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 I 
 
 BANCROFT 
 LIBRARY 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
International Geographical 
 History of the World 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL FLAT GLOBE IS PRINTED UPON A CIRCULAR DISK, 28 
 INCHES IN DIAMETER, ONE COMPLETE HEMISPHERE ON EACH SIDE; THUS PRE- 
 SERVING THE CO-RELATION OF THE WHOLE EARTH'S SURFACE AND OF LATITUDE 
 AND LONGITUDE AROUND THE ENTIRE WORLD. THESE TWO TWENTIETH CEN- 
 TURY PRODUCTIONS COMPRISE TOGETHER A NEW, UP-TO-DATE, CORRECT AND 
 SUPERIOR SYSTEM OF GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW AND REFERENCE. 
 
 Xu>~w | fe> - 
 
 Edited by ROBERT E. PEART, President American Geographical Society 
 
 AND PRESIDENT EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CONGRESS 
 COPYRIGHT 1901-1905 BY 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GLOBE CO. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY, U. S. A. 
 
$250.00 Globe Value, Price $5.00 
 
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 Knowledge is Power. The Well-Informed are the Wise and Successful 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., 
 To THE PUBLIC: 
 
 Every man, woman and child should have a correct geographical 
 knowledge of the world upon which we live. 
 
 The International Flat Globe, illustrating the world- 
 continents, countries, islands and waters and International 
 Geographical History, explaining and describing it, comprise 
 together a new, accurate, valuable and up-to-date system of geograph- 
 ical review and reference, at so low a price that every one should have 
 them; they should be in every home, school, office, library and place of 
 business. They form the most complete compilation of 
 geographical intelligence and information yet published at 
 the price. 
 
 The International Globe and Geographical History 
 are easily understood and will interest and benefit every individual, 
 from a child of six to a man or woman of mature years. 
 
 President American Geographical Society 
 
 *l It pictures the world in large size (28 inches in diameter) at a glance. An old style Ball Globe the 
 same size costs over $250.00. This Globe and History ( two parts ) only $5.00. 
 
 The only value of a globe is the intelligence and information it contains. 
 
 1 It gives th,e best and most satisfactory presentation of the whole world ever produced, at so low a price that 
 
 everybody can have one. 
 
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 lower halves of the Hemispheres you do not have to turn thejearth upside down in a distorted position as you 
 
 do in the old style globe. 
 
 <ff It is not heavy, cumbersome 
 
 f It hangs flat against the wal 
 
 ornament that delights the eye 
 
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 a table or in one's lap when r, PRESENTED TD 
 
 I If desired it can be rolled ai 
 
 1 In traveling it can be carrie ** ^ _ rmmtm^ 
 
 1 The International Flat Glol WUCTWFT LIBffMf 
 
 geographical review and refe 
 
 physical, mathematical, natior 
 
 geographical productions the \ HOT 1 1QA1 
 
 1 This Globe and History are 
 
 the grandest present ever give: 
 
 BY 
 AMY REQLJA LONG 
 

IMPORTANT TO USERS OF 
 THIS GLOBE AND HISTORY 
 
 '"T" V HE relation between the International Flat Globe and International 
 Geographical History makes each necessary and indispensable to the 
 intelligent and satisfactory use of the other; and the perfect system of 
 comparison they supply gives a complete understanding of the world. 
 
 The Globe and History should always be hung or laid side by side 
 for convenient reference. If you hang the Globe against the wall for 
 use, place the center on a level with the face; and to turn it, take the 
 margin at the point you are following between the thumb and finger, 
 pull the Globe, still hanging by its cord, out from the wall, and it turns 
 easily to the opposite side. They can be used upon a table or desk and 
 at night under a light. 
 
 By rolling in the opposite direction from which it may have been 
 turned or bent, this Globe can always be made to hang or lay perfectly 
 flat. It is made of a flexible composition that will last for twenty years. 
 
 All colonies, dependencies, and islands bear the same color as the 
 country owning or controlling them. 
 
 The lines of latitude, longitude, cable routes, international date line 
 and ice drifts are in black, steamship routes in red, the ocean currents and 
 clock dials showing time around the world are shaded yellow. 
 
"KNOW THE WORLD YOU LIVE UPON" 
 
 INTERNATIONAL FLAT GLOBE 
 
 AND 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 INDEX 
 
 THE ONLY COMPLETE AND UP-TO-DATE SYSTEM OF WORLD-WIDE 
 GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW AND REFERENCE 
 
 SUBJECT . PAGE 
 
 ABYSSINIA 44 
 
 Afghanistan 44 
 
 Africa 93 
 
 Agriculture, The Seasons and 5 
 
 Air, Navigating the 33 
 
 Airships Navigating the Air. 33 
 
 Alaska 44 
 
 Algeria 45 
 
 Alternation of Seasons 4 
 
 Andorra 45 
 
 Animal Life, Distribution of , 23 
 
 Antipodes, The 35 
 
 Approximate Ocean Distances 42 
 
 Arabia 46 
 
 Area of Oceans 43 
 
 Argentine Republic 4(5 
 
 Asia ; 93 
 
 Atmosphere, The 3 
 
 Aurora Borealis 8 
 
 Australia, The Commonwealth of 46 
 
 Austria- Hungary 47 
 
 Automobiles 33 
 
 BASINS 23 
 
 Belgium 47 
 
 Bolivia 48 
 
 Brazil 48 
 
 British Guiana 62 
 
 British Honduras 48 
 
 Bulgaria 49 
 
 CANADA, DOMINION OF 49 
 
 Canal, Panama Ship 30 
 
 Cape Colony 50 
 
 Cardinal Points, The 35 
 
 Change of Date Line 37 
 
 Chile 51 
 
 Chinese Empire 50 
 
 Cities, Electric Roads between 33 
 
 Cities, Transportation in 32 
 
 Circles, Great and Small 36 
 
 Circles, The Polar ,. 38 
 
 Colonial Possessions : 93 
 
 Denmark, France, Germany and Great 
 
 Britain 94 
 
 Italy and the Netherlands 95 
 
 Portugal, Spain and United States 96 
 
 Clouds 6 
 
 Climate 15 
 
 Colombia 51 
 
 Comet 13 
 
 Congo Free State 52 
 
 Conquest of Nature, Man's 28 
 
 Corea 53 
 
 Costa Rica 53 
 
 Cuba 53 
 
 Currents, Ocean 18 
 
 DATE LINE, Change of 37 
 
 Days, Length of, at Various Latitudes 41 
 
 Days, Lengthening of 4 
 
 Days, Shortening of 4 
 
 Degrees of Longitude, Length of 37 
 
 Denmark 54 
 
 Density of the Earth 3 
 
 Depths, Ocean 18 
 
 Depths of the Oceans 43 
 
 Distances, Approximate Ocean 42 
 
 Distribution of Animal Life 23 
 
 Distribution of the Lands 18 
 
 Distribution of Vegetable Life 25 
 
 Divides, Water 23 
 
 Divisions of Time 40 
 
 Division of Continents among the Coun- 
 tries of the World 92 
 
 Dominion of Canada 49 
 
 Dutch East Indies 54 
 
 Dutch Guiana 62 
 
 EARTH, Density of the 3 
 
 Earth, Movements of the 3 
 
 Earth, Revolution of the 4 
 
 Earth, Rotation of the 5 
 
 Earth, Shape of the 3 
 
 Earth, Size of the 2 
 
 Earth's Crust, Movements of the 20 
 
 Earthquakes 8 
 
 Eclipses 11 
 
 Ecuador 55 
 
 Egypt 56 
 
11 
 
 INDEX 
 
 SUBJECT PACK 
 
 Electric Itoad- between Cities and Towns.. 33 
 
 D;tys 4 
 
 Nights 4 
 
 of Time 40 
 
 F. M iiator. The 36 
 
 Equinoxes, or K(|unl Nights 4 
 
 Kru of Scientific 1'rnyress 28 
 
 Kthiopia (Abyssinia) 44 
 
 Europe 92 
 
 FAMILY 01 \\ oui.ns. A 2 
 
 Forms of the Lands 20 
 
 France 56 
 
 French Guiana 62 
 
 French Indo-China. . . 57 
 
 CI:I:\IANY 57 
 
 Great and Small Circles 36 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 59 
 
 (ireat Circles 36 
 
 ( Jreece :....! 60 
 
 Greenland : . . . 60 
 
 Guam 61 
 
 Guatemala (il 
 
 Guiana (British, Dutch and French) 62 
 
 HAITI 62 
 
 Hawaii 63 
 
 Highways of the Sea 38 
 
 Honduras . . 64 
 
 INDIA 64 
 
 Ireland 59 
 
 Italy 65 
 
 JAMAICA 
 Japan . . 
 
 66 
 66 
 
 LAKES 23 
 
 Lands, Distribution of the 18 
 
 Lands, Forms of the 20 
 
 Latitude 36 
 
 Latitudes of Places, To find the 41 
 
 Lengthening of Days and Nights 4 
 
 Lengthening and Shortening of Days and 
 
 Nights ' 4 
 
 Length of Days at Various Latitudes 41 
 
 Length of Degrees of Longitude 37 
 
 Liberia 67 
 
 Longitude 36 
 
 Longitude and Latitude 36 
 
 Longitude of Places, To find the 41 
 
 Luxemburg 68 
 
 MADAGASCAR 68 
 
 Magnetism, Terrestrial 8 
 
 Man's Conquest of Nature 28 
 
 Mathematical Geography, Beginning of. ... 35 
 
 Men, Races of , 25 
 
 Meteors . 12 
 
 Mexico 69 
 
 Monaco 70 
 
 Montenegro 70 
 
 SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 Moon, Phases of the 12 
 
 Morocco 70 
 
 Mountain Ranges 21 
 
 Movements of the Earth 3 
 
 Movements of the Earth's Crust. . . 20 
 
 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 I'x'ginning of 44 
 
 Nature, Man's Conquest of 28 
 
 Navigating the Air 33 
 
 Netherlands, The 7l 
 
 Newfoundland 72 
 
 New Zealand 72 
 
 Nicaragua 73 
 
 Nights, Lengthening of 4 
 
 Nights, Shortening of 4 
 
 North America 92 
 
 Norway 73 
 
 OCEANS, Area of 43 
 
 Ocean Currents '. 18 
 
 Ocean Depths 18 
 
 Oceans, The Depth of 43 
 
 Ocean Distances, Approximate 42 
 
 Orange River Colony 74 
 
 PANAMA 74 
 
 Panama Ship Canal 30 
 
 Paraguay 74 
 
 Peary's Letter to the Public, 
 
 First inside cover page 
 
 Persia 75 
 
 Peru 75 
 
 Phases of the Moon 12 
 
 Philippine Islands 76 
 
 Physical Geography, Beginning of 2 
 
 Places, To find the Latitude and Longitude 
 
 of 41 
 
 Plains 22 
 
 Plateaus 22 
 
 Pneumatic Tubes 34 
 
 Points of Advantage. .First inside cover page 
 
 Polar Circles 38 
 
 Poles, The 36 
 
 Political Geography, Beginning of 44 
 
 Porto Rico 77 
 
 Portugal 77 
 
 Progress, Era of Scientific 28 
 
 Publishers' Statement . . Inside back cover page 
 
 RACES OF MEN 25 
 
 Railroads 31 
 
 Rainbow 8 
 
 Rainfall -. 6 
 
 Ranges, Mountain 21 
 
 Revolution of the Earth 4 
 
 Rotation of the Earth 5 
 
 Roumania 78 
 
 Russian Empire 78 
 
 SALVADOR 80 
 
 San Marino 80 
 
 Santo Domingo 81 
 
 Scientific Progress, The Era of 28 
 
 Seas, Highways of the 38 
 
 Seasons, Alternation of 4 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 Seasons and Agriculture 5 
 
 Servia 81 
 
 Shape of the Earl li 3 
 
 Shortening of Days and Nights 4 
 
 Siam 81 
 
 Size of the Earth 2 
 
 Small Circles 36 
 
 Some Features of the Flat-Globe 38 
 
 South America 92 
 
 Spain 82 
 
 Submarine Boats 33 
 
 Sweden f 83 
 
 Switzerland 83 
 
 TELEGRAPH, The 34 
 
 Telephone, The 35 
 
 Terrestrial Magnetism 8 
 
 Thunderstorms 8 
 
 Tides 18 
 
 Time 39 
 
 Time around the World 39 
 
 Time, Divisions of 40 
 
 Time, Equation of 40 
 
 To find the Latitude and Longitude of 
 
 Places 41 
 
 Towns, Electric Roads between 33 
 
 Towns, Transportation in Large 32 
 
 Transportation 30 
 
 Transportation in Cities and Large Towns 32 
 
 Transvaal Colony 84 
 
 Tubes, Pneumatic 34 
 
 Tutuila 85 
 
 Turkey 85 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 85 
 
 Uraguay 91 
 
 VALLEYS 22 
 
 Various Latitudes, Length of Days at 41 
 
 Vegetable Life, Distribution of 25 
 
 Venezuela 91 
 
 Volcanoes 9 
 
 WATER DIVIDES 23 
 
 Water Divides aud Basins 23 
 
 Winds 15 
 
 World; Time around the 39 
 
 Worlds, A Family of 2 
 
 SUBJECT PAOE 
 
 XAN/IIJAIJ 92 
 
 Zones, The 38 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE MAPS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Climatic Belts 14 
 
 Density of Population 27 
 
 Depths of the Sea 19 
 
 Distribution of Domestic Animals 24 
 
 Mont Pel6, Martinique Island, in Erup- 
 tion 10 
 
 Navigable Rivers and Coastwise Steamship 
 
 Lines of the United States 88 
 
 Panama Showing the Croat Value of Pan- 
 ama's Position to the Commerce of the 
 
 World 31 
 
 Physical .Map of the United States 86 
 
 Principal Railroads and Standard Time 
 
 Belts of the United States 90 
 
 Races of the Black Type 25 
 
 Races of the Yellow Type Le Hung Chang 26 
 Races of the White Type Washington. ... 26 
 
 Rainfall 7 
 
 Some Forms of Mountains 22 
 
 The World Showing the United States as 
 
 its Commercial Centre 29 
 
 Types of Clouds 6 
 
 Winds and Ocean Currents. . . 17 
 
 MATHEMATICAL AND OTHER TABLES 
 
 I 
 
 Approximate Ocean Distances 42 
 
 Depths of the Oceans 43 
 
 Distances and Mail Time from New York 
 
 City 43 
 
 How to find the Latitude and Longitude of 
 
 Places 41 
 
 Length of Days at Various Latitudes 41 
 
 Length of Degrees of Longitude at Differ- 
 ent Latitudes 37 
 
 Partition of the Continents: 
 
 North America, South America, Europe. . 92 
 
 Asia, Africa, Australia , 93 
 
 Relationship of Longitude to Time 39 
 
 United States Ports of Entry 43 
 
The International Flat Globe and International Geographical History of the 
 World are protected under the Berne Convention. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 
 
 ACCOMPANYING 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL FLAT GLOBE 
 
 The International Globe and Geographical History (Two Parts) 
 comprise a new Twentieth Century system of up-to-date geographical review and 
 reference. The Globe gives a full presentation of the entire earth's surface in the 
 proper relations of Continents, Countries, Islands and Water. The Geographical 
 History gives an interesting and complete explanation and description of the 
 earth's surface, from the points of Physical Geography, Mathematical Geography, 
 and the History of the ages as shown in the political subdivisions of the earth. 
 This Globe and Geographical History combined give to the mind of the reader a 
 correct and full geographical education that is lasting and permanent, and 
 both scholarly and commercial. 
 
 The word Geography means "Description of the Earth." The subject em- 
 braces exact knowledge of the distribution of phenomena on the earth's surface 
 and explains the relations of man to his terrestrial environment. Amid what 
 seas, land forms, soils, climatic conditions, varieties of animal and vegetable life 
 and other phenomena of nature does man live and toil? How does each of them 
 affect man and his enterprises ? How does he utilize, modify, improve or subdue 
 them ? The purpose of the study of geography is to show where these phenomena 
 are and to answer such questions as these ; and the answers illumine the earth in 
 its relation to man. 
 
 "We cannot read history or the news of the day aright, nor understand what 
 man is achieving, unless we are familiar with geography; and first of all we 
 must know the relations to one another of the various features of the earth's 
 surface ; and to do this, we must understand the distribution of these features over 
 the earth. 
 
 An idea of the distribution of land and water, continents, countries, and islands 
 over the entire surface of the earth, can be faithfully and accurately conve3 T ed only 
 by means of a globe such as this History explains. It is only on the spherical sur- 
 face of a globe or by means of such a projection on a flat surface as that of the 
 International Flat Globe that the different countries, seas, etc., of the earth can 
 be shown exactly or approximately in their proper proportion and exact relation 
 to one another throughout the whole extent of the world. On all other kinds 
 of maps there is necessarily distortion of some parts. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 An old-style ball Globe is very expensive and inconvenient, and few persons 
 can afford such a luxury. The International Flat Globe has therefore been 
 devised to bring within the reach of all a true conception of the earth's surface. 
 It has practically all the advantages of an old-fashioned Globe and many 
 advantages over it, while the cost is comparatively small. 
 
 It is our aim in this Geographical History to give a correct description of the 
 earth from every point of view in connection with the International Flat Globe 
 illustrating the whole world. 
 
 The International Globe is circular in form, perfectly flat, twenty-eight 
 inches in diameter, and hangs against the wall. Each side of the Globe contains 
 a complete hemisphere that is, on one side the Western and on the opposite 
 side the Eastern Hemisphere. You will see at once that by bringing the lines of 
 latitude and longitude exactly opposite to one another, as we do in printing, you 
 can follow the entire surface of the earth by simply turning your Globe over when 
 going from one hemisphere or side to the other. 
 
 A view of the world in its various aspects will be presented in these pages with 
 references here and there to our Flat Globe as illustrating; the text. 
 
 Physical Geography considers the different materials of which the earth is 
 composed, compares them and treats of their functions. The rocks that form 
 the solid parts of the earth, the waters that flow over them and the all-embracing 
 atmosphere, together with their forms, movements and uses and the solar and 
 terrestrial energies that develop so many activities in matter, are among its topics. 
 
 A Family of Worlds. The Earth is one of a number of planets that belong 
 to the Sun, move around it, and derive their light and heat from it. Of the 
 known planets. Mercury and Venus are nearer the sun than we are, but Mars, 
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, in this order, are further away from it. 
 The earth is the fifth in size, being smaller than Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and 
 Neptune, and larger than Yenus, Mars and Mercury. Outside the orbit of Mars 
 are many minor planets, or asteroids, of which over 400 have thus far been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Size of the Earth. We are apt to think that our world is an enormous, 
 body, but it is really one of the smaller specks of dust that move through space. 
 The universe is illimitable, and we cannot grasp it in our thoughts. We know 
 at least that our entire solar system is only a point in space, and we need not seek 
 outside this system for proof of the comparative insignificance of this dwelling- 
 place of ours. Our satellite, the moon, is circling around the earth at a distance 
 of 240,000 miles from us. Suppose we could place the earth and its satellite 
 within the sun, the earth at its center ; with the moon moving around the earth 
 at its present distance, the sun would still extend nearly 200,000 miles beyond the 
 moon at all points. The diameter of the sun is over 109 times the diameter of 
 the earth through the equator. 
 
 Many of the stars are believed to be larger than the sun. All the stars 
 are far-away suns, and the star that is nearest to us is so remote that while it takes 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 3 
 
 only eight minutes for a ray of light to travel nearly 93,000,000 miles from the 
 sun to us, it would take about three and a half years for the ray to reach us from 
 the nearest star. Astronomers have calculated the distance of the nearest stars 
 from us, but their figures are expressed in so many hundreds of millions of miles 
 that they convey no definite idea to our minds. 
 
 The area of the earth's surface is computed at 196,712,000 square miles, or 
 about sixty-five times the area of continental United States, exclusive of Alaska. 
 Of this area, 144,712,000 square miles are assigned to the ocean, and 52,000,000, 
 or about two-fifths, to the land. 
 
 Shape of the Earth. The Earth is not a perfectly symmetrical sphere. 
 This has been proved by careful measurements of the length of degrees of the 
 meridian lines that are traced on the globe from pole to pole (p. 37 of this His- 
 tory). If the earth were a perfect sphere, the length of each meridian from 
 equator to pole would be exactly the same. But the measurements show that 
 there is a progressive increase in the length of the degrees towards the poles, and 
 this could only occur by a flattening of the earth's surface at the poles. The result 
 of all this investigation proves that the equatorial diameter is about 263^ miles 
 longer than the polar diameter, so that each pole is compressed about 13% miles. 
 The mean equatorial diameter has. a length of 7,925.65 statute miles, and the 
 mean polar diameter is 7,899.17 miles long. The circumference of the equator is 
 about 24,902 miles. 
 
 Density of the Earth. It is certain that the materials deep under the 
 earth's crust are heavier than the rocks which form its surface, because the force 
 of gravitation increases towards the center, thus augmenting their density, or, in 
 other words, their weight. Experiments made with pendulum and plumb-line on 
 the earth's attraction indicate that the earth weighs about 53^ times as much as 
 it would if it were composed entirely of water, and therefore its density is com- 
 puted to be about 5^. The density of the other planets varies from 1 to 7; that 
 of the sun is 1^, and of the moon 3M. 
 
 The Atmosphere. Encircling the earth and as much a part of the phe- 
 nomena of our planet as its land and water, is an invisible ocean of gas and vapor 
 which we call air. It is the outer envelope wrapped around the planet, and its 
 distinctive name, Atmosphere, means vapor-sphere. Astronomers believe, from 
 their observations of the heights at which meteors, dropping into our atmosphere, 
 become red hot through friction against the air, that this gaseous envelope extends 
 about 500 miles above the surface of the earth; but only a few miles above the 
 sea level it becomes so light and thin that it will not support human life. 
 
 Chemists have found that air is composed by weight of over three-fourths nitro- 
 gen and not quite one-fourth oxygen; solid particles, such as the dancing motes 
 we may see in a. beam of sunlight, are always present, consisting chiefly of little 
 specks of dust, and sometimes also of minute living germs from which lowly forms 
 of vegetable or animal life may spring. Rain washes out many of these tiny 
 -motes, and thus acts as a purifier of the air. 
 
 Movements of the Earth. Our world is travelling through space with 
 wonderful rapidity. It revolves around the sun every year 6 ; and every day in the 
 year it turns or rotates on its axis. Why does the earth keep moving ? The reason 
 
4 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 is because in empty space it meets no friction or other impediment to retard 
 or stop its motion. The air does not impede it, because it is a part of the earth 
 and moves with it. The two motions of the earth will never cease, unless as much 
 power is exerted to annul them as was applied to produce them. 
 
 The Earth's Revolution. Why does the earth move around the sun ? 
 Every particle of matter in the universe tries to attract or draw to itself every 
 other particle. This is called the attraction of gravitation. Some force impelled 
 the earth to move forward in a straight line, but the force of gravitation is 
 exerted at the same time to draw it to the sun; and these two forces, continually 
 exerted on the earth, are so adjusted that instead of shooting off into space or 
 falling into the sun, our globe revolves around the sun in a nearly circular path, 
 which is called its orbit; and the period of time we call a year is merely the time 
 in which the earth makes one complete revolution around the sun. 
 
 Our globe is rushing along its orbit at the rate of 68,000 miles an hour, or 
 1,632,000 miles in a day. We are travelling over 600,000,000 miles every year 
 in our great annual journey around the sun. The direction of both the revolution 
 and the rotation of the earth is from west to east. 
 
 If the two forces, propulsion and gravity, were exactly balanced, the earth's 
 orbit would be a perfect circle; but as they are not, the real form of the orbit is 
 an oval or ellipse. The result is that our globe, at one part of its course, is nearer 
 to the sun than at another, its average distance being computed at 92,800,000 
 miles. 
 
 Lengthening and Shortening of Days and Nights. A peculiarity 
 of the earth as it swings around the sun causes the changes in the length of days 
 and nights, and also accounts for the alternation of seasons. If the axis of the 
 earth were perpendicular to the path along which it moves around the sun, the 
 globe would be moving in a perfectly upright position, and day and night would 
 be equal in length all the year. But the axis is really inclined 23% degrees from 
 the perpendicular, so that the north end of it, or, in other words, the North Pole, 
 points nearly to the Polar Star. Twice a year, March 20th and September 22d, 
 the earth reaches such positions in its orbit that the sun is exactly vertical over, 
 the equator. Then the line between the dark and the sunljt half of the globe, 
 dividing day and night, passes through the Poles, and day and night are each 
 twelve hours long throughout the world. 
 
 Equinoxes, or Equal Nights. After the March equinox, the North Pole 
 is turned towards the sun, and as the earth moves on its path, more and more of the 
 northern half of it comes into the sunlight. The days grow longer and longer 
 the further north we go, until, within the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set at 
 midsummer at all, and at the North Pole the day is six months long. At the 
 same time, the South Pole, turned away from the sun, has a night of half a year. 
 Then as the earth goes on its orbit and the September equinox is reached, the 
 North Pole begins to point away from the sun, the days shorten and the nights 
 lengthen through the Northern Hemisphere, and the North Pole has its half-year 
 of night, while the South Pole is in continuous daylight. 
 
 Alternation of the Seasons. This is also due to the inclination of the 
 earth's axis. During half the year the Northern Hemisphere receives far more 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 5 
 
 sunshine than the Southern Hemisphere. This is the warm or summer season in 
 the north, while it is the cold or winter season in the southern half of the world; 
 for the next six months it is the winter season in the north and the summer season 
 in the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 When it is the summer half of the year where we live, the high temperature 
 of the torrid zone advances to the middle latitude and the cold of the polar regions 
 becomes less severe; but in the winter half-year, the cold of the polar regions is 
 intense, low temperatures advance through the middle latitudes, and the heat 
 on the edge of the torrid zone is temperate. The half of the earth over which the 
 winter season reigns receives the rays of the sun more slantingly ; they are scat- 
 tered over a larger surface, and consequently their power is less intense. 
 
 The earth is so small that it receives only a little of the sun's light and heat, 
 but it is these gifts that make life possible on the earth. 
 
 The Seasons and Agriculture. The two great farming regions are in 
 the north and south temperate zones. The preceding section tells us that- when 
 it is summer in one of these zones it is winter in the other. This is a kindly pro- 
 vision of nature, for the result of it is that the work of raising the food and 
 vegetable fibers, the fruits and the grasses required by man and the domestic 
 animals, never ceases. For several months in the year most of our farm lands 
 are frozen solid to a depth of several inches or a foot or more; but in those very 
 months the farmers of Argentina, Cape Colony, Australia and New Zealand are 
 cutting their wheat, turning grass into hay and gathering the orchard fruits. 
 The wheat harvest is in progress somewhere every month in the year. Even in 
 the temperate zones there is much difference in the time during which the same 
 crops are gathered. Thus in our Southern States, vegetables are grown much 
 earlier than in our Northern States, and the JSTorth can draw upon this source of 
 supply during the winter and early spring until its own vegetables mature ; and 
 if the wheat crop of the north temperate zone yields less than usual it is a great 
 blessing to be able to draw upon the wheat that is grown in the south temperate 
 zone several months later without waiting a whole year for the succeeding 
 northern crop to ripen. 
 
 A little after midwinter the fine peaches, grapes, plums and other fruits of 
 New Zealand and Cape Colony, carried thousands of miles in cold storage, are 
 found in the markets of London, and since 1902 in those of New York, while 
 our own vines and fruit trees are still leafless. In the torrid zone, food may be 
 grown the year around. But in the temperate zones, where vegetable food can 
 be grown only a part of the year, it is a great advantage for the inhabitants of 
 one zone to be able to draw upon the supplies raised in the other zone in another 
 part of the year. So these differences in the growing seasons, together with 
 cheap and rapid transportation, and refrigeration to preserve perishable products, 
 help to bring all nations close together in business and social relations. 
 
 Rotation of the Earth. While rushing forward on its path through 
 space, the globe is turning around on its axis once in twenty-four hours, so that 
 the sun is constantly rising on one part of its surface and setting on another part. 
 So great is the speed of this rotation that we should be thrown off into space if it 
 were not that the earth's attraction is more powerful than the tendency to fly off. 
 
<f) INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 This rotation causes the succession of day and night. We a re not always wrapped 
 in darkness when the sun is hidden from our view on the other side of the world, 
 because in the part of every month when the sun shines on that face of the moon 
 which is always turned toward us, the reflection of the sun's beams casts a 
 gentle refulgence over the dark side of the earth. 
 
 Clouds. Vapor, by evaporation from w r ater surfaces, enters the atmosphere, 
 and when carried aloft may be cooled so far as to become condensed. This makes 
 the air cloudy, and if the cooling and condensation are continued far enough will 
 cause rain or snow. Frequently the moisture-laden air is condensed by cooling 
 near the surface of the earth, and then we have fogs, which do not differ from 
 
 TYPES OF CLOUDS. 
 
 clouds except that they are nearer the ground. There are numerous forms of 
 clouds, but they are classed under four principal types: cumulus clouds, rounded 
 into great masses like heaps of wool, usually formed at the top of an ascend- 
 ing column of air; cirrus clouds, light and feathery in appearance, formed at 
 heights of several miles, and consisting of snowflakes or tiny ice crystals; stratus 
 clouds, which extend in long horizontal layers and are formed much nearer the 
 earth than the cirrus clouds; nimbus clouds, widely spread cloud masses from 
 which rain or snow is falling. 
 
 Rainfall. This term includes rain, snow, hail and sleet. When water vapor 
 condenses so far that the particles of water become too large for the air to hold 
 them up, they are precipitated to the earth in one of the forms above mentioned. 
 The vapor crystallizes into snowflakes if the condensation occurs at a temperature 
 below the freezing-point. Sleet is half-melted snow. Hail usually occurs in 
 
8 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 summer, when the air currents of lofty thunderstorms carry raindrops so high 
 that they are frozen before they fall. 
 
 Thunderstorms. The generation of electricity often accompanies the 
 rapid condensation of water vapor. This production of electricity often occurs to 
 such a degree as to induce frequent discharges of lightning from cloud to cloud, 
 or from the clouds to the earth. Such a disturbance is called a thunderstorm. 
 The discharges of electricity and claps of thunder inay be terrific, particularly in 
 the tropics. The rainfall in such storms does not often exceed an hour unless a 
 second storm closely follows the first one. 
 
 The Rainbow. When the sun shines on drops of falling water an arch of 
 light is formed in the sky showing the colors that the prism reveals. This arch 
 is called a rainbow. The sun's rays are refracted by each drop of water, and the 
 white light from the sun is broken up into the colors which form it. 
 
 Aurora Borealis. The quivering light seen in the north, but sometimes 
 covering the whole sky, is called by this name. It is believed to be the result of 
 discharges of electricity through the air. The data supplied by many observers 
 seem to show that there is a belt of aurora borealisin the Northern Hemisphere, 
 the center of the belt passing through Hudson Bay, northern Norway and Point 
 Barrow, Alaska, thus encircling the world. A similar phenomenon (Aurora 
 australis) is also observed in the Southern Hemisphere. The height of the aurora 
 above the earth's surface has not been satisfactorily determined, but it is believed 
 that the electrical phenomena occur at no very great altitude. 
 
 Terrestrial Magnetism. This is the mysterious force in nature which 
 causes the compass needle to point towards the north in most parts of the world. 
 It is not yet well understood, but most students of physical science believe that it 
 has its seat within the earth, though others think it may be due to cosmic influ- 
 ences, such as changes in the sun. It was known centuries ago that the magnetic 
 needle does not point to the true north, but is deflected, to the east or west of it. 
 This deflection is called the magnetic declination, and the amount of the declina- 
 tion for all parts of the world must be redetermined from time to time as it varies. 
 
 It was also found that when the magnetic needle is hung on a horizontal axis, 
 the needle point may rise towards the sky or sink towards the earth. This is 
 called the magnetic dip, or inclination. In 1831 the British polar explorer, James 
 C. Ross, discovered a point on the west coast of Boothia, in the American Arctic 
 regions, where the dipping needle pointed almost exactly to the center of the 
 earth. This spot is called the north magnetic pole, which is believed to vary in 
 its position, moving now to the east and then to the west. So little is known 
 about it that Captain Amundsen left Norway with an expedition for Boothia in 
 1903 to ascertain, if possible, whether the pole really changes its position, whether 
 it is a point or an area, and to study other magnetic problems. The position of 
 the south magnetic pole has not been exactly determined. Many of the leading 
 nations are now making investigations in the hope to increase our knowledge of 
 the causes and results of the earth's magnetic condition. 
 
 Earthquakes. Every one sees that many rocks of the earth's surface have, 
 been lifted or depressed, folded or broken. This shows that the earth's crust is 
 subject to great strains and stresses which may become too severe for the rocks 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 9 
 
 to withstand; the result will be a sudden breakage or movement that is felt at 
 the surface as an earthquake. There is little doubt that at one time or another 
 every part of the earth's surface has felt these disturbances, though the areas so 
 violently disturbed, within the historic period, as to destroy human life and prop- 
 erty, are perhaps not more than one-fifteenth or one-twentieth of the \vhole sur- 
 face. There are large regions where earth movements, or tremors, are almost 
 incessant, su.cn as parts of Japan and Venezuela. Seismographs record some 3,< M >0 
 of these movements every year in Japan, but most of them are so slight that they 
 can be detected only by these delicate instruments in vented to record earth move- 
 ments; and while Japan is a land of earthquakes, only forty or fifty very violent 
 and destructive shocks have been recorded there since the fifth century of the 
 present era. 
 
 Earthquakes usually originate near the ocean edge, though sometimes their 
 starting-point is in the heart of the continents, as in the case of the New Madrid 
 earthquakes in what is now southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas; and 
 sometimes the effects of earthquakes originating near the oceans are felt to the heart 
 of the continents, as happened in the Charleston earthquake of 1886, when the 
 earth -waves were recorded in southern Ontario and to the west of the Mississippi 
 River. The opening of cracks in the earth usually accompanies these movements. 
 Sometimes the fissures are wide enough to engulf houses, as in the Japan earth- 
 quake of 1891. The destruction of life is sometimes appalling. Thirty thousand 
 persons perished in the Lisbon earthquake, 12,000 in the shocks that destroyed 
 Caracas, Venezuela, and 10,000 Japanese lost their lives in the calamity of 1891. 
 
 Earthquakes originating under the sea have sometimes involved the people of 
 the neighboring coasts in dire calamity by waves that suddenly roll in upon the 
 land, causing great destruction. The shocks travel through the rocks at the 
 rate of about three miles a second, gradually growing feebler until they finally 
 disappear. These catastrophes cannot be averted, but the governments of earth- 
 quake countries, as Japan, are making earnest efforts to secure all information ob- 
 tainable as to the origin and causes of the phenomena, and to teach, their people 
 what kinds of structures will best withstand severe earth-movements. They warn 
 them against building their homes on the banks of rivers or the edges of cliffs, 
 where they are most likely to be destroyed. 
 
 Volcanoes. Among the violent processes of nature is the expulsion from 
 the interior of the earth of molten rock, called lava, which is spread over the sur- 
 face of the land or on the sea-floor. Sometimes the lava oozes gently from the 
 orifice, or crater, but often it is accompanied by explosions of steam, which are 
 a prominent feature of the eruptions of Vesuvius, or by outbursts of gases such as 
 in 1902 destroyed the city of St. Pierre in Martinique. Such eruptions are called 
 volcanic. When the lava and dust poured through the crater are heaped up 
 around the opening, the material in many cases is raised to a great height. The 
 mountain thus formed is called a volcano. 
 
 The causes of volcanic eruptions are not well understood, but steam has un- 
 doubtedly much to do with the production of volcanic activity. We know that 
 water may sink deep beneath the earth's surface through permeable rocks or fissures 
 in the strata. Deep in the earth this water may become superheated, and in the form 
 
10 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of steam may reach the air through some volcanic vent with terrific explosive 
 energy, blowing the accompanying lava into fragments and scattering it far 
 and wide, or tearing mountains to pieces, as was the case at Krakatao in 1883. 
 
 Volcanoes are found in all parts of the world, but many of them have lost 
 their activity and are called extinct. They are denned as active when they are 
 more or less frequently in eruption, and as dormant when they show only such 
 faint signs of activity as sulphurous vapors or hot springs afford. 
 
 There are also colossal outflows of lava which do not form mountains, the 
 lavas being so fluid that they flosv far and wide, covering vast tracts of country 
 
 MONT PEL!S, MARTINIQUE ISLAND, IN ERUPTION. 
 
 with lava sheets, as in the basin of the Columbia River, in the northwest part of 
 the United States. "Where the lavas are less fluid they pile up around the crater, 
 and the form of the mountain thus produced is usually conical. Sometimes the 
 molten matter is forced up through long rifts in the strata and hardens into rock. 
 This is the way that the Palisades of the Hudson were formed. 
 
 In accounts of eruptions we often read of flames and ashes; but students of 
 volcanoes agree that there is very little combustion'in a volcanic outburst. Steam 
 is overwhelmingly the greater part of the vapors and gases emitted. Aboift the 
 only inflammable gas in these eruptions is believed to be a small proportion of 
 sulphureted hydrogen, but its quantity is too small to contribute much to the 
 spectacular features of a volcano. It is quite certain that what appears to be 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL IIISTORY OF THE WORLD. H 
 
 flame in an eruption is usually the reflection of molten lava from the clouda 
 above. 
 
 The term volcanic ashes does not mean the residue left by combustion, but 
 the great quantities of dust and other finely divided debris that are often blown 
 thousands of feet into the air. 
 
 Along the western coastal regions of the Americas are many great volcanoes, 
 of which not a few in Latin America and Alaska are very active; but in the 
 United States and Canada the number showing even slight signs of activity is 
 small. Among the most famous volcanoes are Vesuvius, in Italy, whose erup- 
 tions, studied for 2,000 years, have sometimes been terrific. One of them in 
 79 A.D. over whelmed the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Stromboli, one of 
 the Lipari Islands, has been called the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean," 
 because it is always active and illumines the sea for miles around at night. One 
 of the largest volcanoes is Etna, in Sicily, 10,000 feet high and 40 miles in cir- 
 cumference, with craters not. only on the top, but also on the sides of the moun- 
 tain, where small cones have been built by eruptions. The active volcanoes of 
 our Territory of Hawaii are in the island of Hawaii, the highest being Mauna 
 Loa and Mauna Kea. A great number of the oceanic islands were formed by 
 the outpouring of lavas, the increasing heaps finally appearing above the surface 
 of the oceans. Java, Japan, Sumatra, and other parts of the East Indies are still 
 a field of very great volcanic activity. 
 
 Eclipses. Sometimes the sun is wholly or partially shut out from our view 
 because the moon interposes itself between the earth and the sun. When a 
 larger or smaller part of the sun is thus hidden from us it is called an eclipse 
 of the sun. 
 
 At such times the shadow of the moon is cast on a part of the earth, and if we 
 are in that shadow we see the eclipse ; but though the moon has intercepted the 
 rays of the sun which illumine the place where we are, millions of other people 
 can see no eclipse because they are not in the shadow, and to them no part of 
 the sun is shut out of sight. The outline of the eclipsed part of the sun is circular, 
 because the moon is a sphere. If the full shadow of the moon is cast on the earth, 
 the eclipse is total to all observers in any part of the shadow; but it is a partial 
 eclipse if only a part of the sun's disk is shut out of sight. 
 
 When the moon is at its greatest distance from the earth the point of conver- 
 gence of its shadow does not reach the earth. In such cases the central part of 
 the sun's surface is shut out of sight to the observer near the central line, while 
 the outer edge of the sun's surface is seen in all its brightness. This is called an 
 annular eclipse of the sun. 
 
 An eclipse of the moon is caused in a different way. In the course of their 
 movements the earth may come between the moon and the sun. If the moon 
 passes through the shadow of the earth to such extent that the entire surface is 
 in shadow, then it is a total eclipse of the moon. The form of the shadow seen 
 on the disk of the moon is circular, because the earth, producing the shadow, is a 
 sphere. 
 
 Sometimes the object that is temporarily concealed from us by the interposi- 
 tion of some other bodv between it and the earth is a star. This is called not an 
 
12 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 eclipse, but an occultation. The term is particularly applied to the occultation 
 of a fixed star by the moon. 
 
 Sometimes the sun is concealed to a very small extent by the passage of Venus 
 -or Mercury across its face; in the same way, a bit of Jupiter may be concealed 
 by the passage of one or another of his satellites across his disk. The term 
 "transit" is applied to such occurrences. Astronomers, calling mathematics to 
 their aid, have long been able to foretell the exact time of these events; and they 
 have often travelled half around the earth to witness an eclipse of the sun or a 
 transit of Yenus in the hope that observation under these peculiar circumstances 
 would yield facts of much scientific value. 
 
 The causes of eclipses are simple enough when they are understood, but they 
 have often thrown millions of persons into a state of wild alarm. In ancient 
 Rome it was against the law to speak of eclipses as due to natural causes; and 
 millions of the Chinese still believe that eclipses are caused by great dragons 
 that are trying to devour the sun and the moon. 
 
 Phases of the Moon. The moon always presents the same face to the 
 earth. "We might infer that the moon had no rotation on its axis, but this would 
 be jncorrect. As the moon revolves around the earth every month, all sides of 
 it would be seen by us during this monthly revolution if it did not rotate on its 
 axis. The reason why the same face of the moon is always presented to the earth 
 is because it turns on its axis exactly as fast as it revolves around the earth and 
 in the same direction. The moon makes only twelve rotations on its axis in a 
 year, while the earth makes a complete rotation every day. 
 
 The moon does not always present the same appearance to us, and these differ- 
 ences of aspect are called the Phases of the Moon. The fact that now a larger 
 and then a smaller part of the lunar face turned towards us are illumined by the 
 sun is due to the moon's position in the heavens. The moon is a dark body, lighted 
 only by the sun. When the sun is shining fully on the side of the moon, we 
 cannot see the side turned towards us is dark except for a narrow bright border on 
 one edge, which takes the form of a crescent. This phase is called the New Moon. 
 As the moon moves along in its revolution and completes one-fourth of its jour- 
 ney, the sun lights up one-half of the side Ave see, the other side remaining dark. 
 The moon then presents the appearance of a semicircle. This is the First Quar- 
 ter. "When half the revolution is completed, the face we see is opposite the sun, 
 which shines fully upon it. This is Full Moon. During the second half of the 
 revolution, the same phases are repeated in the reverse order, and we have the 
 Last Quarter, and then New Moon again. 
 
 Meteors. These are small bodies that move through space, most of them, 
 it is believed, being concentrated into large or small groups. When they appear 
 in our atmosphere, they leave trails of light and, in popular language, are called 
 "shooting stars." They are not stars, however, but cold and dark bodies that 
 become superheated and visible only when they enter our atmosphere. As their 
 average rate of motion is about 25 miles in a second, the friction of the air, when 
 they dash into it, generates so high a temperature that they are usually dissolved 
 and completely dissipated before they reach the earth. Some of the larger of these 
 bodies resist the tremendous heating so far that the residues of them reach the 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 13 
 
 earth and are usually called meteorites, or meteoric stones. Very few meteorites 
 have been seen to fall, and there are not over nine or ten in the museums or pri- 
 vate collections whose fall is a matter of record. No one knows how they came 
 to be shooting through space, but they consist of substances that are common on 
 the earth, though their chemical and mineralogical combinations are such that it 
 is believed that they may be recognized as meteors even though their fall is not 
 seen. 
 
 Some of them are nearly pure iron, with nickel, and others are chiefly stony 
 with grains of iron. It is believed that they are falling into our atmosphere all 
 the time, and of the shooting stars that are visible to the naked eye, any close 
 observer may probably see an average of five an hour, though his range of vision is 
 only 200 to 300 miles from his point of observation. The late Professor Newton, 
 of Yale University, estimated that if observers might scan the entire heavens, the 
 number visible daily would be found to be between 15,000,000 and 20,000,000. 
 Professor Rees, of Columbia University, writes that millions of them travel 
 together in the same swarm or group, with plenty of room, as the separate 
 bodies are frequently miles apart. The best time to observe them is between 
 midnight and the twilight before sunrise. 
 
 The stream of meteorites radiating from the constellation of Leo, which was 
 last observed by telescope in 1866, had a breadth of not less than 100,000 miles 
 and a length of 300,000 miles. It had been observed that the Leonids, as this 
 .swarm of meteors is called, usually reappeared every thirty-three years, and they 
 were expected again in 1899, but failed to appear, owing doubtless to some unknown 
 effect of the planetary pulls that disturbed their motion, for the group is subject 
 to these influences from Jupiter, Saturn and the Earth. The first definite record 
 of the fall of a meteorite was in Croatia on May 26, 1751. The ninth record was 
 that of the Mazapil (Mexico) meteorite, weighing 10^ pounds, which fell on No- 
 vember 27, 1885. The tenth fall recorded was that of the iron-nickel meteorite, 
 weighing 107 pounds, that fell in Johnson County, Ark,, on March 27, 1886. 
 On March 12, 1898, a meteorite was seen to drop into the Gulf of Finland, making 
 a clean-cut hole 30 feet in diameter through the ice; fragments of it were fished 
 up in the following, year. The largest meteorite in a museum was brought by 
 the Arctic explorer Peary from near Cape York, Greenland, to the American 
 Museum of Natural History, New York. 
 
 Comet. The name is derived from the Greek word nojurfr^?, meaning " with 
 long hair," and was doubtless applied to comets on account of the hairy appear- 
 ance of the luminous vapors characteristic of them. These celestial bodies are dis- 
 tinct from all others, and in some respects are not yet well understood. They 
 consist of three parts: the nucleus, which, through the telescope, looks like an 
 irregularly formed planet; the coma or nebulous light surrounding the nucleus, 
 and the tail, a trail of light which on the greater comets sometimes extends over 
 a long arc of the heavens. They appear to be fragments of nebulous matter. They 
 have orbits the form of which, however, is likely to be changed by the attraction 
 of the sun or of some planet, and sometimes they have been observed to start off 
 on orbits that would never bring them back again to human ken. Their number 
 is supposed to be very large, but only 30 or 40 that are visible to the nailed eye 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 15 
 
 appear in a century. The telescope usually finds five or six every year, and most 
 of them are new ones. A few of the known comets reappear at definite intervals, 
 while others have never been seen but once, and are not likely to return for cen- 
 turies. Eighteen comets are known that revolve around the sun in periods of 
 from three to seventy-five years. 
 
 Climate. The average weather conditions of each region make its climate. 
 No other influences are so great in deciding what animal and vegetable life may 
 thrive in any particular region. The polar lands, the lofty mountains and pla- 
 teaus need only higher temperature to make them teem with vegetation. 
 
 The world is girdled with distinctive zones of climate, each of which has 
 enormous influence upon man's development and welfare. 
 
 In the tropical zone excessive heat and rainfall give the greatest luxuriance to 
 vegetation. Man has few needs, supplies them easily, and his energy and am- 
 bition are little developed, because he does not have to struggle for existence. 
 
 In the polar regions the struggle for life is very severe, and man is content if 
 by the hardest work he can procure food and shelter and sufficient skins and furs 
 to keep warmth in his body. The Antarctic regions have no human inhabitants. 
 
 In the temperate zones, between the climatic extremes, where nature is the 
 powerful ally of human endeavor, man reaches his highest prosperity and best 
 development. 
 
 Temperature and rainfall are the most important climatic elements. Tem- 
 perature decreases not only with distance from the equator, but also with eleva- 
 tion above sea level, so that frigid conditions may prevail on the high mountains 
 and plateaus even of the tropical zone, as well as at the Poles. 
 
 Invisible vapor rising from water surfaces (evaporation) is condensed in the 
 cooler air above the earth and falls over land and sea as rain. The sea is the 
 largest source of rain, and so most lands near the sea have much more of it than 
 the far interior of the continents. But some of the prevailing winds blowing out 
 to the sea from the land are dry winds, and so the coast is parched, as on the 
 Atlantic edge of the Desert of Sahara. On the other hand, when the winds 
 blow from the sea to the land they may become saturated w r ith water vapor ; thus 
 the Amazon Yalley, in South America, is drenched by heavy rains that the north- 
 east trade wind brings. Winds are the transporters of climate, for now they 
 carry warmth to the cooler regions, and then mitigate the glowing heat of vast 
 areas by chill breezes from the polar latitudes. They also scatter the rain far 
 and wide, so that the forests flourish and rich harvests are taken from the fields. 
 
 The Winds. Air that becomes heated expands and is lighter than the sur- 
 rounding air. The heavier air around it presses in and lifts the lighter air upward. 
 There is difference then in the atmospheric pressures, and thus air is set in motion. 
 "We may properly infer from these statements that differences of temperature 
 are the primary causes of the differences in the weight or pressure of the air to 
 which winds are due. 
 
 The air movement is kept up by differences in atmospheric pressures in vari- 
 ous parts of the world. Where high pressure prevails the air moves towards a 
 region of low pressure. These differences of atmospheric pressure determine 
 the direction and force of the winds. 
 
16 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The location of regions of high and low pressure is shown on the weather 
 maps by the use of isobars, which are lines drawn through places of equal pres- 
 sure. You may observe on these maps that the arrows indicating the direction 
 of the wind are pointed away from the areas of high pressure and towards those 
 of low pressure. The winds of average velocity in the United States blow at the 
 rate of from 5 to 14 miles an hour. Their velocity depends upon the steepness of 
 the pressure slope or, in other words, the rate of the change of pressure along any 
 line. Thus, when the isobars showing changes of pressure are close together, the 
 pressure slope is steep and the wind is correspondingly high. Tornadoes some- 
 times blow at the rate of 200 miles an hour. 
 
 "Winds are called Constant when they always persist in one general direction, 
 like the northeast and southeast trade winds. The trade winds are due to 
 the fact that the lower air in the heated equatorial regions is always warmer and 
 lighter than the lower air to the north or south of them, and consequently there is 
 always a movement of air towards the tropical belt from the cooler regions north 
 or south of it. This movement of the lower air currents towards the equator is 
 deflected to the west by the rotation of the earth; as winds are named by the 
 direction from which they blow, we have north of the equator the northeast 
 trade winds and south of it the southeast trade winds. 
 
 "Winds are called Periodic if they blow regularly, part of the time in one 
 direction, and part of the time in the opposite direction. "We all know that the 
 land is warmer in summer than the sea, and that the sea is warmer in winter than 
 the land. When the sea is warmer, the air over it is warmer and lighter than that 
 over the land, and so there is a movement of air from the land to the sea. These 
 periodic winds are most marked in parts of south and eastern Asia. The high 
 plateaus are intensely hot in summer, the air over them is rarefied, and the 
 heavier air over the sea moves to the land. In winter the conditions are reversed, 
 and the air movement is from the land to the sea. These periodic winds over the 
 Asian lands and waters are called monsoons. 
 
 Another variety of periodic winds may be observed along sea coasts where 
 the adjacent land and water are nearly of the same temperature; but the land is 
 a little warmer by day and cooler by night than the sea, causing a constant suc- 
 cession of sea and land breezes. 
 
 Temporary winds are caused by differences of temperature in different areas, 
 for we all know that the whole of a land or water surface is seldom equally heated ; 
 and in the lower atmosphere the air will move towards the warmer places. 
 
 Some winds are of great importance in commerce; such are the northeastern 
 and southeastern trades, that blow steadily, though with variable force, all the 
 year; the monsoons of Asiatic waters, which in winter blow south from Asia over 
 the Indian Ocean and the China Sea, and in summer north from these seas over 
 the land; also the anti-trades or western winds, between the fortieth and fif- 
 tieth parallels in both hemispheres, which speed sailing vessels from America to 
 Europe and from Australia, around Cape Horn. 
 
 "Winds have important influence in modifying the forms of the land surfaces. 
 In the deserts they pile up long ridges of sand called sand dunes. Travelers on 
 the trans-Caspian railroad may see these parallel dunes, like ocean waves, stretch- 
 
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 ing away to the horizon. The northeast trade winds, starting in the Sahara, carry 
 clouds of sand over the edge of the fertile lands to the south, slowly filling 
 the valleys and destroying vegetation. During great desert windstorms the 
 air is so charged with sand that it is difficult to breathe. Men cover their 
 heads with cloth and lie on their faces, and camels hold their noses close to the 
 .ground. 
 
 Tides. Twice a day the edge of the seas advances upon the lands, floods 
 the bays and mouths of rivers, and then as slowly retreats. This regular motion 
 of the seas is the tide coming in and going out, and it is caused by the strong 
 .attractive force of the moon and the lesser influence of the sun, the water yield- 
 ing to the strain while the land is able to resist it. Tides are very helpful to com- 
 merce in many cases, as in the lower Thames, where large vessels could not ascend 
 to London if they did not ride upon the inflowing tides. 
 
 Ocean Currents. Our Flat Globe outlines the great ocean currents. They 
 are caused by the prevailing winds, and so have about the same course over the 
 seas. They affect the speed even of steamships; and sailing-vessels endeavor to 
 keep out of the track of such currents as would retard their progress. A Pacific 
 sailing-ship starting from Panama for the Philippines, for example, might gain 
 forty miles a day by steering into the equatorial current flowing west, while it 
 would lose nearly as much if it sailed in the equatorial counter-current moving east. 
 
 It was thought not long ago that the warm Gulf Stream of the Atlantic and the 
 Japan current of the Pacific, the cold Labrador current and other ocean streams 
 had much influence upon the temperature of the land. This view now has few 
 .advocates. The Gulf Stream as a distinct current really terminates in the mid- 
 Atlantic. It is not the Gulf Stream, but the prevailing westerly winds, tempered 
 as they are by the comparatively warm surface of the ocean, that are now believed 
 to be the cause of the mild climate of the northwest coasts of Europe and the 
 western coast of the United States. 
 
 Ocean Depths. The seas are the greatest highways of commerce, and many 
 -of the routes across them, marked with the distances from port to port, are traced 
 upon our Globe. Ocean exploration has greatly advanced within recent years, 
 and many secrets of the sea depths have been revealed. While the ocean basins 
 on the whole are steep-sided and flat-floored, some great depressions and chasms 
 are discovered. The greatest depth yet found in the Pacific is 30,930 feet, near 
 the Fiji Islands. Another abysmal depth to the east of Japan is over 27,600 
 feet beneath the surface. Through the mid- Atlantic extends a ridge stretching 
 north and south, with water only 9,000 to 12,000 feet above it, while on either 
 side the depths sink to 15,000 and 18,000 feet. The greatest depth yet discovered 
 in the Atlantic is 27,366 feet in a small depression about 100 miles north of Porto 
 Rico. 
 
 Distribution of the Lands. Only one of the six great continents, Aus- 
 tralia, is wholly in the Southern Hemisphere; North America, Europe and Asia, 
 excepting a few Asiatic islands, are entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. Much 
 the larger part of the lands lies in the Northern Hemisphere, forming almosta con- 
 tinuous ring around the North Pole, and stretching away to the southward in long, 
 irregular masses which taper into points. 
 
20 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The continents are the largest areas of land. Europe and Asia are really one 
 continent, but on account of their vast extent, it is more convenient to treat each 
 of them as one of the " Grand Divisions." 
 
 Hidden under the edge of the oceans that lap the continental shores is usually 
 found a belt of sea-bottom sloping very gently seaward until a depth of about 
 600 feet is reached, where the slope becomes more abrupt and soon reaches oceanic 
 depths. This belt of sea-floor is called the continental shelf. Sometimes it is 
 wide and of great importance, because in these shallow waters the larger sea fish- 
 eries of the world are grouped. 
 
 Besides the continents there are two classes of islands continental and oceanic 
 islands. Most of the continental islands are near the continents and are formed 
 of the same rocks, such as limestones, sandstones, granites, etc. The largest con- 
 tinental islands are Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar and Sumatra. 
 
 Oceanic islands may be very remote from large land masses, as most of the 
 Pacific Islands, or they may be comparatively near the continents, as the Canary 
 Islands or the Lesser Antilles. They are chiefly the result of volcanic outpourings 
 from the bottom of the sea, or are upbuilt by coral insects in shallow waters. 
 
 Movements of the Earth's Crust. We know that large parts of the 
 land masses were once under water, for many of the rocks were formed by de- 
 posits of sands or the bones of marine animals on the sea- floor. This shows that 
 the earth's crust is subject to very slow up-and-down movements which are still 
 in progress, and may be best observed along the margins of the seas; for we speak 
 of the gradual uplifting of parts offthe coasts of Scandinavia, of the gradual sink- 
 ing of the coast of Xew Jersey, and of other similar movements that are now in 
 progress. 
 
 These movements which lift or lower wide areas of land are very different from 
 the quick, sharp earthquake shocks that sometimes lower the level of areas by a 
 number of feet, as in the New Madrid earthquake of 1811. 
 
 Another kind of earth-movement is that resulting from the contraction of the 
 earth's crust due to cooling; by this contraction the rocks of many areas may 
 be crushed together, folded, broken, and here and there lifted into lofty mountain 
 ranges. Other mountains may be the result simply of the dissection of high pla- 
 teaus by running water which excavates valleys through the plateaus. The parts 
 not worn away may be called mountains. This was the origin of the Catskill 
 Mountains. 
 
 Forms of the Lands. The earth has a great diversity of land forms, and 
 they have marked effect in shaping the distribution and occupations of man. Coasts 
 that are high, rocky and without inlets, like the southern shore of Sicily, repel 
 seafarers and can have little or no shipping trade. Low, sandy, uniform coasts 
 sloping very gradually into the sea, like the western shore of the Gulf of Pechili, 
 China, are impediments to commerce. Few Chinese who live near this coast 
 follow the sea for a living. Much of the time the sea is gnawing at the coasts, 
 eating away the softer rocks, and thus forming gulfs and bays, while the harder 
 rocks, resisting the attacks of the waves, jut out as headlands and capes. 
 
 The Atlantic coasts of the United States are mostly low, with many deep 
 recesses where shipping is safe from ocean storms. Such a coast is highly favor- 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 21 
 
 able for commerce. The Pacific coast of our country, on the other hand, is high 
 and rocky, with only a few good harbors ; but these are so favorably distributed 
 that they admirably serve the needs of commerce. 
 
 .As our Globe shows, Europe, Asia and North America have very broken 
 coast lines, and the sea in many places penetrates deeply into the land, giving 
 the inhabitants large harbor facilities. On the other hand, Africa, South Amer- 
 ica and Australia have comparatively unbroken coast lines, and in this are at a 
 disadvantage in commercial pursuits. 
 
 Mountain Kanges. Our Globe shows the chief mountain ranges which 
 extend along the coasts or through the interior of the continents and islands. 
 They have large influence in fixing boundary lines between nations and upon 
 commerce and climate. With the Pyrenees, between France and Spain; the 
 Alps, between Austria and Italy; and the Himalayas, between Tibet and India, 
 we readily conclude that mountain chains often form not only natural boundaries 
 between nations, but also between the languages of men. 
 
 They often impede commerce. Along the southeast coast of China are a 
 number of fine natural ports, such as Amoy and Fuchau, but their importance is 
 greatly diminished by the fact that mountains stretch between them and the 
 densely peopled valley of the Yangtse, so that trade between this coast line and 
 the interior is difficult and costly. If it were not for the Arlberg tunnel, inter- 
 course between Austria and Switzerland would be very difficult; and Italy would 
 be almost cut off from France and Central Europe if the Mont Cenis, St. Gott- 
 hard, and Simplon tunnels had not been constructed through the Alps. 
 
 All the railroads from the Pacific that have climbed the Andes Mountains of 
 South America rise two miles or more into the air. It is fortunate for the United 
 States that nature provided comparatively low passes among the Appalachian 
 ranges in the eastern part of the United States to the Atlantic seaboard as gate- 
 ways for great railroad routes; and that the passes through which our trains 
 cross our great Western mountain ranges are reached by long and gentle slopes, 
 so that few gradients are very steep. 
 
 Mountains are useful in many ways. They supply large water power. Our 
 Western miners use this power to drive mining machinery. The wheels of indus- 
 try in Switzerland are turned by the torrents that descend the Alps. Most moun- 
 tains are clad with forests, and mountains are among the largest sources of forest 
 wealth. Water is retained in the form of snow and ice on the higher slopes till 
 it is needed in the summer season of crops for irrigation far below. Mountain 
 scenery is as substantial a source of gain as wheat or hay. Tourists leave mil- 
 lions of dollars in Switzerland every year, and our finest mountain regions are 
 attracting more sightseers every year. Mountains also supply a large part of the 
 metals and minerals, and are therefore the scene of large mining"industries. 
 
 In every land we may see the effect of mountain ranges upon climate. Our 
 Pacific ranges prevent the free circulation of rain-laden winds from the Pacific, 
 which part with their moisture on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas, so 
 that the great mountains to the east of them are arid. The Alps shield the Kiviera 
 from the cold northeast winds, so that Nice is warmer than -Koine in winter. 
 The mountains of Scandinavia stop the warm moist winds from the Atlantic, so 
 
22 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 that the Atlantic coasts enjoy the milder oceanic climate, while the Baltic coast 
 is very cold in winter. 
 
 The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest, 29, 002 feet, in the Hima- 
 layas, on the border between Tibet and Nepal; the highest mountain of North 
 America is Mount McKinley, in Alaska, 20,300 feet; of South America, Acon- 
 cagua, in Argentina, 23,081 feet; of Europe, Mont Blanc, in France, 15,780; in 
 Africa, Kilimanjaro, 19,680; in Australia, ML Townsend, 7,347. 
 
 Plains and Plateaus. Most flat lands of the world lie between parallel 
 mountain ranges that are often very far apart. Sometimes they lie in a narrow 
 belt along the sea, and then are called coastal plains. When plains rise to a height 
 of more than 1,000 feet above sea level, they are usually called table-lands or pla- 
 
 SOME FORMS OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 teaus. These plains and plateaus are not a mere dead level, for they have undu- 
 lations, ridges and valleys; but these heights or hollows are not sufficiently pro- 
 nounced to affect their generally level character. In the United States we see 
 the Atlantic coastal plain between the Appalachians and the sea, and the vast 
 region of plain, prairie and plateau that stretches between the Appalachians 
 and our great Western ranges. 
 
 Every continent has wide plains far inland without sufficient rainfall to nur- 
 ture forests or cultivated crops. Grass here takes the place of larger vegetation, 
 the pastoral life is developed and grazing is the chief pursuit. 
 
 Valleys. Between neighboring mountain chains are valleys, w r hich usually 
 rorm the bed of rivers; and rivers flowing across plains and plateaus excavate many 
 valleys. Valleys through which navigable rivers flow are the most easily devel- 
 oped parts of the continents. It was these valleys that were settled first when 
 man began to carry his industries and commerce into the interior of the conti- 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 23 
 
 nenis. Thus great river valleys came to be called the creators of history, because 
 in the early days of development it was in the valleys of the Nile, Ganges, Indus 
 and other large rivers that the human race made most progress. 
 
 Water Divides and Basins. The boundary between slopes leading to 
 different streams or rivers is called a divide. The divide is often easily recogniz- 
 able. It may be the crest of a mountain range, or at least a ridge that is plainly 
 above the general level. Frequently, however, on plains and plateaus the divide 
 is almost or quite [indistinguishable. In this case its course is uncertain and vari- 
 able. There are rivers in Canada where the divide passes through some small lake 
 that is so evenly balanced between two water systems that it sends a little stream 
 to each of them; another illustration is Two Ocean Creek, in the Yellowstone 
 National Park, where a bit of water is diverted sometimes toward the Pacific 
 and sometimes toward the Atlantic. 
 
 The area included within the divide that separates a stream and its tributaries 
 from another river system is called the basin of that stream. Thus the basin of 
 the Missouri River is the entire area drained by that river; and the basin of the 
 Mississippi system includes the vast area whose drainage is carried into the Gulf 
 of Mexico through the Mississippi delta. The term watershed is sometimes erro- 
 neously applied to a river basin. It is more correctly used to designate a divide, 
 but the terms '"'divide" or " water parting " for the boundaries between river 
 basins are preferable. 
 
 Lakes. The irregularities of the earth's surface due to crumpling or erosion 
 have left many depressions below the general level into which drainage is drawn, 
 thus forming lakes. Most of these lakes overflow, and their surplus is discharged 
 by streams into the sea. The mineral matter that accumulates is thus removed 
 and the lake waters remain fresh. Other lakes are formed in depressions where 
 there is no outflow because the \vater receipts are fully counterbalanced by evap- 
 oration. In such lakes the salts washed from the soil and carried into the lake 
 basins accumulate,; the waters are therefore not potable, and the lakes are called 
 salt lakes. The Great Salt Lake of Utah is the most important lake of this kind 
 in the Western Hemisphere. One of the most famous salt lakes is the Dead Sea, 
 in Palestine, which lies far below the level of the oceans and fills a small 
 hollow surrounded by highlands. 
 
 Large lakes are very useful in commerce, because they permit the transportation 
 of freight in the interior of the continents at small cost. The largest system of 
 lake navigation in^the world is provided by the Great Lakes of North America, on 
 which steamers carry at low freight rates many times the tonnage of commodi- 
 ties that are borne through the Suez Canal. 
 
 Distribution of Animal Life. No lands are so desolate that they do not 
 give support to a considerable variety of life. Peary found flowers and grass> 
 musk oxen and hare on the most northern bit of land which exploration has 
 revealed to us. The animals that are most useful to man cover the whole of the tem- 
 perate regions, and recently their numbers" have been increasing in the tropics. 
 The horse, which is found everywhere in temperate and moderately warm coun- 
 tries, is being introduced to some extent into the tropical Congo region. At seventy 
 stations in the Congo State, cattle from Europe are being successfully reared. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 25 
 
 Sheep are raised in most inhabited regions, woolless varieties being reared in hot 
 countries. The range of the dog as a draft animal extends through the north- 
 ern third of North America, and far towards the Pole, where he hauls sledges, 
 while in Belgium and some other parts of Europe he draws carts to market. The 
 hunting and fishing tribes of northern Europe and Asia use the reindeer as their 
 means of transport. The yak is the conspicuous pack and saddle animal over the 
 Himalayan passes and on the high plain of Tibet. The one-humped camel, or 
 dromedary, is the " ship of the desert " in the northern third of Africa, while the 
 stronger bactrian camel (two humps) is the beast of burden in central Asia. The 
 donkey is nowhere so important as in the countries of the Mediterranean, while 
 in America he is chiefly represented by his progeny, the male. 
 
 The fisheries are the largest source of wealth derived from the wild animals. 
 British America, northern Russia and Siberia are the regions from which most of 
 the furs are derived, but the supply has been greatly _ 
 diminished by overhunting. Civilized governments 
 now endeavor to protect all wild animals that are 
 useful to man so that they may not be exterminated. 
 There are, however, no game laws far the protection 
 of harmful beasts of prey, and most of the larger 
 carnivorous animals, such as the lion, tiger, leopard 
 and others, are being constantly depleted in number 
 and are doomed to complete destruction within the 
 next few decades. 
 
 Distribution of Vegetable Life. Most 
 human occupations are confined to the regions in 
 which forests and cultivable and grass lands are 
 predominant. The greatest regions of agriculture 
 are in the northern and southern temperate zones; 
 grassy plains of enormous extent in North and South America and Asia 
 nourish countless flocks and herds. Most of the wood supplies of the world 
 that enter largely into commerce come from the great forest areas of the north 
 temperate zone which girdle the land surface between the Arctic Circle and 
 the 30th parallel, making the United States, Canada and Russia the foremost 
 wood-producing countries of the world. Vast tropical forests, especially in 
 Latin America and Africa, yield hardwoods that are in much demand, and, 
 above all, rubber, which is extracted from a considerable variety of trees and 
 vines. 
 
 The Races of Men. There are a great many divisions of the human race, 
 and detailed study shows that many of them are distinguished from one another 
 only by very slight differences. Formerly classified into five great groups, a 
 process of simplification has finally reduced them to three types the black, 
 yellow, and white races. The population of the world is now estimated at about 
 1,503,000,000, of which over 150,000,000 are believed to be included in the 
 black, 600,000,000 in the yellow, and 750,000,000 in the white types. 
 
 The races of the black type are least civilized. The native home of the greater 
 part of them is in Africa , south of the Sahara, and they are classed in the two sub- 
 
 THE BLACK TYPE. 
 
26 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Li HUNG CHANG THE YELLOW 
 TYPE. 
 
 divisions of negroes in the North and Bantus, who inhabit the whole of the great 
 table-lands of that continent south of the Sudan. They are also thinly scattered in 
 parts of southern Asia and in the Asian and some of the Pacific islands, the ab- 
 origines of Australia, the Papuans of New Guinea, and Yeddahs of Ceylon, and 
 the Negritos of the Philippines, being most prom- 
 inent. For three centuries the siave traders carried 
 large numbers of African blacks to the Americas, 
 where millions of them now live. The black races 
 are backward in intellectual development, and have 
 never succeeded in establishing perfected social 
 organizations; but those of Africa in particular have 
 shown themselves to be susceptible of great im- 
 provement. The black .type has relatively the 
 smallest part in the world's trade. 
 
 The races of the yellow type include the Mon- 
 golians of Asia, the Turks and Magyars or Huns 
 of Europe, the Eskimos and Indians of America, 
 and the peoples of the Malay and Polynesian 
 islands. The Mongol,* the most important and best 
 characterized branch of the yellow type, has a 
 number of varieties (Chinese, Japanese, Annamese, 
 etc.) living in east Asia. The Japanese and Chi- 
 nese are highly civilized, and take an important part in the world's commerce,. 
 The Malayan races are widely disseminated over the Malay Archipelago, and 
 include the Ilovas, the most progressive race of Madagascar. The Tartars and 
 
 Turks advanced from the steppes of Central Asia 
 and settled in eastern Europe. The Finns and 
 Magyars were also Asiatic emigrants who settled 
 in northern and central Europe. 
 
 The white races, comprising the most civilized, 
 advanced and progressive peoples of the world, are 
 divided into three great groups: Hamitic, Semitic, 
 and Aryan. The Hamites of North Africa 
 (Berbers, Tuaregs, Gallas, Somalis, and others) are 
 as dark in color as many races of the black type, are 
 fanatical Mohammedans, and oppose the introduc- 
 tion among them of Western civilization. The 
 Semites include the Arabs of Arabia, Syria and 
 North Africa, and the Jews who are scattered over 
 the whole world. The Aryans are subdivided into 
 the Keltic, Teutonic, Romanic and Slavonic races, 
 who inhabit the most of Europe. They have 
 long been spreading rapidly, and now occupy nearly a third of Asia, have 
 political supremacy over most of Africa, and have settled there in large numbers, 
 especially in the north and south, and inhabit almost the whole of Europe, most of 
 America and the larger part of Oceania. The Romanic races of south Europe have 
 
 WASHINGTON THE WHITE 
 TYPE. 
 
28 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 occupied Latin America, the Teutonic races of north Europe have spread over 
 North America and Australia, and the Slavonic Russians have occupied the 
 whole of north Asia. The Teutonic races command the greater part of the world's 
 commerce, have done more than any other branch of the human family to estab- 
 lish good government under which life and property are protected and business 
 enterprises are fostered, and have borne the most prominent part in extending 
 civilization and developing natural resources. 
 
 Mail's Conquest of Nature. All lower animals collect the food they need, 
 and many of them are also humble manufacturers. The bee makes honey, the 
 spider spins its web, the beaver dams the streams, and many animals build 
 shelters. 
 
 In his primitive state, man was much like the lower animals. He collected the 
 necessities of life, and was a manufacturer on a small scale. He was able also 
 through his intellectual superiority to fashion rude implements to aid him. in his 
 work, and this the lower animals could not do. Animal instinct was the impel- 
 ling influence that moved man in this primitive stage. 
 
 Experience constantly enlightened man. It taught him how to make better 
 implements, and helped him in many ways. One idea that gradually dawned 
 upon him was that if he planted and cared for certain vegetable growths, they 
 would provide him with more and better food than if he depended simply upon 
 wild fruits, grains and roots. He began to till the soil. 
 
 Each generation discovered methods for better tillage, found 'new activities, 
 and invented better methods of doing things. Each bequeathed what it learned 
 to its successors; and so from age to age man benefited by experience that came 
 down to him from his fathers. 
 
 The Era of Scientific Progress. At last man reached the stage in which 
 he was able to inquire deeply into the secrets of nature, and to make great discov- 
 eries and inventions that multiply the comforts and conveniences of life, and the 
 products of human brain and hand. This is the present era of scientific develop- 
 ment. 
 
 "We may briefly consider one phase of this development that of transporta- 
 tion and communication. 
 
 Slow and poor transportation has meant starvation at times, as in China and 
 in the England of the Middle Ages. This is when roads are so poor that people 
 die in one part of a country before grain can reach them from another. There 
 was little commerce between Asia and Europe when boats were afraid to venture 
 out to sea, and only camel trains at Constantinople brought the East and West 
 within touch. 
 
 Four hundred years ago only a few ocean vessels had dared to venture far out 
 of sight of land. The sailing-vessel then commanded the seas for three centuries 
 until about 1840, when steamships began to supplant them. They travel, on an 
 average, four times as fast as the sailing-vessel. 
 
 Columbus's first trip across the Atlantic was made in seventy days. Nearly 
 300 years later the average time across the ocean was about 42 days; then steam- 
 ships brought in the era of fast travel. The first steamship crossed the Atlantic 
 from Savannah to Liverpool in 22 days. The time was reduced until to-day the 
 
30 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 "ocean greyhounds" pass between Sandy *Iook and Queenstown in less than 
 six days, providing for their passengers overy luxury and convenience. 
 
 Ocean transportation became not only fast, but cheap. "When iron and steel 
 were substituted for \vood in shipbuilding, it became possible to increase the size 
 of steamships; at the same time the cost of forcing them through the water was 
 lessened by the invention of better furnaces, boilers and engines. These improve- 
 ments lowered the cost of steam power between 1870 and 1900 about 40 per cent. 
 Nearly four times as much steam power is now derived from a pound of coal as in 
 1860. With greater carrying capacity and much less expenditure per ton for 
 propelling steamships, their owners were able to reduce freight rates. 
 
 One of the chief reasons why commodities that once were luxuries are now 
 found in nearly every humble home is because they are distributed so cheaply over 
 the world by present methods of transportation. 
 
 Transportation. As nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is ocean, 
 most commodities carried from one nation to another go by sea routes. Water 
 transportation is cheaper than land transport, and therefore lakes, rivers and 
 canals are important trade routes in most countries, though they lose some of 
 their importance after the development of adequate railroad systems. The lead- 
 ing nations spend large sums in the improvement of their waterways. In our 
 country the Mississippi and its tributaries supply over 9,000 miles of navigation. 
 The Hudson River, connected with the Great Lakes by the Erie Canal, has a 
 freight tonnage of over 15,000,000 a year. Large ocean vessels ascend the Dela- 
 ware to Philadelphia, and this river annually floats about 14,000,000 tons of 
 freight. The coal, lumber, grain and other heavy commodities carried on the 
 Ohio, give it a freight tonnage of 14,000,000 a year. The Mississippi carries 
 about as much freight as the. Ohio; and about 10,000,000 passengers are borne 
 from one place to another on steamboats of the Mississippi system every year. 
 
 With two hundred thousand miles of railroad, the United States has a greater 
 length of railways than the whole of Europe, and more than a third of the world's 
 mileage. 
 
 Long ocean routes afford the cheapest freight rates. Freight charges are nec- 
 essarily somewhat higher on large lakes than on the ocean, because lake vessels are 
 smaller and navigation is restricted by small connecting rivers and canals. The 
 actual cost of transporting freight on railroads is about twice as much as on rivers 
 and canals. 
 
 The Panama Ship Canal. The greatest of modern devices for shortening 
 trade routes, and thus reducing the prices of commodities by cheapening transpor- 
 tation, is the ship canal, by which the length of many ocean routes is reduced by 
 thousands of miles. Some of these enterprises, like the Suez CanaJ, are the 
 property of private companies, and were developed to make money by canal tolls. 
 The United States government, however, has assumed the responsibility, too great 
 for private enterprise, of carrying out the unfi nished work of digging a canal across 
 the Isthmus of Panama, about 41 miles in length; and has. been granted civil 
 and military authority (excepting the cities of Panama and Colon) over a strip 
 of 10 miles across Panama, including the canal. This is known as the Panama 
 Canal zone. Congress, on June 15th, 1906, decided to build a high-level 
 
INTERNATIONAL GKOGKAIMI K 'A I. HISTORY <>K TIIK \VoKJ. I>. 
 
 31 
 
 or lock canal. By shortening the length of sea routes between the Atlantic 
 ports of Europe and America and the Pacific ports of America the canal will 
 have a profound influence upon the world's commerce. A few examples will 
 show how greatly these routes will be shortened. 
 
 The steamer voyage from New York to San Francisco, now over 13, 000 miles 
 by the Magellan route, will be reduced to 5,299 miles; to Guayaquil, the best 
 Pacific port of northern South America, the saving of distance from New York, 
 New Orleans and Liverpool will be, respectively, 7,500, 8,500 and 5,000 miles. 
 All routes between Europe or the United States and any of the Pacific American 
 countries north of Peru will be shortened by 5,000 to 9,000 miles. 
 
 The changes that the Panama Canal will make in the routes to east Asia will 
 be almost equally great. The shortest way to reach all the ports of Japan and 
 north China from the Atlantic ports of North America will be by Panama. On 
 
 JICARO 
 
 10 2U 40 60 80 iluriato rtJ-Ttaercw Pt. 
 
 Provwed Panama Canal ^^^m / ' I ( ' / ; ; 
 
 __ it , i .....i..... I -*- ./I. Vv J. * _* J 
 
 Panama Railroad gi,o ''Loneitude 'West 
 
 This map shows the great value of Panama's position to the commerce of the world. 
 
 the other hand, the shortest route to India, Burma and other points to the 
 west of Singapore will continue to be the Suez Canal. The Asiatic trade divide 
 between the Panama and Suez routes for t>he Atlantic ports of North America 
 will nearly coincide with the line Manila-Hongkong. For example) the distance 
 between New York and Manila via Panama and Honolulu is 11,642 miles; via 
 Suez and Singapore, 11,601 miles. The Suez Canal will continue to be much the 
 shorter route for the European trade with, east Asia. 
 
 Panama will offer a much shorter route than Suez for the American trade 
 with Australia, but for European ports the Suez Canal Avill have the advantage. 
 The Suez Canal shortened the distance between England and India by 5,000 
 miles. Among the other ship canals that have opened short cuts and reduced from 
 one to three days the time required for steamer voyages are the Kaiser "NVilhelm 
 Canal in Germany and the Corinth Canal in Greece. 
 
 Railroads. In the United States railroads are only about seventy-five years 
 old, but this country has a mileage, counting double tracks and switching tracks, 
 that is greater than the distance from the earth to the moon, and more miles of 
 
32 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 track than the whole world possessed in 1860. Kailroads supply most civilized 
 lands with rapid and comparatively cheap transportation. 
 
 The most important railroads are those extending across the continents, 
 east and west. They form parts of transportation lines girdling the earth; 
 and as railroad trains move much more rapidly than steamships and the speed of 
 both has been much accelerated by improved machinery, the time required to 
 travel around the earth has been greatly reduced in recent years. 
 
 In 1904 the .luuTcgate length of railroad track in the United States was 
 297,073 miles; 46,74:3 locomotives were required to haul the passenger and 
 freight trains and do the switching; there were 39,752 passenger cars and 
 1,692,194 freight cars, and in these cars, during the year, 715,419,682 passengers 
 and 1,309,899,165 tons of freight were carried. 
 
 In parts of Africa freight is still carried on the backs of men, and there are other 
 regions where ox-teams or pack-mules are the only means of freight carriage. Such 
 transportation is very expensive. The Germans say that the cost of freightage 
 in Africa by ox wagon is twenty times as much as on the Prussian railroads; and 
 that the cost of transport on the backs of men is forty times as much. 
 
 We have long known of a cheap way of moving fluid commodities. Water, 
 petroleum oil, and illuminating gas are conveyed long distances in iron pipes. 
 If we did not have this cheap method of distributing water, it could not be sup- 
 plied to us at such small cost. 
 
 It is quite recently that the wonderful properties of electricity and the meth- 
 ods of best utilizing them were discovered. But to-day, with the aid of hundreds 
 of thousands of miles of electric wire, men in most parts of the world transact 
 business with one another much as though they lived in the same town; and the 
 postal service, a cheaper and slower means of communication, now extends into 
 the heart of Africa and other regions of which we had never heard a quarter of 
 a century ago. 
 
 Transportation in Cities and Large Towns. The enormous growth 
 of cities in area and population has revolutionized their means of transportation 
 because the old omnibus and horse car are too slow and in all respects inadequate 
 to the present demands of business men. Great improvements have been intro- 
 duced, especially in the United States, where the application of electricity (over- 
 head, underground and third-rail systems) has practically done away with other 
 forms of traction. In the twelve years ending in 1902 the mileage of the electric 
 lines increased from 1,262 to 21,907 in the United States, while there was a great 
 decrease in the length of lines operated by other forms of power. In 1902 there 
 were in this country only 241 miles of street car routes that were operated by 
 underground cable, 170 miles using steam and 259 miles employing horses or 
 mules for motive power. 
 
 But surface street-car routes are very limited in speed, for rapid transit is 
 impossible in crowded thoroughfares. Two hours or more are required by the 
 ordinary trolley lines of New York to reach some parts of the city boundary 
 from the great business district at the south end of Manhattan Island. Business 
 men cannot afford this loss of time, and so systems of elevated and underground 
 roads, with electricity for motive power, are now in operation in New York and 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 33 
 
 Boston, elevated roads in Chicago, and plans have been made for the large ex- 
 tension of these rapid transit roads. The New York Subway Railroad, the largest 
 system of its kind in the world, was opened on October 27, 1904. The part of this 
 system between the Brooklyn Bridge and 96th Street has four tracks, on which 
 express trains run at the rate of 25 miles an hour; and the local trains, stopping 
 at every station, make from 14 to 18 miles an hour. London and Paris also have 
 large systems of underground rapid-transit roads. ' 
 
 Electric Roads between Cities and Towns. A new development in 
 the United States is electric railroads, called Interurban lines, extending 
 from the cities through many towns, and with numerous stations in the purely 
 farming districts. The cars run at high speed, and some of the trains in Ohio 
 are now provided with sleeping cars for the long-distance routes. There were in 
 1905 about 8,000 miles of tKese roads, and Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois 
 have the most extensive and efficient high-speed rural railroads in the country. 
 These country electric systems are little developed, as yet, west of the Missis- 
 sippi, owing to the lesser density of population in that section. The rural trolley 
 service is being rapidly introduced in parts of New England, New York, Penn- 
 sylvania and all the central States. The trolley freight car is also coming into 
 use, to the advantage of the farmers, whose means of reaching markets are thus 
 greatly increased. As the cost of operation is small, these roads compete suc- 
 cessfully with the steam lines, and the development of this system of transpor- 
 tation, it is believed, will be very large. 
 
 Automobiles. In recent years gasoline, steam and electricity applied to the 
 propulsion of vehicles on streets and roads have developed, on a very large scale, 
 a new means of transportation. Vehicles thus driven are called automobiles, and 
 hundreds of thousands of them are now in use in the leading countries. They are 
 used not only as pleasure and touring carriages, but also for freight hauling, and 
 to some extent they are taking the place in cities of ordinary freight trucks. Au- 
 tomobile roads have been built in some newly developing countries in advance 
 of the construction of railroads. One of them in Madagascar extends from the In- 
 dian Ocean to the capital, Tananarive, about 150 miles in the interior, and auto- 
 mobiles are daily carrying freight and passengers. Two automobile freight roads, 
 one 300 and another 500 miles long, are being built (1905) in the Congo Free 
 State. The great usefulness of automobiles has been proven, and vast capital is 
 now invested in their manufacture. 
 
 Submarine Boats These boats as yet are used only as torpedo boats, their 
 special advantage being that they can approach an enemy's ship under water 
 without being discovered, and launch a torpedo at short range. France has built 
 more of them than any other nation, but they are now a feature of all navies. 
 The boats are submerged by admitting water to the ballast tanks or by using 
 inclined rudders. Both methods are employed in some of the boats. This class of 
 vessels has not yet reached the high mark desired in point of safety, speed and 
 habitability. 
 
 Navigating the Air. In 1766 Henry Cavendish of England discovered the 
 remarkable lightness of hydrogen gas. It was found to be so much lighter than 
 air that bags filled with it would rise far above the earth and float in the atmos- 
 8 
 
34 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 phere. This was the germ of the balloon. Balloons have been of little practical 
 importance except for military reconuoissance (captive balloons), and in the case 
 of besieged cities which have sometimes used balloons to communicate with the 
 outer world. A balloon simply drifts with the air currents, and it is not natural 
 for man to be long content with devices that he cannot control; so for years many 
 able men have been trying to perfect air-ships which they may steer in any direc- 
 tion and even propel against the wind. 
 
 Great progress has been made in these studies, and it is to-day the belief of 
 the most conservative physicists that aerial navigation will be practically accom- 
 plished. The investigators are divided into two classes. One seeks to devise 
 means for navigating the air as birds do, which gain support and propulsion solely 
 from mechanical and muscular energy; the other relies for support more or less 
 upon the buoyancy of hydrogen gas, while securing propulsion by means of pro- 
 pellers. All are interested in motors, whether the air-ship moves with or without 
 the support of hydrogen. All are concerned with methods of management and 
 with the adoption of means for directing the movements of an air-ship through 
 the air. 
 
 Air-ships are now steered in any direction and propelled against the wind; 
 but there are still problems to be solved to make air navigation useful, safe and 
 not too costly. These problems are now receiving the closest attention, and 
 when they are solved, the air will become a great navigable highway opened for 
 the nations. 
 
 Pneumatic Tubes. Propelled by air pressure, packages of mail, parcels 
 and other articles are now transported very quickly through tubes. The first 
 extensive application of this method of transportation was made in Berlin in 1865 ; 
 to-day Berlin has over thirty miles of these tubes in use, and the speed of the 
 "trains" of articles that are shot through the tubes every fifteen minutes is from 
 15 to 23 miles an hour. All the leading British and other European cities use 
 this time-saving appliance. The employment of the pneumatic tube for mail 
 and small packages in New York, Philadelphia and many other American cities is 
 constantly increasing. 
 
 The Telegraph. The electric telegraph has been used in business for the 
 quick transmission of communications only since 1846, about twenty years after 
 the introduction of steam railroads. As the telegraph is far less costly than rail- 
 road building, it has spread all over the world with much greater rapidity. It 
 has also been laid along the bottom of the sea, from continent to continent, in 
 the form of cable, and thus binds all parts of the world together. Fourteen ocean 
 cables now connect the United States with Europe. Many other cables cross 
 the Atlantic, but it is only recently that cables have been extended across the Pa- 
 cific between America, Asia and Australia. One of the two Pacific lines extends 
 from Vancouver, B. C., by way of Fanning, Fiji and Norfolk Islands to New 
 Zealand and Australia. The United States line crosses the Pacific from San 
 Francisco through Honolulu, Midway Island, Guam, to the Philippine Islands, 
 touching no land that is not controlled by our country. 
 
 Much attention has been given in recent years to wireless telegraphy, various 
 systems of which are in use. They are of much value in communicating between 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL 1II8TOKY OF THE .WORLD. 35 
 
 ships at sea and between ships and the shore. Our government maintains wire- 
 less telegraph stations at various points along the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. 
 The ocean cable between Seattle and Valdez, Alaska, is joined with St. Michael 
 by land lines, and St. Michael and the great Nome mining center are connected by 
 wireless telegraphy across Norton Sound, 107 miles. Sometimes 5,000 words are 
 exchanged in an afternoon between these two points. Wireless communications 
 have been sent clear across the Atlantic, but such long-distance service has not yet 
 (1905) been made entirely practicable. Wireless telegraphing promises to be 
 one of the very important developments of the next decade for cheap and rapid 
 intercommunication between nations. 
 
 The Telephone. In recent years the telephone has been developed to a 
 high state of perfection. It is one of the most important means of direct, quick 
 and perfect communication between individuals. It is divided into two kinds of 
 service; long-distance and local. The long-distance service is used to a large 
 extent between many people in various cities for the transaction of important 
 business, conversations being held between cities fully 1,500 miles apart, instantly 
 transacting business, when the old methods of letters or traveling would require 
 either much, more time or long trips and large comparative expense. Millions of 
 telephones are in use in the United States in what is termed local service in cities 
 and towns, and are connected with the entire surrounding country. They have 
 become so much a part of every-day life that it would be utterly impossible for 
 the ordinary course of business to be conducted without them, and to be deprived 
 of the use of the telephone for a single day would entirely disorganize the routine 
 of business and social relations as they are conducted to-day. The telephone has 
 been a blessing to those living in country districts several miles from smaller towns. 
 Small settlements and plantations in distant islands, widely separated mining 
 districts of Alaska and other isolated countries, stock farm and ranches in the 
 unsettled parts of Africa and South America are now connected by telephone 
 lines. They are used by armies in the field to keep in communication and advised 
 of different movements. They are also used to report observations in connection 
 with balloons from high altitudes. The general service of the telephone to hu- 
 manity places it as one of the most convenient and useful of all recent scientific 
 developments. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Mathematical geography treats of the form ai.d siz*. of the earth, its dimen- 
 sions and the methods of ascertaining the position of places on its surface. 
 
 The next few pages will give many features showing the helpfulness of our 
 Flat Globe in the study of geography. In the first place, a few definitions and 
 facts of Mathematical Geography will simplify the study. 
 
 The Cardinal Points. If we hang our Globe on the wall, or lay it before 
 us, with the North Pole upward, the right hand on the chart will of course rep- 
 resent the east and the left hand the west, the North Pole the north, and the 
 South Pole the south. These are the cardinal points of the compass. 
 
 The Antipodes. A straight line from New York City through the center 
 of the earth to the other side of the Globe would emerge in the Indian Ocean to the 
 
36 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 southwest of Australia. The point of emergence would be the Antipodes of New 
 York. The line would form a true diameter. Thus the North Pole is exactly 
 antipodal to the South Pole. Antipodes Island, to the southeast of New Zealand, 
 is so called because it is approximately antipodal to Great Britain. Any two places 
 having this relation to each other are exactly 180 degrees of longitude apart; 
 and one of them is just as many degrees of latitude to the north of the equator 
 as the other is to the south of it. 
 
 The Flat Globe shows us that Philadelphia is in 40 north latitude. Its 
 antipodes, therefore, must be in 40 south latitude. This city is also in about 
 75 west longitude, and as it is separated from its antipodes by 180 degrees of 
 longitude, we find that the antipodes of Philadelphia is approximately in 105 
 east longitude. Find its position from this explanation on the Flat Globe. 
 
 The Poles. It is only within a few hundred years that we have accepted the 
 fact that the earth is spherical, and that it revolves around the sun and rotates 
 on its axis. As the earth is spherical, there must be two points on its surface 
 which remain at rest as it rotates. We call these points the North Pole and the 
 South Pole. The imaginary line through the center of the earth uniting them is 
 called the earth's axis. 
 
 The Equator. The circle that surrounds the earth at equal distance from 
 the Poles is called the Equator (equalizer), because it divides the earth into equal 
 hemispheres. 
 
 Latitude and Longitude,, It was necessary to devise some means by 
 which we might find any position on the surface of the earth. Mathematicians 
 solved the problem by adopting the expedient of Parallels and Meridians. 
 
 Imaginary circles surrounding the earth parallel to the equator are called par- 
 allels of latitude. The latitude of a point is its distance from the equator, 
 north or south. Thus, Philadelphia is in about 40 north latitude, that is 2,400 
 geographical miles or 2,766 statute miles north of the equator. The parallels 
 for every 10 degrees of latitude are printed on the Flat Globe. 
 
 Meridians are imaginary circles that pass through both poles and intersect the 
 equator and all parallels at right angles. "We use these meridians to define the lon- 
 gitude of any point in other words, to determine its distance to the east or the 
 west of what is known as the prime meridian, and which, of course, must be 
 previously agreed upon. Ptolemy, early in the Christian era, selected Ferro, one 
 of the islands of the Canary group, as the prime meridian, because it was the most 
 western land of which he had any knowledge. It was accepted by all geogra- 
 phers for a long time, but other meridians came into use later, among them Green- 
 wich, Paris, Pulkova and Washington. Most nations now accept Greenwich as 
 the prime meridian. When the latitude and longitude of a place are given, its 
 geographical position is accurately defined. 
 
 Great and Small Circles. On a terrestrial globe, the circles of latitude 
 are all parallel to the equator, and this is the reason why they are called parallels 
 of latitude. The equator is a Great Circle of the earth. The parallels to the 
 north and south of the equator are, of course, smaller circles, and grow constantly 
 smaller as their distance from the equator increases. They are called Small Cir- 
 cles. All the meridians pass through the poles and are all equal Great Circles of 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 37 
 
 the sphere. For the measurement of degrees of longitude, however, they are 
 treated as half circles extending from pole to pole. On the Flat Globe, the 
 earth is cut on 20 west longitude and 160 east longitude, which divides the earth 
 into the eastern and western hemispheres. The equator is the dividing line 
 between the northern and southern hemispheres. 
 
 Length of Degrees of Longitude. All our globe calculations have the 
 meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian. Greenwich is a parliamentary 
 borough of the City of London in Kent County, England, on the Thames River, 
 five miles southeast of St. Paul's Cathedral, London. It is noted for the Eoyal 
 Observatory (built in 1675). The observatory is in latitude 51 28' 38" north, 
 and is the point of departure through which the prime meridian, or 0, passes 
 from which longitudes are measured. The statute mile is 5,280 feet long. The 
 geographical or nautical mile is -fa of a degree of latitude at the equator, and is 
 6,086 feet long. It is chiefly used by navigators. 
 
 The length of a degree of longitude at the equator is 69. 164 miles, while at the 
 poles it is nothing. This is because all degrees of longitude converge at the 
 poles, as is seen on the Flat Globe. As we proceed towards the poles from the 
 equator, the length of the degrees of longitude constantly lessens. 
 
 The following table illustrates the length of one degree of longitude in differ- 
 ent latitudes from the equator to the poles : 
 
 LATITUDE STAT. MI. 
 
 LATITUDE STAT. MI. 
 
 LATITUDE STAT. MI. 
 
 LATITUDE STAT. MI. 
 
 degrees 69.164 
 
 23 degrees 63.695 
 
 46 degrees 48.124 
 
 69 degrees 24.860 
 
 1 
 
 69.145 
 
 24 
 
 63.216 
 
 47 
 
 47.253 
 
 70 
 
 23.725 
 
 2 
 
 69.122 
 
 25 
 
 62.718 
 
 48 
 
 46.363 
 
 71 
 
 22.584 
 
 3 
 
 69.072 
 
 26 
 
 62.202 
 
 49 
 
 45.462 
 
 72 
 
 21.437 
 
 4 
 
 68.998 
 
 27 
 
 61.666 
 
 50 
 
 44.545 
 
 73 
 
 20.284 
 
 5 
 
 68.901 
 
 28 
 
 61.113 
 
 51 
 
 43.614 
 
 74 
 
 19.124 
 
 6 
 
 68.785 
 
 29 
 
 60.537 
 
 52 
 
 42.670 
 
 75 
 
 17.957 
 
 7 
 
 68.652 
 
 30 
 
 59.947 
 
 53 
 
 41.713 
 
 76 
 
 16.784 
 
 8 
 
 68.496 
 
 31 
 
 59.333 
 
 54 
 
 40.743 
 
 77 
 
 15.608 
 
 9 
 
 68.315 
 
 32 
 
 58.711 
 
 55 
 
 39.760 
 
 78 
 
 14.427 
 
 10 
 
 68.117 
 
 33 
 
 58.065 
 
 56 
 
 38.765 
 
 79 
 
 13.240 
 
 11 
 
 67.900 
 
 34 
 
 57.397 
 
 57 
 
 37.758 
 
 80 
 
 12.049 
 
 12 
 
 67.661 
 
 35 
 
 56.714 
 
 58 
 
 36.740 
 
 81 
 
 10.854 
 
 13 
 
 67.402 
 
 36 
 
 56.018 
 
 59 
 
 35.711 
 
 82 
 
 9.656 
 
 14 
 
 67.121 
 
 37 
 
 55.308 
 
 60 
 
 34.669 
 
 83 
 
 8.456 
 
 15 
 
 66.821 
 
 38 
 
 54.570 
 
 61 
 
 33.617 
 
 84 
 
 7.253 
 
 16 
 
 66.499 
 
 39 
 
 53.819 
 
 62 
 
 32.555 
 
 85 
 
 6.048 
 
 17 
 
 66.163 
 
 40 
 
 53.053 
 
 63 
 
 31.483 
 
 86 
 
 4.840 
 
 18 
 
 65.798 
 
 41 
 
 52.269 
 
 64 
 
 30.402 
 
 87 
 
 3.631 
 
 19 
 
 65.419 
 
 42 
 
 51.476 
 
 65 
 
 29.310 
 
 88 
 
 2.421 
 
 20 
 
 65.014 
 
 43 
 
 50.660 
 
 66 
 
 28.210 
 
 89 
 
 1.211 
 
 21 
 
 64.589 
 
 44 
 
 49.830 
 
 67 
 
 27.101 
 
 90 
 
 O.OW 
 
 22 
 
 64.156 
 
 45 
 
 48.982 
 
 68 
 
 25.985 
 
 
 In computing distance from one point to another on the earth's surface, it will 
 be necessary to make some allowances where the points lie north and south of each 
 other, but on direct parallels east or west the scale in the table above gives the 
 number of miles at each parallel. 
 
 Change of Date Line. The change of date line marks the change of day in 
 
38 1MKKNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 circumnavigating the earth east or west. By common consent of the leading na- 
 tions, it is placed in the Pacific, and for the most part coincides with the 180th 
 meridian. When ships " cross the line," th$y add a day to their calendar if they 
 are going west, and subtract a day if they are going east; and the date line is 
 placed in the Pacific, far from most lands, because it is best to have the change made 
 where it will be least inconvenient. Because we have the western date, the date 
 line diverges from the 180th meridian in the Aleutian Archipelago, so as to give 
 all our Aleutian islands the western day. Near New Zealand, it makes a slight 
 detour to the east, so as to give the Chatham Islands the Australian or Asiatic 
 day. On July 4, 1902, the west was substituted for the eastern date in the Samoan 
 Archipelago, for the political as well as all the business interests of the islands have 
 become identified with the United States and Germany, which have the western 
 date. 
 
 SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT GLOBE 
 
 
 
 Highways of the Seas. You will notice on our Globe that the principal 
 ocean highways are given, and the distance in miles between ports is shown. Thus, 
 from San Francisco to Honolulu is 2,100 miles, from Honolulu to Manila, Phil- 
 ippine Islands, is 5,067 miles; by following these lines from one hemisphere to 
 the other, we get a perfect globe effect, as you will notice the same degree of lati- 
 tude in one hemisphere corresponds to the same degree of latitude in the other, 
 which brings all lines of latitude and longitude correctly in place. 
 
 To show how vessels sail around the world, follow the line from New York 
 City across the Atlantic, pass the Azores Islands to Gibraltar, through the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, Suez Canal, Ked Sea, Gulf of Aden, across the Arabian Sea to 
 Ceylon, then through the Indian Ocean to Australia, on to Melbourne and New 
 Zealand, then across the South Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Magellan, 
 South America, and thence northward through the South and North Atlantic 
 Oceans to New York City. 
 
 The Zones are situated within fixed circles on each hemisphere, and they 
 are imaginary belts, or girdles, named as follows: Torrid, meaning hot; Frigid, 
 meaning cold or frozen ; Temperate, meaning moderate. There are five in all. 
 The Torrid Zone is situated between the Tropic of Capricorn, which is a dotted 
 line 23% degrees south of the Equator, and the Tropic of Cancer, which is a 
 dotted line 23% degrees north of the equator. 
 
 The Polar Circles are illustrated by dotted lines 23% degrees from the 
 Poles. The northern is called the Arctic Circle, and the southern is called the Ant- 
 arctic Circle. Each circle of latitude on the Globe represents 360 degrees of longi- 
 tude, varying in length. 
 
 From the Tropic of Cancer north to the Arctic Circle is the North Temperate 
 Zone. From the Arctic Circle to the North Pole is the North Frigid Zone. 
 
 From the Tropic of Capricorn, south latitude, to the Antarctic Circle, is the 
 South Temperate Zone, and from the Antarctic Circle south to the South Pole is 
 the South Frigid Zone. 
 
 Small dotted lines illustrate the limits of ordinary navigation toward the Poles, 
 and the limits of the heavy drift ice, also the coral reefs and islands. The various 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL IHSTokV <>I TIIK WORLD. 39 
 
 routes of hurricanes, trade winds, and sea currents, showing their course, are 
 distinctly traced. 
 
 The youngest student of geography may learn quickly to use this Flat Globe 
 in an intelligent manner. 
 
 By being placed together, back to back, the hemispheres make two pole points, 
 one for the north and one for the south; they are joined correctly and give the 
 globe effect, and are more easily understood by the child or any person studying 
 from it than from a solid ball globe. 
 
 Time. Time is measured by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The dif- 
 ference of longitude between any two places on the earth's surface is simply the 
 difference of local times at the two places at the same instant. We are thus able 
 to convert differences of time into differences of longitude or vice versa. When 
 it is noon on the prime meridian at Greenwich, for example, it is earlier for places 
 to the west of Greenwich by the amount of one hour for every 15 degrees of west 
 longitude; and, similarly, it is later for all places to the east of Greenwich. 
 
 Thus the surface of the earth may be divided into spaces by meridians fifteen 
 degrees apart, beginning with Greenwich. These meridians may be called hour- 
 circles. The first three of them west of Greenwich are in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 the fourth (60 degrees) passes through Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 the fifth (75 degrees) is near Philadelphia, the sixth (90 degrees) is near St. Louis, 
 the seventh (105 degrees) is near Denver, and the eighth (120 degrees) is the west 
 boundary of Nevada. 
 
 From these meridians, or hour-circles, "standard" railroad time in North 
 America is now taken, each company adopting the time of the hour-circle nearest 
 the greater portion of its road. The names applied to these standards are Inter- 
 national (on the 60th degree), Eastern (on the 75th degree), Central (on the 90th 
 degree), Mountain (on the 105th degree), Pacific (on the 120th degree). 
 
 All places on the same meridian have exactly the same time. On the meridian 
 of 75 west near Philadelphia, for example, it is noon at the same instant from the 
 north to the south pole. 
 
 The degrees of latitude and longitude and their subdivisions are thus desig- 
 nated: A degree (); a minute, or the sixtieth part of a degree ('); a second, 
 or the sixtieth part of a minute ( " ). 
 
 TABLES SHOWING RELATIONSHIP OF LONGITUDE TO TIME. 
 
 360 of longitude make a difference of 24 hours in lime. 
 15 " " " 1 hour in time. 
 
 1 " makes " 4 minutes in time. 
 
 1' " " " 4 seconds in time. 
 
 1" " " " 1-15 second in time. 
 
 60" = 1' 60 seconds = 1 minute. 
 
 60' = 1 60 minutes = 1 hour. 
 
 30 -IS. 24 hours = 1 day. 
 
 360 = 1 Cir. 365 d., 5 h., 48 m., 49 s. =1 solar year. 
 
 Time Around the World. You will notice at the Equator on the Flat 
 Globe there are shown twenty -four clock faces, one for every hour of the day. 
 
40 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 When it is twelve o'clock, noon, at Greenwich, or degree "0," at fifteen degrees 
 east of that point it is one o'clock P.M., and at fifteen degrees west, it is eleven 
 o'clock A.M., and for every additional fifteen degrees of distance, east or west of 
 Greenwich, to the 180th parallel, or date line, where it is midnight, there is a 
 difference of one hour in time. East of Greenwich it is P.M., west of Greenwich 
 it is A.M. For example: to find the time of day at any point, say, from St. 
 Louis, Missouri. If it is twelve o'clock, noon, at St. Louis, bear in mind that it 
 is later to the right hand, or east, and earlier to the left hand, or west. You can 
 readily reckon the time from any point, by obtaining the parallel of longitude, 
 and following your dials therefrom, alloAving one hour for each fifteen degrees. 
 
 Divisions of Time. The apparent movement of the sun and the movement 
 of the moon have been taken in all ages and in all countries as the measure of time. 
 The diurnal motion of the earth constitutes the measure of our day, the earth's 
 revolution on her orbit the measure of our year, and the periodic return of the 
 moon is the basis of our month. 
 
 The true solar year contains 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 49 seconds, 
 but as the common or civil year consists of only 365 days, the Solar year is 
 about a quarter of a day longer than the civil year, and therefore, as this 
 year always contains 365 days, there would be an error of a day in the course of 
 every four years. In order to correct that error, Julius Cassar enacted that every 
 fourth year should consist of 366 days, this being called leap year, and the addi- 
 tional day to be added in themcnth of February, thereby making that month 
 contain twenty-nine days. Hence this mode of reckoning is called the "Julian 
 Calendar. ' ' 
 
 If the solar year had consisted of 365 days, 6 hours, exactly, there would have 
 been no need of making further correction; but it is over eleven minutes too 
 short, and in consequence the Julian Calendar introduced an error of forty -four 
 minutes every four years, or about a whole day in one hundred and thirty years, 
 which in the courseof centuries became considerable, and so it happened that in 1577 
 the Yernal Equinox occurred on the 10th of March instead of the 21st. Pope 
 Gregory, in the year 1582, corrected the calendar in the following manner: The 
 5th of October should be called the 15th to correct the error which had occurred 
 from the time of Caesar, and to prevent its happening again, he decreed that 
 every fourth year should be leap year, as in the Julian Calendar, except that every 
 hundredth year for three consecutive centuries should be common years, and the 
 fourth hundredth should be leap year. Thus 1700, 1800, and 1900 are common 
 years, and 2000 is a leap year. By this mode of reckoning, the error in four hun- 
 dred years would not exceed one day. This calendar, the Gregorian, was not 
 adopted in Great Britain till 1752. It is called the New Style, to distinguish it 
 from the Julian Calendar, which is called the Old Style. 
 
 Equation of Time. Owing to certain causes, among them the irregu- 
 larity of the sun's apparent motion among the stars, we find that the interval be- 
 tween two successive noons is not always the same, and a clock that keeps t'rue 
 time will not, therefore, always correspond with the sun ; for example, if it be 
 twelve o'clock M. by a clock keeping true time, when the sun is exactly on the 
 meridian, it will not be exactly noon by the clock to-morrow when the sun reaches 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 41 
 
 the same meridian. The time by the clock will be either a little before or behind 
 that of the sun, according to the season of the year. This difference between 
 the clock and the sun is called the Equation of Time. You will find in almost 
 every almanac, for each month, reference for this difference in time for each day 
 in the year. Thus you can always tell how much before or after solar time your 
 watch or clock is. 
 
 Length of Days at Various Latitudes. The following table illustrates 
 the length of the longest days in the various latitudes from the Equator: 
 
 Latitude at degrees, the longest day is 12 hours. 
 
 30 
 49 
 58 
 63 
 65 
 66 
 67 
 69 
 90 
 
 14 
 16 
 
 18 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 
 1 month. 
 
 2 months. 
 6 
 
 To Find the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. To find the lat- 
 itude of any place, find the parallel nearest to the place, and follow it to the right 
 or left margin of the map, and approximate distance above or below the line, as 
 the Flat Globe shows a line at every ten degrees; remember that if north of the 
 equator, it is in north latitude, and if south of the equator, it is in south latitude. 
 
 To find the longitude of any place, start from the equator on a parallel near- 
 est to that point and approximate the degrees in longitude from the figures that 
 show at a distance of five degrees on the equator, bearing in mind that the places 
 to the right or east of the meridian of Greenwich to the 180th degree or date line 
 are in east longitude, and those to the left of Greenwich to the 180th degree or 
 date line are in west longitude. 
 
 Here are a number of examples of the kind of questions that may be answered 
 by reference to the Flat Globe : 
 
 Example Some shipwrecked sailors who are out of sight of land find by the sun that they are in 
 40 degrees north latitude and 30 degrees west longitude. What is their place on the globe, what 
 land is nearest them, and in what direction must they sail to reach it? 
 
 Answer The Island of Flores, almost due south. 
 
 Example Another company are in 30 degrees south latitude and 110 degrees west longitude. 
 What land is nearest them, and in what direction must they sail to reach it ? 
 
 Answer Easter Island, or almost due north. 
 
 Example What hour is it at London when it is noon at St. Louis? 
 
 Answer London being 90 degrees east of St. Louis, makes it six hours later there. Hence it is 
 9 P.M. at London. 
 
 What hour is it at Chicago when it is 9 A.M. at New York ? 
 
 Example To find the difference in longitude between any two places whose difference in time is 
 known : 
 
 Reckon fifteen degrees of longitude for every hour of time and one degree for every four minutes. 
 If the time is later the longitude is east, and if earlier it is west. It is in this way that sailors find 
 where they are on the ocean. 
 
 Example Some sailors at noon on the 21st of December saw the sun to the south and only ten 
 degrees above the horizon. In what latitude were they ? 
 
 Answer 50 30' north latitude. 
 
42 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Example By their chronometer, which keeps Greenwich time, it is three o'clock P.M.; in what 
 longitude are they and where are they on the globe ? 
 
 Answer Longitude 45 west and in the Atlantic Ocean, 3 3', or 343 miles south of Cape Farewell 
 in Greenland. 
 
 Example To find the length of a degree of longitude at any given latitude : 
 
 Measiuv the distaia-i- bet worn uny two meridians at the given latitude with a rule and ascertain 
 the number of degrees to the inch this occupies at the equator. Multiply this number of equatorial 
 degrees by 69 1-6 and you have the number of miles between the two meridians, which, divided by the 
 number of degrees between them, will give you the number of miles in one degree. 
 
 Kxample To find how fast per hour the people at any given place are carried from west to east 
 by the rotation of the earth on its axis : 
 
 Find the number of miles in fifteen degrees of longitude at the latitude of the given place and 
 multiply this by 60 1-6, which will give the distance the place moves per hour. 
 
 Kxample How far does a point on the earth move from west to east in one hour at latitude 
 30 north ? 
 
 Answer The distance between two meridians (fifteen degrees) at latitude 30 degrees is equal to 
 thirteen degrees on the equator, which, multiplied by 69 1-6 miles in each degree, gives 899 miles as 
 the distance traveled in one hour. 
 
 Example To find the antipodes of any place : 
 
 Ascertain the latitude and longitude of the given place, and on the meridian exactly opposite 
 from it locate a place the same distance on the opposite side of the equator, which will be the antip- 
 odes of the given place. 
 
 Approximate Ocean Distances. A knot or nautical mile is 6,086 feet; 
 a statute or English land mile is 5,280 feet; a knot is therefore equal to about one 
 and fifteen one-hundredths statute miles. 
 
 New York 
 
 (Sandy Hook) 
 
 to 
 
 Knots. 
 
 Alexandria 4,988 
 
 Algiers 3,564 
 
 Amsterdam 3,385 
 
 Antwerp 3,208 
 
 Azores 2,250 
 
 Bermuda 691 
 
 Bremen 3,484 
 
 Cherbourg 3,027 
 
 Christiania 3,425 
 
 Copenhagen 3,800 
 
 Dover 3,160 
 
 Fastnet 2,800 
 
 Genoa 4,060 
 
 Gibraltar 3,200 
 
 Glasgow 2,950 
 
 New York 
 
 (Sandy Hook) 
 
 to 
 
 Knots. 
 
 Hamburg 3,510 
 
 Havre 3,094 
 
 Liverpool 3,032 
 
 Lizard 2,934 
 
 London 3,222 
 
 Marseilles 3,900 
 
 Milford Haven 2,875 
 
 Naples 4,140 
 
 Newfoundland, Banks of 960 
 
 Plymouth 2,946 
 
 Prawle Point 2,959 
 
 Queenstown, Roche Point 2,772 
 
 Rotterdam 3,290 
 
 Scilly, Bishop Rock 2,886 
 
 Southampton 3,100 
 
 Knots. 
 
 New York to Sandy Hook 18 
 
 Sandy Hook to Sandy Hook Lightship 8 
 
 Sandy Hook Lightship to Fire Island 30 
 
 Fire Island to Shinnecock. 35 
 
 Shinnecock to Nantucket Lightship 122 
 
 Baltimore to Hamburg (Cuxhaven) 3,813 
 
 Baltimore to Southampton 3,405 
 
 Baltimore to Queenstown (Roche Point) 3,118 
 
 Philadelphia to Hamburg (Cuxhaven) 3,633 
 
 Philadelphia to Southampton 3,223 
 
 Philadelphia to Queenstown (Roche Point) 2,950 
 
 Boston to Hamburg (Cuxhaven) 3,278 
 
 Boston to Southampton 2,868 
 
 Boston to Queenstown (Roche Point) 2,581 
 
 On a clear day two steamers approaching each other on parallel lines at 20 
 knots speed will pass at the end of fifteen minutes after their hulls first become 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 43 
 
 visible to the naked eye, and at the end of another fifteen minutes will have 
 passed out of sight astern. 
 
 Depth of the Oceans. The average depth of the oceans is from 12,000 to 
 18,000 feet, the greatest known depth being about 46,000 feet. The extent and 
 depth of the several oceans are approximately as follows: 
 
 
 AREA SQUARE MILES. 
 
 AVERAGE DEPTH. 
 
 Pacific 
 
 68 million 
 
 12 780 feet 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 35 million 
 
 12 060 feet 
 
 Indian 
 
 25 million 
 
 10 980 feet 
 
 
 
 6 000 feet 
 
 Arctic 
 
 5 million 
 
 5 100 feet 
 
 
 UNITED STATES "PORTS OP ENTRY." 
 
 
 Albany, N. Y., 
 
 Evansville, Ind., New Orleans, La., 
 
 San Francisco, Cal., 
 
 Atlanta, Ga., 
 
 Galveston, Tex., Newport News, Va., 
 
 Savannah, Ga., 
 
 Baltimore, Md., 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich., New York, N. Y., 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo., 
 
 Bath, Me., 
 
 Hartford, Conn., Norfolk, Va., 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., 
 
 Boston, Mass., 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind., Oakland, Cal., 
 
 St. Paul, Minn., 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn., 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla., Omaha, Neb., 
 
 SaultSte. Marie, Mich., 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y., 
 
 Kansas City, Mo., Philadelphia, Pa., 
 
 San Antonio, Tex., 
 
 Burlington, Vt., 
 
 Key West, Fla., Pittsburg, Pa,, 
 
 Seattle, Wash., 
 
 Charleston, S. C., 
 
 Lincoln, Neb., Port Huron, Mich., 
 
 Sioux City, la., 
 
 Chicago, 111., 
 
 Louisville, Ky., Portland, Me., 
 
 Springfield, Mass., 
 
 Cincinnati, 0., 
 
 Memphis, Tenn., Portland, Ore., 
 
 Tacoma, Wash., 
 
 Cleveland, 0., 
 
 Middletown, Conn., Pt. Townsend, Wash., 
 
 Tampa, Fla., 
 
 Columbus, 0., 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis., Portsmouth, N. H., 
 
 Toledo, O., 
 
 Denver, Colo., 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn., Providence, K. I., 
 
 Washington, D. C., 
 
 Detroit, Mich., 
 
 Mobile, Ala., Richmond, Va., 
 
 Wilmington, Del., 
 
 Dubuque, la., 
 
 Nashville, Tenn., Rochester, N. Y., 
 
 Wilmington, N. C. 
 
 Duluth, Minn., 
 
 Newark, N. J., San Diego, Cal., 
 
 
 Bnfield, Conn., 
 
 New Haven, Conn., Sandusky, 0., 
 
 
 DISTANCES AND MAIL TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 BY POSTAL ROUTE TO 
 
 MILES. 
 
 DAYS. 
 
 Adelaide via San Francisco 
 
 12,845 
 
 34 
 
 Alexandria, via London 
 
 6 150 
 
 14 
 
 Amsterdam, " " 
 
 3985 
 
 9 
 
 Antwerp, " " 
 
 3 208 
 
 9 
 
 Athens, " " 
 
 5,655 
 
 14 
 
 Bangkok , Siam, via San Francisco 
 
 12 990 
 
 43 
 
 Batavia, Java, via London 
 
 12 800 
 
 35 
 
 Berlin, via London 
 
 4385 
 
 9 
 
 Bombay, " " 
 
 9 765 
 
 26 
 
 Bremen " " 
 
 4235 
 
 9 
 
 Calcutta, via London 
 
 11 120 
 
 29 
 
 Cape Town, via London 
 
 11 245 
 
 27 
 
 Constantinople, via London 
 
 5 810 
 
 13 
 
 Florence, via London '. 
 
 4,800 
 
 10 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 3375 
 
 9 
 
 Hamburg, via London 
 
 4,340 
 
 9 
 
 Hong Kong, via San Francisco 
 
 10590 
 
 30 
 
 Honolulu " " " 
 
 5,645 
 
 13 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 3540 
 
 8 
 
 London 
 
 3 740 
 
 8 
 
 Madrid, via London 
 
 4,925 
 
 10 
 
 Melbourne, via San Francisco 
 
 12,265 
 
 32 
 
 Paris 
 
 4,020 
 
 8 
 
 Rome, via London 
 
 5,030 
 
 10 
 
 Rotterdam, via London 
 
 3,935 
 
 9 
 
 St. Petersburg, via London 
 
 5,370 
 
 11 
 
 Shanghai, via San Francisco 
 
 9,920 
 
 31 
 
 Stockholm, via London 
 
 4,975 
 
 10 
 
 Sydney, via San Francisco 
 
 11,570 
 
 31 
 
 Vienna, via London 
 
 4,740 
 
 9 
 
 Yokohama, via San Francisco 
 
 7,348 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
44 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY ot 1 THE WORLD. 
 
 NATIONAL AND POLITICAL GEOGKAPHY 
 
 Here are the most important and the latest facts concerning the various 
 countries of the world : 
 
 Abyssinia (or Ethiopia). A native empire (despotic) in East Africa, 
 between 4 and 15 north latitude and 35 and 47 east longitude. A rugged 
 plateau mostly, 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the center of the coun- 
 try is a great depression, occupied by Lake Tana, with an area of 1,200 miles, 
 which is the principal source of the Blue Nile. Population, about 5,000,000; 
 area, about 217,000 square miles, exclusive of the Somali territories. The em- 
 peror, Menelik II., claims his descent from Menelik, the son of Solomon by the 
 Queen of Sheba. 
 
 The chief commercial products are coffee, wild indigo, cotton, sugar-cane, 
 and dates. The country has many valuable forest trees. The capital is Addis 
 Abeba; population, about 50,000. Other towns Harar, 35,000; Ankober, 7,000; 
 Axum, 5,000; Gondar, 5,000. 
 
 The country is almost exclusively agricultural, but tillage is very inadequate. 
 The higher plateaus are adapted for European cereals. The western lowlands 
 are hot and unhealthful. An important coffee-growing country. Industries 
 are very little developed. Mules and donkeys chiefly used for transpor- 
 tation. The French railroad from Jibuti to Harar and Addis Abeba is consider- 
 ably advanced (190 miles). Religion, Christian (Coptic). Exports (1902) $1,- 
 117,122, coffee, dates, ivory, gums, skins; imports, $1,376,838, cotton goods, 
 cutlery, etc. 
 
 Afghanistan. A despotic emirate in south-central Asia; lies between Per- 
 sia and India. Area, 250,000 square miles; population, 4,000,000. Kabul, the 
 capital, has 140,000 population; Kandahar, 40,000; Herat, 12,000; Ghazni, 
 5,000. It is one of the most barren countries in the world. Sand, bare rocks, 
 sterile hills, and vast snow-capped mountains are the main features. of this stern, 
 inhospitable country. In summer it is hot everywhere. The temperature depends 
 upon the elevation and not upon the latitude. Stony, treeless slopes, parched 
 soil, and whirling sand increase the heat and dryness of the scorching air. 
 Winter brings frost, snow and blustering storms, and is full of surprises. One 
 moment a traveler may be in the sun's glare and the next he is pierced by the 
 icy wind. The products are wheat, barley, rice, millet and Indian corn. Assa- 
 foetida in large quantities is exported from this country to India. Fruits, such 
 as figs, pomegranates and almonds, are produced in large quantities. The Bac- 
 trian camel, sheep and goats are reared. The industries are excellent felts and 
 carpets of wool and hair, and some silk is produced. Race, Afghan exclusive 
 and unfriendly to foreigners. Religion, Mohammedan. There is small exterior 
 commerce, but some machinery has been imported into Kabul, and fire-arms are 
 manufactured there. Foreign trade, chiefly with India in 1903-04 exports, $2,- 
 291,579; imports, $2,872,206. 
 
 Alaska. Area, 590,884 square miles; population (1900), 63,592; between 
 52 and 72 north latitude and 141 and 170 west longitude. This vast territory, 
 including the Aleutian Islands, came into the possession of the United States by 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 45 
 
 purchase from Russia in 1867, at a cost of $7,200,000 in gold. Congress 
 created Alaska a civil and territorial government May 17, 1884. At the time of 
 its purchase from Russia it was considered a great folly (Seward's folly). The 
 territory has far more than paid for itself to date, and is one of the most valu- 
 able of countries in its resources in seal and other fur-bearing animals, minerals, 
 fisheries, and timber. It has vast lumber districts in its southern parts. Its coast 
 line is over 18,000 miles, or more than that of all the United States proper. There 
 are 61 volcanoes, 10 of which are active. Alaska is one of the greatest glacier 
 regions on the globe. There are numerous hot mineral and boiling springs. 
 Medicinal springs abound. Its great river, the Yukon, is navigable for upwards 
 of 1,000 miles. 
 
 Since 1896 the development of placer mining, which supplies most of Alaska's 
 gold output, has made wonderful progress. The yield increased from $2, 500, 000 
 in 1897'to about $10,000,000 in 1903, more than half of it coming from the Seward 
 peninsula (Nome and other centers). The placers of the Tanana, Copper and 
 Koyukuk rivers and Porcupine Creek are conspicuous for their yield. Cop- 
 per has been discovered in the Copper River, upper Tanana, and other districts. 
 Coal is mined along the Yukon. Tin has been found near Cape Prince of Wales, 
 and petroleum fields have been investigated along the coasts. In a few districts 
 much hay and a good variety of field crops may be raised. Reindeer for draft 
 and meat purposes are multiplying. A cable from Seattle connects the most im- 
 portant coast towns with the United States, and a system of internal telegraphs 
 is in operation. 
 
 Algeria. The most important colony of France, situated on the Mediter- 
 ranean coast of Africa. Area, 184,474 square miles. Population, 4,800,000, of 
 whom 700,000 are foreigners, 400,000 French. Capital, Algiers, 97,000; Oran, 
 74,510; Constantine, 46,581. Occupied by France in 1830. Climate resembles 
 that of southern Italy. The coast is divided into several long strips by the paral- 
 lel chains of the Great and Lesser Atlas viz., the coast plain only partially arable; 
 the Tell, the chief agricultural and stock-farming region .; and the Algerian Sahara, 
 with fertile oases. The chief crops are grain, wine, oil, tobacco, dates and south- 
 ern fruits. Large quantities of vegetables are raised for the markets of France. 
 Cork and esparto grass for paper making are exported. Horses, camels and sheep 
 are of superior quality. The country is extraordinarily rich in phosphates, and 
 yields iron, copper, lead and salt. The Arab natives make carpets and their 
 other distinctive wares. The French have few manufactures. Wagon roads 
 are fine, and nearly three times the length of the railroads, which have made 
 rapid progress. Races Berber, French, Italians, etc. Religions Mohammedan, 
 Christian, and Jewish. Foreign trade (1902) almost wholly with France ex- 
 ports, $59,800,000; imports, $63,720,000. 
 
 Andorra. A republic in the Pyrenees. Area, 176 square miles; popula- 
 tion, 5,231. Situated about 42 north latitude and 2 east longitude. Before 
 the French revolution this valley, high among the mountains, had no sovereign 
 rights, but was a barony of the Counts of Urgel and of Aragon, having govern- 
 mental relations both with France and Spain. In 1793 the French Republic de- 
 clined to receive the customary tribute, in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished the 
 
46 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 feudal regime, and thus Andorra became an independent state. The inhabitants 
 continue to govern themselves in accordance with old feudal customs. The land 
 belongs to a few families. Cattle breeding and a little iron and woolen manufac- 
 turing are the chief industries. The village of Andorra is the capital, but San 
 Julia de Loria is a more important place. Race, chiefly Spanish. No trade statis- 
 tics. 
 
 Arabia. A peninsula and part of the Turkish Empire, between 13 and 33 
 north latitude and 35 and 60 east longitude. Area, 1,123,000 miles; popu- 
 lation, 8,500,000. Mecca, the capital; population, 60,000. It is surrounded on 
 three sides by seas, is an extensive desert land, interspersed with a few fertile 
 spots on the coasts, and oases in the interior, where millet, cotton, coffee, indigo, 
 barley, sugar, dates, tobacco and aromatic plants are raised. Some of the 
 inhabitants dwell in towns and till the soil. Commonly, they are Bedouins, or 
 wandering tribes, whose wealth consists of horses, camels, asses and mules, for 
 which the country is noted. In all this vast country there is scarcely a single 
 stream deserving the title of river. Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, derives 
 its support entirely from the thousands of pilgrims that travel thither from every 
 part of the Mohammidan world. Many also visit Medina, his burial-place. It is 
 on the slopes of Yemen, on the southwest coast, that the famous Mocha coffee 
 is raised; but owing to primitive methods, the production has become very small. 
 Only in the mountainous southwest has a fixed population established itself. 
 Race, Arabian, divided into many tribes. Religion, Mohammedan. Foreign 
 trade small. A railroad is now being built from Damascus to Mecca. 
 
 Argentine Republic. South America, between 22 and 53 south latitude 
 and 56 and 72 west longitude. Area, 1,094,496 square miles; population 
 (1903), 5,191,000; capital, Buenos Aires, 908,492; Rosario, 112,461.' This 
 country is the richest and most prosperous in South America. Climate chiefly 
 temperate. Twenty years ago only a cattle-raising country, Argentine is be- 
 coming largely agricultural. Most of it is pampas or comparatively flat plains. 
 The eastern part of the pampas and the region between the Parana and Uruguay 
 rivers are most important for farming. "Wheat production in 1902 was 1,700,000 
 tons. Much wheat is exported. Maize and linseed are very large crops. Animal 
 raising is very extensive, chiefly cattle and sheep. Th. large resources in min- 
 erals near the western mountains are still almost undeveloped. Manufacturing is 
 small, but growing. The Parana, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers are splendid 
 highways of trade. Railroads crossing the grain regions are pushing towards the 
 Andes, and the transcontinental railroad has reached the Chilean frontier. Races 
 Spanish-American, Italian, German, and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. For- 
 eign trade in 1903 exports, $177,744,800, chiefly frozen meats, live cattle, wool, 
 wheat, linseed, hides; imports, $125,834,400, chiefly textiles, iron machinery, 
 etc. 
 
 The Commonwealth of Australia. A self-governing colony of Great 
 Britain. The smallest of the continents between 11 and 44 south latitude and 
 112 and 152 east longitude. Its states are New South Wales, South Australia, 
 Queensland, Western Australia, Victoria, Tasmania. Area, 2,972,906 square 
 miles. Population (1901), 4,353,000. Temporary capital, Melbourne. Mel- 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 47 
 
 bourne and Sydney each has a population of about 500,000. Australia resem- 
 bles Africa in surface features a high plain in the interior, "with mountains in 
 the east and west, and very few lowlands. The Murray is the only large river 
 system, and this is only navigable a part of the year. Climate, dry, except on 
 the east coast. The southeast and southwest are adapted for cereals, of which 
 wheat is the most important. Fruit, including the vine*, is successfully cultivated. 
 Frequent droughts impair the value of agriculture. Australia produces about half 
 the wool the world consumes. The yield of gold is very large, and coal and other 
 minerals are extracted in large quantities. An adequate railroad system is de- 
 veloping. The distance of Australia from other civilized lands is a great disad- 
 vantage to its commerce. Races, British and aboriginal. Three-fourths of the 
 population are Protestant. Foreign trade (1902) exports, $213,713,000 ; imports, 
 $203,644,000. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. A limited monarchy in central Europe, south of Ger- 
 many and Russia. It is the third largest kingdom in Europe. Agricultural in- 
 dustry ranks first, producing grains of all kinds, and potatoes, beet-root sugar, 
 wine and barley. Population, 45,405,267; area, 240,942 square miles. The cap- 
 ital is Vienna ; population (1904), 1,816,303; Budapest, 732,000. The empire is 
 mostly surrounded by mountains and highlands, and sharp contrasts in topography 
 result in widely different climates. The southern provinces have mild winters 
 and dry summers, while the Hungarian plains have very hot summers and severe 
 winters. Only the Alps have large rainfall. Agriculture, on the whole, is 
 backward. The Hungarian plains are among the great wheat-producing 
 regions of the world. Hungary also has the chief tobacco-growing district in 
 Europe. The Alpine lands are most favorable for animal raising. Mining 
 is best developed in Bohemia, especially the coal deposits. Coal produc- 
 tion is not equal to the demand. Manufactures are of subordinate importance, 
 owing to slow introduction of new machinery, high freights and race animosities. 
 The largest industrial development is in the northwest, where the population is 
 most dense. The railroad system is well developed, and there are over 100,000 
 miles of carriage roads and 5,000 miles of navigable waterways (rivers and 
 canals). No country has suffered more from race hatred. The races are Ger- 
 mans, Slavs, Roumanians and Magyars. The Roman Catholic faith numbers 
 30,000,000 adherents; there are, besides, Protestants, Greek Catholics and Jews. 
 Foreign trade (1903) exports, $466,026,262; imports, $423,069,012. 
 
 Belgium. A kingdom of north Europe, between France and Germany, is 
 the most densely populated country in the world. It is a great manufacturing 
 country. Every foot of soil is cultivated to the highest degree. Rich in coal, 
 iron, zinc, lead and copper. Large producer of beet-root sugar. Area, 11,374 
 square miles; population, 6,985,219. Brussels is the capital; population, 190,- 
 133; Antwerp, 281,376; Liege, 163,985; Ghent, 162,490. Farming, though very. 
 intensive, cannot produce enough grain for home consumption. Coal measures 
 occupy one-twenty-second of the area, but are so deep that coal mining is becom- 
 ing more and more difficult. Over 1,000,000 persons are engaged in manufac- 
 turing, the metal and machinery industries taking the first rank, while textiles, 
 glass, porcelain and other branches are very important. The railroad and canal 
 
48 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 systems are highly developed, but sea communications are hampered by the small 
 extent of coast line. More than one-half of the people are Flemish, 42 per cent. 
 French, and the rest Walloons. Nearly all are Eoman Catholics, with a few- 
 Protestants and Jews. Foreign trade (1903) exports, $427,335,750; imports, 
 $537,921,000. 
 
 Bolivia. Is an inland republic of South America, north of Argentina. The 
 agricultural products are fruit, corn and vegetables common to both temperate 
 and tropical countries. The tropical forests are rich in cabinet, dye and building 
 woods. India-rubber of first-class quality is found in enormous quantities. Gold 
 and silver are extensively mined, also copper and tin. Area, 515,156 square miles; 
 population (1900), 1,853,400. Sucre is the capital ; population, 20,907. The most 
 important town is La Paz, 54,713. In this country is partly situated Lake 
 Titicaca, on whose historic shores stand the ruins of structures built by the 
 once mighty race of Incas. Races, Spanish- Americans and Indians. Religion, 
 Roman Catholic. Bolivia has no sea frontage, and its foreign trade is chiefly 
 through the Chilean port of Antofagasta, with which the mining region is con- 
 nected by rail. Trade in 1902 exports, nearly all metals and rubber, $14,338,- 
 480; imports, $6,222,920. 
 
 Brazil. Is a republic of South America. Area, 3,209,878 square miles; pop- 
 ulation, 15,000,000. Rio Janeiro is the capital; population, 700,000. Brazil is 
 the largest of the South American countries, being a little larger than the United 
 States proper. It comprises nearly one-half of the area of South America. This 
 country surpasses all others in the extent of its navigable rivers. It also has im- 
 mense forests and mines of great value, but very little has been done to develop 
 its resources. The lowlands of the Amazon Basin are covered by dense tropical 
 forests and are unhealthful. The highlands inland, south of the Amazon Basin, 
 are dry, steppe-like and sparsely populated. The region of the plantations is in 
 the coastal zone, which is fairly well tilled, and contains nearly all the important 
 cities. The climate is tropical in the north, subtropical in the middle latitudes 
 and temperate in the south. Brazil is the largest producer of coffee and rubber 
 in the world, and there is now an over-production of coffee, the larger part of which 
 is exported from Santos. The Amazon Basin abounds with rubber trees. Sugar 
 cane is the great crop of the regions tributary to Pernambuco and Bahia. Cattle 
 thrive chiefly among the German farmers of the south. Mining is little devel- 
 oped, and manufactures, confined chiefly to the meat, sugar and beer-brewing in- 
 dustries, are in their infancy. Steamers serve the Amazon Basin for freight car- 
 riage, and the railroad system is considerably developed in the southern states. 
 Races Portuguese- American, German, Italian and Indian. Religion, Roman 
 Catholic. Exports, chiefly coffee, rubber, tobacco, hides and cacao; imports, 
 foodstuffs, coal, machinery and textiles. Foreign trade (1902) exports, $177,- 
 323,000; imports, $113,288,000. 
 
 British Honduras. Is in northeast Central America, adjoining Mexico. 
 A British crown colony. Area, 7,562 square miles; population, 31,471. Be- 
 lize, the capital and chief town; population, 2,500. The country consists chiefly 
 of primeval forests, with savannas and open sandy plains covered with a wiry 
 grass and dotted with pine trees. The soil is exceedingly rich, and sugar-cane 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD 49 
 
 is the chief crop. The best of cocoa trees grow wild in the bush. Its staple 
 products are natural woods, mahogany and logwood, and many excellent furniture 
 woods. There are some thriving sugar estates, and large coffee plantations have been 
 started. Fruits are rapidly and extensively grown. Imports (1903), $1,775,568. 
 
 Bulgaria. Is a Balkan principality between 41 and 44 north latitude 
 and 22 and 28 east longitude. Nominally tributary to Turkey, but practically 
 independent. Area, 37,282 square miles. Population (1900), 3,744,283. Solia, 
 the capital, has 47,000 inhabitants; Philippopolis, 43,043; Yarna, 34,932; Rust- 
 chuk, 32,712. Crossed by Balkan ranges, with the Danube plain in the north 
 and a broad rich plain (East Rumelia) in the south. The Bulgarians are indus- 
 trious and frugal people, 72 per cent, of whom are farmers. Cattle and sheep- 
 herding are important; iron and coal are the chief minerals; military service is 
 obligatory; less than 29 per cent, of the population can read or write. It has a 
 large trade in manufactured articles, and 507 miles of railroad in operation. 
 Freed from the Turkish yoke in 1878, many schools have been established, much 
 progress made in all directions, and manufacturing is more advanced than in 
 most Balkan states, especially in footwear, leather making, woolen textiles and 
 carpets. Races two-thirds Bulgarians, one-seventh Turks, Rumanians, Greeks, 
 etc. Religion, chiefly Greek Church. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $16,- 
 565,000; exports, $21,884,985. 
 
 Canada, Dominion of. A British colony, with the executive government 
 vested in the British sovereign, and legislative functions in a parliament, of which 
 the House of Commons is elected by popular vote. Area, 3,745,574 square miles; 
 population, 5,371,315. Capital, Ottawa; population, 59,928; Montreal, 267,730; 
 Toronto, 208,040; Quebec, 68,840; Hamilton, 52,634; Halifax, 40,832. It extends 
 from 42 north latitude to the Arctic Ocean, above 77 north latitude, and from 
 52 to 141 west longitude. It includes nine provinces, British Columbia, Man- 
 itoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, 
 Saskatchewan, and Alberta (the last two organized in 1905), and the Northwest 
 Territories and Yukon. It has the ocean on three sides, and the Great Lakes 
 on the south. The Atlantic ports are nearer to European markets than are 
 those of the United States. Canada is a broad, low plain, excepting in British 
 Columbia, which is the mountain region. The southern part of the eastern 
 plain, once heavily forested, has been largely cleared for farms. The south cen- 
 tral plain, extendingin to Athabasca from the southern border, is a comparatively 
 level prairie with deep rich soil, one of the finest farm and grazing regions in the 
 world. This region is attracting large immigration. About 70 per cent, of the 
 population are farmers, with wheat, oats, barley and maize as the great grain crops. 
 Fruit raising is important in Ontario and Nova Scotia. "Wide areas of forest in 
 northern Quebec and Ontario and in British Columbia yield great wealth in lum- 
 ber, and the manufacture of wood pulp for paper making is very large. The 
 mountain plateau is the source of most of the metals, though iron is mined on th& 
 east coast. Canada is usually the fourth or fifth country in the annual world- 
 product of gold, is one of the two largest producers of nickel, and mines much 
 coal. The fisheries employ 80,000 persons. The vast regions north of the for- 
 ests are not likely to be of great value unless mineral wealth is discovered. The 
 4 
 
50 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 St. Lawrence and Great Lakes afford large facilities for transportation. Kailroads 
 are well developed in the southeast, and the Canadian Pacific Eailroad is the only 
 transcontinental line in America owned by one company. A second transconti- 
 nental line from Quebec through Winnipeg to Port Simpson is to be built. Races 
 British- American, French, and Indian. Religions, Protestant and Roman Cath- 
 olic. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $224,814,000; exports, $196,161,000. 
 
 Cape Colony. A British colony in South Africa. Area, 276,902 square 
 miles; population, 2,433,000. It extends between 28 and 35 south latitude 
 and 16 and 30 east longitude. A large portion of the country is but a wide 
 area of semi-arid regions, which have nutritious grasses that support millions of 
 sheep and cattle and many ostriches. Stretching across the southern edge of 
 (Jape Colony is a zone of excellent lands producing wheat, maize and other crops 
 of the temperate zone. Thousands of acres are in vines, the colony being a 
 large producer of wine, and also of north and south European fruits, of which 
 large quantities are sent in cool storage to Europe as early as February and March. 
 Four-fifths of Cape Colony needs artificial irrigation, and plants for this purpose 
 are developing. The autumn rains provide much water. Wool-growing is the 
 largest grazing industry, and ostrich feathers from the domesticated birds are 
 derived chiefly from this region. Goats are more numerous than cattle, the An- 
 gora goat yielding large quantities of mohair. The diamond mines at Kimberley 
 practically monopolize the world's trade. Efforts to develop industries since the 
 Boer war are noteworthy, but wine-making is still the most important branch. 
 The ports of Cape Town, East London and Port Elizabeth are connected with 
 the far interior by rail, and trains are now running from Cape Town to Yictoria 
 Falls, on the Zambesi River, 1,640 miles. Races British, Dutch, and the natives, 
 who outnumber the whites about six to one. Religion, Protestant. 
 
 Chinese Empire. Government despotic. Area, 4,278,591 square miles; 
 population (1902), 426,447,305, of which 407,737,305 in China proper. Peking is 
 the capital; population, 1,650,000. China extends between 18 and 54 north 
 latitude and 74 and 134 east longitude, and contains over one-fourth the pop- 
 ulation of the earth. Its civilization, arts and culture are the oldest in the world, 
 and for centuries have been practically unchanged. It was the last of the East- 
 ern nations, excepting Corea, to open its ports to the world. The present out- 
 look for more rapid internal improvements is encouraging. A few railroads are 
 being built, and Western methods of manufacturing cotton and some machinery 
 are being introduced. Its dense population makes necessary rigid economy. Its 
 rivers and many canals are of great importance for transportation in the absence 
 of railroads. Its largest cities stand on their banks, while many thousands of 
 people live in boats which float on their surface. Tibet is high, cold and barren, 
 excepting in some of the lower lands in the south. Manchuria has fine and 
 well -tilled agricultural lands in the south, raising large crops of wheat, beans 
 and other produce. It is the most valuable part of the empire outside of China 
 proper. Rice forms the principal food in China; fish comes next. Domestic 
 animals, excepting hogs and poultry, are of subordinate importance. Ninety 
 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture. Tillage of the soil is most 
 extensive. Each family has only a half acre to two acres, and the hoe takes the 
 
INTKK.NATloNAL <i K< " KAl'II ICAL HI8TOKY OF THE WORLD. 51 
 
 place of the plow. The north of China resembles our Northern States and 
 the south the Gulf States in vegetation and crops. The country is very rich 
 in minerals, especially coal and iron, but mining methods are primitive, and the 
 output is small. Religions Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Mohammedan; 
 1,094,000 Roman Catholics, 35,000 Protestants. Foreign trade (1902) imports, 
 $198,364,000: exports, $134,720,000. 
 
 Chile. A South American republic. Area, 299,626 square miles; popula- 
 tion (1902), 3,173,783; extends between 17 and 55 south latitude and 68 and 
 75 west longitude. Chileans are progressive people, encouraging manufactures 
 and providing good educational facilities. Santiago is the capital; population, 
 332,059; Valparaiso, leading port on the Pacific coast of South America, 142,282; 
 Concepcion, 49,351; Iquique, 42,788. The country lies west of the Andes 
 Mountains, extending from Peru on the north to Cape Horn, a distance of 2,500 
 miles. The elevation of its eastern, boundary, the Andes range, is from 13,000 to 
 14,000 feet above the sea level; many of its peaks rise higher. The greater part 
 of the coast is studded with islands, some of which are very fertile. The north is 
 sultry and rainless (desert of Atacama) ; the center has regular winter rains, and the 
 south has superabundant rainfall (120 inches) and a cool temperature. Agriculture 
 is possible in the north only by irrigation in a few river valleys; in central Chile, 
 between Santiago and Valdivia, our cereals thrive finely. Here also tobacco and 
 the grape are cultivated (50,000 men in the wine industry). The central farm- 
 ing region sends foodstuffs to north Chile. Forests predominate in the south, 
 but are as yet little utilized. Stock raising, chiefly sheep, is not extensive. Min- 
 ing supplies 92 per cent, of the total exports. Over 1,000,000 tons of nitrate of soda 
 are sent abroad for fertilizers every year. Copper is the largest metal export, 
 followed by silver and gold. Manufacturing in many respects is still in its early 
 stages, though Chile is first in South America in these industries, chiefly flour 
 mills, foundries, tanneries, spinning and weaving mills, potteries and metal goods. 
 As there is little interior navigation, railroads are of great importance and fairly 
 well developed. Steamers ply in the coast trade. Races Spanish- American, 
 German and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Foreign trade (1902) im- 
 ports, $48,336,000; exports, $67,846,000. 
 
 Colombia. A South American republic. Area, 486,827 square miles; pop- 
 ulation, 3,917,000; extends between 67 and 79 west longitude and 12 north and 
 4 south latitude. Low plains and valleys in the north give abundant pasturage 
 to cattle. South of Caribbean coast-lands the Cordilleras cover about one- third of 
 the state, and high plateaus among them yield wheat and other temperate crops. 
 Rainfall is very heavy on the narrow Pacific slope, which is covered with dense 
 tropical vegetation. East of the Cordilleras is a wide expanse of selvas (forested 
 plains), rich in rubber, also llanos, or grass plains, where cattle graze. Coffee 
 of good quality is cultivated at middle altitudes. The great differences in alti- 
 tude give Colombia all the climates and a large variety of the vegetable products 
 of the world. In the coastal low grounds and river valleys the products are purely 
 tropical; between 3,000 and 6,500 feet, maize and coffee predominate; between 
 6,500 and 10,000 feet, the climate is delightful, and wheat, vegetables and 
 Northern Fruits are cultivated. Columbia is the source of the world's supply of 
 
52 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 emeralds, but the mining of gold, silver and coal and other important minerals 
 is little developed. The population live chiefly on the high plateaus and at the 
 seaports. Few countries are so poorly provided with means of transportation. 
 There are about 400 miles of railroad, almost no wagon roads, and only poor mule 
 paths. The Magdalena River is navigable nearly to Honda, 600 miles, the Cauca 
 to Caceres, and the Atrato to Quibdo; but the most populous regions among the 
 highlands are reached only by mule trains. The coast towns import wheat more 
 cheaply than they can bring it from their own highlands. The few industries are 
 centered around Bogota, the capital; population, 120,000; Medellin, 53,000; 
 Cartagena, 25,000 ; Bucaramanga, 25,000. Caribbean seaports Cartagena 
 (declined), Sabanilla (port of Barranquilla) ; Pacific, Buena Ventura. Races, 
 Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Foreign trade 
 (1898) imports, $10,695,000; exports, $18,487,000. 
 
 Congo Free State. Under the sovereignty of King Leopold II. of Belgium, 
 with central government at Brussels, and affairs administered by a Governor Gen- 
 eral in the state. Area, 939,292 square miles; population, estimated, 19,000,000; 
 between 6 north and 14 south latitude and 12 and 32 east longitude. Boma, 
 50 miles up the Congo, is the capital. 
 
 The river basin is the second largest in the world, and most of it is included 
 in the Congo state. The state is chiefly a high, flat table-land, bordered on the 
 west by mountains, through which the river has cut its way for 270 miles, drop- 
 ping to the coastal plain 1,800 feet in that distance. There is navigation up 
 the lower Congo for 90 miles from its mouth; the rapids through the mountains 
 are circumvented by a railroad to Stanley Pool, above which about 8,000 miles 
 of navigation are spread along the various branches of the upper Congo system. 
 The climate is torrid, and, excepting at some places, unhealthf ul for the white races ; 
 but the heat is tempered by the elevation of the plateau, and as the whites have 
 learned the conditions of health, the mortality among them has been reduced more 
 than one-half. Great tropical forests are found only in the east and northeast, 
 the most of the state being rolling grass-lands, interspersed with areas of timber. 
 The government has a large number of stations, and many posts are maintained 
 by missionary and trading societies. A profusion of tropical plants and animals 
 provides abundant food for the natives. The chief commercial products as yet 
 are rubber, ivory and palm oil, but some cotton and tobacco plantations are begin- 
 ning to flourish. The wealth in rubber is enormous. It is a misdemeanor to kill 
 the rubber plant, and millions of them are being set out in plantations. Euro- 
 pean cattle, introduced at 70 stations, are doing well, though they are not suc- 
 ceeding in some districts. Gold, copper, silver and iron are the principal metals, 
 and Katanga, the southeast district, has great mineral wealth. On the upper 
 Congo and its tributaries are 100 small steamers and many tow-boats, which ply 
 to the heads of navigation. Slave-raiding, cannibalism, human sacrifices, etc., 
 are severely punished and suppressed wherever the government has brought the 
 country under its influence. Many thousands of the younger natives are being 
 taught trades, and all manual and considerable skilled labor is performed by na- 
 tives under white supervision. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $5,280,000; ex- 
 ports, $9,640,000, three-fourths rubber. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 53 
 
 Corea. An absolute monarchy in Asia. Area, 82,000 square miles; pop- 
 ulation (1901), 5,713,244; government, imperial, strongly under Japanese influ- 
 ence. Between 34 and 44 north latitude and 125 and 131 east longitude. 
 Capital, Seoul; population, 193,640. A very mountainous peninsula, about 600 
 miles long and 135 miles wide at its broadest part. It has a few excellent har- 
 bors and a good climate. Most of the people are farmers, and agriculture thrives 
 best in the southern half of the peninsula, rice and beans being the chief crops.. 
 The industry is greatly hampered bj r lack of room, as the valleys are narrow. 
 Many mountain-sides are terraced and cultivated. Gold has been found in many- 
 places, and a number of foreign companies, especially Americans, are beginning 
 to work concessions. Inland communications, are very poor, excepting by the 
 short railroad connecting Seoul with its port Chemulpo, and the line opened in 
 1904 between the southern.port of Fusan and the capital. Ponies, wheelbarrows, 
 and sedan-chairs are used for most of the freightage and passenger traffic. The 
 important ports, Fusan, Chemulpo, Mokpo and 'Wunsan, are open to foreign 
 traders. Besides Coreans, 19,000 Japanese, 5,000 Chinese, and a few hundred 
 Americans and Europeans live in the country. Religions Buddhism, Confucian- 
 ism, 58,800 Roman Catholics and -28,000 Protestants. Trade (1903) imports, 
 $4,579,797; exports, $3,758,500. 
 
 Costa Rica. A Central American republic. Area, 21,100 square miles; 
 population (1903), 322,618. Between 8 and 12 north latitude and 81 and 86 
 west longitude. Two parallel mountain ranges cross Costa Rica, with the depres- 
 sion of Cartago between them. Several active volcanoes are in the northern 
 range, and among them Turrialba and Irazu are over 11, 000 feet in height. The 
 southern chain also has lofty mountains. A third of the population live on the 
 Pacific or dry side of the mountains, many having relations with the coffee plan- 
 tations that supply Costa Rica with more than half of her exports. Coffee is the 
 largest crop, and is noted for its excellence. Cattle are herded on the uplands, 
 but the home supply of beef is not equal to the demand. San Jose, the capital, 
 on the table-land, in the heart of the coffee district, has 24,963 inhabitants, and 
 is connected by rail with Puerto Limon, the Atlantic port. Punta Arenas is the 
 Pacific port. Races, Spanish -American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic, 
 The imports are hardware and manufactures, more than half coming from the- 
 United States. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $4,415,000; exports, $5,661,000. 
 
 Cuba. Area, 40,000 square miles; population (1899), 1,572,797. Between 
 19 and 23 north latitude and 74 and 85 west longitude. Havana is the capital ; 
 population, 262,319. Other large ports, Cienfuegos, 30,038; Santiago, 45,47S; 
 Alatanzas, 45,282. Cuba is the largest island of the West Indies, and the largest 
 fertile island of America. It embraces nearly half the land surface of the West 
 Indies. Its deeply indented coasts provide many excellent harbors, which is one 
 of its great commercial advantages. In the west are the low mountains, Sierra 
 de los Organos, on whose southern slopes (Yuelta Abajo) the most highly prized 
 tobacco of Cuba is raised. In the east are higher mountains, where agriculture is 
 much diversified, but this region yields less for export than other parts of the 
 island. Between the eastern and western mountains are the- rich central plains 
 that produce the great sugar crop of Cuba and give pasturage to large numbers of 
 
"'4 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 cattle. The climate is tropical, tempered by the northeast trade winds, so that 
 the white race can live in any part of the island. The cities in which sanitary reg- 
 ulations are now enforced have become healthful. Sugar from sugar-cane and 
 tobacco are the two great crops. About two-thirds of the tobacco crop is ex- 
 ported. Cocoanuts and bananas are exported from the eastern part of the island. 
 The eastern mountains yield prime iron ore and manganese. Short railroads 
 cross the island from north to south, and the line from Havana to Santiago was 
 completed in 1903. . Wagon roads are still very poor. Steamers in the coastal 
 trade make the circuit of the island. About two-thirds of the people are 
 Spanish -Americans, 142,000 foreign whites, 234,000 negroes, 271,000 mixed 
 blood, and 14,000 Chinese. Eeligion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Havana is the 
 great tobacco and Matanzas the sugar port, the United States having the greater 
 part of the trade. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $58,826,000; exports, $77,- 
 849,000. 
 
 Denmark. A limited monarchy. Area, 15,289 square miles; population, 
 2,585,662. Between 54 and 58 north latitude and 8 and 13 east longitude. 
 Capital, Copenhagen; population, 378,235. Other large cities Aarhuus, 51,814; 
 Odense, 40,138^ Copenhagen is one of the free ports of Europe, all goods admitted 
 to the free port being exempt from customs duties. Thus they may be reshipped 
 to foreign ports without examination, but if sent into Denmark outside of the 
 free port, they must pay tariff charges. The kingdom is entirely lowland, and 
 the west coast is protected from the sea by dikes at many points. The Baltic 
 islands, excepting Bornholm, are flat and fertile, but large areas of moor and sand 
 are met in Jutland. The climate is oceanic, mild for the latitude, but great 
 storms sometimes lash the coasts. The very prosperous Danes have agriculture 
 and cattle breeding as their chief resources. Two-thirds of the land is fertile, 
 the pastures are large and rich, and stock farming is the special sphere of the Dan- 
 ish farmer. The export of butter and eggs is enormous. The kingdom is poor 
 in minerals and entirely wanting in metals. As four-fifths of the inhabitants are 
 agriculturists, manufacturing has only a minor role, and industrial establishments 
 are mainly supported by the farming and sea-faring interests. Beet sugar is 
 refined, flour mills are numerous, factories make sail-cloth, leather, and prepare 
 tobacco, and the brewing and distilling interests are large. Copenhagen and 
 Odense, where manufacturing is mainly confined, produce also machinery, porce- 
 lain and cloth. On the whole, Denmark supplies its own wants but poorly, and 
 most manufactures are imported. The rail and wagon roads are adequate and 
 excellent. Race, Danish. Religion, chiefly Lutheran. Trade (1902) imports, 
 $116,700,000; exports, $85,700,000. 
 
 Dutch East Indies. Colonial possessions of the Netherlands. Area, 584,- 
 00 square miles; population (1903), 37,358,916. Between 5 north latitude and 
 11 south latitude and 95 and 131 east longitude. Batavia is the capital ; pop- 
 ulation, 115,887. Other largest towns in Java Surabaja, 146,944; Surakarta. 
 109,459. This group of islands comprises Java, Madura, Sumatra, most of Bor- 
 neo, Banka, Billiton, Celebes, Rian, Lingga, the Molucca Archipelago, and the 
 small Sunda Islands. Java is the most important, and produces large quantities 
 of sugar, tea, indigo, cinchona bark, and tobacco. Sumatra is where a tobacco 
 
INTERNATIONA I, < . K< . K A I'll K '\l. HISTORY OF T1IK \\om.|>. 
 
 prized for cigar wrappers is grown. The Dutch are very skillful in their colonial 
 policy, which is based upon the maxim, "The Dutch colonies for the Dutch."" 
 The Dutch protect the natives from arbitrary oppression and spoliation, and have 
 made the East Indies an inexhaustible source of wealth for the mother country. 
 The climate is tropical, but all the islands are mountainous, ami cool retreatar;u-- 
 accessible. Java (population, 28,745,698) is" the most densely peopled landn<;ir 
 the equator. Next to Cuba, it is the largest producer of cane-sugar. Java coffee 
 is sent to all parts of the world. The island is the largest producer of quinine, 
 and the tea plantations yield important returns. Sumatra's products are like 
 those of Java, but it grows a far larger amount of tobacco. A large part of the 
 spices, tortoise-shell and pearl-shell in the world's trade comes from the other 
 Dutch islands. Batavia, in Java, is the commercial center of the colony. Four- 
 fifths of all products are sent to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, where they are 
 greatly enhanced in value by manufacture and preparation for . market. 
 Dutch merchants sell these products in many lands, and send to the East 
 Indies great quantities of cottons and other manufactures; so that the 
 Dutch East Indies are the best customers of the Netherlands, excepting 
 Europe. Race, Malayan stock. Trade (1902) imports, $82,778,000; exports, 
 $109,444,000. 
 
 Ecuador. A South American republic. Area, 118,630 square miles; pop- 
 ulation, 1,400,000. Between 2 north latitude and 5 south latitude and 74 and 81" 
 west longitude. Capital, Quito; population, 80,000. Other cities, Guayaquil, 
 51,000; Cuenca, 30,000; Riobamba, 18,000. Ecuador, so called because it lies 
 under the equator, illustrates the influence of altitudes on climate and production. 
 On the narrow Pacific coast plain there are tropical forests, high grasses, rubber, 
 cacao and many other products of the hot lands. The people live in thin- walled 
 houses. Only 70 miles to the east is the high plateau of Ecuador, between the 
 Cordilleran ranges, where the population is housed in stone and adobe dwellings 
 amid fields of wheat, barley, potatoes and alfalfa. Further east the land slopes 
 to another forested tropical plain. The lowland east of the excellent port of 
 Guayaquil and the plain of the Rio Guayas are a continuous garden, rich in 
 tropical vegetation. Here sugar-cane is cultivated, but above all cacao, which 
 is the principal wealth of the country, and Ecuador is the largest source of supply. 
 Cacao is over three-fourths of the total exports. They need wheat on the coast, 
 but the wheat-fields of the high plateau have been inaccessible because only mule 
 paths connected the high with the low-lying regions. The railroad from Guay- 
 aquil has now been pushed to the plateau of Quito, and will soon reach the grain- 
 growing district, so that the people of the low plain may utilize the temperate 
 products of their own country. The eastern lowlands have rubber and gold still 
 almost inaccessible. The coast Indians produce the famous Panama hats from 
 the fine straw of the toquilla, called Panama simply because they are forwarded to 
 market through that port. There are few other manufactures except the prod- 
 ucts of a small number of woolen and cotton mills, saw mills, chocolate works, 
 and soap factories, chiefly at Guayaquil, which has the best harbor on the west 
 coast of South America, and handles nearly all the foreign trade. The imports 
 are mainly manufactures and foodstuffs. Races, .Spanish- American and Indian. 
 
56 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $5,534,907; 
 exports, $9,313,177. 
 
 Egypt. A tributary state of Turkey, with a Khedive as sovereign, but in 
 its financial and economic administration under the control of Great Britain. 
 Befcveen 22 and 32 north latitude and 24 and 38 east longitude. Area, 383,- 
 000 square miles, including the deserts. The area of the cultivated and densely 
 populated land is only 10,000 square miles, a narrow strip along the banks of the 
 Nile about the size of our State of New Hampshire. Population, 9,821,000. 
 Capital, Cairo, population, 565,187; Alexandria, the chief port, 315,047; Port 
 Said, 42,095. Egypt is a rocky and barren upland, with no marked protuberances 
 of the surface except the mountains between the Nile and the Red Sea. It is a 
 continuation of the Sahara. The broad channel of the mighty Nile traverses 
 this desert, and where it overflows its banks or is carried by irrigation to the 
 land, it covers the desert with luxuriant subtropical flora. It is thus the life of 
 Egypt. The greater part of its waters .comes through the Blue Nile from 
 Abyssinia, and the fertilizing silt is also chiefly derived from the eastern tribu- 
 taries bringing rock waste from the Abyssinian highlands. Much water has gone 
 to waste because at flood time the Nile brings a larger supply than can be util- 
 ized, while at low Nile there is not sufficient water for the crops. This difficulty 
 lias been removed by the great dam built at Assuan, which impounds the surplus 
 waters at flood, forming a great lake which at low Nile is run through the sluices 
 and carried into the irrigation ditches, so that to-day Egypt is raising two to three 
 crops from the same land each year where formerly only one crop was possible. 
 Besides supplying food for its millions of inhabitants, Egypt is sending to Ameri- 
 can and European factories almost all the cotton it raises, a fiber of peculiar excel- 
 lence. Wheat, maize and onions are also large export crops. The live-stock 
 industry is subordinate, though many dromedaries, cattle, goats and poultry are 
 raised. There is little mining, though gold is now being taken from the mountains 
 east of the Nile. The Suez Canal made Egypt the connecting link between Eu- 
 rope and eastern Asia, and stimulated its trade. Races Egyptian, 38,200 Greeks, 
 24,500 Italians, 19,600 British, 14,200 French, and a few Austrians and Ger- 
 mans. Religions chiefly Mohammedan, 731,200 Christians, 25,200 Jews. For- 
 eign trade (1902) imports, $73,229,000; exports, $87,081,000. 
 
 France. A republic. Area, 207,127 square miles; population (1901), 
 38,961,945. Between 42 and 51 north latitude and 8 east and 4 west longi- 
 tude. Paris is the capital; population, 2,714,068. Other largest cities, Mar- 
 seilles, 491,168; Lyons, 459,199; Bordeaux, 256,638; Lille, 210,696; Toulouse, 
 149,841; Havre, 130,196. With the sea on three sides (Atlantic coasts, 962 
 miles, Mediterranean, 300 miles), the republic is very favorably situated for 
 .sea traffic with the Western world and the Orient. The greater part of 
 France is lowland or occupied by mountains of only moderate height. The 
 eastern half, on the whole, is mountainous; the western half is level, a great 
 continuous plain stretching from the north through the whole west of 
 France. The soil is nearly everywhere fertile. France has over 150 rivers nav- 
 igable for large or small craft, the most important being the Seine, Loire (navi- 
 gation somewhat difficult), the Charente, the lower Gironde, the Adour, the 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 57 
 
 Rhone (of little value for navigation), the Meuse, the Somme and the Moselle. 
 Many excellent and convenient canals connect all the principal rivers. France 
 has the most delightful climate in Europe, giving agriculture a fortunate combina- 
 tion of central and south European conditions of farming. More than half the 
 surface is under cultivation, and nearly half the people live on farms, most of 
 them so small that France has as many farm holdings as there are in the United 
 States. There are few good harbors, most of them being river ports or artifi- 
 cial harbors, like Cherbourg. The sea trade is carried on chiefly through Mar- 
 seilles, Havre, Bordeaux, and Dunkirk. France is, next to Russia, the largest 
 wheat-growing country of Europe, oats being the second most important cereal. 
 The sugar beet and tobacco are great industrial crops. Wine is the national 
 beverage, and France is the greatest wine-growing country of the world. All 
 domestic animals are raised scientifically, and dairy products have high reputation. 
 The fisheries are very important, and sardine canning is one of the large indus- 
 tries. France has much coal, but not enough coal and iron to supply the home 
 demand. Manufacturing is very highly developed. Over 1,000,000 persons are 
 employed in making textiles; French silks, cottons and woolens are unsurpassed. 
 Many classes of French goods, including porcelains, glassware and metal prod- 
 ucts, are distinguished for good taste, elegance and finish, while other nations 
 surpass France in the cheap commodities. The Paris district is particularly noted 
 for the production of articles de luxe. Race, French and 1,051,907 foreigners, 
 including over 12,000 Americans. Religion, Roman Catholic, about 600,000 
 Protestants and 50,000 Jews. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $848,026,000; 
 exports, $820,671,000. 
 
 French Iiulo-Chiiia. French colonial possession in south Asia. Area, 
 243,240 square miles; population, 17,800,000. Between 23 and 9 north latitude 
 and 102 and 110 east longitude. These dependencies include Cochin-China, 
 Cambodia, Annam, Laos and Tonkin. Cochin-China is the oldest and, 
 commercially, the most important, consisting chiefly of the rich alluvial lands 
 of the Mekong delta, covered with rice- fields. The far interior of Tonkin and 
 Annam is mountainous, but Cochin-China and Cambodia are almost entirely 
 low alluvial lands, while the low delta lands of Tonkin extend far inland, 
 and the coastal belt in Annam is adapted for rice culture. Five-sixths of all 
 the cultivated land is under rice, which is the great export crop. Tobacco is 
 raised in Annam and Cambodia, tea in the mountainous parts of Annam and 
 Tonkin, and there is a small cotton industry in Tonkin. Communications on the 
 great streams are not of .the best because they are interrupted by rapids. The 
 Mekong aifords good facilities for navigation to Sambor, in northern Cambodia. 
 Tonkin has large coal measures, but only 300,000 tons are mined annually. 
 Rice exports exceed 500,000 tons a year, France taking most of the crop. The 
 chief towns are Hanoi (capital), 103,238; Hue, 50,000; Pnom-Penh, 50,000; 
 and Saigon, 50,870. Races Annamese, Chinese, Laos and Malayan. Roman 
 Catholic missions claim 420,000 native converts. Foreign trade (1901) imports, 
 $40,450,000; exports, $32,150,000. 
 
 Germany. A limited monarchy. Area, 210,273 square miles; population 
 <1900), 56,367,178; capital, Berlin; population, 1,888,326; Hamburg (1904), 
 
58 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTOKY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 772,852; Munich, 562,000,; Bremen, 199,666; Nuremberg, 261,081; Breslau, 
 422,709: Cologne, 372,529; Frankfort-on-Main, 288,989; Hanover, 235,149; 
 Dresden (1904), 533,000; Leipzig, 456,124; Chemnitz, 214,030. The empire 
 lies between 47-56 north latitude and 5-23 east longitude. The northern 
 half is a very low plain, marshy along the Baltic, and rising gently to the 
 highlands of the southern half; back of the highlands are the Alps, on the 
 southern edge of Germany. The Baltic and North Sea coasts are 1,200 miles 
 in length. The harbors are at the mouths of risers or some distance inland. 
 Hamburg is the third largest port in the world, and handles half of Ger- 
 many's foreign trade. Bremen, on the Weser, is the second port, and Stettin 
 and Danzig are the chief North Sea ports. The rivers have great importance in 
 transportation; immense sums have been spent on their improvement, and many 
 canals connect them. The Elbe is navigable clear across Germany. The con- 
 tinental climate prevails in the east and the oceanic climate in the west, so that 
 the average temperature of eastern Germany is lower than that of western Ger- 
 many. About one-fourth of the country is covered with forests, which are care- 
 fully conserved, and a tree must be planted for every one cut down. The growth 
 of manufactures has reduced the agricultural population so that less than half the 
 people are now farmers. Germany has a great variety of agricultural products, 
 but can not raise sufficient food for her dense population. Nearly half the tilled 
 lands in the northeast and northwest are in rye, Germany being, next to Russia, 
 the largest grower of that crop. The empire leads the world in the production 
 of beet sugar, the sugar beet covering a large area. Wine culture is almost wholly 
 centered along the southwestern rivers, chiefly the Rhine. The warm and fertile 
 Rhine plain between Basel and Bingen is one of the greatest tobacco regions of 
 Europe. Wheat, only half as large a crop as rye, and also barley, are raised 
 chiefly in the southwestern highlands. Oats are a very large crop. Germany raises 
 more potatoes than any other country, chiefly in the sandy northern plain. The 
 hops and beer of Bavaria are famous. The chief dairy industry is in the north, 
 especially in Schleswig-Holstein, where cattle are easily fattened and the grasses 
 conduce to the richest quality of milk. North Germany is also most propitious 
 for horse raising. The goat is the poor man's cow, and many thousands are raised 
 in the southern highlands. Sheep have greatly decreased, and immense quanti- 
 ties of wool are imported for the factories. 
 
 Germany is surpassed only by the United States and Great Britain as an indus- 
 trial nation. Coal and iron are close at hand for German manufacturers. The 
 greatest attention is given to perfecting technical processes. The most important 
 industries are iron and steel, and their manufactures, which are promoted by the 
 great coal-fields of the Ruhr River, Saxony and the Saar. Textiles are the second 
 largest industry, many towns in Rhineland -Westphalia and in the Chemnitz dis- 
 trict of Saxony being spinning and weaving centers. The nation's success in 
 many other fields of manufacturing is very great. Transportation is abundant 
 and comparatively cheap, the splendid development of waterways supplementing 
 the numerous railroads. The imports are enormous quantities of food and raw 
 materials, and the exports are manufactured articles. Race, Germanic, and over 
 500,000 foreigners, chiefly from other European states. Religion over 25,000,- 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY <!' TIIK Wori.h. 59 
 
 000 Lutherans, over 20,000,000 Koman Catholics, 210,000 otherChristians, 586,045 
 Israelites. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $1,580,286,500; exports, $l,04i',. ";:,- 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. Officially, the United Kingdom. A lim- 
 ited monarchy. Area, 120,979 square miles. Between 4'.' t'.<> north latitude 
 and 11 west-2 east longitude. Population (1904), 42,940,000. Capital, Lon- 
 don; population (1902, Greater London), 6,705,731. Other cities, Glasgow, 
 760,423; Liverpool, 716,810; Manchester, 553,406; Birmingham, 533,486; Leeds, 
 443,559; Sheffield, 425,528; Dublin, 373,179; Belfast, 348,965; Bristol, 338,895; 
 Edinburgh, 316,479. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. 
 
 An extensive, undulating and fertile plain covers the south and east of Great 
 Britain. Mountains rise in the north and west, covering two-fifths of the total 
 surface. The mountains of north Scotland are mostly destitute of cultivation. 
 Most of Ireland is an undulating interior plain, with mountain ranges near the 
 sea surrounding it. Most of the plain is very fertile, but one-seventh of Ireland 
 is covered by bog and moor. England has fifty rivers navigable by large or small 
 vessels, chief of which is the Thames, commercially the most important river in 
 the world, although only 220 miles long. Scottish rivers are of little commercial 
 importance, but Ireland has many navigable streams, among which the Shannon 
 is navigable for almost its entire length. In England 'there are over 2,500 miles 
 of canals, and a great ship canal connects Manchester with the sea. The climate 
 is oceanic and mild for the high northern latitude. The abundant rainfall is most 
 copious in the west. Severe storms in autumn and winter sometimes do great 
 damage on the coasts. 
 
 Agriculture is not so important as manufacturing. Only 18 per cent, of the 
 land is plowed. Cereals in wide areas find the climate too cold or too humid, 
 but conditions are extremely favorable for natural meadows, and nearly half the 
 farming lands are in pastures or hay. No other nation has finer breeds of cattle, 
 horses and sheep. Still the country needs to import enormous quantities of dairy 
 products, and the imports of wheat and flour have increased 70 per cent, in a cen- 
 tury. Maize does not ripen, and oats is the most important cereal crop. 
 
 The mineral riches are very great, far exceeding in value the agricultural prod- 
 ucts. The coal-fields, with about 4,000 mines, are among Great Britain's most 
 valuable possessions. The most important metal is iron, the mines being situ- 
 ated near or among the coal-fields. The nation, next to the United States, is the 
 largest producer of iron and steel. More salt is mined than in any other country, 
 and the tin mines produce annually about 15,000 tons of ore. 
 
 The textile industries are first in the list of manufactures, the greatest centers 
 of the cotton industry being around Manchester, Derby, Nottingham, Glasgow, 
 Paisley and Belfast. About 500,000,000 pounds of wool are absorbed annually 
 by the woolen industries. Linen manufacture is very ancient in Ireland, and is 
 one of its leading industries. The silk industry does not meet French competi- 
 tion nor supply the home demand. The metal industries form the second great 
 department of manufactures. Besides steel rails, armor plates and steel for 
 bridges, railroads, ships, etc., machinery is made in over 2,000 machine shops, 
 producing wares of every kind that are marketed all over the world. * Earthen- 
 
>60 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 ware and glass, chemicals, leather, and, in fact, all branches of manufacturing are 
 of the highest development. 
 
 Great Britain is the leading commercial nation, as its trade is world-wide in 
 the fullest sense. The railroads are solidly constructed, usually with double 
 tracks, and the speed of the trains is the highest in Europe. The country's 
 activities are wonderfully stimulated by enormous capital, which works not only 
 at home but also all over the world. About half of the exterior investments are 
 in the British colonies, and the other half in foreign lands, bringing home annual 
 dividends of about $313,000,000 (1901). 
 
 Races English, Scotch, Welsh, Irish and 266,000 foreigners. Religions 
 Established Church, about 19,000,000; Scottish Church, about 1,500,000; Pro- 
 testant Dissenters, 6,000,000; Roman Catholics. 5,500,000; Israelites, 50,000. 
 Foreign trade (1903) imports, $2,796,330,976; exports, $1,840,608,529. 
 
 Greece,, A limited monarchy. Area, 25,224 square miles. Population, 
 2,433,806. Between 35-40 north latitude and 20-26east longitude.. Capital, 
 Athens; population, 111,486. Other towns, Pirasus (port of Athens), 42,169; 
 Patras, 37,958; Trikala, 21,149; Corfu, 17,918. The kingdom includes many 
 islands of the ./Egean and Ionian seas. Greece has two main divisions, northern 
 Greece and the Morea, connected only by the narrow isthmus of Corinth. Both 
 parts are covered by mountains and hills, the only considerable plain being that 
 of Thessaly, in the north. The mountains are mostly barren and arid, but. 
 the islands, though mountainous, are tolerably fertile. The rivers are merely 
 coast streams, and Greece is not richly supplied with water. The irregularity 
 of the coast line, aifording many good harbors, is of much importance. The 
 coasts and islands have a mild climate, but the isolated mountain gorges and 
 valleys suffer from extremes of heat and cold. Only 19 per cent, of the area 
 is cultivated, and agriculture is backward and does not produce sufficient 
 cereals for home consumption. The best farming region is the highly fertile 
 plain of Thessaly, from which considerable wheat is derived. Barley, maize 
 and rice are also important crops. The conditions are favorable for tobacco 
 culture, and a large part of the so-called Egyptian cigarettes is made from 
 the tobacco of Greece. Stock raising is insignificant, sheep and goats take the 
 place of cows, and much cheese is made from sheep's milk. Lead, zinc and man- 
 ganese are mined. The household industries are most important, but cotton and 
 woolen .cloths are produced in a number of towns. Zante and some other regions 
 produce the famous Zante currant, which is the chief export. Communications are 
 poor and insufficient. Races the Greeks are descended from the ancient Greeks, 
 with Illyrian and other admixtures ; Albanians, Wallachians, Armenians, Turks, 
 etc. Religion Greek Orthodox, 20,000 other Christians, 6,000 Israelites, 24.000 
 Mohammedans. Trade (1902) imports, $26,034,000; exports, $15,466,000. 
 
 Greenland. The largest island of the world. Area, about 515,000 square 
 miles, or one-sixth as large as the United States ; area of coast-lands not covered 
 by glaciers, about 35,000 square miles. Between 60-83 40' north latitude and 
 20-75 west longitude. The inhabited parts of the west and east coast are 
 occupied by Denmark as far as 74 north latitude on the west and 67 north 
 latitude on the east coast. Population, 10,500 (Eskimos and a few Danes) 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 61 
 
 on the Danish west coast, about 500 on the Danish east coast; about 500 
 (Arctic highlanders) in northwest Greenland between Cape York and Etah. The 
 interior is covered by an ice-cap thousands of feet in thickness, the coasts are 
 mountainous, with deep fiords, and many glaciers move down them from the in- 
 land ice. The ends of the glaciers at the sea edge break off as icebergs, and many " 
 float southward to the tracks of trans- Atlantic steamers. The coastal vegetation 
 is scanty, chiefly mosses and lichens, with here and there patches of grass. The 
 few stunted trees in south Greenland rarely grow higher than a man's head. The 
 chief animals are the musk-ox, reindeer, Arctic fox, polar bear, and the coast 
 waters are frequented by seals, walruses, fish, some whales, and countless num- 
 bers of eider ducks and other birds. The natives struggle hard to gain a liveli- 
 hood. Seal blubber is transformed into train oil, and seal, polar bear and 
 white fox skins, eider down and a little whalebone are collected. Coal is found, 
 but the only mineral of importance yet worked is cryolite, the mines at Ivigtut 
 being the only known deposits of commercial importance. This mineral is mined 
 by Americans under contract with the Danish government. Danish trading 
 stations supply the Eskimos with commodities in exchange for the collection of 
 skins, etc., which they make. 
 
 Guam. A Pacific colony of the United States. The largest, most populous 
 and most southern of the Marianne Islands, a group lying along 145 east longi- 
 tude, between 13-20 north latitude. Area, 207 square miles. The highest land 
 is only 1,274 feet above the sea. A mountain chain extends near the southeastern 
 and southern coasts, the rest of the island being mainly a plateau heavily 
 forested with cocoanut groves, maize, taro and garden truck planted in narrow 
 strips along the sea. The interior of the island has not been cultivated, but 
 almost the entire southern half is well adapted for cattle ranches, and the 
 northern half for coffee, cacao and cocoanuts. The climate is healthful, and on 
 the whole pleasant, the heat being tempered by sea breezes. Eainfall is heavy 
 between June and December, and the island is occasionally visited by severe 
 typhoons. The inhabitants are the native Chamorros (devout Catholics), some 
 immigrants from other islands and the American contingent. The population is 
 about 10,000, of whom three-fifths live in the town of Agana. Other towns in 
 order of size and importance are Sume, Agat, Merizo, Inarajam, Umatac, Piti 
 and Sinajana, ranging in population from 650 to 150 % By far the most valuable 
 crop is the cocoanut (copra), followed by sugar, coffee and cacao. The commerce 
 is very small, but the development of copra-drying promises to be a source of 
 prosperity. 
 
 Guatemala. A republic of Central America. Area, 46,774 square miles; 
 population (1900), 1,574,338. Between 13-18 north latitude and 89-93 west 
 longitude. Capital, Guatemala; population, 71,527. Guatemala has larger busi- 
 ness relations with the rest of the world than any other Central American 
 republic. Most of it is an elevated plateau, with a broad frontage on the Pacific 
 and a very short Atlantic coast line. Maize and black beans, the chief food 
 staples in Central America, are grown everywhere, and coffee, the great export 
 crop, thrives from the Pacific to the center of the republic. Much sugar made 
 from the sugar-cane is consumed at home, but little is exported. Cotton-fields 
 
62 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and sheep pastures on the higher lands supply liber for spinners and weavers, 
 and cattle scattered over the plateaus yield hides for export. Most of the com- 
 modities required by the people, except textiles and flour, are the products of 
 home industry. A railroad from the Atlantic ascends the valley of the Motagua 
 River to the city of Guatemala, which is also connected by rail with the Pacific 
 port of San Jose. Livingston and Puerto Barrios, the Atlantic ports, ship 
 much coffee. Races, Spanish- American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. 
 Trade (1903) imports, $3,035,520; exports, $6,863,443. 
 
 Guiana, British. A British colony in South America. Area, 109,000 
 square miles; population, 294,943. Between l-8 north latitude and 57-62 
 west longitude. Capital, Georgetown; population (1891), 53,176. The low 
 coastal plain, hot and fertile, is covered with plantations, cultivation being con- 
 fined chiefly to this narrow zone, where most of the population lives. Further* 
 inland the country becomes hilly and mountainous, with wide forest areas and 
 considerable gold. The short Demerara railroad was the first to be built in 
 South America. It was constructed to meet the needs of the sugar industry, 
 which, with its by-products, rum and molasses, was long the great industry 
 of the three Guianas. Cheap sugar at last seriously injured the industry, 
 and the plantations also suffered from encroachments of the sea. Many planters 
 abandoned sugar for tobacco and rice. Gold, rubber, sugar and rice are sent to 
 Great Britain and the United States, the imports consisting of foodstuffs and 
 general manufactures. Races 6 per cent, whites, 40 per cent. East Indian 
 coolies, 41 per cent, negroes, Chinese, mixed breeds and Indians. Foreign 
 trade (1902) imports, $6,975,000; exports, $10,350,000. 
 
 Guiana, Dutch. A colony of the Netherlands in South America, east of 
 British Guiana. Area, 46,060 square miles; population, 81,000. Capital, Para- 
 maribo; population, 32,146. The physical features are like those of British 
 Guiana (which see). In both Dutch and French Guiana sugar cultivation is con- 
 siderably smaller than in British Guiana, and primitive methods are employed 
 for making sugar. Considerable cacao is produced. The commercial center is 
 Paramaribo, and nearly the entire trade is with the Netherlands. The gold 
 exports are over $500,000 a year. Races, chiefly Dutch, also negroes and 
 Indians. Foreign trade (1904) imports, $2,300,000; exports, $2,150,000. 
 
 Guiana, French. A penal colony of France, east of Dutch Guiana, in South 
 America. Area, 31,000 square miles; population, 30,310. Capital, Cayenne; 
 population 10,600. A few thousand French convicts, most of them free, live in 
 the colony. It differs from British and Dutch Guiana, as its 200 miles of coast 
 lands are comparatively high, and its islands supply phosphates for export. It is 
 little developed, and has comparatively few plantations. Cacao grows wild, and 
 its cultivation was long important, but has declined because the people are 
 neglecting agriculture for gold mining, which, with sugar and coffee, is its chief 
 interest. Races French, Indian and negro. The trade is chiefly with France. 
 Foreign trade (1902) imports, $2,450,000; exports, $1,750,000. 
 
 Haiti. A French colony (1697-1801). A negro republic on the island of 
 Haiti, "West Indies. Area, 10,204 square miles; population (1901), 1,294,400. 
 Between 18-20 north latitude and 71-75 west longitude. Capital, Port au 
 
I VI I UNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 63 
 
 Prince, population, 61,000; Cape Haitien, 29,000; Aux Cayes, 25,000. Very 
 mountainous; interior communications so poor that the people usually prefer to 
 take the sea route to other parts of the coasts. Climate, tropical, tempered by 
 the northeast trade winds. Coffee is the chief product and export, and is supe- 
 rior in quality, though little attention is paid to its cultivation. Logwood and 
 cacao are other important exports. The coarse cotton textiles, breadstuffs and 
 kerosene, which form most of the imports, are largely supplied by the United 
 States. Kace, French-speaking negroes. Religion, Roman Catholic. Foreign 
 trade (1901) imports, $5,500,000; exports, $12,760,000. 
 
 Hawaii. Or the Hawaiian Islands. Annexed to the United States in 1898, 
 and organized as a Territory in 1900. Include eleven islands, eight of which are 
 inhabited. In the Pacific (Polynesia), between 18-23 north latitude and 154- 
 161 west longitude. Area, 6,449 square miles; population, 154,000. Capital, 
 Honolulu; population, 39,306. The islands are separated from one another by 
 ocean channels varying in width from 6 to 61 miles. In order of size, the inhabited 
 islands are: Hawaii, 2,000,000 acres; Maui, 400,000; Oahu (seat of government), 
 360,000; Kauai, 350,000; Molokai (partly leper settlement), 200,000; Lanai, 
 100,000; Niihau, 70,000; Kahulawe, 30,000. Small as they are, they embrace 
 about as much territory as all the rest of Polynesia. Oahu, the most populous 
 and important commercially, is as large as the Society group. Maui has about the 
 same area as the Marquesas group, and the island of Hawaii, with the remain- 
 ing islands, is nearly as large as all the other groups of Polynesia. 
 
 Hawaii is at the cross-roads of the Pacific, where vessels in the American- 
 Japanese and American- Australian trades put into port. The group is also the 
 starting-point for expeditions to Bering Strait and the South Sea. The geo- 
 graphical position of Hawaii in the central Pacific thus attracts much shipping. 
 The group is purely volcanic, rising abruptly from deep water, and containing the 
 loftiest summits of any oceanic islands (Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, in Hawaii, 
 nearly 14,000 feet). The volcanic forces are extinct in the west, but very active 
 in the east. Below the mountains are fertile plains and valleys. All the soils are 
 derived from basaltic lavas. Sedimentary soils, covering the levels bordering the 
 sea, are very deep and rich. The dark red soils are immediately above the sedi- 
 mentary flats and lowlands, and have high fertility. The light red soils on the 
 uplands, near the mountains, are of small depth and less fertile. The climate is 
 about ten degrees cooler than that of any other land in the same latitude. The 
 windward side of the mountains has abundant rain, but there is much less on the 
 leeward side, where most of the plantations are situated. The islands are wholly 
 dependent upon agriculture. Cane-sugar employs most of the capital and labor, 
 furnishes most of the exports, and maintains most of the people. Xearly all the 
 plantations have their own mills and manufacture all the raw sugar produced 
 from their cane. The product is about 250,000 to 300,000 tons a year, and the 
 yield of sugar per acre is from 6,000 to over 9,000 pounds. Rice, growing on 
 the lowest flats and close to the sea, has the second place. The rice-growers are 
 almost wholly Chinese. The coffee berry grows wild and is cultivated on the 
 four larger islands, but the production as yet is comparatively small. Chinese 
 gardeners supply Honolulu with nearly all its vegetables. Bananas and pineapples 
 
64 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 are the only fruits figuring in the exports. The forest areas are considerable, but 
 have suffered great reduction. Sufficient cattle are maintained for beef and milk, 
 but the chief supply of butter is by importation. Most of the plantation labor 
 is supplied by Chinese and Japanese. The native Hawaiians incline to work for 
 themselves rather than to take service with employers, and the Portuguese immi- 
 grants, energetic and thrifty people, are mostly engaged in horticulture. The 
 American, British and Germans control the planting and commercial interests, 
 which are chiefly in the hands of American settlers and their descendants. About 
 three-fourths of the imports come from the United States. Raw sugar is about 
 nineteen-twentieths of the exports, and nearly all of it is sent to California 
 refineries. 
 
 Honduras. A republic of Central America. Area, 46,300 square miles; 
 population (1902), 650,000. Between 13-17 north latitude and 83-87 west 
 longitude. Capital, Tegucigalpa, in the gold and silver region; population, 26,265. 
 It is second in size of the Central American republics, but though rich in resources, 
 has little commercial development. The population cannot supply sufficient labor 
 for so large an area, transportation facilities are very poor, and fully half of the 
 country is still a virgin waste. The interior plateau maintains many cattle, hides 
 and live animals being important exports. The long Caribbean coast produces many 
 bananas and other fruit for United States consumption, and the Atlantic forests 
 abound with fine tropical timber. Gold and silver are the leading exports, 
 though the mining development is small. The United States supplies a large 
 part of the imports, in which textiles and hardware are prominent. The Atlantic 
 ports, Truxillo, Ceiba and Puerto Cortez, have connections with the United 
 States. The Pacific coast, only forty miles long, has the fine natural harbor of 
 Amapala, from which the metals are shipped. Races, Spanish- American and 
 Indians. Religion, Roman Catholic. Trade (1902) imports, $1,672,000; ex- 
 ports, $2,357,000. 
 
 India. A part of the British Empire. Area, 1,560,160 square miles ; includes 
 Upper and Lower Burma; population, 295,215,000. Between 7-36 north latitude 
 and 62-104 east longitude. The capital is Calcutta, population 1,026,987; Bom- 
 bay, 776,006; Madras, 509, 346; Haiderabad, 448,466 ;Lucknow, 264,049; Rangoon, 
 232,326. Executive authority is vested in the Yiceroy, appointed by the crown. 
 India has three distinctly defined physical regions: the Himalaya Mountain dis- 
 trict, the North Indian Plain, and the Plateau of the Deccan. The colossal ranges 
 of the Himalayas stretch for 1,500 miles along the north of the country. They 
 divide India from the plateau of central Asia. South of the Himalayas is the 
 Great North Indian Plain, well watered and for the most part well cultivated. East 
 of the Indus delta, however, is the Thar Desert, which stretches away almost to 
 the base of the Himalayas. The triangular plateau of the Deccan, from 1,600 to 
 3.000 feet high, occupies the south of the country. India has great rivers, but 
 the only very important ones for navigation are the smoothly flowing Ganges 
 and the Irawadi, of Burma. The Indus and the streams of the Deccan are too 
 impetuous for convenient navigation. 
 
 India has many climates, but all, except regions high among the Himalayas 
 or in favored parts of the Deccan, may be called more or less tropical. Only two 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 65- 
 
 seasons are recognized the dry and the rainy season. The southwest monsoon 
 in summer brings an enormous quantity of water vapor, with which it drenches 
 the Western Ghats, and usually has enough left for the interior highlands; but 
 sometimes this monsoon does not continue long enough to give the Plateau of the 
 Deccan sufficient rain. Then crops fail, and a famine may ensue resulting in the 
 death of many thousands. Many millions of the inhabitants being Brahmanists, 
 they are strict vegetarians, and the mortality in time of famine is increased by 
 the fact that they will not kill their domestic animals for food. 
 
 Three-fifths of the people are farmers. They carry on agriculture in a prim- 
 itive way, and fertilizers are little used, but great irrigation systems have been 
 developed in large districts. Rice, the principal food, can be cultivated only in 
 well- watered regions such as Bengal, the coasts of the Deccan and the valleys. 
 Wheat is sown chiefly in the drier northwest (Punjab), and though it is an uncer- 
 tain crop, it is often raised in enormous quantities, much of it being sent to 
 Europe. Next in importance are the fiber crops. India sends a great deal of 
 cotton to China and Japan, in addition to the supply consumed in its manufactures. 
 The fiber is shorter than our staple, and inferior in quality. Jute, cultivated in 
 the damp warm climate of Bengal, holds second rank among the fibers. Opium is 
 a large export, chiefly to China. The teas of India and Ceylon have injured the 
 Chinese tea trade in the British Empire, and are invading many other markets. 
 Animal raising is not important; cows give very little milk, but zebus (an Indian 
 variety of cattle) are used for draft purposes. The yield of salt is large, and coal 
 mining is constantly increasing. Little else is done to develop India's mineral 
 wealth. India has been famous for centuries for its shawls, textile fabrics, 
 weapons, etc., and in recent years it has developed modern manufactures, such 
 as tanneries, ship-yards, iron foundries, etc. Still, the home supply of manufac- 
 tures is inadequate, and an enormous quantity of them is imported. Religions 
 207,700,000 Hindus (Brahmanists), 57, 300, 000 Mohammedans, 9, 300,000 nature 
 worshipers, 8,500,000 Buddhists, 2,300,000 Christians, 1,900,000 Sikhs. Foreign 
 trade (fiscal year 1902-3) imports, $255,614,000; exports, $408,396,000. 
 
 Italy. A limited monarchy. Area, 110,684 square miles; population (1904),. 
 33,218,328. Between 37 and 47 north latitude and 6 and 19 east longitude. 
 Capital, Rome, population, 462,783; Naples, 563,540; Milan, 491,460; Turin, 
 335,656; Palermo, 309,692; Genoa, 234,710; Florence, 205,589; Venice, 151,840. 
 The northern part of Italy is continental and the southern part consists of a pen- 
 insula and a number of islands, including Sicily, Sardinia and Elba. The con- 
 tinental portion is the great fertile plain of the Po River. Hemmed in between 
 the Alps and the Apennines, this plain is the scene of Italy's greatest industrial 
 and agricultural activity. The Apennines are the backbone of the peninsula, 
 extending down its center. Most of the peninsula is well watered, but it has 
 almost no large rivers. Agriculture is in a backward condition, and the 
 peasantry are very poor. The farm lands are usually held in large estates, and 
 leased in parcels to the peasants. This policy is unfavorable for high tillage. 
 Wheat is the chief crop, and much of it is used with Black Sea imports in 
 preparing macaroni, of which Italy makes enormous quantities. The wine crop 
 is next in .value to wheat, most of it and the best qualities coming from the 
 5 
 
'66 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 south. Italy is the only country of Europe raising large quantities of rice. 
 The production of raw silk is the largest in Europe. Most of the mulberry 
 trees feeding the silkworms are on the Lombardy plain, while raw silk is sent to 
 all the leading nations, silk manufactures being of much smaller importance. 
 
 Italy is rich in useful minerals, but very poor in coal, so that a great deal must 
 be imported. The sulphur mines of Sicily supply most of the world's demand. 
 Great quantities of salt are obtained from mines or by evaporating sea- water. 
 Iron ore is obtained chiefly from Elba, but most of it is exported, as there is little 
 development of iron manufactures. The famous marble of Carrara and Massa 
 finds a wide market. Lack of coal is unfavorable for the development of indus- 
 tries, but manufacturing enterprises are slowly growing. Races, Italian and 
 61,415 foreigners. Religions 62,000 Protestants, 38,000 Israelites, the rest Ro- 
 man Catholics. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $408,835,350; exports, $308,- 
 652,930. 
 
 Jamaica. The largest colony of Great Britain in the "West Indies. Pop- 
 ulation, 755,730. Between 17 and 19 north latitude and 76 and 79 west longi- 
 tude. Capital, Kingston; population, 50,000. A mountain range forms the axis 
 of the island, extending through it from east to west, the highest peak rising to 
 7,400 feet. Climate, tropical, Vith cooler temperature in the highlands. All 
 tropical productions are grown to perfection. The sugar plantations were once 
 famous, but many planters have abandoned the industry, owing to low sugar 
 prices; and fruits, chiefly bananas and oranges, now form nearly half the exports. 
 Coffee, rum, sugar, pimento and Jamaica ginger are also important exports. The 
 highways are fairly good, and three railroads serve the eastern half of the island, 
 but Jamaica is still far behind Cuba and Porto liico in economic development. 
 Races negro, mixed breeds, white only 2.5 per cent, of the whole and East 
 Indians about the same proportion. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $4,530,000; 
 exports, $4,590,000. 
 
 Japan. A limited monarchy. Area, 160,969 square miles; population, 48,- 
 351,764 (with Formosa). Between 22-51 north latitude and 120-155 east Ion 
 gitude. Capital, Tokio, population 1,440,121; Osaka, 821,235; Kioto, 353,139; 
 Nagoya, 244,145; Kobe, 215,780; Yokohama, .193,762; Hiroshima. 122,306; 
 ^Nagasaki, 107,422. Like Great Britain, Japan is an island kingdom. Important 
 international events of recent years have placed Japan in the first rank among 
 nations in the peace settlement between Japan and Russia (1905) of the conten- 
 tions that caused Japan to make war on Russia, Japan was by treaty ceded the half 
 of Sakhalin Island from the 50th parallel south, and her sphere of influence in 
 Korea was conceded to be complete, amounting practically to a suzerainty. In 
 China her concessions in this settlement were varied and valuable and her prestige 
 in that nation is greatly increased. The empire consists of four large islands and 
 a great number (nearly 4,000) of smaller ones. These islands are mountainous, 
 and a few volcanic summits, such as Fusiyama, readh a height of 12,000 feet 
 or more. Narrow plains along the coasts and fertile valleys among the moun- 
 tains are sources of largest wealth. There are no great rivers, but numerous 
 mountain torrents pour down the slopes with short but rapid courses to the sea. 
 An extensive system of canals provides irrigation that supplements the rainfall. 
 
INTERNATIONAL, GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY CF THE WORLD. 67 
 
 The climate is very moist, and is cooler than that of countries of the same latitude 
 in Europe or North Africa. Violent volcanic outbursts sometimes occur, and the 
 country is liable to frequent and disastrous earthquakes. The last very destruc- 
 tive calamity of this nature, the Nagoya-Gifu earthquake of 1891, killed nearly 
 10,000 people, injured 20,000, and destroyed 130, 000 houses. 
 
 Agriculture is the principal occupation, and is carried on with painstaking 
 minuteness. Large areas in the mountain regions cannot be tilled, but many 
 mountains are cleared of forest and cultivated to their very tops, and bare rocks 
 are covered with soil brought from a distance. All the Ian Js belong to the state, 
 and are leased to the farmers, who pay a land tax. The chief crop is rice of su- 
 perior quality. The various cereals and vegetables are grown with success, and 
 cotton is raised in the south. The mulberry thrives, and the largest island pro- 
 duces a great deal of raw silk. From an export point of view, tea, which is scat- 
 tered over large areas in the three southern islands, is most important. The 
 United States buys great quantities of Japanese tea. The most important mem- 
 bers of the animal kingdom are silkworms, bees and poultry. As the Japanese 
 seldom eat meat, they have no use for cattle except for draft purposes. A ^mall 
 breed of Corean horses is raised. The mineral wealth is not large, though coal 
 is mined in Yezo and Kiusiu. Japan has the largest copper mines of Asia, cop- 
 per being the only metal exported. Iron, steel and their products are large 
 imports. The empire abounds with the clays that are the basis of its famous 
 earthenware industries. 
 
 Modern manufactures have had wonderful development in the past forty years. 
 The Japanese were quick to see the advantages of Western methods, and have 
 applied them with great dexterity. Many of their products, however, are not 
 equal in quality to those they imitate. Their manufactures are in great variety, 
 and not a few of them supply the home need. So many of the people have been 
 diverted from farming to other industries that the cost of living has considerably 
 increased of late years. Among the best industrial products are steamships and 
 steam engines, cotton and silk goods. The people can milk and vegetables, and 
 actually export imitation Swedish matches and Bohemian glass to Europe. The 
 internal trade is facilitated by over 5,000 post-offices, excellent highways, a grow- 
 ing railroad system, and thousands of miles of telegraph line. About 70 per cent, 
 of the foreign trade passes through the port of Yokohama, and Kobe is the second 
 largest port. The economic progress of Japan is indicated by the following 
 figures: Capital invested in industrial companies, 1896, 298,000,000 yen (silver yen 
 equals 53 cents); 1901, 829,000,000 yen. Bank deposits in Tokio, 1893, 37,000,- 
 000 yen; 1903, 132,600,000 yen. Races, Japanese and about 15,000 foreigners. 
 Religions chiefly Buddhist, 56,000 Roman Catholics, 47,000 Protestants, 27,000 
 Greek Orthodox. Trade (1903), including Formosa imports, $165,350,180; 
 exports, $150,691,947. 
 
 Liberia. A negro republic in West Africa. Area (estimated), 37,000 square 
 miles; population (estimated), 1,500,000, including 25,000 legroes from the United 
 States, or their descendants. On the Atlantic coast, between 5 and 8 north 
 latitude. Interior boundaries, except between Sierra Leone and Liberia, not 
 exactly denned. Capital, Monrovia; population, 5,000. Settled by emigrants 
 
68 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 from the United States, the constitution is modeled after that of this country 
 "With a coast line of 300 miles, Liberia is confined to the basins of the coast streams, 
 none of which is important for navigation. The civilized population lives in 
 towns along the coast and the farming districts near them, or penetrates a short 
 distance up the streams. Behind the mangrove and pandanus swamps near the 
 coast the country rises towards the interior, the successive steps of elevation being 
 marked by rapids in the rivers. Most of the interior is covered with dense 
 forests, among which the native population chiefly lives in a state of barbarism, 
 as few are under government influence or control. Nearly all the colonists live 
 by farming or the collection of palm oil and palm kernels. The chief exports are 
 coffee of excellent quality and palm oil. Monrovia and Great Bassa are the chief 
 ports. Race, negro. Under the law no white man may become a citizen. The 
 official language is English, and most of the civilized negroes are Protestants. 
 Foreign trade (1902) imports, $180,750; exports. $382,250. 
 
 Luxemburg. A grand duchy of Europe. This state, of triangular shape, 
 occupies the east slope of the Ardennes. Area, 1,008 square miles; population, 
 236,543. Capital and only important town, Luxemburg; population, about 
 30,000. Situated in about 50 north latitude and 6 east longitude. Its neutrality 
 is guaranteed by the great powers. The agricultural interests, including wine, 
 mines, quarries and industrial establishments, arc important. Nationalities, 
 German and about 4,000 French-speaking persons. As Luxemburg forms part 
 of the German Zollverein, it has no independent trade statistics. 
 
 Madagascar. A colony of France and the fourth largest island in the 
 world. Area, 230, 000 square miles; population, 2,505,237. Between 12-26 south 
 latitude and 43-51 east longitude. Capital, Tananarive, population, 55,000. 
 Madagascar is 930 miles long, and its broadest portion, near the center, is 350 
 miles across. It has a regular form, with few indentations, excepting on the 
 northwest coast, where the best harbors are situated. Since the French occu- 
 pancy in 1895 the French have carefully explored the island. The elevated 
 interior rises from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. This is the most healthful 
 region. Around it is a comparatively level country, extending to the sea, much 
 of it heavily wooded, and not far exceeding 600 feet above sea level, very fertile, 
 but not healthful. The leading rivers flow to the west coast, and some of them 
 are navigable by small vessels for 100 miles or so. The capital is in the elevated 
 interior, where live the Hovas, the most advanced and intelligent of the native 
 tribes. The chief port is Tamatave, on the east coast, and Majunga, of less 
 importance, is the leading port on the west coast. The French (1905) are building 
 a railroad between Tamatave and the capital, having already extended excellent 
 wagon roads from Tananarive to both the east and the west coasts. Cattle 
 breeding and agriculture are improving under the French regime, and many 
 schools and a number of hospitals have been established. The chief imports 
 are French cotton textiles, and ths exports are rubber, wax, hides, gold and 
 vanilla. Gold mining promises large development. Races Malagasy tribes, 
 including 850,000 Hovas, and 15,542 Europeans, 1,006 Asiatics and foreign 
 Africans. Religions, chiefly Protestant; about 400,000 Catholics. Foreign, 
 trade (1902) imports, $9,200,000; exports, $1,800,000. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 69 
 
 Mexico. A republic of North America. Area, 76 7, 000 square miles; popula- 
 tion (1900), 13,605,929. Between 15-32 north latitude and 86-117 west longi- 
 tude. Capital, the City of Mexico, population, 530,723; Guadalajara, 101,208; 
 Puebla, 93,521; Monterey, 62,266; St. Louis Potosi, 61,019. Mexico is a wide, high 
 table-land between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, with mountains rising 
 above the plateau on theeast and west. There are many volcanic peaks, a few of which 
 are active. The rivers are of little economic importance, the chief streams being 
 the Rio Grande del Norte, forming the northeast boundary, the Tabasco, and the 
 Colorado. There are three climatic zones. On the low and marshy east and 
 west coasts a hot and unhealthful climate prevails, with many earthquakes and 
 hurricanes. These coast lands are called Tierra calienta. The Tierra templada 
 occupies the middle slopes of the coast mountains, and the lower parts of the pla- 
 teau in the interior, where the climate is temperate and spring seems to be ever- 
 lasting. The cold zone, Tierra fria, is found on the more elevated table-lands, 
 and the loftier summits are always crowned with snow. The rainy season lasts 
 from May till October. 
 
 With great variety of climate, Mexico has many agricultural products, but 
 farming has not reached a high level, though rapid progress is now being made. 
 About one-seventh of the surface has been cleared for tillage. The tropical 
 lowlands produce vanilla, coffee, sugar-cane, cotton; and in Yucatan the fiber 
 heniquen, or sisal hemp, which has become the largest agricultural export. Maize 
 and beans are very large crops, and are the staple articles of diet. The favorite 
 national drink, pulque, is prepared from the agave. Many tropical and other 
 timbers are found in the forests. Most of the agricultural products are consumed 
 at home, and Mexico's tropical fruits, tobacco and coffee have not yet entered 
 largely into the world's trade. 
 
 The breeding of domestic animals is growing in importance, and cattle ranches 
 are now numerous in northern Mexico, many of the cattle being sent into the 
 United States. The horses, mules, cattle, sheep and hogs are numbered by mil- 
 lions. But the chief source of wealth is the mineral products. 
 
 Mexico is the richest silver- producing country in the world, and also has large 
 quantities of gold and other metals. The total production of gold and silver in 
 the three centuries ending in 1875 was about $3,614,000,000. Iron- ore is in 
 inexhaustible supply, and coal is found, but comparatively little is mined. The 
 precious metals, chiefly silver, form the greater part of the exports. 
 
 The Gulf ports, Yera Cruz and Tampico, were very poor, but have recently 
 been converted at great expense into safe and commodious harbors. Yera Cruz 
 is the chief port of the country. Progreso is the great heniquen shipping port 
 of Yucatan. The leading Pacific ports are Mazatlan, San Bias, Manzanillo, and 
 Acapulco, but they have little trade. Railroads reach all the most important 
 commercial centers, and connect at Eagle Pass, El Pasoaud Nogales with the 
 railroad system of the United States. The railroad across the isthmus of Tehuan- 
 tepec has been rebuilt, the harbors of Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, the ports at 
 the termini of this railroad on the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific, have been 
 greatly improved, and the Mexicans expect to attract large interocean trade 
 across Mexico at this point. Races Mexican, Indian, and about 40,000 white 
 
70 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 foreigners and 3,000 Chinese. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. The exports 
 are larger than the imports. Textiles, hardware and machinery are leading 
 imports, half of them coming from the United States and the remainder from 
 Europe. Foreign trade (1903) imports, $74,690,000; exports, $88,200,000. 
 
 Monaco. A principality within French territory, between Nice and Men- 
 tone. Area, 0.58 square mile; population, 15, 180. The income of the state is derived 
 chiefly from the tax imposed upon the famous gambling establishment maintained 
 there. Races, French and Italian. Trade is included in the statistics of France. 
 
 Montenegro. A principality of Europe. Area, 3, 630 square miles; popula- 
 tion (1896), 227,841. Between 41-44 north latitude and 18-20 east longitude. 
 Capital, Cetinje, 3,000; Podgoritza, 6,534; Dulcigno, 5,000. It is a mountainous, 
 bare, limestone region, admirably adapted to maintain its independence against the 
 Turks, but it was quite uuable to support even its very frugal and warlike popu- 
 lation till newly acquired fertile districts bordering on the Adriatic increased the 
 supply of grain, tobacco, vines and southern fruits. The result is that the Mon- 
 tenegrins have been diverted to some extent from cattle raising to agriculture. 
 There ^re no railroads, scarcely any manufactures, and the small trade is almost 
 wholly with Austria-Hungary and Great Britain. Nearly everything is imported 
 except food; and animals and their products are the only exports. The seaports 
 are Antivari and Dulcigno. The people are of Servian and to a small extent of 
 Turkish stock. Religions, chiefly Greek Orthodox, with 13,000 Roman Catholics 
 and 13,500 Mohammedans. Foreign trade (1898) imports, $700,000; exports, 
 $ 600, 000. 
 
 Morocco. A sultanate of northwest Africa. Bounded by the Atlantic 
 and Mediterranean on the west and north, and by Algeria and the Sahara on the 
 east and south. Area, 219,000 square miles; population (estimated), 8,000,000. 
 The three capitals, where the Sultan resides alternately, are : Fez, 100,000 ; Morocco 
 City, 55,000, and Mequinez. Tangier, on the Strait of Gibraltar, is the principal sea- 
 port and the seat of the foreign consuls. Casablanca, Mazagan and Mogador, 
 the Atlantic ports, rank next to Tangier in the value of goods shipped. 
 
 Though mountainous in the north and south, Morocco on its central plateaus 
 has rich opportunities for agriculture and stock-raising. Its undeveloped mineral 
 wealth is very great, and in natural resources the state is regarded as richer than 
 any other of the Mediterranean countries of Africa. It is, however, of little 
 commercial importance, for the government is despotic, the taxes are very oner- 
 ous, life and property are not safeguarded, and the fanatical populace bitterly 
 hate 'all peoples of non-Mohammedan faith. Under such conditions, extensive 
 commercial development is impossible. By agreement between France and Great 
 Britain and Spain, in 1904, France, with the consent of the Sultan of Morocco, was 
 to be permitted to attempt in that state the same work of development she has 
 achieved in Algeria. If this plan is carried out the development of Morocco 
 will be commensurate with her opportunities. Races Berber, Arab, negro, 
 etc. Religion, Mohammedan. The imports are chiefly firearms and ammunition, 
 textiles and hardware, with petroleum from America. Exports, cattle, wool, 
 wax and goat-skins. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $8,700,000; exports, 
 $6,600,000. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 71 
 
 Netherlands, The. A limited monarchy of Europe. Area, 12,728 square 
 miles; population (1903), 5,430,973. Between 51 and 54 north latitude and 
 4 and 8 east longitude. Capital, The Hague, population, 229,839; Amsterdam, 
 546,534; Eotterdam, 357,474; Utrecht, 110,648; Groningen, 70,609. Aflatcoun- 
 try with monotonous plains, interrupted only by dunes and a few higher undula- 
 tions in the east and south. The dunes, stretching along the coast, owe their exist- 
 ence to the winds and seas, which heap the sand into rows of hills. One-fourth 
 of the country lies below sea level, some districts being from 12 to 20 feet below. 
 The whole country would be permanently under water were it not protected from 
 the sea by the dunes and gigantic embankments of earth faced with stone or pro- 
 tected by stakes. These works are called dikes, and they protect the coast from 
 the sea at the points where there are no dunes. The climate is oceanic and moist. 
 The summers are not very warm and the winters are not often very cold. The 
 North Sea washes the whole coast line, which is difficult of access on account of 
 the dunes. The chief rivers are the Rhine, the Meuse, or Maas, and the Scheldt. 
 The river mouths, with their ebb and flow, and a number of bays, chiefly in the 
 ZuiderZee, form the few harbors, of which Rotterdam and Amsterdam command 
 nearly all the sea trade. 
 
 The country is a land of canals, all the towns and villages being connected by 
 them. The most important are the North Holland Canal, from Amsterdam to 
 Helder, which, however, is not wide enough for modern large ships to enter; the 
 North Sea Canal, 16 miles long, utilized by large steamships between Amsterdam 
 and the North Sea; and the Rhine Mouth Canal, which gives Rotterdam a deep 
 channel to the sea. The most fertile provinces are in the north and west, and in 
 a part of Limburg, where agriculture has reached a very high stage. Grain, pota- 
 toes and vegetables are the chief crops. The Dutch excel in the cultivation of flow- 
 ers, vegetables and fruit, which are important exports to neighboring countries, 
 chiefly England. The country imports its timber, because it is almost destitute 
 of forests. One of the greatest national resources is cattle rearing, which has at- 
 tained "a development equalled in few other countries. Live cattle are exported, 
 and enormous quantities of cheese and butter are sent abroad. The superior 
 horses bring large prices. Sheep are reared more for their flesh than their wool, 
 great quantities of eggs are sent to England, and fishing is a large source of wealth. 
 
 The supply of minerals is very scanty, but some coal is mined in the southeast. 
 Peat is the chief fuel, and is cut in large quantities. The Netherlands is not an 
 industrial state, its manufactures hardly meeting its own demand, though calicoes 
 are made in great quantities for the colonial trade. Earthenware of all kinds is 
 produced, and billions of brick are made to take the place of stone in building, 
 there being no building stone in Holland. Tobacco and sugar refining are among 
 the other leading industries. Diamond cutting has decreased, as the industry has 
 to a large extent been transferred to Paris and London. Railroads are used chiefly 
 for passenger traffic and the international freight trade, the canals being the 
 main reliance for domestic transportation. As the Dutch have one of the largest 
 colonial empires, and exploit their colonies strictly for their own benefit, these 
 possessions are a great source of wealth, giving the Netherlands much of its 
 importance as a commercial nation. Races, Dutch, with about 50,000 other 
 
72 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Europeans. Keligions 3,068,129 Protestants, 1,798,915 Koman .Catholics, 
 104,000 Hebrews. The chief trade is in colonial products, but the larger part 
 of the exports of home products goes to neighboring countries. Foreign trade 
 (1902) imports, $867,308,000; exports, $732,975,000. 
 
 Newfoundland. An insular crown colony of Great Britain. Area, 42,200 
 square miles. The fisheries of Labrador being practically monopolized by New- 
 foundland fishermen,. the. Labrador coast is united with Newfoundland for admin- 
 istrative purposes. Population, 216,615. Newfoundland is between 46 and 52 
 north latitude and 53 and 60 west longitude. Capital, St. John's, population, 
 30,000; Harbour Grace, 6,500. St. John's is nearer to Europe than any other 
 port of America, being only 1,675 miles from Cape Clear, on the west coast of 
 Ireland. Though good farming land is plentiful in the west and in some of the 
 valleys, the fishing industry dominates everything and agriculture is neglected. 
 Nearly the whole population is devoted to the fishing trade. The hair seal is 
 hunted by many vessels for its oil and skin and the cod, herring and lobster 
 fisheries give employment to most of the men. Fish is cured in great quantities; 
 dried cod fish (half the exports) is sent to many countries, and fertilizers from 
 fish offal, glue and cod liver oil, besides canned lobsters, are exported. Food 
 and clothing are the chief imports, most of these purchases coming from Great 
 Britain, Canada and the United States. Race, chiefly British. Religion, Pro- 
 testant. The imports and exports are each about $8,000,000 a year. 
 
 New Zealand. A British island colony. Area, 104,471 square miles ; popu- 
 lation (with island dependencies) , 863, 364. Between 34 and 47 south latitude and 
 166 and 179 east longitude. Capital, Wellington, population 43,638; Auckland, 
 34,213; Dunedin, 24,879; Christchurch, 17,538. The colony consists of three 
 islands North and South Islands and the small Stewart Island. A few groups 
 of small islands (Chatham, Auckland and others) are politically united with it. The 
 islands are mountainous, the loftiest peak being Mount Cook, in South Island 
 (12,349 feet). The climate is oceanic, but the loftier mountains are snowclad, af- 
 fording a rich supply of water to the broad valleys and the plains bordering the 
 sea. The mean temperature of Auckland is 68 Fahr. in January and 50 Fahr. in 
 July. All the climatic conditions make New Zealand a delightful place of residence. 
 The leading branch of farming is cattle and sheep raising, the industry being stimu- 
 lated by-the luxuriant meadows and prairies. This fine natural condition for the 
 animal industry is enlarged by the cultivation of fodder root crops. Sheep (20,- 
 200,000 in 1901) are most numerous in the southern part of North and the eastern 
 part of South Islands. Wool to the value of over $15,000,000 was exported in 
 1901-02. More cattle are raised in North than in South Island. The exports of 
 butter, cheese and meats, sent refrigerated, to Europe are very great. The common 
 farm crops of. the temperate zone are constantly developing, and over 8,000,000 
 acres are under cultivation. The damp, steep western slope has little agriculture, 
 but the warm, dry plains of the east of South Island especially make ideal farming 
 lands. A great amount of wheat, linseed and oats is raised. Phormium, or New 
 Zealand flax, grows wild, and is used for making paper, cordage and some fabrics. 
 Gold is a great resource, and about $250,000,000 of the metal has been exported. 
 Coal and petroleum are also large resources. The harbor of Lyttelton, the port 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 73 
 
 of Christchurch, is the flooded crater of an extinct volcano. Most of the foreign 
 trade is with Great Britain, wool, meats, gold, grain, etc., being exported, while 
 manufactured articles make up the imports. Races, chiefly British and Maori. 
 Religion, Protestant. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $56,633,575; exports, 
 $68,224,885. 
 
 Nicaragua. A republic of Central America. Area, 47,800 square miles; 
 population, 429,310. Between 10 and 15 north latitude and 82 and 88 west 
 longitude. Capital, Managua, population, 25,000; Leon, 45,000. Nicaragua is 
 the largest state of Central America, with extensive seaboard on both the Pacific 
 Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. As in the other Central American states, the 
 population is largest on the Pacific slope. 
 
 The east, covered with tropical forests, is almost wholly unutilized, but a few 
 mining centers have been opened among them. The principal export product, 
 coffee, is chiefly grown in the west around Leon. The banana is planted for ex- 
 port only along the Rama or Bluefields River, which is navigable for 65 miles 
 from the Caribbean. Cattle in the northwest supply many hides for export. 
 Bluefields is the chief Atlantic port, as the larger steamers can no longer enter 
 Oreytown Harbor. Corinto (most important for commerce) and San Juan del 
 Sur are the Pacific ports, and a railroad connects Corinto with the large interior 
 towns. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Cath- 
 olic. Foreign trade (1901) imports, $2,185,000; exports, $3,243,000. 
 
 Norway. Until 1905 a part of the kingdom of Sweden and Norway, 
 when she seceded from this union and became an independent state in Septem- 
 ber of that year. Area, 124,454 square miles; population (1900), 2,240,032; 
 capital, Christiania, population, 227,626; Bergen, 72,251; Trondhjem, 38,180. 
 Between 58 and 71 north latitude and 4 and 31 east longitude. Norway is a 
 narrow coast country on the north Atlantic, the entire shore line including 
 fiords and large islands, being about 12,000 miles long. It forms the western 
 half of the largest peninsula in Europe. The prevailing westerly winds, warmed 
 by their passage over the Atlantic, keep the fifty ports among the fiords open the 
 year around. The same influence makes oats a flourishing crop at 64, and bar- 
 ley even at 70. The country is, however, mountainous, and only about 2 per 
 cent, of the land is cultivated, so that the grain and potato crops satisfy only one- 
 half of the domestic consumption. The most important vegetable resource is 
 the forests, which cover one-fourth of the area; the timber is close- grained and 
 tough, and Norway is one of the leading lumber-producing countries, though in- 
 ferior in this respect to Sweden. Sufficient cattle and sheep are reared to meet 
 the home requirements, but only a small quantity of wool is exported. The most 
 valuable animal product is derived from the sea, the cod and herring fisheries 
 yielding millions of dollars every year, and providing a large part of the food of 
 the inhabitants. About 50,000,000 cod is the annual catch around the Lofoten 
 islands, and the less valuable herring fishery is pursued all along the coast. Min- 
 ing is not important, and as coal is wanting and the population is sparse, Norway 
 could scarcely be expected to take a prominent place in manufactures. The wood 
 industries, however, are stimulated by abundant water power; and ship-building, 
 brewing and distilling are important industries. Christiania, Bergen and Trond- 
 
74 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 hjera are the leading ports. Races, Norwegians, Finnish and Lapp. Eeligion, 
 chiefly Lutheran (the state church), with about 30,000 of other Protestant 
 sects, 2,000 Catholics and 700 Israelites. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $77,- 
 770,000; exports, $45,687.000. 
 
 Orange River Colony. Formerly the Orange Free State, one of the Boer 
 republics, but attached to the British Empire as a colony at the close of the Brit- 
 ish-Boer war. Area, 51,120 square miles; population, about 200,000, of whom 
 90,000 are whites (80,000 Boers) and the remainder native blacks. Between 
 27-31 south latitude and 24-30 east longitude. It stands on the high plateau 
 of inner South Africa, has a temperate, healthful climate, and is best adapted 
 for stock raising; wheat and other farm crops, however, succeed in the south. 
 Capital, Bloemfontein ; population, about 6,000. This town is coming into note 
 as a health resort, and a considerable number of invalids from Europe are living 
 there. The Boers are thinly scattered over the plateau, tending their sheep and 
 cattle. Wool is the chief product, and, with hides and ostrich feathers, forms 
 the bulk of the exports. Some diamonds are mined, but the mineral industries 
 are little developed. Races, Boers, natives of Bantu stock and British. Re- 
 ligion, Protestant. No recent trade statistics. 
 
 Panama. A republic of North America, formerly a state of Colombia; 
 declared its independence in 1903. It occupies Jhe Isthmus of Panama between 
 Costa Rica and Colombia, with a length of about 480 miles, and varying in 
 width from 37 to 110. Area, 154.120 square miles; population, about 400,000. 
 Capital, Panama, population, 30,000; Colon, 5,000. The mountain backbone is 
 boldly denned in the western part, but in the eastern half of the isthmus there is 
 little indication of systematic arrangement in the innumerable hills that cover it. 
 About 150 short rivers flow to the sea from the northern side, and more than 
 twice that number drain the Pacific slope. The largest river, Tuira, is navigable 
 for river schooners as far as Santa Maria del Real. The Bayamo, discharging into 
 the Gulf of Panama, is said to be navigable for small craft 120 miles. Panama 
 has many bays and ports on both oceans, but most of them are in primeval 
 solitude. There is no country behind them which offers an easy field for develop- 
 ment. Thick forest covers three-fourths of the state, and five-eighths of it are 
 wild, unoccupied land, the remainder being only rudely utilized by the inhabitants. 
 The climate is tropical and unhealthful. The products are tropical. Along the 
 route of the canal to be built by the United States a zone 10 miles wide has been 
 placed under the authority of the United States, excepting the cities of Panama 
 and Colon, so that the United States may carry out works of sanitation and have 
 full power to facilitate the building and protection of the canal. Panama and 
 Colon are the only important ports. The people represent an admixture of 
 Spanish, negro and Indian blood. Their trade is small, the great traffic cross- 
 ing the isthmus being almost altogether transit trade. Foreign trade (1898) 
 imports, $3,345,000; exports, $1,060,500. 
 
 Paraguay. A republic of South America. Area, 97,726 square miles; 
 population (1900), 635,571. Between 22-28 south latitude and 55-62 west 
 longitude. Capital, Asuncion, population, 51,719; Carapegua, 15,000; Yilla 
 Pilar, 14,400. One of the smallest states of South America; it does not touch 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 75 
 
 the sea, but the Parana and Paraguay rivers, accessible to large steamers, give 
 it an outlet to the Atlantic. It is mountainous in the east, has a sub-tropical 
 climate, agreeable and healthful, and receives abundant rainfall. Most of the 
 country is well adapted for foreign colonization. The western part, bordered by 
 the Pilcomayo River, is a low, warm plain, interspersed with forests and 
 especially adapted for cattle raising. The eastern and more populous region is 
 mainly covered with dense forests, with great -but undeveloped wealth in timber, 
 interspersed with plains, especially towards the south, which are splendidly 
 adapted for cattle and farming. The vast resources of all kinds are still little 
 developed. Rice, sugar-cane, maize and the potato are the chief farm crops, 
 but the great product is mate, which is gathered wild in the woods, and is 
 exported to the amount of about 15,000,000 pounds a year. It is sold chiefly to 
 the country people in several South American states, and is regarded as an 
 excellent sustitute for tea and coffee. Domestic animals are chiefly confined to 
 cattle (about 1,000,000), raised mostly for local consumption. Iron, kaolin and 
 salt are abundant but little developed. A few home industries supply most of 
 the demand except for textiles and hardware. A railroad (150 miles) connects 
 Asuncion with the Uruguay system. Races Spanish- American, 100,000 
 Indians, and a few thousand Brazilians and Europeans. Religion, Roman 
 Catholic. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $2,270,000; exports, $3,787,000. 
 
 Persia. A despotic monarchy of southwest Asia. Area, 628,000 square 
 miles ; population, about 9,000,000. Between 25-39 north latitude and 44-62 
 east longitude. Capital, Teheran, population, 280,000; Tabriz, 200,000; Ispahan, 
 70,000; Meshed, 60,000; Kerman, 60,000. A high table-land, more than a third 
 of it sandy desert and salt plain, mountainous in the west and north, tillage con- 
 fined mainly to the west in irrigated valleys. The rainfall is largely deficient ; 
 climate healthful, but very warm in the south. The Persian monarch assumes 
 the title of Shah-in-shah, or King of Kings, and his government is an Oriental 
 despotism. The administration is corrupt, but the adoption of European 
 innovations in the army, etc., gives an air of progress. The real wealth is 
 aborescent culture, particularly fruits. Cotton cultivation has made consider- 
 able progress and the fiber is now a small export. All kinds of minerals are 
 found, but they will not be available until the w r retched communications are 
 improved and mining regions are open to foreigners. Most turquoises, how- 
 ever, come from Persia. The Russian influence now predominates and counter- 
 balances the English influence in Afghanistan. House industries supply most 
 of the local demand, and the Persians are famous for carpets and rugs, 
 which are the largest manufactured export. Race, Persian. Religions, chiefly 
 Mohammedan (Shiite sect), 65,000 Christians, 19,000 Jews. The import is much 
 larger than the export trade, textiles, glass, sugar, kerosene and tea and coffee 
 being large purchases. Opium, cotton and wool, silk, carpets, pearls and tur- 
 quoises are the chief exports. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $23,703,000.; ex- 
 ports, $13,243,000. 
 
 Peru. A South American republic. Area, 690, 000 square miles; population 
 (1896), 4,559,550. On the Pacific Ocean, between 3 and 18 south latitude and 
 70* and 81 west longitude. Capital, Lima, population, 113,000; Callao, 48,118; 
 
76 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Arequipa, 35,000; Cuzco, 30,000. It has a long littoral on the ocean, and a 
 part of its territory extends to the east of the Andes, giving access to the 
 Atlantic by the Amazon River. The plain between the Andes ranges and 
 the Pacific is a desert, with ribbons of verdure along the streams, bordered 
 by irrigated plantations where sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco are raised. 
 The mountain ranges are economically important for their vast stores of 
 minerals and the rivers that their melting snows send to the sea. The forests 
 east of the mountains are rich in rubber and cinchona (quinine), and have 
 splendid prospects for tropical agriculture, as yet little developed. The climate 
 is tropical. Agriculture is limited to the production of food consumed at home, 
 though the plantations supply some export cotton, rice and coca (from which 
 cocaine is derived), and also sugar-cane for the home refineries. Cattle are 
 numerous among the foothills of the Andes. The alpaca supplies much wool, 
 and the llama is used chiefly for mountain transportation. Sugar and metals 
 (silver, copper, quicksilver) are the principal exports, sugar being the most 
 important. Mining is restricted by the necessity of carrying ore on the backs 
 of llamas or mules to the railroads, several of which start from the ports to the 
 interior, but have not yet reached all the important mining districts. Guano, 
 once a great export, is practically exhausted. Manufactures are confined to sugar 
 refineries, tanneries, breweries and a few cotton mills. Callao is the chief port. 
 The largest imports are textiles, iron and steel goods, machinery and groceries. 
 Eaces, Spanish- American and Indian. Keligion, Roman Catholic. Foreign 
 trade (1902) imports, $21,062,000; exports, $17,938,000. 
 
 Philippine Islands. A large island group in the Malay Archipelago, under 
 the control of the United States. Area, about 15,000 square miles; population, 
 7,635,000. Between 5-20 north latitude and 117-127 east longitude. 
 Comprises about 1,500 large and small islands, of which about 400 are inhabited. 
 The largest islands are Mindanao, Luzon (commercially the most important), 
 Panay, Palawan, Mindoro, Negros, Samar, Leyte and Cebu. Mountains are 
 the chief topographic feature. The larger islands, especially Luzon and Min- 
 danao, have broad, well- watered plains which are tillable, but not over a third 
 of the area is adapted for cultivation. The climate is tropical, the night 
 breezes from the sea affording some relief, but the islands are not healthful for 
 the white races. The population is densest in Luzon and the Yisayas, or central 
 islands. Rice is the chief production, but in poor years much is imported from 
 Cochin-China, as this grain is the chief food. Manila hemp, a strong, coarse 
 fiber derived from a species of the banana, is the best material for cordage and 
 sailcloth and is a large export, the Philippines being as yet the chief source of 
 supply. Tobacco is also a great crop, the best growing in northern Luzon. 
 It is sent in large quantities to other parts of Asia and some of the western lands. 
 Sugar, copra and cocoanuts are also export articles. The mineral wealth is large 
 but undeveloped. The United States has established local self-government 
 wherever practicable, is efficiently protecting life and property, and is developing 
 the islands by establishing agricultural experiment stations, live stock and 
 schools. The government has surveyed the coasts in the interests of fishing, and 
 in many other ways is doing much to facilitate progress. The Tagals of Luzon 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 77 
 
 and the Visayas are more advanced in civilization than the other natives, who 
 include the dwarf Negritos and the Mohammedan Moros. Races Malayan, 
 Negroid, Chinese and whites. Over 3,000,000 profess Christianity (Roman 
 Catholic). Imports are chiefly cotton goods, hardware and machinery. The 
 imports in 1902 were $33,300,000; exports, $20,000,000. 
 
 Portugal. A limited monarchy in Europe. Area (with Azores and Ma- 
 deira), 34,038 square miles; population (1900), 5,423,132. Between 37-42 
 north latitude and 6-10 west longitude. Capital, Lisbon; population, 35ti,009; 
 Oporto, 167,955; Braga, 24,202; Funchal, 18,989. Most of the country is moun- 
 tainous, being occupied by the western slopes of the Spanish ranges. The plains, 
 very fertile, are almost wholly confined to the west coast and along the rivers. 
 The climate is oceanic, and high degrees of temperature are registered only in the 
 south. Rainfall is considerable, especially in winter and spring. The rivers 
 Tagos, Douro, Guadiana and Minho are generally navigable to the Spanish 
 frontier. Flax and southern fruits are large crops, but wine growing (con- 
 spicuously Port wine) is the most noted branch of husbandry. In the quality of 
 its wine, Portugal is one of the leading wine countries. The chief domestic 
 animals are cattle, mules, asses and swine, and the fisheries along the coast are 
 very productive. Cork derived from the bark of a species of oak is sent to all 
 -civilized lands. The country is highly metalliferous, but the mining industry is 
 backward and the mines that are worked are chiefly in the hands of foreigners. 
 Sea salt obtained by evaporation is a large product. The manufactures do not 
 meet the home demand either in quality or quantity, though textiles, hats, 
 leather, porcelain, ornaments, etc., are produced in Lisbon, Oporto, Braga and 
 some other towns. Railroads connect all the chief centers of population, and 
 domestic trade is much facilitated by rivers. Much produce is brought in from 
 the colonies, the other leading imports being grain, cotton, coal, timber and 
 English and French manufactures. The chief exports are wine, cork, sea salt, 
 copper and fish. Race, Portuguese. Religion, Roman Catholic. Foreign trade 
 (1902) imports, $60,044,000; exports, $30,710,000. 
 
 Porto Rico. Colony of the United States in the West Indies. The island 
 is 95 miles long and 35 broad, with an area of 3,668 square miles. Between 
 17-19 north latitude and 65-67 west longitude. Population, 953,243. 
 Capital, San Juan; population, 32,000. Ponce, on the southern coast, second 
 largest port, population, 28,000. The central range of mountains extends 
 nearly the entire length of the island, condensing the moist trade winds, 
 so that the northern half of the island has abundant rainfall, while the 
 fields of the southern half often require irrigation. The little rivers of the 
 north for this reason contain more water than the southern rivers, and many small 
 boats carry farm produce to the northern coast towns. Alluvial plains skirt 
 the coast, but most of the island is volcanic mountains and foothills of lime- 
 stone. The tropical climate is tempered by the trade winds. The island 
 is liable, in the late summer and autumn, to be visited by severe hurricanes 
 which sometimes do great damage. Most of the farms are small, and four-fifths 
 of the population are engaged in agriculture. The staple products are coffee, 
 sugar and tobacco. The coffee shrubs, grown in the shade of banana and guava 
 
78 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 trees, do best high up on the hills. The quality of the bean is excellent, and the 
 product meets with ready sale. Over 150,000 acres are in coffee, and 80,000 
 acres in sugar. Sugar-cane is planted chiefly on the alluvial coastal plains. The 
 finest tobacco districts (about 12,000,000 pounds annually) are in the inland moun- 
 tain regions. The mineral resources are not large, but the evaporation of brine 
 supplies the island with about 10,000,000 pounds of salt a year; and magnetite, 
 gold and copper ore are found to some extent. Gypsum is very useful in making 
 stucco, and there is an abundance of building stone. Most roads are very poor, 
 but the United States has connected some important towns with good roads. 
 San Juan and Ponce are connected by an excellent macadam road, and sections 
 of a coast railroad that is to extend around the island are in operation. Steamers 
 ply around the island as well as to the United States, Europe and neighboring 
 islands. Eaces, 589,426 whites, 363,742 negroes and mixed breeds. Keligion, 
 chiefly Roman Catholic. Nearly all the trade is with the United States. In 
 1903 the island sold to this country goods worth $11,057,195, and purchased from 
 us commodities valued at $12,246,225. 
 
 Rumania. A limited monarchy of eastern Europe. Area, 51,098 square 
 miles; population, 5,912,520. Between 43-48 north latitude and 23-30 east 
 longitude. Capital, Bucharest; population, 283,145; Jassy, 78,611; Galatz, 
 63,987. Most of the country is a well- watered plain, with skirts of the Car- 
 pathians only in the west and north. The Danube is the chief river, navigable 
 throughout, but of its tributaries only the Pruth is navigable for steamers and 
 the Sereth for rafts. The climate is continental because the country is open to 
 the northeast. Seventy-five per cent, of the people are farmers, but primitive 
 methods still prevail. The soil is very fertile, and all products of the temperate 
 zone, and even rice, are raised. The chief crops are maize (the staple food), 
 wheat, barley, oats, rye, tobacco and wine, all produced in excess of the 
 demand. More maize is raised than in any other country of Europe. 
 Domestic animals are raised in large numbers. The mineral wealth is great, 
 but only petroleum and salt are worked extensively. Petroleum by-prod- 
 ucts are used for fuel on railroads, steamboats and in factories. Manufactures are 
 primitive, and all the finer products must be imported. Flour mills, distiller- 
 ies and tobacco works are the chief industries. Foreign capitalists own all im- 
 portant manufacturing enterprises, so that the Rumanians derive little profit from 
 them. Races Rumanians, 400,000 Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 85,000 Slavs, 40,000 
 Germans, 30,000 Hungarians, 8,000 Armenians. Religions Greek Orthodox, 
 Roman Catholic, Protestant, Israelite and Mohammedan. Grain is three-fourths 
 of the exports, and imports are mainly textiles and iron goods. Foreign trade 
 (1902) imports, $54,686,000; exports, $72,340,000. 
 
 Russian Empire. An absolute monarchy. Area, Russia in Europe (with 
 Finland and Poland), 2,095,616 square miles; Caucasia, 180,843; Central Asia, 
 1,548,825; Siberia, 4,833,496; total empire, 8,660,395. Population, European Rus- 
 sia, 106,225,138; totalpopulation empire, 138,930,319. Between 36 and 76 latitude 
 and 19 and 170 east longitude. Capital, St. Petersburg; population, 1,439,375; 
 Moscow, 1,038,591; "Warsaw, 638,208; Odessa, 405,041; Helsingfors, 100,812; 
 Tiflis,160,645; Tashkent, 156,414; Baku, 112, 253; Tomsk, 52,430; Irkutsk, 51,434. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL ^HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 79 
 
 EUROPEAN RUSSIA. A vast plain interrupted only by the Ural range in the east ; 
 tundras in the north, immense forests further south, and, to the south of the Volga, 
 the Black Earth region, the granary of Russia, with boundless grain fields and 
 almost no trees; further south, the steppes, divided by the River Don into a well- 
 watered western half, with countless flocks and herds, and an eastern half of 
 dreary steppes and sandy deserts; about 31,000 miles of navigation whose value 
 is impaired by the fact that the rivers are frozen from three to seven months in 
 the year. The Yolga system alone has 10,000 miles of navigation; canals con- 
 nect the rivers and the Caspian and Black Seas with the Baltic. There are many 
 lakes in the northwest, chief among them Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe. 
 Russia has all climates except the torrid; polar bears live in the north and lemons 
 ripen in the south. The rainfall is less than in western Europe. 
 
 Three-fourths of the people live by farming, which is still conducted after 
 primitive methods except in the west (Poland, Finland, Baltic provinces, etc.), 
 where farming is intensive, and the most modern ideas as to fertilization, machin- 
 ery, etc., are in force. In the greater part of Russia, however, the yield of crops 
 would be more than doubled if better methods were used. As it is, Russia sur- 
 passes any other European state in the amount of wheat, rye, flax and hemp pro- 
 duced. Russia grows two- thirds of the oats and half of the rye of Europe, and sup- 
 plies about four-fifths of the flax fiber of the world. The export of grain is second 
 only to that of the United States. The wealth in timber is enormous, and in spite 
 of poor forestry and wretched roads, the timber exports are very large. Stock 
 farming is one of the great sources of wealth. Animal raising is most developed 
 in the western regions of progressive agriculture, but flourishes on the greatest 
 scale on the broad steppes of the southwest, where the animals live all the year in 
 the open air. The fisheries are important. Russia is one of the most favored 
 countries in its mineral wealth. Gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc and 
 salt are the principal minerals worked. The coal-fields are extensive, but the 
 annual yield is less than the quantity required. 
 
 In manufacturing, Russia has made great progress, the policy of the govern- 
 ment being to supply home needs with home product. The most important in- 
 dustries are textiles, metal, leather, soap, sugar and spirits. Nearly ail other 
 branches are developed, but much importation is still necessary. Russia sells farm 
 products to western Europe and imports manufactured goods, and sells Russian 
 manufactures in Asia, importing raw materials. Thus it is an important connect- 
 ing link between two great quarters of the world. Railroads connect the prin- 
 cipal towns, but wagon roads are poor and traveling is easiest by sledges in win- 
 ter. About half the exports are cereals and flour, and the leading imports are 
 materials for manufacture, besides machinery and the finer textiles. Races in 
 the empire 100,000,000 Russians, 9, 500, 000 Poles, 14,500,000 Mongolians, 5,200,- 
 000 Jews, 1,400,000 Germans, 2,500,000 Caucasians, 1,000,000 Rumanians. Re- 
 ligions 89,600,000 Greek Orthodox, 11,400,000 Roman Catholics, 6,200,000 Pro- 
 testants, 1,200,000 other Christians, 5,200,000 Israelites, 13,900,000 Mohamme- 
 dans. Foreign trade (1901) imports, $305,614,000; exports, $392,215,000. 
 
 RUSSIA IN ASIA. For administrative purposes the entire empire is divided into 
 general governments, which are subdivided into governments and districts. Cau- 
 
80 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WOKLD. 
 
 casia is mostly mountainous, save for wide steppes north of the Caucasus range 
 and fertile valleys and a part of the Armenian table-land in the south. The cli- 
 mate south of the mountains is cooler than north of them. Caucasia is rich in 
 timber and farm products, especially wine, but domestic animals are more im- 
 portant than agriculture. The mineral wealth is great, but petroleum is the most 
 valuable. The wells near Baku supply Russia and a good part of Asia with pe- 
 troleum, which also sells freely in western Europe. The native manufactures 
 barely meet home demands, but Tiflis and Erivan are distinguished for carpets, 
 embroideries and weapons. The trade statistics are included in Eussia's com- 
 merce. No trade statistics are issued for the rest of Russian Asia. 
 
 The River Yenisei divides Siberia into a western and level half and an eastern 
 and more mountainous half. Siberia has long, hard winters and short, hot sum- 
 mers. The Obi, Irtish, Yenisei, Lena and Amur rivers are important means of 
 transportation, and many vessels ply on Lake Baikal. The western half of Sibe- 
 ria is more fertile and thickly populated, and is chiefly devoted to agriculture, the 
 ordinary grains, potatoes, onions, melons, etc., thriving in southwestern Siberia. 
 The same region contains millions of sheep and cattle. The mineral wealth is 
 considerably developed and widely distributed, gold, silver and graphite being 
 most worked. The enormous coal-field in central Siberia and the extensive de- 
 posits of iron, lead and copper are still almost untouched. Manufacturing is chiefly 
 confined to tanning, brick-making, ore smelting, etc. The trans-Siberian rail- 
 road and the rivers supply large transportation facilities, and all the principal 
 town's are connected by post routes. The principal commercial centers are 
 Tomsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk and Kiakhta. 
 
 Russian Central Asia includes the Kirghiz steppes and Turkestan, the latter 
 being of most economic importance. The commercial center of Turkestan is the 
 flourishing city of Tashkent. Cotton is the largest export, and the Russian gov- 
 ernment endeavors to develop the cultivation of this crop to the largest extent. 
 Over 800,000,000 pounds of clean fiber are sent annually to the Russian mills. 
 Russian Central Asia has exterior trade relations only with Russia, Siberia and 
 Persia, Indian and Afghan merchants also bringing some British commodities 
 into the markets. The trans-Caspian and the Orenburg railroads are greatly 
 stimulating the economic growth of these possessions. 
 
 Salvador. A republic of Central America. Area, 7,225 square miles ; popu- 
 lation, 915,512. Between 13 and 14 north latitude and 87 and 89 west longitude. 
 The smallest of American countries, with a more dense population than any other 
 Central American state. Capital, San Salvador; population, 59,544. Salvador 
 extends along the Pacific coast with a sea frontage of 170 miles. The state is 
 noted for its coffee, of which it has the largest export, except Guatemala. There 
 are hundreds of sugar plantations. Live stock does not fill the demand for 
 domestic animals, and mining is unimportant. Most exports are shipped through 
 La Libertad and Acajutla. Flour, textiles and hardware are the chief imports, 
 half of which come from England. Races Spanish- American, Indians and 
 mixed bloods. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $2,624,000; exports, $3,926,000. 
 
 San Marino. An independent state in Italy. Area, about 24 square miles; 
 population, 9,535. Situated about 44 north latitude and 12 25' east longitude. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 81 
 
 Capital, San Marino. This old and famous city stands on the summit of Monte 
 Titano, about 20 miles in an air line from the Adriatic. San Marino has existed 
 as a sovereign state from the fourth century A.D., but, though independent, it 
 accepts a subsidy from Italy and claims the special protection of the king. The 
 republic, however, is not democratic, as the citizens have no vote. The supreme 
 power is vested in a council of 60 members, the title of Councilor being hereditary 
 in the family, and when a family becomes extinct the council elects another coun- 
 cilor. Kace, Italian. No trade statistics. 
 
 Santo Domingo. Negro republic occupying the east end of Haiti. Area, 
 18,045 square miles; population, 600,000. Between 17-20 north latitude and 
 68-72 west longitude. Capital, Santo Domingo; population, about 17,000; 
 Puerto Plata, the most important port, 4,500. The country is mountainous and 
 inland communications are poor. The leading industries and exports are sugar, 
 tobacco, cacao and divi-divi, valued for its pods, containing tannin and gallic acid, 
 used to tan leather and dye cloth. The U. S. buys nearly all the exports and sup- 
 plies about half the manufactures purchased. Race, Spanish-speaking negroes. 
 Trade (1901) imports, $2,987,000; exports, $5,224,000. 
 
 Servia. A limited monarchy of south Europe. Area, 19,050 square miles; 
 population, 2,624,318. Between 43-45 north latitude and 19-23 east longitude. 
 Capital, Belgrade; population, 69,790; Nish, 24,593. The country is covered 
 with mountains. The chief rivers are the Danube, Save and Morava. The 
 climate is continental (very cold in winter and warm in summer). The soil is 
 fertile and the mountains are covered with forests of oak and other trees. 
 Nine-tenths of the people are farmers, and Servia produces more maize, wheat, 
 barley, rye and oats than it needs. Domestic animals are in large numbers, and 
 live stock, especially hogs, are exported. The country is rich in minerals, but 
 defective means of communications retard development. Manufactures, in spite 
 of high protective duties, have attained no high level, and all fine articles are 
 imported, while the house industries supply most needs of the peasantry. Servia 
 has 400 miles of railroads, and its chief rivers also promote domestic trade. 
 Most of the foreign trade is with Austria-Hungary, with which Servia is con- 
 nected by natural trade routes. The railroad from Paris to Constantinople and 
 Salonica passes through the country, giving Servia two outlets to the Mediter- 
 ranean. The chief exports are grain and live stock, and the imports are manu- 
 factured goods and petroleum. Over six-sevenths of the people are Servians. 
 Religions Roman Catholic, Israelite and Mohammedan. Foreign trade (1902) 
 imports, $8,650,000; exports, $13,920,000. 
 
 Siam. An absolute monarchy of South Asia. Area, 200,000 square miles; 
 population, 6,320,000. Between 12-21 north latitude and 97-106 east longi- 
 tude (also includes the narrow strip of the Malay peninsula to 4 north latitude). 
 Capital, Bangkok; population, 600,000; Chantabun, 30,000. Chiefly plains with 
 mountains in the northwest, climate tropical. The larger part of the people live 
 in the wonderfully fertile valley of the Menam, upon whose rise every year the 
 quantity of the rice crop depends. Thus the river bears much the same relation 
 to Siam that the Nile does to Egypt. Siam is one of the great rice-producing 
 countries, the exports being surpassed only by those of Burma and Cochin* 
 6 
 
82 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 China. "While the southernpart is a flat delta land producing little but rice, the 
 great forests of the northern mountain regions contain teak and other timbers. 
 Teak is floated down the Menam to Bangkok, and this valuable timber, and 
 rice, are the two great export commodities. Most of the commerce is in the 
 hands of Chinese merchants. Bangkok has steamship connections with Europe, 
 but the larger vessels cannot cross the bar at the mouth of the Menam, and much 
 freight is therefore lightered between the ships and the capital, 25 miles up the 
 river. The king and his government are progressive; considerable machinery is 
 being introduced and the country is increasing in prosperity. Kaces 2,000,000 
 Siamese, 2,000,000 Chinese, 1,000,000 Malay, 500,000 Laos. Eeligion, chiefly 
 Buddhist. Trade (1903) imports, $17,989,858; exports, $20,477,714. 
 
 Spain. A limited monarchy in Europe. Area, 197,670 square miles; pop- 
 ulation, 18,909,086. Between 36 and 44 north latitude and 10 west to 4 east 
 longitude. Capital, Madrid; population, 539,585; Barcelona, 533,000; Valencia, 
 213,550; Seville, 148,315. The Spanish peninsula is a high plateau, largely 
 covered by mountains. The center of Spain is occupied by the two extensive 
 table-lands of Old Castille and New Castille, dry and unfertile and better suited 
 for cattle raising than for tillage. Spain also contains two great lowland valleys 
 or plains, the Aragonese plain, in the north, and the Andalusian plain, in the 
 south, which, like the level coast districts, are among the most fertile lands of 
 Europe. But they are small in extent compared with the table-lands. The 
 rivers are deficient in water most of the year and of little value either for shipping 
 or agriculture. Many canals were built centuries ago, chiefly to irrigate arid 
 districts, but they . were permitted to fall into ruin. The government is now 
 repairing the canals and building new ones to serve both irrigation and naviga- 
 tion. The climatic conditions of most of South Europe are found only in the 
 coast districts and Andalusia. The bare interior, owing to its high elevation, 
 suffers from winter and summer extremes of temperature, and with the sea on 
 three sides, Spain is deficient in rainfall and much irrigation is necessary. 
 
 About seven-eighths of the people are farmers, few of whom practise advanced 
 methods of tillage. The best watered and cultivated province is Valencia, and 
 several other provinces are carefully tilled. Apples, pears and southern fruits 
 thrive; in good years the northern provinces export cereals and the southern 
 provinces maize and rice. Olive oil is a very large product, and the vine is the 
 most important branch of Spanish husbandry. Most Spanish wines are inferior, 
 but the warm climate of the south produces the famous wines of Malaga, Alicante 
 and Jerez (sherry). The finest pastures are near the Atlantic, in the northwest, 
 but over 16,000,000 sheep graze on the central table-land and are driven down to 
 lower districts in winter. Spain is very rich in coal, iron, copper, lead and quick- 
 silver, but most of the mining is done by foreign capitalists and the ore is ex- 
 ported raw. Only a few hundred tons of iron are produced in Spanish foun- 
 dries. The northeast province of Catalonia (especially the Barcelona district) is the 
 home of the greater part of Spanish manufactures. The cotton and metal indus- 
 tries are most prominent there, and cotton, flour and olive oil are the leading 
 manufactures. Minor industries are limited by the poverty of the people, who 
 have small purchasing power. The trade of Spain consists mainly of the export 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 83 
 
 of raw produce and the import of most of the manufactures consumed. Barcelona 
 is the chief port as well as the leading mercantile city, and Valencia, Alicante, Ma- 
 laga, Cadiz, Santander and Bilbao are also important ports. Races, chiefly Span- 
 ish. Religion, Roman Catholic. Foreign trade (1902) imports, $175,487,000; 
 exports, $161,297,000. 
 
 Sweden. Until September, 1905, the eastern part of the kingdom of 
 Sweden and Norway, when Norway seceded from this union and became an in- 
 dependent state. Area, 172,876 square miles; population, 5,221,291. Between 
 55 and 70 north latitude and 12 and 24 east longitude. Capital, Stockholm, popu- 
 lation, 311,043; Goteborg, 135,314; MalmS, 67,384. Sweden is mountain- 
 ous, especially in the west, but much flatter than Norway. The only plain 
 of any size belongs to Sweden; it extends along the east coast to the south of 
 the peninsula, and includes the fertile region of Gothland, the best agricultural 
 part of Sweden. The climate is colder than that of Norway, and though half of 
 the land is unproductive, three-fourths of the people are farmers. Sweden pro- 
 duces more cereals than Norway, and exports grain, chiefly oats, though it im- 
 ports rye and rye meal and also wheat flour. Much live stock is exported. The 
 government has done a great deal for the intelligent development of dairy farm- 
 ing and the general improvement of agriculture. The fisheries are far inferior to 
 those of Norway, and do not even supply the home demand. The timber trade, 
 on the other hand, is of great importance, and the shipments, largely to England 
 and France, are the chief exports. Sweden is poorly supplied with coal, but has 
 larr'e deposits of iron ore north of the Arctic Circle. A railroad has been built 
 from the mines to the Atlantic to carry the ore to England and Germany. 
 Sweden is industrially dependent on other countries, as coal, population and capi- 
 tal are wanting. The best-developed manufactures are the iron and wood indus- 
 tries; Swedish matches are everywhere famous. Linen manufactures meet the 
 domestic demand, but the woolen and cotton factories supply only a part of the 
 home need. Stockholm and Goteborg are the chief ports, and there is a large 
 coastal trade and ad equate connections with foreign countries. South Sweden has 
 a fine canal system, and railroads connect the chief towns with one another and 
 with Norway. Races, Swedish and 229,000 foreigners. Religions 1,716,548 
 Protestants, 183,828 Catholics, 8,069 Israelites. Foreign trade (1902) imports, 
 $134,685,000; exports, $105,154,000. 
 
 Switzerland. A European republic. Area, 15,976 square miles; popu- 
 lation 3,325,023. Between 45 and 48 north latitude and 6 and 11 east longitude. 
 Capital, Berne, population, 68,958; Zurich, 169,410; Basel, 120,897; Geneva, 
 110,954. Three-fourths of Switzerland are covered with mountains, and most 
 of the inhabitants live on an undulating plain between the Jura Mountains, in 
 the north, and the Alps, in the south. Several passes afford wagon roads over 
 the mountains to Austria and Italy; and three tunnels, the Aiiberg (to Austria), 
 the St. Gotthard and Simplon (to Italy), give uninterrupted connections across 
 Switzerland with the regions north and south. Owing to the Alps, the republic 
 is well supplied with Avater, and while the streams are useless for navigation, 
 they give abundant power for industrial purposes. The lakes furnish important 
 navigation. Scenery is one of the great resources of Switzerland and attracts 
 
84 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 over 1,000,000 foreigners a year. The climate of the valleys is temperate and 
 the rainfall is very large. 
 
 The mountainous character of the country gives agriculture a subordinate 
 place, and only four cantons produce enough food for the home demand. The im- 
 portation of grain, live stock (for meat) and potatoes is therefore very large. The 
 vine is largely cultivated, but the wine product does not mee' the demand. The 
 meadow and mountain pastures have developed stock farming to a considerable 
 extent, and the dairy products are famous, three-fifths of the cheese being ex- 
 ported to all parts of the world. Minerals are of little importance, and as there 
 is no coal, the manufacturing industries would be at a great disadvantage if it 
 were not for the water power. As it is, this natural and abundant supply of power, 
 together with the intelligence of the working classes, has made Switzerland one 
 of the chief manufacturing countries of the world. 
 
 Over 500,000 persons are engaged in the production of cottons, silk, watches, 
 jewelry, machinery, wooden and straw goods and other wares. The products 
 are chiefly those that are distinguished for high quality of workmanship, and Swiss 
 manufactures find markets among all the leading nations. Though Switzerland 
 is far from the sea, the railroads to northern and southern ports serve her com- 
 mercial relations. Races two-thirds German, one-fif t,h French, Italian and im- 
 migrants from other parts of Europe. Religions 1,716,548 Protestants, 1,183,- 
 828 Roman Catholics ; 8,069 Israelites. Trade (1902) imports, $217,803,000^ 
 exports, $168,741,000. 
 
 Transvaal Colony. Formerly the South African republic, but made a col- 
 ony by Great Britain as a result of the British-Boer war. Area, 119,139 square 
 miles; population, 1,100,000, of whom 290,000 are whites (200,000 Boers). 
 Between 22-28 south latitude and 24-32 east longitude. Capital, Pretoria, 
 population, 10,000; Johannesburg, 102,714 before the war. The colony is on 
 the high interior plateau of South Africa, 4,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea. The 
 mountains are chiefly in the east, south and north, with a wide spread plain in 
 the interior and smaller plains scattered through the country. The plateau is 
 higher in the south than in the north, and the climate, temperate in the south and 
 center, is tropical in the north. No rivers are available for navigation. The plains 
 are the home of most of the Boers, who tend their live stock, chiefly cattle, on 
 large farms; vegetable gardens and cattle raising for beef are developed chiefly 
 in the south to supply the wants of the large towns. 
 
 In 1904 the largest diamond ever discovered was found in a mine opened in 
 1903 near Johannesburg. Gold, however, is the greatest mineral resource, and 
 the mines are scattered through the eastern and southern parts of the colony. The 
 region that dwarfs them all is the Witwatersrand (The Rand), on which Johannes- 
 burg stands. It is a rise of ground, the water parting between two drainage areas, 
 about a mile and a half wide and 125 miles long. On about 30 miles of this nar- 
 row strip $80,000,000 of gold were mined the year before the war, 
 surpassing the yield of any other country. The industry was at a standstill 
 during the war, but has rapidly revived, the product in 1904 being about 
 $70,000,000. Gold is practically the only export. Railroads extend to 
 Johannesburg from Cape Colony, Natal and Portuguese East Africa. Races 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 85 
 
 Boers, other whites, chiefly British, native blacks and Chinese laborers in the 
 mines. 
 
 Turkey. Despotic monarchy of southeast Europe. Area, 62,744 square 
 miles ; area empire, 1,111,741 square miles (not including Egypt). Population 
 (Turkey in Europe), 24,028,900; population empire, about 30,000,000. Capital, 
 Constantinople, population, 1,106,000; Salonica, 105,000; Adrianople, 81,000. 
 Turkey in Europe is mountainous, as is the rest of the Balkan peninsula, with 
 many valleys but no large plains. The Maritza and other plains of no 
 great extent are extremely fertile. The climate is extreme in the interior, but 
 mild on the ^gean Sea. Turkey's resources might make her one of the richest 
 countries in Europe, but she is one of the poorest. This is due to oppressive 
 taxation, which consumes one-third of the harvests, wretched government, few 
 roads and a degraded standard of civilization. 
 
 The soil, however, in spite of bad tillage, produces more than the country con- 
 sumes. Maize, wheat, wine of poor quality, tobacco and fruits are the chief crops. 
 Stock farming more than meets the home demand, though little is done to improve 
 domestic animals. The country is very rich in ores, but there is practically no 
 mining. Constantinople and Salonica have a few silk factories and steam mills, 
 but there is little industry outside the household manufactures. Turkey is there- 
 fore an important market for "Western manufactures, paying for them with nat- 
 ural productions. Races 70 per cent. Turks, Greeks, Albanians, etc. Religions 
 50 percent. Mohammedan, 42 percent. Greek Orthodox, 5 per cent. Roman Cath- 
 olic. Foreign trade (1899) imports, $117,134,000; exports, $59,072,000. 
 
 A few railroads in Asiatic Turkey are increasing the importance of Turkey in 
 Asia. The most important city of Asia Minor is Smyrna, second only to Con- 
 stantinople in the Levant. Asia Minor is famous for Smyrna rugs and carpets, 
 and the hair (mohair) of the Angora goat. Syria sends wheat and wool abroad, 
 chiefly through the port of Beirut, which is connected with Damascus by rail. 
 Another railroad extends from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and the Sultan of Turkey is 
 building a railroad from Damascus to Mecca, the great goal of the Mohammedan 
 pilgrims. Mesopotamia has steam communication with India and England through 
 Basra, at the head of the Persian Gulf. Cereals and dates are exported, dates 
 going to all civilized lands. The land transport of Mesopotamia is by mule or 
 camel. The district of Yemen, on the Red Sea, is a fertile Arabian coast-land pro- 
 ducing Mocha coffee. 
 
 Tutuila. A small island in the eastern part of the Sainoan Archipelago. 
 It came into the possession of the United States in 1899. Manua and Rose 
 islands, small bits of land to the east of Tutuila, are included in the colony. 
 Tutuila is of volcanic origin, less than 60 square miles in extent, produces copra 
 for export, and has in Pago-Pago one of the finest landlocked harbors in the 
 Pacific. It is a coaling station. 
 
 United States of America. A North American republic. Its territory 
 south of Canada lies between 24-49 north latitude and 66-125 west longitude. 
 Its area, exclusive of the Territories of Alaska and Hawaii (which see), is 2,970,- 
 230 square miles of land and 55,370 of water; total area, 3,025,600 square miles. 
 The land surface aggregates 1,900,947,200 acres. The total area, including the 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 87 
 
 Territories, but exclusive of the colonial possessions, is 3,622,213 square miles. 
 Population (1904), 81,752,000 (76,303,387 in 1900). Capital, Washington, B.C., 
 population, 293,217; New York, 3,716,149; Chicago, 1,873,880; Philadelphia, 
 1,367,716; St. Louis, 612,279; Boston, 594,618; Baltimore, 531,313; Cleveland, 
 414,915; Buffalo, 381,403; San Francisco, 355,919; Pittsburg, 345,043; Cincin- 
 nati, 332,934; Milwaukee, 312,736; Detroit, 309,653; New Orleans, 300,625; 
 Newark, 265,394; Jersey City, 219,462; Louisville, 215,402; Minneapolis, 
 214,112. 
 
 The continental part of the republic embraces nearly one-half of North Amer- 
 ica, has all climates excepting the tropical, and can therefore raise practically all 
 the vegetable products of the temperate and subtropical zones. Having also large 
 mineral resources and enormous development of manufactures, it is practically 
 self-sufficient, actually needing to import very little excepting raw products from 
 tropical lands. 
 
 Broadly speaking, the country is a great central plain (Mississippi Valley), 
 bordered on the east by mountains of no great elevation (Appalachians), and on 
 the west by mountains (Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast ranges) and plateaus 
 of high elevation; with narrow eastern and broad southern coastal plains, but 
 no coastal plain on the Pacific; with over 14,000 miles of river navigation, nearly 
 all in the eastern half of the country, and with inland seas providing the cheapest 
 transportation known, excepting on the oceans. These topographic features 
 have had profound influence in distributing industries and shaping development 
 
 The Atlantic coast is low and has all the prominent types of natural harbors, 
 New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, the Chesapeake Bay ports, Savan- 
 nah and Charleston, and Portland, Me., being most prominent. The Pacific coast 
 is high and rocky, with only four great harbor centers, San Diego Bay, San Fran- 
 cisco Bay, the river port of Portland and scores of harbors or harbor sites in 
 Puget Sound, one of the greatest natural harbors in the world. 
 
 The eastern coastal plain, covered with debris eroded from the Appalachians, 
 is a region of fruits, vegetables, cereals, timber and pottery clays, finding mar- 
 kets in the greatest cities of the country to the north ; the southern coastal plain 
 is a land of cotton and great lumber industries, the plain extending far up the Mis- 
 sissippi Yalley. The Great Valley is the preeminent agricultural zone, with to- 
 bacco north of the cotton and sugar-cane zone, the corn belt north of the tobacco 
 area, winter wheat in the corn belt, and a great area of spring wheat north of it. 
 
 The semi-arid and arid plains begin to rise midway between two oceans and 
 gradually merge with the mountain plateau. The plains are a vast field of the 
 grazing industry, and irrigation projects now in progress will, it is expected, re- 
 claim for tillage 50,000,000 acres on these plains and the plateaus west of them. 
 The mountains yield most of our minerals, have large grazing resources, and con- 
 serve from the melting snows and glaciers the water to be used for irrigation. 
 
 On the whole, the country west of the 100th meridian has too little rainfall 
 for profitable farming without irrigation except along the northern three-fifths 
 of the Pacific coast. The country east of the 100th meridian, having nearly 14 
 inches of annual rainfall, is the great agricultural area. The Great Lakes provide 
 the cheapest system of interior navigation in the world. The railroad system 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 89 
 
 has larger development than in any other country, and as the topography favors 
 easy gradients, it is possible to haul long freight trains, with the result that freight 
 rates are comparatively cheap. This has helped the United States to compete with 
 or excel other nations in exports of farm products, chiefly cereals and meats, to 
 foreign markets. 
 
 All human activities are developed in the United States on an enormous scale. 
 The total wealth of the country is estimated at 94,300,000,000. In 1900 there 
 were 5,739,657 farms, and domestic animals Avorth $2,228,123,134; in. 1903 the 
 wool product was 287,450,000 pounds; wheat, 637, 821, 835 bushels; corn, 2,244,- 
 176,925 bushels; cotton, 10,727,555 bales (average weight of a bale, 430 pounds); 
 and cane-sugar, 293,397 tons. The corn, wheat and cotton crops are the largest in 
 the world, and the United States supplies over three-fourths of the world's cotton. 
 
 The United States is the first nation in the world in the value of its manu- 
 facturing industries. In 1900 its iron and steel products were worth $835,- 
 759,034; cotton manufactures, $339,200,320, and total value of manufactures, 
 $13,039,279,566. 
 
 Coal is very widely distributed, so that the great manufacturing centers from 
 Boston to Nebraska are not compelled to bring their coal from great distances, but 
 can utilize neighboring supplies. The only long movement in coal is in anthra- 
 cite, which is mined only in eastern Pennsylvania and has markets far west. The 
 iron ore is derived chiefly from mines along the south and west shores of Lake 
 Superior and is carried 600 to 800 miles to Ohio and Pennsylvania smelters, which 
 supply the coke and limestone for smelting. Transportation by the Great Lakes 
 is so cheap that the United States can compete with Great Britain in iron produc- 
 tion, though many British iron mines are on the coal-fields. Only in the Bir- 
 mingham district of Alabama has the United States yet developed iron mining 
 where coal and limestone are found in the same field. The country is the greatest 
 producer of pig iron and steel (1902, pig iron, 17,821,307 tons; steel, 14,947,250 
 tons). For many years the United States has usually led the world in gold pro- 
 duction ($74, 425, 340 in 1903); silver production in 1903, $73, 076, 106; coal (largest 
 output in the world), 319,068,224 tons; petroleum, 4,219,376,154 gallons. The 
 country is also among the largest producers of copper, zinc, lead and many other 
 minerals. The total value of the mineral production in 1902 was $1,260,649,265. 
 
 For many years the manufactures little more than sufficed for home needs, but 
 in recent years the United States has entered the list of nations seeking foreign 
 markets for its manufactured products. Though the price of labor is high, the 
 invention of many forms of labor-saving machinery and the high intelligence and 
 skill of the working people now enable the United States to compete in many 
 foreign markets with numerous products of the low-priced labor of Europ^^^ 
 
 There is a large admixture of races, as immigration from Europe to the United 
 States has been far greater than to any other part of the world. Of the total 
 population in 1900, about 10,000,000 were of foreign birth, Germany, Ireland, 
 England and Scotland supplying the largest number. In 1900 there were 
 66,890,199 whites, 8,803,535 persons of African descent, and 145,282 Indians 
 on reservations. All religious beliefs may be freely held; all sects of Protestants 
 ;are represented, and Roman Catholics are a large element. 
 
92 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 American, Indian and about 40,000 foreign whites. Religion, chiefly Roman 
 Oatholic, with a few thousand Protestants and Israelites. Foreign trade (1898) 
 imports, $8,560,000; exports, $14,900,000. 
 
 Zauzibar. An island sultanate, under British protection, off the tropical 
 coast of East Africa. Area, about 1,000 square miles; population, 210,000. Chief 
 town and port, Zanzibar, in which a large part of the population is centered. 
 Zanzibar is an entrepot for the collection of commodities destined for shipment 
 from the neighboring islands and coast regions to foreign countries and for the 
 local distribution of foreign imports. Races chiefly negro, with about 10,000 
 Arabs and 7,000 Jews. Foreign trade (1901) imports, $5,520,000; exports, 
 .$5,850,000. 
 
 PARTITION OF THE CONTINENTS. 
 
 Upon our Globe appears, as well as in this classification of countries, depen- 
 dencies, colonies and islands, a few sections marked as states of apparent 
 importance from their size not mentioned in the foregoing descriptive text. In 
 such cases the land named has no importance or influence in the world's affairs, 
 and is almost entirely undeveloped and occupied by uncivilized natives, with very 
 few civilized people. 
 
 The following list shows the Division of the Continents among the various 
 Countries of the "World: 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 British Honduras. Honduras. 
 
 Canada. Mexico. 
 
 Costa Rica. Newfoundland (Great Britain). 
 
 Cuba (Continental Island). Nicaragua. 
 
 Greenland " " Panama. 
 
 Guatemala. Salvador. 
 
 Haiti and Santo Domingo (Continental Island). United States (with Alaska). 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Argentine Republic. Ecuador. 
 
 Bolivia. French Guiana. 
 
 Brazil. Paraguay. 
 
 British Guiana. Peru. 
 
 Chile. Uruguay. 
 
 Colombia. Venezuela. 
 Dutch Guiana. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Andorra. Montenegro. 
 
 Austria-Hungary (with Bosnia-Herzegovina). Netherlands. 
 
 Belgium. Norway. 
 
 Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. Portugal. 
 
 Denmark. Rumania. 
 
 France. Russia. 
 
 German Empire. Servia. 
 
 Greece. Spain. 
 
 Italy (with Sicily and Sardinia). Sweden. 
 
 Liechtenstein. Switzerland. 
 
 Luxemburg. Turkey in Europe. 
 
 Monaco. United Kingdom (with islands in British waters) 
 
IttTEltNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL IIISTOKY OF TUB WOULD. 
 
 93 
 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 Asiatic Turkey. 
 
 Baluchistan. 
 
 Bhotan. 
 
 Bokhara and Khiva. 
 
 Chinese Empire. 
 
 Corea. 
 
 Hong Kong (British). 
 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 Abyssinian Soraaliland. 
 
 Algeria (Prance). 
 
 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. 
 
 Angola (Portuguese). 
 
 Ashanti (British). 
 
 Basutoland (British). 
 
 Bechuana Protectorate (British). 
 
 British Central Africa Protectorate. 
 
 British East Africa Protectorate. 
 
 British Somaliland. 
 
 Cameroon (German). 
 
 Cape Colony (British). 
 
 Congo Free State. 
 
 Dahomey (French). 
 
 Egypt (Turkey). 
 
 Eritrea (Italy). 
 
 French Congo. 
 
 French Guinea. 
 
 French Somaliland. 
 
 French Sudan. 
 
 Gambia (British). 
 
 German East Africa. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 India (British). 
 
 Indo-China (French). 
 
 Japan (with Port Arthur). 
 
 Nepal. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Russia in Asia, Siberia, etc. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 Straits Settlements (British). 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 German Southwest Africa. 
 
 Gold Coast (British). 
 
 Ivory Coast (British). 
 
 Lagos (British). 
 
 Liberia. 
 
 Morocco. 
 
 Natal, with Zululand (British). 
 
 Nigeria (British). 
 
 Orange River Colony (British). 
 
 Portuguese East Africa. 
 
 Portuguese Guinea. 
 
 Rhodesia (British). 
 
 Rio de Oro (Spanish). 
 
 Rio Muni (Spanish). 
 
 Sahara (mostly to France). 
 
 Senegal (France). 
 
 Sierra Leone (British). 
 
 Somali Coast Protectorate (Italy). 
 
 Transvaal Colony (British). 
 
 Tripoli (Turkey). 
 
 Tunis (France). 
 
 Uganda Protectorate (British). 
 
 Zanzibar Protectorate (British). 
 
 States and. Dependencies. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES: 
 
 Lord Howe Island. 
 
 Norfolk Island. 
 QUEENSLAND: 
 
 British New Guinea. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 Northern Territory. 
 
 TASMANIA: 
 
 Macquarie Islands. 
 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Colonial Possessions. Most large nations have acquired colonial posses- 
 sions in order to secure resources of raw material, new outlets for their manufac- 
 tures and special advantages for their traders. They disburse large sums in the 
 development of their colonies, and the results often show that the money is prof- 
 itably expended. Thus most of the trade of Cape Colony is with Great Britain. 
 Canada gives a preferential tariff to the mother country. Nearly all the trade of 
 the Dutch East Indies is with the Netherlands. The trade of Algeria and Tunis 
 with France is greater than with all other countries together. 
 
 European countries were so impressed with the value of colonial possessions 
 that for a quarter of a century they scrambled for all the African territory they 
 
94 
 
 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 could secure until nearly the whole continent was parceled out among them. 
 Great Britain and Germany, in recent years, have acquired most of the un appro- 
 priated islands in the Pacific. Here is a list of the Colonial Possessions of the 
 various nations: 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Greenland 
 coasts). 
 Iceland. 
 
 (south part of east and west 
 
 St. Croix, 
 St. John, 
 St. Thomas. 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 France. 
 
 AFRICA : 
 
 Algeria. 
 Dahomey. 
 French Congo. 
 French Guinea. 
 French Somaliland. 
 Ivory Coast. 
 Senegal. 
 Tunis. 
 
 AMERICA: 
 French Guiana. 
 Guadeloupe. 
 Martinique. 
 St. Pierre and Miqueion. 
 
 ASIA : 
 Annam. 
 Cambodia. 
 Cochinchina. 
 
 French India. (The towns of Shandernagar, 
 Karikal, Pondichery, Mahe, and Yanaon.) 
 
 Laos. 
 . Tonkin. 
 
 INDIAN OCEAN: 
 Comoro Islands. 
 Gloriosa Islands. 
 Kerguelen Islands. 
 Madagascar (with Diego Suarez Nossi-B, 
 
 St. Marie de Madagascar). 
 Mayotte. 
 
 New Amsterdam Islands. 
 Reunion. 
 St. Paul Islands. 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN: 
 Clipperton Islands. 
 Futuna and Alofi. 
 Gambier Islands. 
 Marquesas Islands. 
 New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands. 
 Tahiti and Windward Islands. 
 Tabuai Islands. 
 Wallis Archipelago. 
 
 AFRICA: 
 Cameroon. 
 German East Africa. 
 German Southwest Africa. 
 Togo. - 
 
 ASIA: 
 Kiau-chau. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN: 
 Bismarck Archipelago. 
 Caroline Islands. 
 Kaiser Wilhelm Land. 
 Marianne or Ladrone Islands (except Guam), 
 Marshall Islands. 
 Samoa. 
 Solomon Islands (part). 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 AFRICA: 
 Basutoland. 
 Bechuana Protectorate. 
 British Central Africa Protectorate. 
 Cape Colony. 
 East Africa Protectorate. 
 Gambia. 
 Gold Coast. 
 Lagos with Yoruba. 
 
 Natal with Zululand. 
 
 Nigeria. 
 
 Orange River Colony. 
 
 Rhodesia. 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 Somaliland (British). 
 
 Transvaal Colony. 
 
 Uganda Protectorate. 
 
 Zanzibar Protectorate. 
 
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 95 
 
 AMERICA: 
 
 Bahama Islands. 
 
 British Honduras. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Cayman Islands. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Labrador. 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 Pedro and Morant Cays. 
 
 Turks and Caicos Islands. 
 
 ASIA: 
 
 Araboin Cay. 
 Bahrein Islands. 
 British North Borneo. 
 Brunei. 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Christmas Islands. 
 Hong Kong. 
 Johore. 
 
 Kamaran Islands. 
 Keeling Islands. 
 Labuan. 
 
 Malay Protected States. 
 Maldive Islands. 
 Sarawak. 
 Sprattley Island. 
 Straits Settlements (Singapore, Malacca, 
 
 PeHang). 
 The Indian Empire. 
 
 Aden. 
 
 Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Ba- 
 luchistan. 
 
 Arabian Protectorate. 
 
 Sokotra. 
 
 The leased Territory of Hong Kong. 
 Weihaiwei. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN: 
 Ascension Island. 
 Bermuda. 
 Falkland Islands. 
 St. Helena. 
 Tristan da Cunha. 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTH SEA: 
 Australian Commonwealth. 
 
 INDIAN OCEAN: 
 Admiralty Island. 
 Aldabra Island. 
 
 Cargados Islands. 
 Chagos and Oil Islands. 
 Mauritius. 
 Rodriguez. 
 Seychelles. 
 
 LEEWARD ISLANDS: 
 Anguilla. 
 Antigua. 
 Barbuda. 
 Dominica. 
 Montserrat. 
 Nevis. 
 Redonda. 
 
 St. Christopher (St. Kitts). 
 Virgin Islands. 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN : 
 Cyprus. 
 Gibraltar. 
 Malta. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND: 
 Antipodes Island. 
 Auckland Islands. 
 Bounty Island. 
 Campbell Island. 
 Chatham Islands. 
 Cook Islands. 
 Ducie Island. 
 Ellice Islands. 
 Fanning Island. 
 Fiji Islands, with Rotumah, 
 Gilbert Islands. 
 Kermadec Islands. 
 Phoenix Islands. 
 Pitcairn Island. 
 Santa Cruz Islands. 
 
 Solomon Islands (Guadalcanar, Malaita, etc.). 
 Tonga Islands. 
 Union Islands. 
 
 WINDWARD ISLANDS: 
 Barbados. 
 British Guiana. 
 Granada. 
 Santa Lucia. 
 Sombrero. 
 St. Vincent. 
 Tobago. 
 Trinidad. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Aussa and Danakil. 
 Eritrea. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES: 
 Amboina. 
 Atjeh. 
 
 Somali Coast Protectorate. 
 
 Netherlands, The. 
 
 Bali and Lombok. 
 
 Banca. 
 
 Billiton. 
 
96 INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Celebes. West Borneo. 
 
 Java and Madura. Western New Guinea. 
 
 Lampongs. 
 
 Menado (on Celebes Island) DUTCH WEST INDIES: 
 
 Palembang. Aruba. 
 
 Riau Lingga Peninsula. Buen Ayre, or Bonaire, 
 
 South and East Borneo. Curasao. 
 
 Sumatra East Coast. Saba. 
 
 Sumatra West Coast. St. Eustatius. 
 
 Ternate. St. Martin (half of which belongs to France). 
 
 Timor (west half). Surinam, or Dutch Guiana. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 . ASIA (PORTUGUESE INDIA): 
 
 Damao. 
 
 Angola. Diu. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands. Goa. 
 
 East Africa (or Portuguese East Africa). Macao. 
 
 Guinea, Portuguese. Timor (east half), with Cambing (or Pulo 
 
 Sao Thoma (St. Thomas) and Principe. Cambing). 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Annabon. Rio Muni. 
 
 Fernando Po. Rio de Oro. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Aleutian Islands. Marcus Island. 
 
 Baker Island. Midway, Wake and Johnstone Islands. 
 
 Guam. Philippine Islands. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. Porto Rico. 
 
 Rowland Island. Tutuila (Samoa). 
 
- 
 
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