QN V A.': in CO 03 TREATISE --> ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON THE HUMAN SPECIES AND ON THE VARIETIES OF MEN RESULTING FROM IT ; INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF THE CRITERIA OF INTELLIGENCE WHICH THE FORM OF THE HEAD PRESENTS; AND A SKETCH OF A RATIONAL ' SYSTEM OF PHYSIOGNOMY AS FOUNDED ON PHYSIOLOGY. By N.C. pitta, M. D. \\ PRESIDENT OP THE ROTj^l^ PHYSICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, EXTRAORDINARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF THE SAME CITY, MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF NATDRAL HISTORY THERE, AND PHYSICIAN AT MADEIRA. LONDON: PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REFS, ORME & BROWN, ■ AND FOR JOHN ANDERSON, EDINBURGH, •:i isie. •* ■^- '^ ,1 . * f'Sl ' TO JOHN DE CARVALHAL, Esq. ♦ IN TESTIMONY OF HIS EXTENSIVE KNOWLEDGE, THE LIBERALITY AND BENEVOLENCE OF HIS DISPOSITION, AND THE GEN EROUS PATRONAGE WHICH HE HAS GIVEN TO LITERATURE AND SCIENCE IN MADEIRA, THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY HIS MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. M37ieJ.5 ADVERTISEMENT. The Author avails himself of this advertisementy to achiox£ledge his obligations to those authors from xvhose "works he lias benefted in the composition of this Treatise. In the First Part, he is chiefli/ indebted to the " Essay on the Games of the Variety of Com- plea:ion and Figure in the Human Species" hj Dr SxMiTH OF Philadelphia. In the Second Part, he is under great obliga- tions to " The Works'" of Professor Camper op Franiker, and the Treatise " De Generis Hu- ma7ii Varietate Nativa" of Professor Blumen- . BACH OF GOTTIJ^GEN. ii ADVERTISEMENT. In tlie Third Part, the Physiologist alluded to, is Mr Walker, Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology, at Edinburgh. In the Fourth Part, his obligations are to the Lectures of the same Physiologist. In the Fifth Part, the Application of the pre- ceding principles to the Passions, as expressed by Camper and Le Briin, is 7nore especially his oxvn. Throughout, he has adopted that arrangement xchich seems to him most systematic and impressive ; and he lias introduced "whatever observations ap- peared to him to render the subject more complete. t ~«u CONTENTS. Page Dedication v. Advertisement vii. Preface ...., 1 Part First. On the influence of climate in general IS Part Second. On the particular effects which climate thus produces, and on the classification of the species which re- sults from it 22 Part Third. Further examination of the form of the head, and of the Criteria of Intellect which it presents 35 Part Fourth. Physiognomical Details, as founded on the pre- ceding Physiology 45 Part Fifth. Application of the preceding principles to the ex- pression of the passions „ Qo Appendix No. I. Proofs of the Doctrines contained in the Third Part QQ Appendix No. II. Additional Proofs of the Third Part... 76 Appendix No. III. Account of the doctrine of Gall „.. 83 Appendix No. IV. Some remarks on that of Lavater 8S W PREFACE. Previous to examining the Influence of Cli- mate and other external agents on the form and colour of man, it cannot be improper briefly to investigate that capacity of matter, by which it is enabled to pass through every form and every colour. The simple fact, that the same objects appear in the same place to any one, proves that there exists something independent of sensation^a cause or at least a basis for all sensation. This cause or basis of our sensations, is denominated 2 PREFACE. Matter ; and the first two axioms of philosophy, express the fundamental truths which refer to it : ' Nothing/ say they, ' has no property' ; and ' no substance, or nothing can be produced from nothing.* These axioms, blended indeed with the errors of heathen philosophy, are admirably ex- pressed by Lucretius, in the following lines : Know this grand truth, the base of nature's law. Nought can the gods themselves from no- thing DRAW. When lurid meteors fire the troubled air, When thunders below, and blue lightnings glare, Fear-struck, and strangers to the grand design, Weak men ascribe them to a power divine : But this great trnth illumes the erring mind. Her gloomiest terrors scatters to the wind, And shews, how heaven and earth are spread abroad. Uncalled, unaided by the power of God. Such being the fundamental truths which refer to matter, we are naturally led to the considera- tion of space. Space is either the absence of matter, or the distance between its portions or between objects ; and, without this, no motion could take place, nor PREFACE. S any external operation exist — a truth which Lu- cretius, with equal felicity, expresses in the fol- lowing lines : But think not matter crowds her whole domain, An incorporeal void her reahns contain ; A splendid truth, to guide the erring soul. Dispel thy doubts, and ope the mighty whole ! A void is vacant space which touch defies, And in this void the source of motion lies. For were it not — as bodies are possest Of power inert, for ever must they rest, And each to each a fixed resistance prove ; Then whence were motion, if no space to move ? If doomed no impulse ever to obey, Fixed were the whole, and wedged in close array But, lo ! the heavens revolve around the pole. Earth, air and seas, in various movements roll. But had not nature formed a wide inane, Silent and sad had stretched her dull domain ; No life had bloomed, no creature raised its head, But crowded matter lain unformed and dead. Such space between the parts of matter, leads us naturally to the consideration of the particles wliich the interposition of space thus forms. With the Particles, or simplest state, of mat- ter, then, it is highly probable, that the simplest form— perfect sphericity, is connected. 4 PREFACE. Considering matter, therefore, as one and the same — as constituting a class, there must exist of it at least two subordinate orders, viz. that con- sisting of particles of some magnitude or Spheres, and that consisting of particles of extreme mi- nuteness, and which are still spherical, but wjiich, relatively to the former, may be termed Points. — Two such orders must exist, because, on one hand, without some difference, individual bodies could not be characterized ; and, on the other, it is unphilosophical to suppose more than two such orders, because from these, every distinc- tion in nature may arise. For, Supposing these two states of matter to constitute oxygen and hydrogen, such a distinc- tion as that I have pointed out, will account for their most remarkable qualities, and the most re- markable of the phenomena which resiUt from ihem. Thus, as equal bulks of these two fluids have different weights, exactly so will equal bulks of larger and smaller spherical particles ; for, as a large sphere contains more matter within a given portion of superficies than a small one, the bulk PREFACE. S ©f smaller particles will contain a greater portion of superficies, and consequently more of vacuum between the particles, than an equal bulk of lar- ger ones ; and that bulk which contains most of vacuum and least of solid matter, must obviously be lightest. Thus, a given bulk of smaller spheres, is lighter than an equal bulk of greater ones. Nor is it to hydrogen and oxygen alone, that this reason is applicable : all lighter bodies of the simplest kind, must consist of minuter par- ticles ; for that levity which arises from a peculiar arrangement of these particles, can exist only in the more complex substances. But it is not alone with regard to levity, that minuter particles evidence the same phenomena with hydrogen, and larger ones the same with oxygen. Hydrogen is susceptible of inflammation. This certainly consists in motion of the minute particles of matter. Now, the minuter the par- ticles, the more susceptible are they of motion, and, therefore, of inflammation ; and, hence hy- drogen, consisting of the minutest particles, is most susceptible of inflammation. c 6 _ PREFACE. Considering, then, this minuteness and mag- nitude as affording the orders of character in matter, it must now be obvious that" the various arrangement of these particles must produce the genera and species. Numerous phenomena also lead to the conclu- sion, that the degrees of the separation of the particles of matter constitute the states of soli- dity, liquidity and fluidity. The capabilities of matter are thus truly won- derful ; and, on these very simple principles, their whole extent is easily foreseen. Thus, the differ- ent magnitude of its elementary particles, gives origin to two simple substances — oxygen and hy- drogen for instance ; their various arrangements and various combinations produce the more complex bodies ; and the actual contact, or the degree of the separation, of the particles causes, either in simple or complex bodies, the states of 50- liditt/, liquidity andjltiidity. If the particles be in actual contact, they will move together and form a solid ; if slightly separate, they will glide on each other and form a liquid j and if altogether PREFACE. detached, they will become buoyant and consti- tute an aeriform fluid. That all this is accurately the case, I do not pretend. But the reasonings here entered into, point out at least the very simple means by which nature may have operated the vast variety of things. Minute as these elements of matter are, their existence has been rendered obvious to the most common observer by this admirable passage of Lucretius. Since thus the Muse has sung, in arduous strain, Nought springs from nought, nor sinks to nought again^ Lest thou, distrustful, deem the strain untrue, Because primordial seeds elude the view, Hear the clear proof, and then with me unite To own that seeds exist, yet shun the sight. Mark how the whirlwind, with resistless sweep, Drives the black clouds, and rolls the foamy deep, Thro' shattered fleets and prostrate forests roars. And shakes the mountains and the caverned shores. Unseen, yet felt, thus many a viewless form Rides in the air, and swells the rapid storm. That scours heaven, earth, and seas, and far and near Carries fell havoc in its dread career. Onward it rolls impetuous as the flow Of furious torrents swoln with melting snow. PREFACE. Or spouting cataracts of sudden rain, Doww the steep mountains foaming to the plain : Thro' cliffs and valleys roars th' increasing flood, Tears the close shrubs, uproots the stubborn wood, Kolls ponderous rocks with unresisted sway, Bursts the strong arches, sweeps the bridge away With thundering crash, and o'er each yielding mound Spreads a wide, deep and savage waste around. Thus wild thro' heaven the whirlwind roars along Its way so rapid, and its rage so strong ; Where'er it turns its blind infuriate course. It sweeps the world with swift unbridled force. Trees, rocks and hills uptears, and bids them fly In many a whirling vortex thro' the sky. A more accurate notion, in the next place, of the CAPABILITIES of matter — of its power to as- sume every form and every colour; cannot be formed than by explaining, according to my ap- prehension of it, a splendid and philosophical allegory of the religion of the Greeks. Under the epithet of Proteus, the God of Change, this religion personified the Tf^rn yV?; — the original matter, capable of every form ; and sup- posed, that his daughter Eidothea, the Goddess of Formation (an epithet derived from tUtog ^id, .^v or according to Eustathius, from ik 'A ^kty^ to rush into form) upon occasion, went in search of PREFACE. and discovered him ; indicating thereby, that, as Proteus was discovered by his daughter Eidothea, so original or simple matter — the TTfurn vm was discovered to our senses by iUo^, form — its off- spring, its quality. Ammonius, though by no means more than the moderns aware of its principle, beautifully illustrates this allegory, when he says, " Matter, with regard to things, is the cause of their com- mon nature j form, of their peculiar difference. All change, then, of beings into each other, is by means of their participating the same common matter ;" and (he might have added) every dis- tinction depends upon individual form. From all this train of reasoning, and from this mythological allegory of the Greeks in particular, we clearly see how mineral matter may pass into vegetable, vegetable into animal, and animal into mineral again ; in perfect consistence with the fact, that vegetables are nourished by mineral matter, and many animals entirely by vegetables, while all animals return to mineral substance a- gain. The action of the air and rains, as well as storms and tempests, gradually wear away the l6 PEEFACE. summits and the sides of the mountains ; their earthy and metallic particles are swept into the plains by the torrents and the winds ; and, the heavier portions falling undermost, the Hghter resting above, banks luxuriant in vegetation, like those of the Nile or the Ganges, are formed, and a rich mould is driven over the plains. Hence, springs grass and shrubs and trees, and all the fruits of the earth. These again afford food to every animal tribe ; and animals, when the period of Hfe is expired, fall into the dust whence ori- ginally they arose. Even the analyses of science present to us the calcareous, ferruginous and other mineral matters which actually exist in the solids and fluids of animated beings. Thus, mat- ter passes through an endless circle and endless succession, of which a portion is thus exquisitely painted by the great Epicurean poet. ^\hen father ^Ether pours his stores from high, Absorbed by earth, they seem to fade satd die ; But, lo ! how soon their genial power is seen, Springs the dense grass, and earth is clothed in green : The leafy verdui e of the forest shoots. And ripening orchards hang their glossy fruits ; Hence men and brutes arise in vigour strong, PREFACE. 11 Hence blooming youths the joyous city throng, And groves repeat the feathered ^varbler's song : Hence battening herds enjoy their grassy food, And their full udders pour the milky flood. With rapture filled, their progeny around Try their weak limbs in many a frolic bound, And as the dulcet stream distends their veins. In life's gay morning gambol o'er the plains. Thus nature bids th' immortal seeds revive, Life springs from death, and new creations thrive. Since, then, such are the changes of bodies into each other— of mineral into vegetable, ve- getable into animal, and animal into mineral a- gain, it can scarcely be wondered that the same external powers which operate these vast effects, should also produce those comparatively trivial changes on animal bodies in particular, which, in the following Treatise, are with so much reason ascribed to climate &c. '- II est certain que le sol et /atmosphere signaknt leur em- pire sur toutes les productions de la nature, a commencer par /'homme, et djinirpar les chanipigiious." Voltaire. " la varias leges, variasque figuras Dispositum genus est hominum, proprioque colore Formaiitiir gentes, sociataque jura per artus Materiamque parem privato foedere signant. Flava per iugentes surgit Germ\ma partus. Gallia viclno nimis est infecta rubore. Asperior solidos Hispania contrabit artus. Marti A Romanis orbis pater induit ora: GRADivuMque suum miscens bene temperat artus. Perque coloratas subtilis GrjECIA gentes Gymnasium praefert vultu, fortesque palaestras : Et Syriam produnt toiti per tempora crines. Aethiopes maculant orbem, terrasque figurant. Perfusas hominum gentes miniis India tostas Progeuerat, mediumque facit moderata tenorem. .Jam proprior tellusque natans AegyptiA Nilo Leniis irriguis infuscat corpora campis. PoENUs arenosis Afrorum pulvere terris Exsiccat populos, et Mauritania nomen Oris habet, titulumque sue fert ipsa colore." Manilius, Lib. ir. TREATISE ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON THE HUMAN SPECIES, &c. PART FIRST: ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN GENERAL. jVIany analogical arguments in proof of the influence of climate in general, might be derived from the well known changes which it produces in inferior animals. Blumen- bach, accordingly, after employing the first section of his excellent woik " De generis humani varietate nativa," on an account of the difference between man and animals, devotes the second to the discussion of the causes and manners, by which the various species of animals in general degenerate. As, however, the arguments and illustrations on this subject, from the history of man himself, are sufficiently numerous and convincing, to them we shall directly proceed. Every permanent and characteristic variety in human nature, is effected by slow and almost imperceptible grada- tions. Great and sudden changes seem too violent for the delicate constitution of man j and, in reality, instead of mere ■ 14 PART FIRST. ly altering, they always tend to destroy the system. But changes, the effects of which blend with the general actions of the body, and ultimately form the character of a climate or a nation, are progressively carried on through several ge- nerations, till the causes that produce them have attained their utmost operation, by becoming perfectly congeuial to the system. In this way, the minutest causes, acting constantly, and during a long period of time, will necessarily create great and conspicuous differences among mankind. "In tracing the globe from the pole to the equator, we observe a gradation in the complexion of man, nearly in pro- portion to the latitude of the country he inhabits. Imme- diately below the arctic circle, a high and sanguine colour prevails. From this, we descend to the red, blended with white ; and thence, towards the line, succeed, the brown, the olive, the tawny, and, at length, the black. These gradations are sonictimes more, and sometimes less sudden. The women of the province of Biscay, for instance, are very fair ; those of Granada, on the contrary, subfuscous, " so that,"' says Ol. Toree, " in this more sou- thern province, the pictr.res of the Virgin are painted of the same provincial colour." The same distance from the sun, however, does not, in every region, indicate the same temperature of climate. Some secondary causes, correcting and limiting its influence, must be taken into consideration. The elevation of the land, its vicinity to the sea, or to great lakes and rivers, the nature of the soil, the state of cultivation, the course of pe- riodical winds, and many other circuujstances, enter hito this view. Elevated and mountainous countries are cool in propor- tion to their altitude above the level of the sea : vicinity to the ocean produces opposite effects in polar and equatorial latitudes ; for the ocean, being of a more equal temperature ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN GENERAL. 13 tlian the land, in one case, corrects the cold ; in the other, modei'ates the heat*. Ranges of moimtaius, such as the -Appennines in Italy, and Taurus, Caucasus and Imaus, in Asia, by interrupting the course of cold winds, render the protected countries below them warmer, and the countries above them colder, than is equivalent to the proportional difference of latitude. Climate also receives some difference from the nature of the soil, and some from the degree of cultivation. Sand is susceptible of greater heat than clay ; and an uncultivated region, shaded with forests, and covered with undrained marshes, is more frigid in polar, and more temperate in equatorial latitudes, than a country lying open to the direct and constant action of the sun. Many other circumstances might be enumerated, which modify the influence of climate on the form and colour of man. These, however, will be sufficient to give a general idea of the subject ; and, by the intelligent, they may be easily extended and applied to the state of each particular countr}'. Thus, even from such general observations, we derive this conclusion — that there is a general ratio of heat and cold, which chiefly forms what we call climate, and a con- sequent general resemblance of nations, according to the la- titude from the equator ; subject, however, to innumerable varieties from the infinite combinations of the circumstances suggested. We see, indeed, that one and the same national counten- ance, is so common to the inhabitants of particular climates, that it is scarcely possible to refer it to any other cause. Of this, the Chinese are an example, to whom the cha- racteristic flattened face is as common as, among us Euro- * It is to this cause that the equal temperature and great salubritj of Madeira, for instance, is chiefly owing. iG PART FIRST. peans, symmetrical and exquisite beauty is (as observed by Blumenbach) to the English and the Majorcans. It is contrary, therefore, to sound philosophy, Mhich, Avithout necessity, never assigns different causes for similar events, to have recourse, for explaining these varieties, to the hypothesis of several original species ; and an attach- ment to such a doctrine, simply because it opposes a tenet of religion, is unphilosophical in the extreme. If (I may further observe) we have reason, from the va- rieties that exist in the same family, or in the same nation, to conclude tliat the Danes, the French, the Turks and people even more remote, are of the same species ; have ^e not the same reason to conclude, that nations beyond them, and who, if carefully examined, absolutely do not differ from the last by more conspicuous distinctions, than the last differ from the fii'st, are also of the same species ? The Arab in particular may with the utmost facility be traced through the Abyssinian into the real African nith flattened nose and projecting jaws. J3y pursuing this progression, we shall find but one species from- the equator to the pole. But, to lay aside general reasoning, universal experience verifies the power of climate, soil 8i,c. on the form and co- lour of animals. With regard to man in particular, the summer darkens his skin, and the cold of winter excites a sanguine colour. Even the iE^thiop is white at birth, and becomes not black till ex- posed to the light. Now, when heat, or cold predominates in any region, it impresses, in the same proportion, a permanent and charac- teristic colour. A cold aiid piercing climate permanently chafes the coun- tenance, and exalts the complexion. A climate that is warm and misty, relaxes the constitution, and gives some tendency, ill valetudinarians especially, to a bilious hue. The sangi'.ine countenance is, for thi«* reason, perpetual :%> ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN GENERAL. l7 in the highest latitudes of the temperate zone ; and we ever find the swarthy, the olive, the tawny and the black, as we descend to the south. Nor does the colour of these people differ more than their features, as is evident in the European and iEdiiop ; or their stature, as appears from the Patagonian and Lap- lander. This is confirmed by every philosophical research. Man- kind are for ever changing their habitations by conquest or by commerce ; and we find them, in all climates, not only able to endure the change, but so assimilated by time, that we cannot say, with certainty, whose ancestor was the native of the climate, and whose the intruding foreigner. It is well known what a length of time is required to efface the freckles contracted in a fair skin by the exposure of a single day. These are known to be created by the sun ; and they become indelible by time. Now, the sun has power equally to change every part of the'skin, when equally exposed to its action. And it is, not improperly, observed by some writers, that the dark colour of many nations may be justly considered an universal freckle. No individual example of the influence of climate can carry with it greater force than that of the Jews. Descend- ed from one stock, prohibited, by their most sacred institu- tions, from intermarrying with other nations, and yet dis- persed into every country on the globe, this one people is marked with the colour of all — fair in Britain and Germany, brown in France and in Turkey, swarthy in Portugal and in Spain, olive in Syria and in Chaldea, tawny or copper coloured in Arabia and in Egypt. That the Jews are still distinguishable from Europeans, is doubtless imputable to this, that a still greater length of time is necessary totally to change them. For it cannot be doubted, that the same cause, which has alreadv so oreatlv altered them, will continue to operate. is PART FIRST. A Still more striking modern example of the influence of climate, and that of the most mdisputable kind, may be al- ready seen in the inhabitants of the United States of Ameri- ca. A certain countenance of paleness and of softness strikes a traveller from Britain, the moment he arrives upon that shore. A degree of sallovvness is visible to him, which, through familiarity, or the v\'aut of general standard of com- parison, hardly attracts the observation of the Americans themselves. This effect is more obvious in the southern, than in the northern states ; and more in the lower and la- bouring classes of people, than in families of easy fortune, who possess the means and the inclination to protect their complexion. That these circumstances present an approach to the Indian cannot be denied. Nor is the fact that the domestic slaves of America are darker than the field ones in opposition to the precedmg reasoning. Excessive labour, fatigue and debility may temporarily appear to counteract the influence of the climate, but it is by producing, not a healthy whiteness, but a morbid paleness. Creols also from English parents, or ancestors in the An- tilles, (and who are not to be confounded with mulatoes) change, ^n some measure, their native British countenance for the indigenous characteristic of the natives of America, and acquire their deep seated eyes, and elevated check-bones, or, as Blumenbach terms it, the ' austrum quasi spirans vultus et color.' So remarkable is the chano;e, that Creole women, otherwise fair and beautiful, may easily be distin- guished by that peculiar characteristic, even from their re- lations of the same sex born in Europe. This is also true of Asiatics born in the West Indies, from Persian and Mongo- lic parents. If, says Hawkesworth *, two natives of England marry in their own country, and afterwards remove to our settlements in the West Indies, the children that are con- ceived and born there, will have the complexion and cast of • Hawkesworth's CollectioHS of Voyages, V. 3. p. 374. ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN GENERAL. 19 countenance that distinguish the Creole ; and if they return, the children conceived and born afterwards, will have no such characteristics. The colour of the natives* of the West India islands, is well known to approach very near a dark copper. — The descendants of the Spaniards, in South America, have al- ready assumed that colour. The Portuguese of Mitomba, in Sierra Leona, on the coast of Africa, have, by intermarrying with the natives, and by adopting their manners, become, in a few generations, perfectly assimilated to the negroes, in aspect, figure and complexion. We see also nations" which are considered as being merely colonial, and originally of one and tiie same race, contract, under a new skv, a different national countenance. The Hungarians, for example, are referred to the same primitive stock with the Laplanders ; but the latter, under the northern zone, have assumed the features most conunou to the northern nations, while the former, on the contrary, bordering on the temperate zones of Greece and Turkey, have acquired a more elegant form of countenance. That few of these changes are ascribable to the intermar- riages of different people, will be obvious on the slightest inspection; for neither the Jews, nor the Anglo Americans, nor the European settlers in the Antilles intermarry with the natives of these respective countries. Hence, to climate, and climate alone, are the changes in these people ascribable. The effect of .climate is also augmented by a savage state, and corrected by a state of civilisation. Indeed, by certain states of society, tnany varieties in the human person are entirely formed. In reality, all the features of the human countenance are modified, and what is properly termed its expression, is radically formed by the state of society. Now, every remarkable change of feature that has grown into a habit of body, is transmitted to offspring, with other '/'i*- 20 VAET riRST. personal properties. The coarse features of labouring peo- ple, created by hardships and long exposure to the Aveather? are communicated. Tlie broad feet of the rustic, that have been spread by often treading the naked ground, and the large hand and arm, formed by constant labour, are dis- cernible even in children. It seems, however, very difficult to assign a reason why this climate causes one, and that, another countenance. Very ingenious men have attempted to account for this, in explaining the countenance of diffei-ent nations, as Kant in the Mongolic, in Engel Philosophf'tir die welt, t. ii. p, 14G. and Volney in the Aethiopic, I' oijage en St/rie et en Egyple, t. i. p. 74. Let us for a moment attend to the effects of extreme pold. It contracts the aperture of the eyes ; it draws down the brows ; it raises the cheek ; by the pressure of the un- der jaw against the upper, it diminishes the face in length, and spreads it out at the sides ; and ultimately this becomes the permanent character of northern nations. In effect, ' says Volney,' I observe, that the character of the Negro countenance precisely resembles that state of contraction, uhich our countenance assumes when struck by light, and a strong reverberation of heat. Thus, the eye- brow is drawn down ; the tips of the cheeks are elevated ; the eye-lids are drawn closer ; the mouth is projected. Must not this contraction, \Ahich perpetually takes place in the warm and unsheltered climates of the negroes, ultimately become the proper character of their countenance ?* Climate possesses great and evident influence on the hair, BOt only of men, but of all otlier animals. The hair gene- * En efFet, j 'observe que la figure des Negres represente precisement ce^ ttat de contraction que prend notre visage lorsqu'ii est frappe par la lumiere et par une forte reverberation de chaleur. Alors, le sourcil se fronce ; la pomme des joues s'eleve ; la paupiere se serre; la bouche fait la moue. Cette contraction des parties mobiles n'a-t-elle pas pu et du a la longue influer sus les parties solides, et mouler la charpente meme des os ? Voyage en Syria et en Egj'pte, par Mr C. F. Volney, t. i. p. 70. ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN GENERAL. 21 rally follows the law of the complexion ; because its roots, being planted in the skin, derive their nourishment and their colour from the same substance which there contributes to form the complexion : its colour may result in part, perhaps, from external heat, and in part from the nature of the sub- stance or secretion by which it is nourished. External and violent heat, parching the extremeties of the hair, tends like- wise to involve it. The colour of various nations may perhaps be explained from the direct influence which air of different temperatures and light of different intensity has upon the blood. Blu- menbach is of opinion, that the proximate cause of the dark colour of the skin is to be sought for, in the abundance of the carbonaceous element of the human body, which, toge- ther with hydrogen, is excreted through the true skin, but being there precipitated by the access of the atmospheric oxygen, is fixed in the rete mucosum or mucous substance, wnder the scarf skin. PART SECOND : OF THE PARTICULAR EFFECTS WHICH CLIMATE THUS PRODUCES, AND OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SPECIES WHICH RESULT FROM IT. ■■ ' ■' Facies non omnibus una, • Nee diversa tanien.' Ovid. Met. Lib. iufab. i. Haying delivered those general doctrines, which teach us that climate is the chief cause of the varieties in the form and colour of the human species, we now proceed to those particular observations which point out its specific effects. The systems of Camper and Blumenbach, are the only- ones which exist upon this subject. Both of these refer to the form of the head ; both are, in many points, invaluable, and require the detailed account, which I shall now give, adding, at the same time, those observations M'hich circum- stances may suggest. The plan of Camper, I may merely premise, is so gene- ral, as to involve all the superior orders of animals, as well ns man ; and, in that extent, I shall exhibit a sketch of it. PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, &C. S5 The form of the skull or cranium, differs no less than the colour of the skin, in different individuals ; and one kind of its form runs by gentle and almost inobservable grada- tions into another ; yet there is, on the whole, a very re- markable constancy of character in the crania of different nations, contributing very essentially to national peculiarities of form, and corresponding exactly to the features which characterise such nations. Hence anatomists have atteTnpted to lay down some scale of dimensions, to which the various forms of the skull might be referred, and by means of which they might be reduced into certain classes. Of these endeavours, the fa- cial line of Camper seems to claim the most attention. The cranium being placed laterally, two imaginary lines are drawn on its surface, to intersect each other at a particu- lar point. The first proceeds horizontally through the external aper- ture of the ear, or meatus auditorius externus, and the floor of the nostrils. The other, or the proper facial line, is continued from the most prominent portion of the forehead above the nose, to the front of the lower, or alveolar margin of the upper jaw-bone. See PI. I. Fig. 1. From the angle formed at the junction of those two lines, this excellent anatomist conceived, that we might estimate the differences of the cranium in animals, as well as in the various races of mankind. . A very striking difference between man and all other ani- mals, really does consist in the relative proportions of the calvarium or upper part of the cranium and the face, which are in general indicated by the direction of the facial line. The two organs which occupy most of the face, are those of smelling and tasting, (including chewing or mastication &C.J 24 PART SECOND. In propoitiou as those parts are more elevated, the size of the face, compared to that of the calvarium, is augmented. On the contrary, when the brain is large, the volume of the calvarium is increased in proportion to that of the face. A large calvarium and small face indicate, therefore, a large brain with inconsiderable organs of smellino-, tastino-. masticating &c. while a small calvarium with a large face, shows that these proportions are reversed. Now, the nature and character of each animal must de- pend, in a great measure, on the relative energy of its dif- ferent functions ; it is, in fact, regulated by its most power- ful sensations : we meet with examples of this daily in the human species ; but the differences which can be observed between one man and another, in this respect, must be much less than those which occur between animals of dif- ferent species. The brain is the common centre of the nervous system : all our sensations are conveyed to this part, which, therefore, is a sensorium commune, or the organ by which the mind combines and compares these perceptions, and draws infer- ences from them ; by which, in short, it reflects and thinks. We shall find that animals partake in a greater degree of this latter faculty, generally speaking, in proportion as the mass of medullary substance, forming their brain, exceeds that which constitutes the rest of the nervous system. Since, then, the relative proportions of the calvarium and face indicate also those of the brain, and the two principal \ external organs, we shall not be surprised to find, that they point out to us, in a great measure, the general character of animals, and the degree of instinct, as it is termed, and do- cility which they possess ; and hence, the study of these proportions is of great importance to the naturalist. Man combines by far the largest calvarium with the smal- PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, 8CC. 25 lest face ; and animals increase in stupidity and ferocity, in proportion as they deviate from these relations. One of the most simple methods, then, (though sometimes indeed insufficient) of expressing the relative proportions of these parts, is the facial line already described. In man only, is the face placed perpendicularly under the front of the calvarium ; so that the facial line is in him perpendicu- lar. Hence, the upper and inner angle formed between this line, and the horizontal one, which passes through the nose and meatus auditorius, is most open, or approaches most nearly to a right angle in the human subject. See PI. I. ■Fig 1. The face of animals is placed in front of the cranium, instead of under it : that cavity is so diminished in size, that its anterior expanded portion or forehead, is soon lost as we recede from man. Hence, the facial line is oblique, and the facial or upper and inner angle is acute : it becomes more and more so, as we descend in the scale from man ; and, in several birds, and in most reptiles and fishes, it is lost altogether, as the calvarium and face are completely on a level, and form parts of one horizontal plane. See PI. I. Fig. 1, 2, 3. ; and PI. II. Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The idea of stupidity is associated even by the vulgar, with the elongation of the snout, which necessarily lowers the facial line, or renders it more oblique ; hence the crane and snipe have become proverbial. On the contrary, when the facial line is elevated by any cause, which does not increase the capacity of the calvari- um, as in the elephant and owl, by the cells which separate the two tables of the skull, the animal acquires a particular air of intelligence, and gains the credit of qualities, which he does not hi reality possess. Hence, the latter animal has been selected, as the emblem of the goddess of wisdom, and the former is distuiguished in the Indian language, by a name which indicates an opinion, that he participates with man in S6 PART SECOND his most distinguishing characteristic — the possession of rea- son *. The invaluable remains of Grecian art show, that the an- cients were well acquainted with these circumstances : they were aware that an elevated facial line formed one of the grand characters of beauty, and indicated a noble and ge- nerous nature. Hence, they have extended the upper and inner, or facial angle, to 90 degrees or a right angle, in the representation of liien on whom they w ished to bestow an august character. And, in the statues of their gods and licroes, they have carried it beyond a right angle, and made it 100. See PI. I. Fig. 1 The facial line of the European, (Fig. 2.) forms an angle of 80, and that of the negro, (Fig. 3.) one of 70. The boundaries of the facial angle m the human subject are, therefore, 70° and 80°. A smaller angle than the former constitutes an approach to the nionkey. Yet it may be extended beyoml the latter, as the Greeks have done, in their representations of the gods : here, how- ever, 100° seems to be the ne plus ultra, beyond which the proportions of the head would appear deformed : that angle, according to Camper, constitutes the most beautiful coun- tenance, and hence, he supposes, the Greeks adopted it. Endeavouring to apply these facts to the varieties of the human species in particular. Camper says : it would be im- practicable to delineate all the characteristic varieties that exist in nature ; we may therefore, First, consider the Culmuck, as being, with regard to the form of his head, the representative of all Asia (from Si- beria to New Zealand) and also of North America ; as it is more than probable that the people of that country are descended from the northern Asiatics. * Vide Cuvler Anatomie compar^e. PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, &C. 27 Secondly, the head of an European may be considered, as a specimen of all Europe, Turkey, Persia and the largest part of Arabia, as far as Indostan. Thirdly, the head of an Ahgolese negro may be substituted feral! Africa; also for the Hottentots, (who do not mate- rially differ from the negroes) ; for the Caftres, and for the natives of Madagascar. In opposition to the doctrine of Camper it may be stated. First, it is evident that this facial line does not accurately apply, except to those varieties of the human race, which vary from each other in the direction of the jaws, and by no means to those who, on the contrary, are remarkable for a face drawn out laterally. Secondly, very often in the crania of nations entirely dif- ferent, the facial line possesses the same direction ; and, on the contrary, in many crania of the same people which in general agree in habit, that line is extremely different. The rule, therefore, does not answer the purpose of dis- tinguishing the varieties of the human race. Where, how- ever, the rule is applied to animals in general, as indicating some of their intellectual faculties, it becomesf invaluable. It by no means, however, entirely answejis this purpose ; and even when most applicable, must be regulated by corres- ponding observations. Nevertheless, Camper's division of the varieties of the human species, into three, is excellent. The facts, however, adduced by Blumenbach aiford the best support of the division, although he has adopted one somewhat different. Blumenbach, then, also attempts to reduce the national varieties of the hunuin countenance into certain classes ; and S8 PART SECOND. he obsei-ves, that unless he is utterly deceived, although they be liable to particular exceptions, they are, in the follomug manner, naturally reducible to iive, \\hich may be considered as the heads or sources of the other less important varieties. The most symmetrical and perfect form of countenance constitui-es, as it were, the middle one. This middle one passes into two extremes, very different from itself, of which one exhibits the face drawn out late- raliy, the odier stretched out inferiorly. Each of these extremes, again, includes two different va- rieties, very distinguishable from each other, when viewed in profile. One of these varieties of each has the nose and other parts less distinct and, as it were, confluent. The other exhibits the same parts more deeply excavated and angularly projecting. Since, however, in distinguishing the characters of differ- ent crania, such a view will gain the preference to all others, as offers, at one glance, the most numerous and important points, and such as contribute especially to the comparison of national characteristics, he has found by experience that to be the best adapted to this purpose, in which, from be- hind the vertex, we behold crania, having their cheek-bones placed in the same horizontal line, arranged in a series. For then, whatever most contributes to the national character of skulls, whether the direction of the jaws or of the cheek- bones, the breadth or narrowness of the skull, the smooth- ness, or tuberosity of the forehead, &c. at one glance, so distinctly strike the eye, that it is not unfair to call that as- pect tlie vertical rule. See PI. 111. Fig. 1, 2, 3. Tliere are, then, five principal varieties of the human race, but merely one species ; and the innumerable less va- rieties which exist, mingle togetlier by insensible gradations. These varieties are the Caucasian, the Mongolic, the ^thiopic, the American, and the Malaiac, equally capable of being defined and distinguished from each other. PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, &C. 29 It is the Caucasian, which, for reasons afterwards assigned, Blumeubach places first, as to be considered the primitive one. This, as already stated, passes, on each side, into two very remote and different extremes : on this, namely, into the Mongolic; on that, into the ^thiopic. Other two, as al- ready observed, hold middle places between that primitive one and these two extreme varieties, namely. The American between the Caucasian and Mongolic, and The Malaiac between the Caucasian and iElhiopic . These five varieties seem generally defined by the follow- ing characters. Butj'^o the explanation of these, it is necessary to prefix a double caution, first, that, on account of the multifarious diversity of characters by various gradations, it is not this or that detached one that will suffice, but that many, consi- dered together, are necessary ; and secondly, that not even this complex character is so constant, as not to be liable to innumerable, exceptions, in all and each of these varieties. Nevertheless, this is to be so understood, that it may, in general, permit a sufficiently simple and perspicuous notion of them. The Caucasian variety (PI. IV. fig. S.) is of a white colour —ruddy cheeks — hair subfuscous, hazet, or chesnut — head subglobose — face oval, rather sti aight and its parts mode- , rately distinct — .forehead rather plain — nose rather narrow and sometimes slightly arched — mouth small — the anterior teeth of each jaw placed perpendicularly — -the lips, (espe- cially the inferior) gently unfolded — and the chin full and round. In general, that kind of countenance which, ac- cording to our ideas of symmetr}', is thought most hand- some and beautiful. 30 PART SECOND. t The Europeans, (except the Laplanders and the rest of the Finnish race) the Western Asiatics or those on this side of the river Obi, the Caspian sea and the Ganges, and the inhabitants of northern Africa ; in short, all the inhabitants of the world, as known to the ancients, belong to this first variety. This variety- derives its name from Mount Caucasus, both because its neighbourhood, and chiefly its southern region produces the Georgian and Tsheicassian, the most beautiful race of men ; and also because all physiological reasons con- spire to prove, that the first progenitors of the human race, were, in all probability, placed here. For, in the first place, we see this race possess that form of cranium, from which, as from a middle and primigeni- tive configuration, the rest, on each side, to the two remotest extremes, one the Mongolic, the other the iEthiopic, flow by the simplest gradation. Next, it possesses that white colour, which it is also rea- sonable to reckon the primitive one of the human race, since, from it, degeneration most easily takes place into black, but much more difficultly from black to white, because the secretion and precipitation of that carbonaceous pig- ment, once inveterate, retains its root. *' The blood of Georgia," says Chardin, *' is the finest of the east, I may say of the whole earth. In that country, I have never observed, in either sex, one disagreeable coun- tenance, but I have often seen angelic ones. Nature has, there, diffused over the greatest number of the women, graces which are no where else to be seen. I conceive it to be impossible to behold them without loving them. Paint- ing cannot display more charming countenances, on more elegant forms, than those of Georgians." The women of Circassia, Struys remarks, are likewise ex- ceedingly fair and beautiful. This complexion consists of the most delicate tints. Their foreheads are large and PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, &C. 31 smooth ; and, without the assistance of art, their eye-brows are so fine, that they resemble curved threads of silk. Their eves are lar^e, attractinof and full of animation. Their noses are well shaped, and their lips are perfect vermilion. Their mouth is small, but the perpetual residence of smiles : their chin is the termination of the completes! oval. Their neck and throat are extremely handsome : their skin is "white as snow : the colour of their hair is a beautiful black ; their stature is tall ; and their carriage easy. Belon also as- serts that there is not a wife of any labourer or rustic in Asia (Turkey), who has not a skin so polished, that it feels like fine velvet*. The Mongolic variety, (PI. IV. fig. 1.) is of yelloxvish or buff colour — hair black, rather rigid, straight and scarce — the head, as it were, square — face broad, at the same time plane and depressed ; its parts, therefore, less distinct and as it were confluent — the glabella plain and very broad — the nose small and flat — the cheeks almost globose, and projecting outward — the aperture of the eye-lids narrow and linear — and the chin slightly prominent. This variety embraces the other inhabitants of Asia, (ex- cepting the Malays of tlie extreme Transgangetan peninsu- la,) the Finnish people, Laplanders &c. of northern Eu- rope, and the nation of the Equimoes, widely diff'used, over the most northern parts of America, from the strait of Be- rinsr to extreme inhabited Greenland. This is the same which once was commonly, but in an ambiguous and vague sense, called the Tartaric. That de- nomination, however, in the study of the varieties of the hu- * " II n'y a femme de quelque labourer ou rustique en Asie (Turquie), " qui n'ait une peau si polie, qu'il semble toucher a «n fin velours." Obser- vations de Belon, p. 198. 32 PART SECOND. man race, has given origin to strange errors ; so that, as an example, Buflbn and liis successors, misled by this a])pella- tion, have erroneously transferred the national characters of the Mongolic variety, used by ancient authors who described them under the name of Tartars, to that people, who, without doubt, belong to tlie first variety which we have described. The x^illhiopic variety, (PI. IV. fig. 5.) is of dark colour — ' hair black and woolly — head narrowed and compressed la- terally — forehead gibbous and arched — cheek-bones project- ing forward — eyes rather prominent — nose thick and some- what confused with the extending jaw s — the alveolar outline rather narrow and elongated anteriorly — the anterior front teeth obliquely prominent — the lips (especially the upper) tumid — the chin retracted — and, in many instances, the legs bandy. To this variety, all the Africans, except the northern ones, belong. The small progress of negroes in the study of the scien- ces and in civilization ; their decided taste and singular ap- titude for all the arts that require more address than under- standing and reflection, as dancing, music, fencing &c. ; the form of their head, which is in a medium between the Eu- ropean and Orang-outang*; the existence of intermaxillary bones at an age when, in us, the traces of their separation are completely obliterated ; the high situation and smallness of the calf of their leg, &,c. have been advanced as arguments, which, however true and good as proofs of physical and mental inferiority, are totally inapplicable to the pinpose of those v.ho have endeavoured to degrade this portion of tlie human species, with a view of justifying the commerce' made of it by civilized nations, and the slavery to which it is re- duced. ' Cuvler, Lecons d'AnatomIe comparce. PARTICULAR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE, &C. 3.1 The American variety, (PI. IV. fig. 2.) is of a copper co- lour — hair black, rather rigid, straight and scarce — forehead short — eyes deeply seated — nose somewhat flattened, yet prominent — in general, a face indeed broad with eminent cheek bones, yet not plain and depressed, but its parts, if viewed laterally, more elaborated, and, as it were, more deeply excavated — the form of the forehead and crown very artificially constructed. The inhabitants of America, except the Esquimoes, com- pose this variety. The number and the kind of fictions, respecting the na- tional character of the American variety, which were at one time propagated, were at once amazing and disgraceful. Some denied a beard to the men ; others menstruation to the women. Some ascribed to all and each of the Ameri- cans, one and the same colour ; others, a countenance per- fectly similar. ' As to tlie cutaneous colour of this variety, it is, on the one hand, no where so constant, but that it frequently verges to black ; and, on the other part, causes appear, both from the nature of the American chmate, and from the laws of de S8 PART THIRD. great intellectual functions, and we know that their energy, in perfect health, must precisely correspond with the deve^ lopenient of their organs. The criterion, then, first of intelligence which this phy- siologist has pointed out, is afforded by the proportionally greater magnitude of the cerebrum, compared to the face and cerebellum ; the criterion of sense or sensation is afford- ed by the proportionally greater magnitude of the face or, more properly, of the organs of sense, compared to the cerebrum and cerebellum ; and the criterion of volition or of locomotive power, is afforded by the proportionally greater magnitude of the cerebellum, compared to the or- gans of sense and the cerebrum. From every observation which we have been able to make, those criteria appear to be correct. Nor is it possible, that any criterion can be correct, which does not thus involve all the intellectual organs, and consider each with relation to its particular function. Now, these three criteria of sense, intellect and voluntary motion, certainly, are strictly and beautifully applicable to the varieties of the human species. For the area of the cerebral cavity of the European skull is uniformly greatest, compared to the are^ of the face and of the cerebellic cavi- ty ; while iEthiopic and Mongolic crania, without differing hi general relative magnitude, ffor what the Mongolic has , in breadth, the jEthiopic has in height), seem strikingly to differ in this, that the area of the face is actually greatest in the ^Ethiop, compared to the area of the cerebral and of the cerebellic cavity, while the cerebellic cavity is actually great- est in the Mongol, compared to the area of the face and of the cerebral cavity*. Thus, the ^thiop, having proportionally the largest ori- gans of sense, ought to have the strongest sensation ; the European, having proportionally the largest cerebrum, ought * See Proofs of this in Appendix, No. I. ITS INFLUENCE ON THE HEAD AND ON INTELLECT. 39 to have the greatest uitellect ; and the Mongol, having pro- portionally the largest cerebellum, ought to have the greatest volition. Very beautifully all this is confirmed by the very habits of these varieties ; for, while the northern people have the dullest sensations, they are the most active men on the earth, and while the negroes have the acutest sensation, they are the most indolent *. It remains only to explain the difference in intellect be- tween the Mongol and Aethiop, since, while their cerebral cavities are, upon the whole, of equal magnitude, that of the Mongol is broad, and that of the Aethiop high f. From this circumstance an intellectual difference mmt proceed. But the natives of colder countries have, with regard to intellect, been rather distinguished for calculation and ma- thematical talent, while those of hot, have, even in the common expressions of their language, been remarkable for imagination and poetical talent. Now, it is to be ob- servedj'that the common expressions of a language, afford a stronger argument on this subject, than the production of a few great poets, whose existence depends more on such in- cidental circumstances as general illumination, political free- dom Sec. which have more frequently fallen to the lot of northern nations. This being the case, no supposition %o pro- bable presents itself, as that the calculatory or mathematical talent of the one, is connected with his breadth of cranium, and the insaginary or poetical talent of the other, with his elevation of cianium. In confirmation of this, it is worthy of notice, that con- siderable breadth of the upper part of the head is allowed, even by the most superficial observer, to give an air of sa- gacity ; while great elevation, especially of the forehead, as in Charles XII. and a multitude of great men, gives a * See Proofs of this in Appendix, No. II. ■J- See also Proofs ofthisandof several succeeding facts in Appendix, No. I. 40 PART THIRD. strong impression of imagination. Even in inanimate ob- jects, breadth gives the appearance of stability and perma- nence — terms which, though here physically used, are by the very habitude of language, in a moral sense, applied ra- ther to calculatory or mathematical talent — to sagacity than to imagination ; and, in the same objects, height gives the appearance of lightness and elegance— terms which, though here physically used, are also by the habitude of language, in a moral sense, applied rather to imagination than to sagacity. Hence, it is with strong reason, that breadth of cranium is here supposed to indicate stability and permanence, and height, lightness and elegance, or brilliance and intensity of function. The physiologist above alluded to, therefore, proposes the arrangement of the human race into three varieties, found- ed at once upon physical form and moral habit — the phy- sical form of three different organs, viz. those of sense, the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and the consequent energy of the sensitive, perceptive and voluntary powers, exercised by these organs. That form and this energy, is proposed as the basis of all such classification, in lieu of the merely physical, and that, too, insulated basis of Camper, Biumenbach and others; and whether it lead to the adoption of three, or five, or any greater number of varieties is immaterial. The nature of the basis is that for which alone we contend. It, moreover, not only affords a natural classification of the human race ; but presents the principles of a natural, simple and impres- sive system of physiognomy. With regard to the different character of male and female crania, the same physiologist has ascertained, that when the ca- vity of the male and female cranium is of equal length, the portion before the cavity of the pituitary gland, is longer in the male than in the female ; while that behind it, is longer in the female than in the male. ITS INFLUENCE ON THE HEAD AND ON INTELLECT. 41 Now, in the anterior part of the cavity, are lodged those medullary fasciculi, through which impressions ascend to the common sensorium ; and, in the posterior, those through which they descend *. Hence, it is probable, that the as- cending impressions are stronger in the male ; the descending, in the female. And, in perfect conformity with this, we find that more numerous and stronger impressions in the male, more rarely and weakly excite emotions and passions ; where- as fewer and slighter impressions in the female, more fre- quently and more strongly excite emotions and passions. - But, as the male cranium is widest posteriorly, even iu cavities of equal length, tlie rarer and weaker emotions and passions of the male are, consistently witli the preceding doctrine, more permanent than those of the female. The female calvarium seems in general also narrower than that of the male ; and hence, all her mental operation?, though more brilliant and intense during their continuance, O Or have, on the same principles, less permanence. Though these characteristics have, in the preceding part of the paper, been applied only to the varieties of the hu- man race, and to different ages and sexes, yet, it is obvious, that they all apply with equal correctness to individuals of whatever description ; and that they, therefore, constitute the first principles of physiognomy, zchich have not hitherto been thus founded on physiology. Thus, organs of sense greatly developed, in comparison to the cerebral and cerebellic cavities, indicate the pre-emi- nence of sensation, and a diminished degree of intellect and voluntary power; the cerebral cavity greatly developed, in ccMTiparison to the organs of sense and the cerebellic cavity, indicates the pre-eminence of intellect, and a diminished de- gree of sensation and voluntary power ; and the cerebellic * See the Report of the Committee of the National Institute of France, on Gall and Spurzheim's Paper on the Brain, with Critical Observations, in the Archives of Universal Science. 42 PART THIRD. cavity greatly developed, in comparison to the organs of sense and cerebral cavity, indicates the pre eminence of vo- luntary power, and a diminished degree of sensation and intellect. In order to ascertain the magnitude of these organs in the living body, the process is simple : that of the organs of sense is obvious to every observer ; so is that of the cere- brum ; and that of the cerebellum is easily ascertained, as, in all the superior animals, it begins precisely opposite the place where the face terminates, that is, opposite the articu- lation of the lower jaw, which is immediately before the ear, and extends to the spine which projects from the occiput. — In both the last cases, allowance is to be made for varieties in the thickness of the cranium, which are rarely very remark- able. Tims, we possess the means of ascertaining the degrees of the three simple powers, sensation, mental operation and volition, in man and all the superior animals, in Avhatever proportion they may be combined. Moreover, wherever these organs are elevated, there their functions are brilliant or intense ; wherever they are wide, there they are stable and permanent. Thus, the elevated cerebrum indicates genius and imagination ; the broad one, the more mathematical talent : when the cerebrum is lonsr- est anteaiorly, there preception and observation excel ; and when it is longest posteriorly, there reflection and passion excel : when the cerebrum is elevated before and depressed behind, there the perceptions are brilliant or intense, the reflections less so ; and when it is depressed before and elevated behind, then the perceptions are less, the reflec- tions more intense: when the cerebrum is broad before and narrow behind, then the perceptions are more perma- nent, the reflections less so ; and when it is narrow before and broad behind, then the perceptions are less permanent, the reflections more so. ITS INFLUENCE ON THE HEAD AND ON INTELLECT. 43 For a further illustration of these criteria of intellect, see Plate V. representing an exquisitely formed cianium f^om the Decades of Blumenbach. The skiill is that of a young Georgian female, who fell into the hands of Russians at the siege of OczakofF: dying at Moskow, the head, as distinguished for beauty, was sent by Professor Hiltebrandt to Blumenbach. A sketch of it has been chosen here for the illustration of the preceding principles. . . The inscrip- tions on the plate itself, if examined along with the preced- ing paragraph, render this doctrine perfectly simple. Now, the various combinations of these various degrees of sensation, mental operation and volition, give origin to all the passions and habits of life ; so that these passions and habits by no means require distinct organs, as Gall has supposed : they are compound in their nature, and result from the combination of these various degrees of these simple powers. With regard, however, to the system of Gall *, it is worthy of notice that, unscientific and empirical though it be, yet, in a few instances, he has approached to the truth. Thus, in placing the absurd organs of vanit)-, loftiness and theosophy, on the top of the head, he has either empirical- ly or accidentally approached the simple truth, that imagiiwi- tion depends on the developement of the cerebrum in height ; in placing the equally absurd organ of courage on each side the head above the ear, he has approached the simple truth, that permanence or firmness of function, depends on the de- velopement of the cerebrum in breadth ; in placing a variety of petty organs, of number, place, things, persons, words &.C. on the forehead, he has either empirically or accidental- ly approached the simple truth, that preception and observa- tion depend on the developement of the anterior portion of the cerebrum ; in placing the organ of parental and filial • See aa Account of his doctrine in the Appendix, No. III. 44 PART THIRD. love on the back of the head, he has also approached the simple truth, that reflection and passion depend on the de- velopement of the posterior portion of the cerebrum ; and in placing the organ of sexual love in the cerebellum, and exemplifying this by the greater magnitude of this part, and the greater vigour of this function in the bull, 8cc. he has likewise approached the simple truth, that muscular power of all kinds, depends on the developement of the cerebel- lum. Gall, however, has not only erred, even with regard to these organs, by mistaking their nature and limiting their sites, but he has still more egregiously erred throughout,, in assigning a multitude of dmple and distinct organs, for functions, which ozve their existence to a combination of o- thers. In order, then, to ascertain the frequent existence of any passion, or habit of mind, the search for minute and distinct organs must be abandoned ; but, it is only necessary to as- certain the existence of the signs of those degrees of the simple powers, which are requisite to constitute the pas- sion or habit, than which, according to the preceding prin- ciples, nothing is more easy. PART FOURTH. PHYSIOGNOMICAL DETAILS, AS FOUNDED OX THE PRECEDING PHYSIOLOGY. *' When we say that a countenance is noble, or magnanimous, or heroic, •r gentle, or feeling, or melancholy, we convey at once to every hearer, a belief of some degree of subUmity or beauty ; but no one ever asks us to describe the form of the features which compose it." Alison's Essays, Vol. H. page 270. Having thus established the first pnnciples of physiog- nomy, founded, as they ought to be, on a comparative view of the three great organs of sensation, mental operation and volition, we now, assisted by the same guide, proceed to its minuter details. The minute details of physiognomy are not to be found in any investigation, either of the superior, or posterior part of the head, as Gall has absurdly attempted. The reasons ©f this are obvious. First, the superior and posterior part of the head, present only one or two organs uniformly con- structed, except with regard to the great and more general deviations which have been already explamed ; and conse- quently no minute forms are to be discerned on them, super- 46 PART FOURTH. ficially examined. Secondly, the >\lioIe superficies of these organs is tovered by the skull, somewhat irregular in its thickness, so as to render it difficult to calculate what may be the minute conformation of the subjacent parts. Thirdly, the skull covering these organs is itself covered with hair, so that any examiiiation of them is thus rendered still more diffi- cult. Fourthly, the dress of most nations presents an addi- tional obstacle. Nature, however, seems admirably to have preserved ojie of the great mental organs, open for our inspection. The face, containing the organs of sense, presents every possible advantage for the puipose of physiognomical examination. First, it exhibits many organs, each of which may be se- parately and distinctly examined. These organs, it will be found, present, if we may use the term, a kind of analysis of sensation : or, in other words, while in some of the in- ferior animals, one and the same organ (as the horn of the snail) receives every kind of impression, and is sensible to light, to sound, to odour, to taste and to touch ; in man, transparent lenses transmit the rays of light ; tense mebranes receive the concussions of sound ; a convoluted organ receives the impressions of the odours which are wafted thiough the nose, in the air which we respire ; the moist papillae of the tongue receive the impressions of taste; and- the delicately conformed and highly sensible tips of the fingers receive those of touch. Secondly, in the face, the soft parts, or rather the organs of sense, are quite superficial, and not sepa- rated from our view by osseous matter. Thirdly, little or no hair ; and, in general, no mode of dressing covers these organs. These reasons for preferring the face, for the purpose of physiognomical observation, are precisely the counterpart of those which prevent the examination of the superior and posterior part of the head. PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 47 From a vague perception of this truth, it has probably arisen that the face in particular has ever been the principal subject of physiognomical observation, and forms almost the sole one of the celebrated Fragments of Lavater *. But nature presents other, and perhaps still more beautiful, reasons for this preference of the face. All men- tal operation, and all volition is dependent upon sensation. By the face being left thus exposed, we are enabled not only to Doint out the capabilities of men with regard to sen- sation itself; but, as all effects are dependent upon corres- ponding causes, we are also enabled, in some measure, to predict the mental operation and the volition which may result from given powers of sensation. Moreover, the face thus presents not only organs of sense, or organs of impression ; its muscular parts are all under the guidance of the will, or of the organ of volition. Hence, the state of these muscular parts beautifully indicates the acts also of that organ on which they depend. So that the face presents organs of volition as well as those of sensa- tion. Now, had organs of sense alone been exliibited in the face, we could not infallibly have predicted the extent of mental operation ,• because, although no acts of the mind inconsistent with the obvious capacities of the organs of sense could have taken place, yet mental operation might have advanced to no very great extent. For it often happens, that the sensations, as in the negro, are strong, while the mental operations and volitions are weak. The existence in the face, however, of organs of volition, as well as of or- gans of sensation, enables us accurately to predict the pre- cise extent to which mental operation has advanced, because all the acts of volition are the result of preceding mental operation, and could not have existed without it. • See some Remarks on his doctrine in th« Appendix, No. 4. 48 PART FOURTH. It is of much importance to attend to this fact. Like the preceding ones, ali physiognomists have neglected it. As the face thus presents organs of two kinds, this is its greatest and most general division ; and the first rule of phy- siognomy, applicable to the face in particular, results from examining the predominance of one of these sets of organs over the other — of those of sense over those of volition, or vice versa. Some countenances express great sensibility and little vo- luntary power. Hence, the vulgar often point out a spe- cies of beauty in countenances which they nevertheless grant to have little expression. Now, the truth in this case is ex- plained by the rule that, some countenances present beauti- fnlly formed organs of sense and perhaps much sensibility, but no stro7igh/ delineated muscular parts, and consequently no proof of pozcerful mental operation ; or, in other zcords, they have little expression : other countenances present strong muscular traits and much expression, hut less beautifully formed orgayis of sense and less sensibility. Some nations, as those of the East Indies, possess the for- mer of these characters, namely, a fine oval form of face, beautifully shaped eyes and nose, and lips admirably curved, and, along with these, much sensibility ; yet they have little expression, because the muscular parts of their face are scarcely apparent. This observation is also in general ap- plicable to the faces of women, compared with those of iiien . . . Other nations again, as those of Europe, possess the last of these characteristics, viz. strong muscular traits and much expression, but less beautifully formed organs of sense and less sensibility. Such also is, in general, the case with regard tp the faces of men, compared with those of wo- men* Thus, we have established the first and most general phy- siognomical rule that can be derived from the face indivi- duallvconsidered. PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 49 Let US now examine the organs of sense in particular. The number of these organs first demands our attention. — Why are these organs preciseh/ Jive in number ? This is a question well worth being put ; The answer is not difficult. These organs are five in number, because there are just so many states of matter capable of affecting animal bodies, and such a number of media in which they are involved. These are, solids which affect touch, liquids which affect taste, fluids whicli affect smell, aeriform vibrations which af- fect hearing, and light which affects the sight. The states of matter, properly so called, are indeed only three, namely, solidity, liquidity and fluidity, and require only three organs, namely, those of touch, taste and smell ; but it is obvious, that the other two senses, of hearing and seeing, were in- dispensable to such a perfectly organized animal as man, in consequence of his being enveloped in the two great media of thcv atmosphere and of light. Had still other media ex- isted, there would have been still other senses. The states of matter, then, and the media are precisely five in number ; and hence^ the organs of sense are precisely five. Another curious and important question is — Why are some of the organs doable and others single ? Now, nature seems desirous of rendering impressions in the more perfect ani- mals as numerous, extensive and powerful, as is consistent with their organization. Hence, instead of one organ of sense, like the Zoophytes, she has given them five ; and, in- stead of these being single organs, she has doubled them whenever it was possible ; and has permitted them to be single, only in those cases where certain other circumstances — certain complex offices which they had also to perform, rendered the doubling of them impossible. Thus, the ear performs only the office of hearing, and, consistently with this principle, it is double. The eye performs only the of- fice of seeing, and, in similar consistency, it is also double. But the nose and the mouth do not perform only the res- 50 FART FOURTH. pective offices of smelling and tasting — they perfonn also that of speech. Now, it was necessary that the voice should be single : two sounds at once emitted would have led to utter confusion. Hence, the nose and mouth are each a single, and not a double organ. It is true that these form two different organs thus performing one function — the func- tion of voice ; but it is worthy of notice, that nature has beautifully adapted them for the performance of distinct portions of that one function : articulati n consequently takes place in the mouth ; resonance, in the nose. Thus, admi- rably does nature conform to the general principle above enunciated. It is further worthy of notice, that tliese tw© organs, in so far as they are tzeo different organs of sense receiving impressions from without, are exteinalli/ Separate ; and in so far as they form one and the same organ of voice proceeding from zcifhin, they internally Communicate. A third question not less worthy of notice presents itself .—Why have these different organs situations so very differ- ent ; two of them, the eye and the ear, being placed supe- riorly, and two, the nose and mouth, inferiorly ? Now, the reason of this is equally obvious. The eye and the ear are elevated in order to command objects placed at as great a distance as possible ; and the nose and mouth, which do not receive impressions from a distance, are placed below, in or- der to permit a ready communication with the lungs and stomach. Nothing, moreover, could have been more in- convenient, than the situation of the nose and mouth above the eye and ear, not only as it would have elevated senses which do not command distant objects, above senses which ought to command them, but as it would have required an unnecessary length of the canals, to communicate with the lungs and stomach, and would also have exposed those nobler organs — the eye and the ear, to injury from food, &c. The reason, also, why the ear in particular is placed behind the eye, is, that while the objects of our vision occupy a li- PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 5* mited situation and can best be inspected by an organ placed before, sounds, on the contrary, are diffused all around and can more completely be impressed on organs situate on each side. Ample room is thus also given to the organs neces- sarily placed before— a situation which, in consequence of man's having the power of moving only in one direction, is rendered evidently the best. The reason, moreover, why the nose is placed higher than the mouth, is not only that it is destined to command objects — odours namely, at a greater distance than the mouth, which for the purposes of taste must have liquids brought into actual contact with it, but there is another reason for their situation, which has a very beautiful reference to their use, as the organ of voice. All resonance (of which the nose, as we have already stated, is the organ) tends to ascend ; and hence, the nose, in order to perform that office — to permit resonance, must be placed superior to the mouth— the organ in which articulation is actually produced. ^ These three very curious and interesting questions, have, till lately, been utterly neglected ; and, with regard to the last, it may justly be observed, that if it be worth the while of the naturalist to remark that the habit of the Choudro- pterygii, of lying always on their belly, renders it necessary for them to have eyes in the back of their head, as is exem- plified in the skate, for eyes in the front would be buried in the sand ; — if this be worth his while, it surely cannot be un- worthy of tlie physiologist to assign the reasons for the si- tuation of individual organs in the noblest of all animals. Now, as the first rule of physiognomy, derived from the consideration of the face, was founded upon its consisting of organs of two kinds, namely, organs of sense or impression, and organs of volition or expression ; so the second is found- ed on the former — the organs of seme thus generally consi- dered. It is, that zrith regard to each of the organs of sense ^ coarse or defective construction indicates coarse or defective 52 PART FOURTH. !>ensihiUty ; and, on the contrary, delicate and perfect con- struction indicates delicate and perfect sensibility. We have next to inquire into the best order of enume- rating, or arranging the organs of which we have thus ex- plained the number, the circumstance of their being double or single, and the different situation. Some enumerate them thus : organ of touch, of taste, of smell, of hearing, of seeing ; and others exactly reverse this order ; yet no one has hitherto assigned a reason for doing so. The truth is, that both arrangements are equally good. The first, commen- cing with touch, is the order of the accuracy of these organs ; fur touch is the most accurate of the senses, because it con- sists in the actual contact of solids, which are the least va- riable state of matter ; taste is less accurate, because it con- sists in the contact of liquids, which are still more variable ; smell is still less accurate, because it consists in the contact of fluids, which are more variable still ; and hearing and see- ing are least accurate of all, because they do not consist in any actual contact, but depend upon the interposition of media— air or light. Hence, the echo utterly deceives us, as to the direction of sound, and the oar which appears per- fectly straight in the open air, seems bent when partially plunged among m ater. This, then, is the order of their ac- curacy . . . The opposite order,commencing with the sense of sight, is the order, if we may so term it, of their dignity or nobility. The eye is the noblest organ, because it com- mands objects at the greatest possible distance ; the ear com- mands objects which are nearer ; the nose, those which are still nearer ; the taste, those which are nearer still ; and the touch, those which are nearest of all — in actual contact. Upon this appropriation to objects situate at different dis- tances, depends the third great physiognomical rule, appli- cable to the face in particular. This is, that a more dete- loped and perfect form of any one of these organs, than of the rest, indicates the capability of receiving more perfect PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 53 impressions from that particular species of object for which the organ is calculated, and also a capahiliti/ of those more or less noble intellectual operations zchich most readily fozv from such impression. Thus, although all the senses are sub- servient to the pleasures termed sensual, in opposition to those which are reckoned more purely intellectual, yet it is evident that some senses, as the mouth and even the nose, are more completely subservient to sensual pleasure. Hence, (to illustrate the preceding rule) their greater developement, as in the brute, will indicate rather a susceptibility of sen- sual than ef intellectual pleasure ; and, on the contrary, their being of moderate size and delicately constructed, will indicate a more moderate and delicate sensuality. On the contrary, the greater developement of the eye and ear — these nobler organs, to which alone the fine arts are addressed, ■will only indicate the greater capacity of these organs, for im- pressions in general, whether of a sensual or of an intellectual kind. Before proceeding to examine the individual organs of sense, it will be obvious to every one, that, as they are or- gans of sense, and not of mental operation, physiognomists have erred in endeavouring to point out in them, direct in- dications of judgment and other faculties which belong en- tirely to mental operation, and can be directly indicated on- ly by the form of the superior part of the head, in which the organ of mental operation is situate. Nevertheless, the organs of sense may be said to present indirect indications of such mental qualities, because their existence may, in some measure, be predicted from certain degrees of sen- sibility, which the organs of sense themselves express ; and the muscular or voluntary parts especially give such indica- tions, because the acts of the will, which they obey, never take place unless preceded by mental operation. It is, however, worthy of notice, that although muscular parts or organs of volition enter into the composition of the F 54 PART FOURTH. face, yet all the motions which they perform, although we may denominate them expressive, are performed by no means exclusively for any such purpose as expression, but primarily for the purpose of rendering those organs of sense, with which they are connected, more fit for the reception of impression ; and, consequently, their first and principal refe- rence is to sensation and not to volition. This, however, is attended with no inconvenience, because the organs of sense, tlius influenced by the voluntary powers, enable us to calcu- late the degree of other functions. Let us now examine each of the organs of sense in suc- eession^ commencing with the eye. In connection with this organ, it is not necessaiy again to repeat w4iat was said of the forehead. Its form, with re- ward to height, breadth and convexitv, is involved in the previous consideration of the three great intellectual organs, and in that of the cerebrum or organ of mental operation in particular, with which it is chiefly connected. An eye of great magnitude indicates a capacity of receiv- ing more powerful sensations of vision ; because the power of all organs, equally healthy, is ever in proportion to their developement. — Hence it is, that the frugivorous mammalia which climb trees have in general the eve large ; hence also it is, that animals with large eyes discern objects with less of light ; and hence it likewise is, that fishes which are destined to live in an obscurer medium have these organs of great magnitude . . . A small eye, on the contrary, presents less capacity in this respect.— Hence it is weak in the mole &c. Jn eye projecting greatly from the orbit most readily re- ceives impressions from every surrounding quarter — a cir- cumstance which presents its own explication Hence, how- PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 55 ever, persons with eyes thus protruding, seem ever in search of enjoyments ; and indeed always are the slaves of some powerful passion . . . The deepli/ seated ei/e has the opposite disadvantage, and is less readily impressed.— Hence, such an eye has a death-like or cadaverous appearance, and the per- sons to whom it belongs are colder in ihtir feelings, or have less sensibility, and are less under the influence of particu- lar passions. When the ei/e-brow, by its motions, adds to the depth of the eye, it indicates discernment ; because such motions de- pend upon a voluntary employment of certain muscles in or- der accurately to adapt the eye to the objects examined. — Hence, the eye-brow is thus depressed where any object is closely examined ; hence also the hand is raised over the eye to aid in the same purpose ; and hence men of discern- ment, when reflecting, are, by association, led thus to em- ploy the muscles of the eye-brows in undulating or compres- sing them, even when no particular object is before the eye. For the same reason, the elevated, undulated and compressed bony and feathery projection over the eye of the eagle, and the projection of similar form over the eye of the serpent give a similar expression of accurate discejnment ; and they actually do indicate it, because, like the corresponding prominence in man, they exclude un- necessary rays of light, and give a more accurate view of objects. — As the eye-brows are seen to be thus undulated and compressed in paroxysms of anger, they are supposed by the vulgar only to indicate anger ; but the reason that they are then compressed is, because, in paroxysms of anger, the object which excites it is most keenly inspected. . . . An cye-broiO greatly elevated, on the contrary, indicates the ab- sence of severe thought &C. Eye-lids zcidely expanded, so as to give a round form to (he eye, resembling its appearance in the cat, owl &c. indi- 56 PART FOURTH. catekeen inspection, but no sensibility; because it is evident, that the eye-lids are thus habitually opened in order to re- ceive a fuller view of the object inspected ; the impression it has already made, being insufficient. — Hence, in most fishes which are distinguished for voracity, there is no move- able eye-lid ; and hence, also, ^vhen mysterious or surprising v*bjects are before us, the eye-lids are expanded in amaze- ment. . . On tlie contrary, eye-lids zchich nearly close over the eye, indicate less keen perception, but greater sensibility. — Hence, when the eyes receive too strong impressions from the light of the sun. the eye-lids are more approximated ; and hence, too, when a beloved object is before us, and the whole mind is filled with its image, the eye-lids also graduallv close. An iris of dark colour indicates more accurate inspection and firmer character ; because, by its means, all the scattered rays of light are absorbed ; the iris thus excited, diminishes the pupil ; and the images ©f objects passing into the eye are rendered more definite and hard. — Hence, this colour of eye is best suited to the male countenance. . . On the con- trary, an iris of light blue colour indicates less accurate inspec- tion and softer character ; because, by its means, some scat- tered rays, and in general a larger image, is permitted, and the impressions of objects are rendered more indefinite aiad soft. — Hence, this colour of eye best suits tlie feminine countenance. The magnitude of the ear, like that of all other organs, doubtless indicates its greater capability. It is probable, however, tliat its susceptibility of impression also, in some measure, depends on its general thinness, since we find that PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. '57 ammals of very acute ear have the organ not only large, but very thhi, as in the cat, hare, rat, mouse, bat 8vc. The degree of the projection of the ear, doubtless contri- butes to the more ready collection ~Df impressions : yet, as ears which project, are generally, at the same time, turned forward, they more nearly resemble those of quadrupeds, and will be adapted chiefly to impressions from before ; wliile, at the same time, they are incapable of turnitig, like those of quadrupeds, in any other direction. — Hence, such ears are defective, and much inferior to the flattened and more beautiful form, by means of which impressions from various directions are more easily received. A)i ear which is long betrceen iis upper margin and its lobe, will most readily collect sounds of considerable ele- vation and depression. . . An ear of considerable breadth, on the contrary, will most readily collect those sounds which in music we denominate flat ; for there is nothing more certain, than that these differences of sounds depend on the diff"erent directions of the vibrations which cause them. — It is worthy of notice that these forms of the ear generally accompany corresponding forms of the organ of voice ; and as such forms of the organ of voice always do produce elevated and depressed, or, on the contrary, flattened tones, the ear is thus admirably adapted to receive such sounds as the voice emits. An ear which is imelaborate or presents rather one gene- ral concavity, than many well defined elevations and de- pressions, is rarely possessed of delicacy. . . An ear pre- senting numerous elevations and depressions, and finely ela- borate, is always delicate — a circumstance which, like the pre- ceding one, present their own explication. — The general rule, with regard to character, which may be drawn from this con- formation, is, that persons thus destitute of musical ear, never possess sensibility of any species ; they are consequently equal- ly divested of all that ardour of mind which flows from such r 8 PART FOURTH. sensibility ; and, it is really true that philanthropy, benevo- lence Sec. rarely distinguish them. The Man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not niov'd with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treason, stratagems and spoils ; The motions of his spirit are dull as night. And his affections dark ss Erebus : Let no such man be trusted. Merchant of Venice, Act. V. Scene I. The magmtude of the nose, ^vhen the organ is, at the same lime, well constructed, indicates the greater capability of the sense of smell. A nose which is very broad, and at the same time moderately elevated, is evidently an organ, by means of which the most extensive, and, consequently, the strongest impressions are received. — Hence, those possessing such a form of organ, are generally of firm and strenuous character. This is not to be wondered at, since man is the very creature of the impressions which he receives, and suice all his most complex mental operations must depend upon the strength, weakness 8cc. of his indi\"idual sensations. A nose ichich is veryjiat, is obviously rather adapted for heavier odours, which by its means will pass rather to the inferior than to the superior convoluted bones within the na- sal cavit}-, and which form the proper organ of smell, as well as the superior.— Hence, as mental operation is throughout dependent upon sensation, the persons having such a form of organ, are generally of a character corres- pondingly depressed, or ratlier may be termed manageable as to character. . . A nose zchich is tery elevated, or of that form called Roman, is evidently better adapted for the lighter and acuter odours, which will pass to the upper part of the organ of smell. — Hence, such persons are almost always movf haushtv and commanding in character. PRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 59 A nose rclnch is long, will more slowly transmit odours, which will, therefore, make a less powerful impression upon the proper organ of smell. — Hence, persons with long noses, are always slower and milder in their character. . . A nose 7cliick is short, and more especially turned up at the extremity, will more rapidly and acutely transmit impres- sions.. — Hence, persons with such a nose, are always quick, pert and even impudent. The same is remarkable among quadrupeds : the pug dog, for instance, has such a form of nose, and precisely such moral habits. Tliis form of nose is particularly unseemly, from its exposing those cavities of the organ, which modesty would conceal. Hence, persons possessing it, are not merely impudent, but often indelicate and filthy. The tongue is the proper organ of taste ; but as it is al- ways concealed from our view by the lips, and as the lips — of all parts of the body possessing the most exquisite sense of touch, always bear an analogy in their form and delicacy to the tonsue, we must examine the former in lieu of the latter. The organs of these two senses (taste and touch), says Cuvier, are, indeed so much alike, that they may serve for the mutual explanation of each other. Recourse may be had "to the organ of taste, in order to obtain an idea of parts which are not sufficiently developed for our observation in that of touch. Large lips always indicate greater capacity with regard to taste.— Hence, in the negro, who excels in that sense, the lips are greatly developed, and the sensibility as to taste oreater. . . Narrow and linear lips always indicate less capaci- ty of taste, and less sensibility .—Hence, the persons possessing them, are always of very cold and formal character ; they are often found to be penurious, unfeeling &c. Co PART FOURTH . Lips tdth coarse, irregular and ill defined oxitline, always indicate a corresponding rudeness and vulgarity of character. . . . Lips zcith fine, regular, zee// defined out/ine, on the contra- ry, always indicate a corresponding delicacy of character. On the sense of touch, it is not necessary to dwell. A finer organization of skin, especially where it covers the tips of the fingers, always indicates a finer sense of touch and corresponding sensibility of character, and vice tersa. We have now only to consider the mouth and nose, as well as the prominences of the chin, cheeks and forehead, as constituting a portion of the organ of voice. The great length and narrozcness of the space betzeeen the nose and the chin, always indicates shrillness and acute- ness of voice. — Hence the negro, who has this form of mouth, has a voice extremely acute ; because, by this means, the palate is elevated, and the ellipsis of the jaws rendered narrow or acute. The sho)tness and compressedness of this space, always indicates a voice which is correspondingly flat and compres- sed, arising from the opposite cause, namely, the flatness of the palate &,c. The ziidth of the jazcs always indicates a fuller voice, when they are not, at the same tmie, compressed, but are moderately capacious iu height. Thus, as the elevation or depression of the voice depends upon a corresponding closing of the glottis or flute part of the throat, so the fulness, or the poorness^ or the flatness of rRECEDING PHYSIOL. THE BASIS OF PHYSIOGNOMY. 6l the voice, depends upon the form of the ellipsis of the jaws, \vhich we have been just describing. Another quality of the voice is indicated by the form of the only other parts of the face, which yet remain to be mentioned, namely, the prominences of the cheeks, and those of the forehead immediateh/ over the eyes. This qualit}- — the resonance of the voice, is alzcays in pro- portion to the elevation of these parts; for the first men- tioned prominences contain cavities called the maxillary, and the latter, cavities called the frontal sinuses, in which this resonance actually takes place. Postscript.— In speaking of the peculiar situation of each organ of sense, it would perhaps have tended to the completion of the subject to have observed, that the proper organ of touch not being placed in the face, together with the other organs of sense, but at the tips of the lingers, is owing to this, that the organ of. touch is neither, like the eye and ear, affected by media universally diffused, nor, like the nose and tongue, by objects which are easily transported to them, but by solids which are sometimes not easily mov- ed, and sometimes require an organ of a certain length and flexibility, to come in contact with their various parts. Hence, it has the present situation. Moreover, even if so- lids had all been easily moveable, and readily applicable to a fixed organ, yet, as the hands must have been employed to move them tliilher, it was evidently, in many respects, most advantageous, that the organ of touch should reside in them- selves ; unnecessary movement is thus avoided, and the quick- est and most accurate knowledge of objects acquired. It is for these reasons, then, that the organ of touch, instead of residing in the face, like those of the other senses, is borne about at the tips of the fingers. 6 PART HFTH. APPLICATION OF THE PRECEDING PRINCIPLES TO THE EXPRESSION OF THE PASSIONS. In the production and conduct of the passions, there is a certain regular uiechanism, which is susceptible of as accurate a disquisition, as the laws of motion, optics, hydrostatics, or any part of natural philosophy. Hume's EssATS* In Placidity, no one muscle is brought into particular action: all are in a state of repose, without appearing re- laxed or inert. There is, in the eye, a tranquillity void of languor, aud the lips are in unconstrained contact. As, in this case, no muscle is in action, no application of ih e preceding pri7iciples is required. In Friendly Greeting and Tacit Joy, the angles of the mouth are very slightly drawn up, but never with- out other tokens of an incipient smile. The eye-brows are never drawn inward. Those parts alone act, which have immediate communication with the seventh pair or fa- rial nerve. OF THE PASSIONS IN PARTICULAR. 63 As, in this case also, all the muscles emploi/ed are less ac- tuated than in the follozving one, the application of the pre- ceding principles to these actions will then he more properly introduced. In Laughter, all the eflfects produced by the former affection are greatly increased, and others are superadd- ed. The whole countenance inclines forward, but with- out the attention beiag fixed upon any determinate object. The outward edges of the orbicular muscle of the eye are contracted, producing wrinkles and folds around the eyes. The lips are opened by the action of the same muscle ; hence the teetli, particidarly the upper, are made to appear ; small wrinkles arise at the corners of the mouth ; and the cheeks become fuller Sec. — If an arch, or a wanton look be further added, the eye is turned sideways, and the upper eye-lid is contracted in the manner of a wink. . . With regard to the general figure, a lively contented laughter raises his head, and his breath is agitated. In the excess of the emo- tion, he places both his hands to his sides, as it were to sup- port his body. At length, his legs begin to refuse their of- fice ; and, if the fit continued, he would fall to the ground. Tears also are shed when laughter advances to excess. Hence, says Shakespeare, « More merry tears ' The passion of loud laughter never shed.' jMidiummer'Niglt Drtam. In these motions, it is evident, 28. Organ of Rhetorical Acuteness. 214. Organ of Metaphysical Subtlety. 25. Organ of Wit. 26. Organ of Theosophy. With regard to the doctrine of Gall, I have already re- marked^ that the minute details of physiognomy are not to be found in any investigation, either of the superior, or pos- terior part of the head, as he has absurdly attempted. The reasons of this were obvious. First, the superior and pos- terior part of the head presents only one or two organs uui- K 6() APPENDIX NO. ill. fornily constructed, except with regard to the great and more general deviations v^hich have aheady been explained ; and, consequently, no minute forms are to be discerned on them, superticially examined. Secondly, the whole superficies of these organs is covered by the skull, somewhat irregular in its thickness, so as to render it difficult to calculate what may be the minute conformation of the subjacent parts. Thirdly, the skull, covering these organs, is itself covered with hair, so that any examination of them is thus rendered still more difficult. Fourthly, the dress of most nations presents an additional obstacle. While, then, the upper and back part of the head pre- sents only two great organs which are liable to no other dif- ferences of appearance than the general and simple ones al- ready described. Gall has throughout egregiously erred, in assigning a multitude of simple and distinct organs, for fanctions zchich oz€e their existence to a combination of o- thers. Moreover, in the very arrangement of these simple organs of compound functions ! Gall has even multiplied error in the most whimsical and ridiculous manner. Thus, he has placed the organ of Theosophy (No. 26.) not only near to, but in actual contact with, the organ of Mimickry (No 9). Now, it is evident, that if one of these organs be very high, the other cannot be very low ; for such sudden transitions exist not on the surface of the skull.. Hence, if the organ of Theosophy be very high, the organ of Mimickiy cannot be very low ; and as energy of function is inseparable from healthy magnitude of organ, it, therefore, remains for Dr Gall to prove what connexioif there can possibly be be- tween fim and the knozdedge of God ! But perhaps the Doctor has invented a new sysiem of Religion as well as of Physiognomy, in which the two circumstances may fall into ve)7 appropriate contact . . . The organ of Music, too, < No. 16,) is in contact with the organ of Theft (No. 7.) ; ACCOUNT OF THE DOCTRINE OF GALL, 8? and as in the case of the one being very high, the other can- not be very low, it follows, not only that the greater thief a man is, the more likely he is to be a musician ! but that the greater musician a man is, the more likely he is to be a thiet • A pleasant reflexion, truly, for the amateurs of nmsic r Be- ware, my friends, how, in future concertos, you exhibit your- selves as the now avowed friends of theft and harmony. — - With regard to the ladies, they may perhaps be pernntted to escape on the principle, that excellence in this — the most charming of all the fine arts, has no small connexion with the stealing, at least, of hearts. But, as to composers, the Doctor doubdess thought, that musical composition and plagiarism being often — very often connected, he could not go far wrong in placing their organs side by side. But to lay aside merriment, for which it is to be regretted that Gall should have given any scope, it is not to be denied that he is entitled to high praise for the perseverance and genius he has employed on this important subject ; and it is only to be deplored that he has not sufficiently employed scientific principles, or shunned empirical methods. In order, however, to ascertain the frequent existence of any passion, or habit of mind, the search for minute and distinct organs must be abatidoned ; but, in order to effect ^ the purpose, it is only necessary to ascertain the existence of the signs of those degrees of the simple powers, which are requisite to constitute the passion or habit, than which, according to the preceding principles, nothing is more easy. APPENDIX No. IV. SOME REMARKS ON THE DOCTRINE OF LAVATER. It is perhaps true, that a more virtuous, and a more a- iiiiable being than Lavater never existed, and there certainly was no victim of the French Revokition more to be deplor- ed than that excellent man. The only good effect which the French Revolution has produced, namely, that of forcing several of the Govern- ments of Europe to reward talents and merit, which can alone successfully oppose a despotism like that of France — this only good effect has been awfully counterbalanced by the destruction of so many great philosophers and excellent men, and by none more than that of this philanthropist. The advocates of that revolution may, perhaps, conceive that the loss of a few priests, like him, is a matter of little import. And, indeed, had the pastor of Zurich borne any resemblance to the dissipated clergy of France — had he, for instance, had the slightest mental affinity to their favourites — the petty intriguing Sieyes, or the unprincipled Talieyrandj reImarks on the doctrine of lavater. S9 equally the friends of liberty or of despotism, as their own interests are consulted, or to the apostate Maury, who could abandon the cause of a mild legitimate monarch, for that of an unfeeling and ruffian usurper, I should not have regretted his fate. Although, however, by the keenest sensibility and the most exquisite taste, he was eminently qualified for physioo-- nomical observation, yet his excessive enthusiasm utterly impeded its steady and regular progress as a science : its statements were tolerable only when delivered in the glow- ing diction of Lavater ; and, when expressed in more com- mon language, had the air not only of extravagance but of absurdity. From want also of the power of generalizing in a great and extensive manner, he was incapable of arranging his own observations, and consequently could deduce from them no general conclusion. The absence, moreover, of all anatomical and physiologi- cal knowledge — a circumstance, which it is but justice to say, that he himself was among the first to acknowledge and regret — this held him ignorant of the causes of all the motions he observed, and rendered impossible the establish- ment of general principles and the attainment of definite objects. With knowledge, however, of that kind, the man of taste will ever rise eminently benefited from the perusal of his " Fragments", which, though Gall and others have had the hasty presumption utterly to condemn them, yet as the first important work on a previously neglected science, I will venture to say, they have perhaps, in value, no parallel m the history of literature. POSTSCRIPT. In the Third Part, (page 40) it was proposed to arraugc the human race into three varieties, founded at once upon physical fonn and moral habit — the physical form of three different organs, viz. those of sense, the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and the consequent energy of the sensitive, per- ceptive and voluntary powers, exercised by these organs. . . . Tliat form and this energy, was proposed as the basis of aljf such classification, in lieu of the merely physical, and these, too, insulated bases of Camper, Blumenbach and others ; * and whether it led to the adoption of three, or five, or any 91 to form new ones, and to draw independent conclusions, whether they comcided with theirs or not. Now the fact is, that the bases or principles of classifi- cation, delivered by these physiologists, are imperfect and erroneous, even physically considered. The relative magni- tude of the cerebellum is utterly neglected by Camper ; and the relative magnitude neither of the organs of sense nor of the cerebellum can be correctly ascertained by the Vertical Rule of Blumenbach. If, then, by the principles of the one, a third of the intellectual organs — those of sense, are excluded, and by those of the other, two-thirds, viz. both organs of sense and cerebellum are placed nearly in the same situation, it incontestibly follows, that the principles adopted by both are defective, and that the conclusions drawn from them must be erroneous, even in a physical point of view. But as we have succeeded in proving, not only that one or other of the three great intellectual organs, but also that one or other of their functions excels respectively in the Mongol, the European or the iEthiop, it irresistibly follows, that Camper and Blumenbach have neglected mo- ral or mental principles, as well as physical ones, and of no less importance than they. Thus the classification liefe established differs from theirs, both as to physical charaiter and moral result ; and is attend- ed with advantages of which they could form not the slight- est conception. It is here only necessary further to remark, that, than this difference of the physical character of the head and the powers of the mind dependent upon it, no nobler basis could be adopted for the arrangement of Natural History in general. C. Stewart, Printer, Edinbursh. iSfii J^ln. ^ 'm 5- ^ ;j" ^^ 4 ^ s- ^ s ^ s ^ h ^' S- s. *i s ■?. ^ I s- :i%' w ^M' .'G^ Vii ^y •■+-c=..'- nj a/'tnt -t- erMaliiac Vtui^p'^ ■"wBL 5^ —^ "$ TV* \ V V N, X V -V ■v •\ S ^" ^ ^ ^ ■ ? ■ s. ^ J=l^.J -Fi^.:3. 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