4"? V M i(J5lf* * "'#*# .. Hkf i ~tft c /r? \ \ • ■ <^ AN ACCOMPANIMENT TO MITCHELL'S MAP OF THE WORLD, ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION; CONTAINING AN INDEX VARIOUS COUNTRIES, CITIES, TOWNS, ISLANDS, &c, REPRESENTED ON THE MAP, AND SO CONNECTED THEREWITH, THAT THE POSITION OF ANY PLACE EXHIBITED ON IT MAY BE READILY ASCERTAINED: ALSO, A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE, AMERICA, EUROPE, AFRICA, ASIA, AND OCEANICA, WITH THEIR SEVERAL EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, TERRITORIES, &c S*****! AWu^l*,* A^llell PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY HINMAN AND DUTTON, No. 6, NORTH FIFTH STREET. . 1837. # * Entered according to the act of congress, in the year 1837, by Hinman & Dutton, in the clerk's office of the district court of the eastern district of Penn- sylvania. PREFACE. On the utility and importance of the study of Geography, it would be needless to expatiate ; every person's experience must show that some ac- quaintance with it is indispensable in the ordinary business and inter- course of life. It enables the navigator, the merchant, and the military commander, to carry on their respective operations ; and embraces a vast variety of those objects which are most interesting in themselves, and with which it concerns man most to be acquainted. It is evident, that at a very early period of society, the necessity of cultivating this science, must in a measure have attracted the attention of mankind : their curi- osity to know something of the country they inhabited, and the necessity of marking, in some manner, the boundaries of their property, would unite in forming the outlines, and directing their attention to the subject. In modern times, and especially at the present period, the general inter- course of knowledge amongst all classes, the intimate commercial and political relations existing between civilized communities, and the univer- sal desire of all enquiring minds to become acquainted with distant coun- tries, and with the inhabitants, condition, and productions of regions differ- ing from our own, unite in rendering geographical knowledge interesting to the majority, and to many indispensable in qualifying them for the pur- suits of commerce and industry, and for much of the current and daily avocations of life. The object of the following Accompaniment is not to give extended geo- graphical details, but rather general results, so that it may present in con nexion with the Map, a distinct view of the principal geographical fea tures of the world, and serve, generally, as a work of reference. In its compilation, the principal of the numerous works which have issued from the press within the last few years on geography, travels, statistics, &c, have been consulted, and in all cases the most recent published details in the latter branch of science are given : of the works most freely resorted to, the principal are, Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography, Malte-Brun's and Goodrich's Universal Geography, Flint's Geography of the Western States and Territories, Encyclopaedia Americana, Darby and Dwight's United States Gazetteer, Origin and History of Missions, Missionary Gazetteer, Ellis's Polynesian Researches, Transactions of the Geographi- cal Society of London, &c. The extent of the Accompaniment being necessarily limited, a comprehensive and minute detail, either in the de- scription of countries, or in the statement of facts, is not to be expected ; yet, notwithstanding, it is believed that the leading features in the general account given of each of the great divisions of the earth and their respec- ISLIR PREFACE. tive subdivisions, will be found sufficiently clear and distinct as to give those who may consult it, a general idea of the present geography of the world, as accurate as can probably be gleaned from any equal number of pages extant on the same subject. In treating of geography, it is usual to arrange and describe countries according to their real or supposed political importance ; a method which is rather calculated to confuse and bewilder the mind than otherwise, in consequence of the necessity of referring to the Map in an irregular man- ner. In the following Accompaniment, it is proposed to adopt a purely geographical arrangement, commencing with North America, which lies at the north-west corner of the map, and passing thence to the other grand divisions of the globe, taking up in succession South America, Eu- rope, Africa, Asia, and finally, the fifth grand division, or Oceanica. In this way, it is believed, a clear and distinct representation of the various portions of the earth, will probably be more vividly impressed on the mind, than by any other method. The basis of the Map is Purdy's large Chart of the World, improved to 1836; a work held in high estimation by men of science, and navigators generally, for the complete and accurate representation of the coasts, islands, tracks of distinguished circumnavigators, &c. The interior parts of some of the countries represented on the chart were, however, found not to be so full and complete as could be desired : special attention has been paid to supplying all deficiencies in this respect. Many portions of the original work have been replaced by new compilations, extracted in all instances from the most recent authorities ; this is the case particularly in North America, Africa, Australasia, and Polynesia. All the topographical details are exhibited as much in accordance with the present improved state of geographical knowledge as possible. The latest discoveries will be found exhibited as distinctly as the scale of the map will admit. Nume- rous items of information, and many islands, the majority of which were discovered by American navigators, are now inserted for the first time in a general map of the world. The Consulting Index, comprising near thirteen thousand items, will, with the plan adopted for its use, be found to give great facility in searching for the position of the various countries, cities, towns, islands, &c, represented on the Map. Philadelphia, May 20, 1837. EXPLANATIONS TO THE CONSULTING INDEX. To ascertain the position on the Map of any place mentioned in the Index, observe the letters annexed to it in the fourth column ; then find the corresponding letters on the top or bottom and sides of the Map; from these letters pass the eye along the ranges due north or south, and east or west, until they intersect : in the square in which they meet, the place sought for will be found. It will be observed, that every page of the Index contains two ranges of four columns each ; the first of these shows the names of Places, the second the class to which they respectively belong, as Cities, Towns, &c ; the third column points out the Country in which places are situated ; and the fourth, the reference letters that correspond with those on the top and bottom and sides of the Map, and by means of which the position of cities and towns may be found. For example, Aaik, the first name in the Index, is an Island in North America, the Reference letters attached to which are A b ; on examining the Map, A will be found near the left corner at the top, and b, the second letter, in the left hand border in proceeding downward from the top of the Map : by the plan mentioned above the square containing Aaik will be found. The second name in the Index, is Aal- borg, a town in Denmark, letters M c ; this will be found, according to the rule stated, near the the middle of the Map, and about one-third of the breadth from the top ; and by the same simple means every place mentioned in the Consulting Index may be readily ascertained. The figures attached to a few of the names in the first column of the Index, signify that those places are represented on the Map by the figures attached to them ; this occurs only in the cases of the governments of European Russia, a few of the minor German States, and in two or three provinces in Bolivia. Archipelago Arc Bank Bk. Bight Bgt. Bluff Bl. Bluffs Bis. Canal CnL Cape C. Channel Ch. City. Cy. Cliff CI. Cliffs Cls. Coast Cat Colony Col. Country Cty. Department Dep. Desert Des. District Dis. Division Div. Duchy and Dukedom . . D. Electorate El. Empire Em. Entrance Ent Factory Fac Falls Fls. Fiord Fd. Foreland Fid. 1* ABBREVIATIONS. Fork Fk. Fort Ft. Government Gov, Grand Duchy G. d. Group Gr. Gulf G. Harbour Har. Head Hd. Hill HI. Hills His. Hook Hk. House Ho. Inlet In. Island I. Islands Is. Isthmus 1st. Kingdom Km. Lake I .. Lakes Ls. Land Ld. Mountain ML Mountains Mts. Oasis Os. Peak Pk. People Peo. Peninsula Pen. Plains Pis. Point PL Port .Po. Possessions Pos. Province Pro. Promontory Prm Reef Rf. Reefs Rfs. Republic Rep. River R. Rock Rk. Rocks Rks. Rums Rns. Settlement ScL Shoal Sh. Shoals Shs. Sound So. State SL Station Sta. Steppe Ste. Strait Str. Territory Ter. Town T. Tribe Tr. Village Vil. CONTENTS. Consulting Index Pago 11 General View or the World 117 AMERICA 119 North America 121 Russian Possessions 128 British Possessions 129 New Britain 133 Upper Canada 135 Lower Canada 136 New Brunswick 138 Nova Scotia 139 Cape Breton 140 Prince Edward's Island 140 Newfoundland 140 Anticosti 141 United States 142 Eastern States 154 Maine '. 155 New Hampshire 157 Vermont 159 Massachusetts 161 Rhode Island 165 Connecticut 166 Middle States 168 New York 169 New Jersey 175 Pennsylvania 177 Delaware 182 Maryland 184 District of Columbia 186 Southern States 187 Virginia 188 North Carolina 193 South Carolina 195 Georgia 197 Florida Territory 200 Alabama 201 Mississippi 203 Louisiana 205 Western States and Territories 208 Ohio 210 Kentucky 213 Tennessee 215 Indiana 217 Illinois 219 Michigan 222 Missouri. 224 Arkansas 226 Wisconsin Territory 228 Western Territory 229 Missouri Territory 232 Oregon Territory 233 Texas. 235 Mexico 237 Guatemala 248 West Indies 251 British Islands 253 Jamaica 253 Barbadoes 254 Antigua 254 St. Christopher's 255 Monserrat, &c 255 Nevis 255 Barbuda . . .• 255 Anguilla 255 Virgin Islands 255 Dominica 255 St Vincent. 255 Grenada 255 Tobago 255 St Lucia 255 Trinidad 255 Bahama Islands 256 Bermudas 256 Spanish Islands 256 Cuba 256 Porto Rico 258 French Islands 259 Martinico 259 Guadaloupe 259 Dutch, Swedish, and Danish Islands 259 St. Eustatia 259 Saba 259 St. Martin 259 Curacoa 259 Santa Cruz 260 St. Thomas 260 St. John's 260 St Bartholomew 260 Hayti 260 South America 262 Colombia 269 New Grenada i 273 Venezuela 276 Equador 277 Gallapagos Islands 279 Guiana 279 Demarara, Berbice, and Essequibo . . 279 Surinam 280 Cayenne 280 Brazil 281 Peru 288 South Peru 293 Bolivia 295 Chili 296 Island of Chiloe 301 Islands of Juan Fernandez 301 Buenos Ayres 301 Paraguay ^C Uruguay JH Patagonia 308 j CONTENTS. EUROPE Sweden and Norway ... Norway Lapland Denmark Iceland, &c < Faroe Islands Holland Belgium , British Isles- • England Isle of Man Jersey, Guernsey, &c Wales Scotland Hebrides Orkney Islands Shetland Islands Ireland France Corsica Spain Balearic Isles Andorra Portugal . Russia . • Poland Kingdom of Poland Cracow Germany Austria Hungary Croatia Sclavonia Transylvania Military Frontier , Dalmatia . . Galicia < Prussia Bavaria Saxony Hanover Wirtemberg Baden Hessian States Hesse Cassel Hesse Darmstadt Hesse Homburg Saxon States Saxe Weimar Saxe Coburg Gotha Saxe Meiningen Hildburghausen Saxe Altenburg Mecklenburg Schwerin Mecklenburg Strelitz Brunswick Oldenburg Nassau Anhalt Dessau Anhalt Bernburg Anhalt Cothen German Principalities Schwartzburg Rudolstadt Schwartzburg Sondcrshausen . 309 315 319 320 321 324 325 325 329 331 333 337 337 339 340 343 .343 ,343 ,345 .348 ,351 ,353 , 356 ,358 358 ,361 ,366 ,368 ,369 ,369 373 376 378 378 ,378 378 379 379 380 384 385 ,386 387 .387 388 .388 ,388 .389 .389 , 389 ,389 , 389 ,389 .389 .390 .390 .390 ,390 .390 .390 .390 .390 .390 .390 Reuss Greitz 390 Reuss Schleitz 390 Lippe Detmold 390 Lippe Schauenburg , 390 Hohenzollern Sigmaringen 391 Hohenzollern Hechingen 391 Waldeck Pyrmont 391 Lichstenstein 391 Kniphausen 391 Hamburg ■ 391 Lubeck 391 Bremen 391 Frankfort 392 Switzerland 392 Italy 394 Sardinia 397 Island of Sardinia 398 Monaco 399 Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom.. 399 Tuscany 401 Parma ... 402 Lucca 402 Modena 403 States of the Church 403 San Marino 405 Naples 405 Sicily ... 406 Lipari Islands ...... ... . 406 Malta, &c 407 Ionian Islands 408 Turkey 409 Greece 413 Candia ... 416 Cyclades 416 Negropont ... 41 6 N. Sporades 416 Hydra, &c 416 Tabular view of the European States 418 AFRICA 419 Barbary 424 Morocco 425 Algiers 427 Tunis 428 Tripoli .429 Barca .430 Egypt 430 Nubia.. 433 Abyssinia 434 Sahara, or Great Desert 436 Fezzan 436 Tibesty 437 Gadamis 437 Tafilet, Draha, &c 437 Tibboos 437 Tuaricks 438 Western Africa 438 Senegambia 438 Foulaha 439 Jaloffs ... 439 Mandingoes 439 Foota Jallon 440 Soolimana 440 Senegal 440 CONTENTS. Bambouk 441 Gambia 441 Sierra Leone 441 Guinea 442 Liberia 442 Grain Coast 443 Ivory Coast 443 Gold Coast 443 Slave Coast 443 Ashantee 443 Dahomey 444 Benin 444 Waree 444 Biafra, &c » 445 Loango 445 Congo, Angola, &c 445 Cimbebas, &c 446 Southern Africa 446 Hottentots 447 Cape Colony 448 Caffraria » 449 Bechuanas 450 Eastern Africa 450 Inhambane 451 Sabia 451 Sofala 451 Mozambique. ...» 451 Monomotapa 452 Cazembe 452 IMoolooa 452 Zanzibar or Zanguebar 452 Quiloa 452 Mombas 452 Melittda 452 Brava • • . • 453 Magadoxa 453 Ajan 453 Berbora ,....,....,.,..,. 453 Adel and Hurnjr 453 Central Africa, , 453 Darfur ........ 456 Kordofan . . , . , , , 456 Bergoo . . ,,..,....,,, 456 Bahr el Ghazal 457 1 Begharme 457 j Bornou , 457 Mandara, c&c. , , 457 Houssa. , ,. . 458 Kano . , 458 Kashna 458 Zegzeg 458 Yaoorie , , , 459 Boussa, &c. ....,,, , , 459 Borgoo ...,,.,,,,_ 459 Yarriba 459 Nyffe 459 Timbuctoo, &c 460 Bambarra 460 Masina, Beroo, &c, 460 African Islands .,,,....,,, 461 Azores Islands 461 Madeira 461 Canary Islands 461 Cape Verde Islands 462 Fernando Po, &c 462 Ascension 462 St. Helena 463 Madagascar 463 Imerina 463 Mascarenha Islands 463 Bourbon Island 463 Mauritius, or Isle of France 464 Seychelles, &c 464 Comoro Islands 464 Socotra 464 ASIA 465 Asiatic Russia 472 Siberia 472 New Siberia, &c 475 Kamtschatka 475 Kurile Islands 475 Astrachan, &c 475 Caucasian Russia 477 Circassia. 478 Daghestan . ■. 478 Georgia 478 Shirvan, Erivan, &c 479 Mingrelia, &c 479 Abasia 479 Turkey in Asia 480 Archipelago 482 Rhodes, &c 482 Syria 484 Cyprus 486 Adana 486 Palestine .486 Arabia 488 Makulla 491 Muscat 491 Persia 491 Afghanistan 495 Beloochistan ,..,,,., 498 Kafferistan 499 Kaschgur 1 , . , 499 India ,, 499 Hindoostan 500 Lahore, &c , 502 Bootan and Nepaul 503 Ceylon 510 Laccadive and Maldive Islands 511 Chin India , 511 British Territories 514 Birmah 515 Siam , ,,,,,,,, 516 Malaya or Malacca. 516 Sincapore , 516 Pulo Pinang 516 Njcobar and Andaman Islands , .... 517 Anam , 517 Cochin China 517 Cambodia 517 Tonquin 518 Tsiampa , ... 518 Laos , , , , , 518 Thibet 518 Little Thibet 520 China 521 CONTENTS. Loo Choo Islands 527 Formosa • 528 Hainan 528 Corea 528 Tartary 528 Mantchooria. 531 Mongolia 531 Soongaria 533 Little Bucharia 534 Independent Tartary 534 Great Bucharia, or Bokhara 535 Balkh 535 Khokan 536 Khiva 536 Koondooz 536 Kirguis 537 Turcomania 537 Japan 537 OCEANICA 542 Malaysia 547 Sunda Islands 547 Sumatra 547 Pulo Lingin, Banca, &c 547 Java 547 Bally, Lombock, Sumbawa, &c 548 Borneo 548 Sooloo Archipelago 548 Celebes 548 Moluccas or Spice Islands 548 Phillippines 549 Cocos or Keeling Islands 549 Australasia .... 549 Australia 549 Colony of Western Australia 550 Van Diemen's Land 550 New Zealand 550 Papua, or New Guinea 551 Louisiade 551 New Britain 551 New Ireland 551 New Hanover, &c 551 New Hebrides 551 New Caledonia 551 Norfolk Island 551 Massacre Islands 551 Polynesia 551 Ladrone or Marian Islands 552 Caroline Islands 552 Pelew Islands 552 Central Archipelago 552 Sandwich Islands 553 Marquesas or Washington Islands . . 553 Society Islands 554 Georgian Islands 554 Pearl or Paumotu Islands 554 Palliscr Islands 554 Hervey's or Cook's Islands ........ 554 Austral or Raivaivai Islands 555 Friendly Islands . •• 555 Navigator's Islands 555 Feejee Islands 555 Tonga Islands . . . . 555 Habaai Islands 555 Pitcairn's Island. 555 Easter Island 556 Islands in the Polar Seas 556 North Polar Islands 557 North Georgian Islands 557 Boothia Felix 557 Greenland 558 Scoresby's land 558 Spitsbergen 558 Nova Zembla 559 South Polar Islands 559 Falkland Islands 559 South Georgia 559 South Shetland 560 South Orkney 560 Palmer's Land 560 Kerguelen's Land 560 Tristan d'Acunha 560 Enderby's Land 560 Graham's Land 560 OCEAN 560 Pacific Ocean 560 Atlantic Ocean 561 Indian Ocean 561 Arctic Ocean 561 Antarctic Ocean 561 Mediterranean Sea, &c 561 Baltic Sea, &c 562 Extent and Population of the World 563 Christian Missions 565 Missionary Stations 566 Newly discovered Islands, Sec. 569 CONSULTING INDEX. Ntmet . . . Cartago .... Cartnagena. Carthagena. Cartier's . . . Carwar . . . . Carysfbrt . . Cas Casabinda. . Casala Casamayor . Casarin .... Casati Casbin .... Casbobos . . . Cascade . . . Cascade . . . Cashan Cashee Cashgar . . . Cashgar . . . Cashmere .. Cashmere .. Casiquiare . Cas Nor . . . Caspian. .. . Cass Cassadgath . Cassay Cassel Cassiquin . . . Cassville Castahana . . Castel Rosa . Castle Castlebar . . . Castlereagh . Castlereagh . Castries Castro Cat Cat Catamarca . . Catamarca . . Catanduanes Catania Catanzaro . . . Cataquinas . Catastrophe . Catharine's. Catharine's. . Catieh Position. T. R. Ls Mts. Cty. G. I. T. T. Po. Cy. Cy. I. T. I. T. T. T. Pt. T. R. T. I. Pt. In. T. T. &• Pr. Cy. R. L. Sea L. L. Cty. Pr. T. R. T. Tr. I. Pt. T. IC. R Bay T. I. L. Pr. T. L Cy. T. Tr. C. I. Fid. T. Venezuela . . . Brazil Brit. America Austria. ..... New S. Wales New S. Wales West Indies . . New S. Wales Guatemala .. . Guatemala .. . New Grenada Spain Malaysia .... Hindoostan . . Polynesia .... Little Buoharia Buenos Ayres Mexico Patagonia . . . Tunis Africa Persia Polynesia .... New Zealand . Oregon Ter. . Persia Beloochistan . . Little Bucharia Littlo Bucharia Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . • Venezuela Mongolia Asia Wisconsin Ter. Brit. America . Africa ........ Birmah Hesse Cassel . . Peru Wisconsin Ter. Missouri Ter. . Asiatic Turkey New Zealand . . Ireland Brit. America . New S. Wales . Mantchooria . . Chili Bahamas Brit. America . Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . Malaysia Sicily Naples South America New S. Wales . Polynesia Patagonia .... Egypt Hh Hi Eb Nd Vj Vj Hg Wl Gh Gg Gg Le Uj Qg Ck Qd Hk Ef Hm Me Ni Pe Vh X m Dc Pe Pf Qd Qd Qe Qe Hh Rd Pd Fd Eb Nj 8f Mc Hi Fd Ed Ne X m Lc Ga VI Vc Hm Hf Fc Hk H k Ug Ne Ne Hi VI Xh Hn Oe Nunea of Places, *c Claa. Cat Lake ...... Cat Lake Catoche ....... Catopaxi Catos Catska ........ Cattaro ........ Cattegat ....... Cattum Currafee Cauca Cauca Caucasus » Caucasus Cavalis ........ Cavalla Cavally Cavalos Caves Caviana Cavite Cawnpore Cawoor Caxamarca Caxamarquilla . . Caxatambo Caxias Caxones Cayagan Sooloo. Caycara Caycas Cayenne Cayenne Cayetano Cayman Cayor Cayrasu Caytcte Cayubabas Cayuni Cazcmbe Cazembe Celebean Celebes Celestial Central America Centurions Cephalonia Cera Ceram Cerigo Cernez Cerralbo Cerro Pasco . . . Cerros Cessano Ceuta Ceverna Cevero Vostochnoi Cevero Zepatnoi . Ceylon Chab K. Ho. C. Mt. Hk. T. T. G. T, Dep R. Pr. Mts I. T. T. Bay I. I. Pt T. T. T. T. T. T. I. I. T. I. Col. T. Vil. L. Cty. Bay T. L. R. Ter. T. Sea I. Mts. Rep. Bk. I. I. I. I. T. I. T. I. T. T. R. C. C. I. Ter. Brit America . Brit America . Mexico ....... Equador Australasia .... Asiatic Russia Austria Europe Africa New Grenada . New Grenada . Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Barca Turkey , Guinea Africa Australasia . . . Brazil Mindanao . . . Hindoostan . . Sumatra Peru Peru Peru Brazil Caribbean Sea Malaysia .... Venezuela . . . Bahamas .... Guiana Guiana Mexico Mexico Africa Brazil Brazil Peru Venezuela . . . Africa Cazembe Malaysia .... Malaysia .... Soongaria. . . . North America Indian Ocean . Ionian Isles. . . Australasia . . . Malaysia Ionian Isles .. . Austria Mexico Peru Mexico Naples Morocco Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asia Persia Fc Fc Gf Gl Wk Sc Nd Mc M h Gh Hh Od |Od Ne Nd Lh Lf Wi lh Uh Qf Si Gi Gi Gj Ji Gg Th Hh Hf lh lh Ee Ff Kg Jk Jj Hj Hh Nj Nj Uh Ui Rd Gg Qi Ne Ui Ui Ne |Nd Ef Gj Ef Ne Le Sb Sa Sa Rh Pe 28 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Place*, &c. Chabarga Chacao Chacapoyas Chachet Cha-chow Chaco Chactoole Cliadrina Chagos Chagre ChaHo Chaidu Chain Chai-ya Chala Chalagskoi Chalcur Challahengah . . . Chalons Chamala Chamar Daban . Chameguabas • . Chamela Chamil Chamil Chamir Chamka Cham plain Champon Chamram-ning.. Chancay Chanco Chandernagore . Changai Changamera . . , Chang-chow Chang-chow Changina Chanina Chantrey Chao-chow Chaoming , Chapa Chapada Chapala Chapoo Chapunga Charabali Charalop Charamukotan . Charatzaiskaya Charcas 1 Chargaldshan. . Charjooee Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charles Charleston .... Mts. T. T. T. T. Pr. T. R. R. I. T. T. C. Bay Des. Cy. T. Mts. Tr. T. Dis. T. T. T. L. T. T. T. I\ T. Mts. Ter. Cy T. T. T. Mt. Cy. T. R. T. L. Cy. T. T. T. I. T. Dep L. T. I. I. I. C. C. Mt. Cy- Soongaria Chili Peru Hindoostan . . . Mongolia Buenos Ayres . North America Asiatic Russia. Indian Ocean.. New Grenada . China Little Bucharia Polynesia .... Siam South Peru . . Asiatic Russia Brit. America Africa France Mexico Mongolia ..... Mexico Mexico Mongolia .... Mongolia .... Arabia , Thibet United States . Siam Thibet Peru Chili Hindoostan . . Mongolia .... Africa China Mongolia .... Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Brit. America China Mongolia .... Chili Brazil Mexico China Mozambique . Asiatic Russia. Little Bucharia Kurile Islands Asiatic Russia. Bolivia . . Tartary . Great Bucharia Brit. America . Gallapagos .... Spitsbergen . . . Labrador Virginia Enderby's Ld. South Carolina Rd Hm Gi Rf Sd Ik Bb Re Qi Gh Te Rd Cj Sh Hj Xa Hd Nk Md Fg Rd Ee Ef Sd Sd Og Sf Hd Sg Re Gj HI Rf Sd Nj Te Se Vc Wc Fb Tf Sd HI Ij Ff Ue Oj Pd Rd Sc 2 j Qc Qe Gb Fi Ma Ic Ge Po Ge Names of Places, &c. Charleston . . . Charlotte .... Charlotte .... Charlotte .... Charlotte .... Charlotte Charlotte Charlotte Charlotte Charlotte Charlotte's . . . Charlotte's . . . Charlton Charot Chase's Chatham Chatham Chatham Chatham Chatham Chatham Chatirka Chattahoochee Chaugalaghnoy . Chaumont . Chayboudirskaya Chazura .... Cheduba .... Cheesadawd Cheisinaki . , Chekeang . . . Chelekhof... Chelekhof ... Chelenco. . . , Chelicut .... Chelm Chelmsford . . Chelonikowa Chemokova . Chenaub .... Clieen Mahomed Chensilesskaya Chepy Cheraf Cheraw Cherbaniani . . , Cherbourg Cherepe , Cheribon Chernoosof . . . Cherokees Cherry Chesapeake . . . Chessboard. . . , Chester Chester Chesterfield . . , Chesterfield . . . Chesterfield . . , Chesuncook . . ■ Che-tsein T. T. T. C. c. Har Pt. Rk. Bk. Ft. I. Bk. I. T. Is. I. I. I. C. Str. Bay R. It. I. T. Bay R. I. L. C. Pr. Str. L. L. T. T. T. R. R. R. T. T. R. T. T. Bk. T. T. T. T. Tr. I. Bay Is. Cy. T. In. Ho. Bk. L. Cy. Virginia North Carolina Pr. Edward's I. Brit. America . Isle of Georgia Florida Mantchooria . . Malayan Sea . . Malayan Sea . . North America Polynesia Polynesia Brit. America . Mantchooria . . Polynesia Gallapagos — . Patagonia .... S. Pacific Oc. . New Holland. . North America Florida Asiatic Russia. United States . . Asiatic Russia. France Russia Bolivia Bay of Bengal . Brit. America . Japan China North America North America Patagonia .... Abyssinia Russia England Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Hindoostan . . Tartary Asiatic Russia Brit. America Asiatic Turkey South Carolina . Asia France Peru Java Asiatic Russia. Western Ter.. . Australasia .... United States. . Australasia.. . . England Nova Scotia .. . Brit. America . Brit. America . Australasia .... Maine China Ge Ge Hd Ga Jn Gf Ue Th Th Fd Cj Xj Gc Td Xi Gi Hn A m Tl Dc Gf Xb Ge Ua Md Pb Hj Sg Eb Ue Uf Be Be Hm Og Nc Mc Wb Vb Qe Pe Vb Gc Nd Ge Qg Ld Gi Ti Wb Fe Xj Ge Vi Lc Hd Fb Fc Wj Hd Tf CONSULTING INDEX. 29 NimM of Places, *c. Chetskoe Chevalaco Chevaroff Chevvat Cheye Chiapa Chiapa Chicago Chicken Chidley Chidley........ Chidley Chieti Chiggre Chihle Chihuahua Chihuahua Chikotan Chilcotins Chilcotin Chili Chilian Chillicothe Chiloe Chilok , Chilpanzingo . . Chikilan Cuni . , Chimaro Chimborazo China Chinchilla Chinese Empire. Chinese Turkes tan Chinialskoy Chinkun Chinnoor Chin-tan Chinyang Chipewyan Chipewyans Chippeway Chippeways Chiquitos Chiricote Chitpore Chitral Chitral Chittagong Chitteldroog Chittore Chiu Ch. Kamennoi . . Chocta w hatch ie. Choctaw Land .. Choctaws Choiseuil Choiseuil Port . . Cholom Chonos Choorwaur 3* T. T. C. T. T. St T. T. Bay Is. C. c. Cy. Sta. Pr. St T. I. Tr. Ft Rep T. T. I. R. T. Tr. Po. Mt Sea T. Cty. Cty. C. Vil. T. Cy. T. Ft Tr. R. Tr. Dep T. T. T. R. T. T. T. R. T. Bay Dis. Tr. Bay T. R. Arc. T Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Tartary Africa Mexico Mexico Illinois Java Brit. America . Brit. America . Greenland Naples Nubia China Mexico Mexico Japan Oregon Ter. .. . Oregon Ter. . . . South America Chili Ohio Chili Asiatic Russia. Mexico Patagonia . . . New Grenada Equador Asia Spain Asia Asia North America Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . China Mantchooria . . Brit. America . Brit. America . Wisconsin Ter. Wisconsin Ter. Bolivia Mexico Hindoostan . . . Kafferistan. . . . Kaschgur Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Uruguay .... Asiatic Russia. Florida Ter.... Western Ter... Western Ter. . . East Island . . . Madagascar. . . Asiatic Russia. Patagonia Hindoostan . . . Sb Va Ve Pd Nk Fg Fg Gd Ti Hb Hb lb Md Of Te Ef Ef Vd Dc Dc HI HI Ge Hm Tc Fg Hm Hg Gi Tg Le Sd Rd Be Ab R? Uf Ud Ec Eb Fd Fd Ij Ff Qf Qe Qe Sf Rg Rg n Pc Ge Fe Fe In Pj Xb Hm Qf Nama of Placet, ic. Chorikha Chorillos Chororacus Choros Choshotes ... . Choubar Choudau Choupatou Chourskoi Chow-niman.. . . Christian Christian Christiania Christiansand. . . Christiansand. . . Christiansburg .. Christianstadt.. . Christiansund . . . Christie's Christinestad . . . Christmas Christmas Christmas Christmas Chrystal Chuapa Chudutina Chule Chuluwan Chumbull Chumerah Chunar Chun-ning Chuquisaca . . 1 . Chuquisaca Church Church Churchill Churchill Churchill Churchill Chusan Chutchcoskoie .. Chutilaukni Chwangshan . . . Cicacole Cilimiti Cillebar Cimbebas Cincinnati Cinto Cintra Cinuchkinnia .. . Circars Circassia Circular Cisaidskoi Ciudad Real. . . . Civita Vecchia . . Clagcnfurt Clamet CUa. T. T. T. Pt. Tr. T. R. T. T. T. I. C. iPy. Div. T. Ft. T. I. Bay T. I. I. I. So. Mts. T. R. T. I. R. T. T. Cy. Dep Cy. Mt. Mt. Dis. C. R. Ft. I. T. R. I. T. C. T. Cty. T. Bay T. Pr. Cty. I. Bay T. T. T. L. Position. Asiatic Russia. Peru Bolivia Chili Mongolia Bcloochistan . . Asiatic Russia. Thibet Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . S. Pacific Oc... Brit. America Norway Norway Norway Africa Sweden Norway Brit. America Russia Malaysia .... Polynesia .... Southern Ocean Patagonia. . . . Borneo Chili Asiatic Russia South Peru . . . Mozambique . Hindoostan . . Siam Hindoostan . . China Bolivia Bolivia New Guinea . Scoresby's Ld. Brit. America Brit. America Brit. America Brit. America . China Asiatic Russia. Patagonia .... Corea Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Turkey Sumatra Africa Ohio New Grenada . Azanaga Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia Australasia . • ■ Russia Spain Tuscany Austria Oregon Ter. . . S b Gj Hk Hk Sc Qf Va Se Vb Ud Gii Ha Mc Mc Mc Lh Mc Mb Eb Nb Tj Bh Kn Hm Th HI Wb Hj Ok Rf Sg Rf Sf Hj Hj Vi Ka Fb Fc Fc Fc Uc Tc Hm Ue Rg Nd Si Mj Ge Hg Kf Tc Rg Od Vi Pb Le Md Md Ed 33 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Class. Clamet Clan William.. Clappe's Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clarence Clark's Clark's Clark's Clark's Clarkston Clarkston Clarksville .... Clausenburg .... Clear Clear Clear Water .... Cleaveland ..... Clerke's Clermont Clermont Tonnere Cleveland Clew Clicsa Clifton Clinton Clinton Golden. . Clipperton Clinche Cloates Clodius Clonard Closterbay ... . Cloud Clowey Clowey Clyde Coahuila Coango Coanza Coava Cobal Cobbe Cobi Cobija Coblentz ; Coburg Coburg Coburg Coburg Cocasai Douane, Cocavi Cochabamba. .2, Cochabamba.. . , T. Alt. T. C. C. Str. Mts. I. Rf. Fk. Fk. I't. Sta. T. T. c. L. L. T. Rks Cy. I. Bay Bay T. Pt. T. L. Rk. T. Pt. I. C. C. I. I. it EL St. R. R. R. R. T. Des. T. Cy. Cy. T. Bay Pen. Sta. T. Dep T. Cochilla Grande. |Mts, Oregon Ter. .. . Cape Colony . . Malaysia Brit. America . South Shetland Fernando Po . . Australasia . . . New Holland. . Brit. America . Brit. America . New Holland. . Brit. America . Polynesia Polynesia Missouri Ter. . Oregon Ter. . . . Mozambique . . Caffraria Tennessee Austria Ireland Brit. America . Brit. America . Ohio Isle of Georgia France Polynesia New S. Wales . Ireland South Peru . . . Brit. America Mississippi. . . Brit. America S. Pacific Oc. Asiatic Russia New Holland . Polynesia .... Corea Iceland S. Pacific Oc. . Brit. America Brit. America Brit. America Mexico Africa Benguela Africa Benguela Darfur Mongolia .... Bolivia Prussia Saxe Coburg . Upper Canada Brit. America New Holland . Thibet Venezuela . . . Bolivia Bolivia ...... Uruguay Names of Places, &c. Class. Dd Nl Sh Fb Io Mh Vi Ti Fa Ga Uj G a Bi Bi Ed Ed Ok Nl Ge Nd Lc Ec He Gd Jn Md Cj Vj Lc Hj E b Ff Eb Eg Wc Tk Ag Ue Kb Eg Eb Eb Ha Ff Ni Mi Oi Mj Ng Td Hk Mc Mc Gd Ga Uj Se H h Hj IV Cochin Cochin China. . Cochrane Cockburn Cockbuirn Cockburn Cockburn Cockburn Cocken Cocoa Nut .... Cocorto Cocos Cocos Cocos Cocospera Cod Codaya Codera Codinska Codoso Codrington. . . . Coen Coepang Coetivi Coffee Coffee's Post.. Coffin Coffin Coffin's Coffin's Coffin's Cogevnicova. . Coghaica .... Coimbatore .. . Coimbra Coires Coke Mount. . Colan Colbcrg Colding Colican Colima Colivanskoi .. . Coll Collegia Collomandous A- tollon . . . Colnett . . . Colnett . . . Cologne.. Colombia Colombo . Coloni .... Colonne . Colorado .. Colorado ., Colter's . . . Coluguape Columbia Columbia Columbia T. Cty. C. I. I. c. c. Mt So. I. T. I. I. Is. T. C L. C. T. T. Alt. R. T. I. Ft. Sta Hindoostan . . . Asia Japan Brit. America . Polynesia .... Brit. America , Brit. America Mozambique . Greenland . - . Polynesia Mongolia .... Malaysia .... N. Pacific Oc. Tg Ue G a Ck Fa G a Oj lb Aj Se Sj C h I. I. Bay Har T. T. T. Cy. T. Sta. T. T. T. T. T. T. I. T. I. C. C. Cy. Cty. T. T. C. R. R. R. L. Cy. T. T. Bay of Bengal. S g Ee Hd Hi Hg Sc HI Po Vj Uj Pi Fe Fe Oj Hd Dl VI Vf Sc Tb Rg Le Ij Nl Gi Nc M c Tb Fg Re Lc Jj Mexico Massachusetts Brazil Venezuela ... Asiatic Russia Buenos Ayrcs Enderby's Ld. New S. Wales Timor Indian Ocean . Western Ter. . Western Ter.. . Indian Ocean . North America Polynesia New S. Wales . Polynesia Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Hindoostan . . . Portugal. ..... Brazil ........ Caffraria ..... Peru Prussia Denmark Asiatic Russia. Mexico Asiatic Russia. Scotland Brazil Maldives Mexico N. Caledonia . . Prussia South America Ceylon Africa Naples Buenos Ayres . Texas Oregon Ter. . . . Patagonia South Carolina Alabama Arkansas Qh Ef Xk M c Hh Rh Lg N e HI Ff Ed Hm Ge Ge Fe CONSULTING INDEX. 31 Names of Placet, fcc Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbretes Columbus Columbus Columbus Columpi Colville Colville Comanches Comayagua Comb's Comfidah Comfort Comfort Comfort Comillah Comino Committee Como Comobo Comol Comorin Comoro Comoro, Great .. Compostclla Comptah Compton Comprida Comptroller's . . . Conceicao Conception Conception Conception ... , Conception Conchos Concord , Condamine Condatchy Condendas Conejos Confuso , Congo Congo , Congoon Congress , Coni , Coninskoi Conitz Connecticut Connecticut . . . Conolly Conornamas . . . Constance Constance Constantino . . . Constantinople. Conthcoudsong. Contrarieties.. . Contway T. T. R. I. Cy. Cy. T. T. I. C. Tr. T. HI. T. C. C. Bay T. C. Is. L. I. T. C. Is. Is. Cy- T. Rks T. Bay T. Cy. T. T. Bay R. Cy. R. T. T. R. R. Cty. R. T. I. T. T. T. St. R. Ft. Mts Cy- L. Cy. Cy. T. I. L. Tennessee . . Texas Oregon Ter. Mediterran. Sea Georgia Ohio Mississippi .... Cambodia Brit. America . New Zealand. . Texas Guatemala .... Brit. America . Arabia Brit. America . Greenland Labrador ..... Hindoostan . . , Sardinia Brit. America , Italy... Malaysia .... Nubia , Hindoostan . . Indian Ocean., Indian Ocean . Spain Hindoostan . . Indian Ocean . Brazil Brit America Brazil Chili Paraguay Venezuela . . . Newfoundland Mexico N. Hampshire New S. Wales Ceylon Brazil Mexico Buenos Ayres Africa Congo Persia. . K . . . . Polynesia .... Sardinia Asiatic Russia Prussia United States . United States. Brit. America Peru Baden Europe Algiers Turkey Thibet Australasia . . . Brit. America Ge Ff Dd Le Ge G e Ge Sg Cb XI Fe Gg Gc Og Gb lb He Sf Md Gc Md Ti Of Rh Oj ? j Ld Rf Ri II Cb Ik HI Ik Hn Id Ff Hd Wk Rh Ij Ee Ik Ni Mi Pf Vf Md Tb Nc Hd Hd Dc Hi Md Md Me Nd Se Wi Eb Names of Places, kc. Conventos Conway Conwayboro Conybeare Cook's Cook's Cook's Cook's Cook's Cook's Coomassie Cooper Cooper's Coopischegaw . . Coordoo Coosa Coosa Combang. Coosy Copenhagen T. C. T. ML I. I. Str. L. In. EL Cy- I. I. I,. Pt. R. I. R. ,]Cy. Copiapo T. Copiapo I Bay Copimescaw . Copland Hutch- inson Copleston Copororo Copper Copper Indians . Coppermine Coquin ....%... Cora Coral Coralline Corannas Corantine Corbet's Corchounooskaya . Cordillera Geral. Cordova Cordova Cordova Cordova Corea Corea Corean Corfu Corinth Corjados Cork Corn Corner Cornom Cornwallis Cornwallis Cornwallis Cornwallis Coro Corolcova Ooromandel Coron Coronados Bay Mt. R. I. Tr. R. So. T. Sea I. Tr. R. In. T. Mts Pr. Cy. T. Pt. Cty. Str. Arc I. Cy- Rks Cy. I. In. I. I. I. I. I. T. T. Cst G. Is. Brazil NewS. Wales. South Carolina Brit. America . Polynesia Polynesia New Zealand. . Brit. America . North America Brit. America . Ashantee N. Pacific Oc. . Southern Ocean Brit. America . New Guinea . . Alabama Malaysia Hindoostan . . . Denmark Chili Chili Brit. America . Brit. America . North America Benguela Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Brit. America . Greenland Soudan , Australasia .... Asia , Africa , Guiana Brit. America , Asiatic Russia. Brazil Buenos Ayres Spain Buenos Ayres North America Asia ........ Corea , Yellow Sea . . Ionian Isles. . , Greece , Indian Ocean., Ireland Guatemala New S. Wales , Gulf of Siam Brit. America , Polynesia ..... S. Pacific Oc... South Shetland Venezuela Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . • ■ Greece Mexico I k Vk Ge Cb Bk Xh Xm | Eb Bb I Dc Lh Df ] J n He Vi Ge Ti Rf Mc Hk Hk He Db Cb Mj Xc Eb Eb I b Lgr Wj Qh Nk lh Fb Tc Ij HI Le HI Cb Ue Ue Ue Ne Ne Pj Lc Gg VI Sb Fa Xg A in Io H«r Tb Ne Ee 38 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Class. Coronation . Coronation . Corournilla Coroveodoi . Correntes . . Correntes . . Corricntcs. . Corrientes . . Corrientes. . Corrientes. . Corrientes. . Corrientes. . Corrou .... Corsica .... Corte Corumba. . . Corunna . . . Corury .... Corvo Corvoeiro . . Cosenza.. . . Cosigirachui Cosmoledo . Cospore .... Cossacs of the Don Cosseir Costa Costa Rica Costine Cotagayta Coti Cottah Cottayam Couchny Coucou Coudrianskoe . . . Coudroyskaia .. . Cougalia Coulumb Coulunda Council Counien Courban Tamir . Coureica Courland... .28. Coutcha Coutreki Coutskoie Courts' Couzoun Coum . . Covell's Coventry Covinska Coxe's Coxo Coy Crab Cracow Cracow Cradock Cradock I. C. Pt. R. R. R. Pr. T. C. C. c. a R. I. T. T. T. T. I. C. ... Brazil Atlantic Ocean Africa Arabia Madagascar . . . Brit. America . Brit. America . V. Diemen's Ld. Africa Brit. America . Labrador Scoresby's Ld. . Oregon Ter. . . . New S. Wales . Russia Syria Tartary Mexico Polynesia Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Arabia Africa Austria North America South Shetland Spain Africa Arabia Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Spain Tartary .... Great Bucharia Cabul Tartary .... Spitsbergen . Hindoostan . Kordofan . . . Ng Ge Gh Tc la Og Nh VI Lc Og Ng Ng Db Ld Ng Ng Wc Th Jj Mi Lg Of Pk Fc Fc Vm Oj Cb lc Ka Ea Vj Od Oe- Pd Ee Cj E b Eb Db Pf Lg Nd Bb H h M d Oi Of Fc Gb Fc Fb Fc Le Qe Qd Qe Qe Na Qf O ff Names of Places, &c. De Itata De Juen De Kays De la Aguja .. . Delagoa Del Aned De Langle .... De la Vela Delaware Delaware Del Carbon. . . . Del Carmen .. . Del Choco .... Delf Haven . . . Delhi Delhi Deli Delibaba De Limite .... Delisle Deliverance . . . Deliverance . . . Deliverance . . . De Lobos De los Reyes . . De Loss Del Padre Del Peregrino . Del Rey Delta Del Toro Del Valle De Madre de Dios Demarara Demarcation . . , De Mata Demavend Demboa , Dembo , Dembo Kiala . . , Demyanska .... Demyanska .... De Nahuelhuapi Denbigh Dender Deneschino .... Denial Deny's Denka Denmark D'Entrecastedux De Palo De Paxaros De Penas Depeyster's .... De Piedras De Piedras De Principe de Beira Der Dera Ismael Khan R. Bay Bay Pt Bay Sta Bay C. St. R. L, I. Bay Po. 1'r. T. T. L. C. Is. I. C. ('. Pt. Is. I. I. Pt. Dis. Bay L. Arc, Col. Pt. C. Pk. L. Pr. T. T. R. L. C. R. T. Bay I. Cty. Km. Pt. C. 1. <;. Gr. Pt. Pt. Chili Brazil New Guinea . . Peru Africa Nubia Mantchooria . . New Grenada . United States. . United States. . Buenos Ayres . Mexico New Grenada . Greenland .... Hindoostan-. . . Hindoostan . . . Sumatra Asiatic Turkey Buenos Ayres . Seghalien Australasia . . . Australasia . . . Louisiade Buenos Ayres . Bolivia Africa Mexico Polynesia Patagonia .... Egypt New Grenada . Patagonia .... Patagonia .... Guiana Brit. America . Luzon Persia Abyssinia Congo Congo Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Patagonia — . North America Africa Russia New Holland . Indian Ocean . Africa Europe New Holland. Spain N. Pacific Oc. Patagonia. . . . Polynesia .... Brazil Patagonia . . . Brazil Asiatic Turkey |Cabul...... HI Jk Vi G i Ok Of Vd Hg Ge Ge II Ef Gh lb Rf Rf Sh Od HI Vc W j vf Wj II Hk Lh Ff Bj Hm Oe Gh Ilk Hm lh Cb Vg Pe Og Ni Ni Qc Qc Hm Bb Og Sb Ui Pi Oh Mc Ti Le Cf Hm Xi Ji Hm Hj Oe Qe CONSULTING INDEX. 35 Names of Placet, *c Dera Gazeo Khan Dcras Derbent Der Bund Derne Derpt Derr Derson Dervazeh Desaguadero . . . De Santa Clara . Des Aves Desbrowe Desconocida .... Deseada Desengano Desert Desertas Deserted Des Francais . . . Desful Deshkin Desierta - Desire Des Moines .... Desolada Desolation Desolation Destruction .... Detkina De Touro '. Detroit Deux Ponts .... Devil's Devil's Devil's Thumb.. De Vries De Vries De Witt Clinton. De Witt's Dexter's Dgerbinskoi Dhabi Dhalac Dhawalagiri. . . . Dholpore Diamantino .... Diamond Diana's Diarbekir Dibbah Dibbie Diedde Diego Alvarez . . Diego Garcia . . . Diego Ramirez . Diely Dieppe Dieu Digby Digby T. C. T. T. T. T. T. R. R. Ls. C. I. C. Pt. I. Bay I. I. Is. Po. T. T. I. Po. R. Pt C. I. I. R. Pt. Cy. Cy. L. R. C. Str. Bay Pt. Ld. I. T. T. I. Mt. T. T. Pt. Sh. % L. T. I. I. Is. T. T. I. T. C. Sinde Egypt •/ Asiatic Russia Hindoostan . . Barca Russia Nubia Mongolia .... Tartary Buenos Ayres Mexico Venezuela . . . Scoresby's Ld. Mexico West Indies . . Patagonia . . . Indian Ocesn. Maderias .... Patagonia .... North America Persia Russia Polynesia.. .. Patagonia . . . Wisconsin Ter Guatemala .. . Patagonia .... Indian Ocean . Oregon Ter... Russia' Brazil Michigan .... Bavaria Wisconsin Ter. Wisconsin Ter Greenland .... Kurilc Islands. Java Brit. America . New Holland. . Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Arabia Red Sea Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Brazil Sumatra Australasia .... Asiatic Turkey Arabia Africa Senegambia Southern Ocean Indian Ocean Patagonia . . Timor • France , France Nova Scotia .. Kerguelen's Ld. Qe Ne P d Qe Ne Nc Of Td Qe Hi Ee Hg Ka Ff Hg Hm Pm Ke Hm Cc Pe Oc Wf Hm Fd Gg Hn Qm Dd Sb Ji Gd Md Fd Fd la Vd Ti Db Tk Wf Tb Pf Og Rf Rf Ij Sh Wj Oe Pf Lg Kg L in Qi Hn Ui Md Ld Hd Qm Naniei of Placet, fcc Clin. Digges' Dijon Diknau Emjot . Dil D'llheo Diligence Dimitrovsk .... Dimon Dimokea Dinagepore .... Dinaporo Dindigul Dindory Dingle Dinquitos Dirloudskoi . . . Disappointment Disappointment Disappointment Disco . . Disco Dittean Diu Diu Dium Div Rud Dixan Dixon's Djar Djem Djisahah Djof D'Luiz Dnieper Dniester Dobbs' Doce Doctrina Dofar Dofrefield Dog Dog Dogdsa Dog Rib Indians Dolganova Dolgoi Dolmatov Dolonskoi Dolphin Dolphin Dolstcad Domboo ....... Domboo Domel Domelans Domet's Domges Dominica ...... Don Donna Maria .. . Don Cossacs . 40 . I. Cy. Tr. T. Po. I. T. I. Sta. T. T. T. T. Bay T. C. I. I. Bay I. Hk. T. I. Hd. C. R. T. Ent T. R. T. Dis. R R. R, C. R T, T, Mts. I. I. R. Tr. T. % T. T. C. Str. T. Dis. T. I. T. C. Tr. I. R. I. Pr. Mta Brit. America . France Sahara Arabia , Africa , Patagonia.. .. , Russia , Faroe Islands Nubia Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Ireland Chili Asiatic Russia Australasia • . Polynesia. . . . Patagonia.. .. Greenland . . . Spitsbergen . . Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Japan Persia Abyssinia.. . . North America Arabia . . Tartary . Great Bucharia Arabia Brazil • Russia Russia ... Brit. America Brazil Buenos Ayres Arabia Norway Greenland . . . Polynesia .... Asiatic Russia Brit. America Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Falkland Is.. . Brit. America Norway Africa Africa Bay of Bengal Borneo New Holland. Africa West Indies .. Asiatic Russia N. Pacific Oc. Russia Gb Md Lf Pf Mk Hn Oc Lb Og Rf Rf Rg Rf Lc Hk Wc, Xn Cj Hn lb Na Rf Qf Qf Ve Pf Og Dc Of Pd Qd Og Ik Oc Nd Gb Tj Hk Pg Mb Tb Cj Vb Dd Tb Tb Qc Re In Eb M b Nf Nf Sg Th v i Oi Hg Oc Df Od 36 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Class. Donda Dondra Head . . Donegal Donetsk Donga Dongola Dongola Dongola Donjan Donkin Donmase Donnai Doobaunt Doobaunt Doorasama .... Dooshak Dorak Dorchester .... Dorchester .... Dornoch Doroiskoi Doroninsk .... Dorre . . . ; .... Dorset Dos Forcados. . Dos Montes . . . Dos Patos DoSul Dotames Douasso Double Double Island . Doubno Doubtcherskaya Doubtful Doubtful Douda Doudinskoi . . . Douditta Doughty Douglas Douglas Douglas Douives Doulagoulack. . Doulga Douma Douro Dove Dover Dover Dover Dow Dowlatabad . . . Downes Drah Draha Draha Dragon's Dram Dranki Pt C. T. T. Cty. Cty. T. Bay Dis. R. I. T. L. R. T. Des. T. T. C. T. T. T. I. C. R. R. L. L. Tr. T. Pt. Pt T. T. Is. Har R. T. R. I. T. C. Har Bay R. T. Sta. R. Bay T. Pt. Str. I. T. I. R. Dis. R. Mth T. T. Celebes Ceylon Ireland Russia Africa Nubia Africa Nubia Benguela .... Africa Norway Cambodia .... Brit. America Brit. America Asiatic Turkey Cabul Persia Lower Canada. Brit. America . Scotland Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Australasia .... Brit. America . Benin Brazil Brazil Brazil Missouri Ter. . Africa New S. Wales . New S. Wales . Russia Asiatic Russia. Australasia New Zealand. . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . North America Lower Canada. North America Brit. America . Greenland Asiatic Russia. Nubia Kordosan Portugal Spitsbergen . . . England New Holland. . Europe Red Sea Hindoostan . . . S. Pacific Oc. . . Barbary Suse Barbary New Grenada . Norway Asiatic Russia. Uh Rh Lc Od Nh °g Ng Of M j Nk Mb Tg Fb Fb Oe Qe Pe Hd Gb Lc Td Tc Tk Gh Mh Tj II Ji Pd Lg Vj Wk Nc Sb Tl Xm Sb Rb Sa Dc Hd Be Fb la Ub Og Og Ld Na Mc Ui Mc Og Rf G h Le Lf Lf Gh Mc Wc Y£h Names of Places, &c. Class. Drave Dresden Dresich Drewyer's ..... D. Roderigues . Drogheda Dromera Drontheim .... Drontheim .... Drummond.. . . Drummond.. . . Drummond's . . Drummondton . Dry Dry Dry Fork . . . Dsake Toupson Dsanlarkeng . . Dsatchou Dschabekan . . . Dublin Dubuque Ducburo Duche Ducies Duck Dudley Diggs . Duff Duff's Duida Duillican Duke of Clarence Duke of Kent's. Duke of York's. Duke of York's. Duke of York's. Duke of York's. Dukla Dulce Dulce Dulwich Dumaran Dumfries Dunaburg Duncan Duncan's Duncansby's . . . Dundas Dundas Dundas Dundas Dundee Duneira Duneira Dungui i Dunlop's Range Dunrora Dunvegan , Duralde , Durando , Durango , R. Cy. T. R. Bk. T. T. Div Cy. I. Pt. I. T. Bk. Fd. R. L. T. R. R. Cy- T. T. C. I. Ls. C. I. Gr. T. T. I. Bay Arc. I. I. Baj T. G. R. T. I. T. T. I. I. Hd I. I. I. C. T. Bay Mts, R. Mts, T. Ho. T. Rf. St. Austria Saxony Egypt Oregon Ter. . . South America Ireland Guinea Norway Norway , Michigan New S. Wales Polynesia ..... Virginia Australasia . . . Spitsbergen . . Mexico Thibet Thibet Thibet Mongolia .... Ireland Wisconsin Ter. Africa Mantchooria . Polynesia. . . . Brit. America Brit. America . Polynesia .... Australasia . . . Africa Luzon Polynesia .... Brit. America Brit. America North America Polynesia .... Brit. America Austria , Guatemala .. . Buenos Ayres . New S. Wales Malaysia .... Scotland Russia S. Pacific Oc. S. Pacific Oc. Scotland Africa Oregon Ter... Polynesia .... Brit America Scotland Greenland . . . Brit. America Africa New S.Wales Soudan Brit. America Buenos Ayres Australasia . . Mexico Nd Mc Ne Ec Jj Lc Lh Mb Mb Gd VI Xi Ge Vj Ma Fe Re Sf Se Sd Lc Fd Lg Vc Dk F Ha Ck Xi Ng Vg Ai Fb Eb Dc Ai Gb Nd Gh Ek Wi J 8 L c Nc Eh Gi Lc Oi Dc Xi Ea Lc la Ha Ni Vi Mh Ec Hk Xk Ff CONSULTING INDEX. 37 Names of Flaws, fee Durango Durazzo Durham Durnford Durnford Durnford Noss. . Du Roi Dusky Dusseldorf Dutch Dutcheri Duvour's Dwabin Dwi Dwight Dwina D'Wolf's Dyer's Dyer's %jr Eagle Eagle Eagle Eahei Nomauwe Eardley Wilmot Earo East East East East East East East East East East Andaman's East Bothnia . . . East Branch Easter Easter Eastern Eastern Group. . Eaut Greenland . East India Co.'s. East Main East Main East Main East ML Barren Easton East Pens Eastport East Vaagen Ebeloi Eboe Ebon Ebro Ebsambal Eclipse ........ Eddy Stone Edel's T. T. T. Pt Pt. C. I. Bay Cy. Sh. Tr. Is. T. L. Sta. R. I. I. G Dis. I. Is. HI. I. G R. ^ca I. I. C. C. c. Pt Pt. Pt. Is. Dis. R. I. Cls. Sea Is. Cty. I. Cty. Ho. R. Mts. T. Is. T. I. L Cy. Is. R. T. Is. 1. I,,!. Mexico Turkey England Africa Caffraria Madagascar .. Oregon Ter. .. New Zealand. Prussia Indian Ocean . Mantchooria . Australasia . . Ashantee .... Soudan Western Ter. . Russia Polynesia .... Cape Colony . Brit. America Bergoo Indian Ocean . Indian Ocean . Brit. America . New Zealand. . Brit. America . Madagascar . . . Spitsbergen . . . Falkland Is.... Malaysia Asiatic Russia Madagascar . . . New Zealand. . Anticosti Island Java New Guinea . . Bay of Bengal . Russia Brit. America . Polynesia Africa Asia Australasia .... Greenland .... Persian Gulf . . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . New Holland. . Pennsylvania. . Brit America . Maine Loffoden Isles . Tartary Benin Polynesia Spain Nubia Australasia.. . . Australasia .... New Holland .. Ret Lett. Ff Nd Lc Oi Ok P.j Dc Xm Mc Oi Ud Vi Lh Ng Fe Ob Xi Nl Hb Nl Pi Qi Ec XI Fa Pi Na In s.i Ab P| XI Hd Ti Vi Sff N b Dc Ek Nk Uf Ul Ja Pf Gc Gc Gc Tl Gd Gc Hd Mb Qc Mh Xh Lh Of Tl Vm Tk Names of Places, tc. Eden Edenton Edfou Edgar Edgecombe .... Edgecumbe .... Edgecumbe .... Edina Edinburg Edir ^ Edmonton Edsan Eelah Eelah Eelah Egatche Egedesminde . . . Egeroe Egg Egg Egga Egina Eglinton Egmont Egmont Egmont Egmont Egmont Egmont Egoy Eguan Egypt Ei Eia Eiford Eight Degree . . . Eimeo Ejallfio Ekarma Ekasitach Ekaterinburg.. . Ekaterinoslav 50 Ekaterinoslav . . Ekathcrinipol . Ekatherinodar . Ekatherinograd Ekehtagh Ekesio Eknas Ekrostrov Elaghoui Elance El Araich El Arcd El Arish Elas Elatom Elba Elbasson Elbe El Biddah T. T. Cy. Pt. C. I. Bay T. Cy. T. Ho. R. Cty. Cy- R. R. Dis. I. Har R. 'I'. <;. c. i. i. Is. c. IV Mt. Is. R. Cty. T. R. T. Ck I. T. I. R. Cy. Pr. Oy. T. T. T. R. T. T. T. R. R. T. Dis, T. L. T. I. T. R. T. Syria North Carolina Egypt Falkland Is. . . . North America Australasia . . . New S. Wales . Liberia Scotland Asiatic Turkey Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Asia Soongaria Soongaria Asiatic Russia. Greenland Norway New Jersey . . . Brit. America . Soudan Greece Brit. America . Australasia . . . Indian Ocean . . Polynesia New Zealand. . West Indies . . . New Zealand. . Polynesia Brit America . Africa Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Norway Maldive Is. . . . Polynesia Sweden Kurile Islands. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Sweden Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Oregon Ter. . . . Morocco Arabia Egypt Sweden Russia Meditcrran. Sea Turkey Germany . . . Arabia Oe Ge Qf In Cc X.j Vk Lh Lc Oe Ec Ub Rd Qd Qd Wb lb Mc He Fb Mh Ne Ha Xj Qi Cj XI In XI Vg Gc Of Tb Od Mb Qh Bi Nb Wd Ub Pc Od Od Od Od Od Ub Ne Nb Ob Rh Ed Le Pf Oe Nb Oc Md| Nd Mc Pf 38 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c Elbing El Braken Elburus El Comboy El Compacto . . . Eldborg Ele Elephant Elephant Elephant Eletz Eleuthera Eleve Eleven El Fezn ElFow Elfwedal El Ganka ElGazie El Hamid El Hammer Elim Elimane Eliza Elizabeth Elizabeth Elizabeth , Elizabeth Elizabeth Elizabeth , Elizabeth , Elizabeth , Elizabethgrad . Elizabeth's Elizabeth Town El Jem El Juncal El Kaoul El Kazar El Khatiff Elk Horn El Lamdou El Laughmoot . Ellefsens Ellice Ellice's Group . Ellichpore Elliott Ellore El Makkarif. . . El Mensoria. . . Elmina Elmore Elmosseguem . El Obispo El Paposo El Refugio .... El Shatt Elsineur Eluths Elvas T. Tr. Mt. I. C. T. R. I. Shs. Mt. T. I. C. I. T. T. T. T. T. T. Sta. T. T. Rks I. I. I. C. C. Bay Pt. Har T. I. T. T. T. R. T. Cy if. T. T. Har I. Is. T. T. T. T. T. Ft Is. Sta. T. T. T. r,. T. Peo T. Prussia Africa Asiatic Russia. Caribbean Sea. Bolivia Iceland Mantchooria . . South Shetland Mozambique . . New Guinea . . Russia Bahamas Asiatic Russia. Indian Ocean . Tibesty Fezzan Sweden Arabia Africa Barbary ...... Africa Cape Colony . . Africa Australasia .... Polynesia Polynesia Polynesia North America Seghalien Africa Brit. America . Brit. America . Russia Australasia . . V. Diemen's Ld, Tunis Chili Asiatic Russia. Morocco. Arabia Missouri Ter. . Soudan Fezzan Powel's Group. Brit. America . Polynesia Hindoostan . . . Mississippi, . . . Hindoostan . • . Nubia Morocco Ashantee Polynesia Sahara Chili Chili Mexico Algiers New Zealand. . Mongolia Portugal Nc Lg Od Gg Hk Kb Vd Io Oj Vi Oc Gf Va Qi Nf Mf Mb Pf Kf Lf Mf Nl Lg Wk Ak Cj Dk Be Vc Nk Gb Fa Od Vi Vm Me Hk Xb Le Pf Fd L? Mf Jo Cb Xi Rf Ge Rg Og Le Lh Xh Mf Hk Hk Ff Me Mc Sd Le Names of Places, &c. Bah- El Wah el ryeh ElWahr Elwend , El Winega .... Ely Elythia Emba .... Emba Embacca Embden Embomma . . . Emboque .... Emerald Emerald Emfras Emicale Emil Ems Emuaen Enangen Enara Enara Enarea Encarnacion . . Encounter . . . Encounter . . . Endeavour . . . Enderby's. . . . Enderby's. . . . Endermo .... Endian Endracht's . . Endurman . . . Enfante Perdu Engano Engano Engano. Engeloe England Englefield .... English English English English English English River Engousa Enisei Enkasy Enkuysen. .. . Ennves ... Eno Enon Ensenada de San Borombon Ensene Enterprize . Entre Rios . Enzelli .... Eooa Os. Sta. Mt. T. Cy. T. G. R. T. T. T. T. I. I. T. Str. R. R. Pt. T. I. T. Dis. I. Bay Pt. R. Ld. I. Har T. Ld. T. I. I. C. C. I. Km, C. Ch. Sh. Har R. R. Dis. T. T. Die. I. T. T. T. T. T. Ft. Pr. T. I. Egypt Africa Persia Fezzan England Egypt Tartary Tartary Angola Hanover Loango , Changamera . Arabian Gulf. Southern Ocean Abyssinia Russia Soongaria Germany Asiatic Russia. Sweden Russia Russia Abyssinia Polynesia New S. Wales . Brit. America . New S.Wales. Southern Ocean Southern Ocean Japan Persia New Holland. Nubia Polynesia .... Malaysia .... Hayti Luzon Norway Great Britain , Brit. America Europe Southern Ocean Guatemala .. . Africa Brit. America Brit. America Barbary Asiatic Russia. Ashantee .... Iceland Norway Russia Cape Colony . Buenos Ayres Egypt....... Brit America Buenos Ayres Persia Polynesia. . . . Nf Mf Pe Mf xMc Of Pd Pd Ni Mc Mi Oj Of Wn Og Od Rd Mc Ab Nb Nb Nb Oh Dk VI Db X j Po Xn Vd Pe Tk Og Aj Si Hg Ug Mb Lc Gb Lc Ki Gh Ok Fc Ec Me Sc Lh Kb Mc Ob Nl II Of Eb Ii Pe Ak CONSULTING INB-EX. 39 Names of PUces, ic. T. C. Pt. Epkromov .... Epiphano ..... Epworth . . . Equador Equador ..... i Erbinska .... Eregup ...... Erekli ...... * ■ Erekli. * Erfurth. •....* Ergetu Erghi ....... Erie Erie ........ Erivan ....... Erivan ...... Erlan Eroubeia..*.» Erromango . . > Erronan ..... Erzcrum.. . Erzi... ...... Escandon .... Eschchollz . . . Eschholtz .... Eski Shehr... Esmeraldas . . Esmeraldas . . Esneh Espeuberg . . . Esperancc . . . Espirito Santo Espirito Santo Espirito Santo Espirito Santo Esquimaux ..... Tr Esquimaux. . . . , Esquimaux. . . . Esquimaux. . . . Esseno ....... Essequebo .... Essequebo .... Esthonia 18 Estremoz Esutla Eszek ........ Etawney Etchin ....... Ethiopian Etna Eton Go! Eunice's Euphrates Euroen Europa ....... Eustis Evans ......... Evening Evrasheehey . . Evora . . , Evreux Rep. Dep T. I. Cy. Bay T. R. T. T. L. Cy. L. T, R. I. I. cy- T. T, I. Bay T. T. T. T. C. Bay Pr. T. T. Bay Russia ....... Cyprus . » Brit. America . South America I. C. Vil. T. Cbl R. Pr. T. T. T. L. R. Arc. Mt T. f. R. C. Rks L. In. r. I. 'I'. T. Equador Asiatic Russia. Polynesia ..... Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Turkey Pf ussia Soongaria. .... Mongolia Pennsylvania. . North America Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Austria. . * . . . . Asiatic Russia . Australasia .... Australasia . . . Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Turkey Mexico Polynesia ..... North America Asiatic Turkey EqUudor Venezuela .... Egypt ... North America New Holland. . Brazil Brazil Cuba Mexico Labrador Labrador ...... Brit. America . Scoresby's Ld., Africa Guiana Guiana , Russia .,...., Brazil ........ Mexico , Austria Brit. America . Mongolia ..... Indian Ocean.. Sicily Soongaria . . . . , Polynesia , . . . . Asia Japan Indian Ocean , . Missouri Ter. . Brit. America . Polynesia North America Portugal Prance Oc Oe Eb Hi G i Ub Xh Od Od Mc Qd Td Gd Gd Od Od Nd Qb Xj Xj Od Oe Ff Xg Bb Oe Gh Hh Of Bh. Ul Jj Jk Gf Gg He Ho Fb Ka Ni Ih Ih Nc Ji Fg Nd Fc Sd Pj Me Rd Ak Pe Vd Ok Ed Gb Uh Be Le Md Names of Placet, &c Claa. Ewert .'. . Exeter . . . Exeter . . , Exmouth Exploits . Eydal . . , Eyeo . . . Eylau . . C. Cy. Baj G. Bay T. . T. L R. T. I. T. C. T. T. T. R. I. So. Hav Wj Wj Ga Fa XI Rf Qg Gd Gc Sf Qf Oh Ka Cb Rf M b Mc Nd Ue Na Jb Ji Qf Rg R Md J Mb Nb Japan Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia New Grenada . Equador Africa Africa Oregon Ter. . . . Kordofan Buenos Ayres . Wisconsin Ter. Bolivia Mozambique . . Ibo Island Arabia Turkey Nubia Peru Equador Asiatic Russia. Spitsbergen . Nova Zembla Ue Ob Ub Sc Ob Gh Gh Nh Ng Dc Og Ik Fd Ik Oj Oj Of Nd Of Gj Hi Wa Ma Ra 50 CONSULTING INDEX. N*mes of Placw, ic Iceland . . . Ichaboe . . . Icinskoi . 4 Ico Icy Icy Icy Idanovo . . Idanovo . . Idre Idri Ieceiska . . Ierema . . . Ierema . . . Igar Igatimy . . Igighinsk . Igighinsk . Igil Iglau Iglesias . . . Ignacio .. . Ignam . . . Ignatieva . Ikarski . . . Ikearal . . . Ikermiut. . Ikimda . . . Ikovska.. . Iktiagik . . Ilek.... .. IletskaiaZaschita Ilhas do Arco . . Ilheos in Ilia Iliasova Ilima Illahabad ..... Illimani Illinois Illinois Illyrian Ilaien Ilo Ilongotcs Imandra Imba Imbachinskoi. . Imbro Imerina Imniach Imuris Inaccessible . . . Inaccessible . . . Inagua Inbatskaya. . . . Independence . . Independence.. Independence.. India I. I. T. T C. L. Pt. T. T. T. T. T. T. R. R. R. T. G. T. T. T. T. Bay T. T. L. I. R. T. R. R. T. Is. T. R. R. T. L. T. Mt. St. R. is. L T. T. L. T. T. I. Km. T. T. I. I. I. T. I. I. rosition. Northern Ocean Africa Asiatic Russia Brazil North America Brit. America Nova Zembla. . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Sweden Fezzan Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Paraguay Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mexico Austria Sardinia Mexico Asiatic Russia . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia . Greenland Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. North America Tartary Tartary ...... Indian Ocean . . Brazil Soongaria Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. North America Persia Bolivia United States . . Illinois Austria Russia South Peru . . . Luzon Russia Japan Asiatic Russia. Archipelago. . . Madagascar .. . Asiatic Russia. Mexico Southern Ocean South Shetland Bahamas Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Polynesia . ... Missouri Russia Kb Mk Ub Ji Ba Eb Qa Sa Tb Mb Mf Sb Tb Tb Uc Ik Wb Wb Gf Nd Me Ee Wc Tc Pb Rd Jb Uc Qc Be Pc Pc Pi Jj Rd Sc Qc Be Pe Ik Gd Gd Nd Oc Hi Vg Ob Ve Ub Nd Pj Qb Ee Li Lo Hf Sb Ci S j Fe Nb Ifamct or Places, &c. ndian ....... ndian ndiana ndian apolis . , ndian River . ndies, West . ndighirca . . . ndirsk ndispensable ndore ndrapore ndsche ndus ndus neboli nfanta ngale ngenoe nghe ngoda nhambane. . . nhambane . . , nhambane. . , nhampura .. , nichi , nichi nigrin . . nmelick . nn nner Vigten . . . nsara nspruck nsua ntermedios (the) nverness . . . nvestigator's nvestigator's Group .... nvisible .... nyak ogen ogenskoi ona onian , onian Isles . pane pswich . . . quape quique rak Ajemi. rak Arabi , rbit rbit reland rghiz rish rkoutsk . . . rkoutsk . . . rkoutsk .. . Bay L. St. Cy. In. I. R. L. Rf. T. T. C. R. R. T. C. Mts. I. L. R. Cty. T. R. R. T. Bay Vil. Bay R. I. T. Cy. T. Pr. T. Str. Is. Pt. C. R. L. I. Sea Rep Tr. EL T. T. T. Pr. Pr. T. R. I. R. Sea Gov Pr. T. New Gergia. • . Brit. America . United States. . Indiana Florida Ter.. . . North America Asiatic Russia. Tartary Australasia . . . Hindoostan . . . Sumatra Asiatic Turkey Little Thibet . . Asia Asiatic Turkey Cape Colony . . Africa Norway Mongolia Asiatic Russia . Africa Inhambane .... In ham bane.. . . Inhambane .... Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Turkey North America Brit. America . Austria Norway Russia Austria Brazil South Peru . . . Scotland New S. Wales . rmenskoe T. Australasia .... Oregon Ter.. . . Africa Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Scotland Mediterran. Sea Mediterran. Sea Wisconsin Ter. Paraguay England Brazil South Peru . Persia Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Great Britain .. Tartary Europe Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Wi Fc Gd Ge Gf Hg Vb Pd Wj Rf Si Od Re Qf Od Nl Nk Na Se Tc Ok Ok Ok Ok Od Od Ab Ha M d Mb Oc Md Ij Hj Lc Vi Ui Dc Ok Qc Qc Lc Ne Ne Fd Ik Mc Jk Hj Pe Oe Pc Qc Lc Qd Lc Uc Sc Sc Re CONSULTING INDEX. 51 Nuna of Pbtces, *c. Iro Iron • • 1 1 1 Irrawaddy Irrawaddy Irtysh Irwinton Isa Isa Isaaco Isabal • Isabella Ischia ......... Iselook Isgaoor . Ishaun Iskimps Islamabad .... Island Island Head . . Uaphanie ..... Islay Isle of Man . . Isle of Wight. Ismail Isnikmid , Isolette Ispahan , Issana , Issete Issim Issim Issim Istabel Anton. . Istmo Itabagaa Itagwira Itajuba Italy Itamaraca Itapicara Itapua Itasca Rati I'cha. Itcha Ithaca Ithaca Itona Itu Itze-hadze Iunoksa Iurieva Ivanouchkova . Iyaschkin Ivashno Ivi Ivica Ivimiut Ivo > ... Ivory Ivuckloke . R. . Mts. .R. . R. . R. . T. . Sta. . Fd. . T. . T. .a . I. . Is. . T. .R. , a , T. , Dis. C. . L . L . T. . T. .C. .Cy. . R. . R. . T. .R. . Ste. . T. . Dep . R. . R. . T. . Cty. , I. , T. . T. . L. T. , T. R. I. T. R. T. R. T. T. T. T. L. C. I. I. R. Cst. In. Mongolia Brit. America . Birmah Thibet Asiatic Russia. Alabama Tripoli Iceland Soudan Guatemala Brit. America . Naples Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Hindoostan . . . Brit America New S. Wales Asiatic Turkey Scotland . England . England . Russia . . Asiatic Turkey Arabia Persia Venezuela .... Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Tartary Arabia New Grenada . Brazil Brazil Brazil Europe Brazil Brazil Paraguay Wisconsin Ter. Buenos Ayres . Mongolia Mongolia Ionian Isles. . . New York .... Brazil Brazil Brit. America . Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Algiers Mediterran. Sea Greenland . . . Asiatic Russia Guinea Labrador .... Sd Ha Sg Se Qc Ge Ne Kb Lg Gg Ga Md Vh Od Xb Fb Sf Fc Wk Od Lc Lc Lc Nd Nd Pg Pe Hh Qc Qc Qc Qc Of Gh Ii Ij ~ k Md Ji Ij I k Fd Ik Se Sd Ne Gd Ii Ik Dc Ob Tb Tc Wc Xb Le Me Jb Qb Lh lc Nimes of I'licra, be. Ixa .. Izer . . Izium Jacca Jack Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jacksonville .. . Jacksonville .. . Jacksonville .. . Jacoba Jacobina. Jacob's Jacobshaven . . . Jacome | Jacques Jacunia Jaen Jaen Jaffa Jaffa Jafferabad Jafnapatam.. . . Jaik Jakan Jakan Ouvaian Jalapa Jalisco Jallinder Jallonkadoo . . . Jalmal Jaloffs Jamaica Jambara Jambi James James James James James James Jameson Jameson Janari Jangada Janghur Jan Mayen .... Jannah Japan Japan Japara Japomsk Jaquemel Jaquesila Jaquet Jaravinskoie .. . Jardine's Jari T. T. T. T. Ho. Cy. T. T. Po. T. T. T. T. T. Bay Dis. T. R. R. T. Cy. T. C. T. T. R. C. C. T. St, T. Cty. C. Peo I. Cty. T. Mantchooria Africa Russia T. C. C. Bai R. PL C. Ld R. K. T. I. T. Cty Sea T. L. T. R. I. T. Is. R. Spain Brit. America . Mississippi. .. . Missouri Arkansas New S. Wales . Florida Georgia Illinois Soudan Brazil Greenland Greenland Mexico Wisconsin Ter Bolivia Peru Spain Syria New S. Wales . Hindoostan . . . Ceylon Tartary Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Mexico Mexico Hindoostan . . . Africa Asiatic Russia. Senegambia .. . West Indies . . . Africa Sumatra St Helena .... Patagonia Scoresby's Ld.. Brit. America . Virginia Western Ter. . Brit. America . Scoresby's Ld.. Brazil Brazil Hindoostan . . . Northern Ocean Dahomey .... Asia Asia Java Russia Hayti Mexico Atlantic Ocean Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Ud Nf Od Ld Fc Fe Ge Fe Wi Gc Ge Fe Mh Jj la lb Ee Fd Hj Gi Le Oe VI Qf Rh Pc Xb Xb Fg Ff Re Lg Qa Lg «g Oj Si Lg lln Ka Gc Ge Ee Ha Ka Hi Ij Qg La Mh Ve Ue Ti r i. H| Eo Jd Tc Wf Asiatic Russia. R a 52 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, 4c. Jarjaksai R Jarra . Jarvis Jary Jask j Jask Jassu Jassy Java Java Java Java Java Head .... Javary Jayna Jaysulmere .... Jean Hamons.. Jedburg Jeddo Jeddore Jedo Jeendana Jefferson Jefferson Jefferson's .... Jefferson's .... Jemlah Jena Jenet . Jeniken Jenne Jeno Jequepa Jeremie Jerebovsk Jericoacoara . . . Jermain Jersey Jervis Jervis Jervis Jervois Jerumenha Jerusalem Jesso Jesus Jesus Maria . . Jeurire Jewnee Jeypoor Jidda Jidcnsalmi . . . Jiga-gounggar Jigat Jilla Jillip Jindinskoi . . • Joal Joannes Joaquim Joazeiros Tartary Q d L 11. T. C. T Cy. Sea T. I. Pt. C. R. T. Cy. Rk. T. Cy. Har Dis. I. Mt. Cy. R. I. T. T. T. T. Cy. T. Pt T. T. R. C. I. C. I. I. R. T. Cy. T. I. R. T. T. T. %' T. T. Pt. T. T. Ft. T. I. Ft. T. Africa Polynesia Brazil .. . Persia. . . Persia . . . Tartary . Turkey . Malaysia Africa . . . Malaysia Bolivia . . Java .... Peru.... Mexico .. Hindoostan . . . Atlantic Ocean Scotland Japan Nova Scotia.. . Africa Malaysia Oregon Ter. . . . Missouri Missouri Ter. . N. Pacific Oc. . Hindoostan . . . Germany Africa Suse Africa Austria Mexico Hay ti Russia Brazil Brit. America . English Chan.. New S. Wales , Gallapagos .... Australasia Brit. America Brazil Syria . Japan Polynesia. ... Mexico Japan Beloochistan . Hindoostan . . Arabia Russia Thibet Hindoostan . . Arabia Magadoxa . . . Asiatic Turkey Senegambia Brazil Brazil Brazil Lg Bi Ih Pf Pf Qd Nd Ti Oj Ti Hk Ti Hi Ff Qf Ke Lc Ve Hd Ph Ui Dd Ee Ed Eg Rf Mc Mf Lf Lg Nd Fg Hg Pb Ji Gb Ld VI Fi Wi Fb Ji Oe Vd Xi De Vd Qf Rg Of Nb Sf Qf Pf Oh Td Kg Li Ih Jj Name« of Placet, &c Jobie Jockmock Jodsumo Johanna Johannes John de Nova . John Martin's . Johnston's .... Jojo Karta .... Joliba Jones Jones' Jones' Jones' Jonesboro .... Jonga Jonkoping . . . Joodpore Joonaghur . . . Jooneer Jopyee Jordon ...... Jorhat Joros Josephine .... Josyna Jowar Juan de Fuca. Juan de Lisboa . Juan Fernandez. Juba Juban Juby Judge's Clerk.. . Judge (the) Judith Judjang Juggernaut Jujui Jukkas Julia Julalabad Julian Julianas-haab .. . Julianas-haab .. . Julnapore Jumua Jungo Junin Junin Jurien Juruay Jutay Jutland Jyepore Jykill Jylum I. T. T. I. I. Is. I. Is. T. R. C. So. Pk. lis. T. R. T. T. T. T. Pr. H. T. C. Bay Rk. T. Str. I. Is. R T. C. Rf. I. R. T. T. T. T. R. T. R. Sta. Dis. T. R. T. Dep T. Bay R. R. 1'r T. r, R. Kaarta K. Abakainskoe. Kabanaya Australasia . . Sweden Japan Indian Ocean Polynesia .... Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Polynesia Java Africa Brit. America . Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. New S.Wales. Texas Asiatic Russia. Sweden Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Birmah Scoresby's Ld. . Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Turkey Brit. America . Atlantic Ocean Senegambia .. . Oregon Ter. . . . Indian Ocean.. S. Pacific Oc. . Africa Formosa Africa Southern Ocean Southern Ocean Missouri Ter. Java Hindoostan . . Buenos Ayres Sweden Russia Cabul Little Thibet . Greenland . . . Greenland . . . Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Russia Peru Peru New Holland. Brazil Brazil Denmark .... Hindoostan . . Brit. America Hindoostan . . Ctv. T. T. Vi Nb Ue Oj Uh Pj Oj Ag Ti Lg Gc Ga Vc VI Fe Tc Mc Qf Qf Qg Sf Ka Sf Od Fb Ke Lg Dd Pk Gl Oh Uf Lf Wn Wn Ed Ti Rg Hk Nb Pb Qe Qe lb lb Rf Rf Nb Hj Gj TI Hi Hi Mc Rf Fb Qe Africa Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Lg Se Qc CONSULTING INDEX. 53 Nima of PUC«, Se. Kabanklak Kabardia Kabiji Kabra Kacunda. ...... Kacunda Kadhiy Kadnikon Kae-chow Kafferistan Kaffo Kafzo Kagalag Kaggal walla Kahilcha Kahurawa Kaia Kaibobo Kai-chow Kain Ka iii's Kaipara Kaipoudra Kairwan Kajachsha Kajachsar Kajana Kakissigan Kaktana Kakua Kalaat Eslen . . . Kalabshe Kalar Kalatoa Kaleg Kalgan Kalgucw Kalhat Kalinga Kalisch Kalitva Kalix Kalix Kalka Kalkas Kalkatargher .. . Kalkol Kalkoons Kalla Kallunga Kalmikova Kalmuks Kalmysk Kalouga 33. Kalouga Kalpce Kalpeni Kalsee Kalta Kama Kama L. Dis. T. Cy. T. T. T. T. T. Cty. T. T. T. T. R. T. T. T. Cy. R. I. Har R. T. T. T. T. R. R. T. T. T. T. T. T. Cy. I. T. I. T. T. T. R. R. Tr. Cy. L. Is. L. T. T. Tr. Ste. Pr. T. T. I. T. T. R. R. Tartary Asiatic Russia I Japan Soudan Senegambia .. Soudan Russia Russia iMantchooria . Asia Soudan jTunis Little Bucharia Cabul . . . (Asiatic Russia. Sandwich Is, Senegambia Ceram .... China JTartary Southern Ocean I New Zealand. Russia (Tunis Bergoo Bergoo Russia Lower Canada . Asiatic Russia. Sandwich Is.. . Arabia Nubia [Asiatic Russia. 'Malaysia Beloochistan . . . China Russia Arabia Malaysia Prussia Russia Sweden ....... Sweden Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Tartary Malaysia Russia Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Asia Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Hindoostan . . . Asia ......... Hindoostan . . . Arabia Cabul Russia Qd Pd Ve Lff Mh Oc Oc Ud Qe Mg Me Qd Qe Ub Bf Lg Ui Se Qd In XI Pb Me Ng Ng Nb Hd VVc Bg Of Of Vc Ui Pf Td Pb Pf Uh Nc Oc Nb Nb Td Td Td Qd Ti Nb Re Pd Rd Pd Oc Oc Rf Qg Re Of Qe Pb Names of Plica, Sc. Kama Kamafat ....... Kamalia Kamaranka .... Kamass Kambesk Kamchang Kamechlu Kamel Kamen Kamenaya Kamen ietz Kamini Kaminoi Kamisch Kamislov Kamourasca. . . . Kampatchai .... Kampion Kampur Kamtie Kamtschatka . . . Kamtschatka . . . Kamtschatka,Up Kamtschatka . . . Kamtschatka . . . Kamyshin Kan Kanadey Kanaga Kan-chow Kan-chow Kandahar Kandalaskaya . . Kandalaskaya . . Kandiz Kandy Kanem Kangaroo Kangelang Kangertluksoak . Kangkao Kanin Noss .... Kanjuljak Kan Kiang Kankiatchin. . . . Kankoevi Kankoukou .... Kannazava ... . Kano Kansara Kanseli Kanskoi Kansuh |Pr, Kansuh Cy. Kanzas R. Kao-chow Cy. Kaon-chow Cy. Kaotoasi Cy. Kao-yeou-chow .|Cy. Kapiteh..'. I. I. T. T. n. Sta. T. l't. L C. T, T. Cy. T. T. La. T. T. R. Cy. T. T. i'r T. T. R. Mt T. R. T. I. • 1. T. T. I. 'I'. T. Cy. R. Scotland . . . Russia .... Mongolia . . Norway . . . Russia .... Hainan .... Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Tartary Mantchooria Mantchooria Russia Asiatic Turkey Scotland Brit. America Russia Benin Asiatic Russia. Persian Gulf * Aleoutian Arc. Asiatic Russia Hindoostan . . Norway Russia Missouri Ter; Russia Asia Russia Russia Japan Russia Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Tartary Asiatic Russia Asiatic Turkey Russia .... Asiatic Russia. Russia Arabia Arabia Brit. America . Brit. America . Scoresby's Ld.. Australasia . . . Brit. America . Oregon Ter. . . . Russia New Holland. . Tennessee .... Polynesia Cochin China . Russia ; North America Asiatic Russia. Africa China China Koei-yang |Cy. |China T f Lc Oc Se Nb Nb Tg Sc Tc Qc U d Ud Oc Oe Lc Hb Oc Mh Va Pf Xc Wc Rg Na Ob Fd Nb Qg Nb Nb Ue Ob Qb Qb Pe Qd Pd Od Oc Wc Ob Ob Of Fb Fc Kb X m Fb Dc Ec Nb Ti Ge Xh Tg Pb Be Qb Lg Te Te CONSULTING INDEX. 57 Name* of Place*, *c. Koeniggratz .... Koete Kof Kohat Kohistan Koidere Koig Koilovsk Koin Koiram Koisilin Kokahlahishket. Kokikli Koking Koko Nor Koks Koksah Kola Kola Koldagi Koleah Kolhyan Kolhyan Kolima Kolimskoi Koliulchen Koliusches Koliva Kolno Kologriv Kolokolikovskoi. Kolomna Kolp Kolpinskom Kolpitcha , Kolryn , Kolvercia Kolym Joujan . Kolzdraleva . . . Komaggas .... Kon Konang-nan . . . Konbo Konda Kondinskaya . . Konsr T. T. t: T. Dis. L. Fd. T. R. Mts. C. R. L Cy u I. R. Kong Kong Kongnan Kongsberg .... Kong-tchang . . Konieb Konig Konigsburg . . . Koninschna . . . Konkero Konotop Konrat Konstantingrad Konstantinov . . Konup Cy. T. T. Pr. Cy. R. T. I. Tr. R. t. t. c. T. R. T. T. T. T. T. T. Sta. L. Cy. L. \i. T. Cty Cy. Mts. Cy. T. Cy. !> | T. T. T. T. T. EL Austria , Arabia . Japan Cabul Cabul Russia Norway Russia Mantchooria . Thibet Russia Oregon Ter. . . Tartary China China Australasia . . . Brit. America Russia Russia Darfur Algiers Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Brit. America Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Norway Asiatic Russia. Russia Cape Colony . . Russia China Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Soudan Soudan Africa China Norway China Asiatic Turkey Brit. America Prussia Russia Mongolia .... Russia Tartary Russia Asiatic Russia. Africa X c Pf Ve Qe Qe Ob Na Pb Vc Re Od Ed Qc Sf Se Tk He Ob Ob Ng Me Re Re Wb Wb Ab Cb Pb Nc Od Pb Oc Oc Pd Pd Nc Mb Qb Pb Nl Nb Sf Ob Qc Qc Mg Mg Lh Te Mc Se Oe Gb Nc Pb Sd Oc Pd Od Ta Nk Names of Placet, ic. Konvinger . . Koochan .... Kooloj Kooloobdea . . Koom Kooma Koomabad . . Koondooz . . . Kooner Kooniakary . Koonsha .... Koop Kooranko .. . Kooreenar . . . Kopani Kopaul Kopen Kopi Kopyss Kordofan . . . Korennoe . . . Korgas Korgin Koriaks .... Korilvays - . . Kornegalle .. Korna Korolaikha .. Koronas .... Korot Kortchin .... Korti Korumabad . Kosheleff . . . Kosima ........ Koslov , Kosogal .... Kosorra .... Kostanie .... Kostrom .... Kostroma . . . Kostroma Kosva Kotah Kotai Kotelnitch Kotelnoi Koten Koten Kotska Kottojoures . . . Kotzebue'e Kouangsi Kouangsin Koubinskoe . . . Koudarinska . . Koudon Koudoagour. . . Koudouktou .. Koue-hoa Koue-te 14 T. T. T. I. T. R. T. T. T. T. T. I. Cty. T. T. T. T. T. T. Cty. T. T. T. Tr. I. T. T. R. T. T. Pr. T. T. Pt. I. T. L. T. Ft. T. Pr. Cy. T. T. T. T. I. Dis R. T. T. So. Cy. <'}•• T. T. T. T. T. Cy. Cy. Norway Persia Beloochistan . . Hindoostan . . . Persia Asiatic Russia. Persia Tartary Cabul Africa Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Africa Hindoostan . . . Tartary Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Africa Asiatic Russia. Soongaria ..... Asiatic Russia . Asiatic Russia. Indian Ocean .. Ceylon Asiatic Turkey Russia Russia Siam Mantchooria . Nubia Persia Asiatic Russia Japan ....... Russia ...... Mongolia .... Africa Oregon Ter.. . Asiatic Turkey Russia Russia Russia ... Hindoostan . . Siam , . Russia Asiatic Russia Little Bucharia Little Bucharia Asiatic Russia. Norway . North America China .. . China .. . Russia . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Mongolia .... Mongolia .... China China M b Pe Qf Sf Pe Od Pe Qe Qe Lg Pd Wh Lh Rf Pd ? g Se Od Oc Og S a Rd Ta Xb Ok Rh Pe Pb Nb Sg Ud Og Pe Wc Vd Oc Sc Lg Ec Nd Oc Oc Pc Rf Pd Va Rd Rd Sc Nb Bb Tf Tf Oc Tc Tc Td Td Sf To 11 58 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. KougsbaCka. . . Kouitoun i Kouka Koukiri Koukoudefessou Kouktoi Koularka Kouloundrinskoe Koumgour Kouminikovi . . . Koung-akka .... Kounto Koupensk Kouraba Koureli Kouren Kourgan ....... Kouriskarki Kourmina Kourojogina .... Kourou Koursk 43. Koursk Kourtchoum .... Kouskoguin .... Kousmoi Kousnetzk Koussie Koustchanka . . . Koutais Kou-tao Koutchigaiska . . Kouwan Kou-yuen Kouza Kouznetsk Kovdo Kovdo Kovno Kowan Kracai Krasnoborsk .... Krasnoi-lar Krasnoy Krasnoyarsk . . . Krasnoy-kholm . Kraw Kremenichoug. . Krestova Krestovaya Krestovoy Krestovoy Krestovskoe .... Krisei Kromy Kroncnborg .... Kronotskoi Krook Kroo Towns.. . . Krostzi Krumen T. T. Cy. T. T. R. T. T. T. T. T. Ls. T. R. C. T. Cy. T. R. R. IT. Pr. Cy. R. R. R. T. R. Bay T. Is. T. R. Cy- T. Cy. T. L. T. R. T. T. T. T. Cy. T. 1st. T. T. C. C. C. T. I. T. T. Mt. Cy. T. R. Sweden . . Mongolia Soudan. . Mongolia Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Russia Asiatic Russia Mongolia .... Russia Russia Africa Asiatic Turkey Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Guiana Russia Russia Mongolia North America Russia ....... Russia Cape Colony . . Russia Asiatic Russia. Corea Asiatic Russia. Tartary China Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Great Bucharia Arabia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Asia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Aleoutian Arc. Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Persia Liberia Russia Africa Mc Td Mg Sd Td Vc Tc Re Pc Qb Td Ob Od Lg Od Td Qc Qb Xb Va In Oc Oc Rd Bb Pb Pc Nk Pb Od Ue Tc Qd Te Oc Re Ob Ob Nc Qe Of Od P d Oc Sc Oc Sg Od Wc Pb Ua Wa Sa Xc Oc Nb Wc Pf Lh Oc Nk Names of Places, &c. Krusenstern . . . Krusenstcrn .. . Krusenstern .. . Krusenstern's.. Kua Kuban Kudgorski Kuen-lun Kukar Kuku Kulbah Kull Kulleespelm .. . Kulno Kulon Kulon Kulukak Kumi Kunkuy Kunsamo Kuopio 8 Kuopio Kur Kurachee Kurant Kurdistan Kurgha Kuriat Kurile Kurile Kurnaul Kurnool Kurrechane . . . Kurry Kurry .. Kurulon Kura Kusserkund . . . Kustrin Kutaiah Kutshuga Kutsing Kuwadi Kwadelen Kwangse Kwangtung . Kweichow .... Kwettah Kwies Kwyhoo •.! Kyberg , Kylie Class. Labezu . . . Labiagei . . Labook ... Labrador . Laby Labyrinth , Labyrinth , La Cache . La Cala . . C. c. Mt. I. R. R. T. Mts, T. T. T. C. L. T. R. L. Cv. I. R. T. Pr. Cy. R. T. Mt. Pr. L. T. L. Is. T. T. T. Dis. R. R. T. T. Cy. T. Cy. T. I. Pr. Pr. Pr. T. T. Bay T. T. T. T. Bay Cty. T. Bay L. R. T. North America Brit. America . Nora Zembla .. Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Mongolia .... Little Bucharia Libya Arabia Brit. America . Oregon Ter. . . . Poland Mongolia Mongolia North America Eastern Sea .. . Asiatic Russia. Russia ........ Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Sinde Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Turkey Soongaria .... Arabia Asiatic Russia Asia Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Africa Soudan Mongolia .... Asiatic Russia Beloochistan . . . Prussia . . Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Russia. China Japan Polynesia China China China Cabul Africa Africa Russia Celebes Mongolia Asiatic Russia Borneo , Brit. America . Senegambia .. , Nubia Lower Canada. Brit. America . Tunis Bb Eb Pa Cj Sc Qd Qb Se Rd Nf Pf Fb Ed Nc Td Td Be Uf Xb Nb Nb Nb P d Qf Wc Oe Qd Pf Wc Wd Rf Rg Nk Mg Td Vb Qf Nc Ne Tc Sf Ue Xh Tf Tf Tf Qe Nk Oi Na Ti Sd Re Th He Lg Og Gd Db Me CONSULTING INDEX. 59 Names of Places, *c La Caudima Laccadivea Lachlan Lacker La Conception .. La Crosse Lake . Ladak Ladak Ladak Ladanarska Ladey noye Pole Ladikieh Ladoga La Dominica . . . Ladrone Ladrone Lady Anne's . . . Lady Grey Lady Julia's Lady Nelson's .. Lafayette Lagbu's Lagens Lagoa La Goleta Lagoon Lagos La Gozalta La Grange Laguillas La Guayra Laguedo ....... Lagullas Lagullas Lagumar Laguna Laguna Lahore Lahore Lahou Lahou Lahsa Lahsa F.aliti? Lai-chow Lainio Lakeneig Lalcha Lalmamon Lalsk . . . .' Lama La Magdalena . . Lamas Lambay Lambayque .... Lambuka Lamego La Mira? Lamock Lamoel Lamoo T. Is. R. I. Vil. Ft. Dis. Cy. R. T. T. T. L. I. Is. Is. Bay 1C. L Sh. T. Sh. T. R. T. I. T. T. T. Bk. T. C. Bk. C. T. T. T. Pr. Cy. C. R. Pr. T. T. Cy. R. Sta. L. T. T. Sea I. T. Sh. T. R. T. I. Is. I. T. Mexico Asia New S. Wales Malaysia .... Mexico Brit America Little Thibet . Little Thibet . Little Thibet . Asiatic Russia Russia Syria Russia Polynesia. China Polynesia. Brit. America Mozambique . Australasia . . , Australasia . . . Indiana Australasia . . . Pico Island . . Inhambane.. . Tunis Polynesia Portugal Buenos Ayres Arkansas Indian Ocean . Venezuela.. . . Azanaga Indian Ocean Cape Colony . Brazil Brazil Equador Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Guinea Guinea , Arabia Arabia Hindoostan . . . China Sweden Africa Russia Abyssinia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Peru Malaysia Peru ... Asiatic Russia. Brazil Polynesia China Polynesia Africa Ff Qg VI Ui Ee Ec Re Re Re Vb Ob Oe Ob Ci Tf Vg Ga Ok VI Wl Gd Wj Ke Ok Me Cj Le HI Fe Nl Hg Kf Nl Nl' Ij Hj Hi Qe Qe Lh Lh Pf Pf Qf Ue Nb Lf Ob Og Pb Vc Cj Hi Tg Gi Vb Hj we Tf Wg Oi Names of Places, 4c Lamov Lampcdosa. . . Lampione Lampon Lampong Lamurek Lamuti Lancaster Lancaster Lancaster Lan-chow Landa Landfall Landfall Landsberg . . . Land's End . . Lanepou Langanaes . . . Langara Langara Langeness . . . Langley Langoen Lan-Ho Lankao Lankeran Lannes Lantchang . . . Lanzarota Laos Lapa La Paz , La Paz Lapcheva Lapdinska . . . Lapitcha Lapiuga Lapland La Plata Laporte Lapteff La Puebla . . . La Puebla . . . La Purissima. Laquaha Lar Laraat Larak Larch Lari Larissa Laristan Laritchi Larkenting . . . Larkhanu. .. . Larnica La Roche .... La Rochelle .. La Rouge .... La Rouge .... Larrey T. I. I. Bay Dis. I. Tr. Cy. So. Rf. Cy. T. I. I. T. C. L. C. Bay I. C. I. I. R. T. T. C. T. I. Cty. Bay Dep Cy. T. T. R. T.. €ty. T. T. T. St. T. T. 1. ',:>■ i. K. T. T. Pr. 'P. T. T. T. Str. Cy. R. Ft. C. Russia Mediterran. Sea Mediterran. Sea Luzon Sumatra Polynesia .... Asiatic Russia England Brit. America Polynesia .... China Borneo Bay of Bengal Patagonia . . . Prussia England Thibet Iceland Patagonia. . . . Oregon Ter. . Nova Zembla. Newfoundland . LofFoden Isles Mantchooria . Russia Persia New S. Wales Laos Canary Isles . Asia Benguela .... Bolivia Bolivia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Europe New Grenada Indiana Asiatic Russia. Mexico Mexico Mexico Polynesia Persia Australasia . . Persian Gulf . . Brit. America . Soudan Turkey Persia Asiatic Russia. Thibet Sinde Cyprus Isle of Georgia France Brit America . Brit. America Oc Me Me Ug S i Vh Vb Lc Ga Ck Se Th Sg Hn Nc Lc Re Kb Hm Dc Pa Id Mb Td Nb Pe VI Sg Lf Sg Mj Hj Hj Wb Qc Vb Pb Nb Gh Gd Wb Fg Fg De Aj Pf Ui Pf He Mg Nd Pf Rb Sf Qf Oe Jn Ld Ec Ec New Holland.. Tk J GO CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c Las Bruscas .. Las Juntas . . . Lasker Las Nuevitas , La Sola La Soledad . . . La Soufriere . . Las Penuelas . Lassa Lassa Last Hope . . . Late Latham's .... Latoor Latouche Treville Lattakoo Latta Latta . . Laughlan's . . . Launceston . . Laurie's Lausaunne . . . Lava Laval Lavapie Lavento Lavra Lavras Lavritski Lavroff Lawson Lax Laxara Lay Laybach Laysan Layschev .... Le Leaotong .... Leatong Leavenworth . Leba Lebanon Lebda Lebeginskaya Lebetse Lebida Lebyagya .... Lecasova .... Ledo Leech Leeds Leegetan Leeland Leerdal Lee's Foreland Leeuwin Leeuwin's.. . . Leeward Leffouw Lefououekh . . Lefuga Class. T. T. I. T. I. T. Mt T. Pr. Oy. In. I. I. T. C. T. I. I. T. I. T. T. T. C. T. R. T. T. C. C. Fd. I. Pt T. I. T. T. Pr. G. Ft. T. T. T. T. Tr. T. T. T. C. L. T. I. I. T. C. LcL Is. T. T. 1. Buenos Ayres . Mexico Polynesia Cuba... Polynesia Mexico St. Lucia Mexico Thibet Thibet Patagonia .... Polynesia Indian Ocean . Hindoostan . . . New Holland . . Africa Malaysia Australasia .... V. Diemen's Ld South Shetland Switzerland . . . Borneo France Chili'. Peru Asiatic Russia. Brazil Asiatic Russia. Nova Zembla Greenland . . Norway .... N. Pacific Oc North America Austria N. Pacific Oc. Russia Laos Mantchooria . Mantchooria . Missouri Prussia Virginia Tripoli Asiatic Russia. Africa Tripoli Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Benguela Wisconsin Ter. England Malaysia Denmark Norway Spitsbergen . . . New Holland . . New Holland .. West Indies . . . Timor Mantchooria . . Polynesia II Fe Xf Gf Ak De Hg Ee Se Sf Hn Aj Oi Rg Uj Nk Ui Wi Vm Jo Md Th Ld HI Gi Uc Ji Qb Pa la Nb Bf Bb Md Af Pc Sg Ud Ud Fe Nc Ge Me Ub Nf Me Qc Qb Mi Fd Lc Th Mc Mb Na Tl Tl Hg Ui Ud Ck Names of Places, tw. Leghca Leghorn Le Grand Leh Leifle Leige Lein-chow Lein-ping-chow . Leipzig Leja Lekma Lekoe Lelundo Lema Le Maire Lemberg Lemlum Lemnos Lemus Lemvig Lena Lena (of the) .. . Leng Lengerout Lengua de Baca Leon Leon i Leon , Leona Vicario . Leoo-keoo , Leopold Leopolds tad t. . . . Lepers .... Le Puy .... Lerma Lerwick . . . Lesan Leschenault Leschenault Le Sparre .. Lesser Slave . . Less'r Slave Lake Less'r Slave Lake Lessoe , Lesueur Letes i Letons Lettee , Leuba Leutschau.. . , Levanoe Levata LeVela Lewis Lewis Lewis Lewis Lewisburg . . . Lewthwaite's Lexington . . . Sta. Cy. C. Cy. Bay Cy- Cy. Cy. Cy. T. L. I. R. I. St. Cy. T. I. I. T. R. G. T. T. C. ?■ R. Cy. Is. C. T. I. T. T. T. I. C. Pt. T. C. L. Dis. Ft I. Mts L. Rk. I. R. T. T. Tr. I. T. T. R. C. T. Str. Cy- Africa Tuscany New Holland . Little Thibet . Greenland . . . Belgium China China Saxony Syria Russia Norway Congo China Patagonia .... Austria Asiatic Turkey Archipelago. . ~ tagonia .... Norway Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Laos Persia Chili Spain Guatemala Bolivia Mexico Eastern Sea. . . Brit. America . Austria , Australasia . . . France Spain Scotland China New Holland. . New Holland. . France Mantchooria . . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Denmark New Holland. . Russia Cape Verd Is. . Malaysia Chili Austria Norway Africa Caribbean Sea. Scotland Illinois Oregon Ter.. . . Greenland Arkansas Powel's Group. Kentucky Nf Md UI Re lb Mc Tf Tf Mc Oe Ob Mb Mi T f Hn Nd Oe Ne Hm Nb Ub Ua Sg Pe HI Ld Cg Hk Ff Uf Ga Nd Xj Md Ld Lc Uf Tl Ti Ld Vd Ec E c E c Mc Tl Ob Kg Ui HI Nd M b Nf «g Lc Fd Ed la Fe Io Ge CONSULTING INDEX. 61 Nime» of Place*, fcc Lexington Ley den Leyson Leyte Liadouskoi .... Liaga Liaghoff Liant Liard's Liatamkovi .... Libau Liberia Liberty Liberty Libyan Lichtenau Lida Liddon's Lidkoping Lie Light Lig'ep Ligor Likiang , Lilabarouba . . . Lillesund Lilly Fountain Lima . Lima Lima Limeri Limerick .... Limesoe Limesol Limmens .... Limoges Linapacan . . . Linares Lincoln Lincoln Lincoln Lincoln's Lindesay Lindesnoes . . . Lindsay Lindsay Linds-dal Lindy Lingayen .* . . Ling-chow . . . Ling-hein Lingin Lingnang Lin-kiang.. .. Linosa Lintz | Lintzin , Lion's Lipa Lipari Lipes T. T. Pt. I. T. R. I. , C. . R. . T. . T. . Cty. .T. . T. . Des . T. . T. . G. . T. . L. . T. . I. .T. .Cy. .T. .T. .Sta. . Dep .Cy. • T. .R. • Cy. . I. .T. .Bgt . T. . I. ,.T. ::?• ..Po. ..I. ..R. ..C. ..C. ..C. .. T. . . R. . . Bay ..Cy. ..Cy. . . Str. ..Cy. ::F ..T. ..T. .. Bk. ..T. .. I. .. T. Missouri Holland Brit. America Malaysia . Asiatic Russia Russia Asiatic Russia Siam Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Russia Africa Texas Missouri Africa Greenland .... Russia , Brit. America Sweden Thibet Asiatic Russia Polynesia .... Malaysia .... China Africa Norway Cape Colony . Peru Peru Sweden Chili Ireland Norway Cyprus New S. Wales France Malaysia .... Mexico England China Sea . . . New S. Wales Polynesia New S. Wales . Norway Brit America . Elephant Island Sweden Quiloa Luzon China China Malaysia China China Mediterran. Sea Austria Russia Atlantic Ocean Bolivia Mediterran. Sea (New Grenada Name* of Placet, 4c. Fe Mc Gb Ug Pc Pb Va Sg Dc Qc Nc Lh Ff Fe Nf lb Nc Ea Mc Re Ua Xh Sh Sf Nk Mc Nk Gj Gj Mb HI Lc Mb Oe Vj Md Tg Ff Lc Tg Vi Xi VI Mc Ga Io Nb Oj Ug Te Te Sh Sf Tf Mc M d Nc K.- ll. Me Hh Lipetsk Lipovety Lipstadt Liptchani Liptrap Lisbon Lisburne Lisianskoy's Ld. Lisle Lister's Liston Lichtenfels Litkina Little Little Little Little Altai Little Andaman. Little Big Horn. Little Bucharia . Little Cayman .. Little Fish Little Ganges . . . Little Inaqua .. . Little Key Little Kooropar- tachia Little Laut .... Little Marten .. Little Missouri . Little Mistissinny Little Ouzen .... Little Portandick Little Rock .... Little Seal Little Sea Otter. Little Sioux .... Little Thibet . . . Little Whale . . . Litza Liubim Liu-sima Livensk Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool Livingston Livingston's Livingston's Livonia 19. Lizard Lizard Llanes Llanos Llera Lloyd's T. T. T. T. C. Cy. C. I. Or- Pk. Is. T. T. I. L. Des. Mts. I. R. Cty I. Bay I. I. I. Russia Russia Russia Russia New S. Wales Portugal North America N. Pacific Oc. . France New S. Wales . Brit. America . Greenland .... Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Hindoostan . . . Mongolia Bay of Bengal . Missouri .... Asia West Indies. Benguela . . . Polynesia . . . Bahamas . . . Australasia . . R I. L. R. L. R. T. Cy. R. I. R. Oty EL R. T. I. T. Cy. T. T. T. C. Cst Bay B. c. I. I. Pr. Pt. I. T. Pis. T. Is. Oc Nd Mc Nd VI Le Ab Af M c Wk Eb lb Sa Va Eb Qf Sd Sg Ed Rd Gg Mj Bi Hf Ui Asiatic Russia. Malaysia Brit America . Missouri Brit America . Asiatic Russia. Africa Arkansas Brit America . North America Wisconsin Ter. Asia Brit. America . Russia Russia Japan Russia England Nova Scotia. . . N. Brunswick . Senegambia .. . Brit America . Scoresby's Ld.. Brit. America . New Holland . . New Guinea . . Polynesia South Shetland Russia England Australasia . . Spain New Grenada • Mexico South Shetland Wa Ti Eb Fd He Pd Kg Fe Fc Ac Fd Re He Ob Oc Ve Oc Lc Hd Hd Lg Ga Ka Dd U J Vi Wh Ho Nc Lc Vj Ld Hh Ff Ho G 62 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, be Lloyd's Loango Loango Lobos Lobos Lobos Lobos Lobos Lobos Lobos Lobos Locker Loch Fine . . . Lock's ....... Loclevskoi . . . Lodajas Lodeeana . . . . Lodmundar . . Lofaugar .... Loffoden Logan Logansport. . . Loggun Loghinova . . . Logoe Logos Loheia LoHo Loire Lokhan Lombardy . . . Lomblem Lombock .... Lombock .... Lorn men Berg Lomsele London London London London London Londonderry . Londonderry . Londor Londou Long Long Long Long Long Long Long Longawan . . . Longchamps . Long Island . . Long Island . . Long Lake . . . Longnan Longuerue . . . Looboe Loo-choo Prm Cty. Cy. T. Pt Pt. I. I. I. Is. Is. C. L. I. T. Dis. T. Fd. T. Is. Po. T. Cy. T. T. R. Cy. R. R. T. Km. I. St. I. Mt T. Cy. T. T. Cst. Rk. Cy. Is. Mt. T. I. I. I. I. I. I. L. T. Rk. I. So. Ho. Cy. C. T. Is. South Shetland Africa Loango Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . Patagonia Polynesia Uruguay Azanaga Peru Mexico New Holland. . Scoresby's Ld. . Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Azanaga Hindoostan . . . Iceland Sweden Norway Brit. America . Indiana Soudan Asiatic Russia. Changamera . . Guinea Arabia China France Russia Italy Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia Spitsbergen . . . Sweden England Upper Canada . Guatemala .... Greenland Malayan Sea . . Ireland Patagonia Asiatic Russia. Russia Brit America . Brit America . Malaysia .... Eastern Sea. . . Australasia Australasia Brit. America . Celebes Atlantic Ocean United States. . United States .. Brit America . China New Guinea . . Celebes Eastern Sea .. . Io Mi Mi II HI Hm Vf II Kf Gl Ef Tk Ka Hb Re Lf Re Kb Nb Mb Fa Gd Ng Qc Oj Mh Og Te Ld Pb Md Ui Ti Ti Na Nd Lc Gd Gg la Th Lc Hn Vc Ob Hb Gc Sj Uf Vi Vi Gc Ui Jh Hd Hd Gc Se VI Ui Uf Names of Places, &c. Lookayanoy Lookers-on Lookout Lookout Lookout Lookout Lookout Loon Loon Loony Lopatka Loper's Lopez Lop Nor Loppen Loquez Lora Lord Auckland's Lord Howe's . . . Lord Howe's . . . Lord Howe's . . . Lord Mayor's.. . Lord Nelson's . . Lord North's . . . Loreto Loreto L'Orient Lorma Los Coquillas .. . Los Hermanos .. Losinogorska .. . Los Martires Los Patillos Lossen Lostange Lot's Wife Loucheux Lougan Loughboro Louis Louis Louisa Louisburg Louisiade Louisiana Louis Phillip . . . Louisville Louisville Louit-chow Loumbov Louristan Lourondsong . . . Loutzk Louza Love Love Lovcnorn Lovisa Low Low Low Class. T. I. C. C. C. c. Pt. R. L. R. C. I. C. L. I. Po. R. Gr. I. I. Gr. Bay St. I. Cy. T. Cy. T. T. T. I. Is. R. I. I. Tr. Cy. In. C. Po. Rk. c. I. St C. Cy. T. Cy- c. Dis. T. T. R. Bay Bay C. T. I. I. Russia Australasia . . . Patagonia .... Brit. America . North Carolina Oregon Ter. . . New S.Wales . Wisconsin Ter Brit. America . Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Africa Little Bucharia Norway ... Madagascar Cabul Southern Ocean Australasia . . . Polynesia. . . . Australasia . . Brit. America Patagonia Polynesia. . .. Mexico Bolivia France Mexico Mexico • - Patagonia .... Asiatic Russia. Polynesia South Peru . . . Norway Polynesia Polynesia Brit. America . China Oregon Ter. . . . Kerguelen's Ld Isle of France. Malaysia . . . Cape Breton I. Australasia.. . United States. Brit. America Kentucky .... Georgia China Russia Persia Thibet * Russia Russia Greenland ... Spitsbergen . . , Seghalien ..... Russia Polynesia South Shetland iHo Malaysia ... . |tJ O Xm Hm Gc Ge Dd Wk Fd Ec Qf Wc Xi Mi Rd Na Pj Qe Xn Wl Bj Wi Fb Gn Uh Ef Hj Ld Fg Ee Hm Re Vh Hk Mb Cj Wf Db Te Dc Qm Pk Th Hd Wi Fe Fb Ge Ge Tf Pb Pe Se Nc Pe lb Ma Vd Nb Aj CONSULTING INDEX. 63 Nana of Haew, IK. Low « Low Lowang Lowashan Lovvat Lowatte Lowdeah Lowenstern .... Lower Lower Angara .. Lower Canada . . Lower Iribatskaya Lower Nippowan Lower Oudinsk . Lower Savage . , Lower Suse .... Lower Tchoum- skaya Lowther Low Woody . . 1 . Loxa Loxe Loyalty Luan Luban Lubben Lubeck Lubeck Lublin Lubo Lubo Lubolo Lubreck Lucaya Lucca Lucerne Lucknow Ludamar Luenburg Lugartos Lugh a Sumrna . Lugo Lu'-chow Luidini Lukin Lulea Lulea Lulea Lunenburg Lupata Lutoo Luxan . Luxemburg .11. Luxemburg .... Luxor Luzon Lyana Lyaree ........ Lycksele Lycomedis Lydias Is. Is. I. Pr. T. Mt L. C. L. R. Pr. T. Ho. T. Is. Dis. T. I. Is. T. Fd. Is. T. I. T. Cy. I. Cy. T. R. Pr. Sta. I. D. T. Cy- Cty. ¥ L, T. Cy. T. ViL T. R. L. T. Mte. R. T. G.D Cy. T. I. T. T. T. L. Australasia.. . Australasia... China Birmah Barbary Barbary Tunis Seghalien .... Oregon Ter. .. Asiatic Russia North America Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Suse Xj Wk Uf Sf Me Le Me Vc Ed Sc Hd [Sb Fc Sc II b Lf Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Polynesia Equador Norway Australasia... . Mindanao Malaysia Prussia Germany Malaysia Poland Mozambique . . Mozambique . . Benguekt Tripoli Bahamas Italy Switzerland . . . Hindoostan . . . Africa. Hanover Mexico Abyssinia Spain China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Sweden Sweden Sweden Nova Scotia . . . Africa Russia Buenos Ayres . Germany Belgium Egypt-. Malaysia Barbary Beloochistan . . Sweden .... Africa Polynesia . . . Sb Fa Ch Gi Na Xk Uh Ug Mc Mc Ti Nc Oj Oj Nj Ne Gf Md Md Rf LgT Mc Gf Oh Ld Te Pb Ab Nb Nb Nb Hd Oj Ob II Md Md Of Ug Me Qf Nb Nf Xh Names of Placej, *c. Lydra Lynchburg . Lynn Lynn Lyon Lyons Lyons Lyons Lytin Cha I. T. T. Cnl. C. Cy g. Ch T. Maab Maadan Maasoe Maatsuyker's Mabah Mabbrook. . . Mabli Macaa Macahe Macao Macar Macartney . . Macas Macassar . . . Macassar . . . Macassar . . . Macauley's . . Macava Maccai Macclesfield . Macdougall . Maceyo Machias Machides . . . Machides . . . Machigasta . Machigma . . Machiguine . Machistan . . Machoura. . . Mackenzie . . Mackenzie's . Mackinaw . . Mackintosh . Macon Macoa Macouar .... Macowar .... Macquarie . . . Macquarie . . . Macquaries . . Macquaries . . Macri Macy's Madagascar . . Madawasca . . Madeira Madeira Madeiras Is. Maden T. Madina T. T. T. I. Is. T. T. T. T. T. Cy. I. C. T. T. T. Str. I. R. T. Bk. L. T. T. Cty. R. T. ViL Bay IT. R. In. Cy. C. Cy. Cy. b. T. Har T. R. Polynesia. . , Virginia ... England ... North America Brit America France France Brit America Russia Greenland Arabia . . . Norway . . V. Diemen'sLd. Soudan Africa , Barca Hayti Brazil China Asiatic Russia. China Equador Cambodia Celebes Malaysia Polynesia Venezuela .... Mozambique . . China Sea .... Brit America . Brazil Maine Africa Brazil Buenos Ayres . Asiatic Russia. Nova Zembla .. Brit America . Asiatic Russia. Brit America . Scoresby's Ld.. Michigan Brit America . Georgia France Arabian Gulf. . Nubia V. Diemen's Ld. V. Diemen's Ld. New S. Wales Southern Ocean Asiatic Turkey Polynesia Indian Ocean . Upper Canada , Brazil Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Asiatic Turkey Senegambia Bj Ge Mc Cc Db Md Md Gb Nd lb Of Na Vm Ng Mf Ne Hg Jj Tf Va Ue Gi Tg Ti Ti Ak Hh Oj Tg Fb Ji Hd Oh Ii Hk Ab Pa He Wc Db Ka Gd Hb Ge Md Of Of Vm Vm VI Wn Ne Ak Pj Gd Hi Ke Ke Oe •LfiT 64 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Madison Madison Madjicosemah Madras Madrid Madura Madura Madvego Magadoxa . . . Magadoxa . . . Magami Magatocff. . . . Magdalen .... Magdalena . . . Magdalena . . . Magdalena . . . Magdalena . . . Magdeburg . . Magellan .... Magellan's . . . Mageroo Maghinskaya . Magnetic .... Magnitnaia . . Magnuse Magnuse Magoo Magus Mahagan .... Mahanuddy . . Mahe Mahe Mahe Mahee Mahirka Preislang Mahmora .... Mahou Mahrah Mahrea Arabs Mahuhish Mahunga .... Maia Maiaoiti Maimatchin .. Main Mainagua .... Maine Mainland .... Maison's Maitland Majambo .... Majoor Majorca Maju Majussa Makamie .... Makoko Makooana .... Makosses .... Makova Makulla R. T. I. Cy. Cy. T. I. I. Cty. Cy. T. L. Is. Dep Bay T. R. Cy. Str. Arc. I. T. I. T. R. L. T. Sh. T. R. I. Is. Bk. T. T. T. Cy- Dis. Tr. T. Cty. R. I. Cy. R. I. St. I. I. T. Bay I. I. T. R. R. Cty. Tr Tr. Tr. ( Dis. Missouri Ter. . Indiana Eastern Sea. . . Hindoostan . . . Spain Hindoostan . . Malaysia Asiatic Russia. Africa , Magadoxa Japan Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . New Grenada . Spitsbergen . . . Buenos Ayres . New Grenada . Prussia Polynesia Norway Asiatic Russia. New S.Wales . Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Brit. America . Persia Polynesia ...... Ceylon Hindoostan . . . Indian Ocean.. Indian Ocean . Indian Ocean.. Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Morocco China Arabia Africa Russia Africa Asiatic Russia. Polynesia. . . . Mongolia .... Asiatic Russia Polynesia .... United States. Shetland Is. .. Polynesia New S. Wales . Madagascar. . . Polynesia Mediterran. Sea Barbary Peru Soudan Africa Africa Africa Africa Arabia Ed Gd Uf Rg Ld Rh Ti Wa Ph Ph Ve Va Hb Hg Ma II Hh Mc Hn Vf Na Tb Vj Pc Eb Eb Pf Uf Rh R'f Pi Pi Pi R? Uc Le Sf Per Ng Pc Ni Vc Bj Pq Xb Vg Hd Lb Bh Wl Pj Wh Me Me Hj Mb Ni Oj Nk 2 j Pff Names of Places, &c. Makulla Mala Malabriga .... Malacca Malacca Malaga Malanca Malanta Malaskerd . . . Malayan Malaysia .... Malcolm Malabar Maiden Maldivas Maldonado . . . Malebum .... Malenillo .... Malespina .... Maletivo Malfin Malhada Malheur .... Malik Malimba Malin Malines Malkin Mallar Mallicola Mallon Malloodo Mallooin Malmo Malone Maloppo Malplo Mais Malstrom Malta Malung Malwa Mamach Mamadysk Mamafale Mama Inferior . . Mamala Mamaleek Mamas Mama Superior . Mambookies Mamcheo Maminisca Mamore Mampoor Man Mana Manachan Manai Manambatou . . . Manamboure . . . T. Pt. I. Cy. Str. Cy. T. I. T. Sea Div R. Cst. I. Is. T. T. Bk. C. T. a. T. R. Bks R. Har T. T. L. I. I. T. I. T. T. R. I. R. I. I. T. Pr. T. T. I. R. Ch. T. T. R. Tr. T. L. R. Cty. I. R. R. I. C. R. Arabia P g New Grenada . G h Polynesia. . . . Malaya Malaysia .... Spain Brazil Australasia . . Turkey Asia Occanica .... Brit. America Hindoostan . . Polynesia .... Asia Uruguay .... Hindoostan . . Bahamas .... Japan Ceylon Buenos Ayres Brazil Oregon Ter... Asia Africa Ireland Belgium Asiatic Russia. Sweden Australasia .... Polynesia Borneo Polynesia Sweden Asiatic Russia . Africa New Grenada . Norway LofTodey Is. .. . Mediterran. Sea Sweden Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Russia Mozambique . . Asiatic Russia . Asia Soudan Equador Asiatic Russia. Africa Siam Brit. America . Bolivia Africa Chili Guiana Madagascar .. . Polynesia Madagascar. . . Madagascar . . . Vf Sh Sh Le Ii Wi Oe Th Th Cb Qh Bi Qh II Rf Gf Vd Rh Hk J.i Ed Qh Mh Lc Mc Wc Nc Xj Ag Th Ag Md Wc Nk Gh Nb Mb Me M b Rf Od Pc Oj Tc Qh Mg Hh Tc Nk Sg Gc Hj Nj Lc Ih Pk p B i Pk CONSULTING INDEX. 65 Nuna of Plica, fcc Clm. Manantengha Mananzari . . . Manaoo Manas Manasarovara Manavolka . • . Manby Manchester . . Manchester . . Manchester . . Manchineel . . Manda Mandal Mandan Mandans Mandara Mandera Mandhaar. . . . Mandhaar .. . . Manding Mandir.ga .... Mandinsk. . . , Mandivee ... Mandrere . . . Mandrouckha Manetsok Manfredonia. Mangalore . . Mangaza. ... Mangeea .... Mangeray ... Mangeray Manghabey . . Manglares . . Mangoulskoi Mang's Manguera . . Manguera . . Manheim . . . Maniana. . .. Manica Manica Manicouagan Manicouagan Manilla Maninski . . . Manipi Manisova . . . Manitoba . . . Manitou .... Manitou .... Manitouline . Manitoulinc . Manitsch . . . Manivoul . . . Manna . . Manna Manning . . . Manning's .'. Manoel Gonzalves Manoel Gonzalves C. T. Tr. T. L. I. I. Cy. T. Ho. Pt T. T. Ft. Tr. Dis. T. Dis. Pt. Cty. Bay T. T. R. R. Sta. T. T. R. I. I. Str. C. Pt T. Bks I. L. Cy. Cty. Cty. T. R. L. £ y - T. T. T. L. T. I. L. Is. EL T. T. Pt Pt Sfa. T. I. Madagascar . . Madagascar. . Brazil Soongana Thibet Australasia . . . Scoresby's Ld. . England Mississippi .... Brit. America . Jamaica Brazil Norway Wisconsin Ter. Wisconsin Ter. Soudan Nubia Celebes Celebes Africa New Grenada . Russia Hindoostan . . . Madagascar. . , Asiatic Russia. Greenland .... Naples Hindoostan . . . Africa Polynesia Malaysia Malaysia Madagascar. . . Equador Asiatic Russia. Polynesia .. Malaysia . . Uruguay . . Baden Africa Malapa Manica Lower Canada. Lower Canada. Phillipine Is. . . Asiatic Russia. Malaysia Brazil Brit. America . Mongolia Brit. America . Upper Canada . Upper Canada . Asiatic Russia. Madagascar . . . Sumatra Senegambia .. . North America New Georgia. . Brazil Brazil Pk P | Hi Rd Re Ui Kb Lc Fe Ec og ik Mc Fd Fb Mg Og Ui Ti Lg Gh Ob Qf Pk Ub lb Nd Qg Si Ui Ti & Td Vg Ui II Md Lg Ok Oj He He H* Pb Ui Ji Fc Rd Db Gd Gd Od Pj Si Lh Ca Wi Ji Ji i of Plica, &c Manofy Manonoo Manotoba Mansel Mansfield Mansfield Mansiatre Mantalagoose . Mantanzas . . . Mantatees Mantchooria . . Mantchoos . . . Mantua Manuigh Manzora Maoaca Maomo Mapez. C. I. L. I. T. I. Bay L. T. Tr. Cty. Tr. Cy- i. R. L. T. Mt. Mapima / T. Mapoota Mara Mara Maracaybo . . . Maracaybo .. . Maracatos .... Maragha Marampaya . . Maranca Maranham . . . Maranham . . . Marapi Maratuba .... Maravi Maravi Maravi Marberry .... Marble Marburg Marburg Marcus Marcus Mardin Mareb Maretimo .... Maretskoe . . . Margaret's . . . Margaret's ji. Margarita I. Maria C. Mariaberg 'Mt C. Is. T. U. 1. I. Bk. C. T. T. I. Madagascar. . Polynesia .... Brit. America Brit. America Ohio Brit America Madagascar. . . Lower Canada Cuba Africa Asia Mantchooria . Italy. Asiatic Russia Motapa Florida Mongolia .... Brazil Mexico R. Dis. T. Cy. L. Tr. T. T. I. Pt Cy. T. Is. T. L. Tr. T. I. T. T. I. I. T. T. I. T. Is. Maria Louisa. . Marian Marianna Marias Marias Marias Marias Maria V. Diemen Mariban Marica Mariegalantc . . . Pk Aj Fc Gb Gd Gb Oj Gd Gf Nk Ud Ud M d Va Oj Gf Sd lh jFf Mapoota lO k Og Ng Hg Hh Og Pe Jk lh Ji Ji Hi Th Oj Oj Oj Mg Fb Nd Mc Wf Bh Oe Pg Me Ob Ck Vf Hg Vc Vd Fb Vg Ge Ed Bk Vm Kg XI Pe Jk Abyssinia Darfur Venezuela ... Venezuela .... Africa Persia Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Malaysia .... Africa Africa Africa Soudan Brit. America Austria Hesse Cassel . Polynesia .... Polynesia .... Asiatic Russia Arabia Mediterran. Sea Russia Polynesia Polynesia Venezuela .... Seghalien Japan Brit. America . Polynesia Florida Missouri Ter. . Polynesia V. Dicmen's Ld Africa New Zealand. . Persia Brazil West Indies .. . 6» 66 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, tc Marienburg Marienwerder . . Marietta Mariguana Marikan Maringa Marion Marion Marion's Marioupoule Markarie Markaskap Markhinskoi . . . Marmar Marmello Marmora Marmorice Marmorice Maro Maroa Maros Marowyne Marquesas Marseilles Marshall's Martaban Marten Martha's Martha's Martha's Vineyard Martin Martin Martin Martin Martinique Martin Vas Martires Martyr Marvam Marville Mary Anne Mary Bulcott's . . Mary Jones Maryland Maryland Mary's Mas-a-Fuero.. . . Mas-a-Tierra . . . Masbate Mascara Mascarenha Masera Mashow Masingloe Massachusetts . . Massachusetts . . Massacre Massangano .... Massangzanee . . Massi Massina C!:HS. T. T. T. I. I. T. Cy. i. I. T. T. R. T. Sta. R. Sea Bay T. Rk. T. R. R. Is. Cy. I. Bay L. R. I. I. R. L. Is. Mts. I. Rks R. C. T. Bay C. I. Bay St. Col. Bay I. I. I. Cy- i. T. T. T. St. I. Is. F. Bay Cty. T. Prussia Prussia Ohio Bahamas Kurile Islands. Africa Missouri Asiatic Russia . Indian Ocean . Russia Russia Missouri Ter. . Asiatic Russia. Africa Brazil Europe Turkey Turkey N. Pacific Oc. . Venezuela .... Austria Guiana Polynesia France Polynesia Birmah Brit. America . Missouri Ter. . Polynesia . ... Massachusetts . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . West Indies . . . Southern Ocean Mexico Brit. America ■ Brazil Falkland Is.... Brit. America . Polynesia Brit. America . United States. . Liberia New Zealand . . S. Pacific Oc... S.Pacific Oc... Malaysia Algiers Indian Ocean . . Arabia Africa Luzon Islands . United States . . Polynesia Australasia .... Anglo Mozambique . . Africa Africa Nc Nc Ge Hf Wd Oj Fe Ab Om Od Ob Ed Ub Ng Hi Nd Ne Ne Af Hh Nd Ih Ci Md Xh Sg Eb Ed Dk Hd Eb Fc Fa Ga Hg Kk Ee Ea Ji In Ha Ai Fa Ge Lh X m Gl Gl Vg Le Pk Qf Nk Ug Hd Xf Wi N i Oj Oi Names of Places, 4c. Massuah .... Massy Mastovska . . Masulipatam. Matagorda . . Matagorda . . Matamoras . . Matapan .... Matava Matea Matelots Matelots Matemba . . . Matera Mathews's . . Matiev Matifo Matilda Matimo Matisma. . . . Matiuchkin . Matochkine . Matoll Matsmay . . . Matsmay . . . Matsmay . . . Mattabellas . . Matthias Mattogrosso . Mattootee . . . Mattura Matty's Matumbagh . Maturin .... Maturu Maturuas . . . Matwi Maty Matzol Maudarness . Mauhes Maui Maule Maulmein . . . Maumee . . . . Maupiti Mauritius . . . Maurua Mauti Maximova . . Maxwell May Maya Mayaguez . , . Mayara Mayaveran .. Mayhew .... Mayo Mayobamba . Mayorgo .... Mayotta .... T. Dis. T. T. Bay T. T. C. I. I. Is. Rf. Cty. T. I. I. C. Bk. I. I. C. St. Cty. Cy. I. St. I. I. Pr. I. T. I. T. Dep R. Tr. I. I. C. C. Tr. I. R. T. R. I. I. I. I. T. Bay C. R. T. T. T. T. I. T. I. Position. Nubia Ashantee Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Texas Texas Mexico Greece Kurile Islands. Polynesia Polynesia Polynesia Africa Naples Polynesia Russia ...... Algiers Polynesia Mozambique . . Japan Asiatic Russia. Nova Zembla. . Africa Japan Japan Japan Australasia .... Australasia .... Brazil Australasia .... Ceylon Australasia .... Madagascar .. . Venezuela. Brazil Brazil North America Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Iceland South America Sandwich Is.. . Chili Birmah Ohio Polynesia. .... Indian Ocean . Polynesia Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . New Jersey . . . Asiatic Russia. Porto Rico .... Barbary Hindoostan . . . Mississippi. . . . Cape Verd Is. . Peru Polynesia Indian Ocean . Og Lh Qc Rg Ff Ff Ff Ne Wd Cj Vh Vh Ni Nd Xh Pb Me Ck Oj Ve Xb Pa Ok Vd Vd Vd Ui Vi Ij Xi Rh Vi Oj Hh Hi Hi Ab Fb Ra Kb Ii Bf Hi Sg Gd Pj Bj Bk Tb Ga He Vc Hg Lf Rg Ge Ka Gi Aj Pj CONSULTING INDEX. 67 Karnes of Places, be. Mayrchlat . . .Mayro Maysi Maysville . . Mayumba . . Mayumba. . May ville . . . Mazagaii . . Mazagao . . . Mazamba . ■ Mazanderan Mazanillo . . Mazapil . . . . Mazappa . . . Mazatlan . . Mazavamba Mazeira . . • Mazeira . . . Mazerooney Mazula Mazura .... McAskiirs , McCarty'8 . . McCluer's McCulloch McDonnel McDoual McGillivray McGillivray .... Mclntire McKay's McKinley McKinley McLeod McTavish's McVicar Meaksima Meangis Mecan Selasse .. Mecatina Mecca Mecklenburg Schwerin .18. Mecklenburg Strelitz ...19. Mecon Medde Medicine Medielana Medina Medina Medinet Sultan . Mediterranean .. Mediuro Mcdroosa Medwa Meeaday Meerpore Megna Mehadin G. T. C. T. 1 fe T. T. T. T. T. Pr. I't. T. T. T. Dis G. Is. R. T. T. Is. I. In. C. C. C. R. I. C. Pk. Bay R. Ft. Bay G. I. Is. T. Har Cy. G.D G.D R. T. R. Vil. Cy. T. T. Sea I. T. T. T. T. R. T. Tartary Peru Cuba Kentucky Loango Loango New York Morocco i Brazil Africa Persia New Grenada Mexico Mozambique . Mexico Africa Arabia Arabia Guiana Congo Mozambique . Polynesia .... Scnegambia . . Australasia . . Brit. America Brit. America Brit America Oregon Ter. . Brit. America Polynesia. . . . Brit. America Brit America Brit America Brit. America Brit. America Brit America Japan Malaysia Abyssinia. Labrador Arabia Germany . Meherran |Cty. Germany .... Laos Hindoostan . . Missouri Ter. Patagonia . . . Arabia New Grenada Tripoli Polynesia . . Fezzan .... Africa Birmah.. .. Sinde Hindoostan Arabia .... Africa .... Pd Hi Hf Ge Mi Mi Gd Le Ii Nj Pe Gh Ff Oj Ef Oj Pf Qf Ih Mi Oj Wh Lg Ui Ha Eb Fa Ed Db Gm Fb Db Fb Dc Eb Db Ue Uh Og He Of Mc Mc Sg Rg Ed Hm Of Hh Ne Ne Xh Nf Ng Sg Qf Sf Of Oh Names of Placet, 4c Mei-ponte Mejdoucharsky . Mekdusk Mekran Mela Melamo Melano Melghig Meliana Melinda Melinda Melinque Melita Melkini Mellilla Mellipelli Mellish's Mellish's Mellish's I Melo i Melville Melville Melville Melville Melville , Melville , Melville Melville Melville Memba Koma . Memel Memphis Menangkaboo . Mendawee .... Mende Mendeli Mendocino .... Mendoza Mendoza Meng Mennomonies.. Menorandre . . . Menuf Menzaleh Menzelinsk .... Meofak Meoobanish . . . Mcquinas Merasche Merawe Mercedes Merchants' Merchants' .... Merchooskin . . Mercury Mercury Merguen Hotun Mergui Meriato Mcribowhey . . . Merida T. I. Cty Pr. Po. Pt I. L. T. Cty. T. T. T. T. T. T. I. I. Rfs. T. Bay Bay C. Pen. I. I. So. Mt Mts. Pt Cy. T. T. T. Cy. T. C. Pr. Cy. T. T. R. T. I. T. T. L. Cy. T. T. T. Bay Is. C. Bay I. T. Arc. Pt. T. T, Brazil Nova Zembla . Africa Beloochistan . Patagonia Mozambique . Malaysia . . . Barbary Algiers Africa Africa Buenos Ayres Africa Asiatic Russia Morocco Chili Australasia . ■ Polynesia. . .. Australasia . . . Buenos Ayres New S.Wales Greenland . . . Brit America Brit. America New Holland. Brit. America Brit. America Brit America Greenland . . . Mozambique . Prussia Tennessee . . . Sumatra Borneo France Persia Mexico Buenos Ayres Buenos Ayres Tonquin Wisconsin Ter. Madagascar . . . Egypt Egypt Asiatic Russia. Arabia Brit. America . Morocco Asiatic Turkey Nubia Buenos Ayres . Brit America . Greenland .... Asiatic Russia. New Zealand . . Africa Mantchooria . . Bay of Bengal . New Grenada . Africa Mexico Ij Pa Oh Qf Hm Oj Ui Me Me Oi Oi HI Nk Qb Lc Hi Vi Xe Wj HI Vj Ha Ha Gb HJ Ea Eb Db la Oj Nc Gc Sh Ti Md Pe Dd HI HI Sf Gd Ok Oe Oe Pc Of Gd Le Oe Og H 1 Hb la Va XI Mk Ud Sg Gh Nk Gf 68 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Merida ....... Merida ....... Merinova Meritan Merla Eavoo . . Mermantau . . . Merra Merremengows Meru al Rud . . Mer t Merve Mescala Meseritz Mcshuril Mesjid Ali Mcsjid Hussein Meskamy Messa Messina Mestoota Mesurata Mesurata Meta Meta Metelin Methye Methye Metko Metverskaya . . . Metz Me war Mexia Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mezari Mezene Mezene Mezene Mezieres Mczraz Mglin Mhyshkin Miaco Miali . Miamis Miana Miarrin Miasnija Michigan Michigan Michigan Michipicotton . . Michipicotton.. Michipicotton . . Michoacan .... Middeisis Middle Middle Middle T. T. T. C. I. L. T. Tr. T. T. Cy. T. Cy. T. T. T. L. T. Cy. T. T. C. T. R. I. L. L. Dis. T. Cy. Pr. R. Rep. St. G. Cy. C. T. Bay R. T. Dis. T. T. Cy. R. Tr. T. R. R. St. Cy. L. Bay L. I. St. T. L. I. I. Venezuela . . . Spain Asiatic Russia Arabia Polynesia .... Louisiana. . . . Syria Africa Tartary Hindoostan . . Great Bucharia Mexico Prussia Mozambique . . Arabia Arabia Brit. America . Suse Sicily Fezzan Tripoli Tripoli Asiatic Russia. New Grenada . Archipelago. . . Brit. America . Brit. America . Soudan Russia France Sinde Africa North America Mexico North America Mexico Oregon Ter... . Russia Russia Russia France Soudan Russia Russia Japan Asiatic Russia. Michigan Persia Brazil Russia United States. . Indiana United States. . Upper Canada . Upper Canada . Upper Canada . Mexico Bergoo Lower Canada. South Shetland Australasia . . . Hh Le R c Pf Aj Ff Oe Oi Qe Rf Qe Fg Nc Oj Oe Oe Gc Lf Ne Nf Ne Ne Vc Hh Ne Ec Ec Ng Ob Md Qf Mi Ee Fg Gf Fg Dd Ob Ob Ob Md Ng Oc Oc Ve Tc Gd Pe Ii Pb Gd Gd Gd Gd Gd Gd Fg Ng He Io Ul Names of Places, &c. Middleburg .... Middle Savage. . Middleton's Middleton's Middle Vigten . . Midia Midian Midroe Mier Mijjertheyn .... Mikhalova Mikulin Mikulin Milam Milan Mildred Milk Milkof Mill Mille Milledgeville . . . Millsburg Mill's Point . . . Milne Milo Milovloyskik . . . Miltsin Milwalky Minas Geraes. . . Minchimadiva . . Minch (the) .... Mindanao Minden. ...... . |Cy. Mindoro Sea Is. Is. I. Str. I. T. T. T. T. Tr. T. Bay C. T. Cy. L. R. T. I. I. Cy. T. T. Ld. I. T. Mt. T. Pr. Vol. Mindoro Mineral Point . Minerva Mingan Ming Kiang.. . Mingrelia Minho Minicoy Miniet Minorca Minsk 31 Minsk Mintow Miosen Miquelon Mirador Miranda Mirepole Miri Mirim Mirimichi , Miscou , Misener's Missao Misselad Missevri Missiessy I. T. I. Vil. R. Cty. R. Rks T. I. Pr. Cy. T. L. I. T. T. T. R. L. Bay I. Bks. T. R. T. C. Polynesia Brit. America . Australasia .... Australasia . . . Norway Turkey Arabia Algiers Mexico Africa Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Texas Italy Brit. America . Missouri Ter. . Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Polynesia Georgia Liberia Kentucky Scoresby's Ld. Archipelago .. . Asiatic Russia. Morocco Wisconsin Ter. Brazil Patagonia Scotland Mindanao .... Prussia Malaysia Malaysia Wisconsin Ter. Polynesia .... Lower Canada China Asia Portugal Asia Egypt Mediterran. Sea Russia Russia Banca Norway Newfoundland . Brazil Portugal Russia Venezuela Uruguay N. Brunswick . Lower Canada. Asia Brazil Africa Turkey New Holland . . Ak Hb Wk Wk Mb Nd Of Me Ff Pg Tb Pb Pb Ff Md Fb Ed Wc Gb Xh Ge Lh Ge Ka Ne Sc Le Gd Jj Hm Lc Uh Mc Uh Ug Ed Cj He Se Od Ld Qh Of Md Nc Nc Ti Mb Id Ii Ld Oc Hh LI Hd Hd Ri Hi Ng Nd Uj CONSULTING INDEX. 69 Nuneiof Plrnca, te. Missima Missinaby . . . Missinnippi . . . Mississauga . . . Mississippi .... Mississippi .... Missolonghi . . . Missouri Missouri Missouri Mistaken Mistepec Mitau Mitchell's Mitchi Mitiaro Mitoe Mitre Mittun Mitucheff Miyas Mizen Mizimbatty . . . Moa Moab Moars Mobatee Mobile Mobile Mobota , Mocambira .... Mocanguelas . . Mocarango .... Mocha Mocha Mock Mocoa Mocomoco .... Mocroslobodska Modena Modena Modon Moe Moen Moffen Mogarra Mogaun Moggouok .... Moghilev ...32 Moghilev Mogholskaya . . Mogi Mogincale Mogodore Mograffa Arabs Mograt Mohang Laung Mohawk Mohilla Mohin Mohylev Clan. T. L. li. L. St. EL T. St Ter. R. Bay T. Cy. Gr. Cy. I. L. I. T. I. R. Hd. I. I. T. Bay T. Cy. Bay Cty. T. Tr. Cty. Cy. L T. T. T. T. D. Cy. T. T. I. I. T. T. Bay Pr. T. T. R. Is. T. Tr. I. T. R. I. T. T. Japan Brit. America . Brit. America . Upper Canada. United States. . North America Greece United States . . United States. . Wisconsin Ter. New Zealand. . Mexico Russia Polynesia .... China Polynesia Thibet Australasia .... Sinde Nova Zembla. . Asiatic Russia. Ireland Africa Malaysia Syria Brit. America . Africa Alabama Alabama Africa Brazil Africa Africa Arabia Chili Norway New Grenada . Sumatra Asiatic Russia . Italy Italy Greece Norway Denmark Spitsbergen . . . Egypt Birmah Labrador Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Brazil Mozambique . . Morocco Africa Nubia Laos New York Indian Ocean . Mantchooria . . Russia Ue Gd Ec Gd Ge Gf Ne Fe Fd Fe Xm Fg Nc Xi Te Bj Se Xj Qf Pa Qc Lc Oj Ui Oe Gc Nk Ge Ge Ok li Nj £ j Og HI Mb Hh Si Sc Md Md Ne Mb Mc M a Ne Sf lc Oc Oc Tc Ik Oj Le Lf Og Sg Hd Oj Ud Nd Name* of Places, 4c Moigolotskoi . . Mojabra Mojaysk Mokamba Mokanrushy . . Moklijenskaya . Mokur Molcou Moldavia Molineauz .... Moller Moller Moluccas Molucque Atollon Moma Mombas Mombas Mombas Mompox Mona Mona Monado Mona Passage Moncao Monchaboo.. . Mondego .... Monfia Mongalla .... Mongaro Mongeaboong . Mongearts . . . Mongella .... Monge's Monghadjar . . Monica Monkey Key . Monk's Monmouth . . . Monmouth . . . Monneron .... Mono Emugi . Monpan Monroe Monroe Monrovia .... Monselmines . Monsol Montafar Montague .... Montague. . . . Montague .... Montague .... Montague .... Montalegre.. . Montargis .... Montauk , Montclovez. . . Monte Christo Montego Monterey Monterey C. T. T. T. I. T. T. T. Cty. Bay Bay Is. I. R. Cty. T. R. T. T. I. T. Str. T. Cy. C. I. H. T. T. Tr. I. Pt. Ht R. I. Is. C. I. L Cty T. T. T. T. Tr. T. Pt. I. C. C. I. Po. T. T. Pt. T. I. Bay T. T. Asiatic Russia . Barca Russia Mozambique . . Kurile Islands. Russia Russia Mantchooria . . Europe New Zealand. . Nova Zembla . . Polynesia Malaysia Asia Asiatic Russia. Africa Africa Africa New Grenada . Birmah West Indies . . . Celebes West Indies.. . Brazil Birmah Portugal Indian Ocean . Africa Africa , Borneo , Africa , Persian Gulf . , Seghalien Tartary , Paraguay S. Pacific Oc. . New Grenada , Patagonia .... Malaysia . . . . . Seghalien Africa , Laos Louisiana ..... Michigan Liberia Africa Africa Luzon North America Patagonia . . . Sandwich Ld Australasia . . New Britain Brazil France .... Long Island . Mexico Mediterran. Sea Jamaica . Mexico .. Mexico .. Va Nf Oc Oj Wd Pb Na Vd Nd Xm Pa Cj Ui Qh Vb Oi Oi Oi Hh Sf Hg Uh ?f Sf Ld Oi Oj Nj Th Lf Pf Vd Pd Ik Gl Hg Hn Uf Vd Oi Sf Fe Gd Lh Lf Ni H* Cc Gm Kn Wl Wi li Md Hd Ff Md g Ff Dc 70 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Monterey Bay Montesik jTr. Monteverde ... .1. Montevideo Cy. Montgomery . . . T. Montgomery's . . Gr. Montpelier ;Cy. Montpellier Cy. Montreal Cy. Montreal R. Montreal R. T. T. T. I. C. R. T. T. Cty. Mts. Montreddy .... Montrose Montrose Montserrat .... Monze Moocoowan . . . Moogroove .... Moolky Moolooa Moon (of the) . Moondah JR. Moore's I. Moore's I. Moorghab |R. Moorghaub JT. Moorja T. Moorshedabad . . Cy. Moose Dis Moose R. Moose :R. Moose ;L. L. L Ft T. T. Moose Moose Head. Moose Lake . Moosh Mopou Moquehua T, Moquem T. Tr. T. T. Mts, T. Pt. Is. Bay Moquis Mora Mora Morajie Moral skoi. . . Morant Morant Kays Mordwinov . Morea jPen Morebat JT. Moresby's : Mts. T. Bay T. I. T. T. Pt. I. Po. Km. Moretch Moreton Moreton Moreyra Morikini. Morlaix Morley Morley Mornington . Mornington . Morocco Mexico Arabia Polynesia Uruguay .... Alabama Eastern Sea. . . Vermont France Lower Canada. United States . . Upper Canada . Hindoostan . . . Pennsylvania. . Scotland West Indies. . . Beloochistan . . Brit America . Africa Hindoostan . . . Africa Africa Africa Polynesia Polynesia Tartary Persia Africa Hindoostan . . . Brit. America . Brit. America . Wisconsin Ter. Oregon Ter. . . Brit. America . 'Maine Brit. America . Asiatic Russia, Corea South Peru . . . Brazil Mexico Sweden Soudan Africa Asiatic Russia. Jamaica Jamaica Seghalien Greece Arabia New Holland. . Russia ...... New S. Wales . Australasia . . . Brazil Sandwich Is.. . France Caffraria Cafrraria New S. Wales . Nubia Africa De O e Wh II Ge Uf Hd Md Hd Fd Gd Rg Gd Lc Hg Qf Ec Nj Qg N i Nh Mh Xi Ve Qe Pe Rf Gc Gc Pd Ec Fc Hd Fc Oe Ud Hj Ij Ee Mb Mg Nf Qb Gg Gg Vd Ne Pg Tk Nc Wk Wk Hi Bf Ld Ni Ok Vj Og Le Names of Places, &c. Morocco , Moro Herrnoso . . Morokai Moromona Morososhna Morososhna Morotoi Morphil Morris Morris Morro Carretas . Morro de Mexil lones Morro Jorgo . . . Morrope Morro Pooa Mortain Morty Morty Morual Moruas Morumbidgee . . . Morundava Moschi , Moscovy Moscow 35. Moscow Mosdok Mose Moshowa Moskenes-. Mosquitia Mosquito Mosquito Mosquito Moss Mossel .... Mostagh Mostar Mosul Motao Motapa Moticlenskoi . . . Mouat Mouja Moukden Moukhtouiskoi.. Mouksinofka . . . Moulin Moulins Moulon Moultan Mouna Mounah Kaah . . Mounah Roa . . . Mountnorris Moupti Moupty Moura Mouren Mourinskoi Morocco Mexico Sandwich Is. . Mozambique . Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Sandwich Is. . Senegambia .. Greenland . . . Polynesia. Peru Cy. C. I. Bay T. R. I. I. C. I. Pt. Pt. Pt. T. Cty. T. Str. I. I. Tr. R. Bay T. Mt. Pr. Cy. T. I. R. I. Dis. Bay Gr. Pt. T. Bay I. T. Cy- I. Cty. j Africa Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Soudan Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Australasia... . France Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia! Sandwich Is. .. Sandwich Is. . . Scoresby's Ld.. Asiatic Russia. Soongaria.. . . . Brazil Mantcliooria . . Asiatic Russia. Bolivia Bolivia Peru Africa France Malaysia . . . Malaysia .... Polynesia .... New Grenada |New S.Wales Madagascar. . Nubia Spitsbergen . . Russia Russia Asiatic Russia Australasia . . Africa Loffodcn Is. . . . Guatemala .. . Brit. America Polynesia .... New Grenada Norway Spitsbergen . . . Asiatic Russia Austria Asiatic Turkey Corea (' C. T. T. T. II. I. T. It Cy. R. Mt Mt in. i. R. T. R. T. L e Ef Bf Ok Wc Wc Bf Lg Ha Xi »-J Hk Hk Gi Nj Ld Uh Uh Vg Hh VI Ok Og Ma Oc Oc Od Ui Nk Mb Cg Gb Xh Gh Mc Ma Ua Nd Oe Ue Nj Wc Ga Ud Tb Va Wj Md Qb Qe Ub Bg Bg Ka Vb Qd Hi Ud Tb CONSULTING INDEX. 71 Nune» of JPUcm, &c Mourskaya. Mourzuk Moutnoi Mouton Moviza Mowee Moxos Mozambique.. . , Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique.. . Mozyr Mount Carmel . Mount Desert.. Mount Meadow Muchima Muckie Mucuixes Mucwaunpore . . Mud Mudago Mudge Mu Galla Mugford Mughess Mugna .... Muiron Muktar Mulat Mulgrave Mulgrave ....... Mulgrave Mull Multnomah Mumbarack Mumilla Mundlah Mungari Munich Mu Nimigi .... Munnipore Munster Muonloniska . ... Mucnio Murcia Murdock Murmur Murot Murray Murray Firth . . . Murray Maxwell Murray's Murray's Murtaso * Murucuru Murusuru Musa Musangani Muscat Muscle Muscus T. Cy. Bay Po. Tr. I. Dep Gov T. Gh. I. T. T. I. Bk. Ft. T. Tr. T. Bay T. C. Tr. C. T. T. I. T. R. Is. I. Po. I. R. T. T. T. T. cy Cty. Cy. Cy. T. R. Cy. C. T. HI. R. Bay In. I. I. I. R. Cty. T. Dis. Cy. R. I. fsfition. Asiatic Russia. Fezzan Asiatic Russia. Nova Scotia . . . Africa Sandwich Is.. . Bolivia] Africa Mozambique . . Indian Ocean . Mozambique . . Russia Illinois Maine Brit. America . Benguela Sumatra Africa Hindoostan . . . Greenland .... Soudan Brit. America i Africa .. Labrador Africa Buenos Ayres . Australasia . . . Tripoli Asiatic Russia . Polynesia Polynesia North America Scotland Oregon Ter... . Nubia Asiatic Turkey Hindoostan . . . Africa Bavaria Africa Hi n ii all Prussia Russia Sweden Spain Greenland . . . Soudan Magadoxa . . . New S. Wales Scotland Brit. America Australasia ... Australasia . • . Russia Cazembc Africa Arabia Africa Arabia Missouri Bay of Bengal Sc Nf Qa Hd Nj Bf Hj Oj Oj Ok Oj Nc Ge Hd Fb Mi Sh Mj Rf lb Ng Ea Oi He Nf HI Tk Ne Uc Xh Xh Cc Lc Dd Og Pe Rf Ng Md Oi Sf Mc Nb Nb Le Ha Mg Ph VI Lc Gb Wi Vi Od Nj Nj Og Nj Pf Ed Name* of Fiscal, 4c. Musfe-ia Musgrave's.. . . Muskcd.. Musk Ox Musolimy Mussendom . . . Mussir Mussy Mustachewan.. Mustavas Mustoong Mutra Muttra Mutukano Muzimba Muzimbas Myandung .... Myggenes Myra Myrick Mysol Mysore Mysore Mysory Mywoolla Nabajoa Nabajoa Nabajoas Nabel Nachack Nachtegal Nacimiento . . . Nackiloo Nacogdoches . . Nadanfoen .... Nadeschda .... Nadeshda Nadrama Nagel Nagercoil Nagoja Nagore Nagpore Nagy Bania.. .. Nahney , Nain , Nain Nakasusuklok . , Nakshivan Naloes Nalym Nalymskoi Namaqua, Great Namaqua, Little Nambu Nambu Namoh.. Namroo Namur Namurick T. I. cy- L. Bay C. I. T. L. T. T. T. T. C. R. Tr. T. I. T. C. I. Pr. T. I. I. T. R. Tr. T. C. I. T. T. Cy. T. Bay Str. T. I. T. T. T. T. T. R. T. Sta. I. T. Tr. R. T. LA LA T. C. I. T. T. Is. Soudan Polynesia.. .. Persia Brit. America Arabia Arabia Kurile Islands Africa Brit. America Buenos Ayres Cabul Arabia Hindoostan . . Asiatic Russia Mozambique . Africa Birmah Faroe Islands Asiatic Turkey Africa Malaysia . . Hindoostan Hindoostan Australasia . Polynesia .. Mexico . . Mexico .. Mexico .. Tunis ... Labrador Indian Ocean.. Chili Persia Texas Mantchooria . , Mantchooria . , Kurile Islands. Barbary Russia Hindoostan . . . Japan Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Austria Brit America . Persia Labrador Labrador Asiatic Russia. Sencgambia . . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Africa. .. ......... Africa Japan .. ...... Japan ...... China ...... Little Thibet Belgium Mh Vh Pe Eb Pf Pf Wd Mf Gc Hk Qf Pf Rf Wc Oj Oj Sg Lb Ne Kg Ui Rg Rg Vi Xj Ef Ee Ec Me He Pm HI Pf Fe Ud Vc Wd Me Ob Rh Ve Qf Rf Nd Db Pe He He Pe Lg Qb Qb Nk Nk Ve Vd Tf Re Mo Polynesia |X h 72 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. L. Cy. Cy. T. T. R. Cy. Nan-kiang Cy. Nana Nan-chang , Nancy Nandere . . , Nangasaki . Nangdar . . . Nan-kang . Nankin Nanking Nan-ning Nano Balundo . . Nanrzyn Nan-tchang Nantes Nantucket Nan-yang Nan-youg Naosquiscaw . . . Naouc Sanpoo . . Napakiang Napamac Naparima Napashish Naphta Naples Naples Napo Napoli Narborough's .. . Narbonne Narcissa Narcondam Nareenda Nareenda Nargan Narnol Narrow Narva Narym Nasca Nashville Nasi Nasoon Nassau 17. Nassau , Nassau Nassuck Nata i Natal , Natal Natal , Natal Natal , Natal , Natal, First Natal, Last Natashkwen Natchez Nacthitoches . . Nathunz Cy. Cy. Cy. Pr. L. Cy. Cy. Cy. Cy. L. R. T. T. T. L. I. Km. Cy. R. T. I. I. T. Bay T. I. T. T. T. Cy. L. C. D. C. I. T. T. T. T. Cst. Po. C. I. Pt. Pt. R. Cy. Cy. T. Position. Thibet China France Hindoostan . . . Japan Asiatic Russia. China China Mantchooria . . China China Benguela Tartary China France Massachusetts . China China Brit. America . Thibet Loochoo Luzon Trinidad Is. . . . Brit. America . Caspian Sea. . . Italy Naples Equador Greece Gallapagos France Polynesia Bay of Bengal . Madagascar. . . Madagascar. . . Russia Hindoostan . . . South Shetland Russia Asiatic Russia. Peru Tennessee Russia Guinea Germany Nova Zembla. . Bahamas Hindoostan . . . New Grenada . Brazil Sumatra Africa Africa CafFraria Indian Ocean . CafFraria CafFraria , Labrador Mississippi. . . . Louisiana Persia. ....... Re Tf Md Rg Ue Vc Tf Te Ud Te Tf Mi Qc Tf Ld Hd Te Tf He R e Uf Hg Fb Pe Md Md Hi Ne Fi Md Cj Sg Pj Pj Nc Rf Io Nc R c Cj Ge Nb Ih Mc Qa Gf Qg Gh Ji Sh 01 Ok Ok Pi Nl Oi He Fe Fe Pe Names of Places, tec. Natividad Natividad .... Natki Nattavar Naturaliste . . . Naturaliste . . . Nausa Navacot Navarino Navarino Navasa Navia Navigators' . . . Naviheelavoo . Navnas Navy Board . . Naxio Nayanola Naystad Nazaret Nazareth Nazareth Nazareth Naze Neacote Necau Neches Necker Nederlandich . Nedjeran Nedsjed Needle Needles Needveditza . , Neembuco . . , Neepigon Neepigon Negapatam . . Negombo Negracka Negrais Negrete Negril Negrillo Negro Negro Negroponte.. Negros Nehaund.. . . Neishloi Neisse Nellore Nelson . . Nelson , Nelson Nelson's Nelson's Nemiskaw . . , Nemoy Nemtchicov . Neosho c:ia=s. Position. T. Pt. Tr. T. C. Mt T. T. T. T. I. T. Is. I. Tr. In. I. T. T. T. T. R. Bk. C. T. T. R. I. I. Dis Pr. Rk. I. R. T. Bay Ho. T. T. Fk. C. T. Pt I. R. R. I. I. T. T. T. T. Dis. R. Ft. Ch. Is. L. Tr. T. Sta. Brazil Mexico Mantchooria Sweden New Holland New Holland Asiatic Turkey Hindoostan Wisconsin Ter. Greece West Indies . . Spain Polynesia. . .. Polynesia. . . . Peru Brit. America Archipelago .. . Mexico Russia Brazil Brazil Africa Indian Ocean. Norway Hindoostan . . Barbary Texas N. Pacific Oc. Polynesia .... Arabia Arabia Australasia . . Southern Ocean Russia Paraguay ..... Brit. America Brit. America Hindoostan . . Ceylon Missouri Ter. Birmah Chili Jamaica Mexico Uruguay ..... Brazil Archipelago. . . Malaysia ... Persia Russia Prussia Hindoostan . . Brit America . Brit America , Brit. America . Australasia... . South Shetland Brit. America . Missouri Ter. . Asiatic Russia. Western Ter... Ij Fg Vc Nb Tl Tk Oe Rf Gd Ne Gg Ld Aj Xj Hi Gd Ne Fg Nb Ik Ji Mi Qj Mc Rf Me Ff Bf Xi Og Pf Vm Lj Od Ik Gd Gc Rg Rh Fe Sg HI Cg Ff II Ii Ne Ug Pe Nb Nc 5 ? Fc Fc Fc VI Io Gc Ed Qb Fe CONSULTING INDEX. 73 Names of Places, fee Neow Nepaul Nepihjee Nepinita Nepissing Nepomaceno.. . . Nera Nerbuddah Nereklita Nerja Nerpa Nerpitchie Nertchinsk Nertchinsk Nertchinskoi . . . Nervoski Nesoe Nesseby Nesuketonga . . . Nesviz Neuse Neustadt Nevel Nevers Nevil's Nevis New New Albany . . . New Amsterdam New Archangel . Newark Newark New Balade .... Newbern New Boston New Britain New Brunswick New Brunswick Newburyport . . . New Caceres . . . New Caledonia . New Caledonia . New Castle Nov Castle Newcastle New Coimbra . . . New Cornwall . . New Discovery . New Dongola.. . New Echota Newfoundland . . Newfoundland . . New Friesland. . New Georgia . . . New Georgia . . . New Grenada.. . New Guinea New Hampshire New Hanover . . New Hanover . . New Haven .... Class. I. Cty. R. R. L. T. R. R. T. T. R. L. Pr. T. T. T. I. T. R. T. R. T. T. Cy. Bay L T. T. Sta, Cy. I. I. T. T. I. Cty. Ho. T. T. Cty, I. T. T. T. T. Cty, I. Cy. T. I. Bk. Dis. iCol. Is. Rep I. St. Cty. I. Cy. Polynesia Hindoostan . . . Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Upper Canada . Brazil Asiatic Russia • Hindoostan . . . Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Norway Russia Missouri Ter. . Russia North Carolina Austria Russia France Brit. America . West Indies . . . Polynesia Indiana . Guiana .. North America Upper Canada . Labrador N. Pacific Oc. . North Carolina Illinois Australasia .... North America Brit. America . N. Hampshire . Luzon North America Australasia . . . N. Brunswick . New S. Wales . England Brazil Brit. America . Polynesia Nubia Georgia North America Newfoundland . Spitsbergen . . . Liberia Australasia .... South America Australasia .... United States. Oregon Ter. . Australasia . . Connecticut .. Xj Rf He Ta Gd HI Vb Rf Oc Pv Tc Xb Tc Tc Tc Pb Nb Na Fe Nc Ge Nd Nc Md Fb Hg G g e Lh Cc Gd He Eg Ge Fd Wi Hd Gd Hd Ug Dc Xk Hd Wl Lc Ij Dc £ j Og Ge Id Id Na Lh Wi Hh Vi Hd Dc Wi Hd Names of Places, 4c New Hebrides . . New Hernhut . . New Holland .. . New Holsteinborg New Ireland . . . New Jersey .... New Lattakoo . . New Leon New Macao .... New Madrid . . . Newmansville . . New Mexico .... New Nantucket. Newnham New Norfolk . . . New North Wales New Oran New Orleans . . . Newport New Providence Newry New Santander . New Segovia . . . New Segovia . . . New Shumachie New Siberia New Smyrna . . . New South Green land New South Wales New South Wales New Tcherkask . New Work .... New Year New Year's .... New Year's.... . New York New York . . . Neyoor Ney va Nezperces .... Nezperces .... Ngantong .... Nha-triang . . . Niagara Nias Nicaragua . . . Nicaragua . . . Nicaragua . . . Nice Nicholas First Nicholson's . . . Nickol Nicobar Nicolskoe.. .. Nicopol Nicosia Nicotera Nicoya Niegin Nieuwvelds . . Is. Sta. Cty, Cty. I. St. T. St T. T. T. Ter, I. C. Cty. Cty. T. Cy. Cy. I. T. T. T. T. T. I. T. Cty. Cty. Cty. Cy Australasia.. . . Greenland .... Australia Brit. America . Australasia... . United States . . Africa Mexico Tonquin Missouri Florida Mexico Polynesia North America Brit. America . Brit. America . Buenos Ayres . Louisiana Rhode Island. . Bahamas Ireland Mexico Guatemala Luzon Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Florida Har I. St. S y - T. T. Ft. Tr. Cy. T. Falls C. St. T. L. T. C. Sh. Bay Is. T. T. C. T. G. T. Bgn Southern Ocean Brit. America , Australia Russia Newfoundland . Australasia .... Staten Island .. Patagonia United States. . New York .... Hindoostan . . . New Grenada . Oregon Ter... . Oregon Ter.. . . China Cochin China . Upper Canada . Brit. America . Guatemala .... Guatemala .... Guatemala .... Sardinia Brit. America . Polynesia New Holland .. Bay of Bengal . Asiatic Russia. Turkey Cyprus Naples Guatemala .... Russia Cape Colony • . Xj lb Uk Fb Wi Hd Na Ff Tf Ge Gf Fe Ah Be Dc Fb Hk Ff Hd Gf Lc Ff Gg Ug Pd Va Gf Io Fc Vk Od Id Uj Hn Hn Gd Hd Rh Hh Ed Ed Te Tg Gd Hb Gg «tr Gg M d Fa Ak Tk Sh Re Nd Oe Ne Gh Oc Ni K 74 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, 4c Niffoo Nigata Niger Nightingale Nightingale .... Nigritia Niihau Nijoras Nikitinskaia. . . • Nikitsk Nikolaev Nikolaevska .... Nikolsk Nikolskaya Nila Nile Niles Nildinski Nillandous Atol- lon Nilmat Niman Nimgouta Ninatee Nine Degree . . . Ning Ninghai-wei .... Ningo Ning-po Ninjenican Ninna Nipartolik Nipashee Niphon Nirie Nishapore Nishney Villuish Nisibeen Nismes Nisnedwitzk.. . . Nissa Nissa Nitcheguon Nitzi Niuchotsk Niuk Niumen Nixon Nizabad Nizapatam Niznei Novgo- rod 23. Niznei Novgorod Noagong Noalis Noalove Noel Nogai Nogden Noir Nokinska T. T. R. I. I. Cty. I. Tr. T. T. T. T. T. T. I. R. T. T. I. Is. T. T. R. Ch. Cy. T. T. Cy. i. R. Bay L. I. I. T. T. T. Cy. T. T. T. L. C. T. L. R. C. T. T. Pr. T. T. I. T. Is. R. C. C. T. Liberia Japan Africa Tonquin Southern Ocean Africa Sandwich Is.. . Mexico Asiatic Russia . Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Malaysia ..... Africa Michigan Asiatic Russia. Asia Oregon Ter.. Mantchooria Mantchooria Bir mah Asia Mongolia .... Dahomey .... China Asiatic Russia Mantchooria . Brit. America Brit America Japan Polynesia .... Persia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Turkey France Russia Tartary Turkey Brit. America . Japan Russia Russia Mantchooria . . Patagonia .... Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Russia Russia , Hindoostan . . , Australasia . . , Madagascar . . . Bay of Bengal . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Patagonia Asiatic Russia . Lh Ve Mg Tf LI Mg Bf Ee Pc Qc Od Qc Pc Pd Ui Of Gd Qb Qh Dd Ud Ud Sf Qh Te Mh Uf Vc Uc He Fb Ve Xj Pe Ub Oe Md Oc Pe Nd He Ue Ob Ob Uc Gm Pd Oc Oc Rf Vi Ok Sgr Wb Vc Hn Ub Names of Places, &c. Noki-sima Nolinsk Nombre de Dios Nomou Noncowry Nonorjev Noon Noon Noosa Baron . . . Nooshky Nootka Nordland Nordmaling Nordvik , Norfolk Norfolk Norfolk Norfolk Norfolk Norija Norkoping Norksalik Norman Noro Noro Norogame Norrland Norsio North North North North North North North North North North North North North North North North North North , North , North North North Northam i North Arran North Branch . . North Branch . . North Cape North Cape North Cape Del North Carolina. North Devon . . North East So. Div T. C. Cy. I. I. So. Mt. T. T. T. Ft. T. R. T. Div. T. C. C. C. C. C. C. I. I. I. I. I. Sea R. R. Ch. Bay Bay Pt Bl. Fk. Fk. Fk. T. Is. R. R. C. C. C. St. Cty. Ld. Japan , Russia Mexico Africa Bay of Bengal Russia Suse Suse Java Beloochistan . Oregon Ter... Norway Sweden Asiatic Russia Virginia G e Australasia . Gallapagos Ve Pc Ff Sh Nc T P Lf Ti Qf Dd Nb Nb Ta Xk Fi North America C c V. Diemen's Ld. Russia Sweden Greenland Brit. America Mantchooria . Mantchooria . Mexico Sweden Sweden , Isle of Georgia Iceland Norway Asiatic Russia Brazil N. S. Greenland Oregon Ter. . Indian Ocean . Malaysia .... Malaysia .... Polynesia.. .. Europe Brit. America Asiatic Russia Europe Brit. America Seghalien .... Oregon Ter. . . Brit America Missouri Ter. Missouri Oregon Ter. . New Holland. Ireland Brit. America Brit. America New Zealand . N. Caledonia . Ajan United States . Brit. America Spitsbergen . . Vm Pb Nc lb Db Ud Vd Ef Nb Nb Jn Kb Na Ab lh Io Dc Oi Sj Uf Vf Mc Gc Ub Lc Hb Vc Dc Hb Fe Fd Ed Tl Lc Dc Ec XI Wk Pg Ge Gd Na CONSULTING INDEX. 75 Nina of Pl*cea, fcc L c. Cty. North East Northern Trian gle North Foreland North Georgia .. North Greenland |Cty. North Kyn C. Northlined L. North Natunas . . I. North Middlesex Cty. North Mountain 'Cr. Bay Greenland . . . Caribbean Sea. K. George's Sd. Brit America . Greenland Norway Brit. America . Malaysia Brit America . Missouri North Poyus.. . North Roquepiz North Shoal . . . North Somerset North Thames. North Uist II. Northumberland C. Northumberland ML Tr. North West North West North West Norton Norway Norway Norwich Nose Nos Labou Nosovoe Nossa Senhora de Porto Calvo . . Nossa Senhora Desterro Nossa Senhora do Rosario . . . Not Notchek ....... Notingham Noto Noto Notre Dame .... Notway Nouba Nouboucoulagh . Nouk Noukan Nouraen Nourses Noursoak Nova da Madre de Dios Nova Dereonya . Nova Redonda .. Nova Scotia Novaya Ladogo. Nova Zembla . . . Nov. Bicliza Novgorod . ..16. Novi Bazar Nov Lepel Novocetskoie . . . Po. Pt C. So. Cty. Dis. Cy. C. Mts. T. T. T. L. Bay L T. C. Bay R. Dis. R. I. Vil. R. R. Is. T. T. Ft Cty. T. L T. Pr. T. T. T. ■ina Indian Ocean .. Caribbean Sea . Brit. America . Brit America . Scotland New S. Wales . Australasia Isle of France. Africa New Holland . . North America Europe Brit America . England Egypt Arabia Asiatic Russia. Brazil . Brazil Brazil Russia Asiatic Russia Brit America Japan Japan Newfoundland . Brit America . Nubia Asiatic Russia. Greenland Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Africa Greenland Brazil Asiatic Russia. Benguela North America Russia Arctic Ocean . . Russia Russia Turkey Russia Asiatic Russia. la Gg Io Fd Id Na Fb Th Fd Ed Hm Pi Gg Fd Fa Lc VI Wk Pk Mj Tk Bb Mb Fc Mc Of Pg Rb Ji Ik Ik Ob Xb Gb Ve Ve Id Gc Of Ua Jb Ab Ud Mj Jb Ih Qc Mj Hd Ob Pa Oc Oc Nd Nc Sc Nunej of Placet, fcc. Novodvinsk . . . . T. Novogradok . . . . T. Novo KhoperskJ. T. Novomoskovsk. . T. Novo Troki . . . .IT. Novolzourokai- touevskoi . . • Nov. Volhynskoi JT. Now-chow Cy Nowogrod jT. Noyakana T. Noyen 'T. Nubia 'Cty. Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia T. Nubian . Nuheemabad . . Nuiskoi Nukahivah .... Nukhzia Nulchai Numez Nun Nunersoi Nunnivaek .... Nura Nuremburg . . . Nurmis Nuttletartic . . . Nuwee Bunder . Nuy t's Nuyt's Nuyt's Nyamez Nybundan . . . . Ny Carleby . . . Nyffe Nykoping Nyland Nymphs Nyons Des, T. T. I. R. C. EL R. I. I. EL Cy T. Bay T. Arc. Ld. Rfs. T. T. T. Oahu Oak Oanna Oaxaca Oaxaca Oban Obderskoi Obe Oberaba Oboino O'Brien's Obskaya Observatory Obva Obvinsk Oby Oca Ocana Ocean Oceanskie Ochotsk ....... Asiatic Russia Russia China Russia Asiatic Russia. Corea Africa Nubia Persia Asiatic Russia . Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Senegambia . . . Africa Greenland .... North America Tartary Bavaria Russia Labrador Hindoostan . . . Australasia.. . . New Holland . . Australasia . . . Turkey Persia Russia Dis. Soudan T. iSweden Pr. 'Russia Pt {Patagonia T. France I. R. I. St. ■?:■ ',;-:• L t. I. C In. R. T. I. EL T. I. Is. l*r. Ob Nc Oc Od Nc Tc Nc Tf Nc Wb Ud Of Of Pf Tb Ci Uc Vc Mh lb Ab Qc Md Nb He Qf Ul Ul Ul Nd Pe Nb Mh Nc Nb Hm M d Sandwich Is. .. Brit. America . Polynesia Mexico Mexico Scotland Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Bolivia Asiatic Russia. South Shetland Asiatic Russia. Brit. America • Russia Russia Malaysia ... . Brazil Mexico Polynesia Nova Zembla . . Asiatic Russia . j Bf Fc Cj Fg Fg Lc Qb Qb Ij Ra Io Qb Dc Pc Pc Ui iA Xi Qa Wb 76 CONSULTING INDEX. Ntmea of Places, be Ochotsk .... Ochotsk .... Ochto Ocracock . . . Ocroni Odaib Odde Oddy Odessa Odeypore . . . Odja Odoli Odowari .... Oedenburg . . Oei-chow Oeiras Oeiras , Oeland , Oeno Oesel Ofoden Ogapock Ogden's Ogdensburg . . Oghao Ohatooah Ohia Ohio Ohio Ohila Oioun Oitama Oitz Ojem Ojogliina Oka Okhansk Oki Okinagan Okinagan Okinagan Okinskoi . .'. . Okkak Okkak Okkakaio Okladnikovo . . Okosaki Okosir Okota Okul Ola Olanche Old Old Old Bengucla. Old Birnee . . . Old Caconda . Old Calabar . . OldCroee.... Old Dongola. Of. Sea L. In. T. T. T. T. Cy. T. I. T. Cy- T. Cy. Cy T. I. I. I. T. R. Har T. I. I. I. St. R. Cy. R. T. L. Pt. R. R. T. I. L. R. Ho. T. I. Sta. Bay L. T. I. R. T. Dis. T. Ft. Ho. T. Cy. T. R. T. Cy. Position. Oldenburg . .12. G.D Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia North Carolina Mexico Arabia Iceland Benin Russia Hindoostan . . . Polynesia . Mantchooria . . Japan Austria China Brazil Brazil Baltic Sea Polynesia Baltic Sea Norway Guiana Africa New York .... Polynesia Polynesia Polynesia United States. . United States. . Africa Asiatic Russia. Japan Japan ........ Japan Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Russia Japan Oregon Ter. . . Oregon Ter... . Oregon Ter... . Asiatic Russia. Labrador Labrador Brit. America . Russia Japan Japan Asiatic Russia Cabul Africa Guatemala . . . Brit America Brit. America Bengucla .... Soudan Benguela .... Africa Sumatra Nubia Germany Wc Wc Ob Ge Ef Oe Kb Mh Od Qf Xh Ud Ve Nd Te Ji Ii Nc Dk Nc Nb Ih Mk Gd Aj Aa Cj Cd Ge Mj Ub Ve Ve Ve Wb Sc Pc Ue Ec Ed Dd Sc He He He Pb Ve Vd V c Qe Nh Gd Dd Gd Mj Mg Nj Mh Si Og Me Names of Places, &c. Old Porto Seguro Old Timinskoi. . Old Tripoli Oleita Olekmia Olekminsk . . .« . Olem Olenei Olenoi Olensk Olensk Oleron Olgopol Olikoi Oliphant's Olimaran Olinda Olinviro Olivin Olmutz Olomate Olonetz 10. Olonetz Olou Koudouk .. Olouto-rovskoi . . Olouto-rovskoi . . Olou Tourghai. . Olug Yulduz . . . Olulorsky Olvispol Olympus Om Omaguas Omahas Ombay Ombay Ombos Omecon Omenak Omerpore Ommanney .... Omoa Omoke Omolon Omoloy Omon Omon Omona Omorigeskoi.. . . Omsk Omskarka Omulcwka Ona Onango Onega Onega Onega Onega Onega Onemen . . . Ongole .... Class T. T. T. L. R. Cy. R. 0. I. T. R. Is. T. I. EL I. Cy. R. C. T. T. Pr. T. T. T. Bay R. T. C. T. Mt. R. T. T. I. Str. T. T. Dis. T. C. T. T. R. R. Pr. Sea R. T. T. T. R. T. I. T. C. G. L. R. Brazil Asiatic Russia. Tripoli Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. France Russia Asiatic Russia. Cape Colony . . Polynesia Brazil Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Austria Mexico Russia Russia Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Tartary Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Russia Oregon Ter. . . Asiatic Russia. Equador Western Ter. Malaysia .... Malaysia .... Egypt •• Asiatic Russia Greenland . . . Hindoostan . . North America Guatemala .... Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Arabia Asia Asiatic Russia . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Ob Asiatic Russia. X b Jj Sc Me Sd Tc Ub Ta Qa Ob Ta Ta Ld Nd Wc Nl Vh Ji Wb Wc Nd Ef Ob Ob Td Xb Xb Qd Rd Xb Od Dd Re Hi Fd Ui Ui Of Vb la Rf Dc Gg Vc Wb Ua Pf Qf Vb Re Qc Qb Vb Tc Ve Ob Ob Ob Ob Hindoostan I! 8 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of FtaCM, *c. Ongue Onrnan Onnekotan .... Ono Onocuse Onon Onooafow Onore Ontario Ontong Java . . . Onvardanaes ... Ony Onza Ooch Ooder Oogda Ooglit Ooglit Oojein Ookatisha Oolee Oolool Oomercote .... Oonalashka . . . Ooneemak .... Oorakantsha.. . Oorookor Oortung Oosi Oo-sima Opala Oparo Opelousas T. Opemiwick Ophir Oporto .... Opotchka . . Oppeln .... Oquitao .... Oraison .... Oran Orange .... Orange .... Orange .... Orangeburg Orangerie .. Orchilla . . . Orchon .... Oreava .... Orebro .... Oregon .... Oregon .... Orcgrund . . Oreguatus.. Oreguatus . . Orel Orel Oremjatcha Orenburg . . Orenburg . . Orense .... R. C. I. L I. R. I. T. L. Is. C. Pt R. T. T. T. I. Is. T. R. I. I. T. I. I. Mts. I. T. T. I. Vol I. ;Sta. Mt Cy. T. Cy. T. I. T. I. C. R. T. Har I. R. T. T. Ter. R. T. Tr. R. Pr. T. R. Pr. T. T. Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Kurile Islands. Polynesia Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Hindoostan . . . North America Australasia . . . Iceland New Guinea . . Congo Hindoostan . . ■ Hindoostan . . . Persia Brit. America . Brit America . Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Polynesia Hindoostan . . . North America North America Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Little Bucharia Japan Japan Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Louisiana Greenland .... Sumatra Portugal Russia Prussia Mexico Australasia . . . Algiers Malaysia Brazil Africa South Carolina Australasia .... Venezuela Mongolia Turkey Sweden United States. . Oregon Ter. . . . Sweden South America Brazil Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . jSpain Uc Ab Wd Ak Xj Td £j Qg Gd Wi Kb Ui Mi Qf Qf Pe Gb Gb Rf Ta Vh Wh Qf Ac Be Vb Uh Q<1 Ue Ve Wc S j Fo Aa Sb Ld Nc Nc Ee Wi Le Uf Lh Nc Ge Wi Hg Sd Nd Nc Ed Dd Nb Li Ii Oc Oe Wb Pc Pc Ld Name» of Places, *c. Orfa T. Orfui C Orfui 1st Orgain !R. Orhey |T. Ori |L. Oriental :C. OrinNoi IL. Orinoco |Dep Orinoco R. Oristagno T. Orissa !Pr. Orkney I. Orleans J. Orleans Cy. Orliansk T. Orlov T. Orlov Noss ;C. Orlova JR. Orlovoi |C. Orlowka R. Ormond ;I. Ormus I. Oroc L. Oromon IT. Orontes JR. Oroolong I. Oropesa jT. Orskaia T. Ortcgal C, Ortelsburg . Ortigas .... Orto Asiatic Turkey O e Africa P g Hm Td Nd Nb Wi Se Hh Hh T. T. T. Orton IT. Tr. I. T. Cy. Osaca G. Ortoos . Orua . . Oruro . Osaca . Osages . . . Osborne . Osborne's Oscar Oscar Osen Tr. C. Rf. Bay f. Osepus T. T. Mt. I. I. Vil. T. L. T. T. I. Oserejnoy Oserma. . • Osima. . . . Osima Osita Oska Osketanaio Osmandjik Osna Osnaburg . Osnaburg jCy. Osnaburg jHo. Osorno T. Osorno Vol. Ossa T. Patagonia Mongolia . . Russia ...<., Russia .... New Britain China Venezuela . Venezuela . Sardinia Me Hindoostan ...Rf Scotland L c Lower Canada. ;H d France Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Persian Gulf . . Mongolia Mongolia Syria Polynesia Uh Bolivia II j Tartary |P c Spain Ld Prussia Nc Brazil J j Mongolia 'Sd Mongolia .... S d Mongolia T e Hg Hj Ve Ve M d Tc Pc Ob Xb Ob Xb Gb Pf Sd Rd 'Oe Venezuela Bolivia Japan , Japan . Missouri 'F e Brit. America . G a Polynesia C k Brit America . |F b Polynesia jX i Norway Mb Persia Pe Russia Ob Wc Uf Vd Ee Td Gb Od Ob Ck Me Fc Hm II m Asiatic Russia. Eastern Sea. . . Japan Mexico Mongolia Brit America . Asiatic Turkey Russia Polynesia Hanover Brit. America . Chili Chili Russia |P c 73 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Place*, &c Ossuna . . . Ostashkov Ostend . . . Osteroe . . . Ostersund . T. T. T. I. T. Ostiaks |Tr. Ostroonoi Ostrov Ostrovnoi Otago Otaheite Otchakov Otdia Oteewhy Otoes Otranto Otrar Otter Otter Otter Otter Otter Tail Ottowa Ottowas Otway Oaalin Ouba Oubinskoi Ou-chow Ou-chow Ouda Ouda Oude Oude Oudskoi Oue Ouei-ming .... Ouen-chow .... Oufa Oufa Oufa Ougalaghmiout Ougden Ougene JT. Ouian R. T. T. C. Po. I. T. Is. I. Tr. T. T. Bay L. Sh. Cr. L. T. Tr. C. T. L. T. Cy. T. Cy- R. Pr. Cy. Cy. R. Cy- Cy. Pr. Cy. R. Tr. R. Ouicatai Ouinboucou .... Ouinskoie Ouistkouitoun . . Oukakee , . Oukesima Ouki Ouki Kitcha.. . . Oukinskoi Oulenmouren .. . Ouloussanraoudan Oumet Perelaztos Oa-mong Ounas Oundo Ounja R. T. T. T. L. L t. R. c. R. T. T. Cy. R. L |T. Spain Russia Belgium Faroe Islands . Sweden Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia ...... Asiatic Russia. New Zealand. . Polynesia Russia Polynesia Polynesia Missouri Ter. . Naples Tartary North America Brit. America . Indian Ocean . . Wisconsin Ter, Wisconsin .... Illinois Michigan New S. Wales . Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia, China Corea Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Brazil China China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. North America Asiatic Russia. Norway Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Brit. America . GulfofTonquin Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. China Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. ( 'liin.i . Russia ......... Russia ......... Russia . ... Le Oc Mc Ld Mb Bb Xb Nc Wc Xm Cj Od Xh Aj Fd Nd Qd Dc He 01 Fd Fd Gd Gd VI Ud Re Re Tf Ue Vc Vc Rf Rf Vc Ik Sf Uf Pc Pc Pc Cb Rb Mc Wb Sd Tb Tc Td Gc Tg Wc Tb Wc Se Uc Pc Sf Nb Ob Oc Names of Places, &c. Oup Ourak Oural Ouralsk Ourat Ourcan .... Ourdabad . . . Ourens Ourga i Ouriamskaia Ouriankais ., Ourjoum. . . , Ouro Ourrokoop . Oursou .... Oury's .... Ous Ousa Ousa Oussmane . . Oust Camenagor- skaya Oustchelmskoe . . Ousteourovskaya Ouste Sissolk . . . Oustiazua Ousting Velikoy Oust Motchensk Oust Ouskaya . . Oust Tungouskoie Oust Vaga Outchou Outchoumoutchin Outer Vigten . . . Outger Reps .... Outshi Ferman . Outshochkoi Noss Ouvalskoi Ouy Ouzene Ovah Ovando Oveido Ovens Ovidos Ovo Ovroutch Owari Owen Owhyee Owhyhee Owl Owlitteeweek. . . Oxford Oxford Oxford Oxford Oxford Oxnes Oxus Oyapock T. 1. R. T. T. R. T. T. T. T. Tr. T. I. I. R. I. R. T. R. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. R. T. I. I. T. C. T. R. T. Pr. Pr. Cy. R. T. I. T. Bay L. R. I. R. I. Cy- C. c. c. Ho. I. R. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Tartary ....>. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Brazil Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Russia N. Pacific Oc . Polynesia Mantchooria . . Australasia Asiatic Russia. Russia .... Russia .... Russia .... Sc Vc Pc Pc Td Uc Pe I i Td R c Sc Pc A f Vh Uc Xj Sc Pb Pb Oc Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Thibet Mongolia Norway Spitsbergen . . . Little Bucharia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia- Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Madagascar . . . Congo Spain New S.Wales . Brazil Archipelago. . . Russia Japan Brit. America . Oregon Ter. . . Polynesia Brjt. America . Brit. America . England New Britain d . . Oregon Ter. . . . Falkland Is.... Brit. America . Loflbden Isles . Tartary T. Guiana Re Pb Tc Pb Oc Pc Ob Qc Sa Ob R e Td M b Na Qd Wc Pc Qc Pc Pj Ni Ld VI I i Ne Nc Ve Fa Ed Bg Fc Gb Lc Wi Dd Hn Fc Mb Pd Ih CONSULTING INDEX. 79 Kino of PUon, *c. Oyo Ozark .... Ozee Ozee Ozee Ozen Ozerna 'R. Oziernoie T, Class. R. Mts, T. R. IR. R. Ozigina. . Oziginsk . Or. T. Tr. T. R. T. T. Pa Paarl Pacajes .... Pacaltsdorp Pacaxa .... Pacchino . . Pachi Pr.chitea R. Pacsong jT. Padamo R. Padang T. Padaran C. Padaviri \R. ' Paderborn Cy. I. T. T. R. C. T. Cy. Padgagana Padgorodna Padomist . . Padoucah .. Padron . . . Padstow . . . Padua Padur T Padypolo Is. T. I. Tr. I. T. T. EL T. Pagahm Mew Pagansane . . . Pagoes Pagon Paha Pahang Paha-tom-kol , Paichan Paidmatta Sta. Pailas Paimoni . . . Paisley .... Paitaire. . . , Pajane . . . , Pakhia .... Paknam . . , Palamos . . , Palamow . Palana .... Palaos Palawan .. , Palca Palcati . . . Palcipas . . . Palembang |T, Palencia IT, Palenque T. Position. Ref. Lets. Pb United States . . Fc Oi Oi Oh Pe Asiatic Russia . Ra Asiatic Russia. Sc Asiatic Russia. Vb Asiatic Russia. Vb Thibet Sf Cape Colony . . South America Nl Ii Cape Colony . . Nl Ii Asiatic Russia. S c Hi Sf Thibet Venezuela .... Hh Si Tg Buenos Ayres . Hh M c Asiatic Russia. Wb Asiatic Russia. Qc Nc Missouri Ter. . Fd Italy Mi Lc Md Re Hindoostan . . . Qh Sf Senegambia .. . Thibet Ui Lg Vg Se Sh Se Mantchooria . . Ud New Zealand. . XI Nb Peru Hi Lc Sd Nb Asiatic Russia. Xb Sg Md Rf Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. Wb Malaysia ... . Uh Th Hj Buenos Ayres . Qd Hk Si Ld Fg Names of Placet, fee. Palermo Cy. Palestine Cty*. Palezkhua T. Palhassan T. Pallamcottah Pallas Pallena Pallisers .... Pallisser .... Palm Palma Palma Palma Palma Sta. Mt. T. Is. C. Is. I. T. T. T. Palma C. Palmareinha . Palmas Palmer Palmer Palmer's Palmcro Palmerston . . Palmyra Palmyra Palmyras . . . Paloloo Palos Palos Palte C. c. Bay Pt. Ld. C. I. Rns Pt. Is. I. T. T. L. Palumbi I. Pama Pamer Pampas Pampelona . . Pampelona . . Pamplico . . . Panama .... Panama .... Panaros .... Panchina Panctou .... Pandora Pandora's Pandora's Panga Pangany .... Pangootaran . Paniany .... Panicheira . . Pannavia Panot Panovskaya . Pansa Pantar Pantelaria Pantura .... Panuco Pany , Pao-king Pao-ning Paoo I- Dis. IPls. Cy. |T. So. Cy. Bay Is. T. R. R. Ld. R. Pr. R. I. T. T. Bay R. T. T. I. I. Sta. T. I. Cy. Cy. I. Sicily Syria Cabul Mongolia .... Hindoostan . . Japan Ceylon Polynesia .... New Zealand . Australasia .... Canary Isles . . Canary Isles . . Chili Spain Mexico Angola Liberia Brit. America . Brit America . Southern Ocean Sardinia Polynesia Syria . .' Hindoostan . . . Polynesia Polynesia Celebes Spain Thibet Barca Eastern Sea .. . Tartary Buenos Ayres . Spain New Grenada . North Carolina New Grenada . New Grenada . Chili Asiatic Russia. Thibet Australasia .... New Guinea . . Polynesia Congo Africa Malaysia Hindoostan . . . Africa Africa Russia Asiatic Russia. South Peru . . . Malaysia Mediterran. Sea Ceylon . . , Mexico. . Malaysia China ... China . . . Polynesia . Me Oe Qe Sd Rh Vd Rh Cj X m Vj Kf Kf Hh Me Ef Mi Lh Gb Ea He Me Bk Oe Rf Bh Wg Ti Ld Sf Ne Uf Qe HI Ld Hh Ge Gh Gh H k Re Se Vj Vi Xj N i Oi Th Rg Oj M h Ob Tc Hj Ui Me Rh Ff T? Te Xj 80 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, fcc. Paote-chow .... Paoting Papagayo Papagayos .... Papakawa .... Papasquiaro. . . Papey Paps of Pindea Papuy Paquash Para Para Para Paracatu Paracels Pardo Paragua Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay jR. Para Hotun . '.. . . T. Paraiba Pr. Paraiba. ..:... .Cy. Paraiba ;R. Paraiba-do-sul . . R. Paramaribo .... jCy. Paramatta jT. Parana Cy. Parana R. Cy. Cy. G. T. I. T« I. Mts T. L. Pr. Cy. R. T. Bk. R. R. Rep I. Te Te 9.8 China China Guatemala . Brazil [Ik Senegambia. ..Kg Mexico jF f Iceland JK b . Patagonia . . . . jH m 'Chili s. HI Brit. America . |M c Brazil Brazil Brazil [II Brazil I j 11 Ii China Sea Brazil .... Venezuela Tff Ik Hh South America I k Parana Paranaguay . . . Paranahyba . . . Parana Panema Pardo Parece Vela . . . Paribouaca Parin Parinacota Paris Parita Parker's Parma Parma , Parmatchouson Parnaiba Paropamisan . . , Parovskoie Parral Parry Parry Parry Parry Parry Parry's Parry's Parry's Parry's Partida Paruro Pas Pasado R. Bay R. R. R. I. R. T. Mt. % I. J). Cy T. R. Mts. T. T. C. C. c. So. Po. Gr. I. I. Bay f. Fd. C Malaysia .... Bolivia Mongolia .... Brazil Brazil [Brazil [Brazil Guiana [New S.Wales i Buenos Ay res I Buenos Ay res Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Polynesia Lower Canada. Mantchooria . . South Peru. ... . France New Grenada . Polynesia Italy Italy Thibet Brazil Persia Asiatic Russia. Mexico Brit. America . Brit. America . Scoresby's Ld.. Upper Canada . Brit. America . Polynesia Polynesia . ... Polynesia Brit. America . N. Pacific Oc. . South Peru.. . . Russia Equador Th Ik Td Ji u Ji Jk Ih Wl II II Ik Ik Ij Ik Ik Vf Hd Td Hj Md Gh Xi Md Md Se Ji Qe Sc Ff Da Ha Ka Gd Fb Vf Bk Wg E b Eg Hj Na Gi Names of Places, Sic. Paso del Norte Passandava . . . Passandava . . . Passanee Passara Passaro Passau Passe Passier Passion Pasto Pastol Patabilca .... Patagonia .... Patalan Patanagoh . . . Patanee Patani Patani JT. Patchacha !R. Patchachinskoi . C. Patchatka >R. T. T. C. T. T. C. T. T. T. Rks T. Bay T. Cty. T. T. T. C. Mexico F e Patch usan . Paternoster Paterson's . . Patience . . . Patixa Patki Patna Patquashaguina. Patrick Po. Patrocinio Patroschilka . . . Patta Patterson's .... I. T. T. Gr. Patton C. Patype Pau Paucartambo . . Paujang Paulista Paumoor Paunch Pavia Pawnee Pawnee Picts. . Pawnees Payan Paylovsk Payta Paysandu Pays del Diablo, Peace Peace River Peacock Peak Peak Peak Peak Peak Peak R. T. T. I. T. T. T. Cy. Vil. Tr. Tr. T. T. T. T. Dis. R. Ho. His. I. I. Ch Bay R. Mts. Madagascar . . . Madagascar. . . Beloochistan . . Borneo Sicily Bavaria Sumatra Borneo N. Pacific Oc. . New Grenada . North America Peru South America Java Birmah .. Africa .... Malaya Malaya Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Eastern Sea. . . Malaysia Australasia.. . . Seghalien Brazil Java Hindoostan . . . Upper Canada . Scotland Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Melinda Polynesia New S. Wales . Brazil France Bolivia ....... Malaysia jT h Brazil J k Pj Qf Th Ne Md Sh Ti Eg Gh Bb Gj II in Ti Sg Nk Sh Sh Xb Xb Xb Uf Ti X m Vd Jj Ti Rf Gd Lc Xf Sc Oi Xh VI Jj Ld Hj Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Lombardy . . . Missouri Ter. jMexico Missouri Ter. , Mongolia Russia Peru Uruguay .... Buenos Ayres . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Canary Isles . . Kurile Islands. Japan Upper Canada . Upper Canada . Azanaga Qe Md Fd Fe Fd Se Oc Gi LI II Ec Ec Eb Kf Wd Vd Gd Gd Lf ! CONSULTING INDEX. bL NlSlM of FlacM, kc Peak Peaked Peard Pearl Pearl Pearl Pearotuah Pechou Pedder's Pederence Pederneiras .... Pedir Pedras Pedras Pedro Pedro Peebles Peedur Kusser. . Peel Peel Peel Peel Peel's Peel's Pegbina Pegue Pei Ho Peise Peitching Peiviaskanta . . . Peking Pela Pelby Pelchue Pelelew Pelew Pelhampore .... Pelican Pelican Pe-ling Peling's Pellew Pelly.. Pelovaia Pelzihi Pemba Pemba Pemba Pemba Pembina Pembina Pembroke Pembroke Pembroke Pena de los Picos Penan tipode .... Penas Penda Pendulum.. .. . . Penetangushene Pengina Mts. HI. Bay I. Is. Rf. I. R. Is. T. T. T. Pt. Ft. C. Shs. I. T. T. R. R. T. I. In. T. S/ T. T. T. Cy. Sta. Ft. T. I. Is. T. Pt L. Mts. I. Pt. L. R. R. Oty Pr". I. T. Bet R. T. C. C. I. I. C. T. Is. T. R. Brit. America . New S. Wales . North America Polynesia Caribbean Sea. N. Pacific Oc. . Polynesia Thibet Polynesia France Brazil Sumatra Loango Angola Arabia Caribbean Sea. Falkland Is.. . . Beloochistan.. . New S.Wales . Brit. America . New S. Wales . New Holland . . Polynesia Patagonia Asiatic Russia. Binnah China Russia Corea Norway China Africa Brit. America . Chili Polynesia Polynesia Hindoostan . . . Africa Brit. America . Thibet Malaysia North America Brit. America . Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Africa Congo Indian Ocean .. Congo Wisconsin Ter. Wisconsin Ter. Wales Brit. America . Falkland Is.. . . Polynesia Australasia . . . Spain Russia Scoresby's Ld. Upper Canada . Asiatic Russia. Dc Wk Ba Ci G Af Bk Se Xh Ld Ii Sh Mi Ni Pg «g In Qf Tl Db Tl Tl Vf Hn Tc Sg Te Ob Ud Nb Te Nk Fc HI Uh Uh Qf Mk Fc Se Ui Cb Fb Rb Rd Nj Ni Oi Ni Fd Fd Lc Gb In Ve Xm Ld Ob Ka Gd Wbi Nimn of Placet, &c Clan. G. Pt. T. Sea Col. St Bay Penginskoe . Penguin .... Peniche .... Penjinsk .... Pennsylvan . . Pennsylvania Penobscot . . . Penrhyn lis, Penrhyn C. Pensacola Cy, Pentecost C. Pentland Fr. Penza 37.:Pr. Penza Cy Peoria Pepin .... Pera T. L. |T. Pera Head C. Peras Percival Perdido , Perecop , Peregrine Perguicas Pergvolak Perim Perigueux Perlovskoie Perme 12. Perme Pernagua Pernagua Pernaiba. ...... Pernambuco Pernambuco. . . . Peron Peros Banhos . . . Is. C. Bay Cy. Pt. Bay L. I. Cy. T. Pr. T. T. L. T. Cy. Pr. Mt I. Perouse Str. C. Cy. Fd. Rns Cty. G. ('y- T. Rep I. T. I. T. Vil L. «')•■ C. Perpetua Perpignan . . . Pers Persepolis Persia Persian Perth Perth Peru Peru Peru Pescadores . . . Pescara Pcschan Pesenmagnisa Peshawur .... Pest Pestelcina .... Petasaras Petchelee Petchora Petchora Petersburg Asiatic Russia. Coronation Is. . Portugal Asiatic Russia. Liberia United States. . Maine Polynesia Brit. America . Florida Ter.. . . Russia Scotland Russia Russia Illinois Wisconsin Ter. Malaya New S. Wales . Brazil Falkland Is.... Florida Ter.... Russia Brit. America . Brazil North America Red Sea France Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil New Holland. , Indian Ocean., Japan , Oregon Ter... , France Russia Persia Asia Asia Scotland New Holland. . South America Polynesia Indiana Polynesia Naples . . North America Patagonia .... Cabul Austria Asiatic Russia. Polynesia China Russia Russia Wb Io Le Wc Lh Gd Hd Bi Gb Ge Ob Lc Oc Oc Gd Fd Sh Vj Ji Hn Gd Od Gh Ji Be Og M d Tb Pc Pc Ji Ji Ji Ji Ji Tk Qi Vd Dd Mc Oa Pf Pe Pf Lc Tl Hi Vf Gd Xg M d Ab Hm Qc Nd Tb Vg Te Nc Pb Virginia |G e 82 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Peter First . Petic Petite Terre Petorca .... Petoroa Petotlan . . . Petovvack . . Perseus. . . . Petoune Hotun |Cy Petrikau T. Petriu T. Petro Baulosskaia. T. Petrozavodsk . . Cy Petropaulovskoie T. Petropaulovskoie T. Petrovsk T. Petrovsk Petrovsk Peym Peza Philadelphia .... Philadelphia .... Philip Broke . . . Philippopolis . . . Phillip Phillip Phillipine Phillipolis Phillips Phillips Phillips Phillipstadt Phipps Phoenix Phugen Phuyen Piacina Piacinskoie Pialitza Piatnitskoie .... Piauhi Piauhi Piavo Picada Pichai Pichano Pickaninny Bas, sam Pickersgill Pico Picombas Picos Pictou Pictured Piekougamis . . , Pielis Pielis , Pierre au Calumet Pigeon . . • Pih-kwan . Pijin T. T. T. R. Cy. I. c. T. I. Po. Is. Sta. I. I. Bay T. C. I. T. T. R. L. T. T. Pr. R. L. T. T. T. I. :S. Pacific Oc T. JMexico I. | West Indies . . T. Chili Vol. Buenos Ayres T. Mexico Brit. America . Atlantic Ocean Mantchooria . . Poland Siam Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia ....... Russia Russia Little Bucharia Russia Pennsylvania. . N. Pacific Oc. . Shannon Is. . . . Turkey Australasia . . . New S.Wales . Malaysia Africa Polynesia .... Polynesia Brit. America . Sweden North America Polynesia Cochin China . Cochin China . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Russia Asiatic Russia. Brazil Brazil Russia Brazil Siam Buenos Ayres . T. I. I. R. Pt. T. Rks R. T. L. Ho. I. Har T Guinea Isle of Georgia Azores Brazil Peru Nova Scotia. . , Michigan Lower Canada, Russia Russia Brit. America , Polynesia China Mantchooria . Fo Ef Hg HI HI Fg Ha Kd Ud Nc S? Pc Ob Sc Wc Od Pc Oc Rd Pb Gd Af Ka Nd XI VI Ug Nk Vh Cj Cb Mc Cc Ai Tg Tg Sa- Sb Ob Sc Ji Ji Ob Jj Sg Hk Lh Jn Ke Ij Gi Hd Gd Hd Ob Ob Fc Vf Uf Ud Names of Places, &c. Pike Pike Pike Pike's Pike's IPk. Pilar Pilaya .... Pilcomayo Pilcomayo ! Pilemetz .. '< Pilgrim... Pillan's ... Pillar Pillar Pillau .\ . . Piloutai . . . Pilsen Pina Pinare .... Pinchabos. T. T. 11. R. T. I. C. C. V. T. T. T. I. R. T. Pinches I. Pt. R. T. R. I. I. I. Brit. America Brit. America , Brit. Ameriea S. Pacific Oc.. Missouri Ter. Brazil Pine Pine Pinega .... Pinega .... Pine's .... Pine's Piney Ping-hai IT. Ping-leang Cy. Ping-lo Cy. Pingloso Cy. Ping-ting . Ping-tou .. Ping-yuen Pinnacle ... Pino Pinsk .... Pinyang . . Pinzon's . . Pipestone . Pipley Piramides. Piranhas .. Pirate Piretibbi .. Pirtan Pirtchina . Pis Pisa Pisagua . . Pisania . . • Pisco Pisgah . . • Pisiluk . . . Pissou Pit....... Pitangui .. Pitcairn's . Pitchen . . . Pitea Cy. Cy. Cy. I. T. T. Cy- Bay R. T. R. R. Is. L. R. T. I. Cy. T. T. T. Is. T. R. R. T. I. R. T. Position. Fc Dc Dc Ek Ed Ij Bolivia Hk Bolivia Buenos Ayres . Russia S. Pacific Oc... Scoresby's Ld. . Patagonia V. Diemen'sLd, Prussia Mongolia Austria Africa Brazil Peru Equador Brit. America . Wisconsin Ter, Russia Russia Australasia Cuba Australasia Corea China China China China China China North America Mexico Russia China Brazil Brit. America . Hindoostan . . . Mexico Brazil Tonquin Lower Canada. Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Tuscany South Peru .... Senegambia . . . Peru ... Southern Ocean Siam Liberia Asiatic Russia Brazil Polynesia .... Mantchooria . Sweden Hk Hk Pb Fk Kb Hn Vm Nc Td M d Mj Ii Hi Gi Fd Ob Ob Xk Gf Ui Ue Te Tf Te Te Ue Tf Ab E e Nc Te lh Fc Rf Ee Ji Tf He Uc Rb Wg Md Hj Lg Gj Ho Sg Lh Sc Jj Dk Vc Nb CONSULTING INDEX. 83 Nun of Flao*, kc CU*. Pitea Pitt Pitt Pitt Pitt Pittarski Pitt's Pitt's Pittsburg Piura Plaatberg Placentia Placentia Placentia Placentia Plakina Plantain Plants Plasket's Plate Platte Platten See Plattsburg Play Green Pleasant Plettenbergs. . . . Ploskie Kosbki . Plotzk Plymouth Po.. Pobideuna Pocantins Pocatka Po-chow Pocrovskoe Pocrovskoi Podcamennaia .. Podolia 46. Podolsk Podor Podpousknoi .. . . Podvolochnavo .. P°ggy Poim Point Point du Galle .. Pointed Heart . . Poison Poitiers Poivre .. . Pola Poland Polangen Polar Policastro Polimska Pollard Polotsk Polomi Polonkir Moren. Polony R. I. I. Bk. R. T. Arc. I. Cy. T. T. T. T. Bay L. T. I. L. I. I. R. L. T. L. I. Bay f. T. R. T. R. R. 8f T. R. Pr. T. Ft. T. T. Is. T. L. T. L. I. T. Is. T. Km. T. Sea T. T. I. T. T. R. R. Sweden Brit. America . Polynesia Indian Ocean . Mexico Asiatic Russia. Oregon Ter. .. . S. Pacific Oc... Pennsylvania. . Peru Africa Newfoundland . Spain Newfoundland. Guatemala .... Asiatic Russia. Senegambia .. . Oregon Ter. . . Polynesia Indian Ocean . Missouri Ter. . Austria New York .... Brit. America . Polynesia Cape Colony . . Russia Poland England Italy. Asiatic Russia. Brazil Asiatic Russia. China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Senegambia .. . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Malaysia Little Bucharia Brit. America . Ceylon Oregon Ter... . Senegambia. . . France Indian Ocean . Austria Russia Prussia Brit. America . Naples Asiatic Russia. N. Pacific Oc. . Russia Mantchooria . . Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Nb Cb Xh Pi Ed Qb Dc Ho Gd Gi Nk Id Ld Id Gg Tc Lh Ed Xi Pi Fd Nd Hd Fc Xi Nl Pb Nc Lc Md Qc Ii Rb Te Re Ub Sb Nd Oc Re Tc Si Re Eb Rh Ed Kg Md Pi Md Nc Nc Ea Nd Qc Af Nc Vc Sd Qb Nama of Places, tc. Polouyski Polovninaia .... Poltava 48. Poltava Polynesia Pomabamba .... Pomba Pomba Pombo Pomeri Pomeroon Pomona Pona Molubque . Ponce Pondang Pondicherry .... Pond's Pond's Poneviez Pong Pongos Ponijen Ponou Ponta Delgada. . Pontal Ponte de Lima . . Pontevedra .... Pontiac Pontianah Pontianah Pontotoc Poodoga Poogul Poole Poolkee Poolop Poolout Poonah Poonar Poonga Poor Bunder .... Pooree Pooshta Kur Ridge Poo-to Poousong . . . , Popadicskina . Popayan Poplar Popova Pora Porco Porcupine .... Porcupine. . . . Porcupine .... Pore Porecmo Porinta Porkhov Poro Poro Hotun . . Poromuschir . . T. R. Pr. Cy. Div. T. Bay R. ?■ R. I. I. T. I. ?■ In. T. T. R. T. R. T. T. T. T. T. Dis. T. T. T. T. T. T. L I. S y - T. T. T. T. Mts I. R. T. Cy. R. T. I. T. R. R. R. T. I. R. T. T. T. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Oceanica Bolivia , Mozambique . , Mozambique . , Africa Indian Ocean Guiana Scotland Asia i Porto Rico Malaysia .... Hindoostan . . Labrador .... Brit. America Russia Mongolia Senegambia .. Mantchooria . Mantchooria . St. Michael I. Brazil Brazil Spain Michigan Borneo Borneo Mississippi. . . Russia Hindoostan .. England Cabul Polynesia .... Polynesia Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Siam Hindoostan . . Hindoostan . . Little Thibet . China Thibet Asiatic Russia New Grenada , Brit America , Asiatic Russia , Malaysia Bolivia , Brit America , Brit. America . Missouri Ter. , New Grenada . Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Russia Mantchooria . . Mantchooria • ■ Kurilc Islands. Qb Ub Od Od Ch Hk Oj Oj N i PI lh Lc Qi Hg Uh Rg lc Ga Nc Sd Lg Ud Uc Kc Ij Ii Ld Gd Th Th Ge Ob Qf Lc Qe Wh Wh Qg Rf Sh Qf Rg R e Ue Se Re Gh Fc Ra Si ? j Fc Gc Ed Hh U Nc Td Td Wc 84 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Place*, &c. Porongos L. Porpoise Pt. Porsanger Fd. Porsken T. Port Po. Portalegre Cy. Portalegre T. Portandick T. Port au Prince . T. PortCasilda.... T. Port Cresson .... T. Port Desire . . . . R. Portillo Pt. Port La Nasca. . T. Portland Is. Portland Cy. Portland Bay Portland Pt. Portland Pt Portland Pt. Portland Can. Portlock's Har Port Longo Port Macquarie . T. Port Mahon .... T. PortNambu.... T. Porto Bello I. Porto Bello Cy. Porto Bucarelli . Vil. Porto Cabello. . . T. Porto Calvo . . . . T. Porto Cordova . . Str. Porto de Alio Nuevo Bay Porto de Casma. T. Porto de Coquim- bo T. Porto del Huasco T. Porto do Moz... T. Porto Grande .. . T. Porto Nipe T. Porto Praya .... Cy. Porto Rico I. Porto Santo .... I. Porto Seguro . . . Cy. Porto Vecchio . . T. Port Rafael . . . . T. Port Royal T. Port San Jago . . I. Portsmouth T. Portsmouth . . . . T. Port Spain T. Portugal Cty. Posen . Cy. Posoi R. Possession I. Possession I. Possession C. Possession Bay Possession Bay Possession |Bay Buenos Ayres . Falkland Is.... Norway Norway Newfoundland. Brazil Brazil Africa Hayti Cuba Liberia Patagonia Cuba South Peru. . . . Iceland Maine New S.Wales . Brit. America . Jamaica V. Diemen's Ld Brit. America . North America New S. Wales . Spain Japan Malaysia New Grenada . Mexico Venezuela Brazil North America Mexico Peru . . . Chili Chili Brazil Brazil Cuba St. Jago West Indies . . Madeira Brazil Corsica Venezuela Martinique.. . Mexico i England N. Hampshire , Trinidad Europe , Prussia China Africa Indian Ocean .. South Shetland Brit America . Isle of Georgia Patagonia . . . . I HI In Na Nb Id Ik Jj Kg Hg Gf Lh Hm Hg Gj Kb Hd VI Gc Gg Vm Dc Cc Wl Ld Ve Ti Gh Ee Hg J » Dc Ef Gi Hk Hk Ii Ii Gf Kg Hg Ke Jj M d Hh Hg Fg Lc Hd Hg Le Nc Tf Nk Pm Ho Ga Jn Hn Names of Placet, &c. Possession Post Potapovskaya. . . Potosi Potosi Potosi Potschinsk Potsdam Pottawatomies . . Potter's Poty Pouca Poughkeepsie.. . Poulisdus Pouljon Pour Pourhatou Pousoulan Poustaia Poustarctsk .... Poustgen Pouta Oula Poverty Povienetz Povolgski Povrovska Powder Powell's Poxina Poyang Hou .... Prada Prades Prague Prairie du Chien Praleika Praslin Praslin Pratas Praya das Pedras Praya das Neves Predpriati Pregnogorska . . . Preparis Presburg Pres.de Carizal.. Presnovska Presque Presto Preston Priaman Pribuiloff Prilooki Primeau Prince Edward . Prince Edward . Prince George .. Prince Leopold's jls. Prince of Wales jls. Prince of Wales I. Prince of Wales Arc. Prince of Wales C. Mt. T. T. Dep Cy. T. T. Cy. Tr. I. T. L. T. Is. T. R. T. R. R. T. T. T. Bay T. T. T. R. Gr T. L. T. T. Cy T. T. I. Pt. I. C. C. I. T. I. C* Ft. T. I. R. a T. Is. T. L I. I. R. Brit. America . Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Bolivia Bolivia » Missouri Russia Prussia Wisconsin Ter. Southern Ocean Asiatic Russia Thibet New York . . . Asia Mantchooria . Asiatic Russia Mantchooria . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Russia Mantchooria . New Zealand. Russia Russia Asiatic Russia Oregon Ter... Southern Ocean Brazil . China . Brazil . France Austria Wisconsin Ter. Russia Indian Ocean.. New Georgia. • Eastern Sea .. . Africa Africa Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Bay of Bengal. Austria Mexico Asiatic Russia. Michigan Brazil New Holland. . Sumatra North America Russia Brit. America . Indian Ocean.. North America Brit. America . Brit. America . New S. Wales . St. of Malacca. North America Ga Ud Tc Hk Hj Fe Pb Mc Fd Kn Od Re Hd Qh Ud Rb Ud Ub Wb Wb Pb Ud XI Ob Oc Qc Ec Io Jj Tf Jj Md Mc Fd Od Pi Wi Tf Mj Mj Cj Qc Sg Nd Ee Qc Gd Jj Tk Si Ac Oc Ec Om Hd Fb Fa Vj Sh Dc North America JA b CONSULTING INDEX. 86 i of Place*, *c Prince of Wales' Foreland C. |N. Caledonia Prince Regent's. 'Bay Brit America Prince Regent's. In. Brit America R. I. I. Sh. Bay Prince Regent's Prince's Prince's Prince's Princess Augusta Princess Char- lotte's Princess Char lotte's Princess of Wales Princess Royal Prince William's Prince William's Prince William's Pr. Wm. Henry's Principe Regente Pripri Prisrend Pristina Probaschenija . Procoueivskaya Prome Propria Proskuroy Prostoy Prouzana Providence .... Providence .... Providence .... Providence .... Providence .... Providence .... Providence .... Providence Wreck Providentia Prune Prussia Pruth Prypetz Pskov 20. Pskov Psyche Ptolemeita Puachun Pudiva Puelches Puerco Puesortok Puget Puget's Pulicat Pulmerola Pulo Anna Pulo Baniack . . . Pulo Binting ... Pulo Bouton .... Pulo Brala 8 New Holland Africa Malaysia .... Southern Ocean Indian Ocean.. New S.Wales . Xk Ha Fa Uj Mh Ti Kn 01 b. Ld I. So. I. T. T. T. T. C. T. T. T. T. I. T. I. I. Cy. C. Ch. Rks L. R. Pr. Cy. I. T. T. I. Tr. R. C. C. So. T. I. I. I. I. I. 1. Names or Placet, tc. Mon Brit America Is. Polynesia .... j Oregon Ter. . jBrit America iPolynesia ... (North America Polynesia Brazil Siam Turkey Turkey , Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Hi r mah Brazil Russia Russia Russia Australasia . . Malaysia .... Rhode Island. Brit America Bahamas .... Indian Ocean.. Brit America . Rk. j Eastern Sea. . . Sh. Australasia .... I. {Madagascar... Km. Europe T. Russia Russia Russia Russia Persian Gulf . . Barca Chili Australasia... . Patagonia Mexico Greenland .... North America Oregon Ter . . . Hindoostan . . . Naples Polynesia Malaysia Malaysia Str. of Malacca Malayan Sea Vj Ga Cj Dc Ca Aj Cb J 1 Sf Nd Nd Ta Tc Sg Ji Nd Pb Nc Vi Uh Hd Ec Gf Pi Eb Uf Vj Pj Nc Nd Nc Nc Nc Pf Ne HI Xk Hm Fe Jb Cc Dd Rg Md Uh Sh Sh Sh Th Pulo Brasse Pulo Camba Pulo Capas Pulo Caro Pulo Condore . . Pulo Laut Pulo Lingin .. . Pulo Lozin .... Pulo Mankap .. Pulo Mariere . . Pulo Mintaon.. Pulo Nyas .... Pulo Ouro .... Pulo Panjang.. Pulo Pinang. . . Pulo Rondo . . . Pulo Sapata . . . Pulo Taya Pulo Timon .. . PuloUbi Pulo Ubi, False Pulo Way .... Puna Punilla Punjaub Punjgoor Puno Puno Punta de Toro ■ Puolango Purcell Purdie's Purdy's Pureg Purgatory Purificaocao . . . Purneak Puru Purus Putten Puttusk Putu Mayo.. .. Putzig Puula Puzulatka Pyhajocki Pyhea PylstaarU Pyramid Pyrenees Pyrcneos Pytkova Quadra Qualan Quallah Battoo Qualo Qualocn Quangtang. . . . Quarken Quarrellers .... I. I. I. I. Is. I. I. I. Rk. T. Dis, T. Malaysia Malaysia Malayan Sea . . Gulf of Siam . Malayan Sea . . Malaysia Malaysia ... . Malayan Sea . . Malaysia Polynesia Malaysia Malaysia ..... Asia Malaysia Str. of Malacca Malaysia Malayan Sea . . China Sea .... Malayan Sea . . Gulf of Siam.. Gulf of Siam.. Malaysia Equador Chili Hindoostan . . . Beloochistan.. . Dep South Peru pt T. Bay Is. I. T. Bay T. T. I. R. T. T. R. T. L. Har T. T. I. Rk. Mts. Mts. Mt I. I. T. T. I. T. I. |Tr. South Peru Chili Russia Brit America . New Holland . . Australasia.. . . Beloochistan . . Patagonia Uruguay Hindoostan . . . Russia Brazil Hindoostan . . . Poland Equador Russia Russia Russia Russia New Zealand. . Polynesia V. Diemcn'sLd Europe Smith America Russia Oregon Ter. . . Polynesia .... Sumatra Sencgambia* » Norway Birmah Sweden Brit America Sh Ui Sh Sh Th Ti Si Sh Ti Uh Si Sh Rh Sh Sh Sh Th Tg Sh Sh Sh Sh Gi HI Qe Qf Hj Hj HI Nb Fa Ul Vi Pf Gm II Rf Nb Hi Qf Nc Hi Nc Nb Ob Nb XI Ak Vm M d Hj Pb Dd Wh Sh nI Sf Nb Db 86 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, tc. Quebec Quechucabi .... Queda Quedal Queen Adelaide's Queen Adelaide's Range Queen Anne's . . QueenCharlotte's Queen Charlotte's Queen Charlotte's QueenCharlotte's Queen's Quei-ling Quelpaert ..'.... Queretaro Queretaro Querimba Querimba Quesnell's Quibaxe Quibdo Quibo Quickjock Quickmee Quilca Quiliman Qui Hi innno Quillota Quiloa Quiloa Quilon Quimbumby .... Quimper '. Quina Quincey Quindonga Quingemba .... Quinhon Quintao Qui Parle Quipungo Quirpon Quisimafugo . . . Quissama Quiteve Quito Quitta Quizungo Quoin Quorra Quorri Raab Rabac Rabat Rabba Racca Raccoon Race Rachov . . . ClM. Cy. Vol. T. Pt. Arc. Mts. C. Arc. I. So. So. C. Cy. I. St. Cy. Cty. Is. R. T. T. I. T. T. T. R. T. T. Cty. T. Sta. T. T. T. T. I. T. T. T. L. T. I. j% Pr. T. Cy. T. R. I. R. T. T. T. Cy. T. T. Fk. IC. T. Lower Canada. Patagonia .... Malaya Chili... Patagonia Brit. America . Greenland Australasia . . . Oregon Ter. . . . New Zealand. . Oregon Ter. . . Brit. America . China Corea Mexico Mexico Africa Mozambique . . Oregon Ter. . . . Matemba New Grenada . New Grenada . Sweden Birmah South Peru. . . . Chili Mozambique . . Chili Africa ........ Quiloa Hindoostan . . . Africa France Congo Illinois Matemba Congo Cochin China . Brazil Wisconsin Ter. Africa Newfoundland . Africa Benguela Mozambique . . Equador Dahomey Mozambique . . Bay of Bengal . Africa Soudan Hd Hm Sh Hm Hn Fb lb Xj Dc Xm Dc Gb Tf Ue Ff Ff Oj Oj Dc Nj Gh Gh Nb Hj HI Oj HI Oj Oi Rh Nj Ld Ni Fe Ni Ni Tg Ii Fd Nj Ic Oi Mi Oj Gi Mh Oj Sh Mg Mg Austria N d Arabia ..Of Morocco L e Soudan Mh Asiatic Turkey O e Wisconsin Ter. F d Newfoundland. I d Poland N c Names of Places, Sc. Racuach Radack Chain . . Radama Radama Radmanso Radoe Radom Radstock Raffles Raft Rages Ragusa Raiatea Rainy Rainy Lake Raivaivai Rajamundry Rajemal ..... . Rajour Rajpoor Rajpootana Rakkeriak Raleigh Raleigh Raleigh's Ralick Chain . . . Ralmanow Ramalt Ramas Rameda Ramgur Ramier Ramleah Rampoora Ramree Ranai Rancador Rancagua Ranea Rangamatty Class. T. Is. Is. Mts. I. I. T. Bay Po. R. T. Cy. I. L. Dis. I. T. T. T. T. Pr. C. Cy. Mt. Pk. Is. C. T. C. C. T. I. Mt. T. I. I. I. T. T. T. Rangazvak T Pangheehoo .. Rangoon Ranier Rankin's Raoul Raoutan Rapa Rapalovskoe . . Rappen Raratoa Rarotogna . . . Ras al Gat . . . Rasat Ras Asooad . . Ras Awatli. . . Ras Banna. . . Ras el Ain . . . Ras el Jidid . . Ras Gilla .... Ras Goree . . . T. I. Mt. In. I. Bay I. T. L. I. I. C. C. C. C. C. T. C. C. T. Mexico Polynesia Madagascar . . . Madagascar. . . Sweden Norway ...... Poland Brit. America . New Holland . . Brit. America . Bolivia Austria. Polynesia North America Brit. America . Polynesia Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Brit. America . North Carolina Brit. America . Guiana Polynesia Segh alien Arabia Hindoostan . . . Barca Hindoostan . . . West Indies .. . Arabia Hindoostan . . . Birmah Sandwich Is. . . Caribbean Sea . Chili Sweden Hindoostan . . . Madagascar . . . New Zealand. . Birmah Oregon Ter. . . Brit. America . Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Polynesia. Asiatic Russia. Sweden Polynesia Polynesia Arabia Barcal Africa Ajan Africa Asiatic Turkey Nubia Arabia Africa Ee Xh Pj Pj Nc M b Nc Fa Uj Gc Hj Nd Bj Fd Fd Ck Rg Rf Qe Qg Qf Hb d Hb Hh Xh Vc Pf Qg N Rf Hj Of Rf Sg Bf «g HI Nb Sf Pk XI Sg Dd Fb Ak Xb Ck Qb Nb Bk Bj Qf Ne Ph Ph Pg Oe Of Pf Pg CONSULTING INDEX. 87 Ntnaof Placet, fee c c. c. c. c. T. C. C. C. II. L I. T. Cy. a i. T. n. Ras Hafoon . . . Ras Jillah . — . Ras Mabber . . . Ras Machereeb Ras Mucliaat. . Ras Reccan . . . Rassypour .... Ras Tanhora . . RasUlKhyle.. Ras Umbca . . . Rat Ratchin Sopa . . Rathbone Ratibor Ratisbon Raudaness .... Raukoke. ..... Raumo Ravee Raven Ravenna Rawa Rawa ........ Rawan Hrad . . Ray Raya Raynpore Razatin Raznchina .... Re Real Realejo Reaper Rearson Rebnesoe , Recherche {of the^jArc. Recif C. Recreation I. Sea Mts !r. ^ Fk. Fk. L. L. Pt R. Red Red Red , Red Red Red , Red Red Red Red Deer . . Red Head !C. Red Knife 'r. Red Lake Irlo. Rcdondo ,IL Mt. T. Dis. L. His. I. T. T. I. Rcdondo Redoutkale . . Red River.. . Red Rock... Red Sand . , . Refun Regan .. ftegisto Regncvadsoe Africa Arabia Ajan Arabia Arabia Arabia Tartary Arabia ...... Ajan Africa Oregon Ter. . Thibet Scoresby's Ld. Prussia Bavaria Iceland Kurile Islands Russia ...... Hindoostan . . Polynesia .... Italy Austria Poland Thibet Newfoundland Java Hindoostan . . Barca Asiatic Russia France , Brazil Guatemala Polynesia Polynesia Norway Australasia Cape Colony . , Polynesia Africa Madagascar .. . United States. . Wisconsin Ter. Texas Missouri Ter. . Wisconsin Ter. Brit. America . New Holland .. Brit. America . Greenland Brit. America . Brit America . Gallapagos Patagonia .... Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Brit America . Brava 'Japan Cabul Brazil Norway < Pf Ph Pf Pf Pf Pe Pf Ph Pg Ed Re Ka Nc M d Kb Wd Nb Qe Wh Md N« Nc Re d Ti Rf Ne Xb Ld Gg Bi Bj Na Ul Nl Cj 2? £ J Fe Fd Fe Fd Fd Fe Tk Ee la Db Fc Eh Hm Od Fd |Eb 'Oh iVd Qf Ii Na Names of Placet, fcc R. Bay C. T. I. Is. Ld. Ft Reid Reid Reikianoes Reikiaviig Rein Deer . Rein Deer . Rein Deer. Reliance . . Remedios jT. Rennell Mt Rennell |C. Rennell's L Rennell's So. Rennes T. Republican Fk. Repulse Bay Repulse Bay Requena . . Rerooa Resafa Resele Reshd Resolution , Resolution .... Resolution ..... Resolution .... Retimo Retino Rettenbenk .... Reunion Revel 18 Revel |( Revilla Revillagigcdo Revillagigedo Revj Rewah . Rey Rliio Rhode Island Rhodes I . Rhone R. Rhybinsk |T. Rhylsk T. Riaha |T. Riatsk |T. Riazane 35. Pr. Riazane ;Cy Ribe (T. Ribnoe ........ jT. Rica de Oro I. Rica de Plata. ..I. Ricarces iTr. Riccboro T. Oregon Ter.. . Brit. America Iceland Iceland Spitsbergen . . Brit America Spitsbergen . . Brit. America New Grenada Brit America Brit. America Australasia . . . Oregon Ter. . France L d Missouri Ter. . F d Brit America . G b Ed, Hd Kb Kb Na Eb M a Eb Hh Db Fa Wj Dc New S. Wales . Spain Polynesia Syria Sweden Persia Polynesia Brit America . Australasia .... Brit America • Candia New Grenada.. Dis. Greenland I. Pr ?: Is. I. T. T. I. S. St. Vk Le Cj Oe Nb Pe Cj Hb Wm E b Ne Gh la Indian Ocean . jP k Russia 'Nc Russia IN < Mexico Ff N. Pacific Oc. . E g North America D c Rice Trevor's. Richards' . . . , Richards' Richardson . . . Richardson's ■ Riche Richmond I. Bay I. Ch. Bay C Cy. Russia Hindoostan . . New Grenada Malaysia .... United States. Mcditcrran. Sea France Russia Russia Mongolia ..... Russia Russia Russia Denmark Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Polynesia Missouri Ter. . Georgia Patagonia Brit America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit America . New Guinea Oc Rf Gh Sh Hd Ne Md Oc Oc Td Oc Oc Oc Mc Sa Xf Xe Fd Ge Hn Gb Db Cb Eb Vi Virginia G e CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. Richmond Richmond Ricovskaya Ridang Rider Rietohitza Riezitzi Riga Riga Rigby Ril Riley Rimatara Rimba Rimini Rimnik Hindi; Rinkioping Rio Rio Colorado . . . Rio de la Hacha Rio de la Plata. Rio Grande Rio Grande do Norte , Rio Grande do Sul Rioja Rioja de la Nueva Rio Janeiro . . , Rio Janeiro . . , Rio Magdalena Rio Negro . . . . Rio Negro Rio Negro .... Rio Negro Riou , Riou's Riparoonee ... Ripon Rivers Rivoli Rizeh R. McLeod's . Roanoke Robello Roberts' Roberts' Robertson .... Robinson .... Robson's Rocailleux . . . Roccas Rochcfort .... Rochester .... Rochookoko . . Rock Rock Rock Rockingham . Rocky Rocky Position. G. T. T. Is. T. T. T. Cy. G. Bay Cy. c. i. Pr. T. C. Is. T. I. R. T. R. T. Pr. Pr. Pr. £ y - Pr. Cy. R. T. R. R. R. Po. I. R. I. C. Bay T. Bay R. T. I. Rks C. Mt. Rf. C. I. £ y - T. I. R. I. Ho. Bay L I. Brit. America . New S. Wales . Asiatic Russia. Malayan Sea . . Arabia Russia Russia Russia Russia Brit. America . Darfur Brit. America . Polynesia Benguela Italy.. Seghalien Russia Denmark Japan Mexico New Grenada . South America Mexico Brazil Brazil Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . Brazil Brazil New Grenada . Brazil Brazil Buenos Ayres . New Grenada . . North America Polynesia Guinea Brit. America . Celebes New S. Wales . Asiatic Turkey Brit. America . North Carolina Brazil South Shetland Polynesia Brit. America . Brit. America . Southern Ocean Asiatic Russia Venezuela .... France New York) . . . Eastern Sea. . Illinois Oregon Ter. . Brit. America New S.Wales I Brit. America (Polynesia ... Gc Wl Tc Sh Pg Oc Nc Nc Nc Fa Ng Fa Bk Mj Md Vc Ob Mc Vd Ee ff Ff Ji Ik Hk Hk Jj J k Hg Hi Hi HI Hh Cc Ci Ih Fb Uh VI Od Eb Ge Jk Io Ci Ha Cb Ml Wa Hg Ld Gd Uf Fd Dc Fc V Gc Xj Names of Places, &c. Rocky Rocky Rocky Rocky Rocky Rocky Rocky Mountain Rocky Mountain Rocky Mountain Indians Rodbar Rodda Rode Rodney Rodney Rodney Roebuck Roe Buck Roes Roguaguado. . . . Rokelle Rokol Rokol Roma Romaguas Romaine Roman Romandos Romanov Romans RomanzofF Romanzoff Romanzoff Romanzoff Romanzov Romberg Rome Rome Romeiros dos Castilhanos . . . Romel Romelia Romen Romsdal Romsdal Rona Ronda Ronde Ronehamn Rono-sima Rooapooa Roostam Roper Rornov Rorstad Rosa Rosaretta Rosas Roscoe Rose , Rose Class. I. Bay Ls. Shs. Pt. Mts. Ho. Ho. Tr. T. T. Fd. T. C. C. Bay Ld. R. L. R. Bk. Rk. I. T. C. T. T. T. C. C. C. I. Mt Po. C. d*. T. I. Po. Pr. T. T. Ih. I. T. I. T. I. R. T. C. T. T. 1't. Sh. T. R. I. I. Malaysia Labrador Brit. America . Malaysia New Zealand. . North America Brit. America Brit. America Brit. America Cabul Arabia Iceland Mississippi. . . . North America New Guinea . . New Holland. . Spitsbergen . . . New Holland. . Peru Senegambia. . . Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Malaysia Peru South Carolina Turkey Bolivia Russia Florida Japan North America Polynesia North America Mexico ....... Mantchooria . . Italy New York Indian Ocean.. Greenland .... Turkey Russia Norway Norway Scotland Spain Indian Ocean.. Gothland Eastern Sea .. . Africa Tartary Brit. America . Russia Norway Buenos Ayres . Australasia .... Spain Brit America . Polynesia North America Ug Ic Eb Ti Xm Ec Dc Ec Dc Qe Pg Kb Fe Ab Vj Uj M a Uj Hj Lh Lc Lc Ul Hj Ge Nd Ij Oc Gf Vd Ab Cj Cb Ee Vc Md Gd Qk lb Nd Oc M b Mb Lc Ld Pj Nc Uf 2* Pe Ha Nc Mb Hm XI Md Db Aj Cc CONSULTING INDEX. 89 Names of Places, *c Roseau Roseneath Rosetta Rosier Roslavle Ross Ross Rossel Rossel's Rossicna Rossocba Rost Rostak Rostock Rostov Rosvig Rottee Rotterdam .... Rotumah Rouen Rouge Roum |Pr. T. In. Cy. C. T. Bay Pt I. Bk. T. R. I. Cy. .T. T. I. I. Cy. A. ,Cy. ,C. Dominica I. . . . Hg Scoresby's Ld.. K a Egypt O c Lower Canada. iH d Russia iOc Brit. America . G a Brit. America . E a Australasia . . . W j Bay of Bengal. 'S g Russia JW b Asiatic Russia. N c Loffoden Isles . JM b Arabia Pf Mecklenburg ...!Mc Round Round Round Hill Rouni Rovaniemi Rovlsoe Rovno Rowley's Roxburg ....... Roxo Roxo .......... Royal Royal Royal Royal Royal Company's Royale Ruao Ruatan Ruengas Rufus Rugen Rugcnwalde .... Rum Rum Rum Rumby Rum Key Runaway Rungpore Running Water . Ruovesr Rupande Rupert ... Rupert River . . . Rupert River . . . Rupert's Rurutu Russia I I. 1. T I. T. Shs. I. 0. c. Pa I'o. B*j So. I. I. I. I. 'IV. EL I. T. I. R. L. Mt Is. C. T. H. T. Cty. R. Dis. Ho. >Cr. I. Cty. Russia Norway . . Malaysia Holland . , Polynesia France ]M d Arabia Qf Asiatic Turkey O c Oc Mb Uj Mc Xj Polynesia Cape Verd Is, Labrador I c Xj Kg Wd Nb Na Nc Tj Bk Ff Kg G g Ge Jn Qm Vn Gd fvurile Islands. Russia Norway Russia Australasia .... Polynesia Mexico Senegambia .. . Jamaica South Carolina . Isle of Georgia Indian Ocean . Southern Ocean Wisconsin Ter. Polynesia JW g Guatemala .....Gg Africa O i New S. Wales . |V 1 Baltic Sea . . . Prussia Scotland Wisconsin . . . Brit. America Africa Bahamas .... New Zealand. Hindoostan . . Missouri Ter. Russia Africa Brit. America Brit. America Brit. America Brit America Polynesia. . . . Europe Mo Nc Lc Fd Eb Mh Gf XI Rf Fd Nb Nk Gc He Gc Fc Bk Oc Namea of Places, 4c Russian ........ Russian Russian Lapland Rutland Rutlaum Rutschuck Ruthampore Rutui Ryk Yse Saade Saatz Saba Sabannou Pt Cli*. C. Ter Pr. Is. T. T. T. L I. T. T. I. Sabanqui .... Sahara Sabart Sabi Sabia ICty, Sabia R. Sabine C. Sabine Is. Sabine R. Sabine Pt Sabine's Sabinez T. Sackett's Har. Sackwa Sacramento . . Sacramento . . Sacs Sadadoo Saddle Saddle Saddle Sado Sadras Saeglek Safe Saffee Safsen Sagan Sagarawida . . Saginaw Saginaw Sagis Saguenay Sahara Japan North America Russia Bay of Bengal. Hindoostan Turkey JN d Hindoostan . . . It f Polynesia C k Spitsbergen . . . N Sabia Sable Sable Sable Sable Sable Saboon .... Sabounsky . Sabrao Sacahuchen Sacality [R. Sachanine Is. Sacharna |T. T. T. T. R. Tr. T. I. I. Pt I. T. Bay Har T. T. T. Bay T. Bay R. R. Dcs. Ve Bb Ob Sg Rf Arabia O g Austria'. M c Hg Th Fg West Indies Borneo .... Mexico Brazil J j Tripoli Me Azanaga JL f Africa O k Mozambique . . jO k North America iB b Greenland . . . . jH a Louisiana . . . . .|F f Brit. America . C b Brit America . Mexico Persia Nova Scotia. . . Nova Scotia .. . Florida Asiatic Russia. Tartary Africa |Ng Asiatic Russia. R b Malaysia ... . U i Mexico F g Madagascar. . . 'O k Nova Zembla. . Asiatic Russia. New York .... Soudan Uruguay .... Mexico Wisconsin Ter. Senegambia .. . Malaysia Malayan Sea . . Spitsbergen . . . Japan Hindoostan . . . Labrador Spitsbergen . . , Morocco Sweden Prussia Java Michigan Michigan Tartary Lower Canada. Africa Ea Ee Pe Hd Hd Gf Xb Pd Pb Pd Gd Mg II Ee Fd Lg Uh Th M a Ve Rg He Ma Le M b Nc Ti Gd Gd Pd Hd Lf 8» Bf 90 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Races, fcc Sahul Said Saidabad Sailor's Horn . . . Saima St Aignan St Alessandro . . St Amaro St Amaro St Ambrosio . . . St Andreia .... St Andrew St. Andrew's . . . St. Andrew's . . . St. Andrew's . . . St. Andrew's . . . St. Angelo St. Anisia St Ann St. Anna St Anna St Anna. St. Anna. .' St. Anna St. Anne St. Anne's St. Anthony .... St. Anthony .... St Antico St. Antoine St. Antonio St. Antonio St Antonio St. Antonio.. . . . St Antonio St. Antonio Javita St. Augustin. . . . St. Augustin .... St Augustine. . . St Augustine., . C St. Augustine . . . 'R, St. Augustine's . jBay St Barbara IT. C. I. I. I. Po. I. I. R. T. C. Rks T. Cy. Class. Malaysia U j Syria O e Great Bucharia Q e T. C. L. T. T. T. T. I. T. Bay C. Falls I. T. C. C. I. Po. His, T. C. I. Cy. St. Barbara. . . . , St Barnabe .... St Birtholomea. St. Bartholomew St Bartolome , . , St. Bartolomeo ,< St. Benedieto . . . St. Benito St. Bernardo. . . . St. Bias St. Brandon .... St. Brieux St Carlos St Carlos de Ja- cuhy T. St Catharine ... ,1. St Catharine . . . JPo St. Catherine . . . ,C. Denmark Russia Australasia Polynesia Brazil Brazil S. Pacific Oc. . . Asiatic Russia. Madagascar .. . N. Brunswick , Caribbean Sea. Polynesia Florida Uruguay Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Bolivia Bolivia Brazil Brazil , Brazil Lower Canada. Nova Zembla .. Arabia Wisconsin Ter. Sardinia Lower Canada . Cuba Buenos Ayres . Cape Verd Is. . Patagonia Patagonia Venezuela , . . . Brazil Polynesia Florida , Mindanao Labrador, Madagascar. . . Venezuela Guinea , Polynesia Australasia West Indies . . . Mexico Polynesia N. Pacific Oc. . Africa Brazil Florida Indian Ocean . France Chili Brazil ...... Brazil Guatemala , Loango Mc Nb Wj Vf II Jj Gk Sa Oj Hd Gg Uh Ge Ik Va Gd Hj Ik Ij Ij Ij Hd Qa 2 g Fd Me Hd Gf II Kg Hm Hm Hh Ji Vf Gf Uh Ic Ok Hh Ih Vg Vi Hg Ef Wg Eg Mli Ji Gf Qj Ld Hm Ik I k Gg Mi Nunes of Places, (tc Class. St Catherine . . . St. Charles St Christopher . . St. Christopher . . St Christoval St. Christoval .. . St Clair St Clairsville . . . St. Clara St. Clemente .... St Croix St Croix St. Cyprian's . . . St. David's ..... St. Denis ..... St. Diego St Diego de Gua- mes St. Domingo . . St Domingo .. St. Elena St Elena St. Elena St. Elena St. Elias St. Elmo St. Esprit St Esprit .... St. Estaca. . . . St. Eustatius . St. Fadeia St. Felipe .... St. Felipe St Felipe de Ben- guela I St Felix St. Felix St Felix : St. Felix 1 St Fernando . St Fernando . ! St Fernando . I St Fernando . 1 St. Fernando de la Selva. . . . St. Foi St. Francis . . . St. Francis . . . St. Francis . . . St. Francis , . . St Francis . . . St Francisco . St. Francisco . St Francisco . St Francisco . St Francisco . St Francisco . St. Francisco Borja St. Francisco de Atacama St. Francisco Solano c. T. I. I. T. I. C. T. Rks Vol. I. R. R. I. T. C. T. cy. c. T. PL PL PL ML I. I. Bk. C I. I. T. T. Cy- T. C. I. Is, T. T. T. T. T. T. C. C. I. R. R. T. T. a I. I. R. Cy. Cy. PL Brit. America . IF a Missouri |F e West Indies, Indian Ocean . New Grenada . . Australasia Brit. America . Ohio Madagascar. . . Patagonia West Indies. . Wisconsin Ter. Azanaga , Polynesia Bourbon Isle . Patagonia , . . . ;Hg Oj Gh Wj Hb Ga Pk Hm Hg Fd Kf Uh Pk Hn Equador ...... Hayti Mexico Buenos Ayres , Spain . . , Patagonia Equador Brit America . Polynesia , . . . . Malayan Sea . , Malayan Sea , . Spain West Indies. . . Asiatic Russia. Chili ,. Buenos Ayres . Benguela Brazil Madagascar. , S. Pacific Oc. S. Pacific Oc. Venezuela Venezuela . . . Chili Equador Chili Guiana ....... Cape Colony . , Labrador Australasia . . . Arkansas Lower Canada. Brazil Benguela Equador Mexico Brazil Brazil Uruguay Bolivia New Grenada CONSULTING INDEX. 91 Names of Placet, &c. Class. St Francisville.. St George .... T. T. I, b c. St George's . . St George's . . St. George's . . St. George's . . St. George's . . St George's . . St George's . . St Harion ... St. Helena , . . St Helena . . . St Helen's . . . St Hermenegildo Pt St. Ignacio T. St Ildefonso Is. St Ines C. St. Jago T. St Jago T St. Jago " St James St James St. James St. James St. Joachim .... St Joao St Joao del Rey St. Joao do Palma St Joaquim . . . - St Joaquim .... St. Joaquim . T. Bay C. Ch. Ch. I. R. I. Bay I. Mt Fe Jj Jj Ke Hm Od Wi Hg Id St John jC. St John C. C. r,. R. T. St John . . . St John . . St John . . St John's . St. John's . St. John's . St John's . St John's . St John's . St. John's . St John's . St. Jose . . . St. Jose St. Jose de May. pure St Jose de Mos- samedy St. Jose d'Encoche St Joseph. St. Joseph . St. Joseph. St. Joseph. St Joseph . T. Bay Bay I. R. R. I. T. T. Louisiana, ... Brazil Brazil Azores Patagonia . . . Russia New Zealand. New Grenada Newfoundland Newfoundland. I d Great Britain ,. iL c Australasia .. . . jW i North America iA c Patagonia .... H m Asiatic Russia. S a Cape Colony . . N 1 Southern Ocean .L j Oregon Ter. . . |D d Buenos Ayres . I 1 Equador Hi Patagonia .... H n Patagonia H n Peru G j St Jago Kg Cape Verd Is. .Kg Cambodia Th Oregon Ter D c Senegambia Oregon Ter. Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil I j Bolivia I j Bolivia ;H j Mexico iD e Staten Island . . JH n Africa |M h Newfoundland . jl c Lower Canada . H d Africa Kg N. Brunswick . |H d Newfoundland. I d Newfoundland .'jl c Spitsbergen . . . M a West Indies. .. Hg N. Brunswick Michigan. . . . Australasia • . Brazil Brazil Names of Piscet, Ac Kg Dc Hi Ik Jk Hd Gd Wi U Ik Venezuela Brazil Congo Florida Senegambia . . Indian Ocean. Brit. America Pt Florida. Hh Ij Ni Gf Pi Fc Gf St Joseph's .... St. Joseph's .... St. Juan St Juan St. Juan St Juan St Juan St. Juan St. Juan St. Juan St. Juan St. Juan St Juan Baptista St. Juan de Jaebun St Juan de Ulua St. Julien T, St. Julien Po. St. Kilda |I. St. Konstantinov T. StKovel T. St. Laurent .... II. St. Lawrence . . . Bai St Lawrence St. Lawrence St. Lawrence St. Lazaro C. St. Lorenza C. St. Lorenza JR. St Lorenzo I. St. Louis Cy, St. Louis Cy. St. Louis T. St. Louis C. St. Louis R. St. Lucas jC. St. Lucia Baj St Lucia Bay St. Lucia C. St. Lucia jl. G. .Is. . R. St. Lucia St Lucia St. Luzia St. Luzia St. Maloes St. Marcelino .. . St. Margarita . . . St. Maria Maior St Mark's St Martin St. Martin St. Martin's St. Mary St. Mary St. Mary St Mary St. Mary's St. Mary's St. Mary's St Mary's St Mary's St. Mary's T. Michigan Gd Pen. Patagonia IH m Cy. Bolivia Ij Porto Rico. . . . Hg Guatemala .. . . G g Mexico iF f New Grenada . H h Polynesia V f Guatemala .. . . G g Guatemala . . . . G g Bolivia 'Hk New Grenada . IG h Polynesia Ck Buenos Ayres . H k Mexico Fg France L d Patagonia Hm Scotland L c Russia N d Russia IN c Indian Ocean . |P i Asiatic Russia . North America North America North America Mexico Equador Brazil Peru Missouri Senegambia .. . Hayti Labrador II c Wisconsin Ter. F d Mexico E f Borneo T h Madagascar. . . [P k Caffraria West Indies . . Cape Verd Is. R. Caffraria .... T. Brazil T. Brazil T. France T. Brazil I. Mexico T. Buenos Ayres T. Florida I. Patagonia . . . I. West Indies. . Pt. Cape Colony . T. Bourbon Isle . C. Portugal C. Senegambia .. I. Azores Cy. Georgia Bay Newfoundland C. Africa C. Madagascar- • I. Madagascar • • Is. Labrador .... Ab Hd Ab Hd Ef Gi Ij G i Fe Kg Hg Ok Hg Kg Ok Jj L j d Hh Ef Ik Gc Gn Hg N 1 Pk Le Kg Ke Gc Id Ok Ok Pj Ic 92 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c St. Matheo I. Polynesia . St. Matheos |T. JBrazil St. Mathias [Bay Patagonia . St. Matthew.... I. St. Maura I. St. Maurice IR. St. Michael C. St. Michael !l. St. Michael's St. Michael's St. Miguel |T. St. Miguel T. St. Miguel T. St. Miguel T. St. Negis T. St. Nicholas . . . . T. St. Nicolas I. St. Patrick's Hd.C. St. Paul T. St. Paul I. St. Paul |l. St. Paul de LoandoCy. Angola St. Paulo de Oli- venco T St. Paul's !C. Bay of Bengal. Ionian Isles .. . Lower Canada. Labrador Azores Bay i Labrador Bk. Indian Ocean . Guatemala Equador Brazil Paraguay Equador Hayti Cape Verd Is. . V. Diemen'sLd. Bourbon Island Atlantic Ocean North America Names of Places, ic. St. Paul's . St. Paul's . St. Paul's . St. Paul's . St. Paul's . St. Paul's . St. Pedro . St. Pedro . St. Pedro . St. Pedro . St. Pedro del Rey St. Pedro de No- lasco St. Pedro de Rio Grande St. Perts St. Peter St. Peter's St. Peter's St. Peter's St. Petersburg 17 Pr. St. Petersburg . . Cy. St. Phillip C. St. Pierre T. St. Pierre I. Brazil Patagonia Dahomey North America Polynesia . ... Indian Ocean .. G. St. Lawrence Africa | Buenos Ay res . jAtlantic Ocean [Polynesia . . Guinea .... Brazil T. Brazil Cy. 1. L. T. Ft. R. St. Pierre . . . St. Pietro . . St. Roman . . St. Roque . . . St. Roque . . . St. Rosa St. Salvador . St. Salvador . St. Salvador . St. Salvador . St. Sebastian Brazil N. Pacific Oc, Lower Canada. G. St. Lawrence Asiatic Russia. Wisconsin Ter. Russia Russia Falkland Is.. . . Martinique.. . . Polynesia Indian Ocean.. I. Sardinia C. | Venezuela ..... C. iBrazil Bk. South America Bk. iPolynesia Cy. Cy. T. I. T. Brazil Congo . . . Brazil . . . Bahamas Spain . . . Ve Jj Hra Sh Ne Hd Ic Ke Ic Pi Gg Hi Ik Ik Hi Hg Kg Vm Pk Kh Be Mi Hi Hn M h Ac Iftl H d Lh II Kh Ag Lh Ij I i II Fg Hd Hd Qc Fd Nc Oc In Hg £f Pi Me Hg Ji Ji T g Jj Ni J k Gf Ld St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Sebastian . St. Stephen's . St. Susan's . . . St. Thaddeus . St. Thomas . . St. Thomas . . St. Thomas' . . St. Thome . . . St. Thome . . . St. Tomas.... St. Ubes St. Uist St. Vincent . . . St. Vincent .. . 1 St. Vincent . . . St. Vincent .. . St. Vincent . . . St. Vincent . . . St. Xavier. . . . St. Xavier. St. Ynes Saintes Saintes Sakharia Sakmarskaia . Saktalla.. Sal Sal , Sal Sal Salacoila Saladillo Salado Salado Salado. Salaka Salamanca Salamanca Salamanca Salanga Salangore Salas y Gomez. Salatan Salayer Saldanha Saldenha Sulee Salem S;ilcm Salem Salem Salengo Salerno ........ Sale'Trou . Salian .|C. c. c. c. 13a- I. " Is. T. Is. C. T. I. I. T. C. I. Cy. I. | C. c. I. Is. T. I. !i. T. Is. R. T. T. I. L. L. R. T. R. R. R. R. T. Cy. T. T. I. T. I. Pt. I. Bay T. T. Cy. T. T. T. Pt. Cy. T. T. Spain Patagonia Mozambique . . Oregon Ter. . . Cape Colony . . Brazil Chili | Alabama Bay of Bengal . 'Asiatic Russia. Lower Canada. iWest Indies. . . Africa Buenos Ayres . Brazil ■Polynesia ^Portugal Scotland jBrazil Portugal jFalkland Is.... 'Patagonia J West Indies. . . Cape Verd Is. . Equador Patagonia.. . . . Mexico ....... France :West Indies. . . Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Russia. Africa Cape Verd Is. . Soongaria Brit. America . ! Asiatic Russia. Soudan Buenos Ayres . Mexico Buenos Ayres . Chili Nubia Spain jMexico |Mexico Siam jMalaya S. Pacific Oc. . Borneo Malaysia Cape Colony . . Brazil ] Morocco Massachusetts . New Jersey . . . Cape Colony . . Hindoostan . . . Equador Naples Hayti Asiatic Russia. Md Hn Ok Dd Nl I k Hm Ge Sg Xb Hd Hg Mil Ik J k Ve Le Lc Ik Le In Hn Hg Kg Hi Hm Ee M d Hg Oe Pc Oh £8 Rd Fc Od Lg I 1 Ee H k H k Of Ld Ff «g Sh Sh Ek T i Ui 'Nl L e Hd Ge Nl Rg G i Md Hg Pe I CONSULTING INDEX. 93 filmtm of Placet, He. Salibabo Salidalen Saline Salisbury Salisbury Salkaew Salmon Salmon Salonica Saloor Salsette Salt Salta Salta Salten Salthidak Salt Kay Salvages Salvatierra ... Salwatty Salwen ....... Salzburg Samana Samana Kay . . Samanco Samar Samarang Samarov .. Sainarov Sambas Sambas Sambclong .... Sambio Sambro Sambuloi Sameil Samercand .... Samganooda.. . Sami Samina Cora . . Samoa Samoilovo Samow ....... Samoyeds Samsanna Samsoun Sana Sana San Andres . . . San Antonia. . . San Antonio. . . San Antonio. . . San Augustir. . . San Barbara. . . San Barbara. .. San Bcrnardi . . San Bias San Buenaventura San Buenaventura San Cataline.. San Catherina la. T. L. L Pt I. It. R. Cy. T. I. L. Pr. T. Fd. I. I. Is. T. I. R. |Cy. T. I. T. I. T. T. T. Dis. T. I. T. C. C. T. Cy. Har T. T. I. T. I. Tr. I. T. Cy. T. Vil. Cy. T. T. T. T. I. T. Cy. T. R. I. Pr. Malaysia Norway Texas Brit. America . North America Asiatic Russia. Oregon Ter. . . . Oregon Ter. . . . Turkey Hindoostan . . . Asia Africa Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . Norway North America Bahamas Atlantic Ocean Brazil Australasia .... Birmah Austria Hayti Bahamas Peru Malaysia .... [Java ......... Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Borneo Malaysia Bay of Bengal . Russia Nova Scotia .. . Asiatic Russia . Arabia Great Bupharia North America Africa ■Soudan Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Malaysia Asiatic Russia. Eastern Sea .. . Asiatic Turkey Arabia Peru Mexico Texas Mexico Mexico Texas Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Brazil Uh Mb Fe Gb Dc Ta Ed Ec Nd Rg Qg Nf H k Hk Md Be Hf Ke Ii Ui Sf Md Hg Hf Gi Ug Ti Pc Qb Th Th Sh Nb Hd Ra Pf Qe Ac Lg Mg Aj Sc Uj Rb Uf Od Og Gi Ed Ff De Ff Ee Ee Ee Ee Ef Ee De Ee Ik Names of Placet, &c. am. I. I. T. I. u\> I. c. I. I. T. T. i\, I. Sancian San Clemente. . Sancol Sancori Sand Sandalwood . . . Sandana Sanday Sanders' San Diego .... San Diego .... San Diego .... Sandoe San Domingos Soriano Sandomir Sandown Sandowey Sandusky . . Sandvig Sandwich Sandwich Sandwich Sandwich Sandwich /. . . . Sandwich Sandwich Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy Sandy San Felipe |T San Felipe IT San Felipe de Austin |T, San Fernando . . T San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco Sanga Sanga San Gabriel . . Sangallan .... Sangar Sangara San Gertrudis Sangexuga . . . Sangoulina . . . Sanguay Sangwin .... Sanho San Isabel . . . T. T. Pt. T. Cy. T. T. C. Bay Har Ld. I. Is. Bay Bay C. Des. Des. Hk. I. I. I. I. Is. L. PL China Mexico Mindanao ... Gulf of Siam. Brit America Malaysia .... Java Scotland Sandwich Ld. Mexico Mexico Mexico Faroe Islands Uruguay .... Poland Japan Birmah Ohio Norway Upper Canada New S.Wales Labrador .... Africa Southern Ocean Australasia.. . N. Pacific Oc. New Zealand. Michigan .... New S.Wales Buenos Ayres Mexico New Jersey . . ■ Indian Ocean Australasia . . . Polynesia .... Indian Ocean Mexico Brit. America Massachusetts . Mexico . . Brazil . . T. Bay Bay T. St. T. I. C. Cty. T. T. T. I. T, T. Vil. Texas. Mexico .... Mexico .... Mexico .... Mexico .... Sweden Japan Mexico .... Peru Japan Africa Mexico .... Brazil Asiatic Russia. Malaysia . . Liberia Corca ..... Mexico Tf Ee Uh Sg Fb Ui Ti Lc Kn Ee Ee Ee Lb II Nc Ve Sg Gd Mb Gd Vj lc Mk Kn Xj Bf XI Gd Wk HI Ee Hd Pj Wj Aj Qi Ff Fc Hd Ff Hi Ff Ee Ef Ee De Nb Vd Ee Gj Vd Lh Ef Ij Rb Uh Lh Ue Ee 94 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c. San Isabella . S. Aniuy . . . San Jago . . . San Jago . . . San Jago . . . San Joaodasduas Barras . . San Jose . . San Jose .. San Jose dePimas San Juan . San Juan . San Juan . San Juan de la Frontera . . . Sanki Sampoo San Luis San Luis San Luis de la Punta San Luis Obispo San Luis Potosi . San Luis Rey . . San Maria San Marino .... San Miguel San Miguel .... San Miguel San Miguel San Miguel San Patrico San Paulo San Paulo San Pedro San Pedro San Pedro San Pedro Sanpou San Raphael. . . . San Rosa San Salvador . . . Sansanding .... Santa Catalina. . Santa Christiana Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Fe T. R. Cv- ■v. T. T. I. 8ta. T. Pr. T. T. T. R. Pr. T. T. T. St. T. R. Rep, T. T. T. G. I. T. Pr. Cy. T. T. I. R. T. T. T. T. T. I. Is. Cy. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. Bay I. Po. Dep Position. Cuba Asiatic Russia Cuba Mexico Mexico , Brazil Mexico Mexico Mexico Buenos Ayres Mexico Cuba Buenos Ayres Thibet Buenos Ayres Mexico Buenos Ayres Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Italy. ..*..... Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Texas Brazil Brazil Mexico Mexico Polynesia Mexico Corea Mexico Mexico Cuba Africa Caribbean Sea Polynesia . . . , Morocco Venezuela Cape Verd Is. , Canary Isles . . Brazil Brazil Luzon Mexico Africa Mexico Australasia . . . Patagonia Bolh Bolivia Buenos Ayres . Gf Wb Gf Ef Ff Ii Ef Ef Ef HI Ee Gf HI Re HI Ff HI De Ff Ee Ee M d E f Ee De E f De Ff I k I k Ef Fg Ci E e Ue De Ef Gf Lg Gg Ci Le Hh Kg K f Ij Jj Ug Ee Nk Ee Xj Hm Hj HI Names of Places, &c. Santa Fe Santa Fe Santa Fe Santa Fe. Santa-fou i Santa Maria. . . , Santa Maria. . ,, Santa Martha. ., Santander Santarem , Santa Rosa Santa Rosa Santce San Teresa San Thomas Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago Santiago del Es terro Santillana Santoce Santona Santorino Santos Sanybel San Ynes Saona Saonnes Sapagua Sappero Saptin Sapy Sapy Saragossa - Saranga Sarano Saransk Sarapoole Sarasoo Saratoga Saratov 39 . Saratov Sarawan Sarayacu Sardinia Sardinia Saree Sarepta Sargasso Sarhou Keim . . . Sarigon Sariguan Same Sarnmas Sarpa Sartam Ourei. . . Sartarinov Sartor St. Py. Cy. T. T. I. C. cy, T. T. I. I. R. T. I. Pr. Cy. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. I. Cy. t. T. I. r. T. T. R. T. Str. Cy. Is. R. T. T. R. T. Pr. Cy. T. T. Km. I. T. T. Sea T. T. Mexico Mexico Buenos Ayres . Chili China Chili Uruguay New Grenada . . Spain Portugal Mexico N. Pacific Oc. . South Carolina. Mexico Mexico Buenos Ayres . Chili Equador. New Grenada . New Grenada Buenos Ayres . Spain Brazil Spain Archipelago. . . Brazil .... Florida Mexico Hayti Mozambique . . Buenos Ayres . . Russia Oregon Tor. . . . Sumbava Malaysia Spain Malaysia .... Africa Russia Russia Tartary New York Russia Russia Beloochistan Peru Italy Mediterran. Sea Persia Asiatic Russia. Atlantic Ocean Mantchooria . . Cambodia Polynesia Africa South America Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Norway Fe Fe II HI Sf H 1 I 1 Hg Ld Le Ee Eg G e Ef Ee Hk HI G i Hh Gh Hk Ld Jj Ld Ne Ik Gf Ee Hg Oj H k Nb Ed T i Ti Ld Uh Lg Oc Pc Qd Hd Pc Pc Qf Hi Md Md Pe Od Je Ud Tg Vg Kg Ii Od Rb Qb M b CONSULTING INDEX. 95 Names of Places, &c. Class. SarytchefF Saskatchawan . . Siskatchawan . . Sassari Satalia Satalia Satara Satisfaction Saugra Sault de St. Mary Saumarez Saunders Saunders Saunderson'sHope Sava Sivai Savan Savannah Savannah Savanna la Mar. Save Savona ........ Savonal Savoy Sawarcarna .... SaxeCoburg.15. Saxe Gotha..l4. Saxe Weimar 13 Saxony Saya de Malha . . Sayansk iCy. Sayansk |Mts Pk. Dis. R. T. Cy. G. T. I. Bay Str. C. c. Is. C. I. I. L. Cy. T. T. R. T. T. Cty. R. D. D. G.D Km, Bk. Sayer Saypan Sbica i Scanderoon . . , Scarboro Scarboro ..... Scarborough's Scarbro jSh Scarcies ....... R. Scarpanto Scatari Seel a Balundo . Schamer Schank Schemnitz .... Schenectady . . . Schetchmas . . . Schewhap Schiacha Schiashkotan . . Schiatam |T. Schirinki II. Schischanareff . . Bay Schitka R. Schlisselburg . . . T. Schoncck T. Schoog I. Schoomagins . . . Is. Schouten's I. I. I. Pr. Mt. I. T. Cy. T. L. T. I. Nova Zembla. . Brit. America . Brit. Ameriea . Sardinia Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Turkey Hindoostan . . . Australasia.. . . Arabia Upper Canada . Brit. America . New Zealand . . Falkland Is. . . . Greenland .... Malaysia ... . Polynesia. .... Brit America - Georgia Hayti Jamaica Austria ....... Sardinia Persia Europe Missouri Ter. . Germany Germany Germany Pa Ec Ec M d Oe Oe Qg Wj Pg Gd Ha Xra Hn la Uj £ j Fc Ge Hg Gg Nd Md Pf M d Fd Mc Mc Mc Germany M c Indian Ocean.. Q j Asiatic Russia. S c Asiatic Russia . S c Bay of Bengal . S h Polynesia V g Of Oe Lc Hg Xh Tg Lh Ne Id Arabia* Syria England .... Tobago Polynesia . . . Malaysia . . . Senegambia . , Archipelago . Cape Breton . Benguela |M j Arabia .... Australasia Austria. . . . New York . Russia .... Oregon Ter. Barca IN f Kurile Islands. |Wd Thibet S f Kurile Islands. Wc O e Wi Nd Hd Pb Ec North America Asiatic Russia. Russia Prussia Polynesia North America Ab Tc Ob Nc Wh Be Names of Places, &c. Schouten's Schwerin . Scilly Scilly Scio Scopia Scoresby .. , Scoresby's So. Scoresby 's Land Cty. I. b. Is. L T. C. Km Bay Is. Rf. T. T. T. C. Bk. I. I. I. Pt. C. L. Is. R. Is. Is. I. Pr. Cy. C. Is. V. Diemcn'sLd.V Scotland Scott's Scott's Scott's Scutari .... Scutari .... Sdorovskoie Seaforth . . . Sea Horse. . Sea Horse. . Sea Horse . . Sea Horse. , Sea Horse.. Seal Seal Seal Seal Seal Sea Lions . . Seals Sea of Azov Seara Seara Searle Sebaldine . . Sebastian !C. Sebastian Lopes. I. Sebastian Vascaino Bay Sebenico iT. Sebez JT. Sebha T. Sebha Rous . . . . C Se-chow jCy. Sechura |T. Seckoo ;R. Second jl. Second Volcano . I. Sedang T. Scddon |C. Sedgwick Mt. Scdiaga R. Seg L. Segedden T. Seger Dis, Seger Cy. Seghalien Cty Seghalicn Sea Seghalien Oula Hotun T. Sego \Cy. Segunam Is. Seguro Pr. Australasia.. . Mecklenburg , England Polynesia .... Archipelago. . Turkey Brit. America Greenland . . . Greenland . . . Great Britain Oregon Ter. . Oregon Ter. . . Australasia . . Asiatic Turkey Turkey Asiatic Russia Scoresby's Ld. Malaysia .... Spitsbergen . . Spitsbergen . . Spitsbergen . . Brit. America Asiatic Russia Brit. America Labrador I c Brit. America .|F c Nova Scotia . . Falkland Is.. . Spitsbergen . . Russia Brazil Brazil Brit. America Falkland Is... Madagascar . . Polynesia .... Mexico Austria Russia Fezzan Algiers China Peru Little Thibet . Madagascar . . Polynesia. . . . Borneo Greenland . . . Brit. America Russia P b Russia Ob Africa M f Vi Mc Ld Bj Ne Nd Fa Ka Ka Lc Dc Dc Uj Nd Nd Ra Ka Tg Na Na Na Gb Va He Hd In Na Od Ji Ji Hb Hn Pj Wf Ef Nd Nc Nf Me Tf Gi Re Ok Vf Th la Cb Arabia Arabia Asia . . Asia . . Mantchooria . . Africa North America Brazil Pg Vc Vd Ud Lg Ao Jj 96 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, *c Class. Sehoan Cuni Sehwan Seine Seistan Sejinmessa Sejinmessa Sekle Selboe Selefkeh Selema Selemskoi Selentai Selenti Selime Selinga Selinga Selinginsk Sellach Sellempore Sellwood Semancelha Semar Sembewghew. .. Sembo Semenoflfekoy.. . Semenov Semeva Semiarskoe Seminoles Semi Ostrov Semi Palatyne . . Semi Polotskaya Semisoposhnoi . . Semitsch Semlin Sena Sena Se-nan Senegal Senegal Senegambia . . . . Se-ngan Seng Miaose Senhora Senjen Senkemi Senlis Senna Senna Sennaar Sennaar Sennerut Sens Senta Sentinel Separation Seppings Seppings Serajevo Seramporc Serar Tr. T. R. Pr. Cy. R. T. I. T. R. L. R. T. Sta. R. R. Cy. R. T. Bay T. R. T. T. I. T. T. T. Tr. T. T. T. I. I. T. Gov. T. Cy. Co!. R. Cty. Cy. Tr. Bay I. R. T. Cy. T. Dis. Cy. I. T. T. I. Pt. C. C. T. Cy. T. onia Sinde France Cabul Barbary Barbary Arabia Norway Asiatic Turkey Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Tartary Asiatic Turkey Africa Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Brit. America . Brazil Asiatic Russia. Birmah Congo Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Florida Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia,. Aleoutian Arc. . Aleoutian Arc. . Austria Africa Mozambique . . China Africa Senegambia . . . Africa China China Bolivia Norway Mantchooria . . France Persia Russia Nubia . . Nubia .'. Greenland .... France Buenos Ayres . Bay of Bengal . Brit America . Brit America . North America Turkey .., Hindoostan Hindoostan Hm Qf Md Qe Le Le Of Mb Oe Ta Ta Qc Oe Of Sd Tc Tc Vb Rf Db Ii Wb Sf Mi Ua Oc Pe Qb Gf Ob R c R c Xc Xc Nd Oj Oj Tf Kg Kg Lg Tf Tf Hk Nb Vc Md Pe Nc Og Og lb Md Hk Sg Db Fa Ab Nd Rf Rg Names of Places, &c. Serchucha Serdobol Serdze Kamen . . Sereana Sereth Sereth Sergatch Sergbeisk Sergiev Sergippe Sergippe del Rey Seringapatam . . . Seringapatam . . . Serinpale Seritza Serjaika Series Sermatta Sermonoua Seroa Serouge Serpa Serramobim .... Serranilla Serreek Serro Borborema Serro Cubutam . Serro Estrondo . Serro Hibiapaba Serroor , Serro Tabatinga Serro Tromba . Seruk Servia ...-..,.., Sesters , Se-tching , Seteoel , Setia Settee ! Settee Setting , Senhelipar .... Sevanoe Sevastopol , Seven Seven Seven Seven Stones . . , Severn Severn Severn Severn Sevilla Seville Seychelle Seychelles Seychelles Shabee Shackleton Shadipore Shadrin C. T. C. Is. r. R. T. T. T. Pr. T. Cy, Sh. T. T. R. I. I. C. I. T. T. T. I. T. Mts. Mts. Mts. Mts. T. Mts, Mts. T. Pr. R. ?■ T. Dis, T. L. I. I. T. Is. Is. Is. Rks Dis. Ft. Ho. R. Pt Cy. I. Is. Hk. T. C. T. T. Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Caribbean Sea . Austria Turkey ...... Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Brazil Brazil Hindoostan . . . Australasia Senegambia .. . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Malaysia Greenland Malaysia Hindoostan . . . Brazil Brazil Caribbean Sea. Persia Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Hindoostan . . . Brazil Brazil Syria Turkey Liberia China Polynesia Candia Africa Africa Brit America . Asia Norway Russia Russia Polynesia Lower Canada. Jan Mayen Is.. Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit America . Cuba Spain Indian Ocean . . Indian Ocean . . Indian Ocean.. Arabia Greenland Hindoostan . . . Asiatic Russia. CONSULTING INDEX. 97 Naioei of Places, ftc Shaep Shahrood Shakra Shalaurovo Shallow Shallow Shamatawa . . . Shamba Shamo Shanagur Shanday Sh antral la Shang-hae Shang Pecan . . Shangra Shannon Shannon Shanse Shantebon Shantung Shantung Shark's Sharma Sharhas Sharra , Sharrock , Shary Shat-ul Arab.. Shavli Shawnee Shawnees Shawpore Shayuk Sheb Shefar Sheffield Sheibon Shelburne Shellif Shelvock's Shendy Shenkoursk . . . Shense Sherbro Sherbrook SherdofFs Sheri Subz Shershell Sherson's Shethawney . . , Shetland , Shi lei m Shienne Shiennes Shih-poo Shikarpore . . . Shikanga .... Shilkanokoi . . Shilluks Shinten Ship C. T. T. T. I. Pt R. R. Des. T. T. Tr, Cy Mts. Tr. R. I. Pr. T. Pr. C. , Bay T. . Tr. . Tr. . Mt . R. . R. , T. T. Tr. T. R. Sta. T. Bay T. C. R. I. T. T. Pr. I. T. I. T. , T. I. L. Is. . T. . R. . Tr. :?• . T. . T. . Tr. . T. . Ch. Japan Persia Arabia Asiatic Russia. Australasia . . • Seghalien Brit. America . Melinda Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Japan Abyssinia China Mantchooria . . Africa Ireland Northern Ocean China Siam China China New Holland.. Arabia Missouri Ter. . Mongolia Brit. America . Soudan Arabia Russia Illinois Missouri Ter. . Hindoostan . . . Little Thibet . . Africa Arabia Brit. America . Africa Nova Scotia .. . Algiers Mexico Nubia Russia China Senegambia .. . Nova Scotia. . . Polynesia Great Bucharia Algiers Polynesia Brit. America . Vd Pe Of Wb Xj Vc Fc Oi Sd Va Ve Og Ue Ud Nj Lc Ka Te Sg Te Ue Tk Pg Fd Sd Gc Ng Pf Nc Ge Fe Rf Re Of Of Hb Og Hd Me Ef Og Ob Te Lh Hd £ j Qe Me Xi Fc Scotland L c I* Fd Fd Uf Qf Nk Vc Og Tf Gf Arabia Missouri Ter. . Missouri Ter. , China Sinde Africa Asiatic Russia. Africa Tonquin Bahamas . . . . Nunes of Place*, be. Ship Shipako Shippegan Shiraz Shire Shirreff Shirvan Shoal Shoal Haven .... Shoal Water..., Shoban Shoomaee Shoshones , Shourlong , Shouya , Showy Shrewsbury .... Shumla Shun-te Shurali Shurukhs Shuster Siak Siak Sialutok Siam Siam Siam Siang-yang.... Siano Siao Siapia Siattoke Sibb Siberia Sibicia Sibilleta Sibungoo Sicasica Sichoui Sicily Sickly Sicuana Sidby Sidmouth Sidney Sidney , Sidney's Sidon Sidra Sienega , Sienna Sierra Aricua. . . Sierra Chappada Sierra de Acho . , Sierra de las Grullas Sierra de los Mim- bres Sierra Leone Sierra Mad re I. T. I. Cy. R. C. Pr. Bay R. L. Sta. R. Tr. T. T. T. T. Cy. Cy. T. T. Cy. Dis. T. I. Cty. T. G. ST T. I. R. I. T. Cty, T. T. Dis. T. T. fc R. Cy. T. C. T. I. Is. T. G. T. T. Mts Mts. Mts. Paitl a. Louisiana .... Africa N. Brunswick Ff Nj Hd Persia P f Africa South Shetland Asiatic Russia. New S. Wales . New S.Wales . Brit. America . Barca Birmah Oregon Ter. . . . Thibet Russia Soudan England Turkey China Asiatic Russia. Persia Persia Sumatra Sumatra Greenland .... Asia Siam Siam China Russia Malaysia .... Brazil Brit. America ■ Beloochistan . . Asia Barbary Mexico Borneo Bolivia , Corea Mediterran. Sea Oregon Ter. . South Peru . . . Russia New S. Wales New S.Wales Polynesia .... Polynesia .... Syria Mediterran. Sea New Grenada Tuscany .... Guinea Brazil , Mexico Mts. Mexico Mts. Col. Mts. Mexico Africa . . Mexico Oj Ho Pd Wk Wl He Ne Sf Ed Sf Oc Ng Lc Nd Te Pd Qe Pe Sh Sh Jb Sg Sg Sh Te Ob Uh Hh Gb Qf Tb Lf Ee T i gj Ud Me Ed Hj Nb Vj Wl Ai Ai Oe Ni Hg Md lh Jj Ee Ee Ee Lh Ef 98 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Placet, kc. Sierra Verde . Sierra Vulcan Sievsk Sifans ...... Sigluness . . . Sihon !R Si Kiang R Class. Mts, Mts, T. Tr. C. Sikirlik Sikki Sikkim Sikni Sikoke Silan Sileda Silhet Silimpdi Silipica . Silistria Silivria Silk Silova Silver Silver Kays Simari Simbirsk.. . .38. Simbirsk Simcoe Simirno Simla Simo Simpang Simpheropol Simpson Simpson Simpson's Simpson's Sinai Sinaloa Sinaloa Sincapore Sincapore Sincapore Sindal Sinde Sinde ......... Sinde Sines Si-ngan Sinhoa Sinia Siniaveiw Sinjar Sin-kae Sinkel Sinkess Sinnamari Sinope Siolka Sion Siout Sioux L. T. T. T. I. T. T. T. R. T. T. T. T. R. I. Sh. Vol. Pr. T. L. T. T. R. T. T. Ft. R. I. Is. Mt Cy. St. St. T. I. Ch. Cty R R. C. Cy. T. R. C. T. ?• I. T. Cy. Mt. T. Cy. Tr. Mexico Buenos Ayres . . Russia Mongolia Iceland ....... Tartary China Tartary Arabia Hindoostan . . . Guiana ....... Japan Mexico Sumatra Hindoostan . . . Mantchooria . . Buenos Ayres . Turkey Turkey Africa Russia Polynesia Bahamas Buenos Ayres . Russia Russia Upper Canada . Asiatic Russia. Hindoostan . . . Russia Sumatra Si Russia O d Brit. America . 'D b Brit. America . D c Polynesia 'Ah Polynesia X h Arabia Of Mexico [Ef Mexico E f Ed HI Oc Se Kb Qd Tf Qd Pf Rf Ih Ue G f Si Sf Uc Hk Nd Nd Lg Qb Xe Hf Hk Pc Pc Gd Wa R e Nb Sh Sh Sh Qh Sf Sinde Q f Asia Sincapore I. Asia Asia Asia Kaschgur Portugal China Cochin China.. Asiatic Russia . Seghalien Asiatic Turkey China jUe Sumatra S h Malaysia ... . -S i Guiana I h Asiatic Turkey O e Qe Lc Te Tg Qb Vd Oc Mongolia Switzerland . . . Egypt... Wisconsin Ter. Td Md Of Fd Names of Placet, &c Sioux Sipalay i Siparoonee .... Sir Sira Killa Sira Mouren . . . Sira Pouritou . . Sir Bibys Sire Sir Ed. Pellews Siret Sir G. Clerk's.. Class. R. T. R. R T. R. T. I. Cy. Gr. Bay I. Sir G. Cockburn's'Bay T. T. T. I. Cy. T. Bk. Is. Sirgoojah Sirguntchi .... Sirhind ....... Sir H. Martin's Sirohi Sisal Sisal Sisters Sisters II. Sitchevsk T. Sitka Is. Sitka I. Sitoe JC. Sitomlia jT. Siutei C. Siverna iR. Siwah 'Cy. Siwas Cy. Sizeboli T. Skagen |T. Skagen C. Skager Rack . . . 'Str. Skalholt T. Skara T. C. T. R. T. Bay Gr. Sh. R. T. T. T. T. I. Cy- R. Str. Cy. T. Hd. I. T. T. C. I. Skaw Skedatskoi . . . Skelleft Skeleftea Skeoch Skiddy's Skiddy's Skin Lodge . . Skioerstad . . . Skopin Skougsoe Skvira Sky Sla Slave Sleeve Sleswick Sligo Slinc Slipper Table. Slobodskoya .. Slonym Smoky Small Wisconsin Ter. Negros Guiana Tartary Cabul Mantchooria . . Mongolia Brit. America . Abyssinia Australasia .... Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Brit. America . Hindoostan . . . Mongolia Hindoostan . . . Polynesia Hindoostan . Mexico Mexico Arabian Sea, S. Pacific Oc Russia North America North America Spitsbergen . . . Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Barca Asiatic Turkey Turkey Denmark .... Iceland Denmark . Iceland Sweden Denmark .... Asiatic Russia Sweden Sweden Brit. America Polynesia .... Polynesia. . . . Missouri Ter. Norway Russia Russia Russia Scotland Morocco Brit. America Denmark ..... Denmark .... Ireland , Ireland Bay of Bengal . Russia Russia New S.Wales . N. Pacific Oc. . Fd Uh Ih Qd Qe Ud Sd Fb Og Vj Wb E b Fb Rf Se Re Ci Qf Gf Ff Pg Am Oc Cc Cc Ma Oc Vc Ub Nf Oe Nd Mc Kb Mc Kb Mc Mc Sc Nb Nb Gb Wh Vh Ed Mb Oc Nb Nd Lc Le Eb Mc Mc Lc Lc Sg Pc Nc Wi Af CONSULTING INDEX. 99 Nuna of PUem, *t Clan. Smaloc Smith Smith Smith's Smith's Smith's Smith's Smoelen Smoke ....... Smoky Hill.... Smolensk . . .26. Smolensk Smooth Rock .. . Smyrna Smyth Smyth's Snake Snake » Snapper Snares Sneeuw Bergen . Snelling Snettisham Snow Snowy Snowy SnugCornerCove Soak Sobair .... Sobboo . . . Society . . . Society . . . Sockatoo . . Sockna . . . Socorro .... Socorro .... Socotra . . . Socovalo . . Sodankyla Soderfors . Soderhamn. Sodiya Soevig So r ala .... Sofala .... Sofala .... Sofde Sofin Sofostutc . . Sohagepore Sohar Sohcrab. . . Sohnpore . Soijam .... Soimovnov Soin Soke Assa Solander's . Solar Soldin Soleim .... II. C. Ft Bay So. Is. I. I. C. Vk. Pr. Cy. R. Cy. C. I. Tr. R. I. Is. Mt. Ft. It I. Mts Mts, T. Dis. Sta. Is. Is. Cy. Cy. T. I. I. T. T. T. T. T. T. Cty. R Bay T. Dis. T. T. T. T. T. T. C. Asiatic Russia Brit America Missouri Ter. Brit America Brit. America Southern Ocean Scoresby's Ld. Norway Africa. ...... Missouri Ter.. Russia Russia Brit. America Asiatic Turkey North America Polynesia Oregon Ter. . . Oregon Ter.. . . New S. Wales . Brit. America . Africa Wisconsin Ter. North America South Shetland Oregon Ter. . . New Zealand . . North America Persia Barbary Bergoo Brit America . Polynesia Soudan Tripoli New Grenada.. N. Pacific Oc. . Arabian Sea. . . Bcnguela Russia Sweden Sweden Hindoostan . . . Norway Africa Mozambique . . Mozambique . . Norway Celebes Africa Hindoostan . . . Arabia Beloochistan . . Hindoostan . . . Mantchooria . . Seghalien . , Polynesia. Suse Australasia Malaysia . , Prussia Norway . . . U a Gb Fe Db Ga Ho Ka Mb Ok Fe Oc Oc He Ne Ba Xg Ed Ed ^ j Fa Nl Fd Dc Hd Ee X in Cb Pe Le Ng Fb Bj Mg Nf Hh Eff Pg Mj Nb Nb Nb Sf M b Oj Ok Ok Mb Ui Me Rf Pf Qf Rf Vd Vd Vh Lf Xm Ui Nc Mb Nua of FUca, fee. Solenoe Sol Galitskaya . . Solianoi Soliharnsk Solitary Solo Karta Solombo Solomon's Solomon's Solomon's Solovelskoi Solsogan ....... Solt.. Sol Vitchegodsk Solway Somanlies Somberete Sombokbut Sombrero Somer Sompil Sondre Grande. . Sondrevalle Songari Songari Oula . . . Songa Songa . . . Songora Sonho Sonmeanee Sonmeanee Sonora Sonora Sonsonate Soohoy Sooka Congo . . . Soolimana Sooloo Sooloo Soongaria Soor Soosoo Sophia Sophia Soposbna Soposhna Sorat Sorata Soratchie Sorell Sorelle Soroe Soroto Sorotoanga Sorsele Sosimola Sosnovetz Sosnovskoc Sosva Sot hi 11 Soto de la Marina Sou Tartary Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Polynesia LJava Malaysia Indian Ocean.. Arc Australasia Fk. 'Missouri Ter... Russia ....... Luzon Austria Russia Scotland Is. T. T. T. Fth. Peo. Africa T. T, I. Is. T. I. T. R. R. I. IT. T. |T. Bay St. T. T. T. T. Cty. Arc. I. Cty T. T. Cy. T. T. R. C. Mt T. C. R. Mexico!- Cambodia West Indies. . . Atlantic Ocean Thibet Polynesia Norway Mantchooria . . Mantchooria . . Indian Ocean . . Malaya. ...... Congo Beloochistan . . Beloochistan . . . Mexico Mexico Guatemala Asiatic Russia. Congo Africa Malaysia Malaysia Asia Arabia Sumatra Turkey Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Tunis Bolivia Asiatic Russia. V. Diemen's Ld. Lower Canada . Norway Mongolia Mongolia Sweden Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Mexico Persia Re Oc Tc Pc Aj Ti Ti Qi Wi Fe Ob Ug Nd Pb Lc Oh Ff Sg Hg He Sf Cj Mb Ud Ud Oi Sh Ml Qf Qf Ef Ef Gg Xb Mi Lh Uh Uh Rd Pf Sh Nd Oc Wc Wc Me Hj Tc Vm Hd Ni Sd Sd Nb Nb Ob Re Qb Ud Ff Pe 100 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, fee Souadou Atollon Soubotina Souc Souchoff Souchoy JC. Sou-chow Cy. Cy- T. Cty T. T. T. Cy T. L. Cy. Souloudenaia . , Soumostrov Soumv .... Soumy .... Soupou .... Sour Sourabaya . . Soure Sourman. . . South Souchow Souchukale. . . . Soudan ....... Soudeiskoe .... Soudogda , Souichout Soui-chow Soukhoroukovsko Soukouc Soukoum-kale . . Soulima IT. Soulmene 'Bay T. T. T. L. L. T. T. T. Cy. Bay C. Is. I. I. I. I. Fk. C. Is. Is. R. R. Ho. C. St Bay Ld. Pt. Po. Mts. Cty. I. South South South South South South South Southampton . . . Southampton . . . South Arran. .. . South Branch . . . South Branch . . . South Branch . . . South Cape South Carolina . . South East South East South East Southern Southern Alps . . Southern Australia Southern Georgia Southern Thule . South Greenland South Hook .... South Hook .... South Hook .... South Natunas. . South Orkney . . South Peru South Poyas .... South River .... South's Cty. C. C. C. I. Is. Rep Tr. Ho. Bay Asia . .• Asiatic Russia. Thibet Nova Zembla . . Nova Zembla. . China China Asiatic Russia. Africa Asiatic Russia. Russia Mongolia China Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Liberia Nova Zembla . . Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Syria Java Brazil Thibet Greenland .... Spitsbergen . . . Falkland Is.. .. Polynesia Polynesia Polynesia Australasia . . . Missouri Ter. . Brit. America . Brit. America . Ireland Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . New Caledonia United States . . Greenland .... Spitsbergen . . . Japan New Zealand. . New Zealand. . Australasia • . . Southern Ocean Sandwich Ld. . Antarctic Oc. . Jan Mayen I... Spitsbergen . . . Spitsbergen . . . Malaysia Southern Ocean South America Patagonia Brit. America . Brit. America . Qh Qb Se Pb Pa Te Ue Od Mg Ra Oc Sd Tf Qb Sd Od Lh Pa Tc Ob Oc R c Sd Oe Ti Ji Se lb Ma In Vf Vf Ve £ j Fe Gb Gb Lc Dc Ec E c Xk Ge lb Na Vd X m X m VI Jn Kn lb La Ma Na Th Io Hj Hm Gc Eb Names of Places, fee. South Shetland.. South SouthWest South Way gat .. South West South West Souworoff Souzel Sovel Soverek Sowallick Soyoti Spafariefs Spain Spanberg Spandau Spanish Spanish Spartan Spartivento Spask Spask ......... Speaker's Speedwell Speight's Spencer Spencer Spencer's Spencer's Spice Spirido Nova . . . Spiti Spitsbergen .... Spitsbergen (West) Split Split Spokain Spokain Springfield Springfield Spry Squally Squillace Sredny Kolymsk Sredny Novgorod T, Sredny Villuisk . |Cy. Sredny Yanskoi . Ssida Staalbierg Stadt-land Staetans Stag Stair Stall Staminberg . . . Stanis Stannovoy Stanova Stapylton Star Staraya Russa . . Starbuck'a Is. Kay Str. C. Pt. Is. T. I. T. Mts. Tr. Bay Cty. I. T. T. Pks. I. C. T. T. Bk. C. T. C. c. Bay G. Is. T. Dis. I. Dis. C. Ft R. Ho. T. T. C. I. T. T. Cy, T. C. C. Tr. Bk. C. I. C. T. Mts. T. Bay Bk. T. Gr. Southern Ocean Caribbean Sea . Spitsbergen . . . V. Diemen's Ld. Lower Canada. Polynesia Brazil GulfofTonquin Asiatic Turkey Brit. America Asiatic Russia North America Europe Japan Prussia Jamaica Mexico Polynesia. . . . Naples Russia Asiatic Russia Indian Ocean . Nova Zembla. Barbadoes . . . North America Brit. America . Africa New S. Wales . Malaysia Asiatic Russia. Little Thibet . . Arctic Ocean. Spitsbergen . . Oregon Ter. . . Brit. America . Oregon Ter. . Oregon Ter. . . Illinois Missouri Nova Scotia . . Australasia .... Naples Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Japan Iceland Norway Missouri Ter... Indian Ocean.. Brit. America . Sweden Russia Austria Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Indian Ocean . Russia Polynesia Io Gg Na Vm Hd Bj Ii Tg Oe Ha Sc Bb Ld Vd M c Gg En Wh Ne Oc Pc Qi Pa is Cc Fa Mk VI Ui Ra Re Na M Dd Fc Ed Ed Ge Fe Hd Wj Ne Wb Oc Ub Vb Ve Kb Mb Fd Pi Ha Nb Oa Nd Wb Qc Eb Ok Oc Bi CONSULTING INDEX. 101 Names of Place*, fcc Starbuck's Stargard Staritza Starochantalskoe Starotzouroukai- louevkoi Staroy Start Staten Staten Staten States of the Church Stats Foreland .. Staunton Stavanger Stavropole Stavropole Stavura Steel Steep Stellenbosch .... Stcnsele Stephens Stephens Stephens ....... Stephens Stephens Stephenson Stettin Steubenville .... Stevenson Stewart Stewart Steyer Stinking Water. Stockholm Stockton Stolbovoy Stolpe Stons Stone Wall Stony Stor Stora Stora Stordal Storko Storm Strait of Dover . Strait of Gibraltar Stralsund Strasburg Streaky * . . Strekatda Strelitz Strogonov Strom Strome Strommen Strong's I. T. T. T. T. T. Pt I. I. Ilk. C. I. T. T. T. T. I. C. T. L. C. C. I. I. Pa T. Cy. T. C. Is. I. T. R. Cy. T. I. T. R. Cr. Des. L. T. • L. T. I. Bay T. Cy. Bay R. T. Bay T. I. T. Polynesia Prussia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Livingston Patagonia Kurile Islands. Greenland Italy Spitsbergen . . . China Norway Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Norway Eastern Sea. . . New Holland . . Cape Colony . . Sweden New Zealand . . North America Oregon Ter. .. , Australasia . . . , Falkland Is..., Illinois Prussia Ohio Scoresby's Ld. , Australasia .... Australasia... . Austria Missouri Ter. . Sweden Liberia Asiatic Russia. Prussia Brit. America . Missouri Africa Sweden Algiers Sweden Norway Russia V. Diemen's Ld England Prussia France New Holland . . Asiatic Russia. Mecklenburg .. Japan Sweden Faroe Islands . Norway Polynesia Bi Nc Oc Sb Td Oc Ho Hm Vd Jc Md Na Ue Mc Od Pc M b Uf Tk Nl Nb X m Bb Dc Vi Hn Fd Mc Gd Ka Wi Vi Md Ed Nc Lh Va Nc Ec Ed Mf M b Me Nb Mb Nb Vm Mc Le Mc Md Ul Ub Mo Vd Nb Lb M b Wh Name* of Places, &c. Stuart Stuart Stuart's Stukka Sturgeon Sturgeon Stuttgard Suabo Grande . Suadiva Atollon Suakem Subzawar Succadena .... Success Suchitepic . . . Suchtelen Suckling Sucuru Suderoe Suenhoa Suez SufFren Sufkowallick . . Sugaree Sugar Loaf.. . . Sugar Loaf. . . . Suick Suifong Suigutoi Suipacha Sukkertop Sukkot Sulen Sulimania Sullapilla Sulphur Sulphur Sultania Sultin Sultus Sumasinta .... Sumatra Sumbatikila . . . Sumbava Sumbava Sumbhulpore . . Sumschu Sunavan Sunda Sunday Sunday Sundsio Sundswald .... Sunflower Suomussalmi . . Superior , Surat Suriago , Suriago , Surinam Surinam Surinam R. L. I. T. L. L. Cy. R. I. Cy. T. T. Bk. T. Bay C. R. I. Cy. T. Bay C. T. I. Pt. T. R. T. T. Sta. T. I. T. T. I. I. T. Pt. Des. R. I. T. T. I. T. I. T. Str Is. I. T. T. R. T. L Or- T. Is. < lol T. II. Oregon Ter. . . Brit. America . North America Suse Brit. America . Brit America . Wirtemburg . . Africa Asia \. . . Nubia Cabul Borneo Indian Ocean . Guatemala .... Japan North America Brazil Faroe Islands . China Egypt........ Mantchooria . . Brit America . Liberia Australasia .... St Helena .... Arabia Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Bolivia Greenland .... Nubia Norway Asiatic Turkey Hindoostan Polynesia .. Eastern Sea Persia Africa Little Bucharia Mexico , Malaysia .... Africa , Sumbava .... Malaysia Hindoostan . . , Kurile Islands. Persia Malaysia Malaysia Polynesia ..... Sweden Sweden Mississippi. . . , Russia North America Hindoostan . ■ . Mindanao .... Malaysia Guiana Guiana Guiana • Dc Dc Bb Lf Fd Fd Md Oj Qh Oj Qe Ti P i Fg Vd Cb Ik Lb Td Oe Vd Ha Lh XI LJ Pf Ud Qb Hk lb Of Mb Oc Rg Vf U f Pe Nf Rd F& Si Lh Ti Ti Rf Wc Pe Ti Si Alt Nb Nb Fe Nb Gd Qf Uh Ug lh lh lh 9» 102 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, &c, Swampy .1 jPt Swampy Lake . j Swan Swan Swan River . . . Swan River . . . Swan's Swearah , Sweden Sweden Swedes Sweini Swift's , Switzerland . . Syang Sydney Sylt Sylte Vig Sylves Syracuse Syria Syrian Szecnuen .... Szegedin Szeredna Szisakit Tabalak . . . Tabarca . . . I Tabasco . . . I Tabasco . . . ' Tabacour . . Tabatinga . . Table Table Table Table Table Taboo Tabootaboo . Tabou Tabra Ho. I. Ha Dis. Col. I. Cy. Km. Div. Is. T. Bk. Rep I. T. I. C. T. Cy. Cty. T. Pr. T. R. R. T. T. St. T. R. T. Bay Bay C. I. Mt T. I. I't. T. Position. Azanaga Tunis Africa Senegambia . . . Brit. America . Brit. America . New S. Wales . Hindoostan . . . Brit. America . Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia, Russia Asiatic Russia Russia , Faroe Islands. S. Pacific Oc. , Caspian Sea. . Buenos Ayres . Brit. America Falkland Is... Brit. America Brit. America New Holland. Caribbean Sea Morocco Europe .... Sweden Polynesia. . . . Darfur Indian Ocean . Europe Polynesia .... Cape Breton I. Denmark .... Norway Brazil Sicily Asia Birmah China Austria Asiatic Russia Mongolia Asiatic Russia . Tunis Mexico Mexico. Mantchooria . . Equador Labrador Cape Colony . . New Zealand. . Polynesia Mantchooria . . Africa Polynesia Guinea Soudan Lf Me Lf Lh Hb Eb Wi Qe Gc Nc Pc Pb Va Ob Ub Ob Lb Fn Pd HI Fc Hn Fc Fc Tl Gg Le Nb Mb Vh Ng Qi Md Uh Hd Mc Oa Ii Ne Oe Sg Te Nd Ub Sc Vb Me Fg Fg Ud Hi Ic NI XI Aj Vd Mg Aj Lh Mh Nimes of Places, So Clas-i. Tabreez Tabua Tabuaemanu . . . Tabuai Tabucana. . Tacai Tacanova Tacazze Tacoutche Tesse Tadmor Tadsong Tafel Berg Tafilelt Tafilelt Tagai Tagangrog Tagan Tala .... Tagloe Tagoulla Tagua Tagua Taguira Tagura Tagus Tahaa Tahiti Tahoora Tahuata Taiba Tai-chow Taigonos Taimour Taimoura Taimourskaya .. Taimourskoi . . . Tainotskoi Taipein Tai-ping Taiping Taissughan Taitong Tait-sing Taiwan Tai-yucn Tajay Taka Taka Takang Besseys Takhma Taki Tak-mao Takokaguin. . . . Takoo Takoo Taksul Takum Tala Talabo Talarho Kara . . Talavera Talbot Cy. T. I. I. T. T. I. R. R. Rns T. Mt. T. R. II. Cy. Ste. Bay I. Cty. Cy. T. Tr. R. I. I. I. I. T. Cy. Prm R Bay L. C. Cy Cy R. by. jCy. Cy. Cy. TV |Dis. IT. I. R. T. T. T. Cy. T. T. T. R. C. T. T. C. Persia Brazil Polynesia . . . Polynesia. . . Guatemala .. Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Nubia Oregon Ter. . . Syria Thibet Spitsbergen . . . Barbary Barbary Polynesia Russia Mongolia Mindanao North America Africa Africa Tripoli Mantchooria . . Spain Polynesia Polynesia Sandwich Is.. . Polynesia Syria China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . China China China Tartary China China Formosa China Russia Nubia Japan Malaysia ... . Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Cambodia Asiatic Russia. China Caffraria Algiers Russia Tartary Celebes Mongolia Spain New Holland . . Pe Jj Bj Ck Gg Tb Xj Og Dc Oe Se Na Le Le Xg Od Sd Uh Ac Ng Ng Me iUc Le Bj C k Bf Ci Oe Te Wc Sa Sa Sa S a Wb Uf jTe Tf Pd Sd Se Uf Te Pc Og U e Ui Vb Sd Th Ab Te Ol Me Nc Qd Ui Sd Le Uj CONSULTING INDEX. 103 Nanus of Places, *c. Talca |T. TaJcahuana ... Talcotin Talcotins Tali Talig Talighan Tallahassee . . . Talovka Talsam's Tama Tamalma Tamarida Tamatave Tamaulipas . ., Tamaulipas . . . Tambelan Tambez Tambobamba. . Tambookies . . . Tamboo ... .36 Tambov Tamcosa Tamhou Tamiagua Tampa Tampico T' Tamuchy R. L f. T. Cy. R. I. T. T. T. St. T. Is. T. r r. Tr. I'r. <:y- T. EL L Tana Tana Tana Tana... Tananarivou . • . Tanao-sima .... Tanasserim .... Tandag Tandal Tandeh Tanoga-sima . . . Tanga Tangalle Tangia Tangier Tangrera Tanjong Dato . . Tanjong Sambar Tanjore Tankerfong .... Tankisso Tanna Tannas Tansey Tantalem Tantamane Taos Taotchuen Taoui Taouinska Taouinskoi Tapajos Tapujos Chili HI Bay Chili HI Vil. Oregon Ter. . . D c Tr. Oregon Ter.... Dc Cy. China Sf Africa Lf Tartary Q e Florida G e Asiatic Russia . W b Polynesia . . . . X h Thibet ;S e Africa |N f Socotra P g Madagascar .. . P j Mexico F f Mexico F f Malaysia T h ;Peru G i South Peru . . . H j Caffraria N 1 Russia O c Russia jO c Little Bucharia R d Mantchooria . . U d Mexico Bay Florida Mexico Bolivia Norway ! N a North America A c Russia |N b Asiatic Russia. IV c Madagascar. . Eastern Sea .. Siam Mindanao.. . . Buenos Ayres Hindoostan . . Japan Zanguebar . . . Ceylon Arabia 10 f Morocco !L o Africa L h Borneo T h Celebes T i R. R. Cy. T. T. R. T. I. T. T. T. T. Cy. c. c. T. T. R. I. T. R. I. T. T. T. R. Bay T. R. Tr. Ff Gf Ff Hj Uf Sg Uh II Rf Ue Oi Rh Names of Places, &c. Hindoostan . . . Thibet Africa Australasia . . . Sweden Missouri Ter... Malaya Madagascar . . . Mexico Corea Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Brazil South America Sf Lg Xj Mb Ed Sh Pj Ee Ue Wb Wc Wb Ii Ii Tapi Tapicatay Tapisa Tappanooly . . . Taptee Taquari Taquari ...... Tara Tara Taracapa Taramandi Taranto Taranto Tarapol Taras Tarbe Tarchinskoi .... Tarei Tarei Taremdsong .... Tarifo Tarija Taritzin Tarku Tarma Tama Tarnopol Tarnow Tarnowitz Taroucyomdsou . Tarquin Tarragona Tarsus Tartary Tartary Tasenpol Tashkent Tasmania Tassisudon Taswell Taswell's Tatee Tate's Tatong Tatta Tattah Tauag Tauakeke Taudeny Taunu Taura Taura Taurida 51. Taurus Tavai Poenamoo Tavastehus Tavda Tavdinsk Tavolara Tavoy Tavoy • Corea U d T. R. R. T. R. R. R. T. R. T. L. T. G. Ir. T. |T. T. L. R. T. jT. IT. |T. T. T. T. |T. T. T. L. I. T. !t. Cty. G. T. T. I. Cy. Is. I. I. I. R. T. T. I. I. T. T. R. I. Pr. Mts. I. T. R. T. I. I. T. Brazil . . . Peru Sumatra Hindoostan . . . Brazil Brazil Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. South Peru. . . . Brazil Naples Naples Asiatic Russia. Tartary France Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Mongolia Hindoostan . . . Cochin China . Bolivia Russia Asiatic Russia. Peru Sweden Russia Austria Prussia Thibet Polynesia Spain Asiatic Turkey Asia Mantchooria Russia Tartary .... Australasia . . Bootan Polynesia .. . Polynesia . . . Polynesia . . . Australasia ■ Corea Suse Sinde North America Celebes Africa Birmah Asiatic Russia. Sandwich Is. . . Russia Asiatic Turkey New Zealand. . Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Sardinia Birmah Birmah I Hi Sh Qf ij Ik Qc Qc Hk Ik Nd Ne Wb Qd Md Tc Td Td Sf Tg Hk Od P d Gj Nb Nd Nc Nc Re Wg Md Oe Qd Vd Nc Qd Vm Rf Xi Xi Uh Vi Ue Lf Qf Ac Ti L f Sg Sc Bf Od Oe Xm Nb Qc Qc Md 1* Sg 104 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Pisces, &c Class. Tawally Tawee Tawee . Tay Tayf Taz Tazovskaya Tazovskaya . . . Tazovskoo Tchacosa Tchad , Tchadobska Tchadobets Tchagan , Tchagma Tchaliaia Tchahan Poulac Tchahassan Tchaiteng Tchalei Tcharanayomdou . Tchang-cha . . . . Tchang-chow.. . Tchangchow . . . Tchang-te Tchang-te Tchankour Tchantai Tchany Tchao-chow Tchao-king Tchaon Tchaounskaia . . Tchapogirska . . . Tchaptou Tchara Tcharin Nor . . . Tchelyabinsk . . . Tchemachevsko . Tchempol Tcherdyne Tcheremchovkoi Tcheremi Tcherepovetz . . . Tcherkask Tcherikov Tcherikovs Tchernaia Tchernigov . . 44 . Tchernigov Tchernoi Tchernoretskoi .. Tchernoyarsk . . Tchertaila Tcheskaya Tchetucu Tchija Tchin-chow .... Tching-chow . . . Tchinghench .. . Tching-hiang . . . Tching-kiang.. . I. Is. EL T. EL T. G. T. T. h. T. II. T. C. Pt L T. R. T. L. Cy- Cy. T. Cy. Cy. T. Is. L. Cy. Cy. R. Bay T. L. R. L. T. T. R. T. T. R. T. T. T. I. R. Pr. T. T. T. T. T. G. T. T. Cy. Cy. T. Cy, Position. Malaysia Malaysia Scotland Arabia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Soudan Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Mongolia Mantchooria . . Mongolia Mantchooria . . Thibet China China Corea China China Thibet Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. China China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Thibet Asiatic Russia . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia North America Asiatic Russia. Russia ■ Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Mantchooria . . Thibet China China Tartary China China Ul Th Lc Of Rb Rb Rb Rb Se Ng Sb Sc Td Wc Vc Td Dd Se Ud Se Tf Tf Ud Tf Te Se Vc Re Tf T f Xb Xb Tb Td Tc Se Qc Qb Uc Pb Re Ub Oc Od Oc Be Tc Oc Oc Re Re Pd Pc Pb Ud Se Te Tf Qd Sf Te Names of Places, &c Tching-ting .... Tching-ton Tchinnan Tchinsk Tchinskaya .... Tchinypou Tchiraki Tchiriki Tchirindeskoi . . Tchirkin Tchistopobyie . . . Tchitta Tchi-ynen Tchoang TchollHotun... Tchona Tchongking .... Tchontori Tchori Tchornaja Tchosan Tchougatchi .... Tchougatchi.. . . Tchougoulkhak. Tchouktoma . . . Tchoulgue Tchoulgue Tchoulkova .... Tchouna Tchourinskoi .. . Tchouskoi Tchudskoe Tchuisova 'R. Tchuktchi ;Pr. Tchuktchi C. Tchuktchi C. Tchusa R. Tci-chow Cy. Tci-nan |Cy. T. I. T. T. T. T. Cy. I. a T. T. T. Cy. R. T. Cy. Dis. T. Cy. Cy. Cy. T. C. Cy. T. R. T. T. T. T. Cy- Cy. T. R. Cy. T. R. R. T. Pen Tr. T. T. T. T. T. R. T. T. L. Tcitchouam Teapy .... Tebes . . . Tebur .... Tecolatlan Tedeles... Teen-tsin . Teenfung . Teerawitte Teetenguy Teez Tefelneh.. Tefflis.... Tefle Tegazza . . Tegerhy .. Tegorarin . Tegorarin . Tegulet IT. Tehama !Dis Teheran Cy. Tehuantepec . . . |T. China China China Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. China Mongolia Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Abyssinia Russia Asiatic Russia . China China Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. China Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Corea North America North America Soongaria.-.. . Russia Mantchooria . . Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. China China Mongolia Polynesia Algiers Arabia Mexico Algiers ........ China Hainan New Zealand . . Mantchooria . . Beloochistan . . Morocco Asiatic Russia. Brazil Africa Fezzan Barbary Barbary Abyssinia Arabia Persia Mexico Te Se Tf Wc Wc Se Td Uc Tb Og Pc Tc Tf Se Ud Tb Tf Sd R c Xb Ue Cc Bb Rd Oc Ud Ud Sb Sc Ub Tc Nc Pc Xb Wa Ab Uc Te Te Sd Ek Me Of Ff Me Te Tg Xm Ud Qf Le Pd Hi Lf Nf Me Me Oh Og Pa Fg CONSULTING INDEX. 105 Name* of Placet, fcc Tuhuantepec... T ehucl Tehy.. Teimoli Tein-chow Ttjiui Tejuas Tejuco Tekis Tekrit Telak Telav Telebinskoi . . . Teleouts Telliaguess Tellicherry Tellin Telmin Telmsoe Telsh ....... Tembe Tembe Tembo Temdcgue . . . Temenak .... Temcnos Tamesvar .... Temctam ... Temiscaming. Terniscaming . Tempest Tenaeai Tench's Tendcaui Tenember. . . . Teneriffe Tcneriife Bay L. r. T. Cy. T. Tr. Cy. R. T. I. T. T. Tr. T. T. T. T. I. T. Cty. R. it. T. I. T, T. I. L Ho Bay T. I. T. I. T. I. Mexico Patagonia . . . Tripoli Naples China Mantchooria Mexico Brazil Soongaria. Fg Hm Me Nd Tf Ud Fe Jj Rd Namea of Placet, kc Asiatic Turkey |0 e Wb Pd Tc Re Mf Rg Nc Vc Na Nc Ok Ok Oj Ud I b Ne Nd Wh Gd Gd Id Tenery R. Tenez Tenis Tenkourguin . Tennessee.. . . Tennessee.. . . Tens'ft Tepaslo Tepic Tepoli Teramo IT. Terange |l. Terboo ,T. I. R. T. T. I. U. L. Terceira Tercero . Tereboli Teree . . Terefsa. Terek . . Terkiri , Termez T. Terminos ...... L. Ternay Bay Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Africa Hindoostan . . . Russia Mantchooria . . Norway Russia Africa Tembe Mozambique . . Mantchooria . . Greenland .... Candia Austria Polynesia Lower Canada. Lower Canada. Newfoundland . Mongolia jS d Australasia.. . . Wi Africa |N h Australasia.. . »|U i New Grenada .. ]H h Canary Isles . . |K f Paraguay Ik Algiers Me Tartary Q c Asiatic Russia. A b United States . . |G e United States. . G e Morocco L e Russia N b Mexico Ff Ik Md Vi Nf Kc HI Paraguay Italy........ Australasia . . Fezzan Azores Buenos Ayres Asiatic Turkey O d Cabul ;Q c Bay of Bengal . !S h Asiatic Russia. P d Thibet So Great BuchariaQ e Mexico F g Mantchooria . . ;V d Terncnia jBay Seghalien I V d Terodant . . Terracina Terre Haute .... Terres des Arsa- cides Tersekan Tersi Terwola Teschen Teshoo Loomboo Teshoo Loomboo Tessermint Tessowa Tet Tete Tete Tetuan Tetuaroa Teulada Tevego Texada Texas Texeiros Texel Texupa Teyoa Tey ven Tezcuco ...... Tezoiras Thames Tharatougha . . . Thasos Thectinah Theiss Theopolis Theresienstadt- . Theveholekved. . Theyeholekyek . Thian-chan ThianChan .... Thibet Thiers Thieweyarayeth Thineh , Third , Third Volcano . Thirteen low . . Thistle Tholiosary Thorn Thomas's Kay . Thompson .... Thompson .... Thompson's . . . Thorn Thousand Thousand Thousand (the) Three Brothers' Three Kings . . Three Paps . . . Cy- T. T. I. R. R. T. T. Pr. Cy. C. T. T. T. E a (T. I. C. T. Pt. Cty. Vig I. It.. ji. T.. jT. T. R. |T. I R. |T. .T. L. |L. iMt IMts. -Cty. T. |L. ,T. , I. .il. , Is. .11. . T. .|I. .|I. .Ft. . Har .R. ■T. .lis. .iL. .Is. I. I. Mt Morocco. Italy Indiana . Le Md Ge Australasia Tartary . . , Tartary . . Russia . . . Austria Thibet Thibet Greenland .... Fezzan Morocco Benguela Mozambique . . Morocco Polynesia Sardinia Paraguay Bueno» Ayres . North America Atlantic Ocean Holland Mexico Polynesia Corea Mexico Brazil England Asiatic Russia. Archipelago. . . Brit. America . Austria i Cape Colony . Austria Brit. America Brit. America Soongaria .... Mongolia .... Asia France Brit. America %ypt Madagascar . . Polynesia .... Polynesia .... New S. Wales Russia Greenland . . . Caribbean Sea Oregon Ter. . Brit. America Oregon Ter. . . Prussia Malaysia .... Brit America Spitsbergen . . Indian Ocean.. jQ i Australasia .... X 1 Oregon Ter |D d Wi Qc Qd Nb Nb Re Rf lb Nf Le Nj Oj Le Cj Me Ik HI Fe Jg Mc W^i Ue it M c Tb Nd Eb Nd Nl Nd Fb Fb Rd Rd Se Md Eb Oe Ok Vf Vh Vi Pc la Gg Dc Gb Dc Nc Ti Fd Na O 106 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, ke. Ashantee Lower Canada. Australasia . . • Polynesia Three Points . . . C. Three Rivers . . . T. Three Sisters ... Is. Thrum Cap .... I. Thsoung-ling . . . Mts, Mongolia Thurso T. Tiacka I. Tiaoyu-su Is. Tiara Mts.'Seghalien Tibboo Bergoo. . Tr. (Africa Scotland . Polynesia. . . Eastern Sea. Tibboo Rschade. Tibboos . . . Tibboos . . . Tiber Tibesty... Tiburon . . Tickeley . . Ticunas . . Tider .... Tider's . . . Tidon .... Tidsi Tiepenna . Tieret Tierra del Fuego Tiete Tiev Tiger Tiger Tiger's Tiger's Tiggerinduma . . Tigidfa Tigil Tigil Tigre Tigre Tigris Tikhvin Tilapa Tilear Tilla dou Madon Tilla dou Matis . Tillanchong .... Tillen Tilsit Tim Tim Tima Timballier Timbo Timbuctoo Time Timoka Timou Timor Timorlaoet Timpanagos .... Tinareh Tinching Tindel Africa Africa Senegambia .. . Italy Cty. Africa Mexico Hindoostan . . . Equador Africa 'Brit. America . jCelebes Morocco Russia Tripoli South America Brazil Russia . . Australasia .... Malaysia China Sea .... Eastern Sea. . . Africa Fezzan Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Abyssinia Equador Asiatic Turkey Russia Mexico Madagascar .. Maldives .... Maldives .... Bay of Bengal Hd. (Ireland T. T. R. T. Bay T. Cy. T. T. T. I. I. L. T. Cy. Bay Prussia , Russia Asiatic Russia. Arabia i Louisiana Senegambia t . , Africa Africa Florida Thibet Malaysia Australasia... . Mexico Nubia China Africa Lh Hd Wj Cj Re Lc Cj Uf Vc Ng Ng Nf Lh Md Nf Ef Rg Hi Kg Gc Uh Le Ob Me Hn Ik O c Vi Ui Tg Tf Mf Mf Wc Wc Og Hi Oe Oc Fg Ok Qh Qh Sh Lc Nc Oc Rb Of Ff Lg Lg Lh Gf Sf Ui Uj Fd Of Tc K s Names of Places, &c. Ting-hae Tinhosa Tinian Tinney Tintuma Tiouk Karssou.. Tiouk Karagan . Tiraspol Tireymeg Tiriberskoi Tiroon Tirree Titicaca Titmeg Titoe Tiumene . . Tivoli Tjak Tlemsen Tlinpieskaya . . . Tobago Tobin Tobol Tobolsk Tobolsk Tobolsk Tobuco Tocia Tocuyo Todos los Santos Todos Santos .. . Todos Santos .. . Tokat Tokay Toker Toktoi Tolaga Toledo Toledo Tolo Tolten Tolu Tolu Toluco Tom Tomb Tomchina Tomie Tominee Tomo Tom's Tomsk Tomsk Tonala Tonamaca Tonca Tondano Tonder Tondon . Tonga . Tono-a . Cy. I. I. Pt. Des. G. C. T. L. C. Dis. I. L. L. Bay T. T. L. T. T. Is. C. R. Gov Pr. Cy. T. T. T. I. Bay Sta. T. T. Pt. R. Bay Cy. T. China ........ Haitian ...... Polynesia .... Brit. America Africa Tartary Tartary Russia Brit. America Russia Borneo Scotland Bolivia Brit. America Patagonia Tf Tg Vg Eb Mg P d Pd Nd Eb Ob Th Lc Hj Fb Hm Asiatic Russia. Q c Italy M d Sweden N b Algiers L e Asiatic Russia. S b West Indies . . . H g Scoresby's Ld.. K a Asiatic Russia. Q c Asiatic Russia. IR c Asiatic Russia. Q c Asiatic Russia . Q c Mexico Ff Asiatic Turkey O d Venezuela .... II g Polynesia ..... V e Mexico E e Mexico Ef Asiatic Turkey O e Austria N d Brit. America . D b Asiatic Russia. W b New Zealand.. XI Spain L e Ohio G d Bay Celebes U i R. .Chili HI jT. JNew Grenada . G h T. New Grenada . G h T. Mexico F g R. Asiatic Russia. R c I. Persian Gulf . . P f T. Asiatic Russia. T c T. Suse, Lf Bay Celebes U i T. Venezuela .... H h I. Brit. America . G b ;Pr. Asiatic Russia. S a T. Asiatic Russia. R c T. Mexico Fg T. Mexico Fg T. Asiatic Russia . S c T. Celebes U h T. Denmark Mc Cy. Mantchooria . . V d I. Polynesia A k Is. Polynesia A k CONSULTING INDEX. 107 i of PUcet, fce. Cla» Tongalia T. Tongataboo .... I. Tong-chow toy Tongoi . . . Tong-shan Tong-ting Hou.. Tonkien Tonquin Tonquin Tonsberg ..... . Tonyn Tonyn Tooar Toofoa Toola 34. Toola Tooraalooa Toomanooan . . . Toorsheez Toosi Tootawney Tootonez Top Topham Topinambas .. . Topolevia Toquedos Tor Toraito Torapa Torda Torfane Torgi Bazar .... Torna Tornea Tornea Tornea Tornea (Upper) . Toro Torom R. Toromanas Tr, Toromlar iL. T I. L. T. Cty G. T. T. C. Sta. I. Pr. T. I. I. T. T. L. R. L. C. Tr. T. Tr. T. T. T. Soudan < Polynesia China Mongolia China China , Hainan Asia China Sea Norway Wales Seghalien Tibesty Polynesia. Russia ' Russia Polynesia Polynesia Persia Japan Brit. America . Mexico Russia Scoresby's Ld. South America Asiatic Russia. Peru Arabia Mongolia Siam Bar [Mexico T. |Barca R. [Soongaria. . . .. Bay Russia Cy. L. R. T. T. Toronto . . Toropetz . . , Torp... . T irrenate v Torres Torres.. . . Torres .... Torres.. * . Torro Tortola .... Tortoratillo |T. Tortojsa T. I. Is. I. I. K. R. Cy. T. T. T. T. I. Is. Str. T. I. Russia Sweden Sweden Sweden Spain Asiatic Russia Peru Asiatic Russia Upper Canada Russia |0 c Sweden Nb Ng Ak Ue Rd Tf Tf Tg Sf Tg, Mc Lc Vd Nf Ak Oc Oc Aj Aj Pe Ve Fc Ed Ob Ka Ii Pd Hi Of Sd Sh Ff Nf Rd Ob Nb Nb Nb Nb Ld Qb Hj Qb Gd Tortuga Tortugas Tortuga Salada . Tory Tostack Tot Totara Fo Ik Wh Xj Vj Mexico Brazil Polynesia .... Australasia • . New S.Wales Brava JO h West Indies. • .|Hg Chili " Spain Bahamas .... Florida Venezuela Ireland Asiatic Russia Mantchooria . Bay jNew Zealand. Hk Md Hf Gf Hg Lc Vb Uc X ra N»me» of Places, fcc. Totma Totnam Totoman Totska '. Totza Touchamska . . Toudsong Touer Tougianski Touglemsk Toukoulan Toula Touloma Toulon Toulouse Touman Toumani Toumateck .... Toumen Toumet Tounge Toungouinskoi . Tounkat Tour Toura Tourbede Tourchan Tourinsk Touroukhan .. . Touroukhansk. Tours Touryga Tousea Toutsitchamsia- mg Tou-yuen Touzant Tovsa Towa , Towerga Townsend .... Towson Tozer Tracy's Trafalgar Trail Traill Trajeet Transfiguration Transylvania . . Tranquebar . . . Trap Trapani Traps Trasarts , Travancore Travers Travcrsay Traverse Trebisonde Tree T. Cy. T. Russia C. Brit America . T. 'Formosa T. Japan T. T. T. T. T. T. Mts, T. R. Cy. \ T. I. R. T. R. T. T. R. R. |T. R. T. R. !t. I L. T. T. I. T. C. Ft T, I. c. Pt. I. T. In. Pr. T. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Hindoostan . . . Tartary Asiatic Russia . Russia Asiatic Russia. Mongolia Russia France France Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Mongolia Missouri Asiatic Russia. Tartary Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Mantchooria . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. France Asiatic Russia • Thibet Oc Fc Uf Ve Pc Sc Sf Pd Qb Pb Ub Se Ob M d Md Qb Wb Ua Ud Td Ed Sc Qd Qc Qc Ud Ud Qc Rb Rb Md Sb Re Thibet S China , Tripoli Russia Australasia.. . . |Tripoli jNew S. Wales . Missouri Tunis [Polynesia Spain 'Brit. America . Scoresby's Ld.. Africa Asiatic Russia . Austria Hindoostan . . . Rk. Kurile Islands. IT, Sicily Rks T. L. Bay Tf Me Nb Ui Ne Wk Fe Me Xi Lc Da Ka Mg Ab Nd Rg Wd Me Australasia .... X m Africa Hindoostan . . . Wisconsin Ter. Nova Zembla . • Is." 'Southern Ocean Cy. jAsiatic Turkey I. [Polynesia Lg Rh Fd Pa Kn Od Vf 108 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Placet, &c. Trees Tregosses . . . Tremouille . . Trent Trenton .... Trepassey . • . Treptow .... Tres Barras . Tres Colunas Tres Forcas . Tres Marias . Tres Montes Tres Montes Trevenians .. Treves Triangles . . . Tribe Tribulation . . Trichinopoly Triego Trieste Trincala |T" Trincomalee Tringano . . Trinidad . . . C. Is. I. Cy. Cy. Bay T. 'R. I Is. C. !Pen Isi T. Is. R. C. T. T. Cy- Trinidad . , Trinidad . , Trinidad., Trinidad.. Trinidad., Trinidad., Trinity .. Trinity .. Trinity .. Trinity .. Tripasore Tripoli . . Tripoli T. T. T. T. T. Bay I. I. R. Bay Bay I. Is. T. Cty. Cy Tripoli Cy. Tripolizza Tristan d' Acunha Troenen ... ... Troilem Troitsk Troitska Troitzk Trombetas Troue Troosthoek Troppau Trouskoe Trout Trout R. Trout Lake Troy Troyes .... Truro Truxillo . . . Truxillo . . . Truxillo . . . Truxillo . . . Uh Wj Tk Md Hd Id Nc Ii Wf Le Ef Gm Gm Celebes Australasia . . . Australasia . . . Austria New Jersey . . Newfoundland Prussia Brazil Polynesia .... Morocco Mexico Patagonia .... Patagonia . . . Polynesia jC i Prussia Md Mexico JFf Brit. America . ID c New S. Wales . |V j Hindoostan . ..Rg Darfur W g Md Rh Rh Sh Gf Hj Gg Dd Hg Kk Ff Vj Id Gb Be Rg Me Me Oe Ne LI Mb Vg Names of Placet, &c. Ho. Cy. Cy. T. Dep T. T. T. Austria Ceylon Ceylon Malaya Cuba Bolivia Guatemala .... Mexico West Indies. . . Southern Ocean Texas New S. Wales . Newfoundland. Brit. America . North America Hindoostan . . . Africa Tripoli Syria Greece Southern Ocean Norway Polynesia .... Russia Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia Brazil Madagascar. . Nova Zembla . Austria Asiatic Russia Brit. America Brit America Brit. America New York . . . France Nova Scotia .. Peru Peru Guatemala .. . Venezuela . . . o Sb Qc Ii Pj Qa Nd Qb Fc Db Fc Hd Md Hd Gi Gi Gg Hh Tryal Bay Tryal iRks Tsadda R. T. T. L. T. T. I. Tsahai Kiamen , Tsakildan Tschahar Nor . , Tschelya Tschdotiska ... Tschinkotan. . . , Tschirikov 'C. Tschoudsong . . Tschourkin . . . Tschulin Tsebid IT. Tseoulka T. T. Siampa pis. Tsi-chow Cy. Tsifouy I. Tsin-chow T. Tsingel R. Tsita L. Tsitchicar iPr. T. T. I. Wl Tk Mh Ud Td Sd Pb Sc Wd Ue Sf Va Tsitchicar . . . Tsotforkeng . Tsung-ming . Tsun-y 'Cy. Tsu-sima 'I. Tsypa |R. Tuabei 'sta. Tuaricks JPeo. Tuat Dis. Tubai I. Tubbus IT. Tubeldie JT. Tucapel Vol. Tuck's I. TucJk's ! Rk. Tuck's 'Rf. Tuclawi JDis. Tucopia I. Tucuman IPr. Tucuman T. Tudela T. Tuggala T. Tuggert Sta. T. T. Ls. T. T. T. I. Sea Tr. R. R. Cty, Cy. T. R. T. Tulang Bawing. Tulbagh .... Tule(the)... Tulneer Tumbul Tuna Tunbat TungHai... Tungouses . . Tungouska . . Tunguragua Tunis Tunis Tunja Tumuyan. . . Tupiza New S. Wales . Australasia .... Africa Mantchooria . . Mongolia Mongolia Russia Asiatic Russia. Kurile Islands. Japan Thibet Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. R c Bjrbary |Me Asiatic Russia. jQ b Anam jS g China iTe GulfofTonquinjTg Corea Ue Mongolia !R d Re Ud Ud Sf Ue Tf Ue Tc Mf Mg Mf Bj Pe Ng HI Wg Wi Xf Og Xj Hk Hk Ld Og Mf Si Nl Ee Qf Og Nb Oi Ue Sb Sb Gi Me Me H h HI Hk Thibet Mantchooria . . Mantchooria . . Thibet China China Corea Asiatic Russia. Africa Africa Africa Polynesia Persia Darfur Chili Polynesia Australasia Polynesia Africa Australasia.. . . Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . . Spain Kordofan Africa Sumatra Cape Colony . . Mexico Hindoostan . . . Africa Sweden Indian Ocean . . Asia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Equador Africa Tunis New Grenada . . Buenos Ayres . Buenos Ayres . CONSULTING INDEX. 109 Nudm of Flues, *c. Turcomania Turfan .... Turfan .... Turgai .... Turin Turke Turkestan . Turkestan . Turkestan (Chi- nese) Cty. : Dis. T. R. Cy. Sta. Cty. T. Dis. Turkestan (Usbek)!Dis. Cty. Cty. Is. Is. C. Pt R. T. Ho. I. Is. Is. L. Pt Rk. T. Cy. D. T. L. T. T. T. I. T. L. R. Pr. T. Is. R. Is. Is. C. Bay Is. Mts. T. I. T. I. T. Pr. R. Fd. R. T. R. Tartary Little Bucharia Little Bucharia Tartary Sardinia Africa Asia Tartary Turkey Turkey Turkey Turk's Turnagain Turnagain Turnagain Turon Turon Turtle Turtle Turtle Turtle Turtle Turtle Dove Tury Tuscaloosa Tuscany Tuscumbia Tuskui Tuspan Tustepec Tustla Tutuilla Tuy Tuzla Tuzur Tver 21. Tver Twelve Apostles Twin Twins Two Two Bays Twofold Two Groups .... Two Peaks Twunt Tydorc Tyniskaya Typansan Tyre Tyrol Tyrun Tys Tzai Tzarevokoksnaisk Tzilima Tzokurin Des Tzug jL. 10 Chinese Empire Tartary Asia Europe Malaysia .... Bahamas .... New Zealand . Brit. America Brit. America Cochin China Cochin China Polynesia ... Malaysia .... Australasia . . Brit America Java Australasia... Brazil Alabama .... Italy Alabama .... Little Bucharia Mexico Mexico Mexico Polynesia Spain Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . Russia Russia Wisconsin .... Wisconsin .... Brit. America . Polynesia Patagonia New S. Wales . Polynesia Brit America . Algiers Malaysia Asiatic Russia. Eastern Sea. . . Syria Austria Little Bucharia Norway Tartary Russia Russia Mongolia Russia Pd Rd Qd Qd Md Ng Qd Qd Rd Qd Oe Nd Ti Hf X m Eb Dc Tg Tg Aj Ui Tj Ec Ti Tk Ji Ge Md Ge Qd Ff E* A J Ld Oe Vc Oc Oc Fd Fd Gc Wh Hm VI S j Ec Le Uh Rb Uf Oc Md Rd Nb Qd Pc Pb sd Ob Names of Placet, fee Uaupes ........ Ubai Ubatuba Ucayale Udalsai Udiai-milai Udirick Udoma Udoma Udoma Cross . . . Uelille.... Uitenhage Ujan Ujanda Ulea Ulea Uleaborg 3. Uleaborg Ulentai Ulia Ulkan Ulm Umba Umbre Umea Umea Umea Umerapoora .... Ummesogier .... Umgua Umritsir Unaub Underoot Ungava ........ Unicorn Union Union Union Unjigah Unmak Unst Upalta Upernavik Upernavik Upola Upper Upper Abbetibbe Upper Canada . . Upper Halix. . . . Upper Irtysh . . . Upper Kamtchatka Upper Nippewan Upper Oudinsk Upper Torneo Upright Upsa i Upsa Upsal Upstart Urak Ural I. I. L. R. T. T. T. R. R. L. R. Pr. T. R. R. R. T. T. R. T. L. R. Cy. T. R. Cy. I. I. B. Bay Rks Sta. Str. R. I. I. T. Dis. Sta. I. L. L. Pr. T. R. T. Ho. T. T. C. L. R. T. C. R. R. Venezuela .... Bolivia Brazil Equador Asiatic Russia. Polynesia Polynesia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. South Peru... . Cape Colony . . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Russia Tartary Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Wirtemburg . . Russia Africa Sweden Sweden Sweden Birmah Barca Oregon Ter.. . . Hindoostan . . . Polynesia Asia Brit. America . Spitsbergen . . . Indian Ocean . Missouri Ter... Brit. America . Brit America . North America Scotland Buenos Ayres Greenland . . . Greenland . . . Polynesia .... Oregon Ter... Brit. America North America Sweden . . Mongolia Asiatic Russia. Brit. America Asiatic Russia. Sweden . . North America Mongolia .... Mongolia .... Sweden New S.Wales Asiatic Russia Tartary Hi Hi Jk Hi Uc Xg Xg Vb Vc Vc Hj Nl Uc i Wb Nb Nb Nb Nb Qc Vc Vc Md Ob Ni Nb Nb Nb Sf Nf Dd Qe Vh Qg He Na 01 Fe Eb Ec Ac Lc HI la la £ j E c Gd Gd Nb Rd Wc Ec Tc Nb Ca Sd Sd Nc Dj Vc Pd 110 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Placet, && Ural Urarinas .... Uratuppa . . . Urbana Ures Urgan Daba. Urgan Daga. Urghendj . . . Urghundab .. Urjungunar . Urracas Urris Uruba Urucuya .... Uruguay .... Uruguay .... Urumia Urumia Urup Urupadi ..... Usbek Turkestan Useless Ush Ussa Ustica Ust Mayo Ust. Yanskoi . Usuri Utica Utrecht Utwas Uyandina .... Vacarapi Vacassar Vach Vachourei. .. . Vada Valday Valdes Valdivia Valence Valencia Valencia . . . . . Valencia Valentia Valetta Valinco Valk Valladolid.... Valladolid Valladolid... Valladolid Vallcs Valley Towns Vallona Valparaiso . . . Valsche Van Van Buren . . . Van-chow .... Mts T. T. T. T. Mts. Mts. T. EL L. I. fid. T. R. Rep. R. T. L. I. R. Cty. Bay T. T. I. T. T. R. Cy. T. R. R. R. Bay R. T. C. T. Pt. T. T. Cy. T. T. I. Cy. G. T. Cy. Cy. T. T. T. T. 9- L. T. T. Europe Equador Great Bucharia Venezuela .... Mexico Tartary ...... Mongolia Tartary ...... Cabul Mongolia Polynesia Ireland Brazil Brazil South America Uruguay Persia Persia Kurile Islands. Brazil ... Tartary . Patagonia Tartary . Ashantee , Mediterran. Sea Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Mantchooria . . New York .... Holland Lower Canada. Asiatic Russia. Brazil Florida Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Tunis Russia North America Chili France Spain Brazil Venezuela Ireland Malta Corsica Russia Spain Mexico Mexico Equador Mexico North Carolina Turkey Chili New Guinea . . Asiatic Turkey Missouri Hainan Pc Hi Qd Hh Ef Qd Sd Qd Qe Rd Vf Lc J J II II Pe Pe Wd I i Qd Hn Qd Lh Me Ub Va Ud Gd Mc Gd Vb Ii G f Rb Qb Me Oc Cb HI M d Le Ji Hg Lc Me Md Nc Ld Fg Gf Gi Ff Ge Nd HI Vi Oe Fe Tg Names of Places, &c. Vancouver . Vancouver's Vancouver's Vandalia. . . VanDiemen's Ld. Van Diemen's . Van Diemen's . Vanheim Van Keulen's .. Vannen Vannes Vansittart Vanve Vapna Varandei Varbot Varela Varinas Varinas Varna Varoe Varoonda Vasil Vasquez Vasse Vassigan Vassikov Vaujaas Vavov Veisenstein. . .. Vekshina Vel Vela Vela-rete Velasco Veldho , Velika Velikaya Looki Velsk Velsk Venden , Vendome Venezuela Venezuela Venice Vepery Vera Cruz Vera Cruz Vera Paz Vera Paz Verde Verde Verde Verde Verdun Verinejo Verkholenskoi . . Verkho Ouralsk. Verkhotouriye . . Verko Yanskoi.. Verleegan Hook C. I. Ft. Cy. 1. G. Btr. Cy. Bay I. T. I. I. I'd T. R. Pt. T. T. ?y. I. Cty. T. I. Pt. R. T. Pt. I. T. T. R. Rks I. T. R. Bay T. Cy. T. T. T. Rep Dep Cy. T. St Cy. St. T. C. C. R. 1. T. R. T. T. T. T. C. North America Oregon Ter. . . Oregon Ter. . . Illinois Australasia.. . . New Holland . . Japan China Spitsbergen . . . Norway France Brit. America . Norway Iceland Russia Asiatic Russia. Patagonia Venezuela Equador Turkey Norway Africa Russia Polynesia New Holland. . Asiatic Russia. Russia Mantchooria . . Polynesia Russia ....... Asiatic Russia. Russia Polynesia Eastern Sea. . . Texas Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Russia , Russia France South America Venezuela Italy Hindoostan . . . Mexico Mexico Guatemala Guatemala Senegambia .. . St. Thomas's I, Brazil New Grenada . France Buenos Ayres . Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Spitsbergen . . . Bb Dd Dd Ge Vm Uj Ue Tc M a Na Ld Gb Mb Kb Pb Vc Hn Hh Hi Nd Mb £ j Pc Ak Ti R c Oc Vc Aj Nc Qc Ob Vf Uf Ff Vb Pb Oc Ob Pc Nc Md Hh Hh Nd 5* Fg Fg Gg Gg Kg Mh Ik Gg M d Hk Tc Pc Pc Ub Na CONSULTING INDEX. Ill lam of Place., ftc Vermelha Vermillion Vermillion Vermont ....... Verona Verro Versailles Vershny Kolymsk Vershny Villuisk Vesenburg Vesiegonsk ..... Vesoul Vester Horn .... Vesuvius Veszprin Vetlooga Vevay Veyros Vhytogra Viana Viasma Viasniki Viatka 13. Viatka Viborg 9. Viborg Vichada Viciosas Vicksburg Vicsa Victoria Victoria Vidal Vidal Vienna Viesca Vigeroe v 'g»a Vig'a Vigo v )go Vigten Vijima Vilcabamba .... Vilkomir Villa Bella Villa Boa Villa Boim Villach Villa Clara Villa de C.Frio. Villa del Forte . . Villa de la Purifi- cacion Villa del Fuerte. Villa del Principe Villa do Contas Villa do Principe Villa Guiana.. Villa Maria . . Bay Bay Ft St Cy. T. Cy. T. Cy. T. T. T. C. Mt T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. Pr. T. Pr. T. R. I. T. T. R. Har C. Rk. Cy. T. I. T. T. T. L. Is. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. Cy. T. T. T. T. T. T. T. Benguela Louisiana Brit America . United States . . Italy Russia France Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia France Iceland Naples Austria Russia Indiana Brazil Russia Brazil Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia New Grenada . Caribbean Sea. Mississippi. . . . Brazil Africa Brit. America . Africa Atlantic Ocean Austria Texas Norway Mexico Brazil Spain Russia Norway Russia Peru Russia Brazil Brazil Brazil Austria Cuba Brazil Brazil Mexico .. . Mexico . . . Cuba Brazil .... Brazil .... Venezuela . Brazil Mj Ft' Ec Hd Md Nc Md Wb Ub Nc Oc Md Kb Nd Nd Pc Ge Ii Ob Ii Oc Oc Pc Pc NH Nb Hh S g Fe Ji Mj Fa Ok Lc Nd Fe Mb F, s Ld Ob Mb Pb Hj Nc Ij Ij I i Md Gf Jk Ji Fg Ef Gf Jj Jj Hh J Nairn* of Places, «cc Villa Nova da Princeza .... Villa Nova da Princeza Villa Nova del Rey Villa Nova Villaret Villa Rica Villa Rica Villarica Villa Salado .... Villui Vincennes Vingorla ....... Virgin Virgin Virgin Gorda .. . Virginia Virgin's Virgin's Virlzerv Viscavna Vischer's Viseu Vistula Vitchegda Vitebsk 27. Vitebsk Vitim Vitimskaya Vittoria Vizagapatam . . . Vizianagnam . . . Vizierabad . . Vladimir 22. Vladimir Vladimir Vofsen Vogenoe Vohemaire Voikoski Voja Vojigorska Voknavolotz .... Volcano Volcano Volcano Volga Volgina Volhynia.. . .45. Volkhov Volmar Vologda ... .11. Vologda Volomki Volta Voltas Voltri , Volunteer Vornavin T. T. T. C. Cy. T. T. Vil. R. Cy. T. Is. Bks. I. St Bay C. L. C. I. T. R. T. Pr. Cy. R. T. T. T. T. T. Pr. %' T. Bay I. Bay T. L. T. T. Bay I. I. R. T. Pr. R. T. Pr. £ y - T. R. C. T. I. T. Brazil .... Brazil Brazil Brazil New Holland • . Brazil Buenos Ayres . Chili Mexico Asiatic Russia. Indiana Hindoostan . . . West Indies. . . Newfoundland. West Indies .. . United States .. Mexico Patagonia Russia Mexico Australasia .... Brazil Russia Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Spain Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Hindoostan . . . Russia Russia Russia Spitsbergen . . . Norway Madagascar .. . Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Japan Polynesia Polynesia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Guinea Africa Sardinia Polynesia Russia Ik Ji I i Jj Uj Jj I k HI Ee Tb Ge Qg Hg Id Hg Ge Ee Hn Nc De Wl Hj Nc Pb Nc Oc Tc Tc Ld Rg Rg Re Oc Oc N. Na Mb Qb Ob Pb Nb Vd Vf Wf Oc Ra Nc Oc Nc Pb Oc Oc Mh Nk Nd Pf Pc 112 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, ke. Vorofskaya .... Voronez ... .41 Voronez Voronez Voronia.. ...... Voronov Vorya Vosminsk Vosnecenskoe . • Voutchang .... Vou-ting Voz Vym Vyn Waago Wabash Wadan Waday Wadreag Wadsoe Wady al Kora . Wady Dak he . Wady el Khargeh Wady el Lugh- lhaman Wady Farafreh • Wady Kawar... Wady Noon .... Wady Zemzen .. Wager Wajunga Wakash Wake's Wake's Ledge . . Waldeck....23. Wales Walet Walgnind Walgomas Walker Walker Walker's Wallace Wallachia Wallah Wallah . Wallis's Wallis's Walmsley Walpole Walsbak Walsingham.. . . Walter Bathurst Walwich Wamba Wamkrore Wamwax Wangel Wapticacoos Wara Waranger T. Pr. Cy. T. R. C. R. Bay T. Cy. R. R. I. R. T. T. Dis. T. T. Os. T. T. O. L. T. T. R. Cty. Tr. I. Bks Cty. Cty T. I. L. c. c. Bay Bay Pr. R. I. I. L. I. I. C. c. Bay Dis. T. I. R. R. Cy- Fd. Russia Russia Russia Russia Asiatic Russia Russia Asiatic Russia China China Russia Asiatic Russia Russia Asiatic Russia. Russia , Faroe Islands United States. Tripoli Africa Barbary Russia Arabia %ypt Egypt Fezzan Egypt Africa Suse Tripoli Brit. America . Africa Oregon Ter. .. . Polynesia Polynesia Germany Great Britain .. Africa Russia Sweden Brit. America . Greenland Cape Colony . . Scoresby's Ld. Turkey Oregon Ter. . . , Polynesia Isle of Georgia Brit. America i Australasia Iceland Brit. America Brit. America , Africa Africa Senegambia ■ . , Australasia Sweden Oregon Ter.. . , Bergoo [Russia Ref. Lets. Wc Oc Oc Ob Ob Ob Qb Pb Re Te Te Ob Qb Pb Lb Ge Nf Ng Me Na Of Nf Nf Mf Nf Mr Lf Me Gb Ng Dd Xg Xg Mc Lc Lff Nb Nb Fc la Nl Ka Nd Ed f f Jn Eb Xk Kb Hg Ga Mk Ni Kg Vi Nb Ed Ng Na Names of Places, &c. Warangol Warasdin Warberg Wardehuus .... Wardoe Waree Wargala Wargala Wargela Warning Warreconne .... Warren Warren Warren Warrender Warrow Warsaw Warsaw Wasa 4. Wasa Wasalmy Wash (the) Washagamy Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington Washita (False) . Washoo WasiliefFe WasiliefFskoy . . . Waskayow Waskur Wassaw i Wasseen Wassela Wassiboo Wasteras Watchman's Waterford Watlings' Kay . . Wawa Waygat Waygat Waygatch Waygatch Waygeeoo Webbe Webuck Weeks' Weeks' Wchisk Wei Weide Weide Weihai-wei Weldychuck . . . Wellesley's Wellington T. T. T. T. I. Cy. Dis. T. Sta. Mts. R. T. R. Pt. C. Cty. Cy. T. Pr. T. R. L. Cy. T. T. T. Is. I. R. T. C. I. L. R. Dis. Pks. Cty. T. T. C. T. I. T. I. Sta. I. Str. I. R. C. I. I. R. Pr. Bay R. T. L. Is. Ch. Hindoostan . . . Austria Sweden Russia Russia Benin Barbary Barbary Africa New S. Wales . Wisconsin Ter. Pennsylvania. . Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Guiana Poland Illinois Russia Russia Brit. America . England Brit. America . D. of Columbia Pennsylvania. , Arkansas Texas Polynesia Polynesia Western Ter.. Soudan , Kurile Islands Asiatic Russia, Brit. America . Asiatic Russia Ashantee Africa Africa Africa Sweden Patagonia Ireland , Bahamas Soudan Greenland Greenland Russia Russia Polynesia Africa Labrador Polynesia Polynesia Brit. America . Thibet Spitsbergen . . . Greenland China Brit. America . Australasia Brit. America . Rg Nd Mc Oa Oa Mh Me Me Mf Wk Fd Gd Fb Db Ga Ih Nc Fd Nb Nb He M c He Ge Gd Fe Fe Cj Bh Fe Mh Wd Ua Fc Qb Lh Oi Lg Lg Nc Hm Lc Hf Mh la la Pb Pb Uh Oh lc Wf Xg Gc Sf Ma lb Ue Eb Fa CONSULTING INDEX. 113 Names of Place*, *c- Wellington Wells' Welsford Wener Wenerborg .... Wenman's .... Werner Wesel Weser Wesley ville .... Wesscl's Wessel's West West West West West West West Bothnia . West Cape Howe Western ■Western Western Western Western Western Western Austral- asia Western Spits- bergen Westervelts .... West Fork Westmanna .... West Mt Barren Weston West Pens Westray West Sleepers . . West Vaagen. . . Wetter Wettern Wexford Wexio Weymouth Weywongy .... Whaco Indians . Whale Whale Whale Whale Whale Whale Whale Whale River . . . Whale's Whale's Whaneekaa .... Wheeling ....... Whidbey ...... Whidbey White 10* I. Rf. C. L. T. Is. Mts, T. R. Sta. Is. I. C. C. I. Pt. Rf. Fd. Dis. C. Ter. Is. Is. I. Po. Ter, Cty. Dis. Gr. R. I. Mt C. Is. I. Is. I. I. L. T. T. C. L Tr. Bay Bay So. Pt Is. R. Bk. Ho. Bay Hd. T. Ha'r Is. Sea Patagonia Australasia Brit America . Sweden Sweden Gallapagos Scoresby's Ld. . Prussia Germany CafFraria Australasia Australasia . . . New Zealand . . Coronation Falkland Is.. . . Brit. America . South Shetland Norway Sweden New Holland . . United States. . Atlantic Ocean Scotland Australasia.. . . New S.Wales . United States. . Australasia . . . Spitsbergen . . . Polynesia Oregon Ter. . . Iceland New Holland . . Brit. America . Brit America . Scotland Brit America . Loffoden Isles . Malaysia ... . Sweden Ireland Sweden New S. Wales . Malaysia Texas Africa Kerguelen's Ld. Brit America . Brit. America . Greenland Brit. America . Newfoundland . Brit America . Spitsbergen . . . Spitsbergen . . . Africa Virginia Oregon Ter.. . . Australasia . . . Russia Hm Wj Gb Mc Mc Fh Ka Mc Mc Nl Vj Ui X m Io In Hd Io Mb Nb Tl Fe Ke Lc Vm VI Fe Ul Ma Wh Ed Kb Tl Gb Fc Lc Gc Mb Ui Mc Lc Mc Vj Ui Fe Mk Qb Ha Gb lb He Id G« Na Na Oi Ge Dd VI Ob Names of Place*, lc White White White White White White White White White..... White White Bear , White Earth White Fish , White Fish . White Fish Lake Whitehall White Harutsh Whitshed Whitsuntide . . . Whittle Wholdvahad . . . Whydah Whylootacke . . Wick Wicklow Wide Wideroe Widin Wight Wiirst Wilberforce . . . Wilcox Wild Wilkesbarre . . . Willersted .... Willey's William William William William William William IV.'s.. Williams' Willow Lake . . Wilmington .. . Wilna 29 Wilna Wilson's Wingoos Winchester.. . . Wincoop's .... Wincoop's .... Windalo Windau Windsor Windward .... Windward .... Winebah Winnebago ... Winnebago . . . Winnebagoes .. Bay C. R. R. L. L. I. Is. Cr. Mts. Bay R. R. L. Ho. T. Mts. C. I. C. L. T. I. T. T. Bay I. T. I. C. C. Pt. Is. T. L. I. C. Pt Mt. Ft Ft Ld. R. R. T. Pr. S y ' Pr. L. Cy. Bay Pt. T. T. T. Ch. Is. T. L. Ft. Tr. Newfoundland. Brit America . Asiatic Russia. Missouri Mongolia Brit America . Bolivia Australasia . . . Missouri New S. Wales. Brit. America . Wisconsin Ter, Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit America . New York .... Africa North America Australasia Labrador Brit. America . Dahomey Polynesia Scotland Ireland New S. Wales . Faroe Islands . Turkey England Seghalien Mozambique . . Greenland .... Greenland .... Pennsylvania . . Brit America . Southern Ocean Celebes Mozambique . . New Holland . . Scotland Brit. America . Brit America . Missouri Ter. . Brit America . North Carolina Russia Russia New S. Wales . Brit. America . Virginia Java Java Russia Russia Vermont Western Ocean West Indies. Ashantec . . . Wisconsin Ter. Wisconsin Ter, Wisconsin Ter, lc Ha Xb Fe Sd Fb Hk XI Fd VI Hb Fd Ec Ec Ec Hd Nf Cb Xj He Fb Mh Bj Lc Lc Wk Lb Nd Lc Vc Ok la lb Gd Fb Kn Ti Oj Tl Lc Fd Fb Ed Db Ge Nc Nc VI Fc Ge Ti Ti Nb Nc Hd H«r "tr Lh Gd Gd Fd 114 CONSULTING INDEX. Names of Places, Sc Winnepeek Winnepeek Winslow Winter Winter Winter Wirtemburg. • . . Wisbaden Wisby Wisconsin Wisconsin ..... Withelms Wittangi Wittenberg .... Woahoo Wodio Wogadeen Wolchich Wolchousky .... WoledAbousseba Woled Aly Arabs Woled Deleym.. Woled Deleym . . Woled Gormeh . Woled Hashem . Wolf Wolf Wollaston Wollaston Wollaston Wolstenholme . . Wolstenholme . . Wolstenholme . . Wolter Thymens Woman's Womba Wood Wood Wood Wood WoodalPs Wood burg Woodbury , . . . . Woodia Woods Woody Head . . . Worth's Wrath Wupperthal .... Wurzburg,. . . . . Wyborg Wynn Wyragur Xagua Xanacy Xarayes Xerez Xingu Xiquexique Xolotas R. L. I. L. I. His. Km. T. T. Ter. R. I. T. Cy. I. L. Tr. Mts, I. Tr. Tr. Tr. Sta. Tr. Tr. I. I. L. L. I. C. So. I. Fd. Is. T. Bay Bay T. C. Bk. Bay C. T. L. C. Is. C. Sta. Cy. T. C. T. Bay R. L. T. R. T. T. Brit. America . Brit. America Polynesia Brit. America Brit. America Russia Germany Nassau Gothland .... United States. Wisconsin . . . Nova Zembla . Sweden Prussia Sandwich Is.. Russia Africa Brit. America Polynesia. Africa Barca Africa Africa Africa Africa. Labrador Labrador Brit. America . Brit. America . Patagonia .... Brit. America . Brit. America . Brit. America . Spitsbergen . . . Greenland Soudan Spitsbergen . . . Jan Mayen I... Nubia Scoresby's Ld. Atlantic Ocean New Guinea . . New Guinea . . Soudan Brit. America . New Zealand. . Polynesia Scotland Cape Colony . . Bavaria , . Denmark Scoresby's Ld.. Hindoostan . . . Cuba Brazil .... Bolivia ... Guatemala , Brazil ,|I i Brazil J j Bolivia ..Ilk Fc Fc Aj Eb Gb Ob Md Md Nc Fd Fd Pa Nb Mc Bf Ob Oh He Cj Lf Ne Lf Lf Lf Lf Ic He Fc Eb Hn Gb Ha Ha Na la Mg Ma La Og Ka Kd Vi Vi Mg Fc XI Wh Lc Nl Md Mc Ka Rf Gf Ij Ij Gg Names of Placet, *c. Xulla Bessey . . . Xulla Mangola.. Xulla Talyaboo . Yablanoy ...... Yachan Yackman Yacobstat Yacootat Yacsa Yacuy Yaguari Yai-chow Yakoutes Yakoutsk Yakoutsk Yall Yalnsness ...... Yalo Ya-long Yaloutorovsk . . . Yamayas Yambo Yamburg Yamskaya Yamskoi Yamychevskoy . Yana Yandy Yang-chow Yangomez Yang-tse Kiang Yanni Yao-chow Yao-ngan Yaoorie Yap Yapelhue Yaransk Yarboro Yarcou Tsanpoo Yarensk Yari Yarkand Yarkand Yarmouth Yarmouth Yaroslavl . . .15. Yaroslavl Yarriba Yartobe Yasashna YathKyed Yazoo Y-chow Yedinsk Yeh Yell Yell Yellow , Yellow L I. I. Mts. T. R. T. Bay T. R. R. T. Tr. Pr. T. R. C. R. R. T. Tr. T. T. Bay T. T. R. T. Cy T. R. R. Cy. Cy. Cy. I. T. T. In. R. T. R. Cy. R. T. T. Pr. T. Cty. T. R. L. R. Cy. T. T. So. I. Sea R Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia Asiatic Russia. Corea Oregon Ter. . . Russia North America Asiatic Russia. Brazil Brazil Hainan Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia . Asiatic Russia. JIantchooria celand. Mantchooria China Asiatic Russia . Mexico Arabia Russia Asiatic Russia Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Soudan China Uruguay . . . China Mantchooria China China , Soudan .... Polynesia. . . Chili Russia North America Thibet . . Russia . . Brazil . . . Little Bucharia Little Bucharia Nova Scotia. . . England Russia Russia Soudan Little Thibet . . Asiatic Russia. Brit. America . Mississippi .... China Asiatic Russia. Birmah Scotland Scotland China |Africa Vc Ue Dd Nc Cc Uc Ik Ik Tg Ub Ub Ub Ud Kb Ud Sf Qc E e Of Nc Wb Wb Re Vb Mh Te II Ue Uc Tf Sf Mg Vh HI Pc Ca Re Pb Ik Qd Rd Hd Mc Oc Oc Mh Re Vb Fb Fb Te Vb Sg Lc Lc Ue Nk CONSULTING INDEX. 115 Names of Flues, &c. CtaiJ. Yellow Yellow Yellow Knife... Yellow Mongols Yellow Stone .. . Yemana Yemen Yen Yen chow Yengi Yenisei Yenisei Yenisei Yen-ngan Yen-ping Yeou Yeppe Yezd Yezdikhast Yhirrita Yikarova Yligan Ylijaska Yraile Yobaty Yo-chow Yong-chow Yong-ning-chow Yon-ping . . . Yopcz York York York York York York York York York York York Minster York's Yorobieva. . . . Youghall .... Youl Young William's Yourin Youxpell . . . Yoze Ypilay .... Yrcoo . ... Yrcoulou . . Yshoek. .... Yucatan ... Yu-chow . . , Yuen-chow Yuen Kiang Yuen-yang. Yuma , Yungepe . . , Yung Ling . It. L. R. Tr. R. T. Pr. Sta. Cy. T. a. T. R. Cy. Cy. R. Tr. Cy. T. R. T. T. T. R. T. Cy. Cy. Cy. Cy. R. Dis. Cy. T. T. C. C. c. Is. So. Ft I. Pen T. T. I. Is. C. L. R. T. T. T. Pt Sta. Cy. Cy. R. Cy. I. .' .' Mts China Wisconsin Ter. Brit America . Mongolia Missouri Ter... Arabia Arabia Africa China Corea Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Russia. China China Soudan Missouri Ter... Persia Persia New Grenada . Asiatic Russia. Mindanao Russia Mantchooria . . Ashantee China China China China Mexico Brit. America . England New Holland. . Virginia Brit America . Brit America . New S. Wales . Australasia .... New Holland . . Brit. America . Patagonia .... New S. Wales . Asiatic Russia. Ireland Polynesia Polynesia Brit. America . Oregon Ter. . . Mantchooria . . Paraguay Mantchooria . . Mantchooria . . Nova Zembla. . Mexico China China China China Bahamas China Thibet Te Fd Eb Se Fd Pf Og Ng Te Ue Ra Sc Sc Te Tf Mg Ed Pe Pe Hh Sc Uh Nb Vc Lh Tf Tf Tf Te IS Fc Lc Tl Ge Ga Ha Vj Vj £ j E c Hn VI Sc Lc Uh Wh Gb Ed Vd Ik Ud Vd Qa S & Te Tf Tf Te Gf Sf Se Names of Places, 4c. Yungning . . Yung-ning-chow Yu-nhing ... Yunnan Yunnan .... Yunshan ... Yun-tai-chan Yupee Yurlevelz Zab Zabara Zacatecas .... Zacatecas Zacatula Zacatula Zacheo Zachiversk .... Zagany Zaguanagas . . . Zaire Zaitsova Zaizan Zak Zambeze Zambezi Zanguebar .... Zante Zanzibar Zanzibar Zaria Zarnsk Za vara Zawaja , Zealand Zebato Zebce Zebid Zebu Zechoe Zeeri win-zer i man Zeghawa Zeghen Zegzeg Zekhova Zelania Zemee Zendero Zerbi Zerib Zeyla Zhe-hol Zimba Zimhao Zimbuas Zimora Zinti Zirianea Zirmie Znaym T. Cy. Cy. Pr. Cy. Pr. Cy. Pr. T. Dis. T. St Cy. T. R. I. T. T. R. R. T. L. R. R. R. Cty. Cty. I. T. T. Pt. L. R. T. I. R. Sta. T. T. Dis. Bay C. T. Cty. T. T. T. Tr. T. Tr. T. T. K. T. T. Thibet China China China China Birmah China Mantchooria Russia Barbary Arabia Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico West Indies . . Asiatic Russia Soudan Mexico Congo Asiatic Russia Mongolia .... Africa Cazembe Mozambique . Africa Ionian Isles .. Africa Indian Ocean . Soudan Russia Mozambique . Africa Denmark .... New Grenada Africa Arabia , Malaysia Africa Sahara Darfur Fezzan Soudan Russia Nova Zembla . Birmah Africa Tripoli Barbary Abyssinia Mantchooria . . Africa Motapa South America Russia Bolivia Asiatic Russia. Soudan Austria Sf Te Te Sf Sf Sf Te Ud Oc Me Pf Ff Ff Fg Fg Hg Vb Mg Ee Mi Sc Rd Nk Nj Oj Oi Ne Oi Oi Mg Oc Ok Oh Mc Gh Oh Og Vg Nl Lf Ng Nf Mg Pb Qa Sf Oh Me Me Og Td Oj Oj Ii Nc Hk Nc Mg Nd 116 CONSULTING INDEX. Namei of PIjcm, fcc Class. Zoar Zoara . . . . Zogang . . . Zoobakie. . Zoolas Zotina. . . . Zoubisov ., Zowan Zuela Zulia Zumba . . , Zumbas . . Zumbo . . T. T. T. T. Tr. T. T. T. T. Dep T. T. T. Syria Tripoli Soudan , Africa Caffraria Asiatic Russia Russia Tunis Fezzan Venezuela . . . Benguela .... Africa Changamera . Oe Me Mg Oh Ok Sb Oc Me Nf Hg Nj Oj Nj Names of Places, &c. Zurich Zurpane . . Zurrah . . . Zuurebrak Zuyder Zee Zvenigorod Zverinogolevskaya Zvornik , Zwartlintjes . . . Zwarten Kock . Zwellendam . . . Zwoll Zytomir Cy. I. L. T. G. T. T. T. R. C. T. T. T. Switzerland . . . Polynesia Cabul Cape Colony . . German Ocean Russia Asiatic Russia . Turkey Cape Colony . . Nova Zembla . . Cape Colony . . Holland Russia Md Vg Pe Nl Mc Oc Qc Nd Nk Pa Nl Mc Nc END OF CONSULTING INDEX. GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORLD. 117 GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORLD. AMERICA. America is a vast continent comprising one of the grand divisions of the globe ; it contains an extent of territory nearly equal to half of the other three conti- nental divisions, constituting about three-tenths of the dry land on the surface of the earth ; it is washed on both sides by vast oceans, on the east by the Atlantic, and on the west by the Pacific. It ranges from north to south through 125 degrees of latitude, and in its widest part 113 degrees of longitude, being in length about 9000 miles, and in average breadth about 2000 ; the extent of sur- face has been variously estimated at from 17,303,000 to 14,622,000 square miles, but in every estimate allowance must be made for the uncertainty of the northern limits, and our still imperfect acquaintance with some of the coasts. America comprehends the whole of the tropical and temperate climates, with part of the arctic on both sides of the equator. The whole of the continent north of latitude 55° may be considered as a frozen region. In Greenland and around Hudson's Bay, mercury freezes in winter, and ice and snow accumulate on the land and water and covers a great part of the country throughout the year. The winter begins in August and continues for nine months. In summer the heat is as great as in New England ; it continues however for too short a period to bring grain to maturity, and cultivation is very little practised. Vegetation is too scanty to supply the inhabitants with any considerable part of their food, they therefore live chiefly on seals and other productions of the sea. Between 55° and 44° north the climate of North America is still severe. In winter the celd is intense, and the snow, which begins to fall in November, remains till May. The summer advances with such rapidity that the season of spring is hardly known. In June the fields and forests are covered with luxuriant verdure ; grain is abundant and in some portions is cultivated with success. The temper- ate portions of North America may be considered as extending from 46° to 37° north latitude. These regions are prolific in grass, the various descriptions of grain, and a variety of fruits are produced in great abundance. From 37° north to the latitude of 40 degrees south the climate is hot, and the products constitute some of the most valuable articles of commerce, being chiefly tobacco, cotton, rice, indigo, coffee, sugar, and the various tropical fruits. Beyond latitude 40° south the climate again becomes cold, and at Tierra del Fuego it is severe ; at the South Shetland Islands, in latitude 63° and 64° south, the climate is that of Greenland and Spitsbergen ; islands of ice are tossing through the seas, and the land is peopled only by those animal forms peculiar to the Antarctic Circle. Na- ture in this continent assumes an aspect of peculiar magnificence, for whether we consider its mountains, its rivers, its lakes, its forests, or its plains, America appears to be distinguished in all those leading features by a grandeur not to be found in the other parts of the globe. This continent contains a great variety of wild animals, and since its discovery the species usually domesticated in Europe have been introduced and are now found in great abundance. The birds are exceedingly numerous, and are said to be more beautiful in their plumage than those of the old continent, but in their notes less melodious. in 120 AMERICA. The vegetable kingdom is in the highest degree rich and varied, many of the trees are amongst the most ornamental and useful, the fruits are rich and in great profusion, the plants and flowering shrubs exceedingly diversified and beautiful, and almost all the various species of grain necessary to sustain life are cultivated and afford abundant crops. In mineral treasures America surpasses all the other quarters of the globe. South America and Mexico abound particularly in the precious metals, and such ample supplies have been carried to European markets that their value has been greatly diminished since the discovery of the American mines ; all the more common metals, minerals, and precious stones, are found in great profusion, and many of them furnish the materials for extensive and important manufactures. The inhabitants of this continent have been estimated by various writers at from 20 millions to 50 millions, but are probably about 44 millions ; of this num- ber about 18 millions are supposed to be whites, 10 millions of the aboriginal race, 8 millions of negroes, and 8 millions of the mixed race, as mulattoes, zaro- boes, &c. The whites are chiefly English in the north, and Spaniards in the south, with some French, Portuguese, German, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, &c. The negroes are Africans, whom the cupidity of the European races has dragged into slavery, or descendants of the earlier victims of a barbarous traffic. The aboriginal population consists of two distinct races, the Esquimaux, inhab- iting the maritime districts of the Arctic regions, and the copper-coloured Indians, who are spread over all the rest of the continent ; their origin has been a subject of much investigation, but the total absence of historical records among the Indians themselves, renders it difficult to arrive at any satisfactory result. It has been discovered that there are remarkable resemblances between some of the languages of Asia and those of the Indians, and hence it becomes nearly certain that they came from the Asiatic continent, but at what period they emigrated it is impossible to determine. It is evident that they are a distinct people, being essentially different in several respects from any of the existing races on the eastern continent. The natives in some parts, particularly Mexico and Peru, were considerably ad- vanced in civilization. Those inhabiting Mexico were denominated Aztecs ; their government was a sort of feudal monarchy, in which the nobles and priests mono- polized the power, the mass of the people being mere serfs attached to the soil. The Aztecs had neither tame animals, money, nor artificial roads ; but they were acquainted with the arts of weaving cloth, hewing stone, carving in wood, and of modelling in soft substances. Their method of picture writing, though rude, com- pared with the alphabets of the nations of the old world, was superior to any thing else found in the new, and enabled them to transmit intelligence and to re- cord events with sufficient distinctness. Their calendar was more accurate than that of the Greeks and Romans, and evinced a degree of scientific skill that has created suspicions of a foreign origin. The government of the Peruvians, or Quichuas, was a theocracy of the most despotic character ; the sacred Incas, descendants of the sun, were at once tem- poral and spiritual sovereigns, and the people, or children of the earth, were kept in a state of complete servitude, living according to minute regulations which re- duced them to mere machines, labouring in common, and holding no property. The Quichuas employed the lama as a beast of burden; constructed roads of great extent and solidity; built suspension-bridges of a most ingenious kind ; formed chisels of a hard alloy of copper and tin ; understood the art of moving large masses, and excelled the Aztecs in the perfection of their masonry, but were in- ferior to the latter in their mode of computing time and in their method of record- ing events. The political state of America presents some striking features and contrasts. The native tribes who still survive, are partly held in subjection by European Americans ; but the greater number wander over their extensive wilds, either in rude independence, or ruled despotically by their chiefs and caciques. The Eu- ropean colonists, who form now by far the most numerous and important part of the population, were long held in subjection to .the mother countries, the chief of NORTH AMERICA. 121 which were Spain and Great Britain; but the greater part of them have now es- tablished their independence, and have generally adopted the republican form of government. Another political element is formed by the negroes, who are mostly in a state of slavery ; a numerous body of them, however, in one of the finest West Indian Islands, have emancipated themselves and become a free people; while Great Britain has recently bestowed restricted liberty on the large numbers by whom her islands are cultivated. There yet remain about 5 millions of black slaves in Brazil and the United States, besides a considerable number in the other European colonies. Many of the indigenous tribes have become, at least in name and outward forms, converted to Christianity ; but a great number still cherish the crude no- tions and rude ceremonials of their native faith. The European Americans have commonly retained the religious creed of their mother country, so that, while in the French, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies, the Roman Catholic is the prevail- ing system, those countries that have been settled by English colonists are chiefly of the Protestant persuasions. The negroes have generally been instructed in the elements of Christianity. The whole number of Roman Catholics may be estimated at about 25£ millions, of Protestants 15 millions, and of unconverted Indians 1^ millions : on this estimate, however, the negroes are considered as be- longing to the denomination embraced by their masters. No part of the world presents so great a number of languages spoken by so few individuals, as the American continent. It is estimated that more than 438 languages, and 2000 dialects, are here spoken by about 10 millions of indigenous natives, and consequently, about one half of the known tongues in the world are spoken by about one eighth of the population. An analogy of structure, however, so remarkable, has been found to pervade all the American languages as far as they are yet known, that they have been designated polysynthetic, a term descrip- tive of their remarkable powers of composition. No class of languages equals the American in its astonishing capacity for expressing several ideas and modifi- cations of ideas, in one word ; and idioms of naked savages are not less regular and complicated in structure than rich in words. From the country of the Esqui- maux to the Straits of Magellan, mother tongues, in their roots have, if the ex- pression may be allowed, the same physiognomy. It is in consequence of this similarity of structure, that the Indians of the missions could learn the tongue of a different tribe much more easily than the Spanish, and the monks had once adopted the practice of communicating with a great number of hordes through the medium of one of the native languages. NORTH AMERICA. North America comprises that portion of the New World extending from 8° to 70° north latitude, and from 55° to 168° west longitude. The area of this vast region is about 7,200,000 square miles, exclusive of the islands lying west and north-west of Baffin's Bay and Barrow's Strait. Presenting a broad front to the Arctic Seas, it gradually expands in width to about 50° north latitude, when it again contracts its dimensions until it terminates in the Isthmus of Darien. Its winding outline presents a great extent of sea coast, which is estimated to amount to about 9500 miles on the eastern, and somewhat more on the western side, exclusive of those on the frozen shores of the northern border. Mountain ranges, peculiarly distinguished by their magnitude and continuity, pervade this quarter of the world. Those of North America consist of two great chains, the eastern and western; the latter, or Rocky Mountain range, known also as the Chipewayan. Passing through Guatemala from the Isthmus of Darien, it spreads out, in Mexico, into extensive table-lands, crowned by lofty volcanic peaks: running thence through the western regions of the United States, and the 11 Q 122 NORTH AMERICA. British possessions, it finally sinks to a level on the shores of the Polar Sea, west- ward of the Mackenzie River. Its extent is probably not less than 5000 miles, and in its general course it is nearly parallel to the Pacific Ocean, forming the great dividing ridge, or line of separation, between the eastern and western waters, the principal of which have their origin in its rugged declivities. The only other extensive range is the Alleghany or Appalachian, which, run- ning parallel to the eastern coast of the United States, throws off some irregular and rather slightly connected branches diverging into Canada, Labrador and the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. This consists principally of two parallel chains, the Alleghany and the Blue Ridge. These, however, are not so extensive in their range, nor do they attain the elevation of the great western chain. The rivers of America constitute perhaps her grandest natural features, or at least those in which she may claim the most decided pre-eminence over the other quarters of the globe. They are unequalled, both in their length of course and in the vast masses which they pour into the ocean. The principal of these take their rise in the great western chain, from its eastern side, whence, being swelled by numerous streams, they roll, broad and spacious, across the great interior plain, until they approach the eastern range of mountains : thence they derive a fresh and copious series of tributaries, till, bearing, as it were, the waters of half a continent, they reach the ocean. Thus, the Missouri-(which, notwithstanding the error which has given the name of the Mississippi to the united channel, is un- doubtedly, in a physical view, the main stream) takes its rise in the Rocky Moun- tains, then flows eastward into the great central valley, where it is joined by the Mississippi, and there receives, from the Alleghany chain, the copious tribute of the Ohio. In its course thence southward, it receives tributaries both from the eastern and western range. The St. Lawrence and Mississippi proper derive their ample stores not from any mountain chain, but from that cold watery region of swamps and forests which forms the northern prolongation of the great central plain. The Mackenzie and Great Fish River which flows through the north into the Arctic Sea, have a long diversified course, but, from the barren regions which they traverse, are of no commercial value. The Lakes of North America are numerous and important; they are not, how- ever, mountain lakes, nor formed by mountain streams. They originate in those great wooded and watery plains whence the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence take their rise. The chain of connected lakes on the upper course of the latter river, Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior, form the largest bodies of fresh water in the world. Communicating with the sea by the broad channel of the St. Lawrence, and in a country whose population is rapidly increasing, they are becoming of the greatest importance to commerce. Similar lakes extend to the northward as far as the Arctic Sea ; the Lake of the Woods, the Athabasca, the Great Slave, and the Great Bear Lake ; but these, unconnected with any other sea, and frozen for the greater part of the year, cannot serve any commer- cial purpose. The Plains of the New World form almost as great and remarkable an object as its mountains. In North America, of those more especially worthy of atten- tion, the first is the plain along the Atlantic, between that ocean and the eastern range of mountains. To that belongs the original territory of the United States. It is a region of natural forests ; of mixed, but rather poor soil, and of but mode- rate fertility. The second is that on the opposite side of the continent, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean ; a country with a mild and humid atmosphere, as far north as 55°, but inhospitable beyond that latitude. The most extensive is the great central valley of the Mississippi, rich and well wooded on the east side ; bare, but not unfertile in the middle ; dry, sandy, and almost a desert on the west This vast plateau is prolonged without interruption, from the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Polar Sea, so that, as has been observed, one of its borders is covered witli the palms and the splendid foliage of the tropics, while, in the other, the last buds of arctic vegetation expire. The area of this great plain is estimated at 3,240,000 square miles. NORTH AMERICA. 123 It was formerly believed, on the authority of Buffbn, that the animals of Ame- rica were inferior in size to those of the eastern continent The researches of , modern naturalists have not only refuted this error, but have established the fact, that where any difference of size exists in animals of the same class, the superi- ority in most cases is on the American side. The animal kingdom of North Ame- rica embraces a considerable variety of species, some of which are not found in other parts of the world. Of the Bear species those peculiar to North America are the Grizzly, Barren Ground, and Black Bears. The great Polar, or White Bear, is found also in the Arctic regions of Europe and Asia. In North America it inhabits the continent as far south as Labrador and Hudson's Bay, its principal residence is on fields of ice, with which it frequently floats a great distance from land. These huge crea- tures feed mostly on animal substances, and as they swim and dive well, they hunt seals and other marine animals with great success. The White Bear pos- sesses prodigious strength, and often attacks sailors who visit the Arctic seas. It is also remarkable for its attachment to its young, and is of a dirty or yellowish white colour. The Grizzly Bear, the most powerful and dangerous animal of North America, inhabiting both sides of the Rocky Mountains, is, when full grown, reported to exceed 800 pounds in weight, and its strength so great that it has been known to drag to a considerable distance a buffalo weighing 1000 pounds; the cubs of this species can climb tree?, but the adult animal cannot : the hunter may thus escape, but the infuriated beast will sometimes keep watch below, and thus confine his enemy for many hours. This is a carnivorous species, but will occa- sionally eat vegetables. The Barren Ground Bear receives its name from the circumstance of its inhabiting only that section of the continent called the Barren Lands, or grounds situated north of 60° ; this is a formidable animal, and is much dreaded by the Indians, who are very careful to avoid burning bones in their en- campments, or any thing that might attract its notice. It frequents the sea coast in autumn in considerable numbers, for the purpose of feeding on fish. In size it is between the Grizzly and the Black Bear. The Black Bear of North America is different from the European animal of the same name. It has a milder disposi- tion, and lives more on vegetables : its favourite food is the different kinds of ber- ries, and it will not, except from necessity, subsist on animal substances. The Cin- namon Bear of the traders, and found in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, is consi- dered only an accidental variety of the Black Bear. Of the Deer kind there are several species not found in the old continent. The Moose Deer resembles- the Elk of Europe, but is of a different species; it is the largest of the Deer kind found in America, and perhaps in the world, being in height to the shoulder full six feet, and weighs when full grown from 1000 to 1200 pounds; it is a solitary animal, and the most shy and wary of all the Deer species : it was formerly found as far south as the Ohio River, but now occurs most frequently in the countries north of the great lakes and in the unsettled parts of Canada, and also occasionally in the northern sections of New Hampshire, Maine, &c. The Wapiti or American Elk is second in size only to the Moose, and formerly ranged over all the middle parts of the continent : it is now found only in the remote western districts of the United States and Canada, and also west of the Rocky Mountains. The size and appearance of the Elk are imposing ; his air denotes confidence of great strength, while his towering horns exhibit weapons capable of doing much injury when offensively employed. The Elk is shy and retiring, and has very acute senses; the flesh is highly prized as food, and the horns when in a soft state are considered a delicacy. The Indians make bows of the perfect horn, which are highly serviceable from their elasticity ; and from their skins they prepare various articles of dress, and apply them also to other purposes. The Caribou, or American Reindeer, is a different species from the Reindeer of the old continent; it is found in all the high northern latitudes of North America, and has never been domesticated or used as a beast of draught by the natives, being considered only as game ; there are two species, the Wood- land and the Barren Ground Caribou. The Virginia Deer is one of the most ele- 124 NORTH AMERICA. gant of the American animals of its class ; it lives in large herds, and is found over a considerable portion of North America; it is said to display great enmity to the Rattlesnake, which it contrives to crush by leaping with its fore-feet con- joined and dropping perpendicularly on the serpent, bounding away with great lightness, and repeating this attack until his enemy is destroyed. One species of Antelope, the prong-horned, is peculiar to America ; it is a graceful and fleet animal, so swift that it seems rather to fly than leap from rock to rock in the rugged regions which it inhabits ; they live in small families, and are found in the vast plain of the Missouri and Saskatchawan, in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains. The American Bison, or Buffalo, once common in the United States, has gra- dually disappeared before the white population ; it now only exists to the west of the Mississippi, and roams over the vast grassy plains in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains; here it is found in immense herds, amounting, it is said, oftentimes to from 5000 to 10,000 head ; the flesh is tender and juicy, and the tongue and hump, or wig, are in particular esteemed great delicacies. The Musk Ox derives its name from its flesh, when in a lean state, smelling strongly of that substance. It is truly an Arctic animal, being found only in the barren lands beyond the Great Slave Lake, and as far north as Melville Island in 75°. In size the Musk Ox scarcely equals that of the small Highland cattle, the carcase when cleaned not weighing more than 3 cwt. ; it assembles in herds and flees at the' sight of man; it is much hunted both by the Indians and Esquimaux. Herds of wild Horses roam over the great plains on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, and like those existing under similar circumstances in the southern continent, are the offspring of the European animal, imported soon after the first settlement of the country. They are found from Texas to the plains of the Sas- katchawan, and are of great importance to the Nomadic Tribes, who train them not only for transporting their tents and families from place to place, but also for the purposes of war, the chase, and of food ; the flesh of the horse being thus mostly used by the Spokains and several other tribes, and likewise at times by the residents of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts on the Columbia River »and its branches. A few individuals of the Wild Horse purchased by citizens of the United States from the Indians, have been found remarkable for their speed and bottom. Of the Cat kind this continent contains several species, all equally remarkable, like their congeners of the old world, for the beauty and diversity of their colour, and the treachery of their disposition. The cougar, or puma, called also the pan- Aher, is the largest and most formidable of its class found in North America ; it is about one-third less in size than the lion, and of sufficient strength to carry a man up a tree ; though now rare in the more settled parts of the continent, it is occa- sionally met with in the remote districts of the United States. It preys upon calves, sheep, &c, but has also been known to attack man. The jaguar, an ani- mal of the cat kind, resembling the panther, is found, though rarely, in Mexico ; also the ocelet and tiger-cat. The Rocky Mountain sheep and goat inhabit the same range of mountains from which they derive their name ; the latter is about the size of the domestic sheep, its fleece hanging down on both sides like that of the merino breed, the hair is long and straight, coarser than that of the sheep, but finer than that of the domestic goat; the Rocky Mountain sheep is larger than any domestic sheep; the horns of the ram are immense, in some of the old ones so much so as to prevent the animal's feeding on level ground. The hair is like that of the reindeer, at first short, fine and flexible, but as the winter advances it becomes coarse, dry and brittle, though it feels soft ; it is then so close as to become erect ; they collect in flocks from three to thirty, the young rams and females herding together, while the old rams form separate flocks. The principal fur-bearing animals of North America are the beaver, musquash, or muskrat, pine-marten, pekan, or fisher, the Canada lynx, raccoon, and stoat, or ermine. These animals are all diligently hunted, both by Indians and the inha- bitants of those settled parts of the continent in which any of them are yet found ; NORTH AMERICA. 125 their skins make an important item of export to Europe, particularly from Canada ; some of these animals are evidently decreasing with great rapidity. The well known beaver is now almost exclusively confined to Canada and the north-west districts of America; even here, however, their numbers are daily diminishing- In the year 1743 the imports of beaver skins into the ports of London and Ro- chelle exceeded 150,000 ; in 1827 the import, though from four times the extent of fur country known in 1743, was less than 50,000; of the musquash, between 400,000 and 500,000 skins are annually exported from Canada, and of the pine- marten 100,000 skins ; the latter are used for trimmings, and will dye so well as to imitate sables and other expensive furs, hence they have always been an im- portant article of commerce. The sea-otter also furnishes a large amount of valuable furs, principally to the Russians on the north-west coast. The dog kind exhibits several varieties not found in other parts of the world ; of these the Newfoundland dog is remarkable for its sagacity, great bulk and strength. The Esquimaux dog, also a large variety, is very useful to the Esqui- maux and the traders in drawing their furs and baggage. The North American dog is used in the Hudson's Bay countries both as a beast of draught and in the chase, and also for food, its flesh being esteemed by the Canadian voyagers, or canoe-men, superior to all other. Foxes and wolves abound in most parts of the central and northern regions of the continent ; of the former there are the arctic, sooty, cross, black, gray, and red fox, and of the latter, the Mexican, the gray, red, black, dusky, and barking, or prairie-wolf. Of the opossum, found from Pennsylvania to Brazil, there are several species, of which the Virginia, or common opossum, is well known in the United States ; also, the skunk, marmots of different species, squirrels, hares, and a great variety of other smaller animals. The whale species are numerous on the northern coasts ; the most useful and remarkable are the common and spermaceti whale, and the narwhale, or sea- unicorn. The common seal frequents the sea coasts perhaps throughout the world., but is in North America most numerous in high northern latitudes, and is of the greatest use to the Esquimaux and other inhabitants of those frozen regions, furnishing them with all the necessaries of life ; they are of various kinds, as the hooded, harp, fetid, ursine, and great seal. Most of the Birds of North America, and especially those of the United States, are now rendered as familiar to the European naturalist as those of his own coun- try ; for they have been more ably and more fully illustrated than those of any part of the world. Rapacious birds are here as numerous as in other parts of the earth, and of a great many different species, including eagles, vultures, hawks, falcons, owls, &c. The white-headed or bald-headed eagle is well known as be- ing the chosen emblem of our own republic. It is common to both continents ; but, while it seems almost entirely confined to the arctic regions of the old world, it abounds in the milder regions of the United States, in the new. It is notorious for its lawless habits; robbing the fish-hawk of his hard-won victim, and even compelling the vulture to disgorge its filthy prey. The vultures are the great Californian vulture, black vulture, and turkey buzzard. The first seems to be con- fined to California and the adjoining regions west of the Rocky Mountains : they build their nests in the most secret parts of the pine forests : they measure from four to four and a half feet in length. Their food is carrion or dead fish, and they will in no instance attack any living animal, unless it be wounded and unable to walk. In searching for their prey, they soar to a great height; and, on discover- ing a wounded deer or other animal, they follow its track until it sinks disabled to the ground. Although only one bird may be first in possession, it is eoori sur- rounded by great numbers, who all fall upon the carcase, and devour it to a skele ton within an hour, even though it be a horse or a stag. The black vulture and turkey buzzard are both well known and numerous in the southern States of our Union, where, notwithstanding their filthy habits, they are protected by law and common usage, being of great utility in devouring putrid animal matter which would otherwise be highly offensive and injurious. The wild turkey is peculiar to America: it is a fine large bird, of brilliant 11* blacl NORTH AMERICA. blackish plumage. It breods'with the domestic one; and when the latter is reared near the range of the former, it is sure to be enticed into the woods by it. Of this bird, Dr. Franklin observed, it would have been a much fitter emblem of our country than the white-headed eagle, a lazy, cowardly, tyrannical bird, living on the labours of others, and more suited to represent an imperial despotic govern ment than the republic of America. Of the duck kind, of which there are many species, the best-known is the can vas-back. It is peculiar to America, and is more celebrated than any other for the excellent flavour of its flesh : they are found mostly in Chesapeake Bay and the neighbouring rivers. In winter, they are occasionally so numerous as to cover the water to the extent of several acres: this bird is an expert diver, and lives on the bulbous root of a w T ater-grass resembling garden celery in taste, to which is attributed its peculiar flavour: they dive in from 6 to 8 feet of water, and are frequently attended by the widgeon, or bald-pate duck, who never dives himself, but watches the rising of the canvas-back, and, before he has his eyes well opened, snatches the delicious morsel from his mouth and makes off: on this account, the two species live in continual contention. Perhaps the most characteristic of American birds is the humming-bird, re> markable alike for its diminutive size and the brilliant metallic lustre of its plu- mage : they are most numerous in South America, but are found in the northern continent as far north as 45°. Vast flights of pigeons migrate periodically to different parts of the continent, frequently extending for many miles on each side, darkening the entire atmo- sphere, and often requiring four or five days to pass over a particular place. Of the birds of game, the principal are the grouse, pheasant, partridge, &c. The species of grouse are more numerous, and entirely distinct from those of Eu- rope. The largest and most valuable is the Cock of the Plains. Some other of the peculiar American birds are the mocking-bird, blue jay, and whip-poor-will. Parrots and parroquets abound in Mexico ; and in the United States there is one species of parrot. The seas, lakes, and rivers of North America swarm with a great variety of delicious fish. The cod, so well known in commerce, is found only in the north- ern seas. Their great rendezvous is on the Bank of Newfoundland and other sand-banks that lie off the coasts of the northern parts of the United States: these situations they prefer on account of the number of worms produced in those sandy bottoms, which tempt them to resort there for food. Some conception may be formed of their amazing fecundity, from the fact that nearly ten millions of eggs have been counted in one fish of a moderate size. The mackerel and alewife fisheries, along the coasts of the United States, also give employment and food to great numbers of persons. The shad is taken in large quantities in all the rivers of the Atlantic States, and in the proper season is highly esteemed. The salmon is also found in the northern rivers of the United States and Canada, on both sides of the continent, and is especially plentiful in Columbia River. The white-fish, or titameg of the traders, is caught in all the great lakes from Canada to the Arctic Ocean. It is a delicious article of food, and as many as 900 barrels have been taken at a single fishery on Lake Superior. The Reptiles of America are numerous, and, like the generality of this class in other parts of the world, the majority are apparently useless, and some dangerous. In North America, the alligator does not occur north of the Carolinas and the Red River of Louisiana. In severe winters he buries himself in the mud, and lies in a torpid state. The rattlesnakes are peculiar to the New World, and are particularly formidable on account of the deadly v'enom of their bite. There are four or five species of this reptile, all of which reach the length of five or six feet. The common species of the United States is extremely numerous about the sources of the Columbia River. There are several kinds of land tortoises, but they are all of a moderate size. Some curious salamanders have been recently discovered, and the celebrated siren is an inhabitant of the muddy lakes of Georgia and South Carolina. This sin- NORTH AMERICA. 127 gular reptile has long perplexed naturalists, some thinking it a tadpole or imper- fect frog; it is now, however, fully ascertained to be an adult animal. The aboriginal Americans all constitute, at the present day, by their physical characters not less than by their languages, a race different from those known before the discovery of America, and preserve throughout this vast extent of coun- try and variety of climates, the same essential characteristics. They have a cop- per colour, resembling that of rusty iron or cinnamon, coarse, straight, black hair, high cheek-bones, and sunken eyes; it has been affirmed that they are without beards, but it is well ascertained that this is not the case naturally, but that most of them take great pains to pluck them out. Almost all the Indians near Mexico, and those on the north-west coast, wear mustachios. The American Indians are generally erect and of fine forms, with few instances of decrepitude or deformity ; they have cleaner limbs, not so muscular, and with less tendency to corpulence, than the whites. As a race they have countenances that are generally unjoyous, stern and ruminating; it is with them either gloomy taciturnity or bacchanalian revel. Their impassible fortitude and endurance of suffering, their contempt of pain and death, invest their character with a kind of moral grandeur. It is to be doubted, however, whether some part of his vaunted stoicism be not the result of a more than ordinary degree of physical insensibility. Like all ignorant people unable to trace the relation between results and causes, they are beyond all other superstitious. It may be laid down as an universal trait of Indian character. The warrior who braves death a thousand times, and in every form in the fury of battle, carries with him to the combat a little charmed bag of filthy and disgusting ingre- dients, in which he places no little reliance or security against the balls and arrows that are directed against him ; all savages in this region are hospitable : j even the enemy whom they would have sought and slain far from their cabins, who presents himself fearlessly there, claims and receives their hospitality. They accord to the cabin hearth the honours and the sanctity of an asylum. Since the introduction of the horse by Europeans, many of the Indian tribes have acquired an astonishing degree of skill in the management of that noble ani- mal ; among these are the Pawnees, the Comanches, the Sioux, the Apaches, Shoshonees, Enneshoors, and other tribes : some of these have also borrowed the use of fire-arms from their European neighbours, but in general they have rejected the arts of peace and civilization. Perhaps there is no tribe among the American Indians so degraded that it has not some notion of a higher power than man, and in general they seem to have entertained the idea of a Great Spirit as a master of life, in short, a Creator, and of an Evil Spirit, holding divided empire with him over nature; many of them have priests, prophets, and sorcerers, in whose supernatural powers they trust, and most, if not all, appear to believe in a future state ; many attempts have been made by benevolent persons to convert the aboriginal tribes to the christian reli- gion, to teach them the arts of peace and civilized life, and to train them to habits of industry ; but so little has been the effect of those efforts, that many do not hesitate to pronounce it impossible to engraft the European civilization on the Indian character. Some doubtful exceptions to this general failure of the attempts to effect the civilization of the Indians occur in the United States, where some of the Cherokees and other tribes hold property, cultivate the ground, and practise the useful arts. There are some circumstances which invest the present missionary efforts with stronger probabilities of success than any that have preceded them. The number of Indians that are half-breeds, or mixtures of the blood of the whites, is great, and continually increasing. These generally espouse, either from conviction or from party feeling, the cause of civilization and Christianity. It is more univer- sally believed than it once was, that Christianity is the religion of social and civilized man. Instead of relying much on the hope of the conversion of adult hunting and warrior savages, the effort is chiefly directed towards the young. Schools, the loom, the anvil, and the plough, are sent to them ; amidst the romliirt, stability and plenty of cultivation, they are to be imbued with a taste for civilized 128 RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. institutions, arts, industry, and religion ; at the same time every philanthropic man will wish these efforts of benevolence all possible success. North America is politically divided into the Republics of the United States, Texas, Mexico, and Guatemala, which occupy the central and southern parts of the continent. The northern, the eastern, and central parts, contain the pos- sessions of Great Britain ; and the extreme north-western section those claimed by Russia, The following estimates of the areas in square miles, and the popu- lation of the respective divisions at the present time, is probably as near an approxi- mation to the truth as circumstances will permit : Square Miles. Population. United States 2,300,000 15,500,000 Texas 200,000 50,000 Mexico 1,450,000 8,000,000 Guatemala 200,000 2,000,000 British Possessions 2,360,000 1,360,000 ' Russian Possessions.. . . 650,000 50,000 7,160,000 26,960,000 Of the population the white inhabitants are supposed to amount to 15^ millions; the aborigines, or Indians, to 6$ millions ; and 5 millions 860 thousand are of ne- gro and mixed races. RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. That part of North America claimed by Russia is a territory of considerable extent, and comprises the north-western portion of the continent, being that part of it adjacent to Asia; it is bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, east by the Brit- ish possessions, from which it is separated by the 141° of longitude, west from Greenwich ; south by the Pacific Ocean and the Oregon Territory ; west by Bhnring's Strait and the Pacific Ocean. The coast seems to be chiefly alpine, in some parts rising into snow-capped summits, of which the most remarkable moun- tain is St. Elias; it is probably a volcanic peak, and is elevated to the height of 17,850 feet above the level of the sea, and is said to be visible 50 leagues from the coast. In this region there are computed to be 1000 white inhabitants, who are mostly traders ; the savages are estimated at near 50,000 ; they barter the furs obtained in hunting with the Russians, for fire-arms, beads, tobacco, and other articles. The Russians have a number of factories, or trading establishments, on various parts of the coast : the principal of these are at Sitcha, or New Arch- angel, Kodiak, and Oonalaska. The Aleoutian Islands may be considered as belonging to this region ; they form a long and numerous group, extending westward from the Peninsula of Ali- aska to Kamtschatka. They appear to be a continuation of the lofty volcanic ranges which traverse the opposite regions of the two continents. These islands are inhabited by a race sharing, in a measure, the features and aspect of the Mon- gols and Esquimaux. Considered as savages, they are mild in their manners and deportment, and display a considerable degree of industry and ingenuity : they dwell in large subterranean mansions, or rather villages, partitioned into numerous apartments, and containing from 50 to 100, or even 150 inhabitants. These abodes, covered with turf, are almost on a level with the surrounding country, from which they are scarcely to be distinguished. Sitcha, or New Archangel, on one of the islands belonging to the Archipelago of George III. may be considered the capital of the territories of Russia on this continent; it is a village of about 1000 inhabitants, the houses of which, includ- ing the fortifications and public buildings, are built of wood, and are neat and well kept. The management of the trade at this and the other ports, has been inju- diciously vested by the Russian government in an exclusive company, resident at BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 129 ' Irkoutsk. The grand object of their trade is to collect the skins of the sea-otter j and other animals, for the market of Canton, where they are in very extensive demand. The annual value of the furs drawn by Russia from her North Ameri- can possessions has been estimated at $200,000. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. The possessions of Great Britain irt North America are an assemblage of vast ill-defined and straggling; territories, the remnant of that mighty empire of which the great revolution deprived her. Even in their present dismembered state, how- ever, their extent and capabilities might, and probably will, enable them one day to surpass some of the greatest of the now existing European monarchies. This country, taken in its full extent, is bounded north by the Arctic Sea, east by the Atlantic Ocean and Baffin's Bay, south by the United States and the At- lantic Ocean, and west by the American possessions of Russia. Its area is equal to about that of the United States. About one tenth part only of this vast terri- tory is as yet settled by a civilized population. The actual occupation by white settlers extends along the northern, and, in the lower part of its course, the south- ern, bank of the St. Lawrence, the northern shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, and, in part, the eastern coasts of Lake Huron : it reachrs, though only in some instances, thirty or forty miles into the interior. The Company which en- joys the exclusive trade of Hudson's Bay, maintains several forts on its western shore; they have also small forts on the leading lakes and rivers of the interior, called Houses, where they are secure against the attack of the Indians scattered over the expanse of these desolate wilds, and can form a store of the articles ne- cessary for the fur trade. Beyond this occupancy they have not attempted to ex- ercise any jurisdiction, nor, as has lately appeared, could a peaceable colony form itself without imminent danger from these rude tenants of the wild. The climate is very severe, much exceeding what is felt under the same lati- tude in the old continent. Lower Canada for six and Upper Canada for five months of the year have a mean temperature below the freezing point, and are buried in perpetual snow ; yet after that period the sun breaks out with such force, that large crops of the most valuable grain can be raised on the great extent of fertile land of which the territory consists. Upper Canada is finely watered, clad with immense forests of valuable timber, and contains about ten millions of acres capable of culture. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are well wooded countries, but less fertile; and though the winters are less severe, the heavy fogs that pre- vail for a great part of the year are still more disagreeable than the frosts and snows of Canada. The river St. Lawrence is the principal feature of this region, and one of the noblest river channels in the world. It is difficult to say* where it begins. It has been held to issue from Lake Superior, a vast body of water, fed by about fifty streams, of which the St. Louis and Grand Portage Rivers are the principal; but, in fact, the lakes are merely connected by short canals, through which the surplus waters of one are poured into the other. These canals bear the local names of St. Clair, Detroit, Niagara, &c. The last is distinguished by its falls, the most magnificent in the world. From Lake Ontario to Montreal the river is broken by a succession of rocks, cataracts, and rapids, which render navigation very danger- ous. It is after passing Montreal that it rolls in full grandeur in a deep continu- ous channel, conveying large ships and rafts down to Quebec. The navigation is blocked up for half the year by the ice, which even in spring encumbers it for some weeks with floating fragments. The other rivers of Lower Canada are its tributaries. On the north are the Utawas and the Saguenay, large navigable rivers flowing through a region little known : the former is supposed to have a course of about 600 miles, but its navi- gation is much interrupted by rapids; the latter i3 remarkable for its great depth 130 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. and width, and is navigable for 90 miles to its falls; for the distance of about 50 miles it has the appearance of a long mountain lake. Tbe St. Maurice is also a considerable stream from the north, and the Montmorency, which falls into the St. Lawrence, is celebrated for its beautiful cataract, which pours a large* volume of water over a precipitous ledge. On the south are the St. Francis ; the Chau- diere, with a fine cascade rushing down a precipice 100 feet in height; and tbe Sorelle or Richelieu, the outlet of Lake Champlain. The Thames, flowing into Lake St. Clair, and the Ouse, are the principal rivers of Upper Canada. The St. John, which rises in Maine, is navigable 80 miles by sea vessels, but its course is much broken by falls and rapids. The Miramichi is the other principal river of New Brunswick. Lakes, in Canada, are on a greater scale than in any other part of the world ; and the united chain forms a vast inland sea of fresh water. The largest of these, and the largest fresh-water lake in the world, is Lake Superior, which is 420 miles in length by 170 in breadth ; having a circuit of 1500 miles, and covering an area of 35,000 square miles. It discharges its waters through the river or Strait of St. Mary, 50 miles long, into Lake Huron, which likewise receives those of Lake Michigan. Lake Huron is 280 miles in length, and 90 in breadth, ex- clusive of the large bay on the north-eastern shore, called Georgian Bay, which is about 80 miles in length by 50 in breadth. An outlet, called the river St. Clair, expands, after a course of 40 miles, into a lake of the same name, 24 miles in length, and 30 in breadth, which again contracts, and enters Lake Erie under the name of the river Detroit, 25 miles in length. Lake Erie, the next link in this great chain, is 270 miles in length, by from 25 to 50 in breadth. The river Nia- gara, 36 miles long, carries its surplus waters over a perpendicular precipice 165 feet high, into Lake Ontario, which is about 190 miles in length, by 40 in breadth. The surface of Lake Superior is about 625 feet above the level of the sea ; its medium depth 900 feet; the descent to Lake Huron is by the Sault or Fall of St. Mary 23 feet, and by rapids and the gradual descent of the river, 21 feet, giving 580 feet for the elevation of the surface of Lake Huron, whose depth is equal to that of Lake Superior. Lake Erie is much shallower, not exceeding a mean of 120 feet, and having its surface 560 feet above high water, while Lake Ontario has a depth of 500 feet, and its surface is 330 lower than that of Lake Erie. The waters of these lakes are clear and potable, and they abound with fish, among which are trout, weighing from 75 to 100 pounds, sturgeon, white fish, pike, bass, &c. They are navigable by large vessels, and a great number of steamboats na- vigate their waters. Lake Simcoe, which is connected with Lake Huron, is already disturbed by the plash of the steamboat. Lake Nepissing is a considerable body of water, which a rapid and broken stream unites with Lake Huron. In the interior, are several smaller lakes, of which the principal is the Lake of the Woods, whose winding shores are 300 miles in circumference. Farther to the north-west is Lake Winnipeek. The name signifies muddy, and is descriptive of its waters. There is a water communication with Lake Superior by the rivers Winnipeek and La Pluie. Still farther to the north-west, a number of lakes ex- tend nearly in a line, at various distances from each other, connected by a water communication, except in two or three cases, where portages or carrying-places intervene. This is the principal navigable route to the waters of the Arctic Sea, and is much frequented by the fur traders during the short period of summer in these regions. The principal divisions of British America are New Britain, with the provinces of Upper Canada, Lower Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and Newfoundland. The constitution of government for the provinces has been modelled on that of the mother country. Each province has a governor and a legislative council ap- pointed by the crown, and a house of commons or representatives chosen by the inhabitants, upon moderate qualifications. The government of Canada was ad- ministered by a governor and council appointed by the crown, until 1791, when the constitutional act divided the country into two provinces, and established a constitutional government for each. In Lower Canada, the legislative council is BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 131 appointed for life, and consists of 34 members; and the house of assembly, elected for four years, is composed of 88 members. In Upper Canada, the chief execu- tive officer is styled lieutenant-governor: the legislative council consists of 17 members, and the house of assembly of 50. Bills passed by the two houses be- come a law when agreed to by the governor ; though, in certain cases, the royal sanction is required, and in others reference must be had to the imperial parlia- ment. The supreme legislative authority is vested therefore in the king and the two houses of the British Parliament, limited, however, by their own acts. The act 31 Geo. III. ch. 13, declares that no taxes shall be imposed on the colonies but for the regulation of trade, and that the proceeds of such taxes shall be ap- plied for the use of the province, in such manner as shall be directed by any laws made by his Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Coun- cil, and the House of Assembly. This point is one of the chief causes of the dis- satisfaction in the Canadas ; the colonists demanding the exclusive control over the money raised within the provinces. In Lower Canada trial by jury is univer- sal in criminal cases, but a very small proportion of the civil cases are tried in this manner. Law proceedings are in French and English ; and it is not unusual to have half the jury English and the other half French. In Upper Canada the laws are wholly English, as is also the case in the other provinces. The consti- tutions of the other provinces also resemble that of Upper Canada. The revenue of Lower Canada is about $800,000 ; and of Upper Canada $500,000. These sums form the public resources of the provinces, and are em- ployed in the current expenses of the provincial governments. Upper Canada has a debt of between three and four millions, contracted for public work, roads, canals, &c. The expenditure of the British government, out of the imperial'reve- nues, was for the two provinces, in 1834, £263,250 ; of which £5893 was for civil, and the remainder for military purposes ; and for the other four North Ame- rican colonies, for the same year, £162,312 ; of which all but £20,435 was for naval and military purposes : their revenue, during the same period, amounted to £186,680. The natural resources of British America are more ample than would be infer- red from its dreary aspect and the vast snows under which it is buried. Canada has a very fertile soil, especially in its upper colony ; and though it be free from snow only during five months of the year, the heat of that period is sufficient to ripen the most valuable kinds of grain. The vast uncleared tracts are covered with excellent timber. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are less fertile, yet they contain much good land, and are well timbered. Newfoundland has on its shores the most valuable cod-fishery in the world. Even the immense northern wastes are covered with a profusion of animals, noted for their rich and beautiful furs, which form the foundation of an extensive and valuable trade. The commerce of British America is of vast importance : the fur trade, the original object for opening an intercourse with this part of the world, was carried on in the first place, chiefly from the shores of Hudson's Bay ; but it was there injudiciously placed in the hands of an exclusive company, which greatly diminished its ac- tivity. Upwards of forty years ago some enterprising merchants of Montreal established the North-west Company, who, employing numerous and active agents, carried on their business with spirit and enterprise. The eager rivalry of the two com- panies, operating in regions beyond the pale of law, gave birth to many deeds of fraud and violence : within these few years, however, an union has healed the deadly enmity between them, and, by acting in concert, they have determined to diminish the issue of ardent spirits, and even to adopt every practical means for the moral and religious improvement of the Indians. The furs exported from Quebec, for 1831, amounted in value to £211,000. The timber trade, the value of which thirty years ago did not exceed £32,000, has now surpassed all others in magnitude. The timber is obtained from the im- mense forests on the shores of the great interior lakes. The trees are cut down during the winter by American axemen, who are peculiarly skilful ; and the busi- ness is attended with great hardship, both from the work itself, and the incle- 132 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. mency of the season. The trees, when felled, are put together into immense rafts, which are floated down the St. Lawrence to Quebec. The Canada mer- chants lately estimated the capital invested in this business at £1,250,000. It is also carried on to a great extent from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and even from Cape Breton. The exports to all quarters amounted, in 1831, to £1,038,000 sterling : other articles, the produce chiefly of agriculture, amounted, in the year 1831, to £656,584. The shipping employed between England and her American colonies was, in 1829, inwards 1609, of 431,124 tons ; outwards 1652 ships, of 418,142 tons. The value of the imports into Britain, in 1829, was £1,088,622 ; of the exports £2,064,126. To the West Indies the colonies export, of their timber and agri- cultural staples, to a considerable amount, and receive in return the well known produce of these Islands ; and with the United States Canada holds a great inter- course across Lake Champlain, sending mostly salt and peltries; and in return taking chiefly tea, tobacco, and other luxuries, clandestinely, which the strict colo- nial rules would require her to receive from the mother country. The fishery is pursued upon these shores, to an extent not surpassed anywhere, else upon the globe. The rich supply of cod in the Newfoundland banks is wholly unparalleled : although all the nations of Europe have been lading cargoes of fish for centuries, no sensible diminution of them has been felt. The English employ about 40,000 tons of shipping, and 3000 men, in this fishery: in 1831, they exported in fish, oil, and seal-skins, to the amount of £834,182; and the Americans and French, in the same year, exported, the latter, to upwards of £257,250 in value, and the former, to the amount of £425,000. The interior communications of Canada are almost solely by the river St. Law- rence and the lakes, which open a very extensive navigation into the country. It is seriously obstructed, however, between Montreal and Lake Ontario, where a series of rapids occur, over which only canoes can shoot, and all heavy goods must be landed and shipped. Great exertions have been made to improve, by canals, the interior communications of Canada. The chief object has been to obviate the continual series of obstructions in the navigation of the St. Lawrence River, above Montreal. One canal has been constructed from that city to La Chine, a distance of eight miles, at an expense of £130,000 : another is the Greenville canal, eight miles long, constructed to avoid certain obstructions in the navigation of the Lower Utawas River. The principal operation, however, is the Rideau canal, reaching from the Utawas River to Kingston. It is 135 miles long, connecting together a chain of lakes, which admit of steam navigation ; and the dimensions are such as to allow vessels of from 100 to 125 tons to pass. The estimated expense was £486,000. The enterprise of private individuals has con- structed the Welland canal ; which, at an expense of £270,000, has united the lakes Ontario and Erie. It is 42 miles long, and is more capacious than the New York canal : it will allow vessels of 125 tons to pass through. The Chambly canal opens a navigation, by the Sorelle River, from Lake Champlain to the St, Lawrence. Area in square miles. Population. New Britain 1,900,000 60,000 Upper Canada 140,000 360,000 Lower Canada 237,000 535,000 New Brunswick 27,000 100,000 Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton 18,900 190,000 Prince Edward's Island 2,100 35,000 Newfoundland 35,000 80,000 Total 2,360,000 1,360,000 NEW BRITAIN. 133 NEW BRITAIN. New Britain is that large portion of British America situated north of the Canadas and the United States, and stretching northward to the dreary and deso- late shores of the Arctic Sea. It comprises Labrador, New North and New South Wales, Prince William's Land, Boothia Felix, lately discovered by Captain Ross, and the North Georgia Islands. Hudson's Bay divides the country into two great divisions : on the east is Labrador and East Main, and on the west New North and New South Wales ; these have been farther subdivided, by the traders of the Hudson's Bay Company, into various smaller districts, which are, however, of no political importance. The face of the country is generally a vast plain, intersected with numerous lakes and rivers, eome of which roll into the unexplored seas of the north, and others into Hudson's Bay : among the former are the Mackenzie, the Copper Mine, and Thleweecho, or Great Fish River, lately explored by Captain Back ; and into the latter the principal are Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany Rivers. The interior streams are the Saskatchewan, Winnipeek, and Red River, flowing into Lake Winnipeek ; and the Athabasca and Peace Rivers, emptying into Lake Athabasca : these may properly be considered head branches of the Mackenzie, as their waters finally reach the ocean through its channel. The lakes are exceedingly numerous ; some are extensive, and second only to the great Canadian lakes, and affording, during the brief period of summer, a long and almost continuous canoe navigation from Lake Superior to the Arctic Sea. | Of these Winnipeek, or Muddy Lake, Athabasca Lake, Great Slave, and Great Bear Lakes, are the principal : they are situated in a range lying N. W. from each other, and afford, for a short period, an almost uninterrupted navigation from Lake Superior to the Arctic Ocean. Lake Winnipeek is 270 miles long, and from 15 to 18 broad : it receives numerous rivers and enjoys a considerable extent of canoe navigation. Athabasca Lake, lying between 500 and 600 miles N. W. of Lake Winnipeek, is in length about 200 miles, with a breadth of from 16 to 18 miles: it receives several large streams, and is connected, by Slave River, with Great Slave Lake, still farther to the N. W., which is one of the largest bodies of fresh water in North America, excepting Lakes Superior and Huron, and per- haps Lake Michigan. From Great Slave Lake flows Mackenzie's River, which, in its course to the ocean, receives, from the eastward, the water of the Great Bear Lake : it is about 200 miles in extent each way, and is deeply indented by several large peninsulas. In winter such is the severity of the climate in this region, that even in 57° the lakes freeze 8 feet thick; brandy and mercury congeal; the rocks sometimes split with a noise like that of the heaviest artillery, scattering the fragments to a great distance. The temperature is capricious and the changes sudden. The Au- rora Borealis sheds a light sometimes equal to that of the full moon. The vege- tation in the northern parts is very scanty, but adjoining the northern boundary of the United States there are some fertile spots along the Red River of Lake Winnipeek. Lord Selkirk purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company a terri- tory of 116,000 acres, and formed the settlements of Pembina and Assiniboia : the soil has been found tolerably fertile, but the great distance from a market, being 2800 miles from New Orleans, and 1900 from Buffalo, must long prevent it from rising to much importance. It has suffered severely from contests with the Indians, fomented by the jealousy of the fur-traders. Moreover, in consequence of the recent settlement of the boundary line with the United States, half of it has been included within their territory. The only trade in these regions is that of furs ; to facilitate which, the Hud- son's Bay Company have established forta and trading-houses in various quarters, extending from Hudson's Bay west into the territories claimed by the United States. On the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and to the north, almost to the Arc- tic Sea, from these forts, &c, agents are sent amongst the Indians to collect furs, j 12 134 NEW BRITAIN. in exchange for such European commodities as are prized by them. The furs exported, in 1832, from Hudson's Bay amounted to the value of £110,000. The coasts of Labrador, and indeed the whole of the northern parts of this region, from Greenland to Bhering's Strait, is inhabited by the Esquimaux, a race of savages who sustain existence chiefly by feeding on whales and seals, except in the more southern parts of Labrador : of the skins of the latter they make their boats and clothes, and of his sinews they make thread. They travel over the snow in sledges drawn by dogs, of which they have a very hardy and saga- cious breed, and will draw a considerable load 60 miles in a day. Their huts have been met with as far north as 76°. Little, squat, and feeble, the complexion of these polar men has little of the copper colour of the other American abori- gines, and is rather of a dirty, reddish yellow. Their summer huts are circular, covered with deer-skins, and entered by creeping on the belly. Yet these iso- lated and simple beings have been taught by necessity, many inventions, which are highly creditable to their ingenuity. They make their winter habitations of frozen snow, in a few hours, exceedingly comfortable, and which remain durable till melted by the heat of the ensuing summer. Some of the tribes have canoes, made of the skin of the sea-calf, with which they sail with amazing swiftness. They also work a gray and porous stone into neat pitchers and kettles, and those in the vicinity of Bhering's Strait display great ingenuity in the manufacture of trinkets and utensils of the fossil ivory, with which some parts of those regions abound. The Esquimaux met with by Captain Parry, in North Georgia, were exceeding lively and cheerful, more so than even the negro, the native of a sunny climate, and of a region producing spontaneously all the fruits of the earth. They are so fond of dancing that it seems almost their natural gait ; and they are always ready to return raillery or mimicry. They are, far more than the Indians, a social and domestic people. This is apparent in their good treatment to females, and their care and affection for their children. Among these people, on the coast of Labra- dor, the Moravian missionaries have established several settlements ; Nain, Okkak, Hopedale, &c, and have, besides teaching them many useful things, built a ma- gazine, in which each of the natives might deposite his useless stores, prevailing on them to set apart a tenth for widows and orphans. This is the true way to convert a savage people, by showing them the palpable fruits of the gospel. The Indians occupying this region are principally the Assiniboines, Kniste- neaux, or Crees, Chippewayans, Beaver, Hare, Dog-rib, Copper Indians, &c. The Assiniboines are a tribe of Sioux ; they are divided into several smaller tribes, as the Black-foot, Fall, and Blood Indians, &c. They rear many horses, and subsist chiefly on the buffalo. The Knisteneaux, or Crees, inhabit a wide extent of country in the vicinity of Lake Athabasca : they were once numerous, but are now reduced to about 500 in number ; they are a well-formed race, and their women are the handsomest of all the Indian females ; they are hospitable, generous, and mild, when not infuriated by spirits ; they do not, however, consider chastity a virtue, and are not unkind to their women. The Chippewayans live to the north of the latter, and near the Great Slave Lake : their appearance is singular, with high projecting cheek-bones, broad faces, and wide nostrils ; they are persevering, incorrigible beggars, yet not dishonest, and so deeply imbued with national pride, that, while they give to other nations their proper names, they call themselves, by way of eminence, the people ; amongst them the lot of the female is grievous, and mothers have been known to destroy their female offspring that it might escape the same servitude. Aged and sick people are abandoned to perish. They are said to be the same people as the Chippeways of the United States, and are much reduced in numbers. The Cop- per, Hare, and Dog-rib Indians, occupy the country north of Great Bear Lake ; they much resemble the Chippewayans, but are* of a more friendly and amiable disposition ; their humanity and faithful attachment were experienced by the recent travellers (Captain Franklin, &c.) in those regions, on occasions of extreme dis- tress. UPPER CANADA. 135 UPPER CANADA. Upper Canada, commencing at Lake St. Francis, above Montreal, extends along the whole chain of the great lakes, almost to the western boundary of Lake Superior. Until 1781 it was a mere district attached to Quebec, at which period I a number of American loyalists and disbanded soldiers were settled in it, and the name of Upper Canada bestowed. Comparatively but a small part of this province is settled, and many portions of it are yet unexplored. The settlements are chiefly along the rivers St. Lawrence and Utawas, and lakes Erie and Ontario. The soil is in general excellent, and yields abundant crops of grain, wheat, Indian corn, hops, flax, (fee. Cultivation, in Upper Canada, is still in an incipient state, but is rapidly ad- vancing in consequence of the influx of British settlers. Government, for some time, allowed to every settler, fifty or even a hundred acres of land, upon pay- ment of fees amounting to about a shilling per acre ; but since 1827 the lands have been disposed of by public auction. Among emigrants possessed of capital, a great proportion have of late made their purchases from the Canada Company. This body, incorporated in 1826, bought from government, tracts of land equal to 2,300,000 acres, for which they engaged to pay the sum of £295,000, by sixteen annual instalments. These lands are dispersed through every part of Upper Canada; but the largest portion, amounting to about a million of acres, and ex- tending about sixty miles in length, is along the eastern shore of Lake Huron. The Company found towns and villages, form roads, and lay out the ground in convenient lots, and have agents on the spot, who afford every information and aid to emigrants. The climate of Upper Canada is salubrious, and epidemic diseases almost un- known. The winters are shorter and less rigorous than in the lower province : the spring opens, and agricultural labours commence, from six weeks to two months earlier than in the neighbourhood of Quebec. The summer heats are also more moderate, and the autumn pleasant and favourable for securing the produce of all the late crops. Population is advancing with great rapidity : it has hitherto been confined to the St. Lawrence and the shores of the lakes, but is now becom- ing more diffused over the interior. New towns are extending in the fertile for- est, some of which, in rapidity of increase, vie with those of the United States. Great extents of fertile land are yet unoccupied, and the parent country is fur- nishing every facility for transporting to these forests her surplus population, great numbers of whom, however, finally make their way to the United States. Toronto and Kingston, on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, are the two principal towns of Upper Canada. Toronto, formerly York, near the north-west end of the lake, owes ite support to its being tho ooat of government and of the courts, and to the extensive settlement recently formed to the north and east of it. Population 10,000. Kingston, near the north-east point of the lake, has a commodious harbour, and is a neat little town with about 5000 inhabitants. Some of the other towns on Lake Ontario are Cobourg, Port Hope, and Hamilton. On the Niagara River are the villages of Niagara, Queenstown, and Chippewa. Sandwich, in the western part of the province, and, opposite to Detroit, is a thriving little town ; as is also London, on the Thames, with a population of 2000 inhabitants. On the east shore of Lake Huron is the neat and flourishing town of Goderich, with a good harbour at the mouth of the Maitland River ; and at the bottom of Lake Manitouline, or Georgian Bay, is Penetanguishene, a British naval station, from which a steamboat runs occasionally to St. Joseph's Island, at the west end of the lake, on which is kept a small detachment of British troops. Upper Canada is divided into 11 districts, which are subdivided into 25 coun- ties. It is bounded on the north-east by Lower Canada, north by New Britain, west and south by the United States. The lines of division are, from Lower Canada, the Utawas River; from New Britain, an imaginary line separating the waters flowing into the lakes from those of Hudson's Bay ; and, from the United 136 LOWER CANADA. States, a nominal line extending through the centre of Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie and Ontario, and their connecting streams, and thence down the middle of the River St. Lawrence to Lake St. Francis, and thence north-west and north-east to the Utawas River. In this province is exhibited one of the most sublime and magnificent of Na- ture's works, by the Niagara river. The accumulated waters flowing from four great lakes and all their tributaries, are precipitated over the Falls of Niagara, the ' mightiest cataract in the world. The whole mass is poured in one tre- mendous plunge of 165 feet in height. The noise, tumult, and rapidity of this falling sea; the rolling clouds of foam, the vast volumes of vapour which rise into the air, the brilliancy and variety of the tints, and the beautiful rainbows which span the abyss ; the lofty banks and immense woods which surround this wonder- ful scene, have been considered by experienced travellers as eclipsing every simi- lar phenomenon. The noise is heard, and the cloud of vapours seen, at the dis- tance of several miles. The fall on the Canadian side is 630 feet wide, of a semi- circular form; that on the American side only 310 feet, and 165 feet in height, being six or seven feet higher than the former. The one, called the Crescent or Horse-shoe Fall, descends in a mighty sea-green wave ; the other, broken by rocks into foam, resembles a sheet of molten silver. Travellers descend, with the cer- tainty of being drenched to the skin, but without danger, to the foot of the fall, and even beneath it. There are now excellent inns on both sides of the falls, which are crowded with visitants during: the summer months. LOWER CANADA. Lower Canada extends along the River St. Lawrence, on both sides, from its ' mouth to Lake St. Francis, a short distance above Montreal. A considerable part | of the province extends nominally into unexplored regions that are unoccupied by i white inhabitants. At the mouth of the St. Lawrence the country is rugged and J mountainous, and the climate very severe ; but the upper and more southerly por- ! tions of the province are well watered, fertile, and with a milder climate than the I lower part. All sections, however, have the winters of Sweden, though in the j latitude of France. The summers are warm and short, and the transition from i winter to summer is very rapid, leaving scarcely more than a month for the sea- l son of spring. More than three-fourths of the inhabitants of the country are of French de- scent, and speak the French language ; they are all Catholics, and much attached to their priests : the remainder are mostly natives of Great Britain and their de- scendants. Education is much neglected, and the mass of the people are very ig- norant and illiterate. The Quebec Mercury lately gravely proposed the estab- lishment of a seminary for the instruction of those members of their parliament who could neither read nor write. The native French Canadians are called habitans. They are gay, satisfied with a little, and strongly attached to their re- ligion and native country. In the management of periogues and canoes on the lakes and long rivers, they have no rivals. They are also remarkably ingenious in making their own domestic implements. The countenance of the Canadian is long and thin ; his complexion sun-burnt and swarthy, inclining towards that of the Indian ; his eyes black and lively ; with lank and meagre cheeks, a sharp and prominent chin, and such easy and polite manners, as though he had always lived in the great world, rather than amid thick forests. Their intercourse with eaeh other is to the last degree affectionate, and a French Canadian village constitutes one family. Their cheerfulness, whether in prosperity or adversity, is inexhausti- ble, and more valuable to them than all the boasted attainments of philosophy. In winter, their dress is that of the Russians; their social intercourse that of the age of Louis XIV. As soon as the penance of their long fast is ended, their feasting begins. The friends and relatives assemble. Turkeys, pies, and all the dainties of the season, decorate the board. Coffee is introduced. The violin is LOWER CANADA. 137 heard, and those gay and simple people are the most inveterate dancers in the world. There is a marked difference between this province and the United States in the habits of the people, their buildings, and their modes of living. An indivi- dual from the latter country, who happens to be in Canada, will be reminded by every thing about him, that he is not at home. Lower Canada is divided into four districts, which are subdivided into 40 counties, and is separated from the States of New York and Vermont by the 45° of north latitude; from New Hampshire and Maine, by the highlands running between the rivers which flow into the St. Lawrence, and those emptying into the Atlantic Ocean; from New Brunswick by the River Ristigouche ; from New Britain by the ridge separating the waters of Hudson's Bay from those of the St. Lawrence ; and from Upper Canada by the Utawas River : the outline of the province is about 2250 miles in extent. The city of Quebec, the capital of Canada, is singularly situated, half on a plain along the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, and the other half on the top of a steep perpendicular rock, 350 feet high. These are called the Upper and Lower towns. Quebec, as a military station, is very strong ; its fortifications ren- der it almost a second Gibraltar. It was one of the most brilliant scenes of Brit- ish glory. Near it, on the plains of Abraham, Wolfe, at the cost of his life, gained the splendid victory which annexed Canada to the British empire. The popula- tion of Quebec is about 25,000 : its commerce is considerable, as all the vessels, from Britain and other foreign quarters, stop there and unload their cargoes: 1132 vessels arrived in 1835, estimated at 323,000 tons. The town of Three Rivers, containing about 3000 inhabitants, is situated on the River St. Lawrence, 90 miles above Quebec. The commercial capital of Canada is Montreal ; it is situated immediately below the rapids, at a point where the ample stream of the Utawas flows into the St. Lawrence. Most of the business, even of Quebec, is carried on by branches from the Montreal houses. It derives a great impulse from the transactions of the Hudson's Bay Fur Company ; and it is the centre of the commerce with the United States, carried on by Lake Champlain and the Hudson. Vessels of 600 or 700 tons can, notwithstanding some difficulties, come up to Montreal; its wharf presents a busy scene, — the tall masts of merchantmen from the Thames, the Mersey, and the Clyde, with the steam-packets which ply between Quebec and Montreal. The island of Montreal is about thirty miles in length, and seven in breadth ; it is of alluvial soil, the most fertile in Lower Canada, and also the most highly cultivated. The view over it, of fruitful fields, gay country-houses, and the streams by which it is encircled, is one of the most pleasing that can be ima- gined. The interior of the town is not so attractive. It is substantially, but gloomily, built of dark gray limestone, with roofs of tin, the only kind, it is said, which can stand the intense cold of winter; while the windows and doors are shut in with massive plates of iron. The streets, though tolerably regular, were inconveniently narrow; but of late several have been formed, extending the whole length of the town, that are commodious and airy. The new cathedral, opened in 1829, is considered one of the handsomest structures in America. It is 255 feet long, 134 broad, 220 feet high in its principal front ; and it is capable of containing 10,000 persons. Two Catholic seminaries, the English church, and the general hospital, are also handsome structures. The population amounts to 30,000. The village of La Prairie, on the south bank of the river, is the medium of com- munication between Montreal and the United States. Dorchester, on the Sorelle, is a considerable village. La Chine, above the rapids, which interrupt the navigation above Montreal, is an important depot for the interior trade. A number of townships have been formed along the northern bank of the Utawas, the part of Lower Canada chiefly resorted to by emigrants. The country is level and fertile, but its progress is much obstructed by the number of old unimproved grants ; so that the population does not much exceed 5300. Hull and Bytown are small improving towns on the river ; the latter on the south, and the former on the north side. 12' 8 138 NEW BRUNSWICK. The tract of country lying to the south-east of the St. Lawrence, on the bor- ders of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, has of late years attracted many settlers, to whom it is known under the name of the Eastern Townships. The lands here are held in free and common soccage, and the English law prevails. The population of the townships is now about 50,000. Stanstead and Sherbrooke are the principal towns of this fine and flourishing region. On the south side of the St. Lawrence River are the neat and thriving villages of St. Thomas and Kamouraska ; the former about 20 and the latter 90 miles below Quebec. Ka- mouraska is pleasantly situated, and much resorted to by the citizens of the capi- tal for the benefit of sea-bathing. The district of Gaspe remains to complete the description of Lower Canada. It is on the south side of the St. Lawrence, near its mouth, bordering on New Brunswick. It is a country of irregular and sometimes mountainous surface, con- taining numerous lakes, and watered by several rivers, of which the Restigouche is the principal. The territory is covered with dense forests, inhabited by 7000 or 8000 woodmen and fishermen, and exports some fish, oil, and timber. The cod-fishery employs 1800 men, and produces about 50,000 quintals of fish, and 20,000 barrels of oil ; and about 400O barrels of herrings, and 2000 of salmon are shipped for Quebec. Douglas, Bonaventure, and New Carlisle, are small villages of forty or fifty huts each. NEW BRUNSWICK. New Brunswick is situated to the east of the State of Maine, and to the north- west of Nova Scotia, from which it is separated by the Bay of Fundy ; on the north it has part of Lower Canada, the boundary between the two being the River Restigouche. It has, on the east, a winding coast along the Gulf of St. Lawrence, indented by navigable bays and inlets. The country, towards the sea- coast and along the St. John's River, is level, but the western and northern parts are somewhat mountainous. This colony is still almost one magnificent unbroken forest, and under the en- couragement afforded by the mother country, almost all the energies of the inha- bitants are directed to the lumber trade. The borders of the rivers, where culti- vated, are fertile in grass and grain, though agriculture is not yet greatly advanced. The sea-coast abounds in cod and other fish ; the River St. John's is thronged with herring, shad, and salmon. The fisheries are a source of considerable wealth and employment to the inhabitants; the produce of which being, with timber, the great staples of export. The town of St. Johns, on a fine harbour at the mouth of the River St. John, is the most considerable place in New Brunswick. The population is about 10,000: in 1829 the exports from it were £210,000; being nearly two-thirds of the amount, from all the other ports. St. Andrews, at the head of Passamaquoddy Bay, besides its timber trade, has a considerable fishery, and contains about 5000 inhabitants. Frederickton, the seat of government, is about 85 miles up the St. John's River, which being navigable for vessels of 50 tons, is the seat of a consi- derable inland trade; the population is 1800; it is rather regularly built of wood, with government offices, several churches, and a college. The River Mirimichi is distinguished by the extensive forests on its banks, whence large shipments of timber are made, at the port of that name, as well as those of Chatham, Douglas, and Newcastle. This tract of country was, in Octo- ber 1825, the scene of one of the most dreadful conflagrations on record. The flames, kindled by accident at several points at once, were impelled by a violent wind, and fed always with new fuel, till they spread over about 100 miles of ter- ritory, involving it in smoke and flame, and reducing to ashes the towns of Doug- las and Newcastle; nearly 200 persons are said to have perished, and more than 2000 to have been reduced to entire destitution. The natural advantages of the country, however, have enabled them to recover with surprising rapidity. New NOVA SCOTIA. 139 Brunswick was originally settled by German troops in the service of Great Bri- tain, and hence its name. It was included in Nova Scotia until 1784. Dalhousie and Bathurst, on Chaleur Bay, and Liverpool, on the east coast south of Mirimichi Bay, are 6mall villages. NOVA SCOTIA. Nova Scotia was first settled by the French, and named by them Acadia. It was granted by James I. to Sir William Alexander, a Scottish nobleman, by whom it was called Nova Scotia ; but was not confirmed to England until 1713. It in- cluded New Brunswick until 1784, when it was divided into two provinces. This colony is a large peninsula, bounded on the north by the narrow strait separating it from Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Islands, on the south-east by the Atlan tic Ocean, and on the north-west by the Bay of Fundy, which penetrates so deep as to leave only an isthmus about nine miles broad, connecting it with New Brunswick. Nova Scotia is about 280 miles long, and from 50 to 100 broad, comprising about 16,000 square miles, or upwards of 10,000,000 acres. The surface of the country is moderately uneven, and in some places hilly. The climate is cold, but healthy, and, with the progress of cultivation, is gradually ameliorating. Spring is late and irregular in its approach ; but when vegetation commences, it is very rapid, and in a few days changes the whole face of nature. On the coast the soil is generally poor, but in the interior and northern parts it is well adapted to cultiva- tion. Wheat and other grains are raised to some extent, and large quantities of the finest potatoes. The population, in 1832, was, including Cape Breton, about 190,000. The in- habitants are about one-fourth Acadians, or descendants of the first French set- tlers ; a fourth from Scotland, some Germans, 1200 free negroes, and some of the aboriginal race of Indians, who still adhere to their roaming and hunting habits; the remainder of the population are mostly from different parts of the British em- pire. The principal exports to Europe are timber and fish, and to the West Indies and the neighbouring States, timber, provisions, coal of fine quality, gypsum and freestone. The administration of the colony is vested in a governor, council, and house of assembly. There are colleges at Halifax, Windsor, and Pictou ; also numerous schools, partly supported by government, for the instruction of the lower classes. The religious denominations are Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists and Catholics. Halifax is the capital, situated on one of the noblests harbours in the world, I capable of containing any amount of shipping of any burthen. It was founded in I 1749, by General Cornwallis, and has since carried on almost all the trade of the \ colony. During the impulse given to it by the last war, the population amounted to 12,000, but is now only 9000. The most extensive dock-yard in British Amer- ica has been formed here, where a number of ships of the line and armed vessels are always lying, either stationed here or for repairs. A considerable number of troops are always in garrison, who, with the naval officers, give it the air of a military place. Lunenburg, the chief of the German settlements, contains a po- pulation of about 2000 inhabitants, and has a brisk trade. Liverpool also carries on a considerable trade; but Shelburn, which, at the end of the American revo- lutionary war, was the largest place in Nova Scotia, has sunk to a mere village. The north-eastern coast has Pictou, from which, and the neighbouring bays on this coast, is shipped the largest quantity of timber and coal. On a river ailing | into the Bay of Fundy, is Annapolis, the original French capital ; but since the transference of the government to Halifax, it has sunk into a mere secondly place. The trade of this great bay is now carried on from Yarmouth, at its mouth, the population of which, since 1791, has risen from 1300 to 4500. Gypsum is the principal export 140 PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND— NEWFOUNDLAND. Cape Breton is a large island, separated from Nova Scotia by St. George's Gulf and the Gut of Canseau, a great part of which is not more than a mile broad. The island is about 100 miles in length, and from 30 to 80 in breadth. It is penetrated by an arm of the sea, called the Bras d'Or, which divides it nearly into two equal portions, and is throughout navigable. The surface is diversified by hills, none of which rise above 1500 feet ; and the soil is fully equal to that of the neighbouring countries. Only the coasts, including those of the Bras d'Or, have yet been cul- tivated ; and the population in general is in a less improved state than in the other colonies. The climate resembles that of the neighbouring countries, in the in- tensity of the cold in winter and of the heat in summer ; but these follow more irregularly, and a fortnight's thaw occurs often in the midst of frost and snow. Yet these variations are not disadvantageous to agriculture, which, however, is still in its infancy, the valuable cod-fishery attracting the chief industry of the people. Cape Breton, therefore, imports wheat flour, though it affords a small surplus of oats and potatoes. The exports, in 1828, consisted of 41,000 quintals of dry, and 18,000 barrels of pickled fish. About fifty vessels, averaging fifty tons each, are annually built. There are coal mines of great value. Cape Breton has excellent harbours, and commands, in a great measure, the navigation of the St. Lawrence. Of the population, exceeding 25,000, the most numerous portion con- sists of Scottish highlanders, and next to them of Acadians. The island was, in 1820, politically united to Nova Scotia, and sends two members to the house of assembly. Louisburg, which the French carefully fortified, and made one of the principal stations in their " New France," is now entirely deserted, and Sydney, a village of 1000 inhabitants, is all the capital which Cape Breton can boast. St. Peters, on the south coast, and Arechat, a small fishing-town on Isle Madame, are the other principal settlements. To the south-east of Nova Scotia lies Sable Island, a dangerous sand-bank in the track of vessels sailing between Europe and America. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. Prince Edward's, formerly St. Johns, is a fine fertile island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, lying nearly parallel to the coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. It is 135 miles long and 34 broad. It is deeply indented by bays and inlets. The area is computed at 1,400,000 acres. The surface of the island is level, and va- ried only by gentle undulations. It has shorter winters than the neighbouring colonies, and is exempt from those extremes of heat and cold, and heavy fogs, which render them often so gloomy. The soil is good and well adapted to agri- culture, especially wheat and oats, of which it affords a surplus. In 1768, the island contained only 150 families. The population is now 35,000, chiefly Scotch highlanders, and some Acadians, and English from Yorkshire. Charlottetown is the capital, with a population of 3500. There are several other small towns in the island : some of them are Georgetown, Belfast, Dartmouth, Prince Town, &c. NEWFOUNDLAND. This large island is 420 miles long and 300 broad, situated at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is the most eastern part of North America. The in- terior of Newfoundland has never been thoroughly explored. It presents a bold and rocky shore, abounding in harbours. The soil is mostly barren, and the tim- ber scanty and stunted. Some tracts, however, are supposed to be well fitted for pasturage. The climate is severe, and the country is frequently visited by dreary fogs and storms of sleet and snow. This island owes its importance to its cod-fisheries, which are the most valuable in the world. The fish are taken singly, with baited hooks, upon the banks, which are shallow places, probably formed by the deposites of sand brought down from NEWFOUNDLAND. 141 the tropics by the gulf stream, which also bears down on its bosom countless mil- lions of the animal on which the fish feed. The Grand Bank of Newfoundland, situated to the eastward of the island, is the greatest,, submarine elevation known. It is from 500 to 600 miles in length, and in some places near 200 in breadth. Some distance farther from the Grand Bank, is the Outer Bank, or Flemish Cap, about 90 miles in length, by 50 wide ; and to the westward are the Green and Whale Banks. These are the great ren- dezvous of the codfish, and form the fishing-ground for some 2500 to 3O00 vessels, and from 35,000 to 40,000 Americans, English, and French, chiefly, however, the first and last The banks are frequently enveloped in dense fogs from April to December. So early was the value of the Newfoundland fisheries discovered, that in 1517, only twenty years after the first voyage, upwards of fifty vessels, of different na- tions, were found employed in it. The British soon took the most active part, and formed colonies on the island. Their sovereignty was acknowledged by the treaty of Utrecht, which reserved, however, to the French, the right of fishing on the banks. This was confirmed in 1763, when the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were allowed to them to dry their fish. The Americans have the right to take fish at any three miles from the shore, and to dry them on any of the neighbouring coasts unoccupied by British settlers. The fishing season begins in April and ends in October: the business is lucrative, dangerous, and an admirable nursery for our hardy and adventurous seamen, and furnishes one of the consider- able elements of our trade. Many English and French vessels are here in com- pany. Every part of the process, from taking the hungry animals from the water, and curing the fish and delivering it in all parts of the world, is specific, and em- ploys its specific process. The English and French dry their fish on the islands. We bring great portions of ours, pickled, to our own ports, and dry them there, particularly at Marblehead, Gloucester, and Beverly. A great number of acres around those towns are covered with the flakes or scaffolds on which those fish are dried. A vessel with twelve men usually takes from 20,000 to 50,000 fish. The whole employment not only rears thousands of men to consider the sea their home, and storms their element, but many other thousands are employed in the business to which this gives birth ; and our share of the business, in good years, amounts to some millions of dollars. Nothing can be' more unique than the modes of life of these men, whose abode is on the sea. They are hale, healthy, honest, intrepid, and of reckless cheerfulness of character. Newfoundland contains 80,000 inhabitants, almost entirely fishermen. St. Johns, the principal place in the island, is little more than a large fishing station, the whole shore being lined with wharves and stages for landing and drying fish. It is defended by several forts, one of which, Fort Towneend, is the residence of the governor. The houses are built mostly of wood. This construction exposed the town to a series of dreadful conflagrations, in 1816, 1817, 1818, and 1837. In one of these, (Nov. 7, 1817,) property to the amount of half a million sterling The stationary population of St. Johns is estimated at 11,000, but varies according to the season of the year. The uninhabited island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the coast of Labrador, are dependencies on Newfoundland. Near its southern coast are the little islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, belonging to France, and inhabited by fishermen. In concluding our brief account of the British possessions in North America, we may remark that there appears no disposition on the part of the parent country to neglect or abandon them. Great Britain expends large sums in constructing military works for their defence, and lends her aid to numerous plans of settle ment and improvement. 142 UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES. The United States are the most interesting and important division of the western continent. They are distinguished for the excellence of their govern- ment, the rapid increase of the population, and for the intelligence, industry, and enterprise of the inhabitants. They occupy the most valuable and productive portion of North America, and rank amongst the most powerful commercial and wealthy nations of the globe. The United States are situated between 24° 20' and 54° 40' N. latitude, and longitude 17° E., and 125° W. longitude, extending through 29 degrees of lati- tude and 58 degrees of longitude, and comprise a superficial area of upwards of 2,300,000 square miles. The frontier line has a length of 10,000 miles, of which about 3600 are sea-coast, and 1200 lake-coast. A line drawn across from the At- lantic to the Pacific, through the centre, is about 2500 miles in length. So vast a region of course includes a great variety of surface, soil, and climate. It abounds in navigable rivers, and a large proportion of it is susceptible of culti- vation, and is of a quality calculated to repay the labour bestowed upon it, more than almost any other region of the same extent in the world : but a small portion of its surface is occupied by mountains, which, from their height or ruggedness, forbid all attempts to render them productive in the means of subsistence to man. There are no great deserts, and few barrens; nothing like the vast sterile plains which exist in other parts of the world. The basins of the rivers are exceed- ingly productive : that of the Mississippi,, including the Missouri, is undoubtedly the finest valley on the globe. It is abundantly watered by streams, which not only give fertility to their borders, but are ready to waft the gifts of the soil to the ocean, and bring back to the inhabitants the products of all other climes. The soil returns an ample harvest for all that is planted in it, and the climate is favour- able to almost every production of the earth that can sustain life or increase its luxuries. Though lying within the temperate zone, the United States embrace a great variety of climate. In the northern parts, the winters are long and severe ; snow often falls to the depth of two or three feet, and the cold is so piercing as to oblige the inhabitants to make very diligent provision against it. Spring returns here in April, and in summer the heat is great. In the southern parts of the country, snow is seldom seen, ice is rarely formed in the rivers, and those fruits which shrink from a northern climate, and flourish only in warm regions, are scattered over the spil. In Georgia, the inhabitants may collect the figs which grow before the windows, and may load their tables with oranges, lemons, and other exquisite fruits that grow in their gardens and groves, while in parts of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, even peaches will not flourish. Between these extremities, as in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Illinois, there is a re- gion adapted to the wine-grape, which thrives best in places removed from both the torrid and frigid zones. The United States are intersected by two principal and two subordinate ranges of mountains, the Rocky and Alleghany, the Ozark and Green Mountains. The Rocky Mountain, or Chippewayan range, forms the great dividing ridge of North America, separating the waters which flow in opposite directions, towards the great oceans which bound the opposite sides of the continent. They are situated at,a medium distance of about 600 miles from the Pacific; the highest rise above the line of perpetual congelation, being estimated at about 12,000 feet in height. The Alleghany, or Appalachian range, runs in a north-easterly direction from the northern part of Alabama to New-York, stretching along in uniform ridges, at the distance of from 250 to 80 miles from the sea-coast, and following its gene- ral direction. It occupies in breadth a space of from 60 to 120 miles, and sepa- rates the waters which run into the Atlantic Ocean, from those which flow into the Mississippi and its tributaries. The highest elevation in this range, and the UNITED STATES. 143 most prominent in the Atlantic States, is Black Mountain, in the western part of North Carolina: it is 6476 feet in height. The Green Mountains extend from Connecticut, through Massachusetts and Vermont, to Canada, dividing the Atlantic rivers from those of Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence. Some of the peaks of this range attain considerable ele- vation. In New Hampshire and Maine, are found many considerable peaks, which are not connected with any systematic range, but are scattered in detached groups. The White Mountains, in New Hampshire, are the most elevated in New England. Mount Katahdin, or Ktaadin, near the centre of the state of Maine, is the highest in that state. The view from its summit is fine and varied, and extends over 80 or 100 miles. The other principal heights in Maine are Wassataquoik Mountain, Mount Abraham, Mount Bigelow, Speckled Mountain. The Ozark Mountains extend from Texas, through the western part of Arkan- sas, into the lead-mine region of Missouri. Their general direction is nearly similar to that of the Alleghany range, and their altitude is supposed to be about 2000 feet above the sea. The territory of the United States is washed by three seas, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. The principal bays and sounds on the Atlantic border, are Passamaquoddy Bay, which lies between the state of Maine and the British province of New Bruns- wick ; Massachusetts Bay, between Cape Ann and Cape Cod, on the coast of Massachusetts ; Long Island Sound, between Long Island and the coast of Con- necticut; Delaware Bay, between Cape May and Cape Henlopen, which sepa- rates New Jersey from Delaware ; Chesapeake Bay, which communicates with the ocean between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, and extends in a northern di- rection for 200 miles, through the states of Virginia and Maryland ; and Albe- marle and Pamplico Sounds, on the coast of North Carolina. In the Gulf of Mexico, the principal bays are Chatham Bay, near the southern extremity of the peninsula of Florida ; Appalachie Bay ; and Mobile Bay, in Alabama. In the Pacific, the Gulf of Georgia is the most important inlet on the western coast of the United States. It separates Qudra and Vancouver's Island from the main land, and is about 120 miles in length from north to south, and from 5 to 20 miles in width. The great lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, not being altogether in the United States, have been described elsewhere. The boundary between the Bri- tish and American territories passes through their centre, allotting about an equal share of their vast waters to each nation. Lake Michigan is wholly within the territory of the United States. It is connected with Huron by the Strait of Michillimackinac, and is about 320 miles in length, and from 55 to 60 miles wide, with an area of 16,200 square miles. The country around the head of this lake is settling rapidly ; and the mildness of the climate, the excellence of the soil, and the probable speedy junction of its waters with those of the Mississippi, will shor.ly fill this portion of the west with population and wealth. By the St. Clair River, of 35 miles course, the waters of Huron rapidly descend to the St. Clair, a shallow lake about 90 miles in circuit. Detroit River connects Lakes St. Clair and Erie. The other lakes of any magnitude in the United States are Champlain in New- York, Winnipiseogee in New Hampshire, and Moose Head in Maine. Lake Champlain separates the States of New York and Vermont, and is in extent 140 miles nearly north and south. It is connected with the Hudson river by the Champlain canal, and with the St. Lawrence river by the Sorelle, or Riche- lieu. Large and elegant steam-boats ply daily between Whitehall and St. John's, Lower Canada, which touch at the principal places, and numerous travellers are constantly passing and repassing this route during the season of navigation. Lake Winnipiseogee is one of the most picturesque sheets of water in New England. It is very irregular in form, and contains a number of islands, some of which are cultivated. The lake is about 22 miles long, and from 1 to 8 miles wide. Moose Head Lake is situated in the central parts of Maine. It is of an irre- gular form, about 38 miles in length, and from 2 to 12 wide. The main branch 144 UNITED STATES. of Kennebeck river flows from it. Around it, at various distances, are situated some of the highest mountains in Maine. The Rivers which water the territory of the United States are numerous, and some of them among the most important in the world. No portion of the globe possesses greater facilities for inland navigation and trade, or is more generally intersected with large and navigable streams. They may be divided into four great classes : 1st. The streams which rise on the east side of the Alleghany mountains, and flow into the Atlantic Ocean ; 2d. Those south of the Alleghany range, which discharge themselves into the Gulf of Mexico ; 3d. The Mississippi and its wide tributaries, which drain the waters of the vast valley included be- tween the Rocky and Alleghany ranges ; and 4th. The rivers which, rising on the western declivity of the Rocky Mountains, direct their course to the Pacific Ocean. The Penobscot is the largest river that has its course wholly in the State of Maine. It joins the Penobscot Bay between the towns of Penobscot and Prospect. It is navigable for vessels of considerable burden to Bangor, where navigation and the tide terminate. Large quantities of timber are exported from the sea-ports on the river and bay. The course of this river is near 300 miles. Kennebeck River is, next to the Penobscot, the largest in Maine. It is the outlet of Moose Head lake, the most considerable in the State. It is navigable for vessels of 150 tons to Hallowell, 40 miles from the sea. Its whole course is about 230 miles. Connecticut River, the most important stream in New England, rises in the highlands separating the United States from Canada, and flows into Long Island Sound, after a course of upwards of 400 miles. It is navigable to Hartford for large steam-boats, and vessels of 8 feet draught ; also for small steam-boats to Wells river, in Vermont, more than 200 miles above Hartford. The head waters of this river are elevated 1600 feet above Long Island Sound. Its banks present to the eye every variety of scenery ; — magnificent mountains and hills, delightful valleys and meadows, unsurpassed in beauty and fertility, and many of the most beautiful towns and villages in New England. The Hudson River rises west of Lake Champlain in numerous branches, and pursuing nearly a straight southerly course of about 320 miles, unites with the Atlantic below the city of New York. This is one of the most important rivers in the United States. The navigation and commerce on its waters are very great, and annually increasing. By means of the Erie and Champlain canals, it is con- nected with Lake Erie and the St. Lawrence river. It is navigable for ships of large burden to Hudson city, and for the largest steam-boats to Albany and Troy. Delaware River rises in New York, and flowing south, separates Pennsylvania from New York and New Jersey, and falls into Delaware bay, after a course of about 310 miles, below New Castle. It is navigable for vessels of the greatest burden to Philadelphia, and for small craft to the head of the tide at Trenton, above which city it is navigable 100 miles for boats of 8 or 9 tons. Susquehannah River, one of the largest in Pennsylvania, is formed by its north and west branches, which unite at Northumberland. Its north, or longest branch, rises in Otsego lake, New York, from whence to its mouth is about 460 miles. The Potomac River rises in two branches in the Alleghany Mountains, and forms, during its course to Chesapeake bay, the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. It is navigable for vessels of large burthen to Washington city. Its junction at Harper's Ferry with the Shenandoah, is regarded as a great curiosity. Its length is about 335 miles. James River pursues a course of upwards of 400 miles, and unites with the south part of Chesapeake Bay at Hampton Roads. It is navigable for sloops to Richmond, where the Great Falls formerly presented an obstruction, but a canal has been made around them, and the river is now navigable for batteaux 230 miles above the city. Savannah River separates South Carolina from Georgia, and enters the Atlantic 17 miles below Savannah, to which city it is navigable for vessels of large bur- den. Steam-boats ascend the river to Augusta falls. UNITED STATES. 145 Appalachicola, which discharges itself into the bay of the same name, in the Gulf of Mexico, is formed by the union of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers. The former is navigated to Columbus by steam-boats : on its head-waters are numerous gold-mines. The Appalachicola and Chattahoochee united, are about 425 miles in length. The Mobile River is formed by the junction of the Alabama and Tombeckbee \ rivers, 40 mile3 above Mobile. The head-waters of the Alabama rise in the gold- 1 region of Georgia, not far from the sources of the Chattahoochee, and after a south- west course of near 500 miles, form a junction with the Tombeckbee. Steam- boats ascend to Montgomery, a distance, by the meanders of the rivers, of near 300 miles. The Mississippi is the largest river of North America, and one of the noblest in the world — watering a more fertile region, and having a larger course of unin terrupted navigation, than any other known stream. Its course — taken in con nexion with its mighty auxiliary, the Missouri — is estimated at 4490 miles in length. The space drained by its waters is supposed to exceed 1,300,000 square miles, being upwards of two-thirds of the whole territory of the United States, or about one twenty-eighth part of the terraqueous surface of the globe. In no por- tion of the world has the triumph of art over the obstacles of nature been so com- plete. The introduction of steam-navigation has been productive of immense advantages, and has been carried to a greater extent than on any other river. Mississippi proper rises west of Lake Superior, in a dreary and desolate region, amidst lakes and swamps, and, after pursuing a south-east course of about 600 miles, reaches the falls of St. Anthony, where it descends perpendicularly 16 feet, and where are 58 feet of rapids. Thence it flows a south-easterly, and then southerly direction ; and after forming the boundary between Missouri, Arkansas Territory, and Louisiana, on the west, and Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi, on the east, discharges its waters, through many mouths, into the Gulf of Mexico. It is nearly 3000 miles long, and is navigable for steam-boats to the falls of St. Anthony. The following are the principal tributaries of the Mis- sissippi from the west : — The St. Peter's, which joins it at Fort Snelling, is a stream of about 400 miles, flowing a south-east course. The Des Moines, a river of about 400 miles in length, enters the Mississippi about 130 miles above the Missouri. The Missouri enters the Mississippi river about 18 miles above St. Louis, after a course of 3217 miles. Although it loses its name at its confluence with the latter, it is much the longer stream of the two ; but the Mississippi, having been first discovered and explored, has retained its name to the Gulf of Mexico. This ercor being now past remedy, the Missouri must be considered as a tributary of the Mississipi. It is formed of numerous branches, which rise among the Rocky Mountains, between the parallels of 42° and 48° N. Latitude. The most remote are the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers. The only obstruction that occurs to its navigation is at the Great Falls, a distance of 2575 miles from the Missis- sippi. Here the river descends 362 feet in 18 miles : the descent is by four great pitches or cataracts, of 98, 19, 49, and 26 feet, respectively. The width of the river is about 350 yards, and the cataracts are considered to be, next to those of Niagara, the grandest in the world. About 100 miles above, is the place called the Gates of the Rocky Mountains. This river was lately ascended by a steam- vessel 300 miles above the Yellow Stone, a distance from the mouth of the Mis- sissippi of 3460 miles. The largest tributaries of the Missouri are, the Yellow Stone, of 1100 miles in length, the Platte, or Shallow river, of 1600 miles course, and the Kanzas, of 1200 miles in length. They all rise in the Rocky Mountains, and flow through a flat prairie country, inhabited by a widely scattered Indian population. The Arkansas is, after the Missouri, the most considerable tributary of the Mis- sissippi from the west. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, and its course is com- puted to be about 2000 miles. It enters the Mississippi river about 540 miles below the Missouri. Steam-boats can generally ascend this river to the mouth 13 T 146 UNITED STATE of the Canadian, its largest tributary, and occasionally to Cantonment Gibson, 640 miles from the Mississippi river. The Red River is the first tributary stream of any note which enters the Mis- sissippi, in ascending from its mouth. It has a course of about 1500 miles, and flows through immense prairies of a red soil. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi which flow into it from the east- ward are as follows : — Chippeway River, 200 miles in length, enters the Mississippi at the lower end of Lake Pepin. The Wisconsin River joins the Mississippi about 4 or 5 miles below the town of Prairie du Chien. In part of its course it approaches so near the Fox River of Green Bay, as to leave a portage of only 1 \ miles. It is one of the great natu- ral channels of communication between the lakes and the Mississippi. The Illinois River enters the Mississippi 18 miles above the Missouri, after a course of more than 400 miles. It is near a quarter of a mile wide at its mouth, and has a remarkably smooth, gentle current. The Ohio River is the largest eastern tributary of the Mississippi. At its junction, and for 100 miles above, it is as large as the parent stream. This river, from its commencement, affords the most delightful prospects. Tributaries of romantic and beautiful character come in almost at equal distances, as lateral canals. The Ohio is formed by the union of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers at Pittsburg. It flows in a south-westerly direction for 945 miles, separa- ting the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, from Virginia and Kentucky, and falls into the Mississippi 193 miles below the Missouri. Its current is gentle, and is nowhere broken by any considerable falls, except at Louisville, in Ken- tucky,- where the water descends 22£ feet in 2 miles. This obstruction is now obviated by the Louisville and Portland canal, which affords a passage to steam- boats of small draft, at all seasons, to the upper parts of the river at Pittsburg. The chief tributaries of the Ohio are the Wabash, a fine navigable river, which rises in the north-east part of Indiana. It is ih length about 450 miles. The Cumberland River rises in the mountains, on the eastern boundary of Kentucky. At high water, it is navigable for boats almost to its source, and for steam-boats to Nashville at all seasons. Tennessee River is formed by the union of several large branches, which rising in the mountainous country in western Virginia and North Carolina, unite in one in the vicinity of Knoxville, enters the Ohio 46 miles above the Mississippi, and 12 below the Cumberland. Its entire course from the source of its longest branch, is 850 miles distant from the Ohio. It is navigable for steam-boats, in most stages of the water, to Florence, at the foot of the Muscle Shoals. This is the most important of all the tributaries of the Ohio. The Yazoo, the most southern of the principal eastern tributaries of the Mis- sissippi, has a course of 240 miles, and discharges its waters into the Mississippi about 12 miles above the- Walnut Hills. The most considerable river on the Pacific side of the Rocky Mountains is the Columbia, or Oregon. Its head-waters interlock with the Arkansas, Rio del Norte, &c. : it is about 1400 miles in length, its principal branches are Lewis's or Saptin river, 1000 miles in extent; Clark's or Flat Head river, 700 miles long, M'Gillivray's, Okinagan, &c. Fort George or Astoria, Fort Vancouver, and others, on these waters, are trading establishments belonging to the British Hud- son's Bay Company. Vessels of 300 tons may ascend the Columbia, 125 miles ; and large sloops may go up to the head of tide, 183 miles from the Ocean. Minerals abound in the United States in great variety and profusion. Iron is very generally diffused, and is very abundant. Lead, limestone, and coal both of the anthracite and bituminous kind, abound in quantities supposed to be inex- haustible, especially of the former description. Gold has recently been found to a considerable amount in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. The most valuable mines are in North Carolina and Georgia. It is difficult to ascertain the amount of gold found in the United States ; but the value of the metal sent to the Mint, from 1823 to 1836, was $4,377,500, pro- UNITED STATES. 147 bably not one half of the produce for that period, as large amounts of it are sent to Europe uncoined. The lead-mines of Missouri, Illinois and Wisconsin, are said to be the richest in quality in the world ; and the quantity of that metal ex- tracted from the ore, within the last few years, has been so great as to exclude almost entirely the foreign article from our markets. The annual produce of the Missouri mines is estimated at 3 million, and of the Illinois and Wisconsin, 8 mil- lion pounda Salt springs abound in many parts of the Union, and large quantities are manu- factured in New York, Western Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, Ohio, and Illinois: it is also made from sea-water in some parts of New England. The whole amount made is stated to be about 7 million bushels. The United States form a federal republic. Each of the States is independent, and has the exclusive control of all concerns merely local; but the defence of the country, the regulation of commerce, and all the general concerns of the confede- racy, are committed, by the constitution, to a general government. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of 2 members from each State, chosen every two years, for a period of six years, so that one-third of the Senate is renewed biennially. The number of senators is at present 52. The members of the House of Representatives are chosen every two years, each State being entitled to a number proportionate to its population, in a ratio, in the States which do not admit of slavery, of one to every 47,700 inhabitants ; and in the States where there are slaves, of one for every 47,700 of the free white population, and one for every 79,500 of the slaves. The number of representatives is now 240. The judiciary is composed of a Supreme Court, of one chief and six associate judges ; of 33 District Courts, of one judge each, except that six of the States are divided into two districts each ; and of 7 Circuit Courts, composed of the judge of the district, and one of the judges of the Supreme Court. The executive power is vested in a President, who, together with the Vice- President, is chosen for four years, by electors from all the States. The principal subordinate officers of the executive department are the Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of War, and of the Navy, the Postmaster General, and the Attor- aey General. The President must be a native-born citizen, or have been a citizen at the adoption of the constitution, of 35 years of age, and have resided in the United States 14 years. The present constitution of the United States was adopted in 1789, and has since been amended. It secures to the people the grand principles of freedom, liberty of conscience in matters of religion, liberty of the press, trial by jury, and the right of choosing and being chosen to office. The principal executive officers are the Secretaries of State, at War, and of the Navy, the Postmaster General, and the Attorney General. They are remova- ble at the will of the President, and, with the Vice-President, form the cabinet. Th^ Department of State was created in 1789. The Secretary conducts the ne- gotiations with foreign powers, and corresponds with the public ministers of the United States abroad, and with those of foreign states near the United States. He has the charge of the United States seal, preserves the originals of laws and treaties, and of the public correspondence growing out of the intercourse between the United States and foreign nations ; he grants passports to American citizens visiting foreign countries, has the control of the patent office, and preserves the evidence of copy-rights. There are attached to the Department of State a Diplomatic Bureau, a Consular Bureau, a Home Bureau, the Archives, and the Patent Office. The Treasury Department was created in 1789. The Secretary superintends the fiscal concerns of the government; he is required to report to Congress annu- ally the state of the finances, and recommends such measures as he thinks proper for improving the condition of the revenue. The Treasury Department comprises the offices of the Secretary, two Controllers, five Auditors, the Register, the Treasurer, and the Solicitor of the Treasury. As there is at present no direct taxation by the general government, the reve- 148 UNITED STATES. nue is chiefly derived from duties on imports, the sales of public lands, bank-stock, post-offices, lead-mines, &c. The revenue on imports is the most important. The receipts into the treasury of the United States during the year 1836 amounted to 47,691,898 dollars ; those from duties, 22,523,151 ; those from lands, 24,000,000, and the residue from miscellaneous sources. The expenditures for all objects during the year are estimated at 32,000,000 dollars. Balance in the trea- sury on the 1st January, 1837, 41,723,959 dollars, which, with the exception of 5,000,000 dollars, are to be transferred to the several States, in accordance with the act regulating the deposites of the public money. The second great source of revenue is the national domain, or public lands, which consists of tracts of ter- ritory ceded to the general government by the several States ; of the lands in the territory of Louisiana, purchased from France ; and those in Florida, acquired by treaty from Spain. A vast portion of this land is occupied by the Indians, who are considered as proprietors of the soil, till the government extinguish their title by purchase. A General Land Office at Washington directs the sale of these territories. All the lands are surveyed before sale ; they are divided into town- ships of six miles square, which are subdivided into sections of one mile square, containing each 640 acres, and sold in sections, half, quarter, and half-quarter sec- tions. The minimum price is fixed by law at a dollar and a quarter. All sales are made for cash. Salt-springs and lead-mines are reserved, but may be sold by special orders from the President. One section of 640 acres is reserved in each township, as a fund for the perpetual support of schools. Five per cent, on all sales of land are reserved, three-fifths of which are expended by Congress in making roads leading to the States in which the lands are situated, and two-fifths are expended by the States for the promotion of learning. In the year 1820, the sales of the public lands produced 1,167,225 dollars, which had increased in 1834 to 6,099,981, in 1835 exceeded 12,000,000, and in 1836 had increased to the as- tonishing sum of 24,000,000 dollars. The increase of population in the Western States, the extensive introduction of steam-vessels on the rivers and lakes, and the increased facilities of intercourse and transportation by rail-roads and canals, have concurred with the extraordinary high price of cotton in producing this won- derful result. The whole quantity of public lands sold is 44,500,000 acres ; quan- tity granted for various purposes, 16,040,624 acres ; unsold, within the limits of the States and Territories, at the end of 1835, 220,000,000 acres ; beyond those limits, 750,000,000 ; whole quantity surveyed, 122,300,000: total cost of the lands, 58,438,824 dollars ; total receipts thus far, 64,029,496 dollars. The War Department was created in 1789: to this department belong the di- rection and government of the army ; the erection of fortifications ; the execution of topographical surveys ; and the direction of Indian Affairs. Attached to it are a Requisition Bureau, a Bounty-Land Bureau, a Pension office, an office of Indian Affairs, an Engineer office, a Topographical office, an Ordnance office, &c. The Army of the United States consists of 2 regiments of dragoons, 4 of artil- lery, and 7 of infantry, containing, at the commencement of 1837, an aggregate amount of 6283 men, including a corps of Engineers, Topographical Engineers, and Ordnance department ; the whole being under the command of a Major Gene- ral and two Brigadier Generals. The expenditure of the year 1836, for the mili- tary service, including fortifications, ordnance, Indian affairs, pensions, arming the militia, and internal improvements, was 20,322,083 dollars and 19 cents. The office of Secretary of the Navy was created in 1798 ; and there is a Board of Navy Commissioners, established in 1815, attached to the department. The navy, though on a small scale, acquired great reputation during the three years' war, when the American ships successfully encountered those of the mistress of the ocean. Much has since been done, both in enlarging the number of vessels, and extending and constructing suitable dock-yards ; but the naval force is not considered adequate to the exigencies of the country. It consists of 53 vessels, of which there are 13 ships of the line, 16 frigates, 2 barques, 1 steam frigate, 14 sloops of war, 2 brigs, and 5 schooners. Of the above, there are on the stocks, 5 ships of the line, 7 frigates, 2 barques, 1 steam frigate, and 1 schooner : total 16. In ordinary, 7 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 5 sloops of war : total 16. In UNITED STATES. 149 commission, 1 ship of the line, 5 frigates, 9 sloops of war, 2 brigs, and 4 schoon- ers; total 21 : besides materials for 4 ships of the line, 8 frigates, and 6 sloops of war. The naval appropriation for the year 1837 was 5,167,290 dollars, and for the surveying and exploring expedition, 346,431 dollars. There are seven navy- yards belonging to the United States, viz. : at Portsmouth ; at Charlestown, in Boston Harbour ; at Brooklyn, on Wallabout Bay, opposite New-York ; at Phila- delphia; at Washington ; at Gosport, opposite Norfolk, Virginia; and at Pensa- cola, Florida. There are graving or dry-docks at Charlestown and Gosport, and a third is constructing at Brooklyn. The General Post Office is under the superintendence of a Postmaster General, who has the appointment of the postmasters throughout the country, and the power of making contracts for carrying the mail. The post routes cover an ex- tent of 118,264 miles, on which the mails are carried 27,578,620 miles a year. The number of post-offices is 11,100; the revenue of the department for the year 1835 was 3,398,455 dollars ; the expenditure, 2,755,623 dollars, 75 cents. The office of the Mint of the United States was established at Philadelphia in 1792, and in 1835 an act was passed for establishing a branch in New Orleans, for the coinage of gold and silver, and branches at Charlotte, North Carolina, and Dahlonega, Georgia, for the coinage of gold ; the general direction being under the control of the Director of the Mint at Philadelphia. The coinage is executed by machines propelled by steam-power ; the value vf the coinage during the year 1835 was 5,668,667 dollars, comprising 2,186,175 dollars in gold coins, 3,444,003 in silver, and 39,489 in copper, making 15,996,342 pieces of coin ; and in the year 1836, from January 1st to November 1st, the coinage amounted to 6,496,440 dol- lars, of which the gold was 3,619,440, and silver 2,877,000 dollars. The chief agricultural occupations in the eastern states are grazing and the dairy. The middle" states are principally devoted to the cultivation of wheat and Indian corn; the southern to that of tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice ; and the western to Indian corn and wheat. Slave labour is chiefly employed in the south- ern and in some of the middle and western states. The cotton crop, in 1836, was estimated at 480 million pounds, of the value of 80 million dollars. Tobacco 80,000 hogsheads, of the value of 6 million dollars ; of rice to the amount of 2£ million dollars ; and of sugar and molasses, of the former 100,000 hogsheads, and of the latter 63,000 hogsheads. The amount of wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c. raised in the country, it is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty, but it no doubt amounts to several million barrels. The manufactures of the United States are considerable, and gradually increas- ing. The eastern and middle states, which are most abundantly supplied with water-power, are most extensively engaged in manufactures, especially of cotton, woollen, iron, glass, paper, wood, &c. In 1810, the value of manufactures in the United States was estimated at $172,762,676. The present annual value is com- puted at $350,000,000 ; and the capital invested in all the manufactories of the Union is estimated at more than 1000 millions. Most of the American manu- factures are designed for home consumption ; yet, in 1834, domestic manufactures were exported to the amount of $8,567,590. The manufactures of cotton goods amount to about 50 millions of dollars ; woollen 70 millions; leather and its manufactures 45 millions ; hats, caps, bon- nets, &.c. 15 millions ; cabinet-ware 10 millions ; cables and cordage, paper and glass-ware, each 6 millions; soap and candles nearly 12, and of manufactured tobacco and refined sugar, each about 2 millions of dollars. In 1810 there was above 20 million gallons of spirituous liquors distilled from corn and rye, and up- wards of 5 million from molasses ; and, although it is stated that, in 1835, 4000 distilleries had been stopped by the progress of the temperance reform, vast quan- tities of these poisonous liquors are still prepared. The commerce of the United States is, next to that of Great Britain, the largest in the world. It consists principally in the exchange of agricultural produce, for the manufactures of other countries, and the productions of tropical climates. All vessels engaged in the foreign trade are registered by the collector of the district to which they belong, and those employed in the coasting trade and fisheries are 150 UNITED STATES. enrolled and licensed by the same officer. At the commencement of the year 1835 there was of registered tonnage 857,438, including 108,060 tons employed in the whale-fishery ; the enrolled and licensed tonnage amounted to 783,618, and fishing-vessels 117,850; total 1,758,907; and, during the year 1834, there was built in the United States, registered tonnage 52,622, and of enrolled tonnage 65,707 ; total 118,330 : the number of vessels built amounted to 957, including 88 steam-boats. The number of vessels and tonnage entering the ports of the United States, dining the year 1835, was 11,292 vessels, amounting to 1,993,963 tons ; of which 7023 vessels, and 1,352,653 tons were American, and 4269 ves- sels, of 641,310 tons, foreign: cleared, during the same period, 11,515 vessels, of 2,031,341 tons; of which 7285 vessels, and 1,400,517 tons, were American, and 4230 vessels, of 630,824 tons, were foreign. The value of the imports of the year 1836, ending on the 30th of, September, is estimated at 173,540,000 dollars ; showing an increase, compared with the preceding year, of 23,644,258 dollars. The exports, during the same period, are estimated at 121,789,000 dollars; of which 101,105,000 dollars were domestic products, and the residue foreign ; exhi- biting an aggregate increase, compared with the preceding year, of 35,423 dol- lars, and an amount exceeding the average of the last three years by 5,829,150 dollars. The most important article of export is cotton ; of which there were sent to Europe, in 1835, of the value of 64,961,302 dollars ; of tobacco there was ex- ported 8,250,577 dollars ; of flour, wheat, corn, rye-meal, rice, &c. 8,383,977 dol- lars ; of cod-fish and the produce of the fisheries, 2,174,524 dollars ; of staves, shingles, naval stores, oak bark, &c. 4,542,091 dollars; of beef, pork, horses, and mules, and other agricultural products, 2,901,896 dollars ; of cotton goods, 2,858,681 dollars ; the other principal articles of export are skins and furs, flax-seed, soap and candles, manufactures of leather, of iron, of household furniture, &c. &c. Most of the fisheries are carried on from the New England states, and in New England ships. The whale-fishery is prosecuted in the Atlantic ocean, chiefly south of the line, for the right or black whale, and in the Southern, Indian, and Pacific oceans, for the spermaceti whale. In the year 1835, 108,060 tons of ship- ping were employed in this business ; and in the course of the year 1835, sper- maceti and whale oil was brought home, of the value of about 6,500,000 dollars. Seal oil and furs are also obtained in the Antarctic seas by these adventurous sea- men. The fishery is carried on chiefly from the ports of Nantucket and New Bedford, and also, but on a less scale, from New London, Sag Harbour, Warren, Bristol, Hudson, &c. About 10,000 men are engaged in it, and the seamen are paid, not by fixed wages, but by a certain share in the profits of the voyage. Those in the Pacific and Southern oceans are generally absent from two to three years at a time. The cod-fishery is pursued on the banks and coasts of Newfoundland, and on the Labrador coasts. It employs upwards of 60,000 tons of small craft, some of which make several trips a year; those on the coast-fisheries generally remain longer. The produce of this fishery may be estimated at from 1,200,000 to 1,500,000 dollars a year. The mackerel fishery employs about 50,000 tons of shipping, and produces about 2,000,000 dollars annually. No part of the world presents such an extensive river commerce. Steam ves- sels, a grand improvement, first introduced in America, ply on all the principal streams, and of upwards of 100,000 tons of this species of craft belonging to the United States in 1834, almost the whole was on the interior waters. On the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries alone, aa extent of 8000 miles was traversed by 230 steam-boats. Neither the States nor individuals have been slow in improving and extending these natural advantages; and the spirit with which they have under- taken, and the perseverance they have shown in executing the most magnificent plans, have shed a lustre on the American name. The great land-locked bays of the coast have been connected by a chain of canals, affording a safe internal water-route from Narragansett Bay to Albemarle Sound. The eastern and west- ern waters have been united by several channels, which either turn the Allegha- nies or surmount their summits. The waters of the lakes and the Mississippi UNITED STATES. 151 have been connected at various points, and the obstacles in the navigation of the most important rivers have been overcome by removing the bars or ledges which obstructed their channels, or by side-cuts, locks, and dams. The whole length of this artificial navigation is not less than 3500 miles; all of which, with one or two trifling exceptions, has been executed in the short space of 20 years. These great works have already given fresh life to manufactures, and encouraged the establishment of new ones ; invigorated, and in many places created, internal trade; promoted agriculture, which requires a cheap and easy transportation for the bulky articles which it consumes and produces; and developed, in an aston- ishing degree, the mining industry of the country. The Americans have equally surpassed all other people in the number and extent of their rail-roads, having, in less than ten years, constructed nearly 1500 miles of these artificial levels, over which carriages are propelled by locomotive steam-engines at the rate of from 20 to 30 miles an hour. Although this contri- vance is less adapted than canals to the conveyance of bulky articles, yet it pos- sesses some advantages over that mode of transportation, such as that of not being interrupted by ice, and of being suited to certain localities in which artificial water-communication would be impracticable. To the State Governments is committed that branch of legislation which relates to the regulation of local concerns. These bodies make and alter the laws which regard property and private rights, appoint judges and civil officers, impose taxes for State purposes, and exercise all other rights and powers not vested in the Fede- ral Government by positive enactment. They are, in their composition, very similar to the Federal Government. The legislature consists always of two branches, both of which are returned by the same electors; and these electors may be said to comprise the whole adult white population, the usual qualifications being citizenship, with one or two years' residence, and payment of taxes. In North Carolina, representatives are chosen by the whole resident free citizens who pay taxes, but senators only by freeholders ; in New Jersey and Virginia, the right of suffrage for both houses is limited to persons holding a small amount of landed property ; in Maryland the senators are chosen by delegates named for the pur- pose by the people. In all the States, the period for which the representatives serve is either one or two years. The elections are biennial in Delaware, South Carolina, Tennessee, Louisiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, and annual in the other States. The shortest period for which the senators serve, in any State, is one year, and the longest five. In Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- necticut, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Georgia, the senators hold their office for one year only; in Ohio, Tennessee, and Michigan, for two years; in Missis- sippi, Alabama, and Indiana, for three years; in New York, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware, Virginia, South Carolina, Kentucky, Louisiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Ar- kansas, for four years; and in Maryland, for five years. Except in Maryland, when the Senate of any State serves for more than one year, it is renewed by parts or divisions, one-third of the members going out annually when they serve for three years, and one-fourth when they serve for four. In some cases, how- ever, when the senators serve for four years, the renewal is by halves every two years. The United States are more distinguished for the general diffusion of know- ledge, than for eminence in literature or science. The means of common educa- tion are widely extended, and there are numerous seminaries of learning through- out the country, though there are no literary establishments on so large a scale as many in Europe. As a general government, the United States have done but little for the interests of public instruction, except that they reserve for this purpose one section in every township of their new lands, besides other reservations for colleges. This highly important subject has, perhaps, been better attended to, by being left ta the individual States and to private citizens. The first settlers of New England paid a very laudable attention to this important subject. As early as 1628, a law was passed for the instruction of every child in the colonies ; and 152 UNITED STATES. in 1647, a school was established by law in every town or neighbourhood of 50 families, and a school for the higher branchss, for every 100 families. The number of colleges in the United States is 68 ; of medical schools 23 ; of law schools 9 ; of theological seminaries 37. The country does not yet, however, furnish the scholar with those facilities for a finished learned education which are afforded by the scientific and literary establishments of Europe, and the want of good libraries is sensibly felt by every one who has attempted much learned re- search. The largest collection of books in the United States does not contain 50,000 volumes, and there are few which even approach that number. The Phi- ladelphia Library has 42,000 volumes ; the Cambridge University Library about the same number; the Boston Athenreum 30,000; the New-York Society Library 22,000 ; and the Library of Congress 20,000. Most of the States of the Union have made some legislative provision for com. mon school instruction, and in some States (especially in Massachusetts, Connec- ticut, New- York, and Virginia), large funds are set apart for this purpose. Pri- vate schools and academies of the higher order are quite numerous, especially in New England ; so that few grow up without enjoying the means of elementary instruction, or, if they desire it, of a more extended liberal education. In the Sabbath-schools of the United States, which are doing much for the intellectual as well as moral improvement of the young, about 600,000 children are weekly instructed by more than 80,000 teachers. There is no established church in the United States, religion being left to the voluntary choice of the people. No sect is favoured by the laws beyond another ; it being an essential principle in the national and state governments, that legisla- tion may of right interfere in the concerns of public worship only so far as to pro- tect every individual in the unmolested exercise of that of his choice. Nor is any legislative provision made for the support of religion, except that, in Massachu- setts, the legislature is enjoined to require, and in New Hampshire is empowered to authorize, the several towns and parishes to make adequate provision, at their own expense, for the support of Protestant ministers. The same was the case in Connecticut, until 1818, when it was abolished by the new constitution. But in all the other States, the support of religion is left entirely to the voluntary zeal of its professors. The numbers of established churches, or congregations, are estimated at over 15,000, and the ministers at about 12,000. The Presbyterians, including Congre- gationalists, are the most numerous denomination. The Baptists are estimated as second in numerical amount; and the Methodists, Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, Universalists, Lutherans, Christians, German Reformed, and Friends or Quakers, probably rank in point of numbers in the order in which they are mentioned. Other sects, respectable in amount of numbers, are Unitarians, Associate and other Methodists, Freewill Baptists, Dutch Reformed Menonites, Associate and Cumberland Presbyterians, Tunkers, and many others. In fact, almost all the sects of Christianity are represented in our country. There are no early enumerations of the population on which much reliance can be placed ; but, in 1753, the number was estimated at 1,051,000. A regular de- cennial census, taken since 1790, gave, at that period, 3,929,827; in 1800, 5,305,925 ; in 1810, 7,239,814 ; in 1820, 9,638,131. It is most interesting to con- sider, as the immensity of unoccupied land leaves full scope for this power of mul- tiplication, how vast the future numbers may be with which this region will be peopled, and which will render it much the greatest state that ever existed in an- cient or modern times. It is calculated, upon good grounds, that in a century it will contain 160,000,000 ; and still, being only half as .populous as Britain or France, leave ample scope for future increase. The Americans, should they con- tinue united, would then become the greatest nation in the world ; and the most powerful states of Europe would rank as secondary to them. The population, exclusive of the aboriginal races within the United States' limits, whose numbers are not comprised in the above statements, consists of three classes : whites, free coloured persons, and slaves, whose relative proportions at five different periods are here given : UNITED STATES. 153 Whites. Slaves. Free coloured. 1790 3,172,464 697,897 59,465 1800 4,304,489 893,041 108,395 1810 5,862,004 1,191,364 186,446 1820 7,861,710 1,538,038 232,524 1830 10,526,248 2,009,043 319,599 In regard to these numbers it is to be observed that in the census of 1790, are not included the inhabitants of the Mississippi and Northwest Territories, esti- mated at about 12,000; and that between 1800 and 1810, Louisiana was acquired with about 50,000 inhabitants, and 39,000 Africans were brought into the country. The following statement shows the relative rate of increase of the whole popula- tion, and of each of the three classes, in the two periods from 1810 to 1820, and from 1820 to 1830. 1810—1820. 1820—1830. Increase of whole population 33.3 per cent 33.4 per cent Whites 34 33.9 Slaves 28.6 30.6 Free Blacks 24.8 37.4 Blacks 28.5 31.5 Maine... . N. Hampshire Vermont .... Massachus'ts Rhode Island. Connecticut . New York. .. New Jersey. . Pennsylvania Delaware. .. . .Maryland.. .. Vireinia N. Carolina. . S. Carolina . . Georgia Alabama .... Mississippi.. . Louisiana . . . Tennessee. . . Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois Missouri D. of Colura... Florida Ter. .. Michigan. ... Arkansas. .. . Total. 90,540 141,899 85,410 378,717 69,110 238,141 340,120 184,139 434,373 59,096 319,728 748,308 393,751 249.073 82,548 35,791 73,077 952 2,759 21,324 11,423 3,737 8,887 103,036 993,4? 100,572 107,094 29,264 Total. 3,417 11,830 151,719 183,71 154,465 423,245 69,122 251,002 586,786 211,949 602,365 64,273 341,548 880,200 478,103 345,591 162,101 8,850 105,602 220,955 45,365 4,875 14,093 381 951 20,343 12,422 1,706 6,153 105,635 345,796 133,290 146,151 59,404 13,584 40,343 3,244 Total. 228,705 214,360 217,713 472,040 77,031 262,042 959,949 249,555 810,091 72,674 380,546 974,622 555,500 415,115 252,433 40,352 76,556 261,727 406,511 230,760 24,520 12.282 20,845 24,023 4,762 Total. 103 310 15,017 10,851 795 J 4,177 111,502 392,518 1 168,824 196,365 105,218 17,088 34,660 44,535 80,561 237 168 3,011 5,395 21 298,335 244,161 235,764 523,287 83,059 275,202 ,372,812 277,575 ,049,458 72,749 407.350 ,065,379 638,829 502,741 340,987 127,901 75,448 153,407 422,813 564,31 581,434 147,178 55,211 66,586 33,03 8,896 14,273 48 97 10,088 7,557 211 4,509 107,398 425,153 205,017 258,475 149,656 41,879 32,814 69,064 80,107 126,732 190 917 10,222 6,377 1,617 399,955 269,328 280,652 610,408 97,199 297,665 1,918,608 320,823 1,348,233 76,748 447,040 1,211,405 737,987 581,185 516,823 309,527 136,621 215,739 681,904 687,91 937,903 343,031 157,455 140,445 39,834 34,730 36,629 30,388 14 25 76 2,254 403 3,292 102,994 469,757 245,601 315,401 217,531 117,549 65,659 109,588 141,603 165,213 25,081 6,119 15,501 4,576 Totals- • ■| 3, 929,827 I 679,897 15,305,925 8 93,04l|7,239,814 1,191.364 9,638.131 j,5 38,038| 12.866,020 2,009,043 Ages, e Francais or Cape Henry, in the department of the North, the seat of the kingdom established by Christophe, is better built, with well-paved streets, and some handsome squares, and has a population of about 10,000. Near it is the citadel, constructed at vast expense on the top of a mountain, as a place of security tor himself and his treasures. Aux Cayes or Les Cayes, is a neat town, with a flourishing trade ; but it was almost destroyed by a hurricane, in August, 1831. Jeremie is a place of con- siderable trade. Gonaives is a small town with a good harbour. St. Domingo, the capital of the Spanish part of the island, presents the remains of a very hand- some city ; a solid and spacious cathedral, a large arsenal, houses in general com- modious and well built; but it has been long in a state of decay, and is not sup- posed to contain now above 10,000 inhabitants. 262 SOUTH AMERICA. SOUTH AMERICA. South America, which is comprised between the 12th degree of north and the 56th of south latitude, and which spreads in breadth from 36° to 81° W. Ion., is inferior in dimensions to the northern portion of the continent, by almost 1,000,000 square miles. Its coast is also less indented by large bays, but it presents the same tapering form to the south. Its greatest breadth, about six degrees south of the equator, is 3200 miles, and its length 4500. In this vast country, rivers roll through an extent of 4000 miles, and are so broad that the eye cannot reach from one shore to the other. In one point, are seen mountain-summits above the clouds, white with snows that never melt; while their bases rear the banana and pine-apple. In a day, a man can pass through all climates, from that of the equator to that of Nova Zembla. In some places, volcanoes, too numerous to be classed, throw out smoke and flames. Still, in other places, are vast and deep forests abounding in all the grand flowering and gigantic vegetation of tropical climates, which spreads an immense extent, that has never yet resounded with the woodman's axe. Nature here shows herself alternately in unexampled magnificence, beauty, sublimity, power, and terror. South America may.be divided into five distinct physical regions. 1. The low country on the shores of the Pacific, about 4000 miles in length, and from 50 to 200 in breadth : the two extremities of this district are fertile, the middle a sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, surrounded by the Andes and their branches, and consisting of extensive plains nearly destitute of wood, but covered with a high herbage during a part of the year. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast plain, with a rich soil and a humid climate, and exhibiting a surprising luxuriance of vegetation. 4. The great southern plain of the Pampas; in parts, dry and barren, and in parts, covered with a strong growth of weeds and wild grass. 5. The high country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana and the Araguay, presenting alternate ridges and valleys, thickly covered with wood on the Atlantic slope. The most extensive in range, and, with one exception, the loftiest mountains on the globe, extend through this continent from its northern to its southern extrem- ity, and impart to it a character of unequalled grandeur and magnificence. The principal chain of the Andes runs from north to south, at a distance from the shore of the Pacific Ocean, varying from one to two hundred miles, and appears to ex- tend through the isthmus of Darien, and to be connected with the great western chain of North America. The elevation of the Andes is by no means uniform. In some places it rises to more than 20,000 feet, while in others it sinks to less than one half that height. The whole range seems to rest upon volcanic fires, and numerous peaks are constantly burning. These mountains send off several subordinate ridges; the principal and the most extensive is that which stretches along the northern coast of the continent towards the island of Trinidad, and is known as the chain of Venezuela : its highest summits are usually estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 feet in height. The main ridge of the Andes commences at the isthmus of Darien, and, in its progress southward, shoots up, under the Equator, into the lofty summits of Chimborazo and Antisana, while it spreads ter- ror by the tremendous volcanoes of Pinchincu and Catopaxi. On reaching the elevated regions of Bolivia, it forms a vast mass, amidst whose lofty peaks tower Mount Sorata, of 25,250, and Mount Illimani, of 24,350 foot elevation, surpassing in height all the other peaks of this great chain, and second only to the most ele- vated summits of the Himmaleh Mountains. Passing onward between Buenos Ayres and Chili, the Andes preserve this elevation very little diminished ; but toward the most southern extreme, they fall gradually to less than one-fourth of their greatest height, and assume an aspect dreary and desolate, in correspondence with the wintry severity of the climate. The principal ridge generally rises ab- ruptly, with numerous and frightful precipices, hiding its lofty summits in the clouds, or rising with awful majesty into the pure regions of the air above them. SOUTH AMERICA. 263 They are covered with perpetual snow, but the uniform temperature of the equa- torial and tropical regions prevents the formation of glaciers. The mountains which traverse the eastern section of Brazil, in their position and relation to the great plains of the continent, present a striking resemblance to the Appalachian or Alleghany system of North America. Rising south of the Amazon River, they extend, by several nearly parallel ranges, to the Rio de la Plata, beyond which they finally sink into the vast plains of the Pampas. The whole of these eastern ranges are, however, low in elevation, compared with the great western chain. They generally reach from 2000 to 3000 feet, and in a few cases are elevated to near 6000 feet, and are not, it is believed, in any instance, the seat of volcanic action. The rivers of South America have undisputed claims to rank amongst the greatest on the globe, whether considered in their vast length of course, depth and breadth of stream, or in their capacity for an extensive and continuous inland navigation. Of these, the Amazon, or Maranon, is the most important and promi- nent. This great stream, with its mighty branches, the Madeira, Caqueta, Rio Negro, &c., drain an extent of country estimated to equal nearly the whole of Europe, flowing through regions which will no doubt one day be the finest in the world. They roll, at present, through savage deserts and impenetrable forests, which have never felt the axe or the plough. The immense size of the Amazon would admit of a ship navigation of from 1000 to 2000 miles, did not the rapidity of the current prevent; but it will no doubt at some future period yield to the power of steam. The boat navigation extends about 2500 miles, to the Pongo or rapids at Jaen, where the river passes a subordinate chain of the Andes. The Rio de la Plata, or Parana, opens to the ocean with an estuary of 150 miles in breadth. Its ship navigation extends to Buenos Ayres, and that for boats 1800 miles farther. By its tributaries, the Paraguay, Pilcomaya, and Vermejo, navigation is carried through a great range of country, almost to their sources. The Orinoco, though not equalling either the Amazon or Rio de la Plata, is nevertheless an important 6tream. By its means, and that of its tributary, the Meta, vessels of suitable bur- then may ascend from the ocean almost to the foot of the Andes. Its entire course is not far short of 1500 miles. When it meets the sea, its green-coloured waves strongly contrast with the blue of the ocean. The aspect of the outlet of this immense stream, convinced Columbus that such a body of fresh water could only issue from a continent. Here it was, while feeling the refreshing land-breeze charged with the aromatic fragrance of a boundless wilderness of flowers, and contemplating the ethereal mildness of the sky, the great discoverer imagined himself near the garden of Eden, and that the Orinoco was one of the four great rivers mentioned in the Scriptures as issuing from Paradise. Between the Orinoco and the Amazon there is a singular communication by means of the Casiquiare River, which flows alter- nately into each stream, according as the waters of either prevail. The southern portion of this continent contains an animal population which is in a measure peculiar, and offers a large variety of forms and characters, which have no corresponding types among the productions of any other country. Of the carnivorous animals, the jaguar, the cougar or puma, the ocelot, and mougar,. are the chief of the cat family.. The lama, a useful animal, of the camel kind; the vicuna, the tapir, the peccary, resembling the domestic hog, the capibarra, the chinchilla, a kind of rat that furnishes the chinchilla fur, the coypou, resembling the beaver of the northern continent, the sloth, the agouti, the ant-eaters, the armadillo and Brazilian porcupine, and monkeys of various kinds. The jaguar, or American tiger, is a formidable animal, and is in size between the tiger and leopard of the old continent. It is found from Guiana to Paraguay, and is a solitary animal, inhabiting thick virgin forests. They attack cows, and even bulls of four years old, but are especially enemies to horses. It will seldom attack man, except when strongly pressed by hunger: instances, however, arei known of persons having been seized and carried off by them. The cougar is, found in different parts of South America, and is believed to be the same animal j as the North American panther. 2U SOUTH AMERICA. The tapir, or anta, is of the size of a small cow, but without horns, and with a short naked tail ; the legs are short and thick, and the feet have small black hoofs. His skin is so thick and hard as to be almost impenetrable to a bullet; for which reason the Indians make shields of it. The tapir seldom stirs out but in the night, and delights in the water, where he oftener lives than on land. He is chiefly to be found in marshes, and seldom goes far from the borders of rivers or lakes. He swims and dives with singular facility. This animal is commonly found in Brazil, Paraguay, Guiana, and in all the extent of South America, from the extremity of Chili to Colombia. The lama resembles a very small camel, is gentle and confiding in its manners ; its carriage is graceful and even beautiful ; they abound in great numbers from Potosi to Caraccas, and make the chief riches of the Indians and Spaniards, who rear them. Their flesh is esteemed excellent food : they are trained to carry bur- dens, and the strongest of them will travel with from 100 to 150 pounds weight on their backs ; their pace is slow, but they are sure-footed, and ascend and de- scend precipices and craggy rocks, where even man can scarcely accompany them. They are mostly employed in carrying the riches of the mines to the large towns and cities. Bolivar aflirmed that above three hundred thousand of these animals were employed in his time. Their hair, or wool, is long, soft, and elastic, and may be manufactured into excellent clothing. Two or three pounds of straw will suffice the lama for food for twenty-four hours. It will not travel at night; and if offended will spit at the person with whom it is angry, whether it be a stranger or the person who feeds it. The vicuna is smaller than the lama, and is celebrated for the superior fineness of its wool ; it inhabits the highest points of the southern Andes, and exhibits great liveliness. The chinchilla is a species of field rat, about the size of a Guinea-pig, and is held in great estimation for the extreme fineness of its fur or wool ; it is sufficiently long for spinning. The little animal is about 6 inches in length, and lives in burrows under ground, in the open parts of Chili and the adjoining regions of South America. The Cay- pou is an animal closely resembling the beaver in size, quality of fur, and general organization, but its tail, instead of being flat, is round, and it does not form the societies nor construct the residence for which the latter species is so well known. It seems nevertheless to represent this species in the rivers and lakes of South America, from whence its fur is brought under the name of Racoonda. The sloth is peculiar to South America ; this animal, in its wild state, spends all its life in the trees, and never quits them but through force or accident, and lives not upon the branches, but suspended under them ; leaves and wild fruits constitute its food. Among the Mexicans and Peruvians were found the very few domestic animals which existed in America previous to the arrival of Columbus ; and even they possessed only the lama and vicuna, and a small species of lap-dog, which they called alco, and which is believed to have resembled the small naked variety at present found in Barbary and the Levant. The lama was used as a beast of bur- den, and the long and thick fleece of the vicuna furnished a rich and fine wool, which was manufactured into cloth of a beautiful texture; the flesh of both spe- cies supplied an agreeable and wholesome food. The horse, the ass, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the pig, were all strangers to the New World, and were brought from Europe, at an early period, by the first settlers; some of them have increased prodigiously in every part of America; in many places they have even regained their pristine state of savage freedom ; innu- merable herds of wild oxen cover the rich savannahs of Brazil, Buenos Ayres, and Colombia, and troops of horses, equally wild, are found in every part of the pam- pas, and likewise in the high plains on the banks of the Arkansas, in North Ame- rica. A nominal property in these wild herds is generally claimed by particular individuals ; and they are assembled also at certain periods, to be marked and counted, but in all other respects they are left to the unrestrained exercise of their natural freedom. The horned cattle are principally valuable for their hides and tallow, which are for the most part shipped to European ports, and constitute two of the principal commodities of South American exportation. The custom of hunting cattle for this purpose is becoming, in South America, a particular SOUTH AMERICA. 265 trade, and a native is never considered properly educated till he can throw the lasso, or use the knife, with skill and dexterity. In the pampas there are numerous troops of wild horses, which, though of less importance than the horned cattle, are not without their uses to the inhabitants; in fact, they furnish the only means of crossing these extensive plains, and conse- quently, of communicating with the neighbouring countries. The traveller and his guide set off on horseback, driving a troop of these animals before them : when one beast is exhausted, another is secured by means of the lasso; the saddle is changed, the rider mounts and continues his journey, repeating the same opera- tion as often as requisite, till he arrives at his station for the night ; here he obtains a fresh troop, and in this manner will travel, for many days in succession, at the rate of 100 or 120 miles a day. The ass, the sheep, the goat, and the hog, likewise introduced into America, both iiorth and south, by the early European colonists, have not, with the exception of the hog in the United States, increased in the same proportion as the horse and ox. The ass is principally employed in the old Spanish and Portuguese settle- ments, for the purpose of breeding mules, which are universally employed in trans- porting the precious metals, and possess all the wonderful sagacity in discovering and avoiding danger, and all the security of foot, which have, in all ages of the world, rendered this animal so valuable in mountainous countries. The principal birds of South America are the rhea, or American ostrich, the condor, the king of the vultures, the black vulture, and the turkey-buzzard ; and of the eagle family are the Brazilian caracara eagle, the harpy eagle, the most ferocious of its species, the Chilian sea-eagle, and the vulturine caracara eagle, bearing a strong affinity to both the vulture and the eagle ; the toucans, various in form, and of superb colouring ; parrots, of great variety of size and splendour of plumage; the burrowing owl, blacksmith, or bell-bird, uttering a note like the blow of a hammer upon an anvil, orioles, or hanging-birds, chatterers, mani- kins, humming-birds, of 100 different species, from the size of a wren to that of a humble-bee; they are more numerous in the tropical regions of Brazil and Guiana than in the other section of the continent ; a few species are also found in North America. The rhea, or American ostrich, is smaller than the African species, and is fur- ther distinguished from it by having three toes completely developed on each foot; it is found chiefly on the pampas, or plains, of Buenos Ayres and Patagonia, from the Amazon to the straits of Magellan. This bird imparts a lively interest to a ride on the pampas. They are seen sometimes in coveys of twenty or thirty, gliding elegantly along the gentle undulations of the plain, at half pistol-shot dis- tance from each other, like skirmishers. The young are easily domesticated, and soon become attached to those who caress them ; but they are troublesome inmates, for, stalking about the house, they will, when full grown, swallow coin, shirt-pins, and every small article of metal within reach. Their usual food, in a wild state, is seeds, herbage, and insects; the flesh is a reddish brown, and, if young, not of bad flavour. A great many eggs are laid in the same nest, which is lined with dry grass. Some accounts have been given which exonerate the ostrich from being the most stupid bird in creation. For example, the hen counts her eggs every day. This has been proved by the experiment of taking an egg away, or by putting one in addition. In either case she destroys the whole, by crushing them with her feet Although she does not attend to secrecy in selecting a situa- tion for her nest, she will forsake it if the eggs have been handled. It is also said that she rolls a few eggs about thirty yards distant from her nest, and cracks the shells, which, by the time her young come forth, being filled with maggots, and covered with insects, form the first repast of her infant brood. The male bird is said to take upon himself the rearing of the young, and to attach more importance to paternal authority than to the favours of his mate. If two cock-birds meet, each with a family, they fight for the supremacy over both ; for which reason an ostrich has sometimes under his tutelage broods of different ages. The condor is of the vulture species, and the largest of terrestrial birds ; its wings extend from 9 to 14 feet ; it is peculiar to the Andes, and seems to prefer 23 2I ' 266 SOUTH AMERICA. the highest points, bordering on the limits of perpetual snow. Although they never attack man, yet they exhibit no fear at his approach. Their food and habits are very similar to those of the bearded vulture of Europe. Two condors will dart upon a deer, or even a heifer, pursuing or wounding it for a long time with their beaks or talons, until their victim sinks: then they immediately seize its tongue, and tear out its eyes. In Quito it is said that the mischief done to cattle by these formidable birds is immense; their general food, however, is carrion, or dead game. The skin of the condor is so thickly clothed with down and feathers, that it is capable of withstanding musket-ball's, when not closely fired, and the bird is killed with great difficulty. The king of the vulture is a smaller species than the condor ; its wings, from tip to tip, are about six feet : it is remarkable for the variety of its colours, and the bright tints of blue and vermilion which mark its naked head and neck ; it is occasionally seen as far north as Florida. The toucans are omnivorous in their habits, feeding both upon animal and vege- table matter. Their enormous bills are light, and being vascular within, admit, of a great developement being given to the organs of smell ; by this power they discover the nests and eggs of other birds, which they are constantly plundering. The species and varieties of fish are so numerous and so similar in all quarters of the globe, that their geographical distribution is more uniform than that of most other classes. The various fresh-water species of Europe have their representa- tives in the rivers and lakes of the New World, and the marine tribes which fre- quent the shores of America are little different from those of the old continent. The species, indeed, may be distinct, but the generic form and characters are invariably the same, or differ only in trifling circumstances. One of the most remarkable fish of South America is the gymnotus, or electric eel ; it possesses the singular property of stunning its prey by an electrical shock. This eel abounds in the rivers and lakes of the low-lands of Colombia, and is about six feet in length. The electrical shock is conveyed, either through the hand or any me- tallic conductor which touches the fish ; even the angler sometimes receives a shock from them, conveyed along the wetted rod and fishing-line. The most formidable reptiles of South America are the alligators and serpents : three or four species of the former inhabit the rivers and lakes : of the latter are the boa constrictor, the anaconda, and the aboma ; they are found chiefly in the swamps and fens of the tropical parts of South America : the latter is said to grow from 20 to 30 feet in length, and as large in bulk as a stout man : it is indifferent as to its prey, and destroys, when hungry, any animal that comes within its reach. The negroes consider it excellent food. Among the useful reptiles are the turtle, so highly prized by epicures, and the guana lizard, by many considered quite as great a delicacy as the turtle ; its flesh is white, tender, and of delicate flavour : they are very nimble, and are hunted by dogs, and, when not wanted for immedi- ate use, are salted and barrelled: they are found both on the continent and among the West Indian Islands. The turtle is found also in the same localities as the guana : it resorts yearly in vast numbers to the islands and shores of the Orinoco, and also to the shores of the islands in the West Indies, to deposit its eggs, which it buries by thousands in the sand, and which are eagerly sought after by the Indians and negroes, who annually resort to these haunts of the turtle for the purpose of procuring them. The Bats are surprisingly numerous and are no doubt powerful instruments to keep within due limits the myriads of flying insects : some, however, live almost entirely upon fruits, while others, like the deadly Vampire of the East, enter the cattle stables, and the houses of men, and suck the blood of both : as their bite is usually in the foot, and never creates pain sufficiently sharp to awaken the person attacked, it has sometimes proved fatal from excessive hemorrhage. The Vam- pires are consequently much dreaded by the inhabitants, and every precaution is taken to guard against their attacks. Horses and mules are frequently so much weakened by these animals during the night, as to be incapable of travelling. Of the insect tribes in America, the mosquitoes, though of the most diminutive | size, are unquestionably the greatest scourge of the moist tropical countries, and even in many parts included in the temperate zone. Chigoes is another insect SOUTH AMERICA. 267 which inhabits the same localities, and is scarcely less to be dreaded than the i Mosquito. The diamond beetle is one of the most splendid of insects, and before j Brazil was accessible to European travellers, was so rare as to be sold at a very high price. Carnivorous insects, and also such as feed upon dead animal matter are widely dispersed. Ants are the universal removers of all such offensive sub- stances as are too small for the food of Vultures, and the diminutive size of these little agents is amply compensated by the inconceivable myriads of their num- bers. The Cochineal is nearly the only insect which has been turned to great commercial account. The Honey-Bee of Europe is unknown, but there are several wild species of this family, whose honeycombs are formed in trees, and much sought after by the natives. On the discovery of the New World, it was found by the Spaniards in posses- sion of various tribes of Indians, generally of a more gentle and less warlike character, than those which inhabited North America. They were doubtless the same race, but the influence of a softer climate had probably subdued their vigour and courage. With the cross in one hand, and the sword in the other, the ruth- less invaders took possession of the land. Peru, a populous empire and compara- tively civilized, was conquered by Pizarro, after a series of treacherous and intrepid acts, scarcely paralleled in the history of mankind. The whole of South America fell into the hands of Europeans : Spain took possession of the Western and Portugal of the Eastern portion. Thus it was arranged into two great politi- cal divisions. The Indian has only been preserved to any extent in the New World, where he has mingled with the white man and adopted his habits, or where impenetra- ble unwholesome forests or cold inhospitable regions have protected, or where, as in the case of the Araucanos of Chili, his own courage has saved him from ex- termination. The islands of the West Indies present the singular spectacle of a whole race of people, that has disappeared within the limits of recent and au- thentic history : their place is occupied by the white man of Europe as the master, and the black of Africa as the slave. The copper or bronze hue of the skin is, with some slight exceptions, common to almost all the natives of America, upon which the climate, the situation or the mode of living, appear not to exercise the smallest influence. Some of the tribes in Guiana are nearly black, though easily distinguished from the negro. The colour of the natives of Brazil and California, is equally deep, although the latter inhabits the temperate zone, and the former lives near the tropics. The natives of New Spain are darker than the Indians of Quito and New Grenada, who inhabit a precisely analogous climate. Those who, in the torrid zone, inhabit the most elevated table-land of the Cordilleras or of the Andes, have a complexion as much copper-coloured as those who cultivate the Banana under a burning sun, in the narrowest and deepest valleys of the equinoctial regions. The Indians who inhabit the mountains are clothed and were 60 long before the conquest, while the Aborigines that wander on the plains of South America, are perfectly or nearly naked, and consequently are always exposed to the vertical rays of the Sun. These facts show that the colour of the American depends very little on the local situation which he actually occupies; and never in the same individual are those parts of the body that are constantly covered of a fairer colour than those in contact with the air. In the warmer sections of the continent, the Aborigines live upon fruits or roots : in less genial regions, they are obliged to have recourse to the chase : on the rivers or along the shores of lakes, or on the sea-coasts, they depend on fish as their main article of food. In an emergency the Indians do not scruple to feed on ser- pents, toads, and lizards, and on the larva of insects, and other disgusting objects. Some roast their meat, others boil it, and not only several savage tribes, but even the civilized Peruvians, eat their flesh raw. The Ottomacs, a tribe near the Orinoco, eat a species of unctuous clay, and the same practice has been found to prevail among some tribes in Brazil, and on the borders of the Arctic Ocean. A number of tribes in Brazil, and in the basin of the Orinoco, and some in all parts of America, indulge in the horrid banquet of human flesh. 268 SOUTH AMERICA. Amongst the aborigines throughout the continent, with some rare exceptions, the woman is the slave of the man. She performs all the menial offices, carries the burdens, cultivates the ground, and in many cases is not allowed to eat or speak in the presence of the other sex. Polygamy is by no means uncommon among the native tribes ; but it is often checked by the difficulty of procuring or supporting more than one wife, and some nations do not countenance the practice. Some tribes kill their prisoners ; others adopt them into all the privileges of the tribe, and yet others employ them as slaves, in which capacity they are turned over to the women. The governments of Spain and Portugal, aided by the devout zeal of several religious orders, have supported missions in Mexico, La Plata, Peru, Brazil, and New Grenada, for more than two centuries: most of these have been lately aban- doned, in consequence of the recent revolutions in those countries, and seem to have left no traces of their existence. A few friars, or priests, settled among the savages, instructed them in the forms of the Roman Catholic religion, and taught them some of the more useful arts ; but these establishments were generally mo- delled upon the plan of the Peruvian theocracy; the converts were kept under a complete state of tutelage ; the produce of their labour became the common pro- perty of the community, which was managed by their religious fathers, and no progress was made in establishing an independent, self-sustaining social system. South America contains the following political divisions. The republics of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equador, or Equator, comprise what constituted, until 1831, the Republic of Colombia: they occupy the northern part of the continent. The colonies of Guiana, belonging to Great Britain, France, and Holland, are in the north-east. The empire of Brazil, the most extensive and populous of all the South American states, extends over the central, and more than one-half of the eastern, section of the southern continent. West of Brazil is the republic of Bo- livia (formerly known as Upper Peru), and those of Peru and South Peru. The regions forming the territory of these states were once all comprehended under the general name of Peru. Southward of these, and along the western coast, ex- tends the republic of Chili. Eastward of Chili, and occupying mostly the central parts of the continent, is the republic of Buenos Ayres, known also as the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, and likewise as the Argentine Republic. Be- tween Buenos Ayres and Brazil is situated the dictatorship of Paraguay, and the Republic Oriental de l'Uruguay, commonly called Uruguay : it was also formerly known by the several names of Montevideo, the Banda Oriental, and the Cispla- tine Republic. The most southern part of South America is Patagonia, including Tierra del Fuego. These regions are entirely occupied by native tribes, and are Vfrry little known. The estimates of the areas and population of all the above-mentioned territo- ries are very uncertain, and but little reliance is to be placed on them. Authori- ties often differ very much, and in general they are but conjectural. Area in square miles. Population. New Grenada 380,000 1,687,100 Venezuela 425,000 900,000 Equador 130,000 600,000 Guiana 115,000 182,501 Brazil 3,000,000 5,000,000 Peru 280,000 700,000 South Peru 125,000 800,000 Bolivia 400,000 1,716,000 Buenos Ayres 860,000 700,000 Paraguay 88,000 150,000 Uruguay 92,000 75,000 Chili 172,000 1,500,000 Patagonia 320,000 30,000 Total 6,387,000 14,040,600 COLOMBIA. 269 COLOMBIA, OR, NEW GRENADA, VENEZUELA, AND EQUADOR OR EQUATOR. Colombia is the name given to the extensive territory of an independent state, which took the lead among the newly-formed republics in what was formerly Spanish South America. Recent changes have subdivided it into three portions, which have assumed the appellations of New Grenada, Venezuela, and the Equa- dor ; but it is still convenient to give its physical features under the general ap- pellation of Colombia. Colombia, in its general outline, occupies nearly the whole north and north- western part of South America, and comprehends the two governments included by the Spaniards under the names of the viceroyalty of New Grenada, comprising Quito, and the captaincy-general of the Caraccas, or Venezuela, including Span- ish Guiana, It is bounded on the north by the great gulf of the Atlantic, which is enclosed between its shore and the long chain of the West India islands, com- monly called the Caribbean Sea. On this side also a narrow land boundary con- nects it with Guatemala, but its limits on that side are unsettled. On the west it stretches along the boundless expanse of the Pacific, from the vicinity of the Gulf of Dulce on the north, to the River Tumbez on the south : thence it is divided from Peru by an irregular south-easterly line extending to the Javari River. By that stream, part of the Amazon River, and a nominal line ex- tending first north, and then east, it is separated from Brazil ; and by the latter boundary, continued in a northerly course to the mouth of the Orinoco, it is di- vided from Guiana. The outline of this great region is probably not less than 6500 miles. It is in extent from north to south about 1400, and from east to west 1650 miles. The surface of Colombia, its mountains and plains, are of the most varied char- acter, and on the most majestic scale, presenting forms and phenomena the most grand and awful that are to be found on the globe. The summits of the Andes have ceased, indeed, to rank as the very loftiest on earth. The Himmaleh, the mountain boundary of Hindoostan, is not only higher, but presents, perhaps, a grander continuity of unbroken and gigantic steeps. But, ascending from the low country by a series of tabular plains and broad valleys, it presents at no single point any very astonishing elevation. It has nothing to resemble those solitary gigantic cones, which, in the Colombian Cordillera, shoot up towards the sky, and even under the burning influence of the equator remain buried to a great depth in perpetual snow. Chimborazo, the giant of the west, stands yet unsealed by mor- tal foot. Humboldt and his companions made extraordinary exertions to reach its summit, and arrived at about 2000 feet from that point, then believed to "be the greatest elevation ever attained by man. They were enveloped in thick fogs, and in an atmosphere of the most piercing cold ; they breathed with difficulty, and blood burst from the eyes and lips. The form of the mountain, which is that of a truncated cone, appears everywhere sublime, but peculiarly so from the coast of the Pacific at nearly 200 miles distance, whence it resembles an enormous semi- transparent dome defined by thys deep azure of the sky ; dim, yet too decided in outline to be mistaken for a cloud. The height is 21,440 feet. Antisana, though only 19,000 feet, is remarkable for having a village on its side at the height of 13,500 feet, once believed the highest inhabited spot on the globe. The most tremendous volcanoes in the world are those which burst from this mountain range. Cotopaxi is the most formidable in the Andes, and, indeed, on the globe. This mountain is 18,898 feet high, consequently more elevated than Vesuvius would be if placed on the top of Teneriffe. In the course of the last century, it had five great eruptions, and one in 1803. In some of these it has been averred that Cotopaxi was heard at the distance of 600 miles, and that on the coast of the Pacific, at 140 miles distance, it sounded like thunder, or like the discharge of a continuous battery of cannon. From this and the other South 23* 270 COLOMBIA. American craters are ejected not only the usual volcanic substances, but torrents of boiling water and mud, often containing great quantities of dead fishes. Some- times, after successive eruptions, the undermined walls of the mountain fall in, and become a mass of tremendous ruin. Such was the fate of El Altai, which once reared its head above Chimborazo, and of another very lofty volcano, which, in 1698, fell with a similar crash. The general range of the Andes, as it passes through Colombia, is divided in the north into three parallel chains, of which the eastern has between it and the middle chain the plain of Santa Fe de Bogota, and some others, which constitute the most valuable part of New Grenada. Farther south, these chains unite into two, of which the most elevated, comprising all the highest volcanic summits, is on the western side, facing the expanse of the Pacific. Between it and the par- allel chain is interposed the table plain of Quito, about twenty miles in breadth, and of the most surpassing richness and beauty. To the east also the Andes throw out a chain, called the chain of Venezuela, which runs parallel to the sea along the coast of Caraccas, as far as Cumana, leaving along the shore a plain rich in the most valuable tropical productions. The Llanos form another extensive portion of the Colombian territory, com- mencing where the mountain ranges terminate, and reaching east and south to the Orinoco. They consist of immense flats, covered with magnificent forests and vast savannahs, in which the grass often grows above the human height, covering from view both man and horse. A great extent is inundated by the Orinoco and its large tributaries. The soil is fertile in the extreme ; but the unhealthiness of the climate deters settlers who are not urged by extreme necessity. Among its rivers, Colombia may rank several, the greatest both of the Old and the New World. She sets one foot, as it were, on the Amazon : but that river, being scarcely accessible, and the country near it occupied only by a few scattered missions from Peru, cannot be considered, in any practical sense, as Colombian. The same observation may almost apply to its great tributaries, the Napo, the lea, or Putumayo, and the Japura, or Caqueta, which descend to it from the Andes of Quito. The secondary but still immense stream of the Orinoco rises in the south- ern part of the mountains of Parime, and, winding round them, flows first west, then north, till it takes its final course eastward to the Atlantic. It enters that ocean by a delta of about fifty channels, and after a course of 1380 miles. From the boundless expanse of the Llanos, the Orinoco receives several mighty rivers that have their sources in the Andes, — the Guaviare, the Meta, and the Apure; the last of which, flowing through the plains of Venezuela, and drawing its waters from the coast chain, is alone very important in a commercial view. These shores may in future ages become the magnificent seats of empire, but at present they are overgrown with forests and thickets, peopled only by wandering Caribs, and presenting but a few scattered missions and settlements. The really useful streams are those of smaller dimensions, which, running like long canals between the mountain chains, bring down the products of those high valleys, at present the only cultivated part of Colombia. The Magdalena, the largest and most commodious of these streams, has a course of more than 500 miles between the eastern and middle chain of the Cordilleras, affording to the plain of Santa Fe a communication with the sea. The Cauca runs between the middle and western chain ; and, after a course of nearly equal length, joins the Magdalena before it falls into the sea near Carthagena. The Magdalena is throughout navigable, though the voyage is rendered painful by the heat and the myriads of insects. The navigation of the Cauca is by no means so good. To the south, the still smaller rivers of Esmeraldas and of Guayaquil afford to the republic of the Equa- dor an important means of communicating with the Pacific Ocean. There are scarcely any lakes of importance. We must except, however, that of Maracaybo, which, though it communicates with the sea, yet, unless in strong winds blowing from thence, preserves its waters fresh and unmixed. There are also dispersed throughout the territory various little collections of water on the declivities of hills, and others formed by the expansions of rivers. The constitution of Colombia was formed in a congress assembled at Cucuta, on COLOMBIA. 271 the 18th July, 1821. Another had been framed, two years before, at Santo Tome, but only for the province of Venezuela, which, after some resistance, was obliged to yield its claim to the superior power and population of New Grenada. The basis judiciously taken was that of the United States of North America, and the alterations are even such as to give it somewhat less of a democratic character. The legislative power was vested in a congress, consisting of two bodies, the senate and the house of representatives. The executive was vested in a presi- dent and vice-president, the former of whom was elected for four, and could not continue in office for a consecutive period of more than eight years. Neither he nor any of the ministers could be members of the congress. His salary was fixed at 30,000 dollars, and that of the vice-president at 16,000 dollars per annum. The constitutions of the three states newly formed from the fragments of Co- lombia, are, with some variations, the same as that of Cucuta. Attempts have been made to unite them into a confederacy, which should manage their foreign relations ; but the project has never succeeded, and seems now to be abandoned. The amount of the foreign debt of Colombia was in 1824 nearly 30,000,000 dollars, since which time no interest has been paid, and it has consequently in- creased to about 50,000,000. It has been recognised by the new states as a com- mon burden, which shall be distributed on equitable principles among them, and each has declared its readiness to meet its respective responsibilities. The territory of Colombia is chiefly distinguished by its vast capacities for im- provement, which are developed only in a very imperfect degree. The soil is as various as the states that compose the territory. New Grenada, though a moun- tainous country, is fertile in all kinds of grain and fruit, and 6uch are the natural resources of this part of South America, that, if its inhabitants were active and industrious, it might become one of the richest and most important countries in the world. Agriculture in this country, beyond any other in Spanish America, or perhaps in the world, is capable of supplying in the utmost variety the richest productions of the vegetable kingdom. That which chiefly distinguishes it is the cacao, a fruit at once palatable and nutritious, which in the country yields an article of food, and in Europe forms the basis of the chocolate. The cacao of Caraccas is generally reckoned the best in the world. The produce is in value nearly 5,000,000 dollars. The tobacco of Caraccas is much superior to that of Virginia, yielding only to that of Cuba and the Rio Negro. Quinquina, or Jesuit's bark, one of the most valuable articles in the materia medica, is now the produce almost exclu- sively of Colombia. Coffee, cotton, and sugar, find all most favourable 6oils. In- digo was once a very important article, being exported from Caraccas, in the most prosperous times, to the value of 1,000,000 dollars; but it has much declined, and is produced now only in the plain of Varinas. Wheat and other European grain find favourable situations, especially on the table-lands of Bogota ; but as these have not the extent of those of Mexico, the wheat is neither so good nor so abun- dant; and Colombia cannot dispense with a large import of American flour. The banana grows in spontaneous abundance. The agriculture of these states appears to be still conducted in that indolent and slovenly manner usual where land is cheap and a market distant. The government has lately sought to promote the clearing of waste lands, by disposing of them at a very low rate, and by setting aside two millions of fanegas for foreigners who may be disposed to settle and bring them under cultivation. The mines of New Grenada have been a subject of brilliant and perhaps roman- tic expectations. Humboldt observes, that nothing can be more fallacious than the external appearance of rocks and veins, and that, till regular shafts and galle- ries have been formed, no certainty can be attained. The only important product as yet is gold, obtained by washing the earth and sand in the provinces of Choco, Popnyan, and Antioquia. There are indications of various minerals in different quarters. The silver mines of Marquetores, and those called the mountain mines, and the higher and lower mines in the province of Pamplona, are said by Torrente to be so rich that they generally yield two marks of silver per quintal : there are also mines of copper and lead, others of emeralds, which have given name to the 272 COLOMBIA. province of Muzo, and the valley of Tunja, noted also for its sapphires and other precious stones, and yielding in some places cinnabar and mercury. In the moun- tains of Antioquia and Guamoro there are diamonds, though of small size, hya- cinths, fine garnets in great abundance, excellent pearls in the Rio Hacha, ame- thysts in Timasco, turquoises in the districts of Pamplona, Suza, and Anserma. There are also rich mines in the district of Choco ; but some of these were neg- lected in the more general search for platina. From the year 1800 to 1810 were coined in New Grenada 27,350,000 dollars, and from 1810 to 1820, 20,000,000, or 2,000,000 annually. In Santa Martha there are mines of gold, silver, and prpcious stones, and some rich salt-works. The province of Quito yields gold, silver, copper, quicksilver, topazes, amethysts, emeralds, rock-crystal, and very fine marble ; in Venezuela is found tin, and also rock-crystal, with lapis lazuli, not much inferior to the cele- brated ultramarine. The copper mines yielded in one year 1500 quintals of ex- cellent quality. Time only can discover whether the rest will pay the expense of working. The salt mine of Zichaquira, glittering like an immense rock of crystal, has yielded a revenue of 150,000 dollars a year. It is not the only one ; and the mineral finds a ready market in the country. The pearls of Panama and the Rio Hacha, notwithstanding their great name, do not yield more than 100,000 dollars a year. Manufacturing industry can scarcely be said to exist. The leather of Carora, the hammocks of Marquesita Island, and the blankets of Tocuyo, are objects of little importance, even in respect to internal consumption. Commerce, in consequence of the very circumstance last mentioned, has a pecu- liar activity. From the total want of manufactures, almost the whole population must be clothed in foreign fabrics. In 1831, the exports from Caraccas consisted of coffee, cacao, and indigo, with hides, sarsaparilla, and sugar. The entire value amounted to 887,099 dollars. The imports to 975,019 dollars. In 1831, there cleared out from La Guayra 90 vessels; burthen, 9470 tons; of these 9 vessels and 909 tons were for England ; 28 vessels and 3882 tons for the United States. Trade is understood to be on the whole in a prosperous state. The internal traffic will one day probably be immense, upon the Orinoco, the Apure, the Meta, and by the Cassiquiare, with the Rio Negro and the Amazons ; but all the regions wa- tered by these mighty rivers are as yet little better than deserts. The cataracts also of Atures and Maypures prevent navigation from being carried much above the lowest bend of the Orinoco. The population of Colombia cannot be computed with any precision from exist- ing data. Venezuela, in 1834, according to official statements, had 900,000 ; that of New Grenada was ascertained by a census of that year to be 1,687,100; and the republic of the Equador is estimated to contain about 600,000 souls, making an aggregate of 3,187,100. The following table shows the relative proportion of the different races : — Venezuela. New Grenada. Equador. Total. Whites 200,000 1,058,000 157,000 1,415,000 Indians 207,000 376,050 393,000 976,050 Free Coloured . . 433,000 168,700 42,000 643,700 Slaves 60,000 84,350 8,000 152,350 Totals 900,000 1,687,100 600,000 3,187,100 The character of the Colombians is, probably, much influenced by the sudden transition from a depressing despotism to an extreme degree of liberty. They re- tain much of the gravity, temperance, and sobriety of the Spaniards, with a share of their pride, suspicious temper, and neglect of cleanliness. A courtesy some- what stately and studied prevails in their demeanour. It is not easy to gain their confidence ; but when that is once obtained, they are extremely friendly and cor- dial. They are hospitable to foreigners, whom, from national pride, however, they regard with secret jealousy. The great mass of the Colombians was kept in the most profound ignorance during the three centuries of Spanish government. Four-fifths of the inhabitants, NEW GRENADA. 273 ! comprehending the Indians, slaves, artisans, and labourers, did not even learn to read or write ; and the children even of the more opulent classes were only taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. Some, however, pursued their studies in the colleges, in order to fit themselves for the only employments to which the Creoles could aspire, those of clergymen and lawyers. There were universities or col- leges at Caraccas, Bogota, and Quito; but the whole system of education was ex- tremely defective, and the scholars remained ignorant of the actual state of sci- ence and philosophy in Europe. Of late years, great progress has been made in all the departments of knowledge ; free ingress of books from all quarters, the establishment of newspapers and journals, and the liberty of the press which now exists, have greatly tended to enlighten the community. The religion is as yet exclusively the Roman Catholic, and its ceremonies are observed with the strictest punctuality. The parish priests rule in the villages with almost absolute sway; but their influence, uniting together the different classes and sexes, is considered on the whole advantageous. Many of the young men who have had more enlarged means of information, have begun to discard the Catholic creed ; but a general scepticism, rather than any rational system of religion, seems to have taken the place of their ancient faith. The races are as numerous and as variously crossed as in Mexico. The negro maintains his place in the scale of humanity ; and the mulattoes Paez and Padilla have ranked among the foremost of the heroes who achieved the national inde- pendence. Of the native Indian tribes within this territory, the Caribs are the ruling peo- ple. No nation in the world is stamped with a deeper brand of ferocity, the very name, converted into cannibals, being applied to signify devourers of human flesh. The charge appears to have been greatly exaggerated by the Spaniards, who cer- tainly met with a most fierce resistance, and sought by this allegation to justify the system of enslaving and exterminating the savage tribes. They were sup- posed to have been exterminated, but it has been lately ascertained that there must be still about 40,000 of pure and unmixed blood. They are a fine tall race, whose figures, of a reddish copper colour, with their picturesque drapery, resem- ble antique statues of bronze. They shave great part of the forehead, which gives them somewhat the appearance of monks; they wear only a tuft on the crown. They have dark intelligent eyes, a gravity in their manners, and in their features an expression of severity, and even of sadness. The amusements of Colombia are chiefly borrowed from the mother-country. Dancing is passionately followed in the several forms of the fandango, the bolero, and the Spanish country-dance. Bull and cock fighting are equally favour- ite sports, and tend to keep alive that ferocity which is the main blemish in the moral character of the Spaniards. NEW GRENADA. The new stales which have been formed by the division of the former republic of Colombia are, Venezuela, in the east; New Grenada, in the north and centre; and Equador or Equator, in the south-west. New Grenada, comprising the ancient viceroyalty of that name, extends from 2° S. to 12° N. lat., and from 68° to 83° W. long., over an area of 380,000 square miles. It is the most populous and powerful of the Colombian republics; its population by a census of 1835 was 1,687,100. It is divided into five depart- ments, which are subdivided into eighteen provinces. Departments. Capitals. Population. Isthmus Panama 10,800 Magdalena Carthagena 18,000 Boynca Tunja 400 Cundinamarca Bogota 30,000 Cauca Popayan 25,000 2K 274 NEW GRENADA. Bogota, the capital of New Grenada, is situated on a table plain, 50 miles by 25, and 8000 feet above the level of the sea. This plain, though under the line, has the climate of Britain, and even of Scotland, though without the change of seasons, the perpetual temperature being that of spring or autumn, and the thermometer seldom falling below 47° or rising above 70°. The only alternation is formed by the wet seasons, which are two: the first comprehending March, April, and May; the second, September, October, and November; and these, being colder than the others, make two winters and two summers. The surround- ing plain is excessively fertile, fine, and fruitful, yielding two crops in the year of the best European grain. It is hemmed in by lofty mountains, rugged preci- pices, roaring torrents, and frightful abysses. The city of Bogota itself is en- closed in a grand mountain circuit, cliff's of 1000 feet rising immediately above it. The city was founded in 1538, by Quesada, and rapidly increased : it is now sup- posed to contain 30,000 inhabitants. Its streets and squares are open and spa- cious, but the houses are generally heavy and old-fashioned ; and even the late palace of the viceroy displays little magnificence. The beauty of the city rests wholly on its ecclesiastical edifices, which consist of twenty-six churches and twelve convents. Many of the former are not only splendid, but built with some taste; and their numerous spires, amid the grandeur of the surrounding scenery, give it a very fine appearance. It contains an university and archiepiscopal see, and carries on a considerable trade in cotton goods, hides, and grain. The scenery of the plain of Bogota is marked by many striking and picturesque features. Among these are particularly conspicuous the Fall of Tequendama and the natural bridges of Icononzo. The first is formed by the river Bogota. Its mass of waters, previously spread to a considerable breadth, are contracted to forty feet, and dashed down a precipice 650 feet high, into an almost fathomless abyss. The bridge of Icononzo is a natural arch across a chasm 360 feet deep, at the bottom of which flows a rapid torrent, which would have been otherwise impassable. Honda, the port of Bogota, is situated on the Magdalena river, about 55 miles N. W. from the capital : it has considerable trade, with a population of about 10,000 inhabitants. The town has some good buildings, the climate is hot but not unhealthy, and the banks of the river are infested with mosquitoes. . Popayan is a handsome city, built more regularly and elegantly than Santa Fe, and inhabited by many opulent merchants, who have suffered severely by the revolution. Its site, on the river Cauca, is picturesque; the climate delicious, notwithstanding the frequent rains and tempests. It enjoys a considerable trade in European merchandise, which it receives from Carthagena, and distributes to Quito and other neighbouring districts, together with the products of its fertile soil. Above it rises the volcano of Purace, continually emitting flames, unless when obstructed by the substances thrown out by itself, in which case Indians are employed to clear it, lest the subterraneous flame should produce earthquake. From its summit a river descends to Popayan, so impregnated with acid sub- stances, that the Spaniards call it Vinagre. Cali is a clean and well-built town, in a delightful situation; and the inhabitants have attained considerable pros- perity by exporting tobacco and other produce of the interior. Lower down the river is Cartago, in a situation which the cold blasts from the snowy mountains would render inclement, were it not sheltered by a ridge of lower hills. The surrounding country contains many valuable mines, and would be most rich in cacao, coffee, sugar, and all tropical productions, if cultivators and a market could be found. Pasto is a considerable town, and the inhabitants manufacture a pecu- liar species of cabinet-work of considerable elegance. It is surrounded by vol- canoes, and is accessible only through rugged and narrow passes. Previous to 1834, when it was destroyed by an earthquake, its population amounted to 10,000. Carthagena, long considered by the Spaniards as the bulwark of their posses- sions in America, equally noted for the successful attacks of Drake and the buc- caneers, and for the disastrous failure of Vernon in 1741, has lost much of its former importance. The fortifications are considerably decayed, yet it is the chief arsenal of the republic. The packet-boats, which maintain the intercourse I NEW GRENADA. 275 with Europe and the United States, sail to and from Carthagena ; and it absorbs most of the commerce of the Magdalena and its tributaries. It stands on a low, sandy point in the delta of the former river, and notwithstanding there are 6ome handsome churches and convents, it has on the whole a gloomy aspect. Its popu- lation is supposed to amount to about 18,000. Turbaco, a little Indian village in the vicinity, to which the wealthy Carthaginians retire in the hot season, is dis- tinguished by the curious phenomenon of the volcancitos (little volcanoes), con- sisting of about 20 cones, from 20 to 25 feet high, whence issue constant erup- tions of gas, sometimes accompanied with mud and water. Tolu, in a rich vege- table district of this province, is noted for the balsam bearing its name. Mompox, in the province of the same name, derives some importance from its population of 10,000 souls. Ocarla, a village higher up in the same province, was the. seat of a congress in 1828. Rio Hacha is a small town with a harbour, and once the seat of a pearl fishery, which never proved very successful. Farther west is Santa Martha, situated in a country pervaded by a detached range of lofty moun- tains. It has a good harbour, is strongly fortified, and carries on considerable trade. Its population is about 6,000 souls. The city of Tunja was the Indian capital of Cundinamarca, and continued, even under the Spaniards, to be a rich place, till it was superseded by Santa Fe. Sogamozo was a celebrated place of Indian pilgrimage, and contained a temple of the Sun. The town of Socorra is rudely built, but contains 12,000 inhabitants, busily employed in coarse cotton fabrics. Pamplona is a considerable and pleasant town in a lofty situation. Rosario de Cucuta, farther north, is remarkable for the session of the constituent congress in 1821. Casanare, 190 miles N. E. from Bogota on the river of the same name, forms the medium by which the provinces on the Magdalena communicate with the Llanos and the coast of Caraccas ; under the old regime the influence of the merchants of Carthagena caused it to be shut up, in order to secure their own monopoly of the Santa Fe trade; but as such absurd restrictions are now abolished, the Casanare may become an impor- tant channel of commerce. Panama and Porto Bello, on the opposite sides of the isthmus, bore a great name in America, when they were the exclusive channel by which the wealth of Peru was conveyed to the mother-country. Now, when both that wealth is diminished, and a great part of it is transported round Cape Horn, their con- sequence has much declined. Yet Panama, on the coast of the Pacific, is still a fortified place, and carries on some trade. It contains a beautiful cathedral, four monasteries, now deserted, and other large buildings, and maintains a population of 10,800. Porto Bello, so called from its fine harbour, is in a state of decay, and its pestilential climate has given it the name of the grave of Europeans. It is now inhabited only by a few negroes and mulattoes, the whole population not exceeding 1200. Here was once held the richest fair in America, but its trade is now chiefly removed to Chagres, a miserable little town with 1000 inhabitants. The usual routes across the isthmus are from Porto Bello and Chagres to Panama; but the harbour of Chagres is not good, and does not admit vessels of more than twelve feet draft, and the climate of Porto Bello is so fatal that no white man can remain there more than a few weeks, and even negroes suffer from its effects. There have been, from time to time, various projects for the construction of a canal, or a rail-road, so as to unite the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, at this narrow neck of land. But the political state of the country is as yet somewhat unsettled ; and hence capitalists are deterred from advancing the necessary funds. At some more propitious period, when affairs shall be permanently tranquillized, doubtless such a communication will be opened. Near Cape San Bias is a fishery of pearls and turtle ; the former carried on by an English company to little advantage, the latter affording profitable employment to about 120 individuals, who drive a trade in the flesh, oil, and shell of the turtles. Chorrera, ten miles from Panama, has 4000 inhabitants. Santiago is a place of some consequence, with 5000 inhabitants. Nata in the same pro- vince has a population of 4000. 276 VENEZUELA. ( VENEZUELA. The republic of Venezuela, consisting of the former captaincy-general of Caraccas, to which was attached the extensive tract known under the name of Spanish Guiana, extends from the Orinoco to the Gulf of Venezuela. It stretches over an area of 425,000 square miles, lying between 60° to 72° W. long., and 2° S. and 12° N. lat. It is divided into four departments, which are subdivided into 12 provinces, with a population estimated at about 900,000. Departments. Capitals. Population. Orinoco Varinas 3,000 Maturin Cumana 10,000 Venezuela Caraccas 23,000 Zulia Maracaybo 20,000 Venezuela bears a completely opposite aspect to the two former divisions. While they consist of the declivities and valleys of the loftiest Andes, Venezuela forms a plain of immense extent, reaching westward to and beyond the Orinoco. This region is divided into three parts, distinguished by the most marked contrasts both natural and social. The first consists of the forest territory beyond the Orinoco. It exists in an entirely unsubdued and savage state, peopled by the Caribs and other tribes, who roam from place to place, and wage almost continual war with each other. A few only have been formed by the missionaries into re- ductions, and inured to the habits of civilized life. The second part consists of the Llanos ; boundless plains, where the eye, in the compass of a wide horizon, often does not discover an eminence of six feet high. Like the Pampas of La Plata, they are covered with the most luxuriant pastures, on which it is estimated 1,200,000 oxen, 180,000 horses, and 90,000 mules are fed. Some of the great proprietors possess 14,000 head of cattle. The export of the hides of these ani- mals forms one of the principal branches of the commerce of Venezuela. The third division, consisting of a coast about 600 miles long, and the territory imme- diately adjoining to it, includes all that exhibits any degree of culture or civiliza- tion. Here the West India products, and particularly cacao of superior quality, are cultivated to a considerable extent ; and a trade is carried on, which, though interrupted by the revolutionary war and other calamities, is likely, in periods of tranquillity, to be revived and extended. Caraccas, situated a few miles from the coast, has always been the capital of Venezuela, and previous to 1812 was a very large city, containing above 40,000 inhabitants. On the 26th of March, it was overthrown by one of the most dread- ful earthquakes recorded in either hemisphere. After four in the evening, two successive shocks were felt, during which the ground was in continual undulation, and heaved like a fluid in a state of ebullition. The danger was then thought to be over, when a subterranean noise was heard, like the rolling of loud thunder; it was followed by two shocks, one perpendicular and one undulatory, so tre- mendous, that in a few seconds the whole city was in ruins. Several of the loftiest churches fell, burying 3000 or 4000 of the inhabitants, and they were so completely destroyed, that none of the fragments were more than five or six feet above the ground. Nearly 10,000 persons perished on the spot, besides many more who died afterwards, in consequence of wounds and privations. The agitation of the revolutionary contest obstructed the revival of Caraccas, and in 1830 it did not contain above 23,000 inhabitants. The city is finely situated, in a valley be- tween the sea and the lofty mountain of the Silla, whose two peaks rise to the height of nearly 9000 feet. The cathedral is spacious, but massive and heavy. Alta Gracia, its most elegant church, was overthrown by the earthquake. There is an university, on a very large scale, though the objects of instruction are some- what obsolete. La Guayra, about twelve miles from Caraccas, of which it is the port, notwith- standing its unhealthy climate and bad harbour, is the seat of a very considerable EQUADOIi. 277 trade. Similar disasters have reduced it from a population of 13,000 to scarcely 5000; but it is now reviving. Several large cities occur on the long line of coa§t which extends westward from Caraccas. Valencia flourishes in consequence of the fine interior territory, the trade of which is conducted through it, whence it is supposed to maintain a population of about 15,000. Its port, about ten leagues distant, called Puerto Ca- bello, has an admirable harbour, but is extremely unhealthy. Coro, once the capital of Venezuela, having lost that distinction and a great part of its trade, is now much decayed. Maracaybo, happily situated at the junc- tion between a bay and a large lake reaching far into the interior, early became a great city. It contains many descendants of the early conquerors, who live in proud indolence : the rest of the inhabitants gain wealth by traffic ; and the whole are supposed to be nearly 20,000. Truxillo, in a fine country near the head of the lake, early became one of the most flourishing cities in America ; but being, in 1678, plundered and reduced to ashes by Gramont the buccaneer, it has reco- vered only in so far as to be a tolerable country town, though presenting monu- ments of its former importance. It is almost rivalled by Merida, a neat town to the west of it. Some considerable cities occur on the coast to the east of Caraccas. Cumana is situated on an extensive and fertile plain on the Gulf of Cariaco, bounded by a curtain of rude mountains covered by luxuriant forests. Numerous herds run wild on its savannahs, and in the plain on the coast very fine tobacco is cultivated. It has a very spacious and noble harbour, and the gulf on which it is situated affords good anchorage. Mules, cattle, and provisions are exported to the West Indies ; but there is no longer room for the very large contraband which prevailed when the Spanish Main was generally closed against Britain. The in- habitants, formerly reckoned at 18,000, do not probably now much exceed 10,000. Cumana has suffered dreadfully by earthquakes : that of 1706 laid it completely in ruins ; hence it contains no lofty or important edifice. New Barcelona, to the westward, on an extensive plain overrun by wild cattle, carries on a similar trade, which supports a population of about 5000. In the island of Margarita is the little town of Pampatar, which has been de- clared a free port. The great plains in the interior of Venezuela and on the Orinoco, possessing neither manufactures nor commerce, cannot contain cities of any magnitude. Yet Varinas was reckoned a neat and handsome place, and, notwithstanding severe losses during the revolutionary war, has still 3000 inhabitants. San Fernando derives some importance from the commerce of the Apure, on which it is situated. Angostura, the only city yet founded on the Orinoco, notwithstanding recent losses, is still about equal to Varinas, and is the seat of a bishop and a college. It was in this region that report placed the fabulous El Dorado, the golden kingdom of Manoa, which was the object of so many expeditions in the 16th century. Here, it was asserted, there were more splendid cities and greater abundance of gold, than even the wealthy Peru could boast ; and as late as 1780, a large party of Spaniards perished in search of this imaginary region. REPUBLIC OF THE EQUADOR, or EQUATOR. The republic of the Equador, comprising the old Spanish presidency of Quito, which was annexed to the viceroyalty of New Grenada in 1718, extends from 67° W. Ion. on the Amazon, to the Pacific, and from 7° S. to 2° N. lat. On the Pa- cific it occupies the coast from the Mira to the Tumbez; its superficial area is about 130,000 square miles. The republic is divided into three departments, which are subdivided into eight provinces, and has a population of about 600,000. 24 278 EQUADOR. v Departments. Capitals. Population. Equador Quito 70,000 Guayaquil Guayaquil 20,000 Assuay .* Cuenca 20,000 The department of the Equador forms the finest table plain in all America. It has an average breadth of about thirty miles, enclosed between two parallel ranges of the loftiest Andes. In soil and climate, it possesses a felicity almost approach- ing to that which fable has ascribed to the golden age. The climate is that of a perpetual spring, at once benign and equal, and even during the four months of rain, the mornings and evenings are clear and beautiful. Vegetation never ceases ; the country is called the evergreen Quito ; the trees and meadows are crowned with perpetual verdure. The European sees with astonishment the plough and the sickle at once in equal activity ; herbs of the same species here fading through age, there beginning to bud ; one flower drooping, and its sister unfolding its beau- ties to the sun. Standing on an eminence, the spectator views the tints of spring, summer, and autumn, all blended. But the feature which renders the view from Quito the most enchanting, perhaps, that the eye ever beheld, is that above this beautiful valley, and resting, as it were, on its verdant hills, there rise all the loftiest volcanic cones of the Andes. From one point of view, eleven may be dis- covered, clad in perpetual snow. The productions of Quito are equally various as at Santa Fe, all gradations of climate occurring in a similar proximity ; but the most valuable are those of the temperate climates; grain, fruits, and rich pasturage. Quito, leaning, as it were, on the side of Pichincha, more than 9000 feet above the sea, is one of the finest and largest cities in the New World. It has four streets, broad, handsome, and well paved, and three spacious squares, in which the principal convents and dwelling-houses are situated; but the rest, extending up the sides of Pichincha, are crooked and irregular. The churches and convents are built with great magnificence and even some taste. The most elegant is the college formerly belonging to the Jesuits, finely adorned with Corinthian pillars, and wreaths of flowers executed in stone. The convent of San Francisco is of vast extent, and has a massive yet neat facade of the Tuscan order. Quito has two universities, which are numerously attended and carefully conducted ; and it is considered comparatively as a sort of South American Athens. The inhabit- ants are gay, volatile, hospitable, and courteous. Quito is noted for its viands, particularly ices, confectionary, maize, and potato cakes. Vast quantities of cheese are consumed, mixed with pumpkins, gourds, pulse, and other vegetables. The population is about 70,000, of which only one-sixth are whites, the mestizos a third, Indians a third, and the rest negroes. Latacunga, 50 miles south from Quito, is a place of some importance, with 16,000 inhabitants. Riobambo, 90 miles south of Quito, is a large and handsome town. The streets are wide and straight, the buildings of stone and mortar, but low on account of earthquakes. It has several manufactories of cloth, baizes, &c. The town has been twice (in the years 1698 and 1746) almost ruined by eruptions from Mount Chimborazo. Population 20,000. Cuenca, 150 miles south of Quito, is a town of 20,000 inhabitants. The streets are straight and broad, and the houses mostly built of adobes, or unburnt bricks. The environs are fertile and pleasant. Loxa is a small town, with a population of 8 or 9000 inhabitants: in its vicinity is produced in large quantities the celebrated quinine bark, or cascarilla de Loja. It is south of Cuenca about 80 miles. Otavalo has from 15 to 20,000 inhabitants, with some manufactures of cotton goods: the country in its vicinity is well adapted for pasturage, and abounds in cattle ; large quantities of cheese are also made in the neighbourhood. It is north- east of Quito. Ibarra, or St. Miguel d'Ibarra, is a neat town, with a large and handsome church, also a college, several convents, &c. Population 10 or 12,000. Ibarra is situated north-east of Quito about 50 miles. Guayaquil, on the bay of the same name, founded by Pizarro ia 1533, contains GUIANA. 279 20,000 inhabitants, and is one of the most flourishing commercial cities in South America. Its dockyard is particularly extensive. It produced one ship of 700 tons: very commonly vessels of 300 or 400 tons are built there : but it is chiefly noted for schooners of 150 to 200 tons. The houses stand in fine picturesque con- fusion, along the sides and the top of a hill : they are handsome and commodious ; but none of the public edifices are very splendid. The animal food is not of very good quality, but nowhere does there exist a finer fruit market ; the plantain is supposed to be more esteemed and eaten than in any other place. Guayaquil, like Egypt, has its plagues. The air swarms with mosquitoes and other flies still more tormenting ; the ground teems with snakes, centipedes, and other reptiles, whose bite causes fever and inflammation. There is a cameleon whose scratch is be- lieved to be mortal, a belief which seems quite chimerical, but which greatly ha- rasses the citizens. The ants cannot be prevented from filling even the dishes : and sometimes, when a tart is cut up, they are seen running off in all directions, leaving the interior a void. Lastly, the shores are crowded with alligators, whose number cannot, by the utmost exertion, be kept within any tolerable limits. The beauty of the ladies of Guayaquil is celebrated throughout all America : they have complexions as fair as any European, with blue eyes and light hair. They have also an agreeable gaiety, joined to a propriety of conduct, which renders the society of this place particularly engaging. About 170 leagues west of the coast is the fine group of the Galapagos (Tor- toise) Islands, deriving their name from the abundance of a gigantic species of land tortoise, called the elephant tortoise. The islands, which enjoy a delightful climate and a fertile soil, have recently been occupied by a colony from Guayaquil. GUIANA. Guiana was once more extensive than at present ; it included the whole of that portion of South America lying between the Orinoco and the Amazon Rivers, of which the northern part, called Spanish Guiana, now belongs to Venezuela, and the southern, known as Portuguese Guiana, is attached to the Brazilian province of Para. The region at present styled Guiana, extends along the coast from Cape Bar- rima, at the mouth of the Orinoco, to the Oyapock River, a distance of about 750 miles, and extending in the interior, to the mountains at the source of the Esse- quibo, Surinam, and Marowyne, or Maroni Rivers, about 350 miles; comprising an area of about 115,000 square miles. Along the sea-shore the country presents the appearance of an extensive and uniform plain. It is covered generally with thick forests, even to the water's edge ; and the coast is so low and flat that nothing is seen at first but the trees, which appear to be growing out of the sea. The soil is surprisingly fertile, and a moist luxuriant vegetation almost everywhere over- spreads the country. This region is at present divided between the British, Dutch, and French. Brit- ish Guiana extends from the Orinoco to the Corantine River, and embraces the three colonies of Essequibo, Demarara, and Berbice. Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, extends from the Corantine to the Marowyne; and Cayenne, or French Guiana, is included between the Rivers Marowyne and Oyapock. British Guiana contains a population of 97,251 persons, of whom 3529 are whites, 7521 free persons of colour, and 86,201 slaves, who are at present, in common with the enslaved ne- groes in the British West Indies, under a species of apprenticeship, from which they will be liberated after a certain period. Surinam has a population of about 60,000, of whom it is supposed 55,000 are slaves. The inhabitants of Cayenne consist of 3786 whites, 2206 free negroes, and 23,046 slaves; total, 25,250; making a total, for the population of Guiana, of 182,501 inhabitants, exclusive of the revolted negroes and Indians in the interior. Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo, are of recent acquisition, having belonged to the Dutch till the last war, when they yielded to the naval supremacy of Bri- 280 GUIANA. tain, and were confirmed to that power by the treaty of 1814. They extend about 400 miles along the coast, and each colony is situated at the mouth of a broad river, bearing its own name. The territory is low, flat, alluvial, and in many parts swampy ; and the greater portion, when it came into the possession of Bri- tain, was covered with dense and almost impenetrable forests. Since that time a prodigious improvement has taken place ; British industry has cut down the woods, and, availing itself of the natural fertility of the soil, has rendered this one of the most productive regions in the New World. Demerara ranks, as to produce, second only to Jamaica : its rum is inferior only to hers ; and the coffee of Berbice ranks above that of any of the islands. Stabroek, now Georgetown, is built on the low bank of the river Demerara. The houses are of wood, seldom above two stories high, and, with a view to coolness, are shaded by colonnaded porticoes and balconies, and by projecting roofs ; and Venetian blinds are used instead of glass windows. Canals are conducted on each side of the town, which presents a busy scene, every road being, like a wharf, strewed with casks and bales. The town contains from 8000 to 10,000 inhabitants, mostly negroes, with a considerable pro- portion of people of colour, some of whom have attained to considerable wealth. New Amsterdam, the small capital of Berbice, is agreeably situated, intersected by canals, and with a considerable spot of ground attached to each house. Agriculture is carried on in British Guiana on a great scale ; many of the plan tations have from 500 to 1500 labourers ; "and £50,000 have been often laid out in the embankments and buildings of a new estate, before any returns whatever were received ; the profits, however, are always remunerating, and frequently great. Surinam constitutes the most important part of the Dutch western possessions. Dutch Guiana formerly included Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo ; but Britain having in the last war captured these three districts, her capital was employed with such advantage in improving them, that she determined, at the peace, on retaining them, and left to Holland the less valuable territory of Surinam Proper. This coast, like that of the rest of Guiana, is flat and alluvial, and is traversed by several broad rivers, coming from a considerable distance in the interior. That of Surinam has a channel about four miles wide, but shallow and rocky, navigable only for boats. The Dutch, since they regained possession of it, have made very considerable efforts for its improvement, and it is decidedly rising in importance. Paramaribo, at the mouth of the river, where it affords excellent anchorage for vessels, is a considerable town, well built of wood, and arranged in regular streets, adorned with fine trees. Its commerce, though now surpassed by that carried on in English Guiana, is considerable, and supports a population of 18,000 or 20,000 persons. Cayenne extends along the coast of Guiana, from the Marowyne to the Oyapock River, a distance of about 200 miles. It is bounded west by Surinam, on the south and east by Brazil, and on the north by the Atlantic Ocean. It is an allu- vial, swampy region, covered with majestic forests. The trees astonish Europeans, not only by their prodigious size, but by their great variety. Fine aromatics, un- known to the other regions of the west, have been cultivated there with success. The Cayenne-pepper is the most pungent and delicate kind of that spice ; and the clove, long exclusively attached to the Moluccas, has succeeded so well, that a part of the consumption of Europe is supplied from Cayenne. The cutting down of these noble woods would afford the material of a valuable timber trade, and the ground thus cleared would be fit for sugar and every kind of West India produce. Yet the tract is cultivated in only a few scattered patches, not exceeding in all 10,000 acres. Serious obstacles are indeed presented by the pestilential vapours exhaled from these dark woods and marshes. In a settlement, on a great scale, attempted at Kourou, in 1763, no less than 13,000 persons perished, so that the deportation to Cayenne of deputies obnoxious to the ruling party, during the revo- lution, was inflicted, as conveying almost a sentence of death. Yet if due pre- cautions were used and the woods cleared, it would probably be as healthy as any other settlement in this quarter. The population of Cayenne, in 1830, amounted to 25,250 ; of whom 19,260 were slaves, and 3786 whites. The annual value of the exports to France is 2,500,000 francs, of imports 1,800,000. BRAZIL. 281 Cayenne Proper consists of an alluvial island, about eighteen miles long and ten broad, formed by the branches of the river of that name, on which is Cay- enne, the capital of the colony, a small town neatly built of wood, with a spacious and commodious road, and a population of 3000. Kourou, Sinnamaree, and Oya- pock, are small settlements scattered along the coast. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. Brazil is a very extensive region, which occupies nearly the whole of the eastern tracts of South America, and, after being long held as a Portuguese colony, has of late, by peculiar circumstances, been formed into a separate em- pire. It extends over more than half the continent of South America, and is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, whose shores describe round it an irregular arch, broken by very few bays or inlets of any consequence. In the interior, this empire borders on every side upon the former provinces of Spain ; but the two nations, in the course of 300 years, could not determine on the boundary lines to be drawn through the interior of these vast deserts. The dimensions of this immense range of territory may be taken from about 4° N. to 32° S. lat, and from about 35° to 73° W. Ion. This will give about 2500 miles of extreme length, and about the same in extreme breadth. The area of the whole has been estimated at upwards of 3,000,000 square miles. It is thus twenty-five times the extent of the British Islands, nearly twice that of Mexico, and* greater by a fourth than the entire domain of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is rather more than half of all South America. Of this immense space, indeed, not above a fourth can be considered as at present in an effective and productive state ; and that part is scarcely cultivated and peopled up to a fourth of its actual capacity. But nearly the whole, from soil, climate, and communications, is capable of being brought, at some future and distant pe- riod, into full improvement The Brazilian ranges of mountains are of great extent, but reach, by no means, to that stupendous height which distinguishes the Andes of Colombia and Peru. The principal mass of these mountains lies N. W. of Rio de Janeiro, towards the sources of the rivers San Francisco, Parana, and Tocantines, and are not gene- rally higher than trom 2000 to 3000 feet; only a few detached peaks rising to about 6000. Rivers, the greatest in America and in the world, flow around the borders or through the territories of Brazil. Its northern part is watered by the course of the Amazon, its western by the Madeira and the Paraguay. Within its territory flow, tributary to the Amazon, the Topayos, the Xingu, and the Negro, which, though here secondary, may rival the greatest waters of the other continents. The Tocantines and the Parnaiba flow into the sea on the northern coast. But at present the most useful rivers are those between the coast chain and the sea, none of which can attain any long course. Much the greatest is the Rio Francisco, which, flowing northward along the back of these mountains to their termination, there finds its way to the Atlantic. There are two Rios Grandes, one falling into the sea north of Pernambuco, the other (Rio Grande do Sul) in the extreme south, watering the province that bears its name. Lakes are not leading features in Brazil: but in the southern province of Rio Grande, there are the Patos and the Mirim, extensive and shallow, communicating with the sea, yet chiefly fresh, and forming the receptacle of all the streams which come down from the interior. Farther inland, the Paraguay and Parana, by their superfluous waters, form the Lakes Xarayez and Ibera, which spread, in the rainy season, over a prodigious extent of ground. The form of government in Brazil is an hereditary constitutional monarchy. The sovereign, who has the title of emperor, has the power of making peace and war, concluding treaties with foreign powers, nominating the principal officers of 24* 2L 282 BRAZIL. the empire and of the provinces, &c. The legislative body is composed of two houses chosen by indirect election, that is, by electors chosen for this purpose. The senators are elected for life ; the deputies or representatives, for the term of four years. Each province has also its local assembly and governor, for adminis- tering provincial affairs. There is, however, a great difficulty in enforcing the measures of any general and central administration over so wide an extent of country, and over provinces so deeply imbued with a local spirit. The northern districts, in particular, have made vigorous attempts, and still cherish the wish, to form a separate and republican government, on the model of those now estab- lished over the rest of America. The revenue of Brazil is stated at about 15,000,000 dollars. This is burdened with a debt of 50,000,000 dollars. The military force consists of 30,000 troops of the line, with 50,000 militia; and there is a marine, composed of 3 ships of the line, 8 frigates, and 25 smaller vessels. The natural capacities of Brazil are fully equal to those of any region in the New World. The soil is capable of yielding profusely, sugar, cotton, coffee, to- bacco, all the richest tropical productions ; the forests are immense, and abound in the most valuable timber ; the fields are covered with numberless herds of cattle ; and the most precious of metals are found near the surface of the earth. Its chief defect is, that, destitute of those fine elevated table-lands, which cover so much of Spanish America, it affords no eligible situation for European colonists; and the labouring classes consist almost wholly of negro slaves; a circumstance adverse to its prosperity, and necessarily engendering many evils. Dense and impenetrable forests cover a great part of the interior of Brazil, and exhibit a luxuriance of vegetation almost peculiar to the central regions of South America. " The infinite variety of tints which these woods display, give them an aspect wholly different from those of Europe. Each of the lofty sons of the forest has an effect distinct from that of the rest. The brilliant white of the sil- ver tree, the brown head of the Mangoa, the purple flowers of the Brazil wood, the yellow laburnums, the deep red fungus, and the carmine-coloured lichens, which invest the trunks and the bark, all mingle in brilliant confusion, forming groups finely contrasted and diversified. The gigantic height of the palms, with their varying crowns, give to these forests an incomparable majesty. All these are interwoven with a network of creeping and climbing plants, so close as to form round the large trees a verdant wall, which the eye is unable to penetrate ; and many of the flowering species, that climb up the trunks, spread forth and pre- sent the appearance of parterres hanging in the air. These woods are not a silent scene, unless during the deepest heat of noon, but are crowded and rendered vocal by the greatest variety of the animal tribes. Birds of the most singular forms and most superb plumage flutter through the bushes. The toucan rattles his large hollow bill ; the busy orioles creep out of their long pendent nests ; the amorous thrush, the chattering manikin, the full tones of the nightingale, amuse the hunter; while the humming-birds, rivalling, in lustre, diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires, hover round the brightest flowers. Myriads of the most brilliant bee- tles buzz in the air; and the gayest butterflies, rivalling in splendour the colours of the rainbow, flutter from flower to flower. Meantime, the beautiful, but some- times dangerous, race of lizards and serpents, exceeding in splendour the enamel of the flowers, glide out of the leaves and hollows of the trees. Troops of squirrels and monkeys leap from bough to bough, and large bodies of ants, issuing from their nests, creep along the ground." It concerns us here to remark, that these immense forests are rich in timber of every description for use and orna- ment, suited either for carpentry, shipbuilding, dyeing, or furniture. That kind especially called Brazil wood is particularly celebrated for the beautiful red dye which it produces. Agriculture is exercised in Brazil upon valuable products, and in fertile soils, but in a very slovenly manner. The farmers, till of late, were a most ignorant race, not believing that there were any countries in the world except Portugal and Brazil, nor any, except the last, in which the sugar-cane grew. They have begun, however, to hold intercourse •with the world in general, and to introduce BRAZIL. 283 improved processes from the West India islands. Land is so abundant that they never think of employing manure, but break up a fresh spot whenever a cultivated one is exhausted. They do not even grub up the trees, but plant the sugar-canes among the stumps, the luxuriant shoots from which cannot be cleared away with- out great labour. Among the objects of culture, sugar has long been prominent ; the rich and moist soils on a great part of the coast being particularly suited to it. Cotton has of late become a leading article, in consequence of the extensive demand in Britain. The best is that of Pernambuco. Tobacco is cultivated, along with the sugar, for home use, and is an object of traffic between the provinces. Coffee is only of recent introduction ; but within these few years the culture has been so vastly extended as to render it the most important object of Brazilian commerce. For food, chiefly to the negroes, manioc and kidney beans are the articles most raised. Maize and bananas are not so much used as in most tropical countries. Rice is largely cultivated only in Maranham. Cattle multiply to an immense extent in all the provinces of Brazil, but more especially in the south. The great farms contain 2000, 3000, 4000, and some- times even 40,000 head. The bulk of these roam at large in a wild state, with no attendance except that of two or three peons or herdsmen, riding constantly round the wide pastures, to keep them within the bounds, and defend them against the attacks of wild beasts. Once a year only, they are collected within an en- closure, and branded with the mark of the master. Portions of these roving herds are from time to time caught and killed, chiefly for the hide, though the flesh also is dried in a peculiar manner, and sent to the northern provinces. A certain number, notwithstanding, are tamed, to supply milk, and to serve for meat, which is considered more delicate than that of the wild cattle. Mines, however, form the most celebrated, though by no means the most valua- ble, source of Brazilian wealth. The gold of Brazil occurs, like that of Africa, in the form of dust brought down by streams which descend from the hills, and from which it is separated by agitation in water. No attempts seem yet to have been made to penetrate into the interior deposits of this precious metal. The produce of gold has greatly diminished, and on the whole the precious metal has proved to Brazil a fatal gift. The eager search and hope have continued after the amount ceased to repay the labour. A few instances of wealth suddenly acquired have generated a dislike of steady and regular occupation ; and the rich soil in the neighbourhood of the mines, and from which the most solid wealth might have been derived, is allowed to lie waste. The fifth, claimed by the king, though extensively evaded, presses heavily on this branch of industry. The diamonds of Brazil are a source of wealth still more brilliant, yet even less productive. The principal diamond ground is in a circuit of sixteen leagues round Tejuco, in the district of Serro do Frio. The trade has been monopolised by the government ; and, as usual in such cases, has been conducted at a very great expense. Not less than 35.000Z. annually is said to be expended in officers, negroes, machinery, and instruments. All proprietors resident near the spot eagerly proffer their negroes at a very low rate ; to which proceeding it is alleged that sinister motives frequently impel them. The diamonds of Brazil are found in a situation similar to that of the gold, among portions of alluvial earth. Of all the depositories of diamonds, the most celebrated is the river Jiquitonhonha, which flows nearly as broad as the Thames at Windsor. The diamonds of Brazil are larger than those of India, and as brilliant, but not so hard. At the first dis- covery of the mines, they sent forth no less than a thousand ounces of diamonds, which made a prodigious impression on the market; but of late their annual pro- duce has not much exceeded 22,000 carats. Of other mineral products, iron and copper are said to abound in the interior province of Matto Grosso; but they have not yet been worked. There are also topazes larger than those of Saxony and Siberia, tourmalines, and rock crystal. Manufactures have made smaller progress in Brazil than in any other of the South American colonies. The only fabric of importance is that of gold and 284 BRAZIL. silver, which is carried on in the capital to a great extent. The articles wrought are of great beauty, and are an object even of export. Commerce flourishes in consequence of the very dependence of the country upon foreign manufactures, as well as the valuable products of its soil. Rio Janeiro is the centre of trade for the southern coasts, which send to it provisions for its own consumption, as well as hides, tobacco, sugar, and cotton ; vast trains of loaded mules also come and go to the interior provinces, especially S. Paulo and Minas Geraes. Bahia carries on most of her trade, and Pernambuco and Maranham nearly all of theirs, direct with Europe and the United States. The southern provinces export wheat, hides, horn, hair, and tallow ; the middle, gold and precious stones ; and the northern, cotton, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and Brazil wood. The imports are chiefly wines, brandy, and oil, from Portugal ; cotton, woollens, linens, hardware, and other manufactured articles from Great Britain ; and flour, salted provisions, naval stores, and household furniture, from the United States. The total value of the exports is about 25,000,000 dollars a year, com- prising 100,000 tons of sugar, 40,000 tons of coffee, 180,000 bags of cotton, 500,000 hides, &c. The value of the exports from the United States into Brazil is about 2,000,000 dollars; of imports from Brazil, nearly 5,000,000. Great Britain imports into Brazil nearly 20,000,000 dollars worth of her manufactures annually. The population of Brazil has been very vaguely estimated, and generally much under the truth. It cannot at present be less than 5,000,000, of which about one- fifth are whites, three-fifths slaves, and the remainder free coloured persons. The great predominance of the negro population distinguishes Brazil unfavour- ably from the other South American states. By the above statement, it appears that not a fourth of the population are of unmixed white race, and that more than half the entire number are slaves. The continual importation of these negroes, the numbers who perished in the voyage, and the manner in which they were ex- hibited in open market, presented scenes equally distressing and degrading to humanity. By a law of the state, however, this importation was, in February, 1830, finally to cease. The existing slaves are exposed, of course, to all the capricious and brutal treatment of their masters ; and with less protection from law than in the West Indies. On the whole, however, their actual condition is more favourable. Even the multitude of festivals affords a relief to the slave, and gives him opportunities of doing a good deal for himself. Public opinion is against the master who obstructs the negro in endeavouring to procure his own emancipation, and refuses a reasonable price for it. What is of more importance, as soon as the negro or mulatto is free, he labours no longer under that proscrip- tion which pursues him in some countries. He is admissible to all offices, is equal to the white in the eye of the law, and not very much inferior in public opinion : even at the royal levee, negro officers have been seen taking in their black coarse hands the fair hands of the queen, and applying them to their lips. And it is supposed that, in the event of a slave insurrection, all the class of free negroes would make common cause with the whites. Religion in Brazil is almost universally the Catholic. It was provided, how- ever, by treaty with England, that British subjects at Rio might erect a church without a bell and after the manner of a private dwelling. The clergy are sup- ported by the government, which formerly made a composition with the court of Rome, and on release of the payment of tithes contracted to give a stipend of 200 dollars to the ecclesiastics. This is at present an insufficient salary, and the clergy would live in poverty were not many of them skilful cultivators. This may perhaps be the reason why so many blacks are in orders. Had the tithes been retained the clergy would now be the most opulent class. There is one archbishop and six bishops, who are paid on the same economical scale, and their best support comes from fees in the ecclesiastical tribunals. Science, literature, and art have scarcely yet any existence in Brazil. Some of the higher classes, and of the officers of the government, are well informed, and the sea-port towns are beginning to imbibe the spirit and knowledge of Europe; but these improvements have made little way into the interior. In 1808, BRAZIL. 285 the prince regent carried out a library of 70,000 volumes, which is open to the public; and there is a museum, containing a fine collection of diamonds, crystals of gold, and other Brazilian minerals, but not rich in any other respect. The plan of founding an university is not yet executed ; and the Brazilians who seek a finished education must cross the sea to Coimbra. The Indians in Brazil are in a much more uncivilised and unpromising state than in the Spanish settlements. They have never been incorporated in any shape with the European population, but have 'always retired before the progress of civilisation into the depths of their forests. They have borrowed, indeed, from the Portuguese some scanty portion of raiment. But they have never attempted the taming of animals, or the planting of grain; they subsist solely on the spon- taneous fruits of the earth, the roots which they can dig up, and the game brought down by their arrow, which they shoot with marvellous dexterity, taking an almost unerring aim at the distance of forty or fifty yards. The provinces of Brazil, 18 in number, are divided into smaller divisions called comarcas. They can scarcely as yet be exhibited in any very minute local and statistical details. In taking a view of their leading features, we may divide them into the provinces of the southern coast, Rio Janeiro, St. Catharine, Rio Grande do Sul and Espiritu Santo ; those of the northern coast, Bahia, Sergippe, Pernambuco, Paraiba, Rio Grande do Norte, Seara, Piauhy and Maranham ; the ** interior provinces, Minas Geraes, San Paulo, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and Para. Rio Janeiro, the capital of the empire, may now, perhaps, rank as the largest and most flourishing city of South America. It lies on the western side of a noble bay, seventy or eighty miles in circumference, forming one of the most spacious and secure receptacles for shipping in the world. It is studded with upwards of 100 islands; the ships of all nations are seen passing through its channels, and innumerable little boats flitting about. The shore rises immediate- ly into green and wooded hills, thickly planted with villas and convents, and behind which lofty mountains shoot up their heads in the most picturesque and romantic forms. These objects compose the most enchanting scene that can be imagined. The town is tolerably well built, much in the European style, the houses being three or four stories high, though the streets are rather narrow. Two of them extend the whole length, with new and broad streets striking off from them ; and there are several very handsome squares. The town is well supplied with water, by excellent aqueducts. There is a greater stir and bustle than is usual in a South American city, though the crowd of half-naked blacks and mulattoes offends the eye of the newly arrived European. The population has been fixed only by rude conjecture. Before the arrival of the court, it was supposed to fall short of 100,000; but that event caused a great increase, and it has even been estimated as high as 150,000. The environs of Rio de Janeiro are delightful in the extreme, the valleys and sides of the hills being covered with trees, shrubs, and creeping plants of peculiar beauty. The bay of Botta- fogo, and the sides of the rude and lofty mountain called the Corcovado, are the spots most particularly celebrated. The king has a rural palace, called San Christovao, of light and pavilion-like architecture, and which from its site has a | much more pleasing effect than that in the city. We have already noticed the trade of Rio Janeiro, centring in itself that of all southern Brazil. The cultiva- tion of sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and other tropical products, is rapidly ex- pending; but the greater part of the flour made use of is brought from the ! United States and the Cape of Good Hope. The trade is chiefly in the hands of j the British. The arsenal, the dockyard, and marine establishments are on a small island within the harbour. St. Catharine is a long narrow province, which is chiefly remarkable for the i island of the same name. It has a fine climate : its perpetual verdure and its conical rocky hills give it a beautiful aspect from the sea. The town of Nossa Senhora, or St. Catharine, has 5000 or 6000 inhabitants, many of whom have chosen it merely as an agreeable residence. The coast is as yet thinly peopled, , though it contains several excellent harbours, as Laguna, and San Francisco, on a 286 BRAZIL. river of the same name, which will increase in importance when a road is opened over the mountains into the fine plain of'Orotava. Rio Grande do Sul, the most southern province, comprises a long extent of level and alluvial coast, in which the large lakes of Patos and Mirim run paraMel with the sea. The plains are covered with vast herds of cattle, which afford hides and charque, or beef dried in a peculiar manner, making a copious object of export. Some of the fazendas, or farms, comprise no less than 600,000 acres. The chief town is Portalegre, with 12,000 inhabitants, to which the opportunities of its trade have attracted even English settlers. Being situated at the head of the lake, its maritime intercourse is carried on by the port of St. Pedro, or Rio Grande, which is also flourishing. The provinces of Espiritu Santo and Seguro extend for about 400 miles along the coast northward from Rio; but though the latter was the point first discovered, and though they possess ample natural advantages, they have remained always in a comparatively rude and unimproved state. The Rio Doce is the principal stream in this region ; it can be ascended only in canoes propelled by poles. It is in most places bordered by forests so thick and impenetrable, as seldom to leave ground on which a house could stand. Of the sea-ports, the most important is Victoria, to which may be added those bearing the names of the provinces, Espi- ritu Santo, and Porto Seguro; as also Benevente and St. Mattheos. These towns consist generally of houses one story high, and the streets are straggling, unpaved, and covered with grass. In Porto Seguro, though so near the sea, they have no other food than salted fish, which renders the scurvy very prevalent. The fine province of Bahia follows north from the two rude regions already de- scribed. It is the most flourishing and industrious part of all Brazil. Besides being originally the metropolitan province, it was long occupied by the Dutch, who introduced their own commercial and improving habits. The city of Bahia, or St. Salvador, is situated within Cape St. Antonio, the east- ern boundary of the noble bay of All Saints, which strikingly resembles that of Rio Janeiro. Around the bay the sites and prospects are beautiful in the extreme. Every step brings to view some magnificent scene; the woods,'the steep banks and gently sloping lawns, generally opening to the sea or the lake behind the town, have a peculiar freshness and amenity. With these attractions the interior does not correspond, at least that of the lower town, where the houses are high, the streets confined and narrow, wretchedly paved, never cleaned, and therefore disgustingly dirty. The upper town, however, placed upon the side of a hill which rises abruptly behind, though not well built, has a number of handsome private houses and public buildings. The cathedral and several other churches are handsome and richly ornamented ; but the finest of them, the Ex-Jesuits' church, built entirely of marble imported from Europe, has been converted into barracks. Gaming, the resource of vacant minds, is eagerly followed by both sexes. Intellectual pursuits seem little regarded ; and though there is a large library, with some valuable manuscripts respecting the interior of America, it is allowed to lie in a neglected state. The police is bad, the dagger being generally worn, and too often used : the deaths by assassination are estimated at 200 in the year; yet St. Salvador is esteemed the gayest city in Brazil. In 1832, 124 Brit- ish ships, of the burden of 27,119 tons, cleared out from Bahia. Its population amounts to 120,000 souls. Of the other towns of Bahia, Cachoeira, the principal, is handsome and well built, and contains nearly 16,000 inhabitants. Jacobina, more in the interior, was formerly enriched by mines, which are now given up. Ilheos, or San George, a prettily situated port, was once very considerable, but is now of little importance. Pernambuco is the next province to Bahia, with the intervention of the small and unimportant one of Seregipe. Pernambuco ranks decidedly as the third pro- vince in the empire, being comparatively very industrious, and having experi- enced a rapid improvement from the extension of the growth and export of cotton. What is called the town of Pernambuco is a compound of four towns: Olinda, seated above on a range of rocky hills, and the most ancient, but now much de- cayed ; Recife, built on a sand-bank level with the water, and deriving its name BRAZIL. 287 from the reef opposite to it already mentioned, — the seat of trade, highly flour- ishing', and rapidly increasing: St. Antonio, or the middle town, composed of large and broad streets, and containing the governor's house, and two principal churches ; lastly, Boa Vista, an extensive agreeable suburb, where the principal merchants have commodious gardens. Pernambuco has flourished extremely and increased rapidly, chiefly in consequence of the augmented culture of cotton, and the ample market for it in Europe. The cotton of Pernambuco is said to be the best in the north of Brazil. The population, in 1821, was estimated at 70,000. Alagoas and Macayo, small ports south of Pernambuco, are increasing in trade and population. The river St. Francisco, much the largest of any which belongs wholly to Bra- zil, enters the sea in the southern border of this province, after a course of nearly 900 miles through the back territories behind the coast chain. The navigation is much injured, however, first by a succession of falls, and then by shallows at the mouth of the river, which render it scarcely passable even for boats. Till of late, therefore, its banks were occupied only by a few scattered fishermen and banditti. New towns and villages are rising, and Collegia, Villa Nova, and Propria, are becoming thriving places. The other provinces of the northern coast, Paraiba, Rio Grande do Norte, Seara, Piauhy, and Maranham, extend chiefly from east to west towards the mouth of the Amazon. They, in general, present an aspect resembling Pernambuco ; the coast containing many fertile and improvable districts, but the interior occupied extensively by the great Sertam, (prairie region,) which reaches as far as Bahia. They are chiefly employed in the culture of cotton, and rest their prosperity upon the increasing demand for that material. Maranham, in particular, an alluvial isle, formed by the branches of great rivers, exports, on an average, 70,000 bales, besides rice and hides, and has attained a population variously estimated at from 12,000 to as high as 30,000. The other capitals are small. Paraiba, noted for the abundance of Brazil-wood, was formerly considered of more importance than now ; however, it has in fact continued to increase, though eclipsed by the supe- rior importance of Pernambuco. Rio Grande is covered to a great extent with hills of fine and white sand, and is fertile in sugar, yet thinly inhabited ; and Na- tal, its capital, is little better than a village. Seara has a pretty brisk trade on a small scale. Piauhy is almost entirely an inland province, and its little interior capital, Oey- ras, is scarcely at all known. The isle of Joannes, situated at the mouth of the Amazon, is very fertile ; but the heats would be insupportable were they not tem- pered by the sea-breezes. A great part of its surface is covered with woods, ten- anted by wandering Indians. The interior provinces are San Paulo, Minas Ge- raes, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and Para. San Paulo was at first an Indian settlement, formed by a Jesuit missionary in 1550 ; but, being reinforced by numerous refugees and adventurers, a mixed race was formed, of n lawless and daring character, who make a great figure in the early history of Brazil. These Paulistas, as they were called, set the Portuguese government almost at defiance, and made themselves formidable to the neighbour- ing provinces. They are now brought down to the character of tolerably quiet subjects; but they still maintain, throughout Brazil, the reputation of hardy frank- ness, undaunted courage, and a romantic love of adventures and dangers. Their features are strongly marked and expressive, their eyes full of fire, and all their motions lively and vigorous. They are the strongest, healthiest, and most active inhabitants of Brazil ; and their adventurous spirit leads them to migrate through all its provinces. A good deal of maize is cultivated, sufficient for private con- sumption ; but the chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in the vast herds of horses and cattle with which the plains are covered. The former are of an active and valuable breed ; and the inhabitants display a surprising strength and activity in pursuing and taming them. The Paulistas are frank and jovial ; but the infe- rences hence made to their disadvantage are said to be unfair. Minas Geraes, the most central province in Brazil, is distinguished as contain- ing the principal mines of gold and diamonds. In passing into it from San Paulo, a decided change is observable in the aspect of nature. The country is often 288 PERU. extremely fertile, and might yield the most valuable productions, were not the attention of the inhabitants drawn off by the glittering but often useless treasures found in the bowels of the earth. S. Joao del Rey is a neat little town of white- washed, red-tiled houses, surrounded by a singular scene of round hills and broken rocks, with tracts entirely sterile, and others covered with the most luxuriant ver- dure. Its situation is so agreeable and central, that an intention was once formed of making it the capital of Brazil. Villa Rica may be regarded as the El Dorado of Brazil, from its highly productive gold mines, already described. The place is large, its inhabitants being variously reported from 8500 to 20,000. Tejuco, the capital of the diamond district of Serro do Frio, is situated in a most dreary tract, where all the necessaries of life must be brought from a considerable distance. It is well built, on very rugged ground, and contains 6000 free inhabitants, and as many slaves employed in searching for diamonds. Villa do Principe, in a fine cointry, on the borders of the diamond district, enjoys a more solid prosperity, and contains about 5000 people. There are still several exterior provinces of Brazil, which have been occupied by the Portuguese only at a few detached points, while by far the greater part remains in full possession of the unsubdued Indians. These provinces are, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and Para. Goyaz is a province, or rather kingdom, of vast extent, watered by the mighty streams of the Tocantines and the Araguay, which unite in their progress towards the Amazons. Gold was the lure which attracted settlers into this desolate and unfrequented region ; and in the country round Villa Boa, the capital, the quan- tity produced was for some time considerable, though now it is much diminished. Villa Boa contains also a governor, a bishop, and about 6000 inhabitants. Matto Grosso, west of Goyaz, is'a still vaster region, extending far into the inte- rior, and bounded only by the Madeira and the Upper La Plata. The principal settlement is at Cuiaba, in the south-western district, where it can hold communi- cation with the more civilised regions. Here, too, gold was the first attraction, and even when the quantities which it produced began to diminish, the country was found so fine and fertile, that its cultivation amply indemnified the settlers. They amounted, in 1809, to 30,000. The official capital, however, is Villa Bella, on the Guapure, one of the principal heads of the Madeira ; a neat small city, perhaps the most advanced point which the Portuguese hold in America. Para forms the northern section of this vast region. The greater part is, if possible, still less known or occupied than even Matto Grosso; but there is a dis- trict near the mouth of the great river, which is not only very fertile, but culti- vated to a considerable extent It is well fitted for 6ugar, and, since the cotton trade rose to such importance, has particularly prospered, yielding a description little inferior to that of Bahia. The population of the capital, Para or Belem, has been stated at 20,000 ; but probably this includes the immediately surround- ing district. The water communications, however, of this city with the interior are so immense, that it must continue to advance with the progressive settlement of the provinces of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. PERU. Peru, of all the regions south of the Gulf of Mexico, is the most celebrated for wealth and ancient civilisation. Its very name is proverbially used to denote profuse abundance of the most precious metals. The following general descrip- tion will apply to what was originally Peru, now comprising three separate re- publics, the local description of each will be given under their respective heads. The boundaries of Peru are on the west the Pacific, forming a long line of coast between 4° and 25° of S. lat., which, probably exceeds 2000 miles in ex- tent. On the north, the boundary is formed by a winding line drawn from the Javari in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific Ocean at Tumbez. On the east, Peru is separated from Brazil by lines vaguely drawn through barbarous regions J PERU. 289 which cannot very properly be said to belong either to one or the other. On the south, the general boundary is formed by a line drawn from the Paraguay in about 22° S. lat westerly, to the Andes, thence south with the crest of the moun- tains to about 25° south, and from thence westward to the Pacific. Peru will thus be about 1500 miles in length, and 700 in breadth. The surface of this extensive territory is of the boldest and most varied de- scription. It is crossed, and in a great measure covered, by the Andes, in their greatest extent and loftiest height. Very high summits occur in the western chain facing the Pacific, and are 6een in lofty succession from the cities of the coast. The last is in 8° S. lat., after which there does not occur one for 350 miles. But the mightiest part of the range is that extending over Bolivia, or Upper Peru. It is both the most spacious and the highest of all the branches of the Andes. It contains the stupendous peaks of Sorata and Illimani, the highest in the New World ; and which rise, the former to the height of 25,400 and the latter of 24,350 above the level of the sea. It encloses an extensive table-land, scarcely anywhere less than 12,000 feet high, and peculiarly distinguished for the great altitude at .which full cultivation, large towns, and even cities, are situated. In this lofty district also are found the rich mines of Potosi. Between the Andes and the sea extends the plain of Peru, where the chief Spanish settlements have been formed. It is from 50 to 100 miles in breadth, partly covered with branches from the Andes, but towards the sea forming a flat expanse of land, often white with saline incrustations, and absolutely a desert, unless where one of the broad streams, or rather torrents, from the mountains, can be directed over it. The interior is bordered, and partly traversed, by the greatest rivers in the world. The Amazon commences its unrivalled course among the Peruvian Andes, and with its giant branches collecting the water of a thousand floods, rolls its vast and mighty volume eastward to the Ocean. Peru has for its eastern boundary part of the courses of the Madeira and the Paraguay ; but these belong more properly to Brazil and Paraguay. In the south the Pilcomayo falls into the Paraguay, having passed through the richest mineral region in the world. Lakes in South America are not very grand or characteristic features; yet Peru contains one enclosed in its greatest table-land, the Lake of Titicaca, which, though twenty times the size of the Lake of Geneva, cannot come into any com- petition with the mighty inland seas of Canada. Peru, in consequence of its liberation, was formed into two separate republics : one, consisting of Lower Peru, considered now as Peru proper ; and the other of Upper Peru, or Bolivia, to which may be added by the division of the former the republic of South Peru. It must be owned, however, that our information re- specting the organisation and present state of these republics is very imperfect. The revenue of Lower Peru is said to amount to 1,250,000Z., its debt somewhat above 6,000,000/., and its army at 7500. The revenue of Bolivia is stated at only 460,000*., its debt 750,000*. Agriculture is not the branch on which the wealth of Peru in any great degree rests. The plain on the sea-coast is a sandy desert, and the sides of the moun- tains are steep and broken into ravines ; while the parameras or table-lands at the summit of the Cordillera are rendered nearly unfit for cultivation by the extreme cold and the perpetual snow which covers them; so that it is almost solely through the neglected remains of the Indian terraces and irrigating canals, that any of the elevated tracts are rendered very productive. Some of the valleys, also, and of the lands along the rivers, are extremely fertile. Maize is the staple grain and chief food of the natives, in the various forms of bread, puddings, por- ridge, and roasted grain. It is also made into a fermented liquor called chica, which is agreeable enough ; but, unfortunately for the fastidious taste of Eu- ropeans, the Indian women consider it their duty carefully to chew it, as a means of fermentation. For wheat, Peru is dependent upon the Chilian province of Concepcion. The sugar-cane is cultivated with decided success, though not on a very great scale. Fruits of every climate, from the successive slopes of the Cordillera, are poured down into the markets of Lima. The neighbourhood of Pisco is covered with vines, from the grapes of which are made 150,000 gallons 25 2M 290 PERU. of excellent brandy ; but the wine of Peru possesses no merit. Ipecacuanha, balsams, medicinal plants, and valuable dye-woods may also be mentioned. Manufactures are in a still less advanced state. In the mountain districts are made considerable quantities of coarse woollens, blankets, flannels, baize, and particularly ponchos, a loose riding cloak, generally worn throughout Spanish America, and sometimes made of great fineness. A few towns on the coast manufacture cottons. Goatskins are made into good cordovan. The Indians execute very fine filigree work in gold and silver, and their mats and other articles of furniture made from grass and rushes are very much admired. In general, however, the Peruvians look to Europe for a supply of all the finer manufactures. The mines have been the source of the unrivalled wealth of Peru. These are seated in the inmost depth of the Andes, approached only by steep and perilous passes, and in mountains which reach the limit of perpetual snow. The silver mountain of Potosi, in Bolivia or Upper Peru, has no equal in the world. It rises to the height of 16,000 feet, is eighteen miles in circumference, and forms one entire mass of ore. It appears from the city dyed all over with metallic tints, green, orange, yellow, gray, and rose-colour. Though since the conquest upwards of 1,600,000,000 dollars have been drawn from it, the mountain is still only honey-combed, as it were, at the surface ; ore still lies at a somewhat greater depth, and is in some places overflowed with water. Yet it has sunk into such a state of decay, that in the ten years ending 1829, the annual produce is not believed to have exceeded 330,000 dollars. But the present depressed state of the mine is chiefly owing to the late political convulsions, and the ex- haustion of all the capital that was formerly employed. The mines of Pasco are situated at a prodigious height, on the Andes, more than 13,000 feet above the sea. They are chiefly in the mountain of Lauricocha, forming a bed of brown ironstone, about three miles long and one and a half broad; from every ton of which two or three marks of silver are extracted. These mines, before the revolution, yielded annually 131,000 lbs. troy of silver. By that convulsion their working was for a time suspended, but has been lately resumed. There are mines also at Hualgayas in the province of Truxillo, and Huanlaya in that of Arequipa. All the Peruvian mines, however, are so much declined, that their produce, during the entire period, from 1819 to 1829, was under 4,500,000 dol- lars. The gold mines are found chiefly in the interior district of Tarma, border- ing on the Amazon. The mines of mercury are considered equally precious with those of silver, from its scarcity and its necessity in amalgamation. The dis- covery, therefore, of the mines of Guanca-Velica was of the greatest importance, and they yielded at one time an immense amount. They are at present, how- ever, almost useless, in consequence of the most valuable part of the works hav- ing fallen in. Commerce, during the late crisis, can scarcely be said to have had an existence in Peru; nevertheless we must describe what has been, as likely to exist again, when peace and security revive. The export trade rests almost entirely on gold and silver, with a little bark, cacao, cotton, sugar, copper and tin, vicugna wool, &c. The value which, before 1739, scarcely exceeded 2,000,000 dollars, had risen between 1785 and 1794 to 6,680,000. The imports consist of all the articles of European manufacture, except those coarse and common fabrics, which are produced in the country itself. From the peculiar state of society, in which European habits prevail without European industry, the market for foreign goods is here, as in the other American states, much more than in proportion to their wealth and population. A good deal of Peruvian produce is imported at second- hand from Buenos Ayres and Valparaiso. The population of Peru, according to enumerations made about 1803, amount- ed to 1,076,000. It has since been estimated by Humboldt at 1,400,000, by the Patriots in 1818, at 1,700,000, and by Malte Brun, in 1820, at 1,500,000, of whom ] .0,000 were whites, 900,000 Indians, 320,000 Mestizos, and 100,000 free and I enslaved negroes. This last estimate is probably as near the truth as any other, I and as the circumstances of the country have been unfavourable to any increase j PERU. 291 of population since that period, it may be assumed as about the amount at the present time. Bolivia has been estimated to contain 1,716,000, of which 510,000 are Europeans and mixed races, 486,000 Indians, and 220,000 not distinguished. Thus the region under consideration will contain in all 3,216,000 inhabitants. The character of the Creoles, or native Spaniards, of Peru, is painted under colours somewhat less flattering than that of the same class in almost any of the other states. The preponderance of the European Spaniards appears to have been more overwhelming than elsewhere. This political degradation, with the general diffusion of wealth and facility of subsistence, seems to have been the chief cause of the enervated state into which the natives of Lima had sunk. The male inhabitants are described as almost too insignificant a race to be worthy of mention; destitute of all energy both mental and bodily; so that, notwithstanding the extensive trade, there are not above two or three mercantile houses carried on by native Peruvians ; all the rest are conducted by foreigners, many of whom are from Chili and Buenos Ayres. The ladies act a much more conspicuous part; though not always, we are sorry to say, altogether to their credit. From their earliest years they are led to consider themselves as the objects of admiration and homage; and a system of the most decided coquetry, or at least flirtation, is es- tablished. Gaming prevails also among both sexes to a destructive extent; and families are extremely ill managed. Yet the Peruvians are courteous, humane, hospitable, and generous. In the country, these amiable qualities are combined with equal mirth, but a much greater degree of simplicity. The Indians, or native Peruvians, are still, over all Peru, the most numerous class. They present nothing of that fierce aspect, and that untamed and fero- cious character, which render the Caribs, the Brazilians, and the Indians of Cana- da, so terrible to European settlers. They have small features, little feet, well- turned limbs; sleek, coarse, black hair, and scarcely any beard. The mixed races are more numerous than the pure Spaniards, though less so than the Indians. They consist of the usual multiplied branches from the three original stocks of Europeans, Indians, and Negroes. The mestizo is strong, swarthy, with little beard, laborious, and well disposed ; the mulatto is less robust, but is acute, talkative, imaginative, fond of dress and parade. The zambo (mu- latto and negro) is violent, morose, and stubborn, prone to many vices, and guilty of more robberies and murders than any other class, only excepting the Chinos (negro-Indian), said to be the very worst mixed breed in existence, ugly, lazy, stupid, and cruel. The religion, as in every country over which Spain ever reigned, is exclusively Catholic. Lima is the seat of an archbishop, who had for suffragans the bishops of Cuzco, of Panama, two in Chili, and six in the south of Colombia; but this extensive jurisdiction must now be curtailed. Immense wealth has been accumu- lated by several of the convents, from pious donations. Some of the clergy are respectable, but a great proportion of the friars are said to lead very dissolute lives, and to promote, rather than check, the general licentiousness. Although no toleration is admitted, yet in 1812 the inquisition was abolished. Literature is not in so utterly depressed a state at Lima as in the other cities to the south of the Isthmus of Darien. Besides several colleges, there is a highly endowed university, founded in 1549, on the model of that of Salamanca. The professors do not deliver lectures; but examinations and disputations are maintained with considerable diligence. The amusements consist of the theatre, which, at Lima, is tolerably conduct- ed ; bull-fights, cock-fights, and religious processions; and the rage for public diversions, as already observed, is extreme. The extensive region which once bore the common name of Peru comprises at present three independent states ; the republic of Peru, the republic of Bolivia, and the republic of South Peru. The republic of Peru, though much reduced by the defection of its four south- em departments, is still a considerable territory, comprising about 1000 miles of sea-coast, and extending into the interior, on the tenth degree of south latitude, full 900 miles, with an area of about 350,000 square miles, and a population of 292 PERU. probably 700,000. A large portion of the east part of this republic is unsettled and even unexplored by Europeans, being still in the possession of the aborigines, of whom many of the tribes are stated to be exceedingly savage, and some of them cannibals. The republic is divided into three departments, which are subdivided into pro- vinces. Departments. Capitals. Truxillo, or Libertad Truxillo. Lima Lima. Junin Tarma. Lima, next to Mexico the most splendid city of Spanish America, is situated about six miles in the interior, from its port of Callao. It is of a form nearly semicircular ; two miles long, and one and a half broad ; the base being washed by the river Limac. It is surrounded by a wall of brick and clay, twelve feet high, but capable merely of serving for purposes of police. The houses run in straight lines, dividing the city into a multitude of squares of various forms and dimensions. The plaza, or principal square, is, as in other Spanish cities, sur- rounded by all the finest edifices. The viceroy's palace, however, is an old plas- tered and unsightly structure, of a reddish colour, the lowest story of which is strangely occupied by a row of mean shops, above which is a gallery open to the public. The apartments now employed as government offices display some ves- tiges of decayed magnificence. The cathedral is an elegant building, with a stone front, and two towers of considerable height; and the interior, particularly the great altar, is, or at least was, excessively rich. There are twenty-five con- vents in Lima, with churches attached to them ; and fifteen nunneries. The con- vent of San Francisco, with its appendages, is the most extensive, and though not so rich, is more elegant than the cathedral. An immense treasure in the pre- cious metals was contained in these establishments; but during the revolution, great part has been abstracted, though the base materials substituted have been carefully gilded over. The population of Lima is about 70,000, of whom about 25,000 are Spaniards, 2500 clergy, 15,000 free mulattoes, 15,000 slaves, 7200 mestizos, and 5200 Indians. Callao, communicating with Lima by a very fine road, has an excellent harbour formed by two islands. The forts by which it is defended are handsome and strong ; and Callao itself is a considerable town, with 6000 inhabitants. In proceeding southward from Lima, the coast becomes very desolate. Pisco, though bearing the name of a city, is, in fact, only a poor village. On islands near it, however, are vast accumulations of the excrement of birds, forming the richest manure that is anywhere known. The vines in the neighbourhood pro- duce fruit, from which is made a large quantity of good brandy. On the coast to the north of Lima is Truxillo, a handsome little town, a minia- ture of Lima, and built in the same gay style. By its port of Guanchaco, which has a tolerable roadstead, Truxillo sends the produce of its territory to Lima, and receives foreign manufactured goods in return. It contains about 12,000 inhabit- ants. Sanna is the seat of a considerable trade, and Lambayeque, to the north of Truxillo, is the most thriving place between Lima and Guayaquil. Piura, still farther north, is generally accounted the most ancient city in South America, though it is not exactly on the site of the city founded by Pizarro. Its district is noted for the finest breed of mules in Peru, sometimes selling for 250 dollars each; also for a very fine breed of goats, from whose skins they manufacture good cordovans ; and they make also some cotton cloths, though not on so great a scale as at Lambayeque. Payta, celebrated for the successful descent of Anson in 1741, is a commodious and well-frequented sea-port, the most northerly in Peru. It being in a complete desert of sand, potable water is brought from a distance of twelve miles, and sold at a high price. The northern interior of Peru, forming part of the departments of Junin and Truxillo, occupies various levels in the great interior table-land of the Andes. They present that variety of rich and valuable produce, which generally marks SOUTH PERU. 293 the American table-lands. Wheat, barley, cacao, sugar, are grown in its different stages ; fine cinchona is brought from the eastward ; the fine soft wool of the alpaca and vicuna is collected. There is a great deal of manufacturing industry in these upper districts ; the wool is made into ponchos, flannels, serges ; the goat- skins into cordovans; the tallow into soap. The mines, which were formerly worked to a considerable extent, are now almost all abandoned. Great hospitality prevails ; any respectable traveller, on arriving at a town, has only to go to the best house in it, where he is sure to be entertained, usually without charge. There are several pretty large towns in this high district, which serve as markets for the produce of the neighbouring country, and channels by which they receive European commodities. These are, Caxatambo, Huaras, and Caxamarca; each of the two last containing 7000 inhabitants. Caxamarca is, above all, distin- guished as having contained a palace of the ancient Incas, and being the spot where Atahualpa, the last of the dynasty, fell by the sword of Pizarro. In the neighbourhood are also the remains of a vast mass of building, constructed of ponderous stones, in the Peruvian fashion, and capable of containing 5000 persons. The district of Tarma, in Junin, is chiefly distinguished for containing the richest silver mines in Lower Peru, among which those of Pasco take the lead. The town of Tarma contains about 5500 inhabitants, having a considerable manu- facture of baize. Huanuco, north of Tarma, is distinguished by Peruvian re- mains, and still more by containing the infant rivulet, which swells into the stream of the mighty Amazon. SOUTH PERU. The republic of South Peru was formed by declaration of independence at Sicuana, March 7th, 1836, and is for the present placed under the special protec- tion of Bolivia, whose president has been chosen supreme protector of the state. South Peru comprises four of the seven departments which belonged to Peru, and although less in extent than the northern division, is undoubtedly the most densely populated. The cause of the separation is stated to be the continual revolutions and political contentions, of which Peru has been, for some years, the victim, and also, in a degree, the contradictory measures pursued by that state and Bolivia, in their commercial relations with each other. The sea-port of Arica is the most convenient and best adapted of any in the Pacific Ocean, for carrying on the com- mercial intercourse of Bolivia with the rest of the world. Peru, to whom it be- longed, endeavoured, by the exaction of heavy transit duties on all goods destined for Bolivia, passing through her territories, to enrich herself, and consequently embarrass the trade of the latter state, which, having but one sea-port on her coast, Cobija, or Puesto de la Mar, and that situated in a desert and distant part of her territory, attempted, by the abolition of duties and various enactments in its favour, to secure to it all the advantages of a free port, and attract to it the trade of the republic: these measures were, however, neutralized, by Peru reducing the duties on all articles of commerce arriving at Arica for Bolivia, and as soon as the cur- rent of trade was well turned in that direction, raised the imposts to their former standard ; thus harassing the commerce of her sister state. The division of Peru into two states, the most contiguous of which is placed entirely under the pro- tection of Bolivia, will doubtless enable the government of the latter to arrange its commercial affairs more satisfactory than heretofore. South Peru has a coast, on the Pacific Ocean, of about 700 miles in extent; along which are a number of small sea-ports, including those called Los Puertos Interrnedios, or the Intermedios. The country in the vicinity of the coast is in many places a desert and destitute of water, and can be traversed only with the same precautions as are necessary on crossing the deserts of Africa. Along the banks of streams, and where the soil can be irrigated, vegetation is very abun- dant; the produce is mostly sugar, wine, brandy, and oil. 25» =—===*= 294 SOUTH PERU. The divisions of this state are the departments of Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, and Pu no, which are subdivided into provinces; and the population is probably rather more than one half of what is assigned to the whole of Peru, or about 800,000. The department of Arequipa fills the space between the ocean and the Andes. It is one of the most fertile provinces in Peru ; rich in maize, sugar, and vines, from which an esteemed red wine is made. There are some considerable silver mines, but not to be compared to those on the other side of the mountains. Are- quipa is a large city, considerably in the interior, in an agreeable and healthy cli- mate. The population has been estimated at 24,000. Arequipa has stood, not- withstanding shocks of earthquakes repeated three or four times in each century. Near it is a great volcano, whence arise clouds of ashes, which reach even to the ocean. Islay, its sea-port, is only a village. Arica was originally a port of con- siderable importance : but since the earthquake of 1605, and the plunder of the place, in 1680, by the pirate Warren, it has been in a great measure deserted, and the population has emigrated to Tacna, which is a thriving town, about thirty miles in the interior, employing extensive droves of mules to carry the merchan- dise landed at Arica into the provinces beyond the Andes. Moquehua, another interior place, is chiefly noted for the good wine produced in its district. In the southern part, which is a sterile desert, are the silver mines of Guantajaya. Huamango and Guanca-Velica, in Ayacucho, occupy the more southern valleys of the Andes. The former has many districts very fertile in green pasture, and its capital, of the same name, is a great and very handsome city, built of stone, and adorned with magnificent public places and squares. It has an university of royal foundation, richly endowed, and contains 16,000 inhabitants. Guanca- Velica is bleak and cold, only distinguished for the rich mines of mercury, which once rendered it a flourishing place, but are now so much declined that the popu- lation is reduced to 5000. The little village of Ayacucho, which gives name to the department, was the theatre of the victory which (1824) delivered South America from the Spanish yoke. Cuzco, the grand metropolitan seat of the ancient empire of Peru, is situated east of these provinces, and somewhat deep in the interior. The Peruvian fabrics of woollens and of cordovan leather, exist still on a more extended scale than in any of the provinces yet mentioned. The imperial city of Cuzco, even in its fallen state, is still handsome, and even splendid. The cathedral is described as a noble pile. The Dominican church has been built from the materials of the ancient temple, on the same site, and the altar has taken place of the image of that deity. On an eminence are the walls of the fortress of the Incas, raised to a great, height, and built of truly astonishing masses of stone. Cuzco is stated to contain 32,000 inhabitants, of whom three-fourths are pure Indians, the rest mes- tizos, with only a small and diminishing proportion of Spaniards. The manufac- tures are considerable. Cuzco threw off the Spanish yoke earlier than Lima, but the city was soon retaken by the royalists, and remained with them till the final extinction of their power. To the south of Cuzco, in the department of Puno, is the town of the same name, containing a college and 7000 inhabitants. Coquito is much decayed since the celebrated insurrection of Tupac Amaru, at the end of the last century, when it had a population of 30,000. The surface of Puno is much of it table-land, elevated 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The climate is cold as compared with the coast, and very healthy : its productions are cattle, in great abundance, barley, always cut green for horses, and potatoes. It has also some manufactories of woollen cloths. The lama, the vicuna, and the Alpaca, are very numerous : the latter are kept in flocks for the sake of their wool : they are a species similar to the vicuna. BOLIVIA. 295 BOLIVIA. The republic of Bolivia was established in 1825, previous to which time the territory was attached to the viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata. It extends from 58° to 71° W. long-., and the main body lies between 11° and 22° S. lat. ; but a nar- row tongue of land on the sea projects southwards as far as 25°. It has an area of about 400,000 square mires, with a population of about 1,700,000. Bolivia forms an extensive territory, situated south and somewhat east of Lower Peru, with which it assimilates in aspect and productions. This is among the least known regions of the globe, yet one which its natural features render peculiarly interesting. It is now ascertained to contain the loftiest mountain peaks in the New World, yielding in height only to those of the Himmaleh. The summit of Sorata was found to be 25,250 feet high; that of Illimani, 24,350; so that Chim- borazo, which is only 21,440, must hide its diminished head. The very elevated table-plain from which these colossal summits rise' appears to have prevented their extraordinary elevation from becoming sensible, till it was determined by baro- metrical measurement This table-plain, though not the most elevated, seems undoubtedly the most fruitful and populous on the globe. It yields copious har- vests of rye, maize, barley, and even wheat ; it has cities above the region of the clouds; villages which would overtop the white pinnacles of the Jungfrau and the Schreckhorn ; cottages as high as the top of Mont Blanc. The following are among the most remarkable heights: — the city of Potosi, 13,350 feet (its mines, 16,060); of Oruro, 12,442; of La Paz, 12,194; of Chuquisaca, 9332; of Cochabamba, 8440. This State is interesting from the variety, extent, and value of the minerals it affords. Gold is found in considerable quantity on the mountainous districts, but hitherto it has not been very extensively mined. It occurs associated with anti- mony, silver, and other minerals, and sometimes in masses of considerable size: the largest mass on record is one which was detached by means of lightning from a mountain near to La Paz, and for which 11,269 dollars were paid. But by far the greater part of the gold procured in Bolivia is obtained by washing the sands of rivers: the most productive of these cavaderos, or gold-washings, is that of Tipuani. Silver has hitherto been the principal metallic production of Bolivia, and has conferred on it its great celebrity. In the rich mountain of Potosi alone, according to records kept at Potosi, of the quintas, or royal duties, from the year 1745 to the year 1800, no less than 823,950,509 dollars were coined during that period ; and if to this be added the amount of the preceding years, not included, and that obtained in a clandestine manner, without the payment of the customary dues, not less than 1,647,901,018 dollars have been obtained from this source alone in the space of 255 years. The silver mines of Portugalete, in the province of Chicas, have acquired celebrity on account of the richness as well as the quantity of their ores, which yield from sixty to eighty marks of silver to the caxon, while those of Potosi only afford about ten marks from the same quantity of ore. At La Plata, Porco, and Lipes, there are silver mines, especially one in the latter province, celebrated for the purity of its ores, which were formerly in great repute, but since eclipsed by the more important ones of Potosi and of other places. In Carangas there are rich silver mines ; and formerly those of Oruro were very pro- ductive. Bolivia is divided into seven departments: — Chuquisaca, La Paz, Potosi, Cocha- bamba, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Moxos and Chiquitos. The capital is Chuqui- saca, or La Plata, so named from the silver mines in its vicinity. It is a hand- some city, containing about 12,000 inhabitants. Notwithstanding its astonishing elevation, the country round is fertile and smiling. There is an university nume- rously attended, and a library, said to be one of the best in South America. La Paz, with a population of 40,000, is the chief city of Bolivia, and is sur- rounded by the most interesting objects in that country. A few miles to the south is Mt. Illimani, and at some distance to the north rises that of Sorata, both already described as the highest mountains in the New World. At some distance to the 296 CHILI. north-west is the great lake of Titicaca, about 150 miles long, and the laijgest in South America. Potosi enjoys the greatest fame of any city in this region, but retains few traces of the wealth which gained for it this celebrity. It is probably the most elevated city in the world, being 13,000 feet above the sea, and consequently higher than the Peak of Teneriffe. It is not a well-built town; the streets are narrow and irregular, and most of the houses indifferent. It has, however, a college and a mint. Reports vary greatly both as to its past and present population. The assertion that, in its most flourishing state, it ever contained 160,000, is probably much exaggerated. It now contains 9000 inhabitants. There are some other considerable places in this region. Oruro has not more than 4000 or 5000 inhabitants; but the mines in its vicinity were once important. Cochahamba, in the midst of a fertile though mountainous territory, has been said to contain 30,000 inhabitants. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, situated amid an exten- sive plain in the eastward, is an ill-built town, with a population of about 9000. Large tracts in this quarter are occupied by the Moxos and Chiquitos, Indian tribes nearly independent, unless so far as the missionaries have reclaimed them from their savage habits. Tarija, a small province to the southward, belonging to the territory of Buenos Ayres, has voluntarily united itself with Bolivia. This republic, in its small extent of coast, has only one port, that of Cobija or Puerto de Lamar, which labours under a deficiency of fresh water; so that they are obliged at present to receive almost all their foreign commodities across the moun- tains, by way of Arica. CHILI. Chili, which has been called the Italy of South America, consists of a long narrow band of territory situated between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean. Its northern boundary is formed by the desert of Atacama, nearly on the tropic of Capricorn, or about 24° south, and its southern the Gulf of Guaiteca or Chiloe, including the island of that name in about 44° thus embracing a length of 20° or 1400 miles. The boundary on the side of Buenos Ayres is formed by a line drawn along the culminant point of the Andes, and through their eternal snows. Prom this line to the coast of the Pacific must be measured the breadth of Chili, not averaging more than 200 miles. The superficial content is estimated at 172,000 square miles; from which, however, must be taken off the considerable portion held by the Araucanos. The surface of Chili consists of portions the most strikingly dissimilar, but passing into each other by regular and insensible gradations. Between its moun- tain and ocean limit is a transition from the frozen to the torrid zone, similar to that which takes place in Mexico and Colombia, though not quite so abrupt. The range of theChilian Andes seems peculiarly massive and unbroken; and the per- petual snow which covers it to a considerable depth, even at the points chosen as of most easy access, cannot well consist with a height of less than 14,000 or 15,000 feet The sides of these mountains are generally fertile and beautiful ; foliage and verdure with rich pastures extend even to the border of the perpetual snow, and many of the upper valleys present such romantic and enchanting scenes, that Chili has been called the garden of South America. It is, however, a heavy misfortune to the Chilians, that the ground is not secure under their feet. There are said to be 14 active volcanoes within Chili, beside several that occasionally or constantly discharge smoke. Repeated earthquakes have laid their cities in ruins; and from time to time shocks are felt, which even when slight are rendered dreadful by recollection and anticipation. There is no river in Chili deserving the name. The Maule and Biobio are navigable for a short distance. Numberless torrents dash down from the steeps of the Cordillera, but with such rapidity that no boat can navigate their channel, and even in their estuaries the stream is too rapid to allow vessels to find in them CHILI. 297 a secure harbour. In return, every quarter of the country has the advantage of being at a very short distance from the sea-coast. The political system of Chili is in a vacillating and uncertain state. The con- gress was to be composed of deputies chosen on the principle of direct election, and of one deputy for every 15,000 inhabitants. A considerable disposition seems to prevail for a federal form of government. The finances of the Republic are not in the most flourishing condition : the in- come amounted a few years ago to 1,300,000 dollars, and the annual expenditure to 1,966,948 dollars, making the heavy deficit of 666,948 dollars. A loan, the capital of which was 1,000,000Z. sterling, was raised in London in 1822. The army, under the pressure of circumstances, has been supported on a large scale, compared with the population and resources of Chili. That country sent into Peru, in support of the patriotic cause, no less than 7500 troops, who had been well disciplined, and who proved brave and effective. Besides these, about 3000 remained in the country. The militia consists chiefly of cavalry, who are ill disciplined, but brave, and admirable riders. The navy, though it distinguished itself under Lord Cochrane, never formed any considerable force, comprising only one ship of sixty guns, two or three of fifty, with some corvettes and gun-brigs. Being old ships purchased from Britain, and having been in hard service, they are now considerably decayed, and the pre- sent state of the Chilian resources will probably prevent much being done to re- pair them. Agriculture is carried on extensively, though with very rude implements, of the same form with those that were introduced 300 years ago. The plough is only a piece of knee timber, shod at one end with a flat plate of iron, into which a long pole is fixed by means of wedges. Wheat has been hitherto the chief object of agriculture; its quality is fine, though small-grained. Potatoes, in this their native soil, grow in perfection ; pumpkins, lettuces, and cabbages are reared with care and success ; and fruits, with but very little culture, are produced in profusion and of excellent quality. A good deal of wine is made, though not of the first excellence ; the flavour of the best somewhat resembling Malaga. The greatest extent of ground, however, is laid out in cattle farms, which are managed with great success. The horses are small, but beautiful, and of fine temper and spirit, so that they are preferred to those of Buenos Ayres. The oxen and mules are equal to any in the world. Agriculture, as in Mexico, is much impeded by the enormous grants which were made to individuals at the time of the conquest; yet it is stated, that in many districts fine land may be obtained at the rate of a dollar for two acres. The manufactures, as over all South America, consist only of coarse articles made by the country people for domestic use, with the simplest instruments. They bring to market ponchos, hats, shoes, coarse shifts, coarse earthenware, and some- times jars of fine clay. Mining is the branch of industry for which Chili has been most celebrated, but it is not the source of her most substantial wealth. The mines occur in the in- terior from Coquimbo, in a barren tract in the northern part of the country. The metals are gold, silver, and copper. The latter is by far the most abundant, there being many hundred mines of it < the others are much rarer, and, as they attract more speculators, generally answer much worse : hence, the common 6aying is, that if a man finds a copper mine, he is sure to gain; if it be silver, he may gain or he may not; but if it be gold, he is sure to lose. At present the average pro- duce of the gold and silver mines may be estimated at about 850,000 dollars, and that of copper at 720,000 dollars. Commerce in Chili labours under great difficulties from its extreme remoteness ; since it is separated by about half the circumference of the globe from the civi- lised countries of Europe, Asia, and even North America. The principal articles of export from Chili to Great Britain, the United States, and India, are the pre- cious metals from Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Huasco, and Copiapo. From the latter ports are shipped large quantities of copper, and from Valparaiso of hides. The chief exports from Concepcion are timber, wheat, flour, and fruits, principally to 2N 298 CHILI. Peru. Chili imports flour, cottons, furniture, tobacco, &c, from the United States, manufactured articles of all descriptions from Great Britain, silks, wines, per- fumery, &c, from France, spices, tea, sugar, coffee, &c, from other countries. At present the annual value of the trade with Great Britain is about 5,000,000 dollars, and of that with the United States, 2,500,000 dollars, exclusive of the supplies to the whalers and other ships. Beside their dealings with Europe, the Chilians have also a considerable trade with Peru, to which, as already mention- ed, they export wheat, flour, &c. ; they have also, notwithstanding the formidable obstacles opposed by the Andes, a considerable trade with Buenos Ayres. Fishing is neglected by the Chilians, though many fine species are found in their seas. The shell-fish are particularly delicate. The population of Chili, is more involved in doubt than that of any State of South America, but is believed from authentic accounts not to fall short of 1,500,000. The social state of Chili differs scarcely by a shade from that of the rest of Spanish America. There is the same native courteousness, politeness, kindness of heart, ignorance, extravagant love of diversion, abject superstition, and pro- pensity to quarrelling. This last passion, which among the lower orders is fed chiefly by a resort to pulperias, is alleged to be more prominent than among other Americans, and oftener productive of bloodshed. The ladies often can neither write nor read ; but travellers join in praising their natural talents, and the un- studied grace of their manners. And some conceive the general deportment of those in the higher ranks to be almost unexceptionable. The Catholic religion has hitherto reigned in Chili with the same supremacy as in the other states; but under the new system, the convents have been very sensibly thinned, no one being allowed to take the vows under the age of twenty- five ; and many of the religious shows and processions have been suppressed ; a change not altogether agreeable to the body of the people, whom it has deprived of one of their favourite amusements. The Roman Catholic religion continues the exclusive one, though numerous heretics are allowed to live in the country without molestation. The Protestants have even a consecrated burial-place, though not the public exercise of their worship. Knowledge in Chili is beginning to disperse the general ignorance which pre- vailed. It is believed that before the revolution, there was not a printing-pret? in the country. That since established at Santiago has been chiefly employed upon gazettes and political pamphlets. The government once proclaimed the freedom of the press; but as soon as an unfortunate writer, taking them at their word, began to criticise their measures, he was instantly seized and deported to the Isle of Juan Fernandez. The people, however, soon regained the freedom of the press, which they now enjoy in its full extent. The government do not seem to have shown the same zeal as elsewhere for the promotion of knowledge, though they have established Lancasterian schools in the principal towns; that of Santi- ago containing 400 boys. The only fine art cultivated with any ardour by the Chilians is music, their application to which is truly indefatigable: the girls being set down to it almost from infancy, and having constant practice at their evening parties. The importation of piano-fortes is said to be truly immense. They do not play with consummate science, but with considerable feeling and taste. The habitations of the lower ranks in Chili are of the most rude and primitive construction : the walls merely of stakes crossing each other, and fastened with thongs, or hemp twine ; the roofs, which must resist the rain, composed of branches plastered with mud and covered with palm leaves. The negro population of Chili has never been numerous, and the slaves have always been employed for domestic purposes, and treated with much kindness, the laws of the country being very favourable to them. In 1811, a law was enacted, declaring free after that period all children of slaves born in Chili; and in 1825, the number of slaves was so far diminished, that it was thought expedient to abolish slavery altogether. Chili corresponds to the old Spanish captain generalship of the same name. In 182/1, it was divided into eight provinces, which are subdivided into districts. CHILL 299 Provinces. Chief Towns. Population. Santiago Santiago 50,000 Aconcagua San Felipe 5,000 Coquimbo Coquimbo 10,000 Colchagua Curico 2,000 Maule Cauquenes 2,000 Concepcion Concepcion 8,000 Valdivia Valdivia 3,000 Chiloe : . San Carlos Santiago seems to derive its pre-eminence from its fertile and agreeable terri- tory, particularly in the plain of Maypo, and that which surrounds the capital ; from its mines of gold and silver, a more brilliant, though really not so valuable an object as the copper mines of Coquimbo; and from the residence of the go- vernment. Santiago, the capital, is situated in a richly wooded plain, at an elevation of 2600 feet above the sea, which renders the climate agreeable and salubrious. Its aspect is irregular and picturesque. The dark tints of the fig and olive, with the lighter hues of the mimosa, mingled with steeples and houses, produce a novel and imposing eiFecL The houses having in general only one floor, and being sur- rounded by large gardens, the town appears completely overshadowed with foliage. Each house, in general, stands by itself, and, being strongly barricaded towards the street, forms a little fortress. They are one or two stories high, and built of adobes or unburnt brick. The streets, however, are regularly laid out, paved, and furnished with footpaths ; the cathedral, several of the churches, and the direc- tor's palace, may be reckoned handsome, though they do not exhibit any thing very splendid in architecture. The Alameda, a mile in length, and planted with a double row of trees, is one of the finest promenades in South America. The river Maypocho runs through the city; but being, like most in this country, dry at one season and swoln to an overwhelming torrent at another, it has been neces- sary to erect not only a bridge, but a wall to confine the violence of the stream. The vicinity of Santiago presents the most romantic and sublime prospects : on one side over an expanse of plain bounded by the distant ocean, on the other over successive mountain ranges crowned by the awful snowy pinnacles of the Andes. Valparaiso, the port of Santiago, and the main seat of Chilian commerce, is situated on a long narrow strip of land bordering a semicircular bay, over which impend on all sides steep cliffs nearly 2000 feet high, and sparingly covered with shrubs and stunted grass. One street, about three miles long, runs along the sea, and contains the houses of the most opulent citizens ; it is prolonged by the Al- mendral, or Almond Grove, a sort of detached village, which forms the most agreeable residence. The lower ranks are huddled into the quebradas, or ravines, among the hills behind. None of the buildings are handsome; even the gover- nor's house is scarcely tolerable ; but the commercial progress of the town is marked by the many new and handsome warehouses erected. Originally a mere village, it acquired some importance by becoming the channel for conducting the intercourse with Lima, to which all the trade of Chili was then confined. All the commerce of the world being now thrown open to it, and numerous settlers attracted from Europe, it has acquired a population of 14,000 or 15,000, and assumed almost the appearance of an English town. During the summer, which lasts from November to March, the bay affords a safe and pleasant anchorage; but in winter, especially in June and July, precautions are required against the north wind, which blows often with peculiar violence. Quillota is a small but agreeable town, a little in the interior, in the province of Aconcagua, with 8000 inhabitants; and higher up are the towns of San Felipe and Santa Rosa, each having about 5000 inhabitants, and containing an industrious and thriving agricultural population. Coquimbo is the most northern province of Chili ; but, instead of assuming a gayer aspect as it approaches the brilliant regions of the tropic, it becomes more and more sterile. At the town of Coquimbo, or La Serena, even the brushwood which covered the hills round Valparaiso disappears, and its place is only supplied 300 CHILI. by the prickly pear bush, and a scanty sprinkling of wiry grass ; while at Huasco, farther north, there is no longer a trace of vegetation. It is only on the banks of the streams that the eye is gratified with verdure, cultivation, and pasturage. Its importance arises solely from its mines, which include gold, silver, and copper, of which the latter is the most productive. The commerce connected with the mines gives some importance to the port of Coquimbo ; though the inhabitants, unaccustomed to any varied traffic, retain much native simplicity, kindness, and hospitality. Copiapo is in the heart of the mining district, of which it may be considered the capital. This place is subject to the dreadful calamity of being once in about every twenty-three years completely destroyed by earthquake. That of 1819 shook it entirely to pieces; the wrecks of its houses and churches lying scattered in every direction. The walls, though three or four feet thick, of large sun-dried bricks, seem to have toppled down, some inwards, some outwards, like so many castles of cards. The people had all crowded to the great church of La Merced, which they were judiciously advised to leave, and had scarcely quitted it when it fell to the ground, and would have buried the whole population had they remained. The Copiapians, in 1821, rebuilt their fallen city. Copiapo is bounded on the north by the desert of Atacama, which separates Chili from Bolivia, and is consi- dered as belonging to the latter. Concepcion, a more southern province of Chili, is the most highly endowed with the real bounties of nature. All the grain and fruits of the finest temperate cli- mate are reared in such abundance as to make this the granary and garden of South America. Wheat of excellent quality is the staple, and the southern mar- kets are chiefly supplied from Concepcion ; to which may be added barley, maize, pulse, and all kind of vegetables. It yields also a sweet wine, the best in the New World, which is reckoned equal to Frontignac, and for which the demand at Lima is almost unlimited. The cattle farms are also numerous and valuable, yielding a large export of jerked beef. The town of Concepcion, with four con- ventual churches, a nunnery, a cathedral in progress, and many handsome houses inhabited by some of the old Spanish nobles, might almost have disputed with Santiago the rank of capital of Chili. The houses, like those of Santiago, were mostly of one story, built of mud or sun-dried brick, and forming regular streets at right angles to each other. The people were peculiarly kind and hospitable, and their gay and festive habits were accompanied with comparatively few irregu- larities. But it suffered with peculiar severity from the late contest ; alternately occupied by the Spaniards and the patriots, it was rudely treated by both, but espe- cially the former. After having in some measure recovered from the calamities of war, the town was entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1835. Talcahuano, the port of Concepcion, is a small town of about 500 inhabitants, on a large bay, with a good and secure anchorage. Its defences have the reputation of being very strong; but during the late war they were neglected; wherefore, being of mud, and incapable of resisting the heavy rains of the country, they are nearly ruined. Valdivia comprises a territory of about 130 by about 120 miles in extent, wa- tered by three rivers, and containing several plains that are very productive in grain and cattle. There is scarcely any European culture; but the missionaries have, at different points, succeeded in forming the Indians into peaceable and tole- rably industrious little communities. The town of Valdivia is situated about six- teen miles above its port, which is defended by strong batteries, and is the best and most capacious harbour of Chili ; it will be of great value when the surround- ing country becomes more populous and civilised. Osorno, built about forty miles distant, is the most southern town in the New Continent. The territory of the Araucanos, or Arauco, is an extensive district, which inter- poses itself between the Spanish districts of Concepcion and Valdivia. It extends north and south for about three degrees of latitude, reaching inland to the moun- tains. This region, celebrated in Spanish story and song, is described as really one of the finest in South America. The Araucanos, having adopted the rude agriculture of the Spaniards, raise Indian corn in abundance ; they grow most CHILI. 301 admirable potatoes, which are, probably, indigenous; and have a good stock of horses and horned cattle. The whole country is divided into four districts, governed by hereditary rulers, called loquis, confederated together for their own benefit, and the injury of their neighbours. Particular districts are ruled by sub- ordinate chiefs, also hereditary, called ulmenes. When war is declared, the toquis elect one of themselves, or even some other chief, who assumes the supreme command. They have appended the European musket to their own original arms of the bow, arrow, and club. When they set forth on an expedition, each indi- vidual merely carries a small bag of parched meal, trusting that ere long he will be comfortably quartered on the territory of his enemies. During the Spanish dominion every new governor of Chili generally endeavoured to distinguish him- self by the conquest of Arauco ; and having assembled an army, he usually beat them in the field ; but he soon found himself obliged, by a continued series of harassing warfare, to sue for peace from a proud race, whom nothing would ever induce to make the first advances Though resisting all attempts at conquest, they have entered into a treaty with the republican government, and even agreed to a species of political union, though a long interval must elapse before this can be completely effected. The island of Chiloe is the southernmost province of Chili: it is in length, from north to south, 120 miles, and in the widest part about 60 miles broad : the whole island is mountainous and covered with trees. The climate is rather damp and rainy, but notwithstanding healthy. The inhabitants are in appearance like northern Europeans, manly, athletic, robust, and fresh coloured. The productions are wheat, barley, potatoes, and most kinds of European vegetables and fruits. The island swarms with hogs : its hams are celebrated, and are exported in con- siderable quantities. The inhabitants are very cheerful, and appear to be the happiest race alive ; their amusements are singing and dancing. Murder, robbery, or persons being in debt, are never heard of. The principal towns are St Carlos, the capital, Chacao, Dalcahue, and Castro ; all of them have good harbours, in which vessels of any burthen may anchor with perfect safety. The islands attached to Chiloe are 63 in number, of which 36 are inhabited : they are situated eastward, and between it and the coast of Patagonia, and are denominated the Archipelago of Chiloe. The Islands of Juan Fernandez may be considered as an appendage of Chili. They form a group of two small islands, called Mas-a-Tierra, and Mas-a-Fuero. The principal island is so diversified by lofty hills, streams, and varied vegetation, that it has been described as one of the most enchanting spots on the globe. It was early noted as being the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, during seve- ral years ; an event upon which Defoe founded his celebrated narrative of Robin- son Crusoe. The island afterwards afforded to Anson the means of recruiting his shattered squadron, after the passage of Cape Horn. It has been used by the Chi- lians as a place for confining convicts, but was recently granted to a North Ame- rican merchant, who proposes to make it a depdt for supplying trading and whal- ing vessels with provisions. REPUBLIC OF BUENOS AYRES. (LA PLATA, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.) Buenos Ayres, or La Plata, is the name given to an extensive region of South America, and which, under Spanish dominion, formed one of the principal vice- royalties. It had then annexed to it Upper Peru, including the mines of Potoei ; but this country has, by recent events, been severed from it, and forms now an independent republic under the name of Bolivia. The remaining territory con- sists chiefly of detached cities, with surrounding cultivated tracts, which form, as it were, oases in a vast expanse of uninhabited plain. Buenos Ayres, the prin- cipal city, and commanding the navigation of the river, has endeavoured to form the whole into a republic, of which she herself shall be the capital, or at least the 26 302 BUENOS AYRES. federal head ; but there reigns through the different districts, a strong provincial spirit, which has hitherto rendered this union imperfect and precarious. Buenos Ayres may, in a very general view, be considered as occupying nearly the whole breadth of America, south from the tropic of Capricorn, leaving only the narrow strip of Chili on the west, and on the east a section cut out of it by Brazil. On the north the Pilcomayo, while it runs from west to east, forms the natural boundary from Upper Peru ; but alter its great bend to the south, the line must be considered as continued eastward, cutting the Paraguay River, and on- wards to the Parana. On the east, the boundary of Brazil may be considered as fixed by the Parana and the Uruguay, though the districts immediately west of these streams have not, since the revolution, been actually possessed by Buenos Ayres ; and south of the Plata, the Atlantic is the clear boundary. On the south, the Rio Negro terminates the settlements in this quarter. On the west, the uni- form boundary is Chili, separated by the lofty summits of the Andes. The con- tents of this very extensive territory are calculated at about 860,000 square miles. The surface of this territory consists of a plain the most extensive and uniform, perhaps, on the face of the earth, bounded only by the eastern slope of the Andes. The Pampas, west from Buenos Ayres, form an uninteresting level of more than 1000 miles across. This plain is divided into three successive portions : the first covered with thick clover and flowering thistles, that rise sometimes to the height of ten or eleven feet ; then 450 miles of long grass, without a weed ; lastly, a forest of low evergreen trees and shrubs, standing so wide, that a horse can gallop through them. At the end of this ocean plain, the Andes shoot up abruptly their wall of unbroken rock, covered with eternal snow, which to the traveller from the east appears to present an impenetrable barrier. The banks of the Plata consist also of immense plains, though not quite so level, nor covered with such varied vegetation. Of the rivers of this region, the chief is the Rio de La Plata, which enters the Ocean with a breadth of 150 miles, and is navigable for vessels of the greatest burthen to the city of Buenos Ayres, and was formerly so for ships of consider- able size to Assumpcion, 1000 miles in the interior ; but this is now impracticable, owing to accumulations of sand which have obstructed the course of the channel. The La Plata is properly a continuation of the river Paraguay, which, flowing south from the centre of the continent, after passing the marshy Lake of Parayes, receives from the centre and border of Bolivia, the Pilcomaya and Vermejo, both navigable. At Corrientes, 900 miles from the sea, the Paraguay is joined by the Parana, which robs the former of its name ; flowing onwards the united current receives from the west the Salado, and from the north the Uruguay, when the collected waters of this great stream, now 30 miles in width and completely fresh, are finally merged in the Rio de La Plata, and mingle with the Ocean after a course of about 2200 miles. Large rivers, the Saladillo, and the Colorado, run across the Pampas, and are supposed to reach the Atlantic. The latter rises in the Cordillera east of Coquimbo, and has a course of 1000 miles, during which it forms numerous lakes; but it has not yet attained any commercial importance; and another, the Rio Negro, forms the extreme southern boundary. There are several lakes, as that of Ibera in the Entre Rios, fully 80 miles in length; some round Mendoza, formed by the streams descending from the Andes; and others farther in the interior ; but none of these can be said to correspond in grandeur to the other features of this region. The constitution of Buenos Ayres is that of a representative republic. The legislative power is exercised by two chambers, the representatives and the sena- tors; the former consisting of forty-one deputies elected by the direct suffrages of the provinces, and renewed by half their number every two years; the senate is formed by two deputies for each province, making thirty in all, who are renewed by one-third at a time : they are elected by eleven members of each province. The executive power is exercised by a citizen holding the title of president, elected in the same manner. as the senators, and holding his office for five years. He is re-eligible, and his powers are very extensive. BUENOS AYRES. 303 The revenue of the republic, consisting of customs, excise, and direct tax, is estimated at about 3,000,000 dollars a year ; and there is a debt of 4,500,000 dol- lars. The provinces, since the breaking up of the congress in 1819, have re- mained in a state of separation ; though they have assisted Buenos Ayres in her war with Brazil. In Paraguay, Dr. Francia continues to exercise a most absolute and tyrannical sway over the ignorant natives, for the reports of his death seem to be premature. The Banda Oriental has formed a separate republic. The agricultural produce consists almost entirely in the vast herds of horses and horned cattle which cover those boundless plains, clothed with rich herbage, which constitute the Pampas, The gaucho, or farmer, has no care in rearing or feeding; he has only to throw over them the lasso, or long leathern noose, to kill or drive them into Buenos Ayres, and in the case of horses, to break them, and put a mark on them by which they may be known. Beef can scarcely be said to bear any price, since a cow may be had for twenty shillings, and the hide is worth more than half that sum. Wheat and barley, for which the soil is perfectly adapted, are cultivated in a slovenly way immediately round Buenos Ayres, the grain being threshed by making cattle gallop over it. Notwithstanding the en- couragement given to agriculture by the government, there was still a necessity, in 1823, to import 70,000 barrels of American flour. The milk is not made into cheese or butter; and garden vegetables are no object of culture, the gaucho considering them as food fit only for beasts. In this naked and exposed country there is a great want of timber for fuel ; the peach tree has been found to grow, and answer the purpose of fuel better than any other. Paraguay produces its herb, or mate, of which the infusion, like that of tea, is prized over all the most southern countries of America. Quantities of this commodity have been sent down the river to the value of 1,000,000 dollars in the year; but Dr. Francia, of Paraguay, prohibited its exportation. There is scarcely any manufacture, except that of ponchos, or riding cloaks, which are universally worn, and from habit are made better than those hitherto supplied by the Manchester manufacturers, who are exerting themselves, how- ever, to improve the fabric of this article. The indolence, which the South Americans inherit from the Spaniards, will, probably, long prevent them from becoming a manufacturing people. The commerce of Buenos Ayres is large, compared with the population and general wealth of the state. The country is dependent on foreign supplies for almost every article, both of manufactured goods and colonial produce, and even for a little grain ; in return for which it gives the refuse of its cattle, hides, horns, hair, and tallow. The value of the commercial transactions of the United States with the Argentine Republic is about 2,500,000 dollars. The trade with Great Britain has increased considerably. A very considerable inland trade is also carried on by enormous wagons, which are driven across the Pampas to Mendoza, and other towns at the foot of the Cordillera. They carry some manu- factures and colonial goods, and bring back wine, brandy, and mineral produce. The intercourse with the countries up the river is, at present, obstructed by political causes. The population of the territory of Buenos Ayres bears, undoubtedly, a very small proportion to its vast extent. It is by no means well ascertained, but is generally supposed not to exceed 700,000. Society, over all Spanish America, wears a very uniform aspect. The Creoles, now everywhere the ruling class, are acute, polite, courteous, indolent, unenter- prising, passionately fond of diversion, especially in the forms of dancing and gaming. Every lady holds her tertulia, or evening party, to which even the pas- sing stranger will sometimes be invited. They are less charged with intrigue, however, than in some other great cities of South America ; the conduct of the young ladies is very strictly watched, and they are married at thirteen or four- teen. The lower ranks pass through the streets in a very orderly manner ; but they are too much addicted to frequenting pulpetias, or drinking-houses, where gaming sometimes gives rise to deadly quarrels. Horses being easily procured L at Buenos Ayres, it is an object of pride to keep a number of fine quality, on the 304 BUENOS AYRES. equipment of which the inhabitants often bestow more care than on the due clothing of their own persons. Every one has a horse ; even the beggar begs on horseback. The Gauchos, who inhabit the wide surface of the Pampas, and appropriate the numberless herds that roam over them, are a very singular race. The gaucho is at once the most active and the most indolent of mortals. He will scour the country whole days at full gallop, breaking wild horses, or chasing the jaguar or the ostrich ; but once alighted and seated on the skeleton of a horse's head, nothing can induce him to move. He considers it a degradation to set his foot to the ground ; so that, notwithstanding a general vigour almost preternatural, the lower limbs are weak and bent, and he is incapable of walking to any distance. His dwelling is a mud cottage, with one apartment, and so swarming with insects, that in summer the whole family, wrapped in skins, sleep in the open air. All round is a desert, with the exception of the corral or circular spot, enclosed by stakes, into which the cattle are driven. Neither grain nor vegetables are culti- vated, nor is the cow made to yield milk. Beef is the only food ; and it is roasted, or rather twisted, on large spits stuck in the floor, in a slanting direction, so as to overhang the fire, a twist being from time to time given, to expose all sides of the meat in succession, and slices are cut by the surrounding family : the juices, of course, fall into the fire, and are lost. A certain proportion become robbers, for which vocation these desolate plains afford scope. The Indians of the Pampas, a savage and terrible race, driven before the Gauchos, have in no degree coalesced with them, but continue in a state of deadly and raging hostility. Whoever encounters them in these wilds must expect death in its most terrible forms for his immediate lot ; and the travellers, meeting each other, ask with trembling voice, if any Indians have been seen on the route, They appear of the genuine Arauco breed ; are nobly mounted, having each two or three horses, so that, when one is exhausted, the rider leaps on another. They delight in midnight expedition and surprise. On reaching the hut of an unfortu- nate Gaucho, these marauders set fire to the roof, when the family, who, at the same time, hear the wild cry which announces their doom, must rush to the door, and are instantly killed, without any distinction, except of the young girls, who are placed on horseback, and carried off to serve as wives, in which capacity they are well treated; A large body were lately in a state of regular war with the colonists, but they have been defeated, and driven beyond the Colorado. The Catholic religion prevails exclusively in these States, as over all South America ; but the splendour of the churches, and the endowments of the clergy, appear to be greater here, compared at least with the means of supporting them, than in any other province. There prevails, also, a particular laxity in the con- duct of the clergy. A late traveller, one Sunday evening, in passing the arena for cock-fighting, saw a number of clergymen, each with a fighting-cock under his arm. The government at Buenos Ayres has shown a considerable activity in reforming the abuses of the church, having suppressed a number of convents, and at one time prohibited any accession to the number of monks and nuns; but the influence of these communities is still very strong in the interior provinces, to which this conduct of Buenos Ayres has rather served as a ground of disunion. Knowledge, as in the other new States, is encouraged by the government, with- out having yet made any very deep impression on the body of the people. Several large schools have been established on the plan of mutual instruction, and an uni- versity has even been founded, without permission from the pope; but it is little more than a classical school. Provinces. Capitals. Population. Tucuman Tucuman S 5,000 Salta Salta " 2,000 Corrientes . . * Corrientes 5,000 Rioja Rioja de la Nueva 2,000 Catamarca Catamarca 1,200 Santiago Santiago del Estero 8,000 San Juan San Juan de la Frontera 10,000 BUENOS AYRES. 305 Provinces. Capital*. Population. Cordova Cordova 10,000 Santa Fe Santa Fe 4,000 Entre Rios Parana 15,000 Mendoza Mendoza 8,000 San Luis San Luis de la Punta 2,000 Buenos Ayres Buenos Ayres 70,000 Chaco (Indian Territory) The city of Buenos Ayres is situated on the southern bank of the Rio de la Plata, about 200 miles above its mouth ; and, being raised about twenty feet above the river, and presenting the spires of numerous churches and convents, it makes rather a fine appearance. The houses are new, built of brick, white-washed, and with flat roofs, over which may be taken a pleasant and even extensive walk. The windows are protected by iron bars, causing each mansion to resemble a lock-up house, and to form, indeed, a complete fortification. The town, on the whole, is rather handsome, especially the houses surrounding the great square. The envi- rons on the land side have a very monotonous aspect, being animated neither by varied vegetation, nor by the chirping of birds. The population is estimated at 70,000. Large vessels cannot approach nearer than two or three leagues. The province of Entre Rios, which is situated higher up, between the Uruguay and the Plata, derives from these two rivers some of the most extensive and rich alluvial plains on the surface of the globe. Even the swampy and inundated tracts might easily be converted into the most luxuriant meadows. The herb of Paraguay is found there, and it is supposed might be produced of equally good quality as in the upper quarter, where only it has been hitherto reared in perfec- tion. Corrientes, at the junction of the Paraguay and the Parana, must, from this happy situation, rise in time much above its present moderate importance. Lower down, on the opposite side of the river, is Santa Fe, distant eighty leagues from Buenos Ayres, which has risen to considerable importance by becoming a depdt for the goods on the river. This city, with its district, has formed itself at present into an independent State, strongly repelling all union with Buenos Ayres. The population of the town is not supposed to exceed 4000. Cordova, Tucuman, and Salla form together an extensive region, which has been often comprehended under the general appellation of Tucuman. They fill up part of the interval between the Paraguay and the Andes, which does not con- sist of dead level plains, like those in the south, but is crossed by branches of the Andes, and even by parallel chains. Between these mountains are found valleys and extended plains of great fertility, in which every species of tropical produce is raised ; but the prevailing stock consists in cattle, sheep, and, above all, mules, which, being indispensable for conveyance across the Andes, are reared with great care, and exported in great numbers to Peru. The people bear the reputation of being more industrious, religious, and orderly, than those of the other provinces. Of the capitals of these provinces, Cordova is a neat small town, well paved, with a handsome cathedral and market-place. It possesses the only university in the interior provinces, which has recently produced some men of considerable eminence. It carries on a manufacture of cloth, and a trade in mules. Salta is a considerable place of 400 houses, situated in the beautiful valley of Lerma, on the high road from Buenos Ayres to Potosi. It is the capital of a bishopric. About 60,000 mules are reared in the neighbourhood. An annual fair is held in February and March for mules and horses. The people, and those of other towns in the district, have a hard struggle to maintain with the tribes of unsubdued Indians, who hem them in on all sides. Tucuman and Santiago del Estero are also old towns, situated in fertile plains, and deriving some importance from their position on the main route from Buenos Ayres to Peru. Near Tucuman are some silver- mines, not yet worked. Mendoza, a province separated from that of Cordova, consists of some beautiful, fine, and well-watered valleys, overshadowed by the amazing rocky and snowy steeps of the Andes. Its staples are the same as at Cordova, mules, wool, cloth. A considerable number of mines of gold, silver, and copper occur both here and 26* 20 306 PARAGUAY. farther north. The importance of Mendoza rests on its fertile soil, and on its being the sole route of communication between Buehos Ayres and Chili ; which, though rugged, leading over the loftiest steeps of the Andes, is a continual tho- roughfare. A product, almost unique in America, is that of wines and brandies, which are very tolerable, and are sent to the neighbouring provinces. Mendoza is a neat town, well built of brick, the streets refreshed by streams from the river, and the interior of the houses well fitted up. The population is generally reckoned from 8000 to 10,000. They are described as a quiet, respectable, well-disposed people, though they give themselves up without reserve to the indolence gene- rated by the climate, enjoying an unbroken siesta, or sleep, from twelve to five in the afternoon, when they rise to walk on the alameda, which commands a noble view of the plain and the Andes : but this is the usual train of life in these interior cities. San Luis, to the east of Mendoza, on a frequented though circuitous route from Buenos Ayres, is a much smaller place, consisting of a number of mud huts, scattered over a large space of ground, but in a situation highly picturesque, being enclosed by a lofty branch of the chain of Cordova. San Juan de la Frontera, to the north of Mendoza, has another but much less frequented route through the Andes. The town is said to contain 10,000 or 12,000 inhabitants. PARAGUAY. Paraguay is situated between the Parana and Paraguay rivers. It is a fine district, and is probably 500 miles in length, and upwards of 200 in breadth. The soil is extremely fertile and abounds in various vegetable productions, and vast herds of cattle and horses feed on its rich plains. The population is supposed to be about 150,000, of whom 7000 or 8000 are probably whites, and the remainder mestizos and Indians. This State declared its independence in the year 1813, and established a go- vernment of several members. In about three years this government was dis- solved, when it fell under the absolute dominion of a person of the name of Fran- cia. Having taken a degree at the university of Cordova, he applied his know- ledge in astronomy and physics, and the instruments connected with those sci- ences, to impress this simple race with a belief in his supernatural powers. By these and other arts, he rules them with absolute sway, under the title of dictator of Paraguay; and his first maxim is to allow no person or thing to come into or go out of Paraguay. Of things, the most valuable is the herb of Paraguay, which the neighbouring countries, were they permitted, would take off to the value of 1,000,000 dollars ; and of persons, Bonpland, the illustrious botanist and companion of Humboldt, was long detained in prison, though recently liberated. The cabildo, or municipal government of the several towns, is chosen annually by the people. Indians, as well as Creoles and mixed breeds, are eligible to these offices. There is, as is stated, perfect security for person and property : each dis- trict is made responsible for every theft committed within it All the inhabitants are instructed in the first rudiments of education. Public schools are established everywhere. Every person is required to be employed at some business or other, and mendicity is unknown ; and notwithstanding the strictness and rigour of the dictator's government, the people appear to be contented and happy. Assumpcion, the metropolis, is a considerable place, with about 7000 inhabitants, but with little regularity and beauty. It is built on a bank above the river, which is daily wash- ing away part' of the ground beneath it. This place, with the smaller ones of Curuguatty and Villa Rica, were the staples for the herb of Paraguay. Neem- buco, Concepcion, and Itapua, are also small towns, with a population of 2000 or 3000 each. The herb or tea which derives its name from this region, is an evergreen plant or small tree, of the holly family. It grows wild in the woods fringing the rivers and streams which fall into the Uruguay, Parana and Paraguay. The use of this herb is general in Buenos Ayres, and also in Chili, Peru, and some parts of Co- URUGUAY. 307 lombia. The custom has been derived from the aborigines, and it is so univer- sally diffused that it is estimated 50,000 quintals were used in 1800. To drink this infusion, it is customary to put a pinch of the leaves into a cup, or small cala- bash called mate (from which the name of the plant, yerva mate, is derived), full of hot water, and to drink off the fluid immediately, by imbibing it through a little tube or sucker, pierced with holes in the lower part, which only allow the passage of the water, and keep back the leaves that float on the surface. Sugar and a little lemon-peel are added to improve the flavour. It is usually sipped the first thing in the morning, and several times in the course of the day. It was the common practice to pass the same tube from mouth to mouth, but the custom is becoming unfashionable. Novices frequently burn their lips or scald the tongue. The Jesuits planted many of these trees round their towns and missions, for the convenience of preparing and exporting the leaf; but their example has not been followed, and the plants are mostly found in wild and secluded spots. The South Americans ascribe many virtues to this plant, which is certainly aperient and diuretic. Like opium, it produces some singular and contrary effects, giving sleep to the restless and spirit to the torpid. Those who have once con- tracted the habit of taking it, do not find it easy to leave it off, or even to use it in moderation ; though when taken to excess, it brings on similar disorders to those produced by the immoderate use of strong liquors. URUGUAY. (ORIENTAL REPUBLIC OF THE URUGUAY.) The tract of country which lies on the north of the Rio de la Plata and on the east of the Uruguay, formerly made a part of the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, under the name of the Banda Oriental. After having been nine years in the hands of the ferocious Artigas, it was incorporated with Brazil under the title of Provincia Cisplatina. The contending claims of the two powers led to a war, which was finally terminated by the establishment of an independent republic, which has an area of about 92,000 square miles, and a population of 75,000. Its official title is Oriental Republic of the Uruguay. Monte Video, capital of the republic, stands on the northern bank of the Plata, and has the best harbour upon that river, which, however, is exposed to the vio- lence of the pamperos or south-west winds. It has suffered severely in passing through the hands of Artigas, and subsequently by the war between Buenos Ayres and Brazil : its population is reduced to about 15,000. It is well built, with wide and regular streets, and the country around is agreeably diversified with hills and valleys ; the gardens abound with the finest fruits and flowers, but there is other- wise little cultivation ; though extensive cattle farms are found in the interior. It exports large quantities of hides. Below Monte Video is the small port of Mal- donado, and above, the still smaller one of Colonia del Sacramento, with a good harbour. » In this State, high up on the Uruguay river, are the remains of some of the settlements and towns called the Missions, which have been the theme of elo- quence, of history, and of song. The Jesuits, on these beautiful and remote plains, collected into a body nearly 300,000 of the natives, from the ignorant wan- dering and fierce tribes in the vicinity, who lived under their sway, and paid them a homage bordering almost on adoration. They trained them to arts and manu- factures, and brought them to relish the blessings of security and order ; they carried on agriculture with great success, and were also armed and disciplined after the European method. The Jesuits appear to have been enlightened and humane, and certainly there is no parallel to their success, in modern history. They were, however, suspected by the court of Spain of aiming at the establish- ment of an independent empire in South America, subject to them alone ; and on the suppression of their order in Europe, the Jesuits were driven from their set- 308 PATAGONIA. tlements, which, being taken under the control of the crown until the suppression of Spanish authority in America, have fallen into decay, and do not at this time probably contain the one-tenth of the population of their days of prosperity. The principal town in the missions is San Francisco Borja, containing about 1300 inhabitants. PATAGONIA. Patagonia is in full possession of an Indian race, all mounted on horseback, and in habits and aspect closely resembling those who desolate the Pampas. They have drawn the attention of navigators by their size, and have been actually re- ported as a nation of giants. Although this be exaggerated, yet they really seem tall above the ordinary standard. They are described to be excellent horsemen. The eastern coast of this country is bordered by a prolongation of the Andes ; but these mountains, after passing Chili, display no longer that stupendous elevation which has marked so great a portion of their range. Their general height from thence to the Straits of Magellan is not supposed to exceed 3000 feet, though some peaks rise to 5000 or 6000, when they wear a most dreary aspect, being covered with perpetual ice and snow. This part of the chain has no valley inter- posed between it and the ocean, whose stormy waves beat direct against its cliffs, and have furrowed the land into almost numberless islands, separated from the continent and each other by long and narrow channels. One continental penin- sula alone, that of Tres Montes, is said to be directly exposed to the waves of the Pacific. Of these isles, the largest and most northerly, called Wellington, is separated from the continent by the channel of Mesier, 160 miles long, whose shores are bordered by low hills, covered with thick woods. To the southward is the archipelago of Madre de Dios, which is little known ; but the channel of Concepcion, which divides it from the continent, is broad and safe, and the oppo- site coast deeply indented with bays, the principal of which, called St. Andrew, is terminated by abrupt mountains, covered by enormous glaciers. Next follows Hanover Island, of considerable extent, and to the south of it a numerous group, called the Archipelago of Queen Adelaide, which borders on the Straits of Ma- gellan. Opposite to the southern boundary of the American coast extends the dreary region of Tierra del Fuego. Narrow straits, crowded with islets, divide it into three parts, of which the most eastern, and much the largest, is called King Charles's Land ; the middle and smallest, Clarence Island ; the most westerly, Desolation Land. Between Tierra del Fuego and the continent extends the long narrow winding strait, celebrated under the name of Magellan, who by it first penetrated into the Pacific Ocean. Staten Land, another large island, lies off the eastern coast, from which it is separated by the Straits of Le Maire. One of the islands belonging to the group, called Hermit, is remarkable as containing Cape Horn, the most southerly point of America, and facing directly the wastes of the ocean which surround the Ant- arctic pole. It was once deemed " infamous for tempests;" but it is now found that in a proper season Cape Horn may be passed with little danger, and it is commonly preferred to the winding and difficult channel of Magellan. The Petcherais, who inhabit Tierra del Fuego, are a handful of miserable savages, in the lowest state of wretchedness, and subsisting solely by the shell-fish which they pick up on the shore. The Spaniards made an early attempt to form a set- tlement at Port Famine, in the middle of the strait, but could not maintain it. The eastern coast of Patagonia is comparatively low. That immediately north of the straits is covered in a great measure with extensive plains, or pampas; but from Port St. Julian, in about 49° S. lat. to 44°, it is broken by considerable emi- nences. Ports Desire, St. Julian, and Santa Cruz, afford tolerable anchorage, often resorted to by vessels destined for the southern fishery. The natives are seldom seen on this coast, which they are said to frequent only for the purpose of interring their dead. EUROPE. 309 EUROPE. Europe, though it is the least of those four great divisions of the globe to which geographers have applied the name of Continents, holds the second place in the scale of population, and the first in importance, whether considered with respect to itself or to its influence on the rest of the world. It is the theatre most crowded with civil and political events. Here the moral perceptions, the mental powers, and the physical energies of man have made the greatest progress ; here arts, sciences, and civilization have flourished and continue to flourish in unri- valled splendour ; and here too, man enjoys all that superiority which these attain- ments so pre-eminently confer. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the west by the Atlantic. On the south, the grand inlet of the Mediterranean divides it from Africa; and the Grecian Archipelago, with its subordinate branch, connected only by a narrow strait, the Euxine or Black Sea, divides it from a great part of Asia. Between the north-east extremity of the Black Sea and the Northern Ocean is an interval of 1400 or 1500 miles of land, forming the eastern boundary of Europe, of which about one-half is occupied by the Ural Mountains, and the remainder by the Rivers Volga and Don. The length of Europe, from the western part of Por- tugal to the Ural Mountains on the east, is about 3300 miles; and from the North Cape in Norway, to the southern extremity of Greece, 2350 ; the area being about 3,250,000 square miles. The form of this continent is singularly broken and varied. While Asia, Af- rica, and the two Americas are each formed into a vast inland expanse, Europe is split into many distinct portions; peninsulas, large islands, and kingdoms, with extended and winding coasts. This form arises chiefly out of its inland seas, which penetrate farther, and are more deeply embayed, than those of any other part of the globe. Numerous gulfs, scarcely secondary in magnitude and import- ance, branch out from them. The mountains and the plains of Europe do not dis- play those immense unbroken groups, or those level and almost endless expanses, which give so vast and monotonous a character to the interior regions of Asia and Africa. In general they are separated into smaller portions, and are happily and commodiously interchanged. They have kept Europe divided into a number of separate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, this relative position has been one great cause of that intellectual activity, and those vigorous exertions in all liberal and ingenious arts, which have raised this part of the globe to so high a pre-eminence. The immense inland plains of Russia and Poland, presenting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained, even after the civilization and improvement of all western Europe, sunk in the deepest barbarism, from which they are but slowly and with difficulty emerging. The surface of Europe is very diversified. Its mountains do not reach that stu- pendous height, nor stretch in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia and Ame- rica. The principal ranges of mountains are the Scandinavian, or Dofrafield range, the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, and Carpathians. The Scandinavian chain commences at the southern extremity of Norway, and, running north, soon becomes the boundary between Sweden and Norway. The Pyrenees run in an easterly direction, from the southern part of the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, form- ing the boundary between France and Spain. The Alps, the loftiest mountains in Europe, form the western and northern boundary of Italy, separating it from France, Switzerland, and Germany. The Apennines commence near the Medi- terranean, at the south-western extremity, and pursuing an easterly course around the Gulf of Genoa, turn to the south-east, and pass in that direction to the south- ern extremity of Italy. The Carpathian Mountains encircle Hungary on three j sides, separating it from Germany on the north-west, from Galicia on the north- i east, and from Turkey on the south-east. At the southern extremity of the range i a branch proceeds in a southerly direction across the Danube, to the centre of Eu-| 310 EUROPE. ropean Turkey, connecting the Carpathian Mountains with the great eastern branch of the Alps. The rivers of Europe are numerous, but none of them of the very first magni- tude. The two largest flow through the great eastern plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate in distant and interior seas, where they contribute little to commer- cial intercourse. The Volga, which alone can come into rivalry with the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic limit, where it spreads into the great interior expanse of the Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs the other rivers from the great plain of Russia and Poland: it receives also the noble stream of the Danube, which belongs indeed to the central region of Europe; but directing its lower course through barbarous and uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant receptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to the distribution of wealth and plenty through the continent. Western Europe is too much broken into sepa- rate portions, and crossed by high mountain barriers, to allow to its rivers a length of more than from 400 to 600 miles; and they have usually their entire course through a single country. The Rhine, the Elbe, and the Oder, through Ger- many ; the Loire, the Rhone, and the Garonne, through France ; the Po through Italy ; the E'oro, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadalquivir, through Spain. The northern rivers of Britain and Scandinavia, restricted to a still narrower field, seldom accomplish as long a course as 200 miles. Yet, though Europe does not present the grand rivers which distinguish the greater continents, it is on the whole happily and commodiously watered. Almost every part of it enjoys the benefit of river communication; it is neither overspread by the dreary swamps of America, nor the sandy deserts which render uninhabitable so great a part of Asia and Africa. The lakes of Europe are chiefly enclosed within its mountain regions ; but few of them are of sufficient magnitude to rank as inland seas. Those alone entitled to this distinction are the Ladoga and the Onega, which, forming a sort of conti- nuation of the Gulf of Finland, and being situated in bleak and frozen regions, minister very little to internal intercourse. The others worthy of notice are the Wenner and Wetter, in Sweden; the Swiss lakes of Geneva, Lucerne, and Con- stance ; the Platten Sea or Lake, in Austria ; and the Lakes Garda, Como, and Maggiore, in Italy, &c. The European soil is distinguished for productions, perhaps surpassing in value those of any other quarter of the globe. Grain, of one description or another, is raised over its whole surface, excepting in the extreme north ; wines throughout all its southern kingdoms. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe is equally pre-eminent. Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not so as to be independent of supplies from India and China. Except the horse and the camel,, for which Asia is renowned, Europe con- tains the most valuable as well as the most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern forests produce the finest timber in the world, with the exception of the teak; and its iron, the most useful of metals, surpasses that of the rest of the world : but all the more precious substances, gold, silver, pearls, jewels, exist in an extent so limited as scarcely to be deserving of mention. The cultivation of the soil is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countries except in the south-east of Asia, while in science, skill, and the extent of capital employed upon it, European agriculture is quite unrivalled. In manufacturing industry, this quarter of the world has, within these few cen- turies, far surpassed all the others of the globe. The looms and workshops of Europe yield a variety of fine and beautiful fabrics, in such profusion, and at so cheap a rate, as to place them within the reach of almost every class of society. This continent thus clothes all the young nations which have issued from her own bosom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth. Commerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world, can hardly be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels are found in the utmost bounds of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of either pole, and crowding the ports of the Austral continent. There is not now a place on earth, however remote, affording any scope for the employment of commercial capital, EUROPE. 311 which is not immediately filled with the same promptitude as if it had been situ- ated in the heart of Europe. The ships of that continent exceed those of all the others in number and dimensions, and are more skilfully navigated, witli the exception of those States in the Western Continent colonized by Europeans, which are beginning to form a commercial and maritime system, modelled on that of' Europe — a system which may one day surpass the original. The population of Europe, though more closely calculated than that of any other quarter of the globe, is yet far from being ascertained on data that are very pre- cise. In regard to some districts, and in particular to the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever been instituted ; in others, the computation is founded only on the number of houses: and in some, ten, twenty, and thirty years have elapsed since any was attempted. At the present time the population of the whole continent, and including all the different races, is estimated by the best writers at from 220 to 225 millions. The people of Europe are divided chiefly into three great races, which differ, to a very marked degree, in language, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic, the Teutonic, and the Romish. The Sclavonic races consist of about twenty-five millions of Russians, ten mil- lions of Poles, Lithuanians, and Letts, and about ten millions of other races, known under the names of Windes, Tcheches, Slawakes, Croats, Morlachians, which have found their way into eastern Germany, Hungary, and Illyria. The Sclavo- nians are, in general, less improved than other Europeans. They have only some infant forms of art and literature, which have sprung up from the imitation of those of the eastern nations. They are generally subjected to absolute monarchy, and the greater part of them are only beginning to emerge from the degrading condition of personal slavery. The majority profess that form of Christianity acknowledged by the Greek Church. Yet they are a brave, enterprising, and persevering race, and have established themselves as a ruling and conquering people, in reference to all the contiguous nations of Europe and Asia. The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe; besides Germany, their original seat, they have filled the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, and may be reckoned at fifty millions. The Teu- tonic people generally are brave, hardy, intelligent, and industrious, though some- what blunt and unpolished. All the sciences, and even the arts, both useful and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection ; yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and elegancies which embellish the courts and fashionable circles of the south, by whom they are treated as semi- barbarians. A great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants; and that profession is in a great measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other parts of the world who have sprung from them. The race called Romish comprehends the modern inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain. They were the most early civilized of the modern nations, and have carried the polish of manners and the cultivation of the elegant arts to a higher pitch than any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they scarcely equal the Teutonic nations. The Roman Catholic is the ruling religion in all these countries, and has among them her metropolitan seat Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous ex- tremities of Europe. They are the Gael, the Cymri, and the Basques, the de- scendants of the Celts, the most ancient possessors of western Europe. The first inhabit the chief part of Ireland, and the Highlands of Scotland ; the Cymri, partly Wales and Britany, and partly in the south of France, and in the north of Spain, where they are called Basques. Having retained their habits and lan- guage during many ages, they cherish a fond attachment to antiquity, and trace their pedigree higher than any of the Romish or Teutonic nobles. They are pro- bably about 6,830,000 in number, of which the Gael amount to 4,500,000, the Cymri 1,700,000, and the Basques 630,000. The Greeks, once the most illustrious of all the races, are spread through dif- ferent parts of the Turkish empire. Depressed by two thousand years of slavery, they had ceased to display those high attributes which excited the admiration of 312 EUROPE. mankind ; but the prospects of independence which they have now opened for themselves, afford some hope that they may regain their place in the scale of na- tions. Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jews, that singularly inte- resting people, are spread through all Europe, but especially the eastern countries, Poland, Russia, and Turkey : they are supposed rather to exceed 2,000,000. The Gypsies, in an humbler sphere, are widely scattered over all Europe, to the sup- posed number of 340,000; a wild, roaming, demi-savage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather than Egyptian. Other races are, the Turks, the ruling people in the Ottoman Empire ; and the Magyars, who prevail in Hungary and Transylvania, are originally Asiatic. The former amount to 3,250,000, and the latter to 3,000,000. The religion of Europe is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handful of pagans, the Samoyeds, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Europe is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found their way into it consist of Asiatic races, Turks, and Tartars. The Jews, however generally diffused, have nowhere a national church, nor are they, in any nation, fully identified with the body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into three great churches, the Greek, the Latin or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant. In learning, art, science, and all the pursuits which develope the intellectual nature of man, and which refine and enlarge his ideas, Europe has far surpassed every other continent. The empires of southern and eastern Asia alone have an ancient traditional literature of which the remains are yet preserved. But, be- sides being now in a very decayed state, it never included any authentic history, sound philosophy, or accurate knowledge of nature. An extravagant, though sometimes poetical mythology, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a poetry replete with bold and hyperbolical images, compose almost its entire circle. The science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring the most distant regions of the universe, and in improving the condition of man in society. The invention of printing, and the consequent general diffusion of information among all classes, are features especially European. By their means, in its en- lightened countries, the essential branches of knowledge are now placed within the reach of the humblest classes, and even the highest branches are not abso- lutely beyond their attainment. The endowments for the support of learning are very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting themselves to modern improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the instruction of the lower orders have produced a general diffusion of intel- ligence, to which, in the other parts of the world, if we except America, there is nothing analogous. The political state of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere, with rare exceptions, a turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single despot. It is in this continent only that the secret has been found out of establishing a regular and constitutional liberty, in which the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness are equally avoided. Even the absolute monarchies are generally administered with mildness, according to legal forms, and afford to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and property. The European states have also established among themselves a balance of power, which sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular state, and has repeat- edly rescued the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjuga- tion. The military and naval power has been raised to a height to which none of the other continents can offer any effectual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or colonized by Europe; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through distance and exten- sive deserts that many great countries still preserve their independence. The native animals of Europe are neither so varied nor so extensive as those of more genial climes. The most useful and important of the domestic kinds have been introduced from other regions. The horse, originally from Arabia, or, according to the opinion of some, from Tartary, has, by cultivation and education, EUROPE. 313 been brought to a high state of perfection, and has become varied in kind to a great extent The ass, the dog, and cat, are also believed to have an eastern origin. The ox, one of the most valuable of nature's gifts to man, appears to have existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a distinct species or a mere variety, is still uncertain. At what time this breed was exter- minated from the open forests is not known; but it was confined to parks, in Bri- tain, long before the Reformation. The race is still preserved in the north of England ; they are wholly white, with a black muzzle. The domestic quadrupeds which administer so much to the necessities and hap- piness of the human race, have been (particularly in Britain) improved to a high degree of excellence. Of the ox, the sheep, and the hog, there is a vast variety, each of which possesses some valuable peculiarity which renders them so essen- tial in supplying food and clothing to man ; while the horse, the ass, and the dog, assist him in his labours or protect his property. In the extreme northern parts of the continent, the great white bear, more truly perhaps than any other antarctic animal, inhabits the shores of Nova Zem- bla, and is occasionally seen in other parts : it is the same as the American quad- ruped of the same name. The only two European species of this animal, the brown and black bear, are natives of the northern and temperate regions of the continent. The latter differs from that of America in many essential points. The wolf and the fox, under different varieties or species, appear generally dis- tributed over Europe. To these may be added the lynx and wild cat, as the only rapacious or carnivorous animals of this region. The lynx, once common in cen- tral Europe, is now only known in some parts of Spain, the Apennines, and in the northern kingdoms. The wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over many parts of the continent. The elk and the reindeer are well- known inhabitants of the northern countries; the latter giving place to the fal- low deer, the stag, and the roebuck, in the midland parts of Europe. In the lofty mountains and inaccessible precipices of the Alps and Pyrenees, the chamois, ysard, and ibex, still live in partial security, notwithstanding the daring intre- pidity of their hunters. The musmon is another European quadruped, deserving notice as being generally considered the origin of all our domestic breeds of sheep. It appears still to exist in a state of nature among the high mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, and although extirpated upon the continent, is well ascer- tained to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain, and other parts. The beaver is found in the vicinity of the Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, and other of the larger European rivers. It is, however, uncertain whether it is precisely the same as the American species. The domesticated birds of Europe, brought from other quarters, are the turkey from America, the peacock and common fowl from India, the Guinea-fowl from Africa, and the pheasant from Asia Minor. The rapacious birds, as in other re- gions, are the smallest in number, but the most formidable in strength. The gulden, imperial, white-tailed, and sea eagle, are found in various parts of the continent. On the highest summits of the Alps, and in the vast forests which clothe their sides, in Switzerland and the Tyrol, are found all the four spe- cies of the European vulture, of which the most formidable is the bearded vul- ture, or vulture of the Alps. It is the largest of European birds, being four feet and a half in length, and its strength is so great that it attacks sheep, lambs, and young stags, and even the chamois and ibex fall victims to its rapacity. It builds in such inaccessible precipices that its nest is very rarely seen. The vulture is seldom found north of the Alps, and is most numerous in the southern parts of the continent. The goshawk is found in Scotland, France and Germany. Great use was for- merly made of this bird in falconry. Many species of owls are known in Europe ; also, crows of various kinds, many species of woodpecker, snipe, grosbeaks, bull- finches, buntings, finches, linnets, larks, &c. The grouse, of various species, are highly prized as game : the largest, the cock of the rock, the size of a small tur- key, is found in Russia : the cock of the wood is a fine bird, found in the high 27 2P 314 EUROPE. mountainous parts of the continent; it lives mostly in pine forests and upon the leaves of fir trees. The partridge and quail are universally diffused. The bustard, among the largest of European birds, being four feet long, is com- mon in Spain, Italy, and Turkey. These birds run with great rapidity, but fly with difficulty, and are oftentimes hunted by greyhounds. The beautiful wall- creeper, with its bright rosy wings, the golden oriole, the bee-eater, the hoopoo, and the roller, four of the most beautiful European birds, are common in Italy and Sicily ; also the pelican, the spoonbill, and the flamingo, although from their large size attracting the attention of sportsmen, they are never seen in any considerable numbers. The seas and coasts of Europe abound to a great extent with fish and marine animals of various kinds, some of which exist in vast numbers, and are of great importance in a national point of view, affording food and employment to thou- sands of fishermen: this is especially the case with the codfish on the shores of Norway, and the herring of the British coast. The countless myriads of these fish which visit annually the northern shores of Europe, migrate from the Arctic Seas, and appear off the Shetland Isles in April and May. These are only the forerunners of the grand division, which comes in June ; and their appearance is marked by certain signs, and by the numbers of birds which follow to prey upon them ; but when the main body approaches, its breadth and depth are such as to alter the very appearance of the ocean. It is divided into distinct columns of five or six miles in length and three or four in breadth, and they drive the water before them with a kind of rippling. Sometimes they sink for ten or fifteen minutes, then rise to gain the surface, and in bright weather reflect a variety of splendid colours, like a field of the most precious gems. The pilchards, on the southern coast of England, and the sardines, on that of France, are fished to a great extent. The herring is but little if at all known on the Mediterranean ; a substitute, however, exists in the enormous shoals of ancho- vies found on the coasts of Spain, France, and Italy, which employ annually in their capture and preparation a great number of persons, and the exportation of this highly-flavoured little fish to all parts of the world creates an important branch of permanent commerce. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily and Malta, but is not pursued to the same extent as formerly. Europe, considered in regard to its languages, comprehends the whole globe, through those immense colonies which have been founded by the nations of this continent in every other quarter of the world. The present European languages may be referred to four stocks: the Teutonic, the Celtic, Sclavonic, and Latin. The English, German, Dutch, Danish, Norwe- gian, Swedish, and Iceland, are of Teutonic origin. The Celtic languages are the Gaelic, spoken in the Highlands of Scotland, the Hebrides, a great part of Ireland, and the Isle of Man ; the Cymbric, used in Wales ; the Low Breton, in France ; and the Basque, in the south of France and the north of Spain. The languages of Russia, Poland, Bohemia, and parts of Hungary, are all dia- lects of the Sclavonic ; and those derived from the Latin are the Spanish, Portu- guese, Italian, and French. The Spanish or Castilian language is spoken nearly all over Spain, and the present and former colonies of that nation in various parts of the world. It is very rich, harmonious, and dignified. The written and polished language is almost identical with the Portuguese, and differs but little from the Italian. The latter is esteemed the most melodious language of Europe, and is superior to any other in music and poetry. There are several dialects of it; in Tuscany it is found in its greatest purity ; in Naples it is said to be the most corrupted ; and Venice has its own peculiar dialect, which excels in softness. The French language is considered the most refined of any in Europe. It is well adapted for conversation, and has gradually become the language of courts and of diplomacy, and is understood by the superior classes of society in greater extent than any other. Its dialects are numerous. The English, spoken in England, parts of Scotland and Ireland, the British EUROPE. 315 Colonies in different quarters of the world, and in the United States, is the sim- j plest and most monosyllabic of all the European idioms, and it is also that of ! which the pronunciation differs most from the orthography. The English lan- guage occupies one of the most eminent places in European literature. It is com- parable with any of them in elegance, and perhaps surpasses them all in energy. It is no less graceful than concise ; its poetry is at once manly and harmonious ; and, like that of the cognate languages of the north, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature, and pourtray the stronger passions. As the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, it is without a rival. It is spoken by the greatest number of the inhabitants of the New World. The German language prevails in all the German States, in Switzerland, and also in some parts of Russia. It has a number of dialects, and is divided into the Upper German, spoken in the southern parts, the Low German of the northern parts, and the High German, which is exclusively the language of books and refined society, and is common to all well-educated Germans ; it ranks also as the learned language of the north and great part of the east of Europe. The literature of Germany, in regard to the quality of its productions, rivals those of France and England, and surpasses them in abundance. The German is the richest in words of any language in Europe; and this distinction it owes to the great number of its monosyllabic roots, with which it creates new terms ad infinitum, by derivation and composition. The Dutch, a derivative from the German, is the language of Holland and of her colonies. The Ruski, or Modern Russian, is spoken throughout the Russian Empire, also in parts of Galicia and Hungary. It is only since the reign of the Czar Peter that it has become the language of literature and of business : it has several dia- lects. The Polish is the national language of the nobility and the commonalty in all the countries formerly belonging to Poland ; its dialects are various. The preference given to Latin in the latter country long retarded this language. Europe is politically divided into 61 independent States, of which some of the smaller are only nominally so, being in a measure more or less controlled by the larger and more powerful States in their vicinity. Of these, three are styled em- pires — Austria, Russia, and Turkey ; sixteen kingdoms — Bavaria, Belgium, Den- mark, France, Great Britain and Ireland, Greece, Hanover, Holland, Naples, Por- tugal, Prussia, Sardinia, Saxony, Spain, Sweden and Norway, and Wirtemberg; seven grand duchies — Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Meck- lenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Saxe Weimar, and Tuscany; one electorate — Hesse Cassel ; eleven duchies — Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Cothen, Anhalt-Dessau, Bruns- wick, Lucca, Modena, Nassau, Parma, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen; one landgraviate — Hesse-Homburg ; eleven principalities — Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Segmaringen, Lichten- stein, Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Schauenburg, Monaco, Reuss-Greitz, Reuss-Schleitz, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, andWaldeck; one lord- ship — Kniphausen; one ecclesiastical state — The States of the Church ; and nine republics — Switzerland, Ionian Islands, San Marino, Andorra, Cracow, and the Free Cities of Germany, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, and Frankfort SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Sweden and Norway, now united into one kingdom, form an extensive region, stretching from the utmost verge of the temperate zone far into the frozen range of the arctic circle. Along the north and west stretch the wide shores of the Frozen Ocean, so far as yet known. The south-west point of the kingdom borders on the North Sea or German Ocean. The Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia en- close it on the south and east; so that it forms an immense peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but 60 closely barred by mountains and frozen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaccessible, 316 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. except by sea. Sweden, Norway and Denmark, were anciently known as Scan- dinavia. This kingdom is of vast extent. Its length, from the extreme point of Scania to the North Cape, is 1550 miles. Its breadth, from the extreme points of the provinces of Stockholm on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 350 miles. Its area is 297,000 square miles. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered as belonging to the civilized world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subsistence from the rein-deer, can hardly be included within the pale of civilized society. Even the southern districts have a rugged and re- pulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. Forests of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides of the moun- tains; the ground for five months in the year is buried under snow; cultivation appears only in scattered patches. The mountains consist chiefly of the dark and lofty chain of the Dofrafields, which were for ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but are now included within the united kingdom. In pass- ing through Norway, some of its pinnacles exceed 8000 feet. Chains of second- ary elevation run through Lapland ; but, in approaching the North Cape, thfey again rise as high as before, and face the polar seas with cliffs of prodigious magnitude. The rivers are numerous, Sweden being a country profusely watered ; but, as they rise in the Dofrafields, and traverse the divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any material length of course. The largest is the Dahl, which falls into the sea at Geffle, after a course of 260 miles. The most important as to navigation are those which form the outlet to the lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching from the lake Wener to Gottenburg. The Glommen and the Dramme are pretty considerable rivers, running from north to south, and down which con- siderable quantities of timber are floated. Lapland pours a number of large streams into the head of the Gulf of Bothnia ; but these are usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agriculture or naviga- tion. Lakes form the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Wener bears almost the character of an inland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trolhatta, by enabling its coasts to communicate by the Gotha with Gottenburg, has given them almost the full advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not nearly so great an extent of ground. Maler, or Malar, is a narrow, winding loch, or, more strictly, a bay, running sixty miles into the interior from Stockholm, to whose environs its variegated and rocky shores give a beautiful wildness. Small lakes, enclosed between hills, are of very frequent occurrence, both in Norway and Sweden. The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preserved some portion of that representative system which had been formed in remote ages. Towards the close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus III. to little more than a form. Bernadotte, however, an elected monarch, without any national claim, was obliged to court the favour of the nation, and, with that view, to re-establish the rights of its ancient diet. This is now rather an antique and cumbrous form of legislature, consisting of four orders ; the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers ; who sit and vote in separate houses. In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices civil and military, and he is obliged to convoke the diet only once in five years, and to continue its sittings three months ; but he may make the meet- ings more frequent, and longer. He has also a negative upon the laws proposed by the diet. In regard to the diet itself, the division rests with a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is struck by the committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of the diet. The storthing of Norway, restored by Bernadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges than the Swedish diet. It assembles more frequently, and at its own SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 317 i time, without any control from the king; and it allows to him only a suspensive veto, obliging him to accept any project which has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights having been once granted, Bernadotte, who found | them pressing somewhat hard against his prerogative, has in vain made several attempts to abridge them. A highly republican spirit prevails in Norway, and the influence, and almost existence, of the nobles, is nearly annihilated. The revenue of Sweden is about $5,000,000 a year. The military force is at present 138,559: regular army, 45,191 ; landwehr or militia, 93,368. Of the for- mer, Sweden furnishes 33,201, Norway 11,990 ; and of the latter, the share of Sweden is 83,368, and of Norway 10,000. The troops are raised by conscription : they only receive pay when on actual service ; remaining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands assigned to them for their support. Sweden seems doomed by nature to be rather a poor country. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured climates. Scandinavia is described generally as one un- broken boundless forest, varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated land. The commerce of this region is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want of manufactures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifted these bleak territories with an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human life. These articles are indeed also the produce of North America; and Britain, which affords the best market, has lately sought to favour her colonies in that quarter by a great inequality of duties. Yet the supe- rior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always secures it a sale. The entire exports of Norway are estimated at 1,800,000J. sterling. The commerce of Sweden is not on so great a scale ; her surplus timber being not nearly so ample, though her iron is superior. The total number of merchant vessels belonging to the different towns of Sweden, in 1829, was 1178, of the burthen of 61,000 tons. The manufactures of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines as such. Even in the common trades, the work is lazily and ill per- formed, and charged at a high rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously. It is a curious fact that some great merchants in the western towns send their linen to be washed in London. The mines of silver, copper, lead, and especially iron, constitute the chief wealth of this country. In 1738, a gold mine was discovered near Adelfors ; but it is now nearly exhausted. The principal copper mines are in Dalecarlia : that of Falun has been worked upwards of 1000 years, and produces from 1,425,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of copper annually. Sweden likewise produces porphyry, rock-crystal, cobalt, alum, and antimony. Agricultural industry till of late had not done much to remedy natural defi- ciencies ; it is now, however, pursued with considerable assiduity, especially in the southern parts of the country. The peasants are very industrious, but owing lo the deficiency of the soil, they are hardly able to raise enough grain for home consumption. Hence Sweden has sometimes to import grain to a considerable extent ; and such is occasionally the scarcity, that the peasantry often grind the bark or even wood of the fir-tree into flour. Sweden comprises three general divisions, Gothland, Sweden Proper, and Norr- land, which are subdivided into 26 lans or governments. The population of Sweden, according to the latest census, made in 1825, amounted to 2,771,252 ; of whom 20,499 were nobles ; 13,977 ecclesiastics ; 66,604 citizens: the remainder belonged to the class of peasants. The population of Norway, by a census made in November, 1826, amounted to 1,050,132. The religion of Sweden is Lutheran, and the church Episcopal. This country, which stood long at the head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal for the reformed religion. The Catholics, till of late, scarcely enjoyed common toleration, and they are still excluded from the diet and the higher offices of state. The Swedish people are commended for their regularity in performing the duties of their religion : at the same time it has been remarked that the dissenters from the established church are much fewer than in other Pro- 27* 318 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. testant countries ; which has been imputed to the want of any peculiar fervour upon the subject The wide extent and thin population of the northern districts must often render the provision for their religious instruction very defective. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly exult is, the general spread of education among the lower orders, which seems to equal or exceed that which Scotland enjoys ; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed their generally meritorious conduct. Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Sweden : it has even been stated that there is not in the whole country a single bookseller's shop. This was in a great measure owing to the jealousy of Den- mark, which would not allow an university to be founded even in Christiania, which used to be a rival to that of Copenhagen. In science, the Swedes, considering their poverty and remote situation, have made a very distinguished figure. They have cultivated, with peculiar ardour, botany and mineralogy, which some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences ; and have also made large contributions to chemistry, which is still ably pursued by several distinguished individuals. Although history and poetry have been cultivated, they have not produced any writers whose repu- tation has spread throughout Europe. From the limited sphere of the Swedish language, few works of science are written in it, or translated into it : hence the literati of Sweden are particularly well versed in the languages of foreign nations. Stockholm, the capital, is situated at the junction of the lake Malar with an inlet of the Baltic. It stands upon seven small rocky islands, besides two penin- sulas, and is built upon piles. A variety of picturesque views are formed by num- berless rocks of granite rising boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted with houses, or adorned with gardens and trees. The central island is bordered by a stately row of buildings, the residences of the prin- cipal merchants. It contains the palace and other public buildings ; but the houses being high, and the streets narrow, its appearance is somewhat gloomy. The number of bridges, great and small, in this capital, is thirteen. At a short distance from the royal palace stands a fine statue of Gustavus III., in bronze, on a pedestal of polished porphyry. The city has likewise an arsenal, a mint, an exchange, and two theatres. The harbour is deep and capacious, though difficult of access : a thousand sail of shipping may lie here in safety, and the largest ves- sels can approach close to the quay. Population, 78,000. Upsal, formerly the great metropolis of Sweden, is situated on an extensive plain, upon the small stream Fyrisa. In the centre is a square, from which the streets extend in straight lines. This town is famous for its beautiful cathedral, and for its university, which has a library of 40,000 volumes. Population 5000. Gottenburg, near the mouth of the River Gota, has a circumference of three miles. It is regularly fortified, and in the upper part of the town, the streets rise above each other like an amphitheatre. Some of the modern buildings are of brick, but the greater number are of wood, and painted red. The harbour is spa- cious, and the commerce considerable. Population, 25,000. Carlscrona, on the bay of the Baltic, is the station of the Swedish navy, and has a harbour which is defended at its entrance by two strong forts. It is cele- brated for its docks, which are separated from the town by a high wall, and one of which is cut out of the solid rock. Population, 13,800. Orebro, at the western extremity of Lake Hielmar, carries on an extensive trade. Population, 3400. Malmoe, exactly opposite Copenhagen, contains about 5000 inhabitants, and possesses some commerce, though the harbour is bad. Falun, 160 miles north of Stockholm, is remarkable for its extensive copper- mines. The number of forges here give the town a very sombre appearance. Population, 4700. Gene, on the Gulf of Bothnia, is a well-built town, with some foreign com- merce. Population, 10,000. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 319 NORWAY. This extensive portion of the Swedish monarchy, recently, by compulsion, but in all likelihood permanently, united, comprises a very long line of maritime ter- ritory, facing the boundless expanse of the Northern Ocean. Throughout its whole length, in an oblique line parallel to the sea, runs the chain of the Dofra- fields, presenting many bold and lofty summits covered with perpetual snow. Sneehatta, the highest, is 8100 feet. Norway produces some corn, not nearly suf- ficient, however, tor its own consumption ; but exports large quantities of timber and fish, receiving, in return, those commodities of which it stands most in need. The southern provinces of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include a considerably greater proportion of level territory than the others. They have the great range of mountains to the north and west, and are not separated from Sweden by these natural barriers. Through these provinces flow southward into the bay of Christiania the Drammen and the Glommen, the two greatest rivers of the North, and bring with them an immense quantity of timber, which is cut into deals, and exported to all parts of Europe. The export of iron is also considerable. Christiania, the capital of all this district, with a population of 20,581, now ranks as the capital of the whole kingdom. It is situated at the head of a long interior bay or fiord. Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in deals ; and those cut in its saw-mills are considered, by the traders in this article, to be supe- rior to all others. Some of its merchants, particularly the Ankers, maintain the state of princes, and are considered equal in wealth and liberal views to any in Europe. Christiania comes more into contact than Bergen with the more advanced countries of Europe, and has adopted almost exclusively the improvements which distinguish them. The buildings are regular, and mostly of stone; so that in the course of 200 years, while other Scandinavian towns have been repeatedly reduced to ashes, Christiania has suffered only slight injury from fire. Since the union with Sweden, it has received an university, with two professors, who have mode- rate incomes, chiefly derived from grain. There are other havens of some importance in this southern tract of Norway. On the western coast of Christiania fiord, the two, Bragenses and Stromsoe, unite in forming what is called Dram or Drammen, at the mouth of the important river of that name. Tongsberg, at the bottom of the same side, is a town of some ancient celebrity, but now a good deal decayed. On the eastern side of the same bay is Moss, watered by a stream, turning twenty saw-mills, by which an immense quantity of deals is prepared for exportation. Frederickshall, an ancient and still important frontier town, is beautifully situated in an interior bay, winding among mountains. Near it is the strong fortress of Frederickstadt, the scene of the death of Charles XII. Christiansund, the most southern province of Norway, has a capital of the same name, the fourth town in the kingdom, which, from its situation on the Skagerrack, is visited for shelter and supplies by numerous vessels entering and leaving the Baltic. The province of Bergen is rude, rocky, and mountainous, consisting of the slope downwards to the sea of the highest part of the Dofrafield range. The town of Bergen, at the head of a long interior bay, was formerly accounted the capital, and contains a population of 18,511. Its commerce, which is considerable, is founded on the exportation, less of the produce of the country behind it, than of the northern fishery at Daflbden, of which the produce is brought to Bergen by numerous barks. Its merchants had long the monopoly of this, and still retain much the greatest share. They are chiefly Dutch, and send a vessel weekly to Amsterdam for a supply of the garden stuff's which their own soil does not yield. Bergen is built of large masses of wooden houses, amid rocks, and has suffered severely by fire. The province of Drontheim, to the north of Bergen and Christiania, is separated from them by vast mountains. The capital, of the same name, is situated on the shore of a winding fiord, but subsists less by foreign commerce than by the internal , communication between numerous valleys and districts to which it forms a central 320 LAPLAND. 1 point of union. The society of Drontheim is always held forth as representing I under the happiest light the genuine Norwegian character ; its warmth of kind- ness, and generous hospitality. Drontheim is built wholly of wood, and has in consequence been seven times burnt to the ground ; yet the houses are handsome, and ornamented with taste. There is a spacious palace, built wholly of this ma- terial, and partaking its imperfection. Drontheim also contains the remains of a cathedra], the largest edifice in the country, and to which the whole population of the north came once in pilgrimage. The environs are very beautiful, with numerous country-seats, and lofty snow-crowned hills in the distance. Christian- sund is also a small sea-port and fishing town in this province. Beyond Drontheim commences Norrland, a district rather than a province, the name being vaguely applied to all the north of Scandinavia. Relatively to Nor- way, it is marked by an increasing severity of cold ; the mountains, even at 3000 feet high, being capped with perpetual snow, and vast table-plains or fields remaining covered with it during the whole summer. Grain, even of the coarsest descriptions, ripens only in a few favoured spots. The climate, however, is some- what milder than that of regions under the same latitude on the Baltic ; so that, while the ports of Stockholm and Carlscrona are shut during several months of the year, those of Norrland remain continually open. Yet in this dreary region occurs a busy scene of human action and existence. The numerous islands, and the deep bays between them and the land, afford spots to which shoals of fish come from the farthest depths of the North Sea to deposit their spawn. During the whole year, the herring affords a regular occupation to the Norrland boatmen; but from February to April, the shoals, migrating from thence, and from all the surrounding coasts, crowd to the Loffoden Islands, the central seat of the northern fishery. These islands form a chain parallel to the land, and separated by narrow channels, through which the tides of the Northern Ocean rush with tremendous rapidity. Malstrom, the famous whirlpool, when the tide is high, produces the effect of a mighty cataract. Waves are seen struggling against waves, towering aloft, or wheeling about in whirlpools ; the dashing and roaring of which are heard many miles out at sea. The produce of the fishery is conveyed to Bergen in a great number of little barks. LAPLAND. The vast region of Lapland is divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line drawn across it nearly coinciding with the Polar Circle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region. It consists partly of great chains of mountains, some of which are 4000 feet high, while other extensive tracts are level. Through these roll the Tornea, the Lulea, the Pitea, and other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to pass along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race, short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin, and eyes rendered weak by exposure to the smoke and snow. They are divided into the mountain or wandering Laplanders, and those who dwell in what are called villages. The swift-footed rein-deer, which they train to draw them in sledges over the snow, form their riches; the flesh and milk of these animals compose their food, and the skins their furniture. The tents of the Laplanders are formed by six beams of wood meeting nearly at top, covered with cloth, a flap of which, left between two of the beams, serves as the door. The floor is spread with rein-deer skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too low to stand in, except in one place. A stone frame is made in the middle, for the fire ; and there is a hole at the top, to which the 6moke must find its way ; but this it does not effect till it has thickly impreg- nated the whole tent with its fumes; which, however, are valued as affording a protection in winter against the cold, and in summer against the swarms of mus- quitoes with which, during a period of short and extreme heat, the air is infested. The herds of rein-deer vary from 300 to upwards of 1000, according to the wealth DENMARK. 321 of the possessor. All day they wander over the hills, and in the evening are driven, not without some occasional resistance, into an enclosed park, where they are milked. Each yields only about a tea-cupful of milk ; but rich, aromatic, and of exquisite taste. , The Laplanders travel from place to place, and move their families, usually at the beginning of winter and summer, in sledges made in the form of a boat, and drawn by rein-deer. These animals are tamed and trained with considerable dif- ficulty ; and they are sometimes restive : but, in general, they bound over hill and dale with surprising celerity. Their dress is carefully contrived for the purposes of warmth. The under part, or shirt, is composed of sheep's skin with the wool inwards ; while the exterior coat is formed by the skin of the rein-deer, or some other animal, having the fur outwards. They add fur gloves, and a woollen pointed red cap. The entire population of Lapland is about 60,000, or one inhabitant to every three square miles. Even this scanty measure is supported on the sea-coasts only by a supply of fish. The Laplanders are a harmless race, among whom great crimes are unknown. Only one murder has been heard of in twenty years ; and the absence of theft is proved by that of bars, bolts, and other safeguards. They do not show that open hospitality and warmth of heart, for which rude nations are so often celebrated. They are cold, shy, mistrustful, and difficult to treat with, at least unless tobacco or brandy be brought in as a mediator. They were formerly very superstitious; and the Lapland witches were famous for their empire over the winds, which they enclosed in bags, and sold to the mariner. The magic drum and the enchanted chain are still in occasional use. Yet the Laplanders have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to its duties, coming often from vast distances to attend divine service, though the instructions are conveyed to them only through the broken medium of an interpreter. The sea-coast of Lapland presents a continuation of the same bold and rocky features which distinguish that of Norway. Here, too, the fishery is carried on with activity. It is chiefly in the hands of a Finnish race, called Quans, who have pushed across Lapland, and exert an activity unknown to the natives of that region. The Russians from Archangel, also, not only bring their meal to exchange for fish, but carry on the fishery themselves to a great extent. In July and Au- gust they cover with their small three-masted vessels all the fiords and sounds, and throw out lines that are sometimes two miles long, and contain 600 or 700 hooks; so that their vessels are filled with the utmost rapidity. The government has founded, on the large island of Qualoe, the town of Ham- merfest, one of the most northern in Europe, and destined as a rival to Archangel ; but the settlement has never taken root in this ungenial climate, and continues also, with one exception, to be the smallest that exists. Mageroe, the most north- erly of the islands, consists of steep rocks rising perpendicularly from the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. The northern point of this island is formed by the North Cape, the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the depths of the Polar Ocean. It consists of an enormous mass of naked rock, parted by the action of the waves into pyramidal cliffs, down which large fragments are conti- nually falling. DENMARK. Denmark is an ancient kingdom, formerly very powerful, holding sway over the surrounding regions, and, as a predatory state, the terror of all Europe. Though now reduced to the secondary rank, her situation renders her of importance in the general system of the Continent. Denmark consists mainly of an extensive peninsula, shooting out from the north- west corner of Germany, and a cluster of large islands to the east of the penin- sula. The Danish peninsula is termed Jutland ; and the islands in the interior of the Baltic, interposed between Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Funen, 2Q 322 DENMARK. Odensee, and a few others of smaller note. Denmark holds also the German ter- ritories of Sleswick and Holstein; with Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coast of Greenland, remnants of her form* 1 ! maritime power ; together with the colonies in the East and West Indies, and on the coast of Guinea. The extent of the dominions of a country broken into such a variety of detached portions can with difficulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jut- land, Sleswick, and Holstein ; bounded on the west and north by the North Sea or German Ocean ; on the east by the sounds which form the entrance of the Baltic ; on the south by the Elbe. This tract lies generally between 53-2° and 57^° north latitude, and 8° and 11° east longitude. We have thus a length of 280 miles, and a breadth of 120. The total area of the Danish monarchy, is about 22,000 square miles. The surface of Denmark is nearly flat; forming, with the exception of Hol- land, the lowest part of the great plain of Northern Germany. The islands, in particular, in many places, rise only a few feet above the level of the sea. The soil, as in the rest of this plain, is frequently sandy and marshy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which prevail in the interior of Scandinavia. Hence it affords good pasturage, and its soil is favourable to the growth of the coarser species of grain. The insular and peninsular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast which certainly does not fall short of 600 miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles dis- tant from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least consequence, except the Eyder in Holstein, and the canal of Kiel, by,, which an important communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, with which they in many places communicate, and may hence be regarded as The agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages, both of climate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and damp ; and the land consists, in a great measure, of sand and marsh. Every part of the kingdom, however, is capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility occur. Such are the islands of Zealand, Laaland, and Falster ; and, in a still greater degree, the sea-coast of Sleswick and Holstein ; for the interior is arid and sandy. The industry of the peasant in Den- mark Proper suffers many severe checks ; he has been but recently emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to many feudal usages. Life-leases, under which the payment is made in produce or personal services, are common. The proprietors are generally embarrassed, and unable to expend much on the improvement of their lands. The farmers of Holstein and Sleswick carry on the process of cultivation with great skill and activity. The chill moisture of the climate is less favourable to the cultivation of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats ; all of which afford a large surplus for exportation. The rearing of cattle is also an extensive branch of industry, though too little attention has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick, on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name of " Hamburg beef," Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large export trade. The manufactures of Denmark are extremely rude, and Consist chiefly in work- ing up the flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use. A great proportion also of the wool is exported. Government have employed great efforts to raise Denmark to the rank of a manufacturing country ; and some fabrics in the different kinds of cloth, brandy, sugar-refining, &c, have, under its patron- age, been set on foot in the large towns ; but these are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition. The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry ; though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe. The basis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. The grain exported from Jutland, consisting of wheat, rye, barley, and oats, DENMARK. 323 amounted, in 1825, to the value of 2,300,000 dollars; and of butter and cheese, 1,300,000 dollars. Holstein and Sleswick, called the duchies, export largely of the same productions as Jutland. Denmark, from its situation between the northern and middle states, has a con- siderable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former; and has also a good deal of ship-building. Both the whale and herring-fisheries are like- wise carried on to some extent. The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most com- plete feudal independence, to the extent of rendering the monarchy itself elective, underwent a complete change in 1660, when Frederick III. had the address to obtain an act by which the crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested with supreme and absolute power. The sway of the Danish princes has, how- ever, been exceedingly mild and popular, and their despotic power exerted in a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious ; and it is only within a very few years that the body of the people were emancipated from a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke, nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national tribunal. The revenue amounts to from about $7,500,000 to $8,000,000. There is a nominal debt of $75,000,000 ; but the interest paid upon it is small. The military and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater coun- try than what remains of Denmark. The army is kept up to nearly 40,000 regu- lar troops and 60,000 militia. The navy consists of six ships of the line, six frigates, and four corvettes, besides smaller vessels. The sailors being all regis- tered, no difficulty is ever found in manning the navy. The population of the Danish dominions in 1832, amounted to 2,049,000 ; of which 1,540,000 were in its ancient domain of the islands Jutland and Sleswick ; 404,000 in Holstein ; 40,000 in Lauenburg ; 51,000 in Iceland ; 14,000 in Green- land and the Faroe Islands. The Danish colonies are Christiansburg, and other stations in Guinea, with 44,000 inhabitants ; Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John, in the West Indies, with 47,000 ; and Tranquebar and factories on the Co- romandel coast, in the East Indies, with 60,000. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged in trade, have a great share of the patient, thrifty, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The peasantry, poor and oppressed, are beginning, however, to raise their heads; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the style of opulent proprietors in other European countries. The Lutheran religion was early and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed, of granting toleration to no other; but the liberal principles now diffused throughout Europe, have made their way fully into that country. Sci- ence was at one era somewhat brilliantly patronised in Denmark. The observa- tory at Orienbaum was the theatre of many of the most important modern obser- vations ; and Tycho Brahe ranks as one of the fathers of modern astronomy. Late writers have introduced a school of poetry and dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modern German. The government has bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of its people, and has even passed a law, requiring every child, of a certain age v to be sent to school. The schools, on the plan of mutual instruction, amounted, in 1829, to 250Q, and more were in progress; there are also 3000 grammar and parish schools. Copenhagen, called by the Danes Kiobenhavn, the metropolis of the Danish dominions, is situated on a low and marshy promontory, on the east side of the island of Zealand. The circumference of the city is about five miles ; it is regu- larly fortified towards the land and sea. Many of the streets are intersected by canals, by which a considerable commerce is carried on. The town is divided into three parts, viz. the Old and the New town, and Christianshaven. There is a beautiful octagon, called Frederic's Place, in the New town, ornamented with an equestrian statue of Frederic V. in bronze. The arsenal, the exchange, and 324 ICELAND. the barracks, are handsome edifices. The Royal Observatory is about 130 feet high, and 70 in diameter, and has a spiral road of brick, affording an easy ascent for carriages to the top. This city owes much of its present regularity and beauty to the disastrous fires, by which it has so often been partially destroyed. The buildings are mostly of brick covered with stucco, or of Norwegian marble. There are here three extensive libraries, namely, the Royal Library, containing above 260,000 volumes, the University Library, containing 100,000 volumes, and the Clasen Library. Population 115,000. Sleswick, the capital of the duchy of that name, is a long, irregular, but hand- some town with 15,000 inhabitants. Its cathedral with numerous monuments of ancient dukes is viewed with interest. Altona, on the Elbe, about two miles from Hamburg, is a place of considerable trade and extensive manufactures. Popula- tion 25,000. Elsinore, or Elsineur, at the narrowest part of the Sound, is protected by the strong fortress of Cronenberg, and contains about 80 commercial houses. It has an excellent roadstead, in which ships anchor almost close to the town. At this place the tolls of the Sound are collected. Population 7,000. Kiel, the capital of Holstein, is a fortified town on a bay of the Baltic, and is the seat of a celebrated University. Population 7,500. Gluckstadt, near the mouth of the Elbe, has some trade, and is engaged in the Greenland fishery. Population 5,200. Flensberg, in the duchy of Sleswick, has a good harbour and is a place of some commerce. Population 15,000. ICELAND. Iceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, unimportant in a political view, but interesting from its physical and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of the arctic circle, and at the farthest verge of the civi- lized world. It is a large island, 220 miles in length, and 210 in breadth ; con- taining about 40,000 square miles. Iceland belongs, by its situation, to the polar world ; and the mountain chains, from 3000 to 6000 feet high, with which it is everywhere intersected, give it a still more severe and stern character. Barley is the only grain that can be raised, and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few other imported vegetables, may be produced, but by no means in perfection. The dependence of the inhabitants is chiefly upon the abundance of fish which the surrounding seas afford ; so that the interior, comprising about half of the island, is a desert of the most dreary character. The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking. Hecla, with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated; but its eruptions, of which six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended. The Geysers form a phenomenon strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the most extraordinary that are produced on any part of the globe. They consist of fountains, which throw up boiling water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into the air. The eruptions are not continuous, but announce their ap- proach by a sound like that of subterraneous thunder; immediately after which, a column of water, accompanied with prodigious volumes of steam, bursts forth, and rushes up to the height of fifty, sixty, ninety, or even a hundred and fifty feet. The water soon ceases ; but the spray and vapour continue to play in the air for several hours, and, when illuminated by the sun, produce the most brilliant rainbows. The largest stones, when thrown into the orifice, are instantly pro- pelled to an amazing height, and remaining often for some minutes within the influence of the steam, rise and fall in singular alternation. Stones thrown into the fountain have the remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the eruption, and causing it to burst from a state of tranquillity. The basin of the Great Geyser is of an oval form, with diameters of fifty-eight and sixty-four feet. Every spot around the Geysers is covered with variegated and beautiful petrifactions. HOLLAND. 325 Leaves, grass, rushes, are converted into white stone, preserving entire every fibre. The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boiling mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller beholds with the utmost astonishment. These consist chiefly of clay, covered with a crust, which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, from almost every part of which, gas and steam are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where caldrons of black boiling mud, largely impregnated with this mineral substance, are throwing up, at short intervals, their eruptions. That on the Krabla had a diameter equal to that of the Great Geyser, and rose to the height of thirty feet. The situation of the spectator here is rtot only awful, but even dangerous; standing, on a support which feebly sustains him, over an abyss where fire and brimstone are in dreadful and incessant action. The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was discovered about the year 840, by Nadod, a Danish pirate. After its settle- ment it became a little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism, which then overwhelmed the rest of Europe, took refuge in this remote and frozen clime. Iceland had its divines, its annalists, its poets, and was for some time the most enlightened country then perhaps existing in the world. Subjected first to Norway, in 1261, and afterwards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and energy of an independent republic. Yet the diffusion of know- ledge, even among the lowest class, which took place during its prosperous period, still exists in a degree not paralleled in the most enlightened of other nations. Men who seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision for their families, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a conversation with him in Latin, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night, is addressed with fluency and elegance in the same language. " The instruction of his children forms one of the stated occupations of the Icelander ; and while the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and desolation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp illumines the page from which he reads to his family the les- sons of knowledge, religion, and virtue." Population 51,000. The Faroe Islands compose a group in the Northern Ocean, between 61° 15' and 62° 20' N. lat., to the north of Shetland, which they resemble. The prin- cipal are Stromoe, Osteroe, Suderoe, and Sandoe, with the smaller islands of Nordoe, Wideroe, and Waagoe. Their only wealth is produced by the rearing of sheep, fishing, and catching the numerous birds which cluster round the rocks. With the surplus of these articles they supply their deficiency of grain. Thor- sharn, on Stromoe, is the only place that can be called a town. HOLLAND. The Netherlands, comprising now the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, form a maritime territory, which, situated almost in the centre between the north and south of Europe, and penetrated by the Rhine and its tributaries, possesses great natural advantages for industry and commerce. It has, accordingly, from a very early period of modern history, ranked as one of the most prosperous and flourishing parts of Europe. The union of the Batavian and Belgic Netherlands into one kingdom, though in fact only a renewal of that which subsisted at a former period, was suddenly terminated, in 1830, by a revolution of the Belgians, and the erection of their country into a separate monarchy, through the mediation of the five great powers of Europe ; and the crown, with their consent, has been conferred on prince Leopold, formerly of Saxe-Coburg. Holland is bounded north by the German Ocean, east by Germany, south by Belgium, and west by the German Ocean. It extends from 51° 10' to 53° 25' N. lat., and from 3° 23' to 7° 5' E. Ion., and contains 11,100 square miles. The RhineJ 28 326 . HOLLAND. enters this country from the south-east and flows through it to the sea by several mouths. The Maese or Meuse rises in France and flows north-easterly through Belgium into Holland, where it turns to the west and unites with the mouths of the Rhine. The Zuyder Zee is a large inland bay, in the northern part, 60 miles in extent. The Sea of Haarlem is a lake, 14 miles in length, to the west of the Zuyder Zee, and communicating with it by the river Y, which passes by Amsterdam. There are many small lakes in the northern province of Friesland. The whole country is low and flat, a great part of it being below the level of the sea. From the top of a steeple the eye ranges over a boundless plain, intersected by canals and dikes ; meadows of the freshest verdure, covered by numerous herds of cattle ; towns, villages and detached houses embosomed in trees : numerous vessels continually gliding along the canals, and by the anima- tion which they give to the landscape, compensating in some degree for its want of bold and picturesque beauty. Canals are as numerous in Holland as roads in other countries, and the country is so level that they scarcely need a lock in their construction. Some of them are as old as the 10th century. The most noted is the Great Dutch Canal, 50 miles in length from Amsterdam to the Helder. It is 124^ feet wide at the sur- face, and 20 feet 9 inches deep. It has two tide-locks at the extremities, and two sluices with flood-gates in the intermediate space. The width is sufficient to allow two frigates to pass each other. This canal was begun in 1819 and com- pleted in 1825, at a cost of about 4,400,000 dollars. It is highly convenient for vessels sailing from Amsterdam, which otherwise are liable to be detained by head winds for several weeks. The Dutch, by unwearied industry, have conquered every disadvantage of climate, soil and territory. The humidity and coldness of the air are unfavour- able to the culture of corn. Yet the labours of the patient inhabitants have con- verted their boggy and sterile territory into one of the richest spots in Europe. The corn raised i* insufficient for home consumption, but the products of the dairy are abundant. By draining the bogs and marshes, excellent meadows are created, upon which cattle fatten to a vast size ; the utmost attention is paid to their warmth and cleanliness, and even in the summer these animals appear in the meadows clothed with apparently ludicrous care to keep off* the flies. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, beans and buckwheat are raised for internal consumption : and madder, rape seed, hops, tobacco, clover seed, mustard seed, flax, hemp and poppy oil, for consumption and exportation. Much attention is paid to horticulture: the gardens and orchards are kept in very neat order. Hol- land became at an early period, a maritime power, and established settlements in various parts of the globe. The manufacturing industry of the country was one great support of its com- merce, and the linens, silks, and woollens of Holland were spread overall Europe. The political revolutions of modern times have been ruinous to the Dutch com- merce, yet the trade is still considerable. In 1828, there entered at the port of Amsterdam, 2132 vessels. Much of the commerce is carried on by native vessels. Vast floats of timber are received by the Rhine from Switzerland and Germany. The herring fishery has been prosecuted on a large scale by the Dutch, ever since the twelfth century. The art of curing and barrelling these fish was disco- vered here in 1316. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the business em- ployed 100,000 fishermen. At present there are in Holland and Belgium 20,000 families and 200 busses in occupation. The whale fishery is also prosecuted. The manufactures of Holland have been greatly checked by the rivalship of the English. Before the French revolution there was scarcely a manufacture which the Dutch did not carry on. In this they were assisted by the populousness of the country, the cheapness of labour, and above all, by the water carriage, which gives an immense facility to all the operations of trade and industry. The manu- factures are still considerable, and consist of woollen, linen, silk, cotton, tobacco, snuff, pipes, leather, &c. The distillation of gin is largely carried on. The value of the whole manufactures of Holland and Belgium some years ago was estimated HOLLAND. 3'27 at about 135 millions of dollars. The amount appertaining to each at present cannot be ascertained. The general method of travelling is by the trekschuyt, or drag-boat ; this is generally ten feet wide, and fifty long ; and in shape it resembles the common representations of Noah's ark. The expense doesnot exceed three cents a mile, and the rate of travelling is three miles an hour, which is so invariably the result, that distances, as in the East, are reckoned by hours, and not by miles. When frozen, the canals are travelled over by sleighs and skates. All persons skate ; the peasant girl skates to market, with her merchandise on her head, the senator to his assembly, and the clergyman to his church. The Dutch are distinguished for frugality, neatness, and industry. They are of a cold, phlegmatic temperament, but when roused to passion, have as much ardour as any people. They are grave and heavy in appearance, and even chil- dren are sedate. They are quiet and domestic, and enjoy much happiness in their family circles. Generally they prefer gain- to ambition, but in their dealings they are honest. The very soil they till is a monument of their perseverance and industry. They live in a country of meadows, reclaimed from the sea, and the acquisition is maintained only by continual vigilance, toil, and expense. The prevailing religion of Holland is Calvinism, while that of Belgium is almost exclusively Catholic ; a difference which contributed not a little to that rooted dis- like entertained by the inhabitants of the latter to those of the former. The Dutch have the honour of being the first people who established a system of unre- strained toleration. Even popery, notwithstanding the grounds which the nation had to dread and hate it, was allowed to be professed with the utmost freedom. The government allows salaries, of a greater or less amount, to the clergy of every persuasion, only making those of the Presbyterian ministers higher than the others. There are, besides, Lutherans, Baptists, Jews, Quakers, Armenians, and Catholics. By the budget of 1833, 1,330,000 florins were voted for the sup- port of the Protestant worship, and 400,000 for the Catholic. In naval affairs, Holland, no longer the maritime rival but the close ally of Britain, made only faint attempts to raise her navy from the low state to which it was reduced by the disasters of the revolutionary war. It consists, at present, of six ships of the line, sixteen large class and seven small class frigates, thirty corvettes and brigs, four steam vessels, and about eighty armed barks, of five guns, for the defence of the interior waters. The foreign possessions of Holland, after being entirely wrested from her during the war, were, with the exception of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, and Berbice, restored in 1814. In the East Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of Java, with settlements on Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo ; and some factories on the coast of Malabar and Coromandel. In Africa, she retains El Mina, and other factories on the Gold Coast Her West India colonies are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as commercial depots. Both the navy and the colonial possessions, in the separation of the two kingdoms, remain with Holland. The government is a constitutional monarchy, with some resemblance to the British, though the sovereign in Holland has greater powers, and the two houses of assembly are much less powerful than the British Commons and Peers. The constitution provides for the security of persons and property, for trials within three days, and for the liberty of the press, under the responsibility of him who writes, prints, or distributes. Religious toleration is secured, and judges cannot be removed by the executive. Holland is divided into 10 provinces: North Holland, South Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, Overyssel, Drenthe, Groningen, Friesland, and North Bra- bant By a census taken in 1833, the population of Holland was 2,745,000. The public debt of the Netherlands, in 1826, amounted to &32,334,500 florins, which was almost wholly contracted by the Dutch, principally during their pro- 328 HOLLAND. tracted and glorious struggle for independence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with France. It has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt, and Belgium the remaining seven ; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the interest. The expendi- ture of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive of 44,000,000 for extraordinaries on account of the war establishments. The former sum includes the interest on the whole debt, amounting to 21,621,484 florins. The Dutch school of painting baa been eminently successful in a low sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, being aided by brilliant effects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation. Amsterdam, the capital, one of the largest cities in Europe, stands on an arm of the Zuyder Zee called the River Y. The whole city is built upon piles driven into the ground. It is in the form of a crescent, and is intersected by the river Amstel, and a great number of canals, over which there are 280 bridges of stone and wood. Many of the canals are bordered with trees and afford pleasant views, but the stagnant water they contain infects the air. The houses and streets are kept remarkably clean. The Stadthouse is the most splendid building in Holland. It rests upon a foundation of 13,659 oaken piles, and is built of freestone, with a front of 282 feet ; its interior is adorned with marble, jasper, statues, paintings, and other costly ornaments, and the whole edifice was completed at a cost of 9,000,000 dollars. There is an elegant bridge over the Amstel, 600 feet in length. The churches are not remarkable for architectural beauty. Amsterdam is a place of great commerce, although much declined from its former wealth and activity. The harbour is spacious, but only light vessels can enter. It has many establish- ments for literature, the arts, and charitable purposes, with various manufactures. Population, 201,000. Haarlem, on the sea or lake of that name, has many fine buildings, and the largest church in Holland : the organ of this church is the largest in the world, having 8000 pipes, some of them 38 feet in length. This city has many manu- factures, and claims the invention of printing. The inhabitants show the house of Lawrence Koster the inventor. Population, 18,000. Utrecht, on the Rhine, is a place of great antiquity, and has a famous university. It exhibits the ruins of a fine cathedral. Population, 34,000. Rotterdam is the second commercial city in the kingdom, and by its deep canals will admit the largest vessels to the doors of its warehouses. The style of Dutch architecture is more particularly striking in this city. The houses are very high, with projecting stories ; they are built of very small bricks, and have large win- dows. This was the birth-place of Erasmus, and on the bank of one of the canals stands his statue in bronze. Population, 63,000. The Hague was once the seat of government, although possessing only the name of a village. The magnificence of its edifices and the general neatness of the city, strike the attention of every visiter. The streets are regular, and paved with light- coloured bricks. Population, 45,000. Leyden, four miles from the sea, stands on the ancient bed of the Rhine. It has the most magnificent church in Holland, and is famous for its university. Population, 29,000. Groningen has an university and many learned institutions. Population, 28,000. Nimeguen, on the Waal, has some manufactures and commerce. Population, 14,000. Middleburg, on the island of Walcheren, has a large Gothic town-house ornamented with sta- tues. Population, 13,200. Breda, at the junction of the Aa and the Werck, is one of the strongest towns in Holland. It has a magnificent cathedral. Population, 9000. Dort or Dordrecht, on an island formed by the Maese and the Biesbosch, has a great trade in wood brought down the Rhine. Population, 17,387. Saar- dam, on the river Zaan, is a considerable town of wooden houses, almost all of which are painted green : it has considerable commerce and ship-building: almost every house is surrounded by water, and forms with its garden a small island. BELGIUM. 329 BELGIUM. This kingdom ia bounded north by Holland, east by Germany, south-west by France, and north-west by the German Ocean. It extends from 49° 25' to 51° 30' N. lat, and from 2° 40' to 6° 30' E. Ion., and comprises 13,000 square miles. The chief rivers are the Scheldt and Maese. The Scheldt rises in France and flows north-easterly into this country, where it turns to the north and north-west, and, dividing into several channels, falls into the German Ocean. Though not remarkable for length, it is a wide and deep river. Antwerp and Ghent are situ- ated upon it. The Maese flows through the eastern part of the country from France to Holland. The climate much resembles that of the south of England. In the interior the air is salubrious : but upon the coast of Flanders, and about the mouths of the Scheldt, the air is moist and unhealthy. The soil, in general, is moderately fertile. In Luxemburg, Liege, and Narnur, are considerable stony and unproductive tracts. Flanders abounds with excellent corn lands. In the south and south-eastern parts are mines of iron, lead, copper, and coal, and quarries of marble. The whole country is level, but somewhat less so than Holland. In the south are some hills of moderate height. The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities, though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland. The agriculture of this country has been celebrated for more than 600 years: all travellers bestow high praise upon the skill and industry of the Flemish farm- ers. Corn, flax, barley, oats, madder, hops, and tobacco, are raised in great quan- tities. Pasturage is abundant ; the clover and turnips support great numbers of cattle, principally cows. Antwerp and Ostend enjoy some foreign trade ; and in 1828, there entered at these ports 1529 vessels. The separation of Belgium from Holland has so far dis- turbed the regular operation of commerce, that it is impossible at present to esti- mate its amount. Manufacturing industry is the branch in which the Belgic provinces formerly most excelled, and in which their decay has been most conspicuous. Three cen- turies ago, the linens and woollens of Ghent, Louvain, Brussels, and Mechlin, clothed the higher ranks in all the surrounding countries. Since that time, the fabrics of France and England have attained such an astonishing superiority, and are at once so cheap, and so well adapted to the taste of the age, that the Low Country manufacturers can with difficulty maintain their ground even in internal consumption. In cottons, especially, they are quite unable to withstand British competition. There are still, however, some fine linen fabrics, laces, lawns, cam- brics, in which the manufacturers of Mechlin, Brussels, &c. continue unrivalled, and which, though so much superseded by muslin and Nottingham lace, still enjoy a certain demand throughout Europe. The fine laces have been sold for seventy or eighty Napoleons a yard. The Flemish breweries are also very extensive. The manners and customs of the Belgians are somewhat similar to those of France ; though in character they bear more resemblance to the Dutch ; and have a national antipathy to them, and a preference for the French. They are no less industrious and persevering than the Dutch, and nearly as phlegmatic. The Flemish school of painting is distinguished by brilliant colouring, natural expression, and the wonderful effect of light and shade. It is, however, deficient in drawing. The great painters were Rubens, Teniers, and Vandyke. The religion is Catholic, though there are some Protestants, whose ministers are supported by the government. The universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Ghent and Louvain, were partially stripped of their ample endowments, first by Joseph II., and then by the French, who in their room sub- stituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on the same footing, under the name of colleges. Only the languages, and some general branches, are taught ; education for professional purposes being received in separate appropriate semina- ries. Ghent and Brussels have the highest reputation ; but the salary of professors 28* 2R 330 BELGIUM. in the former does not exceed 1500 francs. The three universities of Louvain, Liege, and Ghent, have lately been restored ; and in 1827, the first was attended by 678 students ; the second by 506 ; and the third by 404 students. Besides athenaeums, which are only colleges on a smaller scale, there are primary schools in every village, by which the benefits of education are communicated to the lowest ranks. In 1832, there were 5229 primary schools in Belgium, with 370,996 pupils, beside 1318 in the athenaeums, and 1788 in the universities. Annual expense, 743,200 francs. The government of Belgium is a constitutional monarchy, with a Senate and House of Representatives, the members of which are elected by the people, the first for eight and the latter for four years. In 1833, the expenditure of the State was 73,000,000 francs, nearly three-fifths being absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary to keep on the War Establishment. Belgium is divided into eight provinces, the population of which, in 1833, was 3,791,000. Brussels, the capital, stands on both sides of the little river Senne, flowing into the Scheldt. The city was formerly surrounded by a double wall and ditch, but these have been demolished, and the space formed into a handsome public walk planted with trees. The suburbs are extensive, and there are many neighbouring villages joined to the city by long avenues. The lower part of the town consists of narrow streets and old houses. The upper part is modern and regular, with fine buildings and a beautiful park laid out in large regular walks, shaded with trees and surrounded by palaces, public offices, and elegant private houses. Public fountains are interspersed throughout the city, and a large canal here leaves the river. The Hotel de Ville is remarkable for its exquisite gothic spire, which looks like the work of fairy hands. There are many fine squares and palaces, and in the Orange palace is a library of 100,000 volumes. Half a league from the city is the splendid palace of Schoonenburg. Brussels is distinguished for its manufactures of laces, carpets, tapestry, woollen and cotton cloths, silk stockings, gold and silver lace, and earthen ware. Population, 72,800. Ghent stands at the confluence of three rivers with the Scheldt, and is 7 miles in compass, but contains within its walls many fields and unoccupied grounds. Many of its canals are bordered with quays planted with rows of trees. The houses are large, but heavy and inelegant: here is a fine Gothic cathedral with marble floors and pillars. Ghent has manufactures of fine lace, cotton, linen, woollen, silk, paper, and leather: the trade of the city has lately increased. Po- pulation, 81,941. Antwerp, on the Scheldt, is a large and well-built city, surrounded by a wall with carriage roads on the top planted with rows of trees. The city is built in the form of a semicircle, and is intersected by canals. The cathedral is one of the finest gothic structures in the world, and its spire is unrivalled ; it is 441 feet high, and deserves, according to the saying of Charles V., to be kept in a glass case and shown only on holidays. The Stadthouse and Exchange are noble edi- fices. The harbour is deep and capacious. In the height of its prosperity, Ant- werp was one of the most flourishing and wealthy commercial cities in the world, and contained 200,000 inhabitants. Its commerce has greatly declined, and the city has a decayed and solitary appearance. The inhabitants carry on a few manufactures. Population, 65,000. Liege, on the Maese, is divided into three parts by the river, and has extensive suburbs. The houses are high, and many of the streets narrow, crooked and gloomy. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in manufactures and trade. Iron, coal, and alum, abound in the neighbourhood and afford occupation for all the industry of the place. The manufactures consist of iron, fire-arms, clock-work, nails, &c. Population, 45,300. Bruges, 8 miles from the sea, stands in a fertile plain. It communicates with the sea and the towns in the interior by canals. Here are a college, an academy for painting, sculpture, and architecture, several literary societies, a public library of 6000 volumes, and a botanical garden. The manufacture of lace employs 6000 people, and there are 200 schools in which children are taught this art. The BRITISH ISLANDS. 331 town house is a superb gothic edifice ; its steeple is furnished with chimes of bells which play a different tune every quarter of an hour. Population, 36,000. Louvain is a large and ancient town with a famous university. Population, 18,580. Namur, at the confluence of the Maese and Sambre, is a well-built town : the houses are constructed of a blue stone with red and black veins. It has a citadel on the summit of a precipitous rock. Population, 15,000. Luxem- burg is a strongly fortified city. Population, 9500. Spa is famous for its mineral springs situated in a valley surrounded by steep woody hills : it has also some manufactures. Gemappes and Waterloo are celebrated for the battles fought in their neighbourhood. Ostend, a few miles west of Bruges, is one of the most important seaports in the country: regular packets sail from this place to Eng- land several times a week, and it has a great trade in the exportation of grain and other products. Population, 10,600. BRITISH ISLANDS. The British Islands, placed nearly in the north-western angle of Europe, command peculiar advantages, no less for natural strength in war, than as an em- porium of commerce in peace. On the southern side, they are almost in contact with France, Holland, and Germany, for ages the most enlightened and flourish- ing countries of the civilized world ; on the east, a wide expanse of sea separates them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west, they overlook the At- lantic Ocean, whose limit, in another hemisphere, is the coast of America; while, in the extreme north, they may be almost said to face the unexplored expanse of the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the northern insular appendages, they may be con- sidered as situated between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the second degree of east, and the tenth of west longitude. They are geographically divided into two islands of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland. Britain, again, is divided into two unequal parts, — England, which, including Wales, contains 57,960 square miles ; and Scotland, which con- tains 29,600. The three, though united into one kingdom, respectively exhibit peculiarities which characterize them as distinct countries. The constitution of Great Britain is an hereditary monarchy, in which the power of the sovereign is controlled by the influence of the aristocracy in the house of peers, and by that of the democracy in the house of commons. The House of Lords is composed of all the nobility of England who have attained the age of 21 years and who labour under no disqualification; of 16 representative peers from Scotland, of 28 representative peers from Ireland ; and likewise of 30 spiritual lords, viz. the two English archbishops and twenty-four bishops, and one archbishop and three bishops of Ireland. The house of commons consists of 658 members, of which 471 English members are chosen by counties, universities, cities, and boroughs ; for Wales 29, and for Scotland 53, members, chosen by counties, cities, and boroughs ; and for Ireland there are 105 members, chosen by counties, universities, cities, and boroughs. The ministry is composed of the first lords of the treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, the three secretaries of foreign affairs, of the home department, and of war, the lord chancellor, the president of the council, the treasurer of the navy, the paymaster of the forces, the commissioners of the treasury, and other persons of high trust. The first lord of the treasury is mostly considered the premier, or prime minister. The navy is the force on which Great Britain mainly relies for maintaining her own independence and her ascendency over foreign nations. By it she has ac- quired, in a measure, the sovereignty of the seas, and the advantages which that sovereignty confers, of securing her possessions in the most distant quarters of the globe, of protecting her commerce and sustaining the exertions of her armies during war. During the most active period of the last maritime war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,000; and there were in commission 160 sail of the line, and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines. The estimate for 332 BRITISH ISLANDS. 1831 comprehended 22,000 seamen and 10,000 marines. The pay of these men amounts to 1,081,000?., their subsistence to 603,000?., which, with the cost of stores and allowance for wear and tear, raised the regular current expense to nearly 2,000,000?. The building and repair of vessels, the charges of the dock- yards, pay of officers connected with the navy, and a variety of other items, amounted to about an equal sum. These charges with 1,688,000?. in half-pay and pensions, made up the sum of 4,657,000?. as the entire navy estimate for the year 1831. The military force of the nation at the close of the French wars, amounted to 200,000 regular troops exclusive of about 100,000 embodied militia, a large amount of local militia and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the territories of the East India Company, and in its pay. After the peace of 1815 a rapid reduction of the military establishment was effected. The militia were disembodied, the regular force was reduced, and in 1835 the estimates were for 81,271 men, independent of 19,720 employed in India and paid out of the land revenue of that country. The charge for these forces was 5,784,808?., but about half of this sum consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions, and other charges consequent on the former immense estab- lishment. • The national debt of Great Britain is 779,565,783 pounds sterling. This enormous amount has been accumulated by borrowing money, and anticipating each year's revenue to pay the interest. The debt is of two kinds, funded and unfunded. The unfunded debt consists of deficiencies in the payments of go- vernment, for which no regular security has been given and which bear no inter- est; and of bills, or promissory notes, issued by the exchequer to defray occasional expenses. When debts of the kind have accumulated, and payment is demanded, I it becomes necessary to satisfy the demand, or provide for the regular payment of the interest. Recourse has been always had to the latter method ; and a particu- lar branch of the actual revenue is mortgaged for the interest of the debt. Money borrowed in this manner is said to be borrowed by funding. The public funds or stocks are nothing more than the public debts ; and to have a share in these stocks is to be a creditor of the nation. There are about 300,000 holders of public stock in Great Britain. A large amount of the current yearly expendi- ture is appropriated for the payment of the interest of the national debt : in 1834, the amount was 28,561,885?. Income, £53,456,571 ; expenditure, £53,441,955. The manufactures of Britain have astonished the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations. This distinction she has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness, as by the immensity of useful and valuable products calculated for the consumption of the great body of mankind ; and, above all, in the stupendous exertions made in contriving and constructing the machine- ry by which they are produced. About one-fourth of the whole industry of the country is absorbed by the cotton manufacture, the annual amount of which is estimated at 34,000,000?. Of this 18,000,000?. is paid in wages to 800,000 per- sons employed in its various branches ; and, allowing for those dependent on them, it affords subsistence to not less than 1,400,000 persons. The annual value of the woollen manufactures is about 20,000,000?., and the people employed number about 500,000. The value of silk goods made is reckoned at 10,000,000?. : of the different manufactures of metals, the entire produce is 17,000,000?., employ- ing 350,000 people. The imports into Great Britain, in 1825, amounted to £43,137,482, and the exports to £57,335,513. Two-thirds of the commerce of the kingdom is carried on at the port of London ; and one-sixth part of the shipping belongs to that city. In 1834, there belonged to the British empire, 25,055 vessels, of 2,716,000 tons, and navigated by 168,061 men. The entries and clearances for the coasting-trade, j in 1832, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, in the same year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprising 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered the ports of Great Britain. Coal, the most valuable of all the mineral substances from which Britain derives her prosperity, exists in vast quantities, in various parts of the island : the amount , ENGLAND. 333 annually raised and consumed is computed at between 15million and 16 million tons ; giving employment, in all its branches, to not less than 160,000 persons. Of salt the annual produce of the various kinds is about 15,000,000 bushels ; of which 10,000,000 are exported. The colonies of Great Britain are found in every quarter of the globe. The most important are the East India possessions, which comprise above a million square miles of territory, and a population of upwards of 120 millions. These are under the sway of a mercantile association in London, called the English East India Company, which has existed for above two centuries. Their revenue exceeds that of any European State, except France and England. In 1829, it was estimated at 22,692,711?. The taxable population under the control of the company amounts to 83,000,000. They have 40,000,000 additional inhabitants at their command, under dependent native princes, with an army of 200,000 men. The general concerns of the company are subjected to the authority of a board of control, who are appointed by the crown, and are under the direction of the mi- nistry : the local affairs, however, are directed by the company. The colonies belonging to Great Britain are — In Europe, Heligoland, Gibraltar, Malta, Gozzo and Comino, and the Ionian Islands ; — Asia, Hindoostan, Ceylon, Prince of Wales Island, Sincapore, and the provinces in Birmah ; — Africa, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Fernando Po, Cape of Good Hope, Isle of France, Seychelles, St. Helena, and Ascension; — Oceanica, Australia and Van Diemen's Land; — America, New Britain, Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, Newfoundland, Prince Edward's Island, the Bermudas, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Tortola and An- guilla, St. Christopher, Nevis, Montserrat, Barbuda, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, Barbadoes, St. Vincent, Grenada and the Grenadines, Tobago, Trinidad, Hondu- ras, or the Balise Territory, and the Colonies in Guiana. POPULATION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND COLONIES. Great Britain and Ireland 24,311,834 North American Colonies ' 1,300,000 West Indian and South American 800,000 African 300,000 Ceylon, Provinces in Birmah, Sincapore, &c 1,378,000 Oceanican 95,000 East India Company 123,000,000 Total 151,184,834 ENGLAND. England is bounded on the south by the English Channel ; on the east by the German Sea ; on the north by Scotland, from which it is separated by the Tweed, the Cheviot hills, and the Frith of Solway ; on the west by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel : the promontory of the Land's-End, forming its south-western extremity, faces the vast expanse of the Atlantic. The greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between the Lizard Point, 49° 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; four hundred miles in length. The points of extreme breadth are the Land's-End, in 5° 41' VV., and Lowestoffe, in 1° 44' E., forming a space of about 280 miles. The general aspect of this country is varied and delightful. In some parts, ver- dant plains extend as far as the eye can reach, watered by copious streams. In other parts, are pleasing diversities of gently rising hills and bending vales, fer- tile in grain, waving with wood, and interspersed with meadows. Some tracts abound with prospects of the more romantic kind ; embracing lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep narrow dells, and tumbling torrents. There are also, here and there, black moors and wide uncultivated heaths. The general aspect of Wales is bold, romantic and mountainous. It consists of ranges of lofty eminences and impending crags, intersected by numerous and deep ravines, with extensive val- leys, and affording endless views of wild mountain scenery. 334 ENGLAND. The rivers of England, though deficient in magnitude, are numerous, commo- dious, and valuable ; flowing through broad vales and wide-spreading plains. The largest is the Severn, which rises near Plinlimmon, a high mountain in Wales. Its embouchure forms a wide bay, called the Bristol Channel. It is 200 miles long, and is navigable in the latter part of its course. The tide rolls up this stream in waves three or four feet high. The Thames rises near the Severn in the lower part of its course, and flows east into the German Ocean. It is 160 miles long, and is navigable for ships to London, 60 miles. This is the most important river of Great Britain for naviga- tion. The Mersey is a small stream flowing south-west into the Irish Sea at Liv- erpool ; it is navigable 35 miles. The Dee rises in Wales, and flows north-west into the Irish Sea near the mouth of the Mersey. The Trent and Ouse»rise in the north, and by their junction form the Humber, which is a good navigable stream, and falls into the German Ocean. The lakes are numerous and occur principally in the north-west portions of the kingdom, of which Windermere, the largest, only twelve miles long and one broad, has been raised to distinction by the taste of the age for picturesque beauty, rather than as a geographical feature of the country. England has an atmosphere of fogs, rain, and perpetual change ; yet the climate is mild. The rigours of winter and the heats of summer are less felt than on the continent under the same parallel. The winds from the sea temper the extremes of heat and cold ; the changes, however, are sudden. Westerly and south- westerly winds are most prevalent, and also the most violent. Next are the north and north-east. The perpetual moisture of the air is sometimes unfavourable to the crops, but its general effect is to cover the whole island with the deepest ver- dure. The meadows and fields are usually green throughout the winter: and the transient snows that occasionally fall upon them are insufficient to deprive them of their brilliancy. Many kinds of kitchen vegetables, as cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, and celery, often remain uninjured in the gardens through the winter. Mines form one of the most copious sources of the wealth of England. The useful metals and minerals, those which afford the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the daily purposes of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously there than in any other country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal minerals are coal and salt. Notwithstanding the general inferiority of the soil, England is under such excellent cultivation, that the country may be considered as one great garden. Farming is, in many parts, conducted on a great scale, by men of intelligence, enterprise and capital ; and the science as well as practice of .agriculture is carried to a high degree of per- fection. In the northern counties, the farms are large, and are leased generally for 21 years. In the southern counties, the farms are smaller, and the tenants are often proprietors. The commerce of England,is unrivalled by that of any other nation in the world. Every quarter of the globe seems tributary to the enterprise and perseverance of this great commercial people. The manufactures of this kingdom far surpass in amount and variety, those of any other nation that has ever existed ; and form the most astonishing display of the fruits of human industry and skill. The vast numbers of people employed in them, give no adequate idea of their immense extent, as the great perfection to which labour-saving machinery is carried in England, enables one man to do the work of 150. The cotton manufacture would have required, half a century ago, 50,000,000 men, and the power now employed in it alone in Great Britain exceeds the manufacturing industry of all the rest of Europe collectively. The other most important branches are woollen, silk, linen, and hardware. In the northern counties of England are great manufactures of broadcloth and every other kind of woollen goods, principally in the West Riding of Yorkshire, at Leeds, Wakefield, Bradford, Halifax, and Huddersfield. Sheffield has manu- factures of cutlery and plated goods. Manchester, and its neighbourhood, is the great seat of the cotton manufacture. In the midland counties, are the Cheshire manufactures of silk, cotton, linen, ENGLAND. 335 iron, and china ware : the stocking manufactures of Nottingham ; the woollen of Leicestershire ; the pottery of Staffordshire ; the hardware of Birmingham ; the ribands of Coventry ; the carpeting of Kidderminster ; the broadcloth of Stroud. Flannels are the chief article of Welsh manufacture. In the southern counties are the cotton, paper, and blankets of Berkshire ; the flannels of Salisbury ; the cordage of Dorsetshire ; the woollens of every sort in Devonshire ; and every kind of goods, particularly the finer articles of upholstery, jewelry and every material of luxury, are manufactured in and about London. The interior navigation of England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of her prosperity. Till the middle of last century, the making of canals did not enter into the system of English economy. In 1755, was formed the San- key canal, a line of twelve miles, to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The example then set by the Duke of Bridgewater gave a general impulse to the nation. Since that time, upwards of 30,000,000?. sterling have been expended in this object. Twenty-one canals have been carried across the central chain of hills, by processes in which no cost has been spared ; all the resources of art and genius have been employed ; every obstacle, however formi- dable, which nature could present, has been vanquished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried across navigable rivers by bridges. When other means fail, the engineer has cut through the heart of rocks and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they are called, there are said to be forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty miles. The canals, in total length, amount to more than 2600 miles. The longest extends from Liverpool on the Mersey, to Leeds on the Humber, 130 miles, afford- ing a navigation for vessels of 30 tons completely across the island. It has 2 tunnels and many locks. The Grand Junction Canal extends from the neighbour- hood of London, to the Oxford Canal ; it is 93 miles long, and has 2 tunnels ; one above a mile, and the other nearly 2 miles in length; it has 101 locks. The Grand Trunk is a part of the same communication ; it is 93 miles in length, and has 4 tunnels, amounting to 2 miles. The Ashby de la Zouch Canal is 40 miles long, extending from the Coventry Canal to an iron railway. It has 2 tunnels, 2 aqueduct bridges, and an iron railway branching from it. The Bridgewater Canal is 40 miles in length, and extending from the Mersey, divides into 2 branches, one terminating at Manchester, and the other at Pennington. This, with the Trent and Mersey Canal, forms a communication of 70 miles ; 16 miles of this canal are under ground among the mountains. Our limits will not permit us to give further details. The canals of England communicate with one another, and afford immense facilities for internal commerce. Railways form another contrivance, by which the conveyance of goods is won- derfully facilitated, by causing the wheels to roll over a smooth surface of iron. Railways were at first used only on a small scale, chiefly in the coal-mines round Newcastle, for conveying the mineral from the interior to the surface, and thence to the place of shipping; and it is reckoned that round that city there is an extent of about three hundred miles of these railways. They were gradually employed on a greater scale, particularly in Wales, where the county of Glamorgan has one twenty-five miles long, and in all two hundred miles of railway. The railway between Manchester and Liverpool extends thirty-one miles, and is carried over sixty-three bridges, thirty of which pass over the turnpike road, and one over the river Irwell. The entire cost was about 820,000?. ; but the intercourse has been so extensive as to afford an ample remuneration. The Cromford and High Peak railway is carried over the high mountainous district of Derbyshire, connecting the two canals which bear these names. Its length is thirty-three miles, carried over fifty bridges, and rising to a level of 992 feet above the Cromford Canal. The entire expense has not exceeded 180,000?. The population of England in former times was imperfectly known, being calcu- lated only from very vague surveys and estimates. In 1377 the results of a poll- tax were given as 2,300,000 ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would give rise, that number was probably below the truth. In the reign of Eliza- 336 ENGLAND. beth, during the alarm of a menaced Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty careful survey was made, the result of which gave 4,500,000. At the time of the Revo- lution, the increase appeared to be about a million. From the commencement of the present century decennial enumerations have been made, of which the follow- ing are the results : — England Wales Army, Navy, &.C Total . . Population, Increase Population, Increase Population, Increase Population, 1801. percent. 1811. percent 1821. percent. 1831. 3,331,434 541,546 470,598 9,343,578 14| 13 9,551,888 611,788 640,500 10,804,176 11,261,437 717,438 319,300 12,298,175 13,098,338 805,236 277,017 14,180,591 The national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked fea- tures. Of these the most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all classes. The liberty for which the English have successfully contended, includes the right of thinking, saying, writing, and doing most things which opinion may dictate, and inclination prompt. The knowledge that the highest offices and dig- nities in the state are accessible to all, redoubles their activity, and encourages them to perseverance. It is but little more than a century since they began to be distinguished as a manufacturing and commercial people, yet they have already outstripped other European nations in mechanical ingenuity, in industry, and in mercantile enterprise. The enormous increase of capital, and the substitution of machinery for human labour in most of their manufactures, seem likely at no dis- tant period to produce a total change in the condition of British society. The English are the most provident people in the world. More than a million of individuals are members of friendly societies, and the deposits in savings banks exceed 13,000,000?. The great extension of life insurances affords another proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve to be called a humane peo- ple, zealous, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of everything that tends to the welfare of their fellow-creatures. Crime in England has under- gone a considerable change. Highway robbery, so prevalent towards the begin- ning and middle of last century, is now nearly unknown, and all sorts of crimes and violence have been materially lessened. On the other hand, there has been a very rapid increase, particularly within the last twenty years, of crimes against property. A material change has recently been effected in the criminal law of England, by the abolition of an immense number" of capital punishments. The institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed. The two Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not only the wealthiest, but the most ancient in Europe. The London University and King's College have been recently instituted. The schools of Eton, Westminster, St. Paul's, Winchester, Harrow, and Rugby, are nearly on the same scale as our colleges. There are multitudes of other schools, public and private, and in them all a long-continued, systematic, and thorough course of instruction is given. Though education at any of these institutions is expensive, yet so general is the conviction of its superior importance, that the children of all persons in tolerable circumstances are well educated. The children of the poorer classes, by means of Sunday schools and the efforts of their parents, are generally taught to read and write. Immense numbers of volumes, consisting of the works of the best English authors, are circulated in every part of the kingdom, in the form of weekly or monthly pamphlets, at a very cheap rate. Even the poorest mechanics and labourers are in the habit of spending a considerable part of their leisure in the perusal of these publications. The Episcopal Protestant religion is that established by law, and the king is the head of the church. There are two archbishops, and twenty-four bishops, all of whom, except the Bishop of Sodor and Man, are peers of the realm, and have seats in the House of Lords. The Archbishop of Canterbury is called the Primate of all England, and his rank is that next below the royal family. The Archbishop of York is called the Primate of England. The bishops have some temporal au- thority, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction extends to all questions of births, mar- ENGLAND. 337 riages, deaths, probate of wills, and delinquencies of the inferior clergy. Under the bishops, are the deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, rectors, priests, curates, and deacons. The churchwardens overlook the alms for the poor. The clergy of the established church are a learned and pious body, though many individuals there are in it, who have neither learning nor piety. The dissenters are a numerous body, and have many ministers of great learning and purity of mind. The dis- senters are chiefly Methodists, Baptists, and Quakers. The Catholics are numer- ous, and have several colleges and convents. England is divided into 40 counties. The small islands attached to England are unimportant. Man, thirty miles in length by twelve in breadth, is nearly equidistant from each of the three kingdoms. It comprises a considerable extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior into high mountains, among which Snowfell, nearly 2000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Man ranked long as an independent sovereignty, held by the Earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gallant defence made by the countess of that name for Charles I. It descended afterwards to the Duke of Athol, from whom the sovereignty was purchased, in 1765, by the British government, with a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a free trade. The natives are a Celtic race. Castletown, the capital, is the neatest town in the island ; and in its centre, Castle Ruthven, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears its gloomy and majestic brow. Douglas, however, as being the spot in which the whole trade circulates, is now of superior importance, and has attracted a great number of English settlers. The Scilly Isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Cornwall, are tenanted by 2000 poor inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly upon fishing, pilotage, and the making of kelp. Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally part of the patrimony of the Norman kings, which the naval superiority of England has enabled her to retain. The climate is mild and agreeable, and the soil generally fertile. Jersey, the finest of the group, is so abundant in orchards, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. St Helier, the capital of Jersey, is a handsome town. London is the metropolis of the United Kingdom, the seat of legislation, of juris- prudence, and of government ; it is the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affairs of state are transacted, and regulations maintained with foreign courts. It is the centre of all important operations, whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter of the globe. The City lies on both sides of the river Thames. It is seven miles long, five miles wide, and con- tains an area of about thirty square miles. More particularly it is considered under three divisions ; the City proper, in the east ; Westminster, in the west, and Southwark, on the south side of the river. The buildings are generally of brick. The streets in some parts are wide, and few are so narrow as not to admit two carriages abreast. At the west end, they are mostly straight, and sufficiently broad for five or six carriages. Here are the residences of the nobility and the rich. Regent street, in this quarter, is probably the most magnificent street in the world. In the City, or the central and oldest part, the streets are narrow and crooked, but here the great business of London is transacted. The east end is occupied by shops, victualling-houses, and people connected with commerce. Here are immense timber-yards, docks, and magazines. London contains a great number of squares: the handsomest is Grosvenor Square, an area of six acres, and containing an equestrian statue of George II. The buildings around it are the most superb in London. The largest square is that called Lincoln's Inn Fields, which occupies a space just equal to that covered by the great pyramid of Egypt. The finest public walks are at the west end ; Green Park, Hyde Park, St. James's Park, and Regent's Park, are beautiful fields and gardens, ornamented with trees ; these are the resort of thousands who walk for exercise or pleasure. These parks are very extensive. Hyde Park con- tains 394 acres, and in the afternoon of Sunday is thronged by crowds of fashion- able people who pour along the promenades, like the ebbing and flowing tide. In Regent's Park is an immense edifice called the Coliseum, in which may be seen 29 2 S 338 ENGLAND. a panorama of London as viewed from the dome of St. Paul's. The gardens of the Zoological Society are also in this park. They are elegantly laid out, and contain an interesting collection of rare animals from all parts of the world. The churches of London have the most prominent and imposing share in its architectural splendour. St. Paul's Cathedral is the most magnificent edifice in the city, but is pent up in a narrow area, and surrounded by shops and buildings of a mean appearance. The interior of the cathedral does not equal its noble exterior. It would be little else than an immense vault with heavy columns, were it not relieved by monumental statuary. Westminster Abbey, some distance higher up the river, is one of the noblest existing monuments of Gothic architecture. It has a vast, airy, and lofty appear- ance, which inspires feelings of awe and veneration. The chapel of Henry VII., at the east end of the church, is unrivalled for gorgeous magnificence. The city of Westminster and north-eastern suburb of London contain many splendid modern churches, almost all in the classic style. London has few public edifices, com- pared to its great size and wealth. Westminster Hall was once a palace : here the kings of England are crowned, and here the parliament hold their sittings. It has the largest hall without pillars in Europe. St. James's Palace is an ill- looking brick building, but contains spacious and splendid apartments. The Tower is a vast inclosure upon the river. It contains several streets, and is surrounded by a wall and ditch. The Monument, at the foot of London bridge, is a fluted Doric column, in a bad situation : it is 202 feet high, and commemo- rates the great fire of London. The Bank of England, in the heart of the city, is a vast and splendid pile, covering 8 acres. Somerset House, in the Strand, is one of the largest and most splendid edifices in the city. There are 6 bridges over the Thames : of these, Waterloo bridge is built of granite, and Southwark and Vauxhall bridges, of iron. A more remarkable object is the Tunnel, a passage under the river at a point where a bridge would be de- trimental to the navigation. This work was performed by sinking a perpendicular shaft near the river, and working horizontally under the bottom of the Thames. This city has 13 theatres, of which Drury Lane, Covent Garden, and the King's theatre or Italian Opera, are among the first in Europe. It has 147 hospitals ; 16 schools of medicine ; as many of law ; 5 of theology ; 18 public libraries ; 300 elementary free schools ; 1700 dispensaries, where the poor receive medicine and attendance gratis ; 14 prisons ; and 50 newspapers, printing 50,000 daily. 15,000 vessels lie at a time in the docks and at the wharves ; 1500 carriages a day leave the city at stated hours ; 4000 wagons are employed in the country trade ; the annual commerce of the city is estimated at 130 millions sterling. London is the principal literary emporium of the kingdom. Almost all books of importance are there printed and published, and thence distributed over the kingdom, forming a considerable branch of commerce. The annual value sold is estimated at from 1,000,000*. to 2,000,000/. sterling. The population of the city, in 1830, was 1,474,069. Liverpool, at the mouth of the Mersey, on the Irish Sea, is an important com- mercial city, enjoying a vast trade by sea, and communicating with all parts of the interior by canals and rail-roads. The city stretches along the east bank of the river 3 miles, with a breadth of one mile. It is irregularly built, but the pub- lic buildings are elegant. The Exchange is perhaps the most splendid structure which a mercantile community ever raised from its own resources : it cost 100,000 pounds, and is double the size of the Royal Exchange of London. The Town Hall is another noble edifice. In the west of the city are quays and docks of great extent. The largest dock will contain 100 ships afloat. The commerce of the place employs 10,000 vessels, and pays 3,500,000Z. sterling to the revenue in duties. Here are also manufactories of porcelain, soap, sugar, &c, with large breweries and founderies. The Lyceum and Athenaeum have each a library of 10,000 volumes. The population in 1831 was 165,175. Manchester, in population and manufacturing industry, ranks next to London. Its streets and lanes are crowded together, without any regard to regularity or convenience. The river Irwell passes through its centre, and there are bridges ENGLAND. 339 j on this and another stream in the city. The spectator here is struck with aston- ishment at the sight of the immense magazines of goods designed for the mar- kets of every quarter of the globe. A subject of no less astonishment is the con- trast of the poverty of the artisans, with the wealth of their employers. The manufactures consume annually 170,000,000 pounds of cotton. There are a vast number of founderies and other establishments around the city. Two canals and the rail-road to Liverpool facilitate its trade. Manchester has many literary and benevolent institutions ; a public library of 20,000 volumes, and a population of 182,812. Birmingham is situated in the centre of England. The upper part has some regular streets and handsome buildings. Most of the streets are broad and com- modious. The manufactures of arms, sheet iron, hardware and jewelry, at this place, are immense; 22,000 families are occupied in them. Here is the celebrated machinery of Watt, the great mechanical inventor. It employs 1200 men, and produces every week 1500 muskets. A single machine for coining money strikes 30,000 or 40,000 pieces in an hour. Ten canals open a communication with the surrounding districts. Population 146,986. Leeds, in Yorkshire, is a great market for fine broadcloths, which are here sold in two immense halls. York is remarkable for its cathedral, called the Minster ; the largest Gothic edifice in England, and perhaps in Europe, being 528 feet long. An insane fanatic set fire to this magnificent structure, in 1829, and a great part of it was destroyed, but most of the damage has been repaired. York has many other beautiful buildings : its streets are wide and well paved, and the city is sur- rounded by a wall now much decayed. The population, in 1831, was 123,393. Bristol, on the channel of that name, is accessible for ships of 1000 tons, and has considerable foreign commerce. It is irregular, with narrow streets. The handsomest parts are the suburbs. The cathedral is richly ornamented, and gives the city a picturesque appearance at a distance. This city has brass works, pin manufactories, glass, sugar, and soap bouses, distilleries, &c. Population 104,886. Portsmouth, on the English channel, is the most important naval station in the kingdom. Its magazines and docks are the most perfect in the world. The spa- cious road of Spithead, at this place, is capable of sheltering 1000 ships of the line. Population 50,309. Bath is famous for its medicinal waters, which, in the fine season, attract hither crowds of invalids and thousands of dissipated idlers. The city is wholly built of light-coloured freestone. It occupies a fine situation upon a rising ground, and is esteemed the handsomest city in England. It has many beautiful promenades, and a magnificent cathedral. Being a place of mere amusement, a large part of its population is migratory. Population 38,063. Oxford is one of the handsomest cities in Europe, and contains the most famous university in England, consisting of 24 colleges. These buildings, with seventeen churches, and numerous other academical structures, are surrounded with groves, gardens, avenues of majestic trees, and a variety of winding streams. To these are added the incessant pealing of innumerable bells, and the multitude and mys- tical variety of academic dresses; all combining to produce the most striking effect upon a stranger. Population 20,649. Cambridge, like Oxford, owes its celebrity to its university, which has 13 col- leges. Population 20,917. Wales is a territory which, though united to England by early conquest, still retains the title of a separate principality, and possesses a national aspect. The verdant and extensive plains of western England here give place to the lofty mountain, the deep valley, the roaring torrent, and the frightful precipice. Wales has rivers and torrents without number, which roll through its mountain valleys, and whose banks, adorned with verdure and cultivation, combine in the most striking manner with the lofty and varied summits which tower above them. The loftiest mountains are in North Wales ; its valleys are deeper and narrower ; and it presents more strikingly all the characteristic features of Welsh scenery. In South Wales, on the contrary, the valleys are broader, more fertile, and fuller of towns and villages; they often even expand into wide plains, still encircled by a 340 SCOTLAND. mountain boundary. Agriculture, in such a country, labours under many disad- vantages, and is carried on too often upon the old system of infield and outfield. Manufactures are nearly confined to the article of flannel, which has always been a fabric of the Welsh, in which they still excel their Yorkshire rivals. It is to mining, however, that the industry of Wales has been chiefly attracted, by the profusion of mineral wealth which nature has lodged in the bowels of its moun- tains. The lead of Flint, Caernarvon, and other counties of North Wales ; the copper of Anglesey, and above all, the iron of Glamorgan and other counties in the British Channel, are objects of extensive importance. Coal is found almost everywhere, and is employed either for domestic purposes, or in fusing and re- fining the metallic ores. The Welsh are a Celtic race, the descendants of the ancient Britons, who, in these mountain recesses, sought refuge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely dispossessed them of the low country of England. They could not resist the overwhelming power of Edward I., who annexed Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in subjection, however, he was obliged to construct, not only on its frontier, but in its interior, castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent formidable insurrections, in one of which Owen Glendower maintained himself for years as an independent prince. Within the last 300 years, the Welsh have been as peaceable as any other subjects of the empire. They have retained, of their feudal habits, only venial failings. Among these is national pride, through which the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation superior to all others, and regards the Sasna or Saxon as a lower race of yesterday. With this is connected, in a high degree, the pride of pedi- gree ; even the humblest Welshman tracing his origin far above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of friendship subsist between the land-owners and their tenants ; manifested, on one side, by indulgence and protecting kindness ; on the other, by a profound veneration for the representatives of the ancient chiefs of their race. The Welsh have many superstitions, mixed with much genuine reli- gions feeling. They are hardy, active, lively, hospitable, kind-hearted ; only a little hot and quarrelsome. Their English neighbours complain that they have not yet attained that pitch of industry and cleanliness in which the former place their pride. Population, in 1831, 805,236. Counties, 12. The chief mountains in Wales are Snowdon, 3571 feet ; Cader-Idris, 3550 ; Corned-Llewellyn, Arran-Towddy, &c. The rivers are the Severn, Wye, Con- way, Towy, Dee, &c. Merthyn-Tydvil, situated in the iron-mine region of Gla- morganshire, has become, from a mere village, the most populous place in Wales. Population, 22,083. Swansea has also risen to some importance, from the iron and copper works with which it is surrounded. . Coal is likewise largely exported Its pleasant situation has made it an extensive resort for sea-bathing, and led to the erection of many elegant buildings. Population, 13,694. Caermarthen, situ- ated on the Towy, which admits to it vessels of 300 tons, is one of the most flourishing and best-built towns in Wales. Population, 9955. Caernarvon is a handsome, well-built place. Its chief ornament is the castle, a stately edifice built by Edward I., to curb the spirit of the newly subdued Welsh. Population, 7642. Some other of the chief towns in Wales are, Holywell, 8969 ; Mold, ; Pembroke, 6511; Cardiff, 6187; and Brecknock, 5026. SCOTLAND. Scotland is bounded on the south by England, from which it is separated by a line drawn along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. On every other side it is bounded by the Atlantic, the Northern and the German oceans. The length of Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway, in about 40° 40' to Dunnet Head, Caithness, in 58° 40', is 280 miles. The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to a point on the opposite shore of Inverness is 130 miles. The entire extent of Scotland is 29,600 square miles. In its general outline, SCOTLAND. 341 it consists of two great and perfectly distinct parts : the Lowlands and the High- lands. The former comprehends all Scotland south of the friths of Forth and Clyde. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges begin to tower in endless succession ; but on the east coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and northwards for some distance. The Highlands, which comprise the whole west and centre of northern Scotland, form a region of very bleak and rugged aspect, and contain within their recesses a primitive people, who, in dress, lan- guage, and the whole train of their social ideas, differ essentially from the Low- landers, and have retained antique and striking characteristics, both physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other part of Great Britain. Among the Scottish mountains, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of the Highlands, but applied more particularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and comprising Ben Lomond, Ben Ledi, of that elevated ridge which directly face the low country of Stirling and Perth. Several of these mountains exceed the altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magni- tude, as for the pastoral scenery through which they wind their early course, and for the magnificent estuaries which they form at their junction with the sea. The Forth rises near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows west towards Stirling, near which it is swelled by the larger stream of the Teith ; whence, after many windings through the beautiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens into the great frith on which the capital of Scotland is situated. Some of the others are the Tay, the Clyde, the Tweed, the Spey, the Dee, &c. Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland ; many of them are long arms of the sea, running up into the heart of the mountains. Among these, Loch Lomond is pre-eminent The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promontories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the loftiest of the Grampians, presents alpine scenery on the grandest scale ; while at Inverary, Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe, Lochy, and Ness, stretching diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery, and has afforded facilities for making a navigable communication between the German and Atlantic Oceans. The articles cultivated are generally the same as in England. Oats are the principal crop, except in the most fertile districts. Potatoes are cultivated some- what extensively, and in some places, hemp. Both the commerce and manufactures of Scotland have grown into importance since the union with England. Commerce has flourished chiefly since the middle of the last century. Greenock and Aberdeen are the most important commercial places. The shipping of Scotland, in 1828, amounted to 300,836 tons, or about one-fourth less than that of the State of Massachusetts. The manufactures consist of cotton, woollen, linen, iron, hats, paper, sailcloth, pottery, and small quantities of most of the articles made in England. At Carron, in the southern part of the kingdom, are the most important iron founderies in Great Britain. They employ 2,000 workmen and cast above 4,000 cannon annu- ally. The total value of the yearly manufactures of Scotland is estimated at 15,000,000 pounds sterling. The whale and herring fisheries are considerable sources of wealth. The whale ships are principally employed in the Northern Seas. The gathering of kelp on the shores of the Western Islands once employed 120,000 persons, but the business has now declined in consequence of the substitution of a cheaper alkali in manufactures. The number of herring taken on the coast is immense: the fishermen go in small crafts called busses. Salmon, taken in all the consider- able rivers, and kept fresh by being packed in ice, chiefly supplies the London market. Artificial navigation meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggedness of 29* 342 SCOTLAND. the surface, and hence canals have never become very numerous. The " Great Canal" admits vessels of considerable size to pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the German and Atlantic Oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal-field at Monkland have been advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an expense of nearly 400,000/!., connects the Great Canal, near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, uniting the chain of lakes which crosses Scotland diagonally, allows even ships of war to pass, from the east coast, into the Atlantic, without encountering the perils of the Pentland Frith and Cape Wrath. It was finished in 1822, at an expense of nearly 1,000,000Z. sterling, entirely defrayed by government. The gates of the locks are of iron ; the expense of each lock was 9000?. The locks are twenty-three in all, eight of which, looking down from Loch Eil, where it opens into the west- ern sea, are called by sailors the " stair of Neptune." The canal is fifty feet broad ; length twenty-two miles, with forty miles of lake navigation. Of the population of Scotland an estimate was first attempted in the year 1755, when it was computed to be 1,265,380. The reports of the clergy for the " Sta- tistical Account," between 1792 and 1798, gave 1,526,492 ; which was raised by the government enumeration of 1801 to 1,599,000. The census of 1811 gave 1,805,000; which was raised by that of 1821 to 2,093,456. In 1831, it was 2,363,842. In point of disposition, the Scots are a grave, serious, and reflecting people ; but bold, enterprising, ambitious, and imbued with a deep-rooted determination to pursue the objects of their desire, and repel those of their aversion. Under these impulses, they quit, without much regret, a land which affords few opportunities of distinction, and seek, either in the metropolis and commercial towns of Eng- land, or in the most distant transmarine regions, that wealth and fame which they eagerly covet ; yet, amid this distance and these eager pursuits, their hopes and affections remain fixed on the land of their nativity ; and they usually seek to spend the evening of their days in Scotland. To their religious duties the Scots people have always shown an exemplary attention. In Catholic times, the Romish church in Scotland enjoyed more in- fluence, and had acquired a much greater proportion of the national wealth, than in England. But they entered upon the cause of reform with an ardent zeal, which left behind it that of all their neighbours. After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a century, the political destinies of the kingdom depended, they obtained their favourite form of presbytery, the most remote from that pompous ritual, for which they have entertained the most rooted abhorrence. The prin- ciple of presbytery consists in the complete equality of all its clerical members, who have each a separate parish, of which they perform all the ecclesiastical functions. Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar ardour. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits, Duns Scotus and Crich- ton were pre-eminently famed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical knowledge followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing Latin with great purity. Letters were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent period, marked by a conflict between a licentious tyranny and an austere religious party, who condemned or despised the exertions of" intellect and the creations of fancy ; and literature lay dormant till the middle of the last cen- tury, when Scotland, with a church and universities alike poorly endowed, pro- duced as illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called forth by the most lavish patronage in the great European capitals. The public libraries are not rich. That belonging to the advocates or barris- ters of Edinburgh, contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both printed and in manuscript, for elucidating the national his- tory. The university library is half as large ; and those of Glasgow, King's Col- lege Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly respectable. Each of these uni- versities can claim a copy of every new work. Scotland has a native music, simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings SCOTLAND. 343 and emotions to which she is fondly attached. The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is practised with peculiar ardour, especially by the Highlanders, who have favourite national steps and movements. The Highlanders retain the remnants of a national costume peculiar to them- selves; the tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth, adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans ; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare ; and the bonnet, which in another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border. The divisions are shires or counties, of which there are 33 : of these, 17 are in the Lowlands, and the remaining 16 in the Highlands. The islands appendent on Scotland, form one of its most conspicuous features. Though neither rich nor fertile in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of society are peculiar to themselves. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde ; the Hebrides, or Western Islands ; and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and Shetland. The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arran, with the smaller ones of the Cumbrays and Ailsa. The Hebrides or Western Islands lie on the western coast of Scotland. They are about 200 in number. The largest is Lewis, 87 miles long. The next in size are Skye, Mull, and Islay, Arran, South Uist, and Jura. Most of them are small. They are rocky and barren, with hardly a single tree, or even a bush upon them. The vegetation consists principally of heath and moss. But the most remarkable feature of these islands is the great number of lakes which they contain ; these, however, rather impart gloom than beauty to the landscape ; their sullen brown waters present the idea of unfathomable depth, and their borders exhibit no cheerful verdure to relieve the eye. The most westerly of the He- brides is St. Kilda. It is small and rocky, yet inhabited. Its shores are com- posed of enormous precipices, worn by the sea into caverns, often with roofs more lofty than the ceiling of a gothic cathedral. These shores are the resort of vast varieties of seafowl, which the islanders pursue at immense hazards, by swinging with ropes from the perpendicular clifFs. There are 87 of these islands inhabited, and several under good cultivation, producing tolerable crops of grain, pulse, and potatoes. The inhabitants are about 70,000. Their only articles of trade are horned cattle, sheep, fish, and kelp. One of the smallest of these islands, named StafTa, is remarkable for a singular basaltic cavern, called Fingal's Cave, 227 feet in length and 42 wide. The entrance resembles a gothic arch, and the floor of the cave is covered with water. The walls of the interior are formed of ranges of basaltic columns, irregularly grouped. This natural architecture is said to surpass, in grandeur and magnificence, the most splendid artificial temples and palaces in the world. At the northern extremity of Scotland lie the Orkneys, or Orcades, about 70 in number, but less than half of them are inhabited. They are rocky, and have a melancholy appearance, with little vegetation besides juniper, wild myrtle, and heath. The soil is boggy or gravelly ; some of the islands contain iron and lead. The sea in this neighbourhood is very tempestuous. In June and July, the twi- light which continues throughout the night is sufficiently strong to enable the inhabitants to read at midnight. The population is about 50,000. They have some manufactures of linen and woollen, and have a trade in cattle, fish, oil, and feathers. Vast numbers of sea-fowl frequent the rocky cliffs of these islands, and one of the chief employments of the inhabitants is bird-catching. The Shetland Islands lie about 60 miles north-east of the Orkneys. They have a wild and desolate appearance; but 17 of them are inhabited. Their vegetation is more scanty than that of the Orkneys, and their soil, for the most part, is marshy. The shores are broken and precipitous, and excavated by the sea into natural arches and deep caverns. From October to April, perpetual rains fall, 344 SCOTLAND. storms beat against the shores, and the inhabitants are cut off from all communi- cation with the rest of the world ; but the aurora borealis exhibits, at this season, a brightness equal to that of the full moon. The population is about 26,000 ; the people live by fishing and the manufacture of coarse woollens. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, stands upon the southern shore of the Firth of Forth, a mile and a half from the sea. Its situation is remarkably picturesque. It occupies three high ridges of land, and is surrounded on all sides, except the north, by naked, craggy rocks. The middle ridge is the highest, and on either side is a deep ravine. The more ancient part of the city occupies the two south- ern ridges. High street runs along the middle eminence, in nearly a straight direction, for about a mile, and exhibits a very grand prospect. With the excep- tion of the principal avenues, the other streets of what is called the Old Town are only narrow, dirty lanes, among houses some of them ten and eleven stories high. The New Town presents quite a different aspect. It is built on the northern ridge, and its streets and squares are not surpassed in regularity and ele- gance in any part of the world. It communicates with the old town by a bridge, and an immense mound of earth crossing the deep loch or ravine between them. The Castle of Edinburgh is an ancient fortress on a rugged rock, mounting abruptly to the height of 200 feet. It stands at the western extremity of High street, and the view from its summit always excites the admiration of a traveller. Holyrood House, for many centuries the residence of the kings of Scotland, is a quadrangular edifice in the eastern part of the city. In the centre of Edinburgh is a vast pile, comprising several edifices around Parliament Square, which con- tain a number of large libraries, one of which, called the Advocates' Library, has 100,000 volumes. The University is celebrated both as an institution for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men ; the number of students is upwards of 2000. Edinburgh has its Royal Society for physical and literary researches, its antiquarian and horticultu- ral societies, an institution for the promotion of the fine arts, and an academy of painting. This city is chiefly supported by its courts of justice, whose jurisdiction extends over all Scotland. A great proportion of the inhabitants are lawyers, and the literary talent for which the city is renowned, has gained it the appellation of Modern Athens. Population, in 1831, 136,303. Leith is the sea-port of Edinburgh. It is an irregularly built town, with narrow streets. The harbour has been much improved by art, but is not accessible to large ships, except at certain times. The commerce carried on here is consider- able. Population, 25,953. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and owes its prosperity chiefly to its manufactures. It stands upon the Clyde, and the greater part of the city occupies a plain on the southern bank of the river. It contains a large number of handsome buildings, mostly of modern construction. The streets are generally spacious and well paved. The cathedral stands upon a hill in the centre of the city ; it is a massy building, and the most entire specimen of Gothic architecture which the furious zeal of the reformers left standing in Scotland. In Glasgow and the neighbourhood are 32,000 cotton looms and 300 steam machines in manufactories, founderies, &c. The general aspect of the town is rendered gloomy by the coal smoke which has blackened the buildings, and hangs in dingy clouds over the city. Population, 202.426. Paisley, 7 miles from Glasgow, is the third town for size and commerce. It has extensive manufactures, and a population of 57,466. Greenock, at the mouth of the Clyde, is the out-port of Glasgow; and its prosperity, as well as that of Glasgow, is of very recent date. Its harbour is commodious, and its trade extends to every part of the world. Population, 27,571. Aberdeen is a handsome city on the eastern coast, with a university, and considerable commerce and manufactures. Population, 58,019. Perth, on the Tay, is the most regularly built of all the cities of Scotland, and is surrounded with beautiful scenery. Population, 20,016. Inver- ness, the capital of the North Highlands, is well built, and enjoys nearly all the trade of the northern part of the kingdom. Population, 15,324. IRELAND. 345 IRELAND. Ireland, a fine extensive island, is separated, on the east, from England, by St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea, and on the north-east, from Scotland, by the narrow strait of Port Patrick. It extends from 51° 10' to 55° 20' N. lat, and from 5° 40' to 10° 50' W. Ion. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is about 300 miles, and its greatest breadth 160. There is not a spot upon it 50 miles from the sea. It contains about 30,000 square miles. The surface of Ireland cannot on the whole be called mountainous ; its central districts composing one vast plain, which crosses the kingdom from east to west. It is, however, diversified by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and, with the exception of those of Wales, equal in elevation to any in England. The Shannon is without a rival among rivers in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from Lough Allen, in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been removed. There are also the Barrow, Boyne, Foyle, Bann, Blackwater, &c. The other rivers are rather nu- merous than of long course ; but they almost all terminate in wide estuaries and loughs, which diffuse through Ireland the means of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbours. Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagh is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Lough Erne, Lough Corrib, &c., include a great variety of rich and orna- mented scenery. Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Ree is the principal ; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a lough or bay than a river. Connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Killarney, ih the south, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its shores. The surface of Ireland is almost entirely level. The general appearance of the country is varied and pleasant, although bare of trees. In some parts, arc rich and fertile plains, and in others, gentle slopes and waving hills. Ireland was once covered with forests, which are now replaced by immense bogs. These form a remarkable feature, characteristic of the country. They afford abundant sup- plies of peat, used by the inhabitants for fuel. From their depths are also taken quantities of wood in complete preservation, which indicate that these bogs are the remains of the ancient forests. The skins of animals and men that have been swallowed up in them, have been found converted into a sort of leather by the tanning matter which the moisture contains. Coal is the most abundant mineral. It is found in Kilkenny, in the south. Marble and slate occur in the same quarter. Iron was formerly produced in many parts, but at present few or no mines are worked. Copper, silver, and gold, have also been found in small quantities. Agriculture is very backward. The cultivators are generally not proprietors of the soil, and studiously avoid any permanent improvement of the land, lest the rent should be raised. Wheat is not generally cultivated, and what is raised is often inferior. Barjey is now common, but oats are raised in a tenfold proportion to that of any other grain. The Irish staff" of life, however, is potatoes. This root furnishes to the poor the greatest part of their sustenance. The dairy is the best managed part of Irish husbandry. The most important manufactures are those of linen. They have flourished in this country since the reign of Henry VIII. The raw material is almost wholly raised on the island. The export of linen from Ireland, in the year 1824, amounted in all to 49,491,037 yards, of which 46,466,950 were to Great Britain, and 3,024,087 to foreign parts. The real value of the whole was 2,412,858*. Of that sent to Great Britain, 31,314,533 yards were retained for home consumption; the rest were re-exported to the same quarters, as Scotch linen. This great manu- 2T 346 IRELAND. facture is chiefly supported by its own growth of flax. Ireland, however, imports 25,000 tons of hemp from abroad, and 3300 from Britain ; also about 7500 tons of linen yarn ; of all which materials the value falls short of 45,000J. The cotton manufacture has been lately introduced, and is making considerable progress. The commerce of Ireland consists chiefly in the exports of her agricultural pro- ducts to other parts of the British empire. To England alone, they amounted, in 1831, to the value of 10,000,000Z., comprising grain of various kinds, cattle, beef, pork, butter, &c., besides linen. In the same year, the imports from foreign parts were 1,552,228Z. ; exports, 608,938Z. In 1830, the vessels belonging to Ireland amounted to 1424 ; tons, 101,820 ; navigated by 7794 men and boys. Ireland is still denominated a distinct kingdom, but it is governed by a viceroy appointed by the king, called Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. There is also an Irish chancellor, a secretary of state, commander of the forces, and attorney general. The island was incorporated with the kingdom of Great Britain, in 1800. There is now no separate parliament, but Ireland is represented by 32 peers and 100 members of the House of Commons, in the parliament of Great Britain. The citizens of Ireland are entitled to the same privileges with those of England, in all matters of commerce and provisions under treaties. In the eastern parts of the island* the people are chiefly of English, and in the north, of Scottish descent : in the west, the original Celtic race predominates. The common classes are strongly marked with national peculiarity of features, and by this they are readily recognized in other countries. In 1831, the popula- tion amounted to 7,767,401. The sway of the British government in Ireland has undoubtedly been of a kind to depress the spirit and debase the character of the people. Disabilities, political, civil, and ecclesiastical, have been imposed upon them, and it is only of late that they have been in some degree emancipated. The country has been divided, and sometimes by the policy of the government, into internal parties, which have committed the most ferocious murders. These, however, have been the effects of oppression, acting upon a temperament naturally ardent, rather than the outbreak of a character in itself cruel and ferocious. The Irish are ardent, brave, generous, and to a great degree faithful to their trusts. Of this latter trait, many instances have occurred in the course of the various armed and other political associations in which they have been engaged. They are cheerful, and no people will on festivals so completely throw off all re- membrance of care, to enjoy the passing hour. They are, however, easily offended, and prompt to resentment : duels are not rare among the gentry, or less dangerous appeals to force, unfrequent among the lower class. The condition of the Irish has been much improved, with regard to the advantages of education, though there is much to be done before they will be as well educated as the people of Scotland. In 1825, there were 11,823 schools, containing 560,549 scholars, though since then the number has no doubt increased. More than 1300 were founded by the Hibernian Society which was formed at London. The Protestant Society has upwards of 500 schools, and the Christian Brotherhood, twenty-four. These are kept by men who throw all they have into a common stock, and devote themselves to celibacy and the education of the poor, to which they bind themselves by a vow. There are 46 female schools connected with nunneries, besides which there are 350 day-schools supported by subscription, and many Sunday-schools. There is a Roman Catholic college at Maynooth and Carlow, and a Jesuit college at Clongows. There is but one university : this is at Dublin ; it has about 400 stu- dents, and is an institution of very high character. The arts are not in a flourishing state in Ireland, principally from the want of the encouragement that the residence of the rich proprietors would give. The useful arts are far lower than in England or Scotland, and the ornamental ones are little cultivated. A taste for music is common, and no man is more welcome in an Irish house than a piper or a harper. Many of the old national airs are sweet, but they are not so widely spread as those of Scotland. Ireland has contributed her full share to the literature and sciences of the United Kingdom, and there are no names more celebrated than Burke, Swift, IRELAND. 347 Goldsmith, Sheridan, and Moore. The great national bent of genius seems to be towards wit and eloquence, and this appears not only in the distinguished men, but in the mass of the people ; for the very beggars pursue their vocation with a union of these two qualities that is often irresistible. The general religion is the Catholic, though the established church is that of England. The Catholics of Ireland are therefore taxed for the support of two hierarchies. Four-fifths of the inhabitants are Catholics, and the other fifth is composed principally of Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists. The established church has 4 archbishoprics, and 22 bishoprics ; attached to eleven of the latter, are 418,872 acres of land. There are 33 Catholic archbishops and bishops, 1500 parish priests, 3000 curates, and 984 benefices, averaging 6000 souls. In every parish there is a chapel. The established church is chiefly supported by the payment of a composition for tithes, and the Catholic church by contributions, and fees for marriages, burials, masses, &c. The Catholic clergy are exceedingly zealous, and live on terms of familiarity with their flocks. They advise them on worldly affairs, and generally act as their lawyers. The churches have few pic- tures or images. The stipend of a priest is about 150Z. a year. In 1835, the numbers of the different religious denominations were as follows : per cent. Roman Catholics 6,427,712 80| Members of Established Church 852,064 10$ Presbyterians 642,356 8 Other Protestants 21,808 \ 7,943,940 Ireland is divided into 4 provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught. These are subdivided into 32 counties. Dublin, the capital of Ireland, disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputa- tion of being the most beautiful city in the empire. If the brick of which the houses are built impair the effect of the general range of its streets and squares, its public buildings, composed of stone, surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. Dublin is delightfully situated at the bottom of a bay on the eastern coast, about a mile from the shore. It is divided by the little river Liffey into two equal parts. The city is nearly square, being about 1\ miles in extent. The houses are generally of brick, and the streets irregular ; but those that run parallel with the river, are for the most part uniform and spacious. In the more modern part, they are from 60 to 90 feet wide. There are several fine squares, one of which, called Stephen's Green, occupies 27 acres, and has a magnificent appear- ance. Sackville street is one of the finest in Europe. No city, in proportion to its size, has a greater number of elegant buildings. A vast number of country- seats and villages are scattered over the country in the neighbourhood, and are displayed in a charming manner by the slope of the ground down to the bay. The high lands of Wicklow bound the prospect in the interior, and render the view in e^ery quarter delightful. Dublin has a considerable trade by sea, and the canals which extend from this point to different parts of the island. The banks of the river are lined with elegant quays, and shipping of 200 tons may come up to the lower part of the city. Here are large manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen, and silk. Population, in 1821, 227,3&5. Cork, the great southern emporium of Ireland, has a population of 107,000, being, in point of wealth and magnitude, the second city in the island. It is situated about 14 miles from the sea. It has a good harbour, and a flourishing trade in the export of salt provisions. The greater part of the city is built upon an island. The public buildings are simple in their architecture, but large and convenient. Limerick, upon the Shannon, has some manufactures, and a large export trade. Population, 60,000. Londonderry, on the north-west coast, is an ancient place, with a fine gothic cathedral. It carries on some commerce with America and the West Indies. Population, 20,000. Belfast is the grand empo- rium of the north of Ireland, and commerce is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabric of the north, together with oats, oatmeal, and provisions, are the principal exports, Population, 53,000. 348 FRANCE. FRANCE. France is a great and powerful kingdom, placed, as it were, in the centre of the civilized world, and for several centuries distinguished by the conspicuous part which it has acted on the theatre of Europe. Its population, military power, central situation, vast resources, and active industry, render it peculiarly deserving of an attentive survey. France is bounded north by the English Channel and the Netherlands ; east by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy; south by the Mediterranean and Spain; and west by the Atlantic, or rather an open gulf called the Bay of Biscay. From Switzerland, Italy, and Spain, it is separated by mountains. It extends from 42° 30' to 51° 2' north latitude ; and from 7° 40' east, to 5° 4' west longitude. Its greatest length from north to south is 590 miles, and its breadth is about the same. It contains 205,000 square miles. The surface of this very extensive territory is in general level, although it bor- ders and is encroached upon by the greatest mountain ranges of Europe. The Alps cover the full half of its eastern frontier. The Pyrenees, which rank second among the chains of the continent, range along the southern border. On the east, where France reaches to the Rhine, are the Vosges, and other chains of moderate height, parallel to that river. The only range exclusively French is that of Auvergne, in the centre of the kingdom, which rises to the height of 5000 or 6000 feet, but stretches by a winding line along the left bank of the Allier, parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, where it is called the Cevennes. But by far the greater part of France, including the whole north and the whole east, is one widely extended plain, which yields in very high perfection all the fruits and products of the temperate zone. The rivers of France, though not of the first magnitude, are noble and commo- dious. Traversing almost every part of the kingdom, they afford ample means of internal navigation ; and the broad plains which border on them yield the most luxuriant harvests. The Loire is the principal. The other great rivers are the Rhone, Garonne, Seine, and the Rhine ; those of secondary rank are the Somme, Adour, Var, Moselle, Isere, Marne, Meuse, &c. France yields in abundance the most solid and useful of all metals, iron. There are about 400 forges in the kingdom, producing upwards of 160,000 tons of metal, valued at 75,000,000 francs. Coal is abundant, but the beds lie at a distance from the sea, and are little worked. There were formerly many copper-mines, but they are now chiefly abandoned. There is a gold-mine, unwrought, in the eastern part of the kingdom. Lead and manganese abound in quantities. Silver, cobalt, nickel, cinnabar, and arsenic, are sometimes found, France, with regard to internal economy, is one of the richest and most flourish- ing countries in the world. In point of industry she ranks third after Britain and the Netherlands; while she possesses a greater extent and more natural advantages than either of those great seats of commerce and manufacture. Agriculture is the most flourishing branch, yet it is not in so advanced a state as in Great Britain. It has gained greatly by the French revolution, in consequence of the abolition of feudal rights, corvees, and tithes. The vine occupies the chief attention of the French husbandman. The vineyards of France yield 250 differ- ent sorts of wine ; they occupy 5,000,000 acres, and their average produce is esti- mated at 880,000,000 gallons. In the cultivation of corn, the English writers inform us that the agriculture of the French is less skilful and thrifty than their own. Olives are cultivated in the south. Maize and tobacco are raised in many parts. Beets are cultivated for making sugar, and there are above 100 manufac- tories of this article producing between eight and nine millions of pounds annually. The rent of land is very low in France, and the farms are generally small. A large proportion of the people of France are proprietors of the soil. Half the commerce of France is transacted by foreign vessels. In 1827, the import trade was carried on by 3350 vessels, under the French flag, tonnage 353,000, value of cargoes 230,140,000 francs ; and by 4439 foreign vessels, ton- FRANCE. 349 nage 474,000, value of cargoes 186,041,000 francs. There were, besides, imported by land, goods to the value of 199,621,000 francs; making the imports in all, j 565,802,000 francs. In the same year the export trade was carried on by 3522 i French vessels, tonnage 346,000, value of cargoes 235,120,000 francs ; and 4141 : foreign vessels, tonnage also 346,000, value of cargoes 167,728,000 francs. The exports by land amounted to 156,767,000 francs; making in all, 559,615,000 francs. In 1827, the mercantile navy of France consisted of 14,530 vessels, of the burthen of 700,000. The interior commerce must be very extensive, though it is difficult to estimate its amount, as, notwithstanding considerable advantages for navigation, tbe bulk of it is carried on by land. The old medium of fairs has been not only preserved, but greatly extended. It is calculated that there are 26,314 fairs in France. Some of these are held on the frontier of a province or kingdom, others round a great cathedral or noted place of pilgrimage ; some at the foot of high mountains on the melting of the snows, which have kept the inhabitants imprisoned for several months. Sometimes they open with burlesque representations, as proces- sions of giants, of flying dragons, or monstrous fishes. The fair of Longchamps, I held in spring at Paris, those of Beaucaire in Languedoc, and of Guibray in Nor- ! mandy, are the most extensive. Next to England, France is the greatest manufacturing country in Europe. Of ; the numerous fabrics we can mention only a few of the principal, as those of silk j at Lyons; of lace at Alencon, Valenciennes, and other places; of woollen at j Rheims, Paris, Autrecourt, Louviens, Orleans, and Sedan ; of cotton cloths, cali- 1 coes, muslins, &c, at Lille, Roubaix, Gisors, Tarare, St. Quentin, &c. ; of I watches and all kinds of elegant trinkets, jewelry, and musical instruments, at j Paris ; of paper at Annonay, Sorel, Saussaye, Vienne, Montauban, Nimes, &c. ; of superb tapestry at the Gobelins in Paris ; of hats at Lyons, Marseilles, and Paris ; of cider and beer in the north, and of brandy at Cognac and Montpelier. The annual value of the manufactures and the produce of the mines of France is estimated at about 2000 millions of francs. The government is a constitutional monarchy, and the succession of the crown is limited to the male line. The king commands the forces by sea and land, de- clares war, makes treaties, and appoints to all offices under the responsible advice of his ministers. There is no monarchy in Europe so limited as the French. The legislative power resides in the king, the house of peers, and the house of depu- ties of the departments ; each branch may propose a law. The number of peers is unlimited, and the nomination of them belongs to the king. By a late law the peerage is no longer hereditary. The chamber of deputies is chosen by the elec- toral colleges. A citizen, to be eligible to these, must pay 1000 francs direct tax, yearly, either in his own person or by delegation for his mother, grand-mother, or mother-in-law; and if there are not 50 of this description in a department, the right devolves upon the 50 who pay the highest taxes. There are but 80,000 of these electors in France. The army of France is no longer that vast and terrible mass, which for so many years held the whole of continental Europe in thrall. The events of 1815 having proved too clearly the attachment of the old troops to their former master, they were nearly all disbanded, and their place supplied by fresh conscription. The government has the power of levying 60,000 men in the year. By a regulation, breathing still the republican spirit, one-third of the officers must be raised from the ranks. The army in 1832 was on a very formidable footing. It amounted in all, including 19,036 officers, and 3794 children of soldiers, to 411,816 men. Of these, the infantry consisted of 9505 officers and 264,141 men ; the cavalry of 2805 officers and 51,335 men ; the artillery of 1190 officers and 32,594 men, besides gendarmerie, engineers, &c. The French navy, which, in 1791, amounted to seventy-four sail of the line and sixty-two frigates, lost half during the war; and those which remained, having never ventured for many years to stir out of port, lost all their experience and efficiency. At present, it consists of 55 ships of the line, 66 frigates, 30 corvettes, 350 FRANCE. 103 smaller vessels, 17 steam vessels, numerous armed transports, &c. The French navy is now in a high state of efficiency, and is rapidly increasing. Until the revolution of 1830, the Roman Catholic was the established religion, but no one sect has now any advantage over another. There are 5 cardinals, all of whom have 30,000 francs a year, except the Archbishop of Paris, who has 100,000 ; 14 archbishops, who receive (except those who are cardinals) 25,000 francs a year ; and also 66 bishops, with salaries of 15,000 francs each ; beside a vast number of ecclesiastics of various grades, amounting in number to 36,649. There are 1983 religious establishments, which contain 19,340 women. The Catholic church costs the government annually 40,000,000 francs ; and the Pro- testant, 676,000 francs. The Protestants in France amount to 2,000,000, and in Paris to 30,000. They have 96 consistories, 438 churches, and 305 pastors. Before the revolution there were 23 universities in France ; in that grand con- vulsion education was suspended, but its establishments have since been reinstated in a different form. The lycees, now called royal colleges, are 36 in number. The name of university is now confined to Paris ; but the provincial establish- ments, bearing the name of academies, are constituted like the universities of other countries. The Protestants have two seminaries for studying divinity at Strasburg and Montauban. In 1833, the number of schools of different kinds amounted to 34,828, attended by 2,799,000 pupils between the ages of 2 and 15 years, out of 7,731,785, the whole number in France between those ages ; all these establishments are under the patronage and control of government, which grants annually about 5,000,000 francs for their support. The French excel in chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and belles lettres. Literary associations are very numerous, at the head of which stands the Institute in Paris, the most celebrated scientific body in the world. Every provincial town of consequence has its public library, a museum, and in general a society for pro- moting literature and the arts. There are 273 such libraries in France ; of which 193 contain 3,345,287 volumes ; of these 1,125,347 are in Paris. The French language is derived from the Latin. It is esteemed of all languages the most polished, the best adapted to conversation, and the most generally diffused among the nations of Europe. The people of France are active, brave, and inge- nious; they are polished and gay in their deportment and manners; and polite- ness and urbanity may be traced through all classes of society, from the highest to the lowest ; those in the upper ranks are very attentive to the graceful accom- plishments, and excel in dancing, fencing, &c., and their example is followed as much as possible by their inferiors. The women take an active part in all the concerns and business of life : at court they are politicians ; in the city they are merchants, accountants, and shopkeepers; and in the country they labour on the farms with the men. The local divisions of France, prior to the revolution, were provinces, 32 in number, most of which had formed independent States, and even little kingdoms, when they merged into the mass of the French monarchy. The National Assembly, however, superseded this division by one into departments, much more minute, the number of which, including Corsica, is 86 ; this arrange- ment has been retained by the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative ope- rations. The population of France, in 1780, was estimated at 24,800,000; in 1817, 29,000,000; and at the present time about 32,500,000. The colonies of France are, in North America, the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon ; in the West Indies, Guadalupe, Martinico, Marie, Galante, Les Saints, La Desirade, and St. Martins ; in South America, Cayenne; in Africa, Algiers, Senegal, Goree, Albreda, and the Isle of Bourbon ; in Asia, Pondicherry and Ka- rikal on the Coromandel coast ; Chandernagore, in Bengal ; and Mahe, on the Malabar coast. The population of the colonies is estimated at 2,285,000, which, added to the population of France, makes a total for the subjects of the French monarchy of 34,785,000. America 225,000 Africa 1,900,000 Asia 160,000 France 32,500,000 Colonies 2,285,000 Total 34,785,000 FRANCE. 351 Corsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated between the coast of Italy and the Island of Sardinia, about 100 miles from the coast of France, and forms a part of that kingdom ; it is 110 miles in length, and of an unequal breadth ; area, 3880 square miles. Population, in 1831, 185,079. This island is covered with mountains, the principal chain dividing it into two unequal parts ; the high- est summit is Monte Rotonda, 9900 feet, and is covered with snow the greater part of the year. The soil, though stony and but little cultivated, is productive in corn, wine, oranges, lemons, figs, &c. ; but the chief wealth consists in oil, chest- nuts, and timber. The fisheries are valuable. Bastia, the largest town, has a population of 9527. Ajaecio, on the western coast, was the birth-place of Napoleon. The land in Corsica is mostly public property. The commerce consists chiefly in the exporta- tion of coral, which abounds on the coasts. A narrow strait on the south divides this island from Sardinia. The main-land of Italy is within 50 miles of the north- ern part. Paris, the capital of France, is the second city in Europe for population, and may be considered the capital of the world for the sciences, arts, and politeness. It is inclosed by a wall 17 miles in circuit, and is more closely built and inhabited than London. Surveyed from a central point it presents a form nearly circular, with the River Seine flowing through it. The eastern part is the most ancient, and most irregularly built ; here the streets are narrow and crooked. The west- ern part is modern and well built. The Boulevards constitute a wide mall with four rows of trees passing in an irregular course around the central part of the city ; they occupy the site of the ancient walls of Paris, rendered useless by the growing up of the city around them, and are two miles in extent. There is no- thing in Paris more striking than the Boulevards. The exterior Boulevard is a broad streak on the outer 6ide of the wall which encircles the city. But a small portion of this is built upon. The Boulevard most frequently mentioned, is in the midst of the city. Different parts of this are called by different names, as the Boulevard des Italiens, from its vicinity to the Italian opera, Boulevard du Tem- ple, &c. The Champ de Mars is an oblong park bordered by rows of trees, and extending from the Military School to. the river; it is the spot commonly appropriated to the reviews of troops and great public festivities. The gardens of the Tuileries to the west of the palace are elegantly laid out with gravelled walks, terraces, plots of flowers, shrubs, groves of trees and basins of water, interspersed with beautiful statues in bronze and marble. These are the favourite walks of the Parisians, and on Sundays they resort hither in crowds. The Luxembourg gardens in the southerly part of the city also afford beautiful walks. The Champs Elysees form a spacious common in the western part, and the entrance to the city in this quarter is one of the finest avenues in the world. Another fine square in Paris is the Place Vendome, in the centre of which stands a column erected by Napoleon in commemoration of the Austerlitz campaign ; it is covered with bas-reliefs in bronze, made from the cannon taken in the campaign. The banks of the Seine are beautified by noble quays, and the stream is crossed by 16 bridges, 12 of which are of stone, and 2 of iron. On the Pont Neuf stands an equestrian statae of Henry IV. in bronze, one of the finest ornaments of the city. A similar one of Louis XIV. occupies a small area called the Place des Victoires. A great number of elegant fountains adorn and purify the streets and markets. An immense fountain in the shape of an elephant, in bronze, was begun by Napoleon on the spot occupied by the Bastile, but still remains unfin- ished. The church of Notre Dame is a noble gothic edifice, 390 feet in length, with towers 204 feet high. It was 200 years in building, and was finished about the year 1200. It stands in the most ancient part of Paris, on the island in the Seine called la cite. The church of St. Genevieve is now called the Pantheon, and is designed as a mausoleum for the ashes of celebrated men; it is a magnificent edi- fice in the modern style. The Hospital of Invalids is an immense building, designed for the residence of disabled soldiers. It is surmounted by a splendid! 352 FRANCE. gilt dome, which alone was 30 years in building, and is esteemed one of the mas- terpieces of French architecture. The Jardin des Plantes is the noblest collection of interesting objects in Natural History that has ever been formed. The public buildings in Paris which deserve notice for their size and magnificence are too numerous even to be mentioned here. In this respect Paris is far above London. The Tuileries form an exten- sive and somewhat irregular pile nearly one-fifth of a mile in front, which has a noble effect. The Louvre is a model of symmetry, and is thought to make the nearest approach to perfection of any modern building. It contains 1000 paint- ings, 1500 statues, and 20,000 drawings. The libraries of Paris are very large, and formed upon the most liberal prin- ciples. Most of them are public, and accessible at all times to the rich and poor. The Royal Library contains above 500,000 volumes, besides 100,000 manuscripts, 100,000 medals, many hundreds of thousands of tracts, and 1,500,000 engravings. This library is crowded constantly by persons of all classes in pursuit of know- ledge. The other libraries have from 150,000 volumes downward. There are about 30 theatres, large and small, in Paris. All the theatres in France pay a tenth part of their receipts to the poor. The houses in the older parts of Paris are very high. The streets are generally without sidewalks, and some are paved with flat stones. All those parts without tlie Boulevards are called fauxbourgs. The gates of the city are denominated barriers, and here passengers must exhibit their passports, and merchandise pay a duty on entering the city. The population of Paris is 890,531. The neighbourhood of Paris is highly cultivated, and there are many sites at once beautiful and romantic. The celebrated St. Cloud, with its superb palace, its park, gardens, cascade, fine view and political associations, is within 5 miles; and Versailles, with its magnificent but melancholy grandeur, is within 12 miles of the capital. Lyons is generally considered as the second city in France, and as foremost in regard to commerce and industry. It is on the whole a noble city. The quays along the Rhone are superb. The cathedral is highly ornamented in the florid gothic style ; and the squares, especially the Place de Bellecour, with its foun- tains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the old streets are narrow, bordered by lofty and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn into them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous pas- sages, watered by the sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jacobins, who made it a chief theatre of those atrocities that render- ed them the horror of mankind. To say nothing of the massacres perpetrated under the appellation of fusillades and noyades, they studiously broke in pieces all the manufacturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced all the ornaments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and demolished the whole of the cathedral except the walls. Her citizens have made diligent efforts to restore her prosperity, and not without success; still the want of capital and the stagnation of trade are serious obstructions, and cause the evils of poverty among a large population to be severely felt. Population, 107,875. Marseilles, on the Mediterranean, is the chief commercial city of France. It is completely inclosed except towards the sea by a succession of rocky hills, ex- tending in the form of a crescent, with each horn touching fhe sea. The old town rises to the north like an amphitheatre, and is composed of narrow streets and ill-built houses. The new town is equal in beauty to any city in France ; the streets are broad and straight ; the squares large and handsome, and the build- ings remarkable for their elegance. The quays are crowded with an immense multitude of persons speaking different languages and wearing the costume of various countries. The environs are well cultivated. Population, 115,943. Bordeaux, near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in France, and, indeed, in Europe. Situated at the mouth of the Garonne, which here allows the largest vessels to ascend to its port, it exports all the valuable produce of this great southern plain, of which the wines are said to amount to 100,000, and brandy to 20,000 pipes annually. It is engaged also in colonial SPAIN. 353 trade, and in the cod and whale fisheries. Recent travellers remark a greater display of wealth and prosperity in this than in any other of the French commer- cial cities. Every thing is on a grand scale, and buildings are in progress, which, when finished, will leave it without a rival in France. The theatre, designed after that of Milan, is considered a model of architectural beauty. Many of the ecclesiastical structures were founded by the English. A very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bordeaux. Population, 93,549. Rouen, on the Seine, below Paris, was formerly a place of much wealth, and is famous for its manufacturing of jewelry. It is not remarkable for elegance ; but displays the quaint and an- tique architecture of many other French towns. Population, 90,000. Nantes, on the Loire, near its mouth, is a considerable commercial place, and a part of it is very elegantly built. Population, 71,739. Lille, 140 miles north-east of Paris, is a frontier town, and well fortified ; it is surrounded by walls, and was fortified by Vauban ; the citadel is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Popula- tion, 69,860. Toulouse, on the canal of Languedoc, is next in antiquity to Paris. It is surrounded by walls, and has a town house and church of great magnifi- cence. Population, 53,319. Strasburg, on the borders of Germany, is one of the best fortified cities in Europe. The steeple of its cathedral is 574 feet high, and is the loftiest point of any building in Europe. Population, 50,000. Orleans, on the Loire, has a noble cathedral and bridge. Population, 40,340. Avignon, on the Rhone, was once the residence of the popes ; and Nimes, in the same neighbourhood, possesses the remains of a large Roman amphitheatre. Popula- tion, 31,180. Toulon, a little to the east of Marseilles, is an important seaport, and has an arsenal and magazine, containing an immense quantity of stores for the navy. Population, 30,171. Brest, at the entrance of the British Channel, is the chief naval station of the kingdom. It has a quay a mile in length. Popula- tion, 26,655. SPAIN. Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula, the most southern, and also the most western, portion of Europe ; and is only connected by an isthmus about a hundred miles broad, traversed by the Pyrenees, a chain holding the second rank among the mountains of Europe. It is thus almost insulated from the rest of the continent. Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and France, east and south by the Mediterranean and the Straits of Gibraltar, and west by Portugal and the Atlan tic. It extends from 35° 57' to 43° 44' north latitude, and from 3° 8' east to 9° 18' west longitude. Its greatest length from east to west is 640 miles, breadth 530, area 183,000 square miles. Spain is a mountainous country, and a large portion of it has an elevated surface. The Pyrenees form its north-eastern barrier, and are connected with the Cantabrian chain, which extends throughout the north of Spain, parallel with the Bay of Biscay. About the middle of this range a second- ary chain separates from it, extending to the south, and branching into four chains, extending to the east and west. The mountain of Montserrat is a detached emi- nence of the eastern Pyrenees, about 30 miles north-west of Barcelona. It con- sists of a cluster of sharp peaks, rising to the height of 3300 feet, and always capped with clouds. The whole mountain is 24 miles in circumference. There are fourteen hermitages upon different parts of these heights, and about half-way up is a magnificent convent of Benedictines. The scenery in every part of this remarkable eminence is strikingly bold and romantic. The rivers of Spain form an important feature in its geography. None of them, however, are of much importance as mediums of communication : they have mostly shallow and rocky beds, and dry up in summer to such a degree as to be nearly useless for navigation. The principal are, the Tagus, Ebro, Guadiana, Guadal- quivir, Duero, Guadalavia, Xucar, &c. This country lies in the southern part of the temperate zone. The cold is 30* 2U 354 SPAIN. never excessive even in the northern parts. In the south, the heats of midsummer would be intolerable, but for the sea-breeze, which begins at nine in the morning and continues till five in the evening. The interior is so elevated, as to be much cooler than might be expected from the latitude. The two Castiles form a raised plain nearly 2000 feet in height. The provinces along the Mediterranean are the paradise of this kingdom. An everlasting spring seems to reign in this de- lightful country. The sky of Andalusia is pure azure and gold ; the inhabitants of Seville affirm, that a day was never known when the sun did not shine upon their city. . The greater part of the land in Spain belongs to the nobility, the church, and towns, or corporate bodies. The state of agriculture is wretched in the extreme, and the implements of husbandry are very rude. Wheat, rye, barley, hemp, and maize, are cultivated in almost all the provinces. Olives are cultivated in the southern parts ; and in this quarter may be seen large fields of saffron, and rice, and cotton plantations. Every part of the country produces wine. Spain has naturally great commercial advantages, yet the mercantile trade of the kingdom bears no proportion to its capabilities for commerce. The means of transportation internally are very defective. The arrieros or carriers are the travelling merchants of the country. They have long been accustomed to trade only on certain roads, and hardly anything will tempt them out of their old track. Wine, fruit, and manufactured goods, are the chief exports. The official value of the imports, for 1826, was 3,267,000Z. The exports were 1,584,000/. The chief manufactures are those of silk at Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Madrid ; they employ 18,000 looms. Spain has the finest wool in Europe, but the woollen fabrics are small. Tobacco is manufactured only at Seville. Leather, paper, hats, and soap, are made in different parts. There is a royal manufactory of mirrors at St. Ildefonso. Earthen-ware is made in considerable quantities. The distillation of brandy is very extensive. The rivers, as well as the coasts of Spain, abound in, fish, particularly anchovies and tunnies, large quantities of which are taken and exported. These fisheries constitute the chief occupation of the inhabitants in the province of Galicia. The rearing of sheep is an important branch of industry in Spain. The fineness of the Spanish merino wool is well known. There are no less than 16,000 shep- herds, and the number of sheep, in 1826, was 18,687,159. Two shepherds will drive a flock of 1000 or 1200. They leave the mountains of Old Castile in Octo- ber, and feed their flocks in the plains of Estremadura and Andalusia, till May, when they return, and the shearing commences ; a season no less joyous in Spain than the vintage. The cultivation and manufacture of barilla is carried on extensively in the districts bordering on the Mediterranean. This alkali is the product of a vegeta- ble, which is planted by seed ; when grown, it is pulled up, stacked and dried. Circular pits are then made in the ground and heated; bars are laid across these, and the weed piled upon them, where it melts, drops into the pit, and hardens into a mass. The army of Spain, which under Charles V. and Philip was the bravest and most formidable in Europe, has for a century and a half ranked very low among military nations. It is, however, at present the best organized part of her estab- lishment. It consists of 25,000 royal guards, and 55,000 troops of the line and provincial militia, which, being commanded by experienced officers, formed during a period of protracted warfare, possess a considerable degree of efficiency ; and their discontent being an object of dread, every effort is made to pay them regu- larly. The royalist volunteers, amounting to about 300,000 men, form a hand of armed fanatics almost entirely under the command of the priests and monks, and seeking in their favour to lord it both over king and people. The navy, at the commencement of the late war, was at least respectable, and a formidable auxiliary to France. The fatal days of St. Vincent and Trafalgar, and the fruitless expeditions to South America, reduced it to a feeble state. In 1826 it consisted of ten ships of the line, sixteen frigates, and thirty smaller vessels. SPAIN. . 355 Spain is an absolute monarchy, in which the power of the king has no limits but the slender barrier that public opinion can, in a country without education or a press, interpose. The evils of this kind of government have in Spain been pecu- liarly aggravated, by the individual character of the monarchs. The title of Catho- lic Majesty, which was granted by the pope to Ferdinand in 1496, has been con- tinued to the succeeding sovereigns. In the king's titles are enumerated all territories which he holds, or at any time has held. The heir apparent is called Prince of Asturia. Infanta is the title of all the other royal children. Either the spirit or the administration of the laws must be defective, for neither life nor property is universally safe. There are several ancient codes, and the civil and canon laws have some authority. Justice in Spain carries with it more terror than mercy ; and is avoided„as a pestilence. It is now, as in the time of Gil Bias, perilous alike for the guilty and the innocent to enter its courts. When a murder is committed, all run from the dying victim as they would from the murderer : and when one is found murdered in a house, the very walls of the dwelling are stripped by the hungry followers of justice. The religion is strictly Roman Catholic. The number of archbishoprics is 8, and there are 51 bishoprics. The archbishop of Toledo is primate of Spain, and his income is nearly 100,000/. The ecclesiastics of all classes, including monks and nuns, are 188,625. There are 32,000 females confined in cloisters. The king nominates to all ecclesiastical dignities, and even to the smaller benefices. The clergy are rich, ignorant, and dissolute. They are the most powerful body in Spain, but their influence is diminishing. They retain a strong hold upon the favour of the lower class, and distribute from monasteries daily alms or food to the poor. Yet they give back but little of what they receive, and a monk passes a life of indolence and abundance in Spain. There are fifteen universities in Spain, but these are under the priests, and seem to be so directed as to spread error, and encourage ignorance rather than knowledge. All the elementary schools are in no better condition. There is a school of medicine at Madrid, and several of surgery there and at other towns; an academy for engineers, at Zamora; one for artillery, at Segovia, together with a marine school ; and there are schools for drawing, mathematics, mining, and com- merce, at other places. There are many associations called learned societies. There are twelve public libraries, besides those belonging to the monasteries. There are botanic gardens at Madrid, Cadiz, Carthagena, and St. Lucar ; a cabinet of natural history, coins, and antiquities, at Madrid ; and several observatories, as at Madrid, Ferrol, &c. The books which it is the policy of the monastic Me- caeneses to spread, are lives of saints, deaths of martyrs, and legends of the eleven thousand virgins. The revenue of Spain was once the largest in Europe, but is now greatly re- duced. In 1828, it amounted to 5,980,000Z. The debt in the same year was 160,000,000/. : it is rapidly accumulating. The system of taxation is very de- fective, and varies according to the exigencies of the government. Spain is divided into 14 provinces, some of which have the title of kingdoms; each of these has its separate administration, and most of them are subdivided into several smaller provinces. Of all the immense territories in America which formerly belonged to Spain, none remain under her dominion but the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico. In Africa, she possesses Ceuta," Melilla, Pennon and Al- bucenas on the Barbary Coast, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic. In Asia, are the Philippines, Caroline and Ladrone Islands. The number of inhabitants in Spain was estimated, in 1826, at 13,732.172. Of these, 127,345 belonged to the clergy; 100,732 were soldiers, and 14,064 sailors. The population of the colonies is estimated at 4,088,000, making a total of 17,830,172 for the Spanish monarchy. There are only two navigable canals of any importance. The Imperial Canal was begun by the emperor Charles V., with the intention of uniting Navarre with the Mediterranean. It was interrupted for 200 years. It begins at Navarre, and is finished as far as Saragossa. It is 74 feet wide and 10£ feet deep, being navi- gable for vessels of 100 tons. The canal of Castile is partly executed, and is de- ^56 SPAIN. signed to connect the Duero with the harbour of Santander pn the Bay of Biscay. There are several other small canals in different parts of the kingdom. The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, consisting of Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Fromentera, with some smaller ones. Majorca, the largest, is about 100 miles from the coast. It is 40 miles in extent each way, and is mountainous. Minorca possesses the valuable harbour of Port Mahon. These islands have generally a good soil, and produce oranges, olives, wine, &c., and they have 184,005 inhabitants. Madrid, the capital of Castile, and of " all the Spains," stands on several low hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the north appears bounded by the high distant range of the Guadarrama, but on every other side has no visible ter- mination. A small rivulet, the Manzanares, flows past the city, and falls into the Tagus. Madrid is a superb but somewhat gloomy capital ; the houses are high, well built of good stone, not defaced by smoke ; the streets are well paved, and have broad footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long, spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admiration. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public fountains, supplied with pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built by Charles III. are uncommonly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala ; but in a miserable wall which might be battered down by a three-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious and magnificent structure, though the taste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The Retiro, with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post ; an extensive and costly menagerie is now forming within its precincts. The museum of statuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the government, is also a handsome structure, and its con- tents valuable. The environs of Madrid are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows ; so that, of the 200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population, 201,000. Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 150,000 inhabitants. The port is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but has a bar at its entrance, which excludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a great and various traffic ; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale ; about a thousand vessels annually entered its port ; and the whole amount of exports was reckoned at 1,750,000Z. According to the most re- cent accounts, the late disasters and misgovernment have caused a great declen- sion in the above branches of manufacture ; and instead of the ranges of tall masts assembled within its mole, there are to be seen only a paltry assemblage of fishing-boats and feluccas. The ecclesiastical edifices of Barcelona are handsome, particularly the cathedral, though not of so grand a character as those in some other parts of Spain. The convent of the Dominicans has a singular series of ornaments, the sentences of five hundred heretics decreed by the Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of the sufferer, whom the demons, in various shapes, are torturing and devouring. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its chief dependence is upon the citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered almost impregnable. Seville, the capital of Andalusia, was founded by the Phoenicians, and is beauti- fully situated on the Guadalquivir. It rises in the midst of a plain, covered with olive plantations, hamlets, villages, and convents. It was formerly very rich and populous, being the chief mart for the American and India trade. The public buildings are very elegant. The general appearance of the city indicates the Moorish character of its former possessors. The streets are narrow, but clean ; the houses are whitewashed, and furnished with balconies ; every third or fourth house has a garden and orangery. The cathedral is one of the largest in Spain, SPAIN. 357 and contains the tomb of Columbus. The emperors Trajan and Hadrian were born here. The inhabitants manufacture silk, tobacco, snuff and cigars. Popu- lation, 91,000. Cadiz, on the Atlantic coast, has, by means of its excellent harbour, engrossed the trade once enjoyed by Seville. This city stands upon the isle of Leon, which is connected with the continent by a bridge. Nothing can surpass the beauty of the town when viewed from the harbour, and when the eye takes in the numerous country-seats in the neighbourhood. The streets are clean, well paved and lighted. The houses are somewhat in the Moorish style, with flat roofs, covered with a hard plaster, and the greater part of them crowned with turrets. From the height of the houses, the narrowness of the streets, and the smallness of the windows, many parts of the city have a gloomy appearance. Here are two cathedrals and a very large hospital. The city is strongly fortified, and is one of the most important seaports in Spain. Since the loss of the American Colonies, however, its commerce has teen much reduced. Its population has a more mixed and diversified aspect than that of any other city in the kingdom. Population, 53,000. Granada, the capital of the kingdom of that name, was founded by the Moors; and at the period of their greatest glory, contained 400,000 inhabitants. It is still celebrated as the most beautiful city in Spain, although its population has dwin- dled to 80,000. The houses are nearly all in the Moorish style. It has many beautiful squares, fountains, and public buildings, with 7 colleges and 11 hospitals. In the immediate neighbourhood is the Alhambra, a magnificent Moorish palace, occupying the space of a small town. Every traveller has been struck with ad- miration at the sight of its splendid halls, golden saloons, courts, alcoves, foun- tains, colonnades, and mosaic pavements, which almost realize the description of fairy land. , Valencia, on the Guadalaviar, at its entrance into the Mediterranean, has many manufactories, and is a rich and elegant city. No town of Spain has so many shops, coffee-houses, theatres, concerts, balls, amusements, and entertainments of every description. The surrounding country is highly cultivated, and forms a de- lightful garden, the air of which is loaded with perfumes. The city has a large commerce in the exportation of silk. Population, 66,000. Cordova, the capital of the kingdom of that name, stands on the Guadalquivir, and makes a splendid appearance at a distance. It contains a magnificent cathe- dral with 16 steeples and 4000 columns of jasper and marble. This building was originally a mosque, and was erected by the Caliph Abdalrahman. It affords an imposing evidence of the magnificent spirit and refined taste of the Spanish Moors. Cordova is now famous for its trade in leather. Population, 57,000. Its environs produce the finest breed of horses in Spain. Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, stands on the Ebro, and has considerable trade and manufactures. It is remarkable for the siege it sustained against the | French, during the peninsular war. Population, 43,000. Its university has 2000 students, but not much literature. Malaga and Alicant, on the Mediterranean, and Corunna and Bilbao, on the Atlantic, are also considerable seaports. The first is reckoned the third commercial town in the kingdom. It exports largely the well-known Malaga or mountain wine ; also, fine raisins and other fruits, an- chovies, &c. Population, 52,000. Bilbao is noted for its large exports of merino wool. Population, 15,000. To- ledo, once the proud capital of Spain, contained, in the days of its prosperity, a popul-.tion of 200,000, which has been reduced to 25,000. Its manufactures of wool and silk, which are said once to have employed nearly 40,000 men, have dis- appeared, and government has in vain attempted to revive that of swords, of which those formerly manufactured at Toledo were valued above all others. Com- postella, or St. Jago de Compostella, contains the most celebrated shrine of the peninsula, with the body of St. James, its patron. In the chapel dedicated to him, is his statue, two feet high, of pure gold, illuminated every night by 2000 wax tapers. Gibraltar is an important fortress, situated upon the strait which forms the en- 358 ANDORRA— PORTUGAL. trance to the Mediterranean. The fortifications occupy a craggy rock, rising to the height of 1439 feet. The town consists of one long street, passing along the foot of the rock. The whole forms a peninsula, washed on one side by the Me- diterranean, and on the other side by a bay, 5 miles in width. The rock is steep in every part, and so strongly fortified as to be impregnable. It was captured by the English, in 1704, and has been retained by them ever since. It was besieged in 1782, by a French and Spanish army of 30,000 men, and bombarded by floating batteries, but without effect. The British regard it as one of their most impor- tant possessions. The town is a general mart for goods from every quarter, and has a population of 12,000, mostly English. REPUBLIC OF ANSKDRRA. . This little republic, with a territory of hardly 200 square miles, and a popula- tion of about 15,000 souls, occupies a valley on the southern side of the Pyre- nees, situated between the Maladetta and the Moncal, and lying between Foix in France and Urgel in Spain. Beside Andorra, the capital, a town of 2000 in- habitants, it contains five villages, which export iron and timber. It is governed by a syndic, who presides over the council of the valley, and by two viguiers, ap- pointed, the one by the king of France, and the other by the bishop of Urgel. PORTUGAL. Portugal has by political causes alone been separated from Spain. There is no physical peculiarity by which the two kingdoms are distinguished. On the contrary, all the grand natural features of Spain are prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese. The boundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole extent, and also on the south ; on the north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia ; and on the east those of Estremadura and Leon. The greatest dimension is from north to south, or from 37° to 42° 10' north latitude, and it extends from 6° 15' to 9° 30' west longitude. Its surface is 38,800 square miles. The mountains of Portugal may be considered as prolongations of those of Spain, chiefly of the chains of Guadarrama and Toledo, and those in the north of Galicia. Those ranges, seldom rising to the first magnitude, cover almost the whole country, leaving between them many picturesque and fertile valleys. There are only two extensive plains, one on the south of the Tagus, and the other between the Mondego and the Douro. The rivers of Portugal consist chiefly of the spacious terminations of the great- est streams of Spain in their progress to the Ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium of Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. The Guadiana, also, in its lower course, flows along the eastern frontier of Portugal. The Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down from Galicia ; and the Mondego, alone, is entirely Portuguese, flowing nearly across the breadth of the kingdom. Portugal, after the downfall of the feudal system, and especially after her sub- jection to Philip II. became one of the most absolute of European governments. The Marquis of Pombal and one or two more enlightened men found their way into the ministry ; but, in general, measures were as ill conducted as possible, and corruption prevailed in every department of the state. The course of justice was equally polluted ; and, no adequate salaries being allowed to the judges, they were under an almost irresistible temptation to accept bribes. The pride of the nobles was nearly as great as in Spain, without being accompanied by the same lofty sentiments. They are divided into two branches, the titulados and the hidalgos, and have held the peasantry in a subjection little short of slavery. PORTUGAL. 359 The army of Portugal, prior to the revolution, though composed nominally of 30,000 men, was in a most inefficient state, not through want of physical courage or discipline in the men, but from the incapacity of the officers, and the general defects of the military system. When the French, however, had been driven out of Portugal, an army of 40,000 men was levied, and disciplined by British officers, under the superintendence of Lord Beresford ; and thus prepared, the Portuguese acted, during the eventful war which followed, in a manner that would not have disgraced any troops in Europe. The army is still maintained ; and though the new government will not brook British command, yet, under its influence, Portuguese officers of merit have been formed. The navy, which was never considerable, was carried out with the royal family to Brazil, and has never been restored. The industry and commerce of Portugal, which presented so brilliant an aspect during her era of prosperity, have sunk lower than those of almost any other European nation. Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have become general in the rest of Europe. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit trees, is cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hills, in the northern parts of the kingdom. Here is produced abundantly the port wine, which forms the main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wine Portugal produces about 60,000 pipes; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep are bred on the hills, to a pretty large extent ; but not so abundantly as in Spain, neither is their wool so fine. The manufactures of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighbour- hood ; all their finer fabrics are imported. Ignorance, or at least an imperfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among the Portuguese. Their carpentry and carriages of all kinds, their agricultural implements, locks, keys, &c. are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and silver plate, forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few other local objects might be enumerated. Of mines and fisheries, the former is not at all cultivated. Fish of the finest kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate consumption ; but the salt which the kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for preserving them ; and a large import of salted fish is still necessary to meet the wants of a population so rigidly Catholic. The commerce, which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her ports inter- changed the products of the East and the West, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian possessions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to the common routine of export and import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was secured first by favouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. The wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of the best quality is bought up by English mer- chants residing at Oporto. Another staple export of Portugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of the sun in the bay of St. Ubes, which seems as if expressly formed for that purpose. It is carried off chiefly by the English, to be employed in curing fish destined for the Portuguese market : the annual amount is estimated at 100,000 tons. There is also a considerable surplus of wool, of which 1,000,000 lbs. weight have been imported into England in one year. In return, Portugal takes grain, salt fish, and a variety of manufactures chiefly from Britain; but as her imports cannot much exceed the exports, she cannot afford a very copious market. The established and exclusive religion is the Catholic, in its extreme and most degrading excess; and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thral- dom of the priesthood. There were in Portugal about 550 religious houses, of which, 150 are nunneries, all of which were suppressed in 1834. Education is 360 PORTUGAL. in the lowest state. The task of teaching is imposed upon the monks, who are themselves grievously ignorant, and whose interest it is to keep others so. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, founded at Lisbon in 1290, was transferred to Coimbra in 1308. It enjoys 6ome celebrity, is divided into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students; but the course of study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller university was founded at Evora in 1578. The arts have hard- ly an existence in Portugal, and science and literature are much circumscribed. The literature consists chiefly in poetry, and excludes all philosophy. The very Latin partakes of the state of knowledge. That of the monks is unintelligible to the learned. Little has been done in Portugal for the mathematics, though some- thing has been effected for geography, natural history, and botany. The music is simple and sweet, and it is chiefly confined to songs. All the best foreign works are prohibited, and everything published is subjected to a strict censorship. The literature of Portugal, during the period of its glory, was by no means con- temptible. The genius and fate of Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets. No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Por- tuguese. They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at the same time fierce and deeply revengeful. In Spain it is said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues, and he becomes a good Portuguese. The peasantry, however, on repeated occasions during the late war, displayed energies not unworthy of their ancestors, in an age when their glory resounded throughout both hemispheres. The population of Portugal, according to the more probable estimates, amounts to 3,530,000. Upon a surface of 38,800 square miles, this gives a density of about ninety-one to the square mile, which is remarkable, as exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two. Portugal is divided into six provinces, several of which, like those of Spain in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes called kingdoms. The foreign possessions of Portugal are the Azore, Madeira, and Cape Verde Islands; Congo, Angola, Benguela, and Mozambique, in Africa; Goa and Macao, in Asia ; and Timor, in Malaysia. The population of these is estimated at 1,632,000 : in Africa, 1,057,000: in Asia, 575,000: total of the Portuguese monarchy, 5,162,000. Lisbon, the capital, stands on the north bank of the Tagus, 10 miles from its mouth. It rises gradually from the water, and makes a magnificent appearance from without. The harbour, formed by the expansion of the river, is nine miles wide, and is one of the finest havens in the world. The interior of the city dis- appoints the expectation created by the first view. It is ill-built, with dirty, nar- row, and crooked streets, yet some parts of modern construction are not wanting in elegance. There are thirteen large squares, the finest of which is the Praca do Commercio ; this is fronted by elegant buildings, and bordered toward the river by the handsomest quays in Europe. In the centre is an equestrian statue of Joseph I. The cathedral is magnificent, and remarkable for the boldness of its dome. The Royal Hospital is an excellent institution, and there is a large found- ling hospital. Lisbon has also three observatories, many colleges and academies, 180 churches and chapels, 75 convents, and a royal library of 80,000 volumes. But the most remarkable edifice which it contains is the aqueduct of Bemfica. It is 10 miles in length ; some of its arches are 200 feet high and 100 feet wide. Altogether this is one of the most magnificent structures that have been erected in modem times, and is not inferior to any ancient work of the same kind. There are three royal palaces in Lisbon and the neighbourhood, and around the city are between six and seven thousand quintas, or country-houses. Population, 260,000. Oporto, or Porto, the ancient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom, is situated near the mouth of the Douro, on the northern bank, though on the southern are two extensive suburbs, supposed to have constituted the ancient city. The modern town is well-built, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. RUSSIA. 361 The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired amid the general diminution of that with America. There are about thirty English houses regularly settled here, besides a number of merchants who pay frequent visits to the place. The Oporto wine company, which enjoyed the monopoly of the port- wine trade of this city, was abolished in 1834. Population, 70,000. Coimbra is beautifully situated on the declivity of a hill, which rises above the Mondego; but the streets, as in other old Portuguese towns, are crowded, dirty, and very steep. It has been called the Athens of Portugal, from its extensive university, containing eighteen colleges, with forty professors, and about eight hundred students. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous MSS. ; but the actual value both of these and the printed works does not seem to have been fully investigated. Population, 15,000. St. Ubes is a considerable seaport south of the Tagus. It has a large exporta- tion of salt. Population, 15,000. Braga, near the northern boundary, has some [ fine Roman ruins. Population, 14,000. Elvas, in the west, is a strongly fortified town. Population, 10,000. Here is a remarkable aqueduct which leads the water into an enormous subterranean cistern under the ramparts of the town. Evora, to the east of Setubal, has many Roman remains, among which is a temple of Diana, now converted into public shambles. Population, 9050. Leiria, a little to the north of Lisbon, is beautifully situated in the midst of a narrow valley, and has a famous annual fair. Population, 7000. The convent of Batalha, 6 miles from this place, is one of the most remarkable Gothic structures in Europe. RUSSIA. European Russia is the chief portion of an empire of enormous extent, with vast capacities of improvement, and standing at present, if not first, at least in the very first rank, among military nations. It is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean, and especially by its great gulf, the White Sea. On the east, those grand natural limits, the mountains called the Urals, and the rivers Volga and Don, separate it from the Asiatic continent. On the south, it is bounded by the Euxine Sea and its gulfs, and by European Turkey. Westward, it unites with Russian Poland, which brings it in contact with the dominions of Prussia and Austria. It extends from about the 45th to the 68th degree of north latitude, and from the 21st to the 62d degree of east longitude; making about 1600 miles from north to south, and 1400 from east to west. The superficial extent is esti- mated to amount to 1,691,000 square miles ; and of the whole empire, 7,660,000. The surface of the Russian territory is the most level of any in Europe. That great tract of low land, which begins in northern Germany, expands in Russia to us greatest breadth, exceeding 1200 miles. A great portion, in the south espe- cially, consists of those immense levels, called steppes, over which the eye may range for hundreds of miles without meeting a hill ; only some large ancient tu- muli occasionally diversify their surface. They terminate only at the long chain of the Urals, which, rising like a wall, separates them from the equally vast plains of Siberia. The Urals are scarcely known, unless where the road to Asia passes over them: there they are neither very lofty nor very steep, but well wooded, and rich in minerals, especially on the Asiatic side. The mountains of Olonetz, on the north, appear to be a prolongation of those of Sweden ; while, on the extreme south, the Crimea displays some steep and picturesque, though not very lofty ranges. The rivers of Russia are of the first magnitude ; though the distant and insu- lated seas in which they terminate, incalculably diminish their commercial impor- tance. The Volga is the greatest river of the empire and of Europe. It rises in the frontier of Novogorod, not far from the Baltic, and traverses in a S. E. line all the central provinces. After receiving, from the Asiatic side, the" Kama, its greatest tributary, it flows chiefly S. S. E., forming the boundary of Europe and jjj ■ ~ 2V 362 RUSSIA. Asia, till, after a course of about 2700 miles, it opens by numerous mouths into the Caspian, near Astrachan. Large and broad streams, spreading over the southern plains, slowly make their way to the Black Sea. Of these, the chief are the Dnieper, the Don, one of the boundaries of Europe, and the smaller east- ern stream of the Dniester. The Dwina, or Duna, rising from a source not far distant from that of the Borysthenes, rolls a broad navigable stream towards the Baltic. Another Dwina, in the north, flows towards Archangel ; and during that brief portion of the year when it is free from ice, conveys to that remote haven the commodities of a wide extent of country. Lakes are not very characteristic of Russia; yet those of Ladoga and Onaga, in the north, are several hundred miles in circumference, and form a sort of continuation of the Gulf of Finland. Finland also is covered with numerous winding lakes, of varied form and dimen- sions ; but all these, surrounded by flat and bleak shores and frozen plains, present little that is striking in point of scenery, and afford few facilities tor internal in- tercourse. The government of Russia is despotism, under which the knout is administered even to nobles of the highest rank, who may have incurred the displeasure of the sovereign. The emperors have, indeed, endeavoured in some degree to mitigate this absolute power, and have even formed a directing senate of sixty-two mem- bers, divided into departments ; but this body is entirely composed of individuals nominated by the monarch, and serves little other purpose than that of promul- gating his ukases or decrees. Slavery is general. All the lands, with the ex- ception of a few corners, are cultivated by serfs; and the value of a nobleman's estate is reckoned by the number, not of acres, but of slaves. The sovereign power has been generally exerted in a beneficent manner, to ameliorate the con- dition of the slaves, and to promote their emancipation, but hitherto with very imperfect success. Their treatment, on the whole, is far milder than in the West Indies: still the most abject submission is required, and the lash is in pretty gene- ral use. They frequently agree with their masters to pay them an annual rent, or obrok, on condition of their being allowed to migrate to towns, and to carry on trades. Many of them have, in this way, acquired very great wealth. The revenues of Russia bear little proportion to the extent of her territory, her natural resources, or even her population. They arise from a capitation-tax from the peasants ; a tax from merchants, on their capital ; custom-house duties on imported goods; stamps, coinage, postage: government assumes also the mono- poly of distillation; and, in Siberia, the mines are wrought on its account, and the tribute of the subject races is paid in furs: but these last sources, subject to the usual mismanagement and corruption of the agents of an absolute government, produce probably very little. The total amount is supposed to be about 13,000,000£. sterling, burdened with a very large amount of debt; the greater part of which being depreciated paper-money, fetters greatly the operations both of finance and commerce. The military force of Russia is the subject of anxiety and terror to Europe ; and has, indeed, if official statements may be credited, attained to a most enormous amount. According to them, it rose, in 1820, to no less than 989,000 men, inde- pendent of the national guard. This was no doubt an exaggeration. In 1832, the whole effective strength of the army is said to have amounted to 666,000 men. The real strength of the Russian army has always consisted, not in its numbers, but in the passive and iron valour of its infantry, and the rapid and skilful move- ments of its irregular cavalry ; the Cossacks, the Baschkirs, and other Asiatic nomades. Its field artillery also has commanded the admiration of the best tacti- cians. To render Russia a naval European power, in which character she had no ex- istence at the commencement of the last century, was the object of strenuous effort both to Peter and Catherine. A navy was accordingly created on the Baltic and Black Sea, which enabled Russia to become predominant in both. The pre- sent emperor has shown a strong predilection in favour of the navy, which has of late years rapidly improved in the effective number of ships and men, and in its general organization. In 1832, it consisted of 40 ships of the line, 35 frigates, RUSSIA. 363 28 corvettes and brigs, and nearly 300 smaller vessels, manned by about 44,000 men. The industry of Russia is in a very unimproved state, owing to her long bar- barism, the prevalence of slavery, and the thin population scattered over immense tracts of territory. These tracts, however, being, in many parts, of great natural fertility, yield a large amount of bulky and useful commodities, which can be ex- changed for the delicate productions and fine manufactures of the south and the west. The agriculture is extremely rude, and can never make much progress while all the husbandmen are enslaved and depressed. In the interior, the plough is a wretched instrument, which, dragged by one horse, merely scratches the surface ; and the harrow is composed wholly of wood. In the south alone can the land be said to be really ploughed ; and, even there, the rotation of crops is very little un- derstood. Nevertheless, in every part of Russia there is a surplus of grain : in the north, chiefly of oats, with some rye and barley ; in the south, of the very finest wheat, in such abundance as might render this the granary of the west. The manufactures, notwithstanding the efforts made by government, continue still in a rude state. The most national of them are coarse fabrics from hemp and flax, sail-cloth, duck, sheeting, sackcloth ; all of which are supplied by Russia, of better quality, and at a cheaper rate, than they can be had elsewhere. Govern- ment, also, by the high rewards with which they have allured foreign manufac- turers, has succeeded in establishing extensive fabrics of iron and hardware, par- ticularly of arms. They have also been able to establish silk and cotton works in the two capitals, but not sufficient for internal supply. Coarse woollens, in great quantity, are articles of domestic manufacture for family use. The commerce of Russia is very considerable, in consequence of her large surplus of rude produce, and of the extensive wants which luxury has created, and which can only be supplied from abroad. The interior communications from one end of the empire to the other, are of vast e#tent. The rivers which inter- sect its wide level plains are almost all navigable ; and those which flow into the Baltic approach closely to others which direct their course to the Euxine and the Caspian ; the Dwina to the Dnieper, and the Neva to the Volga. Colonial pro- duce, particularly sugar, cotton-twist, wine, dyewoods, silks, &c, form the princi- pal articles of import. During the year 1830, 5690 ships entered the different ports of the Russian empire, exclusive of those on the Caspian Sea. In the course of the same year, 5907 ships cleared out from the different ports. The canal navigation of Russia, so far as it has hitherto been carried, has been exclu- sively the work of government. The Canal of Ladoga joins the lake of that name with the Neva; it is 67j miles long, and 70 feet broad. The Canal of Vishnei Vosholk connects the Caspian Sea at Astrachan, with the Baltic at St Petersburg. A canal is now in progress to extend the communication from St. Petersburg to Archangel. There are 8 or 10 other canals completed, or in a state of forwardness. These works have all been executed since the accession of Peter the Great. The religion of Russia, so far as relates to establishment, is that of the Greek church, which is professed with many superstitious observances. The worship of j images is carried to a great extent, though the letter of the scriptural prohibition is sought to be evaded by having only the drapery in relief, and the face flat and painted. With these representations, not only the church#s are filled, but every serf has one in his cottage, to which he pays sundry and uncouth acts of obei- sance. Fasts are frequent, long, and rigidly observed ; but at the festivals they indemnify themselves by an excess of eating, which not unfrequently proves fatal. The higher orders of clergy are all monks, well endowed, living usually retired and regular lives, and often possessed of considerable learning ; but they come little in contact with the body of the nation. Of these there are thirty-three bishops and archbishops. The secular clergy have been estimated at 160,000, and their places of worship at 70,000. There are 480 monasteries, and 156 nun- neries. The Lutherans, estimated at 2,500,000, are nearly confined to Finland and Livonia. The Crimea, and some other southern districts, are Mahometan. 364 RUSSIA. The Catholics and Unitarian Greeks are nearly confined to the Polish provinces. The Russian government professes, and generally administers, an absolute tolera- tion, and even equality of rights among the different religious professions ; yet the caprice of despotism sometimes issues very tyrannical mandates. Such was the recent one, prohibiting the Jews from exercising any of the trades by which they have hitherto gained a subsistence, and enjoining them to apply solely to ag- riculture, which they had always shunned; and another, by which they were banished from both the capitals. Russia in Europe is divided into 54 governments. In a more popular view, it is regarded as consisting of 5 divisions ; the provinces of the Baltic, Great Rus- sia, Little Russia, Southern Russia, and Western Russia. In 1722, the population of Russia was rated at 14,000,000: it amounted, in 1795, to 36,000,000; in 1824, to 50,000,000; and at the present time, including Poland, it is probably not less than 56,800,000; and of the whole Russian empire, 65,000,000. The basis of this great population is entirely Sclavonic, a race dis- tinguished by a peculiar language ; by a patient, hardy, obstinate, enduring char- acter, and by a very limited extent of intellectual culture. There are about 3,000,000 of the Finnish race, principally in Finland. Tartars also inhabit the Crimea, and have penetrated into some of the southern provinces. The great body of the nation is divided, without medium or gradation, into the distinct classes of nobles and slaves. The few who struggle between these opposite extremes are insulated and unprotected individuals who can scarcely attain a place or char- acter in society. The nobles include in their numbers many well-informed, intel- ligent, and liberal individuals. Their cultivation, both as to manner and intellect, is principally derived from France, whose language is almost exclusively spoken at court, and whose writers alone are generally read. The fortunes of the no- bility are in some cases truly enormous, especially when compared with the cheap- ness of provisions. The head of the Scheremetov family, reckoned the richest, is said to have 125,000 slaves, estimated at 150 rubles each. The nobles gene- rally spend these estates in profuse and ostentatious hospitality, combining, though not very tastefully, the open house of the feudal baron, with the elegance and splendour of Parisian luxury. The slaves, the other dire extreme of Russian society, form still the great mass of the people. This ill-fated class is divested of every right, political and per- sonal, scarcely excepting that of life. The master has the full power of the scourge, which is liberally exercised, and of every other corporal punishment which does not produce death in twenty-four hours. There is, indeed, a law by which the master may, in that case, be brought to justice; and there are marshal's courts, to which, in certain cases, the slave may appeal ; but these means of re- dress are practically very precarious. The introduction of literature has been an object of anxious concern to the Russian monarchs, who have yet been able to illuminate only partially the night of ignorance in which their vast empire has been plunged. The Russian is be- ginning to be a written language, and the works of some of her literary men have of late drawn attention even beyond Russia. The public establishments are highly endowed and patronized. The Academy of Science was founded by Cathe- rine I., who assigned to it an income of 5000Z. The Academy of Arts was founded by Elizabeth, but enlarged by Catherine II., who allowed it 12,000Z. of annual revenue, to be employed in supporting 300 pupils, and in procuring the best models of every kind. The Imperial Library is extensive, and a fine cabinet of painting has been formed by the purchase of several collections. The university of Petersburg was founded in 1805, by Alexander, and endowed with an income of 130,000 rubles. Ignorance is everywhere general in Russia ; yet much has been done to spread the means of education. Steps have been taken, and at vast expense, that must hereafter diffuse knowledge over the empire. Every parish, or two parishes united, must have a school ; and besides these, there are 503 general establish- ments, with 1505 teachers, besides 51 gymnasia, one in the capital of each go- vernment. In the latter, the students are prepared for the universities, of which ■————■— I ■ m i . » — i M Bweg a— — —» RUSSIA. 365 there are seven, viz., one at Moscow, St. Petersburg, Wilna, Dorpat, Charkof, Kasan, and Abo. There are several schools for the education of instructers, and upwards of 150 schools attended by students in theology. The Jews have a cele- brated national institution, and there are besides, medical, mineral, mining, ma- rine, and other schools. Many of the amusements in Russia are those of the children in other countries. A large assembly will often entertain themselves with forfeits and other similar games. In the cities, ice mountains form a favourite recreation. These are inclined planes, high and steep, covered with ice, down which the people descend in cars or on skates, and with the greatest velocity. There are swings used of various sorts, some turning in a perpendicular, and others in a horizontal manner. On certain festivals, all these are placed in the public squares, and the people mingle in the amusements with much animation, and without distinction of rank. St. Petersburg, the metropolis of the Russian empire, is situated at the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland, and is built partly upon the mainland, and partly upon some small islands near the mouth of the Neva. One of its entrances is adorned with a magnificent triumphal arch. The foundation of the city is ex- tremely marshy, and so low as to subject the city to frequent inundations from the waters of the gulf. It was founded in 1703, by Peter the Great, the spot being then occupied only by a few fishermen's huts. The streets of the city are from 70 to 150 feet wide, and are mostly intersected by spacious canals, embanked by parapets of hewn stone, and spanned at convenient distances by arched bridges of magnificent construction. The quays along the Neva are remarkably magnificent. The English Quay is nearly three miles in length. The houses are usually of brick, covered with stucco, and present a white and dazzling appearance at a dis- tance. The views upon the borders of the Neva are of an extremely grand and lively description. The river is deep, rapid, and as transparent as crystal ; and its banks are lined on each side with a continued range of noble buildings. One of the chief subjects worthy of attention here, is the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, in bronze, erected by Catherine II. The Kazan church, built of marble, is a work of stupendous dimensions ; but that of St. Isaac, now near its completion, will perhaps surpass it in magnificence. The Admiralty as a spacious and magnificent edifice, and the spire being covered with gilding, is seen from all parts of the city. The Hermitage, in a palace of the emperor, contains one of the finest collections of paintings in Europe. The Exchange is beautifully situ- ated, with a quay in front : it is surrounded with pillars, and decorated with mar- ble statues. During the winter, no part of the city is more crowded than the Neva. Inclosed places are allotted to the skaters; and sledge-races and various other amusements are generally practised. The population of St. Petersburg, in 1831, amounted to 448,220. The malignant cholera destroyed 9258 persons during that year. Moscow, the former capital, stands on the river Moskva, 487 miles south-east of St. Petersburg. Before the French invasion it was the largest city in Europe, J 1 being nearly 20 miles in circumference. The Kremlin is a superb structure, or rather a motley mass of gaudy buildings, comprehending the imperial palace and chapel, the public offices, the cathedral and other churches, and the arsenal. At the French invasion in 1812, the city was set on fire, and two-thirds of it de- stroyed. It is now mostly rebuilt The streets are, in general, broad, and some of them are paved ; others, particularly those in the suburbs, are floored with trunks of trees, or boarded with planks. Wretched hovels are blended with large palaces ; some parts of the city have the appearance of a sequestered desert, and others that of a populous town. One of the curiosities of this place is the great bell, which is said to be the largest in the world ; its circumference is 64 feet, and its height 19 feet. Population of Moscow, 246,545. Kazan is reckoned the third city in the empire, having 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 12,000, the most industrious, are Tartars. The city being built of wood, and its streets payed with the same material, was reduced to ashes, in 1815, by a great conflagration, which consumed the cathedral and palace, leaving only the 31* ' 366 POLAND. handsome church of St. Peter and St. Paul. In the rebuilding of it, this exclu- sive use of wood has been discouraged. Cronstadt, on an island 22 miles west of St Petersburg, is a well-fortified place, and the principal station of the Russian navy. Vessels bound for St. Petersburg generally discharge their cargoes here. Population, 40,000. Kiev, on the Dnie- per, contains a university and some celebrated catacombs. Population, 40,000. Riga, once the capital of Livonia, stands upon the Duna, 6 miles from the gulf of Finland, and is a place of much commerce. It chiefly exports corn, hemp, flax, iron, timber, leather, and tallow. It has a garrison, and a public library with 12,000 volumes. Here is a floating bridge over the Duna, 2600 feet in length. Population, 36,000. Odessa, the emporium of the Russian commerce on the Black Sea, is situated between the mouths of the Dniester and Dnieper. It contains a fine cathedral, a theatre, and several churches. Corn is the principal article of exportation. The imports are, dried and conserved fruits from Constantinople, to- bacco, wine, &c. The fortress of Odessa is small, but kept in good order. Popu- lation, 35,000. Wilna, on the confluence of the Wilna and the Wilienka, has an extensive commerce, and is the principal winter residence of the nobility. Popu- lation, 30,000. Simpheropol is the chief town of Taurida, and has a motley po- pulation of 20,000. Mohilev, on the Dnieper, has a very considerable commerce with Riga and Odessa. Population, 16,000. Cherson, on the Black Sea, was once a flourishing place, but has greatly declined. Population, 14,000. Nishnei- Novogomd was at first intended by Peter the Great for his capital. It has a cele- brated fair, and is one of the most commercial towns in Russia. Population, 12,000. Novogorod, in the government of the same name, contained, in the days of its prosperity, 400,000 inhabitants. It has a fortress, a curious cathedral, and churches ornamented with gilt spires; but its present population does not exceed 10,000. Taganrok, on the promontory commanding an extensive prospect of the sea of Azof, formerly contained 70,000 inhabitants. Its present population is only 10,000. Pultava, in the government of the same name, is celebrated for the battle in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated. Population, 10,000. Archangel, at the mouth of the Dwina, on the White Sea, was formerly the only port by which Russia communicated with the rest of Europe. It has an extensive dock, but the harbour is accessible only from July to September. Population, 8000. M POLAND. Poland is a large country, which, though it has been so studiously expunged from the map of Europe, seems still to retain its claim to be considered as sepa- rate and distinct. The same physical aspect characterizes it; and the people, in their character, their language, and all their national feelings, are still Poles. Poland was conquered by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and was subjected to three partitions, in 1772, 1793, and 1795. At the last partition, the king was deposed, the country blotted from the list of nations, and the whole territory divided between the three powers above mentioned. . Napoleon wrested a portion of this country from the conquerors, and erected it into a state, with the title of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, in 1807; but this government was over- thrown at his downfall. The Prussian and Austrian divisions of Poland were attached as provinces to those monarchies, and the Russian division was formed into a kingdom as a part of the Russian empire. The Poles remained in quiet submission to the Russian government till 1830, when, on the 29th November, Warsaw rose in insurrection, and the whole king- dom was speedily in revolt. The hope of assistance from some of the free go- vernments of Europe, induced them to spurn at all attempts on the part of the Russian emperor to bring them to submission, and a bloody struggle with the armies of the autocrat followed. The Poles at first obtained some signal advan- tages; but no foreign power stirred in their behalf; the Russians poured in fresh armies, and in a year from the breaking out of the revolt, Poland was overpow- POLAND. 367 ered by numbers and forced again to submit. The Russian despotism is now fully re-established. The partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, took place at three distinct epochs, viz., 1772, 1793, and 1795 ; and the result of the whole, in 1795, was nearly as follows : sq. m. population. Russia 168,000 6,700,000 Austria 64,000 , 4,800,000 Prussia 52,000 3,700.000 Total 284,000 15,200,000 In 1815, further changes were made by the Congress of Vienna, making the distribution of the country nearly as follows: sq. m. population. Russia 179,500 7,400,000 Austria 32,000 3,600,000 Cracow 500 90,000 Prussia 25,000 1,600,000 Kingdom of Poland 47,000 3,000,000 Total 284.000 15,690,000 The extent and population of Poland, in 1825, were estimated as follows : they have no doubt since that time somewhat increased : Bq. m. population. Prussian Poland 25,000 1,700,000 Galicia 32,000 4,000,000 Republic of Cracow 500 110,000 Kingdom of Poland 47,000 3,700,000 Russian Poland 179,500 9,400,000 Total 284,000 18,910,000 The word Polen, or Poland, signifies a plain, a name well suited to the face of the country, which is almost everywhere level, and in many places marshy. The only great mountains are the Carpathians, forming the boundary between Poland and Hungary. Vegetation is a month later than in the same latitude in France, and the climate, on account of its humidity, and the exhalations from the marshes, is in many parts unhealthy. The soil is badly cultivated, yet so productive that the annual export of corn is computed to average 16,000,000 bushels. Other ex- ports are hemp, flax, cattle, timber, wax, and honey. The rivers of Poland are the Vistula, Bug, Niemen, Pregel, Dwina, Przypiec, Dnieper, and Dniester. The Poles were originally a tribe of Sclavonians, and are, except the nobles, among the most illiterate and least civilized nations of Europe. The Polish lan- guage is a dialect of the Sclavonic ; but the Latin is in general use in literary composition, and even in conversation among the higher ranks. There are uni- versities at Cracow, Wilna, Warsaw, and Lemberg. The government of Poland was a monarchy, sometimes hereditary, and sometimes elective, limited by a diet. The constitution has been defined the government of half a million of men of property, styled nobles, over 1,000,000 Jewish traders and 13,000,000 slaves. The inhabitants are Catholics, members of the Greek church, Jew?, Lutherans, and Unitarians. The Jews comprise the men of business of the country : the current money is chiefly in their hands, and a great proportion of the land is mortgaged to them. » Society in Poland consists altogether of two distinct and distant orders, the no- bles and the peasantry, without any intermediate degrees. The nobles, who are more numerous than in any other country in Europe, have always, in the eye of the public, formed the people of Poland. They are brave, prompt, frank, hospi- table, and gay. They have been called the French of the north, and, both from 363 KINGDOM OF POLAND. habits and political connexion, are attached to that nation. Before their fall, their neighbours called them " the proud Poles." They consider it the deepest disgrace to practise any profession, even law or medicine ; and, in case of utmost necessity, even prefer the plough. The luxury of modern times, and the variations in the price of grain, have very generally involved them in pecuniary embarrassments, and placed many of their fortunes in the hands of Jews. The Jews, sober, industrious, parsimonious, and crafty, form a numerous and separate people in the heart of Poland. Once a year occur what are called the Polish contracts, when the nobles repair to the principal towns, Kiev, Minsk, Warsaw, and Wilna, to sell their lands, pay their interest, and negotiate all their money transactions. Hither their wives and daughters resort for amusement ; speculators bring their wares; usurers, musicians, strolling players, and sharpers, come to ply their respective trades. The Poles, in personal appearance, are hand- some and vigorous. The Polish ladies are celebrated for their beauty, and are considered also more intelligent and agreeable than those of Russia. The pea- santry are not absolute slaves, but they are raised little above that degrading con- dition ; an estate being usually estimated by the number of its peasants. KINGDOM OF POLAND. The kingdom of Poland, comprising the central portion of the preceding coun- try, and consisting of the chief part of what from 1807 to 1813 formed the duchy of Warsaw, is bounded, north by east and west Prussia, east by Russia, south by Austrian Galicia, and west by Prussian Posen. It belongs generally to the vast Polish level. The plain, of which the greater portion of the kingdom consists, is rather of a sandy character, and the overflowing of its large rivers often converts it into marsh. Generally speaking, however, it is a good grain country, under tolerable cultivation. The manufactures of linen and woollen cloth for domestic consump- tion are considerable, though they produce none of fine quality. In the capital, the making of carriages and harness is of such extent as to assume almost a na- tional importance. Minerals are not a leading feature, though there are iron mines of some value in the southern range of hills. There is a great transit trade of grain down the Vistula, partly the produce of the kingdom itself, but chiefly of the more fertile regions to the south ; but Poland labours under a severe disad- vantage in not possessing the mouth of that river, and its port of Dantzic, which has been annexed to the Prussian territory. A representative constitution was granted by Alexander, in his quality of king of Poland. The new diet was divided into two chambers, one of which was elected by the nobles and the provincial assemblies, while the senate consisted of ten waiwodes appointed by the emperor in his character of king of Poland, ten castellans nominated by the senate, and ten bishops. This constitution, however, granted in a liberal and conciliatory spirit, was not found to work so agreeably as a sovereign elsewhere despotic could have desired. It became the aim of the prince to abridge the privileges which appeared to him to be too liberally used. The diet was less frequently assembled ; the liberty of the press, at first granted, has been withdrawn. These encroachments kindled a discontent, which broke out in the late strenuous effort to effect an entire emancipation from Russia, the unfortunate issue of which, it is to be feared, will for the present deprive Poland of many of the advantages she has hitherto enjoyed. Warsaw, capital alike of old and of new Poland, is finely situated on the Vis- tula. During the war which terminated in the subjugation of Poland, Warsaw stood the heaviest brunt; and its population in 1782 was reduced to 75,000; but since that time it has rapidly improved, and in 1829 it contained 150,000, of which, however, about 14,000 were garrison. Among these are 30,000 Jews. The whole city consists of one long street, with others branching from it; but these are narrow and dirty, and, as is usual in aristocratic cities, no provision is made for the comfort and accommodation of foot passengers. The new town is REPUBLIC OF CRACOW— GERMANY. 369 built in a better style ; the government palace and the palace of the minister of finance are both splendid buildings; but the finest part of Warsaw consists of its four suburbs having separate rights and jurisdictions. That of Praga, once a strong citadel, was almost destroyed in the dreadful assault by Suwarrow, in 1795 : it is now, however, rebuilding. Warsaw originally consisted almost entirely of wooden houses; but that material is now prohibited; and out of its 4000 houses, 3000 are constructed of stone. During the period of its calamities, Warsaw lost the finest collections made by its former sovereigns. The gallery of paintings formed by king Stanislaus, and the Zalouski library, were transported to Peters- burg ; and another library, of more than 45,000 volumes, was transferred to Vol- hynia. Even the university founded, or rather revived by Alexander, in 1821, has been suppressed. The other towns in the kingdom of Poland are only of secondary importance. Lublin, which ranks second, contains 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated pleasantly in one of the most fertile districts of the kingdom, and communicating on the south with others still more fertile. It is distinguished by the castle of Casimir the Great, the palace of Sobieski, some fine churches, and the largest synagogue of Poland. Zamosc, in the same vicinity, is an important fortress. Kalisc, on the Proswa, is rather a well-built town, with 8000 inhabitants, a military school, and some manufactures. THE REPUBLIC OF CRACOW. This little community owes its existence to the disputes of the three despotic powers that partitioned the kingdom of Poland. In 1815, when the final destiny of Poland was decided at the congress of Vienna, the Austrian and Russian mo narchs respectively laid claim to the city and territory of Cracow, situated at the point where the newly acquired territories of these two powers join those of Prus- sia. To this fortunate position, Cracow is indebted for its exemption from the fate of the rest of Poland. The holy allies, unable to determine which of their number had the best right to the territory, resolved that neither should possess it; and Cracow was declared a republic under the protection of the three surrounding powers. The degree of freedom which it enjoys, though only by sufferance, has rendered its environs more fertile and smiling than those of the rest of Poland. Its surface contains 500 square miles; and the population of the city amounts to 24,800, that of the territory to 93,000; of which 12,000 were Jews. The university, once the great school of the north, and frequented by crowds of students, was broken up during the civil commotions, and the attempts to restore it have been fruitless. It has at present thirty professors, but not more than 276 students. Cracow is decidedly a Catholic city, and contains eighty-seven monasteries and 164 nunne- ries. The revenues of the republic amount to 1,379,000 florins. The cathedral is remarkable for the tomb of St. Stanislaus, the monument of Sobieski, and other venerated mausoleums. A remarkable monument has lately been raised here to the memory of Kosciusko. It consists of a mound, Mogila Kosciusko (Kosciusko's Mount), 300 feet in height, and 275 feet in diameter at the base, and standing upon a rising ground commanding the Vistula. GERMANY. Germany is an extensive country, situated in the heart of Europe, and exer- cising a most important influence in the affairs of that continent; there is a pecu- liar complication in its geography, whence it is often termed the labyrinth of geography; it is not only divided into numerous States of every varied dimension and description, but several of these have large portions of the neighbouring coun- tries, particularly of Poland and Italy, incorporated into their territory. 2\V 370 GERMANY. The divisions of Germany have been various at different times. In 1552, Maxi- milian divided it into 10 circles, Austria, Burgundy, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Westphalia, Upper Saxony, and Lower Saxony ; the first two Catholic, the last two Protestant, the other six mixed. Burgundy, which contained the 17 provinces of the Low Countries or Netherlands, having long since been detached from the empire, it latterly contained only 9 circles. In addi- tion to these great divisions, there were other countries which formed portions of the German empire; Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, and some smaller dis- tricts. The electors were 9 in number, of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, Bavaria, Pa- latine, Saxony, Brunswick, Luneburg, Brandenburg, and Bohemia. The number of princes, secular and ecclesiastical, was upwards of 300, each independent in the administration of his own territory, but subject to the emperor as head of the empire, and to certain laws enacted at different times for the com- mon advantage. There were besides a number of free towns, and a class of nobles, who acknowledged no sovereign but the emperor. The constitution of this great body was extremely complicated; tha emperor was at first chosen by the princes at large ; in the course of time the princes deputed their votes to certain repre- sentatives, called electors, and the latter eventually took on themselves the nomi- nation, without the interference of their constituents. The States of Germany passed through various changes from the commence- ment of the French revolution to the sitting of the congress of Vienna, in 1814 and 1815. ' The States, reduced in number but augmented in extent, were formed anew by the congress into a federative body to be governed by a diet. The Ger- man territories now comprise about one third part of the empire of Austria, the greatest part of Prussia, Holstein, and Lauenburg, belonging to Denmark, Lux- emburg, belonging to the Netherlands, the kingdom of Hanover, of which his Bri- tannic majesty takes the title of king, the kingdoms of Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Saxony, 27 smaller independent States governed by native German princes, and 4 free cities. Germany is intersected by numerous rivers, which afford great advantages to commerce. It counts 520 rivers in all, 60 navigable to a great extent, and 6 f viz. the Danube, Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Weser, and Maine, ranking among the noblest in Europe. The canals are comparatively few. The principal are the canal of Kiel, joining the Baltic to the North Sea, the canal of Travemunde, extending from Lubeck to Hamburg, and some others, chiefly in the Prussian States. The cli- mate in the north is rather severe, in the south mild and generally healthy, except in the marshy districts around the North Sea. 'Vienna is also considered unhealthy, from its humid position. The soil is very various; sandy plains and barren heaths abound in the north- east, swamps and marshes in the north-west ; but large portions of the interior and south-west parts are uncommonly fertile. The productions are wheat, barley, oats, and other kinds of grain, flax, madder, rape-seed, hops, wine, cattle, horses, sheep, &c. Agriculture is backward in many parts, particularly in the south. Mining is one of the sources of wealth, in which Germany may be said to sur- pass every country in Europe. Nowhere has the science been more studied, or brought to greater perfection. The principal mining districts are Styria and Ca- rinthia, in Silesia, the Erzgebirge, in Saxony, and the Hartz, in Hanover. The products are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron, mercury and cinnabar, cobalt, cala- mine, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, manganese, salt, and coal, of which the aggre- gate amount is immense. Germany contains upwards of 1000 mineral springs and baths, of which the most celebrated are Carlsbad, in Bohemia, Toplitz, in Austria, Seltzer, in Nassau, Pyrmont, in Westphalia, and Aix la Chapelle. The products of the industry of Germany, an extensive region cultivated by a laborious people, are of large amount. They consist of plain, solid, somewhat rough articles ; in exchange for which, she procures the finer manufactures of England and France, and the delicate productions of southern Europe and the Indies. Agriculture, throughout all this fertile region, is carried on with great diligence, ■ il GERMANY. 3't though not altogether on the extensive scale, or with the intelligence, which have rendered British farming so successful. The cultivators are mostly little farmers or little proprietors, who till the ground with their own hands, and who, in all the Teutonic Stages, constitute a class called bauer, or peasants. The improved pro- cesses of this important art, however, are making their way, though slowly. Of the various kinds of grain, rye is the most extensively cultivated, and forms the food of the great body of the people. Wheat is also raised largely, and is of excellent quality, especially in Bavaria and Austria; buckwheat is sown chiefly on the sandy tracts of northern Germany. Barley and oats, of various kinds, are also general ; and maize abounds in Moravia and the extreme southern districts. Peas, beans, lentils, and other pulse are produced in great abundance, and great quantities arc sent out from the northern parts. Flax is raised in large quanti- ties; also hops, rape-seed, &c. Wine is a German production; all the southern districts, as far as 51 degrees north, produce it, but only some of the Rhenish wines are in much request abroad. The commerce of Germany, though extensive, is not equal to that which for- merly existed, or to the advantages arising from her situation in the heart of Eu- rope and of the civilized world. She was, after Italy, the first European country in which commerce revived ; and the Hanseatic league once engrossed the whole trade of the north. In recent times, Germany has been outstripped by Holland, by Britain, and even by France. The German writers ascribe this decay to the want of unity consequent on the number of little States into which their country is split, which deprives its ships of a national flag, and of a powerful protection while navigating remote seas. Their shipping is chiefly confined to Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen, the remnant of the Hanse towns, which still enjoy many of their old privileges in the ports of Europe, and whose flag is seen in every part of that continent. A commercial league has lately been formed by the principal States of Northern and Central Germany, for the purpose of relieving internal commerce from the restrictions to which it has been subjected by the numerous customs-barriers of the different powers. The parties to this league agree to the suppression of all duties upon the internal commerce between their respective territories, and establish a common frontier, with a common rate of duties, in refer- ence to their external commerce with other States. Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wirtemberg, Saxony, the Saxon duchies, the Hesses, Nassau, Frankfort, and seve- ral small States have already joined this league, which thus comprises a popu- lation of about twenty millions and a half. The exports of Germany include most of those productions in which she has been described as excelling: grain; salted provisions, especially hams; live cattle and hogs; timber; iron and steel; lead; salt; linen, linen yarn, and linen rags; some woollens to the north of Europe ; porcelain, glass, ashes. In return for these essential articles, she receives nearly all the luxuries of life; the manufac- tures of Britain, the wines of France, the sweets and aromatics of the East and West; also dye-stuffs, and all the cotton and silk, which are necessary for her own manufactures. From the disunited state of the country, no general account appears to be kept. The internal commerce of Germany, notwithstanding all the obstructions under which it labours, is extensive. It owes this advantage chiefly to its noble rivers, on which vessels of large burden can pass nearly from one extremity to the other. In manufactures, Germany does not retain that prominent place which she once held. Formerly the Hanse towns clothed all the north; but since the spirit of industry has been awakened, first in Holland, then in Britain, and lastly in France, Germany, instead of supplying those countries, has been inundated with their fabrics. The most important manufacture is linen, which is produced to some extent in Prussia, Hanover, Brunswick, &c. : the others are woollens, manufac- tures of leather, porcelain, glass, sugar-refinery, musical and mathematical instru- ments, clocks, watches, toys, cutlery, &c. The population of Germany, in 1833, may be rated at nearly 36,500,000. They inhabit 2433 cities, 2071 market-towns, and 88,619 villages and farms, independently of single houses. Germany has no great capital, like France and England, in which the wealth, power, and civili- 372 GERMANY. v zation of the State are as it were concentrated. On the other hand, no country in Europe has so many cities and towns of from 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. The people of this region are distinguished into two races, the German and Sclavonian. The Germans are estimated at 30,000,000, and are divided into two families, High and Low German, distinguished less by physical differences, than by character, and particularly by the mode of pronouncing the language. The Sclavonic races are reckoned at 6,000,000. They are much inferior in civiliza- tion to the Germans, but are a laborious race, formerly almost all in a state of bondage, but now mostly emancipated, and many of them possessing considerable wealth. Besides these leading races, there are about 175,000 Italians ; from 20,000 to 25,000 French, and 250,000 Jews. The Germans are distinguished for attainments in literature, science, and the arts. They are particularly eminent in biblical and critical learning, statistics, political economy, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, and mechanics. In no other country is authorship so extensively made a business for life. Germany is famous for its universities, which are much resorted to from other countries. The number before 1802 was 36 ; since that period several have been suppressed, and the present number is 20. Of those which stand in the first rank are Gottingen, Halle, Jena, Leipsic, and Heidelburg. Vienna is the most emi- nent as a medical school. In about 150 towns there are libraries open to the public, many of which are very large ; besides the universities, there are numerous seminaries, styled gym- nasia, many of which are celebrated schools of learning. The German language is spoken by a greater population than any other in Europe, except perhaps the French. It is derived from the Teutonic, and is divided into a number of dialects. The Saxon dialect, called High German, is the language of books and genteel society. In regard to religion, Germany has been the scene of the greatest revolution in modern times. In its bosom the Reformation sprung up ; and within it were car- ried on the most formidable of the conflicts between the old and the new system. Elsewhere, one or the other finally prevailed ; but in Germany they have settled into a pretty equal division of the country. Speaking generally, the whole south may be called Catholic ; the whole north, Protestant. Of the greater States, the Catholic religion rules in Austria and Bavaria; the Protestant, in Prussia, Saxony, Hesse, and Hanover. A complete toleration is now everywhere granted to every profession. The Catholics still hold the majority, being reckoned at 21,600,000, the Protestants only at 14,400,000. Jews, Moravians, Mennonites, Hussites, and some smaller sects, make up the rest of the population. The ordinary concerns of the Germanic Confederation are entrusted to a fede- rative diet of 17 members, and the making or altering of its fundamental laws, to a general assembly of 70 members, from the various States or members of the confederation. The sessions are held at Frankfort on the Maine. The members are equal in rights, but Austria presides. The following table gives a general view of the Germanic Confederacy, in 1833 : — States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Austria 78,912 11,645,000 Prussia 70,549 10,010,755 Bavaria 30,997 4,037,017 Saxony 7,200 1,497,568 Hanover 14,720 1,549,000 Wirtemberg 7,500 1,562,033 Baden 5,800 1,201,309 Hesse-Cassel 4,352 649,800 Hesse-Darmstadt 3,600 720,000 Holstein 3,691 410,385 Luxemburg 2,347 305,120 Saxe- Weimar 1,408 232,704 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 1,024 156,639 Saxe-Altenburg 491 114,048 Saxe-Meiningen-Hilburghausen 875 129,588 AUSTRIA. States. Area in Sq. Miles. Brunswick 1,514 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 4,755 Mccklenburg-Strelitz 768 Holstein-Oldenburg 2,752 Nassau 2,164 Anhalt-Dessau 363 Anhalt-Bernburg 340 Anhalt-Cothen 331 Schwartzburg-Sondershauscn 384 Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt 418 Hohenzollern-Hechingen 117 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 426 Liechtenstein 53 Reuss-Greitz 153 Reuss-Schleitz 453 Lippc-Detmold 436 Lippe-Schauenburg 213 Waldeck 459 Hesse-Homburg 138 Frankfort 113 Lubeck 122 Bremen Hamburg 134 Kniphausen 17 Total 251,412 373 Population. 250,100 450,200 84,130 251,500 355,815 60,000 40,000 36,000 51,767 60,000 15,500 39,000 5,550 25,000 58,500 77,500 25,500 56,000 23,000 55,000 47,000 49,000 154,000 2,860 36,493,879 AUSTRIA. The Empire of Austria is not only the first power in Germany, but by its pos- sessions, both within and without, has long 1 ranked among the foremost States in the general system of Europe. Nearly one half of its territories are in Germany, the residue comprise Hungary, with its appendages, Galicia, formerly a part of Poland, and the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom in Italy, together with Dalmatia, once a part of the territory belonging to the Republic of Venice. The Austrian monarchy is bounded on the east by Turkey and Russia ; on the north by Prussia and Saxony ; on the west chiefly by Bavaria, Switzerland, and Sardinia ; and on the south by Tuscany and the States of the Church. The whole territory amounts to 258,000 square miles. The face of the country is various : Styria, the Tyrol, and Illyria, are mountainous ; Bohemia and Moravia are encompassed by moun- tains. The Carpathian range extends along the north-east of Hungary. A large portion of the soil is fertile, especially in Lombardy and Hungary. The Danube runs, throughout its whole extent, mostly from east to west. The other principal rivers are the Dniester, Teisse, Save, Drave, Inn, Po, and Adige. The lakes are the Platten-see and Neusidler-see, in Hungary ; Traun-see and Atter-see, in Austria Proper ; Cirknitz, in Carinthia ; and Garda and Como, in Lombardy. The Austrian territories abound in various articles, both of necessity and luxury ; corn, wine, saffron, cattle, horses, gold, mercury, copper, iron, lead, precious stones, &c, are among her exports. The manufactures consist of thread, cotton, linen, lace, silk-stuffs, stockings, spirituous liquors, wrought-iron, steel and brass ; glass, porcelain, earthenware, &c. The imports consist mostly of raw materials, as wool, cotton, raw-silk, rice, oil, drugs, and spiceries; a great part of which come from the Levant. The foreign trade is, in a great measure, in the hands of Greek merchants. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, but general toleration is granted ; and members of the Protestant and Greek churches are numerous in Hungary, Transylvania, and Sclavonia, where they enjoy considerable privileges. 32 . 374 AUSTRIA. There are 9 Catholic archbishoprics, Vienna, Gran, Prague, Colocza, Lemberg, Olmutz, Laybach, Udina, and Milan. The numbers of the different denomina- tions are as follows : 24,000,000 Roman Catholics ; 2,800,000 Greek Catholics ; 1,500,000 Greek Church; 2,700,000 Calvinists and Lutherans; 450,000 Jews; 50,000 Unitarians, &c. The government is monarchy, nearly absolute, except in some of the States, particularly Hungary and Transylvania, it is limited by constitutional provisions. The principal universities are those of Vienna, Prague, Pest, Lemberg, Padua, and Pavia. Academies and gymnasiums are numerous. Though Austria can boast of some distinguished names, yet in regard to literature she is greatly behind the north of Germany. The revenue of the Austrian territories amounts to about 60,000,000 dollars annually, and is derived from a ground-rent, different taxes and tolls, the regalia of salt, money, mines, and ports, and the imperial domains. The Emperor has a large private fortune unconnected with the property of the State, from which he defrays a part of his private expenses. The peace establishment is 270,000 men; in time of war the empire can main- tain 650,000. In the campaign of 1813, Austria brought into the field 315,000 men. The maintenance of the army costs more than a third of the whole revenue. The following statement, exhibiting the areas in square miles and the popula- tion of the different divisions of the Austrian empire, is derived from the latest authorities : — Sq. Miles. Population. Sq. Miles. Population. g f Austria 14,992 2,031,136 ■S Styria 8,531 839,128 & J Illyria 13,136 1,138,506 g '| Tyrol 11,704 776,390 S Bohemia 20,882 3,748,361 "[Moravia 11,804 1,994,850 ° Hungary 78,774 9,659,686 Croatia 3,756 614,000 Sclavonia 3,678 348,000 Transylvania 22,376 2,027,564 Dalmatia 6,498 329,727 Galicia 32,000 4,385,608 Military Frontier. 12,243 923,315 Lom bardo- Venetian Kingdom 18,534 4,279,764 Total of Hereditary States 159,823 20,188,057 Total of Empire . . 258,908 33,096,035 The German territories belonging to the Austrian Emperor consist of the arch- duchy of Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, Illyria, and Tyrol: these, with Hun- gary, are known under the appellation of the Hereditary States. Lower Austria, or Austria below the Ems, forms as it were the metropolitan province, being situated in the very heart of this vast empire. It is composed of the deep and warm valley of the Danube, bordered on each side by considerably elevated mountain chains. Those on the south form a part of the great Alpine barrier ; inferior, however, to the gigantic ranges of Switzerland and the Tyrol. Upper Austria is entirely a mountain region, an assemblage of lofty alps and glaciers, separated by valleys, and even small plains, and presenting landscapes sometimes soft and pleasing, sometimes in the highest degree wild and romantic. Upper Austria is bounded, and in a great degree covered, by the Bohemian forest. It is most copiously watered, not only by the Danube, but by the Inn, the Traun, and the Ens; and has the Kammersee, the Mondsee, the Zellersee, the Traunsee, and other lakes, which are romantic and well supplied with fish, but of little extent. It is needless to say that the country is little fitted for agricul- tural purposes; yet there is no district of Germany which has been improved with greater diligence. Styria is a considerable inland territory, immediately to the south of Lower Austria, once governed by its own dukes, but long since absorbed in the empire. It is divided into Upper and Lower Styria; the former of which, being the west- ern part, is altogether alpine; while the eastern districts decline into lower moun- tains, then into gentle hills, and finally into almost a level plain, on the borders of Hungary. The grain is chiefly maize (used both for the cattle and for the bread of the lower orders), rye, and buckwheat ; and the annual produce is esti- mated at 7,800,000 bushels. Flax, hemp, and potatoes, are general. Illyria is a rugged and mountainous district, with a vigorous but healthy cli- mate, except on the coast, where it is warm, and the vegetation luxuriant: the AUSTRIA. 375 soil, in general, is but ill fitted for corn, of which it, however, produces 9,000,000 bushels, chiefly of the coarser kinds, rye and oats. There is a.good deal of flax, and a little hemp and silk. Cattle and sheep are fed in great numbers. Minerals of various kinds are abundant The quicksilver mines of Idria are the richest in Europe, and yield annually great quantities of quicksilver and cinnabar. The southern part of Illyria touches on the Adriatic Sea, and contains Trieste, the only seaport of any consequence belonging to Austria. The Tyrol, including Vorarlberg, is the most westerly of the German territo- ries of the empire, and borders upon Bavaria and Switzerland. It is also the most lofty and rugged of all the alpine regions of Austria. The Tyrolese have made all that was possible out of their rugged soil. They have a great store of horned cattle and sheep; valuable gardens, from which apples are sent even to Russia; good wine, though it will not keep; some tobacco; wood, and salt in abundance. The other mineral productions are in considerable variety, but of no great amount. The national character of the Tyrolese is excellent. They are honest, sincere, and open-hearted- Their attachment to their country, to its independence, and to the house of Austria, has been displayed in the most heroic manner. Bohemia is the most considerable and most valuable of all the Austrian terri- tories in Germany. It consists of an extensive plain, completely enclosed by a ring'of mountains, of which the Riesengebirge separate it from Silesia, the Erz- gebirge from Saxony, those of the Bohemian forest from Austria and Franconia. It is the most completely inland country of Germany, being nearly equidistant from the North Sea and the Adriatic. With the former, however, it communi- cates by the great stream of the Elbe, which rises in and rolls through all Bohe- mia, receiving its great tributary, the Moldau, and all its other waters. There is, perhaps, no country on earth more amply stocked with all kinds of solid and use- ful commodities than Bohemia. Grain, cattle, timber, metals, are all in such plenty, that it is difficult to say which predominates. Moravia, including the small part of Silesia which remains to Austria, is a country of less extent than Bohemia, but of nearly similar aspect, and equally fertile. It has also a frontier of high mountains; being bounded on the one side by those which separate it from Bohemia, on the other by the Carpathian moun- tains, beyond which are Poland and Hungary. Smaller chains penetrate the country, and render the full half of it mountainous; but broad and fruitful valleys intervene, and the southern part consists of fine and extensive plains, the soil of which is peculiarly rich. Vienna is the capital of Lower Austria as well as of the whole Austrian Em- pire, and is the largest city in Germany. It stands on the Danube, in the midst of a plain diversified by a number of picturesque eminences, and skirted on one side by a range of mountains. It consists of two distinct parts, the city and the suburbs, which are strongly contrasted in. their appearance. The city is meanly built, with narrow, irregular streets, and is surrounded with walls and bastions. The suburbs consist of wide streets, elegant buildings, and beautiful gardens. The Prater is a wide meadow on an island in the Danube, forming a delightful public walk, which is frequented by all ranks of people in the summer. The cathedral of St. Stephen is an immense Gothic edifice with a spire 447 feet high ; the painted glass of its windows renders the interior gloomy. The buildings are generally of freestone. There are many excellent libraries, of which the Impe- rial is the largest, and contains above 300,000 volumes. There are 50 churches, 21 convents, besides nunneries, 300 taverns, 5 theatres, and a garrison of 8 or 12,000 men. Population, 300,000. Salzburg, in Lower Austria, is situated on a branch of the Inn, in a mountainous country. The neighbourhood produces great quantities of salt. ' Population, 13,000. Lintz, the capital of Upper Austria, situated on the Danube, is a well-built city ; and its fine square, considerable castle, three monasteries, and bridge of 800 feet long over the Danube, give it a very handsome appearance. It has a considerable imperial manufactory of woollen. Population, 20,000. Gratz, the ancient residence of the dukes, is the capital of Styria; it is situated on the Mur, in a fine valley, on the borders of the lower district It is a hand- 376 * AUSTRIA. some, bustling, and prosperous town, and contains many houses which may be called palaces. Indeed, it ranks the third in the hereditary dominions, and con- tains 2651 houses, with a population of 36,144. Its old walls and castle, situated on a high rock, no longer suffice to render it a fortified city. The church of St. Catherine, and the monument of Ferdinand II., are its chief ornaments. Its lyceum, the only one that exists in the province, has twenty-six professors, and a library of 70,000 volumes. It carries on a considerable trade. Laybach, the capital of Illyria, stands about 30 miles from the Adriatic ; it is famous for a congress of European sovereigns held here in 1820. Population, 11,000. Trieste, seated on the Adriatic, is the greatest seaport of the whole Austrian Empire; its trade is very active, and extends to the North of Europe and the United States. Its harbour is large and safe. Most of the European nations have consuls here. It is also distinguished for manufactures. Population, 42,000. The towns of the Tyrol are Innspruck, the capital ; an ancient, well-built, and considerable place, with 10,800 inhabitants, commanding the valley of the Inn, and the most direct passage from Germany into Italy. Hall, farther down on the same, flourishes by large mines of salt. Trent, on the Adige, and near the bor- ders of Italy, is a fine old city, celebrated for the ecclesiastical council held there _in 1545-1562, which had so signal an influence on the political destinies of Eu- rope. Roveredo, still further down, and almost Italian, carries on some silk manu- factures. Botzen has a crowded market, where the German and Italian merchants exchange the commodities of their respective countries. Prague, the capital of Bohemia, is tolerably well built, but thinly inhabited, and imperfectly fortified. It stands on the Moldau, a shallow, but rapid stream, over which is an elegant bridge. Its university is the oldest in Germany. Here are 100 churches and chapels, and as many palaces, among which is that of Wallen- stein, celebrated by the pen of Schiller : the stable of this palace is a magnificent edifice with stalls for 36 horses divided by marble pillars and furnished with racks of steel and marble mangers. The city has some manufactures, and the neigh- bourhood is fertile and pleasant. Population, 105,000. The towns of Moravia are considerable. Brunn and Olmutz are both strong fortresses, and barriers of the empire. The former, containing 27,000 inhabitants, is the seat of government, and has extensive manufactures of fine woollens. Ol- mutz is a great market for Russian and Hungarian cattle. Iglau, an open town, has considerable manufactures, and is the greatest thoroughfare in Moravia. HUNGARY. Hungary, with Transylvania, Sclavonia, Croatia, and the region termed the Military Frontier, forms a wide range of territory. Long the grand field of con- flict between the Ottoman and Christian powers, it was finally possessed by the latter, and has for several centuries formed an integral and important part of the hereditary states of the house of Austria, which has recently annexed to it the portion of Dalmatia obtained from Venice. Hungary is bounded on the west by Germany, on the south and east by Turkey, and on the north and north-east by the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a square of nearly 400 miles in each direction, comprehending, with all its appendant States, an area of 133,000 square miles, inhabited by nearly 13,000,000 inhabit- ants. The Danube, the greatest river entirely European, rolls through this region, chiefly from north to south, and receives here its mightiest tributaries ; those from the west are the Drave and the Save, and from the north the Theiss, the Gran, and the Waag. The most important of the lakes of Hungary are the Platten-see or Balaton Lake, and the Neusidler-see, the water of which is salt. The ranges of the Carpathian Mountains separate Hungary from Austria, Mo- ravia, Galicia, and Transylvania; there are also several detached ranges. Yet the country contains immense plains ; two very extensive ; one on the western part, 90 miles in diameter; the lower, or eastern plain, comprises nearly one half of the country, having a diameter of more than 200 miles. There are also some extensive marshes. The plains lying on the rivers nave a rich alluvial soil, of which, in the south, AUSTRIA. 377 a great proportion is good, yet there are large barren heaths, and some tracts co- vered with moving sand ; and in the north the soil is hard and untractable. The most common productions in the norther part are barley, oats, common rye, and a species of rye called irkitza ; in the southern, wheat, maize, millet, oats, and rice. Hemp, flax, tobacco, saffron, potatoes, and various fruits, are cultivated. The breeding of cattle and the making of wine are important branches of industry. The country is celebrated for its pastures, and here are found some of the finest cattle in Europe. Agriculture is generally in a backward state. Of the exports, corn is the most considerable article ; next, tobacco ; then, wine, particularly To- kay, and wool ; also, wax, tallow, potash, alum, antimony, gall-nuts, &c. Hun- gary produces a greater quantity of wine than all the rest of the Austrian do- minions. Manufactures are little attended to ; the raw produce being easily sold to the neighbouring states. The only article manufactured for exportation is leather. The commerce is subject to great restrictions from the Austrian system of taxa- tion. We have no certain accounts of the revenue, but it is thought to be about 13,000,000 dollars. The army consists of 46,000 infantry and 17,000 cavalry. There are a great number of mineral springs, and mines of gold, silver, lead, and copper ; very rich ores of antimony ; also, coal, salt, and alum, are abundant. The chief are the gold and silver mines of Cremnitz, and the silver mines of Schemnitz. The gold mine at Cremnitz has been wrought for 1000 years and upwards, and is exceedingly rich. There is a mint here, to which all the mine- towns of Hungary and Transylvania send their gold and silver to be coined. The number of miners employed by the crown at Schemnitz is 8000. A mineral pe- culiar to Hungary is the opal, which is found a short distance to the north of Kaschau. The Hungarians are distinguished for a military spirit, but they are sociable and hospitable, though proud and irritable. The two great pursuits are agricul- ture and arms, and there are few trades. In a people so variously compounded, or rather, in a country with so many distinct races, the character and customs must be various. Hungary may be considered the home of the gypsies, but even here that singular race have the same restless, wandering disposition, that distinguishes them elsewhere. They are the travelling tinkers and musicians ; and when they have a settled or temporary residence, it is, in summer, a cave or a tent, and in winter, a hut like the den of a wild beast, from which light is excluded. The most usual trades followed by the gypsies are those of black and white-smiths, though they act as farriers, carpenters, and turners. They are universally the executioners and hangmen. The emperor of Austria is styled king of Hungary. The constitution is a com- pound of monarchy and aristocracy. The king, as the great executive magis- trate, has very ample prerogatives. The diet is composed of 4 classes : 1. the Catholic prelates ; 2. the magnates or superior nobles ; 3. the representatives of the inferior nobles ; and 4. the representatives of the royal free towns. The ad- ministration of justice is entirely in the hands of the nobles, and none but nobles can be landed proprietors. The number of nobles of all ages and both sexes, is about 326,000. Buda or Ofen, the capital of the kingdom, lies on the right bank of the Danube. It is the residence of the palatine, and seat of the supreme government. Popula- tion, 33,000. Pest or Pesth, the finest town in the kingdom, stands on the left bank of the Danube, and is united with Buda by a bridge of boats. It has a uni- versity with four faculties, and a library of 50,000 volumes. Population, 61,502. Presburg, on the north bank of the Danube, contains a Catholic college and a Lu- theran gymnasium. Population, 41,000. Debreczin, with 40,000 inhabitants, is, next to Pest, the most important commercial town of Hungary. Szeged in, at the junction of the Theiss with its tributary, the Maros, is a large and strong city, with 30,000 inhabitants, and a flourishing trade in wool and tobacco. Schemnitz, Kremnitz, and Neusohl, are the principal mining towns in Hungary. They are situated in a bold and mountainous country forming a lower ridge of the Carpa- thians. Schemnitz was founded in 745, and has a population of 17,000 inhabitants, _-- 2X 378 AUSTRIA. one half of whom are employed in the mines. Kremnitz and Neusohl have each about 10,000 inhabitants, the majority of whom are also employed in mining ope- rations. Raab, or Gyoi, at the confluence of the Raab and the Danube, contains 16,000 inhabitants. Kaschau, in the north-east part of Hungary, near the Car- pathian Mountains, contains 15,500 inhabitants. Temeswar, on the Vega and Temesch, is finely built and strongly fortified. Population, 14,000. Tokay, a I small town of 5000 inhabitants, situated on the Theiss, is celebrated for its wine, being esteemed the best in Hungary. The prime Tokay, or Tokay Ausbruch, as it is termed, sells in Vienna at the rate of 121. sterling per dozen. Croatia is a district which, though possessing a people and language of its own, has for some time been attached to Hungary, and sends deputies to the Hun- garian diet. Adjoining the Illyrian frontier it is mountainous ; but eastward the country declines into a level plain, traversed by the Save. Corn, cattle of small size, and tobacco of good quality, are its staples. The Croats form bodies of light horse rather distinguished in irregular warfare. Area, 3756 square miles. Popu- lation, 614,000. Agram is a large and strong town, on the Save, without manu- factures, but with a good deal of trade, both on the river and between Hungary and the Adriatic. Population, 17,000. Warasdin and Carlstadt are smaller places, deriving some importance from being in this last line of commerce. Sclavonia is a district to the east of Croatia, and the only one bearing the | name of a nation, whose colonies and language are so widely diffused. It enjoys a mild climate and fertile territory, yet more than half of its surface is covered with wood, and the rest is by no means cultivated to the extent of which it is ca- pable, containing only 348,000 inhabitants. Its political relations are in many re- spects the same as those of Croatia ; its products and trade similar, and it is equally destitute of manufacturing industry. Posega is accounted the capital ; but Eszek, a strong place on the Drave, near its junction with the Danube, is of more impor- tance. -. Transylvania, meaning the country beyond the Carpathian hill forests, is a very elevated territory. The Carpathians, which inclose it in the form of a half moon, present summits of 7000 or 8000 feet. Notwithstanding its rugged surface, Transylvania has a mild climate, and is well cultivated. Its produce in grain is reckoned at about 17,000,000 bushels. Cattle form a principal staple. Wine is produced in abundance, but, as it does not keep, it is not an object of trade. Tran- sylvania is rich in minerals, particularly gold, also iron. It might supply the whole empire with salt; and sends, in fact, 25,000 tons into Hungary. There are no manufactures, except the most common fabrics. The people consist almost en- tirely of strangers, who have emigrated from the neighbouring and distant coun- tries. Magyars, Saxons, and Wallachians, with other small sects, make up a po- pulation of 2,027,566. The Protestants predominate in Transylvania; amounting to 348,000, with 40,000 Unitarians; while the Catholics are 110,000, and the Greeks 150.000. These, it is presumed, are heads of families, as otherwise they would not nearly compose the amount of the population. Hermanstadt, the capital, is surrounded with a double wall, and contains 20,000 inhabitants, an extensive Lutheran seminary, two public libraries comprising 20,000 volumes, a picture-gallery, and a national museum. Cronstadt, on the most eastern frontier, is a still larger place, containing 30,000 inhabitants, with various little manufactures, and enjoying very extensive intercourse with Turkey and Greece, to the amount of 1,000,000Z. sterling. Clausenburg, near the western frontier, is a large open town, containing three seminaries, Catholic, Lutheran, and Unitarian, attended by about 1200 students. Carlsburg is a smaller town, defended by a strong castle on a hill above the Maros. The Military Frontier is a long range of territory, appropriated from the southern border of Croatia, Sclavonia, Hungary, and Transylvania, and placed under a peculiar regime, in the view of forming a barrier upon this side against 'the inroads of the Turks. For this purpose it is placed under a system completely feudal, all the lands being held under the condition that their occupants take the AUSTRIA. 379 field in person whenever they may be called upon. Each individual receives a certain number of acres, which cannot be sold, pledged, or dismembered, though it may be exchanged for another of equal amount. That his fields may not suffer when he is called out, the inhabitants are divided into families of about sixty, at the head of whom is a directing patriarch, and among whom the culture and pro- duce of the land is in common, each family, according to the number that it has sent out, and their length of service, having, allowances or remission of tax of twelve guilders a head. The country is divided, not into provinces, but into gene- ralats and regiments ; the Carlstadt regiment, the Gradiska regiment, &c. The whole population of the Military Frontier is about 1,000,000, with a force of 50,000 men in actual service. Of late, its chief use has been to form a cordon for pre- venting the irruption of the plague. This frontier partakes physically and morally of the peculiarities of all the countries and all the people from which it is severed. The industry is chiefly pastoral, not much more than a fourth of the lands being under the plough. The cities are called Free Military Communities ; but none of them contains 10,000 inhabitants. Semlin, in the Sclavonic frontier, is the largest. Peterwaradin, Brod, and Gradiska, are strongly fortified little towns. Dalmatia is the rudest province of the Austrian monarchy. It forms a line of coast, about 300 miles in extent, from the border of Illyria to the Gulf of Cattaro, having a long chain of islands running parallel. This coast is bleak and arid, co- vered with woods and bushes; till, in the interior, it rises into long ranges of bleak and rocky summits. Dalmatia produces scarcely any grain ; but its cattle, though small, are numerous: honey is produced in great perfection from the nu- merous aromatic plants on its hills; the fishery employs 8000 men, and is sup- posed to produce in value nearly 80,000Z. The population consists of Morlachians (sometimes called also Dalmatians), and Montenegrins, both of Sclavonic race, and a mixture of Italians. Population, 329,727. Zara, the capital, is a little town, on a promontory of land, severed from the continent by so deep an abyss, that there is no communication unless by a bridge. Spalatro is a larger town, on a little peninsula, strong by art and nature. It contains a number of large old houses, forming narrow and irregular streets; but it is chiefly distinguished by the remains of the superb palace of Diocletian, one of the grandest monuments of ancient architecture. Pola, once a great and splendid city, is reduced to a village, but still contains a most magnificent amphitheatre, in high preservation, one of the most celebrated remains of Roman antiquity. Sebenico, Ragusa, and Cattaro, are tolerable seaports, with good harbours; and the latter, on the Turkish border, is an important military position. GALICIA, OR AUSTRIAN POLAND. The portion of Poland annexed to Austria is erected into a kingdom, under the titles of Galicia and Lodomeria. Its surface is considerably distinguished from that flat marshy level which covers almost the whole of Poland. A great part of it is situated upon the slope of the Carpathian chain, which separates it from Hun- gary. The country is of various character. A considerable part consists of mountain forest, the elevations of which, do not, however, rise to more than 4000 or 5000 feet. Many of the plains are sandy ; but the greater portion, diversified by gentle hills, is of the most exuberant fertility ; and, notwithstanding its imper- fect cultivation, forms a sort of granary of the surrounding countries. The different branches of industry are in a less advanced state in Galicia than in any other part even of Poland. The peasantry are no longer in the legal con- dition of serfs; but the general poverty, sluggishness, and apathy, which prevail among this order, render them nearly as much as ever enthralled to their land- lords, and strangers to every kind of improvement. Still the produce of corn on these fine plains is very considerable. Manufactures, even of the coarsest and most necessary articles, are almost un- known to the native Galician, who follows nothing but his plough and his horse, and leaves the care of clothing him to the Jews, who have multiplied in this kingdom more than in any other part even of Poland. They exceed 200,000. The mineral kingdom affords one branch of industry in which Galicia excels 380 PRUSSIA. every other part of Europe, and of the world itself. The whole soil at a certain depth contains a mineral layer variously impregnated with salt. The two grand works are at Bochnia and Wieliczca, the former of which produces the finest salt ; but the latter are the most extensive of any in Poland, or, indeed, perhaps in the world. These two great salt mines produce annually upwards of 800,000 cwt. ; besides which there are twenty-six on a smaller scale, yielding about 900,000 cwt. The commerce of Galicia is necessarily inland. Occupying, however, the heads of the Dniester and the Vistula, it sends a considerable quantity of commodities down those rivers. It has also a great inland carrying trade. The exports con- sist of grain, salt, some wood, and honey ; in exchange for which are received manufactured goods of every description, and exotic luxuries of every denomination. The social state of Galicia presents an aspect less altered from the feudal sys- tem and habits, than that of almost any other European region. The nobles amounted, in 1817, to the enormous number of 31,006 ; some of them possessing immense property, though, in consequence of trusting the management of their affairs to stewards, they are generally embarrassed. Knowledge is in a most defective state; and the few institutions which exist for its diffusion have been introduced by the Austrians. They have made great exertions to improve the university at Lemberg, which has twenty-six professors, and a good library. The inhabitants of the eastern part of the kingdom are of Russian origin : they speak a language compounded of the Russian and Polish ; they are more industrious than the Poles, and employ themselves in the fabrication of coarse linen. A con- siderable number of Wallachians, of Magyars, the prevailing people in Hungary, and Germans to the number of 72,000, have found their way into Galicia. Popu- lation, 4,385,608. The cities and towns in this part of Poland are neither very ample nor elegant. Lemberg, however, though its interior streets be narrow and old-fashioned, has four handsome suburbs. In 1808, it contained 41,500 inhabitants. The frontier town of Brody contains from 16,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, of whom more than a third are Jews. The other towns contain only about 5000 or 6000 inhabitants. Sambor and Drohobitz, on the Dniester, have some manufacture and trade, chiefly carried on by Jews. Tarnopol, farther to the north, is tolerably flourishing. Sta- nislaus, in the south, is a handsome town, which the Austrians propose to convert into an important fortress. Bochnia and Wieliczca, entirely supported by the salt mines, do not contain more than 3000 people. PRUSSIA. Prussia was first erected into a kingdom in 1701, and has at different times acquired large accessions of territory, and, from a small and feeble State, has become one of the most powerful monarchies of Europe. The different parts of the kingdom are so various and detached, that it is difficult to connect them under any general view. The two great political divisions are, 1st, Prussia Proper, her original territory, and the Grand Duchy of Posen, formerly belonging to Poland : 2d, The German provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, Saxony, West- phalia, and the Rhine : the two last form a detached western portion, separated from the rest by the dominions of Hanover, Hesse, and Saxony. Prussia has also in Switzerland the small principality of Neufchatel. The eastern division of Prussia contains 87,169, and the western 18,271 square miles ; total, 105,440. The population of this kingdom was, in 1740, 3,000,000; in 1790, 6,000,000; and in 1832, 13,842,000. A level surface predominates throughout the Prussian States; the country abounds in marshes, lakes, and rivers of slow current. The great mountain tracts, the Hartz, in Saxony, and the Riesengebirge, a branch of the Sudetic chain, in Silesia, are near the outskirts of the kingdom. Prussia is a favoured country with regard to water communication in its inte- rior. The Baltic forms a number of bays, or rather lakes, along its coast; as the Frische, Curische, Putzig, and Stettin Hafs ; and there is a succession of navi- PRUSSIA. 381~] gable rivers, viz. Niemen, Pregel, Vistula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, and Rhine. Some ! of the tributary streams are the Wartha, Neisse, Saale, Havel, Moselle, Roer, and Lippe. There are several useful canals, and small lakes are numerous. The principal islands are Rugen and Usedom, in the Baltic Sea. The soil in some parts is good, but in general it is by no means fertile, being often sandy and covered with heath. The productions are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, flax, hemp, hops, cattle, sheep, horses, &c. The mineral productions are ! iron, copper, lead, vitriol, alum, salt, coal, and especially amber, of which 200 tons are annually collected. The commerce of Prussia, though conducted with some advantages, both mari- time and inland, is in an early stage. The exports consist of linen, woollens, hardware, corn, wool, timber, pitch, tar, potash, linseed, tobacco, wax, cattle, horses, &c. The amount is stated at 4 or £5,000,000, and the imports at about £3,500,000. Prussia, though more an agricultural than a trading country, has districts of great activity in manufactures. Silesia and Westphalia have long been noted for their linens. Other manufactures are woollens, hardware, leather, earthenware, glass, paper, tobacco, &c. Cotton works have lately been intro- duced, and brewing is a branch of great importance. The annual value of the manufactures is about £7,000,000. The government is a hereditary monarchy. The king is assisted by a ministry, or cabinet, on a similar footing to that in England ; but there is no representative assembly. There are four orders of knighthood, and the noblesse, or gentry, are numerous, comprising about 20,000 families. In. the eastern part there are from 4 to 5,000,000 serfs, or peasants, attached to the soil. The religion of the royal family is the Calvinist, but there is no limitation, and all denominations are tolerated, and are on an equal footing. In 1817, the Luthe- , rans and Calvinists of Prussia, and some other parts of Germany, formed a union i under the name of Evangelical Christians. The relative numbers have been stated as follows: Lutherans and Calvinists, 8,500,000; Catholics, 5,000,000; Jews, 150,000; Anabaptists, 20,000; Moravians, 18,000; Unitarians, Pietists, &c., 14,000. The universities are those of Berlin, Halle, Breslau, Konigsberg, Bonn, and Griefswalde ; and there are gymnasiums at Berlin, Magdeburg, Schul-Pforte, Dantzic, Konigsberg, Breslau, &c. Education is much more advanced in the north than in the south of Germany, and a considerable part of the Prussian States are well furnished with elementary schools, particularly Brandenburg, Saxony, and a part of Prussia Proper. The common language is the German. The annual revenue is about £9,000,000. There is no paper currency ; all is paid in gold and silver. The national debt is computed at about £40,000,000, part of which is redeemable every year. Prussia is famous for the military discipline of its army. The total number of troops under arms in 1815, exceeded 200,000. They have been since somewhat reduced, but at present amount to about 140,000 men. They are recruited, by conscription, from the class of young men between twenty and twenty-five years of age, who are all liable to be called upon for three years' ser- vice. The Landwehr consists of all the able-bodied men under forty years, if not in the army, and may be called into service in the event of a war. The Land- ; sturm are those above 40 able to carry arms ; in time of war the duty of this class is to preserve the internal peace and security of the country. The Landwehr of the first class amount to 227,000; the second to 180,000; making the whole war establishment 530,000 men. The German dominions of Prussia are extensive and scattered, variously acquired by successive inheritance and conquest. They consist of Brandenburg, the origi- nal basis of the monarchy ; of Pomerania and Silesia ; and of territories in Saxony, in Westphalia, and on the Rhine. Brandenburg forms a great mass of territory in the eastern part of the north of Germany, bordering on Poland. It is usually called the Mark of Brandenburg, and comprises the cities of Berlin, Fraftkfort, and Stettin ; it is neither the most fertile nor the most beautiful part of this great country. It consists of a vast plain of sand, in some places presenting a dead level, in others blown into hills of little 382 PRUSSIA. elevation. The grain, though carefully cultivated, is not sufficient for internal supply, but is of excellent quality. Pomerania is a long line of narrow, sandy coast, lying along the Baltic. The Oder here enters that sea, forming at its mouth a large and winding haff, or bay, on the opposite side of which are the large islands of Usedom and Wollin. The soil is in many 'parts far from productive; yet in others, especially that which formerly belonged to Sweden, it is made by industry to yield harvests of grain more than sufficient for the interior supply. Silesia is an extensive oblong tract between Bohemia and Poland. It was ori- ginally a Polish province ; but German settlers have now occupied the greater part of it, and introduced industry and prosperity. From its fertility, and the industry of its inhabitants, it is considered the brightest jewel in the Prussian crown. The Oder, rising on its southern border, divides it into two nearly equal parts, of which the western is mountainous or hilly : its population is altogether German, and it is the seat of the principal manufactures ; while the eastern con- sists, in a great measure, of flat and sandy plains, and is partly occupied by Scla- vonic races. Silesia is, perhaps, the most manufacturing country in all Germany ; its linens, in particular, are considered the best in the world for pliancy, brilliant whiteness, and durability. Prussian Saxony forms a large extent of straggling territory, consisting of por- tions severed at various times and in various ways from all the neighbouring states, great and small, sometimes having fragments enclosed within them, and some- times enclosing within itself fragments of them. Generally speaking, it may be viewed as nearly a square territory, extending on both sides of the Elbe, between Royal Saxony, Brandenburg, and Hanover. It belongs generally to the vast, wide, flat plain of northern Germany, though on its western side it borders on the Hartz and the forest of Thuringia. There are considerable sandy and marshy tracts, but upon the whole it is abundantly productive of grain, which is cultivated with par- ticular skill and diligence. Prussian Westphalia is also an aggregate of a number of small detached parts ; but, by cessions and arrondissemens it has been formed into a pretty compact ter- ritory, situated between Hanover and Holland, and extending from the Weser nearly to the Rhine. It extends to 8272 square miles, and its three governments of Munster, Minden, and Arensberg, contained, in 1827, a population of 1,207,712. The Lippe divides it into two parts ; the northern belongs to the great plain, which is sandy and marshy, but affords some good corn-land ; the southern is covered with ranges of little rocky hills branching from the Hartz, which render the soil often unfit for the plough, but it is always covered with fine wood. The staple to which Westphalia owes its celebrity consists in its hogs, which surpass those of all the other provinces, producing the hams so much famed throughout Europe. The Rhenish territories of Prussia formerly consisted of two provinces ; one bearing the compound appellation of Julich-Cleve-Berg, and the other that of the Lower Rhine, which have recently been incorporated into one province, bearing the name of the Rhine. Julich-Cleve-Berg occupies almost ninety miles of the course of the Rhine, extending on both sides of that river. Of all the Prussian territories, it is the least favoured by nature. On the eastern bank extends a continuous range of mountains, including the remarkable group called the Siebengebirge, or Seven Hills; not, indeed, exceeding the height of 2000 feet, but naked and rugged. The opposite bank is, indeed, level, but consists almost entirely of sandy plains and wide morasses: the country, therefore, does not produce corn sufficient for its own consumption, nor any thing in abundance except flax. Under these natural disadvantages, however, the inhabitants exert a manufacturing industry beyond what is found in any other part of Prussia or even of Germany. Berg has been called England in miniature, such is the variety of fabrics carried on there. Cloth, metals, and tobacco, are worked up in almost every shape, and are exported to the value of 3,000,000 rix-dollars. The consequence is, that this district, so little PRUSSIA. 383 favoured by nature, is the most populous, in relation to its extent, of any that belongs to Prussia. The province of the Lower Rhine occupies a considerably greater extent of the course of the river higher up than that last described. The principal part of it belonged formerly to the archbishopric of Treves, which, with various little states and cities, has now merged into the Prussian dominion. The Rhine flows through the middle of this tract, receiving on one side the Moselle, and on the other the Lahn and the Lieg. The province of Prussia forms an extensive range of sea-coast, describing a sort of semicircle of nearly 400 miles round the southern shore of the Baltic, and extending from 50 to 100 miles into the interior. The whole is a continuous and almost dead level, scarcely rising above the surface of the water on which it bor- ders. Only in the south-east quarter appear a few sand-hills, blown together by the winds : one of them rises to 500 feet, but none of the others attain half that elevation. A portion of this province formerly belonged to Poland. Prussian industry is divided between agriculture and commerce; manufactures being yet in their infancy. The soil is in many places sandy and marshy ; yet there are few parts which are not fit either for grain, flax, or hemp, and many tracts are very productive. The cattle are numerous, and the breeds in general good ; that of horses, in some parts, is extremely fine. Posen, bearing the title of grand duchy, is now the principal part of the Polish territory annexed to Prussia. It forms an extensive level plain, analagous in all its features to that which crosses the whole north of Europe. The country is finely watered, having the Vistula for its eastern boundary ; while the Wartha, receiving the considerable tributaries of the Netze and the Obra, traverses it from east to west, enters Germany, and falls into the Oder at Kustrin. Population of the provinces of Prussia in 1827 : , Sq. Miles. Population. Brandenburg ... 15,480 1,926,995 Pomorania 12,363 869,958 Silesia 15,600 2,362,562 Saxony 8,492 1,396,240 Westphalia 8,272 1,207,712 Rhine 10,070 2,220,853 Prussia 25,115 1,883,117 Posen 11,261 1,051,137 Neufchatel 340 52,800 Total 106,993 12,971,374 Berlin, the capital of Brandenburg, and also of the kingdom of Prussia, stands on the Spree ; with its suburbs it is 13- miles in circumference, but this extent incloses many gardens and fields. It is defended by a wall and palisades. The city exhibits striking contrarieties of aspect in the admixture of magnificent build- ings with ruinous houses, and the whole mass of edifices composing the city have a straggling, discrepant look. The streets, in the better part of the town, are straight and well-paved : and there are several handsome squares, with pleasant walks. The houses in general are built of white freestone. The suburbs are of wood, stuccoed to imitate stone. There are 15 gates to the city. The royal gate is defended by a half-moon, and two bastions faced with brick. On the stone bridge over the Spree is an equestrian statue of the Great Elector William. Be- yond the bridge is seen the Royal Palace ; a superb edifice containing magnificent apartments, and the most splendid service of plate belonging to any palace in Europe. The royal library has 150,000 volumes. Berlin has 4 colleges, 5 gymnasiums, and 250 other seminaries of learning, with various charitable institutions. It is the centre of learning for the north of Germany, and has manufactures of silk, cotton, woollen, porcelain, jewelry, & c . Population, 223,520. Potsdam, on the Havel, is one of the most elegant cities in the Prussian do- minions. It has a splendid royal palace, and many fine architectural embellish- 384 BAVARIA. ments. It has also a cannon foundery and manufactures of silk and velvets. Po- pulation, 30,000. On a hill in the neighbourhood, stands the palace of Sans Souci, erected by Frederick the Great. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, near the mouth of the Oder, has a great trade. Population, 25,000. Breslaw, the capital of Silesia, stands on the Oder. It is well built, strongly fortified, and famous for its large gates. It has manufactures of linen, and an extensive in- ternal trade. Population, 87,119. Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony, on the Elbe, is a handsome city, with a noble palace, an arsenal, and a magnificent gothic cathedral. It has manufactures of silk, woollen, cotton, linen, &c. Population, 32,000. Munster, the capital of Westphalia, is an ordinary place, but has an university, with several colleges and schools. Population, 18,212. Cologne, the capital of Julich-Cleve-Berg, on the Rhine, is one of the oldest cities in Europe. It has a great number of ancient churches. The cathedral is an immense gothic pile, founded in the 13th century, but yet unfinished. The city has a decayed look. It has manufactures of silk, linen, woollen, lace, and thread, and is cele- brated for its Cologne water, of which it exports 80,000 or 90,000 flasks. Popu- lation, 64,000. Coblentz, the capital of Lower Rhine, at the junction of the Rhine and Moselle, is a well-built city, with considerable trade and some manu- factures. It has a bridge of boats over the Rhine, and one of stone over the Mo- selle. Population, 15,000. Posen, the capital of the Duchy of Posen, on a branch of the Oder, is a compactly built town, with an university. Population, 25,000. Konigsberg, the capital of East Prussia, on the Pregel, is 7 miles in circumference, and contains many elegant buildings, and an university of high reputation. Part of the town stands on an island in the river. It is a place of considerable trade. Population, 63,000. Dantzic, the capital of West Prussia, on the Vistula, near the southern shore of the Baltic, has a good harbour, and was once the chief town of the Hanseatic-league. The houses are high and the streets crooked. It has much commerce and internal trade, exporting hemp, flax, linen, timber, potash, &c. It has a great annual fair in July jand August, which lasts six weeks. Popu- lation, including the military, 52,821. Aix-la-Chapelle, once the capital of the German empire, is famous for its warm baths. Many parts of it are elegant, and it has manufactures of cloth and needles. Population, 32,000. Dusseldorf, on the Rhine, is a handsome modern city, with considerable trade and manufactures. Population, 27,000. Halle, in Saxony, is a flourishing city on the Saale. It is celebrated for its university and literary institutions. It has also many manufac- tures. Population, 21,500. Frankfort, on the Oder, is a rich and handsome city, with an university, three great annual fairs, and manufactures of woollen, silk, and leather. Population, 12,000. BAVARIA. This kingdom is bounded north by Hesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, Saxe Mein- ingen, Saxe Cobourg, and the kingdom of Saxony ; east and south by the Aus- trian states, and west by Wirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt. It contains 30,997 square miles, and 4,037,017 inhabitants. The north-eastern limit is skirted by a chain of mountains, and another range extends across the northern part. The country is watered by the Danube and its numerous head streams : the northern part is traversed by the Mayne, and the western by the Rhine. The Lake of Constance lies partly within this territory, and there are other small lakes. Much of the soil is unproductive from its ruggedness and marshy quality. The best arable land lies along the Danube and Inn. A great part of the country is covered with forests. The mountains contain quarries of marble and mines of quicksilver. Iron and copper are also produced. Agriculture is so much neglected in Bavaria that except in very productive years the kingdom does not produce sufficient grain for its own consumption. Wine is the chief article of produce along the Rhine and Mayne. Fruit is raised in great quantities. Hops, flax, and garden vegeta- bles, are also cultivated. There are some manufactures of woollen cloth, but this SAXONY. 385 branch of industry is much less active than formerly. Tobacco is manufactured throughout the country. Fruit, salt, hides, wool, flax, hemp, saffron, and licorice, are exported. Bavaria is a constitutional monarchy. The national assembly con- sists of two chambers. Every citizen enjoys perfect equality in the eyes of the law. The army amounts to 53,898 men. Munich, the capital, is seated in a plain on the Iser. It is a well-built city, and many of its edifices are very splendid. It has an university, a library of 400,000 volumes, and a gallery of paintings ranked among the finest in Europe. Popula- tion, 80,000. Ratisbon, on the Danube, was once an imperial city. It is built in the form of a crescent, and is strongly fortified. It has considerable commerce by the river. Population, 26,000. Augsburg was also formerly an imperial city, and was founded by the Romans in the reign of Augustus. One fourth of the houses are built of stone, and the remainder of timber and clay. The public buildings are magnificent, and the city is one of the handsomest in Germany. Population, 32,000. Nuremburg, on the Regnitz, has large manufactures, and several churches noted for their beautiful paintings. Watches, brass, and globes, were invented in this city. Population, 40,000. Passau, at the confluence of the Inn and Danube, is an ancient town, strongly fortified. Population, 10,300. Bamberg, on the Regnitz, is a fine city, with a magnificent castle. Population, 20,000. Wurtz- burg, on the Mayne, has a large trade in wine. Population, 20,000. SAXONY. This kingdom is bounded north and north-east by Prussia, south and south-east by Austria, south-west by Bavaria, west by Reus and Altenberg, and north-west by Prussia. It contains 7200 square miles, and 1,497,000 inhabitants. It is watered by the Elbe, Muldawa, and many other small streams, which flow through beautiful valleys, forming landscapes of the most charming appearance. The soil in the valleys and level parts is fertile. The vegetable products are similar to those of the other parts of northern Germany. Saxony has lost its principal agri- cultural provinces, and little is raised in the kingdom except corn. Manufactures are active, and employ three-fifths of the population. The wool trade of Saxony centres at Leipzig. Trade is flourishing and is much facilitated by the Elbe and its tributaries. Saxony is a constitutional monarchy. The army amounts to about 10,000 men. The electorate of Saxony was raised to a kingdom in 1806, and formed a part of the Rhenish confederation. The limits of the country were much reduced by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815. Dresden, the capital, stands on the Elbe. It is elegantly built ; the houses are all of freestone, and nearly all of the same height. It has numerous palaces and public buildings, beautiful in architecture, and magnificently furnished. Dresden is called the German Florence : it has a gallery of 1184 paintings, inestimable in value ; many establishments for the fine arts and for education ; a royal library with above 250,000 volumes, and three other public libraries. The city is strongly fortified. Population, 60,000. Leipzig is one of the most important cities in Germany. It stands in a plain watered by the Pleisse, the Elster, and the Partha. The city is well built and surrounded by spacious and handsome suburbs, between which and the town is an elegant walk of lime trees. The streets are clean and commodious, and the houses are mostly very high. Here are held, yearly, three great fairs, which draw together above 2000 merchants and a vast concourse of purchasers. The books sold at these fairs are valued at nearly 1,000,000 dollars annually, and the other commodities at about 18,000,000. AJ1 sorts of manufac- tures are carried on here ; in particular, those of gold, silver, silk, woollen, and linen yarn. Leipzig has been the scene of many sieges and battles: the two most memorable are the victory gained by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, over the Austrians, in 1641, and that of the allies, over Napoleon, in 1813. Popula- tion, 41,000. Chemnitz has large manufactures of cotton and woollen cloth, 33 2Y 386 HANOVER. hosiery, and silk handkerchiefs. Population, 16,000. Freyberg, on a branch of the Muldawa, is a famous mining town. It stands on a lofty site, and is com- pletely undermined by galleries and caverns. Population, 12,000. KINGDOM OF HANOVER. This kingdom is bounded north by the German Ocean and Oldenburg ; east by Holstein, Mecklenburg, Prussia, and Brunswick ; south by Prussia, Hesse, and Lippe, and west by Holland. It contains 14,720 square miles, and 1,549,000 in- habitants. The Hartz Mountains occupy a portion of territory in the south, de- tached from the main body of the kingdom ; otherwise the whole country is an immense plain, diversified here and there by sand-hills, sterile heaths, and moors. The sandy soil is interspersed with blocks of granite. The Elbe washes the north-eastern boundary, and the Weser, Leine, Aller, and Ilmenau, water different parts of the country. There are many shallow lakes, and on the coast is a wide bay formed by the bursting in of the sea, in 1277, when above 50 villages were destroyed. The mineral products are numerous. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, cobalt, zinc, marble, slate, limestone, coal, manganese, calamine, vitriol, and sul- phur, are produced here. The mines of the Hartz are rich in silver, and afford annually 1,172,733 dollars. The lead mine of Caroline produces yearly 194,000 dollars. The salt springs are also productive. This country does not produce sufficient grain for its own subsistence, and in some parts the land is so poor, that 6000 of the inhabitants leave the country annually for Holland, in quest of em- ployment. The articles of cultivation are various sorts of grain, hops, flax, and garden vegetables. In the sandy soil potatoes are raised. On the heaths of Luneberg considerable numbers of bees are reared. The manufactures consist of linens from flax, coarse damasks, yarn, silver plate, gold and silver lace, jew- elry, amber, saddlery. The internal trade is assisted by four annual fairs at Han- over, and two at Osnaburg, where are sold the commodities purchased at the fairs of Brunswick, Leipzig, and Frankfort. The chief exports are horses, cattle, wax, lead, linens, leather, salt, oats, barley, thread, iron, copper, peat, and timber. The king of Hanover is the king of Great Britain, but the interests of the two countries are kept apart. It has occasionally happened, however, that this connexion with a German state has involved Great Britain in continental disputes from which she might have otherwise been exempted. Hanover is a constitutional monarchy, and has a general assembly consisting of two chambers. The administration is directed by a Governor General appointed by the king. The army amounts to 13,000 men. Nine of the towns are garrisoned. Hanover, the capital, stands on the Leine, in the midst of a sandy plain. It is built in the form of a half-moon, and has several handsome streets. The houses are generally of brick and timber in alternate layers, and resemble in appearance the stern of a ship of the 16th century. The date of their erection is always marked upon them. In those of 1565, each story projects over the one below it, and all are embellished with confused mixtures of medallions, Pagan deities, war- riors, and verses from the Psalms. The electoral palace is an elegant structure of hewn stone. The public library has 24,000 volumes. The environs of the city are very pleasant. Population, 28,200. Gottingen, on the Leine, is famous for its university, which has one of the largest and best libraries in Europe, con- taining 300,000 volumes. The town stands in a valley, and is surrounded with gardens. Population, 9600. Emden, at the mouth of the Ems, is the chief sea- port of the kingdom. Its commerce is very active, and it employs 300 vessels in the herring fishery. Population, 10,985. Osnaburg, on a branch of the Ems, is a considerable seaport, famous for the manufacture of coarse linen called Osna- burgs. Population, 10,000. Luneburg, on the Ilmenau, has an ancient castle, and considerable trade in salt and horses. Population, 12,000. WIRTEMBERG— BADEN. 387 KINGDOM OF WIRTEMBERG. This kingdom is bounded north-east, east, and south-east, by Bavaria ; south by the Lake of Constance ; south-west, west, north-west, and north, by Baden. It contains 7500 square miles, and 1,562,033 inhabitants. It is traversed by several ridges of mountains. It is watered by the Neckar and Danube, with their several head streams. The climate is mild and healthy, but in the more elevated parts the winters are severe. The soil is very fertile. The minerals are silver, copper, iron, cobalt, sulphur, coal, limestone, alabaster, agate, &c. Warm baths and me- dicinal springs are numerous, and those of Heilbron are particularly celebrated. This kingdom produces great supplies of grain, chiefly spelt; for rye and wheat are little cultivated. Flax and hemp are raised, and the mountains are covered with vines which produce a rich and wholesome wine called Neckar. Cherries are cultivated extensively in some parts, for manufacturing the strong liquor called Kirschwasser. Fruit trees are abundant: cider and perry are made in great quantities. A singular, yet considerable branch of industry, is the feed- ing of snails; millions of which are fattened in the neighbourhood of Ulm during the autumn, and exported to Vienna and Italy. Manufactures are not numerous ; but some cloth and lace are made in a few of the towns ; and there are many large distilleries and oil mills. The exports are cattle, corn, wood, tar, potash, oil, and a few manufactured goods. Wirtemberg is a constitutional monarchy. The legislative body consists of two chambers, one of the nobility, and the other electoral. The army amounts to 5943 men. % Stutgard, the capital, is situated near the Neckar. It is indifferently built, but contains a magnificent royal palace; an academy for painting, sculpture, and architecture ; a large opera-house and theatre. It is surrounded by a wall, flanked with towers. The suburbs are large and handsome. The seminaries of learning are numerous and respectable : the royal library has 200,000 volumes. The in- habitants manufacture silks, hosiery, and ribands. Population, 32,000. Ulm, on the Danube, at the head of navigation for large vessels, has the largest cathedral in Germany, with five spires, and an organ with 2952 pipes. It has some com- merce by the river. Population, 14,000. GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. This territory is bounded north by Hesse ; east by Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Hohenzollern; south by Switzerland, and west by France. It contains 5800 square miles, and 1,201,300 inhabitants. The whole country forms the eastern side of a valley traversed by the Rhine, and bounded on the east by the Black Forest. The Rhine washes the western limit, and some of its tributaries pass through this country. The Danube rises in the southern part. The Lake of Constance forms a part of the south-eastern boundary. The soil is good and vege- tation luxuriant There are mines of silver and iron, and quarries of freestone and marble. Mineral springs and hot baths are very numerous. In the city of Baden are above 300 hot baths, some of which are scalding hot ; all of them spring out of rocks of alum, salt, and sulphur. Corn, fruits, the vine, almonds, and chestnuts, are raised in this country ; but wine is the chief product. The government is constitutional, and the sovereignty hereditary. The army amounts to 11,566 men. Carlsruhe, the capital, is 3 miles from the Rhine. It is one of the finest cities in Germany. All the streets diverge in straight lines from the castle in the cen- tre. The houses are regularly built. The public library has 70,000 volumes. The gardens of the grand duke arc very handsome. Population, 20,000. Mann- heim, on the Rhine, is regularly built in squares, and with houses all of the same height. It has a magnificent castle, 750 feet in length, and a library of 70,000 388 HESSIAN STATES. volumes. A bridge of boats here crosses the Rhine. Population, 21,000. Heidel- berg, on the Neckar, is famous for an enormous tun containing 600 hogsheads. Here is a fine stone bridge across the river. Population, 10,000. Freiberg has a large Catholic university and a fine Gothic minster. Population, 10,108. Baden has a pleasant neighbourhood, and is much visited for the baths already mentioned. Population, 3180. Constance, on the lake of that name, is surrounded by a rich wine district. Population, 5000. HESSIAN STATES. The Hessian States comprise the Electorate of Hesse Cassel, the Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt, and the Landgraviate of Hesse Homburg. They are situated on both sides of the River Mayne, in several separate portions. Ihese States have nominally a limited government, but in fact arbitrary, and are much less improved than some other parts of Germany. In Hesse Cassel, only the oldest sons of clergymen, and the sons of noblemen, counsellors, and public officers, are allowed to receive a liberal education. More attention has been paid of late to the instruction of the people, and seminaries have been established here, as in most parts of Germany, for the education of teachers. Agriculture and manufactures are principally in a low state. Hesse Cassel. This State is bounded north-west by Prussia, north-east by Hanover, east by Prussia, Saxe Weimar and Bavaria, south by Bavaria and Hesse | Darmstadt, and west by Hesse Darmstadt. It contains 4352 square miles, and 649,800 inhabitants, most of whom are Protestants. It is mountainous, and inter- sected by fertile valleys : many parts of the mountains are covered with woods. The rivers are the Weser, Mayne, and Lahn. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, alum, vitriol, sulphur, coal, marble, and alabaster, are found here, as also salt springs and mineral waters. The agricultural productions are corn, fruit, wine, flax, and hemp. There are few manufactures except linen. The military force is 18,000 men ; of whom 2000 are in regular pay, the rest are only called out during part of the year. Hesse no longer carries on that extensive traffic of mercenary troops which formerly brought in large sums of money, and rendered the Elector, perhaps, the richest individual in Europe. Cassel, the capital, stands on the Fulda. It has several splendid public places and elegant buildings with a library of 70,000 volumes. Population, 26,000. Smalkalden is famous for a league concluded here in 1531. Population, 4474. Manburg has a university and a library of 56,000 volumes. Population, 7000. Hanau is a regular and handsome town near the Mayne. Population, 11,997. Fulda has a population of 8000. Hesse Darmstadt. This Grand Duchy consists of two distinct territories lying north and south of the Mayne. The northern part is bounded north, east, and south by Hesse Cassel, south-west by Frankfort and Hesse Homburg, and west by Nassau and the Prussian provinces. The southern part is bounded north by Frankfort and Hesse Cassel, east by Bavaria, south by Baden, and west by the Prussian provinces. There are also some small districts inclosed in the counties of Waldeck and Nassau. The whole superficial extent is 4112 square miles, and the population 720,000. The country is mountainous, and is watered by the Rhine, Mayne, Nahe, Neckar, and other streams. The rearing of cattle is the chief branch of husbandry : the agricultural products are similar to those of the south of Germany. The army amounts to 8421 men. The prevailing religion is Lutheran. Darmstadt, the capital, is well built in the more modern part, and has a gymna- sium with a library of 90,000 volumes. The town is fortified with very extensive works. In the neighbourhood of the town is a magnetic rock. Population, 20,000. Mentz or Mayence, on the Rhine, a little below its junction with the Mayne, is pleasantly situated, but indifferently built : it has a bridge of boats over the SAXON STATES. 389 Rhine, a library of 90,000 volumes, a fine museum of Roman antiquities, and a large cathedral. The fortifications are of great strength and extent, and are held by the diet as one of the bulwarks of the empire. Population, 26,800. Worms exhibits only the ruins of its former state, and is almost choked with rubbish, the fruit of successive desolating wars. It has still the remains of some fine edifices, and a good fruit and corn market. Offenbach, a thriving little town, is the only place in the duchy where manufactures flourish. Hesse Homburq. This Landgraviate consists of several small districts. It contains 138 square miles and 33,000 inhabitants. Homburg, the chief town, has a population of 2964. The inhabitants are mostly Protestant. SAXON STATES. The Saxon States comprise the Grand Duchy of Saxe Weimar, and the Duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe Altenburg, and Saxe-Meiningen-Hilburg- hausen. The government of these States is more free than that of the Hessian States, and education is more attended to. Agriculture and mining, which form the chief employments of the people, are conducted with much skill ; and manu- factures are somewhat advanced. The Prince of Saxe Weimar is distinguished as a patron of learning, and is the most liberal and popular of all the German princes, and was the first of them to give his subjects a representative constitu- tion ; and every degree of freedom is allowed to the press that the great monarchs will permit. The Grand Duchy of Saxe Weimar is bounded north and east by Prussia, Altenberg, and Reuss, south by the Schwartzburg, Prussian, Cothen, Meiningen, and Bavarian dominions, and west by Hesse Cassel. It contains 1420 square miles and 232,704 inhabitants. The chief rivers are the Saale and Werra. The chief production is wood from the forests. Grain, fruit, and flax, are cultivated. The government is a constitutional monarchy. The army consists of 2164 men. The prevailing religion is Lutheran. The constitution was established in 1816. Weimar, the capital, stands in a fertile valley watered by the Ilm. The city has a high literary reputation, and has been particularly distinguished as the resi- dence of Goethe, Schiller, and other eminent writers. Weimar has a public library of 120,000 volumes, a drawing academy, and a theatre, considered one of the best in Germany. Population, 10,000. Jena, on the Saale, stands in a pleasant spot surrounded by hills ; it is a walled and well-built town, with large suburbs, and contains a ducal palace, and a uni- versity which is the chief support of the place. Population, 5200. Eisenach has considerable manufactures. Population, 8258. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha has been lately formed by the union of these two branches, on the extinction of that of Gotha: most of the surface of which is level, with a moderately fertile soil. The city, containing about 12,000 inhabitants, is the channel of a considerable trade connected with the fair of Leipzig. It is some- what a learned city ; containing a library of 60,000 volumes, with valuable manu- scripts. Saxe-Coburg is a mountainous territory. It contains good pasturage, and some valuable mines. This territory has been raised to distinction by the good fortune of one of its younger members, now king of the Belgians. Saxe-Meininoen-Hildburohatjsen, on the Werra, is a little tract, enriched by mines of salt at Salzungen, and by some of coal, iron, and cobalt. Its principal towns are Meiningen and Hildburghausen, with about 5000 inhabitants each. The little duchy of Saxe-Altenburo consists of two detached portions, sepa- rated from each other by the territories of Saxe- Weimar and the Reuss princes. The capital, Altenburg, is a considerable town with about 12,000 inhabitants. Mecklenbtjro is a territory of the most northerly part of Germany, north-east j of Hanover. It consists to a great extent of lake and forest ; and the cultivation 33* ~~"~— 390 SAXON STATES. is comparatively rude ; yet a variety of gentle hills gives it a picturesque aspect. It is divided into the two grand duchies of Schwerin and Strelitz; the former is much the more extensive ; and Schwerin, the capital, is a pretty considerable town, with a handsome palace, situated on a lake, and containing a good gallery of pictures. Rostock is a larger town, with 20,000 inhabitants, situated on the Baltic, and exporting grain to the value of from 150,000Z. to 200,000Z. Wismar, on the Baltic, has a good harbour and considerable trade. Population, 10,000. Mecklenburg Strelitz is a small State, not containing quite 85,000 people, and its capital being little more than a large village, which has given two queens to Britain. The Duchy of Brunswick is rather a productive territory, situated partly on the declivities of the Hartz, partly on the plain of Saxony. The city of Bruns- wick is larger than in proportion to the State, containing a population of about 30,000. It is a considerable seat of the inland trade of Germany, its fairs ranking next to those of Frankfort and Leipzig. The government was nearly absolute till very lately, when the people, by a violent change of dynasty, effected for them- selves a representative constitution. Population, 250,100. The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg is distinguished by the high rank of its princes, connected by family alliances with all the great powers of the north, particularly Russia. The duke has possessions in different parts of the north of Germany ; but the main part of them is situated on the Weser, to the west of Hanover; a flat, marshy district, but abounding in rich pastures, and somewhat resembling Holland. The capital, Oldenburg, has 8000 inhabitants. Population, 251,500 ; area, 2752 square miles; government absolute. Nassau is a duchy which, by the union of the territories held by several branches of the same family, has attained to some tolerable magnitude. Situated in the southern part of Franconia, forming a hilly country on the banks of the Rhine and the Mayne, it produces those valuable wines, old Hock and Bleschert, which dis- tinguish this part of Germany : it does not contain, however, any towns of import- ance. Wisbaden, the capital, much visited on account of its 15 warm springs, has a population of 8000. At Niederselters, two million bottles are annually filled with the celebrated Seltzer water. Langenschwalbach and Schlangenbad are equally noted for their mineral springs; and Hochheim, Rudesheim, Johannis- berg, and Asmannshausen, for their fine wine. Population, 355,815 ; area, 2161 square miles. The Duchies of Anhalt, on the Elbe, between Saxony and Brandenburg, have a population of 136,000, divided between the three branches of Dessau, Bemburg, and Cothen. The family is ancient, and has produced some men of eminence. The German Principalities are 10 small States, most of which are contiguous to, or enclosed by the dominions of Prussia. They are Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwartzbtirg-Sondershausen, Reuss-Greitz, Reuss-Schleitz, Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Schauenburg, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Waldeck, and Lichtenstein. Schwartzburg belongs to a very ancient house, and is divided into the two branches of Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, and Schwartzburg- Sondershausen, con- taining between them 111,767 subjects, of which the first has 60,000, and the other 51,767. The territories are detached from each other, and about 35 miles apart, Rudolstadt being very nearly surrounded by the Saxon States, and Sonders- hausen entirely enclosed by the province of Prussian Saxony. The territory of Reuss is divided between Reuss-Greitz, and Reuss-Schleitz, the elder and younger lines: the former has 25,000 subjects, and the latter, which is subdivided into the several branches of Reuss-Schleitz, Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf, and Reuss-Koestritz, has 58,500. This family dates its origin from the year 950. Their principal town is Gera, called in Germany Little Leipzig, on account of its trade, which is considerable. Lippe-Detmoltj and Lippe-Schauenburg are situ- ated to the south of Hanover; the one hilly and wooded, the other flat and fertile. THE FREE CITIES. 391 A former prince of Lippe-Schauenburg made a distinguished figure in the service of Portugal. Their subjects amount to 103,000. There are two princes of Ho- henzollern, Sigmaringen and Hcchingen, having between them 54,500 people. They are situated between Baden and VVirtemberg. Waldeck-Pyrmont, com- posed of two hilly counties between Hesse and Hanover, derives almost its sole importance from the mineral baths of Pyrmont, which are among the most cele- brated in Europe. Population, 56,000 ; area, 459 square miles. Lichtenstein borders on Switzerland and the Tyrol. It contains 51 square miles, and 5550 inhabitants. Vadutz is the capital. The government is consti- tutional, and the inhabitants are Catholics. The Lilliputian lordship of Knip- hausen was recognised as an independent State, by an act of the diet, in 1826. It is situated within the territories of the Duke of Oldenburg. Population, 2860; area, 17 square miles. The four free cities of Germany, Hamburg, Lubeck, Bremen, and Frankfort, form still an interesting feature, necessary to close the picture of this great coun- try. They are the sole remnant of the Hanse Towns and imperial cities; illus- trious confederacies, which, during the middle ages, acted a most conspicuous part in the improvement of the European system. The members of the congress of Vienna, though little friendly to any thing republican, considered these so fully established, and so venerable by antiquity, that they sanctioned them as a part of the Germanic body. Hamburg is the most important commercial city of Germany. It forms the commercial emporium of Saxony, Bohemia, and other fertile and industrious regions watered by the Elbe and its tributaries. The commerce of this city was almost annihilated during the wars of the French Revolution, and by the operation of the continental system of Napoleon. Since that time she has greatly revived ; though her previous losses, and the depression generally affecting the commercial interests of Europe, have prevented her from regaining all her former importance. In 1835, 2204 vessels entered the port of Hamburg. The leading articles of importa- tion, in 1830, were coffee, tobacco, rum, pepper, cotton, and tea. The total exportation from Britain to the Hanse towns, most of which goes to Hamburg, is from 7,500,000*. to 9,000,000*. ; from the United States, $800,000. The manu factures of Hamburg are various, though none very considerable, except the refinery of sugar, which has also declined from the importance which it possessed at the beginning of this century. Hamburg is not a well-built town ; the streets being in general narrow and irregular, the houses constructed of brick or wood. The churches of St. Michael's and St. Peter's have elegant spires, and the new exchange is handsome; but there is no edifice distinguished for its splendour. The executive in Hamburg consists of a self-elected senate of twenty-eight members, who, however, are checked by popular councils chosen by all who have 240*. of property within the city. The population of the city is 122,815; that of the whole territory, 154,000. Lubeck, as a Hanse town, rose to distinction as early as Hamburg, and possessed even a pre-eminence; the maritime law by which the concerns of that great con- federacy were regulated having derived its name from this city. Its situation, however, within the Baltic, and not commanding the navigation of any great river, rendered it impossible for it to compete with the high prosperity to which Ham burg has, in modern times, attained. Its commerce is impeded by the small depth of water in the Trave, upon which it is situated, and which obliges vessels draw ing more than ten feet to stop at Travemunde. What remains of its commerce consists in the export of the grain abundantly produced in the surrounding coun- tries; for whose use it imports wine, colonial produce, and manufactured articles Lubeck, for an old town, is well built of stone. It has 22,000 inhabitants. Popu- lation of the State, 47,000. Bremen, at the mouth of the Weser, is enriched by the commerce of that important river, down which are brought the productions of interior Germany. The city is situated on both sides of the river, and has 40,000 inhabitants. The 392 SWITZERLAND. old town consists of narrow streets, bordered by high gloomy houses, built in the fashion of the middle ages: but there is a new town, in a much more elegant style. The government, which once approached to an oligarchy, is now almost purely democratic. In 1829, there entered Bremen 881 vessels. The chief im- ports were coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, wine, and grain. Square miles, 72. Po- pulation, 49,000. Frankfort on the Mayne, the seat of the Germanic Diet, stands on both sides of the Mayne, and is one of the most important trading towns in Germany. It has two annual fairs, in March and September, which draw hither above 1500 merchants from every country of Europe. The chief articles of traffic are cot- tons, woollens, and books. The city was once strongly fortified, but the defences have been converted into public walks. The buildings are indifferent. The whole territory of Frankfort comprises 113 square miles, and 55,000 inhabitants, most of whom belong to the city. The government is republican, and the in- habitants mostly Protestants. SWITZERLAND. Switzerland is a mountainous territory in the centre of Europe, occupying the north and west of the great range of the Alps which divides France and Ger- many from Italy. It is remarkable for the grandeur of its natural features and scenery, and for the freedom of its political institutions. This territory forms a confederacy composed of 22 cantons, each of which is an independent republic ; but, for mutual security, they are united together, and governed by a general diet, and are known as the Helvetic Confederacy or Helvetic Republic. Switzerland is bounded north by the grand duchy of Baden and the kingdom of Wirtemberg ; east by the Austrian province of Tyrol ; south by the Sardinian and the Lombardo Venetian states, and west by France. Its length from east to west is 200 miles ; its breadth from north to south, 130; and its superficial extent has been estimated by some at 15,000 square miles. Two distinct ranges of mountains traverse this region. The chain of the Jura stretches from south-west to north-east. The Alps form a more extensive chain, and run nearly parallel to the Jura, with numerous branches known among geographers by the names of the Pennine, Lepontine, and Rhsetian Alps. These mountains cover a great part of the country, and ex- hibit inaccessible peaks covered with snow ; eternal and boundless wastes of ice ; valleys surrounded by immense precipices; in contrast with wooded and undu- lating slopes, vine-clad fields, and bright patches of vegetation. Mont Blanc, the highest summit in Europe, overlooks the vale of Chamouni in Savoy ; a district not comprised within the political limits of Switzerland, but which pertains to it in a geographical character. This mountain is 15,814 feet in height: it is capped with eternal snow, and the approach to the top is so full of difficulty and hazard that it has never been ascended except in four or five in- stances. The Rhine has its three sources in the Rhsetian Alps, and, passing through the Lake of Constance, flows to the westward until it reaches Basle. The Rhone is formed by different streams from Mounts Grimsel and Farca, and flows into the Lake of Geneva. The Tesino issues from Mount Gries, and traverses Lake Mag- giore in Italy. The Inn rises in the Grisons, runs north-east, and subsequently joins the Danube. The Lake of Geneva, called also Leman, is 40 miles long. It is 1230 feet above the level of the sea, and its greatest depth is about 1000 feet. The waters of this lake are beautifully transparent, and the surrounding scenery has long been celebrated for its magnificence. The Lake of Constance is about 45 miles in length, and 15 in breadth. The Lake Lugano is at an elevation of 880 French feet above the sea. The Lake of Lucerne is above 20 miles in length, and from 8 to 10 in breadth : its greatest depth is about 600 feet, and its navigation dan- SWITZERLAND. 393 gerous. Among the numerous other lakes are those of Zurich, Neufchatel, Thun, Brientz, Morat, and Biel. The general surface of Switzerland exceeds, in rugged sublimity, any other portion of Europe. Nature seems here to have formed everything on her grandest scale, and offers the most striking contrasts. Icy peaks rise into the air close upon the borders of fertile valleys ; luxuriant corn-fields are surrounded by im- mense and dreary plains of ice ; in one step the traveller passes from the ever- lasting snow to the freshest verdure, or from glaciers of chilling coldness to val- leys from whose rocky sides the sunbeams are reflected with almost scorching power. The nature of the country presents numerous obstacles to its cultiva- tion ; but they have been, in a great measure, overcome by the industry of the inhabitants. The traces of the plough are visible on the sides of precipices apparently inaccessible ; and spots which nature seemed to have doomed to eternal sterility, are crowned with vegetation. The produce of grain is generally equal to the consumption ; but pasturage is the chief object of the farmer. The chief manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, linen, silk, leather, jew- elry-ware, and particularly watches. Though in the centre of Europe, Switzer- land is much restricted in its commercial intercourse by the barriers of the Alps and the prohibitory systems of the neighbouring States. The chief exports are cattle, sheep, linen, lace, silks, jewelry, &c. The imports are principally corn, flax, raw silk, cotton, spices, and various kinds of manufactured goods. The population of Switzerland has not been ascertained by any very accurate census, but i3 estimated at 2,013,000. The following table exhibits the extent of the different cantons, and their population, according to an estimate formed in 1827: Cantons. Sq. m. Population. Geneva 100 51,940 Vaud 1487 175,350 Valais 2035 71,300 Tesino 1134 101,000 Berne 3635 357,710 Lucerne 662 118,500 Uri 646 14,240 Schwcitz 466 36,170 Unterwalden 265 25,220 Glarus 392 27,660 Zug 122 14,800 Zurich 954 221,370 Friburg 805 83,700 Soleure 255 52,030 Basle 238 54,380 Schaffhauscn 169 32,140 Appcnzell 170 54,300 St. Gall 1102 148,250 Grisons 2395 87,900 Aargau 763 151,510 Thurgau 353 80,730 Neufchatel 350 52,800 As to national character, the Swiss enjoy the reputation of being a plain, honest, brave, and simple people, among whom linger the last remnants of antique and primitive manners. Their fond attachment to their native country is con- spicuous even amid the necessity which compels them to abandon it and to enter the service of the neighbouring powers. It is observed that no sooner is the Ranx des Vaches, a simple mountain air, played in their hearing, than the hardy soldiers melt into tears. An ardent love of liberty, ever since the grand epoch of their liberation, has distinguished the Swiss people. The religion of Switzerland is divided between the Protestant and the Catholic. Schweitz, Uri, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Friburg, Soleure, Valais, and Tesino, are Catholic: St. Gall, Appenzell, Aargau, and Grisons, are mixed. The others 2Z 394 SWITZERLAND— ITALY. may be ranked as Protestant ; though even in Geneva there are 15,000 Catholics. The Protestant churches were at first strictly Calvinistic, both as to doctrine and discipline ; but the Genevan church has in a great measure renounced the tenets of this school of theology. The Presbyterian form of church government, how- ever, still prevails throughout Protestant Switzerland. The Catholic religion ex- hibits this peculiar feature, that, instead of being, as usual, combined with high monarchical principles, it is established among the most purely democratic of the Swiss republics. The Protestant cantons, however, are observed to be decidedly the most flourishing and industrious. Learning, though not very generally diffused throughout Switzerland, has been cultivated with great ardour at Geneva and Zurich, both of which have a char- acter more decidedly intellectual than most European cities. The great printing and book-selling trade which Geneva enjoyed while the French press laboured under severe restrictions, has been diminished. Elementary knowledge is general throughout the Protestant population. The habits and general forms of life are substantially German, modified, in the western cantons, and especially in Geneva, by a somewhat intimate communication with France. The Helvetic diet consists of deputies from the different cantons, which meet once a year. Extraordinary meetings may also be called on the requisition of any five cantons. This assembly takes cognizance of everything that concerns the foreign relations and the general defence of the country. The army of the con- federacy is formed of contingents, which each canton, in proportion to its number, is obliged to furnish. From these is made out an entire amount of 33,000 men. A remarkable peculiarity in the military system of Switzerland is the employ- ment of its citizens in the service of foreign powers as a stipendiary force. This system has long prevailed, and is regularly authorized by the government. The number, in 1816, was estimated at 30,000. The singular consequence follows, that citizens of the most democratic state in Europe, form, in many cases, the main instrument in supporting the arbitrary power of foreign princes. Berne is usually considered as the capital of Switzerland, but this is rather nominally than politically. It is pleasantly situated on the Aar. and is a large handsome town, partly fortified, and containing a beautiful cathedral, a college, an arsenal, and several other public edifices. Population, 18,000. Basle, one of the largest trading towns in the confederacy, is situated on the Rhine, by which it is divided into two parts, united by a bridge. It has a library of 28,000 volumes, and is the seat of a university founded in 1459. Population, 16,000. Geneva stands at the western extremity of the lake of that name, and is divided by the Rhone into two parts. Its library contains about 50,000 volumes. It has some manufactures of woollen, muslin, chintz, silk, porcelain; and particularly watches, which employ near 7000 persons. The book trade has ever been very flourishing here. Population, 26,000. Zurich stands on the lake of the same name, upon both sides of the river Limmath. It is distinguished for its college and public library, and has flourishing manufactures of muslins, cottons, and silk handker- chiefs. Population, 11,000. Lausanne is delightfully situated on three emi- nences a mile north of the Lake of Geneva. It contains a gothic cathedral of considerable magnificence. Population, 10,000. Lucerne, on the lake of the same name, occupies a gentle eminence, and is surrounded by a wall and towers. Among its curiosities is the model of Switzerland, executed in relief by the late General Pfyffer. Population, 7000. ITALY. Italy is an extensive region in the south of Europe, and one of the finest in the world, as to soil and climate, and noted as the theatre of many of the greatest events in history. It is now in a state of degradation and decline, but is filled with grand monuments and scenes, calculated to awaken the most lofty recol- lections. This portion of the European continent forms a large peninsula, bounded on the north by Germany and Switzerland, east, by part of Austria and the Adri- ITALY. 395 atic Sea, south and south-west, by the Mediterranean, and on the west, in the northern parts, by Fiance : its length is estimated at 700 miles ; its breadth is very unequal ; on the north, along the Alps, about 350; in the central parts, about 140 ; and at the extremity of Calabria, only 75 miles. The whole extent may be reckoned at 127,000 square miles, including Sicily and Sardinia. The surface of Italy is the most finely diversified of any country in the world ; it has the loftiest mountains and the most beautiful plains in Europe. The Alps extend along the whole of her northern frontier, and some of their proudest pin- nacles, Mount Blanc, St. Bernard, &c., are within the Italian territory, and their white summits are seen amid the clouds in continuous grandeur, along the whole extent of the plains of Lombardy. The Appenines are a chain purely Italian, ranging through the peninsula from north to south ; it does not aspire to the awful height, or wrap itself in the perpetual snows of the Alps. Its highest pinnacles do not rise much above 9500 feet. The plains of Italy are as remarkable for their extreme beauty as the mountains for their grandeur. The most extensive is that of Lombardy, between the Alps and the Appenines, which, being profusely watered, highly cultivated, and under a genial climate, is perhaps the richest and most productive region in Europe. The rivers of Italy scarcely correspond to their fame, or to the lofty and classic recollections attached to their names. The Po, with its branches in the north, is the most prominent, and flows into the Adriatic, after a course of about 400 miles. The others in the same region are much smaller in their length of course : they are the Piave, Brenta, Adige, and the Arno. The well-known Tiber, Pescara, Garigliano, and Ombrone, are in the centre ; and the Votturno, Ofanto, Brandana, and Sele, in the south. The lakes are the Maggiore, Como, and Garda, in Lom- bardy, with Perugia and Bolsano, in the States of the Church, together with Ce- lano, in Naples. Italy is chiefly divided among five potentates. The Emperor of Austria, who holds Lombardy and Venice, to which may be added Parma and Placentia, the appanage of Maria Louisa ; the King of Sardinia, who has Piedmont, Savoy and Genoa ; the Grand Duke of Tuscany ; the Pope, temporal ruler of the States of the Church ; the King of Naples and Sicily ; beside these, the Duchies of Modena and Lucca, the Principality of Monaco, and the Republic of San Marino, form separate, though they hardly deserve the name of independent States. The area in square miles, and the population of the several Italian States, are as follows: Sq. Miles. Population. Lombardo- Venetian kingdom 18,534 4^79,764 Sardinia 29,534 4,300,000 Tuscany 8,759 1,275,000 States of the Church 17,572 2,592,329 Naples 43,052 7,434,300 Parma 2,250 440,000 Modena 2,145 400,000 Lucca 434 145,000 San Marino 22 8,400 Monaco 50 6,500 Total 122,352 20,881,293 The Italians are descended from different nations, which at various times over- ran Italy, though they are now blended into one race. A few Greeks live on the coast of the Adriatic ; there are Germans in Lombardy, Venice, &e., and Jews scattered over the country ; but there are not probably 200,000 inhabitants who are not Italians. The Italians are distinguished for their animated and expressive countenances, and they have very brilliant eyes. They are generally of dark complexions, well-formed and active. The women have black or auburn hair, and most of the requisites for beauty. Among the inhabitants are many cripples and deformed: for the poor in Italy suffer many hardships and privations: but among the lowest class, and especially at Naples, the human form is seen in its greatest perfection, and the half-clad lazzaroni are the best models for a sculptor. 396 ITALY. In all the States of Italy there are the usual grades of European nobility ; and the individuals are more numerous than those of the same class in any other coun- try. In some of the States of Italy all the sons of the nobility and their sons, bear the original title. Of course numbers are indigent ; and many of them are known to solicit charity. None of the higher class in the Roman State, and few in all Italy, live in the country. All dwell in cities, and the peasants are deprived of the advantage which is always derived from the residence of the landed proprietors. All the operations of agriculture are imperfect, and all the implements rude. The very wine and oil, are often spoiled from want of skill. Agriculture is not the road to wealth; it is hardly a means of support; and the peasants are generally beggars. Rome, Naples, and the towns of the south, are infested with mendicants, whose distress is not always assumed, for in this country of fertility, many are without food. The written language of Italy is uniform, though there are various dialects spoken in different districts, and in Savoy the more general language is the French. The Italian is founded on the Latin, which it nearly resembles, and is so sweet and liquid that it is consecrated to music in all European countries; yet though soft to a great degree, it is distinguished for force. The language is spoken with the most purity at Rome, Sienna, and Florence ; but the Venetian dia- lect is the most musical. The Roman Catholic religion is established throughout Italy, and nowhere else has it so many splendid accessories, addressed to the senses and the imagination. There are Protestant communities in Piedmont, which however are much restricted, though generally the Italians are not intolerant, and Protestants, Greeks, and Mussulmans, may approach the Pope himself. The English at Rome have on the great festivals of the church a conspicuous place assigned them. In literature and science the world is deeply indebted to Italy : first, for the classical works which she produced during her Augustan age, and then for the brilliant revival of literature under her auspices, after a long night of ignorance, In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, she could boast of poets and historians unrivalled amongst those of any age or country ; and although her lite- rary greatness has suffered some decay, she has not ceased to produce, from time to time, men eminent in the various departments of learning. The literary col- lections of this region are of singular value. The library of the Vatican, if not the most extensive, is probably the most valuable in the world. The number of volumes contained in it is estimated at about 600,000, and the manuscripts, the most curious and valuable part, at 50,000. The libraries of Florence, Bologna, and Milan, though secondary to the former, contain, however, a rich store of an- cient manuscripts and early printed works, formed by the munificent princes who once reigned over these cities. The fine arts, in Italy, have attained a splendour quite unrivalled in any modern country, and have ever flourished in that region as their chosen and peculiar soil. Painting, in the sixteenth century, and in the Roman and Florentine schools, reached a height of perfection unequalled perhaps even in ancient times, in all the qualities of form, design, and expression, which constitute the highest excel- lence of the art : no names can yet rival those of Michael Angelo and Raphael. The sculpture of Italy, even during its happy stages, did not equal that of the ancient schools. In the present age, however, the genius of Canova has burst forth with a brilliancy which has enabled modern times, in this art, almost to rival antiquity. In architecture also, this country has no modern rival. Though some of the northern nations may have erected more huge and costly structures, none of them display the same high, pure, and classical taste. The collections of art, in Italy, are of a splendour surpassing even that which might be inferred from the great works produced by its artists. Of the master- pieces of the ancients, which were either saved from the desolation of the eastern empire, or dug up from the ruins of temples and palaces, by far the greater part were either found here, or brought into the country ; and thus it became the gran,d depository alike of ancient and modern art. SARDINIA. 397 In music, this region has boasted a similar pre-eminence ; and for a long period, all the great composers in the highest style of art were exclusively Italians. Of late, however, Germany has come forward as a powerful rival, and has produced several composers of the first class. Yet Italy seems still to be regarded as the chief home of the musical art : hither all the students repair, and its vocal per- formers are considered over all Europe as superior to those of any other country. SARDINIA. The Sardinian States are of a very dissimilar character, but united by political circumstances under one government The kingdom consists of four distinct parts; Piedmont, Genoa, Savoy, and the Island of Sardinia; of which the popu- lation, in 1825, was, of Savoy, 501,165; Piedmont, 591,929; Genoa, 2,583,233; Sardinia, 490,050: total, 4,165,377. The first three divisions, constituting the continental part of the kingdom, are bounded by Switzerland on the north, by Austrian Italy and the duchy of Parma on the east, by the Gulf of Genoa on the south, and by France on the west. It extends from 43° 44' to 46° 20' N. lat., and from 5° 40' to 10° E. Ion., being 200 miles in length from north to south, and 135 in breadth. The Island of Sardinia lies to the south of Corsica, and is separated from it by a narrow strait. It extends from 38° 50' to 41° 14' N. lat. It is 162 miles in length, and 70 in mean breadth. The continental dominions contain 19,725 square miles, and the island 9809 : total, 29,534. Continental Sardinia is inclosed on three sides by the Alps and the Apennines, which gives it an irregular surface, and renders the scenery more sublime, and the climate colder, than in southern Italy. On the east, it descends gradually into the beautiful plains which form the basin of the Po. In Piedmont, the soil is very fertile and well cultivated. The plains produce rice, maize, and other grains, and the hills are covered with vineyards and olive-yards. The pastures are very rich, and grazing is an important branch of their husbandry. Savoy is a rugged pro- vince, resembling Switzerland in its character, and lying among the loftiest of the Alps near Mount Blanc and Mount Cenis. The irregularity of the surface renders cultivation very difficult, and it is naturally one of the poorest countries in Europe. The Savoyards are but poorly instructed; but their industry, fru- gality, and sobriety, enable them to gain a comfortable subsistence. The moun- tainous parts give rise to a great number of small streams, which unite to form the Po. The Rhone forms part of the north-western boundary, and receives the most of those rising on the northern and western slope of the mountains. The Var forms the boundary between Nice and France, and falls into the Mediterra- nean. The Lake of Geneva borders this territory on the north, and Lago Mag- giore on the north-east There are many smaller lakes. One of the most remarkable objects in this country is the road over Mount Cenis in Savoy. It was begun by Bonaparte, in 1803, and was completed at a cost of 7,460,000 francs. It is cut through the solid rock, and is furnished with 26 houses of refuge in the most elevated and exposed parts, so that the road is safe even in winter: these houses are provided with bells, which, during fogs, are rung from time to time to direct the traveller from one refuge to another. Between France and Savoy is another road called Les echelles ; nearly two miles of it consist of a gallery or tunnel through a solid rock of limestone. This road was begun and the greater part of it accomplished by Napoleon, but was finished by the Sardinian government The principal articles of exportation are eilk, rice, and oil. Genoa is the only port which has any foreign commerce. The Island of Sardinia supplies the con- tinental states with salt and some grain and vegetables. There are manufactures of silk at Genoa, to the amount of 1,000,000 to 1,400,000 dollars annually. This city also manufactures paper, soap, chocolate, macaroni, &c. In Piedmont are some manufactures of silk. Nice produces perfumes and scented waters. There 34 398 SARDINIA. are some smelting furnaces in Piedmont and Savoy. The tunny fisheries of the Island of Sardinia are said to produce 1,000,000 francs a year. The coral fishery is also a considerable source of revenue. The king of Sardinia is an absolute hereditary monarch. The government is directed by a Supreme Council of State, a Council of Finances, a Council of Go- vernment, the Council of Savoy, the Senate of Turin, the Council of Nice, and the Council of Genoa. Justice is administered by the nobles. The army consists of 28,000 men, and the navy, of 2 ships of 54 guns, and 6 or 8 smaller vessels. Public instruction is entirely in the hands of the clergy and Jesuits. Gymna- siums and high-schools exist in most of the large towns, but little except Latin and scholastic theology are taught in them. The universities, with the exception of those at Turin and Genoa, are very insignificant. It is estimated that there are not 5 individuals in 100, who can read, write, and cipher. The censorship is severe. Few foreign books, and hardly any pamphlets or newspapers, are allowed to enter the kingdom. The Island of Sardinia is one of the least valuable portions of the kingdom, though possessed of advantages which should render it very much the reverse. Few regions exceed it in natural fertility; the surface is finely variegated with gentle hills, which only along the western coast assume the character of moun- tains. Grain, notwithstanding the most wretched cultivation, affords a surplus for export. The wines are reckoned equal to those of Spain, and the olives to those of Genoa and Provence. The salt-works and the tunny-fishery are very impor- tant objects; and the situation of Sardinia, in the heart of the Mediterranean, and with a number of fine harbours, might afford the opportunity of an extensive com- merce. Yet the population is in the most uncultivated and savage state, perhaps, of any in Europe. The peasantry in the interior are clothed, in a great measure, in shaggy goat or sheep skins ; they subsist chiefly by the produce of their flocks, and by hunting; and go constantly armed, for their own defence, against the nu- merous and desperate banditti, by whom the mountains are infested. A consider- able portion of the horses, cattle, and sheep, are in a wild state. The Sardinian government is making exertions to improve the condition of the island, by the formation of roads, &c. Cagliari and Sassari are both considerable towns; the former having some trade, but crowded, ill-built, and ill-paved ; the latter, smaller, but more elegant. Oristagno has a fine harbour, and flourishes by the tunny fishery, and by the culture of wine in its neighbourhood. Turin, in Piedmont, the capital of the kingdom, is situated on the western bank of the Po, at the foot of a range of beautiful hills. It is the most regularly built of all the Italian cities, with broad, straight, and clean streets, and is admired for the symmetry of its squares, the splendour of its hotels, and the general elegance of its houses. It has 4 splendid gates, adorned with pillars and cased with mar- ble; 110 churches, a university, and many fine palaces. The royal palace is spacious, and surrounded with delightful gardens. The outward view of the city is very imposing, and it has no mean suburbs or mouldering walls. Population, 114,000. Genoa stands on the shore of a broad gulf to which it gives its name. This city spreads over a wide semicircular tract of rocks and declivities, and the aspect of its white buildings ascending in regular progression from the sea, is highly magnificent. The interior consists of streets, or rather, lanes, 8 or 10 feet wide, between immensely high palaces. When you look up, their cornices appear almost to touch across the street, leaving a strip of blue sky between. Two of the streets only are accessible to carriages. The Strada Balbi is one of the most magnificent streets in the world, and is full of splendid palaces. Genoa has a public library of 50,000 volumes, and a university. Its harbour is one of the finest in Europe, and it has a considerable trade. Population, 80,000. Nice is beautifully situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and has a good artificial har- bour. The mildness of its climate draws many invalids to this quarter. Popula- tion, 25,000. Chamberry, the chief town of Savoy, occupies a charming spot surrounded by gentle eminences covered with vineyards, pastures, and wood, but it is not a well-built place. Population, 12,000. Alessandria, on the Tanaro, a I LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM. 399 branch of the Po, is the strongest place in the kingdom. It is well built, with broad and handsome streets. Population, 35,000. Other towns, Asti, 22,000 ; Coni, 18,000; Mondovi, 17,000; Vercelli, 16,000; Novarra, 15,000. PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO. This little state, comprising 6500 inhabitants, on 50 square miles, is situated within the Sardinian territory. The capital is Monaco, a village with 1000 in- habitants. The principality of Monaco is under the protection of the king of Sardinia. THE LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM. Austrian Italy, or the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom, consists of the great plain of the Po, bordered, on one side, by the highest ranges of the Alps, on the other by those of the Appenines. It has not the classic sites and monuments of Rome, nor the brilliant skies of Naples; yet it would be difficult to find on the globe a territory of the same extent equally fine. The luxuriant fertility of this ] vast plain, the grand, almost magic, landscapes presented by the southern declivity of the Alps, and the lakes which spread at their feet; the fine shores of the Adri- atic — unite in making it one of the most desirable regions in Europe. It is an aggregate of several portions that were politically very distinct. This kingdom occupies the eastern part of Northern Italy. They consist of two divisions: the Republic of Venice in the east, and Lombardy in the west. They are bounded north by the Tyrol and Carinthia ; east by Istria, Carniola, and the Adriatic ; south by the States of the Church, Modena, and Parma ; and west by the Sardinian dominions. It extends from 45° to 47° N. lat. ; and from 9° to 14° E. Ion. Their greatest length from east to west is 220 miles, and their breadth 140 miles. It contains 18,534 square miles. Population, 4,279,764. The Po washes the southern limit of this territory. This river, denominated the Prince of the Italian streams, rises in the western Alps, on the confines of France and Italy, and passes easterly through the Sardinian States. The sand and gravel washed down from the mountains, have raised its bed in modern times to 6uch an i elevation, that in some places, banks 30 feet high are necessary to preserve the | country from inundation. The Adige rises in the Alps of Tyrol, and flowing south, enters this territory, after which it turns to the east, and falls into the Adriatic ; it is 200 miles in length. The Piave and several other small streams from the north flow into the Adriatic Sea. Lake Maggiore extends along the base of the Alps 27 miles: it is 3 miles in width, and 1800 feet deep. Its shores abound with Alpine beauties. East of this is the Lake of Como, 32 miles in length, and still farther east, the Lake of Garda: it is 30 miles long, and 8 miles wide. There are several other smaller lakes in the neighbourhood. All of them flow into the Po, and are highly beautiful. The climate of this region is delightful, yet the winter has some features of Alpine severity. The heats of summer are mitigated by the cool breezes from the Alps. Lombardy is a level country, and consists entirely of an alluvial plain with one of the richest soils in the world. Near the mountains, gravel is mixed with the earth, but almost the whole tract is composed of a deep black mould. The irri- gation applied to the lands in Lombardy is the most perfect in the world. The mountains which border the country afford an inexhaustible supply of water. The meadows yield six crops of hay in a year. Rice is cultivated in some parts. The grain and ordinary fruits are ripe in June or July, and the vintage takes place in October. The bee and the silkworm receive much attention, but the dairy is the main occupation of the farmer. The fields are separated by rows of poplars. The chief manufactures are silk, glass, and hardware. At Venice and Murano beautiful mirrors are made. Hardware and fire-arms are made at Brescia. Jew- elry and plate are wrought at Milan and Venice. There are some manufactures 400 LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM. of woollen, musical instruments, china, carpets, paper, artificial flowers, perfumes, vermicelli, macaroni, glass beads, &c. Venice has been made a free port, but its commerce is trifling. The internal trade is pretty active. The government is arbitrary, and is administered by an Austrian viceroy. There is a show of repre- sentation, yet everything is controlled by the authorities at Vienna. All the taxes are imposed by the Emperor. The administration of justice is arbitrary and wretched in the extreme, and the censorship is very rigid. Milan, the capital of the kingdom, and the residence of the viceroy, is a large and splendid city, 11 miles in circumference. It stands in the middle of a vast plain, on a spot without any natural advantages, yet the fine canals from the Ticino and Adda make it the centre of a considerable trade. It is considered the most elegant city in Italy, and was very much improved and beautified by Napo- leon. The finest building is the Cathedral, which is inferior only to St. Peter's at Rome. It is completely built, paved, vaulted and roofed with the whitest and most resplendent marble. Most of the buildings in this city are constructed according to a regular order of architecture, and a mean-looking house is as rare here as a palace elsewhere. Here is the famous Ambrosian Library, with 72,000 volumes, and 15,000 manuscripts. The hospitals and charitable institutions are numerous. Milan was founded 584 years before Christ, by the Insubrian Gauls. It has been 40 times besieged ; 40 times taken, and 4 times destroyed. It has above 200 churches, and more than 100 monastic institutions. Population, 151,000. Venice is the most picturesque city in Europe, and full of character and variety. It is an unintelligible place to every one but an eye-witness. It stands in the Adriatic, about 5 miles from the main land, and is built upon a multitude of islands intersected by canals instead of streets. It is said to be a fitting place for crip- ples, because here, a man has no use for his limbs; he steps out of his house into a gondola, and out of the gondola into his house ; this is all the exertion necessary to traverse the whole city. There are thousands here who never saw a hill or a wood, or an ear of corn growing, or a green field. The Grand Canal is crossed by the Rialto, a marble arch 90 feet in span. The prospect from this bridge is lively and magnificent. There are 500 other bridges. Most of the canals are narrow, and some have no quays, so that the water washes the houses. The ducal palace, and the churches of St. Mark and St. Gemignano are rich and splendid edifices. The Square of St. Mark is 800 feet in length, and has a magnificent appearance. The traveller at evening may view this fine square in all its marble beauty, with the domes and minarets of its ancient church, the barbaric gloom of the Doge's palace, and its proud towering Campanile ; he may here see the Co- rinthian horses, the workmanship of Lysippus, and the winged lion of the Piraeus ; he may walk in the illumination of a long line of coffee-houses, and observe the variety of costume ; the thin veil covering the. pale Venetian beauty ; the Turks with their beards and caftans and long pipes and chess-playing ; the Greeks with their skull-caps, and richly laced jackets. Venice is in everything delightful, and may be called a great pleasure-house. It is the chief book-shop of the south, and prints for Italy in general, as well as for Greece and Germany. It has a public library of 150,000 volumes, and a population of 101,000. Padua, the birthplace of Livy, has a famous university, founded by Charlemagne, and is said to have had at one time 18,000 students ; in 1817, only 300. Popula- tion, 50,000. Mantua is a strong town, standing in the midst of a lake formed by the Mincio. The streets are broad and straight and the squares spacioue. Here is a monument to Virgil, and a little village in this neighbourhood was the place of his birth. Population, 25,000. Cremona stands at the confluence of the Po and the Adda. It has a splendid cathedral and is regularly built, but the streets are grass-grown, and the place has a decaying look. Population, 27,000. Brescia, to the west of Lake Garda, has also a fine cathedral. Population, 31,000. Pavia, on the Ticino, has a university founded by Charlemagne. Population, 21,000. Lodi, on the Adda, is celebrated for a victory gained by Bonaparte over the Aus- trians in 1796. Population, 18,000. Verona, on the Adige, at the foot of the Alps, has a charming situation and many fine buildings. Its ancient walls and towers inclose a vast area, and have a noble appearance. The great amphitheatre TUSCANY. 401 at this place is one of the noblest monuments of Roman magnificence now exist- ing. Population, 55,000. Some of the other towns are Vicenza, 30,000 ; Udina, 18,000; Treviso, 15,000; Belluno, 8000; Rovigo, 7000. TUSCANY. The Duchy of Tuscany ranks next to the Roman States as the theatre of great historical events, and has surpassed Rome itself aa the seat of modern learning. It is bounded north and east by the Roman States, south-west by the Mediterra- nean, and north-west by Lucca. It contains 8759 square miles. The chief river is the Arno, which rises among the mountains in the eastern part, and flows westerly to the sea. It is navigable, by barges, from Florence to the sea. It sup- plies with water above 1000 canals. The Ombrone, in the south, is not naviga- ble. The Tiber rises in the mountains of this country. Tuscany is admired for its romantic scenery. The boldness, grandeur, and rich luxuriance of the country, are hardly anywhere equalled. The vale of the Arno is one of the most delightful regions in the world. It is abundantly rich and well cultivated. One half of this territory consists of mountains, producing only tim- ber: one sixth is* composed of hills covered with vineyards and olive gardens; the remainder consists of plains. The soil on the Apennines is stony. The coast is low, sandy, and in some parts swampy. In the southern part begins that desolate region called the Maremma, the soil of which consists of white clay impregnated with sulphur. Corn, wine, and oil, are common productions. The valley of the Arno is divided into very small farms, separated by rows of trees or small canals. The Maremma pastures great numbers of sheep and horses. Chestnuts are an important production ; in some parts they are used for bread. This Duchy is one of the most industrious countries of Italy. Silk manufac- tures are the principal branch of industry in the Florentine cities. Straw hats are made in great numbers, by women, in the valley of the Arno. The other manufactures are linen, broadcloth, soap, perfumes, letter-paper, china, marble, coral, alabaster, and mosaics. Leghorn has a considerable commerce with the Levant, Europe, and America. The government is an absolute monarchy. There are 4000 regular troops, be- sides militia. The population, in 1826, was 1,275,000. Of these, 15,000 were Jews. The chief universities are at Florence, Pisa, and Sienna. They comprise about 1200 students. At Florence are also eight public schools. The Island of Elba is nine miles from the coast of Tuscany. It is 60 miles in circumference, and contains 160 square miles. It is very mountainous, and in- stead of wood the mountains are covered with aromatic plants and bushes. The chief production is iron, taken mostly from a single mountain consisting of one immense mass of iron ore. The island contains ulso copper, lead and silver mines, and produces excellent wine. The chief town, Porto Ferrajo, has a good har- bour, and contains 3034 inhabitants. In 1814, this island was given in entire sovereignty to Napoleon, who resided here from May, 1814, till February 26, 1815. Population, 13,700. The Island of Gorgona, near Leghorn, is famous for the fish- ing of anchovies. Florence, the capital, stands on the Arno, 50 miles from the sea. It is 6 miles in compass, and, next to Rome, is the most beautiful city in Italy. It is built in a plain skirted by the Apennines. Antique towers and remains of" fortifications, old convents, and other picturesque ruins, crown the inferior eminences around the city, and recall the remark of Ariosto, that on seeing the hills so full of palaces, it appears as if the soil produced them. The city is surrounded by walls; the buildings are magnificent, and the streets well paved and kept remarkably clean. The Via Larga, or Broadway, is full of noble palaces. Most of the other streets are narrow. The ducal palace, the cathedral, the church of Santa Croce, and many other edifices, are noted for their size and splendour. The Medicean gal- lery is rich in those treasures of painting and sculpture which draw to this city 34* 3A 402 PARMA— LUCCA. visitors from every quarter of the civilized globe. Here stands that Venus which enchants the world. The Laurentian library has 120,000 volumes ; others have 90,000 and 50,000. There are many splendid private galleries and libraries. Florence contains a great number of English residents. It was the cradle of the arts at the time of their regeneration, and the birthplace of Dante, Machiavelli, Filicaja, Guicciardini, Michael Angelo, Galileo, and Amerigo Vespucci. Popula- tion, 80,000. Pisa, on the Arno, near the sea, was once the capital of a republic, the rival of Genoa and Venice. It is now decayed, but can still boast some marble churches, a marble palace, and a marble bridge. Its ancient towers may be traced in the walls of modern houses. The streets are broad, and the Lung' Arno, which ex- tends along both banks of the river, is much admired. The cathedral is a large gothic edifice of marble. Near it stands that remarkable structure, the Leaning Tower : it is 190 feet high, and overhangs its base 15 feet, seeming to threaten a fall at every instant ; yet it has stood four hundred years, and endured the shock of earthquakes which have overthrown many a perpendicular structure. To a spectator looking down from the top, the effect is terrific. Pisa has a university, with a library of 60,000 volumes. In the neighbourhood are celebrated baths. Population, 20,000. Leghorn is the chief seaport of Tuscany. It is a neat, well- built, and busy town, with a tolerable harbour. The streets are filled with Eu- ropeans, Turks, Jews, Armenians, Greeks, and Moors, exhibiting a most picturesque variety of costume. Works of art and architectural monuments do not exist here. The commerce of the place is very active. Population, 66,000. Sienna has a magnificent cathedral and a university. Population, 18,000. Pistoja, at the foot of the Apennines, was once a republic. Population 12,000. DUCHY OF PARMA. Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, though they have been formed into a state for the ex-empress of France, form in reality a complete appendage of Lombardy, and a continuation of its great plain, to the foot of the Apennines. They abound in the richest pastures, from which is produced that most celebrated of cheeses, to which Parma gives its name. The dukes of Parma, and especially the cele*- brated Alexander Farnese, have ranked among the first generals of Europe. The city of Parma, on a small river of the same name, is large, populous, airy, and clean. It does not contain any remarkable architectural features, except the theatre, modelled on the ancient plan, and perhaps the noblest in the world, but now in a state of decay ; but Parma can boast a school of painting, one of the finest and most interesting that ever existed ; in which grace was the predominant feature. The chief masters were Correggio and Parmegiano, whose works in fresco adorn the walls and cupolas of the churches in Parma ; and the oil pictures, which the French carried off, have now been restored. Population, 30,000. Pla- centia, with 28,000 inhabitants, is also a large and well-built city ; but its cele- brated amphitheatre, which surpassed that of Verona, was burnt to the ground in one of the furious civil contests which laid waste Italy. The population of the duchy is about 440,000, and its area, 2240 square miles. DUCHY OF LUCCA. Lxjcca, though an Etruscan city, is now governed by a duke of its own. It is one of the few Italian republics, which, amid the revolutions of 800 years, main- tained its independence. The Lucchese reaped the benefit of this, in the supe- rior education and more decent deportment of her nobles ; in that agricultural industry, which, in a degree even beyond what appears in the rest of Italy, has converted a land liable to inundation, and destitute of many natural advantages, MODENA— ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. 403 into a complete garden. The territory, though only forty-three miles in length, and twelve in breadth, two-thirds of which consist of mountain and defile, reckons a population of 145,000, being 334 to the square mile ; a density which has no parallel, even in the most fertile plains of the rest of Italy. On the death of the duchess of Parma, the duke of Lucca will succeed to that duchy, and Lucca will be annexed to Tuscany. The capital is Lucca, with 22,000 inhabitants. DUCHY OF MODENA. Modena. is a fine small domain, composed of a rich plain at the foot of the Apennines. It is held as a fief of Austria, and by a branch of that family, with the title of duke. The city of Modena is extremely handsome, though without any objects peculiarly striking. It has a population of 27,000 souls. It was en- riched by the family of Este with splendid collections of books and paintings ; but the latter have been now removed, by purchase, to adorn the Dresden gallerj. The territory of Massa-Carrara, held by the archduchess Maria Beatrix, fell, on her death in 1832, to Modena. The population of the whole is 400,000 : square miles, 2145. STATES OF THE CHURCH, OR ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. The Ecclesiastical States have lost that paramount importance which they once possessed, and are the least flourishing and powerful of all the divisions of Italy. Nevertheless, as they contain Rome, with all its stupendous monuments, and were the central theatre of all the ancient grandeur of Italy, they still excite an in- terest superior to that of any other of these celebrated regions. This territory occupies the centre of Italy. It is washed on the north-east by the Adriatic, and on the south-west by the Mediterranean. On the north it is bounded by the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, on the south-east by the kingdom of Naples, and on the west by Modena and Tuscany. Its extreme length is 260 miles from north to south, and its breadth from 20 to 95 miles. It contains 17,572 square miles. The duchy of Benevento, and the principality of Ponte Corvo, are two. small districts belonging to this territory, insulated in the kingdom of Naples. These States are intersected by the Apennines. The mountains are as barren as those of Tuscany and Genoa, but higher. The Campagna di Roma is a con- tinuation of the Tuscan Maremma, and is noted for its unhealthy malaria. It ex- hibits an undulated surface bare of trees. The Pontine marshes are in the south. The ancient Caesars and modern popes have in vain attempted to drain them. The Tiber, though not the largest stream in Italy, is the first in classical cele- brity. It rises in the Apennines, near the source of the Arno, and passes through the city of Rome to the Mediterranean: it is 150 miles in length, and has a full stream, but narrow : it is only 300 feet wide at Rome. There is no other river of importance within this territory. The northern boundary is washed by the Po. The Lake of Perugia, near the city of that name, is the ancient Thrasy menus, and is famous for a battle between Hannibal and the Romans. It is a beautiful sheet of water, 4 miles across, bordered with gently sloping hills everywhere covered with woods or cultivated fields, and rising at a distance into mountains. The lakes of Albano and Nemi are charmingly situated among hills. There are other small lakes. The climate is mild, but the mountains are covered with snow from October to April. The Sirocco, or hot wind from Africa, is felt on the shore of the Mediter- ranean. In the mountainous parts the air is healthy, but in the Maremma on the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the Pontine marshes, are pestilential exhala- tions which cause fever and ague. The northern parts near the Po are also un- healthy. The soil does not differ materially from that of Tuscany. The oranges and lemons produced in the plain of Rome are the best in Italy. The lands are 404 ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. commonly held by great proprietors. In the plain of the Po, cultivation is active, but the rest of the country is neglected. The Romans are less industrious than their northern neighbours. The vine and olive grow everywhere. Onions are raised in immense quantities in the marshes of Ancona. Hemp, saffron, and beans, are extensively cultivated. The commerce is chiefly in the hands of foreigners, and the only seaport of consequence is Civita Vecchia. The manufactures merely supply the home con- sumption. Some silk is manufactured at Bologna, beside many miscellaneous ar- ticles. Gall-nuts and cantharides are articles of exportation. The government is an elective monarchy. The pope possesses both the legisla- tive and executive power, and is chosen by the college of cardinals from among themselves. The number of cardinals is about 70. Constitutionally, the pope is an absolute sovereign, but in practice he is only the head of an oligarchy. Since the time of Adrian VI., who was obtruded upon the throne by Charles V., all the popes have been Italians. The revenue is 1,237,000Z. The debt is 24,700,000*. The military force is about 7000 men. There is no navy. The population is 2,592,329. Rome, the capital of this territory, once the capital of the world, stands on the | Tiber, 15 miles from the sea. It is situated on some low hills, and is 13 miles in circumference, but has much open ground, comprehending gardens, fields, and meadows. It has a sombre appearance, rendered still more striking by large squares, spacious and deserted streets, and the majestic ruins which are seen at every step. Some of the streets are of immense length ; others are only half built; many are narrow and crooked. In one part, are noble palaces half hidden among miserable huts ; in another part, all is gorgeous and magnificent. Other places may be more beautiful, but Rome is one of the most richly picturesque cities in the world. The hills, insignificant in themselves, seem made to display the buildings to the greatest advantage. The architecture, both ancient and modern, is often faulty and incongruous, but always combines well with the land- scape. The spectator is dazzled with the multiplicity of objects, and decaying ruins are relieved by modern magnificence. The church of St. Peter, built at the expense of the whole Roman world, is the glory of modern architecture. The symmetry and beauty of its proportions cause such sensations of delight, that the traveller, on leaving Rome, finds his most painful regret to be that he shall see St. Peter's no more. It is fronted by a cir- cular colonnade surrounding an Egyptian obelisk and two magnificent fountains. This church was 111 years in building, and cost a sum equal to 160,000,000 dol- lars at the present day. No other church in Rome can be compared to this, yet there are many remarkable for magnificence and antiquity: The Pantheon is the most perfect edifice of ancient Rome ; it is now converted into a church ; its portico is unrivalled. Trajan's pillar is a fine monumental column, in good pre- servation. But the most wonderful monument of Roman magnificence yet re- maining, is the Coliseum, an amphitheatre capable of containing 60,000 specta- tors, and in which the Roman people assembled to witness the combats of gladia- tors and wild beasts. It is now a ruin, but enough of it remains to attest its for- mer magnificence. It would be impossible to comprise within the limits of this work, even an enumeration of the objects in Rome worthy of notice for their an- tiquity and historical associations. The Vatican palace is the greatest repository of ancient and modern art in ex- istence. The whole pile of building, with gardens, comprises a circuit of some miles, and the apartments are numbered at 4442. The library is an immense col- lection. The Vatican is the residence of the pope in winter. Rome has 300 churches and 300 palaces. The ancient Flaminian Way is now called the Corso, and is a street nearly a mile long, dividing the city into two equal parts. This is the fashionable drive, where the better class display their equipages daily. During the carnival, a horse-race takes place here, which has given the street its modern name. The country around Rome abounds with the remains of antiquity and with villas. The city is unhealthy from the malaria in summer. Its population, in 1829, was 150,000. NAPLES. 405 Bologna, the next city in size to Rome, is picturesquely situated at the base of J the Apennines, in the northern part of the papal territory. It is surrounded by a high brick wall, six miles in circuit. Its curious leaning towers and antique spires, with a curious arcade leading to the church on the top of a steep hill, have a sin- Igular and striking effect upon the spectator who approaches it. The city has a venerable aspect without being ruinous, and abounds with large churches and handsome palaces. Here is a university founded by Theodosius the younger, in 42.'), and the oldest in Europe. The public library has 140,000 volumes. The manufactures of the city are considerable. Population, 70,000. Ferrara is one of the finest towns in Italy. It is regularly and superbly built, but the traveller would imagine that the inhabitants had just abandoned it. The streets are grass-grown, and all the large houses are empty. The cows pasture undisturbed upon the pavements in front of noble palaces. The city possesses few advantages of situation, but was once very populous. At present it has 23,650 inhabitants. Ravenna, near the Adriatic, had once a harbour which is now filled up. It was once the seat of the Italian Exarchs, and contains the tomb of Dante. 1'opulatioD, 24,000. Ancona, on the Adriatic, is a strong place with a tolerable harbour. Population, 30,000. Civita Vecchia, a seaport on the Mediterranean, has some commerce. Population, 7111. REPUBLIC OP SAN MARINO. This little territory, the most free and virtuous of all republics, is an indepen- dent State under the protection of the Pope : it was founded by a man of low rank, and, having become a refuge for those who sought peace amid the turbu- lence of the feudal ages, it has remained inviolate for thirteen centuries ; either respected or overlooked by the proudest and most mighty oppressors of Italy. It has still "Liberty" inscribed on the gates of its little capitol, and exemplifies, in the virtue, simplicity, and happiness of its people, the powerful influence of free institutions. The government is vested in 60 senators, 20 patricians, 20 burgesses, and 20 peasants, chosen for life, and two gonfaloniers, chosen for three months. The arringo, or general assembly of citizens, is held once every six months. The revenue of the State amounts to $15,000 ; the army consists of 60 men. The population of the capital is about 5000 ; four villages constitute the rest of the territory of the republic. NAPLES. The Kingdom of Naples, or, as it is called, The Two Sicilies, is the most considerable in Italy for extent and population, in which respects it approaches to the rank of the great monarchies ; but the supine and indolent character of its government almost prevents it from having any weight in the political system. This kingdom comprises all the south of Italy, with the island of Sicily, and a few small islands in the neighbourhood. The continental portion is bounded north-west by the States of the Church ; north-east by the Adriatic ; south-east by the Ionian Sea, and south-west by the Mediterranean : its extreme length is about 360 miles. Its width varies from 120 to 80 miles. The island of Sicily is separated by a nar- row strait from the southern extremity of the continent: its extreme length is 250 miles, and breadth about 130. The continental part contains 30,660 square miles, and the island 12,372: total, 43,052. Population, 7,434,3(10. The ridge of the Apennines extends through the whole continental part from north to south. There are other mountains, which have no connexion with this ridge. Four volcanoes are comprised within the kingdom, — Vesuvius, ^Etna, Stromboli, and Volcano. All the rivers in the continental part descend from the Apennines. The Garigliano, Vulturno, Silaro, and Crati, are the chief, but are small streams. There is an indescribable richness of vegetation throughout this country. Here flourish the fig-tree, the almond, the cotton-plant, and sugar-cane. Sicily is one of the most productive spots on the earth. The soil is calcareous, and its fertility is much increased by volcanic fire. 406 ' NAPLES. The land is mostly the property of great landlords. In Sicily it belongs wholly to the nobility and clergy. Agriculture is badly managed, and the cultivators are poor. On the continent are produced wine, oil, silk, wheat, and maize ; sheep are numerous. Sicily produces the same articles, with flax and hemp. The Sicilian wheat grows to an extraordinary height, and is extremely productive. Oranges, lemons, figs, and almonds, are raised in great quantities. The exports are wine, oil, fruits, silk, sulphur, grain, flax, and hemp. The commerce is entirely in the hands of foreigners. No Neapolitan ship ever ventures without the straits of Gibraltar. There are no manufactures of any consequence. The sciences are in a miserable state throughout the kingdom. There are no schools for the lower classes, and the few means of instruction are in the hands of an ignorant clergy. The three universities at Naples, Palermo, and Catania are provided with fine libraries and numerous professors, but little is taught in them beside law and natural philosophy. Naples is an hereditary monarchy. The king exercises both the legislative and executive power. The continental and insular parts have each a separate legis- lation, but these bodies have only the right of voting taxes. The army consists of 28,000 men, and the navy of two ships of the line, five frigates, and fifty small vessels. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean. It seems to have been sepa- rated from the continent by some violent convulsion. The strait of Messina dividing it from the continent, is 5 miles broad. This is the ancient Charybdis, although the whirlpool which rendered it such a terror to mariners, no longer exists. The mountains of this island may be regarded as a continuation of the Apennines. Mount ^Etna is near the eastern shore. This celebrated volcano has thrown out flames, at intervals, for more than 2000 years. Its immense size and solitary elevation, the beauty and magnificence of the surrounding scenery, and the terrific grandeur of the convulsions to which it has been subject, have made it one of the wonders of the world. At a distance, it appears like a truncated cone. Upon a nearer approach, the traveller is astonished at the wild and gro- tesque appearance of the whole mountain. Scattered over the immense declivity, he beholds innumerable small conical hills gently rising from the surface to the height of 400 or 500 feet, covered with rich verdure and beautiful trees, villages, scattered hamlets and monasteries. As his eye ascends, he discovers an immense forest of oaks and pines forming a beautiful green belt round the mountain. Above this appears the hoary head of the volcano, boldly rising into the clouds and cap- ped with eternal snow. The crater is a hill of an exact conical figure, composed of ashes and scoriee. From this opening, smoke is continually ascending. The elevation of the mountain is 10,925 feet. The rivers of Sicily are mere rivulets. The heavy winter rains set the mountain torrents running, but when dry, their beds become tolerable roads to the distance of 3 or 4 miles ipland. The Lipari Islands lie between Sicily and the continent. They are 12 in num- ber; a part of them only are inhabited. Lipari, the principal isle, contains 112 square miles; it is mountainous, and the soil is rendered fertile by a subterranean fire. There was once a volcano here. The island of Stromboli is a volcano that burns without ceasing. Volcano constantly emits smoke. The island of Capri, in the bay of Naples, contains 10 square miles. It consists of two high rocky moun- tains enclosing a fertile valley. Ischia and Procida are fertile islands in the same neighbourhood. Naples, the capital, is the largest city in Italy. It stands at the bottom of a bay, and with its suburbs and contiguous villages extends 6 or 8 miles along the water. On the land side it is surrounded by mountains. Nothing can surpass the beauty of the bay or the prospect of the city viewed from the water, where it appears broken into great masses, and crossed by long lines of palaces, hanging gardens, and terraced roofs ; the outline upon the sea is strikingly indented, and the shipping is clustered behind the moles, castles and towers on the points of projection. The shores of the bay are covered with interesting ruins, and broken into graceful inlets. The dark towering summit of Vesuvius rises, frowning over the landscape, while its lower regions are covered with the richest vegetation, NAPLES. 407 and dotted with white country houses. The whole circuit of the bay is edged with white towns, and covered with cultivation and the abundance of nature. The magnificence of the whole scene is beyond the most gorgeous description. The streets of the city are straight but narrow ; some are refreshed with foun- tains; others are decorated with statues and sculptured obelisks. The houses are high, the roofs flat, more than half the front consists of windows, and every win- dow is faced with an iron balcony. Naples in its interior has no parallel on earth. The whole population is out of doors and in incessant motion. Every trade, occu- pation and amusement is here going on in the midst of a tumultuous crowd rolling up and down. The number of lazzaroni, or vagabonds, is immense. They are idle from choice ; their tatters are not misery, for the climate requires hardly any covering. Six strong castles defend the city, and an excellent mole shelters the port. The commerce is not very active. There are above 300 churches in Naples remarkable for their ornaments and rich jewelry. The nobility are numerous and are much addicted to show and parade : 100 of them have the title of Princes. Population, 364,000. The environs of Naples combine almost everything grand and beautiful. Many of the towns scattered along the bay have 10 and 15,000 inhabitants. Mount Ve- suvius, which forms so striking a feature in the landscape, rises in a pyramidal form in the midst of a large plain. The traveller in ascending it passes among cultivated fields and vineyards, traversed by old streams of lava, black, rough, and sterile. The ascent is gradual and extends 3 miles. On one side the mountain is cultivated nearly to the top. The conical summit is composed of ashes and cinders. The crater is about a mile in circuit, and is 3800 feet above the sea. The view from the summit is enchanting. The soil of the mountain is extremely fertile, and cultivated with the spade like a garden. The crater throws out con- tinual smoke, and often bursts forth in terrible eruptions. Torre del Greco, a seaport near Naples, has 13,000 inhabitants. Gaeta, on the coast, to the north of Naples, has 15,000. Lecci, in the south, is a fine city. Population, 14,806. Bari, on the Adriatic, has a good harbour and a population of 19,000. Palermo, the capital of Sicily, stands on a small bay in the north-western part of the island. The streets are regular and wide ; the houses elegant, and several of the public squares very beautiful. It has a university, and considerable com- merce. Population, 168,000. Catania stands at the foot of Mount ^Etna. Its streets are straight, spacious and paved with lava. It is the busiest town in Sicily, and has a university, public library, museums, academies, &c. It was founded 700 years before the christian era, and has suffered severely from eruptions of the mountain and earthquakes. Population, 45,100. Messina stands upon the strait of that name, at the north-eastern extremity of Sicily. It is regularly built, and has one of the best harbours in the Mediterranean. Its fine quay extends more than a mile along the port. It is the first commercial town in the kingdom, and its trade extends to the North of Europe and America. It was completely destroyed by an earthquake in 1783, but has been rebuilt. Population, 40,000. Syracuse, on the eastern coast of the island, is a strongly fortified town with a good harbour. It has many Grecian antiquities. Population, 15,000. Girgenti, on the south coast, has an indifferent harbour, but considerable trade. Population, 15,000. Trapani, at the western extremity, has some commerce and coral fisheries. Popu- lation, 24,33 ). Malta is an island in the Mediterranean Sea, about 54 miles to the south of Sicily, and, though imperfectly connected with Italy, belongs more to it than to any other country. It is about 60 miles in circuit, and, together with the neigh- bouring small islands of Gozzo and Comino, belongs to Great Britain. In no part of Europe are the defences so imposing. In Gibraltar admiration is excited by the works of nature ; in Malta by those of art. To garrison the latter completely would require above 30,000 men. Malta was originally nothing but a barren rock ; but such quantities of soil have been carried to it from Sicily and Africa, that it is now fertile and well cultivated; the people are industrious, and raise grain, cotton, and excellent fruits, particularly oranges. In 1825, the native popu- 408 IONIAN ISLES. lation of this island amounted to 99,600 ; the garrison and strangers to 3200. On the neighbouring smaller island of Gozzo there were 16,800. Comino, lying between Malta and Gozzo, contains 600 inhabitants. La Valetta, the capital and port of Malta, being situated on a narrow tongue of land, with a noble harbour on each side, forms, an admirable naval station, deriving great importance from its position in the heart of the Mediterranean. It serves also, especially during war, as a commercial depot, whence goods may be intro- duced, into Italy and the Levant. Population, 32,000. Citta Vecchia, in the centre of the island, is also well fortified. Population, 5000. IONIAN ISLES. The Ionian Islands is the name given to a range extending chiefly along the coast of Greece. The principal ones are Corfu, Santa Maura, Theaki, Cephalonia, Cerigo, situated at a considerable distance from the others, off the southern coast of the Morea. These, as detached islands, occupied frequently a conspicuous place in ancient history ; but their political union took place in modern times, in consequence of being held by the Venetians, and defended by their navy against the Turks, who had overrun the whole of the adjacent continent. When France, in 1797, seized the territory of Venice, she added these as an appendage to it ; and, even after the cession of Venice to Austria, endeavoured still to retain them attached to her, under the title of the Ionian Republic. She was unable, how- ever, to maintain them against the superior naval force of England, which, at the congress of Vienna, was nominated protector of the Ionian Islands. That power has since continued to hold them in full military occupation, and spends about 100,000Z. a year in fortifications and troops. The natives, however, are allowed a great share in the internal government, and even assemble in a regular parlia- ment. The Lord High Commissioner, who is at the head of the government, is appointed by the king of Great Britain. The legislative assembly consists of 29 elective and 11 integral members, all of the class of synclits or nobles ; the former are chosen for the term of five years by the nobles ; the latter are virtually, if not directly, nominated by the High Commissioner. The senate consists of a president, nomi- nated by the commissioner, and five members chosen by the legislative assembly from their own number. These islands, like the opposite coast of Greece, are rocky, rugged, and pic- turesque, though none of the peaks rise to any great elevation. This surface renders them ill fitted for the cultivation of corn ; but wine and fruits, especially the latter, are raised in great perfection. The species of small grapes which, when dried, are called currants, are largely exported from these islands. Zante produces annually about 60,000 cwt. ; Cephalonia about 50,000. The total annual produce is estimated at about 14,000,000 lbs. Olive oil is also largely exported, about 100,000 barrels being annually produced. Honey, wine, and flax, are the most important articles of agricultural industry. The annual value of the exports is about $1,200,000. The public revenue, independent of the military establish- ment, which is supported by the British government, is $700,000 per annum. The following table gives a general view of these islands : — Names. Cephalonia Corfu Zantc Sante Maura Cerigo (with Cerigotto). Theaki (with Calamos). . Paxo (with Antipaxo) . . . Square Miles. 500 270 180 150 130 60 20 1310 Population. 59,839 56,589 35,422 18,108 9,387 8,550 4,953 192,848 Capital. Argostoli Corfu Zante Sante Maura. Modari Vathi StGago Population. 4,000 17,000 18,000 5,000 2,000 4,000 TURKEY. 409 Zante is the richest and most flourishing of these islands, but Corfu contains the seat of government, which is strongly fortified. Argostoli, Corfu, and Zante, are the principal ports. TURKEY. Turkey in Europe forms the western and metropolitan part of that extensive and once mighty empire which subverted and superseded the eastern branch of the empire of Rome. The most extensive portion, in which perhaps its main strength is seated, belongs to Asia. It forms the most eastern part of the territory of southern Europe, and the link which connects that continent with Asia. It also unites the Mediterranean with the Black Sea, being almost inclosed by their va- rious bays and branches, and by that long range of straits, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the channel of Constantinople, by which these two great seas communicate. On the northern side, it has an inland boundary bordering on Austria and on Russia. The Danube forms here the limit of the central Turkish provinces, and, with the fortresses on its banks, has been the main barrier of the empire ; but beyond it are the tributary provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, which carry the frontier to the Pruth and the Carpathian Mountains. The mountains of European Turkey consist chiefly of that extensive range called the Balkan Mountains, also, Despoto Dag, and Argentari ; a continuous chain, stretching from the head of the Adriatic to the Black Sea. It separates Turkey into several very fine and fruitful plains. The greatest river of Europe, swelled to its utmost magnitude, rolls along the whole border of European Turkey. From the barbarism of the government, how> ever, and the hostile relations with the neighbouring powers, the Danube serves very little for the conveyance of merchandise ; it is more famed in the dreadful annals of war than in the peaceful records of commerce. The grand divisions of Turkey are Romelia, in the south ; Albania and Bosnia, west; Servia and Bulgaria, in the centre; and Wallachia and Moldavia, in the north, beyond the Danube. The area of the whole is about 206,000 square miles, and the population, 8,800,000. Wallachia, Moldavia, and Servia, hardly form at present any part of the Turkish empire, being governed by their own princes and hospodas, and are in all respects independent, except that they pay a fixed tribute to the Porte. The Turkish political system has no analogy with that of any other European power, but is formed upon a purely Asiatic model. Its principle is, the subjection of the whole administration, civil, military, and religious, to the absolute disposal of one man. The grand signior, the " shadow of God," and " refuge of the world," is considered as reigning by divine commission, and uniting in himself all the powers, legislative, executive, judicial, and ecclesiastical. So deeply rooted is the veneration for the Othman family, that, amid so many bloody and violent re- volutions, the idea has never been entertained of a subject seating himself on the imperial throne ; and after cutting off the head of one sultan, nothing has ever been dreamt of but raising the next heir to the throne. The vizier, assisted by the divan, is the person upon whom devolves entire the exclusive power of the state. The grand signior does not even, like some other oriental despots, make a show of sitting in judgment, but delegates that function also to his minister. The muftis, and ulema, or body of mollahs, form the depo- sitory of the laws of the empire, and the only class who approach to the character of a national council. The mufti is the second person of the empire in dig- nity ; he girds the sabre on the sultan, an act equivalent to coronation ; and the sultan advances seven steps to meet him, while he advances only three towards the grand vizier. No great measure of state can be regularly taken, or command the respect of the empire, without a fetwa from the mufti. Justice is administered by members of the ulema : those in the large towns are termed mollahs, and in «35 3B 410 TURKEY. the smaller towns, cadis ; the nominations being made by the sultan from a list presented by the mufti. The court and seraglio form not only the most brilliant appendage to the Otto- man Porte, but one of the gre&t moving springs of its political action. In this palace, or prison, are immured 500 or 600 females, the most beautiful that can be found in the neighbouring realms of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; wherever Turks can rule, or Tartars ravage. The pachas and tributary princes vie with each other in gifts of this nature, which form the most effective mode of gaining impe- rial favour. The confinement of these females is not so rigid as formerly. The finances of the empire are shrouded in mystery ; their amount cannot be in any degree measured by that of the sums paid into the treasury. The lands held as the sole property of the sultan are let out on the tenure of military ser- vice. Of the direct contribution, the principal is the haratsh, or capitation tax, imposed on all subjects of the empire who are not Mahometan. In the subject provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, the haratsh is paid in one sum by the princes or vaivodes ; but both from them, and from the pachas, his imperial ma- jesty is pleased to accept of numerous presents on various occasions, to say no- thing of those which it is at least highly prudent to make to the officers of state and the occupants of the harem. The customs are considerable, being levied by farm, without much rigour ; but the attempts to establish an excise have been met by violent discontents, and even insurrection. The military system of the Turks, formerly the terror of the greatest powers in Europe, and now despised by almost the meanest, has undergone no formal change. It consists of the toprakli, a kind of feudal militia, who serve without pay, and for a limited period, and the capiculi, or paid troops, who alone approxi- mate to the character of a regular force, of whom the janissaries were the most efficient. This powerful body might be said to have held at their disposal the Ottoman empire, and their aga was one of its greatest officers. Recently, how- ever, the janissaries have been annihilated by the vigorous and bloody measures of Mahmoud, the reigning sultan, who is using the utmost exertion to organize a new force similar to that maintained by the other European powers. There is also a paid force of spahis, or cavalry, amounting to 15,000. Agriculture, in European Turkey, is depressed at once by arbitrary exactions, and by the devastation consequent on frequent wars in many of the finest pro- vinces ; yet its productions are valuable. The grain which grows in the plains of Roumelia, Bulgaria, and on the banks of the Danube, is considered the finest in the empire. From the same plains a great quantity of excellent butter and bad cheese is obtained, the latter being made of skimmed milk. The steep sides and deep valleys of Hsemus and Rhodope are covered with vast flocks of sheep, affording the most delicate mutton, but a coarse kind of wool, which, however, from its plenty, forms a large article of export. Buffaloes are chiefly employed in agriculture ; and, though their flesh is unpalatable, their skins, being thick and strong, are of considerable value. Hare skins, also, are so abundant as to form an article of importance in commerce. Bees innumerable are reared, and yield a profusion of honey and wax. A fine white silk is produced in Bulgaria and the plain of Adrianople, but not equal to that of Brusa. Cotton flourishes in the plains south of the Balkan, though nowhere so copiously as in Macedonia and Thessaly. Manufactures are in a still less flourishing state ; yet the very fine one of Tur- key leather has been carried to the highest perfection at Gallipoli, and some other places along the Dardanelles, as well as in several cities of Asia Minor. Turkey carpets belong to Asia Minor, where manufacturing industry is generally more advanced than in European Turkey. The commerce of this part of the empire, excluding Greece, is almost confined to Constantinople, whence would be exported a good deal of grain, were it not for the impolitic prohibition, which does not, however, prevent a considerable contraband trade. Other productions of Eu- ropean and Asiatic Turkey, wool, buffalo hides, skins, goats' hair, Turkey leather, wax, drugs, silk, cotton, and copper, find their chief vent through the capital. The pride of the orientals, and their peculiar habits, render them little dependent on imports from the West. Nevertheless, the European merchants contrive to TURKEY. 411 introduce some cottons and sugar ; also, coffee from the West Indies, under the disguise of Mocha, together with glass, porcelain, and other brilliant fabrics for the ornament of the harem From the Black Sea and the Caspian arc brought slaves in great numbers, also a vast quantity of 6alt-fish and caviare. The national character and aspect of the Turk is thoroughly oriental, and in every point contrary to that of the western European nations. All the external forms of life are dissimilar, and even opposite. The men, instead of our dresses fitted tight to the body, wear long flowing robes, which conceal the limbs. In- stead of standing, or sitting on chairs, they remain stretched on sofas, in luxurious indolence; considering it madness to stir or walk, unless for special purposes or business. They sit cross-legged, especially at meals. On entering a house, they take off, not their hat, but their shoes ; in eating, they use the fingers only, with- out knife or fork ; they sleep not on beds, but on couches on the ground. Though the Turk be naturally sedate and placid, his rage, when once roused, is furious and ungovernable, like that of a brute. Hospitality and giving of alms are ori- ental virtues. It is rare to hinder any one from plucking herbs or fruit in a gar- den or orchard. This humanity is even injudiciously extended to the lower crea- tion, which enjoy at Constantinople a sort of paradise. The dogs, though excluded as unclean from the houses and mosques, are allowed to multiply in the streets till they become a perfect nuisance ; the doves feed at liberty on the grain in the har- bour, which echoes with the crowded clang of unmolested sea-birds. The religion of Mahomet is considered to be preserved throughout this empire in a state of peculiar and exclusive purity. The Turk is imbued from his earliest infancy with the loftiest conceptions of his own spiritual state, and with a min- gled hatred and contempt of every other. This feeling is entertained, not only towards the " infidel," but still more deeply towards the Persian Shiite, whose tenets respecting the person of Ali are so detested, that, according to the soundest doctors, it is as meritorious to .kill one Shiite as twenty Christians. The learning of the Turks is comprised within a very limited compass. The torrent of their barbarous invasion buried under it not only the splendid though corrupted remains of Greek science, but that of a secondary description which was attained by the Arabs under the caliphate. Yet some of the early sultans were patrons of learning; as, indeed, most conquerors have been. The Turks are ignorant of the most common instruments in natural philosophy, the telescope, the microscope, the electrical machine; which, if presented to them, are merely shown as objects of ehildish curiosity. Persons of the highest rank scarcely know anything of countries beyond the boundaries of the empire. Astrology, so long exploded from the list of European sciences, continues in Turkey to influence and direct the public councils. No expedition 6ails from Constantinople, no foundation of a building is laid, nor public officer installed, until the nunedjem bachi, or chief of the astrologers, has named the fortunate day. With all their pride, they are obliged to have recourse to Christian physicians, whose skill they ascribe to necromancy, and who they therefore expect will predict at once, in the most precise manner, the issue of their complaints. All the arts have degene- rated into mechanical trades. Neither architecture, painting, nor music, is prac- tised with any degree of taste or genius. The condition of the female sex in Turkey is particularly foreign to our man- ners and ideas. From the moment of marriage they are immured in the harem, excluded from the view of the public and of all of the opposite sex, their nearest relations being alone admitted on occasions of peculiar ceremony. This circum- scribed existence, and the necessity of sharing with a multitude of rivals the favour of a husband, or rather master, appear intolerable to European ideas. Po- lygamy is permitted by law, and carried sometimes to a vast extent, but only by the rich. The poor, and even others who study domestic quiet, find one wife quite sufficient. Divorce is permitted, but is not common. Disagreement of tem- per does not bear so hard on the husband, from the separate state in which he lives; adultery is avenged by the poniard; so that sterility, reckoned so deadly a curse throughout the East, is the prevailing motive for divorce. The rayahs, or subject infidels, who form so large a part of the population of 412 TURKEY. Turkey, are chiefly Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. The amusements of the Turk are chiefly domestic. His delight is to give himself up to continued and unvaried reverie ; to glide down the stream of time without thought or anxiety ; to retire under the shade of trees, there to muse without any fixed object, and to inhale through the pipe a gentle inebriating vapour. The ball, the theatre, the crowded party, all that in Europe can be accounted gaiety, are utterly foreign to Turkish manners. The dress of the Turks consists of long, loose robes, which do not encumber their stately walk, though they would be incompatible with running, or rapid mo- tion. The turban is the most characteristic feature of eastern dress ; and its varied form and ornaments not only discriminate the rich from the poor, but afford a badge to the various professions, to each of which a costume is appointed by government, and strictly enforced. The food of the Turks is not very luxurious. It consists chiefly of stews and hashes, particularly that favourite one called pilau, with salads, olives, and sweet- meats. In wine, though prohibited by their religion, some sultans and great men have deeply indulged ; but in general its use is confined to the lowest ranks. Cof- fee and sherbet are handed about on all occasions. Opium, as a substitute for wine, is taken to excess, and often fatally ; those addicted to it usually fall victims before the age of forty. Constantinople occupies perhaps the most commanding and important site of any city in the world. Its situation is as beautiful and superb as it is commodious. Seated on the Bosphorus, at the point where it communicates with the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, it is connected both with the Mediterranean and the Black Sea by a succession of straits, easily defensible, yet navigable for the largest ves- sels. The port is spacious and admirable. The city itself, rising on seven hills, along the shore of the Bosphorus, embosomed in groves, from amid which nu- merous gilded domes ascend to a lofty height, presents a most magnificent spec- tacle. But the moment the interior is entered, all the magic scene disappears. The streets are narrow, winding, ill paved, and crowded ; the houses low and gloomy ; and the hills, which appeared majestic in the view, causing steep ascents and descents, prove excessively inconvenient. But the most fatal circumstance in the structure of Constantinople is, that the houses of rich and poor are alike en- tirely composed of wood, while chimneys are not generally used, but their place supplied by vessels of brass or earth put under the feet. These circumstances, joined to the usual improvidence of the Mahometans, cause most tremendous con- flagrations. It is even believed, with or without reason, that the Turkish public employ the setting fire to the city as a mode of communicating their opinion on the conduct of their rulers. The scene is terrible, from the extent of the blaze, the deep rolling of the drum from the top of the minarets, and the crowds that assemble, among whom even the grand signior himself is expected to be present. It is reckoned that Constantinople rises entire from its ashes in the course of every fifteen years; but no advantage is ever taken of the circumstance to im- prove its aspect. The fallen streets are immediately reconstructed with all their imperfections, and the houses rebuilt of the same fragile materials. This city contains, however, some structures that are very magnificent. Among them stands foremost the mosque of St. Sophia, accounted the finest in the world, first built as a church by Justinian, and converted by the conquering Turks to its pre- sent use. The mosques of Sultan Achmet and of Suleyman are equally vast and splendid, but not marked by the same classic taste. The numerous minarets are in general airy and elegant, and add greatly to the beauty of the city. Pera and Scutari, two appendages* to Constantinople, in any other vicinity would rank as cities. Pera is the Frank quarter, where reside the ambassadors and agents of all the European courts, and, under their protection, all Christians whose trade does not fix them at the port. It has thus become very populous, and even crowded; so that houses are obtained with difficulty. Scutari stands on the Asiatic side, in a beautiful and cultivated plain, and presents a picturesque aspect, from the mixture of trees and minarets. Adrianople is a large city, five miles in circumference, and containing about GREECE. 413 100,000 inhabitants. There are several ancient palaces, and a splendid mosque, but the streets are narrow and crooked, the houses ill-built of brick and mud. The ancient strength of its fortifications has gone into decay. Bourgas, on a bay of the Black Sea, near the foot of the Balkan, has a manufactory of pottery, and carries on a considerable trade. Gallipoli, on the Strait of the Dardanelles, is also a large and commercial place, with 17,000 inhabitants. Sophia, the capital, at the foot of the mountains, is a large town, with 50,000 inhabitants, and carries on a great inland trade between Salonica and the interior countries of eastern Europe. Schumla, or Choumla, near the entrance of another of the great passes of the Balkan, forms rather a chain of rudely entrenched positions than a regular fortress ; yet such is the obstinacy with which the Turks defend such situations, that this city has repeatedly baffled the utmost efforts of the Russian army. Varna, a port on the Black Sea, is also a leading military station, and was the theatre of a signal victory gained by Amurath the Great over the Hungarian troops. A chain of fortresses on the Danube, large, and strongly fortified, formed long the main bulwarks of the Turkish empire. The chief are, Widin, the residence of a pacha ; Giurgevo, Nicopoli, Rustshuk, Silistria. They are all of nearly simi- lar character, extensive and populous, uniting with their importance as military stations that derived from an extensive trade along the Danube. The capital of Servia is Belgrade, a fortress of extraordinary strength, long considered the key of Hungary, and disputed with the utmost obstinacy between the Austrians and Turks. It is now equally distinguished as a seat of inland commerce, being the ofreat entrepot between Turkey and Germany, and is supposed to contain about 30,000 inhabitants. Serajevo, or Bosna Serai, capital of Bosnia, is still larger, having been estimated to contain 60,000 inhabitants. It trafficks in arms and jewellery, and receives numerous caravans from Constantinople. Jassy, the capi- tal of Moldavia, is situated in the interior of the country, amid a marshy district, which renders it unhealthy. Galatz, at the junction of the Danube and the Si geth, carries on most of the trade, and might attain considerable importance if the navigation of the former river were made free. Bucharest, the capital of Walla- chia, is a large city, containing about 80,000 souls. It is built upon a dismal swamp, to render the streets passable over which, they are covered with boards ; but, in the intervals, water springs up from dirty kennels beneath. Here Eu- ropean and Oriental costumes and manners unite in nearly equal proportions, The people are clothed half in hats and shoes, half in calpacs and pelisses; the carriages are drawn as often by buffaloes as by horses. The nobles live in extra- vagance and dissipation, while the people are plunged in poverty. Joannina, which Ali Pacha made his capital, has a very picturesque situation on a lake, surrounded by lofty mountains, and is supposed to contain a population of 35,000. The houses are irregularly built, intermingled with gardens and trees, A great proportion of the inhabitants are Greek. Scutari, the capital of Upper Albania, is situated in a rich plain ; has a population of about 16,000; and carries on some considerable manufactures of cloth. Its pacha is now the most consider able potentate in Albania. Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica, carries on an extensive commerce, and possesses a population of 60,000 or 70,000 inhabitants, It is one of the few remaining cities that have preserved the form of the ancient fortifications, the mural turrets yet standing, and the walls that support them being entire. GREECE. Greece, though bearing so great a name, and occupying so high a place in our recollections, had ceased, until of late, to be considered as having any actual existence. The torrent of Ottoman conquest, overwhelming all the institutions and monuments of the classic apes, seemed to have obliterated its place as a sepa- rate State, and to have sunk it into the subordinate province of a huge barbarian empire. But memorable events just elapsed have again produced the Greeks to 414 GREECE. the world, with claims to be considered as a great and independent people. Even ■ under their deep humiliation, materials were not wanting-, out of which their inde- ; pendence might be re-established. Amid the gloom of Turkish domination, the j Greeks still existed as a people every way separate ; not, indeed, manifesting their former high displays of genius and heroism, yet still remaining distinct in lan- guage, manners, and religion, and exhibiting even revived symptoms of intel- ' lectual and general activity. After witnessing the glorious though chequered efforts made by the nation itself, and though with various success; considering the part now publicly taken by the States of Europe, we can no longer hesitate to sever Greece from the Turkish empire, and give to it a place among European nations. Greece, considered as a free State, has been contracted in extent, in consequence of the reverses sustained by the national arms, and the treaty concluded by the European powers; and includes only a small portion of what we have been accus- tomed to consider as Greece. Bounded on the north by a line from the Gulf of Volo to that of Zeitoun, the present kingdom of Greece does not comprise the extensive and populous territories of Thessaly, Macedonia, and Albania. It now comprises the Morea, a small part of the continent north of the Isthmus, the Island of Negroponte, and about the one-half of the islands in the Archipelago, comprising the northern Sporades, the Cyclades, and the islands in the Gulf of Egina and Napoli : the area of the whole is probably 21,000 square miles ; and the population about 752,000. The general divisions of the kingdom are the four provinces of Western Hellas, Eastern Hellas, the Morea, and the Isles, which are subdivided into ten nomoi, and these into eparchies. The interior of Greece is greatly diversified with rugged mountains, and with fertile and picturesque vales. Along the shores there are beautiful plains, the soil of which is fruitful, and the climate delightful. There are many inlets and bays, affording great facilities for commerce, and presenting strong inducements to navi- gation. In various parts of Greece there still remain many interesting monuments of antiquity. The ruins of temples, known to have been built 3000 years ago, exist at the present day. It is remarkable that these remains exhibit a style of architecture, common in that remote age, more truly chaste and beautiful than has been since devised. After all the improvements of modern times, we are obliged to admit that the ancient Greeks are our masters in this noble art. Constitutional monarchy is the form of government destined for Greece by the great powers, and in which she appears to have acquiesced ; and a monarch, after many difficulties, has at length been chosen. The political elements are by no means duly organised. The two parties are that of the people, composed gene- rally of the inhabitants of the towns, and having at its head the commercial State of Hydra ; and that of the capitani, or chieftains, who, in the interior of the coun- try, have established a species of feudal military sway. Industry, in Greece, is only in a very secondary state, yet its products are not inconsiderable. Agriculture is carried on with rude implements and bad cattle, and only in some quarters is irrigation practised with diligence ; yet so genial are the climate and soil, that the harvests are generally more plentiful than in Eng- land. Wheat, barley, and maize are chiefly cultivated, and of each there is some surplus for exportation. Cotton is raised to a very great extent, and forms the chief basis of its export trade. The olive, in Greece, retains its ancient celebrity ; " nor has the honey of Mount Hymettus lost any part of its exquisite flavour." That species of grape called the Corinthian, which produces the finest currants, is peculiar to the Morea and the Ionian Islands, especially Zante, from which it is largely exported, Greece, however, is altogether a pastoral country ; the people are skilled in the management of cattle, but much more in that of sheep and goats, which are fed in vast numbers on the sides of the hills, and on the high plains of the interior. Of these animals, however, the breed is not of any emi- nence, and has even degenerated. Manufactures are in a still ruder state than agriculture ; and the country is indebted to foreigners for every .thing, except a few coarse and common fabrics. Commerce is carried on with much greater activity than any of the other branches GREECE. 415~1 of industry, and has been one of the main instruments in raising this- renowned country from its extreme depression. The great circuit of its coasts, its numerous bays, and its position in the vicinity of some of the richest and most productive countries in the world, clearly destined Greece to be a maritime and commercial region. The proud ignorance of the Turks, leading them to despise trade, left this career open to the vassal people. A prodigious impulse was given by the general war consequent on the French revolution, which left the Greek for a long time the only neutral flag in Europe. The islands, and particularly the little har- bours of Hydra, Ipsara, and Spezzia, not only exported the produce of Greec itself, but maintained the carrying trade from port to port all around the Mediter- ranean. There was even an extensive transmission of articles to the head of the Gulf of Salonica, and thence by land into the heart of Austria. A Greek mer- cantile and shipping interest of great wealth and importance was thus created. In 1809, the exports were estimated to amount to £2,649,700 ; comprising cot- ton, tobacco, corn, wool, olive oil, currants, silk, cheese, cattle, dye-stuffs, honey, fruits, &c. It is difficult to ascertain the present condition of the commerce of this country. During the late dreadful contest it was trodden under foot ; and the Hydriots, in whom it centred, had all their resources occupied by war : nor has it probably revived at all to its ancient extent. The Greek army, in 1820, was estimated at 50,000 men, consisting of brave but irregular troops, and commanded by skilful generals. The military force at pre- sent does not probably exceed 15,000 men. The navy is composed mostly of mer- chant brigs belonging to the islands, amounting to about 80 sail. They generally beat the Turkish fleets during the war. The character of the modern Greeks, both before and since the revolution, has been painted in somewhat unfavourable colours. They are represented as addicted to the vices incident to every despised and oppressed people ; avarice, intrigue, cunning, servility, and as being almost entirely governed by motives of self- interest. The reproach, however, seems to be mainly due to the inhabitants of the towns, and the chiefs, particularly the Fanariots, or rich Greeks of Constanti- nople. The peasantry are allowed to be a very fine race ; and, indeed, the great actions performed in the course of the late contest must silence those who pretend that the nation has lost all its ancient energies. The religion of the Greeks is that which was designated by their name, to dis- tinguish it from the Roman Catholic, after the great schism of the eastern and western churches. This, however, may be considered on a lower level as to any enlightened views of Christianity. According to a late writer, the lower ranks in Greece have a religion of mere forms, while the upper ranks have no religion at all. The most respectable of the clergy are the monks or caloyers, out of whom are chosen the bishops, and even the patriarch or general head of the religion, who, before the late convulsions, resided at Constantinople. Learning, in Greece, where it once flourished with such unrivalled splendour, had fallen into a state of total extinction. As soon, however, as the government had acquired a degree of consistence, they turned their immediate attention to this object ; and, really, considering the pressure of so dreadful a war, effected wonders. They established schools of mutual instruction at Athens, Argos, Tri- polizza, Missolonghi, and most of the islands. They decreed the formation, at Argos, of an academy on a great scale, where every requisite of intellectual cul- ture might be united ; also of central schools and libraries. All these institutions are yet only in their infancy ; but there cannot be a doubt that, the independence of the Greeks being once established, one of the first results would be an extraor- dinary effort to raise their intellectual character as a nation. The dress of the Greeks is formed on the model of the Turkish, either from imitation, or from adoption of the same oriental pattern. In general the attire of all who can afford it is gaudy and glittering, covered with gold and silver em- broidery, and with the most brilliant colours. Above all, the arms of the chiefs are profusely adorned, mounted with silver and even jewels. The simplicity which a more refined taste has introduced into the costume of the western Eu- ropeans is held by them in contempt. 416 GREECE. The food of the Greeks, through the combined influence of poverty, and the long fasts enjoined by their religion, is composed in a great measure of fish, vege- tables, and fruit. Caviare is the national ragout, and, like other fish dishes, is eaten seasoned with aromatic herbs. Snails dressed in garlic are also a favourite dish. Their most valued fruits are olives, melons, water-melons, and especially gourds. The islands form a prominent and interesting appendage to Greece. Cyprus, Rhodes, and a considerable number of smaller isles ranged along the coast of Asia Minor, have been always considered as Asiatic. The Greek European islands are Candia, the Cyclades, and those termed the Ionian Islands. Candia, lately ceded to the Pacha of Egypt, is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being reckoned about 500 miles in circumference. It is perhaps more favoured by nature than any other part of Europe. The interior is covered with mountains, of which Mount Ida towers to a very lofty height. The plains and valleys along the sea-coast are covered with myrtle groves, spacious plane trees, and other beautiful woods; and the soil, though merely scratched by a wretched plough drawn by two sorry oxen, yields luxuriant crops of wheat and barley. The olive grows in high perfection ; though the oil, for want of care and skill in preparing it, is unfit for the table, and only used for soap and other manu- factures. The inhabitants are a fine race, and were more independent of the Porte than the vassals of most other parts of the empire. The mountains and mountain plains, however, have continued to be occupied by a Greek race, called the Sfacciotes, who in these high tracts carry on the trade of shepherd, not alto- gether uncombined with that of robber. It was by this body that the chief stand was made in the late insurrection, and they had nearly driven the Turks out of the island, when they were forced themselves to yield to the Pacha of Egypt. Of the towns, Candia, the capital, has had its harbours choked up with sand, against which the Turks never take any precautions ; and the greater part of its trade has passed to Canea. It still bears the trace of a handsome Venetian town, with substantial houses formed into regular streets and squares ; but the havoc of its long siege and subsequent desertion give it a very gloomy aspect. Canea, without the name of capital, is populous and flourishing, having 15,000 inhabit- ants ; but with nothing in its aspect to distinguish it from other Turkish towns. Between Canea and Candia is Retimo, a well-built town, situated in a delightful country abounding with olive trees ; but its harbour having likewise suffered, Ca- nea has profited in this as in the former instance. The Cyclades, a numerous and celebrated group, are interposed between Candia and Asia Minor, but nearer to the continent, from which they recede in a south- east direction. Their aspect, bold, rocky, yet richly verdant, presents to the ves- sels sailing through it scenes of varied beauty. The principal of these are Paros, Antiparos, Naxos, Santorini, Milo, Argentera, Syra, Andro, Sino, Zea, &c. Negropont is a long narrow island separated from the continent by the narrow channel of the Euripus, or Egripo. It is diversified by rugged mountains and fer- tile valleys. It was supposed to contain about 60,000 inhabitants previous to the revolution, but does not probably at present contain half that number, the Turks, who were more numerous here than anywhere else in southern Greece, having been expelled the island. The capital, Chalcis, or Negropont, has a population of 10,000 or 12,000. The Northern Sporades, lying north-east of Negropont, com- prise Skyro, Chelidonia, and other islands. Two islands, Hydra and Spezzia, though little favoured by nature, have, in a singular manner, taken the lead of all the States and Islands of Greece. Hydra, a rugged mass of rock, with scarcely a spot of verdure, remained without an inha- bitant till Turkish oppression, and the desolations of the Morea, drove a few fish- ermen to build their huts on its precipitous sides. The same causes in which the settlement originated were favourable to its increase ; and as it appeared too insig- nificant to excite jealousy, it was allowed to compound with the Turks for a mo- derate tribute. It now contains about 40,000 inhabitants, many of whom have attained to considerable wealth, and rule the republic with a sort of aristocratic sway. The energies of Hydra have been for some time exclusively turned to GREECE. 417 war, and perhaps she will never regain her former extensive commerce. Spezzia is a sort of outwork of Hydra, with only 3000 inhabitants, yet with somewhat more of cultivation. Athens, the most celebrated of all the Grecian cities, is situated in Attica just without the isthmus of Corinth, 5 miles from the sea. The town stands at the foot of a steep rock, called the Acropolis, and spreads into a plain on the west and north-west. It is surrounded by a thick, irregular wall, 3 miles in circuit, and 10 feet high, passing along the brinks of precipices. Some portions of the ancient wall are also to be seen. The remains of ancient architecture are still sufficient, in spite of the ravages of barbarian conquerors, to excite the admiration of the traveller. The temple of Theseus, the lantern of Demosthenes, the tower of the winds, Adrian's gate, the peristyle of the Parthenon, and a wall of the theatre exist entire. The population of the city is uncertain : it probably does not exceed 12,000 or 13,000. Napoli de Romania, or Nauplion, is the best built town in the Morea. It stands on an eminence projecting into a wide bay, and is surrounded with walls. From its maritime situation and great natural strength, it must ever be one of the keys of Greece. Its harbour is good, and the commerce considerable. Population, 15,000. Tripolizza, the Turkish capital of the Morea, was taken during the war by Ibrahim Pacha, and is now mostly in ruins : it contained 4 mosques, 6 Greek churches, and a bazar, and a population of about 12,000. Navarino stands upon an excellent harbour in the south-west part of the Morea. Here the Turkish naval power was completely destroyed by the combined fleets of Russia, France and England, on the 20th October, 1828, the anniversary of the battle of Salamis. It is a place of some trade, and has a good harbour. Modon, in the same neigh- bourhood, has a good harbour and considerable trade. Coron, not far distant, on a wide bay of the same name, is a small town, but well fortified. Malvasia, on the eastern coast, stands on an island connected with the continent by a bridge. It has a strong citadel, and its neighbourhood produces the wine called Malvoisia, or Malmsey. Calamata, on the Gulf of Messenia, is a considerable, but open town. Tripolizza, the former capital of the Morea, stands in a narrow valley at the foot of Mount Menalus : before the revolution it had a considerable trade and a population of 12,000. Misitra, or Mistras, was a strong place with 7000 inhabitants previous to the revolution. It is now in a ruinous state. The ruins of Sparta are about 3 miles from this town. Corinth stands on the isthmus uniting the Morea to the continent. It still exhibits the remains of its ancient walls and the citadel, or acro-corinthus. It formerly had a harbour on each side of the isthmus, but the only port is now on the Gulf of Lepanto. The houses are generally well-built. Patras, at the entrance of the Gulf, has a considerable commerce, and formerly was the residence of many European Consuls. It suffered severely during the late contest, the country in its neighbourhood being ravaged by the contending armies. Missolonghi is without the Morea. It stands on the Gulf of Lepanto opposite Patras. It was captured by the Greeks in 1821, recaptured after several attempts by the Turks in 1825, and afterwards rescued by the Greeks. It is a fortified and important place. Here Lord Byron died, in 1824. This country, the most celebrated of antiquity, has at length, after ages of bond- age under the iron yoke of the most ruthless oppressors of modern times, assumed an independent attitude among the nations of the earth. The nomination of Otho of Bavaria to the throne of Greece by the great powers of Europe, and supported by their influence, affords a prospect that the new state has now permanently ob- tained a tranquil and settled condition. The moral and religious instruction of this interesting people has for some years past attracted the attention of several missionary and philanthropic societies, both in Great Britain and the United States, and cheering hopes are entertained that their exertions, aided by those of the go- vernment, and the natural quickness and intelligence of the people themselves, will, at no distant period, exhibit such an improvement in the public mind, as will satisfactorily prove to the world, that the Greeks of the present day want but the aid of free institutions And favourable circumstances, to enable them to rival the brightest era of their distinguished forefathers. 418 TABULAR VIEW OF EUROPE. TABULAR VIEW OF THE EUROPEAN STATES. States. I Area in I Sq. Miles. Swedish Monarchy Denmark Holland Belgium British Monarchy France Spain Andorra (Republic) Portugal Russia Cracow (Republic) 'Austria Prussia Bavaria Saxony Hanover Wirtemberg Baden Hesse-Cassel (Electorate). . . Hesse-Darmstadt Hesse-Homburg(Landgr.).. . Saxe-Weimar Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Saxe-Altcnburg Saxe-Meiningen Mecklenburg-Schweriii Mecklenburg-Strelitz Brunswick Holstein-Oldenburg Nassau Anhalt-Bernburg Anhalt-Cothen Anhalt-Dessau Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt. .. Schwartzbu rg-Sonderhauscn Reuss-Greitz Reuss-Schleitz Lippe-Detmold Lippe-Schauenburg Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.. Hohenzollern.Hechingen ... Waldeck Lichtenstein Kniphausen (Lordship) Hamburg Lubeck Bremen 1 Frankfort Switzerland 'Sardinia Monaco (principality) Tuscany (Grand Duchy) Parma Modena Lucca States of the Church San Marino (Republic) I Naples Ionian Islands Turkey Greece 237,000 22,000 11,100 13,000 121,000 205,000 183,000 102 38,800 1,091,000 500 258,0t)0 107,000 30,997 7,200 14,720 7,500 5,800 4,352 4,112 138 1,420 1,024 491 875 4,755 768 1,514 2,752 2,164 340 330 363 448 384 153 453 436 213 426 117 459 53 17 134 122 72 113 15,000 29,534 50 8,759 2,250 2,145 434 17,572 22 43,052 1,310 206,000 21,000 Population Principal Religious Sects. 3,821,384 2,049,000 2,745,000 3,791,000 24,304,799 32,509,742 13,950,000 15,000 3,530,000 56,800,000 117,800 33,0(51,610 13,842,000 4,037,017 1,497,000 1,549,000 1,562,033 1,201,300 649,800 720,000 23,000 232,704 150,639 114,048 329,588 450,200 84,130 250,100 251,500 355,815 40,000 36,000 60,000 60,000 51,767 25,000 58,500 77,500 25,500 39,000 15,500 56,000 5,550 2,800 154,000 47,000 49,000 55,000 2,013,000 4,300,000 6,500 1,275,000 440.000 400,000 145,000 2,592,32!) 8,400 7,434,300 192,848 7,000.000 752,000 Lutherans, Catholics, Jews. . Lutherans, Jews, &c Calvinists, Catholics, &c Catholics, Calvinists Episcopalians, Catholics, &c. Catholics, Calvinists, &c Catholics Catholics Catholics Greeks, Catholics, &c Catholics, Lutherans, Jews. . Catholics, Greeks, &c Evangelists, Catholics, &c... . Catholics, Evangelists, Jews. Lutherans, Catholics, Jews. . Lutherans, Catholics, &c Lutherans, Catholics, &c. . ■• Catholics, Lutherans, &c. . . . Evangelists, Catholics, &c. • . Lutherans, Catholics, &c. .. . Calvinists, Lutherans, &c . . . Lutherans, Catholics, &c Lutherans, Catholics, &c. . . . Lutherans Lutherans, Jews, Catholics. . Lutherans, Jews, &c Lutherans, Jews Lutherans, Catholics, &c. . . . Lutherans, Catholics, &c. . . . Evangelists, Catholics, &c. . . Calvinists, Lutherans, J«ws. Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews. Calvinists, Lutherans, &c. .. Lutherans, Catholics Lutherans, Catholics Lutherans, Jews Lutherans, Hernhutters, Jews Calvinists, Lutherans, Cath's Lutherans, Calvinists, Cath's Catholics, Jews Catholics Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews. Catholics Lutherans Lutherans, Jews, &c Lutherans, Catholics, Sec. ... Lutherans, Calvinists Lutherans, Catholics, &c. .. . Calvinists, Catholics, Jews. . Catholics, Calvinists, &c Catholics Catholics, Jews Catholics Catholics Catholics Catholics, Jews Catholics Catholics, Jews. Greeks, Catholics, Jews Mahommedans, Greeks, &c. . Greeks, Catholics Government. Constitutional [Estates 'Constitutional Constitutional Constitutional [Constitutional Constitutional Republic ■Constitutional Absolute 'Republic 'Absolute JAbsolute 'Constitutional Constitutional ;Estates ^Constitutional Constitutional Constitutional Constitutional Absolute Constitutional Constitutional Constitutional Constitutional Estates Estates Constitutional Absolute Constitutional Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Estates Absolute Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Republic Absolute Republic Absolute Constitutional AFRICA. 419 AFRICA. Africa, a spacious continent, comprising nearly a third of the world known to the ancients, composes a peninsula about 4320 miles in length from north to south, and 4140 in breadth from east to west Its shape is an irregular pyramid, at the southern extremity diminishing almost to a point ; so that it has, properly speak- ing, only three sides. Its western coast, by far the most extensive, faces the Atlantic, which on the other side is bounded, at several thousand miles' distance, by the parallel coast of America. To the east, Africa looks upon the southern Pacific, but chiefly that mighty portion of it called the Indian Ocean, which has for its remote opposite boundaries, Hindoostan, the Eastern Archipelago, and New Holland. From Europe, Africa is separated by the Mediterranean, and from Asia by the Red Sea. Both these gulfs communicate with the ocean by narrow straits, at which Africa comes almost in contact with the opposite continents; but it is at their interior extremities that they are separated by that celebrated isthmus, only sixty miles in breadth, which connects this vast continent with that of Asia. Africa, in all respects except its vast extent, is the least favoured portion of the globe. Its prevailing aspect is rude, gloomy, and sterile. The character of desert, which elsewhere is only partial and occasional, belongs to a very great proportion of its widely extended surface. Boundless plains, exposed to the ver- tical rays of a tropical sun, are deprived of all the moisture necessary to cover them with vegetation. Moving sands, tossed by the winds, and whirling in eddies through the air, surround and continually threaten to bury the traveller, in his lengthened route through these trackless wilds. The watered and cultivated dis- tricts consist of little more than belts, with which this huge expanse of desert is begirt. The best known, and perhaps the finest, is that which borders the north- ern coast along the Mediterranean, and stretches for 50 or 100 miles inland. The famous range of mountains called Atlas, which ancient fable represented as sup- porting the heavens, with numerous chains branching from it across the continent, diffuses moisture and fertility over sands which would otherwise have been totally unproductive. Then follows the immense ocean of desert, nearly 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth, reaching across the whole continent from east to west, and from north to south, between lat. 15° and 30°. The sterility of the scene is only interrupted by a narrow line, of not above half a mile, formed by the course of the Nile through Nubia, and by a few islands, or, as they are termed, oases, scattered at wide intervals over this immeasurable waste. These spots, affording springs, verdure, and a few dates, support a scanty population ; but are chiefly valuable as affording places of rest and refreshment for the caravans. The traveller who has crossed this dreary interval is cheered by the view of a long line of territory exhibiting a different and much more smiling aspect. Lofty ranges, celebrated under the name of the Mountains of the Moon, cross the cen- tral part of the continent, and form perhaps an almost unbroken girdle round it Thence descend many rivers of the first magnitude; the Nile of Egypt, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the famed mysterious stream so long sought under the name of the Niger. These set bounds to the empire of sand, which would else overspread nearly all Africa; they inundate their banks, and fertilize extensive regions, which are covered with rich harvests, and peopled with nations that have made some advances in civilization. A great part of this country has been re- cently explored, though much still remains for discovery ; but farther south, the greater part of the interior, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, a space of 40° of latitude, has never been trodden by any European. The districts on the east coast, however, are very well known, and still more those on the west. They 420 AFRICA. present a totally different aspect from that of northern Africa ; profusely watered by great rivers, in many places luxuriant with tropical products ; in others, inun- dated and swampy, overgrown with huge forests and underwood. Some late ob- servers, however, in travelling inland from the Cape, have caught a glimpse of vast expanses of desert, reported almost to rival those at the opposite extremity of the continent. Lastly, the southern angle presents to the stormy seas of the Southern Ocean broad table rocks and high rude plains, covered, however, in many places, with good herbage and vegetation. The political constitutions of Africa are rude, and in general despotic. The unlimited power of the sovereign is in general checked only by the turbulence of aristocratic chiefs, not by any well-regulated freedom on the part of the people. Africa, however, is divided into an almost infinite variety of states, whose political system can only be understood by considering each in detail. The processes of agriculture and manufactures, in Africa, are performed gene- rally in a rude and imperfect manner. The soil, however, is cultivated almost throughout, to a greater or less extent; and some fine fabrics, particularly those of cotton, cloth, mats, and gold ornaments, are very widely diffused. Africa has scarcely any trade, except that which is carried on overland and across its oceans of desert, by caravans, consisting chiefly of camels. It is truly astonishing with what facility these companies now make their way to the re- motest interior of the continent, in defiance of obstacles which might have been deemed insuperable. By these immense journeys, they procure considerable quan- tities of gold and ivory ; but the importance of these articles is merged in a cruel and iniquitous traffic, of which Africa has always been the main theatre. Other parts of the globe have for ages depended upon its oppressed and unfortunate in- habitants, for supplying their demand for slaves. Whoever, throughout Africa, has the evil power of selling any of his fellow-creatures, is sure to find purchasers who will give in exchange the best products of Europe and the East. Some are condemned to slavery under a criminal code, framed by legislators who make it a study to multiply the number of such offences as may be made punishable in this lucrative manner ; others are captives taken in war ; but a large proportion are procured by mere slave-hunting expeditions, undertaken even by the most civilized states, against neighbours whom, with little reason, they account more barbarous than themselves. The number thus conveyed across the desert, to fill the harems of Turkey and Persia, has been rated at 20,000. These, however, serve merely as domestic slaves ; and, though subjected to many humiliations, they are, on the whole, mildly treated. A much severer lot awaits those who, from the western shores of Africa, are carried off by the polished people of modern Europe. After suffering through the passage, under a confinement and pestilential air which prove fatal to a large proportion, they are sold to taskmasters whose sole object is, under a burning sun, to extract from them the utmost possible amount of labour. It is calculated that, during the flourishing period of the slave trade, 80,000 were annually transported across the Atlantic. At length, however, the wrongs of Africa were heard; Britain, roused by the voice of some generous philanthropists, took the lead in the cause of humanity. The resistance was powerful, and it oc- casioned many years of debate, signalized by the long labours of Wilberforce, Clarkson, and other friends of Africa, till, in 1806, Mr. Fox moved and carried the bill for the final abolition of the trade of importing slaves into the British colonies. It has since been declared felony for a British subject to engage in this trade. America and France afterwards followed the example ; and thus the ex- port of slaves from the northern part of Guinea has been in a great measure pre- vented ; though the numbers still procured from the southern quarters of Benin and Congo, by the Spaniards and Portuguese, are but little diminished. This vast continent is almost universally in a state of barbarism ; yet in ancient times its northern states rivalled Europe in civilization. Egypt and Carthage, when in their glory, ranked among the most civilized and opulent states then ex- isting. Even after the first ravages of the Saracens, learning and science dis- tinguished the splendid courts established in the west of Barbary. The continued influence, however, of a gloomy superstition, and the separation caused by it from AFRICA. 421 all the refined modern nations, have induced among these states a general relapse into barbarism. The population of the continent may now, in a large view, be divided into Moors and Negroes. The Moors, including the descendants of the original Arab invaders, and those whom conquest and religion have assimilated with them, fill all northern Africa and the Great Desert. They reach the banks of the Senegal and the Niger, which may be considered as the boundary of the two races, though they mingle and alternate on the opposite sides, where some- times one, sometimes another, hold the chief sway. The Moors are a rough roving race, keeping numerous herds, chiefly of camels, with which they perform immense journeys through the most desolate tracts, and across the greatest breadth of the continent. Africa is indebted to them for all the literature she possesses; at least, few of the Negroes can read or write, who have not learned from them. The Moors, however, at least all that scour the desert, are a race peculiarly un- amiable. A furious bigotry, joined to the most embittered hatred of the Christian name, renders them mortal foes to every European traveller who falls into their power. The Negroes, on the contrary, though inferior in arts and attainments, are generally courteous, gay, and hospitable. Like all barbarous nations, they are fond of war, and cruel to their enemies; but their domestic intercourse is friendly, and they receive with kindness the unprotected stranger. They are led away with fantastic superstitions, charms, witchcraft, ordeal, &c. ; but these errors never impel them to hate or persecute those who entertain the most opposite be- lief. Their external aspect is well known, being marked by a deep black colour, flat nose, thick lips, and coarse hair like wool. The Moors are deeply embrowned by the influence of the sun, but have not the least of the Negro colour or aspect. In the animal kingdom at least, Africa is as rich in the number of its peculiar species as any other quarter of the globe. Of these, a large majority are found to the southward of the Great Desert. The quadrupeds of burden are highly valuable. The Arabian camel, or dromedary, is now spread over all the northern and central parts of the continent, and is indispensably requisite in crossing the long arid deserts which cover so great a portion of its surface north of the equa- tor. The horses and asses of Barbary, those of the Bedoweens and of Egypt, yield in no respect to the finest Arabs either in beauty of form or spirit. The first of these races was introduced into Spain during the ascendency of the Moor- ish power in that country, and from it the noble Spanish breed of modern times is descended. On the West Coast, south of the Great Desert, the ass supplies the place of the camel, being extensively used in carrying on the inland trade of the country. Of horned cattle there are many different varieties. The most remark- able are the Sanga or Galla oxen of Abyssinia, with immense horns nearly four feet in length, and a kindred race in Bornou, the horns of which measure upwards of two feet in circumference at the base, and yet scarcely weigh two pounds apiece. Of sheep, the most remarkable variety is the broad-tailed kind, whose tails grow so fat and heavy that it is said they are frequently obliged to be sup- ported on little wheel carriages. This animal is common in Barbary, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in other parts of the continent : other varieties of the sheep, and also several of the goat, abound in different quarters ; the latter are common in many parts bordering on the Great Desert, feeding on the dry aromatic herbs which are in places thinly scattered. Of the wild animals, one of the most peculiar is the chimpanzee, of which it is thought more than one variety exists in Africa. It approaches much nearer to the human form than the Orang-outang of Borneo, Sumatra, &c. The adult of this animal has never been brought to Europe. Some of the varieties of baboons attain a very considerable stature, and from their great strength and malicious dis- position, are much dreaded by the negroes. Carnivorous and ferocious animals are extremely numerous in all parts of Africa. The lion, the panther, and the leopard, lurk in the vicinity of the rivers and fountains, to surprise the different species of antelopes and other animals ; but, unless pressed by hunger, rarely attack the inhabitants, though it is said the lion will often pursue the Hottentot in preference to all other prey. The various species of hyaenas are, properly speak- ing, African ; one species only being found in any other part of the world. They 36 422 AFRICA. all live upon offal and carrion, and are of singular importance in the economy of nature, by preventing the accumulation of putrescent matter, and devouring dead carcasses and other garbage, which, under the influence of a tropical sun, would soon corrupt and produce the most noxious and unwholesome vapours. The hy- ffinas are nocturnal, and nightly visit the towns and villages, where they prowl through the streets till morning. The true civet is found in a state of nature in most parts of Africa. Great numbers of these animals are also kept by the na- tives for the sake of their perfume. Nearly allied to the civet are the ichneu- mons. Of these there are four or five distinct species, which wage incessant war against the numerous serpents and other reptiles which infest every part of the country. The elephant occupies the first rank among the wild quadrupeds of this region. The African elephant, though long confounded with the Asiatic, is now well known to be a distinct species. Its ears are larger, the markings of its molar teeth are of a different form, and it has only four hoofs on the fore feet and three on the hind, whilst the Indian species has five before and four behind. In mag- nitude it does not yield to its Asiatic congener, and is even thought to exceed it; for, according to the statements of some travellers, it would appear that the African animal occasionally attains the height of seventeen or eighteen feet, and it is certain that the tusks of the latter imported from the coast of Guinea are considered larger than those obtained from India, often weighing from one hun- dred and fifty to one hundred and eighty pounds, whilst the latter rarely exceed one hundred to one hundred and twenty pounds. These animals inhabit all the woody parts of Africa south of the Sahara, and are also found in Dar Fur. They live in herds of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred individuals. This animal is not now employed in the service of man, although the ancient Egyptians undoubtedly obtained war elephants from Ethiopia. The African rhinoceros, like that of Sumatra, has two horns, but is distinguished from the latter by having no front or incisor teeth. The horns, as in the East, are highly esteemed for their supposed medicinal virtues, and are also used by the natives as battle-axes. The hippopotamus is entirely an African quadruped, being found in all the large rivers and lakes south of the Great Desert, and appears to have occupied the same localities from the earliest ages. He delights in being in the water, and stays there as willingly as upon land. The zebra, the dow, and the quagga, are found in nearly all the known parts of central and southern Africa. These beautiful animals, equally remarkable for the symmetry of their forms, the rapidity of their course, and the regularity of their colours and markings, associate in large herds upon the open plains, and are the frequent prey of the lion. It is remarkable that these creatures and the ostriches seem to have a natural predilection for each others' society, and that the flocks and herds of these very different species are constantly found intermixed, though they refuse to associate with other animals; and the same fact was observed 2000 years ago, in regard to the ostrich and quagga, or wild ass, on the plains of Syria and Mesopotamia. The camelopard, or giraffe, is an animal peculiar to this con- tinent, and is found from the Orange river as far north as Nubia, although it is said there is a difference between those of the north and south. Two or three species of the wild buffalo inhabit the woods and marshy grounds of the interior. The bos coffer, or wild buffalo of the Cape, has the base of the horns extending all over the top of the head and forehead, in the manneF of a helmet. He is a savage, dangerous animal, and much dreaded by travellers. Antelopes and gazelles are numerous. Of the former there are more than sixty different species. Multitudes of these fall a prey to the lion, the leopard, and panther. Among the animals which inhabit the seas and coasts of Africa is the lamantin, which frequents the mouths of the great rivers on the Atlantic and In- dian Ocean, and feeds upon the aquatic plants that it can reach along the shores. It was this animal which, from the pectoral situation of its mamma?, and from the habit of raising itself half out of the water, especially when in the act of suckling its young, gave origin to the fable of the mermaid, by which name it is often men- tioned by ancient African voyagers and travellers. AFRICA. 423 The most peculiar and important of the birds of Africa is the ostrich. At the present day it would appear to be exclusively confined to that continent, though it was anciently found in the deserts of Syria and Mesopotamia in Asia. The weight of this bird, when full grown, is from 70 to 80 pounds. It is affirmed that it never drinks, but is of all animals the most voracious, devouring lead, glass, metals, &c. The large feathers of the ostrich form a considerable article of trade from several parts of the continent. It is said those brought from Ba'rbary are not procured from the wild birds of the desert, but from half-domesticated individuals which the Arabs take young and breed up in stables, where they are well supplied with soft bedding to prevent them from wearing or injuring the feathers. Similar to the ostrich in many of their habits, and even somewhat in appearance, are the bustards, many different species of which inhabit the karoos and arid plains of this continent. The Guinea-fowl, the only African bird adapted to the barn-yard, is found ex- clusively in this region. There are three or four distinct species. They collect in flocks of 400 or 500, and frequent the underwood and bushes in the vicinity of ponds and rivers. There are many species of partridges and grouse ; also, water- fowl in abundance on the rivers and lakes; various species of owls, falcons, and vultures; the latter, like the hysenas among the quadrupeds, are highly useful in consuming the offal and carrion which might otherwise taint the air and produce disease. The exquisite sense of smell possessed by these birds is truly surprising. One of the most remarkable and useful birds of prey peculiar to Africa is the secretary vulture, which may be not improperly described as an eagle mounted on the long naked legs of a crane. This bird preys exclusively upon serpents, which it pursues on foot, and destroys in amazing numbers. Among the smaller birds of Africa are many species remarkable for the gaudi- ness and brilliancy of their plumage, or the singularity of their manners and economy. Of the former kind may be mentioned the innumerable varieties of parrots and parroquets, which, from the size of a sparrow, upwards to that of a raven, swarm in all the forests, and make the woods resound with their hoarse un- musical screams. Of the latter, it will be sufficient to mention the honey cuckoo, and thp little bird called tno republican. Lizards, serpents, and other reptiles, abound in every part of Africa. The i crocodile inhabits all the large rivers of the tropical parts of the continent, and is still abundant in the Nile below the first cataract. Different species of chame- j leons may be seen on every hedge or shrub ; and the enormous python, a serpent thirty feet long, lurks in the fens and morasses. Among the venomous species, the dipsas, the asp, and the cerastes, or horned viper, are frequently mentioned by the ancient classical writers ; whilst the garter-snake, the puff adder, and other species, are at present employed to poison their arrows, by the Bushmans, the only African tribe who use this deadly and cowardly weapon. Of the insect tribes, Africa also contains many thousand different kinds. The locust has been, from time immemorial, the proverbial scourge of the whole con- tinent ; scorpions, scarcely less to be dreaded than the noxious serpents, are every- where abundant; and the zebub, or fly, one of the instruments employed by the Almighty to punish the Egyptians of old, is still the plague of the low and culti- vated districts. The number of African languages ie supposed to be more than 200; and 70 or 80 have been distinguished with tolerable accuracy. But they are too imperfectly known to admit of minute description. In Northern Africa, the Copts of Egypt have a peculiar language in their sacred books, which is no more employed in conversation. The Turkish and Arabic are spoken by the Turks, both in Egypt and Barbary. The Berbers of Mount Atlas, and those extending along the north of the Great Desert, preserve a common language (supposed to be the ancient Numidian) through a great extent of country, together with the Arabic of the Koran. The Ethiopic, or Geez, and its modern branch, the Amharic, are the prin- cipal languages of Abyssinia; but various other dialects are in common use. In Western and Central Africa many of the languages have similar combinations of letters and some common words. But almost every tribe of Negroes has a distinct 424 BARBARY. language, and it often varies from village to village. The Hottentots, Bushmans and other tribes of South Africa, speak various dialects, apparently of a common origin. They differ from all others in a sort of clucking noise, somewhat like that of a fowl, which attends every word. The Caffres have a different language, as well as a different aspect from the surrounding Negroes. The divisions under which Africa will be considered in the following sketch of it are Barbary, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Sahara, or the Great Desert, Western Africa, Southern Africa, Eastern and Central Africa, together with the African Islands. The population of this great division of the earth has been variously estimated by different writers, and as nothing but vague conjecture can be em- ployed in their calculations, even in relation to those parts of the continent best known and explored, and considering that our knowledge of it does not extend to more than the one-fortieth or fiftieth part of its surface, it is evident that calcula- tions of the total amount of the inhabitants cannot be regarded in any other light than as a mere expression of opinion. The estimate of M. Malte Brun is 70,000,000 ; Graberg, 99,000,000; Hassel, from 100 to 110,000,000; and by others it has been carried as high as 150,000,000. BARBARY. i Barbary is that portion of Northern Africa stretching eastward from the At- lantic Ocean, including Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. It ranges through 36 degrees of longitude, being about 2100 miles in extent from east to west. This region is traversed from east to west by the elevated chain of mountains called Atlas, of which the loftiest pinnacles rise above the plains of Morocco to the height of 11,400 feet; but beyond the frontier of that State, and eastward through Algiers and Tunis, they seldom exceed 3000 or 4000 feet ; and in the territory of Tripoli they sink into lower eminences, and gradually subside to that flat sterile surface which characterises Northern Africa. Between the mountains and the sea is a tract of level, well-watered and fertile CCUr.try, from 50 to 100 miles in width : this is the moet productive and best inha- bited portion of Barbary. South of the mountains, and between them and the great desert, is another tract, dry and sandy ; this, however, derives a certain degree of fertility from the various small streams poured down from the Atlas : it is particularly fruitful in dates, which grow in such abundance that the inhabit- ants subsist nearly altogether upon them. This region is usually denominated Bled el Jerid, or the dry country. In Barbary, vegetation is vigorous and exuberant; all the fruits of Southern Europe come to perfection ; the excellence of the olive is particularly noted ; the vine flourishes, though the religious system of the natives deters them from con- verting the grape into wine, even for exportation. Wheat aad barley are the grains usually cultivated, and, notwithstanding the imperfection of the cultivation, such is the fertility of the soil and the want of a manufacturing population to con- sume its produce, that a large surplus accumulates in every State, which forms, when permitted, the staple article of export. The trade of the Barbary States is limited ; the exports consisting chiefly in the raw produce of the soil. In ancient times the African coast formed the granary of the Roman Empire ; and its corn continued to find a copious market in South- ern Europe till its exportation was prohibited by the absurd policy of all the Bar- bary States except Tunis : even there, it is loaded with heavy imposts. The most active commerce of the Barbary States is that by the caravans with the interior country south of the great desert Tripoli sends hers by Fezzan to Bornou and Houssa, and thence to the southward as far as Ashantee ; Tunis by Gadamis ; and Tuat to Timbuctoo ; Morocco across the broadest part of the desert to the same city, and to the countries on the Senegal. Into these regions the caravans carry salt, with various articles of European manufacture. The Barbary States, particularly Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, were formerly engaged in piracy. In their piratical expeditions they exhibited the utmost cour- I MOROCCO. 425 age and fierceness, and their captives were generally subjected to the most galling slavery. This territory is occupied by several distinct races. The Moors chiefly inhabit the towns : they are generally of middle stature, and are of all shades of com- plexion, from their frequent intercourse with their negro slaves ; they have few amusements, and think it a crime to have a book. They are devoted Mahometans, and hate and despise the Jews and Christians most heartily. The Arabs, origi- nally from the great desert, overspread the plains, live in tents, usually pitched in a circle, called Douars, and follow a pastoral life: they are hospitable, and when they promise may be trusted. They are slightly made and under the middle size. The Berbers and Shilluks inhabit the mountain range of the Atlas : the former the north-eastern part, and the latter the south-west : their occupation is mostly that of huntsmen : they also cultivate the ground and rear many bees, and are probably the aborigines of the country, having been driven to the mountains by the incursions of the Arabs and Moors. The next class are the Jews ; of these there are great numbers, who are much despised, taxed, and abused, and are permitted to engross almost every species of lucrative trade and commerce. They coin the money, are the principal mechanics, and transact the greater part of the business. Many of them acquire great wealth, which they carefully conceal lest their rapa- cious rulers should rob them of it. Of the population of the Barbary States only a very loose calculation can be made; it has been variously stated by different writers at from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 : the following estimate conforms to the first stated number : Morocco, 6,000,000; Algiers, 1,900,000; Tunis, 1,500,000; and Tripoli, 600,000; in all 10,000,000. MOROCCO. Morocco, the most westerly, is also the most extensive and important, of the Barbary States. It has two coasts : one along the Mediterranean facing the north, the other and larger along the Atlantic, looking to the west. The loftiest part of the chain of Atlas runs parallel to these coasts, changing its direction along with them, and leaving an intermediate plain, finely watered and not surpassed in natu- ral fertility by any part of the globe. Beyond the range of Atlas, however, Mo- rocco includes a more arid region, named Tafilet, unfit for grain, but yielding the finest dates in the world, and rearing a breed of goats whose skins afford the ma- terial for the fine morocco leather. The political and social state of Morocco is rude and degrading. The emperor possesses a power more despotic than any other even of the Mahometan poten- tates. He is not held in check by a mufti, an ulema, or even a council or divan. He is supposed to possess a divine character, and to be superior to all law. One emperor, being reminded of a promise, said, " Takest thou me to be an infidel, that I must be the slave of my word V Yet this monarch must pay respect to long- established usages and institutions ; must not invade the domestic privacy of any of his subjects; and must even give public audience four times a week to admin- ister justice to all who may appeal to him from the cadi, or local governor. The revenue is collected in kind in the proportion of a tenth of grain, and a twentieth of cattle, which, aided by fines and the poll-tax upon Jews, amounts to about £1,000,000 sterling. Industry and commerce have in Morocco a very limited range. The only im- portant manufacture is that of the leather which bears its name. One tannery in the capital employs, it is said, 1500 persons ; and though the processes are slo- venly, a fine colour is produced, which Europeans are unable to imitate. The outrageous piracy formerly exercised from Sal lee and other ports of Mo- rocco, has for a considerable time ceased. In the southern part of this region, and bordering on the great desert, is the district or province of Suse, a fruitful and well settled country, over which the Sultan of Morocco pretends to assume autho- rity, which is not, however, recognised by the people. It contains a number of 3d* 2D 426 MOROCCO. little walled towns and villages, under the control of petty chiefs, who are fre- quently at war with each other, and also with the Moors and the Arabs of the desert. , Morocco, the capital, is situated on a very extensive and naturally fruitful plain, above which rises abruptly, covered with perpetual snow, one of the loftiest ranges of Atlas. The mosques are numerous, and several of them present striking spe- cimens of Arabian architecture, particularly that called El Koutouben, the tower of which is 220 feet high. Of the eleven gates, one is richly sculptured in the Moorish style. The palace forms an oblong of 1500 by 600 yards, divided into enclosures, where, surrounded by gardens, are the pavilions of the sovereign, his principal officers and ladies. The floors are tessellated with variously coloured tiles ; but a mat, a small carpet and cushions, compose the entire furniture. Beau- tiful gardens surround the city, and spacious aqueducts, conveying water from the Atlas, twenty miles distant, bear testimony to a superior state of the arts in for- mer times. Fez, situated in the more northerly province of the same name, is a place of high celebrity, and ranked long as the splendid and enlightened metropolis of Western Africa. It was founded, in the end of the eighth century, by a prince of the name of Edris, and rose to such magnitude, that Leo, in the twelfth cen- tury, describes it, though doubtless with some exaggeration, as containing 700 mosques, of which fifty were magnificent and adorned with marble pillars. Its schools and its baths were also very celebrated. At present it is described by the latest travellers as presenting a singular mixture of splendour and ruin; and, amid the usual defects of Mahometan cities, the splendour being almost confined to the interior of the houses, it is still an agreeable place. Fez is still not without some of the sciences which formerly rendered it illustrious ; but they are nearly con- fined to the Koran and its commentators, a slight tincture of grammar and logic, and some very imperfect astronomical observations. The population, respecting which authors greatly vary, is probably rather under than above 100,000. Mequi- nez, to the west of Fez, has risen to importance by having been made the resi- dence of the sovereign. The seraglio, or palace, consists of a most extensive quadrangular enclosure, though the mansions which it contains are only one story high. The citizens are said to be more polished and hospitable, and the females handsomer, than in the other cities of Morocco. The population seems extremely uncertain. It is asserted that the emperor has in his treasury in this city money, bullion, and jewels, to the amount of $50,000,000. The sea-ports of Morocco, though they have lost the greatness formerly derived from commerce and piracy, are still not inconsiderable. Mogadore, the most south- erly, and the nearest to the capital, is now the chief emporium of the intercourse with Europe. It was founded only in 1760, by the emperor Sidi Mohammed, who spared no pains in raising it to importance. Being composed of houses of white stone, it makes a fine appearance from the sea ; but the interior presents the usual gloom of Moorish cities, and is chiefly enlivened by the residences of the European merchants and consuls. The country round is almost a desert of sand ; water is scarce, and provisions must be brought from the distance of several miles. The population is reckoned at about 10,000. Saffi, or Azaffi, a very ancient town, with a fine harbour, though also in a barren country, was the chief seat of European commerce till the monopolising preference of the emperor transferred it to Moga- dore. Saffi is still supposed to retain a population of 12,000. Mazagan, a small well-built place, of 2000 inhabitants, was in the possession of the Portuguese till 1770. Azamore, formerly a great town, and with walls a mile and a half in cir- cuit, is now deserted and crumbling into ruin : it has .3000 people. Farther north, on the opposite sides of a small river, are the important towns of Sallee and Rabat. Sallee, once the terror of the seas, whence issued such bands of pirates and rovers, the seat of action, riot, and bustle, is now still and lifeless. It continues, however, to be surrounded by a wall thirty feet high, and in its mosques, arches, and fountains displays traces of beautiful sculpture, and of great antiquity. What remains of its commerce has been mostly transferred across the river to Rabat, or New Sallee. This place, when viewed from without, ALGIERS. 427 presents a picturesque grouping of minarets, palm-trees, ruined walls, and old mosques, near which are conspicuous its venerable and battlemented Kassubah, or citadel, and the lofty tower of Sma Hassan. The interior retains still some acti- vity, and the markets are well supplied. Population, 18,000, of whom 3000 are Jews. Larache was once a flourishing European and Christian town ; but the churches are now converted into mosques, and the deserted houses of the consuls line the Marina. It has been made the imperial arsenal, and is very strong towards the sea. Tangier, on the straits, was in 1662 ceded by Portugal to Eng- land, which abandoned it in 1684. It derives its chief present importance from the permission granted by the emperor to supply Gibraltar with provisions, and from the residence of European consuls. Tetuan, the only port within the Medi- terranean, is allowed to carry on some intercourse with the English, whose vessels often take in supplies there on their way up the Mediterranean. ALGIERS. Algiers comprises an extensive and beautiful range of coast, lying between 2° W. and about 9° E. longitude; and thus extending 700 miles in length. The breadth of the inland territory is variously estimated at from 100 to 150 miles. The territory of Algiers is greatly distinguished by natural fertility. With the exception of some arid and rocky plains, it consists of valleys covered with rich pastures, fitted for the best kinds of European grain, blooming with the orange and the myrtle, and producing olives, figs, and grapes of peculiar excellence and size. Yet the indolence of the people, the oppression of the government, the want of roads and interior communications, cause three-fourths of the country to be left uncultivated. Their oil, wine, and butter are all of inferior quality. They are not so wholly destitute of manufacturing industry. Skins are prepared and coloured in almost as perfect a manner as in Morocco. Their bonnets, shawls, and handkerchiefs are in request throughout the Levant. Baskets of palm-leaves, and mats of junk, are fashioned with singular elegance. Essence of roses is prepared with a skill little to be expected in such rude hands ; but there is an extensive demand for the article in the voluptuous palaces of the East. The trade, before the French invasion, was almost entirely in the hands of the Jews, and consisted in the export of these manufactures, and of some grain, oil, wax, fruits, and wool. The Algerines took, in return, light cloths, glass, and toys, but showed a great preference for fire-arms and powder ; while the European merchants have been reproached, not only for supplying them with these articles, but even for pur- chasing the proceeds of their piratical expeditions. The fishery of coral, carried on by European vessels, produces an annual value of about 100,000?. That turbulent and piratical system of which Algiers was the centre, is now become a subject only of history. The country was long domineered over by a body of Turkish troops, not supposed to exceed 15,000, and who were recruited from the meanest classes in the ports of the Levant. This body, at short inter- vals, strangled the Dey, electing in his stead the boldest and bravest of their num- ber. The corsairs formed a kind of separate republic, carrying on their barbarous trade under the sanction of the prince, who received a large share of the slaves and booty. These marauders, in 1815, suffered a severe chastisement from the American fleet; and from the English in 1816. Again, after they had for some time set France at defiance, that country, in 1830, fitted out a formidable expedi- tion, by which Algiers was entirely subjugated. The French, however, have said very little as to any benefits derived from this acquisition. Algiers, the capital, is built on the declivity of an eminence facing the Medi- terranean, and rising by successive stages above each other, with loftier hills above: it makes thus a magnificent appearance; hence, too, it is said, almost every house commands a view of the sea. On entering the city, however, all this beauty disappears; and it is found a labyrinth of steep, narrow, and dirty lanes. There are, however, several splendid edifices, particularly the palace of the dey, and the principal mosques. The barracks are also fine structures, adorned 428 TUNIS. with fountains and marble columns ; and the naval arsenal is spacious and com modious. The bagnios, as the quarters formerly destined for the slaves were called, are huge, but gloomy and dirty edifices. The estimates of the population have hitherto varied from 50,000 to 200,000 ; but in 1833, it was found to amount to only 25,226, of whom 5226 were Europeans. The French expedition captured 2,000,OOOZ. sterling in money, besides an ample supply of ships, artillery, and ammunition. The fortifications towards the sea are very strong, but on the land side by no means formidable; so that, when the French had effected a landing with a superior force, they soon became masters of Algiers. In the western quarter of the Algerine territory, the most distinguished place is Tremecen, or Tlemsen, once the capital of a powerful kingdom, still containing about 20,000 inhabitants, situated in a beautiful and finely watered district. Mas- cara, about a mile in circuit, on the face of a mountain which commands the view of a fertile and well-cultivated plain, is an agreeable but ill-built city. Oran, on the sea-coast, long a subject of contention between the Moors and the Spaniards, remained in possession of the latter people till 1792. The fortifications have been injured by earthquakes ; but the spacious magazines built of stone remain entire. It has a roadstead with good anchorage, but so exposed that vessels are obliged to land their cargoes at the point of Mers el Keber, about a mile from the city. The inhabitants are now about 4000. In the eastern part of this territory, Constantina ranks second to Algiers, and is supposed to contain about 15,000 inhabitants. It is boldly situated on a rock, pre- cipitous on one side, where it overhangs the broad stream of the Rummell. The surrounding country is fine. The site, however, is distinguished by splendid monuments of antiquity; and the ground in one place is entirely covered with the remains of broken walls, columns, and cisterns. Boujeiah, celebrated as a strong and piratical sea-port, retains still marks of the breaches made upon the walls in 1671, when it was stormed by Sir Edward Sprague. The fortifications are now barely sufficient to hold the wandering Arabs in check ; but it derives some im- portance from its iron manufactures, and the export of wax and oil. Bona was in modern times the chief settlement of the French African Company, which they lost during the revolutionary war. It derives consequence from the coral fishery carried on in its vicinity ; and the same cause gives value to La Cala and the neighbouring island of Tabarca, which were also long in possession of the French. TUNIS. Tunis has a territory very differently situated from that of Algiers. From the frontier of- that country, the coast continues to extend eastward, with a slight in- clination to the north, till it reaches Cape Bona, the most northerly point of Africa. It then makes a sudden bend southward, and, with some windings, follows that direction as far as Cape Zerbi, for a space of about 250 miles. This coast, with the country reaching for upwards of 100 miles inland, composes the territory of Tunis. It is not so extensive as that of Algiers ; but it is not so closely hemmed in by the branches of the Atlas, nor are they so steep or so lofty; and there in- tervenes between them and the sea a spacious plain, watered by the noble river Bagrada, or Mejerda, and profusely covered with all the riches of culture and vegetation. The people, also, though composed essentially of the same elements as those of Algiers, have imbibed a considerably greater share of polish and civi- lization. The situation of the territory, projecting into the Mediterranean, and at an easy distance from the finest shores of southern Europe, fitted it to be the seat of the most celebrated commercial republic of antiquity. Carthage, by her commerce, rose to such grandeur as to dispute with Rome the empire of the world ; and, even after being completely vanquished, and her walls levelled with the ground, she continued one of the chief Roman cities, and the capital of the African provinces. TRIPOLI. 429 The city of Tunis, only ten miles south-west from the site of Carthage, and on the same spacious bay, possesses all the advantages which raised that city to such a height of prosperity. It is, in fact, the largest place in Barbary, the population being estimated at from 100,000 to 130,000. This city has entirely renounced its piratical habits, and applied itself to several branches of useful industry. There are extensive manufactures of velvets, silk stuffs, and the red caps generally worn in the Levant. The exportation of grain, absurdly prohibited in the other ports on this coast, is allowed under a tickery, or license from the dey. The Tunisian olive oil, wool, and soap, are largely exported. There is also a considerable traffic with interior Africa for its staples of gold, ivory, and ostrich feathers. Tunis takes a variety of European manufactures, East India stuffs, and colonial produce. Of the other cities of Tunis, the chief is Kairwan, founded by the Saracens, and long the capital of their possessions in Northern Africa. Tozer, on the Lake of Lowdeah, is only a large village, but enriched by trade with the country of dates and interior Africa. On the north coast, Porto Farini, near which are the ruins of Utica, and Bizerta, have both some trade in grain ; though the fine harbour of the latter is now so choked up as to allow only small vessels to enter. Of the towns on the coast, reaching southward from Tunis, Monasteer and Cabes are distinguished by a flourishing modern trade, which gives to the one a population of 12,000, and to the other of 20,000. Sfax carries on traffic on a smaller scale ; and the island of Zerbi is noted for manufacturing industry. Near El Jem are the remains of a magnificent amphitheatre. TRIPOLI. Tripoli presents a different aspect, and one by no means so grateful and smiling as the western regions of Barbary. That great mountain range, which has diffused through them verdure and fertility, terminates, and the great plain of sand which generally covers Northern Africa presses close upon the cultivated territory. The district in which the city stands forms only an oasis, and one not very extensive ; and he who takes his departure from it in any direction finds himself soon in the heart of the desert. Tripoli thus cannot equal the other capi- tals of Barbary, and its population is not supposed to exceed 25,000. Even this is supported rather by commerce and industry, than by the limited productions of the soil. It is, however, the chief theatre of the intercourse with Bornou and Houssa, the most fertile countries in the interior of Africa ; over which it exercises even a species of dominion. Fezzan, the great emporium of the caravan trade, is tri- butary to the pacha ; and he possesses a powerful influence over the courts of Kouka and Sockatoo. This prince has shown a more enlightened spirit, a greater desire to cultivate intercourse with the European powers, and to introduce the im- provements of civilized life, than any other in Barbary. A singular absence of that jealousy which usually actuates Mahometan courts, has been displayed in the welcome given to the British expeditions of discovery, and the zeal displayed in promoting their objects. Tripoli cannot be called a fine city ; yet its palace, and the generality of its mosques, have some beauty; and there is a triumphal arch and several other interesting remains of antiquity. To the eastward of Tripoli, and in its close vicinity, begins a dreary portion of the Great Desert of Africa. A few days, however, bring the traveller to the dis- trict of Lebda, or the ancient Leptis Magna, where thick groves of olive and date trees are seen rising above the villages, and a great space is covered with luxuriant crops of grain. A similar country continues to Mesurata, to the east of which is also a plain singularly fertile. Mesurata carries on a manufactory of carpets, and a considerable trade with Central Africa. At the termination of this plain commences the desolate expanse of the Syrtis. Stretching around the Gulf of Sidra, or Syrtis, for 400 miles, it presents an almost tenantless and desolate waste, except occasionally some little valleys or detached spots traversed by the Arabs with their flocks, herds, and movable tents. 430 EGYPT. Barca commences at the termination of the Gulf of Sidra, and exhibits a very improved aspect. It is traversed by a steep and high ridge abounding in springs, which, according to Arab report, amount to 360, and sprinkle the surrounding desert with valleys of the most brilliant verdure and fertility. On this coast the Greeks founded Cyrene, one of their most flourishing colonies. At present it is abandoned by all civilized and industrious nations, and, with the exception of a few poor villages, is occupied exclusively by the wandering Arabs with their flocks and herds. Bengazi, the Berenice of the Ptolemies, is now only a miserable village. Every trace of the ancient city appears to have been buried under the sands of the surrounding desert. The range of valleys, however, east of Ben- gazi, is singularly picturesque, their sides being in many places steep and rocky ; yet every cleft is filled with a brilliant vegetation. In this tract are found the two ancient, now entirely deserted, cities of Teuchira and Ptolemeita. The ruins of Cyrene, which may be said to be a recent disco- very, form the most striking object in this remarkable region. Derne and Bengazi | are the only places in Barca at all deserving the name of towns. They are both the residence of governors dependent upon the pacha of Tripoli. The former was taken by General Eaton, in 1805. Eastward from this point, extends the ancient Marmarice, a bleak region crowded with beasts and birds of prey, where human existence is indicated only by the bleating flocks and the dark tent of the Arab. Yet there is cultivation in favoured spots, and the traces of cisterns and canals of irrigation mark the former existence of a civilized and even somewhat numerous people. The population of the whole region eastward from Tripoli is perhaps 100,000. EGYPT. Egypt, formerly a mighty empire, the seat of a high civilization, the land of wonderful creations of human power, and an object of endless curiosity to the philosophic inquirer, lies between 22° and 39° N. lat. ^d Q7° and 34° E. Ion. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea ; on the east by the Red Sea and by Arabia, with which it is connected by the Isthmus of Suez ; on the south by Nubia, and on the west by Barca and the Great Desert. It contains about 200,000 square miles, of which only about 17,000 square miles in the Valley of the Nile (600 miles long, and from 12 to 25 broad) are susceptible of cultivation. The population is estimated at about 2,500,000. It is divided into Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt, and Lower Egypt, including the fertile Delta. These are again divided into 12 provinces, each of which is governed by a bey. Three chains of mountains run through the country. The Nile flows through it in a northerly direction. This river, the most remarkable in the world, forms the principal feature of this region. From the high chain of Abyssinia, and from the still loftier Mountains of the Moon that traverse Central Africa, descend nu- merous and ample streams, which long before entering Egypt unite in forming this great river. Although the Nile, in its whole progress of 1600 miles through Nubia and Egypt, does not receive the accession of a single rivulet, it brings so vast an original store as enables it to reach and pour a mighty stream into the Mediterranean. In the lower part of its course, the Nile is on a level with the district which it intersects, and, when swelled by the autumnal rains of Central Africa, overflows it entirely. The waters begin to rise about the 18th or 19th of June, attain their greatest height in September, and subside as gradually as they rose, and within an equal space of time. The land thus covered with the fer- tilizing alluvial deposit collected during so lengthened a course, becomes the most productive perhaps on the face of the globe ; and notwithstanding its limited ex- tent, and the mighty wastes on which it borders, has always maintained a nu- merous population. Lake Mceris, so celebrated in antiquity, is at present called Birket Karun, and is almost dried up: there are others, especially the Natron, or Salt Lakes. The EGYPT. 431 climate is in general hot, and is moderate in Lower Egypt only. The great heat produces the rankest vegetation. The simoom, a formidable south wind, which blows at intervals during the first 50 days after the vernal equinox ; the plague, and ophthalmia, are the peculiar torments of Egypt. It has but two seasons spring and summer : the latter lasts from April to November. During this period, the sky is always clear, and the weather hot. In the spring, the nights are cool and refreshing. The greater part of the land is arid, and covered with burning sands ; but wherever the waters of the Nile are conducted in canals beyond the natural limits of their overflow, the earth becomes fertile, and fruits thrive with great luxuriance. A remarkable change has of late years taken place in the climate of this country. Formerly, it scarcely ever rained, and only for a short time at Alexan- dria ; now it rains there for 30 or 40 days annually ; and sometimes after the mid- dle of October it does not cease for five or six days together. At Cairo, instead of a few drops falling, and those rarely, there are from fifteen to twenty rainy days every winter. It is supposed that this change of climate is owing to the immense plantations of the pacha, twenty millions of trees having been planted below Cairo. The contrary effect has been produced in Upper Egypt, by the de- struction of the trees there. The products of Egypt are corn, rice, millet, melons, sugar-cane, papyrus, flax and hemp, saffron, indigo, aloes, jalap, coloquintida, cardamom, cotton ; and palm- groves, sycamores, tamarinds, cassia, acacias, &c, cover the country. There is ! not a great variety of garden flowers, but roses are raised in large quantities, especially in the marshy Fayoum, and rose-water forms an important article of export. The soil consists of lime, with numerous shells and petrifactions : it contains marble, alabaster, porphyry, jasper, granite, common salt, natron, salt- petre, alum, &c. The people consist of Copts (embracing, at most, 30,000 families), Arabs (who are the most numerous, and are divided into Fellahs or peasants, and Bedouins, the wandering tribes of the desert), and Turks, the ruling people. The Mame- lukes have been driven out of the country, and nearly exterminated. Besides these, there are Jews, Greeks, Armenians, &c. The Egyptian generally has a strong, active frame ; tawny complexion, gay disposition, and a good heart, and is not devoid of capacity. He is temperate and religious, but superstitious. The prevailing religion is that of Mahommed, and the prevailing language the Arabic. The inhabitants devote themselves to agriculture, the raising of bees and poul- try, the preparation of rose-water and sal ammoniac, the manufacturing of leather, flax, hemp, silk and cotton, carpets, glass, and potters' ware, and carry on an im- portant commerce. Constantinople is supplied with grain from Egypt, which, when a Roman province, was called the granary of Rome. The coasting-trade is considerable. Alexandria, Damietta, and Suez, are the principal harbours, and much inland traffic is carried on, chiefly with Syria, Arabia, and Western Africa. The expulsion of the Mamelukes from Egypt almost wholly subjected it to the sway of Mohammed Ali, who had received from the Porte the appointment of pacha, but who, profiting by the distractions of the Ottoman empire, has estab- lished a power wholly independent. His administration has hitherto been a bless- ing to Egypt. He has established a better system of law and order than that un- fortunate country had for ages experienced. He encourages every species of industry, and is studying to introduce the arts and improvements of Europe. Actuated by the usual ambition of monarchs, he has attempted conquest, and ex- tended his dominion southward along the Nile as far as Sennaar, and even to Dar- four; but tracts so distant and difficult of access can never be held without much difficulty, and are said to have already eluded his sway. In Arabia, he has com- pletely crushed the power of the Wahabees, and added to his domain the sacred territory of Mecca and Medina. For some time Mohammed Ali ceased not to own the supremacy of the Porte, and sent to Constantinople a tribute in money and grain. Now, however, he has established his complete independence, and has even threatened to overthrow the 432 EGYPT. Ottoman power, which was only saved by the interference of Russia. He has also acquired Syria, Cyprus, Candia, and Yemen, very important possessions, form- ing some of the most favoured of the territories of his old master. Mohammed Ali is particularly attentive to the public security : he takes, therefore, all Eu- ropeans, &c. under his immediate protection. He has done much for the com- merce and industry as well as civilization of Egypt. He is the principal mer- chant of the country, and no others can deal with foreign countries without his consent. The revenue of the pacha is about 18,000,000 dollars, arising from poll and land taxes ; customs of the ports of Cairo, Suez, Damietta, Alexandria, &c. ; branches of revenue farmed out, including various fisheries ; from the mint ; from the sale of the cotton, indigo, silk, sugar, rice, saffron, wool, ivory, frankincense, &c., which he monopolizes, purchasing them at a low rate from his subjects, &c. The army, which formerly consisted only of an undisciplined and turbulent, though brave militia, has been placed by Mohammed Ali on the most efficient footing. By the aid of French officers, he has disciplined a large body of troops in the European manner, and rendered them decidedly superior to any force which the East can oppose to them. In 1834, the troops thus trained were reckoned at 74,000. The pacha has founded, at Cairo, a military college, in which 1400 boys are educated by numerous European teachers, and in which he expends monthly about 6000 dollars. He has also established there a cannon-foundery, and a manu- factory of arms and gunpowder. His navy consists of 9 ships of the line, 7 fri- gates, and 30 smaller vessels. Egypt abounds in the most remarkable antiquities. The pyramids are perhaps the most astonishing monuments of human labour. That of Cheops, which is the largest, is 499 feet high, with a square base of 693 feet in extent, consisting chiefly of a solid mass of masonry. There are extensive catacombs existing in various places, from which mummies, or embalmed bodies, are obtained. Some of these were deposited 3000 or 4000 years ago. At Thebes, in Upper Egypt, are remains which are calculated to fill the be- holder with astonishment. Almost the whole extent of eight miles along the river is covered with magnificent portals, obelisks decorated with sculpture, forests of columns, and long avenues of colossal statues. One of the temples is a mile and a half in circumference. It has 12 principal entrances ; the body of the tem- ple consists of a prodigious hall or portico ; the roof is supported by 134 columns. Four beautiful obelisks mark the entrance to the shrine, a place of sacrifice, which contains three apartments built entirely of granite. The temple of Luxor pro- bably surpasses in beauty and splendour all the other ruins of Egypt. In front are two of the finest obelisks in the world: they are of rose-coloured marble, 100 feet in height. But the objects which most attract attention are the sculptures, which cover the whole of the northern front. They contain, on a great scale, a repre- sentation of a victory gained by one of the ancient kings of Egypt over his Asiatic enemies. The number of human figures introduced amounts to 1500; 500 on | foot, and 1000 in chariots. Such are some of the remains of a city which perished long before the records of authentic history begin. Its story is recorded only in the dim lights of poetry and tradition, which might be suspected of fable, did not these mighty witnesses remain to attest their veracity. Cairo, the chief city, stands on the eastern side of the Nile, 10 miles above the Delta. The houses are built of stone and brick, with terraces and flat roofs, and the windows are often glazed with coloured glass. There is a prodigious number of gardens in the city. The mosques are covered with Arabesque ornaments and adorned with handsome minarets. The waters of the river are received by canals into a great number of docks, or artificial ponds in different parts of the city. Cairo is the most populous city of Africa, and has a flourishing trade with the in- terior by caravans. The population, in 1810, was 262,700. Alexandria stands upon the Mediterranean, and has a double harbour. Its site is a narrow neck of land between Lake Mareotis and the sea. It communicates with the western arm of the Nile by a canal. This city was founded by Alex- ander the Great, and soon rose to wealth and greatness. It was the capital of the Ptolemies, and for science and literature was second only to Rome. It contained NUBIA. 433 | at one time 600,000 inhabitants. After its capture by the Saracens, it began to 8 decline, and the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope de- II stroyed its commercial importance. At present it consists of narrow, crooked, and dirty streets, and lofty buildings, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. It has considerable commerce, and its markets are well supplied. Population, 20,000. An immense accumulation of ruins, mostly buried in the sand, Pompey's pillar, Cleopatra's needles, the cisterns, catacombs, and columns, some entire and some broken, scattered here and there, are the sad remains of this once rich and splendid city. Pompey's pillar is a very remarkable monument, 95 feet high. Cleopatra's needles are two obelisks, one thrown down and the other standing, 58£ feet long, and seven feet broad on each side at the base. They are composed each of a sin- gle block of granite covered with hieroglyphics. The catacombs are very extra- ordinary monuments : they begin at the extremity of the old city, and extend a considerable distance along the coast, forming what was anciently called the " City of the Dead." They consist of grottoes cut in the rocks ; each one that has been opened has been found to contain three coffins. Rosetta stands on a branch of the Nile, four miles from its mouth. It is com- pletely environed in groves of orange, sycamore, date, banana, and other trees, j The city has a considerable trade, and upwards of 50 caravanserais. Population, 15,000. Damietta is situated between the eastern branch of the Nile and the Lake of Menzaleh, 10 miles from the sea. The houses are all white, and are built in a crescent around a bend of the river. The appearance of the town is beautifully picturesque, and the country in the neighbourhood is the most fertile and best cul- tivated in Egypt. Here are vast magazines of rice belonging to the government. The commerce of the place is very active. Population, 50,000. Suez, on the shore of the isthmus of that name, on the Red Sea, has a large trade with Arabia by caravans and vessels. It is surrounded by a sandy desert. Population, 5000. Cosseir is a seaport on the Red Sea, and has some trade in corn. The country around it is a desert. Kenneh, on the Nile, west of Cosseir, is a place of considerable trade. Thebes, Luxor, Esneh, and many others, are remarkable for their antiquities. NUBIA. Nubia is an extensive region lying south of Egypt, and extending to the con- fines of Abyssinia. It is bounded on the west by the Great Desert, and on the east by the Red Sea: nearly the whole country is composed of rocky and sandy deserts. The atmosphere is extremely dry, the summer hot, the climate healthy, and the plague unknown : the whole region, together with Kordofan, adjoining it on the south-west, is now subject to Mahommed Ali, the Pacha of Egypt, being conquered by him a few years since, in consequence of which some changes are already apparent in the character of the people. The various Arab tribes who reside in the deserts of Nubia, and who were constantly at war with each other, are no longer fierce and turbulent, but are reduced to complete subjection under the iron sway of the ruler of Egypt : they pay him an annual tribute, and are obliged to furnish such camels and guides for the use of government and of tra- vellers as may be required. Europeans can now traverse, under the protection of the Pacha, the whole region from Egypt to the confines of Abyssinia with compa- rative safety. The divisions of Nubia are Kenous Nouba and Dar Mahass, in the north, the kingdom of Dongola, in the centre, south of which are the districts of Dar Sheygya, Shendy, and the kingdom of Sennaar ; the sovereign of the latter, called the Mek, is at present a pensioner of Mahommed Ali. The capital of the same name, once estimated to contain 100,000 inhabitants, is now deserted and in ruins, the inhabitants having abandoned it since the Egyptian conquest. Another division is that of Beja, extending along the coast of the Red Sea, of which the port of Sua- kem is the chief town on the Nile, are the small towns of Shendy, El Makarif, 37 3E - 1 434 . ABYSSINIA. Old Dongola, New Dongola, and Derr, each containing from 3000 to 4000 inhab- itants. The little fertility which Nubia possesses is artificial, being produced by raising the water of the Nile, by means of wheels worked with oxen, to the level of the highest banks: in this way a strip of land of from one-eighth of a mile to half a mile in breadth is rendered productive, on which is cultivated dhourra, a coarse species of grain, barley, cotton, tobacco, and indigo ; the latter is manufactured for the benefit of the Pacha, who monopolises, as in Egypt, the whole trade and commerce of the country. The trade from the interior, which passes through Nubia to Egypt, consists mostly of slaves, gold, and ivory ; that from Egypt and Arabia, European goods, arms, &c. The people of this region are of two classes ; the inhabitants of the towns simi- lar to the Berbers of Mount Atlas, are generally a handsome race, well made, strong, and muscular; the females are modest and pleasing in their demeanour. The inhabitants of the desert are all of Arab origin, and in their manners, customs, and person, resemble the same people in other quarters. One of the most remark- able features of this region consists in the numerous remains of antiquity, found chiefly on the west side of the Nile ; some of these rival the monuments of Thebes. The Egyptian edifices consist of masonry : those of Nubia are either under ground or are dug out of the solid rock. One of the most magnificent is that of Ebsambul, in a state of complete preservation, rising immediately from the bank of the river, and cut out of a perpendicular cliff; in front and near it are statues of colossal size, supposed, when perfect, to have measured 60 or 70 feet in height. At El Belial, near Merawe in the district of Dar Sheygya, are the remains of numerous temples, pyramids, &c. The territory of Sennaar, bordering on Abyssinia, does not altogether partake of the barrenness so general in the greater part of Nubia ; some portions of it are comparatively fertile, being watered by the tropical rains which are here consi- derable, though not so violent as in regions immediately under the equator. Through their influence the country in August and September assumes a verdant and delightful aspect, and a number of lakes are formed. On the cessation of the rains the dhourra ripens and the country acquires a yellow appearance. Soon afterwards the lakes dry up, the soil becomes parched, all the beauty disappears, and bare scorched Nubia returns, with its hot winds and moving sands, glowing and ventilated with sultry blasts. Although Sennaar produces abundantly dhourra, millet, rice, and even wheat, it yields few commodities fitted for trade. The only intercourse consists in the transit trade from interior Africa to Egypt and Arabia. Beyond Sennaar is Fazuclo, a hilly territory, forming a province of that coun- try. Farther south is Bokki, noted for its gold. To the west, along the Bahr el Abiad, dwell the Shilluk Negroes, who conquered Sennaar in 1504; many of them live on the islands in the river, which are here very numerous. The Shil- luks are men of vast size and strength, and wonderful stories are told by their neighbours of their prowess in attacking the hippopotamus and crocodile in the water, which they seldom fail to overcome. They have numerous canoes which they manage with great skill, and form expeditions against their neighbours, both up and down the river. The Denka, rather farther up the Bahr el Abiad, were originally the same people, but they are now constantly at war with one another ; both possess great quantities of cattle; they are armed with long spears, which they do not throw, but, crouching behind their shields, wait the approach of their enemy. ABYSSINIA. Abyssinia, though it has imbibed some elements of civilization, has scarcely any intercourse with the civilized world. On the east, it is supposed to be bounded by the Red Sea, with which, however, the proper domain of Abyssinia comes in contact only in one point; on the north, it communicates with Sennaar; on the west, with the Shilluks and the Denka; on the south, with the Mahometan king- ABYSSINIA. 435] dom of Adel ; bat the greater part of these two last frontier lands consists of wild regions occupied by the Galla, who always ravaged, and have recently conquered, a large portion of the Abyssinian monarchy. It is difficult even to guess the dimensions of a region of which there are no fixed limits, measurements, or sur- veys ; but somewhere between 700 and 800 miles from east to west, by 500 or 600 from north to south, may form a tolerable approximation. Abyssinia is a country of mountains, intersected by deep and extensive valleys. A lofty range, called Lamalmon, bars the entrance from the Red Sea. The mountains of Samen, between the Tacazze and the Coror, are still more elevated. To these may be added the mountains of Gojam, Efat, and Amid-Amid, supposed to be a branch of the Mountains of the Moon. The height of some of the sum- mits has been estimated, but with doubtful accuracy. The Bahr el Azek, or Blue River, rises in the country of the Adows, and flows through the Lake Dembea into Sennaar, where it joins the Nile. This is the stream whose source was discovered by Bruce, and considered by him as the main branch of the Nile. The Taccazze is another stream, falling into the Nile. The country in general is extremely fertile and productive, where it can be cultivated ; and is in a great measure exempted from that empire of sand which dooms so large a portion of Africa to sterility. Though situated within the torrid zone, the climate of Abyssinia is generally temperate and healthful, but varies with the surface and aspect of the country. In the high and mountainous regions, the inhabitants enjoy a cool and salubrious atmosphere, and a serene sky; while those in the valleys, or in the vicinity of marshes or sandy deserts, languish under excessive heat or a moist and suffocat- ing air. The seasons are divided into wet and dry. The rainy season continues from April to September- The production of wheat is considerable; teff, a kind of very small grain, is likewise abundant, and affording bread in universal use; tocusso, a plant yielding a kind of black bread for the lower classes; ansete, a plant used as a substitute for grain; honey in abundance; papyrus, balsam, myrrh, and opocalpasum. Salt is an important natural production, found in great quantities on a plain between Masuah and Amphila. The customs of the Abyssinians are described by Bruce and Salt as exceeding- ly savage. They eat the raw and still quivering flesh of cattle, whose roaring is to be heard at their feasts. A perpetual state of civil war seems the main cause of their peculiar brutality and barbarism. Dead bodies are seen lying in the streets, and serve as food to dogs and hyaenas. Marriage is there a very slight connexion, formed and dissolved at pleasure ; conjugal fidelity is but little regard- ed. The rulers are unlimited despots in ecclesiastical and civil affaire, disposing of the lives of their subjects at pleasure. The Abyssinians boast that their country was the Sheba of Scripture, and that it was converted to Judaism several centuries before the Christian era. It is much more certain, that, prior to the middle of the fourth century, the nation was converted to Christianity, which it has ever since professed. This is, however, more tinctured with Judaism than in the other nations of Christendom. Boys and girls are circumcised; the Mosaic laws in regard to clean and unclean meats are respected ; the seventh day is their Sabbath, and their altars have the form of the ark of the covenant. The people of Abyssinia arc composed of various tribes and colours. The general tint is olive. They are a graceful, well-formed race, with little of the negro physiognomy. They have long hair, and their features are somewhat of the European cast. The Jews, who form a considerable class, settled here in remote ages, and have nearly lost the Hebrew language. They are considered as sorcerers, and it is believed that they can transform themselves into hyamas. They aTe generally smiths, weavers, and carpenters. The in- habitants of Tigre are ferocious and unprincipled, but the ferocity and filthiness of the Gallas surpass all description. In their excursions they destroy all human life. They, smear themselves with the blood of slaughtered animals, and hang the entrails about their necks. They have been often thought to be negroes, but bear a greater resemblance to the Caftres of Southern Africa than any other peo- 436 THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. pie : they have a round head, small eyes and thick lips, with fine hair, rather frizzly than woolly. In the north-west parts, the Shangalla are a rude and de- praved tribe. They are negroes, with visages approaching to those of apes. They live under the shade of trees, and at some seasons in caves. The Abys- sinians hunt them as wild beasts. One of the tribes feed upon locusts. This country consists of three separate independent States: Tigre, on the Red Sea ; Amhara, in the west ; and the districts of Shoa, Efat, &c. in the south. Three centuries ago, these countries were under a single government. The population is supposed to be about 4,000,000. Adowa, the capital of Tigre, is the only point of communication with the interior. It has a considerable trade, and the inhabitants are among the most highly civilized of the Abyssinians. Population, 8,000. Antalo, which has for some time been the residence of the Ras, stands upon the side of a mountain, and is supposed to contain a population of 10,000. Axum, the ancient capital, is now in ruins, but is remarkable for its antiquities. Gondar, the capital of Amhara, is three or four leagues in circuit. The houses are built of red stone, and roofed with thatch. It is now in the hands of the Gallas. THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. The Sahara, or Great Desert, forms an immense range of territory, which would, indeed, cover the whole northern half of Africa, but for the partial exemp- tion produced by the mountain range of Atlas, and the course of the Nile. Its actual and almost uninterrupted extent may be stated as from the 15th to the 30th degree of north latitude, and from the 30th of east to the 15th of west longitude. It may thus amount to nearly 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth. This vast expanse, the most dreary and terrible on the, face of the earth, forms an obstacle to the intercourse of nations greater than is opposed by the widest oceans. Yet the daring spirit of enterprise has induced human beings to occupy every extremity or corner in which subsistence could by any means be procured ; and they have formed routes by which, though amid suffering and deadly peril, regular journeys may be performed across this vast and desolate region. The term Sahara is usually applied to that part of the Great Desert lying westward of and between Fezzan and the Atlantic Ocean. The surface of the Sahara does not consist entirely of one uniform plain of sand. In the most level tracts it has been blown into heaps or hillocks, steep on one side, which remarkably increase both the dreary aspect of the region, and the difficulties with which the traveller has to contend. In other places it is traversed by dark ranges of naked rock, which sometimes approach so close as to leave only a nar- row path for caravans to march through. The terrible spectacle of human bones which strew the ground, and sometimes crackle unexpectedly beneath the tread of the traveller or his camel, lends, at intervals, additional horror to the scene. The most remarkable and important feature, however, which diversifies the great African desert, consists in the oases. This eastern term, which signifies island, is very appropriately given to those detached spots, over which springs, bursting forth amid the desert, diffuse some partial verdure and fertility. The view of these spots inspires travellers with emotions peculiarly pleasing ; some- times from mere contrast with the encircling desolation, but sometimes also from the peculiarly elegant landscape which they themselves present. They are em- bellished with flowering shrubs of peculiar beauty ; whole tracts are covered with forests of acacia, from which rich gums distil, and with groves of the date and lotus, yielding sweet fruits and berries, which form the food of whole tribes ; while mild and graceful animals, chiefly of the antelope species, trip along the meadows. Fezzan is a very large oasis, about 300 miles long and 200 broad, sometimes dignified with the title of kingdom. Nature has scarcely distinguished it from the surrounding desert : it is not irrigated by a stream of any importance. The inhabitants, however, by laborious processes, have raised up the water, which is always found at a certain depth under ground, and have thus formed a number of THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. 437 little oases, in which dates and a little grain can be reared, and where a few asses and goats, and numerous camels are fed. It is the inland trade, however, that the inhabitants regard as the source of animation and wealth. Fezzan being due south from Tripoli, and about midway between Egypt and Morocco, is the mo6t central point of communication with interior Africa. Through these resources Fezzan is enabled to maintain a population of about 70,000. The sultan is tribu- tary to the bashaw of Tripoli. Mourzuk, in a low unhealthy situation, but well watered, is the residence of the prince, and the chief seat of commerce. It con- tains remains of stone edifices; but the present structures are poorly built of mud. Zuela Gatrone and Tegerhy are small towns on the eastern frontier. Traghan, near Mourzuk, is an industrious place, with a thriving manufactory of carpets. Soclcna, in the desert to the north, on the road from Tripoli, forms a great caravan station. Tibesty, a country but little known, is situated south-west from Fezzan, and is separated from it by a desert of some extent. Its vales are fertile in corn, and its mountains afford excellent pasturage. The people, rude and ferocious, have been subjected to the control of Fezzan, paying annually to that State 20 camel-loads of senna. There are a few small villages in Tibesty, of which Arna, Aboo, or Boeyra, and Berdai, have been named as the chief. Caravans sometimes pass through this country from Fezzan to Bergoo, or iWaday. North-east from Fezzan, on the caravan route to Egypt, is Auguela, known upwards of 2000 years ago to the Greeks and Egyptians by almost the same name ; it is a dirty ill-built place, about a mile in circuit. There are some fertile spots in its vicinity; the country abounds in dates, and the inhabitants have established some active commercial relations with interior Africa. A few days' journey east- ward is Siwah, a deep hollow valley watered by numerous springs, and fertile in dates, the staple product and food of this region. The people, estimated at 1500 to 2000, form a turbulent aristocracy, but derive some wealth from the continual passage of the caravans. Yet the chief interest which attaches to Siwah, arises from its being supposed to contain the celebrated shrine of Jupiter Ammon. Gadamis, an oasis to the west of Fezzan, derives importance from the passage of the caravans from Tripoli and Tunis to Timbuctoo, though these are not so considerable as those from Fezzan and Morocco. It has the singularity of being divided between two hostile tribes, each enclosed by a separate wall, with a com- mon gate, which is shut when they are engaged in mutual warfare. Tafilet, Draha, and Sejinmessa, to the south of the Atlas, and loosely appended to the empire of Morocco, enjoyed a great celebrity during the middle ages, but have been little heard of in modern times. The caravans to Timbuctoo, which once rendezvoused in this territory, now generally prefer the more westerly route through Suse, by which they avoid the steep passage of the Atlas. These coun- tries, however, are understood to contain many fertile tracts, abounding in excel- lent dates, and producing a valuable breed of goats. Akka and Tatta are the principal stations from which the caravans take their departure. The most interior part of the desert, between Fezzan and Central Africa, is chiefly occupied by two native tribes, the Tibboos and the Tuaricks. The former are found on the caravan route to Bornou ; the lattet, more westerly, on that of Kano and Kashna. The Tibboos are nearly as black as the negroes, but with a different physiog- nomy : their hair is longer and less curled, their stature low, their features small, and their eye quick. They subsist on the milk of their camels and the produce of a few verdant spots scattered amid the desert; this they seek to aid by a little trade with Fezzan, and not unfrequently by the plunder of the caravans. They are themselves, however, exposed to a mightier race of spoilers, the Tuaricks, who, at least once a year, make an inroad into their territory, sweeping away every thing, and sparing neither age nor sex. Bilmah, the Tibboo capital, is a mean town, built of earth, and the other villages, of course, inferior. To the south of this town is a desert of thirteen days' journey, perhaps the most dreary on earth. There i3 neither a drop of water nor a vestige of animal or vegetable life. — - ii 438 WESTERN AFRICA. The Tuaricks, who spread terror through the half of Africa, were considered by Captain Lyon, as to external appearance, the finest race he ever saw ; tall, erect, and handsome, with an imposing air of pride and independence. Their skin is not dark, unless where deeply embrowned by exposure to the sun. They hold in contempt all who live in houses and cultivate the ground, deriving their sub- sistence solely from pasturage, commerce, and plunder, with a considerable pre- ference of the latter pursuit. The chief Tuarick tribes are the Ghraat, in the neighbourhood of Gadamis; the Tagama, who border on Houssa; and the Kolluvi, who occupy most of the intermediate territory. They possess, in particular, the kingdom of Agdass, whose capital, of the same name, has been long celebrated as a commercial emporium, and said even to equal Tripoli ; but our information respecting it is very scanty. t In the western region of the desert, the tribes occupying its scattered habitable portions appear to b,e all Moors or Arabs migrated from Morocco, and who have brought with them their usual pastoral, wandering, warlike, and predatory habits. These last they exercise with a relentless cruelty elsewhere unusual. A splendid booty is frequently opened to them by the vessels which suffer shipwreck on the dreary and dangerous shores of the Sahara, and which are always plundered with the most furious avidity : the only hope of the wretched captives is to be able to tempt their masters, by the promise of a high ransom, to be paid at Mogadore. Yet these dreary regions are animated by the constant passage of the great cara- vans between Morocco and Timbuctoo. In the most western quarter, also, at Hoden, Tisheet or Tegazza, and Taudeny, are extensive mines of rock salt, an article which is wanting and in extensive demand over all the populous regions of Central Africa. The passage of these caravans, and the formation of depots of salt, have given to Walet an importance said nearly to equal that of Timbuctoo. Aroan, also in the very heart of the desert, derives from these two trades a popu- lation of about 3000 souls. Of these rude wandering tribes, it may be enough to name the Monselmines, Mongearts, Woled Deleym, Lodajas, Woled Abousseba, Braknaks, Trasarts. But the chief state occupied by the Moors is Ludamar, on the frontier of Bambarra, which almost claims the title of kingdom. The bigotry and ferocity of the race were strongly marked by the treatment which Park met with during his captivity. Benowm, their capital, is merely a large Arab encamp- ment of dirty, tent-shaped huts. In the heart of th6 desert, between Gadamis and Timbuctoo, is the district of Tuat, inhabited by a mixture of Arabs and Tuaricks, in no respect better than the rest of the desert tribes. Major Laing sustained among them a signal disaster. Akkably and Ain-el-Saleh, their chief towns, are frequented as caravan stations. WESTERN AFRICA. Western Africa seems the only general name under which it is possible to comprise that wide range of coast, excluding the Great Desert, which extends along the Atlantic from the Senegal to the river of Benguela. The greater part is known to Europe under the appellation of Guinea, which, however, is confined to the shores of the vast gulf so called, commencing at Cape Mesurado. It even applies most strictly to the northern shores of that gulf, terminating with the rivers of Benin ; for the term Lower Guinea, applied to Loango, Congo, and the neigh- bouring territories, is in much less frequent use. The territories'on and between the Senegal and Gambia, are by the French called Senegambia ; but these names are all European, and unknown to the natives. The whole region is split into a multitude of states, mostly small, and without any political connexion. There is a general resemblance of climate, nature, aspect, and character, which justifies us in classing them under one head. The limits of Senegambia, though in general variously defined, may be consi- dered as extending along the coast from the southern edge of the desert to the colony of Sierra Leone, and from the Atlantic Ocean into the interior, embracing the regions watered by the various tributaries of the Senegal and Gambia rivers; WESTERN AFRICA. 439 extendine in length about 800, and in breadth where widest, about 700 miles. The country on the coast is much of it flat and marshy, and very unhealthy tor Europeans, notwithstanding which, the English, French, and Portuguese, have some small settlements; in the interior are many mountainous districts, mostly about the sources of the great rivers. Senegambia is generally well watered by the Senegal and its numerous branches, and also by the Gambia and Rio Grande. The climate and vegetable productions are such as belong to the equatorial regions. This region is inhabited by different tribes, of whom our accounts are very im- perfect: they are all negroes, but marked with various distinctions of person, cha- racter, and manners ; they live mostly under petty sovereigns, whose government has no great stability ; in general, they are an easy, good-natured race, yet igno- rant, barbarous, and degraded. Among these various nations, the Foulahs, Jaloffs, and Mandingoes, are the most numerous; other less prominent races are the Fe- loops, Naloes, Pagoes, Susoos, Timmanies, &c. The Foulahs are widely diffused over Western Africa, and are the most prominent race: in several interior kingdoms they are distinguished from the other Negroes by their superior forms and features, and are of a complexion inclining to olive ; their habits are pastoral, and their character for honesty, industry, and sobriety, is superior to that of any other race in this quarter of the globe ; they are supposed to be the same people as the Fellatahs of Soudan. The Foulahs are Mahometans, but are not very strict observers of the injunctions of their faith. The states in- habited by the Foulahs are Fooladoo, their original country far in the interior, Foota Jallon, on the head waters of the Senegal and Gambia Rivers, Bondou and Foota Toro, on the lower part of the Senegal ; the latter is one of the most im- portant kingdoms in this quarter of Africa ; it is well watered and fertile, and contains a dense population. Wassela on the head waters of the Niger, and Mas- sina eastward of Bambarra, known only by name, are also inhabited by them. The Jaloffs inhabit the territory situated between the Senegal and Gambia Riv- ers, and extending from the sea-coast to a considerable distance in the interior; though of a deep black complexion, and with decided Negro features, they are the handsomest race in Western Africa. They boast of their antiquity, and in many respects excel the neighbouring races ; their language is softer and more agreeable ; they manufacture finer cotton-cloth, and give it a superior dye ; they rival the Moors in horsemanship, and are fearless and expert hunters. They occupy several small states, of which the governments are despotic: of these the chief are Barra and Boor Salum on the Gambia, Brak on the Senegal, and Darnel and Cayor on the sea-coast. The Mandingoes are the most numerous people of this region. Their employments are chiefly a slight agriculture, fishing with nets and baskets, and above all, traffic, in which their enterprise exceeds that of all the other negro races. They conduct large kafilas to a considerable distance in the interior, and their language is well understood in all the commercial districts. They are cheerful, inquisitive, and inveterate dancers. Their taste is rather more refined than is usual among the Africans, particularly in poetry ; the extemporary composition and recitation of which forms one of their favourite amusements. They are partly Mahometans and partly pagans. Their original country is Manding, of which the government is a species of republicanism. They are found extending all over these countries, from the River Senegal to Sierra Leone. The Feloops to the south of the Gambia are a wild unsocial race. Their country is fertile, abounding in rice, poultry, and honey, from which last, they prepare a species of mead. On the Rio Grande are the Naloes, farther south of these the Pagoes and Susoos, and adjoining the Colony of Sierra Leone, the Timmanees, a depraved race, who were the chief agents in the slave-trade. Their agriculture is peculiarly rude, and the cloths of their manufacture very coarse. They abuse the English as having deprived them of almost their only source of wealth, which consisted in the sale of slaves. The native states in Senegambia are with few exceptions small and unimportant, and under the control of chiefs, who, as in almost all the African states, rule with despotic sway. The principal kingdoms! are Foota Toro, Darnel, Barra, Boor Salum, Foota Jallon, and Soolimana. Sata- 440 WESTERN AFRICA. doo, Konkodoo, Dindikoo, Brooko, Fooladoo, and Kajaaga, are little states, extend- ing along the upper course of the Faleme, Ba Fing, Ba Lee, and other streams which combine in forming the Senegal. They are elevated, rocky, and woody, with very picturesque sites, and gold in considerable quantities is found in the sand of their rivers. Lower down, on both sides of the Senegal, is the kingdom of Foota Toro, a considerable state, of which the interior has not been explored by Europeans. The king is a zealous Mahometan ; and under the pretext of making converts, has endeavoured to subdue the almost pagan Darnel or Burb of the Jaloffs ; the latter, however, by the strength of his country, and a prudent system of warfare, has been able to baffle his attempts. On the Middle Senegal, the most important personage is the Siratic, who holds his court at Ghiorel, con- siderably to the north of the river. Nearer the sea is the kingdom of Hoval, governed by a petty prince, called the Great Brak, which, in the language of the country, signifies King of Kings. Along the coast, between the Senegal and the Gambia, is the kingdom of Darnel, or Cayor, 150 miles in length, and said to con- tain 180,000 inhabitants. The Gambia is bordered on its north side by several flourishing little kingdoms. That immediately on the sea is Barra, said to contain 200,000 inhabitants. The capital is Barra Inding ; but the chief place of trade is Jillifrey, where the king has a custom-house to levy the duties on vessels passing up and down. Boor Sa- lum is a still more extensive kingdom, situated on a small river that falls into the Gambia, and containing, it is said, 300,000 inhabitants. Above it occur succes- sively the two smaller kingdoms of Yani and Woolli ; in the latter is Pisania, a British factory, from whence Mr. Park commenced both of his journeys into the interior. Along the heads of the Senegal, Gambia, and the Rio Grande lies the important kingdom of Foota Jallon, said to extend about 350 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It appears to be the most improved of all the states in this part of Africa. The inhabitants are Foulahs. They manufacture cloths of considera- ble fineness ; they work in iron, dug from extensive mines in the country ; also in silver, wood, and leather ; and they conduct large caravans into the interior, as far even as Timbuctoo and Kashna. Here, where they are the ruling people, they by no means display that pacific character which distinguishes the tribes on the Gambia and Senegal. They can bring into the field 16,000 men, and the king is engaged in almost continual war, for the base purpose of procuring slaves for the European market. Timbo, or Teembo, the capital, is said to con- tain 7000 souls, and Laby, 5000. To the south of Foota Jallon is Soolimana, also warlike and considerable. It borders on the Niger in the highest part of its course, though the sources of that river are placed in the hostile territory of the Kissi. The king is at present Ma- hometan, but the bulk of the nation pagan. They are a gay, thoughtless, stirring race. The two sexes seem to have reversed their occupations; the women till the ground, build the houses, act as barbers and surgeons ; while the men tend the dairy, sew, and even wash the clothes. On the eastern side of the Niger is the country of Sangara, still more extensive and more warlike. South of Soolimana is the Kooranko country, inhabited by Mandingoes, who are as usual gay, thoughtless, hospitable, and enterprising. Among the European settlements on this coast, that of Senegal, belonging to France, is the most important. Fort St. Louis, the chief settlement, is situated on an island in the river Senegal. The French lost this place during the revolu- tionary war, but had it restored to them in 1814. The population is supposed to be about 6000. The original hope of the greatness of this colony, was founded on the supposed identity of the Senegal with the Niger, and on a prospect of a communication by it with the inmost regions of Africa. All the efforts founded upon this erroneous theory proved, of course, abortive; and the commercial advan- tages of the colony have been confined to the gum trade and the gold trade of Bambouk. The gum, which, from this river and settlement, is called gum Senegal, is the produce of some scattered oases, or verdant spots, that occur in the desert north of the Senegal river ; it is collected mostly in the month of December, by the SIERRA LEONE. 441 Moorish tribes, in the vicinity of whom, the Trasarts are the most considerable : by them the gum is bartered to the French, mostly for blue East India cotton cloths, called pieces of Guinea. The amount of gum exported is about 250,000 pounds. The kingdom of Bambouk, on the upper Senegal, is the next object of com- mercial importance to the French. It is almost a country of mountains, whence flow numerous streams, nearly all of which roll over golden sands ; it is extremely unhealthy for whites. The trade is mostly carried on by the Serra woollies, a petty tribe, very industrious, and devoted to trade. At Goree, a small island near Cape Verde, the French have established the capital of all their African dominions ; it is an almost perpendicular rock which is well fortified. The town contains 3000 inhabitants, and is a busy, bustling place, being the entrepot for all the oppo- site coast, and the point at which French ships bound for India, stop for re- freshments. The Albreda, at the mouth of the Gambia, is a small French factory. European settlements on the Gambia are entirely English. Bathurst, on St. Mary's island, at the mouth of the river, containing a population of about 2000, is the principal place. Fort James near the mouth of, and Pisania a considerable distance up the river, are small trading posts ; at Bathurst the Wesleyan Missionary Society have established a church and several schools, which are in a prosperous state. There is a Mission also at McCarthy's Island, about 180 miles above Bathurst. South of the Gambia, on the San Domingo river and other streams, the Portuguese have a few small posts of little or no importance ; they are Cacheo, Bissao, Zinghicor, Farim, and Geba. In this neighborhood is the Rio Grande, originally, as its name implies, supposed to be important, but since discovered to be but a small stream. Opposite to its mouth is the Archipelago of the Bissagos. On one of these, Bu- lama, the English attempted, in 1793, to establish a colony, hut the unhealthiness of the climate, and the hostility of the natives, obliged them to abandon it SIERRA LEONE. The British colony of Sierra Leone, founded with a view of introducing and extending civilization and Christianity in Africa, i3 the next most important object on this coast. It was founded in 1787 by a company associated for that purpose, and who have since surrendered their charter to government. The bulk of the inha- bitants are liberated slaves, taken by the British cruisers from the various slave- ship, captured by them since the slave trade was declared illegal. With a view to initiate these people into the habits of civilized life, the church missionary society have introduced teachers and schools and upwards of 2000 children are now instructed on the national system. The population of Freetown, the capital of the colony and its suburbs, has risen to near 10,000; and eight or ten little towns or villages have been established in its vicinity: of these, Regentstown, Gloucester, Wellington, &c. are the principal. The inhabitants of the Colony amounted to 31,460; of these, 84 only are white. It appears certain that Sierra Leone has not realized the expectations of its found- ers; it has not as yet made any impression upon Africa, and there is no radius of civilization proceeding from it. It labours under two great disadvantages; the extreme unhealthiness of the climate, which both keeps down its population, and renders it difficult to procure well qualified persons to go out, and also, its unfavourable position ; ih contact only with a few turbulent tribes, not with any of the great and leading states of the continent. These disadvantages, joined to the death of four successive governors, led government to hesitate as to the expediency of supporting this colony, after £3,000,000 had been expended in its formation. To withdraw it, however, would be attended with many evils, so that an attempt has been made to maintain it on a more limited scale. The European troops have been removed, and their place supplied by negroes, and the annual expenditure has been reduced to about £40,000, of which £17,000 is for liberated Africans. 442 GUINEA. The space from Sierra Leone to the commencement of the Grain Coast of Guinea, an extent of about two hundred miles, is chiefly marked by the entrance into the sea of the considerable rivers of Sherbro and Mesurado, or St. Paul's. The states here are generally very small, and entirely negro in religion and manners, none of the Mahometan institutions having penetrated so far. The chiefs are in general absolute, and their obsequies are celebrated with human sacrifices, though not to the same frightful extent as in some of the countries to the east. GUINEA. Guinea, extending southward from Senegambia, is the greatest division of Western Africa. It commences at the river Mesurado, or, more properly, the St. Paul's, and extends along the coast to Benin, which it includes, and into the interior from the sea to the mountains ; separating the waters of the Niger from the rivers of the seaboard. These are commonly known as the Mountains of Kong : their exact location and range are not yet, however, positively ascertain- ed, but are considered as the western prolongation of the Mountains of the Moon. Guinea is in length about 1500 and in breadth from 350 to 400 miles: the coasts are usually divided by mariners into the Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave Coasts, — according to the various objects of trade at the respective places. The political divisions are — Liberia, Ashantee, Dahomey, Benin, and Warree. The interior of this region is almost entirely unknown, with the exception of Ashantee and Dahomey, of which some knowledge has been obtained from the different agents of the British Government, sent thither for diplomatic purposes. The principal rivers are the St. Paul's, Cesters, St. Andrew's, Lahou, Assinee, Bossumpra or St. John's, Volta, and the Niger, with its various estuaries. The American Colony of Liberia was founded by the American Colonization Society in 1821, for the purpose of facilitating the gradual emancipation of slaves in the United States. The spot selected for the first settlement was a little ele- vated peninsula, lying between the mouth of the river Mesurado or Montserado and the sea, and terminating in a cape of the same name. After suffering much from the hostility of the natives, with whom it had to sustain several severe con- flicts, this little colony has at length obtained tranquillity, and is in an exceeding- ly prosperous condition. The territory over which its jurisdiction now extends, lies between Cape Mount and Cape Palmas, or between 4° and 7° N. lat, occupy- ing about 225 miles of coast, with a breadth of from twenty to thirty miles in- land. The climate is found to be healthful, although emigrants are liable to be attacked by the country fever on their first arrival. Its fertile soil yields rice, cotton, coffee, sugar, indigo, banana, cassada, yams, &c. Camwood is abundant, and the timber is durable and well adapted for building. The natives are the Deys, an indolent and inoffensive people, occupying the coast on both sides of the Mesurado, to the number of about 7000 or 8000 ; the Bassas, also a peaceful, but more industrious and numerous people farther south, and the Queahs and Condoes in the interior. There are also scattered settlements of Kroomen, whose native country is near Cape Palmas, and who are a laborious and hardy race, acting as pilots, porters, and oarsmen for the trading vessels on the coast; they commonly speak English. The settlement on Cape Mesurado, which received the name of Monrovia, is now a town of about 2000 inhabitants; and Caldwell and Millsburg, higher up the river, have each nearly half that number. Edina, about sixty miles from Monrovia, on the south-west side of the St. John's River ; Bassa Cove, which, though lately desolated by the natives, has been reoccupied ; and Harper, a neat little village at Cape Palmas, are the other principal settlements. The colonists consist of free blacks, of emancipated slaves, and of recaptured Africans. The whole number is about 5000. The general direction of affairs is in the hands of the Society's agent, but the local interests of the colony are confided to the care of colonial councils and magistrates. Already neat frame or stone buildings have GUINEA. 443 , — f 1 — — ^ ^— — — _^^^_^_ been erected for houses and warehouses, schools have been provided, churches built, and a press been set up, from which is issued a respectably conducted news- paper. The native traders of the interior have visited the colony, and an active commerce is carried on partly in colonial shipping, and partly by American and European vessels. Palm oil, ivory, dye wood, hides, wax, and pepper, are among the articles of export, in addition to the productions before enumerated. The Grain Coast, occupied mostly by Liberia, derived its name from Guinea- pepper, or grains of Paradise, a spice about the size of hemp-seed which was re- garded by Europeans, when they first landed here, as a delicious luxury ; but, after the aromatics of the east became familiar, it fell into disrepute. The Ivory, including the Adoo or Quaqua Coast, extends from Cape Palmas to Apollonia, about 400 miles : the name is derived from the quantities of ivory obtained from the elephants on the sea-shore and in the interior. There are a number of small ports along the coast, at which European ships occasionally trade. The natives have been generally represented as very ferocious and rude, and have also been accused of cannibalism ; but late observers speak of them in milder terms. The Gold Coast, to the east of the Ivory Coast, extends from Apollonia to the Volta River, about 280 miles. This region derives its designation from the high- ly prized commodity which its name indicates. The English, Dutch, and Danes, all have here trading settlements, or Forts. The chief of these, belonging to Great Britain, are Cape Coast Castle, a strong fortress, mounting 90 pieces of cannon ; Dix Cove, Succondee, Winebah, Accarah, and others. Those of the Dutch are El Mina, or the Castle formerly belonging to the Portuguese, from whom it was captured in 1637 ; and 7 or 8 others. These are the most respect- able settlements on the coast. The Danish forts are Christianburg, Ningo, and Quitta. Eastward from the Volta River, and extending thence 330 miles to the For- moso River, is the Slave Coast, so named because slaves were formerly procured here in greater numbers than elsewhere, and of a more docile and tractable cha- racter than any other. It consisted originally of the kingdoms of Whidat and Ardrah, which formed the most populous and best cultivated parts of this region. In the beginning of the last century, they were conquered by Dahomey and in- corporated into that kingdom, but have never regained their former state of pros- perity. In the interior and north of the Gold Coast is the kingdom of Ashantee, a power that has within a short period quadrupled its possessions and population. Its name had scarcely reached European ears when its armies were lately seen descending to the coast and subduing all before them. In military skill and valour, in arts and intelligence, they are decidedly superior to any other inhabitants in Western Africa. Large armies assemble at a short warning, which furnishes evidence of a dense population. The rude magnificence displayed in their camp when visited by the English, and the dignity and courtesy of deportment both of the king and his officers, indicate a degree of civilization much superior to that of the surround- ing nations. There are, notwithstanding, features in the character and customs of this people, surpassing in barbarity almost any other except in the contiguous kingdom of Dahomey. On the death of the king or any of the royal family, hu- man victims bleed in thousands ; also when any of the great men wish to propi- tiate the manes of their ancestors, or when favourable omens are sought respecting any great projected enterprise. The legal ullowance of wives for the king is upwards of three thousand, se- lected from the fairest damsels in his dominions. These unfortunate beings are no better than slaves, and on any capricious disgust are treated with the greatest cruelty, and often put to death. Yet this barbarous monarch is not without a de- sire to civilize his subjects, and to adopt European arts and improvements. He 444 GUINEA. has occupied himself in erecting a palace of stone, in the European style, under the direction of an artist from El Mina, instead of the structures of earth and straw to which the architecture of Africa has hitherto been confined. The only instrument of husbandry among the Ashantees is the hoe. They cul- tivate rice and the sugar-cane; fine cotton grows spontaneously, and tropical fruits are abundant. Their cattle are large and fine, and their horses mostly of a small breed. They are but indifferent horsemen, and sometimes ride on oxen. They use a loom similar to the European, and produce fine cloths with brilliant colours. They also work skilfully in metals and leather: their articles of gold are in particular very neatly made. Coomassie, the capital, is said to contain a population of 80,000 or 100,000. The houses are well built and neat. The streets are all named, and are each un- der the charge of a captain or chief. The population of Ashantee proper is sup- posed to be about 1,000,000, but including its tributary states, probably four times that amount. Dahomey, lying east of Ashantee, and north of the Slave Coast, extends into the interior upwards of 200 miles. The most arbitrary forms of despotism are mild compared with those of this country, founded in an idolatrous veneration for the king. Human sacrifices take place here on a greater scale than even in Ashantee, and the bodies of the victims, instead of being interred, are hung up on the walls and allowed to putrify. Human skulls make the favourite ornament of the palaces and temples, and the king has his sleeping apartment paved with them, and the roof ornamented with the jaw-bones of chiefs whom he has slain in battle. Dahomey consists of an extensive and fertile plain, capable of every species of tropical culture. Little is, however, actually produced from it that is fitted for a foreign market. Abomey, the capital, contains about 24,000 inhabitants. Ardra, 25 miles from the coast, 10,000. Griwhee, the port of Abomey, about 7000, and Badagry about 5000. Eastward of Dahomey is the country of Benin, which extends from east to west upwards of two hundred miles. This region is but little known. The country is low and flat ; the soil on the banks of the rivers fertile ; but for Europeans the climate is very unhealthy. The natives are active traders in slaves, ivory, and palm-oil. Large quantities of salt are made along the rivers, mostly for the inte- rior trade. The king is not only absolute, but he is considered fetiche, or a God, in the eyes of his subjects, and all offences against him are punished in the most cruel and summary manner, not only as treason, but as impiety. Waree, south of the Formosa river, is a much smaller state than Benin. The country is low, marshy, and covered with a thick forest. The capital, of the same name, is on a beautiful island somewhat elevated above the surrounding swamps and woods. Here, too, the king is absolute, and carries polygamy to a great ex- tent. A late traveller, who happened to get a peep into the seraglio, saw about fifty queens busied in various employments, from the toilette to the washing-tub. The whole of this region, from the River Formosa to Biafra, including part of Benin, Waree, Bonny, &c, comprises the Delta of the Niger, and is traversed by a great number of rivers. Of these, the Nun, by which the Messrs. Landers de- scended to the ocean, if not the largest, is at least the most direct. The Bonny, another large estuary, to the eastward of the Nun, has on its banks, a few miles from the sea, the towns of Bonny and New Calebar. They are situated in the midst of the morasses which overspread this country. The people support them- selves by the trade in salt, slaves, and palm-oil. The old Calebar, Rio del Rey, and Cameroons, are important estuaries. On the first, about 60 miles from the sea, is Ephraim Town, with 6000 inhabitants, governed by a duke. These rivers are all very unhealthy, but yield a good deal of ivory and palm-oil. The con- tinuity of that vast wooded and marshy flat which has extended along the coast for more than 200 miles, is now broken by some very lofty mountains, the prin- cipal of which is supposed to reach the height of 13,000 feet. BIAFRA, &c. 445 BIAFRA, &c That part of the western coast of Africa, commencing with Biafra, is some- times called Lower Guinea, a term which is, however, by no means generally adopted ; here, as in the region just described, the interior is but imperfectly known to the civilized world : the heat of the climate is extreme ; the manners and customs of the people are rude and barbarous, and the forms of government are all characteristic of a low and unimproved, state of society. South of the great river Niger, and extending towards Congo, are the Calebar, Cameroons, Malemba, Campo, Danger, Moondah, and Gaboon, rivers; these water the coun- tries of Biafra, Calbongas, and Gaboon ; they are all of them but little known, and but occasionally frequented ; the country, with a few exceptions, being very | unhealthy for Europeans, but yields some ivory and palm oil, which form almost the only inducement for visiting it Loango. — Loango, situated immediately north of the Zaire, or Congo River, extends along the coast about 400 miles: its interior limits and character are but vaguely and imperfectly known. The climate is described as fine, rain of rare occurrence, and never violent, but dews abundant. The soil in the vicinity of the sea-coast is fertile, yielding in profusion a great variety of tropical productions. Loango contains several districts, as Kilonga, Mayumba, &c. The slave trade, for which alone this part of Africa is most frequented, is chiefly carried on at Ma- lemba and Cabenda, on the south part of this region, not far from the Zaire, or Congo River. Malemba is so pleasant and healthy as to be called the Montpelier of Africa, and Cabenda, near the mouth of the river of the same name, also a beautiful town, is known by the appellation of the paradise of the coast. It is a great mart for slaves, who are brought from the opposite territory of Sogno, in Congo ; but the natives, contrary to their general character, in this region are rude and difficult to treat with. Congo, Angola, &c. — The next division of Western Africa consists of Congo, Angola, Benguela, and Matemba : the coasts of the three first, which, and also those of Loango, are named by navigators the coast of Angola, or more simply the coast. The principal feature of this region is the Zaire, or Congo, a powerful and rapid river, which rushes by a single channel into the Atlantic ; it was ascended by Captain Tuckey, in his unfortunate expedition, 280 miles, yet nothing was ascertained as to its origin and early course. The other principal rivers are the Ambriz, Dande, Coanza, Cuvo, and Cutambela : of these the Coanza is next to the Zaire, the most important stream ; it is said by the Portuguese, on the report of the natives, to flow from a large lake far in the interior, in the country of the Cassanges, in which the Coango, the head tributary of the Zaire, also has its source. This region extends from the latter river to the Bemharoughe, the southernmost limit of Benguela, about 800 miles; and into the interior the distance is very un- certain, but is probably from 500 to 600 miles: over the whole of this territory the Portuguese claim sovereignty, but their authority is supposed to be merely nominal, except in the vicinity of their few forts, and in the* immediate neighbour- hood of the coast. The country was discovered by them in 1487, and soon after- wards visited by a number of missionaries : forts and factories were early estab- lished, and it was represented as very populous, but in the late expedition up the Zaire no evidence of this was apparent. The largest town on that river did not contain more than from 60 to 100 huts. Congo, the largest division of the Portuguese territories on this coast, lies imme- diately south of the Zaire, and extends for several hundred miles in the interior: the eastern limits are uncertain, the inland parts being unknown. The chief town is St Salvador, at which the Portuguese maintain a mission. Of this place no recent details have' been received. In the natives of Congo the negro indo- lence is carried to its utmost excess ; the little cultivation that exists, carried on entirely by the females, is nearly limited to the manioc root, which they are not 38 446 CIMBEBAS—SOUTHERN AFRICA. very skilful in preparing Their houses are put together of mats, made from the fibres of the palm tree, and their clothes and bedding consist merely of matted grass. The countries south of Congo are Angola and Benguela : of the former the chief settlement is at St. Paul de Loando, a large town in an elevated situation. It exports annually 18,000 to 20,000 slaves, mostly to Brazil. San Felipe de Ben- guela, in a marshy and unhealthy site, is now considerably declined, and its popu- lation does not exceed 3000, mostly free negroes and slaves. There is also a smaller port, called Nova Redonda. Far inland are the countries of Matemba and Cassange. In this interior region, two centuries ago, the Jagas, or Giagas, were celebrated by travellers as a formidable tribe, addicted to the most ferocious and revolting habits: they were constantly at war with the people around them, but are probably extinct or changed in their habits, as they appear now to be unknown. CIMBEBAS, &c. Stretching south of Benguela for several hundred miles, are the desert and dreary coasts of Cimbebas and Mampoor, along which water that can be drunk is very scarce, and only found in spots far distant from each other. The whole coast is a strip of sandy desert 40 or 50 miles in breadth, behind which the interior country becomes hilly and apparently well fitted for pasturage. Horned cattle constitute the riches of the inhabitants, who are clothed in ox hides, and appear to be a mild and inoffensive race. They are similar in appearance to the Hotten- tots, and are probably the same people. These coasts have been lately visited by some Americans, who have communicated with the natives at a few points and purchased good cattle from them at the low rate of one and two dollars a head. SOUTHERN AFRICA. Southern Africa is the term generally applied to the territory discovered and partly colonised by Europeans. It includes the Cape Colony, Caffraria, the coun- try of the Hottentots, and that occupied by the Bechuanas. The coast line of this region, commencing at its western extremity and extending to the south, the east and the north, to Delagoa Bay, is upwards of 2000 miles ; from north to south it is 750 and from east to west from 600 to 900 miles in extent. The principal mountain ridge of Southern Africa is that called in different parts of its range by the names of Nieuwvelds Bergen, and Sneeuw Bergen, which divides mostly the waters of the Orange River from those flowing to the south in the Cape Colony, and those of Caffraria which run eastward into the Indian Ocean. This chain has not been explored in its whole range, but is thought to extend about 1100 miles in length ; many parts of it are constantly covered with snow, and its highest peaks are about 10,000 feet in height Much of the surface of this region is arid and unfit for cultivation, particularly that part of it in the colony south of the" mountains called the Great Karroo, which is a level plain covered with a hard and impenetrable soil, almost all unfit for vegetation ; it is 300 miles in length, and near 100 in breadth. North of the mountains the territory is for some space bleak and sterile, but it gradually improves till it opens into the extensive pastoral plains occupied by the Bechuanas. So far as this has been explored to the northward, it becomes always more fertile, though to the west there has been observed a desert of very great extent. The eastern coast also consists chiefly of a fine pastoral plain, occupied by various Caffre tribes, and separated from the Bechuana country by the extending ranges of the Sneeuw Bergen chain, which have not yet been much explored. The chief stream of this region is the Orange River, which, with its tributaries, drains a large extent of country north of the Snowy Mountains, and after a course which, with its windings, must considerably exceed 1000 miles, falls into the Southern Ocean in about 28° 30' S. Lat. Those in the colony, and south of the COUNTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. 447 great mountain chain, are the Oliphants River, flowing north-west, then running south are the Breede, Gaurits, Camtoos, Zoondag, and the Great Fish Rivers, which last, though the most considerable, has not a course of more than 200 I miles. In Caflraria several estuaries open into the Indian Ocean, the early courses ) of which are little more than conjectured ; the stream most known is the Great Kei, about 120 miles in length. The population of a region of which the very boundaries are yet so undeter- mined, can hardly be made any thing more than a subject of mere conjecture. The classes of inhabitants in this part of Africa exhibit a considerable variety. They consist of 1st, The British, comprising the officers of government, the troops, ahd a few thousand agricultural emigrants, whose numbers are not, however, increasing. 2d, The Dutch, who farm most of the lands in the territory, and con- stitute the most numerous part of the population of Cape Town. 3d, The Hot- tentots, the native race, part of whom are reduced to a degrading bondage under the Dutch farmers ; and of those still free of these, some lead a pastoral life in the regions north of the colony, and others, the wild Hottentots or Bushmen, a mise- rable and savage race, inhabit the mountainous districts, and carry on a constant predatory war against the settlers. 4th, The Caffres, a fierce pastoral race, inha- biting the country beyond the eastern limit of the colony, extending along the Indian Ocean. 5th, The Bechuanas, or Boshuanas, a pastoral, and partly agricul- tural race, of a different character, possessing the country that stretches north- ward from the region inhabited by the various Hottentot tribes. COUNTRY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. Between the Colony of the Cape and the Bechuana Territories, there is an extensive tract of country, extending from Caflraria westward to the Atlantic Ocean, which seems to be inhabited by various tribes, known under the general name of Hottentots. On the Atlantic coast are the Namaquas ; their country, especially that on the north of the Orange River, is in many parts of it fine and fer- tile, and well adapted for pasturage. North-west of these are the Damaras, who are also pastoral in their habits. The Corannas occupy a central country of great extent, which rears cattle in abundance. They show in their buildings and dress some tendency to civilization. The Bushmen, or wild Hottentots, inhabit the country in the vicinity and north of the Sneeuw Bergen, and appear to tie in the last extreme of degradation to which human nature can descend. They are squat, and excessively lean, and possess a wild, unsteady, sinister expression of countenance. They have no set- tled place "of residence, but wander about the country, singly or in small parties, and subsist on roots, berries, grasshoppers, mice, toads, and lizards ; they always use poisoned arrows in war, or in destroying wild beasts; and it is singular that the sting of the scorpion, dangerous to every other person, has no effect on the savages. In the interior the tribes possess many cattle, and some of them seem to enjoy a tolerable existence. Covered by the skin of the sheep, the antelope, or the lion, besmeared with grease of a red or black colour, and armed with a short club, the savage Hottentot, singing and dancing, wanders about in the midst of herds, which form his riches. The Colonial Hottentots, now all reduced to slavery, have a feminine appear- ance, with a complexion, when not concealed by grease and dirt, of a yellowish brown. They are fond of trinkets, and are indolent and dull, but harmless, honest, faithful, and affectionate. Among some of the tribes, particularly the Namaquas, Corannas, and Griquas, the missionaries have exercised the happiest influence. The Hottentots at the several missionary stations, now cultivate the fields, own large numbers of cattle, exercise various trades, and contribute liberally to the support of religious and charitable institutions, exhibiting a striking proof of the power of Christianity to elevate men from the lowest point of intellectual and moral depression. 448 CAPE COLONY. CAPE COLONY. The Cape Colony, occupying the most southern extremity of the continent of Africa, was first settled by the Dutch in 1650, captured from them by Great Bri- tain in 1795, restored at the peace of Amiens, again conquered in 1806, and was finally confirmed by the congress of Vienna to the British government in 1815. The area of this colony is about 120,000 square miles, a great portion of which consists of mountains of naked sandstone, or of the great Karroo plain, whose hard dry soil is scarcely ever moistened by a drop of rain. Three successive ranges of mountains divide the colony, of which the most interior and elevated is that called Nieuwvelds Bergen and Sneeuw Bergen. These ranges divide the country into terraces of different elevations. The plain next the sea has a deep and fertile soil, well watered by numerous rivulets, covered with grass, and a beautiful variety of shrubs and trees. Rains are frequent, and the climate is mild and agreeable. The second terrace contains large tracts of arid desert ; and the third region, called the Great Karroo, is destitute of almost every trace of vege tation, and is unoccupied by men or animals. Beyond this tract, at the foot of the Sneeuw Bergen, or Snowy Mountains, there is an excellent grazing country, where cattle are raised in great numbers for the colony. The settlement is frequently deluged with rain in the cold season, but it has scarcely a shower in the hot months, and is parched by a constant dry wind. The changes in the atmosphere are frequent and sudden ; grain of good quality, wine and fruits for the supply of the colony, are' all produced within the distance of one to three days' journey from Cape Town, but most of the territory is devoted to pasturage. The agriculture is generally slovenly ; 14 or 16 oxen being frequently used to draw an unwieldy plough, that only skims the surface. The Dutch farmers or boors, of whom grazing forms alone the sole occupation, hold very extensive premises, reaching often for several miles in every direction ; they are generally very ignorant ahd indolent, but extremely hospitable, and live in rude plenty, surrounded by their herds and flocks, and have numbers of Hot- tentot slaves, who are indeed not liable to sale, but are bondsmen fixed to the soil. The eastern part of the colony, called the District of Albany, was settled in 1820, by British emigrants, whose condition was at first promising, but in conse- quence of a succession of dry seasons, were reduced to great poverty. The dis- trict was recently more flourishing, and the people carry on a lucrative trade with the interior tribes. The population of .the colony is about 150,000, of whom 33,600 are registered apprentices. Cape Town, the capital of the colony, situated about 30 miles north of the Cape of Good Hope, is an important station, being the only place of refreshment for vessels between Europe and America on one side, and the East Indies, China, and Australia on the other. It must in consequence always be a great commercial thoroughfare. The Dutch society at the Cape is extremely mercantile ; and Hoop- man, or Merchant, is held as a title of honour ; but the prevalence of slavery has diffused habits of indolence, even among the lower ranks, who consider it degrad- ing to engage in any species of manual labour. Since the occupation by Britain, the residence of civil and military officers, and the great resort of emigrants and settlers, have given it much the character of an English town. The population of Cape Town is upwards of 20,000. The imports in 1833 were £258,456,' and of exports, £256,800. The other places in the colony are, in general, only villages, which, in a coun- try entirely agricultural, derive their sole importance from being the seat of the local administration. Constantia and Simon's Town, in the close vicinity of the Cape, are supported, the one by the produce of wine, the other by docks for ship- ping. Stellenbosch and Zwellendam, the chief places in the two most flourishing agricultural districts adjoining, contained, some time ago, the one only seventy, the other thirty houses. Graaf Reynet and Uitenhage,* at the head of extensive districts in the east, are not more important. Gnadenthal has been made a neat village by the missionaries, who have fixed it as their principal station. CAFFRARIA. 449 The only place which has risen to any importance is Graham's Town, in the district of Albany, near the eastern extremity of the colony. The troops stationed there to watch the Caffre frontier, with the recent colonists, who, disappointed in their agricultural pursuits, sought other employment, have swelled its population to about 3000; It is described as " a large, ugly, ill-built, straggling place, con- taining a strange mixture of lounging officers, idle tradesmen, drunken soldiers, and stiM more drunken settlers." It is romantically situated in a deep valley, surrounded by hills and glens, through which heavy wagons are seen coming often from a great distance, not only with provisions and necessaries, but skins of the lion and leopard, buffalo horns, eggs and feathers of the ostrich, tusks of the ele- phant and rhinoceros, and rich fur mantles. CAFFRARIA. Caffraria, or the country of the Caffres, extends from the eastern boundary of the Cape Colony along the shores of the Indian Ocean to Delagoa Bay ; being about 650 miles in length, and from the sea-coast to the mountains, which divide this region from the Bechuana country, it is from 130 to 150 miles in breadth. To the Caffrarian Coasts the Portuguese have given the name of Natal, which is generally followed by navigators, though it is quite unknown to the natives. The Caffres appear to be either a distinct race or a mixture of the Negro and the Arab. They are a handsome, vigorous people, of a deep glossy brown colour, with features almost European, and frizzled but not woolly hair. They are per- haps of all nations the most completely pastoral, and have large herds of horned cattle, of which they understand thoroughly the guidance and management. They live chiefly on milk, and seldom kill any of their oxen; and owing to their roving habits, do not depend much upon agriculture ; but where they are in any degree settled, the women plant millet, — Caffre corn, — a peculiar species some- what resembling Indian corn, in which the grain grows in a bunch like grapes- they also raise pumpkins, water-melons, and tobacco, which last they smoke through water in a horn. The women construct enclosures for the cattle, make utensils and clothes, cut wood, and manufacture rush mats, and baskets of reeds so closely woven as to hold milk and other liquids. They moreover build houses in the shape of a dome, thatched with straw and plastered on the inside with clay and cow-dung. The employments of the men are war, hunting, and tending and managing the cattle which constitute the riches of the Caffre : he does not use them as beasts of burden, except when removing with his kraal from place to place: his delight is to be among them with his shield, by beating on which, and by different modu- lations of the voice, they are taught to go out to graze, to return to their enclo- sures, or follow their owner, according to his dictation. These people, like the Chinese, consider all other nations inferior to themselves, and suppose that Europeans wear clothes merely on account of having feeble and sickly bodies. They have scarcely any religious ideas : some of them, however, profess to be- lieve that a great being came from above and made the world, after which he re- turned and cared no more about it. The Caffres are divided into several tribes, of which the chief are the Tarn- bookies, Mambookies, and the Hollontontes or Zoolas, who are the most numer- ous and warlike of all the tribes: their king, Chaka, lately deceased, a most remorseless and bloody tyrant, had a force of 15,000 men constantly equipped for war, and on urgent occasions could raise 100,000. He was the most formidable conqueror in this part of Africa. Several wars between the Caffres and the colonists of the Cape have at different times taken place, generally resulting in the latter extending their territory eastward into Caffraria. Various missionary stations have been, within a few years past, established in the southern parts of this region, where schools for the instruction of the native 38* 3G "~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~" 450 BECHUANAS— EASTERN AFRICA. children have been formed, and churches established, at which many of the Caffres attend ; and hopes are entertained that an impression favourable to the cause of religion and civilization has in many cases been made. BECHUANAS, OR BOSHUANAS. - Thk country of the Bechuana or Boshuanas, occupying a considerable extent of Southern Africa, is bounded on the east by Caffraria, on the west by the exten- sive desert of Challahengah ; on the south is the Hottentot territory, which sepa- rates it from the colony of the Cape ; while on the north is the domain of various tribes very little known, of whom the Macquanas are supposed to extend far to the north. This region was unknown to Europeans until 1801, since which period it has been explored by various travellers, of whom, Mr. Campbell, a" missionary, ani- mated by a laudable zeal to diffuse Christianity among the African people, has not only twice visited Lattakoo, but has even penetrated 200 miles farther, to Kurre- chane, the most northern and largest of the Bechuana states. Some later travel- lers have, it is said, extended their researches still farther, but their accounts have not yet been published. The Bechuanas are not so tall and handsome as the Caffres, but have made con- siderably greater progress in industry and the arts. They dwell in towns of some magnitude, and cultivate the ground, raising millet, beans, gourds, water-melons, &c. They have also numerous herds of cattle, which the men, as among the Caffres, both tend and milk, while the females till the soil and build the houses. The first discoverers painted these people in the most flattering colours, and they appear to be really honest, and friendly to each other and to strangers who have gained their good will ; but the enmity between neighbouring tribes is as deadly, and the mode of conducting war as barbaroife, as among the rudest African hordes. They place their glory in commandoes, raides or forays undertaken with a view of carrying off cattle and murdering the owners. In consequence of this mutual hostility, the population is almost entirely concentrated in towns or their immediate vicinity. They are in consequence larger than might be expected in their part of the continent. Lattakoo was the first visited, and the name remains, though in consequence of a schism in the tribe, the town has been transferred to a spot about sixty miles farther north. New Lattakoo is supposed to contain about 6000 people. Meri- bohwey, capital of the Tammahas, is not of equal importance. Mashow, to the north, within the territory of the Barolongs, is a' fine town, with 10,000 inhabitants. Melita, the capital of the Wanketzens, is likewise important. Kurrechane, to the north-east of the latter, and at least 1000 miles from Cape Town, is the largest and best built town in this region, and where the inhabitants have made the greatest progress in the arts of life. They work skilfully in iron and copper, and also in leather, earthen-ware, &c. Their houses are surrounded by good stone in- cisures, and the walls of mud are often painted, as well as moulded into orna- mental shapes. The population, when first visited, was about 16,000, but is now reduced in consequence of having been sacked by the Mantatees, a wandering and predatory tribe, who overran, some years ago, a considerable part of this and the neighbouring countries of Caffraria. EASTERN AFRICA. Eastern Africa comprises an immense extent of coast, reaching from the Caffre country to the border of Abyssinia, a length of about 3000 miles. It may be considered as extending inland about 500 or 600 miles from the sea, but its contents, for the most part, and all its boundaries on this side, are unknown. This EASTERN AFRICA. 451 vast range of country contains many grand features of nature, and a large propor- tion of fertile territory, capable of yielding the most valuable productions; yet scarcely any part of the world is less known, or has excited less interest among Europeans. The Portuguese, as soon as they had discovered a passage into the Indian seas, occupied all the leading maritime stations, from which they studiously excluded every other people. Extensive, though ill-explored, natural objects diversify this region. The coast consists almost entirely of spacious plains, often of alluvial character, and covered with magnificent forests. It appears, however, undoubted, that at 200 or 300 miles in the interior, considerable ranges of mountains arise ; geographers have even delineated a long chain parallel to the coast, called Lupata, or the Spine of the World ; of which the representation north of the Zambezi, as given by some, is entirely arbitrary. The rivers also are of considerable magnitude, though only their lower courses are at present known. The Zambezi may rank in the first class of African streams. It enters the Indian Ocean by four mouths, the prin- cipal of which are the Cuama and Lubo. Near Quiloa, several great estuaries are found. The Pangany, near Mombas, is also an important river. North of this place is the estuary of the Ozee: it is, no doubt, the largest stream in this part of Africa, as intelligent natives state that its navigation extends a distance of three months travel to the north, through populous and well-settled regions : it is probably the Zebee of the interior. The Juba and Webbe are reported to be large rivers, though nothing has been ascertained of their commencement and course. The only great lake known in this quarter is the Maravi, in the interior from Quiloa and Mozambique. It is represented as of great extent, resembling an inland sea, and salt like the ocean. This territory is generally occupied by brown or black nations, who, however, bear no resemblance to the true negroes except in colour ; some of them are nu- merous, and not destitute of arts and industry. The coast, however, has, in modern times, been chiefly in possession of two foreign powers. The Portuguese, when, in the close of the fifteenth century, they made' their way round the Cape, found almost all the maritime stations in the hands of the Arabs, whom they succeeded in driving successively from each, and occupying their place. On this coast the Portuguese claim authority from Delagoa Bay on the south, to Querimba, near Cape Delgado, a region in length about 1200 miles, extending for some distance into the interior. This territory they denominate the Government of Sena, or Mozambique ; but their power is exercised at only a few detached points, and is much less regarded by the natives than formerly. Beginning from the south we find Inhambane, which has an excellent harbour, and is defended by a fort and 150 men. The other Portuguese do not exceed twenty-five, but there is a numerous coloured population. Sabia, immediately north of Inhambane, is thinly settled, although the soil is fertile. Sofala, supposed by some to be the Ophir whence Solomon drew large supplies of gold and precious stones, was at the time of the first arrival of Europeans very important, as the emporium of the gold and ivory brought in great quantities down the Zambezi. Since Quillimane became the channel by which these commodities were conveyed, Sofala has sunk into a village of poor huts. The Portuguese, however, still main- tain there a fort, which holds supremacy over the more southerly station of In- hambane. Quillimane, at the mouth of the Zambezi, is now the chief sent of trade on this part of the coast. From eleven to fourteen slave-vessels come annually from Rio de Janeiro, and each carries off*, on an average, from 400 to 500 slaves. The situation is swampy and unhealthy ; but the population is nearly 3000, though only twenty-five houses are occupied by Portuguese or their descendants. Mozambique is the principal establishment of the Portuguese in Eastern Africa. Though it derives its importance from being the emporium of the gold, ivory, and slaves, brought down the Zambezi, it is situated about 300 miles from the mouth of that river, and the trade is in a great measure transferred to Quillimane. It is built on an island, which has a good roadstead and a commodious pier, but affords by no means either a convenient or healthy situation. The trade in slaves, the 452 EASTERN AFRICA. most extensive, has been much diminished since the British obtained possession of Mauritius and the Cape, and prohibited the introduction of them into these colo- nies. There is a fort sufficient to defend it against the pirates who infest these seas, but not to secure it against the attack of any regular force. Yet the govern- ment-house displays still remnants of the former splendour of the viceroys of Eastern Africa. Like the custom-house and other public structures, it is spacious, and built of stone, though falling into decay. The governor, and even his negro attendants, are richly loaded with golden ornaments : tea, to which the principal inhabitants are every evening invited, is presented in a full service of gold. In the interior, on the Upper Zambezi, the Portuguese possess merely the small forts of Sena and Tete, erected with a view to the protection of their trade ;. with two, still smaller, in the more remote stations of Zumbo and Manica. In these settlements, joined to that of Quillimane, they maintain 264 troops, and have a population of 500 Christians, with 21,827 slaves. The ground is generally fer- tile, and abounding particularly with honey, wax, senna, and other dyeing drugs. Monomotapa, or more properly Motapa (since Mono is merely a general term for kingdom), has been dignified in the early narratives with the title of empire. If it ever deserved such an appellation, it is now broken into fragments, the largest of which is held by the Changamera, a chief represented as a great conqueror, but of whom no very precise or recent information has reached us. He belonged to the Maravi, a race of daring freebooters, who neglect agriculture and devote themselves entirely to plunder. Manica is celebrated as the country chiefly affording the gold for which this part of Africa is famous. A small fort is main- tained here by the Portuguese. The Cazembe, a sovereign reigning with despotic sway over a numerous people far in the interior, was first made known to the Portuguese in 1796, by Pereira, a mulatto trader, who visited the country, and at whose suggestion the Cazembe was induced to send an ambassador to Tete, who soon returned without having effected the object of his mission. The country yields in abundance iron and cop- per, and also some gold, and is the seat of a very considerable trade in ivory and slaves. The subjects of this prince belong to the Moviza, who are a compara- tively peaceable and industrious people. These, with the Maravi before men- tioned, are the predominant races in this quarter. North-east of the kingdom of the Cazembe, is the nation of the Moolooas, repre- sented as more numerous and more intelligent, and to have attained a higher degree of industry and civilization than any other in this quarter of Africa. The country abounds in copper. The king, however, is absolute, and the atrocious custom of human sacrifice prevails. On the coast, north from Mozambique, occur the Querimba Islands, giving name to the opposite territory. The whole of this region, from Cape Delgado to the northern limit of Magadoxa, is denominated Zanzibar, or Zanguebar: the term, however, is most commonly restricted to that part of it extending from Quiloa to Mombas. Quiloa, about 100 miles north-west from the bold promontory of Cape Delgado, was found by the Portuguese a great seat of power and commerce. About the end of the seventeenth century it was wrested from them by the Imam of Muscat, whose officers have since governed it. It is now dwindled into a mise- rable village. Mombas, north of Quiloa, is situated on an island about three miles long and two broad, surrounded by cliffs of madrepore, which make it a kind of natural castle. The country is fertile in corn, and fit for the sugar-cane, and the small shells called cowries are collected' in great abundance on the shore. The harbour is excellent, and a considerable trade is carried on along the coast in dows, (Arab vessels whose planks are sewed), often of 250 tons burthen. Britain for two years maintained a factory there, but withdrew it in 1827. Parallel to this coast, at the distance of about twenty or thirty miles, are the small but fine islands of Monfia, Zanzibar, and Pemba. They are of coral founda- tion, but the surface is flat, and covered with a soil highly productive in grain and sugar. The climate, however, especially that of Zanzibar, is very unhealthy. They are partly independent and partly subject to the Imam of Muscat. The town of Zanzibar is said to contain 10,000 inhabitants. Melinda, north of Mom- CENTRAL AFRICA. 453 bas, long the handsomest and most flourishing city on this coast, has been com- pletely destroyed by the Galla. Patta, once of great importance, is now much decayed, and a great part of its trade transferred to the neighbouring flourishing port of Lamoo. * Brava, immediately north of the equator, is a small Arab town and territory, with some little commerce ; the people lately solicited to be placed under British protection. Magadoxa, called also Mukdeesha, is a considerable town, lying to the northward from Melinda. The prince having succeeded in maintaining his independence and repelling all European intercourse, allows the country to be very little known. The city makes a handsome appearance from the sea, con- taining many lofty stQne fabrics; but these belong to a part which, containing only tombs, may be called the City of the Dead. The habitations of the living are only low thatched huts. This territory, northward from Cape Delgado, when discovered by the Portu- guese, was occupied by the Sowhylese, or Sohilies, a peaceable and industrious people ; but the coast has now been mostly wrested from them by the Arabs of Muscat, while much of the interior is possessed by the Galla, the same ferocious race who have overrun Abyssinia, and who, in the course of a furious warfare, have destroyed every sea-port which was not protected by an insular position. The coast of Ajan, the Azania of the ancients, extends from the northern ter- mination of Magadoxa to Cape Guardafui, where Africa ceases to border on the Indian Ocean. This tract is generally arid and sandy, though in the northerly '■ parts it becomes hilly and fragrant, like the neighbouring one of Berbora. That coast, extending from Cape Guardafui to nearly the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, is situated on neither the Indian Ocean nor the Red Sea, but on an intermediate gulf, bounded on the opposite side by the coast of Arabia. It is hilly and beau- tiful, and may be considered the native country of incense, myrrh, and odoriferous gums. The celebrity of Arabia, and particularly of Aden, for those elegant pro- ductions, is chiefly acquired by its large imports from this coast. The inhabitants consist of the various tribes of Somaulis, an active, industrious, and yet peaceful race, who export the productions of their own country, which is thus less known than it deserves to be. At the town of Berbora is an annual fair, to which gold and ivory are said to be brought from Hanim, a country situated twenty days' journey in the interior. The country in the interior from this coast, though most imperfectly known, appears to be occupied by the Galla and other tribes, who surpass in barbarism even the rest of Africa. Here, in a wild and mountainous region, is the kingdom I of Gingiro, ruled by a despot, elected with strange and superstitious ceremonies, and who celebrates his accession by the death of his predecessor's ministers and favourites, with whose blood the walls and gates of the palaces are dyed. Adel and Hurrur, form the most westerly part of this coast, and adjoin to the Straits of Bab el Mandeb. The inhabitants, united under the standard of the Ma- hometan faith, waged long and bloody wars, embittered by religious enmity, against Abyssinia. For a century back, their power has been broken, and they have been divided into a number of small separate states. Zeyla, the capital, is a place of considerable trade, and, though irregularly built, contains some good habitations. CENTRAL AFRICA. Central Africa may be considered as comprising all that part of the conti- nent extending from the Great Desert 6outh to the equator and the confines of Guinea, and from the territories of Abyssinia and Nubia on the east to those of Senegambia on the west; extending in length about 2600, and from north to south from 500 to 1000 miles in width. A great proportion of this region is yet entirely unknown to Christian nations; and it is only within the last forty years that the daring enterprise of various travellers has explored a few portions of it, and enabled the civilized world to acquire some correct ideas respecting it. A continuous chain of mountains, celebrated by the ancients under the appella- 454 • CENTRAL AFRICA. tion of the Mountains of the Moon, traverses probably the whole territory from east to west; although their exact range, connexion, and position, are not ascer- tained. The rivers which derive their supply from this vast elevated chain form a grand and celebrated feature. The great stream of the Niger, long involved in such deep mystery, has at length, through the persevering exertion of British travellers, been sufficiently explored to enable us to form some notion of its ex- tent, and of the various countries through which it passes, though much of its course is yet unknown. Its source has not been actually visited, but is ascertain- ed to rise in a mountainous region about 200 miles in the interior, north-east from Sierra Leone, and, passing through Sangara, Kankan, Wassela, Boure, and Bam- barra, in a north-east and northerly direction, towards, and beyond, Timbuctoo, appears to take a great bend to the southward ; thence, flowing along the country of Houssa, through Borgoo Yarriba, &c, it finally pours its vast mass of waters into the Gulf of Guinea, forming one of the greatest deltas in the world : its estuaries cover a space of 200 miles. The whole extent of this great stream cannot be less than 3000 miles ; thus ranking with the largest rivers of the old continent. In the upper part of its course the Niger is called the Joliba, and in the lower the Quorra. This part of Africa contains but few lakes: the most pre-eminent is the Tchad, situated in the central part of the continent, and on the frontier of Bornou : it is about 200 miles in length and 150 in breadth, and embosoms within its outline numerous large islands, some of which are the residence of tribes said to be numerous, and who are accounted by the people of Bornou as infidels and pirates. The Dibbie, or dark lake, formed by the Niger, is not so extensive ; since M. Caillie, in sailing across it, lost sight of land only in one direction. The names of Lake Fittre, and others lying east of the Tchad, have been vaguely reported ; but of their situation and character, geographers are ignorant. Central Africa may be considered as divided, by the mountainous range which is believed to extend through it, into two great sections: that on the north is chiefly known by the appellation of Soudan, or Nigritia, of which some portions have been explored by European travellers; and the other, extending southward to the equator, and by some denominated Lower Ethiopia, is, as regards our know- ledge of it, a vast blank ; no European having ever penetrated into its remote and mysterious territories. The government, in the countries of Central Africa, is completely despotic ; and, in most of the states, the homage paid to rulers and grandees is far more abject and debasing than in any civilized empire. In Yarriba, the greatest lords, when they approach the sovereign, throw themselves flat on their faces, kissing the earth, and piling heaps of dust upon their heads. The sacrifices, on the death of any prince or chief, of his principal officers and favourite wives, though not carried to the same bloody extent as in Ashantee and Dahomey, is yet prevalent in many native states. In other respects, however, the greatness of the monarch is not supported by much of outward pomp and state. Their mansions, usual attire, and daily habits, differ little from those of their meanest subjects. They have scarcely any revenue derived from regular sources, if we except the dues exacted from the caravans. They enrich themselves by presents, and thus par- ticularly appear to accumulate such an extravagant number of wives. They also carry on a good deal of traffic, and scruple not to employ both power and strata- gem in turning it to their own advantage. The armies of Central Africa consist chiefly of a turbulent militia, taking the field on the summons of the prince, and supporting themselves by plundering the country through which they pass. The cavalry of Bornou and Begharmi have a very martial appearance ; their horses being small and active, and, as well as their riders, completely enveloped in chain and sometimes in plate armour : but they are unable to withstand a brisk charge from an enemy, and on every such occasion take precipitately to flight. They are serviceable only when the victory has been decided, and the enemies' backs are turned, when they are very active in cutting down and plundering the fugitives. The Kanemboo spearmen, organ- ized by the present sheik of Bornou, form the most regular and effective force CENTRAL AFRICA. 455 in interior Africa. They march by tribes, almost naked, with only a skin round their waist: their only arms being a long shield with 'vhich they ward off the arrows of the enemy, and a spear with which they press forward to charge him. Yet they have much of the organization of a regular army, maintaining in front a chain of piquets, and the sentinels passing the war-cry along the line. The Fellata archers, and those of a very rude people called the Mungas, fighting with poisoned arrows, have shown themselves very formidable. Agriculture is practised over the whole of Central Africa, though in a very rude manner. The plough appears never to have passed the desert; the only instrument for turning up the ground being the hoe, which does little more than scratch the surface ; yet this slight tillage, on grounds moistened by inundatidn or artificial watering, is sufficient to produce abundant crops. In Bornou, the im- perfect industry of the people produces only gussub, a species of millet, which, instead of being formed into bread, is merely boiled into a paste. So supine is their culture, that in this fine climate they do not rear a vegetable of any descrip- tion, except a few onions ; nor a fruit except limes, and those only in the garden of the sheik. In Houssa, however, two crops of wheat are raised in the year, and the markets are abundantly supplied with fruits and vegetables. Rice is pro- duced copiously on the inundated banks of the Niger, particularly in the kingdom of Yaoorie. , Manufactures are not numerous, but carried on with considerable skill and ac- tivity. The most important, by far, is that of cotton cloth, which is said to be beautifully woven, and skilfully dyed with fine indigo. Commerce, throughout this region, is carried on with some activity, though in modes rather peculiar. Maritime trade is precluded by its situation, far distant from any coast Even river navigation is not practised with much diligence, un- less on the Niger, and that chiefly on its lower course, as it approaches the sea. Commodities are conveyed by large troops, sometimes resembling little armies, called caravans, kafilas, or coffles. Those which pass between Northern and Central Africa, across the immense expanse of the desert, employ camels, whose patience of thirst, and soft and elastic hoofs, almost exclusively fit them for travel- ling over this wide surface of sand. In the rugged and mountainous tracts, bur- dens are chiefly conveyed by means of asses; but in the great fertile plains of Houssa and Eyeo, the human head is the most frequent vehicle : those of females, not excepting the wives of the great men, and even of the monarch, are decided- ly preferred. The articles conveyed across the desert, and exposed for sale in the markets of Central Africa, are chiefly of a showy and ornamental kind. Salt, in large quantities, is brought from pits in the interior of the desert ; and goora or kolla nuts, — a favourite luxury, which is even called the African coffee, — are transported from the western to the eastern parts of this region. The returns made to Northern Africa from Timbuctoo consist partly of gold and ivory ; but slaves are the chief article sent from thence, and almost the sole one from Houssa and Bornou. These unfortunate victims are caught by armed expeditions in the mountainous regions to the south, the inhabitants of which, being mostly pagan, are considered by orthodox Mussulmans as lawful prey. In the moral existence of the African, there are many very dark features. War is carried on with all the ferocity of the most barbarous nations; many tracts, formerly flourishing, were seen, by the recent travellers, reduced by it to a state of entire desolation. Another deep blot is the extensive prevalence of robbery, practised not merely by desperate and outlawed individuals, but as the great national and state concern of almost every community, great and small. In other parts of the world, robbery is carried on by the poor against the rich : in Central Africa, it is equally or more by the rich against the poor; for there, he who is destitute of every thing else, has at least himself, who, converted into a slave, forms the richest booty that can tempt the plunderer. In regard to religion, the nations of this region are pretty equally divided be- tween two systems, the pagan and Mahometan ; one native, the other introduced by migration and intercourse from Northern Africa. One fixed article of belief among them all is, that they may lawfully reduce to slavery all the kerdies, or 456 CENTRAL AFRICA. pagans, who people the southern mountain districts. In other respects, they do not strictly conform to the recluse and contracted habits of life generally prevail- ing among nations of this profession : the females are not closely immured ; in- toxicating liquors are not rigidly abstained from ; and various amusements which it proscribes are indulged in without scruple. Learning, throughout Central Africa, appears in a very depressed state. The reading even of the Koran is confined to a very few of the great fighis, or doc- tors. Its verses are chiefly employed as amulets to secure triumph over enemies, or success in the different pursuits of life. The princes, both in Bornou and Houssa, show a disposition to enquire into and cultivate the arts and sciences; but they have no channel of information, unless from Barbary, where these pur- suits are in an almost equally depressed state. Sultan Bello of Sockatoo, and his minister, had each a library, but no communication has been made as to the con- tents of either. Extemporary poetry, sung by the composers, is repeated at almost all the African courts. Singing men and singing women are constant attendants on the chiefs and caboceers; and their songs, though conceived probably in terms of the grossest flattery, appear to contain a large portion of national history. The eastern part of Central Africa comprising Darfur, Kordofan, Bergoo, Beg- harmi, &c. will be most convenient for commencing the survey of its local divisions. This portion of the continent is very imperfectly known: the only parts actually visited by Europeans, being Kordofan and Darfur ; the latter by Mr. Brown, in 1793, 4, 5, and 6 : his information, however, is rather limited, having been, during most part of the time viewed, with great jealousy, and closely watched. Darfur is a considerable country, almost due south from Egypt, and west of Sennaar, whence it is separated by Kordofan. The route by which the caravans pass from Egypt is of the most dreary character, since travellers, after leaving the greater oasis, do not for about 700 miles meet with a human habitation ; however, at Sheb and Selime they are refreshed by springs of water. The country itself is of an arid character. The tropical rains, however, within whose influence it is, fall at the proper season with great violence, when they fill the dry beds of the torrents, and inundate a considerable extent of country. The operations of a rude agriculture, carried on by the females, are then sufficient to produce, in a few places, wheat ; and in a great number the inferior species of dokn, a kind of millet Camels, horned cattle, goats, horses, sheep, and asses abound. The people, not supposed to exceed in number 200,000, are a mixture of Arabs and negroes. The king is absolute, though obliged to court the soldiery, who, when discontented, sometimes depose and strangle him, electing in his room another member of the royal family. They are about 2000 in number, distinguished neither for valour nor discipline, but endowed with an almost preternatural endurance of thirst, hunger, and fatigue. Large caravans, at somewhat irregular intervals, pass between Egypt and Darfur, interchanging slaves, ivory, ostrich-feathers, &c. for cloths, carpets, toys, and beads. A considerable intercourse of religion and trade is car- ried on with Mecca by way of Jidda and Suakem. Cobbe, the capital, is not supposed to contain more than 4000 inhabitants ; it is about two miles long, but consists merely of ranges of detached houses surrounded by wooded inclosures. Kordofan, on the east, and separated by deserts from Darfur, forms a country nearly similar. Its warriors, like those of Bornou, are invested in chain armour. Kordofan has been subjected at different times to Sennaar and Darfur, and in 1820 was obliged to yield to the arms of the Pacha of Egypt, who continues to claim the sovereignty, which, however, over so distant and rude a tract, must always be very precarious. To the south of Darfur is Fertit, inhabited solely by negroes, and containing valuable mines of copper. Farther south still is the mountainous country of Donga, possessed by a barbarous people, and in which, according to Mr. Brown's information, numerous streams unite in forming the Bahr el Abiad, or main branch of the Nile. Bergoo, called also Waday and Dar Saley, is an extensive country, reaching westward from Darfur to nearly the confines of Begharmi and Bornou. Accord- ing to the imperfect accounts yet received, it appears to be greater and more CENTRAL AFRICA. 457 populous than Darfur or Kordofan. Wara, the capital, is represented as a con- siderable city. Near it passes a large river, called the Bahr Misselad, which, according to Brown's information, traverses the country in a northern and westerly direction. In this quarter, also, the lake Fittre is reported to exist, but our mate- rials do not enable us to fix its site with any precision. West of Bergoo is a region called Bahr el Ghazal; it is a wide extent of low ground without any elevations, and is called Bahr, i. e. sea or river, because tra- dition reports that in ancient times a large river flowed through it. Kanem, situ- ated on the north-east shores of Lake Tchad, is a rude district, partaking some- what of the character of the bordering desert, but its inhabitants are peculiarly brave. Lari, the chief town, consists of clusters of rush huts, in the shape of well-thatched corn-stacks. Begharmi is a considerable country, to the south-east of the lake Tchad. The people, who are stout and warlike, wage almost continual war with Bornou, which boasts of having subjected them; but they always find a retreat beyond a con- siderable river, which flows through their country, whence they return and regain possession of their territory. Their chief force consists in mounted lancers, which, with their. horses, are cased still more completely in iron mail, than those of Bornou ; but they do not in the field display any higher degree of courage. Bornou, one of the most powerful kingdoms of Central Africa, extends about 200 miles in every direction, on the westward of the great inland sea of the Tchad. It is watered by the tropical rains, and is a very fertile country. Cities, containing from 10,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and many walled towns, rise along the shores of the lake. The markets present a most crowded scene, the principal one at Angornou attracting sometimes 100,000 people. Yet the nation is remark- ably deficient, not only in refined and intellectual pursuits, but in the humblest of the useful arts. The only fabric in which they have attained any kind of excel- lence is that of cotton cloth dyed blue with their fine indigo, the tobes or pieces of which form the current coin of the realm. They have, however, the absolute necessaries of life in abundance. Numerous herds of cattle are bred by Arab tribes, who have transported into Bornou all their pastoral habits. The government of 1 this state is absolute ; but when the English travellers Den- ham and Clapperton lately visited the country, they found it in a somewhat singu- lar political situation. The sheik, surnamed El Kanemy, who by his valour had rescued the kingdom from Fellata invasion, possessed all the real authority, which he exercised with justice and vigour; but he found it prudent to confer the osten- sible dignity of sultan on a member of the ancient royal family, who lived in empty pomp at New Bornou. There is probably no court of which the taste is so absurd, grotesque, or preposterous. The primary requisite for a fine gentleman and a courtier is a huge belly ; and where feeding and cramming will not produce this beauty in sufficient perfection, the part is swelled out by stuffing and cush- ioning. The towns of Bornou are considerable, though riot of the first magnitude. New Bornou, the present residence of the sultan, is said not to contain more than 10,000 people; and Kouka, where the sheik kept his court, is still smaller. An- gornou is the largest place in the kingdom, containing at least 30,000 people, and, during the crowded market held there, often from 80,000 to 100,000 are assembled. All these are in the heart of the kingdom, on the western bank of the Tchad. Angala, on the southern or Begharmi frontier, and Woodie on that of Kanem, are also considerable : at the latter, the caravans are made to stop till permission to proceed is obtained from the sovereign. Mandara, situated to the south of Bornou, consists of a fine valley, containing eight large towns, the principal of which is Mora. The whole country, and even the capital, are overlooked by the great range of the Mountains of the Moon, which to the southward of this territory appear to attain their loftiest height. Dirkullah, a part of this mountainous territory, is occupied by a pagan race called El Fellati, who have their villages strongly fortified, and fight desperately with poisoned arrows, by which they once put to flight the whole force of Bornou and Mandara, though aided by a numerous and well-armed body of Arabs. j 39 3H 458 CENTRAL AFRICA. Houssa is an extensive territory in the most central part of Africa, reaching from the upper course of the Yeou nearly west to the Niger ; but its boundaries both on the north and south seem to be yet undecided. It is well watered by the river Quarrama or Zirmie, which, with several tributaries, flows westward to join the Quorra or Niger. On the eastern border, also, it is traversed by the upper course of the Yeou, and on the southern by the Tsadda, Which also falls into the Niger. This region derives its social character from the Fellatas, a people said to be similar in appearance to the Foulahs of Western Africa, but of a much more warlike character. Their precise origin is involved in obscurity, and their very name was unknown to Europeans until within a few years. They appear to have been, since the commencement of the present century, the most prominent peo- ple in Central Africa ; about that period, they conquered the whole of Houssa, Bornou, and several countries on the Niger. The Fellata empire thus founded, has since, however, suffered some dismemberment. The standard of independence was raised in Bornou, by a native of Kanem, who under the title of Sheik el Kanemy, drove out the invaders, and assumed the real sway over the country. In the heart of Houssa, Goober, Zegzeg, and other countries, have thrown off the yoke ; yet the Fellatas are still extending their conquests to the westward, and have even passed the Niger into Yarriba. The Fellatas are like the Foulahs, all Mahometans. Houssa appears to be more elevated, and the climate less sultry, than that either of Bornou or the countries on the Niger; travellers have even occasionally suffered from cold. The face of the country exhibits evident marks of superior cultivation and a superior people. The fields are covered with large crops of wheat, two of which are annually produced, and the grain is stored in large granaries, raised on poles as a security from insects. Sockatoo, situated nearly at the western extremity of Houssa, is at present the ruling country over that region. The territory appears to be fertile and populous, and its capital the largest city in interior Africa. The houses are built closer than usual, and more regularly laid out in streets. The place is surrounded by a wall between twenty and thirty feet high, with twelve gates, always shut at sunset. Kano is the centre of commerce and civilization in interior Africa; yet it is built in a very scattered manner, occupying only about a fourth of the circuit of fifteen miles enclosed by its walls. The inhabited part is divided into two by a large morass, dry during a part of the year, at which period is held a great market, the most crowded and best regulated in Africa. Kano is supposed to contain 30,000 or 40,000 inhabitants. Kashna, to the north of Kano, is a considerable kingdom, which at no distant period held the supremacy over Houssa, Its walls, like those of Kano, are of im- mense circuit; but the inhabited part does not amount to above a tenth of the enclosed space. It is still, however, the seat of a considerable trade with the desert, with Timbuctoo, and with caravans coming across the desert by the way of Gadamis and Tuat. To the south of Sockatoo and Kano is the country of Zegzeg, one of the finest in all Africa. It is covered with plentiful crops and rich pastures, yields particu- larly good rice, and is beautifully variegated with hill and dale, like the finest parts of England. Dunrora is situated in a country fertile, though rocky ; and about half a day's journey from it is Jacoba, described as a large city on the river Shary ; while farther to the east, on the same river, is stated to be another great city, Adamowa: but here our knowledge in this direction terminates. The countries on the lower course of the Niger form an extensive and import- ant part of Central Africa. Being copiously watered, and in many parts liable to temporary inundation, they are endowed with profuse natural fertility, yielding rice and other valuable species of grain in abundance; though, in approaching the sea, the ground becomes swampy, and overgrown with dense forests. The negro population, with its original habits and superstitions, generally fills this region ; but the Fellatas are making rapid encroachments ; and several of the states have been converted, though in a very superficial manner, to the Moslem faith. The CENTRAL AFRICA. 459 kings hold an absolute though mild sway; their splendour consists chiefly in the multitude of their wives, who perform all menial functions, and even act as body-guards: the royal exactions are chiefly from travellers and merchants, out of whom they draw as much as possible, both in the way of presents and trade. Yaoorie consists of a very fertile plain, partly overflowed by the Niger, and thus rendered peculiarly fitted for the production of rice. The city of the same name, encompassed by walls of wood, and rudely strengthened with plates of iron, en- close a circuit of twenty or thirty miles ; but this space is covered to a great ex- tent with pastures and corn-fields, among which clusters of huts are interspersed. The people, being numerous and brave, have repelled every attempt by the Fel- latas to subdue them. The chief of Yaoorie has incurred deep dishonour by the attack on Park, which terminated in the death of that celebrated traveller ; and his conduct to Clapperton and Lander was far from praiseworthy. Below Yaoorie the navigation of the Niger is obstructed by formidable cataracts, though it is passable during the rainy season for vessels of some magnitude. The kingdom of Boussa is immediately below Yaoorie. The capital of the same name is a considerable town, situated in the midst of a fertile and well cul- tivated country. The Niger, immediately above and below Boussa, presents a magnificent body of water ; in passing that city, it is obstructed by those rocks and straits in which Park was intercepted and perished. Wawa, the capital of a small dependent kingdom, situated in a very fertile country, particularly celebrated for producing excellent yams, is supposed to contain 18,000 inhabitants. Borgoo, west and north-west of Boussa and Wawa, is composed, in a great measure, of rugged mountain tracts, though interspersed with fertile and beauti- ful valleys. The elevated districts are covered with extensive forests, crowded with wild animals of every description, and infested with numerous bands of rob- bers. Kiama, the only part of Borgoo visited by English travellers, is inhabited by a people proud, courageous, spirited, delighting in martial exercises, and warm both in their resentments and attachments. The banks of the Niger, below Boussa, are occupied by two great and flourishing kingdoms: Yarriba on the west, and Nyffe, or Nouffie, on the east. The former is an extensive state, and one of the most fruitful countries on the globe; it is well cultivated, and densely peopled. The fields are covered with thriving plantations of Indian corn, millet, yams, and cotton. The loom is busily plied, though its products are not equal to those in the neighbouring country of Nyffe. A range of rugged mountains, from 2000 to 3000 feet high, crosses one part of the country ; yet such is the mildness of the climate, that cultivation, and even large towns, are found on their very summit. Eyeo, the capital of Yarriba, is one of the largest cities of Africa, being 15 miles in"bir- cumference : there are, however, many fields and open spaces in this wide circuit, and the population can scarcely even be conjectured. Nyffe, on the eastern bank of the Niger, is a very fine country, occupied by the most industrious and improved of all the negro nations. Their cotton cloths are held in the highest estimation ; and even the finest of those manufactured in Houssa, are by slaves from Nyffe. Rabba, the capital, is considered, next to Sockatoo, the largest town in possession of this people. The surrounding territory is highly productive, covered with rich crops, and with numerous and fine breeds of horses and cattle. The mats made there are reckoned superior to all others in Africa. Egga, the town of Nyffe which lies farthest down the Niger, extends four miles along its banks, and has numerous boats belonging to it. The population is half Mahometan, half negro. The states which succeed consist of little more than single towns, each govern- ed by its own chief, with little or no mutual dependence, and many of them addicted to fierce and lawless practices. Kacunda, however, composed of a clus- ter of three large villages, under the absolute sway of a single chief, though inde- pendent of Nyffe, contains a peaceable, industrious, and friendly people. About forty miles below Kacunda, several yet unknown towns intervening, the Niger receives its greatest tributary, the Tsadda, called sometimes the Shary, and which has been traced flowing by Jacoba on the south of Houssa ; but its origin and early course are unknown. At the junction, it is little inferior to the main stream, and navigated by numerous boats. Funda, reported the greatest emporium 460 CENTRAL AFRICA. of this part of Africa, is about three days' sail up the Tsadda. At the junction of the two rivers is a commercial town, of very considerable magnitude, named Cuttum Currafe. Towns of importance continue to occur in the course of the Niger downwards. Bocqua, about 80 miles below Kacunda, is the seat of a very large market, much frequented: it is followed by Abbazaca and Dammagoo. Kirre, a large market town, is about fifty miles below Bocqua. Here commences the Delta of the Niger, which, at this place, detaches a branch supposed to flow to Benin Eboe. Seventy miles below Kirree is a large town, commonly called the Eboe country ; it forms the great mart from which the ports on the coast are supplied with slaves and palm oil. To complete the picture of Central Africa, it remains to mention the countries on the upper Niger, as celebrated as any of those now enumerated. For 400 or 500 miles above Yaoorie, indeed, the shores of this great river are almost entirely unknown, as Park, unfortunately, never returned to relate his navigation down to that city. At the end ojf the above reach, however, occurs the most important city in this part of Africa. Timbuctoo, or Tombuctoo, the celebrated emporium of the commerce in gold, has always shone in the eyes of Europeans with a dazzling and brilliant lustre. Most of the daring and often tragioal expeditions into the interior of the conti- nent had for their object to reach that city. Yet its actual condition, and even magnitude, are still involved in very considerable uncertainty. Major Laing re- sided there for a considerable time, and made the most diligent inquiries ; but the result, in consequence of the catastrophe which terminated his career, never reached the European public. Caillie, the only european who has ever returned from that city, was far from being a careful or an accurate observer. From the few positive notices, however, thus obtained, we may infer that the city is neither so large nor so splendid as rumour represented it. Timbuctoo, however, being the place where the caravans from Morocco, and most of those from Algiers and Tunis, first touch on the fertile regions of Central Africa, must always possess great commercial importance ; and a depot is found there of the commodities which it affords for exchange with other countries. Gold, and still more slaves, are the staple articles. Jenne, or Jinnie, is a city second only to Timbuctoo in commercial importance : it is situated, according to Park, on a tributary of the Niger, but according to Caillie, on a branch separated from, and then reuniting to, trjat river. In Park's time it was subject to Bambarra; but it has since been occupied, with several of the'neighbouring territories, by Sego Ahmadou, a Fellata prince. The population is rated probably too low by M. Caillie at 8000 or 10,000. The kingdom of Bambarra consists of a beautiful and extensive plain, through which the Niger rolls for about 300 miles, from the point where it becomes navi- gable for large canoes. The territory is fertile and well cultivated, being to a great extent inundated during the rains. Sego, the capital, in the centre of the kingdom, is divided by the Niger into two parts, the communication between which is maintained by ferries, which are under the control of the government. The place is surrounded by high mud walls, the houses are built of clay, but neatly whitewashed, the streets are commodious, and mosques rise in every quar- ter. The numerous canoes on the river, the crowded population, and the culti- vated state of the surrounding country, exhibit altogether a scene of civilization and magnificence scarcely to be expected in the centre of Africa. Park estimated the population at about 30,000. Sansanding is a great commercial town, higher up the Niger, supposed to contain 10,000 people. Its market was the best arranged and supplied that Park saw in Africa. Bammakoo, where the Niger first becomes navigable for large canoes; Maraboo, a great market for salt; Samee, and Silla, near the eastern frontier ; are all considerable towns on the Niger. North of Bambarra are the kingdoms of Massina and Beroo, of which the former is inhabited by the Foulahs, and the latter is famous for its trade in salt. The capital is Walet, said to be larger than Timbuctoo. North-west from Bam- barra is Kaarta, a somewhat extensive kingdom, with a sandy and but moderately AFRICAN ISLANDS. 461 fertile soil. The capital is Kemmoo. Kasson, west of Kaarta, is a small but fer- tile country, now mostly subject to Kaarta. Manding, the original country of the Mandingoes, adjoining Barnbarra on the west, is a mountainous, and rather sterile region, in which gold is found to some extent in the sand of the streams and riv- ers. Boure, Kankan, Wassela, &c, are countries situated on the head waters of the Niger: of these Boure abounds in gold ; Kankan is famous for the great mar- ket held at its chief town, at which not only gold and all the products of this part of the world, but European goods in great variety, arms, powder, &c, are exhi- bited for sale. Wassela is a rich territory, inhabited by an industrious and hospi- table people. AFRICAN ISLANDS. Africa is begirt, at certain distances, with numerous' islands, some single, but a considerable number arranged in groups ; many of these are in the Western or Atlantic, and others in the Indian Ocean. The Azores, or Western Islands, belonging politically to Portugal, are situated between the 37th and 40th degrees of north latitude, and the 25th and 32d of west longitude. They are nine in number : St. Michael and St. Mary, closely adjoin- ing each other ; Terceira, Fayal, Pico, Graciosa, and St. George, nearly a group by themselves; Corvo and Flores, considerably to the westward. These islands bear evident marks of having been produced by the action of subterraneous fire, the symptoms of which are still visible, though no volcano is at present burning. The internal heat, however, manifests itself by very striking phenomena. Such, on the island of St. Michael, are the termas, or warm baths, the springs supplying which are so hot as often to burn the hand which touches them. Elsewhere the caldeiras, or boiling springs, rise in columns, not exceeding twelve feet high, but of various diameters, and the burning vapours are formed into clouds, which exhi- bit a variety of fantastic figures and brilliant tints. Amid these turbulent elements, the soil is extremely fertile, yielding in the plains abundance of grain, while even from the crevices of the volcanic rocks grow the delicate oranges for which St. Michael is celebrated, and the vines, yielding a wine that resembles without equalling Madeira, which clothe the steep sides of the mountain of Pico. These, with grain, aflbrd materials of an export trade, in exchange for European fabrics and colonial produce. The population is vaguely estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000. Though St. Michael is the largest island, being above 100 miles in length, and is also the most fertile, its capital, Ponte Delgada, is not the seat of the general government. This distinction is enjoyed by Angra, in Terceira, in consequence of its comparatively safe harbour. By its good harbour it likewise obtains the exportation of the wine of Pico, which is known by the name of Fayal. The amount, in good years, has been stated at 8000 or 10,000 pipes. Madeira, also belonging to Portugal, in about 32° north latitude, is a beautiful and fertile island. \t was first distinguished for producing the best sugar known ; but, after the rivalry of the West Indies rendered this culture no longer profitable, the islanders applied themselves to wine, which was soon raised to high perfec- tion. The growth of the island is about 20,000 pipes, of which a considerable quantity is sent to America and the East and West Indies; a voyage to tropical climates improving its quality. The very best, however, called "London parti- cular," is imported direct to that capital. The wine trade of Madeira has latterly somewhat declined, in consequence of which the planting of coffee has become general, and with such success that already the berry has become an article of export. Funchal, the capital, is almost an English town, nearly all the opulent inhabitants being merchants of that nation employed in the wine trade, while the Portuguese are generally very poor. Madeira has adjacent to it Porto Santo, a small high island with a good roadstead; and the twoDesertas answering to their name. The Canaries, belonging to Spain, are among the most celebrated and beautiful 39* 462 AFRICAN ISLANDS. groups of small islands in the world. They lie about the 28th degree of north latitude, and between the 13th and 18th of west longitude. There are seven principal islands, having a land area of about 3250 square miles, and containing a population of 200,000 souls. These are Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Lanza- rota, Fortaventura, Gomera, and Ferro. These islands consist of mountains which rise abruptly from the shore, and shoot to an amazing height. The Peak of Tene- riffe, the great landmark to mariners through the Atlantic, is 12,000 feet high. The soil in these islands displays much of that luxuriant fertility which distin- guishes tropical countries, when profusely watered, like this, by the streams from the high mountains and the vapour from the ocean; yet their western sides are parched by arid and pestilential breezes from the African desert, the streams are often absorbed in the porous lava, or rush down in torrents which would sweep away the earth, were not walls formed to retain it. The principal exportable pro- duce is that afforded by the vines, which grow on the lower declivities of the peak, and yield a wine which, though inferior to Madeira, has, from its cheapness, come into considerable use. The export has been estimated at 8000 or 9000 pipes. There is also some export of brandy, soda, and archil. The chief seat of this trade is Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, which enjoys the advantage of an excellent roadstead. The place is, however, intensely hot, and the natives not engaged in business prefer the residence of Laguna, 2000 feet above the sea, which enjoys a delightful coolness. Grand Canary is more uniformly fertile than Teneriffe, sup- plying the other islands with grain, and yielding a little of the fine wine called sack. Las Palmas, its chief town, is the ecclesiastical capital ; but the seat of government is at Santa Cruz. Ferro, small, arid, and rocky, was once supposed to form the most westerly point of the Old World, and has often been used by geographers as the first meridian. The Canarians are a sober, active, industrious people, who have migrated to all the Spanish dominions in America and the Indies, and form the most useful part of the population. The Cape Verd Islands, about eighty miles from Cape Verd, in 16° to 17° north lat., are ten in number, three of which are large, St. Jago, St. Antonio, and St. Nicholas ; the rest small, Mayo, Bonavista, Sal, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Brava, and Fogo. The large islands rise in the interior into high mountains, and Fogo (fire) contains a very active volcano. In general, however, the surface is arid, rocky, and much less productive than the Canaries. Long droughts sometimes prevail, and reduce the inhabitants to the greatest distress. Out of a population of 88,000, one-fourth are said to have died of famine in 1831. The chief growth is cotton : a very fine breed of mules and asses is reared, many of which are sent to the West Indies. Goats, poultry, and turtle abound. Salt is formed in large quanti- ties by natural evaporation, particularly in Mayo, where there is an extensive pond, into which the sea is received at high water, and the salt completely formed before next tide. The Portuguese, since the first discovery, have claimed the sovereignty, and maintain a governor-general, who resides at Porto Praya. Several islands lie in the Gulf of Benin. They are, Fernando Po, a fine high large island, lately occupied only by a lawless race, composed of slaves or male- factors escaped from the neighbouring coast. The British government, however, upon the disappointment experienced in regard to Sierra Leone, formed, in 1827, a settlement at this island, the mountainous and picturesque aspect of which afforded hopes of a healthy station ; but these have been completely disappointed. Of thirty European settlers taken out, nineteen died. Hopes have been held out, that by a change in the situation of the town, this evil might be greatly mitigated, and Fernando Po would then acquire a double importance, from its vicinity to the mouth of the Niger. Prince's Island is high and wooded; St. Thomas is large and fertile; the petty isle of Annobon is inhabited by a simple native race. These run in a chain to the south-west from the Rio Calebar ; and the last three are in nominal subjection to the crown of Portugal. Ascension is a solitary rock, far out at sea, in lat. 8° 8' north, long. 14° 28' west. It is completely rocky, barren, and long uninhabited ; yet from its situation ships often touched there, and letters were even lodged in the crevice of a rock, called " the sailor's post-office." The British have a garrison here. Population, 220. AFRICAN ISLANDS. 463 St. Helena, so celebrated lately as the ocean-prison of the greatest of modern warriors, has now reverted to its original destination, as a place of refreshment for the returning East India ships. It presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit of twenty-eight miles, an immense perpendicular wall of rock, from 600 to 1200 feet high, like a castle in the midst of the ocean. On the summit is a fertile plain, interspersed with conical eminences, between which picturesque val- leys intervene. The climate on the high grounds is very agreeable and tempe- rate, though moist. There are only four small openings in the wall of rock, on the largest of which, where alone a little beach appears, has been built James Town, where the governor resides, and where refreshments, though on a limited scale, are provided for ships. By the India bill of 1833, St. Helena is vested in the crown, and is now managed by a governor nominated by the king. Turning the Cape of Good Hope, and entering the Indian Ocean, we arrive at Madagascar, one of the largest and finest islands in the world, placed between 12° and 26° south latitude : it may be about 840 miles long, and 220 in its great- est breadth. The interior is traversed from north to south by a chain of lofty mountains, from whose rugged sides descend numerous streams and rivulets, which water the fertile plains at their base; these are extremely fruitful in rice, sugar, and silk ; fitted, indeed, for almost every tropical product, though there seem few plants peculiar to the island. The mountains contain, also, valuable mines, espe- cially of iron, but only partially worked. Madagascar contains many fine bays and ports well suited for commercial pur- poses. Those most frequented are Anton, Gils Bay, on the east side ; ako, Foul Point, Tamatave, and Port Dauphin ; on the west is the Bay of St. Augustine, and several on the north-west coast, of which Bombetok is the chief. On this are the towns of Bombetok and Majunga. The trade here was formerly in slaves, but is now in bullocks, bees-wax, rice, and gums. American vessels often visit this place. The population of Madagascar has been variously estimated at from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000, but is probably about 2,000,000. The people are not savages; they cultivate the ground, and practise some arts; yet are on the whole rather rude and uninformed. They are described as a peculiarly gay, thoughtless, and voluptuous race, void of care and foresight, and always cheerful and good- humoured. They are divided into a number of small tribes, who wage very fre- quent wars with each other. The most important people in Madagascar lately have been the Ovahs, occupy- ing an extensive and high plain in the interior, whose sovereign, Radama, the first chief in Madagascar who assumed the title of king, had reduced to vassalage the largest and finest part of the island. He had formed a train of artillery, and armed a great part of his troops with muskets, and had also sent a number of young natives to obtain instruction in Paris and London. With the aid of the English missionaries, he had established a printing-press, and trained a number of teachers, both male and female, who were distributed through various parts of the kingdom. Unhappily, this prince, in July, 1828, was poisoned by his wife, who immediately raised an unworthy paramour to the throne. This event has intro- duced great anarchy, inducing several subject states to shake off the yoke; and there seems much room to fear that it will arrest entirely the career of improve- ment commenced under such prosperous auspices. Radama's kingdom has been called Imerina, of which the capital isTananarivou, with a population of about 8000. The French have made frequent attempts to form colonies in Madagascar, which they even repeated in 1829, but never with any important result. They have small stations, however, at St. Mary, Tamatave, Foul Point, and near Fort Dauphin. The Mascarenha Isles are situated due east from the central parts of Mada- gascar, and from 400 to 500 miles distant They are the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius. The former is about forty-eight miles long and thirty-six broad. It consists entirely of the heights and slopes of two great mountains, the most south- erly of which contains a volcano in perpetual activity, throwing up fire, smoke, and ashes, with a noise truly tremendous. A great part consists of what the French call burnt country, a complete dt'sort. of hard black soil, with numerous 464 ' AFRICAN ISLANDS. holes and crevices. The rest, however, well watered by numerous torrents, is favourable not only for the ordinary tropical products, but for some fine aromatic plants. The Portuguese discovered this island in 1592 ; but being taken by the French in 1642, it was called Bourbon, which name it has resumed, after bearing, during the revolutionary period, that of Reunion. Coffee brought from Mocha in 1718, succeeded so well that the Bourbon coffee was considered second only to the Arabian. At a later period, its cloves came into some rivalry with those of Am- boyna. All other objects of culture, however, have lately become secondary to that of sugar, which has been found profitable beyond any other. The population of Bourbon, in 1831, was 97,231 ; of which 14,059 males, and 13,586 females, were free ; 46,083 males, and 23,483 females, were slaves. The exports were valued at 396,000?., the imports at 293,000?. The island labours under the disad- vantage of not having a secure harbour, or even a roadstead. Mauritius, or the Isle of France, is about 120 miles east of Bourbon, not quite so large, yet still 150 miles in circuit. The rugged mountains which cover a great part of the island give it a somewhat sterile character, and it does not yield grain even for its limited population; yet the lower slopes produce coffee, cotton, indigo, and sugar of improved quality. It was called Isle of France, and became the capital of the French possessions in the Indian seas. It was considered im- pregnable, and remained in their undisputed possession after the greatest disasters which befell their arms on the continent. It became then a strong-hold for pri- vateers, who are said, in ten years, to have taken prizes to the value of 2,500,000?. At len»th, in 1810, it yielded to the arms of Britain, with less resistance than was expected. Since 1812, when its sugars were admitted at the same duties as those from the West Indies, this branch of culture has taken a great precedence over all others ; the produce, from about 5,000,000 pounds, having risen, in 1832, to about 60,000,000. In that year, the export of coffee was only about 20,000 pounds. Its ebony, the finest in the world, and its tortoise-shell, are each worth about 9000?. The imports, in 1826, were estimated at 657,000?., and the exports at 572,000?. The island, in 1827, contained 94,600 inhabitants, of whom about 8000 were whites, 15,000 free negroes, 69,000 slaves, the rest troops and resident strangers. Port Louis is a good harbour, with rather a difficult entrance. It affords every convenience for careening and refitting; but provisions, being all imported, are not very abundant. A considerable number of islets, single or in groups, spot the Indian Ocean to the east of Africa. Of dependencies on Mauritius, Rodriguez contains only 123 inhabitants, Diego Garcia 275, Galega 199. The Seychelles, nearly north from Madagascar, with the bordering group of the Almirantes, are a cluster of very small islands, high and rocky, and little fitted for any culture except cotton ; but they abound with cocoa-nuts, and their shores with turtle and excellent fish. The population, in 1826, was 7665, of whom 6525 were slaves. The Comoro Islands, a group of four, between Madagascar and the continent, are very elevated and mountainous in the interior ; but the lower tracts abound in sheep, cattle, and all the tropical grains and fruits. The inhabitants are mild and industrious, but they have been most dreadfully infested and their numbers thinned by the Madagascar pirates, who make an annual inroad, laying waste the open country, and blockading the towns. Angazicha, or Great Comoro, is the largest, containing a mountain supposed to rise 6000 or 7000 feet high ; but Anjouan, or Johanna, is the most flourishing, its chief town being supposed still to contain 3000 inhabitants. Mohilla and Mayotta are comparatively small. Socotra, forty leagues east from Cape Guardafui, is governed by the sheik of Keshin, a petty state on the south-east coast of Arabia, who sends one of his family annually to collect the revenue. It is twenty-seven leagues long and seven broad ; mountainous, rocky, and arid ; yet it yields the best aloes in the world, and a small quantity of dragon's-blood. Though the coast is bold, it affords ex- cellent harbours; and ships may procure bullocks, goats, fish, and excellent dates, at reasonable prices. This island was recently selected by the East India Com- pany as a station for the vessels connected with the steam navigation of the Red Sea ; but being found unhealthy, has been abandoned. ASIA. 465 ASIA. Asia is an immense continent, the largest in the ancient world ; and, perhaps, nearly equal to Europe and Africa united. It is surrounded by sea through much the greater part of its outline, which, though broken by large gulfs and penin- sulas, presents generally a huge unbroken mass, formed into a kind of irregular square. On a general estimate, and omitting the most prominent points, we may state Asia at 6000 miles in length, and 4000 in breadth ; which, supposing a regu- lar figure, would give 24,000,000 square miles; but, in consideration of the many irregularities, a considerable deduction must be made. The boundaries of Asia are chiefly formed by the great oceans. On the north it has the Arctic or Frozen Ocean; to the east and south it faces the great Pa- cific, which separates it from America by almost half the breadth of the globe. On the south, however, this ocean is enclosed by the islands of Malaysia so as to form a gulf of vast dimensions, called the Indian Ocean. The western limit alone touches on the other continents, and constitutes a very varied line of land and sea. From the north, opposite to Nova Zembla, a chain of mountains, called the Urals, breaks the uniformity of the great northern steppes. From the termi- nation of that chain to the river Don the line is somewhat vague; but thence, that river, the Black Sea, the straits connecting it with the Mediterranean, and 'the Mediterranean itself, form a distinct boundary. Asia is joined to Africa by j the isthmus of Suez, and separated from it by the long canal of the Red Sea. The immense expanse of its territory presents every possible variety of site and cli- mate, from the dreary confines of the polar world to the heart of the tropical regions. Every thing in Asia is on a vast scale ; its mountains, its table-lands, its plains, its deserts. The grandest feature, and one which makes a complete sec- tion of the continent, is a chain of mountains, which, at various heights, and under various names, but with very little, if any, interruption, crosses Asia from the Mediterranean to the eastern sea. Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himmaleh, are the best known portions of this chain. On one side it has southern Asia, the finest and most extensive plain in the world, covered with the richest tropical products, watered by magnificent rivers proceeding from this great storehouse, and filled with populous nations and great empires. On the other side, this chain serves as a bulwark to the wide table-land of Thibet, which, though under the latitude of the south of Europe, has many of the characteristics of a northern region. To the north, the recent observations of Humboldt exhibit three parallel chains; the Kuen-lun, or Mooz Taph, the Thian-chan, or Celestial Mountains, and the Altaian. These also support table-lands; but not, it appears, so very elevated as has hith- erto been supposed. They are not believed by that traveller generally to exceed 4000 or 5000 feet in height, and in many places enjoy a mild and temperate cli- mate, yielding not only grain, but wine and silk. The Altaian chain separates Middle Asia from Siberia. Some of the southern districts have been found by the Russians capable of supporting numerous herds of cattle; but the rest is aban- doned to wild animals, not generally of a ferocious description, but by the benefi- cence of nature covered with rich and precious furs, which afford a great object for hunting and trade. One grand feature of Middle Asia consists in large lakes of inland seas, salt like the ocean, receiving ccnsiderable rivers, and having no outlet. These are, the Caspian, the Aral, the Baikal, and several others of lesser magnitude. No con- tinent has so many rivers of the first magnitude, some of which yield in length of course only to the amazing waters of the New World. We may distinguish in Asia three systems of rivers; one, comprising the most distinguished and im- portant streams, descends from the principal chain of mountains, fertilizes the great southern empires, and falls into the Indian Ocean. The most remarkable streams of this class are the Euphrates, the Indus, and the Ganges. Again, from the parallel chain which separates Tartary from Siberia is another series of rivers, J 31 466 ASIA. ] which direct their course to the Northern Ocean ; the Obe, the Irtysh, the Yeni- sei, and the Lena, — gloomy streams, of vast length ; but flowing in this inhos- pitable region, and bound by almost perpetual frost, they afford little aid either to agriculture or to the intercourse of nations. A third system consists of the rivers which, rising in the high mountain centre of Asia, flow across the empire of China, to whose prosperity they mainly contribute, and fall into the Eastern Pacific. The Amour runs in the same direction through Northern Tartary, but without any profit to that barren district. Lastly, the Sir, the Amoo, and others of great magnitude, though secondary to the above, flow along the great plains of Western Tartary ; but, unable to reach the ocean, expand into the Aral, the Caspian, and other inland seas. In regard to its social and political state, Asia presents, of course, a most varied scene ; and yet there are some features which at once strike us as generally cha- racteristic of this continent. Among these is the transmission of institutions, usages, and manners unaltered from the earliest ages. The life of the patriarchs, as described in the earliest of existing historical records, is still found unchanged in the Arab tent. Asia, at a very early period, anterior even to the commence- ment of regular history, appears to have made a vast stride in civilization; but then she stopped, and has suffered herself to be far outstripped by the originally less advanced nations of Europe. The despotism to which the people of Asia are generally subjected is connected, probably, with this stationary character. A republic, an hereditary aristocracy, a representative assembly, a regular control of any kind, are, except in some local and peculiar circumstances, ideas altogether foreign to the mind of an Asiatic. Oriental sovereigns, even the greatest, still maintain the primitive institution of sitting and administering justice in person. Though immutable in their forms of court and maxims of government, they are changeable as to their place of resi- dence and seat of empire. Every successive prince usually selects some favourite city which he either creates or raises from insignificance, and lavishes his wealth in adorning it. The number of communities, of chiefs, and even of princes, making a regular trade of robbery, is another feature that strongly characterises Asia. They carry it on in no clandestine manner, but avowedly, even boastfully, and as a calling which they consider as honest and respectable. The numerous tracts of mountain and desert afford them holds in which to maintain themselves ; and these are sel- dom far distant from some rich plain, or great commercial route, on which to exer- cise their depredations. Arabia, from the earliest times, has been a hive of such plunderers. The aspect and manners of the Orientals are different from those of Europeans, and in many respects exhibit a decided contrast. Instead of our tight short clothes, they wear long floating robes, wrapped loosely round the body. In enter- ing the house, or wishing to show respect, when we would take off the hat, they take off the sandal. They make no use of chairs, tables, plates, knives, forks, or spoons. At meals they seat themselves cross-legged on the floor, and eat out of a large wooden bowl placed in the middle, and filled, not with our solid joints, but usually with stews or sweetmeats. They use no beds, orat least nothing that we would call a bed. An Oriental, going to sleep, merely spreads a mat, adjusts his clothes in a certain position, and lays himself down. Their household furniture is thus exceedingly simple, consisting of little more than carpets covering the room, and sofas set round it, both which are of peculiar beauty and fineness. Their attire is also simple, though composed, among the rich, of fine materials, and profusely ornamented with jewels and precious stones. Their arms and the trappings of their horses are also objects on which they nuke a studied display of magnificence. The beard, over all the East, is allowed to grow, and is regarded with reverence. In their disposition and temper, the people of the East skow striking peculiari- ties. They are grave, serious, and recluse; they have no balls, no theatres, no numerous assemblages; and they regard that lively social intercourse in which Europeans delight, as silly and frivolous. Unless when roused by strong incite- ASIA. 467 ments to action, they remain stretched on their sofas, and view as little better than madmen those whom they see walking about for amusement and recreation. Their moral qualities cannot be very easily estimated, but may be generally ranked below those of Europeans. Their domestic attachments are strong, and their reverence for ancestry deep ; their deportment is usually mild and courteous ; and they show themselves capable of generous and benevolent actions. The sen- timents and conduct of the Asiatics towards the female sex are such as cannot exist without a general degradation of character. The practice of polygamy, with the jealous confinement to which it naturally leads, seems to be the radical source of this evil. The exclusion of the sex from society ; the Hindoo maxim which prohibits them from reading, writing, and being present at religious cere- monies; are evidently parts of a general system for reducing them to an inferior rank in the scale of creation. It is true there is one local example (in Thibet) of an opposite system, — female sway, and a plurality of husbands ; but this is evi- dently no more than a capricious exception to the general rule. The pure and refined system of Christianity, though it was first communicated to Asia, has not maintained its ground. Two systems of faith divide Asia between them : one is that of Mahomet, which, by the arms of his followers and of the | conquering Tartars of Central Asia, has been thoroughly established over all the western tracts as far as the Indus. It even became, for centuries, the ruling reli- gion in India, though without ever being that of the body of the people. The other is the Hindoo religion, divided into its two great sects of Brahma and Buddha ; the former occupying the whole of Hindoostan, the latter having its centre in Thi- bet, filling all the east of Asia and Tartary, and penetrating even north of the Altai. The useful arts are cultivated in the Asiatic empires with somewhat peculiar diligence. Agriculture is carried on with great industry and care, though by less skilful processes, and with much ruder machinery, than in Europe. A much smaller amount of capital, particularly in live stock, is employed upon the land. J The cultivators scarcely rise above the rank of peasantry. The chief expenditure is upon irrigation ; for, in all these tropical regions, water alone is required to pro- duce plentiful crops. Asia has also a number of manufactures, which, though con- ducted with small capitals and simple machinery, are not equalled in richness and beauty by those of any other part of the world. All the eflbrts of European art and capital have been unequal fully to imitate the carpets of Persia, the muslins of India, the porcelain of China, and the lacquered ware of Japan. Commerce, though fettered by the jealousy of the great potentates, is very active throughout Asia. The commerce of Europe is principally maritime ; that of Africa princi- pally inland. Asia combines both. Her interior caravan trade is very consider- able, though much diminished since Europe ceased to be supplied by this channel. The native maritime trade on her southern coasts is also considerable, but the foreign trade, particularly that carried on by the English nation with India and China, has now acquired a superior importance. The animal kingdom of this great continent is as vast, as the climate of the regions it comprehends is diversified. The elephant, though never bred in a tame state, may be placed at the head of its domestic animals. The inhabitants of India appear to have known and prac- tised, at the time Alexander's army entered the country, the very same modes of capturing, training, and employing them, which are used at the present day. Its services appear to be universal, and it is as essential to the Indian sportsman am a good horse to an English fox-hunter. Domestication has so far counteracted the instinct of nature, that tame elephants are employed to decoy and catch their wild brethren. Immense troops of the latter still roam over the northern parts of India, in Ceylon, Chin India, particularly in Laos, and probably in all the larger of the neighbouring islands. White elephants are occasionally met with. They are, however, so rare that the king of Siam considered the possession of six individuals at one time, a cir- cumstance peculiarly auspicious to his reign. They are believed to contain the spirit of some departed monarch, and as such have the rank and title of a king, 468 ASIA. and have also numerous attendants who wait on and feed them with the greatest care and solicitude. When taken abroad, the people, both in Siam and Birmah, are obliged to prostrate themselves, as before their actual sovereign. The white elephants in those countries are mostly brought from the interior district of Laos, and are of both sexes. The hair on their bodies is generally very thin, and ap- proaches to the flesh colour. The common domestic animals of Asia present greater varieties of species than those of any other region, and though no longer found, except in a few in- stances, in a state of nature, are still proverbial for their symmetry and vigour. In Arabia, particularly, the horse is of all other animals the object of most especial care and value. In no other part of the world does he display so much gentle- ness, intelligence, and spirit. The nomadic and pastoral nations which have from time immemorial occupied the plains of Asia, are universally an equestrian peo- ple. They may be said to live almost on horseback, and indeed it would be im- possible for them to carry on their predatory expeditions, or to traverse the vast steppes of the central districts, without the aid of this noble animal. His flesh also supplies them with their favourite food, and the milk of the mare is the greatest dainty of a Tartar feast. Wild horses are reported to exist in the inte- rior of Tartary, where the inhabitants hunt them for the sake of their flesh. No- thing can present a greater contrast than the comparison of the degraded and de- generate ass of Europe with the same animal in his native country. Instead of the dejected air, shaggy coat, pinched dimensions, and miserable, half-starved ap- pearance, which he presents in these countries, the ass of Persia, Syria, and the Levant, approaches nearer to the large size of the horse, and partakes much of his beautiful symmetry of form, noble carriage, and unrivalled speed. The camel and dromedary are no doubt of Asiatic origin. They are mentioned among the earliest lists of the flocks and herds of the patriarchs. The former, which is distinguished from the latter by having two humps on the back instead of one, appears to have been in all ages more limited and confined in its geogra- phical distribution than the latter species. The camel is found chiefly, if not solely, among the wandering Tartars, from the confines of Siberia to the northern ridges of the Himmaleh Mountains; whilst the dromedary spreads not only over Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, but extends into India, and probably even into China, and is also widely spread over all the northern and sandy parts of Africa. Of the ox kind, four distinct varieties have been from time immemorial domes- ticated in different parts of Asia. The common Indian ox is the usual beast of draught and burden in Hindoostan, and, from its great speed, is frequently used for the saddle, even by Europeans. The Yak has been long domesticated in the central parts of the continent, and especially among the Tartars. The buffalo, common in India and China, supplies the inhabitants with milk and butter. The fourth species, the Gayal, frequent among the Burmese and in Thibet, is also found wild in many parts, and is, in that state, a formidable animal, being as much dreaded by the native hunters as the tiger. The varieties of sheep and goats are numerous in Asia. The broad-tailed sheep is widely dispersed. The tail is the best part of the animal, for the flesh is dry and insipid ; and instead of wool, the body is covered with a short coarse hair, unfit for manufacturing purposes. From the fleece of the shawl-goat of Cash- mere, the Indians manufacture those rich and valuable shawls which are so highly esteemed in Europe, as well as throughout the East. * The Angora goat is an in- ferior variety of the shawl-goat, whose long wool is of a tolerably fine texture, but not adapted to the same purposes as the richer wool of the Cashmerian animal. The hog, though found wild in most parts of Asia, is a domestic only among the Chinese, who appear to esteem its flesh in proportion to the detestation with which it is regarded by the followers of Mohammed and Buddha. The southern parts of Asia are chiefly characterized as being the native region of those large apes which the credulity of early travellers metamorphosed into wild men, and which some modern naturalists would persuade us form part of the I same order as that to which we ourselves belong. Various species of these dis- ASIA. 469 gusting caricatures of the human form are scattered in the southern extremities of the two great peninsulas of Hindoostan, Malaya, and the neighbouring islands. Among the carnivorous animals are three or four species of bears. One of these, the Syrian bear, lately discovered on Mount Lebanon, is frequently men- tioned by the sacred writers. The others inhabit the Himmaleh and other more eastern ranges, except one species which is found in the jungles on the plains of India. Besides these, the common brown bear of Europe, and the white or polar bear, abound in Siberia, Kamtschatka, and the shores of the Frozen Ocean. The tiger, the most savage and formidable of all the rapacious animals, exists only in Asia and the neighbouring isles. The rimau dahan, or black tiger, a large spe- cies but lately described, inhabits Siam and Sumatra; and the leopard and panther are common among the forests of India. The lion also has been lately found in the province of Gujerat, but, unlike the African variety, he is without a mane, and appears to be altogether a much less formidable animal. The striped hysena is common in all the warmer parts of the continent, and various species of wild dogs and foxes are everywhere abundant. Two different species of rhinoceros are known to inhabit the continent of India, and the great islands contiguous to the Malayan peninsula. The continental, or one-horned species, is a common inhabitant of the swampy banks of all the great rivers. Thicker and more unwieldy, for his size, than the elephant, he exhibits, in confinement, much of the singular sagacity observed in that gigantic animal. A young one, lately alive in Paris, evinced many such habits. He smelt at every- thing, and seemed to prefer sweet fruits, and even sugar itself, to any other food. Like the elephant, he collected and held everything intended for his mouth with the movable upper lip ; and when he ate hay, he formed it first into little bundles, which he placed between his teeth by means of his tongue. It is in a wild state only that the bodily strength of this creature can be fully estimated, and this is frequently displayed in a surprising degree. Its power is sufficient to overcome the active ferocity of the lion and the ponderous strength of the elephant, but this is only exerted in self-defence. The rhinoceros derives all his food from the vege- table kingdom, and is quiet and peaceable when left to himself. The varieties of deer are numerous, while the antelopes are but scanty. Of the former, one species, the Thibet musk, is peculiar. It is about the size of a small goat. Both sexes are without horns; but the musk is produced by the male only. This perfume has always been held in high esteem throughout the East, and when genuine and pure, is said to be sometimes sold for its weight in gold This animal inhabits the highest points of the Himmaleh and Thibetian mountains, seldom descending below the snow line, and leaping among the rocks and preci- pices with the security of the chamois and ibex. There are also several kinds of gazelles, one species of which furnishes the poet with a favourite metaphor ; ga- zelle-eyed being one of the highest complimentary epithets that can be bestowed upon a lady. The birds of Asia are of great variety, and many of them of splendid plumage. The peacock is the glory of Indian ornithology, and appears to have been intro- duced into Europe about the time of Alexander. It is, without doubt, the most superb bird in creation, although a familiar acquaintance with its form takes some thing from that admiration which it would otherwise excite. It occurs in the greatest profusion over the extensive plains of India, where it grows to a much larger size than with us, and where domesticated individuals occur sometimes of a pure white colour. The most valuable of our domestic fowls, the common cock and hen, are still found wild in the woods of India, and are replaced in the adja- cent islands by other varieties more beautiful than that domesticated in Europe. The pheasants are of numerous species, and are remarkable for the varied and brilliant colours of their plumage. The cassawary is a native of Chin India and the large islands of Malaysia. Like the ostrich, it does not fly, but uses its wings as an assistance in running. Its speed is great, and it nearly equals that bird in size, and is distinguished by the same voracious appetite. Parroquets and parrots are numerous. Many of the latter are eminently beau- tiful, and one, the vernal parrot, is not larger than a sparrow. The gigantic crane, 40 470 ASIA. in its uncommon voracity and in the nature of its food, is completely a bird of prey. It is sufficiently high, when walking, to appear like a native Indian. The rainy season in India is always preceded by the arrival of these and other cranes and herons in great numbers, and the destruction they must create, not only among fish, but land reptiles of every description, is so well known and appre- ciated by the natives, that they hold these birds in great estimation. There are a multitude of other birds in Asia, many of which are remarkable for their rich plumage or their pleasing songs. Some of the spicy groves are the haunts of beautifully coloured pigeons, parrots, and other gay birds, which impart peculiar splendour to these regions of perpetual summer. » Besides the above enumerated birds, nearly all the European species of corre- sponding latitude are found, even in the most distant parts of the continent, ap- parently so identical that specimens from the two localities cannot be distinguish- ed even by the difference of a feather. The common house-sparrow, for instance, is found in the Himmaleh Mountains, and is as abundant about the villages of Upper Nepaul as in any part of England. The fishes of Asia are so nearly similar to those of the other continents, as to render an account of them not so necessary as of other divisions of the animal kingdom : like birds, they possess powers of locomotion denied to land animals, and it is consequently to the latter class only that we can look for those striking peculiarities which would render an account of them interesting to the general reader. The reptiles of Asia are exceedingly numerous, and of great variety of species. In the rivers of India are found large crocodiles, different from those of Africa. The serpents are various, and many are of the most deadly nature : one species, only an inch and a half long, is said to destroy the person bitten by causing an unconquerable and deadly sleep. The southern regions and islands are inhabited by others of a very large size, as the great Python, usually considered the same with the Boa Constrictor of the New World and the Anaconda most common in Ceylon, said to be of sufficient bulk and strength to destroy the tiger in its deadly folds. The celebrated hooded snake, or Cobra de Capello, is peculiar to India, and, with other species, is well known to be tamed by the Indian jugglers. The Chameleons are natives of Asia no less than of Africa, and are now known to comprise several species. One of the most remarkable reptiles yet discovered is probably the flying dragon, from which perhaps the fabulous writers of an- tiquity derived their notion of the formidable monster figured in old books. This, however, is a small and inoffensive little animal, distinguished from the lizard tribe by having on each side of the body a broad membrane like a wing, strength- ened by bony processes ; it wanders about trees in search of insects, and is thus enabled to spring from bough to bough, and support itself a few minutes in the air. The insects of Asia are inferior in number and variety only to the New World. The Atlas beetle, near five inches in length, from its size and singularity of shape, is among the most remarkable of its kind. The splendid Buprestis Vittata, with many others of equal size and beauty, are so much admired by the Chinese that they are kept in cages when alive, and when dead are used as ornaments for dress. All the varieties of the silk-worm are found in Asia: one species alone has been introduced into Europe ; but the Asiatics cultivate several others, from which garments are made less fine in texture, but much more durable, than those fabricated from the common species. The white wax insect, about the size of a fly, is found in China, and is remarkable as producing an important necessary of life : the whole animal is covered with a white powder, that is imparted to the stems of the plants on which it is found in thick clusters : the natives collect this, and melt it with vegetable oil, which, when cold, becomes as firm as bees- wax, and when made into candles is reckoned superior to that article. As a medicinal drug, it is in high estimation throughout China. Some of the shell-fish of Asia are peculiar ; of these, the hammer-shaped oysters are found adhering in great numbers to the submarine rocks on the south- ern coasts. The Pearl Oysters are abundant in similar situations, and, when ASIA. 471 large, furnish that beautiful substance called mother-of-pearl. The oriental pearl- fisheries are well known to produce great wealth : the principal of these are on the west coast of Ceylon, and along the shores and islands of Hajar on the Per- sian Gulf. The former has greatly declined in value, but the latter is said to be on the increase. The most remarkable species of shell-fish in the world is the Tridacna gigas, of which the valves sometimes exceed four feet in length, and, with the animal, is of the enormous weight of 500 pounds : it adheres to the rocks by such a strong ligament, that it can only be separated with a hatchet. The cartilage of the hinge, when cut and polished, is so beautifully iridescent as nearly to rival the opal. The various languages spoken between the Ganges, the Bay of Bengal, and the Atlantic Ocean, throughout Western Asia, present numerous and striking resemblances, and are supposed to have had a common origin. The Sanscrit is the language of the sacred books of the Brahminical religion, and the parent of the numerous dialects of Hindoostan. The Bali, which resembles the Sanscrit, is the sacred language of the Buddhists, in Thibet, Ceylon, and Farther India. j The principal languages of Hindoostan are the Tamul, Bengalee, Hindoostanee, ) ! and Ceylonese. The language of the Gypsies, or Zinganes, who wander through- out Europe, differs little from the dialects of northern India. The Persian language excels in sweetness and melody, and has been much cultivated. The modern Persian has a mixture of Arabic and Turkish. The language of Cabul or Afghanistan is derived apparently from the Persian and Sanscrit, and is commonly called Pooshtoo. The Persian only is used here in composition. The Bucharian is also derived from the Persian. The Aremaic family comprises the Hebrew and Chaldee, which are dead languages; the Syriac, which is only spoken to a limited extent; the Arabic, and the Ethiopic. The Arabic has been spoken and written through a long series of ages. It is the lan- guage of the Koran, or sacred book of the Mahometans; and has thus been spread as extensively as the religion of the Prophet It is spoken in its greatest purity in Yemen, and is admired for its copiousness and strength. Corrupt dialects are spoken throughout Western Asia, Independent Tartary, and Northern Africa. It is taught in schools in all Mahometan countries. The Armenian is a peculiar language, but evidently allied to the other languages of the European race. The languages of eastern Asia, comprising those of China, Corea, Japan, Thi- bet, and Chin India, are very peculiar in their structure, and have many resem- blances to each other, either in radical words or grammatical form : they are classed together under the name of Monosyllabic languages. The Chinese writ- ten language is a collection of hieroglyphical characters, one of which, either simple or compound, is employed to express every idea; thus, the characters of sun and moon united, denote splendour. The number of elementary characters is stated to be 214 ; the compound exceed 40,000. The language of conversation consists of about 330 monosyllables. These are so varied by accents as to form 1300 words ; but the variation is so slight, that it is often necessary to trace the character with the finger in the air, in order to make a word intelligible. . The Japanese, the Corean, the Thibetan, and the Anamic, which is spoken in Cochin China, Tonquin, and Cambodia, contain many Chinese words. The Avan ! or Birman, has many resemblances to the Thibetan. The Siamese is the most peculiar in its character, and extends throughout Lacs, into the southern provinces of China and also into Assam. The Peguan, in the south of the Birman empire, is little known. The languages of northern and central Asia, are lees cultivated and less under- stood than the preceding. The Mongolian and its dialects are spoken throughout the greater part of Chinese Tartary, and extend from Thibet on the south, to the Yenesei on the north. The Tungousian is an original language, of which the Mantchoorian of eastern Tartary is a refined and written dialect. They are spo- ken from the peninsula of Corea to the northern Ocean. The Tungousian and Mongolian present numerous striking resemblances to each other, and to the Tur- co-Tartarian languages, both in radical words and grammatical forms. The prin- cipal remaining families of northern Asia, are the Samoyeds and Finns on the 472 ASIATIC RUSSIA. west, extending into Europe; the Ostiaks, in the centre; the Kurilians, on the coast of eastern Tartary ; and the Koriaks, Kamtschatdales, and Zcheiktchi, who occupy the north-eastern extremity of the continent. Their languages are imper- fectly known, and their connexion is not understood. In all estimates relative to the population of this great continent, the utmost uncertainty prevails : nothing like the enumerations made by the authority of some of the European governments, and by that of the United States, have ever been attempted, except in the case of the pretended census made in China, the extrava- gance of which renders it questionable : that made of Siberia, in 1801, from the great extent and thinly populated state of the country, together with the unsettled and roving character of the numerous tribes by which it is peopled, makes it of doubtful authority. The following statement conforms to the more moderate enumerations of the most approved writers : Asiatic Russia 5,000,000 Turkey in Asia 8,000,000 Syrfa, including Palestine 2,500,000 Arabia 8,000,000 Persia 8,500,000 Afghanistan and Beloochistan 8,000,000 Hindoostan 142,000,000 Chin India 14,000,000 Chinese Empire 200,000,000 Japan 15,000,000 Independent Tartary 10,000,000 Total 421,000,000 ASIATIC RUSSIA. Asiatic Russia is an immense tract of country, stretching from Russia in Europe to the Pacific Ocean, an extent in length of about 4000 miles, and from the Arctic Ocean on the north, to the borders of the Chinese empire. Independ- ent Tartary, Persia, and Turkey on the south, exhibiting an average breadth of about 1800 miles, and containing an area of probably near 6,250,000 square miles. This region comprises Siberia, which is by far the most extensive portion of it, together with the territories lying on both sides of the Volga river ; and north of the Caspian Sea also, those traversed by the great chain of Caucasus, and situated between the Caspian and Black Seas. The population of the whole region, though imperfectly known, may be assumed at about 5,000,000 souls. SIBERIA. Siberia contains nearly a third part of the continent of Asia ; a great portion of which is included within the limits of the Frozen Zone, constituting one of the most forlorn and desolate regions of the globe. The face of the country, for the most part, like European Russia, tends to a level, but by far the greater portion has not been much traversed, and is therefore but imperfectly known. The bor- ders of the Arctic Ocean consist chiefly of marshy plains buried in almost per- petual ice and snow, and are nearly destitute of inhabitants. Much of the interior of Siberia is occupied by those wide and extensive deserts, called Steppes, or elevated plains, which are of a dull uniformity of aspect; marshy, covered with long rank grass and aquatic shrubs, and filled with almost numberless saline lakes ; but other parts in which the soil and climate admit the growth of trees, abound in exten- sive forests, and many portions of the southern districts are comparatively rich and fertile. For its western boundary, Siberia has the long chain of the Urals, which rise I to the height of not more than from 3000 to 4000 feet : at the eastern extremity j of the southern border commences the vast Altaian range, which under the various ■!< • ruimm ASIATIC RUSSIA. 473 names of Urgan, Daba, Great Altai, Little Altai, Yablanoy, and Stannovoy Moun- tains, extend eastward to Kamtschatka. The rivers of this region, in regard to length of course and volume of water, rival the greatest of the ancient world, and have mostly a northern direction, flowing into the Frozen Ocean ; the shores of which are barred by almost perpetual ice. The greatest of these are the Obe, the Yenisei, and the Lena; the secondary rivers are chiefly the tributaries of the large ones; besides these, are the Olensk, the Yana, the Indighirca, and the Kolima. Siberia contains one large lake, the Baikal, 300 miles in length by 50 in breadth ; its waters are fresh, and abound with sturgeon and other fish ; also with seals, the presence of which seems very remarkable, considering the dis- tance from the sea. The chief of the other lakes, are the Tchany and Soumy, the Piacinskoie, and the Taimourskoie. No part of this extensive country belonged to Russia, till about the middle of the 15th century, nor was it completely subdued and attached to it, till it was conquered by Peter the Great and Catherine II., in the early part of the eighteenth. The inhabitants were formerly almost wholly wanderers, but a large portion now reside in towns, villages, and settled habitations. Siberia is divided into the two great governments of Tobolsk or Western, and that of Irkoutsk or Eastern Siberia: these are subdivided; the former into the provinces of Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Kolhyvan; and the latter into those of Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, Nertchinsk, Ochotsk, and Kamtschatka. The population of this great region is extremely thin and widely scattered, not averaging more than one to every five miles: the enumeration of 1801, give for the whole number of inhabit- ants 1,038,356, which, if the area is reckoned at 5,000,000 square miles, will be about the result stated. Siberia serves as a place of banishment for delinquents, and many prisoners of state have been sent here ; oftentimes men of rank and intelligence, who have greatly contributed to civilize and improve those parts of the country to which they have been banished. The two great capitals, Tobolsk and Irkoutsk, have acquired, to a considerable extent, the polish of European society. Hospitality, the virtue of rude and recluse regions, is said to be most liberally exercised throughout Siberia. On the other hand, the Russian vice of drunkenness seems to be copied with most ample addition. In no country are there found so many different races of people as in the Rus- sian empire. The chief of the various native tribes of Siberia, are the Samoyeds, Tungouses, Ostiaks, Tartars, Buraits, Yakoutes, Koriaks, Tchuktchi, &c. On the extreme shores of the Arctic Ocean wander the Samoyeds, who have been called the last of men. They are a meagre and stunted race, in their habits filthy in the extreme, and sunk in gross superstition and idolatry. The Laplander in Europe, and the Esquimaux in North America, are very similar in appearance, and are probably the same people. The Tungouses are found chiefly on the Yenisei and Lena, and their tributaries: they possess herds of reindeer; but nearly their sole employments are hunting and fishing along the great Siberian rivers. They are described by those who have had intercourse with them, as frank, honest, and brave; and they are mostly votaries of the Shaman creed. The Ostiaks are found on the Obe and its tributaries: they are like the Samoyeds of diminutive size, with hair of a yellowish or reddish tint, and features destitute of beauty. They live mostly by fishing, and occasionally by the chase; and are said to be distin- guished by great simplicity of manners, goodness of heart, and open hospitality. The Tartars people the southern parts of Siberia, from the Urals to the Upper Obe ; these are attached to the general habits of their countrymen, a wandering life occupied almost exclusively in the rearing of cattle, particularly horses, making horse flesh and fermented mares' milk their favourite luxuries. The Buraits, who live in the vicinity of Lake Baikal, are a Tartar tribe, and similar in their habits and modes of life to the rest of that race. The Yakoutes occupy the banks of the Lena, and in their habits and pursuits, much resemble the Tungouses, though they are considered, on the whole, as less daring and active. Far to the north, in particular, they dwindle into a poor and stunted race. In the extreme north-east part of Siberia reside the Tchuktchi, a people 40* ~ 3K 474 ASIATIC RUSSIA. who have preserved entire the independence so long lost by all the other tribes of these regions. They meet the Russians, however, for purposes of trade at the fair of Ostroonoi, of whom they are extremely jealous, having been formerly much imposed on in trading, but are now rendered by experience more wary and cautious. They exchange tobacco, hardware, cutlery, &c. for sea-horse teeth, and the skins and furs of the various sea and land animals, of their own and the opposite coasts of America. They are described as a stout, rough, honest, bold, and fearless race. Agriculture in Siberia is extremely limited ; a very great portion of the soil being entirely unfitted by nature for this important pursuit. The finest farming district extends from the Irtysh to the Angara, along the base of the Altai Moun- tains : here good crops of oats, rye, and barley are produced ; culture is, however, limited not only by the indolence of the people, and the want of a distant market, but by the almost exclusive taste of the Tartar inhabitants for pasturage and the rearing of horses. The most important natural productions of Siberia are drawn from its mines. Those of the Urals are of gold, platina, copper, and iron ; of which the supply of the two last is very great. The mines of the Altai are in the provinces of Kol- hyvan and Nertchinsk: they are of gold, silver, and copper: these mines are worked on behalf of the government with slaves, who consist mostly of banished convicts; a great variety of minerals are also found. Among the Urals are met with diamonds, emeralds, topazes, and rock salt, of which the latter is worked to a great extent ; and the Altai mountains produce the topaz, the beryl, the onyx, lapis lazuli, and red garnets. Talc also occurs on the banks of the Vitim, which supplies the place of window-glass all over Asiatic and part of European Russia. It is in many cases nearly as transparent as that article, without being liable to break. It is divided into thin laminae, which, like pieces of glass, are valuable in proportion to their size. The commerce of Siberia is confined mostly to two branches ; one formed by the exportation of metals, minerals, and furs ; and the other, a transit trade, con- sisting in an overland intercourse, carried on from Europe across Siberia with the Chinese Empire, and also with the regions on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The trade between Russia and China is transacted at the frontier and adjoining parts of Kiachta, on the one side, and Maimatchin on the other. The value of articles exchanged on both sides, is supposed to amount annually to about $2,000,000. Tobolsk, the capital of all Siberia, stands at the confluence of the Tobol and the Irtysh: it consists of two towns, the upper and the lower, which are con- structed wholly of wood, with the exception of a few public buildings. It is an agreeable place of residence, the society being formed on the European model. The inhabitants are social, and living is extremely cheap. The business transacted at this place is great, as all the trade of Siberia passes through it. Population about 15,000. Omsk on the Irtysh, Barnaule on the Obe, and Tomsk on the Tom, are all considerable towns, containing respectively 7500, 8000, and 10,000 inha- bitants. Irkoutsk, on the Angara River, is the handsomest place in Siberia, and is the capital of the eastern division of that country. The houses are chiefly of wood, but the streets are broad and spacious. Some of the public buildings are very fine, and there are twelve handsome churches. The inhabitants are about 12,000 in number, and consist chiefly of merchants connected with houses in St. Petersburg, and of the civil and military officers of government. The shops of Irkoutsk are filled with nankeens, porcelain, lacquered ware, and other articles of Chinese dress and furniture ; and it has almost the aspect of a Chinese city. Upwards of 1000 miles to the north-east is Yakoutsk, on the Lena River, in a bleak and wintry region, where the ground is still frozen in June, and the river is passable on sleds in September: its importance is derived from its trade in furs with the surrounding district. Population, 7000. Ochotsk, the emporium of the north-eastern districts of Asia, on the shores of the sea of the same name, and more than 4000 miles east of St. Petersburg, is a neat and thriving town of 1500 inhabitants: nearly half of these are in the employ of government. Ochotsk ASIATIC RUSSIA. 475 collects all the furs and skins of Kamtschatka and North-west America. Most of the other places in Siberia are mere villages or trading posts. Near the mouths of the Lena and Yana Rivers the Arctic Ocean presents a number of isles, of which some are large: the chief appear to be Kotelnoi, Fadef- skoy, and New Siberia. They have been carefully examined by the hunter Liackof, and latterly by Lieut. Anjou, in 1821 and 1825. The aspect of these shores is, as might be expected, dreary and desolate ; but they present one indication that is truly extraordinary, and gives much room for thought to those who specu- late on the changes and destiny of the earth. There are found numerous bones and other remains of the elephant, an animal now altogether foreign to this part of the globe, or to any which is not separated from it by nearly a fourth of its cir- cuit. Remains of that huge animal, of an extinct race, the mammoth, are also found at this extremity of Siberia. A large and long peninsula, of peculiar character, called Kamtschatka, extends into the ocean which waters the eastern extremity of Asia. This territory is about 600 miles in length, by 300 in its greatest breadth. Its position on the globe ought to give to the greater part of it a climate like that of Britain; but the winds blowing from the plains of Siberia, and from the vast polar seas by which it is surrounded, induce an Arctic climate, and allow scarcely three months of summer. This cold is increased by the chain of mountains which traverses nearly its whole length, some of whose peaks rise to an extraordinary height. The Kamtschatdales form a peculiar race, with flat features, small eyes, thin lips, and scarcely any beard. Their stature is diminutive, with large head and short legs. Since the Russian sway put an end to the wars which they were wont to wage with considerable fury, they have passed into a peaceable, honest, lazy, drunken, servile race, careless of the future, and addicted to coarse sensuality. They have houses both for winter and summer. In their domestic habits, the most remarkable peculiarity is the use of dogs harnessed to the sledges, and employed to draw them. At their high festivals, these people give themselves up to an almost frantic mirth, which astonishes those who have viewed the sluggishness of their ordinary deportment. Their favourite dance is one in which all the actions and motions of the bear are represented to the life ; and the violent and uncouth attitudes assumed for this purpose excite in the spectators rapturous admiration. Although the Kamtschatdales, by connexion with Russia, have gained an ex- emption from war, they have suffered deeply from the introduction of ardent spi- rits, and of various contagious diseases. Their numbers have thus been diminished, and do not at present exceed 4600, of whom little more than half are natives; the rest, Russians and Koriaks. Bolcheretskoi and Kamtschatka are small villages, which pass for towns; but the only place of any real importance is Petropaulov- skoi, or the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul, a thriving little port, by which the merchants of Ochotsk carry on almost all the trade of Kamtschatka. An Archipelago of small islands, called the Kuriles, stretch from the southern point of Kamtschatka to Jesso, a line of nearly 800 miles. Twenty-two are known, of which nineteen are subject to Russia. Some are uninhabited, from the want of water ; others rival Kamtschatka in the abundance of game and fish. The inhabitants are peaceable and well-disposed ; they live nearly as the Kamt- schatdales, but in a neater and more civilized manner ; and some of the southern islands have imbibed a tincture of Japanese habits. Their subjection to Russia consists almost wholly in paying a tribute of furs and sea-calves. ASTRACHAN, &c. Having briefly described Siberia, it now remains, in order to complete the view of Asiatic Russia, to mention that part of it extending from the former region far to the south-west, and comprising the countries bordered on the east by the Ural River and the Caspian Sea ; on the north and west by the Volga and Don Rivers and the Black Sea; and on the south by the monarchies of Persia and Turkey; the whole comprising an irregular territory of not less than 1400 miles in length, and varying in breadth from 300 to 750 miles. The southern part of this region, extending south of the Rivers Kuban and Terek, and traversed by the mountainous 476 ASIATIC RUSSIA. ridges of the great Caucasian chain, exhibits an entirely distinct character from the northern portion, and will in consequence be termed Caucasian Russia. The countries north of the Kuban and Terek Rivers, and extending to the south-west corner of Siberia, comprises the entire Asiatic governments of Oufa, Orenburg, Astrachan, and Caucasus; also, portions of Kazan, Simbirsk, and Saratov, together with part of the country of the Don Cossacks. In this territory the most prominent object is the Caspian. It is the largest inland sea in the world, reaching, in its greatest dimension from north to south, about 600 miles, and varying in breadth from 100 to 300. This mighty inland expanse is supplied on the north by the Volga, which, after traversing, in a course of 2000 miles, the whole of European and part of Asiatic Russia, pours in the united waters of those vast regions. On the west it receives ample streams from the mighty peaks of Caucasus and Ararat; the Kooma, the Terek, the Araxes, the Kizil Ozen, and some others. On the east the Attruck enters the Caspian ; but by far the greater portion of this border consists of arid and dreary deserts, from which the Caspian Sea does not derive any accession to its magnitude. The waters of the Caspian, unless at the immediate influx of the great rivers, are as salt as those of the sea, with the admixture of a bitter taste, arising from a portion of Glauber salt, supposed to be produced by the decomposition of the naphtha which is found on its shores in considerable quantity. The navigation is dangerous, particularly in the northern part, on account of the heavy and sudden gales which descend from the high cliffs of the western shore, and of the rocks and shallows with which this quarter abounds. There are no good harbours from Astrachan to Derbent. Of the shores of this great sea, the southern belongs to Persia, the eastern to Independent Tartary and to the country of the Turcomans. The western and northern are subject to Russia, the region we are now to delineate. The immediate shores of the Caspian Sea, composed of the deltas of the rivers Volga and Ural, and forming the province of Astrachan, are flat and marshy. Far- ther north, the provinces of Oufa and Orenburg rise insensibly into a mountainous elevation, till they terminate in the declivity of that great chain which separates Europe from Asia. Here these regions participate in the rich metalliferous cha- racter which distinguishes the Siberian districts on the Asiatic side. The country is capable of every kind of culture, but is chiefly covered with rich pastures. Its eastern frontier is formed by the Ural Mountains. From these flows to the Caspian a river called also the Ural, and which separates Russia from the Kirguis and Kalmucks : on this stream is situated Orenburg, a well-built town of about 2000 houses ; to its market the Tartars bring annually 10,000 horses, and from 40,000 to 60.000 sheep. Hence also numerous caravans depart for Khiva, Bokhara, Khokan, &c. At the head of the Caspian Sea, Astrachan and its district constitutes a govern- ment of which the city forms the capital. The water communications of this place, by the Volga on one side and the Caspian on the other, are very extensive, and enable it to carry on a considerable commerce. Astrachan obtains raw silk from Persia; turquoises from Khorasan; rubies and other gems from the head of the Oxus. Its chief wealth, however, is derived from the vast fishery which it carries on. The quantity of fish obtained, is not only sufficient for domestic con- sumption, but is largely exported ; and the roes of sturgeon, prepared in that pecu- liar form called caviare, form an article of trade for which it is famed. A good deal of salt is obtained from marshy lakes in the neighbourhood : and some fabrics of leather and silk are carried on. The city is surrounded by a wall, and is for the most part poorly built of wood. Some handsome edifices of stone, however, have lately been erected, particularly two commercial halls. The population, amounting to 70,000, forms a various mixture of the people of Europe and Asia : Russians, Greeks, English, French, Persians; even the Hindoos have a small quar- ter appropriated to them. Most of the Persian trade is carried on by the Arme- nians. The government of Astrachan, together with that of Caucasus to the south-west, I consists of a boundless extent of flat steppe, in many places almost desert, but in others capable of supporting a considerable pastoral population. The occupants ASIATIC RUSSIA. 477 are decidedly Tartar. The eastern tribes are Kalmucks, and the western chiefly Xogais, mixed to some extent with the Cossacks of the Don. The Tartar habits and character universally prevail, though the people are reduced by subjection to a somewhat more orderly and industrious way of life than they would spontane- ously adopt CAUCASIAN RUSSIA. Cawasian Russia is that part of the continent situated between the Caspian and Black Seas, and extending from the Kuban and Terek Rivers southward to the Araxes, which forms most part of the boundary line between the empires of Russia and Persia. It forms an irregular territory, stretching from north-west to south-east about 750, and from north-east to south-west 280 miles, comprising the countries known by the names of Circassia, Daghestan, Georgia, Mingrelia and Imeritta, Abasia, &c. The distinguishing feature of this region is the great moun- I tain chain of Caucasus, which, in height, in ruggedness, and in variety of aspect, though not unrivalled, is surpassed but by few in Asia, and even in the whole I world. Its greatest elevation, Mount Elburz, attains the height of 16,600 feet, which is somewhat higher than Mount Blanc. The tribes inhabiting this tract have always been regarded as dwelling on the outer border of the civilized world. They attracted, indeed, the notice of nations with whom they were in somewhat close vicinity, but their annals have never assumed a regular or connected form. In modern times, Georgia, the most powerful of the Caucasian kingdoms, has been distinguished by its contests for independence with the Persian empire, and subsequently as the main theatre of contest between that empire and the rising power of the czar. Russia, after a pretty long struggle, has secured the whole western shore of the Caspian, and all the level tracts between it and the Black Sea. Even the rude mountain tribes are obliged to own a certain homage ; but this, as well as the accompanying tribute, is scanty, and fully compensated by the frequent plundering excursions, against which the Russians with difficulty guard by cordons of troops drawn along their border. Georgia, and still more Circassia, has been distinguished for the athletic strength of its men, and the fine forms of its females; in consequence of which qualities, they have been in great request as domestic slaves over all the Turkish empire. In Egypt, particularly, the offspring of those slaves, kept up by continual accessions, long maintained, under the appel- lation of Mamelukes, a sway superior or paramount to that of its Turkish masters. Turkey possessed, till lately, some ports and districts on the shores of the Black Sea, which enabled her to carry on a considerable traffic, especially in slaves, and also to foment insurrection among the rude mountain tribes. As, however, she has been obliged by the late treaty to cede to Russia the ports of Anapa and Poty, with the districts of Guriel and Akalzike, she may be considered as having en tirely lost her hold of the Caucasian territory. In general, all the Caucasian tribes profess the dogmas of the Mahometan faith, though in a somewhat loose manner, free from the tame and mechanical routine which that religion prescribes. Scarcely any of them possess among themselves, or have imbibed from the Russians, the smallest tincture of literature. They are almost universally addicted to habits of plunder, — that national plunder, on a great scale, which is considered rather a boast than a disgrace, and which is generally familiar to rudetribes who live in the vicinity of more opulent nations. This region presents a varied and interesting vegetation, but only a scanty por- tion of those products which are subservient to the uses of life. Even the lower valleys of Georgia and Mingrelia, though endowed by nature with extreme ferti- lity, are little improved. The inhabitants, ill disposed of themselves to industri- ous culture, are moreover liable to the almost continual ravage of war and pre- datory incursion. Their supply of arms and of foreign luxuries is chiefly derived either from plunder, or from the sale of their people as slaves. Wine in consider- able abundance, though of middling quality ; a little silk from the low southern districts; some skins and furs from the higher, and fine honey from the declivities of the hills, nearly complete the list of their commodities which are fit for the purposes of trade. 478 ASIATIC RUSSIA. South of the Terek and Kuban rise up the mighty precipices of Caucasus. Its highest ranges are clad in perpetual snow ; beneath is the black region of rocks and precipices; while the lower declivities contain a number of well-watered val- leys, forming fine pastoral districts; and, though not capable of high culture, yielding plentifully the inferior products, maize and millet. In these mountain valleys dwell the Circassians. This race have been peculiarly celebrated for their physical qualities. The men, though spare, are tall, handsome, and athletic. But it is the fine form and delicate complexion of the female Circassians, which form so wide a theme of Eastern panegyric. The distinctions of rank and birth are observed in Circassia with all the strict- ness of Highland pride. Under the prince or sovereign, are the uzdens or nobles, who attend him in war or foray, but exercise a sway almost absolute over their own immediate vassals. They are of two kinds; bondsmen, who cultivate the glebe, and armed retainers, who attend him to the field ; which last have often been raised, on this condition, from the inferior rank. The noble Circassians lead that sort of life which is usual with independent chiefs on their own estates, and surrounded by their vassals ; a round of war and feasting, of hunting and jollity. Kabardia, though sometimes described as a distinct territory, is, more properly speaking, a district of Circassia, of which the inhabitants form the principal tribe, and that which approaches nearest to civilization. The Russian territories everywhere border upon, and inclose, Circassia; yet the valour of its inhabitants, and the rapid movements of the light cavalry of which its bands are composed, have set at defiance every effort to reduce it to a state of regular subjection. The Russians, on the contrary, are only able, and that somewhat imperfectly, to protect their own confines from inroad by a chain of strong fortresses. These are chiefly erected along the Terek and Kuban, two considerable streams, which, rising among the loftiest heights of Caucasus, flow for about 400 miles, first north, then the former east till it falls by numerous mouths into the Caspian, the latter west into the Black Sea. Mozdok, on the Terek, is the centre of this line of defence; a town of 3000 people, with a strong garrison. Georgievsk, on the Kooma, is a fortress of smaller magnitude. Near the sources of the Terek is Vladi-Kaukas, a fortress built for the purpose of keep ing open the intercourse with Georgia, &c. In this vicinity is the Scots colony of Karass, which is in a flourishing state ; though the missionary station estab- lished there has not answered expectation. The lower course of the Terek, through a fertile country, presents some in- teresting objects. Its commerce is chiefly carried on by Kislar, or Kisliar, a town described as containing 2000 houses, and about 10,000 inhabitants, of whom 8000 are Armenians. This race, sober and industrious, founded the city in 1736, and carry on all its trade, by which they place themselves in easy and even opulent circumstances. On the extreme heights of Caucasus, amidst a region of barren rocks and eternal snows, are found the Ossetes and Lesghis, formidable and determined rob- bers, who are the scourge and terror of all the surrounding countries. Their habitations, perched on the summits of the loftiest cliffs, and on the edge of the steepest precipices, have a most fearful appearance. There are various little tribes, and septs of greater ones, scattered through all the corners of this mountainous region. Some of these are the Kistes, Jugouches, the Tusches, Karabulaks, &c. To the south, stretching along the western coast of the Caspian, lies the moun- tainous province of Daghestan. Its fertile soil is but imperfectly cultivated, and its long coast presents but few harbours. Tarki is favourably situated on the sea, but the principal place is Derbent, an old town, long the bulwark of the Persian empire, and still exhibiting* imposing military . works. It is now much sunk, having only a population of about 4000 families. On the opposite, or southern declivity of the Caucasus, extends the famous and once powerful kingdom of Georgia. The world, perhaps, does not contain a re- gion more profusely gifted botli with richness and beauty. On its successive mountain stages are raised all the varieties of fruit and grain, both of the tempe- ASIATIC RUSSIA. 479 rate and tropical climates. The woods abound with game ; and the mountains contain in their bosom mines of considerable value. The human race flourishes in an equal degree: the men are distinguished for vigour ; and the females, with the single exception of a darker complexion, are as famed for beauty as those of Circassia. All these bounties of nature, however, have been rendered unavailing by the oppressions of a feudal government, and by the continual wars between the Russians and Persians which have desolated Georgia for more than a century. Through the pressure of these evils, the popu- lation of this fine region is supposed to be reduced to a number not exceeding 320,000 souls. The greater number are not Mahometans, but Greek Christians, I with a large proportion of Armenians, who have in their hands all the traffic of the country. The Russians draw from it a revenue of 800,000 rubles, not nearly sufficient to defray its expenses. The waters of Georgia are chiefly collected by the Kur or Cyrus, which flows first northward, along the foot of a chain of lofty mountains ; but afterwards turns to the east and south, passes by Teflis, and falls into the Caspian on the borders of Ghilan. It has previously received the Araxes, from Ararat. The only city of Georgia, of any importance, or worthy of the name, is Teflis, ! the capital. It is boldly situated on the precipitous banks of the Kur, which I flows here through a deep and gloomy defile covered with immense forests. The Russians make Teflis their head-quarters, and keep there a large military force, which is quartered upon the inhabitants. This is considered a serious grievance, being wholly inconsistent with the habits of oriental seclusion, particularly in re- j gard to the female sex, whose virtue, made hitherto to depend chiefly on the | jealous guard kept over it, is 6aid to have suffered materially from this intrusion. The population of Teflis, in consequence of the evils under which it has suffered, has declined, in the course of the last twenty years, from 22,000 to 15,000. Shirvan, Nakshivan, and Erivan, are districts now merged in Georgia, which for- merly belonged to Persia, from whom the two last were wrested during the late contest. They are, however, much dilapidated by the effects of almost constant warfare. Erivan is a strong fortress, not far from the lake of that name, now greatly impaired. Nakshivan was an ancient and magnificent city, but is at pre- sent in ruins. Shirvan has a fertile soil, which produces rice, wheat, and barley. At the eastern extremity of this district, on the Caspian Sea, is the town of Bakau, or Baku. Near this place is the fire worshipped by the Guebres, or fire-worship- pers, who affirm that it has been burning ever since the flood, and will continue to the end of the world. It is said to proceed from the inflammable nature of the 6oil in certain spots, which, if dug into for a few inches, and a live coal applied, will take fire and continue to burn. Proceeding westward from Georgia to the shores of the Black Sea, we find Mingrelia and Imiretta. The interior tracts are mountainous and rugged ; but Caucasus here slopes downward, and allows to intervene between it and the sea a large plain, moist, fertile, but unwholesome. Floods descending from the heights inundate this watery region. Communicating by the Black Sea with Asia Minor and Constantinople, it supplies them with silk, honey, and, unfortunately, above all, slaves ; the obtaining of which, by purchase, seizure, and every sort of nefa- rious process, forms the principal occupation of the chiefs of Mingrelia. It is calculated that Turkey receives annually from thence about 12,000 of these un- fortunate beings. As the port of Poty, however, at the mouth of the Rione.or Phasis, has by the last treaty been ceded to Russia, that power will henceforth command the trade of Mingrelia. Poty contains about 1000 inhabitants. Redoutkale, Kopi, and Anaklia, partake also of the trade of the country. Pro- ceeding northward along the Black Sea, after an almost impassable range in- habited by a wild race called the Suanee, appears an extended and wooded region, the country of Abasia. The people are a rough variety of the Circassians. They resemble, without equalling, that race in their handsome persons and dignified manners. Secured from foreign invasion by the poverty of their country, and by its immense and entangled forests, they are wasted by intestine contests; and to the various forms of plunder, their situation has tempted them to annex that of 480 TURKEY. piracy. It has also, however, enabled their country to become the theatre of some commerce in the usual Caucasian commodities, that of slaves not excepted. Of this trade, Phanagoria", or Taman, at the mouth of the Kuban, forms a sort of entrepot. Anapa, farther to the south, a considerable port, with a good harbour, was in possession of the Turks till the last treaty, when it was transferred to Russia. The other ports along the coast are Souchukale, Ghelintchik, Mamach, Soukoum-kale, and Isgaour. TURKEY. Asiatic Turkey extends over some of the fairest and finest regions of Asia : no countries in the world are more favoured by nature, or more marked by grand historical features ; and it consists not so much of any one single country, as of several detached and dissimilar states, which the sword, wielded by fanaticism, has combined into one vast heterogeneous mass. This extensive region is bounded on the west by the Archipelago and the Straits of the Dardanelles north of the Black Sea ; east, by Asiatic Russia and Persia ; and south, by Arabia, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea. This region extends from east to west about 1200, and from north to south from 400 to 800 miles, forming an area of about 430,000 square miles. This wide extent of country presents a peculiar variety of culture and aspect. Its ranges of mountains are of great celebrity and of considerable magnitude ; the principal is the extensive chain of Mount Taurus, ranging from the Mediterranean coasts to those of the Caspian Sea, which, with its numerous branches, extends through all the northern portions of this region. Near the north-eastern frontier, the primeval Ararat rears its snowy peaks, reminding mankind of the most memorable event in the physical history of the globe. The chief rivers are the celebrated Euphrates and Tigris, which, commencing in the same region, unite their streams a short distance above their common estuary, and forming the Shat ul Arab, enter the Persian Gulf about 75 miles below Bussorah. The other streams are of smaller magnitude : they are the Sakharia and Kizzil Irmak, flowing into the Black Sea ; and the Meinder, Kodus- chay and others, running into the Mediterranean. Turkey in Asia has but few lakes, and those are nearly all saline. Lake Van, near the eastern frontier, is the most extensive : its waters are so brackish, as to be unfit for use. Lake Nasook, to the north of it, is much smaller. Chains of salt lakes extend through some of the interior parts of Asia Minor, though none of them are of much magnitude. The sea-coasts of this region from the Black Sea, including Syria and Egypt, to Alexandria, are often denominated the Levant, — a term which signifies the quarter where the sun rises : in a more extended sense, it includes also the islands of Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Archipelago. The principles and mode of government are exactly the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. The pachas, invested with the command of extensive terri- tories, receive entire the power of the original despot from whom they derive their appointment. Their distance, indeed, affords them much more ample oppor- tunities of acting independently, and of merely transmitting to the Porte such an amount of tribute and military aid as they can conveniently spare. This imperfect and precarious independence is, generally speaking, the reverse of an improvement in the condition of the unfortunate people. The pacha rules with as complete and tyrannical a sway as the sultan : he is rendered cruel by the dangers by which he is surrounded ; and careless of the welfare of his dis- trict by the precarious tenure on which his place is held. In order to maintain his power, he takes into pay the brave but fierce and predatory inhabitants of the mountains, and must secure their attachment by allowing them liberty to commit plunder and outrage. These countries have, from the earliest ages, been distinguished rather by agricultural industry, and the rearing of cattle, than by the finer manufactures, TURKEY. 481 which they have been accustomed to receive by caravans from the great empires of the east. In most of its districts, however, culture is rendered insecure by the oppression of the pachas, and the ravages of the Arabs, against which the govern- ment cannot, or at least does not, afford protection. Hence, in many parts, which were formerly covered with the richest harvests, no trace of fertility remains, except only in their overgrown and deserted pastures. The upper tracts of Asia Minor and Armenia, where horses and cattle are reared, are both less exposed to inroad, and better able to defend themselves, though they too often abuse their strength to plunder the inhabitants of the neighbouring plains. Here, however, is produced the fine goat's hair or Mohair of Angora, which is sought in Europe as a material of some valuable manufactures. The manufactures of Asiatic Turkey are chiefly of an ordinary kind, coarse, and for internal consumption only. Yet silk, cotton, leather, and soap are staples of the Levant ; and the two latter find a place in the markets of Europe. At Tokat there is a great fabric of copper vessels. The women among the wander- ing tribes in the upper districts weave the admired Turkey carpets; but the finest are made in the mountain districts of Persia. No part of the world appears more expressly destined to be the seat of an ex- tensive commerce. The command of the Mediterranean, the numerous coasts and islands by which it is surrounded, its position at the connecting point of the three continents, and its contiguity to countries whose dissimilar tastes and pro- ductions peculiarly fit them to supply each other's deficiencies, are advantages which naturally rendered it the earliest and most favoured seat of commerce. The splendour of its ancient emporia excited the astonishment of the world ; and they continued for a lengthened period, notwithstanding the hostile influence of revolution and oppression, to preserve a considerable portion of their early com- merce and magnificence. These, however, have at length almost totally disap- peared. Since the discovery, of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the Indian trade has taken almost wholly a different route. The internal distractions which agitated Persia for half a century rendered the intercourse with that em- pire both dangerous and unprofitable. The state of social existence, religion, learning, and manners, so far as respects the ruling people, is precisely the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. They present that austere, uniform, and gloomy character, which the precepts of Ma- homet tend to form, and which is produced in its utmost purity in the cities of Turkey. The native and subject races, however, exhibit marked distinctions. The Greek population, which in Europe makes the prominent feature among the conquered people, exists only to a limited extent on the coasts and islands of Asia Minor. In its room all the mountainous Asiatic tracts contain bold and hardy tribes, who, availing themselves of their distance and the declining power of the pachas, admit little control over their internal proceedings, and establish indepen- dent and sometimes almost republican governments. The high and uncultivated table-lands in the interior of Asia Minor are occu- pied by a wandering and pastoral race called Turcomans. All their habits are decidedly Tartar; and with the domestic simplicity of this race they combine its love of war and booty, with no nice consideration how this latter may be obtain- ed. When summoned, however, to fight under the banner of the empire, and to unsheath the sword against the infidels, they are prompt in obeying the call, and form the main military strength of Turkey. They serve a short campaign with- out pay, but with little ardour, and with full license of plunder. Though they cannot meet disciplined troops in the shock of battle, they make excellent irregu- lar cavalry. The mountains of the eastern frontier of Turkey produce races exhibiting de- cided peculiarities. The ancient kingdom of Armenia, situated in a mountainous corner of Western Asia, has remained comparatively little affected by that mighty train of revolution which has swept over that region. Their course of life much resembles that of the Jews, with whom they are often found in conjunction. But what in the latter is sordid and grasping parsimony, appears scarcely in the Ar- menian to exceed the limits of steady and meritorious industry. This people, in 41 3L 482 TURKEY. fact, carry on all the trade, and many of the manufactures, of Persia and Turkey. They have penetrated into India, central Asia, Africa, and the east of Europe ; and have been sometimes, though not often, seen in France and England. In general they lead a peaceable and orderly life, under the government of heads of families. The court of Rome, by indefatigable efforts at conversion, has succeed- ed in effecting a species of schism, by drawing over to her communion 20,000 out of the 170,000 families of whom the nation consists. The great remaining majority adhere to the Eutychean creed, and revere, as their head, the patriarch of Erzerum. They admit the marriage of priests, and are free from other Catholic regulations ; but in return they carry fasting and ablution to a pitch un- known to any other Christian sect. The Kurds inhabit a long and rugged chain, stretching south-east from the mountains of Armenia, parallel to the Tigris, along the frontier of the Turkish and Persian empires. Those pastoral pursuits which, on the high table plains of Tartary and Persia, vary and soften the habits of war and plunder, are impracti- cable in a region which presents nothing but rugged steeps, frightful ravines, and narrow valleys. Here every chief is seated in his castle, where he meditates, and whence he attempts, the plunder of the rich plains which lie beneath him. The Kurds have, however, the characteristic virtue of barbarians, a frank hospi- tality, and also a pride of pedigree, founded on a national existence which may be traced to a high antiquity. These regions contained in ancient times some of the most fertile, populous, and powerful states in the world ; here flourished the mighty empire of Assyria, and the cities of Babylon and Nineveh, the kingdoms of Pontus, Lydia, Ionia, Pergamus, &c, and in later times these countries constituted one of the fairest portions of the Roman empire. The ancient division was Assyria, which included the countries through which the Euphrates and Tigris ran, and of which Nineveh was the chief city ; Chaldea, containing the splendid city of Babylon ; Mesopo- tamia, whose chief city was Edessa. Armenia had the city of Arsa, and Asia Minor contained Smyrna and many other beautiful and populous cities, nearly all of which exhibit nothing at the present day but ruined temples, churches, and amphitheatres, and some are so decayed that even the places which they occupied cannot be recognised. The chief Turkish divisions are Anatolia, Caramania, Roum, Armenia, Kurdistan, Al Jesira, and Irak Arabi ; these are divided into twelve Pashalics, which are subdivided into smaller parts, called Sangiacats. The population of Asiatic Turkey has been variously estimated by different writers, and probably does not exceed 8,000,000, composed of Turks and Turcomans, Greeks, Jews, Armenians, Kurds, and Arabs. Though many of the islands of the Archipelago have been wrested from the grasp of the Turkish monarch, still a number of them remain under the control of that sovereign. These isles, once celebrated for wealth, beauty and power, are now reduced to a more complete state of barbarism than even the continent. Rhodes was renowned at an early period as a great commercial state ; it ex- tended its trade to the most distant regions, and rivalled the splendour and power of the greatest kings, when after several vicissitudes it was merged in the Roman empire ; her commercial code was adopted by that wise people ; in after times it acquired a high military renown, when the knights of St. John, expelled from the Holy Land, made Rhodes one of their last retreats, where they long baffled the arms of Mahomet and Solyman. The city of Rhodes presents no longer a frag- ment of its colossus, one of the wonders of the world, or any trace of the nume- rous fine edifices with which it had been adorned by the taste and wealth of its inhabitants. It is now a mean town, with a population of 6000; that of the whole island is about 14,000. North of Rhodes is Stanco, the ancient Cos, the birth- place of Hippocrates and Apelles ; Stampalia, Amorgo, and Patmos, where St. John wrote the Apocalypse. Samos, a larger and more important island, which gave birth to Pythagoras. Scio, which has acquired a melancholy celebrity from the barbarous massacre of its inhabitants by the Turks in the late war, 25,000 of whom perished by the sword ; the rest, including opulent citizens and ladies of high rank, were sold as slaves, and the island reduced to a desert. Metelin, the TURKEY. 483 ancient Lesbos, though greatly decayed, has still a population of 40,000, one half of whom are Greeks. Its trade in oil is considerable. Tenedos, a small rocky island, produces a highly esteemed wine. Smyrna, the emporium of the Levant, situated on a fine bay on the west coast of Asia Minor, is a city of great antiquity, and claims to be the birth-place of Homer. It is about four miles in length and one in breadth. Its groves and minarets make a handsome appearance at a distance ; within, however, are gloomy walls and ill-paved streets. The city is liable to earthquakes, which, except in 1739, have caused more fear than injury. The plague, however, seldom allows a year to pass, without committing serious ravages. The population has been estimated at from 100,000 to 120,000, of whom 30,000 are supposed to be Greeks, and 8000 Armenians. Upwards of 2000 Europeans, chiefly French, are settled here for the Levant trade, and form a numerous society among themselves which enlivens the gloom peculiar to a Turkish city. The exports of Smyrna are those of Asia Minor, raw silk, cotton, carpets, mohair, raisins, drugs, and a few precious stones. The returns are chiefly in wrought silk, woollens, tin, lead, and glass. North of Smyrna is Bergamos or Pergamos, once the capital of a powerful line of kings. Population, 10 or 12,000. Brusa or Bursa, about 60 or 70 miles south-west from Constantinople, was for a short time the capital of Turkey ; it is a fine city, con- taining about 60,000 inhabitants. Its mosques are said to amount to 365, some of which are very large and splendid. Eastward from Brusa are the cities of Angora and Tokat ; the former is noted for a peculiar breed of goats which thrive only in a limited space around the city. The hair of this animal rivals silk in fineness, and is made into a species of cam- let by the inhabitants of Angora, who are chiefly employed in the manufacture of that fabric. The population of the city, which less than a century ago was reckoned at 100,000, now numbers only 20,000. Tokat, lying due east from An- gora, has an extensive manufacture of copper vessels, made of the metal produced from the mines in the neighbourhood ; also of blue morocco and silk. It carries on a considerable inland commerce, communicating by caravans with Diarbekir, Smyrna, Brusa, &c. Trebisonde, on the Black Sea, upwards of 500 miles east from Constantinople, is the chief emporium of this part of the Turkish empire. The inhabitants are about 50,000 in number, consisting of all the races that inhabit Turkey, mixed with the more varied tribes from Caucasus. They carry on a considerable trade in fruit and wine, and also in silk and cotton stuffs of their own manufacture. Erzerum, on the head waters of the Euphrates, south-east from Trebisonde, is an ancient city : the inhabitants date its foundation from the time of Noah. The climate is healthy, but the cold in winter is intense. Population 80 to 100,000 Diarbekir, on the Tigris, contains 40,000 inhabitants, and from its situation on the high road between Persia and Turkey, as well as on the communications down the rivers, forms a sort of key to the commerce of Western Asia. Orfa, situated between the Euphrates and Tigris, is a well-built town, with a handsome mosque consecrated to Abraham, and a population of 20,000 souls. A village south of this place, inhabited by Arabs, still bears the name and site of Haran, the original abode of the patriarch. Mosul, with 35,000 inhabitants, is on the west bank of the Tigris, and opposite to what is supposed to be the ruins of Nineveh ; the only monuments are mounds of earth nearly a mile in circumference, similar to those of Babylon, though not nearly so lofty or so perfect. Bagdad, on the Tigris, exhibits scarcely any remnant of the gay and romantic splendour of the court of the Caliphs, not even a vestige of their palace, and but few of the costly edifices with which they enriched this city, when it was the capital of the Mahometan world. Almost all of modern Bagdad is mean and foreign to the ideas which the name excites. The trade in Indian goods is con- siderable, which are brought up the Tigris from Bussorah, and distributed by means of caravans through Syria, Asia Minor, &c. The inhabitants are reckoned at from 60 to 80,000. Directly south of Bagdad, and on the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite Hillah, are the ruins of Babylon, a spot to which recollection gives an almost un- 484 SYRIA. rivalled interest. Here, over a space extending five or six miles in every direc- tion, are spread the undoubted remains of the ancient glory of nations, which none of the proud capitals of the old world ever rivalled in magnitude and the grandeur of its structures, and which is rendered still more imposing by the awful antiquity to which its origin extends. The ruins consist of vast mounds of earth, formed by the decomposition of the materials of buildings. The principal of these are three great masses, of which the first is 1100 yards long and 800 broad, the second is 700 yards square, and the third 762 yards in circuit, and 198 feet in height. There are, besides, smaller mounds scattered about: these all contain vast quantities of excellent bricks ; many have inscriptions on them, and are gene- rally so well cemented together, that it is difficult to separate a brick from the others entire. Several extensive cities have been built at different times out of these remains. The interior of some of the mounds contain many cavities ten- anted by wild beasts, bats, and owls. South-west from Hillah is the town of Mesjid Ali, which contains the tomb of Ali, the son-in-law and one of the successors of Mahomet. It is visited annually by great numbers of Persian travellers, who esteem this point of devotion equal to a pilgrimage to Mecca. On the Shatul Arab, or united stream of the Euphrates and Tigris, is situated Bussorah, a city containing 60,000 inhabitants. Its most important trade being that with India, is carried on partly by British, but chiefly by Arabian vessels, of which those of 500 tons burthen can ascend the river to this point. Merchants of various nations reside here, also English and Dutch consuls. It is a dirty and meanly built place ; the bazaars are wholly unsuitable to the valuable merchandise deposited in them, and there is only one mosque which has a decent appearance. SYRIA. Syria formed, until lately, an important appendage to Asiatic Turkey, and con- stituted one of the chief divisions of the Turkish empire ; it is now under the control of Mohammed Ali, and was wrested by him from his former master in the war of 1832, between Turkey and Egypt. No country was more celebrated in antiquity than Syria. In the south-west was the Land of Promise, the country of the Israelites, and the cradle of Chris- tianity. Phoenicia, particularly its cities of Tyre and Sidon, were famous for commerce. Damascus was long the capital of a powerful kingdom, and Antioch was once a royal residence, and accounted the third city in the world for wealth and population. Baalbec and Palmyra still exhibit splendid ruins of their ancient greatness. Here have the Assyrians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, the Crusaders, and the Turks, struggled at different periods for mastery. Ignorance, superstition, and barbarism, now cover the land, and no traces of its civilization remain but ruins. The leading feature in the physical aspect of Syria consists in the great moun- tain chains of Lebanon or Libanus, and Anti-Libanus, extending from north to south, dividing the country into two distinct portions, one bounded by the coast, and the other by the desert. The principal rivers are the Orontes, flowing north into the Mediterranean, a short distance south-west from Antioch, and the Jordan, running south into the Dead Sea, besides many small streams from the heights of Lebanon, &c, which water and fertilize the country. Of the lakes of Syria the chief is the well- known Asphaltites, or Dead Sea ; its waters are salter than those of the ocean, and very clear and limpid. Many absurd stories respecting this lake are now refuted by the concurrent testimony of modern travellers. Tiberias, or the lake of Galilee, enclosed by cultivated lands and wooded mountains, forms a rich and picturesque object. The others are the lakes of Damascus, Hems, and Antioch. The soil of Syria in favourable situations, and when well watered, is of great fertility, and produces abundantly wheat, rye, maize, dhourra, and rice, cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo ; also grapes of excellent quality, which furnish red and SYRIA. 485 white wines equal to those of Bordeaux. The fruits are various, and Comprise, according to the soil and situation in which they are raised, nearly all those of tropical and temperate climates. The commerce of Syria has never been so great in modern as in ancient times, and has of late much diminished. A very exten- sive land communication has generally been carried on from Syria with Arabia, Persia, and the interior of Asia; but the long-continued wars and disturbed condi- tion of the neighbouring states has greatly interfered in latter times with the passage of the caravans and pilgrims by whom it was carried on. Syria is inhabited by various descriptions of people ; of these the Arabs from the desert who drive their flocks into the fertile and neglected pastures which more or less abound in all parts of this region, form a numerous class, of which many obtain a fixed settlement in the towns and cities ; and, conforming to estab- lished customs, frequently become thriving traders and merchants ; the basis, how- ever, of the population of the towns, is principally Turks and Greeks; the former speak their own language, although that in most general use is the Arabic. The steep and rugged heights of Lebanon have given shelter to races of quite a differ- ent character from the wandering or the settled Arabs. Those slopes unfit for pasturage are made by the laborious culture of the people to yield them subsist- ence. They are a martial race, fight on foot with the musket, and have what is most rare in Asia, national assemblies, with some form of republican government. Among these mountain tribes the chief are the Maronites and Druses ; the former were originally the proselytes of Maron, a saint of the fifth century ; they are Catholics, and notwithstanding some deviations from what is considered strict orthodoxy, have been received into communion with the church of Rome : of the numerous villages built on the sides of the hills, each has its priest, its chapel, and its bell. The Maronites in general live in a happy simplicity in rude hamlets or solitary huts ; they recognize no distinctions of rank, and there are few among them who do not labour for their own support : even the monks and priests till the ground, raise flocks, and pursue mechanical occupations. The Maronites are well armed, and can muster from 30,000 to 35,000 men. The entire population is es- timated at from 130,000 to 150,000. The Druses inhabit the more northern regions of Lebanon, and are a ruder people than the Maronites. Their origin is traced to a persecution and dispersion that took place about the beginning of the 11th century among the followers of Mahomet. These people derive from their independence an energy and a vigour of character unknown to the other nations of Syria. A considerable part of the land is in the possession of a few great sheiks, whose factions often embroil the natives, but at the same time maintain a spirit of liberty and activity. All the great affairs of the nation must be decided in an assembly of their sheiks, at which even peasants are allowed to be present, and to give their voice. The Druses are divided into several sects, although generally they appear rather indifferent to religion, following the Mahometans or Maronites in their devotions, as caprice or convenience dictates. They are a hardy, robust, and war- like people, brave almost to excess, and entertain a proverbial contempt for death. A general levy of the nation produces about 40,000 men, hence the entire popu- lation is estimated at about 100,000. The Motonalis, who live to the south of the Maronites, are bigoted Mahometans of the sects of Ali, and are hence called shiites or heretics by the Turks: they are an intrepid and brave people, and though not mustering more than 7000 fighting men, have always preserved their independence. The Ansarians reside north of the Druses: they live in a sort of anarchy both as to religion and government, believing in transmigration of souls, several incarnations of the Deity, &c. Their numbers are inconsiderable. Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the most venerable cities in the world for its antiquity, and is known to have existed in the time of Abraham, and to have been ever since a great capital ; it is at present the most flourishing city in Syria, and is built of brick; its streets, like those of all Turkish towns, are nar- row and gloomy, the inhabitants reserving their magnificence for the interior courts and palaces, under the Turkish empire. It has maintained a high impor- tance, being on the route of the great caravans to Mecca, whence even the Turks 41* 486 AD ANA — PALESTINE. esteem it holy, and call it the gate of the Caaba. This causes not only an im- mense resort, but a great trade, which the pilgrims are careful to combine with the pious objects of their journey. The environs of Damascus are very fertile, and tolerably cultivated, and rank as the paradise of the east. The inhabitants are 100,000 in number. Aleppo, until within the last fifteen years, was accounted the first city in Syria, and the third in the Turkish empire : it was estimated to contain from 150,000 to 230,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Christians. On the night of the 13th of August, 1822, Aleppo was visited by a calamity of the most dreadful nature, which has rendered its future existence as a city, problematical ; being shaken almost to pieces by an earthquake, which was felt from Diarbekir to Cyprus. The most appalling picture is drawn of the horrors of that night : 20,000 persons are supposed to have been killed, and nearly the whole of the remainder perished for want of shelter and food. Scanderoon, the port of Aleppo, about 70 miles to the north-west, possesses a fine roadstead, and the only good anchorage in Syria : its trade was once import- ant, but has now been mostly transferred to Ladikieh. Antioch, the ancient queen of the East, is now a poor ill-built town of 11,000 inhabitants. Ladikieh, or Latakia, 70 miles south-west of Antioch, is a place of some trade, mostly in tobacco; population 10,000. To the southward is Tripoli, a neat town, with some trade, and a population of 16,000, of whom about one-third are Christians. The next port, proceeding to the south, is Beyrout, inhabited mostly by Druses ; in its neighborhood is raised the finest silk in Syria. Its exports and that of cotton cause some trade ; population 6000. Said, or Sidon, famous in ancient times for its commerce, being second only to Tyre, is now a small place with 5000 inhabit- ants: it is the principal port by which is carried on the maritime trade of Damas- cus across the mountains. Sour, a small fishing village of 300 or 400 houses, is all that remains of the once celebrated Tyre. Modern times have seen the dread sentence fulfilled, that the queen of nations should become a rock, on which fishermen were to dry their nets. The harbour now only admits of boats. Cyprus, lying west of Syria, has along with that country become tributary to the Pacha of Egypt ; it was, in ancient times, the most beautiful, as well as the most voluptuous island in the Mediterranean Sea: it is 140 miles in length, by 63 in breadth. The natives boast that the produce of every land and climate will flourish on their soil in the highest perfection : its wheat is of superior quality ; but wine may be considered as the staple product. Its fruits are also delicious, and game abundant : the inhabitants, anciently estimated at 1,000,000, are now reduced to 60,000 or 70,000; two-thirds of whom are Greeks. Its females still display that finest model of the Grecian form and features, for which they were anciently celebrated. The inhabitants carry on some manufactures of leather, carpets, and cotton, all of great excellence ; the colours being particularly fine and durable. The principal places are Nicosia the capital, Larnica, Famagusta, and BufFa, originally Paphos, distinguished by ancient fable as the birth-place and residence of the " goddess of love." ADANA. The Pachalic of Adana, lately a district of Caramania, is in length about 150 miles, and extends westward from the northern part of Syria, along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea ; it is a fertile and tolerably well cultivated country, yield- ing wheat, barley, cotton, &c. ; its chief towns are Adana the capital, and Tarsus the birth-place of St. Paul, which has still an ancient church that bears his name. The population of each is from 20,000 to 30,000 souls. This region was, together with Syria, conquered from the Porte by Mahomed Ali, in 1832. PALESTINE. Palestine, first called the Land of Canaan, afterwards the Land of Promise, or the Promised Land, the Land of Israel, the Holy Land, and by way of pre-em-jl PALESTINE. 487 inence, the Land, is a country included in Syria ; the part west of the Jordan is bounded north by the mountain of Anti-Libanus, east by the river Jordan and the Dead Sea, south by Arabia Petrsea, and west by the Mediterranean sea. In length • it is about 170 miles ; but its breadth greatly varies, being in some places 58 miles, and in others 22. This country w r as divided by Joshua among the twelve tribes of the Israelites; Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, Dan, Ephraim, Zebulon, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and part of Manasseh, had their portion allotted on the western, commonly called this side of Jordan; while Reuben, Gad, and the remaining part of Manasseh were placed on the eastern side, commonly called, beyond Jordan. The Romans, on ob- taining full possession of this country, divided the part west of the Jordan into three tetrarchies, viz., Judea proper, Samaria, and Galilee. The part east of the Jordan was divided into the smaller districts of Persea, Decapolis, Gaulonitis, Ga- laaditis, Batansea, and Auranitis. Neither the name nor the division of Palestine, nor any of the above subdivisions, are now recognized by the natives or the Turk- ish government ; but as to administration, the country is included partly in the pachalic of Acre, and partly in that of Damascus. The land of Canaan contained a great number of towns and villages at the time when it was invaded by the Israelites, and in after ages it was very populous. In the time of David, the number of combatants in the kingdom of Israel was stated at 1,100,000; and from this the total population has been computed at 8,000,000. The population is now comparatively small, but composed of various descriptions ; viz. Turks, who occupy all the civil and military posts ; Arabs, numerous in the country districts ; Greeks, Christians, and Jews. There is a con- siderable number of monks, and in every considerable town, there is at least one convent; but the monks are described as extremely ignorant and vicious. The face of the country is beautifully variegated by mountains, hills, valleys, and plains. The most remarkable mountains are Lebanon, Hermon, Carmel, Tabor, Ephraim, and Ebal. The climate is exceedingly good. It seldom rains, but the deficiency is sup- plied by the most abundant dews. The cold is never excessive ; and although the summer heats are great, yet they are mitigated by a periodical breeze, which renders them supportable. The Scriptures, in describing the great fruitfulness of this country, characterize it as " a land flowing with milk and honey." Although some have represented it as barren, yet according to the best informed travellers, the greater part displays a truly luxuriant fertility, corresponding entirely to the description of the pro- mised land ; and where well cultivated, it is exceedingly productive. Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, is situated in a mountainous region, about 35 miles from Jaffa, its sea-port, and 120 miles from Damascus. The name of this city is associated with every thing that is venerable and holy in the mind of Christians and Jews, as well as Mahometans; whose general name for it is El Kods, or the Holy, adding occasionally El Sheriff, the Noble: it is greatly reduced from its former size and magnificence ; all that remains of this once splendid city, is a Turkish walled town, enclosing a number of heavy unorna- mented stone houses, with here and there a minaret or a dome, to break the dull uniformity. Two splendid objects, however, somewhat enliven the gloom of Jerusalem ; these are the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Mosque of Omar ; the former has long been the grand object of pilgrimage and visitation to the Christian world. It was erected by the Empress Helena, the mother of Constan- tine, upon a site which was supposed to include the crucifixion, the entombment, and the resurrection. The Mosque of Omar, erected on the site of Solomon's temple, is one of the most splendid buildings in the East. Its numerous arcades, its capacious dome, with the rich costume of Eastern devotees, passing and re- passing, renders it one of the grandest sights which the Mahometan world has to boast of Jerusalem contains about 25,000 inhabitants, of whom 13,000 are Ma- hometans, and 4000 Jews ; at Easter, the pilgrims often amount to 5000 ; there are 61 Christian convents, of which the Armenian is the largest. Bethlehem, six miles south of Jerusalem, is a village of 2500 inhabitants, memo- 488 ARABIA. rable for the birth of David, the royal Psalmist, and of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ : it is visited chiefly for the sake of the convent, built by the empress Helena over the manger of the nativity. Naplous, 24 miles north of Jerusalem, is near the site of the ancient Samaria: this is one of the most flourishing places in the Holy Land ; it stands in a fertile valley surrounded by hills, and embosomed in stately groves and rich gardens ; inhabitants 10,000. Nazareth, 50 miles north of Jerusalem, is a small town of two or three thousand inhabitants : it ranks next to the latter among the holy places of Palestine ; the scenes of all the events in the life of Joseph and the Virgin Mary are here carefully pointed out: the most venerable spot is the Grotto of the Annunciation, the descent to which is by a flight of marble steps. The natives believe that when sick of the piague, they may, by rubbing themselves against the columns, assuredly obtain restoration of health. Hence its approaches are continually crowded by the sufferers under this distemper; circumstances which render it very unsafe for other visitants. East from Nazareth, is Mount Tabor, celebrated by the transfiguration of which it is supposed to have been the theatre. North from Nazareth is the small village of Cana, famed for the miraculous conversion of water into wine. Gaza, Jaffa, and Acre, are the principal places on the coast. Gaza, noted from the earliest antiquity, is a decayed town, of about 5000 inhabitants, who carry on some trade in cotton goods, &c. Jaffa, anciently Joppa, was conspicuous as the port of Judea, and the only point by which David and Solomon communicated with the Mediterranean Sea: it became famous during the Crusades, and has, in the present day, acquired a melancholy celebrity from its capture by Bonaparte, and the subsequent massacre of the prisoners made there. The town is sur- rounded by a wall, which is environed with gardens; where lemons, oranges, citrons, water-melons, &c. grow in great perfection. About 65 miles north of Jaffa is Acre, or St. John de Acre : the population was lately reckoned at from twelve to fifteen thousand. During the Crusades it changed its ancient, obscure name of Acron, to Ptolemais, celebrated as a scene of siege and contest, and for the repeated change of masters it had to endure. In 1799 Bonaparte laid siege to this place, but was repulsed with loss, and compelled to retreat. It contains an elegant Mosque and Bazaar, and the finest baths in Syria ; also a fountain which supplies the town with excellent water. ARABIA. Arabia forms an extensive country, being a great peninsula in the form of an irregular quadrangle ; bounded, north by Asiatic Turkey and Syria ; east by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea ; south by the Arabian Sea ; and west by the Red Sea, Egypt, and Syria. It lies between longitude 33° 30' and 59° 30' east ; lati tude, 12° 30' and 31° 30' north. It is about 1500 miles long from north to south, and 1300 wide from east to west. Area in square miles, 1,166,000. The general aspect of Arabia is a vast arid desert, interspersed with spots of fertile ground, and intersected in different directions with various ridges of moun- tains, none of which, however, attain to much elevation. Water is generally scarce, and there are no rivers or lakes of any considerable size. The most fer tile parts are situated near the sea. Of its mountains", Sinai and Horeb are the most celebrated. In the mountainous parts the climate is temperate, but in un sheltered situations the heat is excessive. Arabia was divided by the ancients into three parts ; Arabia Felix, or Happy Arabia, comprising the south-western part of the country, bordering on the Indian Ocean and on the southern part of the Red Sea ; Arabia Petrsea, lying on the Red Sea, north of Arabia Felix; and Arabia Deserta, much the largest division, embracing all the eastern and northern part of the country. These names are still in common use among Europeans, although not known or recognised by the natives. The actual local divisions are, 1st, Hedjaz, situated along the upper coasts of the Red Sea : here is the Holy Land of the Mohammedans, containing Mecca and Medina. 2d, Yemen, lying on the lower shores of the Red Sea, and ARABIA. 489 on the Gulf of Aden, is the most populous and best cultivated part of Arabia, and is now tinder the control of Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt. 3d, Hadramaut, whose shores are washed by the Arabian Sea, or Indian Ocean : this division is under the control of numerous petty chiefs, one of whom, the Sultan of Keshin, is master of the Island of Socotra. 4th, Oman, lying partly on the Sea of Oman, and on the Persian Gulf: most of it is under the government of the Imam of Mus- cat, the most enlightened and civilized of all the Arab chiefs. 5th, Hajar, or Lahsa, extending from Omon, along the Persian Gulf, to the Euphrates ; its har- bours are mostly in the possession of pirates, who capture all the vessels in the Gulf they can master; it is also noted for its pearl-fisheries. 6th, Nedsjed, the country of the Wahabites, occupies the centre of Arabia between Hajar and Hedjaz ; it is tolerably populous, and although much of the surface is desert, it contains many fertile tracts. Arabia is, and has been from the earliest ages, ruled by a number of princes and petty lords, independent of each other, and exercising within their own territory a sort of supreme independent power, founded on patriarchal principles. The sway of the father of a family, the first source of subordination among men, is that of which the influence is still most strongly felt among the Arabs. Each little community is considered as a family, the head of which exercises paternal authority over the rest. The general character of the soil of Arabia is, in a peculiar degree, arid and barren. In a great part of its surface no grain can be raised at all, and in others only that coarse kind of millet, called dhourra, which is the general food of the inhabitants in dry tropical climates. The Arabs, notwithstanding their natural disadvantages and their wandering life, display in some quarters considerable industry in cultivation, particularly in turning to account the scanty rills with which their valleys are refreshed. In Yemen, the contrivances for this purpose are elaborate and extensive. Terraces are formed, and dikes constructed to retain the waters, which are also raised from wells by the labour of the hand to irrigate the fields ; for the use of water-wheels, which answer this purpose with so much more ease and effect, has never been imported from Egypt. But the most inte- resting culture of these upland tracts consists in the coffee tree, which has now become a necessary of life over a great portion of the civilized globe. This plant grows at a considerable height, where it can be well watered and enjoy even a measure of coolness; to promote which, it is often fenced round with other trees. If the vegetable culture of Arabia be thus scanty, its natives, a race wholly pas- toral and wandering, have cultivated with care and success the breed of the nobler species of animals. The horse of Arabia, as to swiftness and beauty, enjoys a higher reputation than any other species in the world. This is maintained by an almost fantastic attention to their birth and training. The camel, which seems created expressly for the soft soil and thirsty plains of Arabia, is indigenous to that country, and seems to have been transported thence to the wide tracts, of similar character, which cover so great a part of northern Africa. Even the ass is here of a very superior breed, tall and handsome, generally preferred for travelling- to those proud steeds which, reserved for state and for war, cannot be subjected to any species of drudgery. Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist, with the exception of some quite common fabrics for domestic use. But for commerce Arabia enjoyed an early celebrity, of which only faint traces are now to be found. At all periods anterior to the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the greater part of the rich commodities of India were transported either up the Red Sea, or across Ara- bia from the Persian Gulf. The desert glittered with pearls and gems; and ma- jestic cities, that lie now in ruins, arose amid the waste. Now that the whole of this trade has taken a different channel, the maritime commerce is almost wholly limited to the export of coffee, in exchange for the manufactures of Hindoostan. This intercourse, after having been for a long time nearly engrossed by the Eng- lish, when it centered in Bombay, has of late been appropriated by the active rivalry of the Americans, who, though they give a higher price for the commo- dity, bring it to Europe thirty per cent, cheaper. The entire quantity exported is 3M 490 ARABIA. now estimated at 16,000 bales, of 305 lbs. eaeh. Aden formerly exported gum Arabic, myrrh, and frankincense ; but that town being now in ruins, the trade is divided between Mocha and Makulla. Besides this maritime trade, the pilgrimage to Mecca forms a commercial tie between the remotest extremities of the African and Asiatic continents; for the numerous devotees who, from every part of the Mahometan world, resort thither, scruple not to combine with their pious object a good deal of profane traffic, which is made at least to pay the expense of the journey. The chiefs of the desert are deeply imbued with aristocratic feelings, and dwell on their high descent with a pride as lofty as ever prevailed in feudal Europe. This dignity is the more flattering, as it is not conferred or withdrawn at the will of any monarch. It is founded on ideas thoroughly rooted in the mind of the nation, who, like the Highland clans, view every sheik as the natural head of a race so ancient that its origin is traced back for thousands of years. A sheik of an ancient Arabian family would not exchange his title for that of sultan. An- other hereditary Arabian dignity is that of sheriffs, or descendant of Mahomet, marked by the nearly exclusive privilege of wearing a green turban. This is a distinction of a different class, more widely diffused, and descending often to the poorest among the people. When the green turban is worn by the head of an ancient tribe, it denotes the highest dignity that can exist in Arabia. In general, the inhabitants of cities are viewed by the chiefs of the desert as a mixed and debased race, whom they scarcely own as belonging to the same nation with them- selves. The most prominent feature in the Arab character consists in the combination of hospitality and robbery, which are practised, the one most liberally and gene- rously, the other in the most deliberate and merciless manner. It is towards strangers that these opposite dispositions are exercised ; and the alternative of good or ill treatment often depends on very nice particulars. The rich traveller, who journeys in caravan over the open plain, is considered as a rightful prey ; while he who approaches singly, in a defenceless state, and soliciting protection, acquires an irresistible claim to it. The being once admitted to partake common bread and salt is a sure pledge of safety and protection ; and he who, by whatever means, has penetrated into the tent of the Arab, has reached a sanctuary. The Arabs are of small size, spare, and even meagre. They are less distin- guished by strength than by extreme agility. Few nations surpass them in horse- manship, and they are alike intrepid and skilful in the management of the bow, the javelin, and latterly of the musket, since its manifest superiority has intro- duced that weapon. Their complexion is sallow. They are not only temperate, but extremely abstinent. Animal food is scarcely used at all : even among the rich there is little variety of vegetable diet; the milk of their camels, with its several preparations, particularly butter, is the only article with which they sea- son their bread. The religion of Mahomet, which originated in Arabia, still maintains undis- puted sway; and Christians, who were once numerous, are now so completely extirpated, that it is believed there is not a single church existing. The Sunites and the Shiites, who divide between them the empires of Turkey and Persia, and wage such mortal hostility about they know not what, have also their respective districts in Arabia. The Sunites rank foremost, having always had in their pos- session the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Zeidites and the Beiari, two native sects, reign in the eastern territory of Oman. These, though they unite in acknowledging the authority of Mahomet and the Koran, have, like other religious sects, some differences, in virtue of which they account themselves the only acceptable worshippers, and all others as heretical and profane. The Wahabite sect, whose political influence had absorbed nearly the whole of Central Arabia, were lately the predominant people, but their contest with Mohammed Ali, and his triumphant success, have now reduced their power to a very low ebb. Mecca, celebrated as the birth-place of Mohammed, is situated in a dry, barren, and rocky country, 40 miles inland from the Red Sea. It is entirely supported by the concourse of pilgrims from every part of the Mohammedan world. The chief PERSIA. 491 ornament of Mecca is the famous temple, in the interior of which is the Kaaba or house of the prophet, a plain square structure, built of stone, The most sacred relic in the Kaaba is the stone said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel to form the foundation of the edifice. The grand ceremony through which pilgrims pass is that of going seven times round the Kaaba, reciting verses and psalms in honour of God and the prophet, and kissing each time the sacred stone. They are then conducted to the well of Zemzem, situated in the same part of the temple, where they take large draughts, and undergo a thorough ablution in its holy waters. Another ceremony, considered as of equal virtue, is the pilgrimage to Mount Arafat, situated about 30 miles to the south of the city. The population of Mecca was formerly estimated at 100,000, but is now reduced to 16,000 or 18,000, the resort of pilgrims within a few years having greatly diminished. Jidda, on the Red Sea, serves as the port of Mecca. Medina, 176 miles north of Mecca, is celebrated as containing the tomb of Mo- hammed, around which 300 silver lamps are kept continually burning. The popu- lation is 6000. Yambo, on the Red Sea, is the port of Medina. Mocha, situated near the southern extremity of Arabia, is the principal port on the Red Sea, and the channel through which almost all the intercourse of Europe with this part of the world is carried on. The great article of export is coffee, which is celebrated as the finest in the world. The population is estimated at 5000. Sana, the capi- tal of Yemen, is a handsome city, situated 128 miles north-north-east of Mocha, and the residence of the Imam of Yemen, now tributary to Mohammed Ali, Pacha of Egypt. Makulla, about 400 miles north-east from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, has become, since the decline of Aden, the most considerable trading port between Mocha and Muscat. It is visited occasionally by American vessels for supplies of provisions, &c. The town has an imposing appearance, the houses being built in the castellated style, similar to the baronial residences of the middle ages, and are mostly three stories high. The sheik of Makulla is independent, and exercises authority over 10 or 12 towns in the vicinity. Farther to the north-cast are the ports of Keshin, Seger, Morebat, &c, which are but little known, and seldom fre- quented by Europeans. Muscat, the capital of Oman, is under the control of an Imam, or spiritual prince, whose government is the most tranquil and protecting of any in the mari- time parts, either of Persia or Arabia : he has several large ships of war, and his subjects are good sailors, and possess some of the finest trading vessels met with in the eastern seas. A treaty of commerce was concluded between the United States and this prince in 1835. All the ports upon the adjacent coast are tribu- tary to the Imam, as are also the islands of Zanzibar, Monfia, and Pemba, on the east coast of Africa ; he holds likewise the islands of Kishm and Ormus, in the Persian Gulf, and a considerable extent of the Persian coast around Gomberoon, bes'des the ports of Jask, Choubar, and Gwuttur, in Beloochistan. The town of Muscat is a general depot for the merchandise of Persia, Arabia, and India : it is well fortified arid surrounded by a strong wall, within which Arabs and Banians only are permitted to reside ; all others must remain in mat houses without the gates : the population is rated at from 10,000 to 15,000. A considerable trade is carried on by caravans with the interior of Arabia. PERSIA. This country, in the earliest times, was the seat of one of the most powerful Asiatic monarchies, connecting Eastern with Western Asia ; and in later ages, acted with energy on the political system of Europe. Although abridged of its ancient greatness, it still presents many interesting features. The limits of Persia have been different at different times, and were formerly more extensive than at present, including the countries of Balk, Afghanistan, Candahar, and Beloochistan, 492 PERSIA. on the east, all which are now separated ; and in the north-west, some districts have been annexed to Russia. The boundaries of Persia are the Aras, or Araxes, the Caspian Sea, and the deserts of Khiva, on the north ; a vast sandy desert on the east ; the Persian Gulf on the south, and the Euphrates, Tigris, and the mountains of Armenia, on the west; extending from north to south 850 miles, and from east to west 900 miles. Area, 480,000 square miles. Persia is bordered on the north-west and west by the mountains of Armenia and Kurdistan ; on the north and north-east by the Elborz and Paropamisan or Ghoor Mountains, which are continued eastward into the great chain of the Hin doo Koosh. The country is also traversed by several other ranges, either inde- pendent or connected with the frontier chains. The interior consists of an im mense dry, salt plain, and at least two-thirds of the whole country are composed of naked mountains, arid deserts, salt lakes, and marshes covered with jungle On the northern, western, and eastern frontiers, are large rivers, but none of great magnitude traverse the country. The streams which usually descend from the mountains are lost in the sand, or formed into lakes. They produce, however, most of the fertility of which this region can boast, and, where abundant, render the plains through which they flow, beautiful and luxuriant in a high degree. The plain of Shiraz is considered th,e boast of Persia, and almost of the East, That of Ispahan is only second to it. The provinces on the Caspian, watered by streams from the Elborz, are of extraordinary fertility, but the air is humid and unhealthy. The centre and south are entirely destitute of trees ; but gardens are cultivated with great care, and the fruits are excellent. The wine of Shiraz is considered superior to any other in Asia. The mulberry in the northern pro- vinces is so abundant as to render silk the staple produce of the empire. Other productions are grain, rice, cotton, tobacco, indigo, senna, rhubarb, opium, saffron, manna, and assafcetida. The most considerable mineral production is salt. There are some mines of iron, copper, and silver ; also turquoise stones. The Persians are to a consider- able extent a manufacturing people. The principal manufactures are beautiful carpets, shawls, silks ; tapestry formed of silk and wool, embellished with gold ; arms, sword-blades, leather, paper, and porcelain. The foreign commerce of Per- sia is inconsiderable, and is chiefly in the hands of foreigners. Bushire, on the Persian Gulf, is the principal port, the commerce of which is mostly connected with that of Bussorah. Some trade is also carried on between the ports on the Caspian Sea and Astrachan. The main commercial intercourse, however, of Per- sia, is that by caravans, with Turkey on one side, and Tartary and India on the other. The Persians are Mahometans of the sect of the Shiites, or of the fol- lowers of AH, and are on that ground viewed with greater abhorrence by the Turks than even Christians ; but they are not themselves an intolerant people. The government is entirely absolute. The reigning king is regarded as the vice- gerent of the prophet, and is absolute master of the lives and property of his subjects. 4 The Persians are accounted the most learned people of the East, and poetry and the sciences may be considered as their ruling passion. Their chief poets, Hafiz, Sadi, and Ferdusi, have displayed an oriental softness and luxuriance of imagery which have been admired even in European translations. Ferdusi is the epic poet of Persia : the theme of Sadi is wisdom and morality ; while Hafiz has strung only the lyre of love. The latter is the most popular poet, though strict Mahometans scarcely consider it lawful to peruse his verses, unless after straining them into a refined and mystical sense. The people of Persia are also the most polite of the oriental nations, and sur- pass all others in the skilful and profuse manner in which they administer flattery. They employ in conversation the most extravagantly hyperbolical language. Dis- simulation is carried by them to the highest pitch ; lying is never scrupled at, and their whole conduct is a train of fraud and artifice. Morality is much studied, though little practised. This country is divided into the provinces of Adzerbijan, Ghilan, Mazanderan, PERSIA. 493 Astrabad, Irak, Ajemi, Khorasan, Fars, Laristan, and Kerman. The population of the whole is probably about 8,000,000. The physical character of the Persians is fine, both as to strength and beauty, but without possessing any very marked features. So many migratory nations have settled in the country, that it retains only a fragment of its native race. The complexion, according to the climate, varies from an olive tint to a deep brown. Persia, though a warlike kingdom, has scarcely any force which can be con- sidered a regular army. There is a body of 2000 or 3000 horse-guards, called goolam, composed of youths of distinction, who assume, however, the title of royal slaves. A large body of 10,000 or 12,000 cavalry have lands assigned them round the capital, and are ready to attend the king when called upon. But the main force of the Persian armies has always consisted of their highland tribes, led by their khans. The number which can be called out on an emergency is estimated at 150,000, 200,000, or even 250,000. They possess many of the qualities of good cavalry troops, are well mounted, skilful horsemen, personally brave, and inured to hardships. They handle their arms with the greatest dexterity, but have not the least idea of discipline, tactics, or the art of war. The present sovereign has made considerable exertions to form and discipline a corps after the European manner, commanded by British officers. This force amounted, some years ago, to about 12,000 men, who went through their exercise in a very tolerable manner. These troops have been, however, of late neglected, and most of the European officers have left the service. An unhappy circumstance in the condition of Persia consists in the numberless predatory hordes by which the country is ravaged. Her fertile plains are every- where intermingled with mountains and deserts tenanted by these rude banditti. Even those who defend the country in war, frequently plunder it during peace. The capital of Persia is Teheran, situated at the foot of the loftiest mountains of Elborz. It is four miles in circumference, strongly fortified, and rather a camp than a city. It has no grand edifices except the ark, combining the character of a palace and of a citadel. In summer the place becomes so extremely unhealthy that all leave it who can. The king with the troops, and the chiefs with all their trains, depart, and encamp on the plains of Sultania. The population of the city thus varies according to the season, from 10,000 to 60,000. Adjacent to Teheran are the remnants of the ancient Rhagse, mentioned as a spot to which the Jews were conveyed after the Babylonish captivity. It continued a great city till de- stroyed by the generals of Zingis Khan. The remains are of sun-burnt brick, and the whole surface, for three miles in every direction, is marked by hollows, mounds, mouldering towers, tombs, and wells. Tabreez, or Tauris, the chief town of Adzerbijan, was more illustrious than any city in Persia, both as a splendid capital and a seat of commerce ; and in the time of Chardin, 150 years ago, it was supposed to contain 500,000 inhabitants. Na- ture and man have co-operated in its destruction. It has been sacked eight dif- ferent times, and has been shattered by repeated and dreadful earthquakes. Of the 250 mosques numbered by Chardin, only three could be traced by Sir R. K. Porter. That of Ali Shah, 600 years old, still retains traces of the greatest mag- nificence, being cased with lacquered tiles of porcelain, disposed and adjusted into intricate and elaborate figures, and surrounded with a complete band of gilded Arabic sentences, embellished with flowers in green and gold. There is also a splendid totnb of Sultan Cazan, without the city. Reshd, the capital of Ghilan, and near the shore of the Caspian Sea, is de- scribed as a flourishing commercial city, having 60,000 inhabitants, with well-kept bazaars, but abounding in beggars. Its harbour is unsafe in stormy weather. Large crops of wheat, rice, and other grain, cover the fields in its vicinity : but the staple production is silk, which is either worked up within the province, or ex- ported to Astrachan. The chief of the other towns on the Caspian are Balfrush, with 20,000 inhabitants : Amol, with about the same population ; Farahabad, and Astrabad, the capital of the province of the same name, on a small river, a few miles from the sea. These all have a share of the commerce of the Caspian. Meshed, the capital of Khorasan, is a large and fortified city, situated in a fine 42J 494 PERSIA. plain, and distinguished by the superb sepulchre of Haroun al Raschid. Though much decayed, it still numbers 50,000 inhabitants. To the south, Nishapore, once a splendid capital of Persia, and continally rising anew, after its destruction by Alexander, by the Arabs, and by the Tartars, was, when it had become the capital of the Turkish princes of the Seljuk dynasty, so completely destroyed by Zingis Khan, that the inhabitants, on returning, could not recognize their own houses. Its 12,000 aqueducts are now dry, and its population, occupying a mere corner be- yond its former circumference of twenty miles, is reduced to 15,000. Tursheez, Tubbus, Serukhs, Tabas, are large towns, with some trade, still included in the Persian dominion. Of the cities of this country, Ispahan stands pre-eminent. By the caliphs of Bagdad it was made the capital of Persia ; and being placed in the centre of the empire, surrounded by a fertile and beautiful plain, it became a rendezvous of the inland commerce of Asia, and attained an extent and splendour unrivalled in Western Asia. It was destroyed by Timur, but restored by Shah Abbas. Chardin reckoned that in his time it was twenty-four miles in circuit, and contained 172 mosques, 48 colleges, and 1800 caravanserais. The most magnificent edifice was the palace, the gardens attached to which occupied a space of five miles in cir- cumference, and were interspersed with the most splendid pavilions. The Midan, a square, serving for military reviews and for a market-place, round which were built the palace and a number of splendid mosques ; with the Chaur Baug, a long avenue of plane-trees, were also distinguished ornaments of Ispahan. In 1722, it was taken and almost destroyed by the Afghans, and, the later sovereigns having preferred a northern residence, no exertions have been made for its restoration. It is still, however, a great city, with extensive trade, and some flourishing manu- factures, particularly of gold brocade. Hussein Khan, a native, who has raised himself to extraordinary wealth, is making great efforts to revive its magnificence. Shiraz, the capital of Fars, though neither very ancient nor very extensive, has long been one of the boasts of Persia, from the beauty of its environs, and the polished gaiety of its inhabitants. It has been the favourite seat of the Persian muses, and near it are still to be found the tombs of Hafiz and Saadi, the chief of the national poets. Its wines are celebrated as the most valuable in the East, and it is the seat of a considerable and increasing trade. Thirty miles to the north of Shiraz are found the remains of the palace of Per- sepolis, one of the most magnificent structures which art ever reared. Its front is 600 paces in length, and the side 390 paces. The architecture is in a peculiar style, but remarkable for correct proportions and beautiful execution. The stair- cases leading into the interior are peculiarly extensive and magnificent. The portals and the capitals of the columns are adorned with numerous figures in basso-relievo, representing combats and processions of various kinds. The drawing of the figures is correct ; but as only their contour is represented, without any of the prominences and details, they present a heavy appearance, and cannot rival the great works of Grecian sculpture. South-west from Shiraz, situated on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is Bushire, which, since Persia lost Bussorah, has been the emporium of its foreign trade. This is chiefly with India, and is not sufficient to render the town either large or handsome. Large vessels cannot anchor nearer than six miles, in a roadstead, which, though good, is not perfectly safe in north-west winds. The remaining towns of this country worthy of notice are Hamadan, Kermanshah, iTezd, Ker- man, Lar, &c. The first two are in Irak. Of these, Hamadan is a considerable town, with 25,000 or 30,000 inhabitants. The Jews suppose that queen Esther and Mordecai are buried here, and accordingly many of them repair hither in pil- grimage to visit their tombs. Kermanshah is a town of 8000 or 9000 souls. Near it are some remarkable sculptured rocks. Yezd, in the south-west part of Kho- rasan, is a considerable city, still flourishing as a seat of commerce and of a valu- able silk manufactory. Here is the remnant, amounting to about 16,000, of the persecuted Guebres, Parsees or fire-worshippers. Kerman, the capital of the province of the same name, was one of the proudest cities of the empire, and a great emporium of trade and commerce. In the course AFGHANISTAN, OR CABUL. 495 of the civil wars at the close of the last century it was nearly destroyed, and has but partially recovered. Its manufacture of shawls and carpets is still consider- able. Population about 20,000. South of Kerman is Gomberoon, near the en- trance of the Gulf of Persia ; it was formerly a great commercial port, but is now much decayed, and is under the control of the Imam of Muscat. Near it are the islands of Ormus, Larak, and Kishm ; the latter is tolerably fertile, and contains a town of some size ; the former, once the great emporium of India and Persia, and whose name was a proverb for wealth and splendour, is now almost desolate, and its magnificent city a mass of ruins. It belongs at present to Muscat, whose chief is making some exertions to restore its prosperity. AFGHANISTAN, OR CABUL. The country bounded on the east by Hindoostan and west by'Persia, originally a part of ancient Persia, but now no longer connected with it, is divided into the separate territories of Afghanistan and Beloochistan, the latter comprising the southern and the former the northern portion ; these together form nearly a square of 800 miles in length and 700 in breadth, and are included between the 57th and 71st degrees of east longitude, and the 25th and 36th of north latitude. Its nat- ural boundaries are formed by the mighty chain of Hindoo Koosh, on the north ; by the Indus on the east ; the Indian Ocean on the south ; and, on the west, by a winding line drawn along the desert boundaries of Kerman and Khorasan. This region presents a sort of compound of Persia and Arabia ; on the north, vast mountains, high table-lands, and rapid rivers ; on the south, sandy and salt deserts. The most conspicuous feature is that grand mountain chain, continued from the snowy range of Hindoostan, which forms the whole of its northern bound- ary. Though its height does not equal that of the loftiest peaks of the Himma- leh, it is truly amazing, and scarcely exceeded in any other region of the globe. One point, the most elevated yet observed, has been stated to reach 20,593 feet. Its summits, though only in the 34th degree of latitude, are covered with per- petual snow ; and being seen at once from the whole extent of this region, form, as it were, a bond of connexion between the various nations by which it is peopled. Several subordinate chains traverse this country. Of these the most important is Solimaun, which runs parallel to the Indus, and nearly at right angles with the Hindoo Koosh. The southern region, Beloochistan, consists partly of rugged mountains of in- ferior elevation ; partly of vast deserts which are equally dreary with those of Africa and Arabia, and of which the sands, being blown into waves, oppose greater obstruction to the traveller. The rivers of this territory, unless we include among them the limitary stream of the Indus, are not of the first magnitude. The Kama rises beyond its limits in the territory of Cashgar, and, after crossing the Hindoo Koosh, and receiving the river of Cabul, which rises in the southern part of that chain, falls into the Indus at Attock. The Helmuud derives its origin from a source not far from that of the Cabul ; it traverses the plain of Candahar, and, giving some degree of fer- tility to the arid plains of Seistan, terminates by forming the salt lake of Zurrah. It must have flowed then nearly 600 miles. The mountain tracts in the south give rise to numerous rivers, or rather torrents, nearly dry in summer, but rapid and desolating in winter. Afghanistan is occupied by various tribes. Of these, the Dooraunees, who are the most numerous, inhabit the western part of the territory ; the Eimauks and Ha- zaurehs, the mountainous districts of Hindoo Koosh ; the Ghiljies are settled in the central districts, and the Berdooraunees on the eastern border. Besides these, there are the smaller and less important tribes of the Eusofzees, Sheraunees, Vi- zarees, Naussers, Caukers, &c. The kingdom of Cabul, the only monarchy in this region, was some time ago much more powerful than at present, and com- prised within its bounds some of the finest provinces of Western Hindoostan and 496 AFGHANISTAN, OR CABUL. southern Tartary ; but since the death of its late monarch, Ahmed Shah, it has been broken up by the dissensions among his family, and the power of Runjeet Sing, who has occupied several of its finest provinces. Its limits do not now ex- tend beyond Afghanistan proper. The political constitution of Cabul exhibits peculiarities which distinguish it from that of almost every other Asiatic monarchy. Instead of the power being monopolized by the sovereign, or at least by the khans, with no check but the in- fluence of rival chiefs, it admits a large infusion of popular elements. In every tribe there is a jeerga, or representative assembly, without whose consent the khan can undertake nothing, and who also administers justice, though in some subserviency to the rooted principle of private vengeance. Among the Afghan tribes great reverence is paid to birth, and particularly to antiquity of descent. The revenues of the kingdom of Cabul arise from the land-tax, the tributes paid by vassal chiefs, the royal demesnes, and some minor sources. A consider- able proportion, however, must often be remitted to the tributary princes, who, if they did not receive this remission as a grant, would be in danger of rebelling against the power which should persist in exacting the full amount. The military force, or at least the most regular and efficient part of it, consists of Gholaums, a body formed partly of military adventurers, partly pf persons hold- ing lands or grants on a military tenure in and around the great cities. They form a well-disciplined and disposable army, about 13,000 strong. The Doorau- nees are easily mustered, to the amount of 12,000 brave highland militia, each fighting under the banner of 'his own chieftain. The contingents of the other tribes amount collectively to a much greater number ; but they are drawn out with great difficulty, unless for local purposes, or with a peculiar hope of plunder. A very great portion of this vast region is doomed to complete and irremediable barrenness, produced by the opposite extremes of lofty snow-covered mountains, and of sandy plains. Other portions, however, of considerable extent, bear quite an opposite character. The lower declivities of the mountains, and the high plains interspersed between them, though they do not offer the profuse products that cover the plains of Delhi and Ispahan, are often equal to the finest parts of Europe. Nor are these natural advantages neglected by a rough but active and laborious people. Irrigation, as in all tropical climates, forms the most important and arduous part of husbandry. Wheat and barley, instead of rice, are the principal species of grain ; the first for the food of man, the latter for that of horses. Fruits and vegetables are pro- duced in such abundance, that their cheapness is almost unequalled. The people have not extended their industry to manufactures, except those of coarse fabrics for internal consumption. The kingdom of Cabul, by its situation, is excluded from maritime commerce ; and the coast of Mekran is too poor to make much use of its natural advantages in this respect. The country, however, carries on a considerable inland trade within its own provinces, with the neigh- bouring countries, and also as a thoroughfare between Persia and India. This traffic is carried on by caravans, which employ camels where the route is practi- cable for them, but in the rough mountain roads of Afghanistan horses and ponies are substituted. These caravans journey under the continual dread of the preda- tory tribes, which infest almost every part of this country. The best parts of this region produce rather the simple necessaries of life, than those superfluities which can become the objects of exchange. Fruits, assafoetida, madder, and a few furs, form the principal articles. In return, they receive the manufactures of Persia and India, and even those of Europe, by way of Orenburg and Bokhara. The population of the whole region has been computed as follows, viz : Afghans 4,300,000 Belooches 1,000,000 Tartars 1,200,000 Persians 1,500,000 8^000,000 The Afghans, who form the main body of the population, present, in their as- AFGHANISTAN, OR CABUL. 497 pect and character, a very striking contrast to the Hindoos, on whom they imme- diately border. Their high and even harsh features, their sunburnt countenances, their long beards, loose garments^ and shaggy mantles of skins, give the idea of a much ruder and more unpolished people. Under this rough exterior, however, are soon disclosed estimable qualities, which advantageously contrast with the timid servility produced by long subjection in the Indian. Their martial and lofty spirit, their bold and simple manners, their sobriety and contempt of pleasure, their unbounded hospitality, and the general energy and independence of their character, render them on the whole a superior race. The established religion, in Afghanistan, is strictly Mahometan, though tolera- tion prevails more than even in the Persian empire, where it has been observed to be greater than usual in Mussulman countries. A taste for knowledge is general among the Afghans, though they have not produced any writers who can rival in fame those of Persia and India. Few of the works in the language, indeed, are above tw.o centuries old, and they are evi- dently imitations of the Persian. There are schools in every little town and even village, so that the first elements of knowledge are very widely diffused. The poets, by profession, are not to be compared with those of Persia ; but a consider- able display of genius often appears in the rude verses of the chiefs and warriors, who celebrate their own feelings and adventures. Those of Kooshkaul, a khan who defended his native country against the power of Aurengzebe, display a pe- culiar degree of poetic fire. Afghanistan has a language peculiar to itself, called Pooshtoo. The inhabitants of Afghanistan are formed into two great divisions, — of dwell- ers in tents, and dwellers in houses. The former, in the western part of the kingdom, are supposed to constitute one half of the population ; in the eastern they are fewer, but still very considerable in number. The Afghans have gene- rally a strong attachment to the pastoral life, and are with difficulty induced to quit it. The most numerous of the latter are the Taujiks, who have been sup- posed to amount to 1,500,000, and to be the original people subdued by the Afghans, who regard them as inferiors. They inhabit the towns and their vicinity, and carry on those trades which are disdained by the ruling people. The Afghans are fond of all sorts of boisterous amusements, particularly those which involve great display of bodily activity. Hunting is as it were the rage over all Afghanistan, and the people pursue it not only in all the known and usual modes, but in others, peculiar to the country itself. Cabul, now the principal city of Afghanistan, is one of the most delightful in the world. Being situated about 6000 feet above the level of the sea, it enjoys a temperate climate, and is surrounded by an extensive plain finely watered by three rivulets. The soil is rather deficient in grain, but produces abundance of forage and a profusion of the most delicious fruits, which are exported to India and other countries. Cabul is a busy bustling city, and its bazaar of 2000 shops is considered almost without a rival in the east. The population is 60,000. About 60 miles south of Cabul is Ghizni, once the proud capital of the East, where Mahmoud reigned and Ferdusi sang, but now comprehended within very narrow limits. It does not contain above 1500 houses ; its streets are dark and narrow, and its bazaars by no means spacious. Bamean, on the northern slope of the mountains, and bordering on Tartary, is a city cut out of the rock, whose cavern abodes are scattered over a surface of eight miles ; and it contains some remarkable temples, with colossal idols. Peshawer was the capital of the kingdom of Cabul, previous to its late dis- memberment. It is situated in a very fertile plain, about 50 miles west of the Indus, and has lately much declined ; and, instead of 100,000 inhabitants, which it numbered 25 years ago, it now contains scarcely 50,000. The city is rudely built, and its few good public edifices are much decayed ; but it presents a pic- turesque aspect from the varied appearance and costume of the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains, mingled with the natives of India, Persia, and Tartary. Candahar is a very ancient city, the foundation of which is ascribed to Alex- ander the Great. The antiquity, however, belongs chiefly to the site, upon which 42"* ' 3N 498 BELOOCHISTAN. new towns have been successively erected by different conquerors and potentates, It is regular and well built, with four long and broad bazaars ; but, like other cities, it is not adorned with those magnificent monuments of architecture which mark the capitals of the great empires. Herat, formerly belonging to Persia, is situated on a small river of the same name, in the north-west corner of Afghanistan : it is a very ancient city, and was in the zenith of its splendour in the 15th and 16th centuries ; the Persian histori- ans are diffuse in their description of its palaces, caravansaries, mosques, gardens, &c. It has at present an extensive manufacture of carpets ; the neighbouring country produces excellent fruit, and roses are in such quantities that Herat ob- tained the name of the city of roses : the population is supposed to be about 60,000. BELOOCHISTAN. The southern part of this region is known by the name of Beloochistan, or the country of the Belooches, who form the bulk of its inhabitants : it contains several subdivisions : those in the eastern part are Cutch-Gundava, Sarawan, Jhalawan, and Lus ; in the north-west, Kohistan, adjoining to Persia ; and along the sea-coast, extending from east to west for nearly 500 miles, is the province of Mekran. Beloochistan is divided among a number of small, fierce, independent, preda- tory tribes. The whole of its western part is composed of a desert of red moving sand, so light and minute as to be almost impalpable, but which is formed, by the action of the wind, into wave-like ridges of a peculiar structure. One side slopes gradually away, but the other rises perpendicularly, like a brick wall, to a con- siderable height ; and this side the traveller, in order to prosecute his route, must often scale with immense labour. The light sand, filling the eyes, nostrils, and mouth, heightens thirst and irritation ; while the phenomenon of mirage causing the appearance of a still lake that is perpetually receding, tantalizes him with the always disappointed hope of arriving at water. Eastern Beloochistan is of a very different character. It consists of a huge mass of rugged and rocky mountains, with intervening valleys, which, however, seldom display that fertile and smiling aspect usual in countries under the tropic, but are in general arid and stony. The streams, when swelled by rain, roll through their beds with such headlong rapidity as quickly to leave them dry, serv- ing as roads or nightly resting-places to the traveller : but the water sometimes rushes down so suddenly as to overwhelm those who have sought this shelter. There are, however, here and there, patches of good soil, capable of cultiva- tion. The best district is the north-eastern land of Cutch-Gundava, which affords a surplus of grain for export. Kelat, the capital of a district of the same name, is a town of about 4000 houses, supposed to stand on ground 8000 feet above the level of the sea, and, therefore, subject in winter to such intense cold, that the khan and principal chiefs then descend to a lower region. It enjoys, however, a considerable inland trade. It is the residence of a chief, who claims the sovereignty over all Beloo- chistan, though his real power is nearly confined to the district immediately ad- joining. Nooshky, Sarawan, Jhalawan and Khozdar, are little mud towns, capi- tals of districts bordering on the desert; but Punjgoor is surrounded by a fertile territory watered by the Baldoo, which, after a considerable course, reaches the Indian Ocean. The inhabitants of this country are, like those of Afghanistan, divided into several tribes, of which the chief are the Nhoroes, Rhinds, and Mugshees, besides the Bezunjas in the eastern and the Loories in the western districts, who are pre- eminent for their rapacious and predatory habits. The Belooche is a brave, hos- pitable, honourable robber, making chepaos or raids of eighty or ninety miles, to burn a village and carry off the inhabitants as slaves, but treating kindly and securing from all harm the stranger who has, or purchases a claim to, his protec- tion. Conjoined with him is the Brahooe, who seems to have been the original KAFFERISTAN — KASCHGUR — INDIA. 499 possessor, and who, mild, innocent, and pastoral, occupies little villages situated in the bosom of these stupendous mountains. At the south-east corner of Beloochistan, is the province of Lus, containing Beila, a small town of 2000 inhabitants, and Sonmeanee, an inconsiderable fish- ing-town. Along the coasts are the small ports of Gwuttur, Choubar, and Jask, possessing some trade, subject or tributary to the Imam of Muscat Kedje, reckoned the capital of Mekran, is a considerable town in a strong situation, the chief medium between the sea-coast and the interior countries. It is still held by the khan of Kelat, who has scarcely any other hold upon this country. Bun- poor is a. small fortified town near the frontier of Kerman. The coast of Beloo- chistan is very abundant in fish of various kinds, as well as vast stores of oysters, &c. The people live almost entirely on fish ; and as the country yields but very little grass, the few cattle belonging to the inhabitants are fed as in many parts of Arabia on fish and dates. KAFFERISTAN. North of Afghanistan is the country called KafFeristan : it is an Alpine region, composed of snowy mountains, deep pine forests, and small but fertile valleys which produce large quantities of grapes, and feed flocks of sheep and cattle ; while the hills are covered with goats. The inhabitants are called by their Ma- hometan neighbours, Kaffers, or infidels, whence the name of the country is de- rived. They believe in one God, but venerate numerous idols of stone or wood, which represent great men deceased : they have solemn sacrifices and long pray- ers, not failing to supplicate for the extirpation of the Mussulmans, whom they regard with invincible aversion. The villages in which they live are built on the slopes of hills, the roof of one row forming the street of the row above. Their food consists of the produce of the dairy, fruits, and flesh, which they prefer almost raw. Their arms are a bow with barbed and sometimes poisoned arrows, and a dag- ger : they have lately learned the use of fire-arms and swords. They generally fight by ambuscade. The Mahometan nations are those with whom they are most habitually at war. When pursued, they unbend their bows and use them as leaping-poles, by which they bound with the utmost agility from rock to rock. The Afghans and others have sometimes confederated to make a ferocious exter- minating invasion of their territory, and have met in the midst of it ; but have been obliged, by the harassing and destructive mode of warfare practised by the Kaffers, to abandon the enterprise. When taken apart from their warlike pro- pensities, the Kaffers are a kind-hearted, social, and joyous race. They are all remarkable for fair and beautiful complexions, and speak several dialects of a language nearly allied to the Sanscrit. KASCHGUR. Kaschour, north-east of KafFeristan, and between it and Little Thibet, is, like those countries, a high, bleak, and cold territory, of which our knowledge is very imperfect: the inhabitants live chiefly in tents, and are Mahometans: they are subject to petty chiefs, who exercise despotic authority. INDIA. India comprehends the two peninsulas of Southern Asia, which are east of Arabia, divided by the Ganges, into India within the Ganges, or Hindoostan ; and India beyond the Ganges, called also Chin India, Farther India, and sometimes Indo China. Both the peninsulas of India are remarkable for the number and | 500 HINDOOSTAN. size of their rivers, whose waters and indu nidations, united with the heat of the climate, make them the most fertile countries on earth. The term East Indies is also used very commonly for the whole of south-eastern Asia, including China and Malaysia, HINDOOSTAN. Hindoostan, in every age, has ranked as the most celebrated country in the east; it has always been the peculiar seat of Oriental pomp, of an early and pecu- liar civilization, and of a commerce supported by richer products than that of any other country, ancient or modern. This country, in its most extended sense, comprises four great divisions : 1st, Northern India contains the countries extending along the base of the Himmaleh mountains: these are Lahore, including Cashmere, Gurwal, Nepaul, and Bootan, which are nearly all independent; 2d, Hindoostan Proper,' extending southward to the Nerbuddah River : this division is composed of the provinces of Sinde, Cutch, Gujerat, Rajpootana, Mewar, Malwa, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Oude, Ba- har, and Bengal ; 3d, the Deccan, comprising the regions situated between the Nerbuddah and the Kistnah Rivers, which includes the provinces of Khandesh, Gundwana, Orissa, Berar, Aurungabad, Beeder, Hyderabad, the northern Circars, and part of Bejapoor; 4th, Southern India: this division stretches from the Kist- nah River to Cape Comorin, and comprises the southern part of Bejapoor, Canara, Mysore; the Carnatic, Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore. Hindoostan was divided into the above provinces by Aurengzebe, the greatest of the Mogul emperors : these are not now recognized by the native states, but still form divisions in the British territories, and are in consequence retained. The whole country is divided into a number of different states, of various forms and dimensions, so intermixed with each other, and so often changing in their boundaries, that to attempt any thing like a clear and distinct representation of them would require a space far beyond what can be here allotted to them. Perhaps the grandest natural feature of this region is the vast mountain range of the Himmaleh, which forms its northern boundary, after crossing the Indus, and enclosing the beautiful valley of Cashmere. This range, which, in bounding Afghanistan under the name of Hindoo Koosh, had an almost due easterly course, takes a south-east line, which it follows till it passes the frontier of Hindoostan. It is comparatively but a few years that the great elevation of these mountains has been ascertained. About the sources of the Indus, Ganges, and Sanpoo, or Burrampooter, they shoot up to an elevation of 25 or 26,000 feet ; thus exceeding the height of any other mountains in the world. In Southern Hindoostan the two great chains of the Ghauts extend along the opposite coasts parallel to each other, or rather diverging, and leaving between them and the sea only a plain of forty or fifty miles in breadth. They rise in a few places above 3 or 4000 feet, but are very rugged and steep, and the entrance into the interior is only by very narrow and difficult passes. One continuous chain, the Vindhaya mountains, runs across the broad base of the peninsula, and forms a rugged boundary between it and the great plain of Hindoostan Proper. The rivers of Hindoostan form a featnre no less important than its mountains. The Indus, the Ganges, and the Burrampooter, are the chief, and rank among the principal streams of the Old Continent. The Indus, or Sinde, forms the western boundary of this region : its head branches, the Ladak, rise among the most ele- vated of the Himmaleh mountains, and within a short distance of the sources of the Ganges and Burrampooter. In its course to the ocean, it receives among other tributaries the Hydaspes, or Sutledge, famed in history since the days of Alexander. The Sinde flows into the Indian Ocean by two great estuaries, which enclose a delta of about 70 miles in extent. The Ganges is the most pre-eminent among the rivers of India, not only from its length of course, the great and fertile valley which it waters, the number of important cities and towns on its banks, but also from the holy and sacred charac- HINDOOSTAN. 501 ter it has maintained from the most remote ages; the Hindoos believing that its waters possess a virtue which will preserve them from every moral transgression. Some of the tributaries would in many countries rank as important rivers. The chief are the Jumna, Gogra, Gunduck, Cosa, &c. About 200 miles from the sea, the Ganges spreads out into a broad delta, of which the numerous branches which enter the Bay of Bengal, are called the Sunderbunds; they are mostly shallow, except the Hoogly, or western branch, by which large vessels can ascend to Cal- cutta. The Burrampooter, the eastern limitary river of India, pours a vast body of water into the lower Ganges, before its junction with the sea ; where the two streams united, form a bay with numerous islands: modern geography has long identified it with the Sanpoo of Thibet, flowing on the north side of the Himma- leh range. Late investigation, however, renders it doubtful whether they are not different streams. The other chief rivers of India are the Nerbuddah, which falls into the Gulf of Cambay, the Godavery, Kistnah, Colleroon, &c., the chief of Southern India, which flow into the Bay of Bengal. India has, for many successive ages, been the theatre "of absolute empire, exer- cised by foreign military potentates. It presents, however, many peculiarities distinguishing it from a mere ordinary despotism. The basis of its population still consists of that remarkable native race who, during a subjection for thousands of years, have retained, quite unaltered, all the features of their original charac- ter. They preserve in full force that earliest form, a village constitution, their attachment to which seems only to have been rendered stronger by the absence of every other political right and distinction. The village, considered as a politi- cal association, includes all the surrounding territory from which the inhabitants draw their subsistence. Not only the public services, but all trades, with the exception of the simple one of cultivating the ground, are performed by individuals who hold them usually by hereditary succession, and who are paid with a certain portion of the land, and by fixed presents. The mass of the population belongs to the Hindoo race, and, so long as they are permitted to enjoy their peculiar opinions and customs, they quietly behold all the high places occupied by any people, however strange or foreign, with whom rests the power of the sword. They have no idea of political rights or privileges, of a country or nation of their own, and in whose glory and prosperity they are inter- ested ; they never converse on such subjects, and can scarcely be made to com prehend what they mean. Their own political bond is to a chief who possesses popular qualities, and attaches them by pay and promotion : to him they often manifest signal fidelity, but are strangers to every other feeling. Despotism is not only established by long precedent, but is rooted in the very habits and minds of the community. Such habits naturally predispose the people of a fertile region, bordered by poor and warlike tribes, to fall into a state of regular and constant subjection to a foreign yoke. The power, which for many centuries ruled over Hindoostan, was Mahometan. The votaries of Islam, as usual, entered India sword in hand, announcing proscrip tion and desolation against all who should profess a faith opposite to their own ; but while by these unlawful instruments they had converted the whole west and centre of Asia, in India their religion never made the slightest impression. The Hindoos opposed to it a quiet and passive, but immoveable resistance. The con querors, finding in them such a fixed determination upon this point, while on every other they were the most submissive and peaceable subjects, allowed their own bigotry to be disarmed. With the exception of Aurengzebe and Tippoo, they have long left the votaries of Brahma in the unmolested possession of their faith, and of the various observances with which it is connected. The Mahometans have been reckoned at nearly 10,000,000, or about a tenth of the population of Hindoostan ; and have also become a subject raca. In contemplating Hindoostan, as it now exists, the power of Britain appears en- tirely predominant. This absolute sway of an island comparatively so small, over an empire of 100,000,000 inhabitants, situated nearly at its antipodes, and acces- sible only by so vast a circuit of ocean, presents one of the most remarkable phe- nomena in the history of the world. Yet the subjection is complete, and almost 502 HINDOOSTAN. universally peaceable ; and the presages of its short continuance, which some en- tertain, are perhaps chimerical. The number of Europeans by whom such vast dominions are held in subjection, very little exceeds 30,000. But this number is multiplied by that peculiarity in the character of the Hindoo, which makes it easy to train him into an instrument for holding- his own country in subjection. He has scarcely the idea of a country to fight for. " The Asiatic fights for pay and plunder ; and whose bread he eats, his cause he will defend against friends, country, and family." Accordingly, the sepoys (Indian troops commanded by British officers, and trained after the European manner) are found nearly as efficient as troops entirely British ; and, so long as nothing is done to shock their religion and prejudices, they are equally faithful. Their number amounts to 181,517 men. The purely European troops maintained by the Company do not exceed 8000, but a large body of the king's troops are always employed in India ; these at present are about 20,000. The Company doubles the pay of all the king's troops employed in their territories. These forces are variously distributed throughout India ; for, besides defending and holding in subjection the territories immediately under British sway, bodies of them are stationed at the capitals of the subsidiary princes, at once to secure and overawe them. The degree of vassalage in which the different states of India are held some- what varies. The Nizam, or soubah of the Deccan, the king of Oude, the rajahs of Nagpoor, Mysore, Sattara, Travancore, and Cochin, with the representative of the house of Holkar, though they exercise, not without some interference, their internal administration, are entirely under the control of Britain. The Gwickwar in Guzerat, and the numerous petty Rajpoot principalities, are rather friendly allies under her protection. Scindia is still nominally independent ; but his territories are so enclosed by those of the Company, that, in case of any general movement, he can scarcely act, unless under the dictation of the Company. The government of British India is vested in the Court of Directors of the East India Company, under the control of a Board of Commissioners, consisting of several of the chief ministers of the crown, and commonly called the Board of Control. The country is divided into the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. The president of Bengal is styled the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to legislate for India, under cer- tain limitations, and subject to the revision of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. The council consists of four members, besides the governor, ap- pointed by the directors with the royal sanction. The business of the executive is divided among five boards : viz., of revenue ; of customs, salt, and opium ; of trade ; of military affairs; and of medical affairs. The other Presidents in Coun- cil possess the same authority within their respective governments, but subject in all matters of general policy to the Governor-General, who has the power of de- claring war, making peace, and concluding treaties, and, as captain-general, may head the military operations in any part of the country, and who may suspend the governors of the other presidencies, and sit as president in their councils. The British ecclesiastical establishment in India consists of the three bishops of Cal- cutta, Madras, and Bombay, with seventy-six chaplains. Amid the general conquest and subjugation of India by Britain, the western provinces alone have never as yet come even into hostile collision with that power. The state with which it is in most immediate contact is that of the Seiks, or Sikhs. This remarkable people began their career as a religious sect, adopting a sort of combination of the Hindoo and Mahometan creeds. They possess nearly the whole territory of Lahore, or the Punjab, watered by the upper course of the five great rivers which convey to the Indus the waters of the Himmaleh ; they also possess the northern part of Delhi, as far as the Jumna. The government forms a species of theocracy, under a body of chiefs uniting the heterogeneous characters of priests, warriors and statesmen. Disunion has prevailed among these chiefs, but they are now united under the almost absolute sway of Runjeet Sing, who has also conquered Cashmere and a great part of the kingdom of Cabul, including Peshawer, lately its capital. He has fixed his residence at Lahore, and HINDOOSTAN. 503 maintains an army of eighty regiments of infantry equipped in the European manner, and disciplined by French officers, though they are led into the field by the hereditary chiefs or khans. The artillery and cavalry are also respectable, and he is supposed to have accumulated a large treasure. Moultan, composing the lower course of the five rivers, with all the territories along the Indus, including Sinde, its delta, is governed by chiefs formerly tributary to the king of Cabul ; but at present subject to Runjeet Sing. This region is separated from Guzerat, and the other fine provinces of central Hindoostan, by a vast tract of desert. Yielding, however, some coarse grain and pasture, it sup- ports a certain population, and is occupied by a number of rude chieftains, or petty princes, called Rajpoots, who paid even to Aurengzebe only a slight form of submission. At present they are engaged in almost perpetual contests with each other ; but no foreign power seems to interfere with them in the possession of these dreary wastes. The territories of Bootan and Nepaul stretch along the base of the Himmaleh Mountains from south-east to north-west; of these the most important is Nepaul. The greater part of this region is elevated four or five thousand feet above the sea, and enjoys the climate of the south of Europe. It is well watered and fer- tile. The population is composed of two races ; the Newars who form the bulk of the nation, and the Bramins who are the rulers. The whole region is subjected to the military government of the rajahs of Gorkwha, originally masters only of a small territory of that name, to the west of Nepaul. Bootan, south-eastward of Nepaul, is a country of an aspect similar to the latter. The natives, called Bootteas, are entirely unlike the people of India, and appear to be of the Mongul race : they have none of the Hindoo scruples, relative to animal food and spiritous liquors ; their favourite refreshment is tea, beaten up in a style by no means suited to an European palate. The religion is, that of the Lama of Thibet, and Bootan is, together with that country, under the protection of China, The following estimate has been made in a recent parliamentary paper, of the extent and population of the territories under the immediate administration of th$ Company : — Square Miles. Population. Presidency of Bengal 220,312 69,710,071 Madras 141,923 13,508,535 Bombay 59,438 6,251,546 421,673 89,470,152 There are, besides, 85,700 square miles in Bengal, and 5550 in Bombay, the population of which has not been ascertained ; but, as they consist of rude dis- tricts, situated on the Upper Nerbuddah and in the Concan, their population is probably not extensive ; and British India will not much exceed 90,000,000. The subjoined table contains an estimate of the population of the subject and inde- pendent states. The following come under the first head : — Square Miles. Population. The Nizam 96,000 10,000,000 The King of Oude 20,000 3,000,000 The Rajah of Nagpore 70,000 3,000,000 of Mysore 27,000 3,000,000 of Sattara 14,000 1,500,000 The Gwickwar 18,000 2,000,000 Travancore and Cochin 8,000 1,000,000 Rajpoot and various minor principalities 283,000 16,500,000 40,000,000 To this list must be added the island of Ceylon, which is a royal colony, and contains, on 24,660 square miles, nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants ; making the grand total of British India above 1,000,000 square miles, with a population of 131,000,000 souls. 504 HINDOOSTAN. The states that still remain independent of Britain are thus estimated : — Square Miles. Population. Scindia 40,000 4,000,000 The Seiks (Lahore Rajah) 50,000 3,000,000 Nepal 53,000 2,000,000 Cashmere and other districts subject to the Seiks. . 10,000 1,000,000 Sinde 2,4,000 1,000,000 11,000,000 India has always heen, in a peculiar manner, celebrated for its fertility, and for its profusion of magnificent and valuable products. In fact, the tropical countries, wherever water abounds, must surpass the regions under the temperate zone in this respect, were it only from the circumstance of producing more than one crop in the year. The large and copious streams of Hindoostan maintain generally throughout that country a perennial abundance. The character, however, is by no means universal. All the west of central India, except where it is watered by the Indus and its tributaries, consists of sand, in which the traveller sinks knee-deep. Sand forms even the basis of all the flat country of Bengal ; though inundation and culture have covered it with a thin surface of productive clay. A great part also of the hilly districts, being over-run with that species of rank underwood called jungle, is unfit for any useful product. Although the Hindoos, too, have ever been an agricultural people, and remarkable for their industry, nothing can be more imperfect than the instruments, or the skill, with which they conduct that important art. The cultivators, for security under an imperfect police, or from mere custom, live in large villages, having each a small spot, on the tillage of which they occupy themselves, in conjunction with the labours of the loom and with other employments. Holding their lands by no tenure except that of usage, they never think of expending capital in their improvement, and could not, probably, with safety, show themselves possessed of property. Their plough, in comparison with ours, does not deserve the name. Rudely constructed, at the cost of less than half a crown, it cannot penetrate beyond two or three inches deep, and has no contrivance for turning over the soil. It is drawn, not by horses, but by oxen and buffaloes yoked together. The ground, after being scattered in several directions by this instrument, followed by the rough branch of a tree as a substitute for the harrow, is considered fit for receiving the seed. Manure is employed only in some rare cases, and consists merely of ashes and decayed vegetables. This rude system of husbandry resembles that which was practised in Europe during the early ages. It is not supposed that even in Bengal more than one acre in three is under actual tillage. The cultivators are poor in the extreme, their annual rents on an average not exceeding four pounds : and, instead of possessing any capital, they are usually sunk in debt. Notwithstanding all these deficiencies, nature is bountiful, and the products of India are copious. Rice is the article upon which the whole region rests its main dependence; it is raised on every spot where irrigation can be procured. The periods of sowing and reaping vary, and produce a corresponding variety in the quality. Only one crop is raised in the year; but with another of millet or pulse on the same field. In some of the western Mahratta districts, it is necessary to substitute dhourra, the arid and coarse grain of Nubia. Wheat and barley are fitted only for those tracts which, from their more elevated site, approximate to the temperate climates. The most important of the other products of Hindoostan is cotton, the material of the great national manufacture. Silk is an ancient staple of the country ; su- gar, tobacco, opium, and indigo are all extensively raised ; the latter has been much improved in quality and increased in amount by the introduction of European skill and capital. Saltpetre, from Bahar, and coffee and pepper from the Malabar coast, are likewise among the chief products. Of the above articles, the annual produce is valued at £100,000,000 sterling, supposed to be equal to £600,000,000 in England. Besides these articles destined for exportation, there are others extensively HINDOOSTAN. 505 consumed in the interior. The nut of the areca, combined with the leaf of the betel, is one universally used in India, which has never found its way into Europe. The customs of the country cause a vast consumption of vegetable oils, which are supplied from the sesamum, also from lint, mustard-seed, and the cocoa-nut. Woods of various kinds grow luxuriantly on the lower declivities of the Indian hills. The canes, composing the thick jungle of underwood which abounds in marshy grounds, are not only used as in Europe, but are much employed in build- ing. The teak has been found unrivalled for ship-building; but, though it flour- ishes on the hills of Malabar, it does not obtain such perfection there as in Java and the eastern peninsula. Malabar furnishes also a large supply of sandal -wood, of the species called red-wood, as well as others used for dyeing, or for ornamental furniture. The principal Indian manufactures are those of cotton, which, though nearly driven out of Europe by cheap and successful imitation; are preferred all over the east Silk, though holding only a secondary place as an Indian manufacture, is still ancient and considerable ; its main seats are Moorshedabad, Benares, and Surat; at the latter, taffetas, brocades, and embroidered gauzes, are its prevailing forms. Woollens are not made except in the northern mountainous districts, where, though coarse, they are produced to a great extent, chiefly for home con- sumption. Cashmere alone collects that fine wool, peculiar to the goats which feed on the table-land of Thibet ; and from this material are manufactured those exquisitely beautiful shawls which Europe has striven to rival, but unsuccessfully, except in cheapness. The shawl manufactory of Cashmere has suffered peculi- arly by the revolutions of that country ; and the looms employed in it have been reduced from 40,000 to 16,000. The mining operations of India are confined to one object, of so brilliant a character, however, as to throw a lustre on this and on all the Oriental regions. It produces the finest diamonds in the world ; for those of Brazil, though of greater size, are inferior in hardness and brilliancy. The Indian diamonds occur chiefly in a high and rugged tract, inhabited by tribes almost independent, and extending from Golconda across the interior of Orissa. The sands of the rivers of this tract yield also some gold dust, but not in suffi- cient quantity to become a national object. India produces some iron, lead, and tin, though not in sufficient quantities for home consumption. Zinc is in particular abundance ; and the same may in some degree be said of these products of cal- careous countries, marble, sal-gem, alabaster, common salt both in rocks and plains covered with this mineral ; but the great masses of rock salt are to the west of the Indus. The mode of conducting British commerce with India has always, till very recently, been by means of exclusive companies; and the only competition was between these rival associations. About the middle of the seventeenth century, they were combined into " the United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies ;" by whom, from that time, all the concerns of government and trade were administered. Between 1770 and 1784, the Company were obliged to yield a great share of their political power, which is now jointly exercised by the Board of Control. But no material breach was made in their exclusive privileges as traders till 1813, when the intercourse with Hindoostan was thrown generally open to British subjects, with only some restrictions as to the tonnage of the ves- sels and the ports from which they were to proceed ; and even these have been in a great measure removed. Under the liberty thus granted, the private trade has increased astonishingly, and has almost driven that of the Company out of the field. By the acts of August 28, 1833, for the Better Government of his Majesty's Indian Territories, and for Regulating the Trade to China and India, the commercial privileges of the East India Company are abolished, its functions now being merely political, and the trade to India and China is thrown open to all j British subjects. It is further declared lawful for all British subjects to reside in the East India Company's dominions without any license, on merely making known to the proper officer, on their arrival, their name, place of destination, and objects of pursuit; and any person so resident may acquire and hold lands, in the parts ' "ft 3 O 506 HINDOOSTAN. where he may be authorised to reside, for any term of years, and carry on any trade or profession. General View of the Commerce of British India, for 1833. Great Bri tain United States Brazil Portugal France Sweden Hamburg Eastern Islands Arabia, Persian Gulf, N. S. Wales, &c China Total. In surveying the political state of Hindoostan, an estimate has already been given of its population, by which it amounts to about 140,000,000. Of this vast multitude, nine-tenths are still believed to consist of that native original race, who, though subject to a foreign power during so many ages, have remained always unmixed, and have retained unaltered their ancient habits and institutions. This people have attained a considerable degree of civilization, though in a form quite different from the European nations. The Hindoos are of a very dark complexion, almost black, with features similar to, but smaller than the European, and with a pleasing and rather soft expression of countenance ; in form they are slender and graceful. The females of the higher class who do not labour are exceedingly delicate and sylph-like, with dark and languishing eyes, and long, glossy black hair. The races, however, bred to war, who inhabit the mountains and western tracts, are of a bodily constitution, more hardy and athletic than the generality of the other Hindoos. The mass of the people are moderate and sober in their habits ; a single piece of cotton stuff suffices them for clothing ; their dwellings are the slightest and simplest that can be imagined ; their sustenance consists mostly of rice and water, and but little trouble is required to satisfy their wants; there are, however, some classes who display in their mode of living all the luxury of the east. The rajahs and nabobs, surrounded by numerous slaves, have their garments glittering with gold, silver, gems, and embroideries ; their apartments, adorned with paint- ings and gilding, and perfumed with various valuable essences. Besides the Hindoos, there are about 10,000,000 of Mohammedans, comprising descendants of the Mogul conquerors of the country. Of Arabian merchants and their offspring, settled in the western, and of Afghans, found chiefly in the north- western parts of India, there are also many ; Jews, both white and black, the lat- ter supposed to be the descendants of some of the ten tribes, and about 150,000 native Christians on the coast of Malabar, besides English, French, Portuguese, &c. ; the descendants of the latter are numerous in many places, and are frequently found almost as dark in complexion as the aboriginal natives. The Hindoos made, at a very early period, considerable progress in astronomy, algebra, &c, and have an extensive literature, mostly connected with their reli- gion. Their works on epic and dramatic poetry are voluminous, and, though extra- vagant and puerile in a high degree, present many passages distinguished for sweetness, pathos, and harmony ; the amatory poets of India are eminent, though none of them has attained the fame of Hafiz. The Bramins,. who alone ought to be learned, are now almost wholly illiterate. The only tincture of literature and thought appears to exist among some of the higher inhabitants of the great cities, who have derived it chiefly from intercourse with Europeans and particularly with the missionaries. The English language is spreading in India, and a taste for European literature, newspapers, and periodicals, is beginning to take place among those whose situation throws them into habits of intimacy with foreign residents ; a brighter era has also commenced in the political condition of the natives ; they have, for several years, been admissible to civil offices and to act as civil and cri- HINDOOSTAN. 507 minal judges, and are also summoned to sit in the punctayets, or native juries, and to try in some places criminal, in others both civil and criminal questions. By the Act of Parliament of 1833, for the better government of the Indian terri- tories, it is further provided that no native shall, by reason of his religion, place of birth, descent, or colour, be disabled from holding any office or employment under the Company. One of the most remarkable circumstances in Hindoo manners is the division of the people into castes ; a division which has existed for thousands of years. The leading castes are four : first, Bramins, who are men of letters, and have the care of religion and laws; second, the soldiers, called rajah-poots, or descendants of the rajahs, (this class includes princes and sovereigns) ; third, merchants, farm- ers, and shepherds, called vaisyas; and fourth, sudras, or labourers. The Bramin is required to abstain from animal food and fermented liquors, and to perform religious rites and ceremonies. Some of them, however, engage in employments of a secular nature. Many of them are agents or ministers of the native princes ; some of them embark in commerce ; and others are employed in carrying messages between distant places. They are an artful set of impostors, expert in disguising the truth, and practising without scruple every artifice to gull the people and accomplish their own selfish purposes. The number of per- sons of this caste who are respectable for their knowledge and virtue, is extremely small. The great body of these hereditary priests and sages are devoted to am- bition, intrigue, and voluptuousness, and are disgraced by meanness, avarice, and cruelty. The charity which they profess is never practised. Towards the other castes they cherish no feeling of humanity, but claim every thing from them, while they give them nothing in return. The rajah-poots seem not to possess the general character of the Hindoos. They have a ferocious courage, a savage ambition, and an insatiable avarice, not often compensated by any real virtues. Many of these are employed in the English service under the name of sepoys. The duties of the third caste consist in the labours of the field and garden, the rearing of cattle, and the sale of landed pro- duce. When they travel to other countries, they engage in mercantile pursuits. The business of the fourth and most numerous caste, is servile labour. They are compelled to work for the Bramins, being considered as created solely for their I use. To them the vedas, or holy books, must never be read, and whoever instructs j them in religion is doomed to one of the hells with which the world of spirits is provided. Such is this singular institution of castes. Each individual remains invariably in the rank in which he is born, and cannot aspire to a higher, what- i ever be his merits. The castes never intermarry, and so complete is the separa- | tion, that they will not even eat at the same table. The religion of the Hindoos, derived from their sacred books, inculcates a belief in the existence of one supreme God, who holds himself aloof from the world, in a state of perfect indolence and bliss; having committed the government of the universe to three divinities. They believe that those who withdraw from the world, and devote themselves to abstinence and self-torture, will arrive at supreme happiness, by being united to the spirit of the great Deity, as a drop of water is absorbed by the ocean. The souls of the less holy they imagine will pass into the bodies of other men and brutes. The duties, ceremonies, and observances of religion, are interwoven with all the common offices of life. The people worship images, and, under the blind influence of superstition, drown their children in the rivers, inflict upon themselves the most painful tor- tures and penances, and seek death by drowning, by fire, by being crushed be- neath wheels, and by throwing themselves on large iron hooks. There is not, perhaps, in the whole history of the human race, a picture more truly horrible and disgusting than is presented by the idolatries of this infatuated people. The great efforts which are now making by various missionary societies for in- troducing Christianity into India, have in many instances obtained a rich reward. Several hundreds of Hindoos have renounced their gods, the Ganges, and their priests, and have shaken from their limbs the iron chain of caste. A large num- ber of converted natives have in some sense become missionaries, and have been 508 HINDOOSTAN. the instruments of turning many to a purer and more enlightened faith. All the societies engaged in the work of missions have far more calls for labourers than they have instruments at their disposal. Twenty times the number of mission- aries, catechists, and schoolmasters, are wanting, and there is abundant evidence that through the exertions now making, the fabric of Hindoo superstition is be- ginning to totter. Besides the vast regions in Hindoostan under the sway of Great Britain, the monarchs of Portugal, France, and Denmark, possess a few small settlements, chiefly the scanty remains of much larger territories. The Portuguese, whose settlements were formerly so numerous on the coasts and in the islands of the Indian Sea, have preserved Goa, with a few adjacent places, Damaan, and a small portion of the peninsula of Guzerat, with the fortress of Diu, a place important for the construction of vessels. These possessions, to- gether with the Island of Macao, in the Bay of Canton in China, and some small districts of the Island of Timor, are supposed to contain about 30,000 square miles, and 575,000 inhabitants. The French settlements in Asia are confined to India, and comprehend the governments of Pondicherry, with the towns of Pondicherry and Karical, on the coast of Coromandel, and a few other places, among which, Chandernagor in Ben- gal, and Mahe on the coast of Malabar, are the most important. The whole area possessed by the French does not exceed 450 square miles, with a population of 160,000 individuals. The Danish colonies consist only of the town of Tranquebar, and its territory, on the coast of Coromandel, a place remarkable for the influence which the mis- sionary establishment of the Protestant creed, which was erected here more early than in other places, exercised on the neighbourhood. The Danes have also a small settlement at Serampore, on the Ganges. The population of the whole is about 60,000. The settlements of the Dutch were formerly dispersed over the coasts of both peninsulas of India, as well as over the adjacent islands ; but they were obliged to abandon them by degrees; and since 1821, they have been limited to the islands. Hindoostan has from the earliest times been noted for the great number of its large and populous cities and towns. The following are a few of the most promi- nent at the present day. Calcutta, the capital of British India, situated on the Hoogly branch of the Ganges, 100 miles from the sea, is supposed to contain 500,000 inhabitants; while, within a radius of twenty miles, there are upwards of 2,000,000. The situation was originally very unhealthy, being in the midst of forests and swamps ; and, though these have been in a great measure cleared away, it still suffers by the damp breezes from the Sunderbunds. The English town, or suburb, called Chou- ringee, consists of 4300 houses. Strangers ascending the river are particularly struck by the number of elegant villas, with which all the' environs are 6tudded. The Black Town, comprising much the greater part of Calcutta, consists, as in other parts of India, of miserable cottages of mud and bamboo. The government- house is a very splendid and costly structure. A college was founded by the Mar- quess Wellesley, which boasted many illustrious members, but has of late been much reduced. The allowances to all the servants of government are liberal ; and though their aim, in going out, has generally been to return with an inde- pendent fortune, they indulge in a hospitable, splendid, and expensive style of living. Large dinner parties, in preference to public amusements, form the favourite recreation. Serampore, 12 miles above Calcutta, is a neat, thriving little*town, at which is a Danish settlement. This place is interesting as the seat of the Baptist missionaries, who have distinguished themselves by such learned and extensive labours in the pious task of translating the Scriptures into all the languages of India, and even of China. Bombay, the capital of Western India, is situated on a small island connected by an artificial causeway with the larger one of Salsette. In 1661, it was ceded by the Portuguese to Charles II., as part of queen Catherine's portion; two or HINDOOSTAN. 509 three years after, a settlement was established, and in 1686, the chief seat of English trade was transferred thither from Surat. Since that time, Bombay, not- withstanding considerable vicissitudes, has continued on the whole in a state of constant increase, and has become the great emporium of Western India, with a population of 220,000. Of these, about 8000 are Parsees, the most wealthy of the inhabitants, and by whom its prosperity is mainly supported. There are also Jews, Mahometans, and Portuguese, in considerable numbers ; but the Hindoos comprise three-fourths of the whole. Madras, situated on the west coast of the peninsula, is the capital of the presi- dency of Madras. It has no harbour ; but a mere road, through which runs a strong current, and which is often exposed to dangerous winds. On the beach breaks so strong and continual a surf, that only a peculiar species of large light boats, the thin planks of which are sewed together with the tough grass of the country, can, by the dexterous management of the natives, be rowed across it. For the conveyance, also, of letters and messages, they employ what is called a catamaran, consisting merely of two planks fastened together, with which they encounter the roughest seas with wonderful address, and, when swept off by the waves, regain it by swimming. The city has a handsome appearance from the sea, and many of its streets are spacious. The population is about 300,000. Surat, on the Gulf of Cambay, and about 170 miles north of Bombay, at the first arrival of Europeans, was the greatest emporium of India, and at present it ranks scarcely second to Calcutta. The population is usually rated at 600,000. It has suffered by the British having established the chief seat of their commerce at Bombay. It still, however, carries on extensive manufactures of silks, brocades, and fine cotton stuff's. This city contains many very opulent merchants, chiefly Banians and Parsees. The former carry to a great extent all the peculiarities of their religion, and manifest in a peculiar degree their tenderness for animal life, by erecting hospitals for birds, monkeys, and other animals accounted sacred. Benares, the Athens of the Hindoos, stands on the left bank of the Ganges, about 900 miles from the Gulf of Bengal. It may be said to form the grand de- pository of the religion and learning of this vast country. Its sacred character, which is supposed to ensure the salvation of all who die within its precincts, can- not fail, in a nation devoted to pilgrimage, of rendering Benares a scene of ex- tensive and crowded resort. Its own population, long supposed to exceed 500,000, has been found by a late census not to be more than 200,000 ; but it is augment- ed, at solemn seasons, by pilgrims to a much greater number. Benares, in fact, presents a more lofty and imposing aspect than any other Indian city. Its houses, instead of being a mere collection of mud and straw huts, are most of them built of brick, and some of them five or six stories high ; so that they make a very magnificent appearance. The city also contains a great number of temples and mosques. Lucknow, the principal city in Oude, was, while the nabobs of that state were in full power, one of the most splendid in India : the population in 1800 was esti- mated at upwards of 300,000, but is said to have diminished since that time. It contains several mosques and palaces wfth gilded domes, which give it an im- posing appearance at a distance. It is situated on the Goomty, a branch of the Ganges. On the banks of the Jumna, is found, mouldering in decay, the city of Delhi. It was, in early times, a great Hindoo metropolis, under the name of Indraput ; but Shah Jehan, in the middle of the seventeenth century, made it the chief seat of Mogul dominion, and such it afterwards continued. Here, in 1806, died Shah Allum, the last of that mighty dynasty who could be said to enjoy any portion of real empire. His son Akbar is still allowed by the British to bear that great name, and to receive a considerable proportion of the revenues of the province, which enables him to live in some splendour. What remains of Delhi is still rather a handsome city ; the streets, though narrow, contain many good houses, built of brick, and partly of stone. Here are the remains of a number of splen- did palaces ; and the city is adorned with many beautiful mosques, still in good repair. During the reign of Aurengzebe, it was computed to contain 2,000,000 43* 510 CEYLON. inhabitants ; but, at present, less than one-tenth of that number. In 1739, Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah, when 100,000 of the inhabitants were massacred, and plunder to the amount of ,£62,000,000 was collected. Dacca was the capital of Bengal in the reign of Jehangire, and is still a very large city; It contains 150,000 inhabitants, displays no particular splendour, but is the seat of a great trade. It stands on the Boor Gunga, or old Ganges, 100 miles from the sea, and 150 north-east from Calcutta. The city of Cashmere, the largest in the Seik dominion, contains, it is said, 150,000 inhabitants : it stands on the Jylum, in the most northern part of Hin- doostan, and is noted for its manufactures of the finest shawls in the world. The beauty of its situation has also been widely celebrated, particularly its lake, studded with numberless islands, green with gardens and groves, and having its banks environed with villas and ornamented grounds. Hyderabad, 400 miles south-east from Bombay, the capital of the province of the same name, may be considered also the present capital of the Deccan, the re- moval of the Nizam thither from Aurungabad having attracted to it a population of about 120,000. Though not a fine city, Hyderabad contains some handsome mosques ; and the Nizam maintains, on a smaller scale, a semblance of Mogul pomp. He has large magazines filled to the ceiling with fine cloths, watches, porcelain, and other ornamental articles presented to him by European embassies. Poonah resembles a huge village rather than a city; the houses are irregularly built, chiefly of slight brick walls, by which even the palace is entirely enclosed. For resisting the violent rains, these structures depend chiefly on interior timber frames: they are painted with innumerable representations of the Hindoo Pan- theon. The markets are plentifully supplied with provisions of every kind. Poonah is now included in the British territory, and attached to the presidency of Bombay. It is about 80 miles south-east from the city of that name. Popula- tion, 10,000. Some of the other important cities in Hindoostan are Lahore, the capital of the Seik dominions, with a population of 80,000 ; Umritsir, the holy city of the same people, and the seat of their great national council, containing a population of 100,000 ; Tattah, the chief city of Sinde, and Hyderabad, the capital of the same state : these are both on the Indus : the former contains about 20,000 inhabitants, and was once a very great manufacturing and commercial place. Katmandoo, the capital of Nepaul, was said to contain, a few years ago, 20,000 houses: of these, one-half were destroyed by an earthquake, in the spring of 1834, CEYLON. Ceylon, lying to the south of Hindoostan, from which it is separated by the Strait of Manar, is a large and beautiful island, about 300 miles in length and 160 in breadth : it is traversed in the interior by a range of mountains, one of which, Adam's Peak, is 6152 feet in height: here the Cingalese and Hindoos worship the colossal footsteps of Adam, who, as they believe, was created on this mountain, and, according to the religion of Boodha, is Boodha himself. This island produces cinnamon, for which it is famous; also rice, cotton, ginger, coffee, pepper, &c. A great variety of precious stones are found here, — the diamond, ruby, amethyst, &c. ; also, quicksilver, lead, iron, and tin. A pearl-fishery is carried on along the western coast and in the Strait of Manar, which was former- ly important, but is now declining. The inhabitants are estimated at about 1,000,000 in number, and comprise — 1. The Cingalese, similar to the Hindoos: these form the majority of the people; 2. The Beddahs, rude savages, who inhabit the wildest tracts in the interior ; 3. The Dutch and Portuguese, descendants of the former masters of the island ; and 4. The English residents and military. Many churches and schools have been established by both English and American missionaries, at which numbers of the natives attend, and are gradually laying aside their gross errors and super- stitions, and acquiring a knowledge of the 5 benign doctrines of Christianity. LACCADIVE AND MALDIVE ISLANDS— CHIN INDIA. 511 Ceylon is a colony independent of the East India Company, being under the im- mediate control of the crown. Colombo, on the west coast of the island, is the seat of government and of almost all the foreign trade. It owes this advantage to its situation in the midst of the most fertile and productive territory in the island; population, 50,000. Trincomalee, Point de Galle, Jafnapatam, and Condatchy, are all places of some note. Kandy, the interior capital, is only a large straggling village, surrounded by wooded hills, that echo continually with cries of wild animals. LACCADIVE AND MALDIVE ISLANDS. West and south-west from the southern part of India, the Laccadive and Mal- dive Islands extend, in a direction nearly north and south, a distance of about 1000 miles in length : the former are about 200 miles west from the Malabar coast, and the latter 300 to 350 south-west from Cape Comorin. The Laccadives are said to be 32 in number, all of them small and covered with trees. The inhabitants are mostly Mahometans, called Moplays: they trade to the nearest coast of India, and also to Muscat, in large boats; taking there cocoa-nut oil, cable and cordage, and dried fish ; receiving in return, dates, coffee, &c. Ambergris is often found floating off these islands. The Maldives are, it is said, 1000 in number ; but they are, for the most part, uninhabited. The natives appear to be a mixture of Arabs and Indians of Mala- bar: they supply vessels with cocoa-nuts, oil and honey, dried fish, tortoise-shell, and cowries. The islands are divided into 17 attollons, or provinces, each go- verned by a chief: the whole are under the control of a king, who rules despoti- cally. They have four sea-ports, in which their few articles of commerce are collected. CHIN INDIA. Chin India, or Further India, comprises that extensive region situated between India and China, and sometimes called Indo China, and also India beyond the Ganges ; its inhabitants have but little in common with the Hindoos or Chinese ; and although this region has had but a small share in the great transactions of which Asia has been the theatre, yet it comprises several extensive and important kingdoms, some of which have been alternately united and separated. It may be divided into the British territories, ceded in consequence of the late successful war, the empire of Birmah, the kingdom of Siam, the empire of Anam, or Cochin China, and lastly, the Peninsula of Malaya, or Malacca. The whole region is bounded on the west by Hindoostan, the Bay of Bengal, and the Strait of Malacca ; north by Thibet and China ; and east by the China and Malayan Seas. It extends from 2° to 26° north latitude, and from 92° to 108° east longi- tude ; a distance, from north to south, of 1700, and from east to west about 1000 miles. It contains an area of nearly 1,000,000 square miles, and is inhabited by a population, composed of various races, amounting, according to the estimates of the latest writers on the subject, to about 14,000,000 souls, apportioned among the different States as follows, viz: Sq. miles. Population. British Territories 77,000 336,000 Birmah 290,000 5,000,000 Siam 180,000 2,730,000 Anam 350,000 6,000,000 Malayan States 60,000 100,000 Total. 947,000 14,166,000 The surface of this great territory is formed by a series of mountain ranges, running from north to south, between each of which intervenes a broad valley, in general very fertile, arid watered by a large river, descending from the mountains — '"""' 1 512 CHIN INDIA. of China and Thibet. The rivers are mostly of great importance. The Irra- waddy, or river of Ava, is navigable many hundred miles for large boats. The Salwen, or Thaluen, is also a large stream, though but little known. The Mecon, or Cambodia, is navigable twenty days' sail from the ocean. The Menan, which waters Siam, after a course of 800 miles enters the Gulf of Siam by three chan- nels, the most easterly admitting vessels of the first magnitude. The outline of this region is very irregular, being deeply indented by the large Gulfs of Siam and Tonquin and the Bay of Martaban. The government of all these kingdoms, in principle, at least, is a pure despot- ism ; in which no constitutional check on the authority of the monarch is recog- nised. The state officers compose a sort of council of state, but entirely subject to the monarch, and removable at his pleasure. The nobles, especially in Siam, show the most profound submission, and approach the throne in the most abject manner, lying prostrate on their faces, and creeping on the ground. The king has many pompous titles, but that of shoe, or golden, is the one most valued, and which must be applied to him on every occasion. The military strength of these nations consists almost entirely of a. feudal mili- tia, for which all males of a certain age are enrolled, and may be called upon to serve under the chiefs of their respective districts. Their arms are mostly swords, lances, and cross-bows ; though they have collected a considerable number of fire- arms ; but these, being chiefly the muskets condemned in the English arsenals, cannot, by the most anxious exertions of art and skill, be brought into a service- able state. The only exception is in Cochin-China, where the European officers in the king's service have effected considerable improvements. But the most effi- cient part of the establishment consists in the war-boats, destined to act on the great rivers which form the main channels of communication in all these king- doms. On land, the Birmans and Siamese trust chiefly to their stockades, which they throw up with surprising skill and expedition. In general, however, none of these troops can stand the charge of a disciplined army, but, as soon as their defences are penetrated, they take to flight with precipitation. In Cochin-China only a regular army has been organised and trained in the European manner: this force, in 1800, was estimated at 140,000 men ; but is supposed at present not to exceed 50,000, of whom the royal guards amount to 30,000. The productive capacities of this region are very ample. It yields all the grand staples of tropical produce. The principal culture consists of rice, sugar of fine quality, pepper, and cotton. The sides of the great ranges of hills are covered with luxuriant timber of various species and great value. There are large forests of teak, a wood now found to be preferable, from its strength and durability, to any other, for the purposes of ship-building. Large boats are often cut out from a single tree, and a great quantity of teak timber is now produced for the supply of the naval arsenals of British India. Stick lac and gamboge are among the chief articles of export ; also, areca-nut and betel-leaf, that universal article of luxury and ceremony in all Indian countries. Cardamoms are a spice for which a large market is found in China, and there is some cinnamon in Cam- bodia ; but in general these regions are not productive of the finer species. Cultivation is very generally diffused, and is conducted in the west on the Indian model, and in the east on the Chinese ; but it is not practised in the same perfection, or with the same patient industry, as by either of these nations. The sugar and pepper of Siam are chiefly raised by Chinese settlers. Domestic ani- mals are little used in cultivation, and in Ava the Brahminical principle prevents them from being made articles of food. Animals are tamed chiefly for conveyance or pomp ; and for these purposes the elephant, here found in greater perfection, and more highly prized, than in any other country in the world, is chiefly em- ployed. Manufactures exist only on a limited scale, and in a rude form ; the raw mate- rials which the country affords being worked up mostly by the family itself for domestic use. Those brilliant and beautiful fabrics which are the boast of China and Hindoostan are not produced here, and the quantity used is imported from CHIN INDIA. 513 those countries, especially from the latter. The only fabrication on which much study is bestowed is that of idols, which are fashioned out of a fine species of marble found in the country, and generally gilded. The commerce of these countries is also limited. Their chief intercourse is with China, and consists in the exchange of their raw produce, rice, cotton, tim- ber, ornamented woods, varnishes, for some species of the fine manufactures of that great empire. The cotton and other products of the Birman empire are carried up the Irrawaddy to a great jee, or market, in the frontier province of Yunnan. Britain takes of teak timber to the amount of about 200,000Z. ; in return for which some British manufactures are received. The trade of Siam and Cochin-China is chiefly carried on by Chinese junks coming to the port of Bankok in the former country, and those of Turon, Hue, and Saigong, in the latter. There is also some trade with the rising British settlement at Sincapore. The people by whom all this territory is inhabited present several peculiarities of external form. Their persons are short, robust, active, but devoid of the grace and flexibility peculiar to the Hindoo. Their face, flat, with high cheek-bones, presents the form of a lozenge, and never suggests any idea of beauty. The hair is abundant, black, lank, and coarse ; but the beard is scanty, and universally plucked out, which gives them an effeminate appearance. The Birmans appear to be an active and intelligent people, possessing in this respect a decided supe- riority over the Hindoos. The Siamese are said to be sluggish and indolent, des- titute of courage, candour, and good faith ; and so imbued with national pride, that foreign residents cannot obtain a servant to perform for them the most menial offices. The religion of these countries, like all others in the east of Asia, is derived from Hindoostan ; yet, like the rest also, it consists not in the Brahminical doc- trine, but in the rival system of Buddha. The name, however, most venerated in all the countries beyond the Ganges is Gaudama, either another appellation of Buddha, or that of one of his most popular disciples. The construction of temples and images of Gaudama forms the grand operation to which the art and industry of all these nations is directed. Frugal and indolent in everything else, they spare neither cost nor labour on this object. The priests of this religion, as in all the other branches of the worship of Buddha, are monks, residing in the temples, and living in a state of celibacy. In Ava, they are called rhahaans; in Siam, tala- poins ; but in the latter country they are bound by no vows, and may quit the order whenever they please ; and it is so common to assume and leave the profession, that almost every man has been a talapoin for some part of his life, even if only for a few days. Great part of their time is spent in insignificant and even absurd ceremonies; yet their ministration is useful in several respects. They instruct the children in reading, and so diligently, that few in the Birman territory are ig- norant in this respect. Literature is by no means unknown or neglected in Farther India. The Birman language is a compound of several tongues, the com- plication of which is greatly increased by the mode of writing; the words, ac- cording to Mr. Judson, not being fairly divided and distinguished, as in Western writing, by breaks, points, and capitals, but run together in one continuous line, a sentence or paragraph seeming to the eye but one long word; and instead of clear characters on paper, we find only obscure scratching on dried palm-leaves strung together and called a book. In the royal library, however, the writing is beauti- ful, on thin leaves of ivory, and the margins ornamented with flowers of gold. The books are kept in gilded and japanned chests. The contents of each are written on the lid, in gold letters. The bulk of the works were said to be on divinity; but history, music, medicine, painting, and romance, had also their sepa- rate treatises. The customs of these countries allow to the female sex a much greater mea- sure of liberty than in almost any other country of the East. They are neither immured nor veiled, nor withdrawn from the company and conversation of the other sex. This freedom, however, is not accompanied with any disposition to allow them that place in the scale of society which justly belongs to them. They 3P 514 BRITISH TERRITORIES. are treated as the mere slaves of the stronger sex ; all the laborious duties are de- volved upon them, and they manage most of the transactions of buying and selling. The habitations in these countries are of slight materials, but commodious. Bamboos fixed in the ground, and tied horizontally with strips of rattan, compose the outline, and serve as the supports of the building. Covered with mats they form the walls, and with grass the roof. A spacious mansion can be built in a day, and a tolerable one in four hours. BRITISH TERRITORIES. The territories ceded to Britain by Birmah consist of Assam, with some ap- pended territory ; the former kingdom of Arracan ; the provinces of Martaban, I Yeh, Tavoy, and Mergui, extending along the western coast of the Malayan peninsula, and of Malacca itself. Assam is an extensive and somewhat rude territory, to the north of Ava, and the east of Bengal. It is bordered on the north by lofty ranges of mountains con- tinued from the Himmaleh, and watered by numerous rivers, of which the prin- cipal is the Burrampooter. A great part of its surface possesses a luxuriant fer- tility ; yet the rudeness of the inhabitants renders the gifts of nature fruitless, so that nine-tenths of its surface consist of desert and jungle. A considerable quan- tity of gold, however, is found in the sands of its rivers, and, combined with ele- phants' teeth and coarse silk, affords a certain value for exportation. Arracan reaches along nearly the whole eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, an extent of about 500 miles, and consists of a narrow plain closely bounded by a high mountain range. The cultivation of this territory being imperfect, it is not supposed to contain more than 100,000 inhabitants. Arracan, the capital, at the mouth of the river of the same name, is a considerable city, and the seat of some trade. A new and improving station has been formed by the British at Akyab. The Malayan provinces extend along the eastern coast of that peninsula, where it continues to border on the Bay of Bengal, and have been long a debateable ground between the Birman and Siamese empires. They are in consequence thinly inhabited, but they possess the finest and most salubrious climate to be found, not only in this empire, but in any part of the East Indies. Amherst, lately founded at the mouth of the Salwen, which forms the boundary between this ter- ritory and the Birman empire, will, it is expected, become the seat of an impor- tant commerce. The territory and city of Malacca, at the southern point of the peninsula, was, in 1825, ceded by the Dutch to England, in exchange for her possessions in Su- matra. It was one of the earliest settlements of the Portuguese, and continued for a long time to be a great emporium of the trade of the Oriental islands, as well as a place of refreshment for vessels bound to China; but since Prince of Wales' Island and Sincapore, under the protecting sway of Britain, have risen to their present importance, the port of Malacca is much less frequented. It has, however, a safe roadstead ; a salubrious climate, cooled by a succession of sea and land breezes ; with some industry and cultivation, carried on chiefly by Chinese. The population of the town is stated at 4790. ' The following estimate has been made of the extent and population of the British territories in Further India : So,, m. Population. Assam, with dependencies 54,000 .... 150,000 Arracan 11,000 .... 100,000 Provinces south of the Salwen, Tavoy, Yeh, Marta- ban, and Tenasserim, with the Mergui Isles 12,000 .... 51,000 Malacca 800 35,000 Total 77,800 .... 336,000 BIRMAH. 515 EMPIRE OF BIRMAH. The Birman empire is formed into two important divisions; Pegue, once its rival, but now its subject kingdom, which comprises all the sea-coast and the mouths of the rivers ; Ava or Birmah, occupying the upper valley of the Irra- waddy, and the present seat of the ruling power. Pegue is a sort of delta, en- tirely traversed by the alluvial branches of the Irrawaddy, Pegue, and Salwen rivers. Its valleys are of extreme fertility, and particularly productive of rice ; so that it serves as a sort of granary to the empire. It has also spacious forests, abounding in teak, which requires a soil at once moist and rich. Ava consists of a plain of less extent, closely hemmed in by mountains, and by no means of equal fertility ; but it is also well cultivated, abounds in timber, and its brave and hardy inhabitants have generally held in their hands the supremacy over both nations. The two great divisions of Birmah are subdivided into seven provinces. The empire was formerly much more powerful than at present, and so high an opinion was entertained by the Birmans of their prowess in war, that one of the chief men assured an English agent, that had his master been properly solicited, he would have sent an army to give the English possession of France. In 1824, war was commenced by the Bifmans against the East India Company, which ended, two years afterwards, by the emperor ceding to the company nearly all the provinces on the Bay of Bengal, and paying between 4 and 5 millions of dollars towards defraying the expenses of the war. It was during the above contest that Mr. Judson, an American missionary, was imprisoned at Ava, where he suffered the greatest distress. This was alleviated by the affectionate courage of his wife, whose devotion to the cause of piety and humanity, amid the greatest dangers and trials, affords one of the most interesting narratives ever published. Besides the Avans and Peguans, there are several other races in Birmah, as Yiens, Shans, Karens, &c. Among the latter the American missionaries in Maul- mein, Chumerah, and the vicinity, have established churches and schools, which are attended by the natives, many of whom have exchanged their dark supersti- tions for tihe pure light of the gospel. Rangoon, the grand emporium of the empire, is situated on one of the branches of the Irrawaddy river, and extends for nearly a mile along the water. The popu- lation, about 20,000, is composed in a great measure of foreigners from all the countries of the East, and of all religions, who have been encouraged to settle here by the liberal policy of the Birman government. The exchange presents a motley and confused assemblage of Mahometans, Parsees, Armenians, and all the commercial nations of this quarter. The other sea-ports are Basseen and Martaban, the latter on the Salwen, and the former on the western estuary of the Irrawaddy. They are much inferior in trade to Rangoon. On ascending that river towards the capital, numerous towns and villages occur. Of the former, some of the chief are Prome, Meeaday, Pata- nagoh, Sembewghew, and Pagham-Mew. Prome, the ancient frontier of Ava and Pegue, and at one time the residence of the Pegue kings, carries on a great trade in timber, and is said to be more populous than Rangoon. Pagham-Mew, the an- cient and splendid capital of Birmah at a time when a higher taste in architecture appears to have prevailed than at the present day, abounds with magnificent re- mains of temples and royal edifices. Ava, on the Irrawaddy, 500 miles from the sea, has been the capital since 1824, and is said to contain a population of 300,000. The former metropolis, Umera- poora, though but lately a splendid city, is already much decayed ; its inhabitants, which, 20 years ago, were reckoned at 200,000, at present amount only to 30,000. 516 SIAM — MALAYA. KINGDOM OF SIAM. The interior details of Siam are known only to a very limited extent. The kingdom includes Siam proper, part of Laos, the district of Santebon adjoining and once a part of Cambodia, and that portion of the peninsula of Malaya ex- tending southward to about 8° north latitude, and from thence to the north-west to as far as the 21st degree of north latitude, or about 1100 miles. Its chief river, the Menam, is deep and navigable for some distance in the interior: its banks are well cultivated, and are a*mazingly fertile. A commercial treaty be- tween this country and the United States has been recently effected. The late capital, Siam, or Juthia, on this stream, about 100 miles from the sea, is in a state of decay. Bankok, at present the seat of government, may be re- garded almost as a city floating on the water. The bulk of the houses are merely oblong boxes, which can be floated about from place to place, and are inhabited chiefly by Chinese. The shores are covered with numerous palaces and gilded temples, and with the habitations of the grandees, which are raised on posts above the ground, which is so swampy as to render it almost impossible to walk or drive through the streets. The travelling is chiefly along the river, in richly gilded or ornamented barges. The inhabitants in 1828 numbered about 400,000, of whom 350,000 were Chinese or their descendants. Several American missionaries have visited this place, whose efforts in teaching and spreading the Gospel have been generally encouraging ; and ample facilities exist for introducing Christianity into China by means of the number of Chinese who visit and "reside here. MALAYA, OR MALACCA. The peninsula of Malaya, or Malacca, is about 775 miles in length, and from 65 to 145 in breadth. A range of considerable mountains extends through its whole length, and the interior is covered with thick woods and marshes. Its rivers are numerous, but short in their length of course, and are of but little use as mediums of navigation. The soil is not very fertile, yet fruits are produced in great abundance. The northern part of Malaya is under the control of Siam, and the southern of Great Britain. The intermediate portions are occupied by a num- ber of little independent states, governed by petty chiefs, who are but little known. The principal of these are Ligor Songora, Patani, Queda, Tringano, Pera, Pahang, and Salangore. The inhabitants are Malays, who are by turns merchants, pirates, and robbers : their vessels traverse all the Oriental seas, and piracy is with them as regular an employment as commerce. The most daring attempts are often made by them to capture vessels of superior force. Sincapore, the principal emporium of this region, is on a small island of the same name, immediately south of the southern extremity of Malaya. It was founded by the British in 1819, and, being declared a free port, is visited by the vessels of all the commercial nations who trade in these seas. The imports and exports are each about £3,000,000 annually. The inhabitants have doubled since 1828, and are now about 30,000 in number, comprising Europeans, Americans, Malays, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Hindoos, and Bugis, or natives of Celebes. There is here an important missionary and printing establishment, where books in vari- ous eastern languages are published. Pulo Pinang, or Prince of Wales's island, is about 7 or 8 miles long, and separated from the west coast of Malaya by a narrow strait. It was established as a settlement by the East India Company in 1786, and soon acquired importance as a commercial dep6t for the neighbouring districts, and also as a place of re- freshment for vessels passing between India and China ; though in this respect it is now in a measure supplanted by Sincapore. George-Town is the chief settle- ment. Population of the island, 16,000 or 18,000. Westward from Malaya about 300 or 400 miles, and northward from Sumatra, EMPIRE OF ANAM. 517 extend the groups of the Nicobar and Andaman Isles : they are both in the pos- session of the natives. Those of the former group are of the brown or Malay race, and are peaceable and well disposed. The Andaman islanders are a variety of the Oriental negroes, and appear to be among the most degraded beings in existence. They go quite naked, never cultivate the ground, but live on fish, which they spear with great dexterity. The English attempted to form settle- ments on the Andaman and the Danes on the Nicobar Islands ; but both were abandoned, on account of the sickliness of the climate. EMPIRE OF ANAM. The empire of Anam comprises Cochin-China, Cambodia, Tonquin, T'siampa or Chiampa, and part of Laos, extending from north to south 1000, and from east to west 300 to 400 miles. Of these, Tonquin and Cambodia were recently con- quered by Caung Shung, the late king, who, from his attachment to the Europe- ans, was induced to organize and discipline an army in the European manner. This, with a navy of three hundred gun-boats and a frigate, constituted a force which no native state in this part of Asia could withstand. Cochin-China comprises a long plain, included between the sea and a chain of mountains, a short distance inland : it is tolerably fertile in the usual products of these regions. Both the agriculture and trade are carried on chiefly by the women. The sea-coast abounds with gelatinous animals, and furnishes the edible birds' nests so much valued in China. Hue, the capital of Anam and of Cochin-China, is about ten miles from the sea, on a river of the same name, the banks of which are fertile and well cultivated. In ascending the river to the city, the view of numerous and apparently com- fortable villages enlivens the scene. Hue consists of a large quadrangular fort, or rather fortified city, which constitutes one of the most complete and remarkable military structures in Asia. Each is about a mile and a half in length, the ram- part about thirty feet high, cased with brick and mortar. It is built in the regular European style, with bastions, a glacis 200 feet broad, and a ditch. An hundred ; thousand men were constantly employed on the works, during the period of their construction, and 1200 cannon were mounted on the walls. It is supposed that 40,000 troops would be required to garrison the place. Here also the king keeps his fleet of galleys. Turon, on a fine bay, is situated to the south of Hue. Sinhoa, north of the same city, Tai-fo, Bambom, Quinhon, Phuyen, and Nha-triang, all south of Hue, are sea-ports which are seldom visited by Europeans, and are but little known. CAMBODIA. Cambodia, the south-west division of Anam, stretches from north to south, full 500 miles, and has a sea-coast of about the same extent, lying along the Malayan sea and the gulf of Siam, which is in general low and flat, and overgrown with wood. The country is inhabited by a mixture of Cochin-Chinese, Malays, Chi- nese, and Portuguese. The trade, except at the port of Saigon, is unimportant Saigon, or Luk-nooi, the capital of Cambodia, is situated near the mouth of the river Donnui, which communicates with the Mecon, the great river of this re- gion, by means of a canal of some magnitude. Saigon is composed of the two contiguous towns of Saigon proper, and Bengeh. The latter, which is fortified, is the residence of the viceroy ; the former is the chief theatre of the trade and commerce of the place. The inhabitants are supposed to amount to 180,000, of whom 10,000 are Chinese. The markets are plentifully supplied with native products and those of the neighboring countries. The manufactured articles are chiefly of the latter description, and scarcely any European goods are to be seen. There is a superb naval arsenal formed under European direction, and which from the very fine timber of the country, has produced 150 galleys of the most beauti- ful construction. 44 518 THIBET. TONQUIN. Tonquin, of the three kingdoms now subject to the sway of Cochin-China, is the largest, most fruitful, and most valuable. Its character is still more decidedly Chinese than that of the others ; and indeed, it was only in the eighteenth cen- tury that it separated from that empire, retaining all its forms and institutions. Both the English and Dutch have attempted to open an intercourse with Tonquin, where fine and cheap silks, lackered-ware, and some gold may be obtained ; but the arbitrary exactions of the mandarins, and the little demand for foreign cloths, in consequence of costumes fixed by law being worn by all ranks, rendered it a losing traffic, and it has been almost wholly abandoned. Kesho, situated about 20 miles from the mouth of the river Songo, is the chief city of Tonquin, and is said by some to contain 40,000 inhabitants ; other accounts represent it as three or four times more populous. T'SIAMPA. T'siampa, or Chiampa, is a small district nominally under the control of the king of Cochin-China, and lying to the southward of that country ; the climate is very hot and unhealthy for strangers ; it is said to be fertile, and its productions the same as Cambodia. It abounds with elephants and also with the rhinoceros. LAOS. Laos, situated on both sides of the Mecon, or Cambodia river, is a country of some extent, but little known, never having been visited by any European. Part of it is subject to Siam, part to Cochin-China, and the residue independent. Some time ago the king of Laos was taken prisoner by the Siamese, and carried, with his children, in a cage to Bankok, and several thousands of the inhabitants were forcibly taken to the same place. Elephants, both wild and tame, are extremely numerous in Laos ; and the capital of the country is designated by a term which signifies the place of ten millions of elephants. The people of Laos are called Shans. Yun-shan and Lowa-shan are districts lying north-west from Laos, known only by name to Europeans. The people and language, as well as those of Laos and Assam, are said to be essentially the same as the Siamese. THIBET. Thibet forms a high table plain, surrounded on all sides by ranges of lofty mountains, some of which are among the most elevated on the globe : it is bounded on the north by Mongolia; west by Little Thibet; south by Hindoostan and Bir- mah ; and east by China. On the southern boundary are the Himmaleh Moun- tains ; on the northern the Kuenlun and the Tshoungling, or Blue Mountains ; and on the east are those called the Yung-ling and Pe-ling. Besides its grand mountain features, Thibet is distinguished as containing the sources of many of the greatest rivers of Asia. The Burrampooter, Irrawaddy, and Salwen, flowing into the Bay of Bengal : the Mecon, the great river of Cam- bodia, and the greatest of Chinese streams, the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse Kiang, all have their sources within its borders. The lakes Manasarowara and Rawan Hrad, are picturesque and striking, and surrounded by some of the loftiest snow-covered peaks of the Himmaleh, and which are held by the Hindoos in religious venera- tion : and there are also the Lake of Terkerri, 70 miles long, Lake Tousea and several others, respecting which no further particulars are yet known. The climate of Thibet is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the severe effects of which the inhabitants are obliged to seek refuge in the sheltered valleys and hollows, or amidst the wannest aspects of the rocks. In the temperature of the seasons, however, a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well as in their periodical duration and return. The mineral productions of this region are numerous. Gold is found in great quantities and very pure ; sometimes in the form of gold dust, in the beds of the rivers, and sometimes in large masses and irregular veins. There is a lead mine THIBET. 519 about two days' journey from Teeshoo Loomboo, which probably contains silver. Cinnabar, abounding in quicksilver, rock-salt, and tincal, or crude borax, are like- wise among the mineral productions of this country; the last is found in inex- haustible quantities. The manufactures of Thibet are principally shawls and woollen cloth. The exports, which go chiefly to China and Bengal, consist of gold-dust, diamonds, pearl, coral, musk, rock-salt, woollen cloth, and lamb-skins: in return for which, silk, satin, gold and silver brocade, tea, tobacco, and furs of various kinds, are received from China ; and from Bengal, the productions of that country, and a variety of English commodities and manufactures. The people are rather stout and hardy and of a ruddy complexion, for the moun- tain breezes bestow health and vigour. They are of various distinct tribes, little known. The language is the same which is used on the frontiers of China. The people of Thibet have made some progress towards civilization, but the sciences are neglected. The literature is chiefly connected with the religion, and, together with the language, is of Hindoo origin. The houses are meanly constructed, and built of rough stones, with a few apertures to admit light Mut- ton forms a common article of food ; and tea is a favourite beverage. The people may, in general, be described as mild and gentle, and, though sunk in supersti- tions, free from many of the sanguinary customs of the Hindoos. The Thibetians are said to reverse the general practice of the east in poly- gamy ; though it is probably related without much foundation, that wives are per- mitted to have several husbands. The dead are buried, burned, thrown into a stream, or exposed in the open air to be devoured by beasts. Thibet is remarkable as the chief seat of a religion which prevails over a large portion of Central Asia. The system is that known under the title of Buddha, its founder, and of the Lama, its sovereign head ; while in China the same worship is denominated that of Fo, and in Tartary is called Shamanism. It had its origin in Hindooetan, though now nearly expelled thence by the rival system of Brahma; from which it is generally supposed to have separated as a schism, though others conceive it to have been the parent superstition. The doctrine of transmigration is alike held under both religions ; but in that of Buddha it is converted from a speculative belief into a powerful engine of practical influence. As soon as the Lama dies, the priests, by supposed celestial indications, discover an infant into whom his soul is supposed to have transmigrated. This person is immediately exalted into the character of Lama, and in his name all the civil and ecclesiastical affairs of the state are administered ; and such is the sanctity attached to his cha> racter, that it is pretended a heavenly odour is exhaled from his whole body ; that flowers grow beneath his footsteps ; and that in the most parched desert springs flow at his command. In Thibet and the bordering regions of Tartary, every great district has its Lama ; but the chief of these spiritual sovereigns is the Grand Lama, who resides at Lassa ; next to him is the Teshoo Lama, resident at Teshoo Loomboo. As the sovereignty centres in the Lama, so the nobility is formed by the monks called jelums or gylongs. The monastic principle exists under the Buddhist sys- tem in its utmost rigour, aecompaniod by the same usages of seclusion and celi- bacy which distinguish it in the Catholic church. These habits being adopted by the most celebrated characters both in church and state, the idea of dignity is exclusively centred in them, and those of degradation and vulgarity are attached to marriage. The priests reside in large mansions, much the handsomest in the country, and uniting the character of convents and palaces. The monks in the villages bordering on India are represented as a dirty, greasy, good-humoured, hapgy class of persons, who do not think it inconsistent with their vocation to carry on a good deal of worldly traffic. In the great central establishment, more dignity of character is preserved, and the obligations imposed by their situation appear to be strictly regarded. On the whole, their deportment is represented as humane and obliging ; on the part of superiors unassuming, and respectful on that of inferiors. The ceremonies of the Buddhist religion bear a striking resemblance to those 520 LITTLE THIBET. of the Catholic, insomuch that many of the missionaries found it scarcely possible to discover any distinction. This has even been ascribed by some to a mixture with the votaries of the Nestorian heresy, which was spread through the East. A favourite part of the service consists of music, less remarkable for its harmony than for the employment of every means of raising as great a noise as possible. The priests assume the whole business of prayer. They sell a certain number of prayers, which are written out and attached to the cylinder of a mill, and every turn is supposed to constitute a valid prayer. Some are moved by water. Notwithstanding the difference between the religions of this country and Hin- doostan, many of the temples of Thibet are crowded with Hindoo idols; and the seats of Indian pilgrimage, particularly Benares, Juggernaut, and Sagur, are devoutly visited by votaries from the dominions of the Grand Lama. On their part, the Hindoos pay a deep religious veneration to the lofty snowy peaks and the lonely mountain lakes of this elevated neighbourhood. Among the former, Chu- mularee, on the Bootan frontier, and among the latter Manasarovara, hold the pre- eminence. Lassa, the capital spiritual and temporal, " the Rome of Central Asia," is situ- ated in the finest part of Thibet, an extended valley bordered by stupendous moun- tain ranges. The winters are severe ; but from April to October, notwithstanding occasional cold blasts, the climate is warm ; rice, the vine, and other fine fruits come to maturity. The city, independent of its chief ornament, which is the temple of Pootala, is represented as handsome and opulent. In the surrounding plain are twenty-two other temples, all richly adorned, and of which those of Sera and Bhraeboung are described almost to rival Pootala. The entire number of priests and monks maintained at the expense of government is stated at 84,000. Lassa is the seat of the grand or sovereign Lama, from whom all the priests and sovereigns of that denomination, throughout Thibet and Tartary, receive their investiture. He ranked, also, till lately, as the civil ruler of an extent of country about 300 miles in length, and composed of the best territory in this reg-ion ; but the Chinese, after expelling the Nepaulese invaders, have established at Lassa a military commander and a civil governor, and virtually annexed it to their empire. They rule it, however, with a mild sway, leaving all the ecclesiastical institutions undisturbed, and in full possession of their ample endowments ; and the tribute, conveyed by an annual embassy to Peking, is extremely moderate. Teshoo Loomboo is the seat of a Lama, second in rank to that of Pootala, but is rendered interesting to us by its close vicinity to the Bengal frontier, from which it is only separated by the mountain district of Bootan. About 400 mansions com- bine to form a large monastery, the walls of which are built of stone, the roofs of coloured wood, and crowned with numerous gilded canopies and turrets. Ac- cording to the usual system, it is built under the shade of a high rock with a southern exposure, and looks down upon the great river Sanpoo, or Burrampooter, whose course is here diversified by numerous islands, through which it flows in deep and narrow channels. The number of monks and gylongs, the sole inhabit- ants of this monastic capital, amounted, in 1783, to 3700. LITTLE THIBET. Little Thibet lies to the north of Hindoostan, south of Little Bucharia, east of Cashmere and Kaschgur, and west of Thibet, from which it is separated by the Kara Koorum ridge, a branch of the great Thsoung-ling range. It is a high and rugged region, surrounded on all sides by vast mountains, from which flow the head streams of the Indus. The chief town is Leh, or Ladak, situated on the river of the same name, at the point where, being joined by a river flowing in an opposite direction, the united streams take the name of the Indus. It is the seat of a considerable trade, being the chief place of transit for the caravans, on both sides of the Indus, from Thibet, Hindoostan, and Cabul, to Yarkand and Little Bucharia. Near the source of the Ladak River is Gortope, a great market for shawl wool, which is collected CHINA. 521 here from the adjoining districts, and sent from hence to Cashmere ; it is situated in the midst of a vast plain covered with large flocks of sheep, goats, and yaks. About 100 miles to the south-east of Gortope, are the lakes of Rawan, Hrad, and Manasarovara : the latter is an object of reverential pilgrimage from all parts of Hindoostan. The few who can overcome the tremendous obstacles encountered in the way, consider all their sins as forgiven, and an entrance into Paradise as secured. But little is known of this region : the inhabitants are said to be a Tar- tar race, whose religion is that of the Grand Lama. They appear to be subject to China. CHINA. This vast empire, containing the greatest amount of population, and perhaps also of wealth, united under one government, occupies a large portion of the south-east of Asia. The Chinese empire, stretching from 18° to 56° of north latitude, and from 70° to 140° of east longitude, covers an area of about 5,350,000 square miles, or one- tenth of the whole land-surface of the earth. The population of this vast region, according to the most probable modern computation, is about 200,000,000, as fol- lows : — China proper 173,000,000 Mantchooria, Mongolia, Soongaria, and Little Bucharia 10,000,000 Corea, &c 9,000,000 Thibet and Bootan 8,000,000 Total 200,000,000 Of this vast expanse of territory, China proper, Mantchooria, and the eastern part of Little Bucharia, form the political China of the imperial administration. The other regions are merely tributaries or protected states ; the petty chiefs of Thibet, the country of Bootan, and the kingdoms of Corea and Loo Choo, belong to the latter class. The ruling race is the Mantchoo, which over-ran and subdued China near two centuries ago. The Mantchoo is the language of the court, and of a rich literature. China proper, now exclusively under consideration, may be generally stated as extending from 20° to 41° north latitude, and from 101° to 122° of east longitude. This makes 1260 geographical miles in length, by 1050 miles in breadth. It is divided into eighteen provinces, the majority of which are in extent and popula- tion equal to some of the most powerful monarchies of Europe. The face of the country is much diversified, though the greater part of it is level, intersected by numerous rivers, canals, and occasional mountain chains, of which one of the most important appears to be a continuation of the great Him- maleh range, extending eastward to the shores of the Pacific ocean. The chief rivers of China, the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse Kiang, rank among the most import- ant in Asia; they both have their sources among the mountains of Thibet, and after a course of near 2000 miles, discharge their mighty waters into the ocean, separated by an interval of 160 miles. The principal lakes of China are the Tonting, about 300 miles in circumference, and covered with a numerous popula- tion who subsist by fishing ; and the Poy-ang is surrounded by picturesque and finely wooded hills. The other lakes are of much less magnitude. The climate of China varies according to the situation of the places. Toward the north it is cold, in the middle mild, and in the south hot. The soil is, either by nature or art, fruitful of everything that can minister to the necessities, conve- niences, or luxuries of life. This country produces all the fruits common to the tropical and temperate countries. The camphor, tallow, and cinnamon trees are common in the fields and gardens. The most celebrated production, however, is the tea plant, which grows wild, but is much improved by careful culture. It is a shrub 5 or 6 feet in height, producing leaves of different flavour, according to the soil. This is so extensively used in China, that although European and American 44* 3Q 522 CHINA. traders take annually from Canton upwards of sixty millions of pounds weight, it is said, that were the foreign exportation to cease altogether, it would not sensibly lower the price in that country. China produces, it is said, all the metals and minerals that are known in the world. White copper, called by the Chinese peton, is peculiar to that country ; but we know of no extraordinary quality which it possesses. Tutenag is another peculiar metal. Their gold mines, therefore, are partially and slightly worked ; and the currency of that metal is supplied by the grains which the people find in the sand of rivers and mountains. The silver specie is furnished from the mines of Honan. Coal is abundant. There is not, and perhaps never was, on the face of the earth, a government more purely and entirely despotic than the Chinese. No power, honor, or dis<> tinction exists, except that which centres in, and emanates from the sovereign. No distinctions are owned between man and man, except those conferred by office ; and to these, the highest and the lowest are permitted equally to aspire. This supreme power of the monarch is claimed for him as the representative of Deity on earth. Although, however, the despotism of China is thus entirely raised above any direct and positive check, it is yet in practice the most mild and protecting of any that exists. The monarch is held within a circle of laws, institutions, and ideas, by transgressing which, he would lose the very basis on which his authority rests. The doctrine, that he is the son and vicegerent of Deity, implies that he will use this high descent and power in securing prosperity to the nation over whom he holds a higher than earthly sway ; and this is so fully recognised, that, even when his people are suffering under evils of nature, famine, earthquake, or inundation, he takes the blame, humbles himself, fasts, and strips himself of his costly attire, as a penitent under whose sins his people are groaning. The paternal character equally implies an anxious concern for the welfare of his people, who, amid the veneration with which they view these relations, are not forgetful of the accom- panying obligations, or indisposed to revolt when they suffer severely from the non-observance of them. In this system, the fundamental, and, certainly, highly laudable maxim has been, to make knowledge the sole ground of official rank and public employment. The examinations for this purpose are conducted with the greatest apparent imparti- ality, and, as seems to be generally believed, with much real fairness. Strict precautions are adopted for this purpose; such as, that every piece of composition that is to be judged, must be given in sealed and anonymous. The laws of China have been compiled not with any large or statesman-like views, but with a minute and elaborate care to lay down the various descriptions of offence, and apportion to each a suitable punishment. The cane is the grand instrument of government ; and all China has been compared to a school, kept in awe by the rod of a master. For its application, the law specifies two distinct dimensions of length and thickness, and more pointedly fixes the number of blows to be inflicted on the offender. For crimes of a deeper die than those which the cane can chastise, banishment in different degrees is inflicted; and for those still more flagrant, death is awarded. The military force of China has been represented as amounting to about 800,000. The greater part are a mere militia, in which the population, when called upon, are liable to serve. Their appearance and habits are most unmilitary, and they are scarcely called out unless for purposes of police ; to pursue robbers, and pass muster on state occasions. Their paper helmets, wadded gowns, quilt- ed petticoats, and clumsy satin boots, exhibit nothing of the aspect of war. Its appears from ancient records that the Chinese and Tartars made use not only of gunpowder, but even of something resembling cannon ; but artillery does not at present constitute any part of the effective force of the empire. The Chinese government have very numerous barges, for the conveyance of tribute, and other accommodations ; also a few armed vessels to prevent smuggling and piracy ; but nothing which can be called a navy. An American frigate would beat the whole of their maritime force. CHINA. 523 No nation is so famed for industry, in all the arts that minister to human sub- sistence. The lands, in particular, which are at all capable of culture, are tilled with a minute care, without example among any other people. The peculiar im- portance attached to agriculture is testified by an annual festival, in which the emperor exhibits himself to his subjects guiding the plough. It is not, however, supported by any large application of skill, science, or capital. The Chinese carry on farming on a small scale, with rude instruments, and almost no cattle. Their chief exertions are employed in irrigating their fields ; and by the aid of the chain pump, they draw water out of their numerous rivers and canals, and inun- date the crops of rice as soon as they are sown. This is done twice a year, and two crops are in general raised annually, without intermission or rotation. The highest mountains are formed into terraces, so constructed as to retain the requi- site quantity of water, and allow what is superfluous to pass ; and reservoirs are formed on the summits. As a manufacturing people, the Chinese are also eminent. The fabric of por- celain, so superior in beauty to every other species of earthenware, originated en- tirely with them ; and, though the taste of their imitators in Europe has produced more elegant patterns, they are still unrivalled as to its whiteness, hardness, and the transparency of its colours ; the materials of which they possess a peculiar art in extracting from a vast variety of animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. Silk also is a fabric which the western world has learned from the Chinese. A number, however, of little ornamented trinkets and toys are made with the simplest instruments, and by the hands of single individuals; yet with a beauty which we in vain attempt to rival. Such are their ivory fans and baskets ; their ornaments of tortoise-shell and mother-of-pearl ; their silver filigree and lackered cabinets, chests, &c. Their paper and printing are both good, and their ink, for some pur- poses, superior to European. Their stained paper and lackered ware are also well known. The commerce of China is thus chiefly confined to the operation of bartering the productions of its different provinces ; and these are sufficiently various to af- ford room for a variety of extensive traffic. The most ample facilities are afforded by the great rivers and their numerous tributaries, and also by the canals, which are constructed on a greater scale than in any other country. One of the great objects is the conveyance to the capital of the imperial land-rent, which is paid in kind, and consists chiefly of rice. Salt is a most extensive article of traffic. The British embassy found, at Teen- tsin, piles of that commodity, which they calculated at 600,000,000 pounds. The conveyance of coal, turf, and other fuel, affords also occupation to nume- rous barges. The distribution throughout China of the silks, porcelain, and other fine manufactures of the central provinces, affords another source no less ample. Of the foreign commerce of China the European part is the most considerable, and is chiefly in the hands of the English, being conducted until recently by their East India Company, to the exclusion of private traders. Their dealings are car ried on entirely with the Hong merchants, who are required to give security to government for the payment of the import and export duties on the cargo of every ship that arrives in any Chinese port, and for the good conduct of the crew, There are, however, others, called "outside merchants," many of whom, under sanction of the Hong, carry on traffic to a considerable extent. By an act of Par- liament, of August 28th, 1833, the trade of this country is thrown open to all British subjects, and now stands on the same footing as that with other countries. During the first year of the free trade (1834-5) the* exports of tea alone, in Brit- ish vessels, amounted to upwards of 10 millions pounds more than the annual average of the last three years of the Company's trade ; the latter being 31,500,000, and the former exceeding 42,000,000 pounds. The British trade in Canton is now placed under the supervision of an officer, appointed by the crown, and styled the Superintendent of the Merchants. The Dutch trade is the largest of the Eu- ropean nations after the British ; but even with the assistance of protecting duties in Holland, the Dutch cannot withstand the enterprise and activity of the Ameri- can traders. Though the Portuguese possess the island of Macao, and the Spa- 524 CHINA. niards, from the Philippines, have access to the port of Amoy, they make little use of these advantages. The French, Swedes, and Danes all carry on a little inter- course with Canton. The trade to China from India, where it is called the country trade, is almost entirely free, and has been carried to a great extent. It is chiefly with Bombay, which sends to it cotton, and the fine opium of Malwa ; while from Calcutta it receives the inferior opium of Patna and Benares. The import of this article into China has increased surprisingly, from a value of 590,000/. in 1817-18, to 2,500,000Z. in 1831-32. It has grown also in the face of the most rigorous pro- hibition, and by trade entirely contraband. This is carried on in the bay of Lin- ting, with perfect security, by means of very slight precautions. Cotton, which used to be the largest article, fell, during the above period, from 1,310,000Z. to 646,000J. Tin, pepper, betel-nut, and some other articles, raised the imports from India to China, in 1831-32, to 3,250,000*. The American trade with China has also, within the last fifty years, risen to very considerable importance. It commenced in 1783, with a single vessel from New York, and in 1833 it had increased to a total value of $16,735,150 ; viz. : $8,372,178 of exports from Canton, and $8,362,971 of imports into that port. The Americans export from China tea to the extent of nearly 15,000,000 pounds, nan- keens, silks, and other minor articles ; and give, in return, furs, chiefly from the north-west coast of America, seal-skins, Turkish opium, ginseng, sea-slug, wool- lens and cottons of English and American manufacture, and a balance in bullion. The foreign trade of China in her own bottoms, though bearing no proportion to the wealth and greatness of the empire, is not altogether inconsiderable. It is carried on in large unwieldy junks, whose structure can never be improved, as the slightest deviation from their present clumsy structurej would subject the owners to the high duties imposed on foreign merchants. The over-land foreign trade of China, carried on by caravans, is also extensive. The principal stations for this trade are as follows : Maimatchin, opposite to Ki- akhta on the Russian frontier, where the value of the merchandise imported and exported, is about $2,000,000 annually ; Yarkand and Cashgar, near the frontiers of Bucharia; Leh, or Ladak, and Lassa, in Thibet, for the over-land trade with Hindoostan ; Yong-tchang, in Yunnan, near the Birman frontier ; and Koei-lin, near that of Anam. The inland navigation, by means of rivers and canals, which everywhere abound, is unparalleled. The Imperial Canal is the greatest work of the kind in the world. It extends from Peking to the Kiang-ku, about 600 miles. It is said to have employed 30,000 men upwards of 40 years in its construction. The great wall which bounds China on the north is the most enormous fabric in the world. It is 1500 miles long, passing over a vast chain of mountains, 30 feet high on the plain, 15 or 20 when carried over rocks and elevated grounds ; and of such thick- ness that 6 horsemen can easily ride abreast upon it. It is said to have been com- pleted 214 years before the Christian era. The whole of the immense population of China composes, in its strictest sense, one people, cast in one mould, both of form and mind, and exhibit in their physi- ognomy and general appearance striking proofs of Mongul origin. They have a square, flat face, small nose, but broad at the root, pale yellow complexion, and long black hair. The latter is plaited into a tail, reaching from the crown of the head sometimes as low as the calf of the leg, the rest of the scalp being closely shaven. According to the ideas of the Chinese, the chief beauty of the females consists in the smallness of their feet, which are swathed from the earliest infancy in order to prevent their growing to the natural size. The national character of the Chinese has been very differently regarded, and perhaps there has of late prevailed a disposition to rate it somewhat too low. Quietude, industry, order, and regularity, — qualities which a despotic government seeks always to foster, — seem to be peculiarly conspicuous. A general good- humour and courtesy reign in their aspect and proceedings. Flagrant crimes, and open violations of the laws, are by no means common. The attachments of kin- dred are encouraged and cherished with peculiar force, particularly towards CHINA. 525 parents and ancestry in general. The support of the aged and infirm is incul" i cated as a sacred duty, which appears to be very strictly fulfilled. It is surely a phenomenon in national economy very worthy of notice, that, in a nation so im- mensely multiplied, and so straitened for food, there should not be such a thing as either begging or pauperism. The wants of the most destitute are relieved within the circle of their family and kindred. It is said to be customary, that a whole family, for several generations, with all its members, married and unmarried, live under one roof, and with only two apartments, one for sleeping, and the other for eating ; a system, the possibility of maintaining which, implies a great degree of tranquillity and harmony of temper. Within the domestic circle, however, and that of ceremonious social intercourse, seems to terminate all that is amiable in the Chinese disposition. In every other respect they show no interest in the wel- fare of their fellow-creatures, nor even the common feelings of sympathy. Re- peated instances have occurred of Chinese dropping into the sea, and being rescued by the English, while their own countrymen did not take the least notice, or make a single effort to save them. Their propensity to fraud has been amply noticed by travellers, but appears to have been somewhat exaggerated. To the Hong merchants belongs the merit of having established a character of very strict honesty ; and many even of what are called " outside merchants" appear to be highly respectable. The want of all independent place and power, the abject submission required, and the application of the rod to all classes alike, produces a general degradation of character, and the vices which are its natural consequences. The highest officer of state shows an entire disregard of truth, and hesitates not to utter the most glaring falsehoods, whenever a political purpose is to be served. Again, the practice of exposing children is another repulsive characteristic of the Chi- nese, which harmonizes very ill with their apparent mildness, and boasted respect for the ties of kindred ; nor can the poverty which prompts it form its excuse. In Peking, where it most prevails, the number of children annually exposed, has been stated at 9000 ; but this is now admitted to be a great exaggeration, and the real number cannot be well guessed. The practice derives no palliation from being exercised chiefly upon the female sex, in consequence of the low estimation j in which they are generally held in China. Chinese literature is much encumbered by the difficulties of the language. High attainments are hardly possible though the works are innumerable, and know- j ledge is the general road to office. Poetry is a general study, and there are many i tales, books of ceremonies, ethics, dramas, &c. The books most esteemed are ; attributed to Confucius. There is a Gazette published at Canton, and though ! there is no censorship, the penalties for publishing what is distasteful to the autho- rities are sufficiently severe to repress all liberty of the press. The existing worship of China is a confused mixture of superstitions, for gene- rally speaking all religions are tolerated, though the reigning Tartar family adhere principally to the religion of the Grand Lama. The religion of Fo is similar to some of the tenets of Buddhism, and Fo is the Buddha of the Hindoos. The | number of temples is incalculable. There were many Catholic Christians once in China, but they have been often persecuted, from an indiscreet course in the missionaries; so that at present they are hardly tolerated. The fine arts, in China, are deficient. Her painters, indeed, can express with minute accuracy the forms and colours of natural objects; and can produce, on the whole, a light and pleasing effect. Being wholly ignorant, however, of perspec- tive, and of the distribution of light and shade, they can accomplish no effects of foreshortening or distance ; neither can they imitate that depth and blending of tints which nature actually presents to the eye. They give groups of individual objects; but not a picture. Their music, notwithstanding the mighty effects which they ascribe to it, is, in fact, still more defective. It is perfectly simple, and has been compared to the Scotch, but without possessing its plaintive tender- ness. The Chinese are more completely and substantially clothed than the other nations in the south of Asia. The men wear long gowns and petticoats, which 526 CHINA. would give them a feminine appearance, did they not add boots; while the wo- men, with short jackets and trousers, might pass for men, but for the elegant orna- ment of braiding their hair with flowers. Silks, satins, and occasionally fine cottons, form the material of dress for the higher ranks : the lower are clad in coarse cottons. The button forms the attribute of rank, and by its various shapes and sizes expresses at once, to a Chinese eye, the dignity of the wearer. The people of China differ from the other Orientals in their food, and in the mode of taking it. Instead of squatting on the floor, and eating with their fin- gers, they sit on chairs, eat off tables, and raise the food to their mouth with a species of chopsticks. Their dishes are placed on small tables, but piled in suc- cessive stages over each other. They consist, in a great measure, of confections and fruits, the latter of which are iced. One favourite luxury of the rich consists of soups made with the gelatinous substances, sea-slug, birds'-nests, &c., imported from Cochin China, Malaysia, &c. The mandarins live luxuriously, and have several meals a day, with numerous dishes at each. The ordinary Chinese can have only rice, with a little seasoning. Tea is the well-known universal beve- rage, presented at and after meals, and on all occasions. It is drunk without cream or sugar, hot water being poured over the leaves. Their wine is bad, but they have an ardent spirit distilled from grain, of which they sip pretty largely in private. Even convivial excesses occasionally take place. Peking, the celebrated capital of this great empire, stands almost in a corner of it, only forty miles from the Great Wall. It consists of two very distinct parts, the Chinese and the Tartar cities, of which the former is the most elegant and populous, but the latter is adorned by the imperial palace and gardens. The united city is about twelve miles in circumference, surrounded by walls, like every other in China; but those of Peking are peculiarly lofty, and completely hide the city from those who are without. The population has been a subject of controversy, but is reckoned at nearly 2,000,000. Peking is divided into regular streets, the principal one of which crosses the whole city, and is about 120 feet wide, unpaved, but carefully watered. It consists chiefly of shops, which, though, like every other edifice in the empire, seldom exceeding one story in height, are adorned with flags, varnish, painting, and lanterns of a peculiar and elegant con- struction. The streets are immensely crowded, as the Chinese spend much time in the open air. Nanking, the ancient capital of China, is, in extent, considerably superior to Peking. The exterior wall, enclosing the suburbs, resembles rather the boun- dary of a province than of a city. Since the government and tribunals, however, were transferred to Peking, it has greatly declined, and about a third part of its area is now uninhabited. It still continues to be the most manufacturing city of China. Its silks, its paper, the cottons bearing its name, are preferred over the empire to those made elsewhere. Learning also continues to flourish in an un- rivalled degree ; the booksellers' shops are nowhere so amply furnished ; and a greater number of doctors are sent forth from it than from any other city. Nan- king contains, also, in its pagoda or porcelain tower, the chief architectural monu- ment of the empire. It consists of nine stories, ascended by 884 steps. The material is a fine white tile, which, being painted in various colours, has the ap- pearance of porcelain ; and the whole is so artfully joined together as to seem one entire piece. The galleries are filled with images, and set round with bells, which jingle when agitated by the wind. On the top is a large ball, in the shape of a pine-apple, of which the Chinese boast as consisting of solid gold ; but on that point foreign observers seem to be sceptical. Souchow is extolled by the Chinese as their terrestrial paradise. Branches from the Great Canal traverse it throughout, and render it, like Venice, a city on the waters. The small lake of Taihoo, in the neighbourhood, surrounded by pic- turesque hills, affords a scene of delightful recreation. Here all the classes whose function is to minister to pleasure, lawful or unlawful, are trained to their respective vocations ; comedians, dancers, jugglers, and the females destined to fill the harems of the great. The latter are judged to be fairer and more grace- CHINA. 527 fully attired than those of the northern cities ; and paint, both red and white, is lavished to heighten their beauties. Canton, the best known city of China, and with which alone Europeans carry on habitual intercourse, is situated at the confluence of the Pekiang with the Taho, a much larger river coming from the west. Their united streams spread below this city into a broad estuary, called, by Europeans, the Bocca Tigris, which extends about fifty miles in length, and twenty in breadth, to its junction with the ocean. Canton itself is about five miles in circumference ; besides which, its extensive suburbs compose, as it were, another city. The great estuary of the Bocca Tigris also is covered with floating mansions arranged in streets, the tenants of which have no home on land. The hongs, or factories, are handsome buildings, situated in the suburbs, and arranged in a line along the water. The streets are narrow, and the front of almost every house is a shop; but the suburbs and vicinity contain many agreeable sites, in which the wealthy inhabitants have erected their mansions. Canton is now the only theatre of European trade to China ; for the admission granted at an early period into Amoy and Limpoo, or Ningpo, has long been withdrawn. Near the mouth of the Bocca Tigris is the Island of Macao, separated from the continent only by a narrow river channel. It was once a place of high impor- tance, whence the Portuguese, in the days of their pride, carried on most of the commerce between Europe and China. It has more than shared, however, in that supine sloth and decay which have involved all their Eastern empire. The town contains, at present, a population of about 12,000, including about 4000 Portu- guese, who still fit out a few vessels, or give their name to those whom it benefits in trading with this jealous government. Thirteen churches, four convents, and fifty secular ecclesiastics, are supported by this decaying town. Shang-hae is, next to Canton, the greatest commercial city of China ; it is situated about 1000 miles north-east from that place, and not far from the Yang- tse-kiang River, in one of the most populous parts of the empire. The mission- ary, Mr. Gutzlaff, who visited it a few years ago, found its port crowded with junks, and every evidence of a great commerce, and a dense population. The coasting trade of this city is said to exceed that of Canton ; it is the chief em- porium of the eastern coast. Teen-tsin, on the Pei-ho River, about 75 miles south-east from Peking, is the principal trading mart of Northern China, and the sea-port of the capital. The river is so thronged with junks, and the mercantile transactions give such life and motion to the scene, as strongly to remind one (says Mr. GutzlafT) of Liver- pool. Some of the mercantile firms issue notes, which are as current as bank notes in Europe, or the United States. Besides the vast trade of the surrounding region, 500 large junks arrive here annually from Southern China, Cochin-China, and Siam. Teen-tsin is a great depot for salt. The inhabitants here have more resemblance to Europeans than in any other part of the empire. The population is said to be 700,000. China, generally speaking, is a country strictly continental, composed of a rounded range of coast, little broken into bays and promontories. There are, however, several insular appendages to it, which deserve notice. Of these, the most interesting are the islands called Loo-Choo. The great Loo-Choo is about fifty-eight miles in length, and from twelve to fifteen miles broad; and it is the principal of a group of thirty-six, situated about 400 miles from the eastern coast of China. It is tributary to the latter country, from which it also derives its literature. The great island itself is represented as one of the most delightful spots on the globe. The sea breezes, blowing over it at every season of the year, preserve it from the extremes of heat and cold ; and numerous rivulets, which seldom or never stagnate into marshes, render it at once pleasant and healthy. The population could not by any of its recent European visitors be conjectured ; but, from the extent and state of cultivation, it must be considerable. The cha- racter of the inhabitants appears every way to harmonize with the charms of their climate and scenery. They are gay, kindly, hospitable, and intelligent. They exhibit none of the recluse and contracted habits of the Chinese, but meet fre- 1 528 TARTARY. quently together at little festivals in the open air, and appear peculiarly alive to social enjoyment. The people of Loo-Choo are a diminutive race, averaging only five feet two inches high ; but stout and well built ; their faces rather agreeable than handsome. Indeed, the whole animal creation, except the poultry, is small, but otherwise of excellent quality. This interesting group appears to extend about 500 miles in a direction nearly from south-west to north-east. The island of Formosa, called by the natives Tai-wan, is in possession of the Chinese, and may rank with their best provinces. Its surface is finely diversified, and watered by numerous rivulets descending from the higher parts of the island. Settlements were formed here first by the Portuguese, and then by the Dutch ; but both are now expelled. The eastern part, rugged and mountainous, is occu- pied by races almost savage, who live by hunting, sleep on leaves, have scarcely any clothes or furniture, and tattoo their skin like the rudest of the South Sea islanders. Hainan is a large island, 190 miles in length and 70 in breadth, separated by a narrow channel from the southern extremity of the province of Quang-tong. Though in view of vessels going to Canton, it is little known or visited. Along the coast of Tchekiang extends the almost numberless group of the Chusan islands, of which, in a sail of sixty miles, 300 have been discovered. They are small, verdant, and cultivated, and rise from the sea in a conical shape. There are many fine ports in these islands, and the channels between them are crowded with almost innumerable vessels, carrying on a commerce, of which the centre is at Ning-po, on the opposite coast. The great Chusan island is about forty miles in length, and about twenty in breadth. It is highly cultivated. Tinghai, the capital, intersected by canals, resembles Venice on a small scale, and presents a crowded scene of busy industry. COREA. The little that is known respecting the peninsula of Corea may also, with pro- priety, be appended to the account of China. It is separated from Japan by the Straits of Corea, and by the Yellow Sea from China. The country, 400 miles long by 150 broad, is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains ; and, though some parts are sterile and rugged, it contains a considerable extent of fertile and well-cultivated plains. A great part of what was once supposed to be main land has been found to consist of an almost innumerable archipelago of small islands, extending along the western coast. Corea is ruled by a sovereign who pays homage and a small tribute to China, but in his general sway is entirely independent. The people are very little known, but appear to be tall, handsome, and brave. The arts and letters of China have been to a great extent imported, and Corea has the same written language, though its spoken one is entirely dif- ferent. Men of letters undergo similar examinations, and hold the same con- spicuous place as in that country. The island of Quelpaert, off the southern coast, is distinguished by its lofty mountain, beautifully covered with cultivation. The capital is King-ki-tao, an inland town, situated nearly in the centre of the country. TARTARY. Tartary is a name vulgarly applied to an immense region occupying almost all the central part of Asia, extending from the Caspian sea to the Pacific ocean ; having Asiatic Russia on the north, and China, Thibet, Hindoostan, Cabul, and Persia on the south. The predominant feature of this great territory, is that of plains, almost boundless, covered with herbage, more or less abundant, and occu- pied by wandering and pastoral tribes, whose camps, like moving cities, pass con- tinually over its surface. Three great chains of mountains, running mostly from east to west, traverse the wide expanse of Central Tartary ; of these, the Altai, on the north, separates it from Siberia; and the Kuenlun, on the south, from Thibet. The intermediate TARTARY. 529 chain which is wholly Tartar, and divides the country into two great table-plains, is called the Thian-chan, or Celestial mountains. The two last chains are con- nected at their western extremities by the transverse range of the Bolor Tagh, which forms an almost impassable barrier, in that part, between Western and Cen- tral Tartary. The latter is thought to be one of the most elevated plains on the globe, though this, from a consideration of its vegetable productions, is rendered doubtful ; while on the other hand, Western Tartary, especially those parts of it in the vicinity of the Caspian and Aral seas, are usually considered to be depressed even below the level of the ocean, a circumstance, however, which requires con- firmation. Most of the rivers of this region expand into interior seas and lakes. Of these in the west are the Amoo or Oxus, and the Sir, Sihon or Jaxartes, both of which flow into the sea of Aral ; in Central Tartary is the Cashgar, which flows eastward into the lake Lop. The Elah, and other streams, run into the lake Pal- cati ; the Boratala into lake Karang, and the Emil into lake Kurcha. The great streams of the Irtish, the Obe, and the Selinga, although they rise in this region, soon break the northern barrier, and roll through Siberia to the ocean. Eastern Tartary is watered by the Amoo or Seghalien, which falls into the gulf separating the island of Seghalien from the continent. This stream may vie in magnitude with the greatest Asiatic rivers, but from its unfavourable position it conduces little to the interests of commerce and communication. The chief divisions of Tartary are into Independent and Chinese Tartary. The former may be considered as subdivided into the Khanats or kingdoms of Bokhara or Great Bucharia, Khokan, Khiva, the little state of Koondooz in the south-west, and the country of the Kirguis in the north and north-west, together with Turco- mania, extending along the eastern shores of the Caspian sea. Chinese Tartary is subdivided into various regions, which are Soongaria or Eelah, and Little Bu- charia, called also Chinese Turkestan in the west, Mongolia in the centre, and Mantchooria in the east. The population of a region so imperfectly known can- not be estimated from any precise data, and from the nature of the country, must be rather limited. Different geographers have, however, reckoned it at from 20,000,000 to 30,000,000, of which it is probable the smallest number is the near- est approximation to the truth, and is even likely to be overrated. The Mongols and the Turks, or Toorks, the two leading races among the va- rious tribes who inhabit this immense region, are distinguished by numerous pe- culiarities from each other. The Mongols, so celebrated under their own and the ancient name of Huns, occupy chiefly the pastoral districts bordering on the north upon the great desert of Shamo. Their visage is broad, square, and flat, with high cheek-bones, the nose peculiarly depressed, small and keen black eyes, bend- ing obliquely towards the nose, thick lips, and a scanty provision of black hair upon the head, eyebrows, and beard. Their persons are somewhat diminutive, spare, muscular, and active, and the horses on which they continually ride are more distinguished for swiftness than for size and beauty. The Calmucks, the Kalkas, the Eluths, the Buraits, may be considered as branches of the great Mon gol family. The Turks, celebrated for their early conquest of Persia, and for their possession of Constantinople, are a much handsomer race. They have short and stout persons, broad foreheads, high cheek-bones, small but not twisted eyes, and black hair. They are divided chiefly into the Uzbeks, the Turkomans, and the Cossacs. The Mantchoos are represented by some as exhibiting the Mongol fea- tures, with a fair complexion ; but belong to the same class as the Tungouses. Although there be this variety in the external appearance of these races, yet the same wandering, pastoral, equestrian habits ; the division into tribes ; and the ab- solute sway of their khans, unite in fixing a similar character on all the nations who bear the name of Tartar. Of the national character of the Tartars very various reports have been given, according to the relation under which they have presented themselves. Their delight is in war, and there is no nation that wages it on a more dreadful and barbarous system. The " scourge of God," the " terror of mankind," are the ap- pellations by which they are known to the neighbouring empires. General ex- 45 3R 530 TARTARY. termination, without regard to age or sex, is what they consider themselves entitled to inflict on all who attempt resistance; and this is mitigated only when a profit can be made by carrying off captives, and selling them as slaves. It was said of the armies of Zingis and Timour, that they saw before them a fruitful kingdom, and left behind them a solitary desert. It was their boast, with regard to some of the proudest capitals, that they had reduced them to such a state, that a horse might pass over their site without stumbling. A picture gene- rally the reverse of this has been drawn by those who have observed the Tartars, even when they were spreading elsewhere the widest desolation, displaying, in their domestic life and their intercourse with each other, the simplicity and ami- able virtues of the pastoral age. They are cordial, kind, and hospitable ; quarrels are rare, seldom produce fighting, and scarcely ever bloodshed. Compared with the Hindoos and Chinese, they are frank, sincere, and honest ; and though they make even peaceable strangers feel the influence of a national pride, nourished by the recollection of so many victories, yet they protect them, and treat them with courtesy. Two religions divide Tartary, and are professed with zeal through different portions. All its eastern regions acknowledge the Shaman doctrines, and the su- premacy of the Grand Lama ; while ever since ihe commencement of the eighth century, when the countries beyond the Amoo were conquered by the arms and instructed by the preaching of the caliphs, they have remained devoted to the Mussulman creed. The favourite food of the Tartars is horse-flesh, so repugnant to the taste of all other nations. Horses there, as oxen with us, are regularly fattened for the tables of the rich. To the same animal, the Tartars are also indebted for their most national and characteristic liquor. The milk of the mare is fermented into an intoxi- cating drink, called koumiss, which is their favourite beverage, and which physi- cians have described as really very palatable and wholesome. They use also bouza, a thin acidulous liquor, made from grain, and which is likewise much drunk in Arabia and northern Africa. They breakfast on tea, which, after the mode of Thibet, they make into a thick liquid, with milk, flour, and butter. The learning of Tartary is little known, and is at best only a reflected light from the southern regions of Persia, Hindoostan, and China. Yet the country is by no means involved in that thick darkness which the name of Tartar suggests to the European ear. In all the Mahometan states, some of the first elements of knowledge are very widely diffused ; and the few great cities contain colleges for instruction in the sciences, on as extensive a scale as those of Europe. Unfor- tunately, the sciences there taught form a contracted and monastic circle, nearly similar to what was professed in Europe during the middle ages. Tartary, with some local exceptions, is a poor country, scarcely affording to a thin population the mere necessaries of life. Articles of luxury it does not pro- duce; and it affords few others for which they could be received in exchange. Whatever of splendour has shone in the courts of Karakorum or Samarcand, has been wrested, by the sword, from their effeminate possessors in southern Asia. Conquest, indeed, no longer enriches Tartary ; but the plunder of caravans, or the booty swept together in long chepaos, or forays, forms still the chief source of wealth to its petty khans and chieftains. In regard to agriculture, although in some favoured districts there are fixed tribes who cultivate the ground, the general aspect is that of a pastoral region. The horse is the wealth and strength of Tartary. Those, however, for which this region is so famous, display neither the elegance nor swiftness of the Arabian steed. They are of great weight, with long bodies and large limbs. Their merit consists in what is called bottom ; in the power of making immense journeys, with- out pause or fatigue ; and by this quality they wear out, in the long run, their swifter adversaries. They are used, however, not only as instruments of war and plunder, but also for economical purposes, and particularly for food. Horse-flesh, from one end of Tartary to the other, is a standing dish; and mares' milk, fer- mented into a liquor called koumiss, is almost the only liquor used for convivial purposes. The other animals of Tartary are more local, and chiefly borrowed TARTARY. 531 from the adjoining districts. Eastern Tartary has in the south, the yak, the goat, j and the musk-deer of Thibet ; in the north, the fur-bearing animals of Siberia ; but neither in such perfection as in their own proper districts. The vegetable productions which are the objects of culture in Tartary do not materially differ from those of Europe : in the southern and milder tracts are raised wheat, barley, and millet; while the ruder northern districts, particularly of Mantchoo Tartary, scarcely yield any grain except oats. On the declivities, however, of the great chain which separates Tartary from Siberia, are found some valuable and peculiar products; the rhubarb, so useful as a medicine, and which has been transplanted into Europe, without attaining the same excellence ; and the ginseng, which, though it has never been valued among us, is in China and Tartary held of sovereign virtue. Manufactures cannot be said to have any national existence in Tartary, though here, as everywhere else, the women produce some coarse fabrics for internal consumption. Among these, the principal are felt, coarse woollens, and skins, par- ticularly of sheep, variously prepared. Commerce, over this vast region, is on a scale not quite so limited; resting, in- deed, on other resources than its own exports and imports, which are of very small amount These wide open plains have in all ages formed a route of communica- tion between Eastern and Western, and of late between Northern and Southern, Asia. Notwithstanding the multiplied obstacles of mountains, deserts, snows, and the more deadly impediment of barbarous nations devoted to plunder, caravans proceeding by this route have always exchanged the products of Persia and Hin- doostan for those of China. To avert the perils that await them, they proceed in large bodies, well armed, and purchase the protection of the princes through whose territories they pass, and who, indeed, if at all enlightened, seek rather to en- courage this system of transit. Of late the Russians have opened a great trade across Independent Tartary. They have annual caravans from Orenburg to Bok- | hara, and these, it is said, consist frequently of 30,000 men. They frequent also the fairs of Yarkand, and some of them have even been seen in those of Thibet. MANTCHOORIA. The most eastern division of Tartary, or the country of the Mantchoos, form- ing the interval between China and Siberia, and bordered by the Eastern Pacific, is still less known than most of its other regions. We scarcely know it at all, I unless by Chinese descriptions, which are in general meagre and pompous. It presents mostly a different aspect from those immense and naked plains which characterise the centre of Asia. It appears to be diversified by rugged and broken mountain ranges, covered with thick forests, and separated by valleys, many of which, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, possess considerable fertility. Wheat is raised only in the most favoured spots; the prevalent culture is that of oats, elsewhere scarcely an Asiatic grain. The product most valued abroad is the ginseng, the universal medicine in the eye of the Chinese, who boast that it would render man immortal were it possible for him to become so. The great river Amoor, after rising in Mongolia, traverses the whole of this province, receiving from the south the large tributaries of the Usuri and the Songari Oula. It abounds with fish of the finest kinds, of which the sturgeon, in particular, is found in matchless abundance and perfection. The lands upon thie shore ought also, it should seem, to possess ample capacities of culture. Yet they are occupied merely by tribes of poor and wandering fishermen. The few towns that exist are inhabited chiefly by Chinese, defended by Tartar garrisons. North of the Amoor, the country is Siberian, and is filled with a race of hunters, who find many valuable fur-bearing animals, among which the sable is conspicuous. They consist of various small tribes, as the Natki, Ghillaki, Dutcheri, Taguri, &c. The Mantchoos are by no means wholly destitute of civilization. They possess even a language and writing, essentially different from that of the Chinese, or of any other nation of Central Asia. The provinces of Mantchoo Tartary, immediately adjacent to China, are called 532 TARTARY. Kortchin, and Kirin, or Kirin Oula, of which the latter has a capital of the same name. The most remarkable place, however, is Zhehol, the summer residence and hunting-seat of the Chinese emperors. The gardens here are most superb and extensive, occupying a large expanse of ground tastefully ornamented. The province, however, which is reported to contain the greatest extent of productive land is Leaotong, bordering on Corea ; of which, Chinyang, or Moukden, is the capital. The northern region, watered by the Amoor, bears the title of Tsitchicar or Mantchooria Proper, being the original seat of that conquering race. Its towns, Tsitchicar, Seghalien Oula Hotun, Merguin Hotun, and Petoune Hotun, are poor, and of middling extent. On the Upper Amoor is the district of Solon, inhabited by a rude race of Tartars, who take their name from it ; and farther to the east is Daouria, peopled by a. mingled race of Mantchoos and Mongols. Eastward from Mantchooria, and separated from it by the strait called the Channel of Tar- tary, are the islands of Seghalien and Jesso : these form the northern termination of that great range of which the southern portion is occupied by the empire of Japan. All the level coasts of Jesso adjacent to their own territory have been occupied and cultivated by the Japanese ; but the rugged tracts in the centre and north are still held by the natives. A strait, as narrow as that which parts Jesso from Japan, interposes on the northern side, between it and the long and narrow island of Seghalien, which, for a space of about 700 miles, faces the eastern coast of Tartary. It has now, in- deed, become almost more than doubtful whether it be an island or not. European navigators have traced on the south what is called the Channel of Tartary, and on the north the bay of Castries ; but they have left in the middle a space unex- plored, where the natives report that Seghalien is joined to the continent by a sandy isthmus, so small that fishermen drag their boats across it. The inhabitants of Seghalien, and the natives of Jesso, consist of a peculiar race, called the Ainos, who possess a physical character entirely distinct from the inhabitants of the opposite coast of Tartary. Travellers, content with remarking this, have given very few particulars of their actual outward appearance, except that their persons are covered with a more ample growth of hair than those of any other race. Their occupations rank them among the rudest classes of human society. They are unacquainted either with agriculture or pasturage, and derive their sole subsistence from fishery or the chase. They are represented as mild, peaceable, generous, and warmly attached to each other. The verdure is more brilliant than on the opposite coast of Tartary, and the sea abounds in an extra- ordinary degree with fish, among which are whales in considerable numbers. They did not appear, however, to possess any materials for trade with nations at, a distance so immense as those of Europe. Their only intercourse is with Japan, and with the country to a considerable height up the Amoor. MONGOLIA. Eastward of Little Bucharia commence the almost boundless plains roamed over by the tribes of Mongolia, and which, including Soongaria, extend for nearly fifty degrees of longitude, as far as the Lake of Balkash or Palcati. In the cen- tral portion of Tartary, a principal feature is the Great Desert, which extends almost entirely across it. According to the best of those imperfect accounts which we yet possess, it reaches about 2000 miles from south-west to north-east, separating, like a great inland sea, the countries upon which it borders. The only precise account of it is given by the Russian embassies which have from time to time been sent to China, whose route lay in a south-east direction across that part of the eastern division interposed between Kiachta and Peking. The surface of the desert is described as covered with short and thin grass, which, owing, perhaps, to the saline quality of the soil, maintained a greater number of cattle than could have been supposed. There is, indeed, a considerable number of springs and lakes, but the water is so brackish as to be scarcely potable ; so that a single pure spring which occurred, tasted as delicious as burgundy or cham- pagne. A space of twenty miles in extent immediately beyond the Chinese wall TARTARY. 533 was composed of shifting and sinking sand, formed into waves twenty feet high, and the crossing of which was an operation of the greatest labour. The ground along this tract is covered with pebbles of considerable beauty, and even value. All the habitable parts of this desert, with the tracts to the north of the Thian- chan, covered with rank and luxuriant pastures, are traversed by the tribes or standards of the Mongols. This terrible race are no longer in a condition to pour over Asia the tide of conquest and desolation. They are split into a number of petty tribes separate from each other, generally hostile, and incapable of combin- ing for any common object. They have been made to own the sovereignty of China ; but that state, unable either to maintain garrisons or exact tribute, leaves them much to themselves, and requires little more than that they 6hall leave it unmolested. In their character the Mongols are rough, roaming, and warlike ; but in domes- tic intercourse, frank, cheerful, and hospitable. Their main pride consists in the management of their horses, in which they appear indeed to show a wonderful degree of dexterity. As the luxuries of horse-flesh and koumiss can be command- ed only to a limited extent, they supply their place with cows, and with that species of sheep* having huge tails composed entirely of fat, which prevails in many parts of Asia and Africa. For amusement, they hunt deer and a few sables, but find little opportunity for fishing. Amidst all the privations to which they are exposed, they manifest a gay and cheerful disposition, and take delight in various kinds of sports and exercises. Complete converts to the religion of Buddha, they have lamas, feigned or fancied to be immortal, and each of whose places is immediately supplied after death by another, believed to be a new body animated by the same soul. They have also monks, by whom the religious cere- monies are conducted ; and these ceremonies are observed, as in Thibet, to bear a close resemblance to those celebrated under the superstitious forms of Christianity. This ecclesiastical nobility, however, though reverenced and handsomely support- ed, is far from enjoying the same exclusive dignity as in Thibet. The warlike chiefs hold that pre-eminence which is usual among such rude tribes. The Mongols consist of several great families, comprising the Kalmucks, sup- posed to be the most numerous, the Eluts, or Eluths, the Kalkas, or Black, and the Sharras, or Yellow Mongols ; also the Sifans, or Choshotes, divided into Black and White. SOONGARIA. Soongaria, bounded on the north by the Altai' range, and on the south by the Thian-chan, may be considered as a western division of Mongolia, being, in almost all its features, of the same character : it is peopled chiefly by the Kalmucks, the most numerous among all the branches of the Mongols, and, in form, manners and religion, exhibit scarcely any distinction from the rest of the same great family. They appear, however, to have a more independent and regular form of govern- ment than any other Tartar nation. The khans of the different ooroghs, or tribes, meet in a general council, to elect the great khan of the Kalmucks. They boast of their country as that whence issued the Huns, who acted so celebrated a part in the overthrow of the Roman empire. In the end of the seventeenth century, they had made themselves completely the ruling people, and masters of all central Tartary, including the southern countries of Cashgar and Koten. Being attacked, however, by the Mongols, their rivals, confederated with the whole force of the Chinese empire, they were unable to sustain the unequal contest, which ended in the subjection to China of all Tartary east of the Bolor. The Mongols, though sharing the common subjection, became pre-eminent over their rivals, many of whom, unable to brook this double servitude, sought refuge in Asiatic Russia ; but the mildness of the Chinese sway has since induced a large proportion to return. The whole number occupying their original seats is now supposed to amount to about 1,000,000. There are several towns in Soongaria, of which Eelah is the chief: it is situ- ated on a river of the same name, and is said to be rather a collection of towns than a single one ; it contains a large Chinese garrison, and has an annual fair, to which the Kalmucks bring from 25,000 to 30,000 horses. 534 TARTARY. LITTLE BUCHARIA. This region, to the south of the Thianchan, and north-west of the Great Desert, although an extensive country including some of the finest tracts of Central Asia, has remained to the moderns almost utterly unknown. The appellation of Tangut appears to have been extensively, though in a somewhat vague way, applied to this region, which has also been called Little Bucharia and Chinese Turkestan. According to the report of late travellers, the Chinese, having driven out the native princes, have incorporated the greater part of it into the kingdom of Cash- gar. This kingdom, in its original limits, forms a wide plain to the east of the great chain of the Bolor. It is described as superior in beauty and fertility to any other part of Tartary, and as rivalling the finest tracts in southern Europe. It is watered by numerous streams, descending from the high border chain ; the fields, carefully cultivated, are covered with large crops of grain, and the fruits are pecu liarly excellent. It is a tract redeemed, as it were, from the general desolation of Tartary. At present Cashgar appears to be flourishing under the Chinese sway There and in Yarkand, both Mahometan countries, the magistrates of that pro- fession administer justice and carry on all the internal affairs, while the Chinese military officers, called amdans, collect the revenue and defend the country against foreign invasion. The city of Cashgar is the seat of government, and, though not the chief em- porium of this part of Asia, yet a seat of considerable trade. A fine river from the west passes by it, and a lead mine in the neighbourhood affords employment to a considerable number of the inhabitants. Yarkand is universally allowed to be a larger and still handsomer city, and is said to contain 50,000 inhabitants. It is a place of immense resort, and filled with numerous caravanserais for the recep- tion of strangers. A handsome street runs the whole length of the city, entirely filled with shops and warehouses, which are kept by the Chinese, who sit on benches in front. There is also a considerable number of madresses, or colleges. The country around is described as almost unrivalled, particularly for its finely watered gardens and the excellence of its fruits. Some other countries and cities enumerated by late writers as situated in Little Bucharia, are Koten, Aksou, Koutche, Turfan, Harashar, Elchi, Karaiah, Gumma, Kargalie, Yengu, and Hissar. Koten is celebrated in the early histories and tra- vels as an independent kingdom, of considerable extent and importance. Its tem- perate climate and fruitful soil are marked by the production of the vine and the silkworm. At a period anterior to the Christian era, the doctrines and learning of Buddhism are said to have been introduced into Koten, and to have flourished there till they were driven out by Mahometan conquest. At present, under Chi- nese sway, both religions are equally tolerated. Aksou is also described as the capital of an extensive district subject to Cash- gar. It is supposed to contain 75,000 inhabitants. Turfan is also a large and strong city, the capital of a considerable country, governed by a branch of the royal family of Cashgar. Farther to the east is the country of Lop, in which is the lake where the river of Cashgar finds its termination. Beyond it is Chamil, or Hami, represented as a peculiarly fine country, inhabited by a learned and polished people, immersed, however, in dissolute and voluptuous habits. The Mahometan religion, which has been established through Cashgar and all its dependencies, gives place here to the ecclesiastical sway of the Lama. Peculiar superstitions, the remains probably of an earlier system, are said to prevail in this part of Tartary. The dead are often embalmed in spices, and kept for several years till the astrologer has determined the planet under which they ought to be interred. INDEPENDENT TARTARY. Independent Tartary, commencing at the great boundary chain of the Bolor, reaches westward to the Caspian, and is bounded on ~the south by Persia, and on the north by Asiatic Russia. Its chief divisions are the kingdom of Great Bu- charia, or Bokhara, and that of Khokan, both fertile and populous when compared TARTARY. 535 with the wastes hy which they are surrounded ; both famed and ancient seats of empire. They are situated upon, and derive their fertility from, the two great central rivers; one from the Amoo Gihon, or Oxus, the other from the Sir, Sihon, or Jaxartes. These states, with the khanat of Khiva, also an important power, occupying the lower Amoo, are ruled by Uzbek chiefs, and frequently called Uz- bek Turkistan. GREAT BUCHARIA, OR BOKHARA. Bokhara forms a fertile oasis, extending about 200 miles along the northern bank of the Amoo. The population, by the last Russian embassy, who visited the country in 1820, is reckoned at 2,500,000, of which a great proportion consists of fixed inhabitants, cultivating the ground, or inhabiting towns. The bulk of these, over all Independent Tartary, as well as Cashgar and Cabul, consists of a race called Taujiks, apparently descended from an original native people reduced to subjection by the conquering tribes who at present bear sway ; and the name is now generally applied to all who have adopted the same peaceable and industrious habits. The military force of the kingdom consists of 20,000 horse and 4000 in- fantry, besides about 50,000 militia. The present sovereign, a warlike prince, has wrested Balkh from the chief of Koondooz ; but the only expeditions in which his troops engage at present are for the purpose of plunder, chiefly over the vast plains of Khorasan. The country is well governed, peaceful, and flourishing. Cultivation is only limited by the want of water, and by the naked character of the vast plains which inclose Bokhara. A considerable inland trade is carried on with India, Persia, and, above, all, with Russia. From Astrachan, two annual caravans come by way of Orenburg, each accompanied by 4000 or 5000 camels. In winter, the Amoo being frozen, they are enabled to pass it over the ice ; but much hardship is expe- rienced in consequence of the desolate character of the route, where often neither provisions nor water are to be found for several successive days. The imports from Russia are metals, arms, cutlery, cloths, and other European manufactures; the returns are in silk, cotton, hides, rubies, and turquoises. The city of Bokhara contains 70,000 or 80,000 inhabitants. As usual in Asiatic cities, the habitations of the ordinary citizens are poor; but there are a number of mosques, and madresses, or colleges, handsomely built of stone. Bokhara is a great seat of Mahometan learning. The city contains eighty madresses, each attended by from 40 to 300 students. To every madresse there is a lecturer ; and these, with the students, are supported by funds consisting chiefly in the rent of lands or houses, appropriated to that purpose by Mahometan zeal and charity. About 200 miles to the east of Bokhara is Samarcand. Its walls still inclose a circuit of forty-eight miles. The beauty of its environs, and the delicacy of its fruits, are still extolled in the same lofty terms which were used by the writers of the middle ages. This renowned capital of Asia is now, however, little better than a mass of ruins. BALKH. The region of Balkh, situated on the north side of the mountains, forms part of the vast plain which extends to the Altai, and, being ruled by Uzbek chiefs, it must properly be considered as belonging to Independent Tartary. Balkh, the ancient Bactria, possesses in Asia the fame of almost unrivalled an- tiquity, which seems to ascend even to the age of Semiramis. It is commonly called, in the East, the mother of cities. It retains, however, a mere shadow of its ancient grandeur. Only one corner of the wide circuit which its walls inclose j is now inhabited, and does not contain more than 2000 souls. The surrounding' district is flat, fertile, and well cultivated, containing about 360 villages. This I fertility is produced, in a great measure, by a grand reservoir formed of the nu- merous waters which descend from the southern side of the Hindoo Koosh moun- tains; a single canal derived from which is said to yield a revenue of 9000/. ster- ling. As this source of fertility dries up, the country to the north declines into those sterile and naked plains which compose the greater part of Tartary. 536 TARTARY. KHOKAN. The tracts between the Amoo and the Sihon partake of the rudest character of Tartary, and are occupied only by bands of wandering Turcomans. The waters of the latter river, however, fertilize the kingdom of Khokan, similar in cultivation and improvement to Bokhara.. Khokan, of modern origin, and recently made the capital, has risen from a small village to a city of 50,000 houses, with 300 mosques. It lies in a fruitful plain, watered by two small rivers. Khojend, the ancient capital, though decayed, is still more than half the size of Khokan. Its situation on the Sihon is described as truly delightful, and its inhabitants as the most learned and polite of any in this part of Tartary. Tashkent is an ancient city, still very flourishing, and estimated to contain 100,000 inhabitants, with 320 mosques. Murgilan is a large and fine city. On the southern frontier is Ush, a populous town. North of Tashkent, and on the banks of the Sihon, is Tounkat, anciently celebrated for its schools and learned men, and for its fine situation, it being said of it that God never made a more de- licious dwelling than at Tounkat. Other towns formerly important are Otrar, Jassu, Taras or Turkestan, &c. KHIVA. Khiva, the ancient Kharasm, forms another kingdom of Independent Tartary, once a seat of empire, and still considerable. It is situated on the lower Amoo, separated by a wide interval of desert from that of Bokhara. The cultivated part of Khiva extends less than 200 miles in length, and 50 in its utmost breadth, along the banks of the river. The canals derived from that stream are the chief means by which cultivation is produced. To this state, also, is loosely attached the roving population of those immense deserts which, on every side, insulate it from the civilized world ; from Persia, from Cabul, and from Bokhara. Travellers across these wastes find only at wide intervals a few spots affording water and pasturage. The population of the whole territory has been reckoned at 300,000 families, of whom about a third are fixed, the rest wandering, pastoral, and preda- tory, and principally employed in desolating Persia, and particularly Khorasan, by plundering expeditions, in which they not only carry off everything valuable, but the inhabitants themselves to perpetual captivity in the heart of their immense deserts. The settled inhabitants of Khiva are described as gross and uncivilized, when compared either with the Persians or with the Tartars. Their situation enables them to carry on some trade similar to that of Bokhara, though on a smaller scale. One branch they have extended much farther, that of slaves, of whom it is esti- mated there were, throughout Khiva and Bokhara, from 150,000 to 200,000 Per- sians, and 15,000 Russians. The city of Khiva is situated about fifteen miles to the south of the Amoo, and contains about 5000 families. It is poorly built, and is, indeed, rather a fixed en- campment than a regular town. Even the palace of the khan is only a large wooden tent plastered with clay. Urghendj, or Urgunge, the ancient capital, is almost in ruins, though its situation on the Amoo still preserves to it a little trade. Khizarist, or Hazarasp, a place distinguished in the revolutions of Asia, has ex- perienced an equal decay. Chevvat, Kiat, &c, are also small towns or villages. KOONDOOZ. Between Cabul and Bokhara, to the south of the Amoo, is the little state of Koondooz, ruled by an Uzbek chieftain or meer, who has established his power over all the neighbouring districts. He has a force of 20,000 horse, and renders himself formidable to his neighbours by his activity and his vigorous policy. The town of Koondooz is situated in a marshy valley proverbial for its unhealthy cli- mate, and is visited by the meer only in winter. It was once a large town, but the population does not now exceed 1500 souls. Kholoom is agreeably situated in a fine district, and contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Eastward from Bokhara TARTAR Y— JAPAN. 537 lies the long mountain valley of Badakshan, situated between the Bolor Tagh, and a high branch thrown out from it, called the Ridge of Pamer. Badakshan is celebrated over the East for its mineral products ; iron, salt, sulphur, lapis lazuli ; but, above all, rubies considered equal to any in the world. It is dependent on the meer of Koondooz. The capital is Badakshan. On the opposite side of the Amoo is the district of Derwauz, the king of which claims a descent from Alexander, which his neighbours are said to admit ; probably on very slender testimony. KIRGUIS COUNTRY. The northern and north-western parts of Independent Tartary are occupied by the Kirguis, who are divided into three branches or hordes, called the Great, the Middle, and the Little Horde. The Great Horde ranges to the east and south, on the frontiers of Cashgar and Khokan, and many of its tribes have adopted the habits of those more improved districts, and acquired a fixed and peaceable character. The Middle and Lesser Horde occupy the shores of the Aral,-»nd the tract ex- tending from the Aral to the Caspian, and in these the original nomadic and pas- toral character is preserved most entire. They own, in a certain sense, the sove- reignty of Russia, which, however, must have recourse to measures both of con- ciliation and defence, to prevent them from making extensive depredations in its territory. In the former view, it grants pensions to the principal chiefs, of whom the khan receives annually 600 rubles and 20 camels ; the rest in proportion ; and it maintains a chain of strong posts along the whole line from the Ural to the Irtysh. In their social and political capacity, the Kirguis enjoy a greater share of independence than most of the other tribes of Middle Asia, The Little Horde, indeed, allows Russia to appoint a nominal khan ; but he enjoys scarcely any power, unless what he can secure by wealth or personal qualities. The private life of the Kirguis is directed by the maxims of Maho- metan law, of which they are strict observers. Under its sanction, the chiefs ob- serve polygamy to as great an extent as purchase or robbery can enable them, and a separate tent is allotted to each wife. The wealth of the Kirguis consists in horses, goats, the large-tailed sheep, and a few camels. In these respects their possessions are said to be often very con- siderable. It has been chiefly, as yet, by plunder or contribution, that they have obtained foreign luxuries ; but some, adopting more peaceable habits, have begun to obtain them by the exchange of furs, hides, and felt. TURCOMANIA. Tuecomania extends west from Khiva along the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and is a sandy and rocky country, labouring under a great deficiency of water. The inhabitants, more swarthy, smaller in size, but more square in their limbs, than the neighbouring tribes, live in tents of felt, or in caves of the rocks. They are a set of rude shepherds, who often commit acts of robbery, and some- times carry off the inhabitants of the northern Persian provinces, whom they sell for slaves at Khiva and Bokhara. The Turcomans are divided into several tribes, of which the most powerful, settled around and near the Bay of Balkan, number, it is said, 12,000 families. They keep numbers of camels and sheep, and have also a breed of particularly strong and serviceable horses, much esteemed in the East. These people weave a coarse cloth of camels' wool, and raise, where the soil admits of it, a little grain, fice, water-melons, and cucumbers. The Russians occasionally visit the Bay of Balkan, and trade with the Turcomans. JAPAN. Japan bears an affinity to China, in the nature of its institutions, the character of its inhabitants, and the physical and moral circumstances which separate it from — - 538 JAPAN. the rest of the world. Being populous, and marked by striking and peculiar fea- tures, it has, notwithstanding the complete state of insulation in which it holds itself from other nations, attracted a large share of the curiosity of Europe. Japan consists of three principal islands, one large, and two smaller, which, being separated from each other by narrow channels, form altogether one long, winding, irregular range of territory. The entire length, in one oblique line, from point to point, scarcely falls short of 1000 miles ; while the breadth varies from 40 or 50 to 200. The aspect of Japan is bold, varied, abrupt, and striking, without any single feature that is very prominent. Rugged chains traverse its interior, from several of which volcanic fire is thrown up ; and Fusi, the highest, is covered with al- most perpetual snow. Niphon, the largest, is about 800 miles long ; Kiusiu, 150 miles long by 120 broad ; Sikoke, 90 long by 50 broad. The other islands are mere detached and local objects. The southern part of the large contiguous island of Jesso, is completely colonised and possessed by the Japanese. MugIi of the surface of Japan consists of rich valleys and extending plains, on which most of the articles of tropical produce grow in great abundance. It was entirely un- known to the ancients, and is not mentioned by any of their historians. The em- pire, however, has records, which affect to detail its revolutions for a period long anterior to that which we ai;e justified in assigning to the origin of human, society. The intercourse of Europeans with Japan, which is to us the most interesting part of history, commenced in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese, who were the first explorers of this as well as of every other part of the Asiatic coast, did not at first encounter that deadly jealousy with which Japan was afterwards closed against Europeans. Not only were they allowed to establish a factory, and carry on a great trade at Firando, but no opposition was made to the introduction of missionaries, for diffusing the Catholic religion. St. Francis Xavier, the celebrated apostle of the East, made Japan the great theatre of his preaching. After some obstacles, considerable progress was made ; several of the princes or tributary kings, with a great number of their subjects, embraced the new faith; and an embassy was even sent to Philip II. and the pope. In no long time, however, these fair promises began to be clouded. The nobles became impatient of the re- straints imposed by their new profession ; and the perpetual jealousy of a despotic government was kindled by the introduction of new doctrines, habits, and ideas, from a foreign nation, who might employ this chance as a prelude to conquest. Some rash steps taken by the missionaries, and, probably, the report of Portuguese proceedings in other parts of Asia, raised this hostile disposition to the utmost pitch. A general persecution was commenced against all, both native and foreign, who held the new faith ; and it was carried on with an unrelenting severity char- acteristic of the nation, which ended in completely extirpating the Catholic faith. Afterwards the Dutch, by assuming the most submissive deportment, and, as has been alleged, denying the faith on account of which their predecessors had been expelled, succeeded in establishing a factory at Firando. This being soon considered too wide a field, they were removed to the smaller spot of Nan- gasaki, where they have ever since been allowed to remain under restrictions progressively severe. They have at length been circumscribed as in a prison ; allowed, indeed, to carry on a certain portion of trade, but without ever passing the allotted boundaries. All attempts made by other European states have com- pletely failed. The division of power between the ecclesiastical and military potentate is the most remarkable peculiarity in the government of Japan : the one holds the highest rank, and the first place in the veneration of the whole nation ; the other absorbs all the solid realities of power. The dairi, who resides at Miaco, appropriates the whole revenue of that city and its rich adjoining territory. In order, also, that he may maintain the full pomp of a sovereign, a liberal allowance is held due to him out of the general revenue. This, however, is all in the hands of the cubo, who often finds it inconvenient to make the payment, and has recourse to apologies which, whether satisfactory or not, the other has no means of disallowing. Thus, a proud poverty reigns in this JAPAN. 539 sacred court, which is greatly increased by the circumstance, that all the members of the blood royal, now amounting to many thousands, must be so maintained as not to bring contempt upon the race. The cubo, or temporal sovereign of Japan, rules with an authority which ad- mits, in principle, of no limitation. In fact, however, it stands on a very different footing from that of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The provinces are ruled by princes, once warlike and independent, and only reduced, after a hard struggle, to bend to the will of a conqueror. They are obliged to leave the greater part of their family at court as hostages, and themselves to reside there for a great part of the year. When discovered or believed to be engaged in any measure hostile to the government, death is the immediate and irrevocable sentence ; and the only mitigation granted is that of being allowed to procure it by their own hands. The laws of Japan, in general, may be said, even more emphatically than those of Draco, to be written in blood. Cutting in pieces, piercing the belly with a knife, immersion in boiling oil, are common modes of punishing the guilty. The parent suffers for the crime of the child, and the child for that of the parent. Of these violent measures, however, the result really is, that the security of person and property is very complete, and that capital punishments are even rendered more rare than in most other nations. Around Nangasaki only, examples of this unrelenting severity continue more frequent, in order to extirpate every remnant of Christianity, and also to punish the instances of contraband traffic which private interest prompts, in the face of the most rigorous prohibitions. The Japanese rank with the richest and most industrious nations of Asia, though they confine themselves so entirely to their internal resources. In particular, their fertile soil, and even those parts of it to which nature has been least bountiful, are improved with the most exemplary diligence. The basis of their culture is Chi- nese ; and they resemble that people in the extreme care with which manure is collected. Rice is the pride of Japanese agriculture, and the main staff of life. That which is raised on the best soil is said to be finer, whiter, and more easily preserved, than any other in Asia. Next in utility ranks the daid-su, a species of large bean, which, being made into a pulp, serves like butter as a condiment to season many of their dishes. Wheat and barley are also standard grains, though not to an equal extent The tea-plant grows without culture in the hedges ; ginger, pepper, sugar, cot- ton, and indigo, are cultivated with success. The fig and the chestnut are their principal fruits. One of the most valuable trees is the Arusi, which yields the varnish employed in the rich lackered ware peculiar to the country. There are few cattle in Japan : a variety of the buffalo, and some small oxen, are employed in agriculture. The horses are small, but not numerous : dogs abound, and a few hogs have been brought from China. The Japanese do not use much animal food, with the exception of fish, of which there is a great variety ; and the whale is highly prized by them, more as an ar- ticle of food than for the oil. The standard food is hot rice-cakes, along with tea 01 rice beer. Japan is considered to be very populous ; but statements of the amount are so uncertain as to have been estimated at from 15,000,000 to 50,000,000. Allowing it to be as thickly inhabited as China Proper, it will amount to about the former number. This country is rich in mineral productions, which consist of gold and silver, copper in great abundance and the best in the world, some iron and tin, also sulphur and coal. Pearls and amber are found on the sea-shores in consider- able quantities. Manufactures are exerted on the same branches and after the same models as the Chinese. Silk, cotton, porcelain, and lackered ware, in which last they excel, are the chief. They are also well acquainted with the art of working metals and the making of glass. The Japanese do not themselves carry on foreign commerce, but permit the Chinese and Coreans to trade to Nangasaki ; also, the Dutch, who are restricted to a small island, where, subjected to every humiliation, they are allowed to dis- pose of two annual cargoes. As they make, however, a profit of 20,000/. a year, they continue, notwithstanding some menaces, to brave all the mortifications, and 540 JAPAN. even dangers, which attend this traffic. Commerce, thus confined almost entirely to the interior of the empire, is very active within that sphere. All the shores and bays appear crowded with barks, conveying from place to place the various products of the provinces. The roads are excellent, and thronged in an amazing degree ; they are kept clean by the mere anxiety of the people to collect the mud as manure. The broad and rapid torrents in the mountainous districts are crossed by handsome bridges of cedar, well fenced, and always kept in the most perfect repair. The Japanese seem, in personal appearance, to be a somewhat altered and im- proved variety of the Mongols and Chinese. Their eyes are even in a greater degree small, pointed, oblong, sunk in the head, with a deep furrow made by the eyelids; they have almost the appearance of being pink-eyed. Their heads are in general large, and their necks short ; their hair is black, thick, and shining from the use of oil. They are, however, robust, well made, active, and easy in their motions. Their complexion, yellow and passing into brown, appears to be entirely produced by the climate ; since ladies, who are constantly protected from the heat of the sun, are as white as in Europe. The national character is strikingly marked, and strongly contrasted with that which generally prevails throughout Asia. The Japanese differ most especially from the Chinese, their nearest neighbours, notwithstanding the resemblance in form and lineaments. Although they are said to make good subjects, even to the severe government under which they live, they yet retain an impatience of con- trol, and a force of public opinion, which renders it impossible for any ruler wan- tonly to tyrannize over them. Instead of that mean, artful, and truckling dispo- sition, so general among Asiatics, their manners are distinguished by a manly frankness, and all their proceedings by honour and good faith. They are habitu- ally kind and good-humoured, when nothing occurs to rouse their hostile passions, and they carry the ties of friendship even to a romantic height. To serve and defend a friend in every peril, and to meet torture and death rather than betray him, is considered as a duty from which nothing can dispense. The greatest defect seems to be pride, which runs through all classes, rises to the highest pitch among the great, and leads them to display an extravagant pomp in their retinue and establishment, and to despise everything in the nature of industry and mercantile employment. Self-murder here, like duelling in Europe, seems to be the point of honour among the great ; and the nobles, even when condemned to death by the sovereign, reserve the privilege of executing the sentence with their own hands. There are two religions in Japan ; one native, called the Sintos, at the head of which is the dairi ; the other, the Buddha, called here Budso, the same which pre- vails over all eastern Asia. The Budso gains ascendency by mingling with the original system those attractive accessories which it possesses in common with the Catholic, monasteries, processions, beads, drums, noisy music, and the belief of purgatory ; which, though condemned by the pure and orthodox Sintoists, have a general influence over the people. The Sintos profess to believe in a Supreme Ruler of the universe, and among their number is distinguished a class of pure and philosophic worshippers, who entertain lofty conceptions of the Deity, and cultivate the practice of virtue as the chief means of gaining his favour. Their belief, however, being thought to resemble the Christian, fell into some discredit when the latter became the object of such deadly persecution. Pilgrimage is the custom to which the Japanese adhere with the greatest zeal, and from which they promise themselves the greatest benefit, temporal and spir- itual. No one can be accounted at all eminent in sanctity, or have any assurance of the forgiveness of his sins, who has not been once a year at Isje, the grand temple of the Tensio Dai Sir, or first of the celestial spirits, situated in a province of the same name. The roads in summer are completely choked with the crowds of devout worshippers, on their way to the sacred shrine. As many have not the means of paying their own way, a large proportion betake themselves to begging, and, prostrate on the ground, call out to the rich passengers, "A farthing to carry me to Isje i" The Japanese, in their mode of printing, and their ideas on speculative subjects, JAPAN. 541 are originally Chinese. They are far, however, from displaying the same proud indifference and disdain of everything foreign. Their minds are active, and im- bued with the most eager curiosity on all subjects. On the few occasions allowed to them by the jealous rigour of their government, they have harassed Europeans with multiplied questions respecting those branches of knowledge in which they felt and admitted their superiority. In travelling, the Japanese spend more time than perhaps any other nation. The main roads are said to be usually as crowded as the streets of the most populous cities in Europe. This is owing to their numerous pilgrimages ; to the extent of their inland trade ; and, most of all, to the immense retinues which attend the princes in their annual journeys to and from the court of the cubo. The retinue of one of the very first rank is computed to amount to 20,000, and covers the roads for several miles. That such a retinue may pass without incon- venience or collision, all the inns are engaged for a month before ; and in all the towns and villages on the route, boards are set up to announc^hat, on such a day, such a great lord is to pass through. Jeddo, the capital of Japan, lies at the head of a deep bay on the eastern coast of Niphon, and at the mouth of one of the few rivers which possess any consider- able magnitude. It is seven miles long and five broad, and contains many splendid palaces of the great lords, all of whom must reside in it for a great part of the year. The buildings, on account of the frequency of earthquakes, are built of one story only. The palace, however, though equally low, is five leagues in cir- cumference, including a wide exterior area occupied by the spacious mansions of the princes and great lords of the court. The city is subject to dreadful fires, one of which, in 1703, con stt f rftd 10 0,000 houses. It is the seat of varied branches of industry, and carries on also a great internal trade. Miaco, the spiritual capital of Japan, is still the chief seat of polished manners, refined arts, and intellectual culture. The finest silk stuffs flowered with gold and silver, the richest varnishes, the best painted papers, and the most skilful works in gold, silver, and copper, are here manufactured. It is likewise the centre of literature and science, and most of the works which are published and read in Japan issue from its presses. The lay inhabitants, according to the last enumera- tion, were 477,000, and the ecclesiastical, including the court, 52,000 ; making in all, 529,000. Osaka, at the mouth of the river on which Miaco is situated, is a flourishing sea-port, intersected, like Venice, by numerous canals, which are connected by bridges of cedar. The Japanese have now occupied all the southern parts of the great island of Jesso which are accessible and improveable. Matsmai, the capital, is supposed to contain 50,000 souls. Nangasaki, that interesting point at which alone this empire comes in contact with any foreign nation, is a large, industrious, trading town. On a small adjoin- ing island the Dutch are allowed to carry on their scanty commerce. They have here a space of 600 feet long by 120 broad, on which they have erected several large storehouses, and rendered them fire-proof. The most unheard-of precau- tions are taken to prevent any contraband transaction, commercial or political, and it is confidently asserted that these are insufficient to guard against the powerful impulse of self-interest, and that contraband trade is carried on to a considerable extent. The strong disposition on the part of the Japanese, — stronger even than the similar feeling which prevails in China, — to have the least possible intercourse with Europeans, has doubtless proceeded from their knowledge of the facts con- nected with European colonization in India and elsewhere; and however lightly we may esteem the general intellect and polity of these two great Asiatic nations, it can scarcely be doubted that to the rigorous interdiction in question they are indebted for the continuance of their national independence. 46 542 OCEANICA. OCEANICA. Oceanica is the name recently adopted to designate all the countries which are considered as forming the fifth grand division of the globe. Up to the middle of the last century, and still later, theoretical geographers, from the fanciful idea of the necessity of an equilibrium in the solid parts of the surface of the earth, sup- posed that a vast continent surrounded the Antarctic Pole; and this imaginary region was called by them Terra Australia When the errors of these specula- tive writers were corrected by the voyages and discoveries of Captain Cook, all the islands lying south of Asia and those in the Pacific Ocean had already received peculiar proper names. It did not seem convenient to the geographers of that period to add those islands either to Asia or to America, and they wished, there- fore, to devise a name which should comprehend all of these, and at the same time express their position on the globe. The different terms Australia, Australasia, and Oceanica, have been proposed by different writers, of which the last appears to have obtained the ascendency. The islands composing Oceanica are situated partly to the south of Asia, and partly in the wide Pacific between Asia and America. This portion of the globe began to be discovered after America and the South Seas were known to Europe- ans. Magellan, who first undertook a voyage round the world, had promised the Spanish monarch, into whose service he entered when he left the Portuguese, that he would arrive at the Moluccas by sailing westward. On this voyage he discovered, March 6, 1521, the Ladrones, or Mariana Islands, a group which con- stitutes a part of Oceanica. Magellan must, therefore, be regarded as the first discoverer of this portion of the globe, and opened the way for the subsequent dis- coveries in this quarter. Three hundred years elapsed before all the islands, which now pass under the name of Oceanica, were known to Europeans. After Magellan, the Spanish navigators continued the process of discovery in this part of the world, particularly Alvaro de Mendana, who, in the last part of the sixteenth century, discovered the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas, and passed through the Society and Friendly Islands without seeing them. Fernandez de Quiros, who had accompanied him on his third voyage, took a southerly direc- tion, and hit upon the part of the Pacific Ocean which contains the most islands. He made known to the world the Society Islands and Terra del Espiritu Santo. In the seventeenth century, the Dutch began to explore this part of the ocean, and, besides several small islands, discovered the large island of Australia, or New Holland, which received its name from them, although there is some reason for supposing that it had been visited by the Portuguese a hundred years earlier ; but their discoveries seem to have been concealed by their government, and after- wards forgotten. Tasman, a Dutchman, and Dampier, an Englishman, continued these discoveries. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the English navi- gators Byron, Wallis and Carteret, and the French Bougainville, exerted them- selves to extend the knowledge of Oceanica. But Captain James Cook, who cir- cumnavigated the world from 1768 to 1779, contributed most to the more accurate examination of this portion of the globe, corrected the knowledge of Europeans with regard to the islands already known, again discovered islands before seen, and was the original discoverer of New Caledonia and the Sandwich Islands. After the time of Cook, both the French and English exerted themselves to give the world a better acquaintance with Oceanica. Among the later navigators En- trecasteaux, Grant, La Peyrouse, Baudin, Flinders, Krusenstern, Kotzebue, and Beechey, added to our knowledge of this region. Many of these islands are extensive countries, and one of them is about equal in area to Europe. The whole surface of the islands may be estimated at from 4 to 5,000,000 of square miles, an extent perhaps nearly equal to one-tenth part of all the land on the globe. The population may be estimated at from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000. No portion of the globe has more numerous inequalities of surface, OCEANICA. 543 and it is remarkable that the mountain ranges have all a general direction from north to south. Many of these mountains are volcanic, and are described by navi- gators as often seeming to the mariner to rise like giants, from the bosom of the deep. In no part of the world, are there so many volcanoes. In Schouten's islands near New Guinea, the flames and smoke rise calmly over a fruitful and smiling country ; in other islands, dreadful torrents of black lava darken the shores. The volcano of" Gilolo broke out in 1673 with a violence which made the whole of the Moluccas shake. The ashes were carried as far as Magindanao, and the scoria and the pumice-stones, floating on the sea, seemed to retard the progress of the vessels. Several volcanoes are also in constant activity in the Sandwich Islands. The formation of many of these islands is attributed to the operation of minute insects. All the low islands seem to have for their base a reef of coral rocks, generally disposed in a circular form. In the interior the sand is mixed with pieces of broken coral, and other marine substances, proving that such islands have been originally formed by these coral rocks, which are inhabited and accord- ing to some created by zoophites, and afterwards augmented and elevated by the slow accumulation of light bodies drifted to them by the sea. It is very remark- able that in some of these islands there are elevations of several hundred feet in height, on whose summits these coral rocks are found ; this seems to prove that they have been formed by the coral insects at the level of the sea, which has gra- dually retired and left them exposed. The climate throughout Oceanica is, for the most part, delightful. Perpetual spring combined with perpetual summer, displays the opening blossom, mingled with the ripened fruits. A perfume of exquisite sweetness embalms the atmo- sphere, which is continually refreshed by the wholesome breezes from the sea. Here might mankind, if they could throw off" their vices, lead lives exempt from trouble and from want. Their bread grows on the trees which shade their lawns, and the light barks glide on the tranquil seas, protected from the swelling surge by the coral reefs which enclose them. The islands of Oceanica afford a very varied vegetation among the trees and plants, of which there are many of great utility to the natives. In the Sunda Islands, the Philippines, and the Moluccas, rice occupies the place of wheat, and the culture of it is probably extended over New Guinea ; these also produce in abundance those tropical articles which are of chief importance in commerce ; cot- ton, sugar, pepper, coffee, and spices of all kinds, in greater variety than in any other part of the world. Farther to the east, in the islands of Polynesia, there are several exceeding useful esculent roots and plants, which grow either sponta- neously or under the influence of culture. The yam, the taro, the sweet potatoe, the plantain, and the banana, all more or less answer the double purpose of bread and vegetables. The most important product of these islands is the bread-fruit tree, the trunk of which rises to the height of 40 feet, and attains the thickness of a man's body. The fruit is as large as a child's head : gathered before it is fully ripe, and baked among ashes, it becomes a wholesome bread somewhat resembling fresh wheat bread in taste. The cocoa-nut is, after the bread-fruit tree, the most serviceable ; it grows equally well in the richest and in the most barren soils, and in its fruit, its wood, its leaves, and its fibres, it is equally subservient to the wants and necessities of the people. Beside the articles enumerated, fruits of various kinds abound, and of excellent quality; the chief are oranges, shaddocks, ami limes, citrons, pine and custard apples, guavas, figs, &e. In the colonies of Aus- tralia and Van Diemen's Land, the principal European grains and vegetables have been introduced and grow in great perfection. The people of Oceanica are divided into two races, distinct in origin, language, aspect, and character, and irreconcileably hostile to each other; the brown and the black races. They bear the same analogy that the white and the negro bear in the western regions; the former, superior in intelligence and power, driving the other before him, oppressing and reducing him to bondage. Thus, in all the great islands the brown race has now established a decided and undisputed supe- riority. 544 OCEANICA. The black race, called often the Papuas or Oriental Negroes, appear to be a dwarf variety of the negro of Africa. They are of low stature and feeble frame, generally under, and seldom, or never exceeding five feet in height. The colour is sooty rather than black ; the woolly hair grows in small tufts, with a spiral twist. The forehead is higher, the nose more projecting, the upper lip longer and more prominent. The under lip is protruded, and forms indeed the lower part of the face, which has scarcely the vestige of a chin. This degraded class of human beings is generally diffused through New Guinea, New Holland, and other large islands of the Pacific. Their habits have been very little observed, Europeans having only had occasional individuals presented to them as objects of curiosity. Little is recorded except the ferocity with which they wage their ceaseless war with the brown races, who have driven them from all the finer parts of this region. The brown, or Malay tribes, especially those which inhabit the islands of Ma- laysia, are short, squat, and robust, being reckoned, on an average, four inches lower than the European standard. There are considerable varieties of colour and appearance, which can hardly be accounted for by the climate. These island- ers are rather an ugly race ; their frame is deficient in symmetry, their lower limbs large and heavy. The face is round ; the mouth wide, but with fine teeth ; the cheek-bones high, the nose short and small ; the eyes are small, and always black. The hair is long, lank, harsh, always black, and, except on the head, extremely deficient. The Malays of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, &c, are generally Mahometans, much addicted to piracy, in their disposition daring, restless, ferocious, and vindictive ; to enemies remorseless; to friends capricious; and to strangers treacherous. Amongst them gambling and games of hazard are pursued with an intense degree of passion. Every man goes armed with a crees, or dagger, which he regards as the instrument both of defending himself and avengmg his wrongs. The right of private revenge is claimed by every individual for injuries received either by himself, his family, or tribe. When circumstances deprive him of any hope of avenging himself with ease and safety, he has recourse to that dreadful outrage peculiar to these islands, termed running a muck. The individual under this im- pulse draws his dagger and runs through the house or into the street, stabbing without distinction every one he meets till he himself is killed or taken. This movement is always sudden, indicated by no previous looks or gestures, and from motives which it is often difficult to discover. The police officers, in contempla- tion of these violences, are provided with certain forked instruments, with which they arrest and secure the offender. The inhabitants of the Polynesian islands, though of the same race, are much more distinguished for beauty and regularity of form than those of Malaysia. Their complexion is sometimes not darker than that of the Spaniards and Italians. Social life, among these islanders, presents peculiar and picturesque aspects. Instead of those fierce and gloomy propensities which usually sway the breast of savage tribes, their manners are distinguished by a courtesy, gaiety, and amenity, which, combined with the beauty and abundance with which the land is gifted, made it appear to the first voyagers like a terrestrial paradise. These flattering appearances, however, proved in many respects to be very fallacious. Amid the lavish kindness with which Europeans were greeted, they soon discovered an uni- versal propensity to pilfering, while the virtue of the female sex was not proof against nails, buttons, or the most insignificant toys. These faults were, doubt- less, aggravated by the attractive nature of these new and tempting objects ; but it was, moreover, soon evident, that their dances and other amusements were con- ducted in a manner the most revolting to decorum, and that there existed in Ota- heite a society called arreoy, who made it a regular system to have wives in com- mon, and to put their offspring to death. Nor was infanticide the only practice marked by the ferocity of savage life. In many of the islands cannibalism is still practised, and in the most polished there remain traces of its former existence. The people of the Sandwich and Friendly Islands were at first considered more respectable ; but their character, on further acquaintance, was found to be stained with practices equally revolting. OCEANIC A. 545 The native religion of these islanders may be ranked amongst the darkest forms of superstition. It not only gives no support to virtue, but affords full sanc- tion to the most cruel and dissolute practices. Even the flagitious society of arreoy was supposed to possess a peculiar sanctity. Not only animals were offer- ed in profusion, but human victims were universally sacrificed on the bloody al- tars of the Polynesian divinities. One of the observances which most powerfully influenced their habitual existence was that of taboo, a species of prohibition, which a person, in honour of his favourite divinity, may impose upon himself, upon any part of his body, his house, his boat, or whatever belongs to him. European intercourse, during the present century, has effected a remarkable change upon these islands. Among the most active agents, have been the Eng- lish and American Missionaries. Another cause may be found in the increased number principally of American and British whaling and trading vessels, which frequent, of late years, the various islands and ports of these regions. Hence the harbours of some, particularly the Sandwich islands, are oftentimes crowded with vessels, and American merchants have even settled in their ports. The mariners and missionaries, two very opposite characters, do not always act in unison, or report very favourably of each other ; but they have combined in producing a some- what grotesque mixture of the arts, manners, and civilization of Europe, with the rude and licentious habits to which the people were previously addicted. The missionaries have attained a predominant influence in many of these islands. Spacious churches have been built, which the natives frequent, decently dressed, and with a serious and reverential air. Still the missionaries candidly admit that much is yet wanting, both as to Christian knowledge and conduct. The obser- vance of the Sabbath, which is the most conspicuous part of their religious prac- tice, seems, in a good measure, connected with their ancient veneration for any thing tabooed. Captain Beechey alleges that they venerate their bibles, in some degree, rather as household gods, means of mysterious protection, than as sources of instruction. Yet, on the whole, it is undeniable that the grossest superstitions have been demolished, that human victims no longer bleed, that the arreoy society is broken up, infanticide has ceased, and public decorum is generally observed. The missionaries have introduced letters into these islands, where, previously, nothing of that nature existed; neither hieroglyphics, pictorial representations, nor symbols of any description. As soon as Christianity was established, they set on foot schools; and the natives applied themselves with extraordinary ardour to this new acquisition. Mr. Ellis tells us, that " aged chiefs and priests, and hardy warriors, with their spelling-books in their hands, might be seen sitting, hour after hour, on the benches in the schools, by the side, perhaps, of some smiling boy or girl, by whom they were thankful to be taught the use of letters." Yet, after the first novelty was over, considerable difficulty has been found in obtaining regular attendance, which yet is anxiously desired, not only with a view to in- struction, but for forming the youth to regular habits. Still a considerable num- ber have thus attained a competent knowledge of reading, writing, and arith- metic. The animal kingdom of Oceanica affords only a few specimens of the great quadrupeds common to the other divisions of the globe. It possesses, however, several species which are peculiar, and not found elsewhere. The most remark- able is the Ouran Outang, or wild man of the woods. He is not very common, and is mostly found in Borneo. He is from 3 to 4$ feet in height, and nearly covered with a brownish red hair. He is incapable of walking erect, but seems peculiarly fitted for climbing trees. In his habits, he is very similar to a common monkey. The Pongo, supposed by some naturalists to be the Ouran Outang of mature age, is six or seven feet in height, and is very formidable, from its strength and fierceness. This animal is a native of Sumatra and Borneo. The long-arm- ed ape, or Siamang, is found in troops in Sumatra; they are headed by a chief, who is considered invulnerable by the Malays: these animals assemble at sun- rise, and make the woods echo with their wild and peculiar cry. In captivity, they are remarkably tractable. The singular Proboscis Monkey is distinguished 46* 3T 546 OCEANICA. from all others by having a long projecting nose, giving to the head of the ani- mal the appearance of a ludicrous mask. The Malay Tapir is in size nearly equal to the Buffalo, and is particularly dis- tinguished by its colour; the fore and hind parts being glossy black, while the body has a broad and well-defined belt of white extending nearly round it, resem- bling a piece of white linen thrown upon the animal. Its disposition is so mild and gentle, that it will become as tame and familiar as a dog. The Babyroussa Hog, found in Borneo and the adjacent islands, has much of the manners of the pig: it is said to swim remarkably well, and even to pass from one island to an- other : the tusks are enormous, and appear mere like curled horns rising out of the jaws than teeth. The Javanese Genet, or Coffee Rat, has obtained the latter name on account of its fondness for coffee : in pilfering this berry, it selects only the ripest and most perfect, which, being discharged unchanged, are eagerly col- lected by the natives, as the coffee is thus obtained without the tedious process of shelling. It also commits depredations on various description of fruits, especially pine-apples. If taken young, it soon becomes gentle and docile, and readily sub- sists on either animal or vegetable food. The Kangaroo, of which there are many varieties, occurs only in New Hol- land : the largest is about the size of a full-grown sheep, and moves by springing 30 feet at a leap, which it is enabled to do by the great length and strength of its hind legs. The female of all the different varieties is provided with an abdomi- nal pouch, similar to that of the opossum, for the reception of the young. The flesh of this animal is much esteemed for food, which is said to resemble mutton. The Kangaroo is very timid, and flies from man, seeking instant concealment. The Dingo, or New Holland Dog, is never known to bark: it is fierce, active, and voracious; runs with the tail carried horizontally, the head elevated, and the ears erect. One that was brought alive to England leaped on the back of an ass, and would have destroyed it. The Emeu is a native of New Holland, and is somewhat like the Cassowary. It is of the same general character as the ostrich, and is next to it in size ; it runs with great swiftness, by the aid of its wings. The Emeu is found in New Holland, and is sometimes hunted for its flesh, which has the flavour of beef. This bird has been transported to Europe, and is now bred in the king's park at Windsor. The Black Swan is found in New Holland and Van Diemen's Land. In form and habits it is similar to the White Swan, but somewhat smaller. The duck-billed Platypus, is a most singular animal. It is about the size of a cat, covered with for and web-footed ; instead of a mouth furnished with teeth, it has the bill of a duck. It lives in watery and muddy spots. The foot of the male is armed with a spur, through which passes a poison- ous liquor, rendering the animal dangerous: these creatures not only lay eggs, but also suckle their young. The island of Sumatra contains several species of the Tiger; two of the Rhinoceros, one of which is the two-horned species ; also the Elephant, which in a wild state is numerous in the woods : it is only at Acheen that a few have been trained to the service of man. Besides these animals, we might name, as in- habitants of the Oceanic Islands, parrots of great beauty, the bird of paradise, serpents which frequent the shores, and are often seen at sea several miles from land ; and many others. Dogs, hogs, and rats, were found by the first navigators in most of the larger islands. Domestic cattle, rabbits, cats, mice, &c. have been introduced from Europe. The language of the great mass of the inhabitants of Oceanica is the Malay and its various dialects, which has been traced and found to exist more or less from Sumatra almost to the shores of South America. The varieties of this tongue are so similar, that the natives of islands far distant from each other con- verse when they meet with great ease. The frequent occurrence of vowels and liquids renders it so soft and harmonious, that it has been called the Italian of the east. From this character and the extensive commerce of the Malays, it has be- come in some measure a universal language on the coast and islands of Eastern Asia : it contains many words derived from the Sanscrit, Persian, and Arabian tongues. MALAYSIA. 547 Oceanica comprises three great subdivisions : viz. Malaysia, Australasia, and Polynesia : the details of each of these will be considered under their respective heads. This region extends from the north-west point of Sumatra to the 158° of west longitude, and from the 40° of north to the 50° of south latitude ; comprising 160 degrees of longitude, or about 11,000 miles in length, and 90 degrees of latitude, or 6210 miles in breadth. MALAYSIA. Malaysia, called also the North-East Oceanica, and likewise the East Indian archipelago, comprises those numerous islands lying south-eastward from, and nearly approaching to, the great continent of Asia. The name is derived from the Malays, the principal and predominant race in this region. The islands are Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, usually called the Sunda Isles, together with Celebes, the Moluccas or Spice islands, and the Philippines, besides other smaller groups and islands. Malaysia isbounded on the north by the Malayan sea and the bay of Bengal, south by Australasia, east by Polynesia, and west by the Indian ocean and Chinese sea. The population of these islands cannot, except in the instances of Java and the Philippines, be estimated with any degree of certainty. The whole is probably about 1.3,500,000, of which Java has been found to contain 6,000,000, the Philippine islands 2,500,000, Sumatra may be reckoned at 2,500,000, Borneo 500,000, Celebes and its appendages 1,000,000, Bally, Lombok, Sooloo, &c. 500,000, and Timor and the Spice islands, &c. nearly 500,000. THE SUNDA ISLANDS. Sumatra, the largest of these islands, is separated by a narrow strait from the peninsula of Malaya, or Malacca. It is about 1000 miles long, and is intersected by the equator. A chain of high mountains, some of which are volcanic, extends through its whole length. The coasts are low, marshy, and unhealthy. The country is divided into several petty kingdoms; in the north part of the island is Acheen, in the east Siak, and to the south Palembang and Lampong. The go- vernments are generally hereditary despotisms. The interior is inhabited by several different tribes, of whom the Battas, accounted in some respects compara- tively civilized, yet practise cannibalism among them. A part of the sentence of criminals is to be eaten, which is invariably performed. Pepper is the principal product, which is raised and exported in large quantities; the other productions are cassia, camphor, sago, rice, coffee, and various fruits. The Dutch have settle- ments at Bencoolen, Palembang, and Padang. The whole island is supposed to contain 2,500,000 inhabitants. Sumatra is begirt with a number of islands, of which those on the west side have a mountainous and rugged aspect. The inhabitants bear but little affinity to those of the great island ; they have more analogy to those of the eastern part of this region, and also to the islanders of Polynesia. Sago, instead of rice, is the staple food. The people, called by the Malays, Mantaway, tattoo their skins, and speak a language quite different from that of Sumatra. Off the eastern coast are numerous islands, of which Pulo, Lingin, and Bintang have been long known to the Malays as a great seat both of commerce and piracy. They are ruled by a sultan, resident at Lingin, who acknowledges the supremacy of the Dutch, and has lately ceded to them in full sovereignty, the islet of Ithio, separated from Bintang by a narrow channel. Rhio being made a free port, has acquired great importance, both as an entrepdt and a place of refreshment. Its population amounts now to about 6000. The island of Banca derives its sole importance from its mines of tin. It was a dependency of Palembang till the Dutch lately erected it, with Billiton, into a separate residence or province. The latter is distinguished by its mines of iron, the most valuable in this quarter; and nails made from it are ex- ported to the neighbouring islands. Java, which lies south-east from Sumatra, is separated from it by the straits of 548 MALAYSIA. Sunda, and is 650 miles in length. It is almost wholly volcanic, and is mountain- ous throughout its whole length : the northern coast is low and marshy, and the southern rocky and precipitous. The climate in the low parts is very unhealthy ; the soil is exceedingly fertile, producing sugar, coffee, rice, pepper, spices, indigo, cotton, and fruits. In no part of the world is vegetation more luxuriant. A great portion of the island is under the government of the Dutch ; but the southern ex- tremity, which is in the possession of the natives, contains the two native states of Jogo-Karta and Solo-Karto, fragments of the empire of Mataram, which for- merly held sway over the greater part of Java, The first is supposed to contain 1,000,000 of subjects, and the latter 700,000. The two capitals bearing the same name with the kingdoms, are each estimated to contain 100,000 inhabitants. The whole population of the island is about 6,000,000. Batavia, the capital, was formerly a large and magnificent city, but is now much decayed. It is built on a low spot, and the streets are traversed by canals, in the manner of the cities of Holland. It has long been famed for its unhealthiness, yet it still enjoys a large commerce, and contains 60,000 inhabitants. The other chief towns are Sourabaya, Cheribon, and Samarang. Bantam was formerly an important place, but is now decayed. Java has been divided into twenty districts or residences, including the island of Madura, which forms one of them. The latter is governed by three native princes, under the control of the Dutch. The people of this island profess the Hindoo religion. Eastwards from Java extends a range of islands, of which they seem almost a continuation ; they are Bally, Lombock, Sumbawa, Jeendana, Mangeray, Floris, Sabrao, Solor, Lomblem, Pantar, Ombay, Wetter, and Timor; the last is held jointly in possession by the Dutch and Portuguese. Coepang is the principal set- tlement of the first, and Deily of the last. Sumbawa contains the kingdom of Bima, tributary to the Dutch, also an active volcano, which, in 1815, committed dreadful ravages. Borneo is, next to Australia, the largest island in the world, being between 800 and 900 miles in length, and 700 in breadth, it is well gifted by nature, and though directly under the equator, the mountains of the interior, 8000 feet high, giving rise to numerous streams, entirely secure it from aridity. Its products are rice, pepper, cinnamon, coffee, &c. Gold and diamonds are found in abundance. The inhabitants of the coasts are Malays, Javanese, and Bugis or natives of Ce- lebes, all of whom are Mahometans. The interior is divided between independent tribes, between whom and the people of the coast, there is constant war. Popu- lation supposed to be about 500,000. The principal trade is at Benjar Massin, a port of 6000 or 7000 inhabitants, the capital of a kingdom under the control of the Dutch. Borneo, the capital of a state which, during its greatness, gave its name to the whole island, is now much decayed, but still contains 10 or 12,000 inhabit- ants. Succadana, Pontiana, &c. are places of some trade ; the latter with 5000 inhabitants. Eastward of the coast of Borneo, extends the Sooloo archipelago, containing 27 islands, with an estimated population of 300,000 inhabitants, and who are all de- voted to piracy; and from 300 to 400 vessels, whose crews amount to 10,000 men, are continually issuing forth in this fierce and perilous occupation ; the Sooloos are the Algerines of the eastern seas. Celebes lies east of Borneo; it is very irregular in shape, and contains 55,000 square miles. It is mountainous, with several volcanoes. The inhabitants are active, industrious, and robust, and are madly devoted to games of chance. The population is reckoned at 1,000,000, who are mostly of the Mahometan faith. The government is an elective monarchy, the real power being in the hands of the he- reditary chiefs. The Maccassars and Bugis are the two principal races, the latter are at present the rulers; those of Boney are the most warlike, and those of Wa- goo the most commercial. Maccassar is a city and territory at the south end of the island in the possession of the Dutch. The soil is very fertile, producing rice, cotton, cloves, nutmegs, sago, ebony, &c. The Moluccas or Spice islands were originally the small islands of Ternate, Tidor, Motir, Machian, and Batchian, lying off the west coast of Gilolo, but they AUSTRALASIA. 549 now include the latter, together with Oby, Ceram, Amboyna, Booro, and the Ban- da isles; they derive celebrity from producing the precious commodities of cloves, nutmegs, and mace. Gilolo, called also Almaheira, is the largest of the group, and presents the usual spectacle in these regions, of a rude people governed by a number of turbulent chieftains. Ceram is mostly under the power of a single prince, who is tributary to the Dutch. Amboyna is the chief European settlement, and is the only island where, until lately, the clove was permitted to be raised. The town of Amboyna contains 7000 inhabitants. The Philippine islands form an extensive group of two large and nine small islands, situated north-east of Borneo. Few countries are more favoured as to soil and climate. Though placed but little north of the equator, the height of the mountains and the ocean breezes preserve them from suffering under any se- vere or scorching heat. They produce most of the staple tropical articles, sugar, rice, tobacco, coffee, cinnamon, &c. The largest of this group are Luzon and Mindanao: the others are Samar, Negros, Leyte, Mindoro, Panay, Bohol, Zebu, Masbate, and Burlos. The islands belong to Spain ; the great majority, however, of the inhabitants are of the native races, of which the most improved are the Tagalas ; another is the Bisayans ; there are also in the interior of the larger islands a considerable number of negroes of the Papuan race. Manilla is the capital of Luzon and of the whole group, and contains, with its suburbs, 180,000 inhabitants. Its imports and exports are each about 1,000,000 dollars annually. The Cocos, or Keeling islands, are several small islands lying in the usual track of American and European ships to China; they are about 700 miles south-west from the western entrance of the straits of Sunda, and have lately been taken possession of by two English gentlemen, who intend, by the introduction of la- bourers, to cultivate and render them productive. The climate, though warm, is salubrious, and the water good and abundant The chief native product is the cocoa-nut, which abounds in great profusion. Many plants, fruits, &c. suitable to the climate have been introduced, and found to succeed well. AUSTRALASIA. Australasia, or Central Oceanica, comprises Australia or New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's Archipelago, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, &c. Of these, Australia is by far the most extensive, attaining even to the importance of a continent. Although nothing but vague conjecture can be resorted to in estimating the nu- merical amount of the inhabitants of this region, they have, notwithstanding, been reckoned at from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000, and most probably do not exceed the first stated amount. The area is generally estimated at about 3,500,000 square miles. Australia, formerly New Holland, the largest island in the world, extends from 10° to 39° S. lat., and from 113° to 153° E. Ion. It is 2600 miles in length, and contains 3,000,000 square miles. The whole island is claimed by the British go- vernment, who have named it Australia, and laid it off into two great divisions, the separating line of which is the 135° of longitude east from Greenwich. The western division retains the old name, New Holland, and the eastern is called New South Wales. In the south-east part of this division is the settlement founded in 1787, and commonly known as the Botany Bay Colony, to which great num- bers of criminals have been banished from Great Britain. Here they labour during the term for which they were sentenced, on the expiration of which they may commence for themselves. Many have become virtuous and useful citizens, and some have even acquired a respectable competency. The colony extends along the coast about 300 miles, and is divided into nine- teen counties, containing several small towns. The capital, Sidney, has a fine situation, a good harbour, and a population of about 15,000. In 1833, 194 vessels, equal to 42,857 tons, arrived at Sidney; and in the same year the imports of the ~ " ~ ~~ - ' 550 AUSTRALASIA. colony were to the amount of 713,972Z. ; exports, 394.801Z., of which wool is the main article. About 70 or 80 miles in the interior, a range of heights called the Blue Moun- tains run parallel to the coast, giving rise on the east side to all the rivers which water the colony, and on the west to several which flow into the interior. Of these, the Macquarie, Lachlan, and Morumbidgee, appear to be the chief. The last falls into the Murray, the united waters of which are 1000 miles in length, and flow into the ocean through a shallow lake called Alexandrina, near the Gulf of St. Vincent, on the south-west coast. The Murray is by far the most consider- able river yet discovered in this region, and will probably in time become of im- portance. The aborigines of Australia belong to the class of Papuas or Oriental Negroes. They are very rude and degraded. The state of nature is among them complete. There is no society, no government, no laws, and each man acts according to his own fancy and caprice. Those on the coast live mostly by fishing, and those in the interior on roots, berries, grubs, worms, and occasionally on squirrels, kan- garoos, &c. Brisbane, on Moreton Bay, and about 450 miles north from Sidney, has been selected as a penal settlement to which convicts are sent who have been found guilty of crimes committed in the colony, and sentenced to seven years' hard labour. A settlement was commenced in 1829, on the west coast, at Swan River, called the Colony of Western Australia. The country is rather dry and sandy, but is considered favourable for rearing cattle. Population, about 3,000. Several small towns have been laid off*, which are Freemantle, Perth, Guilford, Peel, &c. South-east of the above, at King George's Sound, is the small settlement of Albany : eight or nine hundred miles east of this, in the vicinity of the Gulf of St. Vincent, the colony of Southern Australia has been projected, and a country of 400,000 square miles appropriated for it. The lands are to be sold at public sale, and the proceeds applied to the conveying of settlers to the colony. It is believed, however, that no actual settlement has yet taken place. Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, is an island lying to the south of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass's Strait. It is about 200 miles in length and 150 in breadth, with an area of 27,192 square miles. It is in some places moun- tainous and well watered, and contains much good soil. A settlement was estab- lished here in 1804. It continued until 1825 an appendage to New South Wales, but has now a separate government. The colony is in a flourishing state. Its imports, in 1834, were 471,233Z. ; of exports, 203,223?. Population, in 1835, 32,824, of whom about one third were convicts. It is divided into 35 counties. The chief towns are Hobart Town, Elizabeth Town, Macquarie Town, Launces- ton, George Town, &c. The first is the capital. Population, 13,000. New Zealand comprises three islands lying to the south-east of Australia, con- taining about 63,000 square miles. The two largest of them are separated from each other by Cook's Strait; and the southernmost and smallest, from the middle island, by Foveaux Strait. Ranges of mountains extend through both the larger islands, and rise in some cases to the height of 12,000 or 14,000 feet. The soil, where level, is very fertile. The products are maize, yams, potatoes, and a spe- cies of very strong flax, highly serviceable for clothing, cordage, &c. The na- tives are a finely formed race of savages, but very warlike and ferocious. They eat their enemies when taken in war, and even sometimes feast upon their slaves. In the northern island, missionary labours were commenced in 1815 : there are several stations, at which 300 or 400 New Zealand youth are receiving instruc- tion. The natives in the vicinity of the missions are beginning to cultivate the soil in a regular manner; to breed cattle; and are also acquiring a taste for Eu- ropean clothing and comforts. The introduction of fire-arms has had the effect of diminishing their wars, in consequence of the strong and the weak being brought more nearly to an equality than formerly. The natives of these islands have in many instances been employed on board of whaling and other vessels, and found to be tractable and serviceable. Some of them have likewise been em- POLYNESIA. 551 ployed as labourers at Sidney, and are much esteemed, having no propensity for spirituous liquors. Papua, or New Guinea, lies north of Australia, and is 1200 miles in length. It is believed to be one of the most fertile countries in the world, and as yet almost unknown. The few navigators who have sailed along its coasts have observed ranges of mountains swelling behind each other, their summits rising in the most picturesque and varied forms, and clothed with immense pine forests. The popu- lation consists of the Papuan or Oriental negroes, rather more advanced than those of New Holland, mingled with the still ruder race of the Haraforas, who inhabit the interior mountains. The inhabitants of Borneo and Celebes often make inroads upon the people and carry them off as slaves. Louisiade, lying south of New Guinea, formerly supposed to be a single island, consists of a num- ber of islands of various sizes, inhabited by a rude and warlike people. South-eastward of New Guinea various groups of islands extend for a great distance, arranged almost in the shape of a bow, "the population of which is di- vided between the two great races, the Papuan or Oriental negro, little, ugly, and black, and the Malay, taller, of a dingy brown colour, and of more pleasing fea- tures. These islands exhibit only varieties of the most savage forms of social existence, and they are all but imperfectly known to the civilized world. New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, &c, have a fertile soil, and are well peopled. The natives of New Ireland are a very warlike race, and are said to have canoes 80 feet long, formed out of a single tree. Solomon's Archipelago comprises a number of islands of various dimensions, of which those called New Georgia are extensive. The inhabitants are warlike ; they appear to be under the control of an absolute prince, and are said to be cannibals. The New Hebrides consist of numerous clusters of islands which are covered with high mountains, some of which are volcanic. The soil is extremely fertile and finely watered by numerous rivulets. The inhabitants have been estimated at 200,000, divided into different tribes, who are almost at perpetual war with each other. New Caledonia is the most southern of the group of islands extending from New Guinea. It is traversed by a range of mountains of considerable elevation. The soil is not so fertile as some of the other islands. The population, which is almost wholly confined to the coast, is reckoned at from 30,000 to 50,000. Norfolk Island, about 1000 miles from Sidney, and 400 north-west from New Zealand, is a penal settlement, to which convicts are sent who have been found guilty of crimes committed in New South Wales, and sentenced to hard labour for life or for a long period. The number here is 500 ; the whole population being about 800, including the military, &c. The soil is fertile, and the climate similar to that of Portugal. A little to the north-east of New Georgia are found the Massacre Islands, so named by their discoverer, Captain Morrell, of New York. They are a group of small low islands inhabited by cannibals, who are a large muscular race of men, very active, and nearly as dark-skinned as Africans. They are well armed, cun- ning, and treacherous, and succeeded in killing and devouring fourteen of Captain Morrell's crew. They took one of them prisoner, who remained 15 weeks among the savages, and, on a second visit of Captain Morrell, succeeded in rejoining him, after enduring the most painful sufferings. The islands are well wooded, and abound in the usual productions of these regions. POLYNESIA. Polynesia, signifying the many isles, or Eastern Oceanica, is the name now generally given to the numerous groups of islands with which a great part of the Pacific Ocean is studded. While the islands composing Australasia are of 6uch magnitude as to approach the character of continents, those of Polynesia are so small that most of them can scarcely aspire above the diminutive appellation of ■A 552 POLYNESIA. islets ; yet they are so numerous, and follow in such close succession, that they may properly be considered as a region of the globe, bearing a peculiar aspect and character. This division of Oceanica comprises the Ladrone and Caroline Islands, and those of the Central Archipelago; also the Sandwich, Marquesas, or Washington, So- ciety, Georgian, Pearl, and Palliser's islands, together with the Friendly, the Aus- tral, and Hervey's islands, besides many other small groups and scattered islands. The population of this region has never been estimated except by the most uncer- tain conjectures. Those formed by Cook and other navigators would lead to the belief that 1,500,000 might probably be about the amount, but more recent obser- vations, particularly those of the Missionaries, leave no doubt that this number is greatly exaggerated, and that about 500,000 will be a more accurate approxi- mation. THE LADRONE, OR MARIAN ISLANDS. These islands lie north of the Carolines, and were the first known of the isl- ands in this region, having been discovered by Magellan, in 1512. They are covered for the most part with the rich vegetation peculiar to this climate, and have been highly extolled by some navigators as forming almost a paradise. The original inhabitants have been nearly exterminated in their wars with the Spa- niards, who endeavoured to impose on them their yoke and religion. The climate is mild and healthful, though, like the Carolines, subject to violent hurricanes. The people of the Ladrone Islands possess canoes which are the admiration of sailors, being so skilfully constructed as to sail, with a side wind, 20 miles an hour. THE CAROLINE ISLANDS. The Caroline Islands form an extensive and numerous group on the north side of the Equator ; they extend, from east to west, upwards of 30 degrees of longitude, and are among the most imperfectly known of any islands in the Pa- cific Ocean, and are situated in a most tempestuous ocean, exposed to frequent hurricanes, some of which often sweep away the entire produce of an island, yet the people are still more at home on the waves than even the rest of the South Sea islanders, and are distinguished by their skill in navigation. The greater part of the Caroline Islands are low and of coral formation. The Palaos, or Pelew Islands, are the most western group of the Carolines. They are of moderate elevation and well wooded : they became an object of inte- rest in Great Britain by the shipwreck, in 1783, of Captain Wilson, in the Ante- lope, when he was received and his wants supplied with the most generous kind- ness. Abba Thulle, the king, with an enlightened desire to improve his people by a knowledge of the arts and attainments of Europe, sent along with the Cap- tain his son, Prince Le Boo, who delighted the society of the metropolis by the amiable simplicity of his manners; but, unfortunately, he was seized with the small-pox and died. In Captain Wilson's narrative, the Pelew Islanders were represented in the most pleasing colours, but subsequent navigators who have visited these shores, draw a completely opposite picture, representing these people as displaying all the bad qualities incident to savage life. Central Archipelago. — This name has been applied from their central situa- tion to a number of detached groups, extending to a great distance, chiefly to the south-east from the Caroline Islands, consisting mostly of Mitchell's, Ellices' and De Peyster's groups, the Taswell's Islands, also Gilbert's Archipelago, Scarbo- rough's Range, and the Mulgrave Islands : the two last form a group so closely adjoining on the west to the Carolines, that they can scarcely be considered other- wise than as a branch of that great archipelago. They comprise a vast number of small islands, in many cases mere rocks, of which the western division is termed the Radack, and the eastern the Ralick chain. Nearly all the islands forming the great Central Archipelago are peopled up to the limited resources which nature affords. The natives are generally described as friendly, courteous, and amiable, free from the thievish propensities and dissolute conduct which are POLYNESIA. 553 common in many of the other islands. These are generally destitute of land animals, except rats, which are numerous, and often eaten as food. The Sandwich Islands, now the most important of any in this quarter of the globe in relation to the civilized world, have been long known as a place of resort for American whaling ships, and have also, for some time past, excited general interest on account of the important change taking place in the manners, customs, and character of the people. These islands are ten in number, of which eight only are inhabited. They form as it were a solitary cluster, far to the north and east of the principal ranges of this region. Hawaii, or Owhyhee, the largest of the group, and also the largest island in Polynesia, occupies 4500 square miles of the 7000 constituting the area of the whole. The aspect of these islands is grand and sublime ; some of the mountains rise to an alpine height, and have their summits wrapt in perpetual snow : those of Mouna Kaah and Mouna Rou, are the most elevated of any insular mountains in the world, being respectively 18,400 and 16,474 feet in height. Volcanoes are numerous in this group, and many of them in constant activity. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and yields abundantly the bread-fruit, sugar-cane, cocoa-nut, sweet potatoes, &c. The natives are tall and robust, especially the chiefs, who are here, as in most of the other islands, a superior race : they had long evinced a «trong desire to become acquainted with European arts and civilization, and in 1819 they renounced idolatry and burned their idols : this, and the circumstance of several of the natives having been educated in the United States, induced the missionary societies in this country to send out ministers of the gospel to impart to them the religion and arts of civilization : the most signal success has attended their exertions, and strong hopes may now be indulged that the people of these islands will, at no remote period, be ranked among civilized and christian nations. A large proportion of the population have been instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic : churches have been erected ; the press has been for some time in ope- ration, at which school-books, the scriptures, newspapers, and periodicals are printed in the language of the country ; the useful arts have been introduced, and a gradual improvement in the morals and manners of the people has taken place. The town of Honolulu, in the island of Oahu, contains about 5000 inhabitants, of which nearly 100 are Anglo-Americans and English. Great commercial activity prevails here ; many European and American ships, &c, are always in the port : a considerable number of small vessels also belong to the natives. Some of the houses at Honolulu are built of stone; and hotels, billiards, and an ordinary at 1 o'clock, strikingly testify the transportation of European habits into this lately remote and savage region. The following table shows the area and population of the separate islands : — Total, 144,000. Hawaii (Owhyhee) 4,500 Maui (Mowee) ' Oahu (Woahoo) Kauai, or Tauai, (Atooi) Morakai (Morotoi) Ranai (Lanai) Niihau Kahurawa Taura and Morikini are merely barren uninhabited rocks. The Marquesas, or Washington Islands, called also the Mendana Archi- pelago, consists of two groups, of which the most eastern, long the only part known, is more properly the Marquesas Islands ; they were first discovered in 1596, and, after being long forgotten, were re-discovered by Cook. The more northerly group was first visited in 1791 by Captain Ingraham of Boston, and in 1792 by the French navigator Marchand, who called them the Revolution Islands; but the discovery of the former being prior, his name of Washington Islands has , been generally recognised. They have also been called the Ingraham and the miles. Population ,500 85,000 600 20,000 520 20,000 520 12,000 170 3,000 100 2,000 100 1,600 60 400 47 3U 554 POLYNESIA. North Marquesas Islands. They are all mountainous, fertile and well watered ; nature, in providing the people with the bread-fruit, the cocoa-nut, and the banana, affords them subsistence almost without labour. The men of these islands are among the most finely formed of any known race ; their complexion is but little darker than that of Europeans, but is visible only in the youths, for the tatooing practised all over the Pacific Ocean, is carried to such a pitch that the skin of an adult becomes the mere canvas of a picture. The operation begins at 12 or 13 years of age, but it is not until 30 or 35 that their person is entirely covered. The women have handsome features, but have an air of boldness and effrontery, and hold virtue in scarcely any estimation. The islands are divided among a num- ber of independent chiefs and tribes, who are often at war with each other, which they carry on with great ferocity. The missionaries have made some attempts to communicate Christianity and civilization, but hitherto with but little success. The Society or Leeward Islands are Raiatea, Huahine, Tahaa, Borabora, Maupiti, Maurua, Tabai, and the Fenuara or Scilly islands. They have a good soil and climate, but do not present any very striking distinctive characters. On the five first named islands there are missionaries residing, who have effected an important change hi the manners and character of the people. The Society and Georgian islands are frequently described under the name of the former; the groups are, however, geographically as well as politically, distinct. The Georgian or Windward Islands comprise Tahiti or Otaheite, Eimeo, Tabuaemanu, Maiaoiti, Teturoa, and Matea ; these, with the Society Islands, have attracted, perhaps, more attention than any other in the Pacific ocean. They are fruitful and beautiful islands, and present the first example of a people converted to Christianity in this quarter of the globe ; an event accomplished by the labours of Christian missionaries through a long series of discouragements and dangers. The people are now as much distinguished by their regard for religion and mo- rality, as they were once for idolatry and licentiousness, and are fast advancing in knowledge and arts. Tahiti, the largest, is about 108 miles in circuit, and has a population of 10 or 12,000. The interior rises into mountains, which, with the exception of those in the Sandwich islands, are the most lofty in this region ; trees and verdure clothe their sides almost to the summit. The island is nearly one entire forest of bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, banana, and other valuable trees; a few spots only being cleared for the cultivation of the yam. The fruits ripen at dif- ferent times, according as the mountain slopes have a northern or southern expo- sure. Eimeo, the next in size to Tahiti, is chiefly distinguished as being still the centre of that European and Christian civilization which originated there. It contains the South Sea Academy, a printing-office, and a cotton factory. The Pearl, Paumotu, Low Islands, and Dangerous Archipelago, are the seve- ral names given to an almost numberless range of islets extending east and south- east of the Georgian isles ; some of them are thinly peopled, some entirely de- serted, and some others alternately settled and abandoned. The natives are but little known, as the slender supplies to be obtained, and the dangerous nature of the navigation, have induced mariners to sail through them as quickly as pos- sible. The Gambier Islands, five in number, and the most southern of this group, contain, according to Captain Beechey, about 1000 inhabitants; they are all most determined thieves. The Palliser Islands lie north-east from Tahiti. The principal is Anaa or Chain island. The inhabitants were formerly notorious for their superstitions and vicious propensities, but through the influence of the missionaries, they have re- nounced idolatry, and have, at least in name, become Christians. The language is radically the same as Tahiti. Hervey's or Cook's Islands, situated nearly west from the Georgian group, are small, low, and of coral formation; they are deficient in water, yet they are tolerably well peopled and cultivated. The state of society nearly resembles that in Tahiti, and the missionaries have succeeded in converting a considerable num- POLYNESIA. 555 ber of the inhabitants. Manaia, Aitutake, Rarotogna, Mauti, &c. are the princi- pal islands. The Austral or Raivaivai Islands are situated at about from 400 to 600 miles south from Tahiti; they are all small, and scattered at some distance from each other. The inhabitants are like those of Tahiti, and speak a similar language. Till recently, they were grossly ignorant and superstitious, but have been greatly changed, chiefly by the exertions of native Christian teachers from Tahiti. The entire population of some of the islands have been baptised, and in all of them churches and schools have been established. This group comprises the islands of Raivaivai, Rarotoa, Rimatara, Rurutu, Tabuai, Rutui, and Rapa. The Friendly Islands are an extensive group, lying between New Caledonia and the Georgian islands; they are reckoned at 150 in number, and in their most extensive sense, comprise the Navigator's, Tonga, Habaai, and Feejee islands. The character of the natives has been drawn in more flattering colours than that of almost any other people of the Pacific ocean. The name given to them by Captain Cook expresses his opinion of their disposition. Subsequent visitors have, however, represented them as cruel and ferocious. The men are very muscular and broad-shouldered, and tbe women often deficient in delicacy of form and fea- tures, but many of both sexes present models of almost perfect beauty ; and their expression is generally mild and agreeable. In some of these islands the mis- sionary cause has met with flattering success. In the Tonga and Habaai groups more than 2000 children are instructed in the schools, and the church numbers upwards of 1100 native members. In the Navigator's islands, the gospel bids fair to obtain a steadfast footing among the people, and in Laquaha or Lageba island, one of the Feejecs, is a mission in successful operation. The Navigator's or Samoa Islands, the most northern of the Friendly Archi- pelago are eight in number, divided into two clusters. They are fertile, well watered, and abound in poultry and hogs, and appear to be very populous. The interior of the largest of these islands is elevated, and the rocks seem to exhibit marks of volcanic origin, but the mountains are clothed to the summit with lofty trees, and the wooded valleys beneath, watered by numberless streams and rills, present an enchanting landscape. The Feejee Islands, lying south-west of the Samoa group, are but imperfectly known. They are considerably larger than the latter, and are equally fertile and populous, and the people are considered more ferocious than any of the others. Paoo, or Tacanova, is upwards of 50 leagues in circuit; it belongs to the class of high islands being traversed by mountain ridges, though several members of the group are low and encircled by coral rocks. Naviheelavoo and Mywoolla are the next in dimensions. The most southern group of the Friendly Achipelago, are the Tonga Isles, the principal of which are Tongataboo Eooa, and Annamooka, called by Tasman, their first discoverer, Amsterdam, Middlebury, and Rotterdam. These islands, like the others of this range, are very fertile and populous. The natives cultivate 15 dif- ferent varieties of the bread-fruit, yarns of several kinds, and other roots. The animals are hogs and dogs. In another group is Tefooa, a mountainous island, containing a volcano which manifests some degree of activity. Lefugn, or Lifuka, the principal of the Habaai islands, was long the residence of a chief who held sway over the others. A mission has been lately commenced here with flattering prospects. Vavaoo, Cocoa-nut Island, and Amargura, to the north of the Habaai group, are all fertile and inhabited. Pitcairn's Island, a small detached spot lying south-east from Tahiti, has at- tracted a remarkable degree of interest, in consequence of having been the retreat of the mutineers of the Bounty, whose fate was so long unknown, and from the pleasing feelings excited on the discovery of their virtuous and amiable posterity a few years ago. A number of the natives, in consequence of the scanty supply I 556 POLAR ISLANDS. of water in the island, emigrated to Tahiti, but being 1 disappointed in their expect- ations, have since returned to their happy island. The latest published account represents their number at about 80 individuals. Easter Island, called also Teapy and Vaihou, is the most eastern of the Poly- nesian range, and is about 20 miles in circuit. The natives are estimated to amount to 1200, who tattoo themselves so as to have the appearance of wearing breeches. This island was formerly celebrated for its gigantic busts, of which Captain Cook found only two remaining ; they have now disappeared, a few heaps of rubbish only being left to mark the spots they stood on. ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAS. To complete the description of the detached and insular portions of the globe, there remain still a number of large islands, situated in the stormy seas by which the two poles are encircled. Although these regions be dreary, desolate, and al- most uninhabited, they present features which attract the interest and curiosity of mankind, and have induced many daring adventurers to explore ancTnavigate these remote coasts and seas. The Polar Islands are situated partly in the seas round the North, partly in those round the South Pole. The former, lying within the Arctic Circle, are by much the most numerous and extensive. Commencing from the eastward, we find Nova Zembla, reaching northward from the boundary of Europe and Asia ; Spits- bergen, the most northern land yet visited ; Greenland, a mass of territory pos- sessing almost the magnitude of a continent, and long supposed to be part of America, from which, however, it now proves to be entirely disjoined ; lastly, the range of the North Georgian Islands, discovered by Captain Parry, of which the principal are Cornwallis, Bathurst, Melville, and Bank's Land, the boundaries of which last are yet unknown. In the Antarctic Ocean, on the contrary, where a new continent was long sought and expected, no extensive body of land has yet been discovered; but there are some considerable islands, or groups, particularly New Georgia, South Shetland, and South Orkney. All these tracts are either in- sular, or broken by deep bays and sounds, formed, probably, by the violent storms and currents which beat continually against their shores, and which are supposed, in many cases, to penetrate entirely across the most solid masses of land. The aspect of these regions is usually mountainous, presenting long and bold promon- tories to the stormy seas by which they are surrounded, and often also enclosing spacious and secure harbours. The produce of the arctic world is of a peculiar nature. A territory thus buried for the greater part of the year in ice and snow, with only a transient and imper- fect vegetation, and where the few animals that appear during the summer gleam, take an early flight into milder climes, might at first view seem incapable of yielding any thing that can minister to the use or comfort of civilized man. But while the land is thus dreary and barren, the sea and its shores teem with an in- exhaustible profusion of life. The finny tribes, which, feeding on each other, do not require any vegetable support, exist here in greater multitudes, and of larger dimensions, than any other animals, either in the temperate or tropical climates. Provident nature has, in particular, fenced them against the extreme intensity of the cold by a thick coating, of a coarse but rich oleaginous nature, termed blubber, the oil extracted from which is subservient to the most important economical pur- poses. The substance called whalebone, being peculiarly strong and elastic, af- fords a material of several manufactures. The seal, the walrus, and several other amphibious animals, are invested with the peculiar coating above described; but by far the greatest abundance of it is found in the whale. This huge creature is the most powerful of animals ; and to attack and slay him is one of the boldest of human enterprises ; yet it is u nder- taken with alacrity by hardy tars. For this purpose, fleets of large ships, well equipped with boats, lines, harpoons, and spears, are annually sent into the north- ern seas. The whale fishery was carried on by the Dutch and English for a long period NORTH POLAR ISLANDS. 557 with great profit and advantage; but of late years it has much declined. The English fishery, which, in 1814, yielded to the amount of £700,000, fell in 1829 to £376,150. In 1830, a very disastrous year, the loss sustained by wrecks alone was estimated at upwards of £140,000, and has continued every succeeding year to be more and more unfortunate. The European whale-men are now much surpassed by those of the United States. The whale fishing was commenced by the Colonists at an early period on the shores of New England, until the whale having abandoned them, they entered with ardour, about the middle of the eighteenth century, into the fisheries of the Northern and Southern Seas, and were the first to lead the way into the Pacific Ocean. The business has gradually increased, and has now become an object of great national importance. The number of ships at sea, and engaged in the spermaceti whale fishery, only from the United States, on January 1st 1836, was 266, of which 211 belonged to Massachusetts alone. These were navigated by nearlv 10,000 men ; and the capital employed in the business is estimated at $7,000,000. The import of oil in 1835 and '36, was 305,441 barrels, valued at $8,273,907. Since 1814 the amount of oil imported is estimated in value at $38,693,484, or about $1,758,800, annually. Besides this the common or right whale fishery employs many ships, but they cost much less in their equip- ment, and perform shorter voyages than the others; generally occupying about a year, while those of the spermaceti fishery last two or three years and upwards. Holland also, as well as Great Britain, has lost much of this portion of her mari- time employment ; — her whale fishery having dwindled to an inconsiderable amount. North Polar Islands. The local details of the arctic regions are extensive and scattered, but do not present many peculiarities which will require long to detain our attention. We shall begin with the North Georgian Islands, discovered by Captain Parry in the sea to the north of America. Melville Island, the most westerly of these, upwards of 100 miles both in length and breadth, and in latitude 75° N., is memorable as containing the spot where Captain Parry spent two years, and braved with success the extremest rigour of an arctic winter. The sun disappeared on the 4th of November, and was not seen till the 3d of February following. During this interval, land and sea were alike covered with a monotonous surface of snow, and the thermometer averaged about 60° below the freezing point. Yet the English officers, when duly clothed, and when there was no drift, were able to walk in the open air for two or three hours a day ; and, by judicious precautions, their health and that of the seamen was perfectly preserved. In May the snow begins to melt, and in June it covers the country with pools; but it is not till August that the sea becomes open ; and, before October, winter has again commenced. No inhabitants were found here, or on any of this range of islands. The only animals which appeared during the winter were a pack of hungry wolves, which hovered round the British vessels in hope of plunder ; and it was not till the middle of May that the hunt- ers met with some ptarmigans, and 6aw the footsteps of deer. Vegetable pro- ductions were few and short-lived. A succession of islands extend eastward from the one now described ; first the small one of Byam Martin, then that of Bathurst, almost equal to Melville ; and next Cornwallis, also of considerable size. Only the southern coasts were seen by Captain Parry, as he sailed along ; and their aspect appears closely to resem- ble Melville Island. Cornwallis is separated by Wellington Channel from an ex- tensive coast, which received the name of North Devon, and reaches to the shores of Baffin's Bay. The coasts opposite to those now described, and extending to the southward, form the region called North Somerset, North Middlesex, and Boothia Felix: the latter, situated to the west of the Gulf of Boothia, was discovered by Captain Ross in his late adventurous voyage, 1829, '30, '31, and 32, and is supposed, from the observations of Captain Back, to be an island, and not a part of the continent, as at first conjectured ; it is much broken by deep inlets and rocky islands, en- 558 NORTH POLAR ISLANDS. cumbered with ice and of dangerous navigation. The country as far as 72° north is inhabited, and Captain Ross had communication with a very interesting tribe of natives, who had never before seen any European. Greenland, long supposed to be part of America, till Captain Parry ascertained its complete disjunction, forms the largest known extent of land not belonging to the four continents. From Cape Farewell, in latitude 60°, it stretches northward for the ascertained length of 19 degrees, with an indefinite extent beyond ; while the general breadth is about 35 degrees of longitude. This wide region is, of all others, least valuable to man, producing scarcely anything which can minister to his comfort, or even existence. Its aspect is, throughout, of that dreary charac- ter, common to the arctic world. It is claimed by Denmark, which has formed along its western coast several small settlements, of which the principal are, in the southern part, Julianas-haab, Lichtenau, Fredericksthal, Lichtenfels, and New Hernhut, (these are Moravian Missionary Stations); in the Northern, Hol- steinborg, Omenak, and Upernavick. Farther north still, Captain Ross discover- ed a district which he named the Arctic Highlands. The inhabitants, who had never before seen an European, were seized with the utmost astonishment, especi- ally at the ships, which they at first imagined to be huge birds with wings. They were found to differ from the other Esquimaux in being destitute of boats ; for though much of their food is drawn from the sea, they obtain it by merely walk- ing over the frozen surface. They have the advantage, however, of possessing iron, from which they frame instruments much more powerful than those made of bone by others .of their race. They differ greatly from them also in having a king, who is beloved, and to whom they pay a tribute of seals, train oil, and fish. The cliffs on their coast present the remarkable phenomenon of red snow, the nature and origin of which have excited much controversy among the learned in Europe. The eastern coast, extending southward from Iceland to Cape Farewell, has excited a remarkable interest in consequence of having been believed to be the seat of early colonies from that island, described as once having been in a flourish- ing state. But vast fields of ice, it is said, coming down upon this coast, shut it out from the civilized world, and the colony, it is feared, perished from the want of supplies. Several expeditions were sent by the Danish government to dis- cover " lost Greenland," as it is called, but without success. But recent exami- nations have proved that these lost colonies were situated on the western coast. To the north of Iceland, however, a range of coast, 400 miles in length, between 68° and 75°, was lately surveyed by Mr. Scoresby and Captain Clavering, and called Scoresby's Land. The most remarkable part is the Liverpool Coast, along which rises a mountain chain 3000 or 4000 feet high, forming precipitous cliffs, which terminate in numberless peaks, cones, and pyramids. Like other arctic shores, it is penetrated by very deep inlets, particularly one called Scoresby's Sound, a branch from which is supposed to convert the Liverpool Coast into an island. No natives were seen ; but there appeared everywhere marks of recent inhabitation, and even small villages, composed of subterraneous winter abodes. Captain Clavering afterwards surveyed a part of the coast lying farther to the northward. He found it bold, mountainous, and deeply indented with bays; but its aspect was dreary and desolate in the extreme. Yet, on landing upon an inlet named after Sir Walter Scott, he met a party of natives beariftg all the general characters of the Esquimaux race, and who, by their extreme alarm and surprise, showed that they had never before been visited by Europeans. The coast was traced as high as 75°, and was seen extending still northward as far as the eye could reach. Spitsbergen is a large island in the Arctic Sea, lying about 600 miles east of that now described. It is about 300 miles from south to north, and 200 from east to west, and reaches beyond 80° N. lat. It is of an irregular form, and broken by deep bays and sounds. The country is wholly unproductive, but abounds in the deer, the walrus, and other arctic animals. Spitsbergen, however, has been much frequented by the maritime nations, having been long the chief and almost sole seat of the northern whale-fishery. With this view its western bays were SOUTH POLAR ISLANDS. ' 559 fiercely disputed, till an agreement was made by which the English and Dutch divided between them the principal stations. The latter founded the village of Smeerenberg, where they landed the whales and extracted the oil ; and it became so flourishing as to be considered almost a northern Batavia. The whales, how- ever, taught by the destructive war waged against them, deserted all the bays one after another; and it was necessary to carry on the fishery in the open sea. Even then they fled from one quarter to another, till the whole Spitsbergen sea was nearly fished out ; and it became necessary, notwithstanding the increased danger, to remove the chief scene of operations to Davis' Straits. The coasts of Spitsbergen have also formed the route by which Phipps, Buchan, and Parry made their attempts to penetrate to the pole. The latter reached nearly to 83° N. lat., and found the sea in August all covered with ice, but broken, sinking, and inter- spersed with lanes of water. At this utmost limit every trace of animal life had disappeared. A few Russian hunters take up their abode on the dreary shores of Spitsbergen, where they continue even during the winter, occupied in the pursuit of the seal and the walrus. Nova Zembla is another large mass of insular land, extending north from the boundary of Europe and Asia, between 68° and 74° N. lat., 53° and 70° E. long. Though more southerly than Spitsbergen, it has an aspect, if possible, still more dreary. The southern coasts are low and flat; but those to the north are border- ed by mountains wrapped in perpetual snow. It is less penetrated by sounds, though one running east and west reaches entirely across, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. The coasts have been chiefly frequented by navigators, who sought in this direction a passage to India, but commonly found their career ar- rested on these dreary shores. Barentz and his crew wintered in a haven on the north-eastern coast, where they suffered the most extreme hardships, to which the commander finally fell a victim. South Polar Islands. The islands of the Southern Polar Sea, extend chiefly south-east from the ex- tremity of the American continent. They present the same general character as the arctic lands, with some variations. Though situated in a comparatively low latitude, which in the northern hemisphere admits of habitation and culture, they are utterly dreary and desolate, buried in ice and snow, and not tenanted by a single human being. Their shores, however, are crowded with those huge crea- tures, the sea elephant and sea leopard, whose rich coating of oil renders them a tempting prize. Hence they have become an object of attention principally to American navigators, who, during the few years that have elapsed since the islands were known, have made dreadful havoc among these animals, and greatly thinned their numbers. The seals of this region have a fine furred skin, which renders them of considerable value. These shores are distinguished for the legions of sea-birds of gigantic size and peculiar form ; among which the penguin and the albatross are the most remarkable. The lands, on the whole, are smaller than in the north, more broken into islands, and as deeply indented by boys, form- ing many excellent harbours. The Falkland Islands, though situated only a little beyond 50° S., the latitude of England, bear all the characters of an antarctic group; rocky, destitute of inha- bitants, but crowded with seals, and containing very fine ports. On one of these the English formed a settlement in 1766; but it was destroyed, in 1770, by a Spa- nish expedition from Buenos Ayres. Measures have lately been taken for again forming one on a small scale. There are two large islands, the East and West Falklands, with a great number of islets. The fisheries on these coasts have lately acquired considerable importance. The fine harbours are often touched at by vessels passing round Cape Horn, or to the southern fisheries. South Georgia, situated to the east of the Falkland Islands, and nearly in the same latitude, is a large island, about 90 miles long by 10 broad, but bearing a character exactly similar. Discovered in 1675 by La Roche, it was carefully sur- veyed in 1771 by Cook, while searching for an austral continent. It was then 560 OCEAN. almost forgotten till the abundance of its seals and sea-elephants attracted the notice of those engaged in the southern fisheries. South Shetland, with the smaller adjoining islands, called Powell's Group, or South Orkney, being situated in 61° and 63° S. lat, are scarcely nearer the pole than the British islands after which they are named ; yet their climate is that of Greenland and Spitsbergen. There are twelve considerable isles, of which the principal are named Livingston, King George, Elephant, Clarence, &c, with innu- merable rocky islets. The land is moderately high, one peak rising to 2500 feet; while elsewhere there is a volcanic cone, which rises only to 80 feet. Deception Isle contains a very fine harbour. The South Orkneys consist of a large island, called Coronation, and of several smaller ones. Farther to the east are a number of small islands, which, being at first supposed to form a continuous coast, were named Sandwich Land. To the southward of the South Shetland Islands is Palmer's Land, more sterile and dismal, if possible, and more heavily loaded with ice and snow than even the former region: it is a high rugged coast with numerous hills and mountains, of which one is a volcano. It was discovered by Captains Pendleton and Palmer of Stonington, Connecticut, in 1821 ; and, when first examined, although it was in the midsummer of this region, the main part of the coast was ice-bound, and a landing was consequently found difficult. On the shores were numerous sea- leopards, but no seals. Among antarctic islands we must also reckon Kerguelen's, or Desolation, situ- ated far to the east of those now described, in long. 70° E., and the moderate lat. of 50°. It resembles exactly New Georgia and South Shetland. Captain Cook's party, who carefully examined it, were astonished at its scanty vegetation, but they were struck by the multitude of amphibious animals with which its shores were peopled. We may finally mention the solitary islet of Tristan d'Acunha, situated to the west of the Cape of Good Hope, in the low latitude of 38°. It con- tains rich pastures, on which European cattle thrive ; yet the bleak storms of a long winter, and its shores crowded with the sea-elephant, the penguin, and the albatross, mark its affinity to the antarctic regions now described. A settlement formed there by the English has been abandoned ; yet a very few individuals are still induced to reside on it by the facility of subsistence. In 1831, Captain Biscoe fell in with land, in 66° S. lat. and 47° E. Ion., to which he gave the name of Enderby's Land, and which he conceives to be of con- siderable extent. In the following year, he touched upon another coast of uncer- tain extent, in about the same latitude, and in Ion. 70° W. To this latter tract has been given the name of Graham's Land. OCEAN. The Ocean is the grand thoroughfare of commerce, forming a medium of com- munication between the most distant and otherwise inaccessible portions of the earth. It consists of one continuous fluid, spread round the land, and probably extending from pole to pole. All the gulfs, all the inland seas, form only portions detached, but not entirely separated, from that universal sea, denominated the ocean. The ocean is variously subdivided by different authors: it may be conveniently divided into five great basins. The Pacific, so named from its comparative tranquillity, and often called also the Great South Sea, separates Asia from America. It is the largest of the basins, and somewhat exceeds the entire surface of dry land. Its greatest extent, from east to west, is about 11,100 miles, and breadth, 7100. It is bounded on the east by the western and north-west shores of America, and on the west by the eastern coasts of Asia: on the western side, and between the tropics, its surface is studded with innumerable groups of islands, all remarkably small ; and consisting gene- rally of coral reefs, rising up like a wall from unknown depths, and emerging but a very little above the sea. These islands are the works of innumerable minute OCEAN. 561 insects, whose incessant labours are thus gradually forming new lands in the bosom of the ocean. On the western side, it communicates with the inland seas of Japan and Ochotsk, the Yellow and Chinese seas; and on the eastern side, it has the inlets of California and Queen Charlotte's Sound. The small isles of the Pacific, scattered over the torrid zone, have their temperature so moderated by the ocean as to enjoy the most delightful climate in the world. The second basin, or Atlantic Ocean, is usually divided into the North Atlantic, and the South Atlantic, or Ethiopic Ocean. The Atlantic is bounded on the east by Europe and Africa; and on the west, by America: that part of it between Eu- rope and North America is frequently called the Western Ocean. The Atlantic basin extends from 70° N. to 35° and 50° S. latitude ; but it is only about half the size of the Pacific Ocean. The length is about 8400 miles, but the breadth, which is very unequal, varies from 1800 to 5400. The South Atlantic contains few islands of any size, and no inlets of consequence ; but the North Atlantic abounds in large islands, and in deep and numerous inland seas, which penetrate far on each side into both the Old and New Worlds, and have fitted it for the most exten- sive commerce on the globe. On its eastern shores it receives few large rivers except the Niger; but on the west it receives the Plata, Orinoco, Amazons, and Mississippi, — the largest rivers on the face of the earth. The third basin is the Indian Ocean, which washes the shores of the south-east coasts of Africa and the south of Asia. It is bounded on the east by the Malaysian Islands, New Holland, and New Zealand : its length and breadth are each about 4500 miles; it contains many islands, the two large bays of Bengal and Arabia, with the deep inlets of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. The half-yearly winds called monsoons prevail in its northern parts. The fourth basin is the Arctic Ocean, an immense circular basin, surrounding the North Pole, and communicating with the Pacific and Atlantic by two chan- nels; the one separating America from Europe, the other America from Asia. Few points of the coasts of Europe and Asia, which occupy a full half of the cir- cumscribing circle, extend much beyond the 70th parallel ; and it is doubtful if the other boundaries, consisting of the northern coasts of America and Greenland, reach nearer the Pole ; so that the mean diameter of this basin may be taken at 2400 miles. Its interior or central parts are little known : several islands are scattered over its southern extremities, the largest of which is Greenland, whose northern limit is unknown; the others are Spitsbergen, Nova Zembla, the Isles of New Siberia, those lately discovered by Captain Parry, and several towards Baffin's Bay. The White Sea, on the north coast of Europe, is the only deep gulf connected with this basin, which is of any importance to navigation. The fifth basin is the Antarctic, which is still less known than the preceding: it joins the Pacific in the latitude of 50° S., and the Indian Ocean in that of 40°. Floating ice occurs in every part of it; but it is very abundant within the parallel of 60°. It was long supposed that a large continent of land and fixed ice occu- pied the greater part within the antarctic circle. In 1810, South Shetland was discovered, lying between the longitudes of 55° and 65° W., and beginning at the latitude of 62°. Mr. Weddell has since examined this quarter nearer the Pole, which he believes to be free from fixed ice. Of the inland seas, the Mediterranean is the largest and most important: it is deserving of notice on various accounts, and in particular as having been the scene of by far the greater number of the nautical adventures of antiquity. It is the " Great Sea" of the Sacred Writings, though we find it there spoken of under other names. Its greatest length, from east to west, is about 2350 miles; and the breadth, which is sometimes small, is at the greatest 650. It is bounded on the south by Africa, on the east by Asia, and on the north by Europe. It communi- cates on the west with the Atlantic by the Straits of Gibraltar, and with the Black Sea by the Dardanelles Strait on the east. It has many islands, gulfs, and bays, with a very deep inlet on the north called the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice. The Black Sea is connected with the Sea of Azof; but these, containing only brackish water, and being so far inland, have more of the character of lakes than branches of the ocean. Proceeding still farther eastward, we come to the Cas- ~3V 562 OCEAN. pian Sea, which is abundantly salt, and of great dimensions ; but being wholly unconnected with the ocean, has been already described under the local section to which it belongs. The Baltic is pretty much allied to the Black Sea, in having only brackish wa- ters, which are sometimes wholly frozen over for several months in winter, and the ice so strong, that armies have been marched across. The Baltic communi- cates with the German Sea by the strait called the Cattegat : its greatest length is 1200 miles. The North Sea, or German Ocean, is bounded by Britain and the Orkneys on the west, and the continent of Europe on the east ; and reaches from the Straits of Dover to the Shetland Islands, where it joins the Northern Ocean. On the west of the Atlantic are the Gulfs of Mexico and St. Lawrence, and Hud- son's and Baffin's Bays. EXTENT AND POPULATION OF THE WORLD. The precise extent and population of the globe will probably remain for ever unknown : estimates of botli, however, have often been made by various writc-»s, which differ materially from each other, according to the different ideas entertained by those who have directed their attention to the subject. Geographers roundly estimate the ocean and its branches to occupy three-fourths of the entire sur- face of the earth- But to ascertain the exact proportion between the land and water, will afford them ample employment for ages to come, though every day adds to the stock of information already acquired. EXTENT. According to HasseL Sq. Mite. Water in the globe 146,321,340 Land 50,454,960 Total surface.... 196,776,300 According to Lavoisnc Sq. Mite. Water 157,3-28,1:15 Land 41,648,651 Total surface 198,976,786 America . Europe . . Africa . .. Asia Oceanica Hassel. Sq. Mite 16,063,600 3,256,659 11,270,725 16,282,808 3,681,168 Orabcrg. Sq. Mite 15,737,120 3,220.704 11,063,347 15,301,736 4,655,520 50,554,960 I 49,978,427 Lavoisnc. Sq. Mite. 12,302,037 2,942,166 10,357,510 12,144,738 3,902,200 41,648,651 POPULATION. \MatteBrun.\ Hassel. \ Graberg. I Le Sage. I Pinkerton. | Volney. America ' 40,000,000 30,483,500 24,000,000: 50,000,000] 20,000,000; 20,000,000 Europe 190,000,000 179,80H,000 180,000,000 170,000,000 150,000,000 142,000,000 Africa 70,000,000 102,412,600 99,000.000 90,000,000J 30,000,000 30,000,000 Asia 340,000.000392,575,500 366,000,000,380,000,000 500,000,000,240,000,000 Oceanica i 20,000,000 2,000,000| 17,000,000| 5,0u0,000 Totals ' 660,000,0001 707.279,600 686, 000,000 690,000,000 700.000,000[437,000,000 The various nations of mankind may be reduced to rive original races or types. The first is called the European Tace, and occupies Western Asia, Eastern and Northern Africa, Hindoostan, and Eu rope, and embraces the white inhabitants of America. This race is sometimes called the Caucasian it being imagined that it originated near the mountains of Caucasus. The principal nations em braced in this class are the Europeans and their American descendants, the Arabs, Moors, Turks, Hindoos, and AbysBinians. They are distinguished by the following peculiarities; the skin more or less white or brown, the cheeks tinged with red, long hair, either light or brown, the head round, the face oval and narrow, the forehead smooth, the nobe slightly arched, and the mouth small. The second variety is the Tartar or Mongul, and includes all the nations in Asia, east of the Gan- ges, excepting Malaya. It embraces also the Laplanders and Finns, in Europe, and the Esquimaux, from Behring's Straits to Greenland, in America. The characteristics are a yellow skin, black straight hair, the head square, the face large and flat, the nose small and flat, the cheeks round and promi- nent, and the chin pointed. The third, or American variety, consisting of the aborigines of the western continent, are of a copper colour, have hair black and straight, forehead low, eyes sunk, nose almost flat, the cheek bones very prominent, and the face large. There is considerable resemblance between this and the preceding variety. The fourth race is that of the Malay, comprehending the inhabitants of the peninsula of Malaya, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of New Holland, N-ew Guinea, New Cale- donia, and Van Diemen's Land. The following are its characteristics: a tawny colour, the hair black, soft, thick, abundant, and curled, the forehead bulging out, the nose thick, wide, and flattened, the mouth large, and the uprxr jaws a little projecting. The fifth race is that of the negro, which is spread over all Western and Southern Africa. It is found also upon the coasts of Madagascar, and in some of the islands adjacent to Asia, and occupies New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Caledonia, and New Guinea. The characteristics are, colour black, hair black and woolly, head narrow and compressed on each side, the forehead very con- vex and arched, the cheek boues projecting, the nose large and flat, the lips thick, the chin drawn in, and the legs crooked. Of these five races the Caucasian deserves to lie considered the first. Not only is the countenance more beautiful, but the intellectual and mural endowments of this race are of a higher character. Whenever they have met with the other races, they have ultimately prevailed. They have excelled all others in literature and the arts, and seem to have given birth to most of the valuable institu- tions of human society. 564 POPULATION OF THE WORLD. The following table exhibits Hassel's enumeration of the various races of men : — III. Malay, or Dark Brown Race. I. Caucasian, or White Race. 1. Caucasians, Georgians, &c 1,118,000 2. Arabians, Moors, Jews, Abyssin- ians, Berbers, Armenians, &x 54,523,000 3. Hindoos, Persians, Afghans, Curds, &c 143,353,000 4. Tartar nations ; — Turks, Turco- mans, Usbecks, Kirguses, &c 17,095,000 5. Greeks 4,834,000 Arnauts 530,000 Malays, inhabiting the peninsula of Malaya, the islands of Sumatra, Java, &c, and those in the Pacific Ocean 32,800,000 IV. Ethiopian, Negro, or Black Race. African Negroes 62.983,300 Caffres 5,200,000 7. Sclavonian nations ; - Russians, u ! , ',V Tnn ™ Poles, Lithuanians, Croats, &c. . . 68,255,000 j Hottentots 500,000 8. Teutonic or German natons;- . Papuans, Negroes of Australia 950,000 Germans, English, Swedes, Dutch, Danes, Norwegians, &c 60,604,000 rotaI 69,633,300 9. Roman or Latin nations;— French, Italians, Spanish, Walloons, Wal- V. American, or Copper-coloured Race. lachians 75,829,000 10. Celts or Caledonians, Low Bre- i North American Indians 5,130,000 tons, Basques, &.c 10,484,000 i South American Indians 5,140,000 Total 43(3,625,000 Caribbees, &c 17,000 II. Mongolian, Tawny, or Olive Race. Total 10,287,000 Mongul nations, Thibetians, &c 35,842,000 Chinese 256,200,000 | Birmans, Siamese, Anamese, &c. . . 33,850,000 Caucasians 436,625,000 Mongolians 389,375,700 Malays 32,500,000 Ethiopians 60,633,300 Americans 10,287,000 Japanese 41,100,000 Mantchoos 19.320,000 Finns, Esthonians, Laplanders, &c. 2,878,000 Esquimaux, Sainoyeds, K am tsc hat- dales, &c 185,700 Total 389,375,700 | Total 938,421,000 Man is the only animal that has a rational and articulate language. The various languages on the globe, including the dialects, are very numerous. In America, among the natives, no less than 1200 have been found. In Africa, 276; in Europe, 545; in Asia and the South Sea Islands, 991. The whole number is 3026. All these may be reduced to about 80 original languages, of which the others are only branches. Some of these, particularly those used by enlightened nations, are very copious, and have forms of expression for every shade of thought and feeling. There are others, belonging to savage nations, which have no words except for those objects which can be appreciated by the five senses. The most polished languages of Europe are the English, French, Italian, and German ; in Asia, the Arabian, Persian, and Sanscrit. The most widely diffused languages in the world, are the German or Teuto- nic, with its dialects, of which the English is onei the Sclavonic, of which the Russian is a dialect ; the Arabic, which is also the religious language of all Mahometan countries ; and the Chinese, which is perhaps at present spoken by a greater number of persons than any other. But the English lan- guage appears destined to have more universal diffusion, in time to come, from the rapid growth, in various quarters of the earth, of those communities which have sprung from Great Britain. The following are the languages and dialects as far as known : — In America 1,214 In Europe 545 In Asia and Oceanica 991 In Africa 276 Total 3,026 All nations, even the most savage, appear to believe in the existence of some invisible being pos- sessed of power superior to man. The various methods in which nations manifest this belief, con- stitute so many different religions; the external acts, which are the results of such religious belief, form modes of worship. The religion professed by any people is a remarkable and important feature in their social condition. Religious opinions do not come directly under the cognisance of the geo- grapher; but he is called upon to mark this as a particular in which nations strikingly differ from each other. The inhabitants of the earth may, in regard to religion, be divided into three great classes— Christian, Mahometan, and Pagan. The first, as to numerical amount, considerably ex- ceeds the second, and still falls short of the third; but the nations professing it, have acquired such an ascendency in arts, social improvements, and political power, while their colonies have filled, and are multiplying overall the lately savage and unoccupied portions of the globe, that, in all proba- bility, this faith will, in a few generations, be more widely diffused than any other. The Mahome- tan nations, though in numbers they do not equal the last mentioned, and though they yet occupy a large proportion of the most fertile regions of the globe, are sunk into such a state of slavery and degradation, and are so decidedly surpassed by the Christian people, that their sway is not likely to endure above a century or two. Of the Pagan religions, much the most numerous, and the only civilized professors, are those attached to the kindred creeds of Brahma and Buddha, established, the one over the greater part of Hindoostnn ; the other in China, and other continental kingdoms and insular territories of Eastern Asia. From their peculiar habits, and the immutable nature of their institutions, they are likely to adhere to these systems with greater pertinacity than the votaries of superstition in Africa, the South Sea, and other quarters, where the train of belief and observance, however fantastic, is of a slighter and looser texture. POPULATION OF THE WORLD— CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. — 1 365 The following table shows the estimates of Hassel and Malte-Brun of the various religions. According to Hassel. Pagans 561,820,300 Christians, 252,5(55,700 Mahometan! 120,105,000 Jews, 3,930,000 Total, 938,421,000 Divisions qf Christians. Roman Catholics, 134,732,000 Greek Church, 56,011,000 Protestants, 55,791,700 Monophysites, 3,865,000 Armenians 1,799,000 Nestorians, &c 367,000 Total, 252,565,700 Divisions qf Protestants. Lutherans, 24,264,800 Reformed, or Calvinists, 12,759,900 Episcopalians 14,905,000 Methodists, Baptists, ice 3,862,000 Total, 55,791,700 Divisions of Mahometans. Sunni tes 99,704,000 Shiites, 15,321,000 Wahabees, 5,000,000 Sofis, 80,000 Total, 120,105,000 Divisions qf Pagans. Buddhists 315,977,000 Bramins 111,353.000 Fetichists, 66,667,300 Sect of Sinto, Japan, 25,200,000 Sect of Tao-tse, CAino, 25,000,000 Shamans, 11 ,200,000 Followers of Confucius, 3,000,000 Seiks, Parsees, &x 3,423,000 Total, 501,820,300 According to Malte-Brun. Catholics 116,000,000 Greek Church, 70,000,000 Protestants, 42,000,000 Christian 228,000,000 Jews, 4,000,000 Mahometans 103,000,000 Bramins, 60,000,000 Shamans, (Grand Lama,) 50,000,000 Buddhists, (Fo, tec.) 100,000.000 Fetichists, Sec 100,000,000 Total, 645,000,000 According to Hassel's computation, much more than one-half of the inhabitants of the globe are in the darkness of Paganism ; nearly one-eighth in the delusions of JUahometanism ; and not much more than one quarter enjoy the light of the Oospel. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. It is one of the characteristics of the present day, that exertions are making in Christian coun- tries to disseminate Christianity in heathen lands, and through its influence to civilize savage and barbarous nations. Every benevolent mind must look with favour upon all judicious attempts to substitute the purifying worship of the "One Living and True God," for the debasing idolatries which mau has invented, and to exchange the cruel and comfortless habits of savage life, for the happier conditions of the civilized state. The efforts of the missionaries in various countries, have not yet been, on the whole, attended with full success; but enough has been doue to justify the conclusion, that the Christian nations have it in their power to diffuse their religious and their civil institutions over the whole earth. The time is probably not very distant, when the true method of conducting missions in heathen lands will be discovered, and when the people of Christendom will become convinced of the practi- cability and the importance of their affecting a moral renovation of the globe. When this is done, the accomplislunent of the anticipated event cannot be far remote. The following table contains the names of the principal missionary stations in the world, together with the societies by whom they have been formed und the countries in which they are situated: those having a * affixed will be found on the map. In the table, the different societies are indi- cated by abbreviations, as follows, viz: A. B. C. F. M., American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. A. B. B. F. M., American Baptist Board for Foreign Missions. A. M. M. S., American Methodist Missionary Society. P. E. M. S., Protestant Episcopal Missionary Society. Un. Breth., United Brethren, or Moravians. S. P. G., Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts. L. M. 8., London Missionary Society. C. M. S., Church Missionary Society. W. M. S., Wesleyan Missionary Society. B. M. S., Baptist Missionary Society. L. J. S., London Jews' Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. Gen. Bap., General Baptists. Her. Bap., Serarupore Baptists. S. M. S., Scottish Missionary Society. Gl. M. 8., Glasgow Missionary Society. F. P. M. S., French Protestant Missionary Society. Ger. M. 8., German Missionary Society. It. M. 8., Rhenish. Missionary Society. N. M. S., Netherlands Missionary Society. "ST 566 MISSIONARY STATIONS. Agra* C. M. S Hindoostan. Bouro* N. M. S Malaysia. Ahmedabad* . . . S. P. G Hindoostan. Brainerd* A. B.C. F.M. Tennessee. Ahmednagur* . . A. B. C. F. M. Hindoostan. Bridgetown* . . . W. M. 8 Barbadoes. Aitutake* .(.... L. M. 8 Hervey Islands. Brusa* A. B. C. F. M. Asiatic Turkey. Ajmere* B. M. S Hindoostan. Budge Budge . . . C.M.S Hindoostan. Chin India. Buffalo River . . L. M. 8 Caffraria. W. M. S Ceylon. Buff-Bay B. M. S Jamaica. Albany District W. M. S Cape Colony. Buntingville* . . W. M.S Caffraria. Alexandria* .. . W. M. S Egypt. Burder's Point. . L. M. S Tahiti. Algiers* L. J. S Barbary. Burdwan* C. M. S Hindoostan. Allahabad* S.B.& C.M.S. Hindoostan. Burhampore.. . . L. M. 8 Hindoostan. Alleghany A. B. C. F. M. New York. Burrishol* Hindoostan. Allepie* C. M.S Hindoostan. Butterworth* . . W. M.S Caffraria. Amboyna* L. M. S Malaysia. Buxar* C. M.S Hindoostan. Amlamgodde • . • L. M. S Ceylon. Cairo* C. M.S Egypt. Amokee A. B. B. F. M. E. Cherokees. Calais* W. M. S France. Andermanick . . S. P.G Hindoostan. Calcutta* L. M. 8., 4x. Hindoostan. Anguilla* W. M. S West Indies. Caldwell* A. B. B. F.M. Liberia. Anotta Bay .... B. M. S Jamaica. Caledon* L. M.S Cape Colony Un. Breth West Indies. Caltura* W. M. S Ceylon. Aroragni L. M. S Hervey Islands. Calvados W. M. 8 France. Chin India. Cambridge B. M.S Jamaica. Arroo Islands* . IV. M. S Malaysia. Campbell* L. M. S South Africa. Hindoostan. Canadian River A. B. B. F. M. Western Creek. Astrachan* .... L. M. S Asiatic Russia. Candy's Creek. . A. B. C. F. M. Cherokees. Athens* A. B.C. F.M. Greece. Canton* L. M. S. China. Atui* Ava* Avarua L. M.S A. B. B. F. M. L. M. 8 Hervey Islands. Birmah. Hervey Islands. Cape Town* . . . Caradive L. M. S. & W. M. S. Cape Colony. Ceylon. A. B. C. F. M. Baddagame* . . . C. M. S Ceylon. Carmel* A. B. C. F. M. Georgia. Bagdad* C. M. S Asiatic Turkey. Cattaraugus . . . A. B. C. F. M. New York. Bahama Is!.*.. . W. M. S West Indies. Cawnpore* S. P. G Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Cedar-Hall Un. Breth.... Antigua. Gl.M. S Caffraria. Celebes* N. M. S Malaysia. Balize* W. M. S Balize Territory. Ceram* . • N. M. S Molucca Islands. Bancorah C. M. S Hindoostan. Changany A. B. C. F. M. Ceylon. Banda* N. M. S Molucca Islands. Charleston B. M.S Jamaica. Bandora C. M. S Hindoostan. Charlotte C.M.S Sierra Leone. Bangalore* L. M. S Hindoostan. Chavachery A. B.C. F.M. Ceylon. Bankok* A. B. C. F. M. Si am. Chilaw W. M. S Ceylon. Bankote* S. M. S Hindoostan. Chinsurah L. M. S Hindoostan. Barbadoes* C. M. S West Indies. Chirraponjee . . . Hindoostan. W. M. S West Indies. Chitpore* B. M. 8 Hindoostan. Bareilly* C. M. S Hindoostan. Chittagong*. . . . B. M. S Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Chittore L. M. 8 Hindoostan. Basseen* C. M. S Hindoostan. ChoctawAgency A. B. C. F. M. Choctaw Land. Batavia* L. M. S Java. Chumerah* A. B.C. F.M. Birmah. Bathurst C. M. S Sierra Leone. Chumie Gl. M. S Caffraria. W. M. S N South Wales. Chunar* C. M. S Hindoostan. Bathurst* W. M. S Senegambia. Clan William* . R. M. S Cape Colony. Bathurst* W. M. S Cape Colony. Clarkston* W. M. S Caffraria. Batticaloe* W. M. S Ceylon. Clear Creek .... A. B. C. F. M. Choctaw Land. Batticotta A. B. C. F. M. Ceylon. Cochin* C. M. S Hindoostan. Bechuanas* .... F. P. M.S.... South Africa. Coepang* N. M.S Malaysia. Beggoor L. M. S Hindoostan. Coiladi C. M. 8 Hindoostan. Belgaum* L. M. S Hindoostan. Coimbatore* . . . L. M. S Hindoostan. Bellary* Bellevue ••••••» L. M. S A. B. C. F. M. Hindoostan. Otoes &. Omahas. Colombo* B. M. S. & W. M. S Ceylon. Belligaum W. M. S Ceylon. Combaconum. . . C. K. S Hindoostan. Berbice* B. M. S. & C. M. S Hindoostan. Guiana. Constantinople* Corfu* A. B. C. F. M. & L. J. 8 C. M. 8 Turkey. Ionian Islands. L. M. S. ..... Berlanapota . . . W. M. S Ceylon. Coromandel .... C. M. 8 Hindoostan. Bertry A. B. C. F. M. France. Cotta C. M. S Ceylon. Bethel A. B. C. F. M. Choctaw Land. Cottayan* L. M. S Hindoostan. Bethelsdorp .... L. M. 8 Cape Colony. Credit River . . . A. M. M. S. Upper Canada. Un. Breth. . . . West Indies. Creek Path A. B. C. F. M. Alabama. Bethlehem A. B. C. F. M. Choctaw Land. Creeks* A. B. C. F. M. Western Ter. Beulah L. M. S Borabora. Crooked Spring. B. M. S Jamaica. Beyroot* A. B. C. F. M. Syria. Cuddalore* S. P. G Hindoostan. Blest Town L. M.S Eimeo. Cuddapah L. M. S Hindoostan. Bogue Town . . . L. M. S Tahiti. Culna C. M. S Hindoostan. Bok-Tahlo A. B.C. F.M. Choctaw Land. Cuttack* B. M. S Hindoostan. A. B. C. F. M. & S. M. S. . . . Hindoostan. Cutwa* Dacca* B. M. S B. M. S Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Bonstollah B. M. S Hindoostan. Darwar L. M. S Hindoostan. Bootchnaap .... W. M. 8 Bechuanas. Delawares* .... A. B. C. F. M. Western Ter. Borabora* L. M. S Society Islands. Delhi* B. M. 8 Hindoostan. Boojesmans,. . j or Bushmen . j F. P. M.S.... South Africa. Demarara* Digah L. M. 8 B. M. 8 Guiana. Hindoostan. Bosjeveld L. M. S Cape Colony. Dinagepore* .. . Ser. Bap Hindoostan. Boudinntt A. B. C. F. M. Osage Indians. Dominica* W. M. S. . . ■ West Indies. Boujah* CM. 8 Asiatic Turkey. Dseyohee A. B.C. F.M. East Cherokees. MISSIONARY STATIONS. 567 Hindoostan. Kornegalle* .... W. M. S Ceylon. Dwiglit* A. B. C. F. M. Western Ter. Kurnaul* C. M. 8 Hindoostan. Ebenezer ...... A. B. B. F. M. W. Creeks. Kuttalem C. M. S Hindoostan. Ebony B. M. S Jamaica. Kyouk Phyoo. .. A. B. B F. M. Birmah. Edina* > A. B. B. F. M. Liberia. Lac-qui Parle* . A. B. C. F. M. Sioux Indians. Eimeo* L. M. S Un. Breth. . . . Georgian Islands. Cape Colony. St. John's, W. I. Cape Colony. Jamaica. Lageba, or La- | Lahaina Lake Harriet. . . L. M. S Feejee Islands. Un. Breth. . . . Un. Breth. . . . A. B. C. F. M. A. B. C F. M. Maui. Sioux Indians. Wisconsin Ter. Fairfield Un. Breth. . . . La Point A. B. C F. M. Fairfield* A. B. C. F. M. W. Cherokees. Lattakoo* L. M. S South Africa. Falmouth B. M. S. .. .. Jamaica. Launceston* . . . W. M.S Van Diemen's L. Forks of Illinois A. B. C. F. M. W. Cherokees. Leech Lake* . . . A. B. C F. M. Chippeways. Fredericksthar*. Freetown* — . . Un. Breth. . . . c. m. a Greenland. Sierra Leone. Lefuga, or Li- ) fuka* j W. M. S Habaai Islands. Friedensberg . . . Un. Breth. . . . St. Croix. Leicester Town . C. M. 8 Sierra Leone. Friedensfield . . • Un. Breth. ... St. Croix. Lettee* N. M. 8 Malaysia. Friedenshal Un. Breth. . . . St. Croix. Un. Breth Greenland. Galanceya A. B. B. F. M. E. Cherokees. Lichtenfels* .... Un. Breth Greenland. Gibraltar* W. M. S Spain. Lilly Fountain* W. M. 8 Cape Colony. Gloucester C. M. S Sierra Leone. Longowan* N. M. S Celebes. Gnadenthal* . . . Un. Breth Cape Colony. Lonsdale L. M. S Berbice. Goahattee* Assam. Lovedale Gl. M. S Catfraria. Gorruckpore* . . C. M. S Hindoostan. Lucea S. M. S Jamaica. Graaf Reinet*. . L. M. S Cape Colony. Luckyantipore . B. M. S Hindoostan. Grace Hill Un. Breth Antigua. Mackinaw* A. B. C. F. M. Michigan. Graham's To'a* L. M. S Cape Colony. Ger. M. S Asiatic Russia. Grape Island- . . A. M. M. S. . . Upper Canada. L. M. 8. & C Hindoostan. Green Bay* A. B. C. F. M. Wisconsin Ter. Grenada* W. M.S West Indies. Mahin A. B. C F. M. Hindoostan. Griffin Town... L. M. S Eimeo. Malyehdusk .... A. M. MS... Upper Canada. Griqua Town* . L. M. S South Africa. Maiaoiti* L. M. S Georgian Islands. Groenekloof *. . . Un. Breth Cape Colony. Malacca* L. M. 8 Chin India. Haabai Islands. Hakalau W. M. S A. B. C. F. M. Polynesia. Hawaii. L. M. 8. &. A. B.C.F.M.. Mediterranean Sea. Hamburg* A. B. B. F. M. Germany. Manaia* L. M. S Hervey Islands. Hankey* L. M. S Cape Colony. Manchineel* . .. B. M. 8 Jamaica. Hankey City... . L. M. S Tahiti. A. B. C F. M. Ceylon. b. M.S Ceylon. Mangunga W. M.S .... New Zealand. Harmony* A. B. C. F. M. Western Ter. Marquesas Is.* . L. M. 8 Polynesia. Harper* A. B. C. F. M. Liberia. Mattura* W. M. S Ceylon. Hastings CM. 8 Sierra Leone. Maubee A. B. B. F. M. Birmah. Haweis Town . . L. M.S Tahiti. Maulmein* A. B. B. F. M. airmail. Un. Breth. . . . Labrador. Maumee A. B. C. F. M. Ohio. Hemel-en Aarde Un. Breth. ... Cape Colony. Maupiti* L. M. 8 Society Islands. Hervey Is.* L. M. S Hervey Islands. Mauritius* L. M. 8 Indian Ocean. Hiliifo W. M. S Tonga. Hawaii. Mauti* Mayaveram* . . . L. M. 8 C M. S Hervey Islands. Hindoostan. Hilo A. B. C. F. M. Hobart Town*. . W. M. S Van Diemen's L. M'Carty's t,* ... W. M. 8 Senegambia. Honolulu* A. B. C. F. M Oahu. Mennoinonies . . P. E. M. S. . . . Green Bay. Hopefield Un. Breth A. B. C. F. M. Labrador. Osages. Merut, or Mee- ) rut* j C M. 8 Hindoostan. Hourah B. M. S Hindoostan. Mergui* A. B. B. F. M. Chin India. Huahine* L. M.S Society Islands. Mesopotamia- .. Un. Breth Jamaica. Hurnee* S. M. S Hindoostan. Mizapore C. M. S Hindoostan. Un. Breth. . . Jamaica. Mitiaro* L. M. 8 Hervey Islands. Jafnapatam* . .. A. B. C. F. M. Ceylon. Moa* N. M. 8 Malaysia. Janjara S. P. € Hindoostan. Monado* N. M. S Celebes. Jan n pore CM. S Hindoostan. Monghyr B. M. S Hindoostan. Jerusalem* L. J. S Palestine. Monrovia* A. B. B. F. M. Liberia. Ser. Bap Hindoostan. Montego Bay*. . Montserrat* B. M. 8 W. M. S Jamaica. Juggernaut*. .. . Hindoostan. West Indies. Kaawaloa A. B. C. F. M. Hawaii. Morley* W. M. S Caffraria. Kaiboba* W. M. S Ceram. Mount Charles . B. M. 8 Jamaica. Kailua A. B. C. F. M. Hawaii. Mount Coke*. .. W. M. 8 Caffraria. Kaira L. M. S A. B. C. F. M. Hindoostan. Molakai. Mountain Dis- I trict j CM. 8 Sierra Leone. Kandy* C M. S Ceylon. Muncey Town. . A. M. M. 8. . . Upper Canada. S.M.S.fcGer M. S Asiatic Russia. Nagercoil* L. M.S Un. Breth. . .. Hindoostan. Labrador. Hindoostan. Kat River L. M. S Caffraria. Nassuk* C. M. 8 Khamiesberg . . . W. M. 8 Cape Colony. Negapatam*. .. . W. M.S Hindoostan. Kharee B. M. S Hindoostan. W. M.S Ceylon. Khodon* I,. M.S Siberia. Nellore* CM. 8 Ceylon. Kiaggerre Kiddeekiddee* . . L. M. S Hindoostan. W. M. S L. M. 8 West Indies. Berbice. CM. S New Zealand. New Atnster. j Kidderpore L. M. 8 Hindoostan. Kingston* B. M. S Jamaica. New Fairfield . . Un. Breth Upper Canada. Kishnagur. C M. 8 Hindoostan, Un. Breth Antigua. Kisser N. M. 8 Malaysia. New Hernhut* . Un. Breth Greenland. Kissey C M. S Sierra Leone. Newville A. B. B. F. M. Birmah. Kohala A. B. C F. M. Hawaii. Neyoor* L. M. 8 Hindoostan. Komaggas* L. M. 8 South Africa. Un. Breth St. Thomas, W.I. 568 MISSIONARY STATIONS. Nilgherry Hills. Nuddea Nukualofa Oahu* Ochorias Okkak* Old Harbour... Ona* Oodeluhee. ...» Oodooville Osages* Otuihu Otoes&Omahas* Ottawas Oxford '. Paarl* Pacaltsdorp*. . . . Padang* Paidmatta* Palamcottah*. . ■ Pauditeripo .... Pantura* Papine Paramaribo* . . . Paramatta* .... Pareganno Paris* Passage Fort . . . Patna* Pawnees* Pearotuah* Pheasant Bluff) SprWfc ] Phiiippolis* .... Plaatberg* Point du GaHe*. Point Pedro .... Pokequama .... Poonah* Pooree* Port Arthur .... Port au Prince* Port Elizabeth . Port Francis. .. . Port Maria Port Royal* Pottawatomies* Praguaing. . Prince" Ed- ward's I.* Ptilicat* Pulo Pinang Putney Pyhea* Quilon* .... Raiatea* . . . Raivaivai* . Rapa, or Opara* Raratoa* Rangheehoo* Rangoon* . .. Rarotogna* . Red River Dis trict , Red River Set tlement, 01 Assiniboia* Regent Rhio* Rice Lake. ... Rimatara* . .. Rio Bueno. .. , River District Roma* Roby Town . Rottee* Rungpore* . . . Rurutu* Rutui* Sadamahl .... Sahebgunj .... Salem* Salem* C M. S C. M. S W. M. S.... A. B. C. F. M B. M. S. . . Un. Breth. B. M. S. . L. M. S. . . A. B. B. F. M A. B. C. F. M A. B. C. F. M L. M. S. . A. B. B. F. M A. B. B. F. M B. M. S... L. M. S. . L. M. S. . B. M. S... 0. Mi S. . C. M. S. . A. B.C. F. M W. M. S. B. M. S. . Un. Breth W. M. S. C. M. S. . A. B. B. F. M. B.M.S B. M. S A. B. C. F. M L. M. S A. B. B. F. M L.M.S W. M. S W. M. S W. M. S A. B. C. F. M. S. M. S Gen. Bap W. M. S A. B. B. F. M. L. M. S W. M. S B.M.S B. M. S. .. ,. A. B. B. F. M. Ser. Bap S.P.G i* CM. S L. M. S B. M. S C M. S L. M. S L. M. S. . . . . . L. M. S L. M. S L. M. S C M. S A. B. C F. M L. M. S A. B. B. F. M CM. S. ... W. M. S. . . N. M. S. . . . A. M. M. S. L. M. S. . . . B. M. S. . . . C. M.S. ... N. M. S. . . . L. M. S N. M. S. . . . Ser. Bap. . . L. M. 8 L. M. S Ser. Bap Ser. Bap.... L. M. S. . . . W. M. S. .. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Tongataboo. Sandwich Is. Jamaica. Labrador. Jamaica. Siberia. E. Cherokees. Ceylon. Western Ter. New Zealand. Western Ter. Western Ter. Jamaica. Cape Colony. Cape Colony. Sumatra. New Zealand. Hindoostan. Ceylon. Ceylon. Jamaica. Surinam. N. South Wales. Hindoostan. France. Jamaica. Hindoostan. Missouri Ter. Hervey Islands. Choctaw Land. South Africa. South Africa. Ceylon. Ceylon. Chippeways. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Van Diemen's L. Hayti. Cape Colony. Cape Colony. Jamaica. Jamaica. Western Ter. Chin India. North America. Hindoostan. Chin India. Jamaica. New Zealand. Hindoostan. Society Islands. Austral Islands. Austral Islands. Austral Islands. New Zealand. Birmah. Hervey Islands. Choctaw Land. Hudson's BayTer Sierra Leone. Malaysia. Upper Canada. Austral Islands. Jamaica. Sierra Leone. Malaysia. Tahiti. Malaysia- Hindoostan. Austral Islands. Austral Islands. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Cape Colony. Samarang* . . . Sandy Lake . . Sault de St. Mary* Savanna la Mar* Seligninsk* . .. Seneca Serampore* . . . Seringapatam* Shawnees* .... Sharon Shepherd's Hall Shilola Shortwood Shusha Sidney* Simon's Town . Sincapore* .... Sion Hill Sioux Indians* Smyrna* Soory . . . Spanish Town*. Spring Gardens St. Ann's Bay. . St. Bartholo- ) mew's* j St. Christo- pher's* j St. Croix* St. Eustatius* . St. John's I .* . . St. John's* St. Martin's I.- St. Thomas' I* St. Vincent's* . Steinkopff Stellenbosch*. . Stewart's Town Stockholm*. . . Sulkea Surat* Syra Tabor Mount . Tabuai* Tahaa* Takoo* Tally-gunge • • Tananarive^* Tanjore* Tauai, or Kauai* Tavoy* Tellicherry* . . . Ternate Thaba Theopolis* .... Thomas Tillipally Timorlaoet* . . . Tobago* Tondano* Tonawanda . . . Tonga Is.* Tortola* Trebisonde* . . . Trichinopoly* . Trincomalee* . Trinidad* Tripasore* .... Tulbagh* Tuscarora Tusquitty ..... Uitenhage*.. .. Umpukan Uncha Union* Urumia* Ussa* Utumaoro Vaitorare , Valley Towns* L. M. S A. B. C F. M. A. B. B. F. M. B.M.S L.M.S A. B. C. F. M Ser. Bap. W. M. S A. B. B. F. M. Un. Breth. . . . B. M. S Un. Breth B.M.S Ger. M. S W. M. S W. M. S. L. M. S B. M. S A. B. C F. M B.&F.B.S.&C M.S.&L.I.S. B. M. S. . B. M. S. . Un. Breth B.M.S... W. M. S. Un. Breth. & W. M. S Un. Breth. . . . W. M. S...... Un. Breth. . . . Un. Breth W. M. S Un. Breth. . . . W. M.S L. M. S R. M. S B. M. S W. M. S B.M.S B.M.S C. M. S Un. Breth. . .. L. M. S L. M. S W. M. S S. P. G L. M. S S.P.G A. B. C. F/M. A. B. C. F. M CM.S N. M. S W. M.S L. M. S A. B. B. F. M. A. B. C F. M. N. M. S. . . Un. Breth. & W. M. S N. M. S A. B. B F. M W. M. S W. M. S A. B. C F. M. P. G W. M. S W. M. S L. M. S L. M. S A. B. C F. M. A. B. B. F. M. L. M. S W. M. S W. M. S A. B. C F. M. A. B. C F. M. Ger. M. S L. M. S L. M. S A. B. B. F. M. Java. Chippeways. Michigan. Jamaica. Siberia. New York. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Western Ter. Barbadoes. Jamaica. Caffraria. Jamaica. Asiatic Russia. N. South Wales. Cape Colony. Malaysia. Jamaica. Wisconsin Ter. Asiatic Turkey. Hindoostan. Jamaica. Antigua. Jamaica. West Indies. West Indies. West Indies. West Indies. West Indies. Antigua. West Indies. West Indies. West Indies. South Africa. South Africa. Jamaica. Sweden. Hindoostan. Hindoostan. Greece. Barbadoes. Austral Islands. Society Islands. Caffraria. Hindoostan. Madagascar. Hindoostan. Sandwich Is. Chin India. Hindoostan. Malaysia. Caffraria. Cape Colony Michigan. Ceylon. Australasia. West Indies. Celebes. New York. Polynesia* West Indies. Asiatic Turkey. Hindoostan. Ceylon. West Indies. Hindoostan. Cape Colony. New York. E. Cherokees. Cape Colony. Caffraria. Caffraria. Western Ter. Persia. Guinea. Society Islands. Society Islands. Cherokees. NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c. 569 Vavou* Vepery* Vizagapatam* Vossanie's Tribe Wagenmaker Valley Waiakea Waialna Wailuku Waiinate Waimea Waugh Town W. M. 8. . S.P. G. ... L. M. S. . . u. b. a... F. P. M. 8. A. B. C. P. M. A. R C. F. M. A. a C. F. M. C. M. S A. a C. F. M. l. m. a Friendly Islands Hindoostan. Hindoostan. C'affraria. South Africa. Hawaii. Oahu. Maui. New Zealand. Kauai. Tahiti. Wellington / Valley j Wennender . . . . Wesleyville* . . . West Coast Wheelock Wilk's Harbour. Willstown Windsor Wupperthal ) New* j Yellow Lake* . . Zante* C. M. a. | Sierra Leone. W. M. 8 Germany. W. M. a ....jCarlraria. L. M. S i Demerara. A. B. C. F. M.IChoctaw Land. L. M. S i'lahiti. A. B. C. F. M. E. CtetokeM. W. M. S |N. South Wales. R. M. S ICape Colony. A. B. C. F. M. Wisconsin Ter. W. M. S Ilonian Isles. STATEMENT Of the Countries in which the Principal Missionary Stations are situated, and the Religious Denominations, Sec. by whom they have been established. Greenland and Labrador — United Brethren, or Moravians. Upper Canada — Moravians, and English and American Missionaries. Chippeways, Sioux, &c. — American Board of Foreign Missions. Cherokees and Choctaws — American Board of Foreign Missions and American Baptists. West Indies — Moravians, and English Baptists and Methodists. Guiana — Moravians and English Missionaries. Turkey — American and English Missionaries. Greece — American and English Missionaries. Syria — American Missionaries. Ionian Isles and Malta— American and English Missionaries. Siberia — English Missionaries. Sierra Leone— English Episcopalians and Methodists. Liberia — American Baptists and Methodists. Cape Colony and Caffraria— English, Scottish, Moravian, and Rhenish Missionaries. Bechuanas — French and English Missionaries. Madagascar— English Missionaries. Northern Hindoostan — English Episcopalians, Baptists and Methodists. Southern Hindoostan — English Episcopalians and Methodists. Western Hindoostan — English, American and Scottish Missionaries. Ceylon— English Episcopalians, Baptists and Methodists, and American Board of Foreign Missions, Birmah — American Baptists. Siam — American and Dutch Missionaries. China — American and English Missionaries. Malaysia — American, English and Dutch Missionaries. Australia — English Missionaries. Van Diemen's Land — English Missionaries. Sandwich Islands — American Missionaries. Society and Georgian Islands, &c— English Missionaries. New Zealand— English Episcopalians and Methodists. NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, dec. The following list of Islands, Reefs, Shoals, Sec. are all late discoveries, and have never been hith- erto inserted on any Map of the World. They form but a part of the information collected on that subject, from various quarters and individuals. Some of these, on being placed on the map according to their latitude and longitude, were found to approximate so closely to others already known, as to render it probable that they were the same, and have been consequently omitted. Those islands, ttc. distinguished by proper names, will be found in the Consulting Index, and their positions on the map ascertained according to the rule detailed at page 7 ; and the places of those classed under a generic title, may be ascertained by a reference to their latitude and longitude. Allen's Reef . . . Anne's Island . . Bank Bergh's Group . Bowen's Island Brind's Island . Brock's Island . Brown's Island Buckle's Island Bunker's Island Bunker's Shoal. Byron's Island. 48* I. AT. 25° 28' N. 13° 05' N. 36° 00' N. 7° 05' N. 26° 44' N. 0° 21' N. 1° 13' S. 18° 11' S. 28° 00' N. 28° 00' N. 0° 20' S. 1° 10' S. 170° 20' W. 168° 21' W. 179° 00' E. 152° 15' E. 143° 2C E. 174° 00' E. 159° 30' W. 175° 48' E. 178° 00' W. 173° 30' W. 160°40'W. 175° 40' E. DISCOVERED BY Capt. J. Allen. Capt. Morrell. Capt. Chase. Capt Plasket. 3VV 570 NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c. Chase's Island Christian Island Christmas Island Clark's Island Clark's Reef Cockburn Island Cocoa-nut Island Coffin's Island Croker Island Cure's Island Dacie's Island Dangerous Reef De Wolf's Island Dundas Island Elizabeth's Island Eunice's Island Falcon's Island Farquhar's Group .... Fisher's Island Forbes' Island Francis Island French Island Ganges Island (Great) Ganges Island (Little) Gardner's Island Gardner's Island Golconda Island Granger's Island Green Island Group of Islands Group Islands Guardian Islands Harvest Islands Haystack Helicon's Island Independence Island . . Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island Island LAT. 2° 28' 57° 40' 57° 3G' 3° 00' 1° 13' 22° 12' 18° 12' 31° 13' 17° 26' 28° 25' 24° 26' 5° 30' 9° 23' 0°10' 21° 06' 21° 08' 21° 17' 17° 30' 26° 30' 25° 42' 10° 00' 10° 30' 10° 25' 10° 00' 4° 30' 25° 03' 00° 54' 18° 58' 0°10' 10° 30' 31° 25' 22° 30' 6° 00' 29° 58' 22° 28' 3° 36' 1°07' 3° 00' 31° 00' 16° 00' 2° 50' 1°30' 8° 48' 2° 00' 30° 00' 29° 48' 26° 00' 21° 18' 21° 00' 12° 30' 8° 00' 8° 03' 15° 30' 15° 30' 16° 25' 23° 00' 8° 52' 6° 00' 12° 00' 1°08' 9° 25' 23° 00' 26° 32' LON. 175° 00' E. 80° 26' W. 27° 40' W. 151° 30' W. 159° 45' W. 138° 39' W. 174° 15' W. 128° 54' W. 143° 23' W. 178° 42' W. 124° 37' W. 175° 00' W. 171° 07' W. 174° 12' E. 178° 36' W. 178° 47' W. 159° 40' W. 152° 00' E. 141° 01' E. 131° 13' E. 161° 45' W. 162° 15' W. 160° 45' W. 161° 00' W. 174° 22' W. 167° 40' W. 132° 00' W. 146° 14' E. 136° 00' W. 166° 40' E. 129° 17' W. 124° 30' W. 153° 00' E. 137° 50' E. 177° 05' E. 144° 35' W. 165° 00' E. 144° 22' E. 155° 00' E. 154° 40' E. 153° 50' E. 155° 16' E. 144° 35' E. 150° 00' E. 144° 00' E. 138° 45' E. 146° 00' E. 146° 00' E. 148° 30' E. 154° 00' E. 173° 15' W. 166° 15' W. 161° 12' W. 136° 00' W. 163° 50' W. 177° 15' W. 157° 23' W. 165° 00' W. 138° 55' W. 138° 40' W. 170° 50' W. 157° 48' W. 103° 59' W. DISCOVERED BY Hamburg Ship, 1836. Capt. Brown, 1830. Capt. E. Clark. Capt. Beechey, R. N. Capt. J. Coffin. Capt. Beechey, R. N. Nantucket Ship. Capt. Smith. Capt. Chase. Capt. Coffin. Capt. J. Coffin. Capt. J. Coffin. Capt. J. Coffin. Capt. J. Allen. Capt. R. Closly. Capt. J. Mitchell, 1823, Capt. R. Macy. Capt. John Gardner. Capt. G. W. Gardner. Capt. John Gardner. Capt. G. W. Gardner. Capt R. Closely. Capt. H. Bunker, 1823, Capt. Macy. Capt. Swain. Capt. Ray. • NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c. 571 Island Island Island Island Island Island Island and Reef Islands Jarvis Island Jefferson's Island Kidd's Island Lagbu's Shoal Lancaster Reef Lincoln's Island Livingston's Island Loper's Island Lydra Island Macy's Island Magus Shoal Maria's Island Massacre Islands Mitchell's Group Moller Island Moore's Island Morris Island Nederlandich Island . . . New Discovery Island . . New Nantucket Island. Parker's Island Parry's Group Pearotuah Peel's Island Phillip's Island Phoenix Island Pigeon Island Pilgrim Island Pike's Island Plasket's Island Potter's Island Prince's Island Rambler's Reef Rarotogna Reaper's Island Reef , Reef. Reef Reef. Reef , Reef Reef , Reef. , Reef. Reef. Reef Reef and Shoal Rimatara Rocky Island Rurutu Island Rutui Sherdoff's Island Shoal Shoal Shoal LAT. 20° 00' 15° 20' 11° 32' 8° 52' 59° 00' 21° 08' 23° 00' 21° 00' 0°23' 18° 27' 26° 32' 17° 45' 27° 02' 1°50' 8° 25' 6° 07' 11° 56' 20° 52' 23° 22' 21° 45' 4° 50' 9° 18' 17° 14' 0°30' 1°30' 7° 10' 15° 31' 0°11' 1°19' 27° 40' 21° 17' 27° 12' 11° 20' 2° 30' 26° 50' 24° 20' 29° 19' 9° 18' 56° 18' 55° 55' 23° 29' 19° 45' 9° 55' 2° 40' 2° 30' 2° 40' 1°00' 25° 10' 25° 45' 22° 40' 33° 00' 2° 30' 32° 34' 1°30' 1°45' 22° 30' 10° 45' 22° 40' 24° 15' 14° 41' 13° 30' 18° 00' 14° 30' s. s. 8. S. s. s. N. ft s. X. N. S. s. s. N. s. s. s. ft S. s. S. s. s. s. s. s. N. s. N. S. ft S. s. N. S. S. s. s. s. N. s. S. ft N. X. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. S. s. s. s. s. s. s. ft ft N. LON. 161° 40' W. 161° 44' W. 162° 00' W. 157° 23' W. 91° 00' W. 149° 40' W. 177° 15' W. 179° 00' W. 160° 15' W. 115° 30' W. 141° 18' E. 152° 00' E. 146° 27' W. 175° 00' E. 150° 22' E. 177° 40' E. 164° 38' W. 178° 47' W. 130° 11' E. 155° 10' W. 156° 10' E. 179° 45' E. 140° 35' W. 166° 35' E. 166° 35' E. 177° 33' E. 176° 11' E. 176° 20' W. 174° 30' E. 141° 35' E. 159° 40' W. 141° 38' E. 148° 5(y W. 170° 30' W. 141° 33' E. 104° 40' W. 105° 16' W. 179° 50' E. 28° 35' W. 27° 53' W. 178° 13' E. 159° 25' W. 152° 40' W. 178° 50' E. 153° 50' E. 178° 50' E. 179° 34' E. 160° 15' E. 152° 50' E. 142° 15' E. 147° 10' E. 157° 40' E. 119° 34' W. 159° 50' E. 153° 45' E. 151° 18' W. 179° 28' E. 150° 15' W. 148° 00' W. 144° 59' W. 170° 20' W. 169° 55' W. 170° 25' W. DISCOVERED BY Capt Macy, 1827. Capt R. Macy. Capt. Joy. Capt Coffin, 1824. Salem Ship. Capt. Weeks, 1830. Capt. Morrell. Nantucket Ship. Capt. Morrell. Capt Barrett. Capt Beechey, R. ft Capt. Hunter. Nantucket Ship. Capt Plaskett Capt R. Macy. Capt Brown, 1830. Capt Brown, 1830. Capt. Worth. Capt Coffin, 1826. Capt Trask. Capt R. Week*. Capt Pease. Capt John Gardner. Capt Barrett. 572 NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c. Skiddy's Group Skiddy's Shoal Smut-face Island Sonder Grande South Island Spartan Island St.Pert's Starbuek's Group Strong's Island Swain's Island ...... Talsam's Island Tracy's Island Tregosses Islets Tuck's Island Tuck's Reef and Rocks Westervelt's Group . . . Willey's Island Winslow's Island Worth's Island LAT. 6° 04' N. 7° 35' N. 6° 16' S. 15° 15' s. 26° 30' N. 1° 10' N. 18° 00' N. 0° 00' 5° 39 N. 59° 30' N. 9° 30' N. 7° 30' S. 17° 20' S. 17° 00' N. 6° 20' 7° 05' N. 56° 25' S. 14° 10' S. 8° 45' N. LON. 153° 21' E. 148° 14' E. 177° 19' E. 145° 30' W. 141° 25' E. 159° 30' E. 116° 00' W. 174° 30' E. 163° 10' E. 100° 00' W. 166° 45' E. 178° 45' E. 151° 00' E. 155° 00' E. 159° 30' E. 153° 10' E. 27° 43' W. 177° 10' W. 151° 30' E. DISCOVERED BY Capt. Morrell, 1830. Capt. Morrell, 1830. Capt. Plaskett. Nantucket Ship. Capt. Swain. Nantucket Ship. Capt. Worth. Capt. Worth. Capt. Morrell. Capt. Brown, 1830. Capt. Worth, 1829. THE EN®. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ID FEB 8- 1970 JAN 2 1970 TWO WEEKS EROM DATE 01 NON-RENEWABLE fejo* EEB 1 2 1970 REcan '■/ST FormL9-32m-8,'57(.C8680s4)444 AA 000135148 5