsequent distillation) and dilute molasses, which has undergone alcoholic fermentation, is not " molasses vinegar " but a compound of distilled vinegar and molasses vinegar; such mixtures, however, must contain a substantial amount of molasses vinegar and not a small amount for the purpose of coloring the distilled vinegar. The molasses used must be fit for food purposes and free from any added deleterious substances. Acetic acid diluted. The product made by diluting acetic acid is not vinegar and when intended for food purposes must be free f/om harmful impurities and sold under its own name. Product obtained by distilling wood. The impure product made by the destructive distillation of wood, known as " pyroligneous acid," is not vinegar nor suitable for food purposes. FOOD ADJUNCTS 473 Acid strength. All of the products described above should contain not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid per one hun- dred (100) cubic centimeters. In addition to the requirement of 4 grams of acetic acid to loo cc. in each case the full standards prescribe in the cases of several vinegars certain limits of solids, ash, alkalinity of ash, etc., designed to facilitate the identification of the vinegar as to its source and the judgment as to whether it is wholly genuine and true to name. REFERENCES I ALLEN. Commercial Organic Analysis. BAILEY. Source, Chemistry, and Use of Food Products. FREEMAN and CHANDLER. The World's Commercial Products. FRIEDENWALD and RUHRAH. Diet in He'alth and Disease. GILDEMEISTER and HOFFMANN (translated by Kremers). The Volatile Oils. HARTWICH. Die Menschlichen Genussmittel. HUTCHINSON. Food and Dietetics. KONIG. Chemie der Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. PARRY. Foods and Drugs. ROGERS and AUBERT. Industrial Chemistry. THOMPSON. Practical Dietetics. WHYMPER. Cocoa and Chocolate. WINTON. Microscopy of Vegetable Foods. II Spices and Flavoring Extracts RICHARDSON. Spices and Condiments. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 13, Part 2 (1887). WINTON el al. Analyses of Spices. Connecticut Experiment Station reports, 1896 et seq. LEACH. Composition and Adulteration of Ground Mustard. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 26, pages 1203-1210 (1904). STILLWELL. Analyses of Spanish Paprika. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 28, pages 1603-1605 (1906). 474 FOOD PRODUCTS SPRINKELMEYER and FURSTENBERG. On Spices. Zeitschrift fiir Unter- suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 12, pages 652-658 (1906). DOOLITTLE and OGDEN. Composition of Known Samples of Paprika. Jour- nal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30, pages 1481-1486 (1908). CHACE. The Manufacture of Oil of Lemon and Citrate of Lime in Sicily. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. i, pages 18-27 (1909). LOVVENSTEIN and DUNNE. Spanish Paprika. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 2, pages 139-142 (1910). HOFFMAN and EVANS. Use of Spices as Preservatives. Journal of Indus- trial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, pages 835-838 (1911). RIPPETOE and WISE. The Preservative Action of Essential Oils. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Vol. i, pages 1273-1282 (1912). SINDALL. Commercial Cinnamon and Cassia. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 4, pages 590-591 (1912). WINTON and BERRY. Chemical Composition of Authentic Vanilla Ex- tracts. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 152, page 146 (1912). COCHRAN and PERKINS. The Comparative Value of Some Essential Oils as Preservatives of Cane Sugar Solutions and Starch Sirups. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, pages 304-306, 306- 307 (1914)- McGiLL. Mustard. Canada Inland Revenue Laboratory, Bulletin 271 (1913)- MICRO. Food Condiments and Bouillon Cubes. Zeitschrift fiir Unter- suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 26, pages 321-339 (1913). TOLMAN and MITCHELL. Composition of Different Varieties of Red Peppers. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 747-751 (1913)- WOLFRUM and PINNOW. Lemon Extract. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 26, pages 409-422 (1913). Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa SPENCER. Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations. United States Depart- menkof Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 13, Part 7 (1892). Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture Reports for 1897 and 1898. WINTON et al. Connecticut Experiment Station Reports for 1902 and 1903. FOOD ADJUNCTS 475 DAVIES and McLELLAN. Amount of Cocoa Butter contained in the Cocoa Bean. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 23, page 480 (1904). DUCHACEK. Chemical Composition of Coffee and Coffee Substitutes. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 8, pages 139-146 (1904). LUHRIG. Cocoa Shells. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 9, pages 263-267 (1905). SHIVER. Tea Industry in South Carolina. South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 96 (1905). NEUMANN. Nutritive Value of Cocoa. Archiv fiir Hygiene, Vol. 60, pages 175-190 (1907). BOHME. Fat Content of Cocoa Products and its Control by the Manufac- turer. Chemiker Zeitung, Vol. 32, pages 97-99, 110-112 (1908). ANDERSON. The Factors that Constitute Values in Teas. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 28, pages 285-288 (1909). BOOTH, CRIBB, and RICHARDS. Composition and Analysis of Chocolate. The Analyst, Vol. 34, pages 134-148 (1909). FARNSTEINER. Detection of the Processes used in making so-called Soluble Cocoa. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 16, pages 625-647 (1909). NICE. Effects of Alcohol, Nicotine, and Caffeine on White Mice. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 14, pages 123-151 (1911). SOLLMANN and PILCHER. Influence of Caffeine on the Mammalian Circula- tion. Journal of Experimental Pharmacology, Vol. 3, pages 19-48, 48-51, 51-64, 64-66, 66-93 (iQi i)- CHANDLER and McEwAN. Tea : Its Cultivation, Manufacture and Com- merce. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. n, pages 25 2-319 (191 2). EDER. Action of Coffee on the Activity of the Stomachs of Ruminants. Inaugural Dissertation, Giessen, 1912. HALLINGWORTH. Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor Efficiency. New York: The Science Press, 1912. SALANT. The Toxicity of Caffeine. United States Department of Agricul- ture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 148 (1912). TAYLOR. Effects of Coffee Drinking upon Children. Psychological Clinic, Vol. 6, pages 56-58 (1912). BAINBRIDGE and DAVIES. The Essential Oil of Cocoa. Journal of the Chemical Society (London), Vol. 101, pages 2209-2221 (1912). READ. Detection of Artificial Color in Tea. Original Communications 8th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 301- 303 (1912). 476 FOOD PRODUCTS SALANT and RIEGER. Elimination and Toxicity of Caffeine in Nephrecto- mized Rabbits. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 166 (1913). SAWAMURA. Manufacture of Tea. Original Communications 8th Inter- national Congress of Applied Chemistry, Vol. 18, pages 313-322 (1912). Importation and Inspection of Tea under Act of March 2, 1897. United States Treasury Department, T. D. 33211 (1913). BURMANN. Chemical and Physiological Investigation of the Noxious Prin- ciples of Roasted Coffee. Bulletin ggnerale Therapeutique, Vol. 166, pages 379-400 (1914)- DAEPMANN. Malt Coffee. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 27, pages 45 3-466 (1914). SALANT and RIEGER. Influence of Caffeine on the Elimination of Creatine and Creatinine. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 33, pages 186- 203 (1914). SCHULTE. The Methods of Tea, Cocoa, Coffee and Tobacco Fermentations. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 27, pages 209-225 (1914). Other Beverages ALLEN. The Chemistry of Whiskey and Allied Products. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 10, pages 305-314 (1891). PARSONS. The Identification and Composition of Malt Liquors. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 24, pages 1170-1178 (1902). BROWNE. Effects of Fermentation upon the Composition of Cider and Vinegar. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 25, pages 16-33 (1903). CRAPTON and TOLMAN. Changes taking Place in Whiskey Stored in Wood. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30, pages 98-136 (1908). MEZGER. Alcohol-free Beverages. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 15, pages 14-19 (1908). BARNARD. Temperance Beers. Indiana State Board of Health, Bulletin 12, pages 95-96 (1909). ADAMS. The Distillation of Whiskey. Journal of Industrial and Engineer- ing Chemistry, Vol. 2, pages 34-42 (1910). MICKO. Rum, Brandy, Arrak, Cognac. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 19, pages 305-322 (1910). BAKER and DAY. Chemical Behavior and Preservative Action of Sulphites in Beer. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, Vol. 17, pages 465-477 (1911). BIOLETTI. The Principles of Wine-Making. California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 213 (1911). FOOD ADJUNCTS 477 CHAPMAN. The Industry of Brewing. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Vol. 30, pages 463-469 (1911). LINTNER. The Flavoring and Aromatic Constituents of Beer. Zeitschrift fur das gesammte Brauwesen, Vol. 34, pages 586-589, 601-603 (1911). YOUNG and SHERWOOD. Effect of the Environment of Carbonated Bever- ages on Bacteria. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 3, page 495 (1911). GIBBS and AGCOILI. Philippine Fermented Beverages. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 7, pages 97-119 (1912). BORAGIOLA and BOLLER. So-called Alcohol-free Wines of Commerce. Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. 26, pages 369-408 (1913). KICKTON and MURDFIELD. The Production, Composition and Judging of Port Wine. Ibid., Vol. 25, pages 625-675 (1913). GRUNHUT. The Standardization and Certification of Wines. Ibid., Vol. 26, pages 498-535, 546-557 (iQ^)- KULISCH. Malt Wines. Ibid., Vol. 26, pages 705-727 (1913). KICKTON and MURDFIELD. Wines of the Type of Port Wine. Ibid., Vol. 27, pages 617-676 (1914). Vinegar BROWNE. Effects of Fermentation upon the Composition of Cider and Vinegar. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 25, pages 16-33 (1903)- LEACH and LYTHGOE. Cider Vinegar and Suggested Standards of Purity. Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 26, pages 375-382 (1904). VAN SLYKE. A Study of the Chemistry of Homemade Cider Vinegar. New York Agricultural Experiment Station (Geneva, N. Y.), Bulletin 258 (1904). WOODMAN and SHINGLER. Composition of American Malt Vinegar. Technology Quarterly, Vol. 19, pages 404-47 (1907). BALCOM. Reports on Vinegar. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 132, page 93, and Bulletin 137, page 57 (1910-1911). BENDER. Report on Vinegar. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 152, pages 125-127 (1913). TOLMAN and GOODNOW. Composition of Cider Vinegars made by the Generator Process. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, pages 928 -933 (1913). WtisTENFELD and FOEHR. Tables for the Determination of Yields in Vinegar Manufactories. Deutsches Essigindustrie, Vol. 16, pages 361-362, 375-376 APPENDIX A RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT INTRODUCTION UNDER date of October 17, 1906, forty rules and regulations for the enforce- ment of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, were adopted by the three Secretaries. Since that date eight regulations, Nos. 3, 5, 9, 15, 17, 19, 28, and 34, have been amended, the first named by F. I. D. 79, " Collection of Samples," approved by Secretary Wilson of the Department of Agriculture, Secretary Cortelyou of the Treasury Department, and Secretary Straus of the Department of Commerce and Labor, No. 5 by F. I. D. 130, " Amendment to Regulation 5, Hearings," No. 9 by F. I. D. 99, " Change in Form of Guaranty Legend," No. 15 to accord with F. I. D. 104 on Benzoate of Soda and Nos. 135, 138, and 142 on Saccharin, Nos. 17 and 19 by F. I. D. 84, " Label " and " Character of Name," No. 28 by F. I. D. 112, on " Labeling of Derivatives," and No. 34 by F. I. D. 93, " Denaturing," all over the signa- tures of the Secretaries of Agriculture, the Treasury, and Commerce and Labor, with the exception of F. I. D. 142, from which the Secretary of the Treasury dissented. Regulation 2, Original Unbroken Package, has been interpreted by F. I. D. 86, and Regulation 9, Form of Guaranty, by F. I. D. 83, the latter an opinion rendered by the Attorney General on the issue of a guaranty based upon a guaranty. In accordance with Regulation 15, Wholesomeness of Colors and Preserva- tives, F. I. D. 76, on Dyes, Chemicals, and Preservatives in Foods, F. I. D. 89, Relating to the Use in Foods of Benzoate of Soda and Sulphur Dioxid. F. I. D. 92, on the Use of Copper Salts, and F. I. D. 102, amending F. I. D. 92, have been issued over the signatures of the three Secretaries, constituting decisions on these points pending the completion of investigations and the issuance of final regulations governing the use of such substances. F. I. D. 104 constitutes the final decision on the use of benzoate of soda in foods, and allows such use; F. I. D. 135, 138, and 142, constitute the final decision on the use of saccharin in food and prohibit such use after April i, 1912. 479 480 FOOD PRODUCTS With the exception of these amendments and amplifications the regula- tions as originally issued remain unchanged, and no additional rules have been adopted, the revision issued under this date incorporating the changes enumerated, together with the amendments to section 8 of the food and drugs act. D. F. HOUSTON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., March 21, 1913. RULES AND REGULATIONS AS AMENDED GENERAL Regulation i. Short Title of the Act The act, " For preventing the manufacture, sale, or trans- portation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes," approved June 30, 1906, shall be known and referred to as " The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906." Regulation 2. Original Unbroken Package [See also F. I. D. 86 for interpretation of this regulation.] (Section 2.) The term " original unbroken package " as used in this act is the original package, carton, case, can, box, barrel, bottle, phial, or other receptacle put up by the manufacturer, to which the label is attached, or which may be suitable for the attach- ment of a label, making one complete package of the food or drug article. The original package contemplated includes both the wholesale and the retail package. Regulation 3. Collection of Samples [As amended by F. I. D. 79, October 8, 1907, to take effect November I, 1907.] (Section 4.) Samples of unbroken packages shall be collected only by authorized agents of the Department of Agriculture, or by the health, food, or drug officer of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, when commissioned by the Secretary of Agriculture for this purpose. APPENDIX A 481 Samples may be purchased in the open market, and, if in bulk, the marks, brands, or tags upon the package, carton, container, wrapper, or accompanying printed or written matter shall be noted. The collector shall also note the names of the vendor and agent through whom the sale was actually made, together with the date of the purchase. The collectors shall purchase representative samples. A sample taken from bulk goods shall be divided into three parts, and each shall be labeled with the identifying marks. If a package be less than 4 pounds, or in volume less than 2 quarts, three packages shall be purchased, when practicable, and the marks and tags upon each noted as above. When three samples are purchased, one sample shall be delivered to the Bureau of Chemistry or to such chemist or examiner as may be designated by the Secretary of Agriculture; the second and third samples shall be held under seal by the Secretary of Agri- culture, who, upon request, shall deliver one of such samples to the party from whom purchased or to the party guaranteeing such merchandise. When it is impracticable to collect three samples, or to divide . the sample or samples, the order of delivery outlined above shall obtain, and in case there is a second sample the Secretary of Agriculture may, at his discretion, deliver such sample to parties interested. All samples shall be sealed by the collector with a seal pro- vided for the purpose. Regulation 4. Methods of Analysis (Section 4.) Unless otherwise directed by the Secretary of Agriculture, the methods of analysis employed shall be those prescribed by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists and the United States Pharmacopoeia. 482 FOOD PRODUCTS Regulation 5. Hearings [As amended by F. I. D. 130, January 18, 1911.] (Section 4.) (a) When the examination or analysis shows that samples are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act notice of that fact shall be given in every case to the party or parties against whom prosecution lies under this act for the shipment or manufacture or sale of the particular product and such other interested parties as the Secretary of Agriculture may direct, and a date shall be fixed at which such party or parties may be heard before the Secretary of Agriculture or such other person as he may direct. The hearings shall be had at places designated by the Secretary of Agriculture most convenient for all parties concerned. These hearings shall be private and confined to questions of fact. The parties interested therein may appear in person or by attorney and may submit oral or written evidence to show any fault or error in the findings of the analyst or examiner. Interested parties may present proper interrogatories to analysts, to be submitted to and pro- pounded by the Secretary of Agriculture or the officer conducting the hearing. Such privilege, however, shall not include the right of cross-examination. The Secretary of Agriculture may order a reexamination of the sample or have new samples drawn for further examination. (ft) If, after hearings held, it appears that a violation of the act has been committed, the Secretary of Agriculture shall give notice to the proper United States attorney. (c) Any health, food, or drug officer or agent of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia who shall obtain satis- factory, evidence of any violation of the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, as provided by section 5 thereof, shall first submit the same to the Secretary of Agriculture in order that he may give notice and fix dates for hearings to the proper parties. APPENDIX A 483 Regulation 6. Publication (Section 4.) (a) When a judgment of the court shall have been rendered there may be a publication of the findings of the examiner or analyst, together with the findings of the court. (b) This publication may be made in the form of circulars, notices, or bulletins, as the Secretary of Agriculture may direct, not less than thirty days after judgment. (c) If an appeal be taken from the judgment of the court before such publication, notice of the appeal shall accompany the publication. Regulation 7.- Standards for Drugs (Section 7.) (a) A drug bearing a name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, without any further statement respecting its character, shall be required to conform in strength, quality, and purity to the standards prescribed or indicated for a drug of the same name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, official at the time. (b) A drug bearing a name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, and branded to show a different standard of strength, quality, or purity, shall not be regarded as adulterated if it conforms to its declared standard. Regulation 8. Formulas Proprietary Foods (Section 8, last paragraph.) (a) Manufacturers of proprietary foods are only required to state upon the label the names and percentages of the materials used, in so far as the Secretary of Agriculture may find this to be necessary to secure freedom from adulteration and mis- branding. (b) The factories in which proprietary foods are made shall be open at all reasonable times to the inspection provided for in Regulation 16. 484 FOOD PRODUCTS Regulation 9. Form of Guaranty [As amended December 8, 1908, by F. I. D. 99, to take effect on January i, 1909; see also F. I. D. 83 for opinion of the Attorney-General on the issue of a guaranty based upon a former guaranty.] (Section 9.) (a) No dealer in food or drug products will be liable to prosecution if he can establish that the goods were sold under a guaranty by the wholesaler, manufacturer, jobber, dealer, or other party residing in the United States from whom purchased. (6) A general guaranty may be filed with the Secretary of Agriculture by the manufacturer or dealer and be given a serial number, which number shall appear on each and every package l of goods sold under such guaranty with the words " Guaranteed by [insert name of guarantor] under the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906." (c) The following form of guaranty is suggested : I (we) the undersigned do hereby guarantee that the articles of foods or drugs manufactured, packed, distributed, or sold by me (us) [specifying the same as fully as possible] are not adulterated or misbranded within the mean- ing of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906. (Signed in ink.) [Name and place of business of wholesaler, dealer, manufacturer, jobber, or other party.] (d) If the guaranty be not filed with the Secretary of Agri- culture as above, it should identify and be attached to the bill of sale, invoice, bill of lading, or other schedule giving the names and quantities of the articles sold. ADULTERATION Regulation 10. Confectionery (Section 7.) (a) Mineral substances of all kinds (except as provided in Regulation 15) are specifically forbidden in confectionery whether they be poisonous or not. 'This provision has been revoked by Food Inspection, Decision.iS3. APPENDIX A 485 (b) Only harmless colors or flavors shall be added to con- fectionery. (c) The term " narcotic drugs " includes all the drugs men- tioned in section 8, food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, relating to foods, their derivatives and preparations, and all other drugs of a narcotic nature. Regulation n. Substances Mixed and Packed with Foods (Section 7, under " Foods.") /3-4^~'* ^** No substance may be mixed or packed with a food product which will reduce or lower its quality or strength. Not ex- cluded under this provision are substances properly used in the preparation of food products for clarification or refining, and eliminated in the further process of manufacture. Regulation 12. Coloring, Powdering, Coating and Staining (Section 7, under " Foods.") (a) Only harmless colors may be used in food products. (b) The reduction of a substance to a powder to conceal in- feriority in character is prohibited.. (c) The term " powdered " means the application of any powdered substance to the exterior portion of articles of food, or the reduction of a substance to a powder. (d) The term " coated " means the application of any sub- stance to the exterior portion of a food product. (e) The term " stain " includes any change produced by the addition of any substance to the exterior portion of foods which in any way alters their natural tint. Regulation 13. Natural Poisonous or Deleterious Ingredients (Section 7, paragraph 5, under " Foods.") Any food product which contains naturally a poisonous or deleterious ingredient does not come within the provisions of 486 FOOD PRODUCTS the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, except when the presence of such ingredient is due to filth, putrescence, or decomposition. Regulation 14. External Application of Preservatives (Section 7, paragraph 5,. under "Foods," proviso.) (a) Poisonous or deleterious preservatives shall only be applied externally, and they and the food products shall be of a char- acter which shall not permit the permeation of any of the pre- servative to the interior, or any portion of the interior, of the product. (b) When these products are ready for consumption, if any portion of the added preservative shall have penetrated the food product, then the proviso of section 7, paragraph 5, under "Foods" shall not obtain, and such food products shall then be subject to the regulations for food products in general. (c) The preservative applied must be of such a character that, until removed, the food products are inedible. Regulation 15. Wholesomeness of Colors and Preservatives [As amended to accord with F. I. D. 104. See also F. I. D. 76, 89, 92, 101, 102, 135, and 138 for rulings under this head.] (Section 7, paragraph 5, under " Foods.") (a) Respecting the wholesomeness of colors, preservatives, and other substances which are added to foods, the Secretary of Agriculture shall determine from chemical or other examina- tion, under the authority of the agricultural appropriation act, Public 382, approved June 30, 1906, the names of those sub- stances which are permitted or inhibited in food products; and such findings, when approved by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, shall become a part of these regulations. (b) The Secretary of Agriculture shall determine from time to time, in accordance with the authority conferred by the APPENDIX A 487 agricultural appropriation act, Public 382, approved June 30, 1906, the principles which shall guide the use of colors, pre- servatives, and other substances added to foods; and when concurred in by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, the principles so established shall become a part of these regulations. (c) It having been determined that benzoate of soda mixed with food is not deleterious or poisonous and is not injurious to health, no objection will be raised~under the food and drugs act to the use in food of benzoate of soda, provided that each container or package of such food is plainly labeled to show the presence and amount of benzoate of soda. Food Inspection Decisions 76 and 89 are amended accordingly. (d) It having been determined that saccharin mixed with food is an added poisonous and deleterious ingredient such as is contemplated by" the act, and also that the substitution of saccharin for sugar in foods reduces and lowers their quality, the Secretary of Agriculture will regard as adulterated under the food and drugs act foods containing saccharin which, on or after April i, 1912, are manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or Territories or shipped in interstate or foreign commerce, or offered for importation into the United States. (F. I. D. 135, 138, and 142, dated April 26 and June 20, 1911, and March i, 1912, respectively.) Regulation 16. Character of the Raw Materials I/ (Section 7, paragraph i, under " Drugs; " paragraph 6, under " Foods.") (a) The Secretary of Agriculture, when he deems it necessary, shall examine the raw materials used in the manufacture of food and drug products, and determine whether any filthy, decom- posed, or putrid substance is used in their preparation. (b) The Secretary of Agriculture shall make such inspections as often as he may deem necessary. 488 FOOD PRODUCTS MISBRANDING i Regulation 17. Label [As amended by F. I. D. 84, January 31, 1908, taking effect February 10, 1908.] (Section 8.) (a) The term " label " applies to any printed, pictorial or other matter upon or attached to any package of a food or drug product, or any container thereof subject to the provisions of this act. (b) The principal label shall consist, first, of all information which the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, specifically re- quires, to wit, the name of the place of manufacture in the case of food compounds or mixtures sold under a distinctive name ; statements which show that the articles are compounds, mix- tures, or blends ; the words " compound," " mixture," or " blend," and words designating substances or their derivatives and proportions required to be named in the case of foods and drugs. All this information shall appear upon the principal label, and should have no intervening descriptive or explanatory reading matter. Second, if the name of the manufacturer and place of manufacture are given, they should also appear upon the principal label. Third, preferably upon the principal label, in conjunction with the name of the substance, such phrases as " artificially colored," " colored with__sulphate of copper," or any other such descriptive phrases necessary to be announced should be conspicuously displayed. Fourth, elsewhere upon the principal label other matter may appear in the discretion of the manufacturer. If the contents are stated in terms of weight or measure, such statement should appear upon the principal label and must be couched in plain terms, a^ required by Regulation 29. (c) If the principal label is in a foreign language, all informa- tion required by law and such other information as indicated above in (b) shall appear upon it in English. Besides the prin- APPENDIX A 489 cipal label in the language of the country of production, there may be also one or more other labels, if desired, in other languages, but none of them more prominent than the principal label, and these other labels must bear the information required by law, but not necessarily in English. The size of the type used to declare the information required by the act shall not be smaller than 8-point (brevier) capitals : Provided, That in case the size of the package will not permit the use of 8-point type, the size of the type may be reduced proportionately. (d) Descriptive matter upon the label shall be free from any statement, design, or device regarding the article or the ingredi- ents or substances contained therein, or quality thereof, or place of origin, which is false or misleading in any particular. The term " design " or " device " applies to pictorial matter of every description, and to abbreviations, characters, or signs for weights, measures, or names of substances. (e) An article containing more than one food product or active medicinal agent is misbranded if named after a single con- stituent. In the case of drugs the nomenclature employed by the United States Pharmacopoeia and the National Formulary shall obtain. (/) The use of any false or misleading statement, design, or device appearing on any part of the label shall not be justified by any statement given as the opinion of an expert or other person, nor by any descriptive matter explaining the use of the false or misleading statement given as the opinion of an expert or other person, nor by any descriptive matter explaining the use of the false or misleading statement, design, or device. Regulation 18. Name and Address of Manufacturer (Section 8.) (a) The name of the manufacturer or producer, or the place where manufactured, except in case of mixtures and compounds having a distinctive name, need not be given upon the label, 4QO FOOD PRODUCTS but if given, must be the true name and the true place. The words "packed for ," "distributed by ," or some equiv- alent phrase, shall be added to the label in case the name which appears upon the label is not that of the actual manufacturer or producer, or the name of the place not the actual place of manufacture or production. (Z>) When a person, firm, or corporation actually manufactures or produces an article of food or drug in two or more places, the actual place of manufacture or production of each particular package need not be stated on the label except when in the opinion of the Secretary of Agriculture the mention of any such place, to the exclusion of the others, misleads the public. Regulation 19. Character of Name [As amended by F. I. D. 84, January 31, igo8, taking effect February 10, 1908.] (Section 8.) (a) A simple or unmixed food or drug product not bearing a distinctive name should be designated by its common name in the English language ; or if a drug, by any name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. No further description of the components or qualities is required, except as to content of alcohol, morphine, etc. (b) The use of a geographical name shall not be permitted in connection with a food or drug product not manufactured or produced in that place, when such name indicates that the article was manufactured or produced in that place. (c) The use of a geographical name in connection with a food or drug product will not be deemed a misbranding when by reason of long usage it has come to represent a generic term and is used to indicate a style, type, or brand ; but in all such cases the State or Territory where any such article is manufactured or produced shall be stated upon the principal label. (d) A foreign name which is recognized as distinctive of a product of a foreign country shall not be used upon an article APPENDIX A 491 of domestic origin except as an indication of the type or style of quality or manufacture, and then only when so qualified that it cannot be offered for sale under the name of a foreign article. Regulation 20. Distinctive Name (Section 8.) (a) A " distinctive name " is a trade, arbitrary, or fancy name which clearly distinguishes a food product, mixture, or compound from any other food product, mixture, or compound. (6) A distinctive name shall not be one representing any single constituent of a mixture or compound. (c) A distinctive name shall not misrepresent any property or quality of a mixture or compound. (d) A distinctive name shall give no false indication of origin, character, or place of manufacture, nor lead the purchaser to suppose that it is any other food or drug product. Regulation 21. Compounds, Imitations, or Blends Without Distinctive Name (Section 8.) (a) The term " blend " applies to a mixture of like substances, not excluding harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring only. (b) If any age is stated, it shall not be that of a single one of its constituents, but shall be the average of all constituents in their respective proportions. (c) Coloring and flavoring cannot be used for increasing the weight or bulk of a blend. (d) In order that colors or flavors may not increase the volume or weight of a blend, they are not to be used in quantities exceeding i pound to 800 pounds of the blend. (e) A color or flavor cannot be employed to imitate any natural product or any other product of recognized name and quality. (/) The term " imitation " applies to any mixture or compound 492 FOOD PRODUCTS which is a counterfeit or fraudulent simulation of any article of food or drug. Regulation 22. Articles without a Label (Section 8, paragraph i, under " Drugs; " paragraph i, under " Foods.") It is prohibited to sell or offer for sale a food or drug product bearing no label upon the package or no descriptive matter whatever connected with it, either by design, device, or otherwise, if said product be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of another article. Regulation 23. Proper Branding not a Complete Guaranty Packages which are correctly branded as to character of contents, place of manufacture, name of manufacturer, or other- wise, may be adulterated and hence not entitled to enter into interstate commerce. Regulation 24. Incompleteness of Branding A compound shall be deemed misbranded if the label be incom- plete as to the names of the required ingredients. A simple product does not require any further statement than the name or distinctive name thereof, except as provided in Regulations 19 (a) and 28. Regulation 25. Substitution (Sections 7 and 8.) (a) When a substance of a recognized quality commonly used in the preparation of a food or drug product is replaced by an- other substance not injurious or deleterious to health, the name of the substituted substance shall appear upon the label. (b) When any substance which does not reduce, lower, or injuriously affect its quality or strength, is added to a food or drug product, other than that necessary to its manufacture or refining, the label shall bear a statement to that effect. APPENDIX A 493 Regulation 26. Waste Materials (Section 8.) When an article is made up of refuse materials, fragments, or trimmings, the use of the name of the substance from which they are derived, unless accompanied by a statement to that effect, shall be deemed a misbranding. Packages of such materials may be labeled " pieces," " stems," " trimmings," or with some similar appellation. Regulation 27. Mixtures or Compounds with Distinctive Names (Section 8. First proviso under " Foods," paragraph i.) (a) The terms " mixtures " and " compounds " are inter- changeable and indicate the results of putting together two or more food products. (b) These mixtures or compounds shall not be imitations of other articles, whether simple, mixt, or compound, or offered for sale under the name of other articles. They shall bear a distinctive name and the name of the place where the mixture or compound has been manufactured or produced. (c) If the name of the place be one which is found in different States, Territories, or countries, the name of the State, Territory, or country, as well as the name of the place, must be stated. Regulation 28. Substances named in Drugs or Foods [As amended by F. I. D. 112, January 6, 1910, taking effect April i, 1910.] (Section 8. Second under " Drugs ; " second under " Foods.") (a) The term " alcohol " is denned to mean common or ethyl alcohol. No other kind of alcohol is permissible in the manufacture of drugs except as specified in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. (b) The words alcohol, morphine, opium, etc., and the quanti- ties and proportions thereof, shall be printed in letters correspond- ing in size with those prescribed in Regulation 17, paragraph (c). (c) A drug, or food product except in respect of alcohol, is 494 FOOD PRODUCTS misbranded in case it fails to bear a statement on the labkl of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphine, opium, heroin, cocaine, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein. (d) A statement of the maximum quantity or proportion of any such substances present will meet the requirements, provided the maximum stated does not vary materially from the average quantity of proportion. (e) In case the actual quantity or proportion is stated it shall be the average quantity or proportion with the variations noted in Regulation 29. (/) The following are the principal derivatives and prepara- tions made from the articles which are required to be named upon the label : ALCOHOL, ETHYL: (Cologne spirits, Grain alcohol, Rectified spirits, Spirits, and Spirits o{ wine.) Derivatives Aldehyde, Ether, Ethyl acetate, Ethyl nitrite, and Paraldehyde. Preparations containing alcohol Bitters, Brandies, Cordials, Elixirs, Essences, Fluid extracts, Spirits, Sirups, Tinctures, Tonics, Whiskies, and Wines. MORPHINE, ALKALOID : Derivatives Apomorphine, Dionine, Peronine, Morphine acetate, Hydrochloride, Sulphate, and other salts of morphine. Preparations containing morphine or derivatives of morphine Bougies, Catarrh Snuff, Chlorodyne, Compound powder of morphine, Crayons, Elixirs, Granules, Pills, Solutions, Sirups, Suppositories, Tablets, Triturates, and Troches. OPIUM, GUM : Preparations of opium Extracts, Denarcotized opium, Granulated opium, and Powdered opium, Bougies, Brown mixture, Carminative mixtures, Crayons, Dover's powder, Elixirs, Liniments, Ointments, Paregoric, Pills, Plasters, Sirups, Suppositories, Tablets, Tinctures, Troches, Vine- gars, and Wines. APPENDIX A . derivatives Codeine, Alkaloid, Hydrochloride, Phosphate, Sulphate, and other salts of codeine. Preparations containing codeine or its salts Elixirs, Pills, Sirups, and Tablets. COCAINE, ALKALOID : Derivatives Cocaine hydrochloride, Oleate, and other salts. Preparations containing cocaine or salts of cocaine Coca leaves, Catarrh powders, Elixirs, Extracts, Infusion of coca, Ointments, Paste pencils, Pills, Solutions, Sirups, Tablets, Tinctures, Troches, and Wines. HEROIN : Preparations containing heroin Sirups, Elixirs, Pills, and Tablets. ALPHA AND BETA EUCAINE : Preparations Mixtures, Ointments, Powders, and Solutions. CHLOROFORM : Preparations containing chloroform Chloranodyne, Elixirs, Emulsions, Liniments, Mixtures, Spirits, and Sirups. CANNABIS INDICA : Preparations of cannabis indica Corn remedies, Extracts, Mixtures, Pills, Powders, Tablets, and Tinctures. CHLORAL HYDRATE (Chloral, U. S. Pharmacopceia, 1890) : Derivatives Chloral acetophenonoxim, Chloral alcoholate, Chloralamide, Chloral- imide, Chloral orthoform, Chloralose, Dormiol, Hypnal, and Uraline. Preparations containing chloral hydrate or its derivatives Chloral camphorate, Elixirs, Liniments, Mixtures, Ointments, Sup- positories, Sirups, and Tablets. ACETANILIDE (Antifebrine, Phenylacetamide) : Derivatives Acetphenetidine, Citrophen, Diacetanilide, Lactophenin, Methoxyace- tanilide, Methylacetanilide, Para-Iodoacetanilide, and Phenacetine. Preparations containing acetanilide or derivatives Analgesics, Antineuralgics, Antirheumatics, Cachets, Capsules, Cold remedies, Elixirs, Granular effervescing salts, Headache powders, Mixtures, Pain remedies, Pills, and Tablets. 496 FOOD PRODUCTS (g) In declaring the quantity or proportion of any of the speci- fied substances the names by which they are designated in the act shall be used, and in declaring the quantity or proportion of derivatives of any of the specified substances, in addition to the trade name of the derivative, the name of the specified substance shall also be stated, so as to indicate clearly that the product is a derivative of the particular specified substance. Regulation 29. Statement of Weight or Measure (Section 8. Third under " Foods.") (The section of the law under which this regulation was made has been amended by the act of March 3, 1913, Public No. 419, H. R. 22526. New regulations will be published as soon as they have been adopted.) (a) A statement of the weight or measure of the food contained in a package is not required. If any such statement is printed, it shall be a plain and correct statement of the average net weight or volume, either on or immediately above or below the principal label, and of the size of letters specified in Regulation 17. (b) A reasonable variation from the stated weight for in- dividual packages is permissible, provided this variation is as often above as below the weight or volume stated. This varia- tion shall be determined by the inspector from the changes in the humidity of the atmosphere, from the exposure of the package to evaporation or to absorption of water, and the reasonable variations which attend the filling and weighing or measuring of a package. Regulation 30. Method of Stating Quantity or Proportion (Section 8.) In the case of alcohol the expression " quantity "or " pro- portion " shall mean the average percentage by volume in the finished product. In the case of the other ingredients required to be named upon the label, the expression " quantity " or " proportion " shall mean grains or minims per ounce or fluid APPENDIX A 497 punc^, and also, if desired, the metric equivalents therefor, or milligrams per gram or per cubic centimeter, or grams or cubic centimeters per kilogram or per liter; provided that these_ articles shall not be deemed misbranded if the maximum of quantity or proportion be stated, as required in Regulation 28 (d). EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF FOODS AND DRUGS Regulation 31. Preparation of Food Products for Export (Section 2.) (a) Food products intended for export may contain added substances not permitted in foods intended for interstate com- merce, when the addition of such substances does not conflict with the laws of the countries to which the food products are to be exported and when such substances are added in accordance with the directions of the foreign purchaser or his agent. (b) The exporter is not required to furnish evidence that goods have been prepared or packed in compliance with the laws of the foreign country to which said goods are intended to be shipped, but such shipment is made at his own risk. (c) Food products for export under this regulation shall be kept separate and labeled to indicate that they are for export. (d) If the products are not exported they shall not be allowed to enter interstate commerce. Regulation 32. Imported Food and Drug Products (Section n.) (a) Meat and meat food products imported into the United States shall be accompanied by a certificate of official inspec- tion of a character to satisfy the Secretary of Agriculture that they are not dangerous to health, and each package of such articles shall bear a label which shall identify it as covered by the certificate, which certificate shall accompany or be attached to the invoice on which entry is made. 2K 498 FOOD PRODUCTS (b) The certificate shall set forth the official position of the inspector and the character of the inspection. (c) Meat and meat food products as well as all other food and drug products of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which made or from which exported, will be refused admission. (d) Meat and meat food products which have been inspected and passed through the customs may, if identity is retained, be transported in interstate commerce. Regulation 33. Declaration (Section u.) (a) All invoices of food or drug products shipped to the United States shall have attached to them a declaration of the shipper, made before a United States consular officer, as follows : I, the undersigned, do solemnly and truly declare that I am the . (Manufacturer, agent, or shipper.) of the merchandise herein mentioned and described, and that it consists of food or drug products which contain no added substances injurious to health. These products were grown in and manufactured in by (Country.) (Country.) (Name during the year , and are exported from and consigned to of manufacturer.) (City.) . The products bear no false labels or marks, contain no added (City.) some coloring matter or preservative , and are not of a character to cause (Name of added color or preservative.) prohibition or restriction in the country where made or from which exported. Dated at this day of , 19 . (Signed) : . (b) In the case of importations to be entered at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, San Francisco, and New Orleans, and other ports where food and drug inspection laboratories shall be established, this declaration shall be attached to the invoice on which entry is made. In other cases the declaration shall be attached to the copy of the invoice sent to the Bureau of Chemistry. APPENDIX A 499 Regulation 34. Denaturing [As amended by F. I. D. 93, May 12, 1908.] (Section n.) Unless otherwise declared on the invoice, all substances or- dinarily used as food products will be treated as such. Ship- ments of substances ordinarily used as food products intended for technical purposes should be accompanied by a declaration stating that fact. Such products should be denatured before entry, but denaturing may be allowed under customs supervision with the consent of the Secretary of the Treasury, or the Secre- tary of the Treasury may release such products without de- naturing, under such conditions as may preclude the possibility of their use as food products. Regulation 35. Bond, Imported Foods, and Drugs (Section n.) Unexamined packages of food and drug products may be delivered to the consignee prior to the completion of the examina- tion to determine whether the same are adulterated or mis- branded upon the execution of a penal bond by the consignee in the sum of the invoice value of such goods with the duty added, for the return of the goods to customs custody. Regulation 36. Notification of Violation of the Law (Section n.) If the sample on analysis or examination be found not to comply with the law, the importer shall be notified of the nature of the violation, the time and place at which final action will be taken upon the question of the exclusion of the shipment, and that he may be present, and submit evidence (Form No. 5), which evidence, with a sample of the article, shall be forwarded to the Bureau of Chemistry at Washington, accompanied by the appropriate report card. 500 FOOD PRODUCTS Regulation 37. Appeal to the Secretary of Agriculture and Remuneration (Section n.) All applications for relief from decisions arising under the execution of the law should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, and all vouchers or accounts for remuneration for samples shall be filed with the chief of the inspection laboratory, who shall forward the same, with his recommendation, to the Department of Agriculture for action. Regulation 38. Shipment beyond the jurisdiction of the United States (Section n.) The time allowed the importer for representations regarding the shipment may be extended at his request to permit him to secure such evidence as he desires, provided that this extension of time does not entail any expense to the Department of Agri- culture. If at the expiration of this time, in view of the data secured in inspecting the sample and such evidence as may have been submitted by the manufacturers or importers, it appears that the shipment cannot be legally imported into the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture shall request the Secretary of the Treasury to refuse to deliver the shipment in question to the consignee, and to require its reshipment beyond the jurisdiction of the United States. Regulation 39. Application of Regulations These regulations shall not apply to domestic meat and meat food products which are prepared, transported, or sold in inter- state or foreign commerce under the meat-inspection law and the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture made thereunder. (This regulation has since been revoked.) Regulation 40. Alteration and Amendment of Regulations These regulations may be altered or amended at any time, without previous notice, with the concurrence of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. APPENDIX B FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 1 FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 44 SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS From the tenor of many inquiries received in this Department it appears that many persons suppose that the answers to in- quiries addressed to this Department, either in letters or in published decisions, have the force and effect of the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906. The following are illustrations of the inquiries received by this Department : Must we stamp all goods as conforming to the drug and food law, whether they have alcohol and narcotics therein, or not? On a brand of salad oil, which is a winter-strain cotton-seed oil, can it be sold under the brand of salad oil, or must it state that it is cotton-seed oil? It seems highly desirable that an erroneous opinion of this kind should be corrected. The opinions or decisions of this Department do not add anything to the rules and regulations nor take anything away from them. They therefore are not to be considered in the light of rules and regulations. On the other hand, the decisions and opinions referred to express the attitude of this Department in relation to the interpretation of the law and the rules and regulations, and they are published for the information of the officials of the Department who may be charged with the execution of the law and especially to acquaint manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers with the attitude of this Department in these matters. They are therefore issued more 1 Since space does not permit the quoting of all food inspection decisions in full the attempt has been made to reproduce here such selections as will be most useful to readers of this book. 502 FOOD PRODUCTS in an advisory than in a mandatory spirit. It is clear that if the manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers interpret the rules and regulations in the same manner as they are interpreted by this Department, and follow that interpretation in their business transactions, no prosecution will lie against them. It needs no argument to show that the Secretary of Agriculture must himself come to a decision in every case before a prosecution can be initiated, since it is on his report that the district attorney is to begin a prosecution for the enforcement of the provisions of the act. In so far as possible it is advisable that the opinions of this Department respecting the questions which arise may be pub- lished. It may often occur that the opinion of this Department is not that of the manufacturer, jobber, or dealer. In this case there is no obligation resting upon the manufacturer, jobber, or dealer to follow the line of procedure marked out or indicated by the opinion of this Department. Each one is entitled to his own opinion and interpretation and to assume the responsibility of acting in harmony therewith. It may be proper to add that in reaching opinions and decisions on these cases the Department keeps constantly in view the two great purposes of the food and drugs act, namely, to prevent misbranding and to prohibit adulteration. From the tenor of , the correspondence received at this Department and from the oral hearings which have been held, it is evident that an over- whelming majority of the manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers of this country are determined to do their utmost to conform to the provisions of the act, to support it in every particular, and to accede to the opinions of this Department respecting its construction. It is hoped, therefore, that the publication of the opinions and decisions of the Department will lead to the avoidance of litigation which might arise due to decisions which may be reached by this Department indicating violations of the act, violations which would not have occurred had the APPENDIX B 503 opinions and decisions of the Department been brought to the attention of the offender. JAMES WlLSON> Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., December i, 1906. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 52 FORM OF LABEL The following is an extract from a letter recently received : We do not understand the requirements of the regulations respecting the arrangement of labels ; that'is, the order in which the various features of the label should be arranged. To meet the requests for the opinion of the Department regarding the proper arrangement of a label, the following order is suggested : 1 . Name of substance or product. 2. In .case of foods, words which indicate that the articles are compounds, mixtures, or blends, and the word " Imitation," " Compound," or " Blend," as the case may be. 3. Statements designating the quantity or proportions of the ingredients enumerated in the law, or derivatives and prep- arations of same, 1 as mentioned under Regulation 28 ; also statements of other extraneous substances whose presence should be declared, such as harmless coloring matter, or any necessary statement regarding grade or quality. (The statements specified in paragraphs i, 2, and 3, should appear together without any intervening descriptive or explana- tory matter.) 4. Name of manufacturer (if given). 5. Place of manufacture (if given, or when required in case of food mixtures or compounds bearing a distinctive name). It is stated in Regulation 17 that if the name of the manu- facturer and place of manufacture be given they should appear 1 Attention is called to the fact that the declaration of alcohol and its derivatives is not required in foods. 504 FOOD PRODUCTS upon the principal label. Although the law does not require that the name of the manufacturer be given, or the place of manufacture, except in case of food mixtures and compounds having a distinctive name, it is held that if they are given they must be true, and should be placed with the required information on the principal label. The arrangement of the label is the same for both food and drug products and an example of each is given. SAMPLE LABEL FOR FOOD PRODUCT [Name of product.] [Declaration required by paragraphs 2 and 3.] [Name of manufacturer, if given.] [Place of manufacture, if given.] KET'CHUP. ARTIFICIALLY COLORED. [Descriptive matter, if desired, but preferably at bottom of label.] BLANK & CO., PORTLAND, ME. [Descriptive matter, if desired-] SAMPLE LABEL FOR DRUG PRODUCT [Name of product.] [Declarations required by paragraphs 2 and 3.] [Na^ne of manufacturer, if given.) [Place of manufacture, if given.] COUGH SYRUP. ALCOHOL, 10 PER CENT. MORPHINE, } GRAIN PER OUNCE. CHLOROFORM, 40 MINIMS PER OUNCE. [Descriptive matter, if desired, but preferably at bottom of label.] JOHN JONES & CO., WASHINGTON, D.C. [Descriptive matter, if desired.] APPENDIX B 505 Any descriptive or explanatory matter that may appear on the principal label, therefore, should be placed at the bottom of the label, or between No. 3 and No. 4, and should be clearly sep- arated from other features of the label by means of a suitable line or space. Statements regarding the reason for using alcohol, artificial coloring matter, and other extraneous sub- stances, come under the head of descriptive or explanatory matter, and should not be interspersed with the declarations required under Nos. 2 and 3. The information called for under No. 3 should be so worded as to give only the required information, as, for example, " alcohol 17 per cent " or " artificially colored." All numbers used in expressing quantity or proportion of substances required to be stated (see Regulation 28) should be expressed in the Arabic notation. Each substance required to be declared under No. 3 should be printed on a separate line and in type specified in Reg- ulation 17 (c). JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., January 18, 1907. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 58 THE LABELING OF PRODUCTS USED AS FOODS AND DRUGS AS WELL AS FOR TECHNICAL AND OTHER PURPOSES Frequent requests for information relative to the proper labeling of products bearing the names of foods and drugs, but used also for technical and other purposes, are received. The following are typical : We will kindly ask you to advise us in regard to the new law that governs the line of oils. We manufacture a compound product, so-called " turpen- tine," which contains pure turpentine and a very fine petroleum product. It 506 FOOD PRODUCTS is used in most branches where pure turpentine is used, with the exception of medicinal purposes, for which we do not sell it. We understand that if we were to sell any cotton-seed oil so branded as to indicate that it was intended to be used as a food, as, for example, under the brand " Blank Salad Oil," it would be necessary to observe the requirements of the law referred to ; but we are in doubt and would be glad to have your opinion as to whether a sale or shipment of this oil (for lubricating purposes) under the ordinary trade brand of cotton-seed oil, and without anything to indicate that it was of a quality suitable for use as a salad oil, would subject us to the provisions of the act. During personal interviews the question of marking chemical reagents has also been discussed. Products used in the arts and for technical purposes are not subject to the food* and drugs act. It is, however, a well- recognized fact that many articles are used indiscriminately for food, medicinal, and technical purposes. It is also well known that some products employed for technical purposes are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act. In- asmuch as it is impossible to follow such products into con- sumption in order to determine to what use they are finally put, it is desirable that an article sold under a name commonly applied to such article for food, drug, and technical purposes be so labeled as to avoid possible mistakes. The ordinary name of a pure and normal product, whether sold for food, drug, technical, or other purposes, is all that is necessary. Pure cot- ton-seed oil or turpentine may be sold without any restrictions whatever, whether such article is sold for food, medicinal, or technical purposes, but it is suggested that a cotton-seed oil intended for lubricating purposes, or a so-called turpentine consisting of a mixture of turpentine and petroleum oils, used by the paint trade, be plainly marked so as to indicate that they are not/ to be employed for food or medicinal purposes. Such phrases as the following may be used : " Not for Food Purposes," " Not for Medicinal Use," or for " Technical Purposes Only," or " For Lubricating Purposes," etc. APPENDIX B 507 In order to avoid complication it is suggested that chemical reagents sold as such be marked with such phrases as the follow- ing : " For Analytical Purposes," or " Chemical Reagent," etc. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., March ij,- 1907. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 76 DYES, CHEMICALS, AND PRESERVATIVES IN FOODS It is provided in regulation 15 of the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act, that the Secretary of Agriculture shall determine by chemical or other examination those substances which are permitted or inhibited in food products ; that he shall determine from time to time the prin- ciples which shall guide the use of colors, preservatives, and other substances added to foods; and that when these findings and determinations of the Secretary of Agriculture are approved by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, the principles so established shall become a part of the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act. The law provides that no food or food product intended for interstate commerce, nor any food or food product manufactured or sold in the District of Columbia or in any Territory of the United States, or for foreign commerce, except as thereinafter provided, shall contain substances which lessen the wholesome- ness or which add any deleterious properties thereto. It has been determined that no drug, chemical, or harmful or deleterious dye or preservative may be used. Common salt, sugar, wood smoke, potable distilled liquors, vinegar, and condiments may be used. Pending further investigation, the use of saltpeter is allowed. 508 FOOD PRODUCTS Pending the investigation of the conditions attending pro- cesses of manufacture, and the effects upon health, of the com- binations mentioned in this paragraph, the Department of Agriculture will institute no prosecution in the case of the appli- cation of fumes of burning sulphur (sulphur dioxid), as usually employed in the manufacture of those foods and food products which contain acetaldehyde, sugars, etc., with which sulphurous acid may combine, if the total amount of sulphur dioxid in the finished product does not exceed 350 milligrams per liter in wines, or 350 milligrams per kilogram in other food products, of which not over 70 milligrams is in a free state. The label of each package of sulphured foods, . . . shall bear a statement that the food is preserved with sulphur dioxid, . . . and the label must not bear a serial number assigned to any guaranty filed with the Department of Agriculture nor any statement that the article is guaranteed to conform to the food and drugs act. The use of any dye, harmless or otherwise, to color or stain a food in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed is specifically prohibited by law. The use in food for any pur- pose of any mineral dye or any coal-tar dye, except those coal- tar dyes hereinafter listed, will be grounds for prosecution. Pending further investigations now under way and the announce- ment thereof, the coal-tar dyes hereinafter named, made specif- ically for use in foods, and which bear a guaranty from the manufacturer that they are free from subsidiary products and represent the actual substance the name of which they bear, may be used in foods. In every case a certificate that the dye in question has been tested by competent experts and found to be free from harmful constituents must be filed with the Secretary of Agriculture and approved by him. The following coal-tar dyes which may be used in this manner are given numbers, the numbers preceding the names referring to the number of the dye in question as listed in A. G. Green's APPENDIX B 509 of the Schultz- Julius Systematic Survey of the Organic Coloring Matters, published in 1904. The list is as follows : Red shades: 107. Amaranth. 56. Ponceau 3 R. 517. Erythrosin. Orange shade: 85. Orange I. Yellow shade: 4. Naphthol yellow S. Green shade.: 435. Light green S. F. yellowish. Blue shade: 692. Indigo disulfoacid. Each of these colors shall be free from any coloring matter other than the one specified and shall not contain any con- tamination due to imperfect or incomplete manufacture. . . . H. W. WILEY, FREDERICK L. DUNLAP, GEO. P. McCABE, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. GEO. B. CORTELYOU. Secretary of the Treasury. OSCAR STRAUS, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. WASHINGTON, D. C., June 18, 1907. 510 FOOD PRODUCTS FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 77 CERTIFICATE AND CONTROL OF DYES PERMISSIBLE FOR USE IN COLORING FOODS AND FOODSTUFFS The Department of Agriculture is in receipt of a large number of inquiries concerning the interpretation to be put on that portion of F. I. D. 76 which refers to coal-tar dyes not inhibited for use in coloring foods and foodstuffs. The term " manufacturer," as used in F. I. D. 76 and in the present decision, applies to a person or company responsible for the purification of the crude or raw dye for the purpose of placing it in a condition fit for use in foods and foodstuffs ; or to the accredited selling agent in the United States of such per- son or company. Such accredited agent must file, on behalf of his foreign principal, if the latter does not file it, a manu- facturer's certificate, and it will be considered that the responsi- bility for such certificate will rest upon the accredited agent and not upon the foreign principal. For each permitted dye two certificates must be filed by the manufacturer, the first to be known as the " Foundation certifi- cate," the second known as the " Manufacturer's certificate." It is suggested that the foundation certificate be in the following form : FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE I, , the undersigned, residing at (Street address.) in the city of , county of , State of , hereby certify under oath that I have personally examined and tested for , of , (Full name of concern.) (City.) county, of , State of , the materiafknown as , which corresponds to the coloring matter numbered in A. G. Green's Edition (1904) of the Schultz- Julius " Systematic Survey of the Organic Coloring Matters," and of which a one (i) pound sample marked is herewith submitted. I have found APPENDIX B 511 the said material to consist of that coloring matter only, to be free from harm- ful constituents, and not to contain any contamination due to imperfect or incomplete manufacture. ( Here insert a complete statement of all the tests applied to determine : A. Identity. B. Absence of a. Mineral or metallic poisons. b. Harmful organic constituents. c. Contamination due to improper or incomplete manufacture. Special attention should be given to setting forth fully the quantities or volume of each material and reagent employed, its strength or concentration, tempera- ture, duration of treatment, limits of delicacy of tests employed, and any other information that is necessary to enable others to repeat accurately and correctly all the work herein referred to and thus arrive at identical results. For each test performed, slate what conclusions are drawn from it and why.) (Signature of chemist making the examination.) CERTIFICATION For the manufacturer's certificate the following form is suggested : MANUFACTURER'S CERTIFICATE I, , the undersigned, a resident of the United States doing business at , in the city of , (Street address.) county of , State of : , under the style of , do hereby certify under oath that I am (Full name of concern.) the manufacturer of the material known as , which corresponds to the coloring matter numbered in the 1904 Green Edition of the Schultz-Julius Tables, of which the accompanying foundation certificate, signed by , the examining chemist, is the report of an analysis of a fair, average sample drawn from a total batch of pounds. (Signature of manufacturer.) CERTIFICATION. The foundation certificate must be filed with the Secretary of Agriculture at the time the first request is made of the Secretary 512 FOOD PRODUCTS to use any or all of the permitted dyes for coloring foods and foodstuffs. The following form of supplemental certificate is suggested in those cases where a manufacturer desires to apply for per- mission to place on the market a new batch of a coal-tar dye, which dye has already had a foundation certificate and a manu- facturer's certificate filed for it. SUPPLEMENTAL CERTIFICATE I, , the undersigned, residing at , (Street address.) in the city of , county of , State of , hereby certify under oath that I have personally examined and tested for , of , (Full name of concern.) (City.) county of , State of , the material known as , which corresponds to the coloring matter numbered in A. G. Green's Edition (1904) of the Schultz- Julius " Systematic Survey of the Organic Coloring Matters," of which a one (i) pound sample marked is herewith submitted, and I have found it to consist of that coloring matter only and to be free from harmful constitu- ents and not to contain any contamination due to imperfect or incomplete manufacture. This examination was conducted in strict accordance with the detailed scheme of examination fully set forth in the foundation certificate filed (Date.) (Signature of chemist.) CERTIFICATION. This supplemental certificate should likewise be accompanied by the same type of manufacturer's certificate as is described above. When the certificates filed with the Department oi Agri- culture are found to be satisfactory, a "lot number " will be assigned to each batch, which lot number shall apply to that batch alone and to no other batch of the same color. APPENDIX B 513 According to F. I. D. 76, the seven permitted coal-tar dyes therein named, made specifically for use in foods, may be used in foods provided they bear a guaranty from the manufacturer that they are free from subsidiary products and represent the actual substance the name of which they bear. The guaranty herein considered shall be applied as follows : Each package sold by the manufacturer should bear the legend "Part of Certified Lot Number ....". The foundation certif- icate, as well as the corresponding supplemental certificate, does not apply to any certified dye beyond the package originally prepared by the one establishing this certificate. If such a package be broken and the dye therein contained be repacked, the repacked dye, except as hereinafter provided, becomes an uncertified dye, and as such is inhibited. There is no objection on the part of the Department of Agri- culture to mixtures made from these permitted and certified dyes, by those who have filed certificates with the Department, but one (i) pound samples of such mixtures, and the trade name under which each mixture is sold, must be sent to the Secretary of Agriculture, and no such trade name or keyed modification thereof may be used for any other mixture. The exact formula that is, the true names as well as the numbers assigned to the original package and the proportions of the ingredients used should be deposited with the Secretary of Agriculture, but such formula need not appear on the label ; in lieu of which may appear the legend " Made from Certified Lots Number . . . and Number . . . ," etc. If the packages of these mixtures bearing this legend be broken and repacked, the mixture becomes, except as hereinafter provided, an uncertified one, and hence its use is inhibited ; that is, the guaranty of the manufacturer shall extend only to the packages prepared by himself and only for so long as they remain in the unbroken form. Whenever new lots of previously established mixtures are made, making use of new certified straight dyes therein, 2 L 514 FOOD PRODUCTS thus necessitating a change in the label, i-pound samples of the new mixtures should be sent to the Secretary of Agriculture. The term " competent experts " as used in F. I. D. 76 applies to those who, by reason of their training and experience, are able to examine coal-tar coloring matter to ascertain its identity and to determine the absence of foreign matter not properly belonging to the product, which, if present, renders the substance unfit for use in food products. The term " batch " as used above is such a quantity of the product as has undergone the same treatment at the same time and the same place as a unit and not otherwise that is, the lot for one purification. 1 Those to whom certification is given with respect to their dyes and a lot number assigned should control the sale of such batches so that they may account to the Department of Agri- culture by inspection of their books or otherwise for the desti- nation and disposal of each batch. Those using these certified dyes in the preparation of foods and foodstuffs must be in a position to substantiate the fact that the dyes so used were of a properly certified character. There is no guaranty on the part of the Department of Agri- culture that because the tests described in any foundation certif- icate have once been accepted, the permanency of such accept- ance is assured. In those cases where a package of a straight dye or a mixture of such dyes, bearing proper labels to the effect that they are of a certified lot or lots, is broken and repacked in still smaller lots, or treated with solvents, mixed, etc., the person or company so treating these dyes must stand sponsor for their integrity. This may be accomplished by submitting a statement to the Secretary of Agriculture as follows: 1 This definition is extended in Food Inspection Decision 106 (see below). APPENDIX B 515 SECONDARY CERTIFICATE I, .................... , residing at .................... , do hereby (Full address.) certify under oath that I have repacked ...... Ibs. of certified lot (or lots) .................... purchased from ............ ........ , of ........ ............. This repacking has been accomplished in the following fashion : .......................................................... (Full description of what has been done with the lot or lots.) (Name.) CERTIFICATION. On presentation of this certified form, properly filled out, to the Secretary of Agriculture, a lot number will be assigned, which number should be used in labeling according to the methods already described. If, for example, a portion of lot number " 127 "is repacked in smaller packages, the lot number " 127 A " will be assigned to this repacked dye, to enable the Department to follow this into consumption if necessary and still trace it back to the person by whom the dye was originally certified. H. W. WILEY, F. L. DUNLAP, GEO. P. McCABE, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., September 16, FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 106 AMENDMENT TO FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 77 (A definition of the terms " Batch" and "Mixtures" as used therein.) The definition of the term " batch " as given on page 4, lines 12 to 14 of Food Inspection Decision 77, is hereby extended 516 FOOD PRODUCTS to include also the contents of any one package, cask, or other container holding 500 pounds or less of dye, even though the contents of such package, cask, or container has not undergone the same treatment at the same time and the same place as a unit. The word " mixtures " as used on page 3, line 15 from the bottom, and following, of Food Inspection Decision 77 is hereby declared to mean not only such mixtures as consist wholly of certified coal-tar dyes but also those which contain one or more certified coal-tar dyes (and no other coal-tar dye or dyes) in combination with other components, constituents, or ingredients not coal-tar dyes, which other components, constituents, or ingredients are in and of themselves or in the combination used harmless and not detrimental to health or are not prohibited for use in food products ; the exact formula of such mixtures, in- cluding all of the components, constituents, or ingredients, or other parts of the mixture, together with a statement of the total weight of mixture so made, must be deposited with the Secretary of Agriculture and a one (i) pound sample thereof must be sent to the Secretary of Agriculture, but such formula need not appear on the label ; in lieu of which may appear the legend " Made from certified lots Number . . . and Number . . . , etc.," and no mention need be made of any constituent or constituents other than of the certified coal- tar dyes employed. H. W. WILEY, F. L. DUNLAP, GEO. P. McCABE, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., March 19, ipop. APPENDIX B 517 FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 126 SALTS OF TIN IN FOOD The attention of the board has been directed to canned goods which contain salts of tin derived from the solvent action of the contents of the package upon the tin coating. Pending further investigations on this question all canned goods which are prepared prior to January i, 1911, will be permitted to enter and pass into interstate commerce without detention or restric- tion in so far as their content of tin salts is concerned. All foods which are canned subsequently to January i, 1911, will be permitted importation and interstate commerce if they do not contain more than 300 milligrams of tin per kilogram, or salts of tin equivalent thereto. When the amount of tin, or an equivalent amount of salts of tin, is greater than 300 milligrams per kilogram, entry of such canned goods packed subsequently to January i, 1911, will be refused, and if found in interstate commerce proper action will be taken. It is the opinion of the board that the trade will experience little hardship in adjusting itself to this condition, as the re- sults of examinations made by the Bureau of Chemistry of various types of canned goods indicate that in a very large majority of cases inconsiderable quantities of tin are found, well within the limit herein set. H. W. WILEY, F. L. DUNLAP, Geo. P. McCABE, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture, WASHINGTON, D. C., September 22, 1910. 518 FOOD PRODUCTS THE CERTIFICATION OF STRAIGHT DYES AND MIXTURES "UNDER SECONDARY CERTIFICATES. (AMENDMENT TO F. I. D. 77.) In Food Inspection Decision 77 provision is made for the recertification of straight dyes (i.e., the seven accepted dyes of F. I. D. 76) and mixtures thereof, with or without other harm- less ingredients. Doubt has been expressed as to whether the requirements of F. I. D. 77, with respect to certification, are the same for those who are not manufacturers as they are for manufacturers. This amendment is issued relative to recertification in order to remove uncertainty and to indicate the scope of F. I. D. 77. All persons, manufacturers or others, requesting certification of mixtures or recertification of straight dyes, or of mixtures or combinations thereof, shall submit the following form of secon- dary certificate to the Secretary of Agriculture : SECONDARY CERTIFICATE I, , residing at , do hereby depose and state (Full address.) that I have repacked .... Ibs. of certified lot (or lots) purchased from ,of This repacking has been accomplished in the following fashion : (Full description of what has been done with the lot or lots.) Certified mixture No. J.D. & Co , or certified straight dye No. J. D. & Co Trade name . , (Name.) Subscribed and sworn to before me, , in and for the . of at , this .... day of , (Name of officer authorized to administer oaths.) APPENDIX B 519 When the secondary certificate refers to mixtures, the term " mixture " means not only such mixtures as consist wholly of certified coal-tar dyes, but also those which contain one or more certified coal-tar dyes (and no other coal-tar dye or dyes) in combination with other components, constituents, or ingredients not coal-tar dyes, which other components, constituents, or ingredients are in and of themselves or in the combination used harmless and not detri- mental to health or are not prohibited for use in food products ; the exact formula of such mixtures, including all of the components, constituents, or ingredients, or other parts of the mixture, together with a statement of the total weight of mixtures so made, must be deposited with the Secretary of Agriculture. (F. I. D. 106.) The term " straight dye," as used herein, refers to the seven dyes specified in F. I. D. 76. In the case of mixtures one (i) pound samples, and in the case of straight dyes one half (^) pound samples must be submitted with the secondary certificate. If larger samples are needed in individual cases the Department will ask for them. Only those mixtures will be certified which contain no other dyes than coal-tar dyes previously certified. Mixtures contain- ing animal or vegetable dyes are not subject to certification. The above form for secondary certificates varies but slightly from that given in Food Inspection Decision No. 77. It con- tains the addition " Certified mixture "No. J. D. & Co. ..." and " Certified straight dye No. J. D. & Co. . . ." When the manufacturer or other person submits a secondary certificate, whichever legend is appropriate to the certificate is to be used. The initials are to be those of the person or firm filing the certif- icate ; the blank space is to be filled with the number of the secondary certificate filed by that particular person or firm. For example, the firm of J. D. & Co. has already filed fourteen secondary certificates, the new one to be filed under the form given above will then be labeled " Certified mixture No. J. D. & Co. 15," or " Certified straight dye No. J. D. & Co. 15," as the case may be. That is, the recertified straight dyes or 520 FOOD PRODUCTS certified mixtures are to be given a number in regular order, according to the number of such secondary certificates filed by any person or firm. The' completed legend is the one to be used in marketing the products thus submitted under the second- ary certificate. Notification will be given of the acceptance or rejection of the certificate when investigation of the product has been completed. Makers of secondary certificates must submit the trade name of mixtures produced, and no such trade name or keyed modi- fication thereof should be used on any other mixture prepared by the same person or company. Secondary certificates are to be sent in duplicate to the De- partment of Agriculture; the duplicate need not, however, be signed or sworn to. The samples should be submitted with the secondary certificates. H. W. WILEY, F. L. DUNLAP, GEO. P. MCCABE, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., November 8, IQIO. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 135 SACCHARIN IN FOOD At the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts has conducted an in- vestigation as to the effect on health of the use of saccharin. The investigation has been concluded, and the Referee Board reports that the continued use of saccharin for a long time in quantities over three tenths of a gram per day is liable to impair digestion; and that the addition of saccharin as a substitute APPENDIX B 521 for cane sugar or other forms of sugar reduces the food value of the sweetened product and hence lowers its quality. Saccharin has been used as a substitute for sugar in over thirty classes of foods in which sugar is commonly recognized as a normal and valuable ingredient. If the use of saccharin be continued it is evident that amounts of saccharin may readily be consumed which will, through continual use, produce di- gestive disturbances. In every food in which saccharin is used, some other sweetening agent known to be harmless to health can be substituted, and there is not even a pretense that saccharin is a necessity in the manufacture of food products. Under the food and drugs act articles of food are adulterated if they con- tain added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredients which may render them injurious to health. Articles of food are also adulterated within the meaning of the act, if substances have been mixed and packed with the foods so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect their quality or strength. The find- ings of the Referee Board show that saccharin in food is such an added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient as is contemplated by the act, and also that the substitution of saccharin for sugar in foods reduces and lowers their quality. The Secretary of Agriculture, therefore, will regard as adul- terated under the food and drugs act foods containing saccharin which, on and after July i, 1911, are manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories, or shipped in interstate or foreign commerce, or offered for importation into the United States. FRANKLIN MACVEAGH, Secretary of the Treasury. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CHARLES NAGEL, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. WASHINGTON, D. C., April 26, 1911. 522 FOOD PRODUCTS FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 138 SACCHARIN IN FOOD Paragraph 3 of Food Inspection Decision No. 135 is hereby modified to read as follows : The Secretary of Agriculture, therefore, will regard as adulterated under the food and drugs act foods containing saccharin which, on and after January i, 1912, are manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the Territories, or shipped in interstate or foreign commerce, or offered for importation into the United States. FRANKLIN MACVEAGH, Secretary of the Treasury. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CHARLES NAGEL, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. WASHINGTON, D. C., June 20, 1911. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 142 SACCHARIN IN FOOD The following decision which relates to the use of saccharin in food will not go into effect until the ist of April, 1912, the month of March being given to interested parties so as to arrange their business and take such steps as they deem proper. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., March i, 1912. After full consideration of the representations made in behalf of the manufacturers of saccharin at the hearing before us and of the briefs filed by their attorneys, as well as the briefs filed, at our request, by officers of the Department of Agriculture, we conclude that the use of saccharin in normal foods, within the APPENDIX B 523 jurisdiction of the Food and Drugs Act, is a violation of law and will be prosecuted. It is true that the Referee Board did not find that the use in foods of saccharin in small quantities (up to 0.3 gram daily) is injurious to health. However, the Referee Board did find that saccharin used in quantities over 0.3 gram per day for a considerable period is liable to disturb digestion, and the Food and Drugs Act provides that articles of food are adulterated which contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render them injurious to health. The Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture reports that saccharin has been found in more than fifty kinds of foods in common use. It is argued, therefore, that if the use of saccharin in foods be allowed, the consumer may very easily ingest, day by day, over 0.3 gram, the quantity which, according to the findings of the Referee Board, is liable to produce dis- turbances of digestion. On the other hand, it is claimed by the manufacturers that the sweetening power of saccharin is so great that, in a normal dietary, the amount of saccharin ingested daily would not exceed 0.3 gram, the amount found to be harmless by the Referee Board. However this may be, it is plain, from the finding of the Ref- eree Board, that the substitution of saccharin for sugar lowers the quality of the food. The only use of saccharin in foods is as a sweetener, and when it is so used, it inevitably displaces the sugar of an equivalent sweetening power. Sugar has a food value and saccharin has none. It appears, therefore, that nor- mal foods sweetened with saccharin are adulterated under the law. In making this decision we are not unmindful of the fact that persons suffering from certain diseases may be directed by their physicians to abstain from the use of sugar. In cases of this kind, saccharin is often prescribed as a substitute sweetening agent. This decision will not in any manner interfere with 524 FOOD PRODUCTS such a use of saccharin. The Food and Drugs Act provides that any substance which is intended to be used for the pre- vention, cure, or mitigation of disease is a drug, and a product containing saccharin and plainly labeled to show that the mix- ture is intended for the use of those persons who, on account of disease, must abstain from the use of sugar, falls within the class of drugs anoTis not affected by this decision. The Secretary of the Treasury dissents. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. CHARLES NAGEL, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. WASHINGTON, D. C., February 29, 1912. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 144 CANNED FOODS: USE OF WATER, BRINE, SIRUP, SAUCE, AND SIMILAR SUBSTANCES IN THE PREPARATION THEREOF The can in canned food products serves not only as a con- tainer but also as an index of the quantity of food therein. It should be as full of food as is practicable for packing and pro- cessing without injuring the quality or appearance of -the con- tents. Some food products may be canned without the addi- tion of any other substances whatsoever for example, tomatoes.. The addition of water in such instances is deemed adulteration. Other foods may require the addition of water, brine^ sugar, or sirup, either to combine with the food for its proper prepara- tion or for the purpose of sterilization for instance, peas. In this case the can should be packed as full as practicable with the peas and should contain only sufficient liquor to fill the inter- stices and cover the product. Canned foods, therefore^ will be deemed to be adulterated if they are found to contain water, brine; sirup, sauce, or similar APPENDIX B 525 substances in excess of the amount necessary for their proper preparation and sterilization. It has come to the notice of the department that pulp pre- pared from trimmings, cores, and other waste material is some- times added to canned tomatoes. It is the opinion of the board that pulp is not a normal ingredient of canned tomatoes, and such addition is therefore adulteration. It is the further opinion of the board that the addition of tomato juice in excess of the amount present in the tomatoes used is adulteration that is, if in the canning of a lot of tomatoes more juice be added than is present in that lot, the same will be considered an adultera- tion. R. E. DOOLITTLE, A. S. MITCHELL, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., May 22, 1912. . FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 146 ON THE USE OF SACCHARIN IN FOODS There appears to exist a misconception of the position of the Department of Agriculture as to the use of saccharin in foods as announced in Food Inspection Decision No. 142. That decision prohibits the use of saccharin in foods. The law defines the term " drug " and it is considered that saccharin has its proper place in products coming within this definition. It is recognized that certain specific products generally classified as foods, and sweetened with saccharin, may be re- quired for the mitigation or cure of disease. It is not intended to prohibit the manufacture or sale of such products, provided 526 FOOD PRODUCTS they are labeled so as to show their true purpose and the presence of saccharin is plainly declared upon the principal label. This must not be interpreted to mean that the use of saccharin in foods prepared for ordinary consumption is permissible even if declared on the label. R. E. DOOLITTLE. F. L. DUNLAP, A. S. MITCHELL, Board of Food and Drug Inspection. Approved : ^ JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. WASHINGTON, D. C., June 22, 1912. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 153 AMENDMENT TO REGULATION 9, RELATING TO GUARANTIES BY WHOLESALERS, JOBBERS, MANUFACTURERS, AND OTHER PARTIES RESIDING IN THE UNITED STATES TO PROTECT DEALERS FROM PROSECUTION Regulation 9 of the Rules and Regulations for the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 768), is hereby amended, effective May i, 1915, so as to read as follows : REGULATION 9- GUARANTY (Section 9.) (a) It having been determined that the legends " Guaranteed under the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906," and " Guaranteed by (name of guarantor), under the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906," borne on the labels or packages of food and drugs, accompanied by serial numbers given by the Secretary of Agri- culture, are each misleading and deceptive, in that the public is induced by such legends and serial numbers to believe that APPENDIX B 527 the articles to which they relate have been examined and approved by the Government and that the Government guarantees that they comply with the law, the use of either legend, or any similar legend, on labels or packages should be discontinued. Inasmuch as the acceptance by the Secretary of Agriculture for filing of the guaranties of manufacturers and dealers and the giving by him of serial numbers thereto contribute to the deceptive char- acter of legends on labels and packages, no guarantyin any form shall hereafter be filed with and no serial number shall hereafter be given to any guaranty by the Secretary of Agriculture. All guaranties now on file with the Secretary of Agriculture shall be stricken from the files, and the serial numbers assigned to such guaranties shall be canceled. (b) The use on the label or package of any food or drug of any serial number required to be canceled by paragraph (a) of this regulation is prohibited. (c) Any wholesaler, manufacturer, jobber, or other party residing in the United States may furnish to any dealer to whom he sells any article of food or drug a guaranty that such article is not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, as amended. (d) Each guaranty to afford protection shall be signed by, and shall contain the name and address of, the wholesaler, manufacturer, jobber, dealer, or other party residing in the United States making the sale of the article or articles covered by it to the dealer, and shall be to the effect that such article or articles are not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the Federal Food and Drugs Act. (e) Each guaranty in respect to any article or articles should be incorporated in or attached to the bill of sale, invoice, bill of lading, or other schedule, giving the names and quantities of the article or articles sold, and should not appear on the labels or packages. (/) No dealer in food or drug products will be liable to pros- 528 FOOD PRODUCTS ecution if he can establish that the articles were sold under a guaranty given in compliance with this regulation. W. G. McADOO, Secretary of the Treasury. D. F. HOUSTON, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM C. REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WASHINGTON, B.C., May 5, 1914. FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 154 REGULATION OF MARKING THE QUANTITY OF FOOD IN PACKAGE FORM Under section 3 of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906 (34 United States Statutes at Large, pages 768 to 7 7 2) , as amended by the Act of March 3, 1913, entitled " An Act to amend section eight of an Act entitled ' An Act for preventing the manu- facture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes,' approved June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and six " (37 United States Statutes at Large, page 732), Regulation 29 of the Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement' of the Food and Drugs Act is hereby amended so as to read as follows : STATEMENT OF WEIGHT, MEASURE, OR COUNT (Section 8, paragraph 3, under " Food," as amended by act of March 3, 1913.) (a) Except as otherwise provided by this regulation, the quantity of the contents, in all cases of food, if in package form, must be plainly and conspicuously marked, in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count, on the outside of the covering or container usually delivered to consumers. APPENDIX B 529 (b) The quantity of the contents so marked shall be the amount of food in the package. (c) The statement of the quantity of the contents shall be plain and conspicuous, shall not be a part of or obscured by any legend or design, and shall be so placed and in such characters as to be readily seen and clearly legible when the size of the package and the circumstances under which it is ordinarily examined by purchasers or consumers are taken into consid- eration. , (d) If the quantity of the contents be stated by weight or measure, it shall be marked in terms of the largest unit con- tained in the package; for example, if the package contain a pound, or pounds, and a fraction of a pound, the contents shall be expressed in terms of pounds and fractions thereof; or of pounds and ounces, and not merely in ounces. (e) Statements of weight shall be in terms of avoirdupois pounds and ounces ; statements of liquid measure shall be in terms of the United States gallon of 231 cubic inches and its customary subdivisions, i.e., in gallons, quarts, pints, or fluid ounces, and shall express the volume of the liquid at 68 F. (20 C.) ; and statements of dry measure shall be in terms of the United States standard bushel of 2,150.42 cubic inches and its customary subdivisions, i.e., in bushels, half bushels, pecks, quarts, pints, or half pints: Provided, That, by like method, such statements may be in terms of metric weight or measure. (/) The quantity of solids shall be stated in terms of weight and of liquids in terms of measure, except that in case of an article in respect to which there exists a definite trade custom otherwise, the statement may be in terms of weight or measure in accordance with such custom. The quantity of viscous or semi-solid foods, or of mixtures of solids and liquids, may be stated either by weight or measure, but the statement shall be definite and shall indicate whether the quantity is expressed in terms of weight or measure as, for example, " Weight 12 oz.," 2 M 530 FOOD PRODUCTS or " 12 oz. avoirdupois "; " Volume 12 ounces," or " 12 fluid ounces." (g) The quantity of the contents shall be stated in terms of weight or measure unless the package be marked by numerical count and such numerical count gives accurate information as to the quantity of the food in the package. (A) The quantity of the contents may be stated in terms of minimum weight, minimum measure, or minimum count, for example, " mininum weight 16 oz.," " minimum volume i gallon," or " not less than 4 oz." ; but in such case the statement must approximate the actual quantity and there shall be no tolerance below the stated minimum. (*') The following tolerances and variations from the quantity of the contents marked on the package shall be allowed : (1) Discrepancies due exclusively to errors in weighing, measuring, or counting which occur in packing conducted in compliance with good commercial practice. (2) Discrepancies due exclusively to differences in the capacity of bottles and similar containers resulting solely from unavoid- able difficulties in manufacturing such bottles or containers so as to be of uniform capacity : Provided, That no greater tolerance shall be allowed in case of bottles or similar containers which, because of their design, cannot be made of approximate uniform capacity than is allowed in case of bottles or similar containers which can be manufactured so as to be of approximate uniform capacity. (3) Discrepancies in weight or measure, due exclusively to differences in atmospheric conditions in various places, and which unavoidably result from the ordinary and customary exposure of the packages to evaporation or to the absorption tff water. Discrepancies under classes (i) and (2) of this paragraph shall be as often above as below the marked quantity. The reasonableness of discrepancies under class (3) of this paragraph will be determined on the facts in each case. APPENDIX B 531 (/') A package containing two avoirdupois ounces of food or less is " small " and shall be exempt from marking in terms of weight. (k) A package containing one fluid ounce of food or less is " small " and shall be exempt from marking in terms of measure. (0 When a package is not required by paragraph (g) to be marked in terms of either weight or measure, and the units of food therein are six or less, it shall, for the purpose of this reg- ulation, be deemed " small " and shall be exempt from marking in terms of numerical count. W. G. McADOO, Secretary of the Treasury. D. F. HOUSTON, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM C. REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WASHINGTON, D. C., May //, 79/4. CHANGING EFFECTIVE DATE OF FOOD INSPECTION DECISION NO. 153, WHICH AMENDS REGULATION 9, RELATING TO GUARANTIES BY WHOLESALERS, JOBBERS, MANUFAC- TURERS. AND OTHER PARTIES RESIDING IN THE UNITED STATES, TO PROTECT DEALERS FROM PROSECUTION The effective date of Food Inspection Decision No. 153, issued May 5, 1914, is hereby postponed until May i, 1916: Provided, That as to products packed and labeled prior to May i, 1916, in accordance with law and with the regulations in force prior to May 5, 1914, it shall become effective November i, 1916; And provided further, That compliance with the terms of Regulation 9 of the Rules and Regulations for the enforce- 532 FOOD PRODUCTS ment of the Food and Drugs Act as amended by Food Inspection Decision No. 153 will be permitted at any time after the date of this decision. C. S. HAMLIN, Acting Secretary of the Treasury. D. F. HOUSTON, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM C. REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WASHINGTON, D. C., May, 29, 1914. APPENDIX C METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUC- TION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK (Adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, May i, 1912.) HYGIENE OF THE DAIRY UNDER THE SUPERVISION AND CONTROL OF THE VETERINARIAN 1. Pastures or paddocks. Pastures or paddocks to which the cows have access shall be free from marshes or stagnant pools, crossed by no stream which might become dangerously contaminated, at sufficient distances from offensive conditions to suffer no bad effects from them, and shall be free from plants which affect the milk deleteriously. 2. Surroundings of buildings. The surroundings of all buildings shall be kept clean and free from accumulations of dirt, rubbish, decayed vegetable or animal matter or animal waste, and the stable yard shall be well drained. 3. Location of buildings. Buildings in which certified milk is produced and handled shall be so located as to insure proper shelter and good drainage, and at sufficient distance from other buildings, dusty roads, cultivated and dusty fields, and all other possible sources of contamination; provided, in the case of unavoidable proximity to dusty roads or fields, the exposed side shall be screened with cheesecloth. 4. Construction of stables. The stables shall be constructed so as to facili- tate the prompt and easy removal of waste products. The floors and plat- forms shall be made of cement or other nonabsorbent material and the gutters of cement only. The floors shall be properly graded and drained, and the manure gutters shall be from 6 to 8 inches deep and so placed in relation to the platform that all manure will drop into them. 5. The inside surface of the walls and all interior construction shall be smooth, with tight joints, and shall be capable of shedding water. The ceiling shall be of smooth material and dust tight. All horizontal and slant- ing surfaces which might harbor dust shall be avoided. 533 534 FOOD PRODUCTS 6. Drinking and feed troughs. Drinking troughs or basins shall be drained and cleaned each day, and feed troughs and mixing floors shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. 7. Stanchions. Stanchions, when used, shall be constructed of iron pipes or hard wood, and throat latches shall be provided to prevent the cows from lying down between the time of cleaning and the time of milking. 8. Ventilation. The cow stables shall be provided with adequate ven- tilation either by means of some approved artificial device, or by the sub- stitution of cheesecloth for glass in the windows, each cow to be provided with a minimum of 600 cubic feet of air space. 9. Windows. A sufficient number of windows shall be installed and so distributed as to provide satisfactory light and a maximum of sunshine, 2 feet square of window area to each 600 cubic feet of air space to represent the minimum. The coverings of such windows shall be kept free from dust and dirt. 10. Exclusion of flies, etc. All necessary measures should be taken to prevent the entrance of flies and other insects and rats and other vermin into all the buildings. 11. Exclusion of animals from the herd. No horses, hogs, dogs, or other animals or fowls shall be allowed to come in contact with the certified herd, either in the stables or elsewhere. 12. Bedding. No dusty or moldy hay or straw, bedding from horse stalls, or other unclean materials shall be used for bedding the cows. Only bedding which is clean, dry, and absorbent may be used, preferably shavings or straw. 13. Cleaning stable and disposal of manure. Soiled bedding and manure shall be removed at least twice daily, and the floors shall be swept and kept free from refuse. Such cleaning shall be done at least one hour before the milking time. Manure, when removed, shall be drawn to the field or tem- porarily stored in containers so screened as to exclude flies. Manure shall not be even temporarily stored within 300 feet of the barn or dairy building. 14. Cleaning of cows. Each cow in the herd shall be groomed daily, and no manure, mud, or filth shall be allowed to remain upon her during milking ; for cleaning, a vacuum apparatus is recommended. 15. Clipping. Long hairs shall be clipped from the udder and flanks of the cow and from the tail above the brush. The hair on the tail shall be cut so that.the brush may be well above the ground. 16. Cleaning of udders. The udders and teats of the cow shall be cleaned before milking ; they shall be washed with a cloth and water, and dry wiped with another clean sterilized cloth a separate cloth for drying each cow. 17. Feeding. All foodstuffs shall be kept in an apartment separate from APPENDIX C 535 and not directly communicating with the cow barn. They shall be brought into the barn only immediately before the feeding hour, which shall follow the milking. 1 8. Only those foods shall be used which consist of fresh, palatable, or nu- tritious materials, such as will not injure the health of the cows or unfavor- ably affect the taste or character of the milk. Any dirty or moldy food or food in a state of decomposition or putrefaction shall not be given. 19. A well-balanced ration shall be used, and all changes of food shall be made slowly. The first few feedings of grass, alfalfa, ensilage, green corn, or other green feeds shall be given in small rations and increased gradually to full ration. 20. Exercise. All dairy cows shall be turned out for exercise at least 2 hours in each 24 in suitable weather. Exercise yards shall be kept free from manure and other fifth. 21. Washing of hands. Conveniently located facilites shall be provided for the milkers to wash in before and during milking. 22. The hands of the milkers shall be thoroughly washed with soap, water, and brush and carefully dried on a clean towel immediately before milk- ing. The hands of the milkers shall be rinsed with clean water and carefully dried before milking each cow. The practice of moistening the hands with milk is forbidden. 23. Milking clothes. Clean overalls, jumper, and cap shall be worn during milking. They shall be washed or sterilized each day and used for no other purpose, and when not in use they shall be kept in a clean place, protected from dust and dirt. 24. Things to be avoided by milkers. While engaged about the dairy or in handling the milk employees shall not use tobacco nor intoxicating liquors. They shall keep their fingers away from their nose and mouth, and no milker shall permit his hands, fingers, lips, or tongue to come in contact with milk intended for sale. 25. During milking the milkers shall be careful not to touch anything but the clean top of the milking stool, the milk pail, and the cow's teats. 26. Milkers are forbidden to spit upon the walls or floors of stables, or upon the walls or floors of milk houses, or into the water used for cooling the milk or washing the utensils. , 27. Fore milk. The first streams from each teat shall be rejected, as this fore milk contains large numbers of bacteria. Such milk shall be collected into a separate vessel and not milked onto the floors or into the gutters. The milking shall be done rapidly and quietly, and the cows shall be treated kindly. 28. Milk and calving period. Milk from all cows shall be excluded for a period of 45 days before and 7 days after parturition. 536 FOOD PRODUCTS 29. Bloody and stringy milk. If milk from any cow is bloody and stringy or of unnatural appearance, the milk from that cow shall be rejected and the cow isolated from the herd until the cause of such abnormal appearance has been determined and removed, special attention being given in the meantime to the feeding or to possible injuries. If dirt gets into the pail, the milk shall be discarded and the pail washed before it is used. 30. Make-up of herd. No cows except those receiving the same super- vision and care as the certified herd shall be kept in the same barn or brought in contact with them. 31. Employees other than milkers. The requirements for milkers, relative to garments and cleaning of hands, shall apply to all other persons handling the milk, and children unattended by adults shall not be allowed in the dairy nor in the stable during milking. 32. Straining and strainers. Promptly after the milk is drawn it shall be removed from the stable to a clean room and then emptied from the milk pail to the can, being strained through strainers made of a double layer of finely meshed cheesecloth or absorbent cotton thoroughly sterilized. Several strainers shall be provided for each milking in order that they may be fre- quently changed. 33. Dairy building. A dairy building shall be provided which shall be located at a distance from the stable and dwelling prescribed by the local commission, and there shall be no hogpen, privy, or manure pile at a higher level or within 300 feet of it. 34. The dairy building shall be kept clean and shall not be used for pur- poses other than the handling and storing of milk and milk utensils. It shall be provided with light and ventilation, and the floors shall be graded and water-tight. 35. The dairy building shall be well lighted and screened and drained through well-trapped pipes. No animals shall be allowed therein. No part of the dairy building shall be used for dwelling or lodging purposes, and the bottling room shall be used for no other purpose than to provide a place for clean milk utensils and for handling the milk. During bottling this room shall be entered only by persons employed therein. The bottling room shall be kept scrupulously clean and free from odors. 36. Temperature of milk. Proper cooling to reduce the temperature to 45 F. shall be used, and aerators shall be so situated that they can be pro- tected ffom flies, dust, and odors. The milk shall be cooled immediately after being milked, and maintained at a temperature between 35 and 45 F. until delivered to the consumer. 37. Sealing of bottles. Milk, after being cooled and bottled, shall be immediately sealed in a manner satisfactory to the commission, but such APPENDIX C 537 seal shall include a sterile hood which completely covers the lip of the bottle. 38. Cleaning and sterilizing of bottles. The dairy building shall be pro- vided with approved apparatus for the cleansing and sterilizing of all bottles and utensils used in milk production. All bottles and utensils shall be thoroughly cleaned by hot water and sal soda, or equally pure agent, rinsed until the cleaning water is thoroughly removed, then exposed to live steam or boiling water at least 20 minutes, and then kept inverted until used, in a place free from dust and other contaminating materials. 39. Utensils. All utensils shall be so constructed as to be easily cleaned. The milk pail should preferably have an elliptical opening 5 by 7 inches in diameter. The cover of this pail should be so convex as to make the entire interior of the pail visible and accessible for cleaning. The pail shall be made of heavy seamless tin, and with seams which are flushed and made smooth by solder. Wooden pails, galvanized-iron pails, or pails made of rough, porous materials, are forbidden. All utensils used in milking shall be kept in good repair. 40. Water supply. The entire water supply shall be absolutely free from contamination, and shall be sufficient for all dairy purposes. It shall be pro- tected against flood or surface drainage, and shall be conveniently situated in relation to the milk house. 41. Privies, etc., in relation to water supply. Privies, pigpens, manure piles, and all other possible sources of contamination shall be so situated on the farm as to render impossible the contamination of the water supply, and shall be so protected by use of screens and other measures as to prevent their becoming breeding grounds for flies. 42. Toilet rooms. Toilet facilities for the milkers shall be provided and located outside of the stable or milk house. These toilets shall be properly screened, shall be kept clean, and shall be accessible to wash basins, water, nail brush, soap, and towels, and the milkers shall be required to wash and dry their hands immediately after leaving the toilet room. TRANSPORTATION 43. In transit the milk packages shall be kept free from dust and dirt. The wagon, trays, and crates shall be kept scrupulously clean. No bottles shall be collected from houses in which communicable diseases prevail, unless a separate wagon is used and under conditions prescribed by the depart- ment of health and the medical milk commission. 44. All certified milk shall reach the consumer within 30 hours after milking. 538 FOOD PRODUCTS VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF THE HERD 45. Tuberculin test. The herd shall be free from tuberculosis, as shown by the proper application of the tuberculin test. The test shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regulations of the United States Government, and all reactors shall be removed immediately from the farm. 1 46. No new animals shall be admitted to the herd without first having passed a satisfactory tuberculin test, made in accordance with the rules and regulations mentioned ; the tuberculin to be obtained and applied only by the official veterinarian of the commission. 47. Immediately following the application of the tuberculin test to a herd for the purpose of eliminating tuberculous cattle, the cow stable and exercis- ing yards shall be disinfected by the veterinary inspector in accordance with the rules and regulations of the United States Government. 48. A second tuberculin test shall follow each primary test after an inter- val of six months, and shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regu- lations mentioned. Thereafter, tuberculin tests shall be reapplied annually, but it is recommended that the retests be applied semiannually. 49. Identification of cows. Each dairy cow in each of the certified herds shall be labelled or tagged with a number or mark which will permanently identify her. 50. Herd-book record. Each cow in the herd shall be registered in a herd book, which register shall be accurately kept so that her entrance and de- parture from the herd and her tuberculin testing can be identified. 51. A copy of this herd-book record shall be kept in the hands of the veterinarian of the medical milk commission under which the dairy farm is operating, and the veterinarian shall be made responsible for the accuracy of this record. 52. Dates of tuberculin tests. The dates of the annual tuberculin tests shall be definitely arranged by the medical milk commission, and all of the results of such tests shall be recorded by the veterinarian and regularly re- ported to the secretary of the medical milk commission issuing the certificate. 53. The results of all tuberculin tests shall be kept on file by each medical milk commission, and a copy of all such tests shall be made available to the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions for statistical purposes. 54. The proper designated officers of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions should receive copies of reports of all of the annual, semi- annual/and other official tuberculin tests which are made and keep copies of the same on file and compile them annually for the use of the association. 1 See Circular of Instructions issued by the Bureau of Animal Industry for making tuberculin tests aud (or disinfection of premises. APPENDIX C 539 55. Disposition of cows sick with diseases other than tuberculosis. Cows having rheumatism, leucorrhea, inflammation of the uterus, severe diarrhea, or disease of the udder, or cows that from any other cause may be a menace to the herd shall be removed from the herd and placed in a building separate from that which may be used for the isolation of cows with tuberculosis, un- less such building has been properly disinfected since it was last used for this purpose. The milk from such cows shall not be used nor shall the cows be restored to the herd until permission has been given by the veterinary inspec- tor after a careful physical examination. 56. Notification of veterinary inspector. In the event of the occurrence of any of the diseases just described between the visits of the veterinary inspec- tor, or if at any time a number of cows become sick at one time in such a way as to suggest the outbreak of a contagious disease or poisoning, it shall be the duty of the dairyman to withdraw such sickened cattle from the herd, to destroy their milk, and to notify the veterinary inspector by telegraph or telephone immediately. 57. Emaciated cows. Cows that are emaciated from chronic diseases or from any cause that in the opinion of the veterinary inspector may endanger the quality of the milk shall be removed from the herd. BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS 58. Bacterial counts. Certified milk shall contain less than 10,000 bac- teria per cubic centimeter when delivered. In case a count exceeding 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter is found, daily counts shall be made, and if nor- mal counts are not restored within 10 days the certificate shall be suspended. 59. Bacterial counts shall be made at least once a week. 60. Collection of samples. The samples to be examined shall be obtained from milk as offered for sale and shall be taken by a representative of the milk commission. The samples shall be received in the original packages, in prop- erly iced containers, and they shall be so kept until examined, so as to limit as far as possible changes in their bacterial content. 61. For the purpose of ascertaining the temperature, a separate original package shall be used, and the temperature taken at the time of collecting the sample, using for the purpose a standardized thermometer graduated in the centigrade scale. 62. Interval between milking and plating. The examinations shall be made as soon after collection of the samples as possible, and in no case shall the interval between milking and plating the samples be longer than 40 hours. 63. Plating. The packages shall be opened with aseptic precautions after the milk has been thoroughly mixed by vigorously reversing and shaking the container 25 times. 540 FOOD PRODUCTS 64. Two plates at least shall be made for each sample of milk, and there shall also be made a control of each lot of medium and apparatus used at each testing. The plates shall be grown at 37 C. for 48 hours. 65. In making the plates there shall be used agar-agar media containing 1.5 per cent agar and giving a reaction of i.o to phenolphthalein. 1 66. Samples of milk for plating shall be diluted in the proportion of i part of milk to 99 parts of sterile water ; shake 25 times and plate i c. c. of the dilution. 1 67. Determination of taste and odor of milk. After the plates have been prepared and placed in the incubator, the taste and odor of the milk shall be determined after warming the milk to 100 F. 2 68. Counts. The total number of colonies on each plate should be counted, and the results expressed in multiples of the dilution factor. Colo- nies too small to be seen with the naked eye or with slight magnification shall not be considered in the count. 69. Records of bacteriologic tests. The results of all bacterial tests shall be kept on file by the secretary of each commission, copies of which should be made available annually for the use of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions. CHEMICAL STANDARDS AND METHODS The methods that must be followed in carrying out the chemical investi- gations essential to the protection of certified milk are so complicated that in order to keep the fees of the chemist at a reasonable figure, there must be eliminated from the examination those procedures which, whilst they might be helpful and interesting, are in no sense necessary. For this reason the determination of the water, the total solids, and the milk sugar is, not required as a part of the routine examination. 70. The chemical analyses shall be made by a competent chemist desig- nated by the medical milk commission. 71. Method of obtaining samples. The samples to be examined by the chemist shall have been examined previously by the bacteriologist desig- nated by the medical milk commission as to temperature, odor, taste, and bacterial content. 72. Fat standards. The fat standard for certified milk shall be 4 per cent, with a'permissible range of variation of from 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 1 Directions for laboratory work, included in the original report, are here omitted. 2 Should it be deemed desirable and necessary to conduct tests for sediment, the presence of special bacteria, or the number of leucocytes, the methods adopted by the committee of the American Public Health Association should be followed. APPENDIX C 541 73. The fat standard for certified cream shall be not less than 18 per cent. 74. If it is desired to sell higher fat-percentage milks or creams as certified milks or creams, the range of variation for such milks shall be 0.5 per cent on either side of the advertised percentage and the range of variations for such creams shall be 2 per cent on either side of the advertised percentage. 75. The fat content of certified milks and creams shall be determined at least once each month. 76. The methods recommended for this purpose are the Babcock, 1 the Leffmann-Beam, 1 and the Gerber. 1 77. Before condemning samples of milk which have fallen outside the limits allowed, the chemist shall have determined, by control ether extrac- tions, that his apparatus and his technique are reliable. 78. Protein standard. The protein standard for certified milk shall be 3.50 per cent, with a permissible range of variation of from 3 to 4 per cent. 79. The protein standard for certified cream shall correspond to the pro- tein standard for certified milk. 80. The protein content shall be determined only when any special con- sideration seems to the medical milk commission to make it desirable. 81. It shall be determined by the Kjeldahl method, using the Gunning or some other reliable modification, and employing the factor 6.25 in reckoning the protein from the nitrogen. 82. Coloring matter and preservatives. All certified milks and creams shall be free from adulteration, and coloring matter and preservatives shall not be added thereto. 83. Tests for the detection of added coloring matter shall be applied whenever the color of the milk or cream is such as to arouse suspicion. 84. Tests for the detection of formaldehyde, borax, and boracic acid shall be applied at least once each month. Occasionally application of tests for the detection of salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and the benzoates is also recom- mended. 85. Detection of heated milk. Certified milk or cream shall not be sub- jected to heat unless specially directed by the commission to meet emer- gencies. 86. Tests -to determine whether such milks and creams have been sub- jected to heat shall be applied at least once each month. 87. Specific gravity. The specific gravity of certified milk shall range from 1.029 to 1.034. 88. The specific gravity shall be determined at least each month. 1 Directions for laboratory work, included in the original report, are here omitted. 542 FOOD PRODUCTS METHODS AND REGULATIONS FOR THE MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF EMPLOYEES. THEIR HEALTH AND PERSONAL HYGIENE 89. A medical officer, known as the attending dairy physician, shall be selected by the commission, who should reside near the dairy producing certi- fied milk. He shall be a physician in good standing and authorized by law to practice medicine ; he shall be responsible to the commission and subject to its direction. In case more than one dairy is under the control of the com- mission and they are in different localities, a separate physician should be designated for employment for the supervision of each dairy. 90. Before any person shall come on the premises to live and remain as an employee, such person, before being engaged in milking or the handling of milk, shall be subjected to a complete physical examination by the attending physician. No person shall be employed who has not been vaccinated re- cently or who upon examination is found to have a sore throat, or to be suffer- ing from any form of tuberculosis, venereal disease, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, dysentery, or who has recently had typhoid fever or is proved to be a typhoid carrier, or who has any inflammatory disease of the respiratory tract, or any suppurative process or infectious skin eruption, or any disease of an infectious or contagious nature, or who has recently been associated with children sick with contagious disease. 91. In addition to ordinary habits of personal cleanliness all milkers shall have well-trimmed hair, wear close-fitting caps, and have clean-shaven faces. 92. When the milkers live upon the premises their domitories shall be con- structed and operated according to plans approved by the commission. A separate bed shall be provided for each milker and each bed shall be kept sup- plied with clean bedclothes. Proper bathing facilities shall be provided for all employees on the dairy premises, preferably a shower bath, and frequent bathing shall be enjoined. 93. In case the employees live on the dairy premises a suitable building shall be provided to be used for the isolation and quarantine of persons under suspicion of having a contagious disease. The following plan of construction is recommended : The quarantine building and hospital should be one story high and contain at least two rooms, each with a capacity of about 6,000 cubic feet and con- taining not more than three beds each, the rooms to be separated by a closed partition. The doors opening into the rooms should be on opposite sides of the building and provided with locks. The windows should be barred and the sash should be at least 5 feet from the ground and constructed for proper ventilation. The walls should be of a material which will allow proper dis- infection. The floor should be of painted or washable wood, preferably of concrete, and so constructed that the floor ma}' be flushed and properly dis- APPENDIX C 543 infected. Proper heating, lighting, and ventilating facilities should be pro- vided. 94. In the event of any illness of a suspicious nature the attending physi- cian shall immediately quarantine the suspect, notify the health authorities and the secretary of the commission, and examine each member of the dairy force, and in every inflammatory affection of the nose or throat occurring among the employees of the dairy, in addition to carrying out the above- mentioned program, the attending physician shall take a culture and have it examined at once by a competent bacteriologist approved by the commis- sion. Pending such examination, the affected employee or employees shall be quarantined. 95. It shall be the duty of the secretary, on receiving notice of any sus- picious or contagious disease at the dairy, at once to notify the committee having in charge the medical supervision of employees of the dairy farm upon which such disease has developed. On receipt of the notice this committee shall assume charge of the matter, and shall have power to act for the com- mission as its judgment dictates. As soon as possible thereafter, the com- mittee shall notify the commission, through its secretary, that a special meeting may be called for ultimate consideration and action. 96. When a case of contagious disease is found among the employees of a dairy producing certified milk under the control of a medical milk commis- sion, such employee shall be at once quarantined and as soon as possible removed from the plant, and the premises fumigated. When a case of contagion is found on a certified dairy it is advised that a printed notice of the facts shall be sent to every householder using the milk, giving in detail the precautions taken by the dairyman under the direction of the commission, and it is further advised that all milk produced at such dairy shall be heated at 145 F. for 40 minutes, or 155 F. for 30 minutes, or 167 F. for 20 minutes, and immediately cooled to 50 F. These facts should also be part of the notice, and such heating of the milk should be continued during the accepted period of incubation for such contagious disease. The following method of fumigation is recommended : After all windows and doors are closed and the cracks sealed by strips of paper applied with flour paste, and the various articles in the room so hung or placed as to be exposed on all sides, preparations should be made to generate formaldehyde gas by the use of 20 ounces of formaldehyde and 10 ounces of permanganate of potash for every i ,000 cubic feet of space to be disinfected. For mixing the formaldehyde and potassium permanganate a large gal- vanized-iron pail or cylinder holding at least 20 quarts and having a flared top should be used for mixing therein 20 ounces of formaldehyde and 10 ounces of permanganate. A cylinder at least 5 feet high is suggested. The containers should be placed about in the rooms and the necessary quantity of 544 FOOD PRODUCTS permanganate weighed and placed in them. The formaldehyde solution for each pail should then be measured into a wide-mouthed cup and placed by the pail in which it is to be used. Although the reaction takes place quickly, by making preparations as advised all of the pails can be " set off " promptly by one person, since there is nothing to do but pour the formaldehyde solution over the permanganate. The rooms should be kept closed for four hours. As there is a slight danger of fire, the reaction should be watched through a window or the pails placed on a noninflammable surface. 97. Following a weekly medical inspection of the employees, a monthly report shall be submitted to the secretary of the medical milk commission, on the same recurring date by the examining visiting physician. The following schedule, filled out in writing and signed by himself, is recommended as a suitable form for the attending physician's report This is to certify that, on the dates below indicated, official visits were made to the dairy, owned and conducted by of (indicating town and State) , where careful inspections of the dairy employees were made. (a) Number and dates of visits since last report. . (b) Number of men employed on the plant. . (c) Has a recent epidemic of contagion occurred near the dairy, and what was its nature and extent ? . (d) Have any cases of contagious or infectious disease occurred among the men since the last report ? (e) Disposition of such cases. (/) What individual sickness has occurred among the men since the last report ? . (g) Disposition of such cases. (h) Number of employees now quarantined for sickness. (i) Describe the personal hygiene of the men employed for milking when prepared for and during the process of milking. (./) What facilities are provided for sickness in employees ? . (k) General hygienic condition of the dormitories or houses of the em- ployees. . (/) Suggestions for improvement. . . (m) What is the hygienic condition of the employees and their surround- ings ? . () How many employees were examined at each of the foregoing visits ? (0) Remarks. Attending Physician. Date, . APPENDIX D FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION THE MEAT-INSPECTION LAW [Extract from an act of Congress entitled " An act making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and seven," approved June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 674).] That for the purpose of preventing the use in interstate or foreign com- merce, as hereinafter provided, of meat and meat food products which are unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, the Secretary of Agriculture, at his discretion, may cause to be made, by inspec- tors appointed for that purpose, an examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats before they shall be allowed to enter into any slaugh- tering, packing, meat-canning, rendering, or similar establishment, in which they are to be slaughtered and the meat and meat food products thereof are to be used in interstate or foreign commerce ; and all cattle, swine, sheep, and goats found on such inspection to show symptoms of disease shall be set apart and slaughtered separately from all other cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, and when so slaughtered the carcasses of said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats shall be subject to a careful examination and inspection, all as provided by the rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture as herein provided for. That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose, as herein- after provided, a post-mortem examination and inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats to be prepared for, human consumption at any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing rendering, or similar establishment in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia for transportation or sale as articles of interstate or foreign com- merce ; and the carcasses and parts thereof of all such animals found to be 2 N 545 546 FOOD PRODUCTS sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food shall be marked, stamped, tagged, or labeled as "Inspected and Passed;" and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as " Inspected and Condemned," all carcasses and parts thereof of animals found to be unsound, unhealthf ul, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food ; and all carcasses and parts thereof thus inspected and condemned shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an inspector, and the Secretary of Agricul- ture may remove inspectors from any such establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass or part thereof, and said inspectors, after said first inspection shall, when they deem it necessary, reinspect said carcasses or parts thereof to determine whether since the first inspection the same have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way unfit for human food, and if any carcass or any part thereof shall, upon examina- tion and inspection subsequent to the first examination and inspection, be found to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove in- spectors from any establishment which fails to so destroy any such con- demned carcass or part thereof. The foregoing provisions shall apply to all carcasses or parts of carcasses of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the meat or meat products thereof which may be brought into any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment, and such examination and inspection shall be had before the said carcasses or parts thereof shall be allowed to enter into any department wherein the same are to be treated and prepared for meat food products ; and the foregoing provisions shall also apply to all such products which, after having been issued from any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establish- ment, shall be returned to the same or to any similar establishment where such inspection is maintained. That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose an examina- tion and inspection of all meat food products prepared for interstate or for- eign commerce in any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, render- ing, or similar establishment, and for the purposes of any examination and inspection said inspectors shall have access at all times, by day or night, whether the establishment be operated or not, to every part of said establish- ment ; and said inspectors shall mark, stamp, tag, or label as " Inspected and Passed" all such products found to be sound, healthful, and wholesome, and which contain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat or meat food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or APPENDIX D 547 unfit for human food ; and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as "Inspected and Condemned" all such products found unsound, unhealthful, and unwholesome, or which contain dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredi- ents which render such meat or meat food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit for human food, and all such condemned meat food products shall be destroyed for food purposes, as hereinbefore provided, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment which fails to so destroy such condemned meat food products : Provided, That, subject to the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, the provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food prod- ucts for export to any foreign country and which are prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign purchaser, when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported ; but if said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consump- tion, then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of all the other provisions of this act. That when any meat or meat food product prepared for interstate or foreign commerce which has been inspected as hereinbefore provided and marked "Inspected and Passed" shall be placed or packed in any can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where in- spection under the provisions of this act is maintained, the person, firm, or corporation preparing said product shall cause a label to be attached to said can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or covering, under the supervision of an inspector, which label shall state that the contents thereof have been " Inspected and Passed " under the provisions of this act ; and no inspection and examination of meat or meat food products deposited OP inclosed in cans, tins, pots, canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspection under the provisions of this act is maintained shall be deemed to be complete until such meat or meat food products have been sealed or inclosed in said can, tin, pot, canvas, or other receptacle or covering under the supervision of an inspector, and no such meat or meat food prod- ucts shall be sold or offered for sale by any person, firm, or corporation in interstate or foreign commerce under any false or deceptive name; but established trade name or names which are usual to such products and which are not false and deceptive and which shall be approved by the Secretary of Agriculture are permitted. The Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made, by experts in sanita- tion or by other competent inspectors, such inspection of all slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishments in which cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are slaughtered and the meat and meat food 548 FOOD PRODUCTS products thereof are prepared for interstate or foreign commerce as may bt necessary to inform himself concerning the sanitary conditions of the same, and to prescribe the rules and regulations of sanitation under which such establishments shall be maintained ; and where the sanitary conditions of any such establishment are such that the meat or meat food products are rendered unclean, unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, he shall refuse to allow said meat or meat food products to be labeled, marked, stamped, or tagged as "Inspected and Passed." That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause an examination and inspec- tion of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the food products thereof, slaughtered and prepared in the establishments hereinbefore described for the purposes of interstate or foreign commerce to be made during the night- time as well as during the daytime when the slaughtering of said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the preparation of said food products is conducted during the night time. That on and after October first, nineteen hundred and six, no person, firm, or corporation shall transport or offer for transportation, and no carrier of interstate or foreign commerce shall transport or receive for transportation from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to any other State or Territory of the District of Columbia, or to any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, or to any foreign country, any carcasses or parts thereof, meat, or meat food products thereof which have not been inspected, exam- ined, and marked as " Inspected and Passed," in accordance with the terms of this act and with the rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture : Provided, That all meat and meat food products on hand on October first/ nineteen hundred and six, at establishments where inspection has not been maintained, or which have been inspected under existing law, shall be examined and labeled under such rules and regulations as the Secre- tary of Agriculture shall prescribe, and then shall be allowed to be sold in interstate or foreign commerce. That no person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee thereof shall forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely rep resent, or shall without proper authority use, fail to use, or detach, or shall knowingly or wrongfully alter, deface, or destroy, or fail to deface or destroy, any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels , or other identification devices provided for in this act, or in and as directed t>y the rules and regulations prescribed hereunder by the Secretary of Agriculture, on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the food product, or containers thereof, subject to the provisions of this act, or any certificate in relation thereto, authorized or required by this act or by the said rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. APPENDIX D 549 That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made a careful inspec- tion of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats intended and offered for export to foreign countries at such times and places, and in such manner as he may deem proper, to ascertain whether such cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are free from disease. And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give an official certificate clearly stating the condition in which such cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are found. And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board cattle, sheep, swine, or goats for export to a foreign country until the owner or shipper of such cattle, sheep, swine, or goats has a certificate from the inspector herein authorized to be appointed, stating that the said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats are sound and healthy, or unless the Secretary of Agriculture shall have waived the requirement of such certificate for export to the particular country to which such cattle, sheep, swine, or goats are to be exported. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall also cause to be made a careful inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, the meat of which, fresh, salted, canned, corned, packed, cured, or otherwise prepared, is intended and offered for export to any foreign country, at such times and places and in such manner as he may deem proper. And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give an official certificate stating the condition in which said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, and the meat thereof, are found. And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board any fresh, salted, canned, corned, or packed beef, mutton, pork, or goat meat, being the meat of animals killed after the passage of this act, or except as herein- before provided for export to and sale in a foreign country from any port in the United States, until the owner or shipper thereof shall obtain from an inspector appointed under the provisions of this act a certificate that the said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats were sound and healthy at the time of inspection, and that their meat is sound and wholesome, unless the Secretary of Agri- culture shall have waived the requirements of such certificate for the country to which said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or meats are to be exported. That the inspectors provided for herein shall be authorized to give official certificates of the sound and wholesome condition of the cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, their carcasses and products as herein described, and one copy of every certificate granted under the provisions of this act shall be filed in the Department of Agriculture, another copy shall be delivered to the owner or shipper, and when the cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or their carcasses and products are sent abroad, a third copy shall be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel on which the shipment shall be made. 550 FOOD PRODUCTS That no person, firm, or corporation engaged in the interstate commerce of meat or meat food products shall transport or offer for transportation, sell or offer to sell any such meat or meat food products in any State or Territory or in the District of Columbia or any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, other than in the State or Territory or in the District of Colum- bia or any place under the jurisdiction of the United States in which the slaughtering, packing, canning, rendering, or other similar establishment owned, leased, operated by said firm, person, or corporation is located unless and until said person, firm, or corporation shall have complied with all of the provisions of this act. That any person, firm, or corporation, or any officer or agent of any such person, firm, or corporation, who shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished on con- viction thereof by a fine of not exceeding ten thousand dollars or imprison- ment for a period not more than two years or by both such fine and imprison- ment, in the discretion of the court. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall appoint from time to time inspec- tors to make examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, the inspection of which is hereby provided for, and of all carcasses and parts thereof, and of all meats and meat food products thereof, and of the sanitary conditions of all establishments in which such meat and meat food products hereinbefore described are prepared; and said inspectors shall refuse to stamp, mark, tag, or label any carcass or any part thereof, or meat food prod- uct therefrom, prepared in any establishment hereinbefore mentioned, until the same shall have actually been inspected and found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food, and to contain no dyes, chemi- cals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat food product un- sound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit for human food ; and to have been prepared under proper sanitary conditions, hereinbefore provided for ; and shall perform such other duties as are provided by this act and by the rules and regulations to be prescribed by said Secretary of Agriculture ; and said Secretary of Agriculture shall, from time to time, make such rules and regu- lations as are necessary for the efficient execution of the provisions of this act, and all inspections and examinations made under this act shall be such and made in such manner as described in the rules and regulations prescribed by said Secretary of Agriculture not inconsistent with the provisions of this act. That any person, firm, or corporation, or any agent or employee of any person, firm, or corporation, who shall give, pay, or offer, directly or indirectly, to any inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or any other officer or employee of the United States authorized to perform any of the duties pre- APPENDIX D 551 scribed by this act or by the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agricul- ture any money or other thing of value, with intent to influence said inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or employee of the United States in the discharge of any duty herein provided for, shall be deemed guilty of a felony and, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine not less than five thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years ; and any inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or employee of the United States authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act who shall accept any money, gift, or other thing of value from any person, firm, or corporation, or officers, agents, or employees thereof, given with intent to influence his official action, or who shall receive or accept from any person, firm, or corporation engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any gift, money, or other thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatso- ever, shall be deemed guilty of a felony and shall, upon conviction thereof, be summarily discharged from office and shall be punished by a fine not less than one thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and by im- prisonment not less than one year nor more than three years. That the provisions of this act requiring inspection to be made by the Secretary of Agriculture shall not apply to animals slaughtered by any farmer on the farm and sold and transported as interstate or foreign com- merce, nor to retail butchers and retail dealers in meat and meat food prod- ucts, supplying their customers : Provided, That if any person shall sell or offer for sale or transportation for interstate or foreign commerce any meat or meat food products which are diseased, unsound, unhealthful, unwhole- some, or otherwise unfit for human food, knowing that such meat food prod- ucts are intended for human consumption, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thou- sand dollars or by imprisonment for a period of not exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment : Provided also, That the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to maintain the inspection in this act provided for at any slaughtering, meat canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar, establishment notwithstanding this exception, and that the persons operat- ing the same may be retail butchers and retail dealers or farmers ; and where the Secretary of Agriculture shall establish such inspection then the pro- visions of this act shall apply notwithstanding this exception. That there is permanently appropriated, out of any money in the Treas- ury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of three million dollars, for the expenses of the inspection of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats and the meat and meat food products thereof which enter into interstate or foreign commerce and for all expenses necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this act 552 FOOD PRODUCTS relating to meat inspection, including rent and the employment of labor in Washington and elsewhere, for each year. And the Secretary of Agriculture shall, in his annual estimates made to Congress, submit a statement in detail, showing the number of persons employed in such inspections and the salary or per diem paid to each, together with the contingent expenses of such inspectors and where they have been and are employed. EXTRACTS FROM MEAT INSPECTION REGULATIONS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY Order 211 [Effective November i, 1914.] ******* Regulation 8. Sanitation SECTION i. Prior to the inauguration of inspection, an examination of the establishment and premises shall be made by a bureau l employee and the requirements for sanitation and the necessary facilities for inspection specified. SECTION 2. Triplicate copies of plans, properly drawn to scale, and of specifications, including plumbing and drainage, for remodeling plants of official establishments and for new structures, shall be submitted to the chief of bureau in advance of construction. SECTION 3. Paragraph i. Official establishments, establish- ments at which market inspection is conducted, and premises on or in which any meat or product is prepared or handled by or for persons to whom certificates of exemption have been issued, shall be maintained in sanitary condition, and to this end the requirements of paragraphs 2 to 8, inclusive, of this section shall be complied with. 1 Throughout the regulations the word bureau is used to designate the Bureau of Animal Industry. APPENDIX D 553 Paragraph 2. There shall be abundant light, both natural and artificial, and sufficient ventilation for all rooms and compart- ments, to insure sanitary condition. Paragraph j. There shall be an efficient drainage and plumb- ing system for the establishment and premises, and all drains and gutters shall be properly installed with approved traps and vents. Paragraph 4. The water supply shall be ample, clean, and potable, with adequate facilities for its distribution in the plant. Every establishment shall make known, and whenever required shall afford opportunity for inspection of, the source of its water supply and the location and character of its reser- voir and storage tanks. Paragraph 5. The floors, walls, ceilings, partitions, posts, doors, and other parts of all structures shall be of such mate- rials, construction, and finish as will make them susceptible of being readily and thoroughly cleaned. The floors shall be kept water-tight. The rooms and compartments used for edible products shall be separate and distinct from those used for inedible products. Paragraph 6. The rooms and compartments in which any meat or product is prepared or handled shall be free from odors from dressing and toilet rooms, catch basins, hide cellars, casing rooms, inedible tank and fertilizer rooms, and stables. Paragraph 7. Every practicable precaution shall be taken to keep establishments free of flies, rats, mice, and other vermin. The use of rat poisons is prohibited in rooms or compartments where any unpacked meat or product is stored or handled; but their use is not forbidden in hide cellars, inedible compart- ments, outbuildings, or similar places, or in storerooms contain- ing canned or tierced products. So-called rat viruses shall not be used in any part of an establishment or the premises thereof. Paragraph 8. Dogs shall not be admitted into official estab- lishments except, upon permission of the inspector in charge, for 554 FOOD PRODUCTS the purpose of destroying rats. Dogs which are admitted shall be kept free from tapeworm infestation. Such examinations shall be made to determine freedom from infestation as the chief of bureau may prescribe. Contamination by the excreta of these animals shall not be permitted, nor shall the dogs be al- lowed to eat the raw viscera of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats. SECTION 4. Adequate sanitary facilities and accommodations shall be furnished by every official establishment. Of these the following are specifically required : (a) Dressing rooms, toilet rooms, and urinals, sufficient in number, ample in size, conveniently located, properly ventilated, and meeting all requirements as to sanitary construction and equipment. These shall be separate from the rooms and compartments in which meat and products are prepared, stored, or handled. Where both sexes are employed, separate facilities shall be provided. (b) Modern lavatory accommodations, including running hot and cold water, soap, towels, etc. These shall be placed in or near toilet and urinal rooms and also at such other places in the establishment as may be essential to assure cleanliness of all persons handling any meat or product. (c) Properly located facilities for disinfecting and cleansing utensils and hands of all persons handling any meat or product. (d) Cuspidors of such shape as not readily to be upset and of such material as to be readily disinfected. They shall be suffi- cient in number and accessibly placed in all rooms and places designated by the inspector in charge, and all persons who expectorate shall be required to use them. SECTION 5. Equipment and utensils used for preparing, proc- essing, and otherwise handling any meat or product shall be of such materials and construction as will make them susceptible of being readily and thoroughly cleaned and such as will insure strict cleanliness in the preparation and handling of all meat and products. Trucks and receptacles used for inedible prod- APPENDIX D 555 ucts shall bear some conspicuous and distinctive mark and shall not be used for handling edible products. SECTION 6. Rooms, compartments, places, equipment, and utensils used for preparing, storing, or otherwise handling any meat or product, and all other parts of the establishment, shall be kept clean and sanitary. SECTION 7. Paragraph i. Operations and procedures involv- ing the preparation, storing, or handling of any meat or product shall be strictly in accord with cleanly and sanitary methods. Paragraph 2. Rooms and compartments in which inspections are made and those in which animals are slaughtered or any meat or product is processed or prepared shall be kept sufficiently free of steam and vapors to enable bureau employees to make inspections and to insure cleanly operations. The walls and ceilings of rooms and compartments under refrigeration shall be kept reasonably free from moisture. Paragraph 3. Butchers and others who dress or handle diseased carcasses or parts shall, before handling or dressing other carcasses or parts, cleanse their hands of grease, immerse them in a prescribed disinfectant, and rinse them in clean water. Implements used in dressing diseased carcasses shall be thor- oughly cleansed in boiling water or in a prescribed disinfectant, followed by rinsing in clean water. The employees of the establishment who handle any meat or product shall keep their hands clean, and in all cases after visiting the toilet rooms or urinals shall wash their hands before handling any meat or product or implements used in the preparation of the same. Paragraph 4. Aprons, frocks, and other outer clothing worn by persons who handle any meat or product shall be of material that is readily cleansed, and only clean garments shall be worn. Knife scabbards shall be kept clean. Paragraph 5. Such practices as spitting on whetstones, placing skewers or knives in the mouth, inflating lungs or cas- 556 FOOD PRODUCTS ings, or testing with air from the mouth such receptacles as tierces, kegs, casks, and the like, containing or intended as containers of any meat or product, are prohibited. Only me- chanical means may be used for testing. SECTION 8. The wagons and cars in which any meat or prod- uct is transported shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condi- tion. Wagons used in transferring loose meat and products between official establishments shall be closed or so covered that the contents shall be kept clean. SECTION 9. Paragraph i. Second-hand tubs, barrels, and boxes intended for use as containers of any meat or product shall be inspected when received at the establishment and be- fore they are cleaned. Those showing evidence of misuse ren- dering them unfit to serve as containers for food products shall be rejected. The use of those showing no evidence of previous misuse may be allowed after they have been thoroughly and properly cleaned. Steaming, after thorough scrubbing and rinsing, is essential to cleaning tubs and barrels. Paragraph 2. Interiors of tank cars about to be used for the transportation of any meat food product shall be carefully inspected for cleanliness even though the last previous content was edible. Lye and soda solutions used in cleaning must be thoroughly removed by rinsing with clean water. In their examinations bureau employees shall enter the tank with a light and examine all parts of the interior. SECTION 10. The outer premises of every official establish- ment, embracing docks and areas where cars and wagons are loaded, and the driveways, approaches, yards, pens, and alleys, shall be properly drained and kept in clean and orderly con- dition. All catch basins on the premises shall be of such con- struction and location and be given such attention as will insure their being kept in acceptable condition as regards odors and cleanliness. The accumulation on the premises of establish- ments of any material in which flies may breed, such as hog hair, APPENDIX D 557 bones, paunch contents, or manure, is forbidden. No nuisance shall be allowed in any establishment or on its premises. SECTION n. No establishment shall employ in any depart- ment where any meat or product is handled or prepared any person affected with tuberculosis or other communicable disease. SECTION 12. When necessary, bureau employees shall attach a "U. S. rejected" tag to any equipment or utensil which is insanitary, or the use of which would be in violation of these regulations. No equipment or utensil so tagged shall again be used until made sanitary. Such tag so placed shall not be removed by any one other than a bureau employee. Regulation 9. Ante-mortem Inspection SECTION i. Paragraph i. An ante-mortem examination and inspection shall be made of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats about to be slaughtered in an official establishment before their slaughter shall be allowed. SECTION 2. Paragraph i. All animals plainly showing on ante-mortem inspection any disease or condition that under these regulations would cause condemnation of their carcasses on post-mortem inspection shall be marked "U. S. condemned" and disposed of in accordance with section 8 of this regulation. ******* SECTION 3. All animals required by these regulations to be treated as suspects, or to be marked as suspects, or to be marked so as to retain their identity as suspects, shall be marked by or under the supervision of a bureau employee, "U. S. suspect," or with such other distinctive mark or marks to indicate that they are suspects as the chief of bureau may adopt. No such mark shall be removed except by a bureau employee. 558 FOOD PRODUCTS SECTION 8. Animals marked "U. S. condemned" shall be killed by the establishment, if not already dead, and shall not be taken into an establishment to be slaughtered or dressed, nor shall they be conveyed into any department o the establish- ment used for edible products, but they shall be disposed of and tanked in the manner provided for condemned carcasses. . . . Regulation 10. Post-mortem Inspection SECTION i. A careful post-mortem examination and inspec- tion shall be made of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats slaughtered at official establishments. SECTION 3. Paragraph i. Each carcass, including all parts and detached organs thereof, in which any lesion of disease or other condition is found that might render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes, and which for that reason would require a subsequent inspection, shall be retained by the bureau employee at the time of inspection and taken to the place desig- nated for final inspection. ******* SECTION 4. Each carcass or part which is found on final in- spection to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food shall be conspicuously marked on the surface tissues thereof by a bureau employee at the time of inspection "U. S. inspected and condemned." Condemned detached organs and parts of such character that they cannot be so marked shall be immediately placed in trucks or recep- tacles' which shall be kept plainly marked " U. S. inspected and condemned " in letters not less than 2 inches high. All con- demned carcasses, parts, and organs shall remain in the custody of a bureau employee and shall be tanked as required in these APPENDIX D 559 regulations at or before the close of the day on which they are condemned, or be locked in the "U. S. condemned" room or compartment. Condemned articles shall not be allowed to accumulate unnecessarily in the condemned room or compart- ment. SECTION 5. Paragraph i. Carcasses and parts passed for sterilization shall be conspicuously marked on the surface tissues thereof by a bureau employee at the time of inspection "Passed for sterilization." All such carcasses and parts shall be steri- lized in accordance with regulation 15 and until so sterilized shall remain in the custody of a bureau employee. Paragraph 2. In all cases where carcasses showing localized lesions of disease are passed for food or for sterilization the diseased parts shall be removed before the "U. S. retained" tag is taken from the carcass, and such parts shall be condemned. Regulation 15. Rendering Carcasses and Parts into Lard and Tallow, and Other Sterilization SECTION i. Carcasses and parts passed for sterilization may be rendered into lard or tallow provided that such rendering is done in the following manner : The lower opening of the tank shall first be securely sealed by a bureau employee, then the carcasses or parts shall be placed in the tank in his presence, after which the upper opening shall be securely sealed by such employee, who shall then see that a sufficient force of steam is turned into the tank. Such carcasses and parts shall be cooked at a temperature not lower than 220 F. for a time sufficient to render them effectually into lard or tallow. SECTION 2. Establishments not equipped with steaming tanks for rendering carcasses and parts into lard or tallow as provided in section i of this regulation may render such car- casses or parts in open kettles under the direct supervision of a bureau employee. Such rendering shall be done at a temper- 560 FOOD PRODUCTS ature and for a time sufficient to render the carcasses and parts effectually into lard or tallow, and shall be done only during regular hours of work. SECTION 3. Paragraph i. Carcasses and parts passed for sterilization and which are not rendered into lard or tallow may be utilized for food purposes provided they are first sterilized by methods, and handled and marked in a manner approved by the chief of bureau. Paragraph 2. Any carcasses or parts prepared in com- pliance with paragraph i of this section may be canned if the container be plainly and conspicuously marked so as to show that the product is second grade, class, or quality and has been sterilized. APPENDIX E TABLE OF loo-CALORIE PORTIONS EXPLANATION or TABLE. The first column of figures in the table gives the number of loo-Calorie portions in one pound of the food as purchased. The next four columns show the weight of food which yields 100 Calories, i.e. the weight of the 100- Calorie portion, both in ounces and in grams, and both for the material as purchased and for the edible portion. Next follow columns showing the amounts of protein (in Calories and in grams) and the amounts of calcium, calculated as CaO, phos- phorus, calculated as P2O 5 , and iron, calculated as Fe, in the 100- Calorie portion. Finally there is given the balance of acid- forming and base-forming elements contained in the loo-Calorie portion, expressed as excess of acid or of base and stated in terms of the units explained on pages 352 and 353. It is estimated that meats contain 0.00075 gram of CaO, 0.023 gram P 2 5 , 0.00015 gram Fe, and yield 0.5 unit of excess acid for every gram of protein; and that fish contain 0.0015 gram CaO, 0.025 gram P^O 5 , 0.00004 gram Fe, and yield 0.5 unit of excess acid for every gram of protein. These estimates have been used in calculating the figures given for the different cuts of meat and for the different kinds of fish. 20 561 562 FOOD PRODUCTS 00 PQ W < O \O vo *o o s ^ s 8 888888888 3 r < u; q q q o' o; M 6 o o q o q q o" M M o p JJ M " ^COM UOtlJOd lOO'tMvO O co\O MOOOO OO ONOO M COO j M lOCOt^COlOM M O t- vo c< O .oi 01 00^9>00>OrotoOt^c*Ok^eOO o! to oi o! od if) ir) t~- r<) \T) 06 T}- O\ t*. ri uo \o TJ- to ^f >*"> o M to >O O fO oOOOOOfOOOO^OOi'^' < ^-t^.oi o o MOO oroOTj-OOOO ^OM MO rJ-MoOOO M 1000 MvO VOM NOO O t^>ovO t^OO co^< O >O OMOOMOOMOMMMQMOOOOOOOIOMM ooooooooooooooooooooooo O> vo 01 M\O 01 01 ^ *f O ^-MVO OOO M 01 t-~ f~ O inioOOOvO M M T$- t^ iy> *o vo M o *o *o 0*000 o*^t* i oo to oo *o oo M o to*o too o MO ^toivo T(-TfO >oO OO O OOO 01 01 >*ont^t^'tvO O^^J-t~-O> tO^J-tototo>oiot^-to>or^r)-O O*t^>ovO ^-Tj-tooiooi oi\ooO rf Tf OoOi^OOioO^OOOO^tO o>OOOOHiooit^O^MO^Or^t^. Tj-iototOvOOvOMTj-\Ot^OO toOOvOOOOiOTfiOvOtoolt^oOiO O\oioO tovO HI M r~.ro*O >OM M t^toO Ol Ot-~ MlOOt^MTftOOOMOIMOO Mt^-O^MTj-^J-OOMrl-OvtOlOt^M ^OtootMOvTj-oo^MtoO* O\O^OMMCO^O'TOO^'OO OO - c c I s , PHI ill -x- jla ' J --- J SI 1 11 1 ! I-i ^ I s . a till! 1J ill I -61 ei 5 ^ J la ail,a5 J a a , S.'c'c'e 2 a 2 B 564 FOOD PRODUCTS * OO 10 rooo \O T 4'fO l OM co oOOOO O O O O O O O f PnO MO O>-IM ! OMQO O ** o 10 o oo Tt" O *O O t^lOCOCS O M M M O ^ COCOCOCOCOM O u-)^-t~-.up lyl t^r^^-r^r^M M *> *O <*><*> ^ ^- to 00 O tH to NO O ON to ON to to vo (O ^1" NO tN T^ vo T^- TJ" O O ON OO ON V O ^-tOMOMCS N(NMCOMt--.(N ONO'Ot^VOMMOOOt^f OOONNVOMtONOMQNO lOOOWMMTf'NIN^l-OONO MMM- ' ' -o ' 12 rt nl j-i .Q v 'u. t-> "i "O 'P ~, . . . M . a ^ O " ^ * " rt *- 3 ^ di 113 i *4 R ^4 S 3 3 3rt^ rt c niTj^Jj3J3 u^ u j-j^Mj-.^w^ P3 pq pq pq U U UCJ U CJ CJ U CJ O CJ CJUCJCJ 566 FOOD PRODUCTS M 00 OO * 00 * * 1 S H | awipa 22 3o . -jndsy cs M ob CO O co CO O w ci CO -ind sy S O i Q *J Z !z t=i W ^oco MO^^t^wroOcooOio ^ 1000 o O O^ OO C*COM MWMM^-M MMMMM -p ' 1 -I rV:!i : -1 -I 8 b 56; 1 [? M m to 1- OO N M CO CO o! CO |2 Z co M M CO CO Ol Ol t^. CO 8 H 1O fo o M 8 . ON 01 01 ON q to Tf IO Ol * to q q to q M 10 O 1^. fO M O M Tj- O> CO 000 NO o OO M 00 10 M ON 00 q * CO q M q to r^ 8 8 t^. o q 10 10 ON 00 t^ n t~- O 01 IO NO M 10 M O 10 10 10 O M M 01 O O to to O PO o o o co Ol NO to to f^ O> 00 M t^ Ol M O o c 01 O M * to O * M ON IM M CO M M Ol Ol Ol M CO CO CO co 00 * M co Tf ON O 10 -0 co NO N Tf 01 OO *t 00 * >- t^ M oq Ol M M " to " *S S M ^ % ^ * M * to oo O t-~ IO 01 tH W Ol Ol H M IO f> M M M M 10 NO IO IO 01 r^ Tf o NO ON 01 CO 00 O NO NO 00-^00 01 NO 10 CO OO 00 Tl- ON t^OO Ol Ol Ol OO 00 Ol Ol 00 01 10 vo M M oi M '0 NO t >O M \o * NO NO M to M CO f co M CO NO M t~- M 00 OO 01 01 co 00 O O 01 co 10 ) Ov t^ 00 00 oo Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol 00 01 oo" 5o CO co 00 NO 01 O 01 OO OO co 01 ON J-^VO * ON 01 MS t-~ ON ON O ON IO w 00 O O ON O 80 8 M ** Ht O M e M M NO Ol Ol M M M M M ON r^ M 00 10 OO co co NO O> IO t- O f co M M M 01 O> OO NO 10 00 01 r^ 01 ON M ON 10 10 ON O "fr M oo O O ON O 8 8 8 M r^. M ro M 01 P) M NO M 01 M l-l Ol M M M M VO M 00 CO t- t- VOVO ^. ^- NO ^ ^ 0, CO M ON CO CO Ol M NO' HI OO Ol H-l co t^ O O M ^ 01 rj- ON NO N NO tO \o ^ \O *O M to vO >O NO NO ' '9 1 TJ ' rt .J3 . O T3 bo w 2 bb D tfl ^ s ^ ^^ Z I +j If N en 'c to *-> <& O. In *-> 4J^ V S "> "^ Crackers, water Cranberries . >0 06 1 40% fat . Cucumbers, fres pickles . . -o l-i 6 11 C i-i u oo cS eS f IS -3 **5 ^Z J -s ^ Currants, dri< fresh Dates . . Doughnuts Eggs, whole | tj *Q c f.JS" be W W c efl -0 . c - Fig bars . Filberts Flounder (ent 568 FOOD PRODUCTS oq q N * oo oooooo M T- M 00101^-1^010^0 -and sy uoi}jod 8IW3 oioc>qoo MIO'M ' OOO POOO pgseqo M M o\ q oo M ^too iot^c>ior^rj-io *B B( B g | APPENDIX E 569 OO rO^J-oo O*O*MfOOO*OOOO ^} ^* OMO M OOMMMOOMM^ M w v> OOOOOOOOOOOOO O Q O ooooooooooooo o o o Tf OOTj- ir>MOO>O*OOOOMvOOO PO HI M TJ- MO*TJ-lOTj-COOOO*CO'OM'*J-Tl- Tj-*OO*t^ M POfO OO<*>MMMMMMMMMM O O *O *O "^ *O ^ lo f> fO 8M 01 O ^J" ^ OOOOOOOOOO^f ^ 00 ^ *O OO OOOOOOOOOOOOO MOO*^ ioO (s ^ l oio^oO 1-1 ^ 00 M cOiOOO^OO'tO'^'Ov^O M*OIOO>^-O OO MCSrOt^MMPO O*fOCMMO'S-1TfOfO < N' r ) MMIOWMM M M N M IO M *N CM ca o* O* O 00 M M O* *O M t~- *o " O ^J* ^^ ^ *O O M t*- fo O* O>O* M MMO*^OMOOO*O f ^MrOMO*O v OOMO*OOO*MQMN M N roO O t^-oo >OM rt*O O*^ ^rovovO rO-'J-O O rO^-fOO< 'MNTJ-MMM'TJ-VOMMMMMMMMMM' 'MONM'M'MTJ- M MM r^<^t-~<^MvOT}'r'5M'd'*j-MO^oOM'MMdo^dMMiodMCOvO '3 - fcs O fl ' 'S ' : S!"ii^ V B . .'p Si i iii ii 1 s - nnntBMM _;_:_jJ;_;_; ^. FOOD PRODUCTS APPENDIX E 571 If) I"- M ci col 6 w co M uo *"iO f M \o *O t"** co co 10 w i-O 'O ^O Q^ MO OOOOOO^^'-' O OQ OOOOOOOOO O OO OOOOOOOOO O c-i \o t^ 1 * co O O ^" ^O w c^ O- *o oo t^^ *o ^ f"* OO *o *<}* *O **O MMM MMCOM O MMMM ;;;;;;; ;s ; ;^ ';;;;;;;;;.... . ' 1 ' | ' g " ' ' I ^g ' "g *< T . c3 o-iOGC*-',Tii/) U - i o ^'^^ ^coc* r^*(s O^O ^t'^ > O cow co^ OJ^OOOMt^.cot^t-'i>-O^ Ot^^OOOO^OOOO^ M MM T^ co CO O H f*** f'*" O w O ^ ^" co O^ ^*" *o r^ t** ^ N co O c^ CO f*^ co M co co M O O^ co *o ^ ^O M r^ r** r-* ro t* O* w M ^ l o *O t*^- CO O O* MM MM M MM _ _ r-j M _ _ _ :::::::::::::::::::::: :l : : : a '-, I 's U P c5 ^ U M -4J '''3*'''j3'O" 58'**" 3*jpS' - , r .?-. tn rj "G S t "" C 3 ' J ^ * * , a J Sg^'''' & i'''-cb c t - ' I iii sill i ll tlliiilill iiiill 574 FOOD PRODUCTS 8 88 8 8888888888 io Ort O^ HTtC^^J-fOrfOwoOO CO \OcOMiOC*vOioOt > *'O rf HI rs M -and sy -jnd sy Cl V tuD > V ni .^- o * -w ^ ^ - o cL ^j c ~* ^* *r QI ^ t& fBillllfli^ rtuO^'CiiSSSBjcj HHH HHHHH APPENDIX E 575 00 00 VO H 10 * 0> PO <*5 t^. M t ^ 10 I 1 - !> T}- t^ OO 00 "* M M M 888 1-1 CS (N M 8888 8 1 ! ?| ^ | Hsa$3~1 *5i CO 800 8000 8 oo a o , o r J?S So? o3% I?COM & M ^ 10 OO *O *O ^O Ov M . <5 * N oo co r** \o o o* M M M v? 5 "1 S *8 s 3 O >O l- OO OO o- sq CO CO 10 CO 00 IO \O CO c? N 10 -* CO 00 M M M CO M CO>O * to O to co P) VO VO Tj- M M CO vO 00 00 IO <^ M ^ * 00 ro CO ei 4t^ tq to M M ^ CO M IO vO * vO Tj- VO VO OO O ^. c C rt LH C "" 2 IS >-" ^"c "c 3 1-1 in (/)(/: -3 O ~y. Vegetable soup Walnuts, Califor black . . Watermelons Weak fish Wheat, cracked * y) '-= 15 Zwiebach SUBJECT INDEX Abattoirs, see Slaughter houses and Meat inspection regulations. Absinthe, 469. Absorption of food, see Digestibility. Acetanilide, 32, 495. Acetic acid, 9, 470-473. Acid, acetic, 9, 470-473. aspartic, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- butyric, 10, n, 376. caffetannic, 466. capric, 10, 376. caproic, 10, 376. caprylic, 10, 376. citric, 9, 73, 75. glutamic, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- lactic, 9, 89, 92, 93, 112-114. lauric, 10, 376. linoleic, 10. linolenic, 10. myristic, 10, 376. oleic, 10, ii, 376. palmitic, 10, n, 376. pyroligneous, 472. stearic, 10, n, 376. succinic, 9. tartaric, 9. Acid-forming elements, 20, 139, 204, 352- 353- Acid strength of vinegars, 473. Acids, amino, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Acids of fruits, 352. Adulteration, general definitions of, 26, 27, 30-31, 40-41, 484-487- of butter, 374, 381-383- of cheese, 106. of cocoa, 438. of confectionery, 435. of flavoring extracts, 458. Adulteration, of honey, 435. of meat, 190-194. of milk, 6269. of olive oil, 385. of sausage, 195. of sirups, 433, 434. of spices, 449. of vinegar, 471, 472. Alanin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Albuminoids, 14. Albumins, 13, 71, 72, 135, 136, 253, 273. Alcohol, 31, 32, 114, 428, 467-470, 493, 494. Alcoholic liquors, 466-469, 476-477. Alcohol-soluble proteins, 13, 253, V 257, 268, 273, 279, 289. Aldehyde, cinnamic, 451, 460. Alewife, 226. Allspice, 450. Almond extract, 459. Almonds, 334, 338, 562. Alum baking powder, 282. Amandin, 344. Amaranth, 509. Amino acids, 13, 72, 77, 136, 202, 245, 289-291, 314, 344. Ammonia, from hydrolysis of proteins, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344. in cheese, 93, in. in eggs, 158. in meat, 166. in milk, 85. in poultry, 221. Analysis of samples under food and drugs act, 38, 481. Anemia, 21, 351. Anise, 450. oil of, 459. Anise extract, 459. Annato, 370. 2P 577 578 INDEX Applesj 330, 335, 337, 341-343, 347, 3S3, 562. Apricots, 330, 332, 335, 337, 338, 347, 353, 562. Araban, 5, 8. Arabinose, 5, 6. Arginin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Arrowroot, 439. Artichokes, 324, 328. Ash constituents, in general, 23, 17-21. in loo-Calorie portions of foods, 562- 575- of cheese, 105, 565. of eggs, 136, 137, 567. of fruits, 347-349, 352-357, 562-575. of grain products, 293-295, 562-575. of meats, 203-204, 561, 563, 564, 568- 575- of milk, 73, 75, 77, 570. of oysters, 244, 571. of vegetables, 347-349, 352-357, 562- 575- Asparagus, 324, 328, 347, 353, 562. Aspartic acid, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Autointoxication, 214. Bacillus bulgaricus, 113, 125, 126. coli, 157-158. enteritidis, 191. Bacon, 190, 389, 562. Bacteria, in butter, 369, 395. in buttermilk, 112-114, 125126. in cheese, 93, 101-103, 123-125. in cream, 121. in eggs, 152-154, 156-159. in fermented milks, 112-114, 125-126. in intestinal tract, 351. in meats, 166, 191-194, 217219. in milk, 51, 52, 55-57, 66, 69-70, 81- 84, 112-114, 539-540. in yoghurt, 112-114, 125-126. Bactericidal property of milk, 52. Bagasse, 403, 425. Baking powders, 281282. Bakery products, 283-288. Balance of acid-forming and base-form- ing elements, 20, 73, 139, 244, 352-356, 56i-575- Bananas, 335, 343, 353, 562. Barley, 251-254, 562. Barley flour, 253. Bass, 226. Bay leaf, 450. Beans, 304, 312-315, 324, 328, 347, 353, 562. baked, 328, 562. canned, 328. kidney, 313, 328, 562. lima, 324, 328, 347, 353, 562. string, 324, 328, 347, 353, 562. Beechnuts, 339. Beef, 162-178, 202, 205-212, 213, 216- 219, 245, 563, 564. canned, 166-168, 177. composition of, percentage, 171-178. per loo-Calorie portion, 563-564. consumption of, 213. cooked, 177. corned, 167, 170, 177, 563. cuts of, 170-177, 206-212. dried, 167, 177, 178, 563. extract, 195-197. jerked, 167. juice, 563 (see also Meat juice). organs, 176, 177, 178, 563. spiced, 178. steak, see Cuts. tea, 196. Beer, 469. Beets, 325, 347, 353, 564. Beets, sugar, 397, 420-422. Benzoates in food, legal status, 42, 43, 487. Beriberi, 267, 297299. Berries, 329-33, 335-338, 564, 567, 569, 573- Beverages, 465-470, 474-477. Blackberries, 335, 338, 347, 564. Blackfish, 226, 564. Blend, definition of, 491. Blood, 162. Blowups, 418. Blueberries, 347, 564. Bluefish, 226, 564. Blue shade (permitted dye), 509. Boneblack in sugar refining, 418. Bone extract, 197. Borax, 169, 171. Boric acid, 169, 171. Bouillon, 463, 564. INDEX 579 Bouillon cubes, 198, 219. Brain, beef, 176. pork, 1 88. Branding of foods and drugs, 31-33, 40- 43, 488-497- Brandy, 469. Brazilnuts, 339, 564. Bread, 274-280, 285-287, 290-295, 299- 302, 564. comparison of white and brown, 291- 295- composition of various kinds, percent- age, 285-287. per loo-Calorie portion, 564. corn, 256, 285, 296-297. digestibility of, 291-294. "entire wheat," 291. flour in relation to, 274-279, 209-302. Graham, 285, 291, 564. rye, 268, 285, 564. score card for, 280. wheat in relation to, 268-273. white, 286, 291-294, 564. whole wheat, 287, 291-294, 564. Breadfruit, 347. Breakfast foods, 282. Breed, influence of, on composition of cows' milk, 59, 60, 84. Brie, 88, 94, 103, 105. Brine in canned foods (food inspection decision), 524. Brisket, 170-172, 211. Broths, 205-206. Brussels sprouts, 328. Buckwheat, 251, 254. Buckwheat flour, 254. Buffalo fish, 226. Butter, 366-377, 388-396, 565. _, composition of, 373~377, 565. consumption of, 366, 392. digestibility of, 390. fat, 376, 396. fuel value of, 376, 377, 565. influence on growth, 391. "process," 377. renovated, 377. substitutes, 378-383. Butter fish, 226, 565. Buttermilk, 112, 114, 565, Butternuts, 339, 565. Butyric acid, to, 376. Butyrin, 75, 376. By-products, of sugar manufacture, 424 43i. in corn products industry, 263-264. in slaughter house industry, 164. Cabbage, 325, 347, 353, 565. Caffeine, 465, 475, 476. Caffeol, 466. Caffetannic acid, 466. Cake, 287. Calcium, as food constituent (general), 2, 3, 19-20, 21. in eggs, 136-139. in fruits, 347~349- in meats, 203. in milk, 74, 78. in oysters, 244. in vegetables, 347-349. per 100 Calories in various foods, 56i-575. Calf's-foot jelly, 565. Camembert cheese, 88, 94, 102, 105. Candling of eggs, 130, 143-144. Candy, 31, 435-437, 442. Cane, sugar, 397, 401. Cane sugar industry, 397-420, 423-429, 445-447. Cannabis indica, 32, 495. Canned foods (food inspection decisions), 5i7, 524- Canning, of meat, 167-169. of peas, 305-312. of tomatoes, 323. Canteloupe, see Muskmelon. Capers, 451. Capric acid, 10, 376. Caprin, 75, 376. Caproic acid, 10, 376. Caproin, 75, 376. Caprylic acid, 10, 376. Caprylin, 75, 376. Caraway, 451. Carbohydrates (general), i, 2, 4-9. of commercial glucose, 262. of corn, 258. of fruits, 33S-338, 341-343- of grain products, 251-254, 256-258, 264, 266, 268, 277-279, 283- 288. of milk, 61. 5 8o INDEX Carbohydrates, of nuts, 330-341. of peas, 308, 326, 328. of potatoes, 319, 322, 326-327. of spices, 449-458. of sweet potatoes, 322, 327, 328. of vegetables, 303, 324-329. (See also under Sirups, Starch, and Sugars.) Carbon as food constituent, 2, 3. Carbonatation, 422. Carotin, 75, 85. Carrots, 325, 347, 353, 565. Caryophylene, 452. Casein, 58, 71, 72, 135. Caseinogen, 58, 71, 75. Cassia, 451. oil of, 459. Cassia extract, 459. Catfish, 226, 565. Catsup, 328. Caul fat, 379. Cauliflower, 325, 347, 353, 565. Cayenne, 451. Celery, 325, 348, 353, 565- Celery seed extract, 459. Cellulose, 5, 8 (see also under Carbo- hydrates) . Cereals, breakfast, 282283, 284, 295. general* see under Grain products. Cereal coffee, 464. Certification of dyes under food and drugs act, 508, 510-516, 518-520. Certified milk, 56, 533-544- Chard, 325, 348, 354, 565- Cheese, 86-m, 123-125, 565. adulteration, 106. American, 89-94, 101 in, 123-125, 565- manufacture of, 89-93. bacteria in, 89, 101. brie, 94, 103, 105. camembert, 94, 102, 105. cheddar, see American. Cheshire, 95. composition of, 105, 565. digestibility of, 109. Edam, 95, 105. Emmental, 95-96, 102, 105. fat standard, 108. fuel value, 109, 565. Gorgonzola, 96, 102. Cheese, Gruyere, 97. hard, 88. Limburg, 97, 103, 105. making, 86-94. microorganisms in, 89, 101103. misbranding, 106. Neufchatel, 98, 105. nutritive value, 108-110 Parmesan, 98, 105. pineapple, 99, 105. place in the diet, iio-m ripening, 93. Roquefort, 99, 102, 105. soft, 88. Stilton, loo, 102, 105. Chemical composition, of food in general 1-23. of individual articles of food, see under the name of each. Cherries, 335, 338, 348, 565. Cherry juice, 354. Chestnuts, 339, 565. Chicken, 203, 224, 245, 565. Chicory, 348. Chili-con-carne, 177. Chives, 348. Chloral hydrate, 32, 495. Chlorides, see Ash constituents. Chlorine, see Ash constituents. Chloroform, 32, 495. Chocolate, 436-439, 565. Choline, 134. Chops, 182, 183, 569. Chowder, clam, 463. Chuck, beef, 170, 172, 207, 211. mutton and lamb, 182, 183. veal, 179, 1 80. Churning, 370-371- Cinnamon, 451. oil of, 460. Cinnamon extract, 459. Citral, 458, 460. Citric acid, 9, 73, 74, 75. Citron, 337, 348, 354, 565. Clams, 241, 243, 244, 565. Clarification of foods, regulation, 485. of sugar cane juice, 404-405. of sugar solutions, 418. Classification of milk, 69-70, Cloves, 451. oil of, 460. INDEX 581 Coagulated proteins, 15. Coal-tar dyes, regulations controlling use of, 31, 41, 507-516, 518-520. Coating of foods, regulation, 485. Cocaine, 32, 495. Cocoa, 437-439, 466, 566. Cocoa butter, 437. Cocoa nibs, 437, 438. Coconut, 330, 348, 566. Coconut fat, 221, 382. Codfish, 203, 227, 230-232, 236, 566. Codliver oil, influence on growth, 391. Coefficients of digestibility, see Diges- tibility. Coffee, 464, 465-466. substitute, 464. Cold storage, 148-153, 150-160, 165-167, 217, 219, 221-223, 225. Collards, 325. Collection of samples under food and drugs act, 38. Collops, 177. Color, artificial in food (general), 31, 41, 507-516, 518-520. in butter, 370. in cheese, 89, 107. in meat, 192. in milk, 63. Coloring vegetables with copper, 315- 318. Colors and coloring in general, see Color. Colostrum, 58. Commission on milk standards, 68, 69- 7i. Composition, of food in general, 1-22. of individual articles of food, see under the name of each. Compounds, definition of, under food and drugs act, 493. Conalbumin, 135. Concrete sugar, 406. Condensed milk, 114-117, 126-127. Confectioners' sugar, 420. Confectionery, 31, 435-439, 484-485- Conjugated proteins, 14-15. Consomme 1 , 463, 566. Constituents of foods in general, 1-23. of individual articles of food, see under the name of each. Cookies, 287. Cordials, 469. Coriander, 452. Corn, 161, 163, 251, 255-264, 296-297, 305, 325, 328, 348, 566. meal, 256, 283, 566. oil, 221. preparations, 284, 565. products, industry, 259-263. proteins, constitution of, 289. sirup, 262, 263, 439. starch, 8, 259-263, 439, 566. Cottonseed oil, n, 221, 380, 386-388. "stearine," 382. Count of food in package, 32, 528-531. Cowpeas, 313, 326, 349, 566. Cows for milk production, 49-50, 59-60, 69-70, 87,*88, 534, 538-539- Crabs, 238, 243, 244. Cracked wheat, 285. Crackers, 287, 566. Cranberries, 335, 348, 354, 361, 567. Crayfish, 238, 243. Cream, 118-121, 127, 567. Cream of tartar baking powder, 281. Creatin, 202. Crystallizers, 411, 419. Crystallizing of sugar, 409, 411, 419. Cucumbers, 325, 348, 354, 567. Cumin seed, 452. Currants, 335, 337, 348, 567- Cusk, 227. Cuts of meat, composition of, 171-176, 180-181, 183-185, 187-190. diagrams of, 170, 179, 182, 186, 208. relative economy of, 206-212. Cystin, 13, 72, 136, 289. Dairy and food commissioner, office of, 45- Dairy employees, 51, 69, 542-544. Dairy hygiene and sanitation, 50-57, 69- 70, 533-544- Dairy score cards, 53-55. Dandelion greens, 348. Dates, 337, 348, 567- Deficiency diseases, 267. Denaturing under food and drugs act, 499- Derived proteins, 15-16. Desaccharification of beet molasses, 430. Deterioration of poultry as affected by different temperatures, 221-223. 582 INDEX Dextrin, 5, 8. Diet, 1-23, 74-81, 108-111, 139-141, 212- 216, 246-247, 288-295, 345-357, 388-393,440-444- Diffusion, extraction of sugar from beets by, 422. Digestibility of, bacon fat, 389. beans, 312-314. bread, 291-294, 299-301. butter, 300. buttermilk, 112. cheese, 109-110, 124. chicken, 245-246, 248. codfish, 245-246. cowpeas, 313. duck, 245-246. eggs, 139- fats, 389. fish, 245-246, 248. flour products, fine and coarse, 291- 294, 290-301. fruit, 343- goose fat, 389. kefir, 112. kumiss, 112. lard, 389. legumes, 312-314. meat, 204-205. milk, 76-77. mutton fat, 389. nuts, 343. oleomargarine, 390. olive oil, 389. peas, 313. potatoes, 320. poultry, 245-246, 248. salmon, 245-246. stearin, 389. vegetables, 312-314, 320, 358-360. wheat bread, coarse and fine, 291-294, 299-301. Dill seed, 452. Disaccharides, 5. Doughnuts, 287, 567. Dressed weight of beef, 165. of mutton, 182. of pork, 1 86. Dried eggs, 155-158. Dried meat, 167. Dried milk, 117-118, 126-127. Duck, 245-246. Dyes, regulations governing use in foods, 41, 507-516, 518-520, 5.46. Edam cheese, 88, 95, 105. Edestin, 13, 273, 279, 289. Eels, 227, 567. Eggplant, 325, 567. Eggs, 128-160, 567. candling of, 142144. cold storage of, 148-154. composition of, 131-139, 567. constituents, nature of, 133-138, 159- 160. drying of, 154-158. fat, nature of, 133-134. influence on growth, 391. frozen, 154-155, 157-158. grading, 130, 142-144. marketing, 142-147. nutritive value of, 139-141. place in the diet, 141. preservation of, 141-143, 147-160. price of, 140-151. production of, 128-130. proteins of, 134-136. spoilage, 151-154. trade practices in industry, 141. weight of, 136, 137. white of, 132-136, 159. yolk of, 132-136, 159. Emmental cheese, 88, 95, 102, 105. Endive, 348. Entrainment, 410. Enzymes, of barley, 253. of milk, 75. Erythrosin, use of, in food, 509. Essential oils, 440-463, 473~475- Eucaine, 32, 495. Eugenol, 450, 452, 460. Evaporated milk, 114-117, 126-127. Evaporation, in sugar industry, 406-408, 419. Evaporators, 407, 408. Examination of samples under food and drugs act, 38. Excelsin, 13, 344. Exportation of food, regulations govern- ing, 4Q7- Extractives of meat, 168, 202, 204-206, 217-219. Extracts, flavoring, 458-463, 473-474. INDEX 583 Farina, 285, 567. Fats, 10-12, 366-396. amounts digested, 389, 393. consumption of, 392. digestibility of, 204, 389, 390. fuel value of, 12, 390. globules in milk, 58. influence on growth, 391, 396. in individual articles of food, see under the name of each. place in the diet, 388-394. references on, 23, 394-396. vegetable, as butter substitutes, 382. Fatty acids, 10-12, 376. Fennel, 452. Fermented milks, 111-114, 125-126. Fig bars, 287, 567. Figs, 335, 337, 348, 354, 56?- Filberts, 339, 567. Filled cheese, 106. Filtration, in sugar industry, 405, 418, 419. Fish, 200-201, 225-237, 245-250, 561, 564-575- Flank, beef, composition and cost, 170, 173, 207-211. lamb and mutton, 182, 184. veal, 179, 180. Flavoring extracts, 458-463, 473-474. Flounder, 227, 567. Flour, 274-280, 291-295, 299-302, 566, 567 (see also under Bread, and the names of different grains). Food adulteration, see Adulteration. Food and Drugs Act, 28-44, 479~532. Food, constituents of, 1-23. functions of, 1-23. Food inspection decisions, 37, 501-532. Food legislation, 24-46. Food materials, definition, 3. Foods, see under the name of each. Foodstuffs, 4-21. Food values, see under the different articles of food. Fowl, 224, 568. Frogs' legs, 229, 568. Frozen beef, 165. Frozen eggs, 154-158. Frozen fish, 225, 250. Frozen poultry, 223. Fructose, 4, 6, 432, 435. Fruit, 303, 329-358, 361-365. changes in ripening, 341-343- composition of, 335-34 1 , 347~349- digestibility and nutritive value, 343- 345- place in the diet, 346-357. production of, 320-334. references to literature on, 358, 361- 365- Fruitarians, 343. Fuel value, of food in general, i, 5, 9, 12, 16-17, 21-23. of individual articles of food, see under each. Fuller's earth in oil refining, 387. Fullmass, 412. Functions of food, 1-23. Galactan, 5, 8. Galactose, 4, 6. Game, 225. Gelatin, 198, 202, 206, 568. Gin, 469. Ginger, 452, 453, 568. crystallized, 568. Ginger extract, 460. Ginger-snaps, 287, 568. Gliadin, 14, 272-273, 279, 289. Globulins, 13 (see also names of individual globulins) . Glucose, 4, 5, 255, 261-263, 433, 435, 442, 445, 446. Glutamic acid, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Glutelins, 13, 289. Gluten, 272-273, 275, 279, 299-302. feed, 264. meal, 263. Glutenin, 14, 272, 273, 279. Glycerides, see Fats. Glycin, 13, 16, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Glycocoll, see Glycin. Glycogen, 5, 8. Glycoproteins, 14. Goose, 224, 389, 568. eggs, 132. Gooseberries, 348. Gorgonzola cheese, 88, 96, 102. Grades of milk, 69, 70. Graining of sugar, 409. 584 INDEX Grain products, 251-302 (see also under the individual grains and mill products). Granulator, 420. Grape butter, 568. Grapefruit, 348. Grape juice, 348, 354, 568. Grapes, 335, 338, 348, 354, 568. Greens, 325, 568. Green shade (permitted coal tar dye), 509. Growth, 16, 17, 21, 77-81, 84, 134, 140, 280-291, 293-294, 391, 396. Gruyere, 97. Guaranty, under food and drugs act, 43, '526-528, 53I-S32. Guava, 348. Gumbo, see Okra. Haddock, 227, 236, 568. Hake, 227. Halibut, 227, 236, 245, 568. Ham, 186, 187, 189, 190, 203, 568, 569. Hardening of oils, 388. Headcheese, 188, 569. Hearings, under food and drugs act, 39, 482. Heart, beef, 176. mutton, 185. pork, 189. veal, 181. Hematogen, 138. Hemoglobins, 15. Heroin, 32, 495. Herring, 227, 236, 569. Hexosans, 5. Hexoses, 4. Hickory nuts, 339, 569. Histidin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Histories, 14. Hominy, 284, 569. Honey, 434, 439. 569- Hordein, 14, 253, 289. Horseradish, 328, 348, 453. Huckleberries, 336, 348, 569. Hundred-alorie portions of foods, table of, 561-575- Hydrogen as food constituent, 2-3. Hydrogenation of oils, 388. Hygiene of the dairy, 50-57, 69-70, 533- 544- Ice cream, 46, 121-122, 127. Imported foods, 44, 497, 498. Indigo disulfoacid (permitted dye), 509. Infection of meat, 191, 192. Ingredients, natural poisonous or dele- terious, in food, 485. Inosite, 18. Inspection, see Adulteration, Law, Meat, and Milk. Intestinal putrefaction, 351. Inulin, 5, 8. Invert sugar, 6, 435. Iodine, 2, 75. Iron, 3, 20-21, 75, 79, 136, 137, 138, 204, 253, 347-349. 350, 561-575 (see also Ash constituents). Juices, fruit (general), 466 (see also Fruit), lemon, 569. orange, 571. raspberry, 573. strawberry, 573. sugar beet, 421. sugar cane, 401, 403. Kafir corn, 284. Kefir, 112, 114. Kidney, beef, 177, 563. mutton, 185. pork, 189. veal, 181. Kohlrabi, 325. Kumiss, 112, 114, 569. Labels, 488-493, 53-57- Lactalbumin, 13, 72, 75. Lactation, stage of, influence on com- position of cows' milk, 59. Lactic acid, 9, 89, 101-102, 112-113, "4- Lactic acid bacteria, 57, 89, 101, 112- 114, 123-126. Lacto, 123, 127. Lactoglobulin, 75. Lactometer, 64, 65. Lactose, 5, 7, 76 (see also Milk sugar, and Milk, composition of). Lady fingers, 287. Lamb, 182-185, 569. Lard, 187, 221, 380, 387-^89, 394, 395, 569. rendering from material " passed for sterilization," 559-560. INDEX 585 Lard substitutes, 387-388. Laurie acid, 10, 376. Laurin, 75, 376. Law governing foods and drugs generally, 27-35. 479-532. meat inspection, 192-194, 545-560. oleomargarine, 380. tea, 465. Laxative effect, of fruits, 351-352. of whole wheat bread, 292-293. Leavening agents, 280-282. Lecithin, 18, 75, 133, 134. Lecithoproteins, 15. Leeks, 326, 348. Leg of lamb or mutton, 182, 183, 184, 185. of veal, 179, 180. Legumelin, 13, 314. Legumes, 304-318. Legumin, 13, 314. Lemon extract, 458, 466. Lemon juice, 336, 569. Lemon, oil of, 460. Lemons, 330, 331, 336, 348, 354, 569. Lentils, 326, 348, 569. Lettuce, 326, 354, 569. Leucin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Leucosin, 13, 273, 279, 289. Lichi nuts, 339. "Light green S. F. Yellowish" (permitted dye), 509. Limburg cheese, 88, 97, 103, 105. Limes, 348. Linoleic acid, 10. Linolenic acid, n. Lipins, see Fats and Lipoids. Lipochrome, 75. Lipoids, 22, 75, 391, 396. Liver, 177, 181, 185, 189, 203. Lobster, 238, 243, 244, 569. Loin, beef, 170, 173, 207, 209-212. lamb or mutton, 182, 183, 184. pork, 1 86, 188. veal, 179, 1 80. Lungs, 177, 181, 185, 189. Lutein, 134. Lysin, 13, 17, 72, 77, 136, 202, 245, 289, 3M. 344- Macaroni, 285, 569. Macaroons, 287. Mace, 453. Macedoine, 328. Mackerel, 227, 237, 570. Magnesium as food constituent, general, 2, 3, 19 (see also under Ash constituents). Maize, 251, 255-264, 296, 297 (see also under Corn and Grain products). Malt, 253, 296. Malt liquor, 469. Maltose, 5, 7, 262. Mamey, 348. Mango, 348. Manioca, 439. Mannan, 5, 8. Mannose, 4, 6. Manufacturing processes, see under the different articles of food. Maple sirup, 439, 445, 446, 447. Maple sugar, 439, 445, 446, 447. Margarine, 378-382. Marjoram, 454. Marjoram extract, 462. oil of, 462. Marmalade, orange, 338, 570. Marrow, 177, 189. Masse cuite, 412. Measure of food in package, legal re- quirements, 32, 528-531. Meat, 161-219, 561-575. ash constituents, 203-204, 561-575. broths, 205-206. composition, 171-^190, 199, 224, 561- 575- of fat-free substance, 199-201. consumption, 213-216, cost, 207-212, 213-214. digestibility, 204. economy, 206-212, 213-214. extract, 197, 201, 202. hygiene, 191, 545-5- industry, 161-169, iQi~i94> 212-219. inspection, 44, 190-194, 545-560. iron in, 204, 350. juice, 197. packing, 161-171, 212-219. place in the diet, 212-216. poisoning, 191. proteins, 202, 204. second grade, sterilized, 560. standard, 194. 586 INDEX Meat Inspection Law, 545-552 (see also Slaughter houses). Meat Inspection Regulations, 552-560. Medical examination of dairy employees, 69, 542-544- Melting points of fats in relation to their digestibility, 389. Metaproteins, 15. Methods, see under the individual articles of food. Micrcorganisms in cheese making, 101- 103. Ml'k, 48-85, 533-544, 57. adulteration of, 62. bacteria in, 66, 69, 70, 81-85, 539-540. certified, 56, 533-544- chemical analysis of, 65, 81-85. classification and grading of, 69, 70. composition of, 57-62, 71-75, 81-85, 570. condensed, 114-117, 126, 127, 570. constituents, 71-75. economy of, 79-80. fuel value, 74, 76, 570. grade A, 69. grade B, 70. grade C, 70. industry, 48-57, 62-71, 81-85. inspection, 46, 62-66, 81-85. nutritive value, 74-81. physical properties, 58, 64, 65. place in the diet, 79-81. production and handling, 49-56. products, 86-123. references, 81-85. relation to growth, 78-81. specific gravity, 64, 65. standards, 66-71, 539, 540. summary of constituents, 74. test for cleanliness, 65. transportation of certified, 537. value in growth, 78-81. variations in composition and proper- ties, 60-62, 81-85. Milk chocolate, 438. Milk house, 50. Milking, 51, 535. Milk sugar, 7, 74, 75, 114. Mincemeat, 464. Misbranding, 26-28, 31-32, 40-41, 106, 488-497. Mixed baking powders, 282. Mixed dyes, certification of, 513-516, 518-520. Mixtures, definition under food and drugs act, 493- Moisture in butter, 375. in other foods, see under composition of each. Molasses, 414, 426-432, 439, 570. Molds, action of, in cheese ripening, 102- 103. Monosaccharides, definition, 4-5. Morphine, 32, 493, 494. Mullet, 228. Municipal food control, 44-46. milk inspection, 63. Muscovado sugar, 408. Mushrooms, 326, 354, 570. Muskellung, 228. Muskmelons, 336, 348, 354, 570. Mussels, 238, 240, 243. Mustard, 454-455. Mustard oil, 455. Mutton, 182-185, 213, 219, 389, 571. Myristic acid, 10, 376. Myristin, 75, 376. Name, character of, regulation under food and drugs act, 490. distinctive, definition of, under food and drugs act, 491. "Naphthol yellow S," use in coloring foods, 509. Narcotic drugs, status under food and drugs act, 31, 32, 493-496. Navel cut of beef, 170, 173, 211. Neck, of beef, 174, 211. of mutton and lamb, 182, 183, 184. of veal, 179, 1 80. Nectarines, 336, 571. Neufchatel cheese, 88, 98, 105. Neutralization of acid produced in the body, 20, 22, 352-356- Neutral lard, 380. Nickel, use of, in hardening fatty oils, 388. Nitrogen compounds, classification of, i, 12-17. (For nitrogen compounds in particular articles of food, see description of each.) INDEX 587 Noodles, 285. North system of sanitary milk produc- tion, 56. Notices of judgment under food and drugs act, 40. Nucleon, 73. Nucleoproteins, 14, 203. Nutmeg, 456. extract of, 460. oil of, 461. Nutrients, in genera!, 1-23. of particular articles of food, see under each. Nutritive value of foods, see under Diet and under composition of each article or type of food. Nuts, 303, 329, 334, 330-346, 358-360, 382. composition of, 339-341. digestibility and nutritive value of, 343-345- place in the diet, 345-346. Oatmeal, 265, 284, 297, 571. Oats, 251, 264-265, 297, 571. Official establishments under meat in- spection law, regulations gov- erning, 552-560. Oils, edible, u, 366, 383-387, 380-391, 394-396. individual oils, see under the name of each. volatile or "essential," 449-463, 473- 475- Okra, 326, 328, 571. Oleic acid, 10, n, 376. Olein, n, 75, 376. Oleomargarine, 220, 378-382, 388, 571. Oleo oil, 378, 379. Olive oil, 383-386, 388, 389. Olives, 329, 334, 349, 354, 383, 384, 571. Onions, 326, 349, 354, 571. Opium, 31, 32, 493, 494. Orange extract, 461. "Orange I," use of, for coloring food, 509- Orange juice, 571. Orange, oil of, 461. Oranges, 330, 331-332, 336, 349, 354, 571. Organic constituents of food, general, i- 17. "Original unbroken package," definition of, under food and drugs act, 480. Osmotic pressure, 21. Otto of roses, 461. Ovalbumin, 135, 136. Over-run in butter making, 368. Ovomucin, 135. Ovomucoid, 135. Ovovitellin, 135, 136. Oxygen as food constituent, 2, 3. Oxyprolin, 72, 202, 344. Oysters, 238-244, 571. Package, definition of original, 480. Packing houses, see Meat industry and Meat inspection. Palmitic acid, 10, n, 376. Palmitin, n, 75, 376. Palmnut fat as butter substitute, 383. Paper from sugar cane, 425. Paprika, 349, 456. Parmesan cheese, 88, 98, 105. Parsnips, 326, 354, 571. Pasteurization of milk and cream, 57, 69, 70, 369- Pastry, 286, 287. Peaches, 336, 338, 343, 349, 354, 571. . Peanut butter, 345, 571. oil, 221. Peanuts, 329, 340, 345, 571. Pearled barley, 252, 253. Pears, 330, 336, 338, 349, 354, 571. Peas, 304-318, 326,. 328, 349, 354, 57i- canning of, 305-312. composition of, 308, 326, 328, 349. digestibility of, 313. grading of, 307. greened with copper, 315-318. proteins of, chemical nature, 314. references, 358-360. Pea soup, 464, 571. Pecans, 340, 571. Pectin, 343. Pemmican, 167. Penalties for violation of food and drugs act, 28, 29, 36. Pentosans, 5, 8, 258. Pentoses, 5. Pepper, 329, 456-458. Peppermint, 461. oil of, 461. 588 INDEX Peppermint extract, 461. Peptids, 16, 93, 197. Perch, 228, 571. Persimmons, 336, 349. Phaseolin, 13, 314. Phenylalanin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Phosphatids, 18, 133, 138, 159, 297, 360. Phosphate baking powders, 282. Phosphates, see Ash constituents and Phosphorus. Phospholipines, 18, 133, 138 (see also Phosphatids). Phosphoproteins, 15, 71, 135, 138. Phosphorized fats, 18, 133, 138 (see also Phosphatids). Phosphorized proteins, 18 (see also Phos- phoproteins) . -Phosphorus, as food constituent, general, 2, 3, 15, 18, 21. in particular articles of food, see ash constituents of each, in standard (loo-Calorie) portions of food, 562-575. Pickerel, 228. Pickles, 329. Pies, 287, 571, 572. Pignolias, 341. Pigs' feet, pickled, 189. Pilchard, 237. Pimento, 450. Pineapple, 336, 338, 349. 354. 572. Pineapple cheese, 99, 105. Pine nuts, 340, 572. Piniones, 341. Pinon, 341. Piperidine, 457. Piperine, 457. Pistachios, 341, 572. Place of various foods in the diet, see Diet. Plums, 336, 349, 354, 572. Poisons, restrictions on use in slaughter houses under meat inspection law, 553. Polarization of sugar cane juice, 403. Polishing rice, influence on composition, 266. Pollock, 228. Polypeptids, 16. Polysaccharids, 5. Pomegranates, 336. Ponceau 3 R, use in coloring foods, 509. Porgy, 228. Pork, 185-190, 213, 572. Pork packing, 161, 163, 185. Porterhouse steak, 172, 208, 211. Potassium as food constituent, general, 3, 19, 20. in particular articles or types of food, see ash constituents of each. Potato chips, 572. Potatoes, 310-323, 326-328, 349, 354, 357, 572. Potatoes, sweet, 319, 322-323, 328, 572. Potato starch, 8, 322. Potential acidity or alkalinity in food, 352-356. Poultry, 220-225, 245-248. Poultry-killing, 46, 221, 247, 248. Powdered milk, 117-118. Powdered sugar, 439. Powdering of foods, 31, 485. Preservation of eggs, 141-143, 147-160. of fish, 230-236. of meat, 165-171. of poultry, 221-223. (See also the descriptive paragraphs under various other articles of food.) Preservatives in food, legal status of, 31, 41, 42-43, 63, 486-487, 508. Preserved fish, 230-237. Preserved foods generally, see descrip- tion and composition of each article or type of food. Press-cake from sugar manufacture, 426. Primary protein derivatives, 15. Principles of food legislation, 24-28. Private importations of food, 44. Process butter, 377. Processing canned food, 168-169. Production of food, see description of each article or type of food. Prolamin of rye, 268, 289. Prolin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Proof stick, 410, 411, 419. Proportions of ingredients required to be declared under food and drugs act, method of stating, 496, 504. INDEX 589 Prosecutions under the food and drugs act, 30- Protamines, 14. Proteans, 15. Protein content estimation of, 12, 273. of individual articles or types of food, see description of each. Proteins, as food constituents, i, 3, 12-17, and under the descrip- tion of each article or type of food, behavior in nutrition, 16-17, 76-77, 280291. chemical nature, 12-16, 71, 72, 93, 134- 136, 201-203, 245, 273, 280-291, 314, 315, 344- classification, 13-16. elementary composition, 3, 71, 135.. 273- energy value, 17. fuel value, 17. of flesh of different species compared, 245- of grain products compared with other foods, 280-291. of individual articles or types of food, see description of each. Proteoses, 15. Proximate composition denned, 3. Prunes, 333, 336, 349, 354, 572. Publication of findings under food and drugs act, 40, 483. Puddings, 287. Pulp, sugar beet, 425. Pulses, 304-318. Pumpkins, 327, 328, 349, 354, 572. Pure food law (food and drugs act), 28- 44, 479-532. Purins, 202-203, 214. Purpose of food inspection decisions, 37, 501. Putrefactive bacteria, 351. Putrefactive products, 214. Quantity of food in package, statement required under food and drugs act, 32, 528. of substances required to be declared when present, method of stating, 496, 504. Quince juice, 349. Radishes, 327, 349, 354, 572. Raffmose, 5, 7. Raisins, 334, 337, 349, 354, 573. Raspberries, 337, 349, 354, 573. Raspberry juice, 349, 573. Rat poisons, restrictions on use in slaughter houses, 553. Rat viruses, forbidden in slaughter houses under meat inspection regulations, 553. "Red dog" flour, 276, 279. Red dyes, regulations governing use in foods, 500-516. References to literature, see lists at end of each chapter. Refining of foods, legal status of sub- stances adding during, 485. of sugar, 416-420. Refrigeration, see Cold storage and Pres- ervation of poultry at different temperatures, effect on rate of deterioration, 221. Regulations for enforcement of food and drugs act, 29, 36, 479-500. of meat inspection law, 193, 552-560. Rendering of lard and tallow, under meat inspection regulations, 559-560. of neutral lard, 380. Renovated butter, 377. Retail cuts of beef, relative economy of, 206-212. Rhubarb, 327, 349, 354, 573- Ribs, of beef, 170, 174, 207-212. of pork, 1 86. of veal, 179, 181. Rice, 251, 266-267, 284, 297-299, 356, 573- Ripening, of cheese, 92-93, 101-103. of cream for butter making, 367. of fruit, 34I-343- of milk for cheese making, 89. Roe, shad, 228, 573. Rolled oats, 265. Rolls, 286, 574. Roquefort cheese, 99, 102, 105. Rose extract, 461. Round, beef, 170, 175, 207-211. Rules and regulations for the enforce- ment of the food and drugs act, 29, 36, 479-500. Rum, 428, 429, 469. , 59 INDEX Rump, beef, 170, 175, 207-211. veal, 181. Rutabagas, 327, 349, 354, 573. Rye, 251, 268, 289. Sabine pine nuts, 341 . Saccharin, decisions regarding use in foods, 479, 487, 520, 522, 525. Saffron, 458. Sage, 458. Salad, 464. oil, use of term, 385. oils, 383-387- Salmon, 228, 232, 233, 237, 573. canning industry, 232. regulation of, 233. Salsify, 349. Salt, 18, 169, 371, 374, 448-449. analysis of dairy salt, 371. standard of purity for table salt, 449. Salted duck eggs, 132. Salting butter, 371. Saltpeter, in canned beef, 167. in meats generally, 169, 171. Salts of foods, see Ash constituents. Salts of tin in foods, food inspection de- cision, 517. Samples, collection of, under food and drugs act, 38, 480. Sandwiches, 464. Sanitary code of New York city, 45. of New York State, 45. Sanitary condition of slaughter houses under meat inspection regula- tions, 552-557- Sanitation in the milk industry, 52-56, 81-85, 533-544- of slaughter houses, 552-557. Sapato, 349. Sardines, 234-236, 237, 573. Sauce in canned foods, 524. Sauerkraut, 327. Sausage, 46, 188, 572, 573. Savory, 458. oil of, 461. Savory exfiract, 461. Scallops, 238, 243, 245, 573. Schlempe, 430, 431. Scope of food and drugs act, 35. of food inspection decisions, 501. Score card, bread, 280. Score card, cheese, 104. milk production, 53-55, 69, 70. Secondary protein derivatives, 15. Second break flour, 275. Second clear grade flour, 276, 277. Second-hand containers for meat and meat products, requirements governing use of under meat inspection regulations, 556. Second quality meat (sterilized), 560. Sediment test, 65. Separators, 119. Serin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 289, 314. Sesame oil, n, 386. Shad, 228, 573. roe, 228, 573. Shank, beef, 170, 175, 207-212. veal, 179, 181. Sheepshead (fish), 228. Shellfish, 238-247, 248-250. bacterial contamination of, 240, 241. composition of, 243, 244. industry, 238-242. place in the diet, 247. Shoulder, beef, 170, 175, 207-212. lamb and mutton, 181, 183, 184. pork, 185, 187, 188. veal, 179, 181. Shredded wheat, 285, 573. Shrimp, 238, 244, 573. Simple proteins, 13. Sinalbin, 455. Sinigrin, 455. Sirloin, 172, 207-212. Sirup, corn, 262, 433. glucose, 262, 263, 433. in canned foods, 524. maple, 433. mixed, 433. open kettle, cane, 434. refiner's, 419, 433. Skimmed milk, 118-120, 368. cheese, 106. Skimming of milk, 62, 118-120, 368. Slaughter houses, 44, 46, 161-165, 191- 194, 545-500. general methods, 164, 182, 185, 191, 192. under meat inspection regulations, ac- cumulation of condemned ma- terial forbidden, 559. INDEX 591 Slaughter houses, under meat inspection regulations, accumulation of material in which flies may breed forbidden, 556-557. ante-mortem inspection of animals, 557- equipment required, 552-557. lavatories required in, 554. methods, 552-560. plans and specifications, 552. post-mortem inspection of animals, 558. precautions against flies, mice, etc., 553- requirements as to sanitation, 552- 557- as to water supply, 553. restrictions on admission of dogs, 553-554- on use of rat poisons, 553. sanitation of, 552-557. specifications for, 552-557. utensils, 554-556. Slicing sugar beets for diffusion process, 421. Smelt, 22Q, 573. Smoke as meat preservative, 169. Soaked curd cheese, 107. Sodium, see Ash constituents. Sodium benzoate as food preservative, status under food and drugs act, 42, 43, 479, 487. Sodium chloride, see Salt. Soft drinks, 46. Solids-not-fat in milk, 59, 61, 65, 66-68. Soup bones, 208, 209, 211. Soup liquor, 168. Soup stock, 176. Soups, composition and loo-Calorie por- tions of different kinds, 463- 464- 565, 57i, 575- Spaghetti, 285. Spanish mackerel, 229. Spearmint, 461. oil of, 462. Spearmint extract, 461. , Specifications for production and handling of certified milk, 533-544. of other grades of milk, 69-70. for sanitation of slaughter houses under meat inspection law, 552-557. Spices, 440-463, 473-474- Spinach, 327, 349, 354, 573. Spring wheat, 269. Squash, 327, 328, 349, 573. Stables for milch cows, 50, 54, 533~534- Staining of foods, 31, 41, 485 (see also Color). Standards of composition and purity, general, 38-39, 479-493- for allspice, 450. for bone extract, 197. for buckwheat flour, 254. for butter, 376. process or renovated, 377. for cheese, 107-108. for chocolate, 437. for cinnamon extract, 459-460. for clove extract, 460. for cloves, 452. for cocoa, 437. for condensed milk, 116. for corn meal, 256. for cream, 120, 121. for essential oils, 450-463. for flavoring extracts, 459-463. for gelatin, 198. for ginger, 453. for ice cream, 122. for lemon extract, 460. for mace, 454. for maple sirup, 433~434- for meat, 194. for meat extract, 197. for meat juice, 197. for milk, 66-71. condensed and evaporated, 116. for molasses, 432. for mustard, 455. for nutmeg, 456. for olive oil, 385. for orange extract, 461. for pepper, 457. for .peptone, 197. for process butter, 377. for refiner's sirup, 433. for salt, 449. for sausage, 195. for sirup, 433. for tea, 465. for tonka extract, 462. for vanilla extract, 462. 592 INDEX Standards of composition and purity for vinegars, 470-473. for wines, 467-468. Star anise extract, 462. Starch, 5, 7, 8, 259-263, 439, 566. State food control, 44-46. Steak, beef, 173, 177, 194, 207-212, 563. cooked, 177. Hamburg, bacteria in, 194. porterhouse, 173, 207-212, 563. round, 173, 177, 207-212, 563. sirloin, 173, 177, 207-212. tenderloin, 173, 177. Stearic acid, 10, n, 376. g Stearin, n, 75, 376, 389. " Stearine," cottonseed, 382. Steep water in corn starch manufacture, 263, 264. Sterilization of flesh of animals showing localized disease, 560. Sterilized meat, 560. Stilton cheese, 88, 100, 102, 105. Storing butter, 373, 396. Straight grade flour, 276, 277. Strawberries, 329, 337, 338, 349, 573. Strawberry juice, 573. Streptococci in eggs, 158. Structure of wheat kernel, 270-271. Sturgeon, 229, 237, 247, 573. Substances required to be' named when present in drugs or foods, 32, 493-496. Substitution, regulation under food and drugs act, 492. Succotash, 328. Succinic acid, fuel value of, 9. Sucrose, 5, 6, 397 (see also Sugar). Suet, 177, 221. Sugar, i, 4-7, 397-447, 573- composition, 397, 439. concrete, 406. "confectioner's," 420. consumption of, 423, 424, 441. digestion of, 443. extent of production and use, 423-424. industry, 397-431, 444~447- by-products of, 424-431. manufacture of, from beets, 420-422. from cane, 397-416.^- from maple sap, 397, 434. from palm, 397. Sugar, muscovado, 408. Sugar production, statistics, 423, 424. Sugar refining, 416-420. Sugars, i, 4-7, 261-263, 397-447. place in the diet, 440-444. Sulphites as meat preservative, 169, 171. Sulphur as natural constituent of food, see Ash constituents and Pro- teins. Sulphur dioxide as food preservative, 42, 43, 508. Sulphurous acid, see Sulphur dioxide. Sweet basil extract, 462. Sweetbreads, 177, 203. Sweetened condensed milk, 115, 116. Sweet potatoes, 319, 327, 328, 349, 354, 572. Swine, raising, 161, 163. slaughtering, 185-187, 545. Tallow, rendering from material "passed for sterilization " under the meat inspection law, 559. See also Beef and Mutton. Tamarinds, 349. Tapioca, 439, 574. Tartaric acid, fuel value, 9. in baking powder, 281. Tea, 465. Terrapin, 243, 574. Test rooms for canned foods, 169. Theine, 465. Theobroma cacao, 436. Theobromine, 466. Thyme, 458. extract, 462. oil of, 462. Tin, salts of, in food, 249, 517. Tomatoes, 32^ 327, 328, 349, 354, 524, 525, 574- canned, 323, 328, 524, 525, 574. Tomcod, 229. Tongue, beef, 177. lamb, 185, 569. mutton, canned, 185. pigs, pickled, 189. Tonka bean, 462. extract, 462. Transportation of certified milk, 537. Tripe, 162, 178, 574. Trisaccharide, 5. INDEX 593 Trout, 229, 574. Tryptophan, 13, 16, 72, 77, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344. Tuberculin testing of milch cows, 50, 69, S38. Tunney, 237. Turbot, 229. Turkey, 224, 574. eggs, 132. Turnips, 327, 349. 354, 574- Turtle, 243, 574. eggs, 132. Tyrosin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344- Ultimate composition, definition of, 3. Unhulled rice, 266. Unsaturated fatty acids, 10. Uric acid, 225. Urine, acidity of, 355, 356. Utensils, in milk industry, 51, 537. in slaughter houses under meat inspec- tion law, 5S4-S56. Vacuum, evaporation, 408-409. pans, 409, 410. Valin, 13, 72, 136, 202, 245, 289, 314, 344. Vanilla bean, 463. extract, 458, 462. wafers, 574. Vanillin, 458. Veal, 178-181, 203, 213, 574. "bob," 178. composition of, 179-180, 574-575. Consumption of, 213. cuts of, 179. digestibility of, 178, 179. Vegetables, 303-329, 346-360, 562-575. classification of, 303, 304. composition of, 324-329, 347-349. digestibility of, 312-314, 320. greened with copper, report on, 315- 318- nutritive value and place in the diet, 314, 315, 346-357- references to literature, 358360. Vermicelli, 285. Veterinary inspection, in city food con- trol, 46. in milk industry, 50, 54, 69, 70, 538- 539- 2Q Veterinary inspection in slaughter houses, 191. under meat inspection law, 545-560. Vicilin, 314. Vignin, 13, 314. Vinegar, 169, 470-473, 507. Virgin oil, 385. Viruses, forbidden in slaughter houses under meat inspection regula- tions, 553. Vitamines, 22, 75, 199, 267, 356. Wafers, 287, 574. Walnuts, 334, 340, 341, 575. Washing of sugar in refining, 417. Water, as constituent of foods in general, I, 2. of individual articles or types of food, see description of each, in canned foods, food inspection de- cision on, 524. Watercress, 349. Watering of milk, 62. Watermelons, 337, 349, 354, 575. Water supply for farms producing cer- tified milk, 537. for slaughter houses under meat in- spection law, 553. Weakfish, 229, 575. Weight of food in package, regulation regarding, 528-531. Wheat, 251, 268-274, 299-302 (see also Bread and Flour). Wheat products, composition of, 277, 278, 279, 285-287, 573, 575. nutritive value of, 288-295. Wheat proteins, 272-274, 279, 289-292. Whey, 91, 575. Whisky, 469. White fish, 229, 575. White of egg, see Egg. Wholesale cuts of meat, 170, 179, 182, "186, 207. (For composition see under each kind of meat.) Wines, 466-468. Wine vinegar, 470, 473. Wintergreen, extract, 463. oil of, 463. Winter oil, 388. Winter wheat, 269. 594 INDEX Wood smoke, permitted as food preserv- ative, 507. Working of butter, 372. Xylan, 5, 8. Xylose, 5, 6. Yams, 319. 323. Yeast, 280-281, 464. Yeast extracts, ig8. Yellow shade, "permitted" dye, 509. Yoghurt, 112-114, 125-126. Yolk of egg, see Egg. Zein, 14, 257, 280-200. Zwieback, 287, 575. Printed in the United States of America. ' I 'HE following pages contain advertisements of Macmillan books of related interest BY HENRY C. SHERMAN, PH.D. Professor in Columbia University Chemistry of Food and Nutrition Cloth, I2mo, viii + 355 pages, $7.50 The purpose of this volume is to present the principles of the chemistry of food and nutrition with special reference to the food requirements of man and the considerations which should underlie our judgment of the nutritive values of food. The food is here considered chiefly in its nutritive relations. It is hoped that the more detailed description of individual foods and the chemical and legal control of the food indus- try may be treated in a companion volume later. The present work is the outgrowth of several years' experi- ence in teaching the subject to collegiate and technical students who have represented a considerable diversity of previous training and points of view, and, while published primarily to meet the needs of the author's classes, it is hoped that it may also be of service to students and teachers elsewhere and to general readers whose main interest may lie in other fields, but who appreciate the importance of food and nutrition as factors in hygiene and preventive medicine. While neither the size nor the purpose of this book would permit an historical or technically critical treatment, a limited number of historical investigations and controverted views have been mentioned in order to give an idea of the nature and validity of the evidence on which our present beliefs are based, and in some cases to put the reader on his guard against theories which, while now outgrown, are still some- times encountered. PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York Methods of Organic Analysis BY HENRY C. SHERMAN, PH.D. Professor of Food Chemistry in Columbia University, Author of "Chem- istry of Food and Nutrition " Second Edition Rewritten and Enlarged Illustrated, Cloth, 8vo, $2.40 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION In rewriting this work after six years of constant use in the classroom and laboratory, the author has endeavored to keep in mind the needs both of students and of practising chemists. Methods which are com- monly used as exercises for beginners (such, for example, as the deter- mination of alcohol by the distillation method) are fully described with detailed explanatory and precautionary notes, while those methods which are apt to be used only by advanced students or professional chemists are given more concisely. At the end of each chapter will be found, first a list of reference books arranged alphabetically by authors, and then a chronological list of journal articles, bulletins, etc., particularly of the last few years. The abbreviations are those used by the American Chemi- cal Society in the publication of Chemical Abstracts. The scope of the work has been somewhat extended, the new matter including a chapter on solid and liquid fuels, and sections on industrial alcohol, drying oils, crude petroleum, the new international methods of glycerin analysis, and quantitative methods for the testing of enzymes. The discussions of aldehydes, sugars, proteins, and food preservatives are also much fuller than in the first edition. These additions, and the rewriting of the original text to embody recent advances and certain changes of arrangement which have been found advantageous from the standpoint of teaching, make the present edition practically a new work. The text and references are designed to cover, along with the direc- tions for laboratory work, so much at least of the technology of the various topics considered as is involved in a proper appreciation of the purposes of the analysis and the significance of the analytical results. PUBLISHED BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York A Laboratory Hand-book for Dietetics BY MARY SWARTZ ROSE, PH.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University Cloth, 8vo, $1.10 Investigations into the quantitative requirements of the human body have progressed so far as to make dietetics to a certain extent an exact science, and to emphasize the importance of a quantitative study of food materials. This little book explains the problems involved in the calculation of food values and food requirements, and the construction of dietaries, and furnishes reference tables which will minimize the labor involved in such work without limiting dietary study to a few food materials Only brief statements of the conditions affecting food requirements have been made, the reader being referred to general textbooks on the subject of nutrition for fuller information, but such data have been included as seem most useful in determining the amount of food for any normal individual under varying conditions of age and activity. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I Pood Values and Food Requirements. THE COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. THE FUNCTIONS OF FOOD. Food as a Source of Energy. Food as Building Material. Food in the Regulation of Body Processes. FOOD REQUIREMENT. The Energy Requirement of Normal Adults. The Energy Requirement of Children. The Energy Requirement of the Aged. The Protein Requirement. The Fat and Carbohydrate Requirement. The Ash Requirement. PART II Problems in Dietary Calculations. Studies in Weight, Measure, and Cost of Some Common Food Materials. Relation between Percentage Composition and Weight. Calulation of the Fuel Value of a Single Food Material. Calculation of the Weight of a Standard or loo-Calorie Portion. Food Value of a Combination of Food Materials. Distribution of Foodstuffs in a Standard Portion of a Single Food Material. Calculation of a Standard Portion of a Combination of Food Materials. Analysis of a Recipe. Modification of Cow's Milk to a Required Formula. Calculation of the Percentage Composition of a Food Mixture. The Calculation of a Complete Dietary. Scoring of the Dietary. Reference Tables. Refuse in Food Materials. Conversion Tables Grams to Ounces. Conversion Tables Ounces to Grams. Conversion Tables Pounds to Grams. Food Values in Terms of Standard Units of Weight. Ash Constituents in Percentages of the Edible Portion, Ash Constituents in Standard or too-Caloric Portions. APPENDIX The Equipment of a Dietetics Laboratory. THE MACMTLLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Physics of the Household BY C. J. LYNDE Professor of Physics in Macdonald College, Canada Illustrated, i2mo, $1.25 This book presents in an exceptionally clear and direct manner the subject matter of a concise yet sufficiently comprehensive course for those beginning the study of physics whether in the college, the technical insti- tute, or the secondary school. 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