LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIFT OF Accession ^.^ Class BIOLOGY APPLETONS' SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. |lpktons' Science fct-00Rs. ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. BY CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER, LL. D., FELLOW OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE LINN^AN SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF A " LIFE OF CHARLES DARWIN,'' "NATURAL HISTORY OF THE ELEPHANT," "ANIMAL PHOSPHOR- ESCENCE," " A STRANGE COMPANY," " MARVELS OF ANIMAL LIFE," "ALONG THE FLORIDA REEF," ETC. AND JOSEPH BASSETT HOLDER, M. D., LATE CURATOR OF INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK ; AUTHOR OF " THE GROWING WORLD," U THE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY," " FAUNA AMERICANA," "THE ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE," ETC. NEW YORK : CINCINNATI -: CHICAGO: AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1884, 1885, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, printcb bv D. Hppleton &, Company flew Both. 11. S. a PREFACE. IN the present work, that is intended as a text. book for schools and academies of all grades, the design has been to present in concise and plain Ian. guage, and in the light of the latest research and in- vestigation, the life-histories of the various groups that constitute the animal kingdom. Technical terms have only been employed where there was no simple equivalent, and the long tables of classi- fication and formulas, that can only be understood after a complete mastery of biological knowledge, have been omitted, as tending to divert the atten- tion of the student from the real issue. Professor Huxley strikes the key-note of this question when he says : " That the power of repeating a classifica- tion, with all its appropriate definitions, has any- thing to do with genuine knowledge, is one of the commonest and most mischievous delusions of both students and their examiners. The real business ot the learner is to gain a true and vivid conception of the characteristics of what may be termed the nat- 86007 Vi PREFACE. ural orders of animals. The mode of arrangement, or classification, of these into larger groups is a matter of altogether secondary importance." While the information herein contained is ex. pressed without technicality, the common names of orders and families are in every case followed by the scientific term,, for the convenience of the in- structor or advanced student. So also as regards classification : the groups of animals are arranged in an order that represents the latest knowledge of the various forms that constitute them ; thus, the plan of Professor Flower has been followed in the mammals ; that of Dr. Gill in the fishes ; and Pro- fessor Cope, in the batrachians and reptiles. The student is first presented with the lowest forms, as being the easiest understood, and so led to others more complex ; this plan being considered the most philosophical and natural. The general characteristics of each branch or order are plainly defined, why and how they differ from preceding ones shown, and then examples are given of the individuals constituting the group that have been selected for their availability as repre- sentative forms, and for certain peculiarities that will be most readily impressed upon the memory. It is probably the experience of every teacher in zoology that little or no advancement, can be made unless the student can be thoroughly inter- ested in the work, and to this end material has been PREFACE. vii introduced, in many cases in the form of notes of personal experience relating to the habits of ani- mals, etc., as the growth of coral, the nest-building fishes, luminous animals, animal electricians, hiber- nation, mimicry, protection and defense all sub- jects that, if enlarged upon by the teacher, will in- sure permanent interest. The student should be encouraged to become an investigator and col- lector, and available suggestions concerning the best methods of collecting and preserving speci- mens will be found after each branch. Object-study should be required, and dissections and drawings made, no matter how imperfect the one or crude the other. A distinctive feature of this work is the refer- ence to the economic value of animals. In the Smithsonian, American Museum of Natural His- tory, Central Park, and other large institutions, col- lections have been formed to illustrate this subject, that is regarded as an important feature of public education. One of the commonest questions heard in museums is, " What is the animal good for ? " and considering the vast interests the lower animals represent, and their relations to man's commercial dealings, the subject should at least be presented to the student. This has been done as briefly as pos- sible, in the form of suggestions to the teacher, to be enlarged upon as occasion offers. Collateral and supplementary reading is often viii PREFACE, necessary, and a carefully selected bibliography will be found following each principal group of ani- mals. In the matter of illustration, representations of about five hundred animals and their parts have been given. Many of the cuts are original, and were designed especially to illustrate the habits of the animals, their economic value, etc. Others are from Buckley, Huxley, and various accurate sources already acknowledged. The valuable assistance of S. U. Holder is cor- dially acknowledged, and thanks are returned to Mr. Ralph N. Monroe for photographs of the Flor- ida crocodile and for the loan of valuable specimens ; also to Professor E. L. Youmans and Professor A. S. Bickmore for pertinent suggestions and advice. Acknowledgments are also made to Dr. E. P. Wright, of the University of Dublin, for the meas- urements of the gigantic shark Rhinodon ; and to W. Morey, Esq., of Colombo, Ceylon, for the original outline drawing. C. F. H. NEW YORK, November i, 1884. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT i THE CELL i SOME DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS . . i CLASSIFICATION 2 CHAPTER I. BRANCH I. PROTOZOA 4 CHAPTER II. BRANCH II. SPONGES (PORIFERA) u CHAPTER III. BRANCH III. JELLY-FISHES, ETC. (CCELENTERATA) . . .15 CHAPTER IV. BRANCH IV. CRINOIDS, STAR-FISHES, ETC. (ECHINODERMATA) 33 CHAPTER V. BRANCH V. WORMS (VERMES) 42 CHAPTER VI. BRANCH VI. SHELLS (MOLLUSCA) 51 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGE BRANCH VII. CRUSTACEANS AND INSECTS (ARTHROPODA) . 76 CHAPTER VIII. BRANCH VIII. SEA-SQUIRTS (TUNICATA) . . , , .145 CHAPTER IX. BRANCH IX. BACKBONED ANIMALS (VERTEBRATA) . . .150 ZOOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. Definition of the Subject. The science that treats of organic nature, or living things, is termed Bi- ology. It is divided into Botany, that treats of plants ; and Zoology, that relates to animals. The Cell. All animals are made up of one or more cells, minute globules of a jelly-like substance called protoplasm, as a rule inclosed in a delicate covering or membrane. The protoplasm of . genuine cells generally contains minute moving granules, and a round transpar- ent body termed the nucleus, that contains a dark ob- ject, called the nucleolus. The lowest animals are single cells, and are termed unicellular, but in the higher forms the cells separate by self-division, and form two layers : outer (ectoderm), inner (endoderm), while a middle layer is called mesoderm. From these cell-layers bone and muscular tissue are formed, and the animals are said to be many-celled. Difference between Animals and Plants. It is not difficult to distinguish between the higher forms of animals and plants. The trees are sightless, have no locomotive organs, and, as a rule, live upon inorganic substances ; yet there are curious points of resemblance. 2 INTRODUCTION. We know that a bird eats, moves, and breathes, and that its blood circulates ; but plants also eat, respire through their leaves, have a circulation of sap, and some are endowed with locomotive powers. When we descend to the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, the points of similarity become almost identical ; the swift-mov- ing diatom so resembling some of the lowest animal forms that it is well-nigh impossible to distinguish be- tween them. The plants, however, have no nervous sys- tem, no special organs of circulation or digestion that characterize the majority of animal forms, so that an ani- mal differs mainly from a plant in possessing, as a rule, a nervous system and special organs of circulation and digestion. Classification. The animal kingdom, that is esti- mated to contain one fourth of a million species, is sepa- rated into two primary divisions : the Protozoa, or single- celled animals, and the Metazoa, or those composed of many cells. The latter are separated into eight branch- es : Porifera, Ccelenterata, Echinodermata, Vermes, Mollus- ca.) Arthropoda, Tunicata, Vertebrata. These are in turn divided until the varied forms are grouped, like with like. This end is attained by comparison, and the result is termed classification. Thus the dog, as distinguished from a plant, is placed primarily in the animal kingdom. Possessing a backbone, it is placed in the branch of vertebrate animals. It differs from the fishes, reptiles, and birds, by giving milk ; hence it is placed in the class of mammals. Continuing our comparisons, we find that, with the lions, tigers, and cats, it is a flesh-eater, and so is placed in the order carnivora. From its gen- eral appearance and form, it is associated with others in the family of dogs. With others that have a similar structure, it is given the generic name cam's; then, to distinguish what kind of a dog it is, wild or domestic, it is given a specific or specifying name, as the common INTRODUCTION. dog, Cants domesticus. sification : Hence we have the following clas- DOG. Kingdom : of Animals. Branch : Backboned, Vertebrates. Class: Milk-givers, Mammalia. Order : Flesh-eaters, Carnivora. Family : Dogs, Canidae. Genus : Dog, Canis. Species : Canis domesticus. Variety : Newfoundland. The present views of naturalists regarding the approxi- mate relationships of the great branches may be repre- sented by the following provisional table : IX. Vertebrata. VIII. Tunica fa. VII. Arthropoda. Crustaceans. Insects. I I VI. Mollusca. Oysters, Cuttles, etc. V. Vermes. Worms. IV. Echinodermata. Starfish, Sea-cucumbers, etc. III. Caelenterata. Corals, Jelly-fishes, etc. II. Ponfera. Sponges. METAZOA. Many-celled Animals. I. PROTOZOA. Single-celled Animals. CHAPTER I. ^ FIRST BRANCH OF ANIMALS. PROTOZOANS (First Animals). General Characteristics. The Protozoans are one-celled animals, in this differing from all others. The lowest forms resemble microscopic bits of the white of an egg. They have no definite shape, and move by a bulging out of the body-mass into root-like projections called pseu- dopodia, or false feet. In the interior are minute granules that move about (circulate), and in all, except the lowest protozoans, is seen a central oval body called the nucleus, and a hollow, transparent space, that contracts and en- larges with some regularity, called the "contractile vesi- cle." The higher forms have silicious or calcareous shells and permanent organs. Class I. MONERS. These are shapeless bits of transparent matter (Fig. i) containing merely circulating granules. By extending the body into pseudopodia, or false feet, and contracting them, they glide slowly along. Their prey is seized by sur- rounding it with the false feet, which fuse about it, and the victim is absorbed into the body-mass. They repro- duce by simple division, or as in Fig. i. The Moner as- sumes a thick covering (becomes encysted), #, divides into spheres, , that burst out, c, d, e, and soon assume the parent form, / FIG. i. Protomyxa aurantiaca. /, eating ; a and , encysting ; c, devel- oping into monad-like young. Class II. RHIZOPODA (Animals with Root-like Feet). General Characteristics. Animals resembling the mo- ners, but with a distinct outer and inner portion, the latter containing, as well as granules, several nuclei PROTOZOANS. FIG. 2. a, Amoeba throwing out pseudopodia ; b, encysted. and contractile vesicles. They are either naked or shelled. Order I. Foraminifera (Hole- Bearers). In the sim- plest form, the Amoeba (Fig. 2), the body is divided into a transparent outer covering, and an interior portion containing thenuclei,and circulating gran- ules that appear to be kept in motion by the pulsation of the contracting vesicle. It moves along by throwing out pseudo- podia, or false feet, and ingulfs its food desmids, diatoms, and other minute forms as does the moner. The Amoeba reproduces by simple division. Shelled Amoebae. These forms (Fig. 3) secrete rich calcareous or horny chambered shells, from which are thrown out the false feet, extending in every direc- tion in search of prey, and fusing about it without the shell. They are generally minute, but one found off Borneo measures two inch- es across. They reproduce in different ways ; in one, the young resemble monads (Fig. 6), finally assuming the parent form. Order II. Radiolaria (Rayed Animals]. In these animals (Fig. 4) the false feet are generally pointed, and the shells, which are formed of silica, not lime, are richly ornamented with spicules, or rays, and perforated with openings for the pseudopodia, that secure their food, as we have seen in the Foraminifera. They reproduce by di- FIG. 3. Rotalia, with extended pseu- dopodia. GREGARINIDA. -INFUSORIA. FIG. 4. Flint-shelled Radiolarian {Heliospluera). vision within the shell, the young at first resembling little oval bodies, with hair- like tails. VALUE. The shells of the ma- rine forms fall in a shower upon the bottom, and form chalk-beds, as the Dover cliffs, in England, thus adding to the land of the globe. The stone of the Pyramids is made up of fossil Foraminirera. Specimens for Study. The Amoeba can be found on leaves in fresh-water ponds. Foraminifera can be caught with a fine net in the ocean, or found in pools at low tide. The shells can be ground and mounted for the microscope. Class III. GREGARINIDA. General Characteristics. These (Fig. 5) are minute forms that take up their abode in lobsters, crabs, beetles, cockroaches, worms, and other animals, and lead a parasitic life, existing upon the juices of the animals they inhabit. They resemble minute worms ; one, found in the European lobster, half an inch in length, is called Gregarina gi- gantea, being the largest single-celled animal knQwn Th unde rgO Several J curious changes before reaching mature growth. FlG^.-Gregarinaof Nemertes Gessert- ensis, showing nu- cleus and granules. Class IV. INFUSORIA. General Characteristics. Animals of permanent form with cilia, or hair-like organs, for locomotion and procur- ing food. They are either free or stalked. 8 PROTOZOANS. Order I. Flagellata (Monads]. If standing water is examined with a microscope, it will be found fairly alive with numbers of minute pear- and oval-shaped creatures, having, at the place where the stem would be, alash, that vibrates and whirls about as the animal moves along. One of the Monads, the Noctihi- ca (Fig. 6), a giant of its kind, lives in the ocean, and in appear- ance resembles a cur- rant about the size of a small pin-head. On one side there is a groove, from which FIG. 6. Giant monad Noctiluca. e, gastric issues a single whip, vacuole ; Radiating filaments. or c ilium, that is a lo- comotive organ, and near where this joins the body is the mouth. The outer surface of the animal is a firm membrane, beneath which is the jelly-like mass containing numerous granules, from which rises a regular network of fibers that lead over the entire body. The young are produced by a mere break- ing off of a portion of the parent. NOTE. As many as thirty thousand of these forms have been seen in the ocean in a cubic inch, moving about with great rapidity, and producing a most wonderful phosphorescent light. Other monads are compound (several joined together), as the Uvella, while others are fixed, attached to the bottom by a slender stalk, as the Codosiga. Here the little hair- like organ is used to throw food into the mouth. Others of this order have their delicate forms protected by a hard INFUSORIA. shell, have one or several whips, or lashes, and a row of cilia, with which they lash themselves along with great velocity. Order II. Suctoria. This order is represented by the Acineta (Fig. 7), beautiful, trumpet-like animals re- sembling the purest glass. From the body project F G numerous slender tufts that are not cilia, but hol- low tentacles (arms), hav- ing in some a sucker at their ends. Their prey is grasped by the arms, that contract, each at the FIG. i.Acir.ta. F, attached by stalk ; same time sinking into ^ encysted, the body of the victim, pumping or sucking out its juices. They multiply by self- division, while some species have free-swimming young. Order III. Ciliata. These are the true Infusorians, easily observed with a common microscope, a drop of standing water furnishing myriads. They are either free and covered with cilia, or stalked, with the cilia about the head. They have a mouth, a digestive cavity, or stomach, and multiply by self-division or budding. Among the free swimmers, the Paramedums (Fig. 8) are the giants, and easily observed if a little carmine is intro- duced into the drop. As they dart about, we see that they are oblong, narrowing at the head, the back rising into quite an elevation, beneath which, upon the under side, is the mouth. From the head and on all sides are minute prolongations of the body, or cilia, arranged in rows, organs of locomotion. The Vorticellce (Fig. 9), or bell animalcules, are bell-shaped, and held by a long, slender, glass-like stalk, by which they contract. A colony of them presents a curious sight ; the bells are continually contracting, as if jerked from behind, the stalk forming a 10 PROTOZOANS. perfect screw in the operation. They multiply by a sim- ple division (Fig. 9, c) or by budding (d, d). FIG. 8. Paramecium bursaria, showing cilia, c, contractile vacuole ; ^, food. FlG. 9. Vorticellce. a, extended : l>, coiled ; c, division ; of, d, free- swimming buds. Works on Protozoans for further reference. " The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyville Thomson ; Carpenter on the Microscope ; " Mind in Nature," H. J. Clark ; Leidy's " Fresh- Water Rhizopods " ; Pritchard's " Infusoria " ; " Man- ual of Invertebrates," T. H. Huxley ; " Challenger Reports " ; " Even- ings at the Microscope," Gosse ; Thompson's " Monthly Microscopical Journal"; "The Quarterly Microscopical Journal"; Bastian's "Ori- gin of Lowest Organisms, and Beginnings of Life" ; " Notices of Pro- tozoa," by Professor Leidy, in "Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences " ; " Water turned to Blood by Red Infusoria;" in "Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv, p. 202. SPONGES, PLATE \, A marine sponge attached to the bottom. PLATE U. A FRESH-WATER SPONGE, A. Hypothetical section of a Spongilla : a, superficial layer ; b, inhalent apertures ; c, ciliated chambers ; d, an exhalent aperture ; e, deeper sub- stance of the sponge. The arrows indicate the direction of the currents. B. A small Spongilla with a single exhalent aperture, seen from above : , hinges ; c, d, d, principal teeth ; //, ligament ; e, e, adductor muscles ; /, lines of growth ; /, pal- lial line. 6 FIG. 55. Mollusk, without siphon. 6", shell ; m, lower half of man- tle; m', a piece of the upper half; g, breathing-gills ; 7i, heart ; /v, liver ; Ip, lips ; 0, opening of mouth ; , anus, where refuse is thrown out ; ms, muscle hold- ing shells together ; c, elastic cushion forcing them apart. Infernal Organs. Opening the valves, we note the two leaves of the mantle, or body-wall, whose function is to secrete and repair the shell. Removing these, we see the gills (Fig. 55, g) or branchiae that are open in front and joined at the back. They appear made up of minute rods covered by a maze of veins, and are provided with cilia. The siphon (Fig. 56, s), or so-called blackhead, when present, projects through the mantle, and in the clam is capable of great distention. It is divided into OYSTERS, ETC. 53 two parts, either double or single, and the orifices are surrounded by tentacles. Circulation. The blood is purified (aerated) and food obtained by the same action. Water is drawn into the siphon opening farthest from the valve (Fig. 56, in\ and, wafted along by the cilia, is thus brought in contact with the gills. The food-particles in the water are carried along to the toothless mouth (Fig. 55, o), that, guarded by two pairs of sense organs (palpi), is placed at the end of the shell opposite the siphon. They then pass into the stom- ach and intestine that winds about and passing through FIG. 56. Bivalve with siphon, showing the foot. /, ligament ; F, foot ; m, mantle ; s, siphon ; ex., excurrent orifice ; /., incurrent orifice. Except the siphon and the large foot, the arrangement of organs is similar to that of the oyster. (After Morse.) the heart finally connects with the siphon nearest the valve (Fig. 56, ex.), out of which all rejectementa passes. Extend- ing through the body is a glass-like rod, that is possibly a brace or support. The heart lies near the hinge (Fig. 55, h\ and is composed of one ventricle and one auricle in the oyster. In other species the heart is three-chambered, or there may. be two hearts of two chambers each. Arte- ries lead from the ventricle over the body, and veins carry blood to the gills g y where it is purified by the air in the water then passing back to the auricle. The nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia cerebral, pedal, and a pair that send nerves to the internal organs, gills, 54 MOLLUSC A. etc. The eyes, when present, are in the borders of the mantle, and often resemble gems. The foot is a muscular organ that projects from the mantle nearly opposite the siphon, by which the animal leaps, moves, or glues itself to the rock, as the case may be. The ear is in the foot a transparent sac containing a clear fluid in which floats a glassy globule. BIVALVES WITHOUT SIPHONS. Oysters (Ostreida). The oyster is found in great beds upon the coasts of many countries. About 425 different living species are known, and over 1,400 fossil, some of the latter being of gigantic size. A single oyster will de- posit during July and September over 1,000,000 yellow eggs. At first they remain in the gills, but finally leave the parent, and, after swimming about for awhile by means of cilia, during which their numbers are greatly dimin- ished, they finally settle upon the bottom, and in five or six weeks are as large as a grain of corn, three years, how- ever, being required to attain full growth. They generally lie upon their sides, and are often inhabited by one or more small crabs {Pinnotheres). VALUE. Seven hundred and sixty-five million oysters are handled yearly in New York alone, representing a capital of $1,577,000, the industry giving employment to thousands. Comb Shells (Pectens). The Pectens are generally round, with radiating ribs from the valves, and are noted for their loco- motive powers, and the luster and brilliancy of their gem-like eyes that dot the mantle. They FIG. 57-Pecten swimming, by violently have also numbers of opening and closing its valves. filaments that extend WING SHELLS. 55 from the shell in the Lima hians to more than its entire length and, by a vigorous opening and shutting of its valves, this shell flies through the water, its long, golden- red tentacles streaming behind. It also constructs a nest by covering itself with stones, shells, etc., connected by its byssus. The common Pecten is called the dancing- scallop (Fig. 57), from its curious movements, darting through the" water and above it with the greatest ease. VALUE. Indian ornaments and articles of food. Wing Shells (Avbulufo).T\ie Meleagrina or pearl- oysters have obtained great prominence from their pearl- bearing properties. They come from Madagascar, Ceylon, Panama, etc. The pearls are formed of a pearly matter called nacre, secreted by the animal. If a grain of sand falls into the shell, the oyster envelops it with a pearly coating to smooth off the edges, and layer by layer the pearl grows. Imperfect pearls gro;v upon the sides of the valves, and are generally the attempts of the oyster to re- pel the advance of some boring parasite. NOTE One fishery in Ceylon recently produced $80,000 worth of pearls, to obtain which 17,000,000 oysters were brought ashore. The fisheries are under the government control. Mother-of-pearl is the pearly shell of certain oysters, and valued in decoration. In one year twenty tons of silver-tipped shells have been received at Liverpool from the Society Islands, thirty tons of black-tipped from Manila, and 340 tons of a smaller kind from Panama. Pinna. These shells, common on many shores, are wedge-shaped and horny, the hinge delicate, the beaks forming a sharp peak. The foot is long and grooved. Over thirty species are known, and are found buried in the sand off shore. They attain a length of two feet. VALUE. The Pinna has long been noted for its silk, which is the cable or byssus by which the shell attaches itself to the bottom. Gloves and stockings of Pinna-silk can be seen in the British Museum. Gloves so made cost $1.50 a pair, and stockings $2.75. 56 MOLL USC A. Mussels (Mytilida). The black mussels with tneii silvery interiors are the common forms on the rocks of the Eastern Shore. They are covered with a thick leathery skin, the hinge being without teeth. They are remarkable for their climbing powers (Fig. 58, M). By means of their foot, /", they fasten a silken cord to the rocks, then another, and by continually stretching out cables ahead or upward. FIG. 58. Group of headless mollusks. c, cardium springing ; M, mytilus ; s, pecten ; R, razor-fish, solen ; /", foot ; /, anchoring-threads ; si. breathing-siphons ; , eyes of scallop. and lifting and breaking off those below, they climb 01 warp themselves along very much as does a ship on a lee- shore ; 217 living and 350 fossil species are known. VALUE. The edible-mussel fisheries afford employment to many persons in Europe. Fresh-Water Mussels ( Unionidce). These are pond, river, and lake mussels, resembling in appearance the edible mussel, black without and pearly within, tinted with iridescent hues. About 550 living species are known throughout the world, and 60 fossil. The sexes are dis- tinct. The young are held in the gills of the mother in BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 57 the winter and early spring. They live for ten or fifteen years. VALUE. Unios produce pearls, and in St. Clair County, Illinois, and Rutherford County, Tennessee, their collection is a profitable business. In Scotland, $50,000 worth of fresh-water pearls have been taken from unios during the summer. A pearl was taken from a unio near Salem, New Jersey, a few years ago, that sold in Paris for $2,000. BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. Tridacna ( Tridatmda). In the Tridacna gigas (Fig. 59), the largest living bivalve, the shells are often five feet SCALE IN FEET. -^ FIG. 59. Giant clam (Tridacna gigas). long ; each valve weighing over 250 pounds, the animal itself frequently 30 pounds, one serving as a meal for fifty men. The shell is trigonal, with deep radiations. They are common in the Torres Straits, where they are sunk into the coral rock, present- ing the appearance of huge FIG. 60. Bivalve, with siphons, #, excurrent ; b, incurrent ; c, foot. (After Morse.) elongated sea- anemones, the mantle being of brilliant blue and green. So securely are they imbedded that they have to be quarried out at low 58 MOLLUSC A. tide with axe and chiseL According to Moseley, they attain an age of one hundred years. NOTE. So powerful are they that large sharks and rays that have accidentally crossed them have been seized and held. The Tridacna always harbors within its shell several crabs. The byssus is so large that it can only be cut with a hatchet. Eight species are known. VALUE. The Tridacnse are often used as benetiers for holding holy water. The natives cut the shell up into knives. Razor-Shells (Solenidtz). This shell (Fig. 58, ) is long, thin, and slightly curved, with two or three teeth in each valve. They have a powerful club-shaped foot, do not secrete a byssus, but lie concealed upright in the sand. When placed upon the sand, they use the foot like an au- ger, and rapidly disappear ; 60 or more living species are known, and 350 fossil. FIG. 61. Pholas imbedded in a block of granite, showing section. Boring Shells (Pholadidofy, These have a thin, brit- tle, and very hard shell, open at both ends, and armed with file-like markings. The siphons are very long, and united BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 59 except at the tips. They are found in nearly all oceans, about 80 living species and 50 fossil being known. They are noted for their boring powers (Fig. 61), making their way into the hardest rock. NOTE. The shells contain aragonite in their composition, and are supposed by continual friction to wear away the hardest rock. Having entered a block of gneiss, they grow and enlarge their hole, and so im- prison themseb'es. The pillars of the temple of Serapis, in Italy, are pierced by them, showing that the land was submerged long enough for them to obtain a foot-hold. The Pholas emits a bluish-white light when dead or alive, and they may be compared to miners with their lamps. A single one placed in seven ounces of milk has been used as a lamp ; faces near it were illumined, and the milk appeared trans- parent. Another, placed in honey, retained its light over a year. Ship- Worm ( Teredo). The shell is composed of two curved equal valves, open at both ends (Fig. 62). The animal is worm-like, and not entirely covered by the shell. FlG. 62. Ship- Worm (Teredo naval fs). They bore into wood, incasing the tunnel with a limy ceiling. The siphons are long, and where they separate are protected with small calcareous bodies, called palettes, which close the mouth of the tube. The foot forms a sucker. The common teredo is at first free swimming, passing through several changes before it assumes the adult form. The Teredo gtgantea, found at Sumatra buried in the mud, is from four to six feet in length, the tube three to four inches in diameter, and when covered with other shells is extremely bulky and heavy. NOTE. The destruction they cause seems incredible. A large portion of a wreck stranded on the Florida reef, and examined by the 6o MOLL USC A, author several years ago, has now disappeared, having crumbled away under their tunneling. Hulls that appear solid may be crushed by the hand completely honey-combed. In 1731 they nearly destroyed the piles in Holland, threatening the country with destruction. They attack floating wood, and so are carried all over the world. Docks at Tortugas, Fla., were rendered unsafe in twelve months. Palmetto is the most successful resistant. Watering-pot Shells (Aspergillum). In these shells the two valves are imbedded in the lower part of the tube, the beaks only being visible externally. The tube which incloses the siphon ends in shelly expansions or ruffles ; at the other or anterior end it is club-shaped, and cov- ered by a disk like the nose or sprinkler of a watering- pot, and perforated with numerous holes in exactly the same way. They are found in tropical countries, buried in the mud or sand, the ruffled end containing the siphon exposed. SINGLE-SHELLED MOL- LUSKS. FIG. 63. The interior of a univalve (Periwinkle), f, foot ; m, muscle for drawing back into the shell ; g, spittle glands ; the glands for giving out slime are near the anus tube ; ///, throat leading to s, stomach ; r, tooth-bearer rolled up ; br, branchiae or breathing- gills, which, when the mantle is folded back in its place, lie over the throat ; a, anus ; 0, ovary car- rying eggs, Class I. SNAILS, etc. (Gasteropoda, belly- footed). General Characteristics. Mollusks that secrete a single shell. They have ears and eyes upon a dis- tinct head. The foot is now a flat, creeping disk SINGLE-SHELLED MGLLUSKS. 6l (Fig. 63, /"). They also have an odontophore or tooth- bearer, and the shell is often closed by a plate or door called the operculum ; 22,000 species are known, 7,000 of which are extinct or fossil. Sea Wood-Lice (Chitonidce). In these (Fig. 64) the shell is composed of eight transverse plates. The young FIG. 64. A gasteropod (Chiton). I. Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton dissected : , top-view of still later stage, with the shell forming around it. E, side-view of later stage, showing appendages protruded. (The little marks at the sides of the figure?, indicate the natural size of the object. A, B, highly magnified ; all of these views are magnified, and, with the exception of Z> ? are reduced from figures of C. Spence Bate.) 2 FIG. go. A Lernaean (Tr ache Hastes) of a fresh-water fish (Cyprincz}. i, larva, as it leaves the egg. 2, larva, more advanced. 3, adult female, showing the egg-sacs. (Nordmann.) 8 4 CRABS AND INSECTS. brine-shrimp (Fig. 91), live in the brine-vats of various coun- tries, the amount of salt sometimes determining the form FIG. 91. Brine-shrimps, a, Branchi- pus stagnalis. d, Artemia salina whose form depends upon the salt- ness of the water. FIG. 92. Fresh -water crustacean, with bi- valve shell. *?, eye. (After Morse.) of the animal. They multiply by budding and by eggs. The Estheria (Fig. 92) secretes a bivalve shell, microscopic rings upon it indicating the various moults, the cast - off coat being ce- mented to the new shell which forms beneath. Si- da and Daphnia are called water-fleas from their ac- tivity. The latter carries its eggs upon its back. The Apus (Fig. 93) is an interesting form, having forty-seven segments and as many as sixty pairs of limbs. They withstand remarkable extremes of heat and coldj the eggs hatching in snow - water after being frozen for two weeks. The Nebalia, repre- senting Order IV, Phyllocardia, has leaf-like feet, and CRASS, ETC. passes through no metamorphosis. The body is com- pressed, the rostrum distinct from the carapace. Order V. Fourteen-footed Crustaceans (Tetra- decapoda]. In this order are the beach-fleas (Fig. 94), so common among the weeds ; the pill-bugs and others living in salt and fresh water. The Idotea phosphorea has an acute tail-piece, and mimics the eel-grass and fucus with its green, gray, and yellow col- ors, at night gleaming with vivid phosphorescence. They live under stones and rock- weed, and when touched curl into a ball. The eggs are held in a little brooding cavity un- der the thorax between the legs. Many species of Podo- cerus and others build curious nests in which they take shel- ter. A gigantic amphipod has FIG. 94. Sand-hopper (Talitrus sal tat or). FIG. 95. Mantis shrimp (Squilla mantis'). two enormous faceted eyes that entirely cover the head. The Arcturus, from Arctic seas, mimics sea-weed with its long antennae, and carries its young about on its back or feelers. The Squilla, or mantis shrimp (Fig. 95), repre- senting Order VI, Stomapoda, is an interesting form ; the gills are attached to the base of the under abdominal feet. They burrow in the sand below tide-water. 86 CRABS AND INSECTS. Order VII. Ten - footed Crustaceans (Decapodd] \ Long-tailed Crustaceans (Macrura]. The shrimps (Fig. 96) are common on nearly all shores. Some possess FIG. 96. Prawn (Palamon jamaicensis}, about natural size. A, female. B, fifth thoracic appendage of male. (After Huxley.) the faculty of mimicry to a wonderful degree. The chame- leon shrimp changes to green and brown, even becoming transparent under certain conditions. Deep-red-colored ones have been found in the Atlantic, and others from great depths have remarkably developed eyes. Cray-fish in the Mammoth Cave are blind, and the eyes of Willemcesia, from the deep Atlantic, are rudimentary. Lobsters (Fig. 98) that are familiar on Northern coasts are in Florida re- placed by the whip-lobster (Fig. 99), that has long whips instead of the large claws. CRABS, ETC. FIG. 97. The Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicuc), \ natural size. (After Huxley.) 88 CRABS AND INSECTS. FIG. 98. The common lobster (Homarus vulgaris), j natural size. CRABS, ETC. FIG. 99. Marine cray-fish (Pahnurus vu/garis), about i natural size. NOTE. On the Florida reef nearly every coral head or branch affords protection to one or more cray-fishes, as they are there called. The animals partly undermine them, thus serving the coral by pre- venting the fatal inroads of sand and mud. CRABS AND INSECTS. FIG. loo. Hermit out of the shell, showing soft abdomen, r, hardened ridge which bears against the inner edge of the aperture of the shell ; a, a, appendages to which the eggs are attached. (After Morse.) FIG. ioi. Hermit-crab in the shell of a sea-snail. (After Emertono CRABS, ETC. 9I Hermit - Crabs. In the Hermits, that are either marine or terrestrial, the abdomen is soft (Fig. 100), and to protect it they take possession of empty univalve shells (Fig. 101), or even old tobacco-pipes thrown overboard by sailors,* while others bore into wood, sand, or sponges, the FlG. 102. The English edible crab (Cancer pagurus), i natural size. A, dorsal view, with the abdomen extended. B, front view of " face '' : as, antennary sternum ; or, orbit ; r, rostrum ; i, eyestalk ; 2, antennule ; 3, base of antenna ; 3', free portion of antenna. (After Huxley.) * The author kept a land hermit for several months that had taken up its quarters in an old clay pipe. It crawled up a table daily to drink from a saucer of water placed there for the purpose. 92 CRABS AND INSECTS. large claw closing the entrance like an operculum. The claws are often brilliantly colored blue, purple, and red. NOTE. On Bush Key, Tortugas group, the author has often ob- served land-hermits and a Gecarcinus climbing bay cedars and rob- bing young noddies of their food, despite their vigorous protests. The largest ally of the Hermit is the Birgos latro, found in the Spice Islands and various parts of the Indian Ocean. The abdomen is protected by hard plates ; consequently, they do not need a shell. They attain a length of three feet. Professor Van Beneden states that one lifted a goat from the ground by its ears. They subsist upon cocoanuts, breaking the shells by hammering them with their claws. They visit the water daily, but breathe air, the gills having all the attributes of true lungs. Short-tailed Crabs (Brachyura).^^ short-tailed crabs (Fig. 102) differ from the Hermits in having well- developed hind-feet, an abdo- men capable of being bent un- der the body, and a broad and flat carapace. Marine Crabs. The larg- est of these is the Macrocheira of Japan, that often measures twenty-two feet between the large biting claws, each of which is ten FIG. 103. Lupea, short-tailed , , ,. r . crab, with the last two claws and a half f eet lon g' The bod y adapted for swimming. is small, and resembles a moss- covered rock. The claws are adapted for crawling. The Lupea (Fig. 103) has the last two claws adapted for swimming. NOTE. Some of the spider-crabs of our coast purposely plant sea- weed upon their backs, where it grows, affording them effectual pro- tection. A crab deprived of this growth will recover its carapace immediately. Cancer fulgens, according to Sir Joseph Banks, is lumi- nous. The most remarkable luminous crustacean, according to Nor- CRABS, ETC. 93 denskiold, is the little Metridia armata, that exists in such quantities in the snow on the shores of the Arctic Ocean that persons and ani- mals appear to be walking in fire, the splashes of light presenting a wonderful spectacle. The light is of a bluish-white tint, which in the spectroscope gives a one-colored Labrador-blue spectrum. Oyster-Crabs (Pinnotheres). These are the delicate forms commonly found in oysters and various bivalve shells, as well as the water- lung of Holothurians (Fig. 104). While the oyster-crabs find protection in other ani- FlG. 104. A, Pinnotheres, living in a Holothurian (Pinnotheres holo- thurife). 2?, the zoea stage of the young of A, highly magnified. mals, and the hermits steal shells to cover themselves, a number of curious forms shown in Fig. 105 take up their position upon a branch of coral, as Sideropora palmata, and FlG. 105. Crabs that form galls on corals, a, Cryptochirus (male) ; >\ Coralliodytes (female) ; c, Hapalocarcinus marsupialis (female >, that carries its young in a sac or marsupium. finally produce a gall, or are covered by the coral and live so imprisoned, obtaining their food through a small hole or 94 CRABS AND INSECTS. window. One of these crabs (c, Fig. 105) is remarkable in having a pouch in which the female carries her young ; the sac is formed by a prolongation of the lateral plates of the abdomen. Land-Crabs. Land-crabs are common on all shores, m?.ny, as the Ocypoda (Fig. 106), living in ' holes, hiber- nating in the winter, and mimicking the sand in their absence of color. In the South the land- crabs, Gecardnus (Fig. 107), that live in the bushes, are of various tints, equally protective among the leaves of the dead bay cedars and the fruit of the prickly-pear, about which they cling. They are all swift runners, and in Ceylon, a large land-crab is chased on horseback. FIG. 1 06. Ocypoda, a marine crab that lives on land. FIG. 107. Gecardnus rusticola, a land-crab. NOTE At St. Paul's rocks Professor Moseley observed the richly colored Grapsus, a land and water crab, carrying off young birds; and at Ascension Island the large land-crabs even steal young rabbits from their holes and devour them. CRABS, ETC. 95 Order VIII. Merostomata. The king or horseshoe crabs (Fig. 108) attain a length of two feet, and have a wide geographical range. The last segment of the ab- FiG. 108. Horseshoe crab. A, Limulus Moluccanus, dorsal view. B. Limulus rotundicauda, ventral view (after Milne- Ed wards) : a, ante- rior ; , middle division of the body ; c, telson ; d, subf rental area ; e, antennules ; f, antennae ; g, operculum ; //, breathing appendages. domen forms a long, sharp spine. The cephalo-thorax is broad, shaped like a horse's foot ; the feet are arranged about the mouth. The abdomen bears six pairs of broad swimming feet, except the first having upon the under side a set of about one hundred respiratory leaves or plates. The young resemble the extinct trilobites, to which they are allied. Some of the extinct forms, as Fig, 109, attained a length of nine feet. VALUE OF CRUSTACEANS. They are all valuable scavengers. The crab, lobster, and shrimp fisheries give employment to thousands of persons. The cocoanut-husks that the great Birgos tears up to line its nest are used by the Malays in basket and mat making. Concretions 9 6 CRABS AND INSECTS. from the stomach of the fresh-water cray-fish are used as an antacid The horseshoe is valued as guano. FIG. 109. iigantic extinct crustacean (Pterygotus), nine feet long, swim- ming among Crinoids. (After Buckley. ) Specimens for Study. In dissecting a crab, cray-fish, or other specimen, the carapace should be carefully re- moved with knife or scissors, the gills examined, the mouth- parts removed and compared with cut No. 81, and the difference between the parts noted. The claws should also be compared, and their various offices thoroughly un- derstood. The brain, stomach, and muscles can be stud- ied by cutting away the red membranous hypodermis. By injecting carmine into the arteries through the heart, the arterial system can be traced. The eggs, eyes, etc., can be hardened in alcohol, and cut in sections for micro- IA T SECTS. 97 scopic examination. The ear and other organs should re- ceive particular attention. The smaller crustaceans found in ponds, etc., should be examined alive under the micro- scope. Barnacles can be found on oyster-shells at any restaurant, and when placed in water show their cirri. Works on Crustaceans for further reference. " Challenger Reports " ; "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," Gosse ; " Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedition," J. D. Dana ; " North American Astacidae " (Fresh-water lobsters), H. A. Hagen, in " Memoirs of Museum of Comparative Zoology," vol. ii, No. 3, 1871 ; " Habits of certain Cray-fish," C. C. Abbott, " American Naturalist," vol. ix, p. 80 ; " Descriptions of the North American Phyl- lopoda," A. S. Packard, Jr. ; " Report of Hayden's Survey," 1873, p. 613 ; " Report of Peabody Academy of Sciences," 1873 ; " Report of United States Commissioner of Fisheries," 1874 ; "Crustacea," S. J. Smith ; " The Lobster and Lobster-Fishing," W. W. Wheildon, " Pro- ceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science," vol. xxiii, 1874 ; " Early Stages of the Lobster," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. iii, 1872, p. 401 ; " Barnacles," J. S. Kingsley, " Ameri- can Naturalist," vol. xi, p. 102; "The Cray-fish," Huxley. Class II. INSECTS (Insect a). General Characteristics. Arthropoda, with the head, thorax, and abdomen distinct ; breathing by air-tubes or tracheae ; the young passing through changes called a met- amorphosis. Skeleton. The skeleton (Fig. no) is external, and composed of a horny substance called chitine. As in the crustaceans, the body is made up of segments, numbering in the winged forms generally four in the head, three in the thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. The mouth- parts of insects consist, as a rule, of four separate divi- sions ; namely, the upper lip, or labrum ; a pair of crushing or cutting jaws (mandibles) ; and a smaller pair (maxilla), to which small jointed feelers called maxillary palpi are attached. The lower lip, or labium, is in reality a pair of jaws, and to it are attached another pair of jointed feelers 98 CRABS AND INSECTS. known as labial palpi. Near the compound eyes rise the sense-organs, or antenna. The thorax is separated into three segments : the first, prothorax, bearing the first pair of legs ; the second segment, or mesothorax, bears the elytra or first pair of wings in the beetles, hard, chitinous store- house for the wings proper (here is also attached the sec Third leg. FIG. 1 10. Skeleton of common beetle. (After Morse.) ond pair of legs) ; the third segment, or metathorax, bears the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, that are elastic membranes stretched over a framework of tubes. The abdomen bears the sting, ovipositor, or spin- nerets, as the case may be. The legs are generally com- posed of from six to nine joints, and usually terminate in two hooks, with perhaps pads or suckers (Fig. in). Digestion. The mouth-parts (Fig. 112, a) are modified in different insects for sucking, biting, stinging, etc. The INSECTS. 99 IV FIG. in. Foot of house-fly, show- ing the pads by which it clings. food passes by the oesopha- gus, b, into a membranous stomach called the crop, r, and thence, in the biting in- FIG. 112. Longitudinal and verti- cal section of a female cockroach (Blatta}. 1 to XX, somite of the body ; i to n, somite of the abdomen ; A, antenna ; /, labrum ; a, mouth ; 6, oesopha- gus ; c, crop ; d, proventriculus, or second stomach ; /*, intestine ; z, rectum ; /, salivary gland ; k, salivary receptacle. By an error, the duct is made to terminate above instead of beneath the lingua. H, position of heart ; m, cerebral ganglia ; N, thoracic ganglia ; _/", chyle stomach. (Af- ter Huxley.) TOO CRABS AND INSECTS. sects, into a second stomach, or gizzard, d, that is provided with muscular walls and chitinous plates. From here it passes to the true stomachy, and finally to the intestine h. Circulation. The heart, H, is tubular in shape, ex- tending along the back, and composed of numerous sacs, separated by valves that allow the blood to flow toward the head, where it branches out, re- turning through the tissues, there being no true veins or arteries. FIG. 113. S, spiracle or breathing-plate, with the slit in the center which opens to take in air. T, part of a breathing- tube, showing the spiral thread which keeps it in its round shape. w t FIG. 114. Insect showing the spiracles, or open- ings in the sides of the body which commu- nicate with the air-tubes within the body : w, showing where the wings were attached ; h and m, where hind and middle legs were attached ; s, spiracle on thorax ; ^, tym- panum. (After Morse.) FIG. 115. Tracheal or air-tube system of a larval dragon-fly. Tracheae are shaded. Respiration. The insects all breathe by a system of air-channels or tubes, and some, as the spiders, by lungs as well. The air-tubes are called trachea, and are wound with a minute thread (Fig. 113) that seems to preserve their INSECTS. 101 shape. The tracheae connect with the exterior at various parts of the sides of the body, the openings (Fig. 114) being called spiracles, stigmata, or breathing-holes. The tubes extend over a greater part of the body (Fig. 115), bringing fresh air in contact with the blood in the tissues. This is even accomplished in the wings, so that they serve as lungs as well as organs of flight. Breathing seems to be accomplished by a contraction and expansion of the ab- dominal segments. Nervous System. The nervous system of insects is made up of a chain of ganglia that is connected by a double nervous cord, and occupies the ventral portion of the body. The portion above the oesophagus is called the cerebral ganglia. Fig. 112, #z, shows the brain; and from here nerves pass to the various sense-organs. The ganglia below is called thoracic (Fig. 112, JV), and sends nerves to the wings, legs, and other parts. Development. Most insects are produced by eggs, while some appear directly in the adult form. The changes through which the former pass are called metamorphoses. The butter- flies, beetles, etc., pass through three changes from the egg to the perfect insect. The first stage is called the larva grub, mag- got, or caterpillar (Fig. 116). In this form it is worm-like, has numbers of feet, eats voraciously, changes its skin (moults) frequent- ly, and finally in many instances spins a silken case or FIG. 116. Larvae of insects. FIG. 117. Cocoons. A, showing inside of co- coon, containing the remains of a chrysalis- skin. 102 CRAftS AND INSECTS. FIG. 118. Chrysalides. (After Morse.) cocoon about itself (Fig. 117). The skin is now cast again, and the insect appears a short, seemingly lifeless pupa or chrysalis (Fig. 118), in which state it remains a greater or less time, finally shedding its skin and appearing a perfect insect or imago. This is known as a con> plete change. Others, as crickets, dragon-flies, grasshoppers (Fig. 119), pass through a partial FiG.ii 9 .-Exampieof change. Insects are found incomplete change everywhere ; far out at or metamorphosis. sea? as the ffalobates (Fig. Young grasshop- x . , per : ,, wing just *4*)> m dee P caves > m h t appearing. springs, and on the high- est glaciers, as the gla- cier-flea (Fig. 133). The bees and ants live seven years, some locusts thirteen or seventeen years, while the May- flies are born and die within twenty-four hours. In all, about 19,000 species of insects are known. Sub-Class I. MALACOPODA. Peripatus (Peripatida>) r lhz Peripatus is one of the simplest insects, having a long, soft, and cylindrical body, bearing from twenty-eight to sixty-six feet. Upon the head is a pair of jointed extensible antennae ; the feet are soft, and supplied with two claws. When alarmed, it in- stantaneously ejects a secretion that seems to crystallize in the air, forming a complete web in front. It is found in the West Indies, Panama, and Cape of Good Hope SUB-CLASS II. CENTIPEDES (Myriapoda). General Characteristics. Head free ; thorax and abdo- men continuous ; joints cylindrical, and often numbering two hundred, each bearing a pair of locomotive organs. INSECTS. 103 Order I. Chilognatha. In the Millepedes (Fig. 120), the body is cylindrical, each segment bearing two pairs of Compound eye. . Antenna FIG. 120. A common millepede. The line underneath the figure represents the length of the specimen from which the drawing was made. A, a magnified view of the head of the milleped represented above. , a magnified view of the left jaw. (After Morse.) legs. They are vegetable feeders, and harmless. The eggs are laid in the earth, and the larva at first has only three pairs of legs (Fig. 121). Spi- rostrephon, from the Mammoth Cave, is covered with hair. Order II. Pauropoda. The Pauropus has only six segments be- sides the head. The young have three pairs of feet. Order III. Chilopoda. The Centipedes (Fig. 122) attain a length of ten or twelve inches, and have a flattened body composed of from 30 to 200 joints or segments. In some the eyes are sim- ple ocelli ; in others they are compound. The Scolopen- dra heros is extremely poisonous, the glands being in the two large fangs (Fig. 123). Cermatia forceps, of the Mid- dle and Southern States, is also said to be poisonous. FIG. i2i. Highly magni- fied figure of a very young millepede, short- ly after hatching from the egg. 104 CRABS AND INSECTS. NOTE. Scolopendra electro, is a luminous species, and is common in England, Belgium, and France. It is i inch long, and has 140 legs. According to Phipson, the luminosity, like that of some min- erals, is only evident after the insect has been exposed to the sun. Another luminous species is found in Asia. FIG. 122. Centipede. FlG, 123. Scolopendra Hopei. Under surface of head, showing poison-fangs. Sub-Class III. SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS (Arachnida). General Characteristics. The body is in two sections, cephalo-thorax, and abdomen ; four pairs of legs, simple eyes, and no antennae. FIG. 124. Hydrachna geographica, a marine mite, and young enlarged. Order I. Mites (Acarina). The mites are mostly par- asitic, as the cattle-tick ; others are the cheese and sugar mites. The body is oval, and the thorax not separated INSECTS. 10$ from the abdomen. Some are marine (Fig. 124). The lowest forms are parasitic in the lungs and liver of man, and in the horse and sheep. Order II. Scorpions (Pedipalpi}. In the scorpions the body is plainly segmented and large, the tail long and slender, ending in a curved sting (Fig. 125) that con- tains two poison-glands. They have crab-like claws, and breathe by lungs as well as tracheae. In Ceylon they at- tain a length of twelve inches, in Flonda four. In striding, the tail is raised over the back and then struck down,* FIG. 125. Scorpion with cricket in its claws, s, carapace ; m ) r T\& walk- ing-sticks (Fig. 140) re- semble -the Mantidce, but the fore-legs are not adapt- ed for grasping. They are wonderful mimics, their bodies resembling old and new twigs. One even mimics a moss- grown stick, its legs and body being covered with curious irregular growths. In the Malay Archipelago and South America they attain a length of four- teen inches. Walking-Leaves (PJyUium). The wing-covers, in these insects (Fig. 141), so imitate leaves that they are readily taken for them. Even the veins and midrib of the leaf are often perfect, FlG. 140. Walking-stick (Phasmd) wingless orthopterous insect. CRABS AND INSECTS. and mold-spots of various colors are also mimicked in some, so that the insect resembles a dried leaf well de- cayed. The eggs might even be taken for deeply-ribbed seeds. Grasshoppers (Acrydit). The grasshoppers (Fig. 142) have a compressed body, short antennae, and hind- legs adapted for leaping. Their noise, which is often deafening, is made by rub- bing the thighs (Fig. 143) against the fore- FIG. 142. Grasshopper. FIG. 141. Phyl- lium siccifoli- um, feeds on leaves, and mimics fresh leaves. FIG. 143. Leg of a grasshopper, magnified, showing ridge of fine teeth on the inside of the leg, marked a, by which the insect rasps the wing; b, c, different views of ridge of fine teeth, highly magnified. wings. Their eggs are deposited, 50 to 100 at a time, in a cocoon-shaped mass, in the ground, though the female has no produced ovipositor. The organs of hearing are at the base of the abdomen. NOTE. Some species migrate in such vast numbers that they have been known to darken the sun. Their bodies, once washed ashore on the African coast, formed a wall fifty miles long and three or four feet in height. Jaegar passed through a swarm in Russia 400 miles long and two feet deep. They threatened a famine, and 30,000 soldiers, armed with shovels, were sent out to reduce their numbers. In 1478 30,000 persons starved to death in Russia, the result of their raids. INSECTS Locusts (Locustarice) . The green locusts (Fig. 144) have large heads, long, slender antennae and legs. The base of the ante- rior wing is trans- parent, forming a drum, with which the males utter shrill calls, the sounds in some species be- ing different at p 1G I44 ._Meado\v locust (Orchelimum vulgare). day and night. The female has a long ovipositor for borirrg holes in the ground and wood for the reception of its eggs. The katy- did is a familiar form, making the curious noise from which they are named by rubbing the inner surface of the hind-legs against the outer surface of the front-wings. NOTE. Mr. Belt observed a locust that so resembled a leaf that the ants ran over it, completely deceived. FlG. 145. i, wingless cricket ; 2 and 4, field-cricket ; 3, house-cricket. Crickets (Gryllidce). The crickets (Fig. 145) have a somewhat cylindrical body, large head, placed vertically, 120 CRABS AND INSECTS. and long antennae, while the ovipositor is often as long as the entire body. The shrill cry is the call of the male, made by elevating the fore-wings and rubbing them on the hinder ones. Their eggs often exceed 300 in number, and are generally placed in the ground. NOTE. The mole cricket shows great affection for its eggs, placing them in underground cemented cells, and moving them near the surface or deeper, according to the weather. They have obtained such a hold upon the extreme outer keys of the Florida reef that it is almost im- possible to cultivate anything. Works on Orthoptera for further reference. " North American Orthoptera and Catalogue of New England Spe- cies," S. H. Scudder, in " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. vii ; " Songs of the Grasshoppers," S. H. Scudder, "American Naturalist," vol. iii, p. 113. Order IV. Half- Winged Insects (Hemiptera). General Characteristics. Bugs having the mouth-parts in the form of a sucking beak ; the fore-wings thickened at their base. Bird- Lice (Mallophaga). These are low forms, para- sitic upon the hairs and feathers of other animals. Nirmus lives on birds, Gyropus on the por- poise, etc. Bed - Bugs (Membranacei). In this family are found the flat- bodied bed-bugs Cimex (Fig. 146). The eggs are oval, the young escaping by pushing up a regular lid at one end. They in- FIG. 146. Bed-bug. fest wood-work, pigeons, swallows, bats, and various animals. Chinch-Bugs (fygentbfy* In the common chinch- bug the female deposits about 500 eggs twice in a season. They appear upon wheat in June, and afford a good ex- ample of incomplete metamorphosis (Fig. 147). INSECTS. 121 NOTE. In 1864 chinch-bugs caused a loss in wheat and corn of $100,000,000 ; and in 1850 their ravages in Illinois alone amounted to $4,000,000. FIG. 147. Different stages of the chinch-bug, a, egg; b, newly-hatched larva ; c, larva after first moult ; d, larva after second moult ; e, pupa ; /, perfect insect. Water-Measure Insects (Hydrometrida). These are narrow, boat-shaped insects, having long legs with which they dart over ponds and streams. The Halobates (Fig. 148) is found on the ocean, hundreds of miles from land, with its eggs. Water-Boatman (Notonectida). These aquatic insects dart about upon their backs with great rapidity, using their hind-legs, that are edged with strong cilia, and blade-like, as oars. They fly, swim, and dive with equal ease. The eggs are attached to aquatic plants. Harvest- Flies (Cicadida) The seventeen-year Cicada (Fig. 149) is wedge-shaped, with a broad head and prominent eyes. The shrill sound is made by a drum- like organ at the base of the abdomen. The eggs, num- FIG. 148. Halobates, an insect that goes to sea. 122 CRASS AND INSECTS. FIG. 149. Seventeen-year cicada. FIG. 150. A portion of a grass- stem, with the young froth-in- sects (Ptyelus) magnified, a, the insect reaching out the hinder part of the body to se- cure a bubble of air ; b, an in- sect allowing a bubble of air to escape in the fluid the dot- ted line b indicates the bub- ble ; c, the mouth-parts, like a sting, piercing the grass. (Af- ter Morse.) bering 400 or 500, are depos- ited the last of May in holes in the twigs of the oak, so formed by the ovipositor that the wood covers them. They hatch in about six weeks, the larvae burrowing in the ground and remaining nearly seven- teen years, then appearing in the adult form. Allied to them are the lantern -flies {Fulgo- ridcz}* Leaf-Hoppers (Cercopi- dcz). The tree- or leaf-hop- pers are remarkable for their strange shapes. They are small, with broad, triangular heads, and hind-legs adapted for leaping. The froth-insect * The following authors have ex- pressed their belief from observation and other sources in the phosphores- cent properties of the Fulgotida : Madame Merian, Dr. Donovan, au- thor of " Insects of India," Marquis Spinola, a colleague of Mr. West- mael, Lady Seymour, and Dr. Phip- son. INSECTS. 123 (Ptyelus) is common in the grass in early summer. When hatched, the young crawl up blades of grass, puncture them with their mouths, and suck the juice, a watery fluid escaping from various pores of the insect and completely covering it. To obtain air, its tail is thrust through the fluid (Fig. 150, 0), seizing a bubble by means of claspers, that passes along beneath the abdomen, entering the spi- racles. After a time the liquid becomes filled with air, , and assumes the frothy appearance familiar as frog- spittle, from which the perfect insect finally escapes. Bark-Lice (Coccida). The bark-lice are mi- nute scale-like in- sects, the males alone having wings. The cochineal (Fig. 151) is a fa- miliar form of the family. VALUE. The coch- ineal industry givesem- ployment to thousands of persons. From Coc- cus siensis comes wax ; 400,000 pounds have been obtained in a sin- gle year, and made into candles, etc. FIG. 151. i, Cochineal insects on a branch of cactus ; 2, female ; 3, male. Plant-Lice (Aphida) These insects (Fig. 152) have flask-shaped bodies and a three-jointed beak. They mul- tiply in a marvelous manner. Eggs are deposited by the impregnated female in the autumn that hatch in the spring, producing, as a rule, wingless forms, that in turn produce not eggs but living winged or wingless young, that in ten or eleven days produce others, and so on, so that the origi- 124 CRABS AND INSECTS. FIG. 152. Aphis. nal female may be represented in the twelfth generation by one quintillion descendants, all born in a single sum- mer. Upon the approach of cold weather, or from a lack of food, males and females are pro- duced by the viviparous form, and eggs are laid that in the spring give rise to successive broods, as above. Order V. Beetles (Coleopterci). General Characteristics. Insects having their fore-wings thickened, forming horny sheaths, called elytra, or wing-covers for the hinder pair, that are principally used in flight ; mouth-parts adapted for biting ; metamorphosis complete. The Girdler (Oncideres). This beetle displays remarkable intelli- gence in providing for its young. The eggs are deposited in perforations in the tender brushes of hickory, and, as the young require dead wood to eat, the mother girdles the limb below the eggs with her mandibles, so that it dies by the time the larva hatches. Spring-Beetles (Elateridce). These beetles are light- givers (Fig. 153), and when placed upon their backs have the power of spring- ing repeatedly into the air by using a spine situated be- tween the legs. The larvae are known as wire-worms, and feed upon vegetable mat- ter, sometimes re- maining five years in the larval state. The yellow luminous spots are upon FIG. 153. A luminous beetle (Pyrophorus noctilucus). INSECTS. 125 each side of the thorax, and emit a vivid light visible even in broad daylight. NOTE. The light of the common fire-fly (Lamfyris) gives a spec- trum from which blue and violet are omitted. Jaeger, the naturalist, states that the Elaters were frequently the means of saving his life, by lighting his way out of the dense forests of St. Domingo. FIG. 154. Diving-beetle (^Dytiscus margtnalts). ^ grub, showing pincers. Diving-Beetles {Dytiscida). These aquatic beetles (Fig. 154) are of an oval or rounded form, with the pos- terior legs fringed for swimming, and feet provided with suckers (Fig. 155). The larvae are ferocious creatures, called water-tigers (Fig. 154, g), having flattened heads and scissor-like jaws, with which they capture small fishes, tad- poles, and insects. The body ends in a pair of respiratory tubes, that are thrust into the air. When ready to change, the larva creeps ashore, builds a round cell, and in five 10 126 CRABS AND INSECTS. days assumes the pupa state, a few weeks later appearing as a full-fledged beetle. Others of more or less interest are the long-horned beetles (Cerambyadce\ weevils (Curculioni* li , -to), tiger-beetles (Ci- cindela), ground-bee- tles (Carabus), bury- ing-beetles (SityAufo), etc. Works on Coleoptera for further reference. " List of Coleoptera of North America," J. L. Le Conte, "Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections," vol. vi, No. 3 ; " Larval Habits of the Blister-Bee- tles, and Remarks on oth- er Species of the Family Meloidse," C. V. Riley, "Transactions of St. Louis Academy," vol. iii, No. 4; "Colorado Potato Beetles," C. V. Riley, "Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; "Annales des Sciences Natu- relles," FIG. 155. Suckers on tarsus of fore- limb of Dytiscus marginalis. Order VI. Two-Winged In- sects (Diptera). General Charac- teristics. Two-winged insects with mouths formed for sucking or lap- ping, composed of from two to six needle-like bristles forming a pro- boscis encircled in a sheath ; meta- morphosis complete. Flies (Mused], The common fly hibernates in winter. The eggs are deposited in offal about sta- bles, remaining in the pupa state FIG. 156. Blue-bottle fly (Muse a vomit or id), larva and pupa. INSECTS, 127 FIG. 157. Tongue of blow-fly. (Fig. 156) about fourteen days. The proboscis of the fly (Fig. 157) is a fleshy, tongue-like organ bent under the head when at rest. In flying, the wings describe a figure 8 in the air, making 19,800 revolu- tions in a minute, or 9,400 simple oscillations. The eyes (Fig. 158) are both compound and simple. The feet (Fig. in) have delicate pads for clinging upon smooth surfaces. Fleas (PuKcida) . The fleas (Fig. 160) are wingless, have a compressed body, and FIG. 158. Showing . compound and sim- ple eyes of fly. A, head, enlarged 8 times : c, com- pound eye ; j, sim- ple eyes. B, por- tion of the surface of a compound eye, highly magnified. FIG. 159. Spiracle of a fly. 128 CRABS AND INSECTS. FIG. 160. Metamorphosis of the flea (Pulex irritans). two simple eyes. The eggs of the cat-flea are eight or ten in number, ovaL and ^ of an inch long. The larva resembles a minute caterpillar, and has four long hairs on the side of each joint, In twelve days in sum- mer, in which time the larvae at- tain their full growth, they in- close themselves in a small silken cocoon, remaining in this condi- tion from eleven to sixteen days, finally appearing in the pupa form. NOTE. If a man could jump as high in proportion as a flea, a leap over the Capitol at Washington would be an easy feat. A flea can draw one hundred times its weight, and so easily tamed are these minute creatures that a trained compa- ny of them was exhibited in New York a few years ago. Through a magnifying- glass they could be seen standing erect, drawing carriages in which were seated FiG. 161. Lancets of the fe- male gnat : a, labium ; #, d, mandibles ; c, c, maxillae ; d, tongue ; e, labrum. INSECTS. I2 9 other fleas ; others inarched to and fro armed with spears and hauling cannon, while others still, as prisoners, dragged about chains and balls. Mosquitoes (Culicida). The gnats and mosquitoes have long and slender mouth-parts, the sucker consisting FIG. 162. Metamorphosis of mosquito. Eggs, Urva, later stage on the raft, and adult. of six bristles (Fig. 161) folded together in a gutter-like case. Their legs are long, and body elongated and slen- der, antennae fringed (Fig. 163). The eggs (Fig. 162) are 130 CRABS AND INSECTS. deposited on the water, and the larvaa breathe by a star- shaped organ at the hinder extremity, through which air passes to the tracheae. They finally shed their skins and appear as pupae, in which state they breathe through two tubes in the thorax. In a few days the skin breaks between the breathing-tubes and the insect emerges, and, after floating about for a while on the old skin as a raft, it flies away a perfect insect. FIG. 163. Antenna of mos- quito, magnified. NOTE. In the small town of Elizabethport, Russia, in the month of June, 1830, 30 horses, 40 foals, 70 oxen, 90 calves, 150 hogs, and 400 sheep were killed by mosquitoes alone. The females generally do the most damage. Works on Diptera for further reference. " Transformations of the Common House-Fly, with Notes on Allied Forms," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History," vol. xv ; "Catalogue of Described Diptera of North America," R. Osten-Sacken, in "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," vol. iii, No. I, 1862 ; " Animal Parasites and Messmates," Van Beneden. Order VII. Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera). General Characteristics. Small-headed in- sects with four wings, which with the body are covered with scales ; the tongue consisting of two tubular or hollow threads adapted for suction, and coiled when not in use ; meta- morphosis complete, the larvae or caterpillars-having abdominal legs. FIG. 164. Head of Sphinx - moth, show- ing coiled tongue, and pollen-masses that have been taken from some flower, attached to the eyes. INSECTS. Moths. General Characteristics. The moths are, as a rule, nocturnal or night-fliers, and are distinguished from the butterflies by their feathered antennae (Fig. 164). Dwarf-Moths (Tineida). The common clothes- moth deposits its eggs in woolens, the white larvae creat- ing much damage in making their co- coons. Silk- Worm Moths (Bombycida>). These large moths have heavy, thick bod- ies, small heads, the tongue short and almost useless. The eggs are deposited upon the mulberry (Fig. 166) and other leaves, the young worms eating for about a month, and then forming a yellow or FIG. 165. Canker-worm moth, eggs, and worms. a, female canker-worm moth laying her eggs, b \ c, top- view, and ne to another, often attached to their eyes (Fig. 164). 134 CRABS AND INSECTS. Butterflies (Papiliomdte). General Characteristics.-* The butterflies are day-flying Lepidoptera, and distin- guished from the moths by their knobbed antennae. Vanessa. In this genus (Fig. 169) the wings are richly marked. The larva is cylindrical, and covered with stout, long-branching spines. The V. antiopa is one of the com- monest forms, and famous for its habits of hibernation. FIG. 169. Metamorphosis of the peacock butterfly ( Vanesra /^) paralyze insects with their sting, storing them up in a benumbed condition in the egg- cells as food for the future young (Fig. 177), The nests are either FIG. 177. Showing a wasp's nest of four cells cut open, a, representing a cell with the egg at the bottom, and the re- maining space filled with spiders ; 6, the larva full-grown, after having con- sumed all the spiders ; c, the pupa ; and d, the imago, or perfect mud- wasp, ready to come out. FiG. 178. Mud-cells of a South American \vasp attached to a branch. INSECTS. built in the sand or gravel. Those of other species are attached to various objects (Fig. 178). The sand, wood, and paper wasps are' other familiar forms. NOTE. The wasps live in temporary societies composed of males, females, and neuters or workers. The sting of the latter is poisonous. The males die at the approach of winter, the females hibernating. In spring their nests, composed of ground vegetable matter or sand, are formed, and the young reared. The first brood are neuters, and assist in building a nest for the others ; finally, in the autumn, a third genera- tion is produced, composed of males and females, the nest now contain- ing perhaps one hundred cells. Carpenter-Bees. Among the bees, which constitute the highest forms of the Hymenoptera, the carpenter-bees (Xylocopa) are the giants. They bore tunnels in solid wood at the rate of one quarter to one half an inch a day. In the Virginia carpen- ter-bee the entrance is at first against, then follows the grain of the wood, the tunnel often being from one to one and a half feet in length. This is divided off into cells (Fig. 179), each provided with its pollen and egg ; the par- titions in the tunnel being formed of the powdered dust formed in cutting the tunnel. The larvae feed upon the pollen. Honey-BeeS (Apia- rice). These insects (Fig. 1 80) are of three kinds queens, workers, and males. They live in communities of sometimes 20,000 individuals, The cells are formed of wax secreted by the workers, and ii FIG. 179. Carpenter-bee, showing eggs, pollen-heaps, and partitions. 142 CRABS AND INSECTS. a queen is created by feeding a larva upon "royal food." The eggs are oblong white objects, the larvae first resem- bling maggots. They are fed by the workers, inclosed in FlG. 180. Common honey-bee. A, drone; , queen; C, worker; Z>, leg of worker, showing cavity for propolis ; , cells for honey. the cell, where they spin a cocoon, become pupae, and finally appear as perfect bees. The leaf-cutters, humble (Fig. 181), and mason bees are other well-known forms. FIG. 181. Humble-bee, showing its underground nest and eggs. VALUE. In fertilizing flowers. A single honey-bee farm in San Diego, California, produces 150,000 pounds of wax and honey a year, ralued at $30,000. INSECTS. NOTE. In New Zealand it has been found almost impossible to cultivate red clover, from the fact that there are no humble-bees to carry the pollen It is said, however, that the flowers are changing, so that other insects can perform the work. According to Sir John Lubbock, the language of bees is expressed by humming. " A tired bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its wings only 330 times in a second. A bee humming on A' will, on the other hand, increase its vibrations to 440 per second." Specimens for Study. Insects, as the grasshopper, should be spread as in Fig. 182, and the wings and ex- terior parts studied. Fresh ^^^(dUll^ specimens should then be FIG. 182. Grasshopper with the wings of one side expanded, y, forward -wing ; //, hinder- wing. (After Morse.) FIG. 183. Insect pinned. (After Morcc.) separated, the segments, joints, mouth-parts, anten- nas, etc., pasted on a card, numbered and labeled. The perfect insect should be preserved as in Fig. 183, pinned to a section of cork and glued in a covered box, a label with the name and locality accompanying it. Longitudinal sections of speci- mens hardened in alcohol should be made, the upper portion of the integument cut off, leaving the delicate hyperdermis. Lift this carefully and examine the heart, ganglia, etc. The various organs should be compared with Fig. no and drawn. In making collections, endeavor to have all the different stages, telling the entire story 144 CRABS AND INSECTS. from the egg to the perfect insect. The eggs can be pasted on cards, and the larvae preserved in alcohol. FIG. 184. Model of box for preserving insects collected. (After Morse.) Works on Bees for further reference. Langstroth " On the Honey-Bee "; " Sting of the Honey-Bee," " Pop- ular Science Monthly," vol. xiv, p. 635 ; " Habits of the Humble-Bees, and the Leaf-Cutting Bee," F. W. Putnam, " Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv ; " Humble-Bees of New England and their Para- sites," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv ; " Ants," E. R. Leland, " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; Lub- bock's " Ants, Bees, and Wasps " ; " Agricultural Ants of Texas," H. C. McCook, " Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy," and " En- cyclopaedia Americana," vol. ii. Works on Insects in general for fiirther reference. Packard's " Guide to the Study of Insects " ; Packard's " Half Hours with Insects " ; Burmeister's " Entomology " ; Lubbock's " Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects " ; Harris's " Insects of Massachusetts in- jurious to Vegetation " ; Wood's " Strange Dwellings " ; Treat's " In- sects injurious to Vegetation"; the works of Professor Riley ; "Smith- sonian Reports " ; " Annual Reports of the State of Missouri " ; " In- troduction to Entomology," Kirby and Spence ; Wood's " Natural History," and " Homes without Hands " ; " Malay Archipelago," Wal- lace. CHAPTER VIII. EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. SEA-SQUIRTS (Tuntcata). General Charac- teristics. Though the adult ascidians possess little out- ward resemblance to the backboned animals, the free- swimming young {Fig. 185, a\ that look like tadpoles, have a gristly cord, r, with a nerve-cord, n v, above it like the notochord that we shall see in the lancelet ; con- sequently, they are believed to repre- sent the simplest phase of backboned life. They are bag- or barrel - shaped animals, sometimes growing upon stalks; FIG. 185. Diagram of the growth of a sea- squirt, or ascidian. A, a, young free-swim- ming stage (Claveh'na). aft, intermediate stage, when first settling down. B, , full- grown sea-squirt, m, mouth ; e, hollow brain with eye ; g, gill-slits ; h, heart ; r, rod of gristle in free-swimming form ; nv. nerve-cord in same ; f, tail in process of absorption in intermediate form. (After Haddon.) 146 SEA-SQUIRTS. again, swimming free, singly, in chains upon the surface, or attached to the bottom. Fig. 185, B, represents a com- mon form of a fixed ascidian or tunicate resembling a jar or bottle with two mouths. Covering. In the simple ascidians (Fig. 185) the body seems inclosed in two coats, a leathery outer one called the test, composed mainly of cellulose, a substance usually found in plants, and an inner muscular one. Internal Structure. The sac is provided with two openings, generally surrounded by short incurved tenta- cles ; one is the mouth, m, and the other for the passage of rejected matter, the fertilized eggs, etc. The mouth is generally the upper opening, and leads into a chamber called the respiratory sac, g, whose walls are perforated with a network of ciliated openings. An orifice in the bottom of the sac leads to the gullet that connects with the stomach and intestine, the latter bending and finally leading to a chamber connected with the ex-current or atrial orifice. The liver is large and of a vivid green hue ; the ovaries yellow. When the tunicate is handled, water is ejected from both openings : hence the name sea-squirt. Circulation. The heart (Fig. 185, /i), by the beating of which circulation is effected, is a straight, tubular, mus- cular organ, open at both ends. For a certain number of times in some species, the blood is thrown one way, then the action is reversed and it is propelled in the opposite direction, so flowing alternately. Respiration. The network that we have seen in the branchial chamber is traversed by blood-vessels that here are brought in contact with water that is wafted along by the cilia ; the blood takes up oxygen, and so is purified. As food is also brought in with the water, the sea-squirt breathes and obtains food by the same action.* * Compare this with the account of the oyster, on page 52. SEA-SQUIRTS. 147 Nervous System. In the simplest forms, the nervous system consists of a simple cord ganglion, between the two body-openings. Development. They multiply by eggs and by budding, the young in some cases assuming at first a free-swimming tadpole form (Fig. 185, a), finally becoming attached, # a , the tail / absorbing, and the animal assuming the adult form B. Pyrosoma. The pyrosoma (Fig. 186), or fire-body, is a gigantic compound ascidian, sometimes five feet long, twelve inches across, with walls three inches thick. It is a colony of ascidians forming a cylindrical, barrel-shaped FIG. 186. Pyrosoma gigas, a luminous compound ascidian. object open at one end. Here the circulation of water aids in locomotion. The mouths, or the inhalent openings, are upon the outside of the pyrosoma, and the exhalent upon the inside. Each individual of the colony is con- tinually engaged in drawing in water, sifting out the parti- cles of food, and ejecting it from the interior opening, all these little currents finding their way out of the single large opening, the combined volume forcing the entire colony along. NOTE. The pyrosoma is one of the most wonderful animals of the sea in its illuminating properties. In the southern seas they resemble bodies heated to a white heat, illuminating the greater depths, so that the forms of sharks, porpoises, and other larger animals are seen dis- tinctly far below ; and when at the surface light up the sails, masts, and 1 48 SEA-SQUIRTS. rigging of vessels, as if by magic. Bebra, the naturalist, wrote a de- scription of one in his cabin by its own light, and read by their phos- phorescence from his cabin-window. Professor Moseley wrote his name upon one with his finger as it lay upon deck ; each letter seemed to ignite, increasing in brilliancy, spreading over the entire animal until it seemed at a white heat. They are found in nearly all the southern seas, and are important factors in the illumination of the submarine world. Salpae. These are minute pelagic, free-swimming as- cidians. There are solitary and chain Salpce ; the former (Fig. 187) are barrel-shaped, even the hoops being repre- FiG. 187. Doliolum, an ascidian allied to the salpa. #, nerve ; d, mouth ; g, oesophagus ; z', stomach ; /, intestine ; r, heart ; / /, muscles. sented by circular bands or muscles. In both, the open- ings are at each end, and locomotion is produced by a regular contraction and expansion of the mantle. The salpa in its development affords another example of alter- nate generations. The solitary asexual salpa, by bud- ding, produces a family of chained salpae ; these in turn produce, not buds, but fertilized eggs, that, after pass- ing through several changes, assume the solitary asexual salpa form. NOTE. They are brilliantly luminous, the chains stretching away for great distances, resembling luminous snakes winding their way over the sea. Their light in the darkest night rivals that of the moon upon the water. SEA-SQUIRTS. 149 Appendiculariae. These (Fig. 188) are the simplest forms of the class, minute pelagic creatures with tadpole- like tails. FIG. \$.Appendicularia flabellum. I. The entire animal, with the *' tail " hi its ordinary position, or turned forward. II. Side view of the body, with the "tail" forcibly bent backward. A, the body; B, the iail ; a, oral aperture ; , the pharynx ; c, an atrial opening ; }. Bone-shark, sail-fish, and many other titles are applied to these sharks, that are the largest of all fishes. One, captured by the schooner BACKBONED ANIMALS. THE TRUE Virgin, off Block Island, was about seventy feet in length. They are harmless, living upon small pelagic animals that are strained into the throat through a series of hard, elastic, whalebone-like fringes, that are arranged comb-like along the large gill-openings. The teeth are small and compara- tively useless. The Rhinodon (Fig. 199) is a similar form of East African waters, and attains a length of sixty or seventy feet. The mouth opens on a level with the snout When struck, they have been known to carry large boats beneath the surface. VALUE OF SHARKS. They are all scavengers. The skin of dog- fish and others is used as leather and shagreen. The oil of nearly all the species is valuable, and the bodies as guano. The teeth of sharks are used as weapons by the Pacific islanders. In China the shark-fin trade is an important one, they being used as food. Saw-Fishes (Prisfidte). These remarkable fishes (Fig. 200) attain a length of fifteen feet, and are common on th: North American coast from Cape Cod southward. TJr FIG. 200. Saw-fish. The snout is prolonged into a sword, the edges being armed with sharp, bony teeth. A species of saw-fish lives in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Islands. The saw is used as a weapon by some tribes. They are vivipa- rous. Skates (Rauuda). These fishes are all notable for the development of the side or pectoral fins that in some species appear like wings. Their teeth are grinding plates, adapted for crushing mollusks and crabs. Their eggs are deposited in a dark, rectangular, parchment-like case, hav- 164 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ing four filaments that twine about the sea-weed, prevent- ing them from washing ashore. Torpedoes (Torpedimda). The fishes of this family are electricians, and are common on the New England coast. The electric ap- paratus (Fig. 201) is situ- ated between the head and the bases of the pec- toral fins, and is composed of numerous hexagonal membranous tubes placed side by side at right an- gles with the surface of the body, and so close to it that their ends are often visible above and below. The cells contain mucus, and are traversed by nerves that proceed from the eighth pair. So powerful is this battery that fishermen have been knocked over as if with FIG. 201. The torpedo, with its elec- an axe > tne shocks also trical apparatus displayed, b, bran- passing up the harpoon- chiae; c, brain; ,, electric organ; of the knife used j n p-, cranium; me, spinal cord; , . , .,,.-, nerves to the pectoral fins; A cutting them. Allied are nerves going to the electric organ ; Sting-rays ( TrygOtl), COW- * eve - nosed rays, etc. The great devil < fish (Fig. 202), that, has curious prolongations or claspers at the head, attains a width of twenty-seven feet. They have been known to tow large vessels against the wind for long distances by fouling the anchor. The Japanese use the skeletons of rays in the imitation of tortoise- shell. THE TRUE FISHES. FlG. 202. Devil-fish (Cephalopterus diabolus). Order II. Holocephali. The Chim&ra (Fig. 203) is a northern representative of this group, while the curious Caliorhynchus is found in Antarctic regions. The gill- openings are protected by a membranous covering, sug- gesting the gill-covers of bony fishes. The teeth are curi- ously arranged, there being four in the upper and only two FlG. 203. The Chimcera. in the lower jaw. The air-bladder is absent. The male Chimsera has a curious, comb-like, cartilaginous appendage armed with hooklets on the top of the head, that is either erect or hidden in a hook-armed groove. 1 66 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NOTE. The eggs of the Chinuzm are deposited in thick, leathery cases, and those of Callorhynchus are remarkable for their mimicry or protective resemblance, resembling the leaf of the fucus or sea-weed to which they are attached. They form a long, depressed ellipse, with a plicated and fringed margin, and, swaying in the current, their true nature would never be suspected. Sub-Class II. BRIGHT-SCALED FISHES (Ganoidei). General Characteristics. The Ganoids have hard, glis- tening scales, cartilaginous or ossified skeletons, and one pair of gill-openings, protected by opercular bones. FIG. 204. Sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus). Order I. Chondroganoidei. The Sturgeons (Aci- penseridcz). The sturgeons (Fig. 204) have cartilaginous skeletons, the skin being armed with bony bucklers or plates, arranged in longitudinal rows. The mouth is toothless and under the snout, and is adapted for sucking in soft food (Fig. 205). The sharp- nosed sturgeon attains a length of eight feet. It breeds, as do the entire family, in fresh water, the female depositing millions of eggs. The shovel -nosed stur- geon and the curious spoonbill (Polyodon folium) are found in the Mississippi. Glue, cement, court-plaster, isinglass, etc., are made from the air-bladders of sturgeons. NOTE. The Aci*>enser huso attains a length of twenty-five feet. The fisheries at Ruibinsk, on the Volga, Russia, give employment, ac- cording to Duncan, to one hundred thousand persons, and the fish have FIG. 205. The sturgeon's head seen from below, showing the tube -like mouth and the four bar- bels or feelers. THE TRUE FISHES. 167 been seen so packing a river three hundred and sixty feet wide and twenty-nine feet deep, that the backs of the upper ones were out of the water. Order II. Lung-Fishes (Dipnoi). The lung-fishes are eel-shaped, and covered with large scales. Some, as the Lepidosiren, have two perfect lungs, as well as gills. When left dry in pools, they form cases in the mud, which they line with a mucus, and lie dormant until the return of the water. The Ceradotus of Australia (Fig. 206), discov- FlG. 206. The Ceradotus of Queensland, Australia, an air-breathing and water-breathing mud-fish of the ancient type, with paddle-fins. ered in 1870, attains a length of six feet When under water the heart pumps the blood to the gills, but when they are deprived of it the gases from the air-chamber are expelled with a loud noise, and fresh air taken in, the blood being now carried the other way, or toward the chambered, lung-like air-bladder, to become freshened. NOTE. The Protopterus, a lung-fish of Africa, has plume-like fins, and is also noted for its burrowing habits, forming burrows a foot from the surface. One, sent to England in its earthen case, came to life months after, when soaked in water. Some remain in their dry nests for several seasons. Many of the family have the faculty of reproduc- ing lost fleshy parts of their fins, etc. Order III. Branchioganoidei. This order is repre- sented by the Polypterus of the Nile. The dorsal fin is broken up into numerous points, each being supported by 1 68 BACKBONED ANIMALS. FIG. 207. Young of the Nile Polypterus, show- ing external gills, br. a. ray and spine (Fig. 207). The young have external gills (Fig. 207, br). Order IV. Garpikes (Hyoga- noidei). The garpikes (Fig. 208) have beak-like jaws with sharp teeth ; the scales are large and re- semble white enameled plates. The air-bladder is lung- like, and the fishes are often seen at the. surface inhaling air. They occur in the Western and Southern rivers and Great Lakes. The eggs are hatched the last of May. The scales are used as arrow-tips by some Indians. FIG. 208. Garpike (Lepidosteus osseus). Sub-Class III. BONY FISHES (Teleostei). General Characteristics. In these fishes (Figs. 193, 194) bone takes the place of cartilage. The skull is com- posed of many bones ; the optic nerves cross each other ; the gills generally number four pairs, and have several opercular or protective bones. Eels (Apodes).-^^ eels are without ventral fins. The Anguilla is common in the United States, living in fresh-water streams, but depositing its eggs, often 8,000,- ooo to a single fish, in the ocean, the young ascending the rivers. The sexes are difficult to distinguish ; the females have the highest dorsal fin, smaller eyes, and a lighter color than the males, while the snout is generally broader at the tip than in the male. The conger-eel attains a large size, and ranges from Newfoundland to the West Indies, In THE TRUE FISHES. 169 Southern waters the ferocious and snake-like Murcena is found, attaining a length of three feet. NOTE. In a pond near Wells, on the Maine coast, the eels inva- riably go down into salt water at night, and, as the stream is narrow, the sight is remarkable, thousands filling the channel, leaving the water when alarmed and passing over the dry rocks to the ocean. The sound, a single note; frequently uttered by the eel, is, according to Abbott, more distinctly musical than those made by other fishes, and has a metallic resonance. Order III. Thread-jawed Fishes (Ncmatognathi). Cat-Fishes (Silurida). The cat-fishes may be recog- nized by the curious barbels or threads that hang from their jaws. They have no scales, the skin being in some species protected by bony plates. Some are marine, but the majority live in fresh water. A blind cat-fish (Gramas) inhabits a subterranean stream in Pennsylvania. The Arius, of South America, carries its eggs in its mouth, and even the young fish. In a species of Arius, in Panama, the mother first carries them about in a fold of the skin, and later the male receives them in its capacious mouth. The female Aspredo carries its eggs about attached to dang- ling capsules, that cover the fins and ventral surface of the body, disappearing after the breeding season. The com- FIG. 209. An electric cat-fish (Malapterus electricus}. mon cat-fish carefully guards its young, while the South American Doras and Callichthys build nests of leaves in which the young are placed. These fishes also leave ponds 17 BACKBONED -ANIMALS. that dry up, and crawl overland (see frontispiece) in great numbers in search of water, during this time breathing air directly. The Arges are almost blind forms, living in sub- terranean streams. A cat-fish from the Nile, Malapterus electricus (Fig. 209), is electric, the cells forming a layer over the entire body except the head and fins. The South American Lau-Lau, is the largest of the family, and pro- tects its young in its mouth. The Corbetis fossilis (Fig. 2 10^ FIG. 210. Corbetis fossilis. It swallows air-bubbles which pass through the intestine, where the mucous membrane takes up the oxygen for respiration. breathes air directly as well as taking it from the water. The fourth order- of fishes, Scyphophori, is represented by the Nile Gymnarchus. Order V. Perfect-headed Fishes (Teleocephali). General Characteristics. This order embraces most of our common fishes. The skeleton is bony, and the name applies to the diversity and perfection of the bones of the head. Gymnotus. The Gymno- FIG. 2ii. Electric eel {Gymnotus electricus]. tus electricus (Fig. 211) is one of the lowest of the Teleosts. The batteries are four in number, and situated, in pairs, on each side of the body, occupying together nearly all the lower portion. THE TRUE FISHES. 171 Carps (Cyprinida). The carps comprise many spe- cies, and abound in nearly all streams throughout the Old World and North America. They have weak, tooth- less jaws. The stone-toters (Ex- oglossuni) build nests by carrying stones, which they pile in heaps. The dace (Fig. 212), common minnows, and shiners, are all related. FIG. 212. Black-nosed dace. NOTE. The dace (Rhinichthys atrdnasus) is one of the most inter- esting of the nest-building fishes. During the breeding-season males and females clear away a spot, perhaps under the water-lilies, and in the oval depression the eggs are deposited, the pair covering them with a layer of stones ; then another layer of eggs is deposited, and another of stones, until a mound of eight or ten inches in height is the result, and here the young are hatched. Blind, Cave-Fishes (Amblyopida). These comprise three genera and four species of ghostly, sightless fishes (Fig. 213) living in the limestone caves of the Middle and FlG. 213. Blind-fish (Amblyopsis}, Mammoth Cave. Southern States. Though blind, they are supplied with sense-organs so delicate that they are enabled to capture fishes with eyes that have strayed into their domain. 1 72 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Wyandotte and Mammoth Caves are noted localities for them. The Amblyopsis is viviparous. Herring-Pikes (ElopidJ) This family includes the tarpon {Megalops thrissoides) and the big-eyed herring. The former attains a length of over eight feet, and is the most beautiful of all fishes, ranging from Cape Cod to Florida. An allied form, the Studis or Piraruca, of South America, attains a length of fifteen feet, and a weight of four hun- dred pounds. They have skeletons of most massive build. The young, according to Schomburgh, enter the mother's mouth in time of danger. Allied are the herrings (Clupei- dcz), shad, menhaden, and the gizzard-shad. They are nearly all important food-fishes. Menhaden oil and guano are valued. The scales of the tarpon are used in orna- mental work. Salmon {Salmonidce) . Salmon are found fa Europe and America, in the latter country from the polar regions to Cape Cod. They live in both fresh and salt water. In the breeding-season they ascend the rivers, leaping the falls with great skill, and at this time are often caught. The eggs are about the size of a pea, and are deposited in depressions or nests. When very young, they are banded and known as parr (Fig. 214). At a year old they are sil- very, and previous to descending the rivers FIG. 214. Young salmon (parr). are known as smolt. When they return from their first visit to the sea they are called grilse, only after their second return being known as salmon. Allied is the common trout, that lives permanently in fresh water, breeding in the autumn and early winter. NOTE. Salmon are found in the Yukon River, Alaska, 3,000 miles from the sea. In 1882 the Columbia River salmon-fisheries alone real- ized in first hands $2,782,000, giving employment to 7,000 persons. THE TRUE FISHES. 173 Lamp-Fishes (Sfarmatid&). In these and allied fishes the skin is naked, or the scales extremely minute, and nearly all have organs that look like pearl or glass buttons imbedded in the skin. According to Leydig, they are of three kinds : first, eye-like organs ; second, pearly, glass- like organs ; and, third, luminous organs. According to different authors, they are eyes, electric or light-giving organs. Gunther considers them all luminous, and that their function is to light the dark recesses of the submarine world. In the Stomias the pearly spots are along the ventral surface, a veritable row of glowing lights. Allied to the Stomias is the lamp- fish (Scopelus) \ upon its head" is a soft prominence that glows like a head-light. Willemoes-Suhm says, " One of them hung in the net like a shining star." Other phosphores- cent spots are scattered along the lower surface of Scopelus Httmboldti and Be- noitii (Fig. 216). Another allied form is the Bombay duck or Harpcdon (Fig. 216), that is luminous over its entire sur- face. The eyes of Ipnops are adapted for receiving and perhaps emitting phos- phorescent light, and a curious phos- phorescent organ is found upon the head. Several species of the genus Echiostouia live in Australian seas at a depth of two and a half miles. They are black, with long, fringed barbels, and below the eyes and in other places are several luminous spots. The Bathyophis ferox lives at a depth of nearly three miles, the greatest depth attained by any fish. It has long barbels or feeler?, and rows of gleaming lights on its various parts. Allied is the Chanlijdus (Fig. 216, i). The tips of the fins are luminous, while a row of luminous spots extends the entire length of the body. The little fishes Argyropelecus (Fig. 217) and Ster<- noptyx arc found in the Mediterranean. The body is extremely deep, rising suddenly and narrowing off to the tail. The luminous spots are in groups from the head to the tail. Perhaps allied to this group is a strange fish (Fig. 218) about twenty inches in length, with a pouch-like mouth and no fins, found in water over a mile deep in the Mediter- ranean, and also dredged oft the American coast. It differs from all 13 FIG. 215. Luminous organ from side of Scopelus (1 ig. 216, 8;. 174 BACKBONED ANIMALS. THE TRUE FISHES. 175 other known bony fishes in having six pairs of internal bnnchial clefts, and consequently five pairs of gills. It has no swimming-bladder. FIG. 217. Argyropelecus hemigymnus, twice natural size, snowing groups of luminous organs. FIG. 218. The Pelican fish (urypharynx pelecanoides). BACKBONED ANIMALS. Pikes (Esocidce). The pikes (Fig. 219) have long, depressed snouts, and with a single exception (Esox lutius) b along to the United States. The Muskallonge of the Great Lakes attains a length of four feet FIG. 219. Pike TsiOTE. All the family are voracious, often attacking ducks and even larger birds. They have been known to live over a hundred years. The pickerel is common in the various rivers and lakes of North America. A pike has been observed by an English naturalist to leap a foot out of water, and take a young bird from an overhanging limb. Flying-Fishes (Exvcaetus). The flying-fishes range from Cape Cod to Florida, and in many seas. The pec- toral fins are developed in a remarkable manner, so that they resemble wings. When the fish rises from the sea, the tail is worked vigorously, the wing-like pectorals vi- brate rapidly, and once clear of the water the fish soars away, with or without the movement of the fins, either in a straight line, or curving by a motion of the tail, often clearing a distance of a quarter of a mile (Fig. 223). Gar-Fishes (Belonida). The gar-fishes have long, slender bodies, the jaws narrow, pointed, and armed with extremely sharp teeth. They almost invariably lie at the surface. They are green above and silvery beneath. NOTE. They attain a length of two feet and over. In the Pacific they are of large size, and when alarmed leap away in a series of bounds out of water, and very often, according to Moseley, occasion the death of natives wading about by accidentally striking them, the bill piercing the flesh like an arrow. The Hemirhamphus has only the lower jaw elongated, and is a light-bearer, having a gleaming, phosphorescent pustule at the tip of its tail. THE TRUE FISHES. 177 FIG. 220. Sticklebacks and their nest (Gastcrosteus aculcaius). Sticklebacks (Gasterostridat). Sticklebacks arc com- mon in North American streams, and other species in 178 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Europe (Fig. 220). The cheeks are mailed, and the single dorsal fin is preceded by spines, the number of which vary in different species. They live in salt or fresh water, are quite small, and noted for their care of young, and as nest-builders. Ribbon-Fishes (Trachypterida). In these fishes the body is long and ribbon-shaped, the dorsal fin extending nearly the entire length of the body, the caudal fins being placed obliquely. NOTE. They are probably the origin of many of the sea-serpent stories. According to Professor Wilson, of the University of Glasgow, Lord Norbury's smack Sovereign captured an allied form off the Scotch coast that was sixty feet in length, and from nine to ten inches in depth, the dorsal fin being six or seven inches deep. Remora (Echeneidtda). These fishes (Fig. 221), found in many seas, have upon the top of the head a flattened, oval disk, formed of pairs of transverse ridges or plates, FlG. 221. Remora, showing the sucking-disk by which it clings to sharks. that are movable and directed obliquely backward, and form vacuum-chambers, the whole constituting a sucker, by which they attach themselves to sharks, turtles, and various large fishes. NOTE. In Mozambique and other countries the remora is used to capture turtles. A ring and string are attached to the tail, by which the owner holds it. and when a turtle is sighted the fish is tossed ovei and attaches itself to the victim, that is soon hauled on board. THE TRUE FISHES. 179 Perches (Percubf). The perches are carnivorous fishes of great variety, about one fifth inhabiting the fresh- water streams of various countries, while the others are marine. Perca fluviatilis is a common form in the United States. They spawn during the winter, forming nests or hollows in the gravel near the shore, in which they deposit their eggs. Allied are the pond-fishes {Eupomotis aureus), that are often richly colored. They are famous nest- makers, both male and female aiding in clearing away the refuse of the bottom where the nest is to be made. A de- pression is then formed and the eggs deposited and care- fully guarded. The spotted sunfish hibernates in the win- ter, burying itself in the mud. Bass (LabraadcB). The bass are mostly marine fishes The striped-bass attains a length of five feet, and range- from Nova Scotia to Florida. The white perch, yellow pike-perch, and striped lake-bass, are allied forms. The hard-scaled bass of Californian waters attains a length of six feet and a weight of four hundred pounds. Allied are the black sea-bass, groupers, etc. The Chromis (Fig. 222) of Lake Tiberias, that carries its eggs and young in its mouth, belongs to this group. Nearly all are important food-fishes. Big Drum - Fish (Pogomus). The drum - fish is a large, deep fish, attaining a weight of eighty pounds, and remarkable as a sound-producer.* * Sir John Richardson states that when aboard ship he has been* kept awake by their drumming. The noises are made, according to some authorities, by beating their tails against the vessel, clapping to- gether their pharyngeal teeth, or due to the action of the pneumatic duct and swimming-bladder. The maigre is said to produce a flute- like note, audible in twenty fathoms. Many fishes utter sounds, but perhaps the grunt (ff&mu&m), on the outer Florida reef, is most re- markable for the variation of the sounds, that are so loud and striking as to have caused the author, on more than one occasion, to toss the fish back for its pains. The dog-fish utters a croak or bark. The gizzard-shad, hippocampus, eels, cat-fish, porcupine-fish, sunfish, carp, gurnards, etc., utter sounds, either accidental or intentional. i8o BACKBONED ANIMALS. THE TRUE FISHES. igi Dolphins (C0rypk&m&f). The dolphins (Fig. 223) are large -headed pelagic fishes, tapering to the tail ; the dorsal fin high, and extending nearly the entire length of the body. FIG. 223. Flying-fish (Exoccetus} pursued by the dolphin. NOTE. They are justly celebrated for their wondrous colors, that defy description, especially when dying, the various changes being due to the pressure of the convulsively contracted muscles on the chromato- phores or pigment-cells. Allied to them are the pompino and pilot-fishes {Nau- crates}. The latter are little fishes that resemble the blue- fish in shape, and accompany large fishes, several always being found with large sharks. Mackerel (Scomber). The mackerel is one of the most valuable of the food-fishes. They are from ten to eighteen inches in length, and richly ornamented with steel-blue and pearly tinls. They run in schools, ranging 1 82 BACKBONED ANIMALS, from Greenland to Cape Hatteras. During the winter they run in deep water, coming in-shore in May and June to spawn, each female depositing from 500,000 to 600,000 eggs, that rise to the surface and float about. After spawn- ing the fishes keep on up the coast until they meet cold water, and at this time are taken all along the shore in vast numbers, entire fleets of vessels being engaged in the trade. Allied is the Spanish mackerel, the bonito, and the horse- mackerel, that attains a length of twelve feet and a weight of 1,200 pounds. NOTE. The mackerel is a light-giver (phosphorescent), and so bright is the light of great schools that the fishermen see it at night from aloft, and, by surrounding it with a seine, capture the school. The large allied Jacks (Caranx], of the extreme outer Florida reef, in feeding, rush in thousands upon the beach of the keys, driving schools of small fish before them, leaping upon the sand, and striking the water, creating a sound that can be heard a mile. The occurrence is called a " Jack-beat."- The fishes are utterly oblivious to their sur- roundings, and fishermen stand knee-deep in the almost solid mass, and spear or hurl them ashore with their hands. Pelicans, gulls, man- of-war birds, and human fishermen, all know the sound, and gather from far and near. Sword-Fishes (Xiphiida). The sword-fishes (Fig. 224) have the upper jaw developed into a long, sword-like projection ; they attain a length of from eleven to twenty- five feet, and the different genera are found in va- rious seas ; they feed upon mack- erel and other FIG. 224. Sword-fish (Xiphias). fishes, dashing in- to the schools, cutting their victims down, and picking the dismembered parts up at leisure. The sail-fish (Histwphoru$), of vari- ous seas, has an enormous dorsal fin, that appears like a sail when the fish is at the surface. The sword-fishes do THE TRUE FISHES, 183 not breed on the North American shores, and a young one has never been seen here. The latter are often very unlike the adults. The young Histiophorus (Fig. 225) has jaws almost equal, armed with teeth, and a long, tall dor- sal fin. They are all valued as food-fishes. FIG. 225. Young sword-fish (Histiophoru<>}, nine millimetres long. NOTE. The pugnacity of the sword-fish and its wonderful strength have been shown on many occasions. The yacht Red-Hot, of New Bed- ford, used by the United States Fish Commission, was sunk by a sword- fish in 1871. A sword-fish also penetrated the ship Queensbury in the same year, and the cargo had to be discharged in consequence. The ship Fortune was pierced in 1827, the sword penetrating copper, an inch board under-sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, twelve inches of solid white-oak timber, and, lastly, the head of an oil-cask. FIG. 226. Chcetodon rostratus, shooting a drop of water at an insect* 1 3 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS. For other accounts, and very complete history of the family, see " Re port of Fish Commission," 1880. Angel-Fishes (Chatodontida). The Chatodon rostra- tus of Java has elongated jaws, through which, according to Cobbold and others, it can shoot drops of water at in- sects on overhanging bushes (Fig. 226). The archer-fish (Toxotes) has a prolonged under jaw, and by the same au- thorities is also accredited with shooting powers. Surgeon - Fishes (AcantJiurida), The doctor-fish- es are common on the Florida reef, and are at times found farther north. They are from six to eight inches long, and have at the side of the narrow, keel-like por- tion of the tail a lance-like blade that can be thrown out at will, and proves a dangerous weapon.* C 1 i m bing- Fishes (Labyrin- thici) These fish- es, mostly from the East Indies, are noted for their pow- ers of living out of water. To this end they have accesso- ry gill-cavities, or labyrinthine organs (Fig. 227) that con- tain air and not wa- ter, as often stated. FIG. 2^7. Anabas scandcns : head, with k, the gill-cavity, laid open, and /, cavity contain- ing the foliated labyrinthine structure. NOTE. The Anabas (see frontispiece) has been known to live out of water fcr five or six days, and makes long trips overland when the pools dry up. In certain parts of India they have been seen leav- ing the water in schools and crossing the country, using their pectoral * In specimens kept in an aquarium on the Florida reef they were found to be extremely pugnacious, striking their knives against all new-comers, lacerating and cutting them severely. THE TRUE FISHES. 185 fins as feet. Daldorf, the Danish naturalist, captured an anabas climb- ing a palm the borassus. This latter perionnance, however, is not a habit of the fish. Allied to the Anabas is the Gourami, a valued food- fish, that, though originally from the fresh waters of Cochin- China, has been introduced into many other countries. NOTE. They are famous nest-builders, forming a nest out of grass (panicum) and mud, about six days being required to erect it. From eight hundred to one thousand eggs are then deposited, the young ap- pearing in about two weeks, and remaining in the nest, only venturing out with the parents, who guard them with great vigilance. The Ophi- ocephalus, an allied Indian fish, also builds a nest for its young by biting off grass and weeds. It also burrows in the mud when streams dry up, but does not migrate overland. TautogS (Labridce). The nipper, or cunner, is the most familiar form of this family. The blackfish (Fig. 228), or tautog, is common in Long Island Sound, attaining FIG. 228. Blackfish, or tautog. a large size. They spawn in May and June, depositing their eggs in the eel-grass and other weeds. Allied are the parrot-fishes of Florida, that have bony teeth fused into a parrot-like bill, with which they attack the branch coral. NOTE. The related A cam of South America builds a nest in the sand, in which the eggs are deposited, while some species, after the eggs are laid, take them in their mouths. This is continued from time 1 86 BACKBONED ANIMALS. to time, and either eggs or newly-hatched young may be found in the cavity of the gills or the space inclosed by the branchiostegal mem- brane. The unhatched eggs, according to Agassiz, are always found in the same position in the curious nursery namely, in the upper part of the branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. Here they are held until the young are able to care for themselves. Sculpins (Cottidoi). These are marine fishes of fan- tastic shape, each individual often varying in color. The head and opercular bones are armed with sharp spines, and the fishes resemble the mossy rocks amid which they lie. The sea-raven, or yellow sculpin, is an allied form, attaining a length of two feet, and is remarkable for its grotesque coloring. The males of some species erect nests for their young. Allied are the sea-robins (Triglidce). The flying-robin (Dactylopterus] has enormous pectoral fins by which it soars over the water like the flying-fish. Sailors have been knocked over by them, and they are frequently blown aboard vessels. Gobies (Gobiidce). The gobies are small fishes, in which the thoracic ventrals are united, forming a hollow disk. They have no air-bladders, and are remarkable for their habit of leaving the water. The scaleless and black gobies and several other species are found on the western coast of North America. NOTE. In the Periophthalmus (frontispiece), common at the Feejee Islands, Ceylon, and other localities, the pectoral fins are greatly devel- oped, the head blunt, and the eyes staring and prominent. They leave the water and hop along the shore so fast that it is difficult to catch them, resembling frogs more than fishes. They feed out of water, pre- ferring a shell-less mollusk, the Onckidium (Fig. 72), and insects. The Boleophthalmus has similar habits. The Blennius pholis also leaves the water at times. The black goby is said to build a nest for its eggs. Lump-Fish (Cyclopterida*)* The lump-fishes range from the polar regions to Cape Hatteras, and are clumsy and shapeless, covered with tubercles. Their pectoral THE TRUE FISHES. 1 87 and ventral fins unite in forming a disk or sucker by which they attach themselves to rocks. The Liparis is an allied form in which the ventral and pectoral fins also form a sucking disk. The Lepidogaster has two sucking-disks. NOTE. According to Gunther, the male lump-fish forms a nest, the female laying 150,000 eggs, and the former guarding them with jealous care. The young follow the male, or, according to Duncan, cling to it at first by their suckers ; later they are often seen at the surface of the water off shore on the New England coast. Star- Gazers ( Uranoscopida}. In these fishes the eyes are placed upon the top of the head. They are armed with spines capable of inflicting dangerous wounds. Al- lied are the toad-fishes (Batrachida) (Fig. 229). The fe- male toad-fish ex- cavates a hollow among the rocks, where the eggs are deposited, and in which the male takes its place, de- fending the nurs- FlG - 229. Toad-fish {BatraJius tau). ery with great pugnacity. The young when hatched cling to the rocks by their yolk-bags. One of this family, from Panama, has a perfect poison-gland, the spine calling to mind the venom-fang of a snake. Cod (Gadtda). The cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes. They attain a length of five feet and a weight of one hundred pounds. They have three distinct dorsal fins, and a barbel projects from the under jaw. Their range is from Cape Hatteras north on both sides of the Atlantic. In November they spawn in-shore along the New England coast ; each female depositing about 9,300,- ooo eggs that rise to the surface and float, the young ap- pearing twenty days later. In summer the fish seek the 188 BACKBONED ANIMALS. cold waters from ten to fifteen miles off shore. The had- dock belongs to this family, and closely resembles the cod in habits and appearance. The torn-cod, ling, cusk, and pollock, are all allied forms. NOTE. The Chiasmodus (Fig. 216) is a deep-sea ally ; the top of the head, the under jaws, and the fins, all gleam with vivid phos- phorescence ; but, more remarkable yet, their jaws work independently and alternately as in the snakes, and the stomach is capable of such distention that they can swallow fishes twice their own size. FlG. 230. Fierasfer and young, a fish that lives in holothurians and star- fishes. A, adult ; /?, young. The Fierasfer (Fig. 230, A) is a silvery, eel-like form, rarely found out of the digestive canal of holothurians (see page 39). One species inhabits a star-fish (Culcita). The young (Fig. 230, J3) pass through several changes be- fore assuming the adult form. FIG. 231. Young flounder (P. Amcricanus), showing different positions of the eye as it moves over. (After Agassiz.) Flounders (Pleuronectida). When young, the floun- der is somewhat cylindrical ; has an eye upon each side, and swims vertically like other fishes. Later it sinks to THE TRUE FISHES. 189 the bottom, lying upon its left side, the eye moving over, the successive stages of the movement being shown in Fig. 231, until both eyes are upon the right side, which is now the upper portion. The mouth is generally twist- ed to conform with the new position. On the lower side the pigment-cells are not developed, and the skin is white, but the upper surface is colored and susceptible to change and adaptation to the prevailing color of the bottom. NOTE. This protection, afforded many animals, is due to the con- traction and expansion of the different colored pigment-cells that are contained principally in the cutis. They contract or expand according to the light reflected ; the impression is received by the eye and trans- mitted by the sympathetic nerves. A blind flounder does not adapt its color to the surroundings. By severing some of the nerves Pou- chet produced, at pleasure, a fish striped on one side and spotted on the other, etc. The experiment may easily be tried by placing floun- ders on white, brown, and black bottoms, and changing them about ; so also with the octopus, anolis, and many others. Order VI. Pediculati. Walking-Fishes (Anten- nariidcc]. These are pelagic fishes, floating about upon the surface of the sea among the vast fields of sargassum. The body is compressed, and three or four inches long ; the fins ornamented with barbels, so that they can be scarcely distinguished from the weed, which they also mimic in color. They are interesting nest-builders (Fig. 232), collecting the floating weed into balls as large as a cheese, connecting it by bands of a glutinous secretion probably taken from a special gland, as in the stickle- backs (Fig. 206). The eggs are attached on the sides and within. Allied are the anglers (Lophiida>) (Fig. 233), so called from several spines on the head that have upon their ends barbels of flesh. The spines move up and down over the enormous mouth like a fishing-rod ; the waving bait attracting the smaller fishes, that often fall victims to the curious fisherman. Some of this fam- BACKBONED ANIMALS. ily, discovered by the " Challenger," are bedecked on all parts with fringes that exactly mimic sea-weed. The FIG. 232. The Antennarius marmoratus and its floating nest, formed of gulf-weed. Fish natural size, the nest reduced. young pass through many changes before assuming the adult form. THE TRUE FISHES. FIG. 233. The angler (LopJn'us piscatorius). Order VII. Lophobranchii. Sea-Horses (Hippo- eampidiz). These curious fishes have a fibro-cartilaginous skeleton. The gills take the form of tufted lobes on each side of the branchial arches. The snout and lower jaw are developed into a tube, at the end of which is the mouth. The tail is prehensile, like an opossum's, and by it they cling to plants, or swim upright by the dorsal fin alone, their movements being slow and deliberate. NOTE. They are wonderful mimics. The leaf-firmed sea-horse, or Phyllopteryx eqiies (Fig. 234), from Australian waters, is provided with numbers of reddish streaming filaments that resemble plants, forming a perfect protection to the fish as they float about. The male sea-horse receives the eggs into a pouch on its ventral surface. When they hatch, it presses the pouch against a stone or shell, and forces them out. The pipe-fish belongs to this group, and is also a mimic of the weed. The male receive the eggs from the female and carries them in a pouch. In the genera Nerophis and Protocampus the pouch is wanting, the eggs being attached to the abdomen of the female. In the Soleno* I 9 2 BACKBONED ANIMALS. stoma y an allied form of the Indian Ocean, the mother carries her eggs in a pouch formed by the ventral fins, they being held in place by long filaments extending from its sides. FIG. 234. Sea-horse {Phyllopteryx eqttes), that is protected by its resem- blance to sea-weed. Order VIII. Plectognathi. General Characteristics. In these fishes the scales are often modified into spines or plates. The ventral fins are generally absent. File-Fishes (jBaftstid). These fishes are often covered with sharp spines, and when removed from the water they innate themselves with air, resembling an oval, spiny balloon.* Each jaw is divided in the middle, so that they appear to have four teeth. The diodons are allied forms. Sunfishes \ (prthagoriscidtz). These are oval or ob- long in shape (Fig. 236). The dorsal and anal fins are FIG. 236. Sunfish (Orthagoriscus mo la). * They are often figured in this shape, but it is unnatural, and only attained when the fish rs forcibly taken from the water. The Diodon antennatus has undivided, teeth-like mandibles, so power- ful that when swallowed by a shark they have been known, accord- ing to Darwin, to eat their way out through th? stomach and skin of the fish. f They are sluggish fishes, rolling along at the surface, and are quite common on the eastern coast of the United States and in other seas. The body is covered with a thick mucus and infested by parasites, goose-barnacles even living in its mouth. Semper and Cobbold refer to its luminous qualities. They attain a height of six feet, and weigh five or six hundred pounds. The liver alone is valuable. I 9 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS, alike and opposite each other, the caudal fin seemingly a mere projective rim of the entire hinder part of the body. Powerful muscles lead into it, but it is probably of little use in locomotion. Specimens for Study. The habits and exterior parts of fishes can be studied from minnows, sunfish, stickle- backs, etc., kept in an aquarium or a glass vessel of any kind provided with aquatic plants to aerate the water. Dissections of small specimens are best made in a dish under water, when each part shown in Fig. 194 should be determined. With a delicate knife, the various organs can be exposed, as the brain, nostrils, ears, etc. In preparing a first skeleton, boil the fish, and reconstruct the skeleton as well as possible by (Fig. 193) marking all the parts and observing their relations one to another. In studying the circulation, inject into the veins some colored fluid, as ver- milion. It is extremely important to make a drawing of the fish or its parts. Works on Fishes for further reference. "Challenger Reports"; " Game-Fishes of the United States," Killbourne text, by G. Brown Goode ; "American Fauna," by J. B. Holder, M. D. ; " Fishes of Massachusetts," Storer ; Goode and Bean, " List of Fishes of Massachusetts Bay and Adjacent Waters," in " Bulletin of the Essex Institute," vol. ii ; " Reports of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries and Various State Commissioners " ; "Skates' Eggs and Young," F. W. Putnam, "American Naturalist," vol. iii, p. 617 ; " Gar-Pikes, Old and Young," B. G. Wilder, " Popular Science Monthly," vol. ii ; " Respiration of Amia," B. G. Wilder, " Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science," 1877, also in " Popular Science Monthly " ; " Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave," " American Naturalist," vol. vi, p. 6, and "Report of Peabody Academy of Science," 1871 ; " List of Fresh- Water Fishes of North America," D. S. Jordan, " Bulletin of the Buf- falo Academy of Natural Science," vol. iii ; " Introduction to the Study of Fishes," Gunther; "Development of Osseous Fishes," Agassiz, " Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," vol xiv ; and the works of Brehrn, Wood, and Cassell. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 195 Class IV. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. SALAMAN- DERS, TOADS, etc. (Batrachid). General Characteristics. The Batrachians are amphibi- ous Vertebrates that breathe air by perfect lungs, though 30me adult forms have gills. They pass through a distinct metamorphosis. The higher forms have paired limbs, the toes not being clawed as in the reptiles. They are gen- erally oviparous. Skeleton. In the frog the skull is closely connected with the body, and differs from that of higher Vertebrates in being partly cartilaginous (Fig. 237). The bones of the limbs, when present, resemble those of higher Vertebrates. Tarsus. Metatarsus. Phalanges. FIG. 237. Skull of the frog (Rana esculenta), from below, showing teeth and the cartilaginous gir- dle-bone, y. This is shown in Fig. 238, which should be compared with the limb of the cat. Digestion. The mouth is generally large, and in the frog (Fig. 237) the upper jaws are armed with delicate, saw-like teeth. Tadpoles have FIG. 238. Bones of the right leg of a young toad, greatly enlarged. The femur not shown ; the tibia and fibula are combined together. (Af- ter Morse.) 196 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the jaws enveloped in horny beaks. The liver is two- lobed, and the intestine short and straight, not enlarging into a stomach proper. Frogs and toads feed upon in- sects as a rule. Respiration. At first Batrachians with few exceptions breathe by means of gills, as the fishes, the breathing- organs being external, as in the young of the curious ash Polypterus (Fig. 207). Frogs, toads, and newts have at first two sets of gills, an external and an internal pair. The former disappear first. As growth progress- es, they lose the latter also, then breathing by perfect lungs. Circulation. When young and possessing the red gills, blood is pumped to them as in the fishes, the heart then possessing two chambers, an auricle and a ventricle. Later, when the lungs appear, the auricle divides and the heart becomes three-chambered ; the blood, on account of its incomplete aeration, is cold. Development. The Batrachians pass through a distinct metamorphosis. The eggs are generally placed in or near the water, enveloped in some cases in a jelly-like mass, the young first being water-animals, breathing by external gills (Fig. 243), finally changing to the adult form. Order I. Trachystomata. Sirens (Siremfa). The sirens are long, slender creatures, with permanent gills. They have no hind-limbs ; even the fore pair, which are either three- or four-toed, are weak and almost useless. The great siren (S. lacertina] attains a length of three feet, is nearly black in color, dotted with light spots, the abdo- men pink or purple. It has four toes on each fore-limb, and is found in the muddy ditches and swamps of the Southern States. A small siren (Pseudobranchus striatus), with three toes, is found in the rice-field streams of Georgia. Order II. Proteida. The Proteus (Fig. 239) is a AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 197 blind * Batrachian found in the subterranean caves of Adelsberg in Carniola, Austria. FlG. 239. Proteus of Carniola caverns, showing the external gills. NOTE. They are pure white, have ^bristling gills and gill-openings, and small teeth. The limbs are four in number, the fore pair having three toes and the hinder pair two. They breathe under water by the gills and above by lungs, while experiment has shown that the former can be removed without injuring them. The mud-puppy (Necturus) of the United States is a familiar form in the Mississippi country and upper New York. The body is broad and flat ; each foot has four toes ; they attain a length of two feet. They are extremely sluggish, living in muddy water. The eggs are about the size of peas. Order III. Tailed Amphibians (Urodela). In this order the gills are generally only present in the early stages ; the body is slender and eel-like. The Congo snake (Fig. 240) has extremely delicate limbs, and inhabits the muddy waters of the Southern States. The hell- bender, or Menotoma, found in the Mississippi Valley, pos- sesses permanent gills, is flat, with weak limbs and a prom- * The eyes of the Proteus are destitute of a crystalline lens, although they have a retina. BACKBONED ANIMALS. inent tail. The gigantic Japanese salamander, over three feet in length, belongs to this order ; they are incorrectly supposed to pass through fire without harm. The largest sala- mander in the United States is the Amblystoma (Fig. 241). The history of Amblystoma mavortium is extremely remarkable. The young for a long time were con- sidered separate and distinct ani- mals. They lived in the elevated lakes, 8,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea, from Montana to Mexico, ,., r and were well known as axolotls, FIG. 240. Congo snake means). having external gills and true FIG. 241. Axolotl, a creature living and breeding for generations in the water. Amblystoma coming out of the water an axolotl which has iost its gills and breathes by lungs alone. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 199 Jungs, yet living in the water. Finally some of them were taken to Paris, where their gills shriveled, and they finally left the water, becoming true lung-breathing animals, the Amblystoma ; so the axolotl was only the larval form, that owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere in Mex- ico never developed, but lived, multiplied, and died in the water. NOTE. It is now known that in the lakes of Utah and Wyoming other species attain the adult form. The eggs are deposited in masses, the young appearing in July. They reproduce lost parts, legs and tail if removed appearing a few weeks later. They are useful scavengers, and are eaten by the Mexicans. If the lungs and gills of the axo- lotl are removed, it still can breathe by absorption through the skin. Frogs can breathe in a similar way. FIG. 242. The newt (Lissotriton punctatus). Male and young in tho water, female on the bank. The tritons, or newts (Fig. 242), are common in vari- ous parts of the world, and are often brilliantly colored. A spotted newt in England bends up the side of a leaf, gluing it together and forming a nest for a single egg, all 200 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the others being placed with equal care. Our common triton lays its eggs singly on submerged plants ; others are connected by a thread, whether on land or in the water. Order IV. Blind Snakes (Gymnophiond] . The ani- mals of this order are snake-like only in external appear- ance and in name, having elongated cylindrical bodies destitute of legs. The skin is smooth, containing imbed- ded scales, and some species secrete in small pores a vis- cous secretion similar to that of snails. The eyes are small and beneath the skin. The Ccecilia of the tropics attains a length of several feet, and lives underground like the earth-worm, feeding upon insects. A Surinam species is viviparous ; the young are born in the water and have external, leaf-shaped gills, that are absorbed as they leave it. Order V. Tailless Amphibians (Anura). We now come to the frogs and toads, in which the body is short, thick, and tailless in the adults, with four limbs, the hind- er pair adapted for leaping. The skin covers the body loosely, the muscles not adhering to it. The tongue is fastened to the front of the jaw, the tip pointing down the throat ; as a rule, the lower jaw is without teeth. The eggs (Fig. 243, e) are deposited in jelly-like masses in some pool ; in two weeks, more or less, the young ap- pear, those of American toads being darker than those of frogs. They now cling to the weed by little suckers near the mouth parts, i ; branching tufts now appear on each side of the head these are the gills, 2 ; the mouth soon appears, the tufted gills are absorbed, and we have the tadpole with six fish-like gill-slits. The legs are now seen, 4, first appearing as little bumps under the skin, and finally we have an animal resembling a lizard, with four legs and a long tail, 5 ; the latter is gradually ab- sorbed, 6 ; and the toad or frog crawls upon the shore in perfect form, 7. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 20 1 FIG. 243. Metamorphosis of the frog, e, eggs ; i, tadpoles just out of the egg ; 2, with outs.de gills ; 3, with gills hidden, and beak-like mouth ; 4, hind-legs appearing ; 5, all legs grown, but fish-tail remaining ; 6, put- ting on frog appearance, tail being absorbed ; 7, young perfect frog. Toads (ufonict, quadrate bone between upper and lower jaw. lindrical bodies, long, slender tails, and have usually two pairs of feet. The jaws are not extensible, as in the snakes, and are armed with sharp, conical teeth. The tongue is free, long, and sometimes forked. All lizards are ovipa- rous. Their eggs are deposited either in the ground or in hollow trees. About seventeen hundred living species are known ; eighty-two species are found in North America, north of Mexico. Chameleons (Chamaleonidce). These strange lizards (Fig. 254) are found in Africa and Asia, thirty species being known. The body is com- pressed, the skin rough, the tail round and prehensile ; the tongue is cylin- FlG. 254. The chameleon, showing tongue. drical, and ca- TRUE REPTILES. 213 pable of projecting five or six inches, and covered with a sticky secretion for the capture of insects. The eyes are large, with a circular eyelid, and are independent of each other. Their five toes are arranged in two oppo- site groups of pincers. Their movements are slow and deliberate, and their power of adapting their color to that of their surroundings is remarkable. The eggs are round, white, and deposited in the ground. In the Flying-Liz- ards (Agamuke) of the East Indies (Fig. 255) the tail is long and snake-like, while between the limbs extends a membrane supported by the much-prolonged fifth or sixth hind-ribs. The female depos- its three or four eggs at a time. The frilled lizard of Queens- land has hind-legs adapted for leaping. The Moloch horridus of Australia is a sluggish form, completely covered with large and small spine-bearing tuber- cles. The Iguana* is found in the tropical portions of North and South America. It attains a length of five feet, and is ex- tremely powerful, inflicting ter- rible blows with its tail. They live among the trees, subsisting upon the fruit, and are sought after as an article of food. The Anolis (Fig. 256) of the Southern States belongs to this family, and is noted for its changes of color. The horned lizard (Fig. 257) of Mexico and the Western States is covered with spines, * John G. Bell, the naturalist and companion of Audubon in many of his expeditions, saw an iguana rush across the surface of a river in Central America, keeping upon the surface by the lightning-like rapidity of its movements. A very few minutes sufficed to cross. FIG. 255. Red-throated flying dragon (Draco], showing membrane supported by ribs. 214 BACKBONED ANIMALS. and the head ornamented with spikes. They run with great rapidity, and so resemble the dry ground that they are indistinguishable a few feet away. They live upon insects, and are easily domesticated. Allied to the iguanas is the great sea-lizard of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of four feet. Their tails are flattened and their feet partly webbed. They take to the water readily, living upon sea-weed. A land species lives in burrows. The Wall-Lizards (Geckotti- dee] * are short, flattened, and slow * The middle of each caudal vertebra has a thin cartilaginous partition. At this point the tail is often broken, and eventu- ally renewed, sometimes two tails growing. According to Gunther, they are enabled to throw off their tails spontaneously when pursued, the wriggling offcast attracting the attention of the pursuer, while the gecko escapes. They FlG. 256. The Ameri- can chameleon (Ano- lis principals}. TRUE REPTILES. 215 of motion (Fig. 258). The toes are provided with cling- ing ridges of bristles, by which they walk upon the walls in search of insects, though in the forest species this ar- rangement is sometimes absent. The jaws have small teeth, and the tongue is not extensible. FIG. 257. Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutuni). Dorsal view and side view of head. FIG. 258. Gecko. The Scinks (Scinkida) are spindle-shaped (Fig. 259) and covered with smooth scales. The five-lined and red- headed scinks are common in the Southern States. The Glass Snakes (Chalcidce) have no feet, the body being serpent-like (Fig. 260). The glass snake FIG. 259. Scink (Scincus offictnah's), showing structure of the feet. have also been seen devouring their own cast-off skin and wriggling tail. The geckos of the East Indies utter a shrill cry. The leaf-tailed gecko is one of the most curious. One species is said to be luminous. They are all insect-eaters. Two hundred species are known. 2l6 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of the Southern and Western States attains a length of three feet, and is so fragile that the slightest blow severs it in sections. The upper surface is yellowish green spotted with black. Heloderma {Helodermidcs) . The "Gila mon- ster," or Heloder- ma (Fig. 261), is the largest lizard FIG. 2 6o.-Glass snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). of North America, attaining a length of three feet, and enjoying the distinction of being the only poisonous member of the order. In appearance they are repulsive, being covered with scales, the whole resembling a flinty, faceted armor. The general color is black, marked with yellowish-orange or white interspaces. The tail is cylindrical and clumsy. Their movements are slow and uncertain, resembling those of a young alligator. The teeth are fissured, and at the bases of the grooves are the ducts from which the poisonous saliva passes into the wound.* After biting, the heloderma appears sluggish, * According to Mitchell and Reichert, the physiological action of the poison is quite different from that of snake-poison. The latter kills by paralyzing the respiratory center, while the poison of the helo- derma paralyzes the heart. When injected subcutaneously it causes no local injury, the effect being to arrest the motion of the heart, which slowly becomes contracted, and the spinal cord paralyzed. It is not necessarily fatal to human beings, though an American scientist, after being bitten, was barely able to call assistance. In experiments tried by Sir John Lubbock, a live frog when bitten died almost immediately in convulsions. A Guinea-pig, bitten in the hind-leg, died in three minutes, and young rats succumbed even more quickly. The specimen kept in Ihe New York Zoological Garden thrived upon hard-boiled eggs. TRUE REPTILES. 217 like many of the poisonous snakes. They occur in Mex- ico, Arizona, and Lower California. Allied are the water- lizards ( Varanidce\ the huge monitors, seven feet in length, the gigantic lace-lizard, and others. 218 BACKBONED ANIMALS, The Double - Walkers (AmphisbcRnidx) (Fig. 262) are found in tropical America, often in the nests of ants. They move in either direction with equal ease. Thirteen species are known in Asia, Africa, and South America. FIG. 262. Amphisbanafuliginosa. Order III. Turtles (Chelonia). General Characteris- tics). The turtles (Fig. 263) are distinguished by the shell or box-like covering that envelops them. The upper part forms the carapace, r, the lower the plastron, //, the two constituting a covering into which the head, tail, and limbs can be more or less withdrawn. The generally arched carapace is formed by the greatly expanding ribs, these and the vertebrae being fixed and immovable. The plas- tron is generally considered a greatly expanded sternum.* The outer surface of the shell is made up of scales or plates, or a leathery substance, as in the case of the soft- shell tortoise. The jaws are toothless, being armed with a horny beak, as in the birds. The eyes have three lids ; * Some naturalists consider it a dermic growth. TRUE REPTILES. 213 FIG. 263. Skeleton of the tortoise, from below, j, joints of the backbone grown together ; r, ribs formed into a solid cover ; s h, shoulder-bones ; //, hip-bones covered by carapace, which has grown over them ; //, plas- tron, or under cover. the limbs are adapted to aquatic or terrestrial life, as the case may be. About forty species are known in North America, north of Mexico. Marine Turtles (Chdoniida}. This family has a wide distribution in warm and tropical seas ; five spe- cies are known. The leather tur- tle, or Sphargis (Fig. 264), is the rarest and largest known. The shell is a thick, leathery skin, composed of six longitudi- nal plates, form- ing raised ridges. FlG - 264. Leather turtle (Sphargis). 220 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The eye-openings are placed vertically. They attain a length of eight feet, and a weight of twelve hundred pounds.* The loggerhead f is nearly as large. Its shell is made up of scales. They breed upon Loggerhead Key, Florida, and other lo- calities, bury- ing their eggs in the sand, leaving the sun to hatch them. FIG. 265. Green turtle. The digging and covering is done by the hind-flippers. The green turtle (Fig. 265) is somewhat similar, though more delicate, the head, and flippers smaller. They feed upon algae, particularly Zos- tera marina. The hawkbill \ (Fig. 266) is distinguished * The gigantic extinct Protostega gigas was allied to the Sphargis. It measured seventeen feet between the fore-arms or flippers, and was remarkable for the rudimentary character of the bones in the adult. f The loggerhead is extremely powerful, and I have found it diffi- cult to turn one with the help of two men. By seizing them by the shell just over the head I have been carried a long distance in the water at a rapid rate. The steeds thus experimented upon were kept in an inclosure half a mile long and eight feet deep, and when asleep on the bottom could generally be caught by diving. Owing to their sluggish natures they often fall a prey to sharks to the extent of their flippers. I have caught them in the Gulf Stream with these organs entirely bitten off. \ Though the hawkbill is a vegetable feeder as a rule, they some- times attack the Physalia (Fig. 19). One, two feet long, was found by the author floating on the surface, insensible, its head covered by the blue tentacles. By scraping them off with a knife the turtle recovered, and was kept as a pet for a long time. TRUE REPTILES. 221 by its more elegant shape, hooked bill, and large scales, having, like all the others, long, fin-like flippers. VALUE. The scales of the hawkbill are greatly valued in com- merce. Oil from the green turtle's eggs is used in dressing leath- er, and in the manufac- ture of soap. The eggs are not the luxuries gen- erally supposed, and are best when immature, FIG. 266. -HawkbiH turtle, and dried in the sun. In the soft - shelled turtles ( Trionychickz) the body is flat and circular, the shell being supple, like rubber or leather. They are carnivorous, and one species is common in the St. John's and other rivers of Florida and the South- ern States. The American species are generally one foot in length, but East Indian specimens have been caught weigh- ing two hundred and forty pounds. Allied are the snap- ping-turtles (Chelydidce), forty-four species of which are known. The shell is elevated in front and low behind ; the head large, and jaws strongly hooked, the neck long and snake-like. They attain a length of five feet, and are the most ferocious of their kind. The three American species range from Florida to Canada. The eggs are spherical, and deposited in the ground. The land turtles (Testudinida) have high, arched shells, a broad sternum, and elevate the body in walking, instead of dragging it along. One hundred and twenty-six species are known. The terrapin, painted, spotted, and box turtles are familiar American forms. The latter are remarkable in that the plastron is composed of two parts, movable upon a single axis, so that the soft parts of the animal can be completely boxed in. They are found in dry woods, and attain a great age. 10 222 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NOTE. The most remarkable land tortoise is the Testudo nigra, or elephant turtle, of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of six feet, and eight men can barely lift the largest. They feed upon the cactus, and their paths from the springs can be seen all over the islands. Though large and clumsy, they can travel eight miles in three days. The eggs are spherical, and larger than a hen's egg. They are either buried in the sand or dropped among the rocks. During the breeding- season the male utters a hoarse roar or bellow. They are valued for their flesh and oil. The Colossochelys is an extinct land tortoise of the Tertiary period, found in India. They were twenty feet in length, the shell being twelve feet long and six feet high, and would serve as a covering for six or seven men. Order IV {Rhynchocephalia). This order is represented by a single animal the Sphenodon punctatus, or Hatteria, of New Zealand. Its general appearance is like the iguana, having a similar row of dorsal spines. It attains a length of three feet, and forms a burrow, lining it with grass, that is also occupied by three species of birds petrels, etc. The lizard occupies one side of the nest and the birds the other. It is nocturnal in its habits, and lives to some extent upon the food the birds bring in to their young. Order V. Crocodiles (Crocodilid). General Charac- teristics. The crocodiles and alligators form the highest order of existing reptiles. The brain and heart closely resemble those of the birds. Their skin is covered with bony plates, and the teeth are lodged in separate sockets ; the nostrils can be closed, and the feet are partly webbed. They lay twenty or thirty eggs, that are buried in the sand and hatched by the sun. Alligators (Alligatorida) The alligators,* of which ten species are known, are distinguished by having both * Their nests are sometimes in the sand or in mounds of decayed vegetation. In the colder months they hibernate in the mud. In Nicaragua they have been known to seize human beings, pigs, and even horses, often drifting down upon their prey, their bodies resem- bling submerged logs. Their voice is a loud bellow like that of a bull. TRUE REPTILES. 223 large front teeth as well as the canines fit into pits in the upper jaw. They are common in the Southern Unit- ed States and tropical America, attaining a length of eighteen feet. VALUE. Skin as leather, oil, and musk. Crocodiles (Crocodilidce). These reptiles are found in the rivers and marshes of nearly all tropical countries. The lower canine teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, instead of pits. The muzzle is sharp and narrow. The hind-legs have a fringe of compressed scales behind, and the toes are webbed nearly to the tip. Twelve species are known. A crocodile (Crocodilus acutus) (Fig. 267) is, FIG. 267. Head of Florida crocodile (Crocodilus acutus), from life. though not generally known, quite common in the vicinity of Biscayne Bay, Florida, and differs much from the alli- gator in appearance and habits, living in salt marshes as well as fresh, and being more or less marine.* * The crocodile shown in Fig. 267 was fourteen and a half feet in length, and was shot after being followed three successive winters. The specimen is now in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park. When shot and speared it towed the boat for some distance, and made a desperate resistance, finally diving into a hole in the bottom. Its tail protruding, a rope was fastened to it, and tied to a bent tree, and the following morning the monster was found swinging partly in the air 224 BACKBONED ANIMALS. In the breeding-season the female utters a bark like a dog. The eggs, somewhat resembling those of a goose, are deposited among leaves in heaps, and when hatched the young are led away by the mother and fed upon masticated food. The India crocodiles in the dry sea- son hibernate in the mud, which hardens about them. A tent pitched unwittingly over such a case was once overthrown by the awakening hibernator. Allied are the long-nosed crocodiles (Gavia/tda), three species of which are known, inhabiting the Ganges and rivers of Borneo and North Africa. They attain a length of thirty feet. VALUE. The teeth, flesh, hide, and oil, are all valued. Specimens for Study. In the spring months the eggs of frogs and toads can be found in pools, and should be placed in an aquarium or some vessel, and the changes watched from day to day. In this way the history of the animal can be followed from the egg to the adult, and the habits, etc., observed. Eggs hardened in alcohol can be cut into sections and examined. The simple skeleton of the frog or toad affords an excellent object for study, and should be prepared, the bones labeled and compared with those of allied and higher forms, and the points of differ- ence noted. Collections of the fauna of a neighborhood or country are always valuable, and should comprise the eggs, tadpoles in all stages up to the adult, preserved in alcohol, and marked with locality, name, sex, etc. A book of reference should also be kept, in which notes, observa- tions, and sketches should be entered. and dispatched. A smaller specimen, that was taken into the boat and supposed to be dead, suddenly recovered, upsetting it, and throwing the occupants into the water. The animals are extremely wily, and capture birds by jerking them under water by the legs ; and, to show their marine habits, specimens have been seen on the reef four miles from land. BIRDS, 225 Works on Reptiles for further reference. 44 Smithsonian Reports " ; " Tropical Nature," Wallace ; " List of Reptiles and Batrachians near Springfield, Massachusetts," Allen ; Holbrook's " Herpetology of North America " ; Agassiz, " Embryology of Turtles," in " Contributions to Natural History of the United States " ; " Check List of North American Reptiles and Batrachians,'" E. D. Cope ; " Serpents," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv. Class VI. BIRDS (Avcs). General Characteristics. From the reptiles we pass to the birds, that may be characterized as warm-blooded feathered Vertebrates, having the fore-limbs adapted for flight, the jaws inclosed in horny beaks, and the bones hdllow. Skeleton. In examining the skeleton of a bird (Fig, 268), we first notice its extreme lightness. This is due to the fact that many of the bones that are filled with mar- row in other animals are in the birds hollow air-chambers. The skull-bones in the adult bird form a single piece, and except in certain extinct forms (Fig. 274) the jaws are toothless and inclosed in horny cases called beaks. The lower jaw is not joined directly to the skull as in man, but to a quadrate bone (Fig. 268, q), as in the reptiles and batra- chians. The neck, consisting of from nine to twenty-four vertebrae, is extremely long and flexible, so that the bird can trim its feathers on any part of the body ; a knot can almost be tied in the neck of the flamingo. The (dorsal) vertebrae, from six to ten in number, are firmly joined (anchylosed) in the flying birds ; but in the non-fliers, as the emu and ostrich, they are movable one upon another. The vertebrae between the dorsal and those constituting the tail (caudal) are joined, forming a single bone called the sacrum, which, joined with the innominate bones, forms the pelvic arch to which is attached the first bone of the leg or thigh (Fig. 268, th}. To the thigh or femur is at- tached the tibia, to which a small fibula is joined. The 22 6 BACKBONED ANIMALS. position of the knee is seen at k ; then follows the foot, f % or tarso-metatarsus, that in wading birds is very long, and in powerful fliers, as the man-of-war hawk (Fig. 283), very short. The heel, h, is far from the ground, and to the foot-bone are attached the two, four, or five toes, as the FIG. 268. Skeleton of a sparrow. ^, quadrate bone, peculiar to reptiles and birds and some amphibia ; #, breast-bone ; m, merry-thought or collar-bone ; c, coracoid bone, over which the tendon works to pull up the wing ; /, plowshare-bone, on which the tail grows. Wing-bones : a, upper arm ; e, elbow ; /a, fore-arm ; w, wrist ; /, thumb ; /ia, hand. Leg-bones : M, thigh-bone ; k, knee ; /, lower part of leg ; h, heel ; /, foot. case may be, that are armed with scratching or clinging claws that extend in different directions. Generally there are three before and one behind, as in* Fig. 268 ; others have two before and two behind, or, as in the swifts, all four extend to the front. To prevent birds from falling while asleep on a perch, there is a wonderful arrangement BIRDS. 227 of the muscles, a number extending down the leg from the pelvis to the outside of the knee, then winding around and blending with the principal muscles of the toes. When the bird settles in roosting, the leg is bent upon the thigh, the weight of the bird acting as a lever that tautens the muscles and draws the toes and claws tightly about the limb or roost ; thus the bird can sleep while standing upon one leg without fear of falling, being held fast by the weight of its body. The tail or caudal vertebrae are mov- able to some extent and end in the plowshare-bone, /, that supports the large quill-feathers of the tail. On the under portion of the skeleton we note the sternum, , or breast-bone, to which the wing-moving muscles are at- tached. In the flying birds, as Fig. 268, it is keeled and has a sharp edge, thus offering a greater surface of attach- ment, but in birds like the ostrich the keel is absent. Above the sternum are the ribs, that vary in number from seven to eleven pairs. In front of the sternum the clavicles join and form a V-shaped bone called the lucky or collar bone (Fig. 268, m). The coracoid bone over which the tendon works to pull up the wing, is seen at e, and this and the scapula and clavicle constitute the " pectoral arch " to which the humerus, a, or first bone of the wing, is at- tached. The position of the elbow is seen at e ; then fol- lows the fore-arm (ulna and radius), fa. The position of the wrist is shown at w ; then follow the carpal and meta- carpal bones, which are joined at the extremities. At the upper end of the metacarpal bones there is a rudimentary thumb (Fig. 268, /). It has a single joint and supports what is called the false wing. The end of the wing (Fig. 268, ha) corresponds to the hand, and three rudimentary fingers are generally observed, that correspond to the first and third fingers of the human hand. The fingers only in rare cases are clawed, and" the arm, that in other animals is used for digging, clinging, or crawling, is now only used to propel the bird through the air or water as the case may be. 228 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Digestion. As the birds have no teeth, they either swallow their food entire or tear it with the bill or claws. The digestive organs are shown in Fig. 269, i. The food passes down the gullet and lodges in the crop, c, that is easily felt in chickens that have gorged themselves with corn. From here it passes to the true stomach just be- low, and is brought in contact with a secretion called gastric juice. From here it passes to the gizzard, g, that to all intents and purposes is an internal set of teeth or grinders, being a muscular sac with a hard, horny lining in which the grain or other food is completely ground to a pulp. To assist in this operation chickens and other grain-eating birds swallow gravel and pebbles. In the flesh-eaters, as the eagles, the coat of the gizzard is not so thick. The experiment has been tried of feeding gulls on grain,* and it was found that the gizzard assumed the ap- pearance and functions of that of true grain-eaters. When the food is thoroughly ground, that which is not absorbed as fuel for the system enters the small intestine and is finally rejected. Circulation. In the birds we meet for the first time a warm-blooded animal, the mean temperature of the blood, which is red, being no or 112. This is due to the fact that the birds are extremely active, and that the blood is not only aerated in the lungs, but in the air-sacs of the various parts of the body. Again, the feathers are poor conductors of heat, and tend to keep up the body tempera- ture. The heart is now four-chambered, composed of two auricles and two ventricles. In circulating, the venous blood enters the right auricle, flowing from here to the right ventricle, from which it passes through the pul- monic artery to the lungs. Here it changes into arterial blood, passes to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, * A gull, Lartts t at the Shetland Islands, lives on grain in the sum- mer and fish in the winter, a habit that must cause a yearly physical change. BIRDS. 229 that sends it through the great aorta in- to numerous branches that lead all over the body. Respiration. The breath- ing organs are shown in Fig. 269, /,/. The lungs, /, /, are two in number, spongy in con- sistency, and are attached to the walls of the cavity in which they are placed. The large air-passages of the lungs end in air-sacs, that in turn connect with the cavities of the bones, so that air taken in passes down the trachea, /, enters the lungs, /, /, aerating the blood there, also passing into the air-sacs and penetrating the hol- low bones in every part of the body ; thus the bird can alter its specific gravity at will. The air-sacs are nine in number ; two are placed in the abdomen, four in the thorax, and three near the wish-bone. Nervous System. The brain (Fig. 270, i) is larger than in the reptiles, and has no convolutions. Covering. The birds differ from all other animals in being covered with feathers (Fig. 271), that are modified FIG. 269. Parts of a bird, i, digestive apparatus ; c, crop ; g, gizzard ; ^, trachea ; , , bronchial tubes ; /, /, lungs ; 2, bones of the wings. FIG. 270. i, Brain of a bird ; 2, eye, showing nic- titating membrane. 23 BACKBONED ANIMALS. scales or hairs, developed, like them, in sacs in the skin. They afford protection to the bird, determine its contour or shape, and are the means of enabling it to soar in the air, the long pinions being arranged to offer the greatest FIG. 271. Sparrow, showing the skeleton (Fig. 268) clothed in flesh, and the graceful outline produced by the coat of feathers. resistance. Taking a goose-feather (Fig. 272) as an ex- ample, we find that it is composed of several parts. The hollow, horny quill, i, rests in a sac ; this leads to the shaft, 2, which is horny, grooved, and filled with a sub- stance resembling wood-pith. From the sides of the shaft spring the barbs, 3, that are so delicate that it would nat- PLATE IX, *. Claw of hawk (grasping). 3. Claw of parrot (clinging). 2. Claw of domestic fowl (scratching). 4. Foot of a duck (adapted for swimming). PLATE X, BIRD ARCHITECTURE. Nsst of the Cape titmouse, BIRDS. 231 urally be assumed that under the vigorous beating of the wing they would form little, if any, resistance. There is, however, a special arrangement, shown in Fig. 273, by which each barb is locked with its fellow by little second- ary branches called barbules, that are generally serrated and provided with hooks, and in this way a strong surface is presented to the wind. Plumes, as those of the ostrich, are feathers without barbules. Down is feathers in which the barbs are extremely soft and free. The feathers shed water by being oiled with a secretion the birds take from an oil-gland near the tail. After the reproductive season, birds gen- erally moult or shed their feath- ers. Some birds, as the ptarmigan, do this two or three times a year. Senses. The eyes of some birds are remarkably pierc- ing, and their vision extremely acute. All possess a third eyelid or nictitating membrane (Fig. 270, 2) that covers and protects the ball of the eye, so that eagles can gaze directly at the sun without blinking. The eyes of these birds and their allies are also provided with a ring of hard plates that forms an apparatus by which the bird can adjust its sight to objects near at hand or at a distance. The penguin, FIG. 272. Parts of a feather. i, quill ; 2, shaft ; 3, 3, vane or barbs ; 4, accessory plume. FIG. 273. Barb from a goose - quill, showing the booklets highly magnified. 232 BACKBONED ANIMALS. that passes so much of its time under water, has a similar arrangement by which it is enabled to see equally well in either element. There is, as a rule, no external ear. The nostrils are slits situated in the upper portion of the man- dibles, and are protected with bristles or scales. The songs of birds constitute their language, this being par- ticularly evident in the common fowl. The sounds made when a hawk approaches, when an egg has been laid, when calling their young, and the " song " on warm days when in search of food, are all different expressions of totally different emotions. The songs of birds have been set to music by Mr. X. Clarke (see " American Natu- ralist," vol. xiii, page 12). Development. All birds are oviparous. The eggs are either hatched by the male or female, or both, or by the sun (gulls), or artificial heat (brush-turkey). The young are generally provided with a calcareous knob upon their soft bill, as in some reptiles, with which they break the egg and escape. Some are at first helpless, and have to be fed, while others run (chickens) or fly (maleo) imme- diately upon their escape. About seven hundred species of birds are found in North America north of Mexico, and in all about eight thousand distinct species are known throughout the world, of which the following are some of the most typical and interesting examples : Sub-Class I. LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS (Saurttrce). The first and lowest forms of birds were extremely reptilian in their characteristics. The Archozopterix is a remarkable fossil form found in the Jurassic slates at Sohenhofen, Germany. It attained the size of a crow ; the beaks were armed with conical teeth ; the tail was formed by a long extension of the vertebrae, the feathers growing out upon the sides, and the wings were bird-like They are all extinct. TOOTHED BIRDS. 233 Sub-Class II. TOOTHED BIRDS (Odontornithes). These strange fossil birds were discovered in the creta- ceous beds of this country by Professor Marsh. Their rep- tilian and fish-like characteris- tics are seen in the vertebrae, which are biconcave. The jaws, long and slender, were armed with teeth .(Fig- 274) placed in sockets as are those of the croc- odile. Some were fliers and oth- ers had rudimentary wings. The Hesperornis was a large aquatic bird about six feet in height. Its jaws were supplied with teeth set in grooves, the wings were useless and rudimentary, while the feet were like those FlG. 274. Bird with teeth, showing jaw with teeth, the sockets, a tooth enlarged, and section of the backbone. (After Marsh.) 234 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of modern divers, so that the bird has been termed a carnivorous, swimming ostrich. They are all extinct. Sub-Class III. FLAT-BREASTED BIRDS {Ratitce). General Characteristics. Birds with rudimentary, use- less wings ; the sternum, or breast-bone, not keeled ; legs powerful, and adapted for running. The Apterix (Aptcrygid&\ or "kiwi-kiwi" (Fig. 275), is confined to New Zealand. It attains a height of two FlG. 275. The Apteryx, a nocturnal ground-bird. feet, is tailless, and the wings are rudimentary. The bill is long, the nostrils placed at its tip. The feathers are brown and hair-like. It is nocturnal ; the nest or burrow is generally placed in the ground at the root of a tree ; FLAT-BREASTED BIRDS. 235 a single egg being deposited, that equals one fourth the weight of the bird. The feet are powerful and adapted for scratching.* A remarkable extinct form of this class is the gigantic moa, of New Zealand (Fig. 276), that lived during the time of the Maoris. The largest (Dinorms gigan- teus) attained a height of nearly ten feet. The limbs and bones were larger than those of an ox. The jEpyornis, an extinct bird of Mada- gascar, was an allied form, and supposed by many to be the roc of the Arabian tales. Re- mains of its eggs show one to have been equal to one hundred and fifty hen's eggs. Ostrich (Struthio- nidce). This family is represented in South America by the Rhea (Rhea Americana). It is about three and a half feet in height, and differs from the ostrich in the possession of three toes. The head and neck are covered with downy gray feathers, those of the tail being absent. They live in flocks on the pampas. The male excavates the nest, and afterward sits upon the eggs, and, according to some au- thorities, collects them when they are left scattered about * It is a curious fact that when sleeping these birds endeavor to put the head under the wing, though the latter is entirely useless as >uch a protection. FlG. 276. Wingless birds of New Zea- land. The giant moa (Palapteryx) and the tiny apteryx. The moa is no longer to be found alive. 236 BACKBONED ANIMALS. by the hen. During this time they are extremely fierce. They readily take to the water and swim well. The young differ in color from the parents. The Emeu (Dromaius Nov) * should not be confused with the swallow, which they much resemble. The wings are long, thin, and pointed, the feet weak, and the salivary glands, used in nest-building, highly developed. The chimney swift f (Ch&tura pelasgicd) is a typical example. The general color is a sooty brown, the throat lighter, the length five and a half inches. They are com- * To this family belongs the famous edible-nest swift (Collocalia nidifica) of India and adjacent countries. The nests are confined to certain localities,, and generally placed in dangerous positions. The nest is a thin, gummy shelf or basket formed entirely of saliva. The bird hovers about the wall, presses its tongue to it, attaching a single thread of gluten, that coagulates on contact with the air. By repeating this for weeks the solid nest is finally formed, at first pure and clear, but becoming later discolored by the birds. Many persons lose their lives in collecting them, having to be lowered over precipices by rattan ropes. A Guatemalan swift forms a tube out of the down of plants, three or four feet in length, on the under side of a precipitous rock. The entrance is below, and the eggs laid on a shelf. A Brazilian species fastens a similar tube to a tree-limb and covers the outside with feathers. f Commonly called chimney swallow. 278 BACKBONED ANIMALS. mon in the United States, and seem to seek the company of human beings. The nest is formed of twigs glued with saliva to the chimney, forming a bracket and hardening to the consistency of stone. They drink, bathe, and eat on the wing, after the fashion of the humming-birds. VALUE. The nests of the edible species are valued at fifteen or twenty dollars per pound in China. The Humming-Birds (Trochilida*) are confined ex- clusively to America, and generally the tropical regions, several species being found as far west as Juan Fernandez, and a few species in North America. The bill is gener- ally long, straight or curved, the tongue capable of great protrusion, wings long and powerful, and claws minute and sharp. They are the smallest and most brilliantly colored of all birds. Our best-known form is the ruby- throat* {Trochilus colubris\ which attains a length of three and a quarter inches. Order XII. Perching Birds (Passeres). General Characteristics. The birds of this large order have the feet adapted for grasping, one toe extending backward. The bill is sharp, horny, and generally conical. They com- prise the singers, and many are wonderfully musical, the notes corresponding to our vocal expressions.! * They nest in Massachusetts about the 8th of June. The nests, as are those of almost the entire family, are adapted to the general surroundings in color, and so protected. They are often attached to an apple-tree, made up of matted layers of flying seed-wings, and lined with the down of the mullein. The outside is covered with bits of lichen, glued on, so that the nest resembles a part of the limb. f It has been shown that young singing birds, as a rule, learn (as do children) the language or note of the parent that brings them up. The prolonged and convulsive laughter of man is equally as ridiculous, when seriously considered, as the chattering of a monkey, or the so- called laughter of some birds. It is merely a relief from mental strain. (For experiments with young song-birds brought up by other parents, see " Philosophical Transactions," vol. Ixiii, by Hon. Daines Barring- KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 279 The Flycatchers ( Tyrannida) are a large family of strictly American, insectivorous birds, with broad, triangu- lar, abruptly-hooked bills, and small feet adapted for perch- ing and grasping. Their notes are simple. The king- bird (Tyrannus Carolinensis] may be selected out of a mul- titude of forms as a typical species. Their general color is a blackish ash, the tail black with white tip, the breast and lower portions white. They attain a length of nearly nine inches, and prey upon insects, securing them upon the wing. The nest is placed in a tree, and formed of artificial objects, as tow, strings, wool, and lined with fibers of wood, horse-hair, etc. The eggs, six in number, are reddish white, marked with brown streaks. The male, during the breeding-season, and at all times, is extremely bold. It feeds its mate, and attacks crows, eagles, and hawks with the greatest fury, ultimately driving them from the vicinity. They migrate south earlier than other birds. The lyre-bird (Menura sitperba), of New South Wales, is an ally of the flycatchers, and a giant among them. The male has a lyre- shaped development of the tail-feath- ers nearly two feet in length, composed of sixteen feathers. The female is a small, unattractive bird. The nest is com- posed of moss, twigs, and grasses, and covered by a dome- shaped roof. The two eggs are white, speckled with red, The Larks (Alaudida) are chiefly Old World birds, four species only being found in America. The bill is short, the nostrils concealed by the feathers, the hind claw long and straight, the singing apparatus well devel- oped, and all are remarkable singers. The skylark (Alattda arvensis] is an immigrant to this country, and common in Europe and Asia. While singing it rises in the air with seeming bounds till far out of sight, uttering a rich, melodious carol. The nest is formed in ton. For songs of birds set to music, see "American Naturalist," vol. xiii, p. 21.) 280 BACKBONED ANIMALS, May, and built by male and female upon the ground, generally in communities, being a simple hollow in the stubble, lined with horse-hair and grass. VALUE. Game, and as insect-eaters. The Crows (Corvidce) are birds of large size, and possess powerful bills ; the voice is harsh and unmusical. The blue jay (Cyanodtta cristata) is the best known of the jays, and is widely distributed over America. The nest is placed in trees, formed of twigs lined with grass and deli- cate fibers, and contains four or five olive-brown, dark- spotted eggs. They are migratory in the Northern States. NOTE. The Canada jay (P. Canadensis] is a guardian bird that alights on the moose, hanging from its horns and fur in eager search for parasites, an act of friendship the moose does not object to. Other species in Europe perform the same office for the reindeer. The common crow (Cvrviis fnigivorus) is a familiar form, with a purplish-violet plumage, attaining a length of twenty inches. They are remarkably intelligent, and form vast rookeries, starting off each day and flying for miles, returning at night. They build in trees, the nest being composed of twigs and roots, and about two feet across. The eggs, from three to six, are laid in April, and are bluish green with olive- green or. dark streaks. The male feeds his mate during the period of incubation, seeds or animal diet being equally to their taste. They have been seen to drop clams from a height to break their shells, and the rocks about Ocean Point, Maine, are covered with Echini (Fig. 35) killed in the same way. The raven is remarkable for its vocal powers, equaling the parrot. The jackdaw, rook, and black-headed crow are other interesting allies. The Birds of Paradise (Paradise^} are allies of the crows, and confined to New Guinea and the adjacent country. In their elaboration of plumage they are the most remarkable of all birds. One of the most superb forms is the ruby bird of paradise (Paradisea rubra] that is found on the Island of Waigiou. They fly in flocks, uttering a hoarse and harsh Whack-whack-whack ! that can be heard for a long distance, They breed in May in the North, KEEL-BREASTED BIRQS. ;RSI1 r 81 Qf; -*A\Kl Other remarkable forms are chus, the rifle-bird, and the king bird of paradise (Fig. 310), their gor- geous colorings defying ade- quate descrip- tion. The Plan- tain-Eaters ( Musophagi- dce)* are pecul- iar to the Afri- can continent. They are about the size of the raven, and are exclusively fru it-eaters. The eggs are white, and deposited in hollow trees. The Mouse- Birds (Colidce) f are so singular that they deserve particular mention. They are found exclusively in Africa, and are allies of the preceding. They resemble * M. Jules Verreaux is authority for the statement that the coloring - matter of the red feathers of one of this family ( Tura- cus albocristatus) is soluble in water. Their red feathers may be washed white twice in the same day, the color invariably returning when dry. f The wiriwa (Colius Sen?galensis) is invariably found upon the thickly-vined trees, darting in and out cf the holes like a mouse. They have been seen to roost in a most curious manner like bats, clinging or hanging by their feet head downward, or in groups, cling- ing to each other in clumps upon the branches ; the first bird grasping the branch with one claw, supporting a second bird by entwining one of its legs with its own, this bird in a like manner supporting a third, and so on until they form a chain of living bird-links. They are fruit- eaters. The nest is conical and placed in trees, and contains six or seven eggs. FIG. 310. King bird of paradise. 282 BACKBONED ANIMALS. swallows, with high crests, and have tails longer than the body. The general color is a mouse-gray, the back-feath- ers being so fine as to resemble hair. The striking char- acteristic of the bird is the foot, that is bright red, and Exceedingly powerful. All four toes point forward, and those at the exterior can be turned either way. Starlings (Stvrntda). The only member of this fam- ily found in America is the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), that is an occasional visitor in Greenland. Oxpeckers (Buphagina). These African birds (Fig. 311) are allied to the starlings, and have strong, hooked FIG. 311. Oxpecker \Buphaga Africana}. claws, and a generally brownish-gray color. They come under the head of what we have termed guardian birds, following camels, cattle, elephants, and rhinoceroses, cling- ing to their ears, limbs, and fur, running over them like woodpeckers over a tree, and often warning them unin- tentionally of danger by rising with loud cries. The Orioles (Icterida*) have generally melodious voices and rich, lustrous plumage. The crow blackbirds (Quiscalus purpureus] are familiar members of the family, arriving in New England in April. They are social birds, moving about in vast flocks. The KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 28 3 nest is generally built in a high tree, and resembles that of the robin. Some, however, develop a curious friendship for the fish hawk, and form their nests in among the in- terstices of its large abode, living there in the greatest har- mony. The Baltimore oriole {Icterus galbula) is a familiar form throughout North America. The length is about seven and three quarter inches. They have singularly melodious voices, and are remarkable for their architectural abilities. FIG. 312. Bobolink, or reed-bird. The nest is the combined work of male and female, and is hammock-shaped, swung from the branches, and made of threads of flax, silk-weed or cloth, horse-hair, and other material, the leaves of the trees forming a canopy over all, 20 284 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The eggs, from four to six, are pale green, with dark spots or streaks. The young are fully fledged in three weeks. Allied is the bobolink {Dolichonyx oryzivorus) (Fig. 312), or reed-bird of the Southern States, so famous for its rich notes. Allied to this family are the several Australian bower - birds, remarkable for erecting play-houses (Fig. 313) distinct from the nest. FIG. 313. Bower-bird, showing the NOTE. In the satin bower- bower and the ornaments collected. bird the bower or play-house is the work of the male or males, and formed on the ground. The sides are made of twigs and small branches, planted by the birds iri the ground, joined at the top and forming a tunnel, on the floor of which is placed bird bric-a-brac highly-colored shells, pebbles, white bones, parrot-feathers, and glit- tering objects of ail kinds. Here the male and female dance about, changing the ornaments, and showing their delight in various ways. It is, in fact, a bird ball-room. The nest is generally placed in the near vicinity. The Gardener-Bird * (Amblyornis inornata) is about the size of the robin, of a rufous-brown hue, and is only found on the Island of Papua. * Instead of a bower, it erects a complete cabin (Fig. 314), and plants a garden about it. A small tree is selected, and one foot and a half from the ground a cone of moss is fastened to form a support for the roof, the latter being built of slender branches of an orchid se- lected for its vitality, the twigs resting against the moss, the other ends entering the ground one foot and a half from the center-post, and ar- ranged about until a perfect roof is the result, an opening on one side being left as a door, as shown in Fig. 314. The roof is thatched and interwoven with other pieces until weather-tight, the orchids continu- ing their growth and forming a perfect roof. About the entrance or KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 285 FIG. 314. The gardener-bird ; its house, garden, flowers, etc. The Finches (FringillidcB] have the bill shorter and more robust than in the preceding family, the corners of the mouth drawn down. They have a wide range in every country except Australia. The cardinal grosbeak (Cardinalis Virginianus) is one of our familiar birds. The general color is red, ashy on the back, the chin and forehead black, the crest conspicu- ous, and the beak a bright red. Their notes are extremely melodious, especially in the breeding-season. The nests are placed in trees, and contain from four to six grayish- white eggs, with olive- brown markings. door rich green mosses are planted and kept clean, and upon this miniature meadow bright flowers and insects are scattered, which are taken away and replenished as soon as they fade. In this curious habitation the birds meet in social and aesthetic enjoyment, the nest being entirely different and distinct. 286 BACKBONED ANIMALS. i The English sparrow (Fig. 271), an importation, is a grain-eater when grown, but as it breeds six and even seven times a year, and the young are invariably fed upon insects, it is of value. Public opinion is against the pugnacious immigrant, but some naturalists who have made the subject a special study think that the bird is a benefit to the country on the above grounds. In the Central Park Zoological Garden they have taken possession of the rafters of the eagle-house, while year after year a pair rear their young on the back of the iron eagle over the door of the Arsenal. (See "Report of American Ornithological Union," 1884.) The Tanagers ( Tanagrida] include three hundred or more species, confined to the warmer portions of America. Their colors are brilliant, legs short, claws long, the bill conical, and sometimes serrated or notched. The scarlet tanager (Pyranga rubra) is a familiar form in the New England States. The general color of the male is scarlet, the wings and tail black. Their note is Chip-churr, repeated at short intervals, and at other times exactly like that of a robin. They are more or less ven- triloquists a protective provision their note sounding far away when the bird is near at hand. The nests are rudely made, the eggs marked with purple spots. The Swallows (Ffirvndinida) have a world-wide distri- bution. The bill is broad, short, and triangular, the gape wide, adapted for capturing insects on the wing, the wings long and pointed, tail forked, and feet extremely weak. The bank swallows (Fig. 315) are remarkable for their digging powers, excavating holes in the face of banks, and there forming the nest. The tunnels are often six feet deep. The barn swallow forms its nest of mud, brought in its mouth and plastered against the wall, often assuming the shape of that of some of the weavers. An entire nest is frequently built in three days. The Chatterers (Ampelidcz) have a short, broad, de- pressed bill, opening to the eyes, the mandibles notched with a tooth behind the notch, the head generally crested. BIRD ARCHITECTURE. PLATE XI. Nests of the parti-colored wren. PLATE XII. BIRD ARCHITECTURE. Nests of the fairy martin (Hirundo Ariel), (Australia). KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 28 7 FIG. 315. Bank swallow, showing cave-nest and young. The cedar-bird {Ampclis ccdrorum) is abundant in east- ern United States. The nest is made in low trees or bushes, and from three to four purplish-white and black spotted eggs are laid. Allied to this family is the cock of the rock * {Rupicold) * They are remarkable for their " entertainments," or courtships. Twenty or more of these birds have been seen standing in a circle, some seated upon rocks, while in the center a solitary male hopped 288 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of South America (Fig. 316). It is about twelve inches long, red or yellowish in color, with a prominent crest. The female and young are brown. The umbrel- la-bird (Cepha- lopterus orna- tus] (Fig. 317) resembles a crow, having, however, a cu- rious umbrella- like crest that completely cov- ers the head. Among the remarkable al- lies of the fam- ily are the African Weaver-Birds, distinguished for the intelligence displayed in their nest-building. NOTE. The social weaver-birds breed in regular cities, a joint nest being formed .generally in the aloe-tree. A thatched roof of grass is erected, the entrances beneath leading into a corridor or street, from both sides of which branch the nests, thus secure from snakes, and containing three or four bluish-white eggs, with small brown spots at the largest end. Year after year the nest is added to, often fairly breaking down the tree. Another peculiar allied South American form is the bell-bird. and leaped about, going through strange antics, spreading its wings and waving its tail until exhausted, then walking around as if to re- ceive applause, retiring to give place to another, who went through similar antics, followed by all the rest in turn. They nest in the trees. Their skin is in great demand. One of the state mantles of the Em- peror of Brazil was made of them. FIG. 316. Cock of the rock. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 289 The Shrikes (Lanida) have hawk-like bills, abruptly hooked, the upper mandible toothed, and both notched. They have a world-wide distribution. The great northern shrikes, or butcher-birds (Lanius borealis), are about nine inches in length. They prey upon insects, mice, and other birds, and are called butchers FIG. 317. Umbrella-bird. from the fact that their surplus game, birds, etc., are im- paled,* while yet living, on thorns, briers, or bushes. They are great mimics, and extremely adept at learning notes. The nest is placed in trees, the greenish-gray, brown -spot- ted eggs being from four to seven in number. In the wagtails (Motadllida*) the bill is shorter than the head, slender, straight, and notched at the tips. The feet are strong, and adapted for walking. They are mostly confined to the Eastern Hemisphere ; the name refers to the habit of moving the tail up and down. * A tame butcher-bird has been known to impale animals given it on a sharp stick supplied for the purpose. 2 9 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The titlark (Anthus Ludovicianus) (Fig. 318) is a fa- miliar American form. The nest is formed in the grass. Allied is the tailor-bird, that, with its bill as a needle and grass for thread, sews leaves together to form its nest (Fig. 319). The wrens {Troglodyiida) are chiefly denizens of tropical Amer- ica, though a number of species are FIG. 318. American titlark,, familiar visitors about Northern homes. The common house wren ( Troglodytes cedon) is about five inch- es long, and of a brown hue. The nest is generally found near the habitation of man, in holes or crev- ices, in which five or six pale red- dish eggs are laid. Allied are the nuthatches, European hanging tit (Figo 320), stone-chat, bluebird, and others. The water-ousel (Cinclidtz) is essentially aquatic in its habits, not only wading in the water, but flying into and under it, using its wings as fins to reach the bottom and obtain food. It is common about brooks. The nest is placed near a cascade, and is a great globe of living FIG. 319. Nest of the tailor-bird of India or China. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS, 2 9 i moss ever kept green from the spray of the falls. The entrance is a doorway formed in the moss, leading to the interior, which is lined with soft grasses, and con- tains four or five pure white eggs. The large fam- ily of thrushes (Turdidz) is rep- resented by the robin, mocking- bird, cat-bird, and others. The wood thrush is the highest of the ciass of birds. The pervading color is cinna- mon-brown, grad- ing into olive on the rump, the FIG. 320. Bird architecture : Hanging tit and breast blocked or nest marked with dis- tinct spots. They attain a length of eight inches, and are noted for their glorious powers of song, resembling the tinkling of a bell or the soft notes of a flute. The nest is found in low hollows, and contains four or five blue eggs. Specimens for Study. For purposes of study, the skele- ton of a common fowl or other bird offers good material. The flesh can be boiled away, and the bones arranged as in Fig. 268 ; the limbs and skull should be compared with the corresponding parts of reptiles and mammals, and the difference noted. If the skeleton is to be mounted, the bird should be skinned and macerated. The tools neces- sary for work are a hook for suspending large specimens, 292 BACKBONED ANIMALS, forceps, scissors, scalpels, and a syringe for injecting the veins, etc. The student should be able to skin a bird, but mounting can only be learned by practice. Several works are published on the subject, as Maynard's " Taxidermy." To skin a bird, first measure its girth over the wings. Make an incision low on the breast ; skin carefully around the wings, cutting the bone at the elbow (Fig. 268 e), and the legs at the knee - joint, pushing the skin with the handle of the knife in preference to cutting. Care should be taken with the neck, and, if the head is not too large, turn the skin over it to the bills. Scrape away all the flesh, being careful at the eyes and ears. Sever the neck close to the skull, take out the brain, and powder thoroughly all the parts beak, wings, legs, and tail with powdered arsenic. Fill up the body in all parts with cot- ton and sew up. the incision. The feathers may be cleaned by boiling in warm water. Oil-stains can be removed with a solution of soda or potash, and colored feathers are cleansed by using equal parts of warm water and ox-gall. Finally, inclose the skin in a paper band the size of your measurement, number and enter it in a blank book with the common and scientific name, sex, locality, measure- ments, and all the facts concerning its habits that you can. In collecting eggs, divide fairly with the birds, and if pos- sible do not take the nest until the brood is reared. Eggs can be blown by making a single hole in the shell with a tooth-drill or some such instrument, and with a glass tube or straw the contents can be blown out. If the young bird has formed and can not be removed, break the shell and use it as an alcoholic specimen. Works on birds for further reference. " Key to Birds of North America," Elliott Coues ; " Birds of North America," S. F. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway ; Huxley's " Manual of Vertebrates " ; Owen's " Anatomy of Vertebrates " ; Audubon's " Birds of North America"; "Animal Locomotion," Pettigrew ; "Elements KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 293 of Embryology," Foster and Balfour ; " Comparative Embryology," F. M. Balfour ; Yarrill's " British Birds " ; Samuels's " Birds of New Eng- land," etc. "The Auk" is the official publication (Cambridge) of the American Ornithologists' Union. Other magazines are "Nature," " Science," " American Naturalist," " Popular Science Monthly," etc. Good popular works are those of Brehm, Cassell, and Wood. NOTE. The Migration of Birds, The majority of the birds that breed in the northern and middle sections of the United States migrate to the South at the approach of cold weather, and return in the spring, thus making two long journeys every year. These flights are made by night and day, and small birds have been seen at night through a tele- scope at an estimated height of three miles. The great valleys, river- courses, and coast lines are generally followed, but numbers of our birds stop at Bermuda, showing that they either venture to sea, or are blown out. Flocks of birds alight at Tortugas, Florida, during the prevalence of northers, that mast have flown across the Gulf of Mexico. Many of the European birds spend the winter in Africa, while those in the United States go as far south as Central America, the West Indies, and even South America. During these flights they often congregate at certain spots in vast numbers ; thus, on the Island of Heligoland, that lies in one of these paths, hundreds of different species are often seen resting, or at night whirling about the light- house, dashing against the glass, so that their dead bodies are found piled in heaps in the morning. The primary cause of migration is probably lack of food as cold weather comes on, while many other reasons are given. Tropical birds that breed at home do not migrate, and many of our birds, as the crow, English sparrow, and others, remain with us the entire season. Many of the birds of the Rocky Mountain country have a limited mi- gration, and some of the smallest birds make the longest journeys. Thus, the warblers (Dendroeca) and others, that breed as far north as Hudson Bay, winter in Mexico. As a rule, birds return to their sum- mer homes with great regularity, many varying season after season only a few hours. For further information on this subject see report of the American Ornithologists' Union ; "Distribution and Migration of North Ameri- can Birds," Baird ; the works of Wallace, Von Middeldorff, Hodgson, Giebel, Palmen, and Parker, and Newton's aiticle on birds in " Ency- clopaedia Britannica," ninth edition, vol. iii. 294 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Class VII. MAMMALIA (Milk-givers]. General Characteristics. We now come to the highest and most perfect animal forms. They are covered with hair instead of scales. The young are bom alive,* and nourished by a fluid called milk, secreted in the mammary glands. About twenty-one hundred species of living mammals are known, three hundred and ten inhabiting North America. Skeleton.- The skeleton, that in the majority of birds is extremely light, is in the mammals solid, and the limb- cavities filled with marrow. Taking the cat (Fig. 321) as an example, we first note the cranium, era, or skull, that is united to the backbone or vertebral column by two occipital con- dyles. The lower jaw is composed of two pieces and is ioined ^^ ^ ^ ^ and not to the quad- rate bone, as WC have ^^ J Q thg bird and reptiles. The back- bone is divided into five divisions : First, the cervical or neck region, where the vertebrae generally number seven. In the cat they are small, in the whale they are pressed together, while in the long-necked giraffe each bone is lengthened out. Sec- ond, the dorsal or back region, the vertebrae of which generally number from ten to fifteen ; they support the * See note on page 297. Cra 7 89654 FlG. 321. Cat, with bones of right side drawn. Cra, cranium ; sc, scapula or shoulder- blade ; i, humerus ; 2, radius and ulna ; 3, carpus ; 4, phalanges ; 5, femur ; 6, tibia and fibula ; 7, tarsus ; 8, metatarsus ; 9, phalanges ; z', innominate bone, a number of bones combined, forming the pelvic arch; z;, vertebral column. (After Morse.) SKELETONS OF MAMMALS. PLATE XIII. i. African elephant (Loxodon Africanus). 2. African lion (Felis leoj. PLATE XiV, SKELETONS OF MAMMALS, r. Skeleton of a deer. 2. Skeleton of a wild ass : 2', incisor-teeth ; , grind- ing-teeth, with the gap between the two sets as in all large grass-feeders ; k, knee ; //, heel ; _/", foot ; ^, middle toe of three joints carrying the hoof ; s, splint, or remains of one of the two lost toes ; e, elbow ; zv, wrist ; ha, hand-bone ; i, 2, 3, joints of the middle toe. MAMMALIA. 2 95 ribs, that in turn inclose and protect the chest. Third, the lumbar or loin vertebrae, numbering from four to seven. Fourth, the sacral bones, that are anchylosed and form the sacrum ; these generally number from one to nine. Fifth, the caudal or tail vertebrae, that are more movable one upon another than the others, and number from four to forty-six. The tail is a very useful member. In some of the monkeys it serves as a fifth hand ; in the dog it is used to express emotion, and in the horse, ant- eater, and many animals, as a protection from insects. Limbs. The mammals generally have four limbs, and from this are termed quadrupeds, though in the whale the hinder pair are not present, or are rudimentary. In Fig. 321 we see the fore-limb joined to the body by the shoul- der-blade or scapula, sc, and the clavicle or collar-bone. The first bone of this leg is the humerus, i ; then follow two bones joined together, the radius and ulna, 2, followed in turn by the carpus, 3, or wrist-bone, the metacarpals, that form the upper portion of the hand, and the phalan- ges, 4, or finger and toe bones. The hind-limbs in their parts resemble the fore- ones, and are connected to the body by a number of bones that are joined together and known as the innominate bone, *", and constitute the pelvic arch. The upper bone of the leg is the femur or thigh, 5 ; then follow the leg-bones, similar to the ulna and radius, but called the tibia and fibula, 6 ; then the tarsus or ankle-bones, 7, the metatarsus or bones of the foot, 8, and the bones of the toes or phalanges, 9. There are gen- erally five toes, but there are many exceptions, as the horse that walks on the toe-nail of its single toe, the ox on two toes, etc. The limbs are adapted to the habits of the animal. The sloths have long claws for clinging, and the moles powerful digging-claws. In the whales and seals they are paddles. Digestion. The jaws of all mammals, except the whale- bone whales and a few others, are provided with teeth 2 \ 296 BACKBONED ANIMALS. set in separate sockets. The first set, or milk teeth, are finally discarded and a permanent set attained, general- ly of four distinct kinds, adapted for various purposes : incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. With these, which differ much in different animals, the food is ground up or torn, and rudely prepared, mixed with saliva and swallowed, passing down the oesophagus into the stomach. Here it is mixed with a secretion known as gastric juice, and converted into chyme, finally passing into the smaller intestine, where it is brought in contact with various secre- tions, as bile, pancreatic juice, etc., and is known as chyle, then passing to the blood-vessels through the lacteal tubes ; thus a part of everything eaten is so much fuel for the system. From the small intestine follows a larger one through which all rejected matter passes. Circulation. The heart of mammals is four-chambered, comprising two auricles and two ventricles. The blood is hot, red, and contains two kinds of corpuscles, red. and colorless. The latter have a nucleus, are spherical, and ex- hibit movements similar to those of the Amosbce (Fig. 2). The red corpuscles are the most abundant, and are nearly circular. The impure blood from the body pours into the right auricle, from where it passes to the right ventricle, and thence to the lungs. Here it is changed into arterial blood by the oxygen of the air and passes back to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, and finally is driven through the great aorta and sent flowing through innumer- able branches all over the body. Respiration. The mammals breathe by lungs, two elastic, spongy bodies permeated with air-cells, each in- closed in a membranous sac called the pleura. They hang free in the cavity of the thorax. Air is taken in at the mouth and nostrils, and passes down the windpipe into the branches or bronchi, that do not connect with air-sacs in the body as in the birds. In this way the oxygen is brought in contact with the blood and aerates it^ MAMMALIA. 297 Nervous System. The brain of mammals is larger than that of any of the preceding or lower forms, and extending from it is the long, protected cerebro-spinal cord with its innumerable nerve-branches. All the impulses of animals arise in the brain, that seems to send messages along the nerves to the limbs and various organs, and in this way action is produced. That the nerves are the mediums of communication can be shown by severing them, the part so disconnected becoming powerless. Organs of Sight, Hearing, etc. The mammals all pos- sess eyes, though in the mole they are almost useless. With the exception of some seals, the whales, and a few others, they have external ears. Development. Except the Monotremes, all mammals are viviparous, and differ from all preceding forms in nour- ishing their young with the secretion called milk. In some Carnivora the young are at first blind and helpless ; in others, as the herbivorous animals, the young immediately follow the parent. The young of marsupials are extremely minute and helpless when born. General Divisions. The mammals are divided into three sub-classes : i. Ornithodelphia, represented by the Monotremes; 2. Didelphia, or the pouched animals; 3. Monodelphia, or the placental mammals. Sub-Class I. ORNITHODELPHIA. Order I. The Monotremes (Monotremata). General Characteristics. Egg-laying mammals. Ornithorhynchus of the Australian region, and Echidna of Australia and New Guinea, with flattened or narrow, horny, bird-like bills. The eggs are laid at an age equal to a thirty-hour- old chick, and are inclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell. They measure three fourths of an inch in the long axis, and half an inch in the short. One species of Ornitho- rhynchus is known, while two distinct forms of the ant- eater (Echidna and Acanthoglossus) have been discovered 298 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Spiny Ant-eaters (Echidnida) . These animals (Fig. 322, A) are covered with spines like the hedgehog ; the bill is long, horny, and toothless, resembling that of a bird. The tongue is long, like that of the ant-eater, and the pal- ate armed with rows of sharp, tooth-like spines. Their claws are powerful and adapted for digging into the ant- hills where their food is obtained. They produce a single egg at a birth, that is carried in a ventral pouch. FlG. 322. Group of egg-laying mammals. A, Echidna ; B, Ornithorhyn- chus swimming and rolled up ; C, nest of duck-bill in section. Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchida^.ThQ water mole (Fig. 322, ), as it is sometimes called, has a broad, duck-like, horny bill (Fig, 323, A\ containing eight broad, flat, horny teeth. They have no external ear. The body is covered with short, brown hair with an under-pelt ; the fore-feet are webbed (Fig. 323, C) beyond the claws, the hinder only to their base, the males possessing a bird-like spur MONOTREMES. PLATE XV. g-laying Mammals : i. Skeleton of Ornithorhynchus anatinus. 2. Skele- ton of Echidna hystrix. 3. Egg of Ornithorhynchus, showing the shape, after St. Hilaire. 4. Young Ornithorhynchus. 5. Head of young Or- nithorhynchus. 5. Mammary gland, pouch, and young of Echidna hys- trix. 7. Apertures of mammary gland of Ornithorhynchus anatinus. PLATE XVI. MONOTREMES. I Mammals : i. Acanthoglossus bruijnii ; mountains of New jumea. Length of adult, about 12 inches. 2. Ornithorhynchus anati- nus ; Australia. Length of adult, 18 inches. MAMMALIA. 299 (Fig- 323, &). They live upon worms and vegetable mat- ter. Their nests are long burrows in the banks of streams, FIG. 323. A, head of Ornithorhynchus, showing serrated bill ; B, hind-foot with spur, a, found on the males only ; C, webbed fore-foot. having an opening under water. At the farther end, twenty or thirty feet from the water, leaves and grass are placed, two eggs at a birth deposited, and the young reared Sub-Class II. DIDELPHIA. Order I. Pouched Animals (Marsupialia). Gen- eral Characteristics. In these animals the young are born in an immature state, in the great kangaroo being not over an inch in length, and immediately placed in a pouch or marsupium, where the.y re- main attached to the teats at the bottom of the pouch, the milk being forced down the throat by the muscular action of the mother. The young are prevented from suffocating by a peculiar modification of the breathing-organs. The pouch is sup- ported by two long, slender bones project- ing forward from and attached to the front of the pelvis. Opossum (Didelphidce). In this fam- ily is the common opossum (Fig. 331), the only marsupial of the United States. It is about twenty inches in length, FIG. 324. Opos- sum at birth. 3 oo BACKBONED ANIMALS. with a long, prehensile tail. The hair is white, tipped with brown. They live in the trees, eating fruit, eggs, and even small animals. When attacked, they feign death, thus often escaping. The young (Fig. 324) are placed in the pouch when extremely small, and nourished as other marsupials, and when older are frequently seen clinging to the mother, their tails curled about hers. The Yapock is a water-opossum from South America. The feet are webbed ; the tail is prehensile and scaly. They feed partly upon aquatic animals. VALUE. ri .the United States about two hundred and fifty thou- sand skins are used yearly. . The hair is used in felting, hats, etc. FIG. 325. Chseropus. Native Cats (Dasyurida). These are carnivorous and insectivorous marsupials, ranging in size from a rat to a wolf. The Tasmanian wolf (Fig. 328) is the largest form. The marsupial bones are cartilaginous ; the pouch absent MAMMALIA. 301 or rudimentary ; the tail is long, powerful, and not pre- hensile. The thumbs of the hind-feet are either wanting or rudimentary ; the back is strongly marked with parallel bars of black. They are nocturnal in their habits, and confined to Australia and Tasmania. The Tasmanian devil (Fig. 328) has similar habits. The Bandicoots (Peramelidce). The bandicoots of Australia and Van Diemen's Land are small, insectivorous marsupials, somewhat resembling kangaroos. The Chce- ropus is a remarkable little creature, resembling a pygmy deer (Fig 325). All the toes but the fore ones are ex- tremely minute, and it is the only animal that walks upon two toes of each foot. It burrows. Allied to these forms is the MyrmecobiitS) a beautiful animal with a long, bushy tail and no pouch, the immature young clinging to the teats, protected only by hair. It preys upon ants, and only one species is known. Kangaroos (Macropodidce). The kangaroos are .re- markable for the development of the hind-limbs, by which they take enormous leaps of twenty-five feet or more. When resting, the hind-legs (Fig. 326) and tail form a FIG. 326. A hind-foot of kangaroo. tripod. The tail is not used in leaping, as is generally supposed. The fore-legs are short. They attain a height of six feet, and are extremely fleet and powerful. The young are carried in the pouch, and often feed on grass from it as the mother moves along (Fig. 327), presenting a curious appearance. In the tree-kangaroo the limbs are 3 02 BACKBONED ANIMALS. nearly of the same length ; the claws are long and powerful, to assist in climbing. In strange contrast to the great kan- garoo is the Pandemeleon wallaby, twenty inches in length. The hare kangaroo is a powerful leaper. Mr. Gould re- cords one as leaping over his head when chased by dogs. Fossil kangaroos are found in Australian cave-deposits. The Diprotodon was a kangaroo as large as an elephant. VALUE. Kangaroo fur and leather are somewhat used. FIG. 327. Australian marsupials. Kangaroos : i, leaping ; 2, showing young in the pouch ; 3, flying phalanger ; 4, koala or native bear, with a young one on its back. Wombats (Phascolomyida). The animals of this family are confined to Australia. They are tailless, about the size of the badger, with flat heads, and short legs, adapted for digging. They feed upon vegetation, and bur- MAMMALIA. 303 row in the ground (Fig. 328). An extinct wombat as large as a tapir has been found in Australia. The wom- bats are valued as food. Allied are the phalangers, the koala that carries its young on its back (Fig. 327), and many others. FIG. 328. Tasmanian marsupials. i, wombats ; 2, Tasmanian devil ; 3, Tasmanian wolf. Sub-Class III. MONODELPHIA (Placental Mammals]. General Characteristics. In this sub-class are included all the rest of the mammals. They are called placental because the young, which are larger when born than the preceding forms, and generally perfect, are nourished up to the time of birth by a vascular membrane, pene- trated by veins and arteries, known as the placenta. Order I. Edentata (toothless]. General Character- istics. The animals of this family have no incisor teeth, some being entirely toothless. In some, scales take the place of hair. 304 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Sloths (Bradypodida). The sloths are confined to South America, east of the Andes. Their bodies are cov- ered with long gray and black hair, that, in its resemblance to moss and the bark of trees, affords them protection. The three-toed sloth is called Ai, from the plaintive sound it utters. Their limbs are long and slender, the hinder pair the shortest, and armed with powerful claws, by which they cling to limbs, passing their entire time in hanging positions (Fig. 331), being helpless on the ground. The two-toed sloth is similar in general appearance. The Me- gatherium, a gigantic extinct sloth, was eighteen feet long and eight feet high. The Megalonyx was as large as a FIG. 329. African imperfect-toothed animals, ^ard-vark or Cape ant-eater in the background, and scaly manis or pangolin in the foreground. rhinoceros huge creatures, that pulled down large trees with their powerful limbs and claws. Sloths are eaten to some extent. Ant-Eaters (Myrmecophagida). These remarkable MAMMALIA. 305 animals (Fig. 331) are found in South America. The muz- zle is extremely long, the mouth toothless, the tongue of great length and used to gather up ants, the capture being helped by a viscid saliva that covers it. The body is cov- ered with thick, coarse hairs, that are so developed upon the tail that it completely covers the body, affording pro- tection to the young that cling to the mother's back, the family resembling a bush of dried herbage. The claws are extremely powerful, and used in tearing open- the nests of ants, and persons have been killed by them. The little ant-eaters have two toes, a prehensile tail, and live in trees, finding protection in the resemblance to the bark and moss. Allied to these is the aard-vark, or South African ant-eater (Fig. 329), that has long ears, a pig-like snout, and burrows in the ground, coming out at night to prey upon ants. Armadillos (Dasypodidce). These are the most won- derful of all mammals, being covered with horny plates or scales. The armor is arranged in different regions : one shield covers the head, another the shoulders, and another the rump, while be- tween the two latter are several bands allowing free movement. FIG. 330. Ghplocon, a gigantic extinct armadillo. The tail is pro- tected by rings, and the legs by horny tubercles. The muzzle is pointed, as in the aard-vark, the ears are long, and claws powerful, adapted for digging (Fig. 331). The giant armadillo attains a length of four feet. In the Chla- mydophorus the back only is protected by an armor made up of square, cubical plates, connected by a leathery de- velopment. The fore-claws are very powerful. A fossil armadillo, found near the La Plata, was as large as a 306 BACKBONED ANIMALS. rhinoceros. The Glyptodon (Fig. 330) had a solid armor and was eight feet long. VALUE. The native Botocudos use the armor of the tail as a trumpet, and the flesh is eaten. FlG. 331. i, opossum. Imperfect-toothed animals : 2, sloth ; 3, ant-bear; 4, armadillo. Pangolins (Manida). These (Fig. 329) are the only Edentates found out of America, living in Africa and Asia. They are covered with scales arranged like tiles. The tail is extremely long, the claws powerful and long, so that they walk upon the sides of their feet. When mo- lested they roll up into balls like the armadillo. Order II. Sea-Cows (Sirenia). General Character- istics. The sea-cows are amphibious, milk-giving animals, somewhat resembling the fishes in form. The teeth are well developed, the molars having flattened or ridged MAMMALIA. 307 crowns, adapted for grinding food. The nostrils are upon the upper part of the snout ; the fore-limbs are fin-like, and they have five fingers ; the hind-limbs are absent, their place seemingly taken by a horizontal, whale- like tail. Manatee (Manatidce). The Florida manatee (Fig. 332), that is now extremely rare, ranges from the Amazon FIG. 332. The manatee, or sea-cow, grazing. to southern Florida, and attains a length of nine feet. The tail is horizontal, and semi-oval in shape. Another species is found in Africa. They occasionally come upon the shore. The young, in nursing, are sometimes sup- ported by the flippers of the mother. NOTE. Steller's manatee (Rhytina Stelleri) was an Arctic form of gigantic proportions, attaining a length of thirty-five feet, and a weight of nearly four tons. The skin was leathery, the fore-limbs without fingers, but overgrown with coarse hairs ; the tail resembled that of the whale. They had no teeth, but two horny masticating plates, one in the gum and the other in the lower jaw. Herds of these animals were discovered by Stellerat Behring Island in 1741, and twenty-eight years later they were extinct, having been destroyed by man. (For a list of animals that have become extinct within a few hundred years, see article by the author in " Lippincott's Magazine," June, 1883.) 308 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The dugong is peculiar to the countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean. The tail is shaped like that of the whale ; the fore-limbs are short ; the muzzle protected by numer- ous stiff bristles. They attain a length of twenty-five feet, FlG. 333. A, skull of female dugong ; the colossal tusks in the upper jaw never pierce the thick, fleshy lip, although they continue to grow with the jaw. a, the root of the tusk ; , the point. B, adult dugong, show- ing whale-like tail. and congregate in herds near the mouths of rivers, brows- ing upon the aquatic vegetation. The tusks of the female are completely incased in the upper jaw (Fig. 333). VALUE. Hide, oil, and bones. MAMMALIA. 309 Order III. Whales (Cetacea). General Characteris- tics. We now come to the largest living animals, milk- givers, that live entirely in the water, and are in form fish- like. The fore-limbs are paddles, having bones similar to those of the arm and hand of man ; the hind-limbs absent or rudimentary, the caudal extremity being provided with a horizontal, fish-like tail that is the principal locomotive organ. They are often confused with fishes, but are vivip- arous, suckling their young (Fig. 334), giving rich, creamy FIG. 334. The humpback-whale suckling her young. (After Scammon.) milk. They breathe air by means of lungs, having a pro- vision that enables them to remain under water for over an hour without breathing. This consists of a large num- ber of reserve blood-vessels that line the interior of the chest and spaces between the ribs, only a portion of this blood passing into circulation from time to time. The nostrils are upon the top of the head, and form blow-holes through which vapor, not water* is forced. The jaws of * This error is found in many works, but the whale no more spouts water through its nostrils than can a human being. The so-called spouting is vapor, the moisture of the breath and mucus frofn the nostrils. 22 3 io BACKBONED ANIMALS, whales are either armed with conical teeth or plates of fibrous matter called whalebone. The amount of blood in the whale is enormous ; the aorta or great artery from the heart being alone one foot across, and probably at every pulsation of the great heart ten or fifteen gallons of blood are thrown out, The cetaceans range in size from FlG. 335. Whits whala (Beluga catodon], a cetacean that has been carried alive from America to England by steamer, covered with sea-weed and dashed frequently with water. the porpoise, three to five feet long, to the rorqual, one hundred and three feet in length. Toothed Whales (Delphinoidea). This group in- cludes the dolphins, porpoises, white whales, etc. The common dolphin has long, extended jaws armed with from forty to forty-seven conical teeth, and a prominent dorsal ridge or fin. The porpoises,* the orca,\ or killer, the blackfish, or round-headed grampus, the white whale, Be- luga (Fig, 335), sperm-whale, and narwhal are allies. * A friend of the author, in attempting to capture a herd of por- poises, drove them into a creek, and the capture was about to commence, when the porpoises rushed toward the boats, several leaping completely over them, and thus reaching the sea. f The orca also preys upon the young cf the walrus. In trie stomach of one have been found the remains of thirteen porpoises and fourteen seals MAMMALIA. Whalebone- whales (Balanoi- dea). In the em- bryo whales of this group minute teeth are present. They are absorbed before birth, and after it their place is taken by baleen, or plates of whalebone, that grow out and hang down upon each side in from three to four hundred plates, like saws on a rack, often attaining a length of ten feet, weighing in all one ton (Fig. 336). The outer edges are smooth, the inner frayed into numerous bristles, that form a rude strainer. Ordinari- ly, the lips of the lower jaw cover them, but, when feeding, the enor- mous lips flatten out, presenting the appearance of a scoop Avith whale- bone sides. Into this trap myriads of jelly-fishes are swept, becoming en- tangled in the strainer ; when a mouthful is obtained, the 312 BACKBONED ANIMALS. sides of the lips are raised, the tongue presses the water out through the strainer, the jellies passing down the ex- tremely small throat, that is adapted for only this kind of food. - The Greenland whale {Balczna mysticcetus], Balcena cis- arctica, and australis. are familiar forms. VALUE. A single whale, captured by a New London vessel in 1884, realized for whalebone, $12,230; oil, $3,490; total, $15,720. Spermaceti, ivory, and ambergris, are other productions. Order IV. Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivora). General Characteristics. The animals of this order prey upon insects almost entirely. The teeth are well developed, the molars being prism-shaped, with acute cusps- or points (Fig. 337). The feet are provided with claws, often enormously de- FlG. 337. Skull of an insect- veloped. eating mammal, showing ShfCWS (Soridd 323 the month of May, attaininc^ggicMlffiffi*"! eighteen months, and living for nearly twenty years. They were formerly common in the New England States, where the remains of their dams can still be seen ; they are gradu- ally becoming extinct. Allied to the beaver is the curious Sewellel (Haplodon ritfus) of the mountains of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is nocturnal, burrows in the ground, and is about the size of a muskrat. VALUE. Twenty thousand beavers are taken yearly in Asia, and two hundred thousand in America. The incisors are used by the In- dians as chisels, knives, and ornaments. Beaver-leather is used, and castoreum in the manufacture of perfumery. FIG. 349. The Myopotamus coypu, a valuable fur-bearing animal, at home in either salt or fresh water in South America. Rats {Murida). In this family are the rats, mice, and their allies that are very generally distributed over are made of mud, and two-storied, the upper being out of water, in which the families live, while below are stored the provisions for the winter. The doors or openings connect with the water. The dams and home are repaired year after year, wood for the purpose being collected in the autumn, and when frozen the work is extremely solid, 324 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the globe. The upper lips are divided, the snout acute, and the ears generally naked. The Bandicoot rat is the largest, attaining in India a length of fourteen inches. The Norway rat attains a length of eight or ten inches, and is of a rusty brown color. They are very intelligent and prolific. They came originally from Central Asia, appear- ing first in Russia in 1737, crossing in vessels to America in 1775. This is the ordinary wharf rat. The black rat emigrated to this country in 1544. The musk-rat is an aquatic form, with a flattened tail and webbed hind-feet, that forms huts of grass and roots under water, and tun- nels in the bank. The coypu (Fig. 349), of the Chonos archipelago, is an allied form, also common in the streams FIG. 350. The lemming (Myodcs lemmus). of South America. The house mouse is an importation from Europe and Asia. The European harvest mice (Fig. 345) are noted as nest-builders, forming them by weaving spears of grass about stalks of grain. The American field mouse (Arvicola) nests under ground in spring, on the surface in midsummer, and on the surface beneath the snow in winter. It does not hibernate. The lemmings MAMMALIA. 325 (Myodes) of northern Europe (Fig. 350), famous for their migrations,* are allied forms. The Lophiomys Imhausi ^belongs to this family, and is one of the most remarkable examples of defensive mimicry in the animal kingdom. They inhabit the fissures of the rocks in Nubia and Arabia. Allied are the pouched rats, hamsters, and the jerboas, or jumping-mice, etc. VALUE. Three million American muskrat-skins are used as furs annually ; also used as felting, and the musk in perfumery'. The skins of common rats are used as thumbs for kid gloves. Order VII. Hoofed Animals (Ungulata). General Characteristics. The animals of this comprehensive order are the most useful to man, as the camel, horse, pig, etc. Some appear to walk upon their toes, which are incased in horny hoofs, as the horse, while others are provided with blunt, broad nails. Hyrax (Hyracotdea). These curious animals (Fig. 351) somewhat resemble the rabbit, and have feet that recall the rhinoceros. They have long, curved incisors, and feet provided with pads ; the toes being incased in hoofs, four in front and three behind. They are confined to Africa and adjacent countries, and conceal themselves in holes and crevices, living in communities. When feed- ing, one acts as a sentinel, giving a shrill, prolonged cry as a warning. The Syrian Hyrax is supposed to be the shop- * These migrations are caused by a naturally restless instinct and often by a lack of food. The lemmings on the lower plateau move first, and the numbers are gradually swelled, being added to by births on the march. They swim rivers, and in coming to the sea are lost in it, thinking it a river. In the Brazilian province of Parana a rat-plague, that devastates the country, occurs about every thirty years, and is simul- taneous with the dying out of the taquara or bamboo, upon the seeds of which the rats feed. In Ceylon the dying down of StrobilantJus every seven years causes a similar plague, and in Chili the rat-swarms are coincident with the destruction of a species of bamboo (colligue} every fifteen or twenty years. 23 326 BACKBONED ANIMALS. han of the Bible, and, as Solomon has said, they are " feeble folk," although they have " their dwelling in the rock." VALUE. The Hyraceum in the manufacture of perfumery. FlG. 351. Hyrax Capensis. Elephants (Probosctded). The elephants are distin- guished by their large size, often weighing three tons, and the presence of a trunk or proboscis (Fig. 352), that is a prolongation of the nose and up- per lip six or eight feet in / length, made up of forty thousand or more muscles, so arranged as to give the greatest diversity of mo- tion. The ex- tremity bears the two openings of the nostrils, and is produced on its upper surfaces into a finger-like process endowed with an exquisite sense of touch. The upper incisor teeth are greatly developed into tusks, that FIG. 352. Various uses of the trunk of the ele- phant : i, drinking ; 2, pulling grass ; 3, wash- ing. MAMMALIA. 327 attain a length sometimes of nine feet, a girth of twenty- two inches, and a weight of two hundred pounds each, with which they can toss a tiger thirty feet or more. There are no incisors in the lower jaw ; the canines are absent, and the molars are large, ridged transversely, and filled with cement or crusta petrosa. The head is extremely mas- sive, but not indicative of the size of the brain, the upper portion containing numbers of air-cells. The limbs are powerful and five-toed, the feet resting on broad pads. The Asiatic species has small ears and an oblong head, FIG. 353. Asiatic elephant, showing how ured by man. while in the African the ears are immense, the head round, and the forehead convex. They roam in herds. The young in the Indian species weigh about two hundred and thirteen pounds at birth, and are thirty-four and a half inches in height. Individuals have been known to live one hundred and thirty years. The mastodon and mammoth are extinct elephants of this country, Europe, and Asia. The latter was hairy, and 328 BACKBONED ANIMALS. had tusks fifteen feet long. Several specimens have been found in the ice in Siberia, and, though untold ages old, were perfectly preserved. They were contemporaneous with early man. An extinct pygmy Maltese elephant was only three feet high. So-called white elephants are merely albinos, and never pure white. VALUE. In 1880 nearly seven hundred tons of elephant-ivory was imported into Great Britain alone, and to supply the yearly demand one hundred thousand elephants are destroyed. They are also used as beasts of burden and laborers (Fig. 353). Uneven-toed Ungulates (Perissodactyla). Tapir (Tapirida). The animals of this family are distinguished by their short, fleshy, proboscis-like nose (Fig. 354). They have four toes on each front foot, and three on each hind one. The skin is dark and nearly hairless, the neck bear- ing a fleshy crest. The South American tapir has a wide range, and in the Andes is found twelve thousand feet above the sea. Their habits are partly aquatic and noc- turnal. The Malay tapir is black, with the exception of a prominent white spot upon the rump. The young are spotted and striped in a beautiful manner. Rhinoceros {Rhinocerontida}. The animals of this family rank next to the elephant in point of size, and are peculiar to Africa, India, and adjacent islands. They are extremely bulky, with bodies covered with a naked, armor- like skin deposited in folds. They have incisors in both jaws ; upon the muzzle grow one or two horns two or three feet long, composed of agglutinated, hair-like fibers, having no connection with the bone, and in some species being movable. The Indian rhinoceros (R. Indicus) is one of the most powerful, being nearly ten feet long, and attaining a weight of three tons. They have a single horn, sometimes three feet long, that forms a formidable weapon. The Sumatran species has two horns. MAMMALIA. 329 NOTE. Remains of extinct rhinoceroses are found in England, France, and Germany, that were contemporary with early man. In 1771 a complete hairy rhinoceros melted out of the ice in the river Wilni, Sibe- ria, where it had been thousands of years. The horn was four feet long. VALUE. Horns, hide, etc. Horse (Eqvufa). This family comprises the horse, ass, zebra, and quagga, animals that have a single perfect toe upon each foot. There are two undeveloped splints, 330 BACKBONED ANIMALS. however, under the skin, that tell an interesting story in the ancestry of the family.* The domestic horse (E. cabalhis) came originally from the Old World, and is not found now in the wild state except where it has been re- leased by man, as the mustang of South America and the muzir of Tartary. Ponies are dwarf horses, produced in cool countries, as Shetland. The wild ass (E. onager) ranges in herds from the Indies to Mesopotamia. They are distinguished by long ears, the tail ending in a tuft. The hinny and mule are hybrids of the ass (. asinus) and a horse. Four species of zebra are known in Asia and Africa. They are striped transversely with dark and white bands. The voice of the quaggaof Africa resembles the bark of a dog. The onagga of Africa is smaller than the ass. They are dark bay with black stripes, the tail and legs being white. The peculiar marking is protective. VALUE. Horses, mules, asses, etc., are the most valuable of do- mestic animals ; almost every part of the animal is valued in trade. * Professors Marsh and Huxley, especially the former, have made interesting discoveries concerning the fossil horse, and its ancestry is more complete than that of any other animal. The remains are found in the Tertiary beds of North America. The earliest horse was the eohippus (Eocene time), as large as a fox. The following is the gene- alogy of the horse : . In Front Hind No. of In America. Toes. Toes. Teeth. Europe. {Recent .... ) j x Equus. j U P p n er Pliocene . Equus f ^plmT s 2 splints ' Equus . f 6. Upper Pliocene . . Pliohippus j-^ {.- 42 i large i large 5. Lower Pliocene . . Protohippus r. ,r 44 Hippanon. 4. Upper Miocene . . Miohippus 3 3 44 Anchitherium. 3. Lower Miocene . . Mesohippus j \w\. ^ ^ 2. Upper Eocsne . . Orohippus 4 3 44 i. Lower Eocene . . Eohippus ~ 3 44 NEST-BUILDING MAMMALS. PLATE XVII. Nest of the harvest-mouse (Microrays minutus). PLATE XVIII. NOCTURNAL MAMMALS. T i. Fortress of the mole. 2. Hippopotamus and young. MAMMALIA. 331 Even-toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla). Hippopota- mus (Hippopotamida), two species. These huge creatures inhabit many of the great rivers of Africa. The body is extremely large, the legs short, the feet having four toes, each one being hoofed. The head is large, and the gape enormous. The teeth are of large size, and often number forty, and are used in cutting the bark from trees, which forms a prominent feature of their food. They are noc- turnal animals, and are aquatic in their habits. They formerly lived as far north as England. VALUE. Hide, and ivory from the teeth. Swine (Sttidce). The swine are characterized by four toes upon each foot, the anterior digits being furnished with strong hoofs. The head is pointed, the snout blunt, terminating in an organ adapted for rooting, the ears large, and the skin covered with bris- tles. The com- mon hog is a de- scendant of the wild boar, an in- habitant of the forests of Europe and Asia. The latter is extreme- ly fierce. The masked boar of southeastern Africa, the BabiroussO) an inhabitant of the islands of the Indian Archipelago (Fig. 355), and the wart-hog, are allies. The peccaries (Dtcotyles) are American representatives of the family, inhabiting Mexico and South America, VALUE. Flesh, hide, hair, hoofs, etc. Deer (Cervidce). These and the following hoofed ani- mals are generally called ruminants, from the fact that the tic. 355. Babiroussa. 332 BACKBONED ANIMALS, food or cud is chewed twice before it is finally digested.* The molar teeth have two double, crescent-shaped folds, and, in biting, the incisors of the lower jaw are pressed Bet. FIG. 356. Stomach of a ruminant (sheep) : a?, oesophagus ; Ru, paunch ; ret, honey-comb ; Ps, manyplies ; a, true digestive stomach or rennet ; du, beginning of intestine. against the opposite and toothless gum of the upper. The stomach (Fig. 356), with few exceptions, is divided into four compartments : i. The paunch, ru ; 2. The honey- *.The grass, partly chewed and mixed with saliva, is swallowed, and passes into the oesophagus ; the latter is continued into a tube with a long slit on its under side, whose lips fit closely, and are water-tight. The tube thus formed leads naturally to the third stom- ach, and here ve sec a wonderful provision. The coarse food as it is swallowed at first, from its size presses open the slit, and drops into stomach No. I, or paunch, where it is mixed with water. From here it goes into stomach No. 2, or the honeycomb, where the polygonal spaces may serve to fashion it into pellets or cuds. Now, by a simultaneous contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, a cud is forced against the cardiac aperture of the stomach into the oesophagus, and so into the mouth, where it is chewed by the molar teeth, and again swal- lowed at last ready for digestion. As it passes down for the second time, we would perhaps expect it to press open the slit and drop into the first stomach again ; the second chewing, however, has reduced it to a pulp, so that it is now not large enough, and it passes along the tube over the slit and into the third stomach or manyplies, where it is strained ; then passing into the true stomach, where it is mixed with the gastric juice and absorbed. MAMMALIA. 333 comb, ret (so called from the presence of polygonal spaces) ; 3. The manyplies, ps ; and, lastly, the stomach or rennet, a. The deer are characterized by solid, branching antlers or horns that are cast yearly.* They generally have sacks beneath the eye, that can be opened or shut at will, con- taining a waxy secretion, having a pungent odor, and are called "tear-pits." The females, with the exception of the reindeer, are hornless. The Virginia deer (Cariacus Virginianus) is a typical American species, and one of the most beautiful of the family. They attain a weight of two hundred and fifty pounds, and vary in color with the seasons ; being a light brown in summer and a reddish gray in winter, the under part of the throat and tail being a white at all times. The Wapiti (Fig. 357) is one of the noblest American deer, and is closely allied to the Eng- lish red deer or stag. They attain a length of nearly eight feet, and a height of five feet at the shoulders. The horns or antlers are shapely, with twelve points or more, and are six to seven feet long, weighing at times nearly eighty pounds. The tips or branches increase with years, and forty-five have been seen on the antlers of an Eng- lish stag. In the summer the wapiti are reddish brown, and in the winter gray. They range the northern coun- try east of the Missouri. The caribou is allied to the European reindeer ; two species range our Northern for- '* Toward the end of spring there is an increased flow of blood to the head, the blood-vessels being temporarily enlarged. Budding horns now appear ; they are highly sensitive and delicate, covered with a downy skin, called and resembling velvet, and permeated with blood- vessels. They grow with marvelous rapidity, the antlers of a full-grown stag being completely formed in ten weeks. When full growth hss been attained, a burr or ring forms at the base of each, that presses and cuts off the blood-vessels ; the velvet then shrivels and peels off, assisted by rubbing, the marks of the blood-vessels being now seen as grooves. In the Indian deer, and perhaps some other tropical spe- cies, the casting does not occur annually. 334 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ests. The antlers are thick and stubby, and vary ereatly in individuals. FIG. 357. Wapiti (Cervus Canadensis}. The reindeer of Arctic Europe are about four feet long and three high, and the females also have horns. In the summer their fur is brown and in winter lighter a x protective measure. The moose (Alee Americanus] (Fig. 358) is the largest of the family, having immense broad antlers, that alone weigh nearly eighty pounds, and resemble in shape the pine- branches of the northern forests. Their muzzle is broad and long, the legs long, the shoulders and neck covered by a thick growth of coarse hair. Their color is a grayish brown. They are extremely fleet, and step so high in running that they pass over a five-foot wall or fence with- MAMMALIA. 335 out ettort. They range from northern Maine to the Arctic regions. In the winter the herds of moose often form yards in the snow, trampling it down for several miles, FIG. 358. Moose (A/ce Amcricanus}. banding together for protection against the wolves, to whom they often fall victims in tfie soft, deep snow. The great extinct Irish elk was an allied form, and their re- mains are now frequently found in the Irish bogs. Their horns often measured twelve feet from tip to tip, and were so broad that three or four men could rest on them. They were ten feet high, including the horns. The axis deer is an Indian species, and is spotted with white, similar to the fallow deer. In Java is found the Muntjac (Cervus vaginalis) ; its horns are on bony pedestals, and the male is remarkable for its long, protruding canine teeth in the upper jaw. The musk-deer of Asia has similar teeth. VALUE. Fur, hides, horns, teeth, hoofs, sinews, musk, etc. Hollow - Horned Ruminants (Bovidce). General Characteristics. This large family includes the buffaloes, oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, distinguished from the deer by the peculiar structure of the horns, that are hol- low, and, as a rule, not shed. Two processes of the fore- 336 BACKBONED ANIMALS. FIG. 359. Rocky Mountain sheep (Capra montana). head (frontal) bone of the skull form the cores that are cov- ered by the horns, that are special de- velopments' of the outer skin or epi- dermis. Goats and Sheep. In the Rocky Mountain sheep, or big-horn (Fig. 359), the horns are extremely pow- erful. In the fe- male, the horns are straight, and similar to those of a goat. Their height at the shoulder is about three feet, and their weight three hundred and fifty pounds. They are now confined to the country west of the Missouri, and are fast becoming extinct. About forty varieties of the domestic sheep are known. Its origin is obscure, but it is possibly a descendant of an Asiatic sheep (Ovis argali). The Bar- bary sheep, or Mou- flon, has soft hair of a reddish tinge. From it and the Si- berian Argali spring the merino sheep of the East ; their tails attain a weight of one hundred pounds, and have to be Sup- FlG - 360. -Musk-sheep (Ovibos moschatus\ MAMMALIA. 337 ported on racks harnessed to the animal. The musk- sheep (Ovtbos) (Fig. 360), or ox, as it is incorrectly called, is confined to the Arctic region of North America. It is a comparatively small animal, about the size of a cow, but its long, brownish-black hair gives it a much larger appear- ance. The horns are broad at the base, and bent down upon the cheek, turning up again. They secrete a strong musk, the flesh even being impregnated with the odor. FIG. 361. Chamois and ibex. They assemble in herds, and are becoming exceedingly rare. At the end of the glacial period an allied form roamed the Middle States. The Angora goat, Cashmere goat, and ibex (Capra ibex) (Fig. 361), are allies. VALUE. Sheep's wool. One hundred thousand Persian lamb-skins are used annually by the trade ; six hundred thousand Astrakhan, and two million European. From the goats come mohairs, cashmeres, etc. Fifteen million pounds of Angora wool alone is used annually in the trade. The horns, hides, and hoofs are all valued. Antelopes. The antelopes are remarkable for their speed and elegant forms. The goat-antelopes are repre- sented in America by the mountain goat (Ap/cceros mon- 333 BACKBONED ANIMALS. (anus). Its horns are jet black, slender, and slightly curved, resembling those of the Alpine chamois (Fig. 361). Its hair is long and white (Fig. 362). The prong- horn is a char- acteristic American an- telope, and re- markably fleet. They are larg- er than the do- mestic sheep, and covered with coarse, brush-like hair, that is yellow- ish brown above, the un- der portion and a square patch on the rump being pure white, while the horns, hoofs, and parts of the nose are black. The horns bend slightly, and midway to the tip is a small prong, from which they take their name. The horns, though hollow, and having a persistent core, as in the ox, are shed in the autumn. Among the gazelles, the Siberian antelope, or Saiga Tartarica, is the most striking. The muzzle is bent down- ward, and the horns beautifully shaped. They are found in Poland and Russia, and are the most northern of the family. Allied are the chamois of Europe (Fig. 361), the gnu, the pygmy antelope, oryx, eland of Africa, etc. Oxen (Bovince). The domestic oxen do not present a genuine species, but represent many races that have de- scended from several extinct species. They are character- FIG. 362. Rocky Mountain goat (Aploceros mon- tanus). MAMMALIA. 339 ized by horns curving outward and downward, short tails, and broad hoofs. The American bison (Bison America- nits), or buffalo, formerly ranged from Virginia and Lake I 8 4 "8 Champlain to Florida, but are now confined to . the far West, and fast becoming extinct. They are of large size, the head powerful and carried low. The forehead is 340 BACKBONED ANIMALS. broad, the horns small, tapering, and set far apart. Be- tween the shoulders is a prominent hump which, with the neck, head, and chest, is covered by long, shaggy hair, the remainder of the fur being short and brownish in color. They herd in vast numbers. Allied to them are the Eu- ropean bison, or auroch* the Cape buffalo (. caffer) of South Africa, the Indian buffalo (. bubalus), the yak, or grunting ox a native of Thibet and the zebu of India. VALUE. Every part of these animals has its value. Giraffes (Camelopardalidce], The giraffe is repre- sented by a single species inhabiting the plains of Central Africa. Its neck is of remarkable length, so that its head is often eighteen feet from the ground ; the number of vertebrae, however, is seven, as in other mammals, each bone being lengthened out. The back slopes rapidly to the tail, giving the impression that the fore-legs are the longest, but they are of equal length. They have no horns, but two long, solid appendages, attached partly to the frontal and partly to the parietal bones ; these are covered by the skin, and terminate in a tuft of bristles. In front of them is a prominence caused by a thickening of the bone that has been incorrectly described as a third horn. The tongue is nearly seventeen inches long, and in its use is not incomparable to the trunk of the elephant. VALUE. Skins, and the bones are made into buttons. Camel (Camclidce). The camels have two incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and six incisors below, canine teeth in each jaw, and from eighteen to twenty molars. They * The extinct Bos primigenitis lived in Germany and England during the time of Caesar, and is the ttrus of the Nibelungen song. They are the ancestors of the half-wild cattle in English parks, and the Holstein and Friesland breed. The European bison has only been saved from extinction by the Emperors of Russia, who have preserved eight hundred in the forests of Bialowicza, Lithuania, and have pre- vented the descTuction of those running wild in the Caucasus. MAMMALIA. 341 have either one or two humps upon the back, composed of fatty matter ; in the paunch are several cells (Fig. 364, a) FIG. 364. a, Water-cells in the paunch of ths camel ; b, foot, showing the pad. that contain a supply of water to last them in the dry coun- try in which they live. Their feet (Fig. 364, b) are equally adapted to the dry sand, the two toes uniting nearly to FIG. 365. The true camel (Came/us dromedariits}. 342 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the point, forming a callous, elastic cushion. The drome- dary, or single-humped camel* (Fig. 365), is found in Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Africa, and is remarkable for its speed, carrying a rider nearly one hundred miles a day. In the caravan they carry a load weighing from six hun- dred to one thousand pounds. The young are about three feet high when born, and do not attain their full growth for seventeen years. Their average age is fifty years. The Bactrian camel, or two-humped variety, is eight feet high between the humps, and about ten feet long. It came originally from Central Asia. Allied are the llama of Peru and Chili, the guanaco, and the alpaca. VALUE. Hide and hair, and as beasts of burden. In the Falkland Islands, guanaco-bones are used as fire-wood. Order VIII. Flesh-eating Mammals (Carnivora). General Characteristics. This order includes the' cats, bears, seals, etc. animals that feed mainly upon flesh to obtain which they have sharp claws (Fig. 373), fangs, and .cutting teeth (Fig. 375). The head is generally massive and powerful, each jaw containing six incisors, behind which is placed a long, stout canine. The number of mo- lar teeth varies with the species, and they have trenchant edges for cutting. Sub-order I. Pinnipedia. Seals \ (Phocida). The* common seal (Callocephalus vitulinus] has no external ears ; the arms and legs are short, the latter being large and fan-shaped ; the inner and outer toes are large and long, the three middle ones shorter ; the palms and soles are hairy, and the claws distinct and sharp. They are ex- tremely intelligent, and susceptible of domestication. The * These animals have been introduced into the deserts of Nevada, and are rapidly increasing in numbers. f Members of this family have been seen in the Caspian Sea, in Lake Baikal, and lately the harbor seal has been observed in Lake Champlain, and other streams in central New York. The common seal has been caught in Chesapeake Bay. MAMMALIA. 343 general color is a dark, slaty gray, and their maximum length about five feet. The young, generally two at a birth, are white or a light yellow, a provision that renders them inconspicuous on the ice. FIG. 366. Harp seal. The harp seal (Pagopkilus) (Fig. 366), the ringed seal, the hooded seal (Cystophora) of Greenland and northern FIG. 367. Skeleton of a sea-lion, showing how the whole foot rests on the ground, as in the bear family : th, thigh ; /, leg ; A, heel ; /, foot ; , -r>rpr OI-TT> : ft. for^-irm : fn. hand. 344 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Europe, and the sea-elephant (Morunga), of Antarctic waters, are others of the family. Then follows the walrus (Trichechida) (Fig. 368). Eared Seals (Otartida). The sea-lion (Otaria) (Fig. 367) is a familiar example. The sea-bear (Callorhinus\ common in Behring Strait and Kamchatka, is one of the famous fur-seals of commerce. VALUE. Hides, ivory, viscera, etc. One million Atlantic hair-seals are killed annually, and two hundred thousand Pacific fur-seals, and many more from the South Atlantic. Sub-order II. The True Carnivora (Fissipedid). The Raccoons (Procyonidce) are bear-like animals with sharp, pointed muzzles, ranging from Canada to Paraguay. The common raccoon (Procyon) is found throughout the United States. They are nocturnal, vegetable or flesh- eating animals, about a foot long, exclusive of the tail, which is nearly ten inches in length. Their color is a rusty gray with many black-tipped hairs, the tail barred with five black rings. They bear from five to six young in May, the nest generally being in a hollow tree. The black-footed, crab-eating, and Californian raccoons are different species, similar in their habits. The coatimundi (Nasud) is found from Mexico to Paraguay. The kinka- jou and Bassaris are allies. VALUE. Five hundred thousand coon-skins are annually used as fur. Bears (Ursula). This family has a wide geographical range, being represented in all countries except Australia. The white or polar bear (Fig. 368) ( Ursus maritimus) is found in the Arctic regions. The body is large, and cov- ered with white hair, the tail rudimentary, the foot enor- mous, measuring one sixth of the length of the entire body, and armed with powerful claws. They are particularly dis- tinguished from other bears by having the soles of the feet covered with close-set hairs a provision that prevents MAMMALIA. 345 their slipping on the ice, while their white fur renders them invisible at any great distance. Fit. 368. Polar bear and walrus, showing how the bear walks with the heel Hat on the ground, and the walrus also. NOTE. Many animals that can not migrate and are deprived of food by cold weather are enabled to enter into a state of torpor called winter sleep or hibernation, and thus bridge over the foodless season. In the extreme south certain animals during the dry period enter into a summer sleep called estivation. In complete hibernation all the functions of life are almost at a stand still ; the respiration is reduced and irritability of muscular fibre increased. Hibernation is favored by cold but not produced directly by it, and the hibernator is not insen- sible to extremes. In entering the sleep the temperature of the body sinks to nearly that of the surrounding atmosphere. If, now, the cold is intense, they are awakened and then are frozen. According to Sem- per, the zizel, or Spermophilus, attains the lowest temperature in this condition of any known animal, namely, 2" (centigrade), the exact tem- perature of the outside air in one experiment, so that the animal maybe 346 BACKBONED ANIMALS. said to have become cold-blooded. The normal temperature of the zizel is 32 (centigrade). As the cause of the sleep is not directly the result of cold, neither is the awakening caused by a rise in temperature. In experiments with the same-mentioned animal it awoke without any change in the outside temperature, being two hours and forty-five minutes in awakening. In the first hour and forty-five minutes the body temperature rose 6.6 (centigrade), and in the following fifty minutes 17. It was accompanied by no vigorous movements or quicker respiration. During hibernation animals can be placed under water without ill effect, though it would be fatal in a few moments if awake. According to Kirby, joint author of " Introduction to Ento- mology," an authentic case is recorded of an instance of human hiber- nation in India. The man was buried alive in the presence of Sir Claude Wade, the grave guarded and watched for several months, and the hibernator finally taken out, gradually awakening. The black bear ( Ursus Americanus) is quite common in northern New York. They attain a weight of four hundred and fifty pounds and a length of eight feet, and are of a dark-brown or black color. In extreme weather the fe- males prepare a den, and as a rule pass into a state of hibernation, during which the intestines are clogged with vegetable substance, generally taken from the pine. In January or February, generally every third year, the young (three or four) are born, remaining under the mother's protection for five or six months. They prey upon sheep, calves, etc., and also eat berries, honey, ants, etc. The grizzly bear ( Ursus ferox) of the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, the Syrian bear of Mount Lebanon, the Malayan bear, and the sloth or honey bear (Melursus) of India, are others of the family. VALUE. Oil, fat, skin, teeth, hair, and viscera. Badgers, Otters, etc. (Mustelidce}. The true badg- ers (Taxidea] are found in central and western North and South America, and are thick-set animals about two feet long, not including the tail, which attains a length of six inches. The skunk (Mephitis), twelve different species, ranges from Canada to the Straits of Magellan. The com- MAMMALIA. 347 mon skunk is almost entirely nocturnal, feeding upon mice, insects, and various kinds of food. They hibernate in midwinter. Otters. The otter (Lutra) (Fig. 371) has representa tives in nearly every part of the globe. The North Amer ican species is generally found upon the banks of streams ; in which its burrow or nest is built. The sea-otter (Enhy- dra] (Fig. 369) is twice as large as the above, attaining a FIG. 369. Sea-otter (Enhydra marina}, showing the front paws and the hind webbed feet. weight of eighty pounds, and is found on the Pacific coast of America and Asia. Its habits are almost identical with those of the seal. In warm weather they proceed up the rivers, returning to the sea in winter, passing nearly their entire time in the water, eating and even rearing and nursing their young in the kelp-beds. The front feet are short with small claws, the hind ones being perfect swim- ming-flippers with long toes and stout claws. Their teei:h are rounded and adapted for crushing crustaceans, mol- lusks, or fish.* Their fur is an extremely rich brown. * The sea-otters are remarkable for their playfulness. When ap- proached, they place one paw over the eyes, as if shielding them from 348 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NOTE. The adaptation of the limbs in the sea-otter is extremely interesting and worthy of special attention, and an advantageous study would be a comparison of the limbs (Fig. 370) of different animals. FIG. 370. Feet of various animals compared. A, deer ; B, ornithorhynchus ; C, otter ; Z>, frog ; , seal. The common mink of this country (Fig. 371) attains a length of seventeen inches to the tail, which is eight inches longer. The body-color is a dark chestnut-brown, the tail black, and tip of the chin white. The marten or American sable (Mustela) ranges from northern New York northward, and is much valued. It attains the same length as the common mink, the tail being about two inches longer. Its color is a rich, glistening, golden red, clouded with black ; the legs and tail are dark, a light patch appearing upon the throat ; the feet are thickly furred. They burrow, and nest in old trees, and bring out a litter of. from two to seven young in April. The fisher, or pekan, weasels, etc., are allies. The most fero- cious of the group is the glutton, or wolverine (Gulo). It is confined to the cold regions of Europe, Asia, and North America, coming as far south as the Great Lakes. In the latter country it attains a length of three feet and a half to the tail, which is about one foot in length and extremely the sun, then scratch themselves on the limbs, twisting about in vari- ous ways, and when just out of the water they are so absorbed in their toilet that they can frequently be taken. The males and females show the greatest devotion, kissing and patting each other like human beings. The mother's antics with the young are equally amusing ; she tosses it in the air, fondles it in her arms, catches it with her fore-feet like a ball, and swims about with it clasped to her breast. The Chinese train the sea-otter to fish, and many are used for the purpose. MAMMALIA. 349 bushy. The paws are large and heavy, the soles densely haired, and furnished with six small, naked pads. They feed upon small animals, and the young, generally from two to four, appear in May. They are to some extent ar- boreal in their habits. The grison (Galictis) of northern and central South America is a fierce member of the group. VALUE. Fur and hide of all are valuable. FIG. 371. A group of valuable fur-bearers, i, Arctic fox ; 2, -silver fox ; 3, sable ; 4, otter ; 5, mink ; 6, ermine. Dog" (Canidcz). This family comprises the dogs, wolves, and foxes, and has a wide geographical range. Nearly all possess the mechanism for retraction of the claws, but the action is not sufficient to protect them from wear; thus they are modified for purposes of digging. The American red fox ( Vulpes) has a slender, pointed muzzle, and is of a reddish-yellow hue. It preys upon domestic fowls and small game of all kinds. The young are reared in burrows in the ground. The Arctic fox (Fig. 371) is white in the winter and brown in summer. They live in 350 BACKBONED ANIMALS. burrows in communities of twenty or thirty.* The holes are connected underground and generally found stored with sea-birds. The prairie, swift, gray, coast, silver, and cross foxes are familiar American members of the family. The wolf (Fig. 372) (Cants) somewhat resembles the fox, but is larger and much more powerful. The coyote, or prairie-wolf, is a typical American species. They attain a length of thirty-eight inches to the base of the tail, which is fifteen inches longer. They live more or less in com- munities, and the young, often ten, are reared in burrows, appearing in April. The gray, black, dusky, red, and Mexican wolves are other species. The Asiatic wolves are noted for their ferocity. The jackal is a wolf-like creature of Asia and Africa. The dog (Cams familiar is) is probably a descendant of the wolf. VALUE. Skin, hide, oil, bones, teeth, and for domestic use. FIG. 372. The wolf (Cant's lupus}, showing the dog-like form. * These animals formerly existed in incredible numbers on Behr- ing Island, and were so tame that they overran the camps, carrying off hats, mittens, and clothing, nosing the sleepers in the night, and having actually to be driven away with clubs. MAMMALIA, 351 Civets ( Viverridce). This large family has no repre- sentatives in America the civets, genets, and ichneumons being characteristic of Africa and the Oriental region. Allied are the hyenas (Jly&mda), found in India and Asia Minor and Africa. Cat (Felidce). The cats, of all the Carnivora y are the most beautiful and active. Their bodies are shapely, many presenting a noble appearance, the type of grace and power. The head is short and broad, the feet armed with powerful, retractile, sheathed claws (Fig. 373), five on the FiG. 373. Claws of the cat or tiger : A, claw held back by the strong liga- ment // 2?, claw pulled forward by the tendon / being drawn back, so that / is stretched out. fore-feet and four behind, the soles hairy, and provided with soft, elastic pads that aid in their stealthy approach upon prey. The tongue is provided with a rasping surface, composed of sharp recurved prickles ; the limbs are power- ful and adapted for prodigious leaps, for which nearly all the family are noted. The hunting leopard (Felis jtibata\ of southern India and Africa, is an interesting form, and a rapid runner, being employed in hunting by the natives. The claws are retractile,* but in their action more like those of the dog. The lynxes (Lynx), of which four species are known in North America, are characterized by thick-set bodies, the tail short and truncated, and ears ornamented with tips. The American wild cat attains a length of about twenty-eight and three quarter inches, the tail seven inches, * Claws are retractile when they are held back naturally by the muscles, and thus prevented from wearing away, only being extended when wanted to secure prey or assist in climbing. 352 BACKBONED ANIMALS, height at shoulder fifteen and a half inches. The fur is soft and thick, the color upon the sides a light red, over- cast with grizzly gray ; below they are white and spotted, the inner surface of the ear and the tip of the tail black. They are powerful animals,, and prey upon small game of various kinds. They nest in hollow trees and logs. The Canada lynxes (Fig. 374) are the largest, attaining a length of three and a half feet. They are extremely pow- erful, attack- ing large ani- mals, sheep, etc. ; are good swimmers, and easily recog- nized by their gallop. They produce their young, general- ly two, in dens or hollow trees. The red cat and Texas wild cat are other FlG. 374. Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis). species. The domes- tic cat (Felis) has been domesticated for over a thousand years, and was probably first used in Egypt. The ya- guarundi ranges from southern Texas to central South America. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the pre- vailing color a grayish brown. The ocelot and tiger-cats range from Texas southward. The puma or panther is the largest and most powerful true North American cat, equaling in size a large hound, weighing one hundred and seventy-five pounds, and com- mon throughout the less frequented parts of the country. They are extremely powerful, leaping forty or fifty feet MAMMALIA. 353 or more from an elevation, and taking to trees and climb- ing generally only when pressed. They prey upon various animals, and have been known, though rarely, to attack man. In southern Florida they swim from key to key with perfect ease. The general color of the puma in best condition is a rich mouse-gray with light beneath. The jaguar is the American tiger, and differs from the puma in being essentially arboreal. It ranges from Texas to southern South America, and is the largest and hand- somest cat in the Western Continent, attaining a total length of over five feet, and is so powerful that it has been known to kill a mustang, swim with it across a river, dragging it into the bush beyond. The general color is brownish yellow above, white beneath, with numerous dark- er spots. The sides of the body are marked with a series of irregular figures. They are accredited with wonderful powers by Humboldt and other writers, in opening turtles and catching fish with their powerful claws. The leopard is perhaps the most beautifully marked of the family, and ranges the jungles of Asia, Africa, and the Indian Archi- pelago. The skin is richly marked with oval spots. The black leopard * is singularly treacherous and utterly un- tamable. The tiger f of India (Fig. 375), next to the lion, is the most powerful of the cat tribe, majestic in appear- ance, the type of agility, cunning, and ferocity. They are as large as the lion, with a longer body and rounder head. The color of the fur is a rich fawn above, striped and barred irregularly with black, the under portion being * Albinos are found among all animals, a condition generally the result of a lack of pigment. Its absence in the eye produces the so- called "pink" eyes. Albinism, then, is not properly a disease, and in no wise affects physical or mental vigor. The black leopard is a sub- ject of melanism, owing to an over-supply of coloring-matter in the cells. f The marks of the tiger, leopard, ocelot, and the color of the puma, are all protective, and when crouching upon a limb or on the ground help tc render them inconspicuous. 354 BACKBONED ANIMALS. pure white. They are extremely ferocious, attacking the largest animals. In 1881 eight hundred and eighty-nine persons were killed by them alone in southern India, while the leopards killed two hundred and thirty-nine. Wallace records that, in one of the localities he was in (Singapore), the tigers, on an average, killed one native a day through- out the year. The young, generally two at a birth, are F IG ' 375- The tiger, showing slim body, muscular thighs, strong front-legs and paws, and short face with large teeth, all with sharp edges, especially one (the carnassial) near the back in both jaws. carried about in the mouth, after the manner of the do- mestic cat. The ounce is an allied cat. The lion (Felis leo] is the royal member of the cat family, and justly so from its magnificent bearing. It is found in Africa and Asia, the two probably being merely varieties. The Afri- can lion is much more dreaded and displays greater cunning than its ally. The largest of these attain a length of nine feet, exclusive of the tail. The neck of the male is protected by a thick mane, giving them a MAMMALIA. 355 ferocious appearance. The general color of the hide is tawny ; the feet and paws are immense, the animal being adapted for leaping and overpowering the largest game. The females are somewhat smaller than the males, and have no manes. About twenty extinct species of this family have been found, resembling lions, tigers, etc. The remains of a ferocious tiger (Mackarodus\ have been discovered in England and other countries. It lived contemporaneously with man, and had serrated teeth, and fangs eight inches long, more like sabers than teeth. VALUE. Five hundred lion-skins are used annually by the trade ; one hundred thousand wild-cat, and over one million skins of the com- mon cat are made into cheap furs. Order IX. Primates. General Characteristics. We now come to the last and highest order of mammals, represented by the lemurs, monkeys, and man. In the higher forms of apes and monkeys a vast improvement or advance is noticed. The body is now carried more erect, claws are replaced by finger-nails, the fingers are long and more perfectly adapted to a greater number of uses than in the preceding forms, and the great toe of the hind-feet is much enlarged and opposable to the oth- ers ; the legs are exserted quite free from the trunk, the brain is large, the ears rounded, having a distinct lobe ; the body is hairy, the tail long or short, and the face in many extremely human in its detail. The primates are divided into two sub-orders : i. Prosimia, comprising the lemurs ; and 2. Anthropoidea, including all the rest that are divided provisionally into five divisions or families as fol- lows : i. The marmosets (Hapqltdce). 2. The American monkeys, having three true molar teeth on each side of each jaw (Cebidcz}. 3. The Old World monkeys, except the man-like apes (Cercopithecidce). 4. The man-like apes (Stmiidce) ; and, 5. Man (Hominidrj, a nettle.) Jelly-fishes or sea-nettles. Acanthocephala. (a/ccu/flo, a thorn ; KfaA^, the head.) Destitute of a dis- tinct head. Adductor. Referring to muscles in clams which draw the shells together. Albumen. (Lat. albus, white.) Resembling the white of an egg. Alveolus. A hollow cavity forming a socket for the teeth. Ambulacrum. (Lat. from ambulare, to walk, a garden-walk.) The perforated spaces in the shell of Echinus. Ametabolic. (Gr. a, without ; /lerajSoA.^, change.) Referring to in- sects and other animals which do not undergo a complete meta- morphosis. Amoeba. (Gr. dp/, both ; TTOVS, foot.) An order of Crustacea, whose feet serve both for walking and swimming. 374 GLOSSARY, Anchylosis. The union of the two surfaces of a joint by bone, so that all movement is lost. Annulosa. (Lat. annulus, a ring.) Ringed animals. Anthropoid. The highest order of apes. Anthozoa. (Gr. &v6os, a flower ; faov, an animal.) A class of Coelen- terata generally termed Actinozoa. Anura. (Gr. a, without ; ovpa, a tail.) An order of Amphibia, includ- ing frogs and toads. Apoda. (Gr. a, without ; irovs, foot.) Fishes that have no ventral fins. Apodous. Footless. Aptera. (Gr. a, without ; irrtp6v, wing.) The wingless insects, Arachnida. The spiders. Archaeopteryx. A fossil bird which possessed a tail of true verte- brse. Arthropoda. (Gr. o, without ; &p6pos, a joint ; TTOVS, Tro56s, foot.) Articulata with jointed feet, as crabs, insects, etc. Artiodactyla. (Gr. &PTIOS, even ; $O.KTV\OS, finger or toe.) Even-toed Ungulates. Asexual. A term applied to animals, as Aphis, in which the repro- ductive organs are imperfect, and the young are produced by budding. Auricle. (Dim. of auris, an ear.) The cavity of the heart which re- ceives the blood and transmits it to the ventricle. Avicularium. (Avictila, dim. of avis, a bird.) Peculiar little pro- cesses found in many of the Polyzoa, shaped like a bird's beak. Bacterium. (Gr. jScwcTTjpiov, a staff.) Minute filamentous organisms found in decomposing infusions of organic matter. Balanidae. The acorn-shells, a family of Cirripedia, or barnacles. Batrachia. Applied to frogs, toads, and salamanders. Belemnite. A fossil genus of Cephalopoda. Bivalve. (Lat. bis, twice ; valvce, folding-doors.) Shells with two valves. Branchiae. (Gr. &pdyx ia > gills-) Breathing-organs of fishes, etc. Byssus. (Gr. (3v juice.) The milky fluid which results from the digestion of food. Chyme. (Gr. X"/*^ s juice.) An acid, the result of the action of gastric juice on food. Cilia. (Lat. cilium, an eyelash.) Hair-like organs of Infusoria. Cirripedia. (Lat. cirrus \ a curl ; pes t a foot.) A group of Crustacea, Caecal. Ending blindly. Caecum. A blind sac. Coelenterata. The sub-kingdom of Invertebrata, comprising Hydro- zoa and Actinozoa. Coleoptera. (Gr. Ko\e6s, a sheath ; -trrep&v, a wing.) The beetles whose anterior wings protect their posterior. Condyle. The articular surface of a bone, especially of the oc- ciput. Crinoidea. (Gr. Kpivov, a lily ; eTSos, form.) An order of Echinoder- mata. Crustacea. (I at. crusta, a crust.) Applied to lobsters, crabs, etc. Ctenophora. An order of Actinozoa. Cuticle. The outer layer of the skin. Cyclostorai. An order of fishes, called Marsiopobranchii. Cycloid. (Gr. KVK\OS, a circle ; e? I behead.) Univalve shells whose apex falls off during growth. Dentirostres. (Lat. dens, a tooth ; rostrum, a beak.) Perching birds with a toothed mandible. Dentate. Furnished with teeth. Didelphia. (Gr. Sis, two, or double ; $e\vs, womb.) The sub-class of Marsupials. Dipnoi. (Gr. Sis, double ; *vo^, breath.) An order of Pisces. Dipteria. (Gr. Sis, two ; irrfp6v, wing.) An order of Insecta. Discophora. A group of jelly-fish. Echinodermata. (Gr. ixivos, a hedgehog; Se'p/zo, skin.) The star, fishes, etc. Echinoidea. An order of Echinodermata. Ectoderm, (Gr. ficrSs, outer, and Sepjia, skin.) The outer covering 376 GLOSSARY. EctosafC. (Gr. CKT^S, outer ; vatf, flesh.) The outer layer of sar- code, as in the Amoeba. Elasmobranchii. (Gr. e\a, a sheath.) Horny wing-covers of beetles. Embryo. (Gr. eV, in; Ppvw, I swell.) The earliest period at which the young of animals is recognized. Encysting". To become inclosed in a cyst or sac. Entomostraca. (Gr. ej/ro^ua, insects ; tffTpoucov, a shell.) A division of Crustacea. Epipodite. (Gr. tiri, upon ; ITOVS, foot.) An appendage of the basal joint of the limbs of Crustacea. Equilateral. With equal sides. Equivalve. Referring to shells which have two equal valves. Exopodite. (Gr. e|o>, outside ; iroGs, a foot.) The outer of the two secondary joints of the somite of a Crustacean. Exserted. Protruded the opposite of inclosed. Fauna. (Lat. fatmi, rural gods.) The native animals of a certain locality. Flagellum. A whip. The appendage of some Protozoa. Foraminifera. (Lat. foramen^ a hole ; fero, I bear.) Rhizopods with perforated shells. Gallinacei. (Lat. gallina, a fowl.) An order of birds. Ganoid (Gr. ydvos, splendor.) Applied to certain fish-scales. Gasteropoda. (Gr. yajr-fip, the belly ; irovs, foot.) A class of Mol- lusca. Glaucus. Bluish-green or gray. Globigerina. (Lat. globus, a ball ; gero, I carry.) A group of Fora- minifera. Grallatores. (Lat. grallce, stilts.) Wading-birds. Gregarinidae. Lat. grex, a flock.) A class of Protozoans. Halteres. (Gr. aA/r/jpes, poisers.) The rudimentary hind-wings of Diptera. Hemiptera. (Gr. v>jiti, half; vrepdv, wing.) An order of insects. Heterocercal. The tail of fishes when the lobes are unequal, as the sharks. Heterophagi. Birds whose young are born in a helpless state, as robins, etc. Heteropoda. An order of Mollusca. Hexapodus. Six-footed. Holometabolic. (Gr. OA.OS, whole ; /uerajSoMj, change.) Insects whose metamorphosis is complete. GLOSSARY. 377 Homocercal. Referring to fishes the lobes of whose tails are equal, as the perch. Homology. Applied to parts which are structurally alike. Hydridae. An order of Hydrozoa. Hydrozoa. A class of Coelenterata. Hymenoptera. (Gr. fyiV> hymen, or membrane ; irrfp6v t wing.) An order of insects having two pairs of membranous wings. Hyoid. The bone which supports the tongue ; so called from its resembling the letter U in man. Ichthyosaura. An extinct genus of Reptilia. Imago. (Lat. an image.) The perfect form of insects. Inequilateral. Applied to shells having the two ends unequal. Inequivalve. Having two unequal valves. Infusoria. (Lat. in, on ; fundo^ I pour.) A class of Protozoa. Isopoda. (Gr. fcros, equal ; irous, foot.) An order of Crustacea. Labium. (Lat. lip.) The lower lip in the Arthropoda. Labrum. (Lat. lip.) The upper lip in the Arthropoda. Lamellibranchiata. (Lat. lamella, a leaf or sheath ; branchia, gill.) Mollusks having large, leaf-like gills. Larva. (Lat. a mark.) The second stage of an insect, as the cater- pillar, etc. Lepidoptera. An order of insects. Lithocysts. The sense-organs of certain jelly-fish. Longipennata. (Lat. longtts^ long ; penna, wing.) A group of birds. Lucernarida. (Lat. hicerna, a lamp.) An order of Hydrozoa. Lumbar. (Lat. lumbus, a loin.) Belonging to the loins. Macrura. A group of decapod crustaceans. Madreporic. Containing many pores or cells. Mandible. (Lat. mandibulum, a jaw ; fr. mando, I chew.) The up- per jaw of Insecta ; the lower jaw of Vertebrata. Marsupium. A pouch. Marsupialia. (Lat. marsupium, a pouch.) An order of Mammalia. Maxillipedes. (Lat. maxilla, jaws ; pes, foot.) The modified limbs of Crustacea, used as masticatory organs. Megalops. One of the stages of the young crab. Merostomata. An order of Crustacea. Mesenteries. (Gr. /teVos, the middle ; Zvrepov, an intestine.) The vertical partitions which divide into chambers the intervening _ space between the alimentary tube and the body-wall of a sea- anemone. Mesothorax. The middle segment of the thorax in insects. 3/8 GLOSSARY. Monad. (Gr. /M>vds, a unit.) A minute Infusorian. Moners. A class of Protozoans. Monodelphia. (Gr. pSvos, single ; 5eA.i5s, womb.) The division in- cluding all the higher orders of Mammalia. Monoecious. (Gr. /ioVos, single ; OIKOS, house.) Applied to animals in whom the two sexes are united in one individual. Monotremata. (Gr. /xoi/os, single ; rprjjua, an opening.) An order of Mammalia having the intestine and the ducts of the urinary and genital organs open into a common cloaca. Myriapoda. (Gr. /u,upfos, ten thousand ; irovs, a foot.) A class of Ar- thropoda. Natatores. (Lat. nare, to swim.) An order of birds. Nectocalyx. (Gr. j>VJx&>, I swim ; Kd\vx, a cup.) The swimming- bell of a jelly-fish. Nematocyst. (Gr. %*, a thread ; /flJtrris, a bladder.) The stinging organs or thread-cells of Coelenterata. Neuroptera. (Gr. vevpov, a cord ; vrfp6v, a v/ing.) An order of in- sects. Noctiluca. A giant monad. Notochord (Gr. V&TOV, back ; xP^, a string), or chordad orsalis. A primitive backbone. Nudibranchiata. An order of Gasteropoda. Octopoda. (Gr. oterd, eight ; irovs, foot.) A group of Cephalopoda. Odontophore. (Gr. o5ous, a tooth ; tpti>, I carry.) The lingual rib- bon, or tooth-bearer, of the higher Mollusca. (Esophagus. (Gr. ourds, a reed ; ^eryeti/, to eat.) The gullet. Operculum. (Lat. operio> to cover.) The bony covering of the gills of fishes ; the horny foot of univalves. Ophiura. An order of Echinodermata. Opisthoccelous. (Gr. oiriaQe, behind ; KOI'AOS, hollow.) Vertebras with bodies convex in front and hollow behind. Ornithodelphia. (Gr. opvis, a bird ; SeXQvs, womb.) Sub-class of mammals and order Monotremata. Orthoptera. (Gr. cpQ6s, straight ; irrfptv, wing.) An order of in- sects. Otoliths. (Gr. ous, ear ; \iOos, stone.) Small calcareous particles found in the auditory sacs of invertebrates. Oviparous. (Lat. ovum, an egg ; pario, I bring forth.) Applied to animals which produce eggs instead of living young. Ovipositor. (Lat. ovum, an egg ; pono, I place.) In insects an or- gan by which eggs are deposited in wood, etc. Ovisac. The bag-like membrane which contains the eggs. GLOSSARY. 379 Ovoviviparous. A term applied to animals which retain the eggs within their bodies until they are hatched. Pachydermata. An order of Mammalia. Pallium. (Lat. a cloak.) The " mantle " of mollusks. Palpi. (Lat. palpo, I touch.) Organs of touch connected with the mouth appendages of Arthropoda. Pedicellariae. (Lat. pedicelkis, a louse.) Curious appendages attached to the sea-urchins. Pelagic. Living on the high-seas in mid-ocean. Perennibranchiata. (Lat. perennis, perennial ; branchia, gill.) Ba- trachians retaining their gills during life. Perissodactyla. (Gr. epi gills*) An order of Cephalopoda. Test. (Lat. testa, a shell.) Applied to the calcareous covering of tunicates. Thorax. (Gr. 0cfya, a breastplate.) The chest of vertebrates, the middle portion of insects, etc. Thysanura. (Gr. Bvffavoi, fringes ; ovpa, tail.) An order of insects. Trachea. (Gr. rpaxf'ta, the rough windpipe.) The tube which con- nects the lungs with the mouth. Trematoda. (Gr. rp^a, a pore or hole.) An order of worms. Trichina. One of the nematoid worms. Trichocephalus. One of the nematoid worms. Trichoptera. An order of insects. Trilobita. An extinct order of Crustacea. Truncated. Cut squarely off. Tuberculose. Covered with tubercles. Tunicata. (Lat. tunica, a cloak.) The primitive vertebrates. Turbellaria. (Lat. turbo, I disturb.) An order of worms. Umbo. (Lat., the boss of a shield.) The back of a bivalve shell. Ungulata. (Lat. tingula, a hoof.) The hoofed animals. Univalve. (Lat. unus, one ; valvtz, folding-doors.) A shell com- posed of a single piece. Urodela. (Gr. oipa, tail ; Sij\os, visible.) An order of Batrachians. Vacuole. (Lat. vacuus, empty.) Cavities in the bodies of Protozoans. Ventral. (Lat. venter, the stomach.) Belonging to the lower surface of the body. Ventricle. One of the cavities of the heart. GLOSSARY. 381 Vertebra. (Lat. verto, I turn.) One of the bones of the spinal column. Vesicle. (Lat. vesica, a bladder.) A little sac or bladder. Viscera. (Lat. viscus.) The internal organs of the body. Viviparous. (Lat. vivus, alive ; pario, I bring forth.) Applied to animals which produce their young alive. Zcoid. (Gr. C^o". animal ; cZSos, form.) The separate organisms of a compound animal, such as many of the Ccelenterata. Zoophyte. (Gr. &ov, animal ; Qvrov, plant.) Applied to the ani- mals which resemble plants, such as the sea-anemones, sponges, etc- INDEX. AARD-VARK, 305. Acara, 185. Acarina, 104. Acineta, 9. Acipenser, 166. Actinia, 21, Actinozoa, 21. Adder, 221. .^Epiornis, 235. Ai, 304. Albatross, 244. Alca impennis, 240. Alligator, 222. Alytes, 201. Ambergris, 310. Amblyopsis spelaeus, 171. Amblyornis, 284. Amblyrhynchus, 214. Amblystoma, 198. Amoeba, 6. Ampelis, 287. Amphibia, 195. Amphioxus, 151. Amphisbsena, 218. Amphiuma, 198. Anabas, 184. Anableps, 184. Anas, 248. Angler, 191. Anguilla, 168. Animalcule, bell, IO. Annulata, 47. Anolis, 214. Ant, 137. Ant-eater, 304. spiny, 298. Antedon, 35. Antelope, prong-horn, 338. Antennarius, 189. nest of, 190. Anthropoidea, 35fc Anura, 200. Ape, 359. Aphis, 124. Aphis-lion, 114. Aphodes, 168. Appendicularia, 149. Apteryx, 234. Apus, 84. Arachnida, 104. Araneina, 106. Archaeopteryx, 232, Architeuthis, 71. Ardea, 256. Argnli, 336. Arges, 170. Argonauts argo, 73. Argyropelacus, 175. Arius, 169. Armadillo, 305. Arthropoda, 76. Artiodactyla, 331. Ascetta, 12. Ascidians, 145. Aspredo, 169. Ass, 330. Asterias, 33, 36. Asteroidea, 36. Ateles, 359- Atoll, 27. AttUG, III. Auk, 240. Aurelia, 18. Australian lung-fish, 16?, Axolotl, 198. Aye-aye, 356. INDEX. Baboon, 359. Badger, 346. Babeniceps, 255. Bandicoot 301. Barnacle, 81. Bass, 179. Bat, 316. Batrachia, 195. Bear, 344. Beaver, 322. Bee, 141. Beetles, 124. Big-horn, 336. Bird of Paradise 281. Birds, 225. eggs, 232. feathers, 230. migration of, 293 songs of, 232. Birgos, 92. Bison, 336. Bittern, 257. Blackbird, 282. Blenny, 186. Blind-fish, 171. Bluebird, 290. Boar, 331. Bobolink, 283. Bos, 339. Box-fish, 192. Brachiopoda, 46. Branchiopoda, 82. Branchipus, 84. Branta, 249. Brush-turkey, 260 Bubo, 268. Bufo, 201. Bug, 120. Bulimus, 66. Bustard, 257. Butcher-bird, 289. Butterfly, 134. Buzzard, 264. Byssus, 58. Caddis-worm, 113, Callichthys, 169. Callorhynchus, 165. Camel, 340. Cancer pagurus, 91. Canis, 350, Capybara, 318. Carcharias, 161. Caribou, 333. Carinatse, 237. Carnivora, 342. Carp, 171. Cassowary, 236. Cat, 351- Catfish, 169. Cebus, 358. Cell, 3. Centipede, 102. Cephalopoda, 69. Cephalopterus, 165. Ceradotus, 167. Cercaria, 43. Cervus, 331. Cetacea, 309. Chalk, 7. Chameleon, 212, Chelifer, 105. Chelonia, 218. Chiasmodus, 188. Chilognatha, 103. Chilopoda, 103. Chimaera, 165. Chimpanzee, 361. Chinch-bug, 121. Chipmunk, 320 Chiromys, 356. Chiroptera, 315. Chromis, 179. Cicada, 122. Cirripedia, 8l Clam, 52. Clepsine, 47. Clio, 69. Cleodora, 69. Clupea, 172. Coati, 344. Cobra de capello, 209, Cochineal insect, 123, Cod, 187. Coecilia, 200. Coelenterates, 15. Coleoptera, 124. Comb-bearers, 31. Condor, 264. Condylura, 313. Congo snake, 198. Copperhead, 207. Corallium rubrum, 29. Coral polyps, 23. reefs, 26. | Cormorant, 241. INDEX. 385 Coryphsena, 181. Cougar, 352. Cow, sea, 307. Cowry, 63. Coyote, 350. Crabs, 91. Cray-fish, 89. Crane, 251. Cranchia, 71. Cricket, 119. Crinoidea, 35. Crocodilia, 222 Crow, 280. Crustacea, 76. Ctenophora, 31. Cuckoo, 271. Curassow, 261. Curlew, 251. Cuttle-fish bone, 72. Cyclops, 82. Cypraea moneta, 6'^ Cyprinus, 171. Dace, 171. Daphnia, 84. Dasypus, 305. Decapoda, 86. Deer, 331. Virginian, 333. Dendrceca, 293. Dentalium, 68. Devil-fish, 72. Dibranchiata, 70. Dicotyles, 331. Didelphidae, 299. Didus, 263. Dinornis, 235. Diomedea, 244. Dipnoi, 167. Diptera, 126. Discophora, 17. Dodo, 263. Dog, 298. Dog-fish, 160. Dolphin, 181. Doris, 65. Dove, 262. Dragon-fly, 112. Dromia, 80. Drum-fish, 129. Duck-bill, 298. Duck, 248. Dugong, 308 Eagle, 266. Earth-worm, 48. Echeneis, 178. Echidna, 298. Echinodermata, 33. Echinoidea, 38. Echinus, 38. Edentata, 303. Eel, 168. Elaps, 209. Elasmobranchii, 158. Elater, 124. Elephant, 327. Elk, 334- Emeu, 236. Entomostraca, J82. Eohippus, 330. Eolis, 65. Epeira, no. Equus, 329. Ermine, 349. Esox, 176. Estheria, 91. Euplectella, 13. Eupomotis, 179. Eurypharynx, 175. Eutaenia, 211. Falcon, 266. Feather, 231. Felis, 351. Fierasfer, 188. Finch, 285. Fisher, 348. Fishes, 154. bony, 168. viviparous, 158. luminous, 173. Fissipedia, 344. Flagellata, 8. Flamingo, 250. Flat-worms, 43. Flea, 128. Flounder, 188. Fluke-worms, 43. Fly-catcher, 279. Fly, 126. Flying-fish, 176. Foraminifera, 6. Fox, 349. Frigate-bird, 247. Frog, 204. Fungia, 24. fNDEX. Gadus, 187. Galeopithecus, 315. Gall-fly, 136. Gallinae, 257. Gallinule, 252. Callus, 257. Gannet, 246. Ganoidei, 166. Gar, alligator, 168. Gar, silver, 166, 176. Gardner-bird, 284. Gare-fowl, 240. Garpike, 168. Gasteropoda, 60. Gasterosteus, 177. Gecko, 214. Genetta, 351. Gibbon, 360. Gila monster, 216, 217. Giraffe, 340. Glass-snake, 216. Glow-worm, 124. Glutton, 348. Goat, mountain, 337. Goose-barnacle, 82. Gordius aquaticus, 44. Gorgonia flabellum, 30. Gorilla, 360-2. Gourami, 185. Grapsus, 94. Grasshopper, 118. Grebe, 242. Gregarina gigantea, 7". Greg'arinida, J. Grilse, 172. Grouse, 258. Guan, 252. Guillemot, 240. Guinea-hen, 259. Gull, 228, 244. Gulo, 348. Gymnotus, 170. Haddock, 1 88. Hsemulon, 179. Hag-fish, 152. Hake, 188. Haliotis, 6l. Harpodon, 173. Hare, 317. Helix, 66. Hell-bender, 197. Heloderma, 216, 217. Helocephali, 165. Hemiptera, 120. Hermit-crab, 90, 91. Heron, 256. Hermiaster, 39. Herring, 172. Hexapoda, in. Hinney, 330. Hibernation, 134, 167, 202, 222. Hippocampus, 191. Hippopotamus, 331. Histiophorus, 182. Holothuroidea, 39. Homo, 364. Hornbill, 274. Horns, 333. Horn-tail, 136. Horse, 330. Horse-shoe crab, 95. House-fly, 126. Humming-bird, 108, 274. Hydra, 15. Hydrozoa, 15. Hyla, 202. Hylobates, 102. Hymenoptera, 136. Hyrax, 326. Tanthina, 62. Ichneumon-fly, 137. Idotaea, 85. Idyia, 31. Iguana, 213. Infusoria, 7. Insectivora, 312. Insects, 97. Ipnops, 173. Jager, 245. Kallima, 135. Kangaroo, 301. Katydid, 119. Killer, 310. Kincajou, 344. King-crab, 95. King-fisher, 272. Kiwi-kiwi, 234. Labyrinthici, 184. Lacertilia, 212. Lamellibranchiata, 5*. Lamp-fish, 173. INDEX. 387 Lampreys, 153. Lamp-shells, 46. Lancelet, 151. Lark, 279. Lasso-cell, 22. Leech, 47. land, 47. Lemming, 324. Lemur, 356. Lepidoptera, 130. Lepidosiren, 167. Lepidosteus, 168. Leptocardii, 151. Lepus, 317. Lernaea, 83. Limnaeus, 65. Limulus moluccanus, 95. Lir.gula, 46. Lizards, 212. horned, 213. Llama, 342. Lobster, 87, 88. Locust, 119. Loon, 242. Lophius, 191. Lori, 357 Lump-fish, 186. Lung-fish, 167. Lutra, 347. Lycosa, 106. Lynx, 352. Lyre-bird, 279. Macacus, 359. Mackerel, 181. Macrura, 86. Madreporic plate, 34. Madreporaria, 24. Maeandrina, convexa, 25. Malapterus, 170. Malacopoda, 102. Maleo, 261. Mammalia, 294. Mammoth, 327. Man, 364. difference from apes, 364. races of, 364. Manatee, 307. Steller's, 307. Manis, 307. Mantis, 116. Marmoset, 358. Marsipobranchii, 152. 27 Marsupialia, 299. Marten, 348. Marine-worm, 49. Mastodon, 327. May-fly, 112. Megapodius, 261. Menhaden, 172. Menopoma, 197. Mephitis, 346. Mesohippus, 330. Metazoa, 2. Mias, 361. Millepedes, 103. Millepora, 16. Mimetes, 361. Mink, 349. Minnow, 156. Miohippus, 330. Mite, 104. Moa, 235. Mocking-bird, 291. Mola, 193. Mole, 313. Mollusca, 51. Mollymauk, 244. Monad, 8. Moner, 4. Monkey, 355. Monocaulus, 17. Monodon, 311. Monotremes fc 297. Moose, 334. Mosquito, 129. Mother Carey's chickens, 243. Moths, 130. Mound-bird, 260, 261. Mouse, 319. Mouse-birds, 281. Mud-dauber, 140. Mule, 330. Mus, 319. Musk-rat, 324. Musk-sheep. 337. Mussel, 56. Mustela, 346. Muzir, 330. Mygale, 107, 108. Myodes, 324. Myriopoda, 102. Myrmecobius, 301. Myrmeleon, 114. Mytilus edulis, 56. Myxine, 152, 388 INDEX, Narwhal, 310. Nasua, 344. Nauplius, 80. Nautilus, 69. Nebalia, 84. Necturus, 197. Nematelminthes, 44. Nematognathi, 169. Nephila, 109. Nereis virens, 49. Neuroptera, 112. Newt, 199. Night-hawk, 296. Noctiluca, 8. Nototrema, 203. Nucleus, I. Nyctea, 268. Octopus, 72. Ocypoda, 94. Odontornithes, 233. Onchidium, 68. Ophiacantha, 36. Ophidia, 205. Opossum, 299. Orang, 360. Orca, 310. Oriole, 282. Ornithodelphia, 297. Ornithorhynchus, 298. Orohippus, 330. Orthoptera, 116. Osprey, 267. Ostrich, African, 235. South American, 235. Otter, 347. Ovibos, 336. Ovipositor, 98. Ovis, 336. Owl, 268. Ox, 339. Ox-biter, 282. Oyster, 54. Palapteryx, 235. Pangolin, 306. Panther, 352. Paper-nautilus, 7 Paradisea, 280. Paramecium, 9, Parr, 172. Parrot, 268. Partridge, 257. Pauropoda, 103. Peccary, 331. Pecten, 54. Pedicellaria, 38. Pediculati, 189. Pedipaipi, 105. Pekan, 348. Pelican, 246. Pennatula, 30. Pentacrinus caput-medusa, 35, Pentacta, 40. Perca, 155. Perch, 179. nest of, 179. Peripatus, 102. Perissodactyla, 328. Periophthalmus, 68, 186. and front ispiece. Petaurus, 246. Petrel, 243. Petromyzon, 153. Phasma, 117. Philohela, 252. Phocidse, 342. Phoenicopterus, 250. Pholas, 58. Phosphorescence, 31, 92, 8, I24 32, 147, 67. Phyllocarida, 84. Physalia, 20. Pig, 331. Pigeon, wild, 262. Pilot-fish, 181. Pinnipedia, 342. Pinnotheres, 93. Pipe-fish, 191. Pisces, 154. Plagiostomi, 159. Planarian worms, 43. Plant-louse, 123. Platyhelminthes, 43. Plectognathi, 192. Pleurobrachia, 31. Plover, 251. Podiceps, 242. Podocerus, 85. Podura, 112. Polyodon folium, 166. Polypterus, 167. Polyzoa, 45. Porcupine, 319. Porcupine-fish, 193. Porifera, n. INDEX. 339 Porites, 24. Porpoise, 21 1. Porpita, 21. Portuguese man-of-war, 20. Prairie-dog, 321. Prawn, 86. Primates, 355. Pristis, 163. Proboscidea, 326. Prosimiae, 356. Proteus, 179, 196. Protozoa, 4. Ptarmigan, 259. Pterygolus, 96. Puffin, 241. Pulmonata, 65. Pupa, 102, I2T, 126, 128. Puma, 352. Pygopodes, 279. Pyrosoma, 147. Python, 200. Quail, 258. Rabbit, 317. Raccoon, 344. Radiolaria, 6. Rail, 252. Rai>a, 204. Rangifer, 333. Rat, 323. Ratitae, 234. Rattlesnake, 207. Rays, 163. Redia, 44. Reindeer, 333. Rcmora, 178. Reptilia, 204. Rhea, 235. Rhinichthys, 171. Rhinoceros, 328. Rhinodon, i6j. Rhizopoda, 5. Rhynchocephalia, 222. Rhytina, 307. Ribbon-fish, 178. Robin, 291. Rodentia, 317. Rotalia, 6. Rotifers, 45. Round- worms, 44. Ruff, 253. Ruminantia, 331. Sable, 347. Salamander, 198. Salmon, 172. Salpa, 148. Sandpiper, 254. Sand-wasp, KI. Saururse, 232. Saw-fish, 163. Scaphopoda, 68. Scink, 215. Sciurus, 320. Scolopendra, 103. Scomber, 181. Scopelus, 173. Scorpion, 105. false, 105. whip, 106. Sculpin, 169, iS6. Sea-anemones, 22. cow, 306. cucumbers, 40. fan, 30. horse, 192. lion, 343. squirts, 145. Seal, 343. Selache, 163 Semnopithecu?, 359. Septa, 22. Serpulae, 49. Sertularia, 17. Sewellel, 323. Shad, 172. Sharks, 158. basking, 161. fresh- water, 161. hammer-headed, 160. thresher, 161. Sheath-bill, 254. Sheep, 336. Ship-worm, 59. Shrew, 312. Shrike, 289. Shrimp, 86. Simia, 361. Silk-worm, 131. Silurus, 169. Siphonophora, 20. Siren, 196. Sirenia, 306. Skate, 163. Skua, 245. Skunk, 346 390 INDEX. vSloth, 304. Slug, 67. Snakes, 206. poisonous, 206. viviparous, 206. Snipe, 252. Solaster, 37. Solen, 56. Sparrow, English, 230, 286 Spermaceti, tt-l. Sphargis, 219. Sphenisci, 237. Sphinx, 133. Spicules, ii. Spider, 106. bird, 108. garden, 109. trap-door, 107. Spirula, 70. Sponges, ii. Spoon-bill, 254. Spoon-bill fish, 166. Spring-tails, in. Squalus Americanus, 160. Squid, 71. Squilla, 85. Star-fish, 36. Stegopocles, 246. Stickleback, 177. Stilt, 251. Sting-ray, 164. Stoat, 349. Stomapoda, 85. Storks, 255. Struthio, 236. Studis, 172. Sturgeon, 166. Suctoria, 9. Sun-fish, 193. Surinam toad, 203. Swallow, 286. Swan, 249. Swift, 277. Sword-fish, 182. Sycon, 13. Synapta, 40. Tadpole, 201. Tanager, 286. Tape- worms, 244. Tapir, 328-9. Tarantula, 106, 107. Tautog, 185. Taxidea, 346. Teleocephali, 170. Teleostei, 168. Teredo, 59. Tern, 241. Testudo, 221. Tetrabranchiata, 69. Tetradecapoda, 85. Thrasher, id. Thread- worms, 43. Thrush, 291. Thysanura, in. Tick, 104. Toad, 201. flying, 202. Surinam, 203. luminous, 203. Torpedo, 164. Tortoise, 195. Tortugas, 27. Toucan, 273. Trachystomata, 196. Tree-toad, 203. Trepang, 40. Trichina spiralis, 44. Tridacna, 57. Trilobite, 95. Triton, 199. Tritonia, 65. Trogon, 271. Trout, 172. Trunk-fish, 192. Tunicata, 145. Turkey, wild, 259. Turtle, 218. green, 220. hawkbill, 221. loggerhead, 220. marine, 210. Tyrian dye, 64. Umbellularia, 30. Umbrella-bird, 289. Ungulata, 315. odd-toed, 328. even-toed, 331. Unio, 56. Urchin, sea, 38. Uria, 240. Urodela, 197. Urticina, 23. Uvella, 8. INDEX. 391 Velella, 21. Venus's flower-basket, 13. Vermes, 42. Vertebrates, 150. Viper, 206. Viverra, 351. Vorticella, 9. Vulpes, 349. Vultures, 264. Walking-leaf, 117. stick, 117. Walrus, 344, 345. Wapiti, 334. Wasp, paper, 141. Weasel, 348. Weaver-bird, 288. Whale, 309. Wheel-animalcules, 45. Whelk, 63. Whip-poor-will, 276. White ant, 114. Willemoesia, 86. Wolf, 299. Tasmanian, 303. Wolverene, 348. Wombat, 302. Woodchuck, 321. Woodcock, 252. Woodpecker, 229, 274. Worms, 42. Wren, 290. Xiphias, 182. Zoarces, 158. Zoe'a, 81. Zoological classification, 2. Zoology, definition of, i. THE END. PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. General Science. Doerner's Treasury of Knowledge. This book is designed to fill a gap in the ordinary course of instruction, and fur- nishes in a small compass much useful and important information. 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