GIFT OF 
 MICHAEL REESE 
 
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 E DUG ATION 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHANN KAEL FEIEDEICH ROSENKRANZ 
 
 DOCTOB OP THEOLOGY AND PEOFE88OE OP PHILOSOPHY AT THE 
 UNIVERSITY OP KOENIGSBEBG 
 
 TBAN8LATED FEOM THE GERMAN BY 
 
 ANNA C. BRACKET! 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED, AND ACCOMPANIED WITH 
 COMMENTARY AND ANALYSIS 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET 
 
 1890 
 
COPTEIGHT, 1886, 
 
 Bir D. APPLETON AOT COMPANY. 
 
EDITOK'S PKEFACE. 
 
 THIS work was translated originally for The Jour- 
 nal of Speculative Philosophy, appearing in volumes 
 vi, vii, and viii of that periodical (1872-73-' 74). It 
 was intended for the use of philosophical students 
 who, in general, admire precise technical terms and 
 the terse German of the original was rendered by equal- 
 ly terse English. An edition of two thousand copies 
 was reprinted in a separate volume. Demands for the 
 work continuing after the first edition was exhausted, it 
 was determined to publish a new one. For this purpose 
 a revision has been made of the translation with a view 
 to better adapt it to the needs of readers not skilled in 
 philosophy. Where it has been tho'ught necessary, 
 phrases, or even entire sentences, have been used to 
 convey the sense of a single word of the original. Typ- 
 ographical errors that had crept into the first edition, 
 through careless proof-reading, have been carefully cor- 
 rected. It may be safety claimed that no obscurity re- 
 mains except such as is due to the philosophic depth and 
 generality of the treatment. In this respect the trans- 
 lation is now more intelligible than the original. In ad- 
 dition to these helps, a somewhat elaborate commentary 
 
VI EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 on the whole work has been undertaken by the editor, 
 wko has also prefixed to it a full analysis of the text 
 and commentary. 
 
 It is believed that the book as it now appears will 
 meet a want that is widely felt for a thorough-going 
 Philosophy of Education. There are many useful and 
 valuable works on " The Theory and Practice of Teach- 
 ing," but no work that entirely satisfies the description 
 of a genuine Philosophy of Education. To earn this 
 title/ such a work must not only be systematic, but it 
 must briDg all its details to the test of the highest prin- 
 ciple of philosophy. This principle is the acknowl- 
 edged principle of Christian civilization, and, as such, 
 Kosenkranz makes it the foundation of his theory of 
 education, and demonstrates its validity by an appeal to 
 psychology on the one hand and to the history of civi- 
 lization on the other. 
 
 This work, on its appearance, made an epoch in the 
 treatment of educational theory in Germany. It brought 
 to bear on this subject the broadest philosophy of mod- 
 ern times, and furnished a standard by which the value 
 of the ideas severally discussed by radicals and conserv- 
 atives could be ascertained. It found the truth lying 
 partly on the territory of the established order and 
 partly on the territory of the reformers Ratich, Co- 
 menius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and their followers. It 
 showed what was valid in the idea that had come to be 
 established in the current system of education, and also 
 exposed the weakness that had drawn the attack of the 
 reformers. 
 
 Its Author. Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz 
 was born at Magdeburg, April 23, 1805. He took up 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. v ii 
 
 his residence in Berlin in 1824, distinguishing himself 
 as a disciple, first of Schleiermacher, and afterward of 
 Hegel. In 1833 he became Professor of Philosophy at 
 Konigsberg, and occupied for forty-six years, until his 
 death in 1879, the chair held for twenty-four years 
 by the celebrated Herbart, and for thirty-four years by 
 the still more celebrated Kant. He wrote extensive 
 works on philosophy and literature, and published the 
 present work in 1848 under the title of Paedagogik als 
 System. 
 
 Points of Great Value. Special attention is called 
 to the deep significance of the principle of self-estrange- 
 ment (Selbst-Entfremdung) as lying at the foundation of 
 the Philosophy of Education (p. 27). It furnishes a key 
 to many problems discussed by the educational reformers 
 from Comenius to Herbert Spencer. Since man's true 
 nature is not found in him already realized at birth, but 
 has to be developed by his activity, his true nature 
 is his ideal, which he may actualize by education. 
 Hence the deep significance of this process. Man must 
 estrange himself from his first or animal nature, and 
 assimilate himself to his second or ideal nature, by 
 habit. At first all things that belong to culture are 
 strange and foreign to his ways of living and thinking. 
 Education begins when he puts aside what is familiar 
 and customary with him, and puts on the new and 
 strange that is to say, begins his " self-estrangement." 
 The nature of such important matters as work and play 
 (p. 28) and habit ( 29-34) becomes evident from this 
 insight. 
 
 The distinction of corrective and retributive punish- 
 ment ( 38-45) is of great value practically in deciding 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 upon the kind of punishment to use in an American 
 school where pupils have a precocious sense of honor. 
 
 The part of this work devoted to educational psy- 
 chology ( 82-102) is believed to possess great interest 
 for the thoughtful teacher, as tracing the outlines of the 
 only true science of the mind. The phases most worthy 
 of the educator's attention are certainly those that relate 
 to the development of the intellectual and moral powers ; 
 it is their development rather than their mere existence 
 that the practical teacher wishes to know about. This 
 treatise is commended to the notice of those who have 
 hitherto been unable to find a satisfactory psychologi- 
 cal basis for their educational theories. They are in- 
 vited to ponder what is said about attention (p. 73) ; how 
 the lower faculties grow into higher faculties, and how 
 the higher faculties re-enforce the lower (pp. 75, 76) ; 
 the function of the imagination in forming general types 
 and in leading to abstract ideas (pp. 84-87). 
 
 The methods of treating the three grades of capacity 
 the blockhead, the mediocre talent, and the genius 
 are especially suggestive to the teacher (p. 109). 
 
 The subject of morality is treated with great care, 
 
 and all will admire what is said on the inadmissibility 
 
 of vacations in moral obedience (p. 153), as well as what 
 
 'is said (p. 147) on the subject of urbanity (politeness 
 
 with a dash of irony), as the flower of social culture. 
 
 Eosenkranz very properly makes religious education 
 the last and highest form of the particular elements of 
 education. In no place may one find deeper insights 
 in regard to the proper culture in religion in an age 
 abounding in unbelief and skeptical influences. His dis- 
 tinction of three stages of theoretical culture in religion 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. i x 
 
 (a) pious feeling, (J) enjoyment of religious symbols, 
 (c) interest in the dogmas as such to which he adds 
 the three practical stages of (a) self-consecration, (5) 
 performance of church ceremonies, (e) the attainment 
 of a pious trust in the divine government of the world 
 these distinctions are thorough-going. What he says 
 (p. 167) on the dangers of unduly hastening the child 
 from the stages of religious f eeling to religious thought 
 and reflection, or, on the other hand, of unduly repress- 
 ing religious reflection in those who have begun to ask 
 questions and suggest doubts, is very instructive to re- 
 ligious teachers, whether in the Sabbath-school or in the 
 family. So, too, is the distinction (p. 170) drawn be- 
 tween the provinces of morality and religion. 
 
 The entire third part of the work is taken up with 
 a history of education, based on the philosophy of his- 
 tory. It is rather an outline of the history of human 
 culture than a special history of schools or of pedagog- 
 ics. As such, it is highly valuable, not only for the 
 teacher or parent, but also for all who desire to see in a 
 condensed form the essential outcome of human history. 
 
 In this brief survey of the philosophy of history the 
 reader will take note, first of all, of the deepest contrast 
 that found between the Oriental and Occidental world- 
 principles. The former is that of obedience to exter- 
 nal authority, the latter that of independence in all its 
 forms. The educator will here find practical hints on 
 all points of school management. In China, for in- 
 stance, he may see exactly what kind of education will 
 make conservative citizens mere mechanical memoriz- 
 ing will do this (p. 197). He may see how too much 
 stress on education for one's vocation may lead to castes 
 
x EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 like those of India (p. 200), while abstract asceticism in 
 education may produce something akin to Lamaism. 
 The enlightened reader will find it of great interest, 
 in these days of the study of Buddhism (" The Light of 
 Asia " as well as the so-called " Esoteric Buddhism "), 
 to read the distinction between Buddhism and Christi- 
 anity (pp. 205 and 256), i. e., the distinction between the 
 renunciation of selfishness and the annihilation of self- 
 hood itself. 
 
 The "active" or restless peoples of "Western Asia 
 are of very great importance in the history of culture 
 mediating as they do between the extremes of the East 
 and the West (p. 212). But, above all, we of modern 
 times are most eager to study the three kinds of indi- 
 viduality which Europe has furnished us (p. 218) in the 
 Greek, the Eoman, and the Teutonic peoples. For these 
 three elements of individuality, dominated by the spir- 
 itual idea which we received from Judea the idea of 
 God as a Divine Person are the elements that enter 
 oar civilization and compose it. "We have to study 
 these four strands of our civilization in order to know 
 ourselves. What is said about the religious significance 
 of the games to the Greeks (p. 220) and the interpreta- 
 tion of Nature by the unconscious poetic power of the 
 Greek mind (p. 223), as well as the characterization of 
 the Eoman principle (p. 230), will be recognized as a 
 new elaboration of Hegel's insight given in his " Phi- 
 losophy of History " a work which alone wtmld give 
 its author a rank among the foremost of the great think- 
 ers of the world. The Eoman idea of genus humanum 
 and its relation to the ideal of the Hebrew prophets 
 the Messiah, Prince of Peace, to be worshiped of all 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. x i 
 
 nations is the key to the explanation of the adoption 
 of Christianity as a world-religion (p. 249). The spirit 
 of modern history is characterized as that which seeks 
 to realize the good of all men in each man (p. 251). 
 
 The reader will find a mine .of important ideas by fol- 
 lowing out the lead of any one of these thoughts. Es- 
 pecial mention, however, should be given to the appli- 
 cation of the principle of self-estrangement in explain- 
 ing the study of the classics (pp. 277, 278), and to the 
 remarks on Rousseau (p. 283). 
 
 Omissions. Occasional references to contemporary 
 educational literature, to German customs, and to local 
 or temporary interests have been omitted, and the fact 
 
 of omission has been indicated by , or, if it is of 
 
 the slightest importance, by express notice inserted in 
 the text. Nearly all that is omitted may be read in the 
 first edition of the work. 
 
 W. T. HARRIS. 
 CONCORD, MASS., August 18, 1886. 
 
SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 
 
 OF THE 
 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 PART I. Education in its General Idea : 
 
 " Possible only to self-active beings 19 
 
 A Its Nature Education by Divine Providence, by experience, or by 
 
 Relates to b^dy, intellect, and will ; must be systematic ; 
 conducted in schools 23 
 
 B. Its Form. J Self.estrangement, work and play 
 
 23-^45 I " aoit; "" 
 
 Authority, obedience, punishment 88 
 
 n Tfa-Mmifo f Subjective limit in the pupil's capacity 47 
 
 66 4f w * 1 Objective limit in the pupil's wealth and leisure. 48 
 
 [ Absolute limit in the pupil's completion of school-work. . . 49 
 
 PART II. Education in its Special Elements : 
 
 A Phvsical fDietetics 61 
 
 g?S 1C 4 1 Gymnastics , 63 
 
 M ~' y< I Sexual [omitted]. 
 
 ' svpholn^iral f Intuitive sense-perception 77 
 
 epochs I Imaginative-fancy and memory 82 
 
 f Of development of the pupil 96 
 
 Of development of the subject 97 
 
 Logical order. ( Analytic 101 
 
 Of demonstration. . -j Synthetic 101 
 
 iJ. in tual. J (Dialectical 102 
 
 Pupil's capacity. 106 
 
 Pupil's act of learning mechanical 115 
 
 dynamical 115 
 
 Instruction. assimilative 116 
 
 living example . . 120 
 
 Method of instruction text-book 121 
 
 oral 126 
 
 ' Social usages 143 
 
 Mnril Train f The Virtues 151 
 
 Moral Tram- I D iscipline _ 154 
 
 C. Will-Train- [Character 155 
 
 ing. 137- { fa. Feelings ; b. Symbols ; c. Dogmas 160- 
 
 174. T>I;.;^,,< & Self-consecration ; b. ceremonies ; c. 
 
 4 reconciliation with one's lot 1C5 
 
 lucation. a Farn jiy worship ; b. union with church ; 
 
 [ c. religious insight 175 
 
 PART III. Education in its Particular Systems : 
 
 Family China 196 
 
 Rassive. Caste India 200 
 
 Monkish Thibet 206 
 
 A TOatinnai Military Persia. .. ., 207 
 
 SwS^R 1 Active - Priestly-Egypt 211 
 
 178-22G. Industf ial-hoenicia 214 
 
 1 ^Esthetic Greece 218 
 
 Individual. Practical Rome 229 
 
 Abstract individual German tribes 240 
 
 B. Theocratic. Jews 249 
 
 227-233 . Monkish 253 
 
 Chivalric 258 
 
 C. Humanita- f --_ BnpHfl , j Secular life 263 
 
 rian or For 355" ] Jesuitic 270 
 
 Christian. Pietistic 272 
 
 8 234-260. Citizen. ' To achieve an j Humanist 276 
 
 ideal of culture, j Philanthropist 279 
 
 For free citizenship 284 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1. The Science of Education, a mixed sci- 
 ence presupposing and using others resembling medicine. What 
 other sciences it presupposes its place in a complete arrangement of 
 all the sciences (p. 1). 2. The shallow character of educational 
 treatises due to the vagueness of the definition of the province of 
 education (p. 9). 3. Business competition in education increases 
 charlatanism (p. 10). 4. The science of education belongs in the 
 same department as the ethical sciences. It begins in the family 
 (p. 10). 5. The science of education contains the principles the 
 art of education relates to the devices of applying them, taking into 
 consideration the local circumstances (p. 12). 6. The local circum- 
 stances must not be elevated into general principles (p. 13). g 7. The 
 science of education unfolds the general idea of education, and shows 
 the divisions and the historical systems that have prevailed (p. 13). 
 8. The general idea different from the system (p. 13). 9. The 
 divisions into physical, intellectual, and moral education (p. 14). 
 ^ 10. The history of civilization shows the various ideas of education 
 that have prevailed (p. 14). 11. How the present one has arisen 
 (p. 16). 
 
 The FIRST PART considers the general idea of education. 12. 
 (1) The nature of education in general, (2) its form, (3) its limits (p. 19). 
 
 CHAPTER I. The Nature of Education. Education is possible be- 
 cause ( 13) the mind is self-active (p. 19). Hence the human being 
 is ( 14) the only fit subject of education (p. 20). The guidance of 
 the race by Divine Providence ( 15) may be called education (p. 21), 
 or ( 16) the molding of the individual by the influences of life 
 (p. 21), or, in the narrowest sense ( 17), the influence of the teacher 
 on a pupil (p. 22). The general problem of education ( 18) includes 
 
xiv ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 development of intellect and moral nature (p. 23). It must be sys- 
 tematic ( 19), or it will effect but little (p. 24). Necessity of dividing 
 the work of education ( 20) into special departments (p. 24), and 
 ( 21) hence special schools (p. 25). Possibilities and limits of educa- 
 tion ( 22), the capacities of the individual (p. 25). 
 
 CHAPTER II. The Form of Education. 23. The mind at first 
 undeveloped ; second, occupies itself on strange and foreign subjects ; 
 third, gets familiar with them, so that it is at home in a world of ob- 
 jects (p. 26). x 24. Self-estrangement and its removal belong to all 
 culture (p. 27). 25. Definition of work and play (p. 28) ; necessity 
 of insisting ( 26) on respect for work (p. 29) ; equal necessity of play 
 in order to develop the pupil's individuality. 27. Recreation found 
 for the educated man in change of work (p. 30). 28. Education 
 seeks to transform into habit whatever ought to belong to one's na- 
 ture (p. 30). 29. Indifference of habit anything good or bad may 
 become a habit (p. 31). Hence education should cultivate a sensitive- 
 ness for what is ethical. 30. Utility a relative standard of judg- 
 ing what habits are to be cultivated (p. 32). 31. The absolute stand- 
 ard is the moral one (p. 33). 32. Active habit and passive habit 
 defined (p. 33). 33. Habit the end of education, but the power of 
 breaking habits to be acquired (p. 34). 34. Too much supervision 
 of the pupil versus too much exposure to temptation (p. 35). 35. 
 Importance of studying the historic growth of defects of character 
 (p. 36). 36. When mere authority is sufficient (p. 37), and when 
 explanations and arguments should be addressed to the pupil's reason. 
 37. Scolding (p. 38). 38. Punishment defined (p. 38); it should 
 be given for particular and specified acts, and not for general dispo- 
 sition to evil action. 39. Corrective versus retributive punishment 
 (p. 39) ; school punishment the former. 40. Punishment for cor- 
 rection should be regulated by the needs of the offender (p. 40), 
 and not by the magnitude of the offense, as in the case of re- 
 tributive punishment. 41. Corporal punishment, isolation, pun- 
 ishment based on a sense of honor (p. 40). 42. Corporal pun- 
 ishment defined (p. 41) ; the rod the best means. 43. Isolation, its 
 effect explained (p. 42). 44. Punishment through the sense of 
 honor the danger in its use (p. 43). 45. Necessity of careful dis' 
 crimination in selecting the kind of punishment to use and in decid- 
 ing its amount (p. 44). 
 
 CHAPTER III. The Limits of Education. 46. When work has 
 become a habit, and the pupil has learned to practice the right meth- 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. XV 
 
 ods from his own impulse rather than on account of external author- 
 ity, his education in school has ended (p. 45). 47. The subjective 
 limit of education (p. 47) is the limit found in the pupil's capacity. 
 48. The objective limit depends on the leisure and means of the pupil 
 (p. 48). 49. The absolute limit of education is found in the mastery 
 of the means and methods, and the formation of correct habits on 
 the part of the pupil (p. 49). 50. Self-culture succeeds school edu- 
 cation (p. 50.) 
 
 SECOND PART. The Special Elements of Education (p. 55). 
 INTRODUCTION. 51. Education defined as the development of the 
 inborn theoretical and practical reason of man (p. 55). Its three 
 stages described. 52. The special elements : 1. Education of the 
 body; 2. Of the intellect; 3. Of the will (p. 56). The fivefold sys- 
 tem of education family, school, vocation, citizenship, and the 
 Church defined in the commentary (p. 57). 
 
 CHAPTER I. Physical Education. 53. The essential point in 
 hygiene is an insight into the relation of assimilation to elimination 
 in the bodily processes (p. 59). 54. Perpetual process in the organ- 
 ism ; balance between activity and rest (p. 59). 55. Fatigue ex- 
 plained (p. 60) ; true strength arises only from activity. 56. Phys- 
 ical education divided into dietetics, gymnastics, and sexual educa- 
 tion (p. 61). 
 
 CHAPTER II. Dietetics. 57. What is the method of sustain- 
 ing the repair of the organism (p. 61) I 58- 63. Summary of con- 
 tents. 64. Cleanliness explained (p. 62). 
 
 \/CHAPTER III. Gymnastics, 65, is the art of normal training of 
 the muscular system (p. 63), and depends on the relation of the vol- 
 untary to the involuntary muscles. 66. Gymnastics corresponding 
 to the national military drill (p. 63) ; Turner-halls ; effect of invention 
 of fire-arms on gymnastics (p. 64) ; why the Greeks paid so much at- 
 tention to gymnastics (p. 65). 67. Gymnastics should aim to make 
 the body an energetic and docile servant of the will (p. 65) ; it should 
 not aim at making acrobats. 68. Classification of gymnastic exer- 
 cises (p. 66). 69. The foot-movements (p. 66). 70. The arm- 
 movements (p. 66). 71. The whole-body movements (p. 67). 
 
 ^CHAPTER IV. Intellectual Education. 80. Didactics, or the 
 science of the art of teaching presupposes physical education, but 
 chiefly deals with psychology and logic (p. 69). 81. The psycholog- 
 ical presupposition. There must be a brief discussion of the outlines 
 of psychology in didactics (p. 69). 82. Attention the most impor- 
 
xvi ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 tant subject in educational psychology. Mind is essential self -activity 
 (p. 70). Deduction of the powers or faculties of the mind from self- 
 activity (p. 71) ; sense-perception, analysis, abstraction, perception of 
 necessary relation, reflection, reason, etc. (p. 72). 83. Education of 
 attention (p. 72). Attention is the combination of intellect and will. 
 Aristotle's distinction between first and second substances (p. 73). 
 Avicenna's first and second intentions of the mind. Fichte's psychol- 
 ogy- 84. The mind does not consist of different faculties, but of 
 different activities of the same power (p. 73) ; sense-perception, repre- 
 sentation, thinking; intuitive, imaginative, and logical epochs of 
 mind; fairy tales (p. 74); dialectical development of one stage of 
 mind into another (p. 75), and the reaction of higher activities on 
 lower ones so as to strengthen the power of the lower, illustrated by 
 examples Agassiz and Asa Gray how science re-enforces the power 
 of sense-reception (p. 76). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 85. The intuitive epoch. Sense-perception, how 
 educated by isolation of the object, by discovery of relations be- 
 tween objects, by connecting objects in one system (p. 77). 86. 
 Pictorial representation, its function (p. 78) type or general form 
 of an object versus individual specimen. 87. Picture-books, their 
 history Comenius's picture-book (p. 78). 88. Collections and cabi- 
 nets ; drawings ; children should not attempt works of art (p. 79) ; 
 the outlines which serve to characterize an object (p. 80). 89. Ex- 
 planations essential to instruction by means of pictures (p. 80). 90. 
 Educate the ear as well as the eye music careful articulation and 
 quality of voice in reading Plato and Aristotle on the importance 
 of music ; piano-playing ; German musical dramas symphonies and 
 sonatas (p. 81). 
 
 CHAPTER VI. The Imaginative Epoch. 91. The formation of 
 mental images and their verification ; creative imagination ; memory 
 (p. 82). 92. Comparison of mental image with the sense-perception 
 of the object in order to verify and correct it (p. 82.) 93. Eman- 
 cipation from particular objects through generalization ability to 
 see the type of all objects of a given species also the ability to recog- 
 nize a particular object as belonging to a given species (p. 83). 94. 
 Art and literature as cultivation of imagination furnishing the 
 images which every educated person is obliged to know, because the 
 mind of the race does most of its thinking by means of the images 
 derived from literature and art, and communicates its thoughts like- 
 wise by their aid (p. 84). rfomer and the Old Testament as furnishing 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 the typical specimens of human nature which all must know (p. 85). 
 95. Fairy stories of a nation furnishing the images with which 
 children first learn to think (p. 85) ; list of the books which all youth 
 should read at some time what the nursery-tale gives the child (p. 
 86). 96. Genuine fairy-tales immeasurably superior to those made 
 to order, because they contain- an unconscious reproduction of univer- 
 sal types, purified, and made universal' by passing through the minds 
 of innumerable individuals in the course of oral transmission from 
 one century to the next (p. 86). 97. In later youth the pupil should 
 approach more closely the study of noteworthy historic characters, 
 and be moved by the stories of famous men (p. 87) ; he should at- 
 tempt to understand the world, and grapple with its problems rather 
 than remain content with passively viewing its pictures (p. 88) ; in 
 what sense tragedy purifies the mind from passions (p. 89) ; necessity 
 of gallant attacks upon works of great difficulty. 98. How general 
 conceptions are derived from works of the imagination (p. 90) ; mem- 
 ory and its relation to imagination mnemonic helps (p. 91) ; distinc- 
 tion between recollection of particular objects and memory by means 
 of general types, such memory as the scientific mind possesses ; sym- 
 bolic stage of culture versus conventional stage (p. 92) ; how recollec- 
 tion may be strengthened (p. 93). 99. Repetition and writing down 
 as a means of memorizing (p. 93). 
 
 CHAPTER VII. The Logical Epoch. 100. General concepts or 
 schemata (p. 94) ; logical distinctions of particular, individual, and 
 universal (p. 95). 101. The cultivation of the sense of truthful- 
 ness ; illusion and deception (p. 95). 102. Logical forms, their use 
 in education (p. 96). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Method. 103. Method the order in which a 
 study or topic develops in the mind ; the three elements of instruc- 
 tion (p. 96). 104. The order of arrangement that belongs to the 
 nature of the subject (p. 97). 105. The order in which the pupil 
 can best learn a subject, depending upon his stage of intellect, whether 
 in the stage of sense-perception or imagination or abstract thought 
 (p. 98) ; progress from the known to the unknown ; function of illus- 
 tration; symbolizing (p. 99); discovery of relations finding the 
 definition or complete description of a subject ; necessary conditions 
 of being (p. 100) ; the dialectic method which investigates the neces- 
 sary presuppositions (p. 101). 106. Method of demonstration 
 analytic, synthetic, and dialectic proofs invention and construction, 
 or heuristic and architectonic methods (p. 101) ; the genetic or dia- 
 
XVlii ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 lectic method (p. 102) ; ascent from particular fact or event to the 
 Cause of All by the dialectic method (p. 103) ; the notion or idea 
 the judgment as distinction of universal and particular the syllo- 
 gism as distinguishing and uniting the universal, particular, and in- 
 dividual (p. 104). 107. The adaptation of the subject taught to the 
 actual capacity and need of the pupil by the teacher (p. 104) ; the 
 teacher must know the individual case, and use the necessary means 
 to make the subject understood (p. 105). 
 
 CHAPTER IX. Instruction. 108. The pupil lacks what the 
 teacher possesses and can give him by instruction (p. 106). 109. 
 Apprentice and master ; true basis of authority found only hi supe- 
 rior knowledge and ability (p. 106). 110. Apprenticeship, journey- 
 manship, mastership (p. 107). 111. Three degrees of capacity in 
 the pupil dullness, mediocrity, talent and genius (p. 107) ; medioc- 
 rity the general rule among pupils dunces and geniuses the excep- 
 tions (p. 108) ; genius has unbounded inclination and capacity, and 
 is clear as to the methods which it should use talent lacks insight 
 into the best methods (p. 109). 112. Difficulty of educating talenfc 
 and genius wisely on account of precocity, which must be repressed 
 (p. 109) ; yanity, affectation, and self -consciousness to be repressed 
 (p. 110). 118. The traditional learning which controls a sphere 
 of knowledge (p. 110) ; the dilettant or amateur neglects the neces- 
 sary preparation, but hastens to produce without it (p. Ill); self- 
 taught men and their obstacles ; genius can teach itself (p. 112); the 
 professionally educated ; the role of reformer. 114. Correspond- 
 ence between apprenticeship and professional education, etc. (p. 113). 
 
 CHAPTER X. The Act of Learning. 115. The first object of 
 the teacher to arouse the pupil to self -activity (p. 113); difference be- 
 tween didactic and artistic expositions (p. 114). 116. Three ele- 
 ments in learning (p. 114). 117. The mechanical element defined 
 punctuality, regularity, and system (p. 115). 118. Dynamical 
 element or self-activity of the pupil (p. 115). 119. How to develop 
 the power of the pupil to assimilate or digest knowledge by his own 
 activity through attention and repetition (p. 116). 120. Indus- 
 try defined; laziness, over-haste, and over-exertion (p. 117). 121. 
 Seeming laziness and seeming industry (p. 118). 
 
 CHAPTER XI. The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 122. 
 Three methods of instruction (p. 120). 123. The lessons of experi- 
 ence ; what is learned in the period of infancy (p. 120) ; in learning 
 one's trade or vocation ; in partaking of citizenship ; in the church 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. x } x 
 
 (p. 121). 124. What is learned through books; convenience of 
 such learning necessity of translating into elements of one's own 
 experience (p. 121). 125. Text-books should give us the principal 
 results in any department, omitting no essential elements (122) ; good 
 and bad text-books described (p. 123). 126. If intended for private 
 study the book should go more into details (p. 124). 127. Oral in- 
 struction the most powerful agent of education (p. 124) ; the latest 
 discoveries, the pronunciation of foreign languages, and similar mat- 
 ters, require oral instruction (p. 125). 128. Oral and text-book in- 
 struction contrasted (p. 125). 129. Acroamatic or lecture system 
 and erotematic or catechetical method described and criticised (p. 
 126) ; system of Bell and Lancaster ; Diesterweg's opinion of the lect- 
 ure system in German universities (p. 127). 130. Technical and 
 popular lectures contrasted (p. 128) ; Kant's opinion of popular lect- 
 ures, g 131. The order of educational institutions (p. 129); general 
 education to be given to all citizens in the elementary schools ; Real- 
 schule, Gymnasium, and university (p. 130); self-educated men 
 compared with university educated men (p. 131) ; academies of art ; 
 natural science and modern languages versus Latin and Greek (p. 
 132). 132. Rules and regulations of the school ; programme of 
 work (p. 133); struggle between the Gymnasia and the industrial 
 interests of the community (p. 134). 133. The teachers should 
 manage the programme, course of study, methods of instruction (p. 
 135) ; in other matters it is governed by the civil power (p. 135) ; 
 historical origin of the school through the Church (p. 136). 134. 
 State and church contrasted ; their relation to the school (p. 137) ; 
 disposition contrasted with overt act; freedom from authority in 
 matters of science (p. 138). 135. Limitations of church and state 
 in their control over the school (139). 136. School inspection 
 ought to extend over the entire system so as to properly co-ordinate 
 the several departments and give unity to the work (p. 140). 
 
 A CHAPTER XII. Education of the Will. 137. The third spe- 
 cial element of education is will-training (p. 141). 138. The will- 
 training consists in discipline, or the voluntary putting on of the 
 forms of action prescribed by civilization, in preference to following 
 one's natural impulses ; morality and religion furnish the highest 
 forms to which the natural will must b subjected (p. 142) ; polite- 
 ness or conformity to the social code the least essential form (p. 143). 
 
 /\ CHAPTER XIII.- Social Culture. 139. The beginning of educa- 
 tion of the will is the training in obedience to social manners and 
 
XX ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 customs i. e., training in behavior toward others (p. 143). 140. 
 The family training for the will begins with requiring obedience to 
 elders (p. 144). The accident of birth determines this relation of su- 
 periority and inferiority. 141. After the family comes the education 
 of civil society, which insists on obedience to a social code of eti- 
 quette ; politeness celebrates the form of devotion to the welfare of 
 others (p. 146). 143. Dangers of the mania for attracting atten- 
 tion of others, or of too much restraint and slavish dependence on 
 the social code (p. 147). 143. Urbanity is the mastery of the social 
 code rather than slavish subordination to it. It obeys forms, but 
 with a sort of irony (p. 147). 144. The necessity of training one 
 to prudent wariness against the dangers that arise from human self- 
 ishness in the world (p. 149). 
 
 } CHAPTER XIV. Moral Culture. 145. Morality is the true es- 
 sence of social culture. Its categories are duty, virtue, and conscience 
 (p. 150). 146. Unconditional obedience to duty is the first demand 
 of moral education ; not happiness, but duty, must be the guide of 
 the will (p. 151). 147. The training of the will to obey duty re- 
 sults in virtue ; three things to be noticed dialectic of virtues, moral 
 discipline, character (p. 151). 148. Dialectic interdependence of 
 virtues (p. 151) ; the doctrine of the mean (p. 152) ; no unessential 
 virtues ; no vacations to be permitted in moral obedience (p. 153) ; 
 missteps undo the whole work (p. 154). 149. Self-government to 
 be attained by disciplining the will to renounce some things that are 
 permitted it (p. 154). 150. The development of character is the 
 final result of discipline of the will in self-control (p. 155) ; the fac- 
 tors that form it are temperament, external events, the energy of the 
 will. 151. Conscience is the consciousness of one's ideal self (p. 
 156) in contrast to the real self. 
 
 /I CHAPTER XV. Religious Culture. 152. Conscience is the 
 bridge that leads over from morality to religion ; the difference be- 
 tween the atheistic moralist and the religious moralist (p. 157) ; the 
 unconscious irony of atheism (p. 158). 153. The change of heart 
 (p. 159). 154. Three things in religious education the theory or 
 view of the world taught in religion, the discipline in the practice 
 of religious observances, the union with a particular church (p. 
 160). 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. The Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 
 8 155. Three stages of religion feeling, religious images and sym- 
 bols, religious insight into dogmas (p. 160). 156. Feeling or emo- 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. xxi 
 
 tion the basis of religion ; but, if only a feeling, then only fetichism 
 is possible ; Schleiermacher's opinion (p. 161). 157. Above mere 
 emotion is the religious act which forms mental images of the Divine 
 Being and his relation to man (p. 162). 158. Mysticism an ar- 
 rested development of the mind on this stage of religious feeling 
 (p. 162). 159. Religious imagination not an idle exercise of the 
 fancy, but the fancy under the control of unconscious reason (p. 163). 
 160. By reflection on the meaning and significance of the religious 
 images, there arises a clear insight into the essential nature of the 
 divine (p. 163). 161. If the mind is arrested in its development at 
 this stage of religious imagination, polytheism and idolatry arise ; 
 education must not for this reason reject the religious imagination 
 altogether (p. 164). 162. Religious thought, as a higher stage than 
 religious imagination, has three stages abstract, reflective, specula- 
 tive (p. 165). 163. The abstract stage, which sets up dogmas with- 
 out any attempt to show their connection or their necessity in reason, 
 is forced to give way before reflection, which, unless guided properly, 
 will discover difficulties and become skeptical (p. 167); education 
 must take care not to attempt to develop the reflective stage prema- 
 turely ; it should, however, be careful to direct the inquiries of those 
 already advanced to the stage of reflection, so that they may attain 
 the speculative insight into the necessity of religious truth. 164. 
 The final stage of religious instruction in doctrinal matters therefore 
 endeavors to give philosophical insight (p. 168). 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. The Practical Process of Religious Culture. 
 165. The three phases of religious discipline consecration of self, 
 performance of religious ceremonies, religious reconciliation with 
 one's lot (p. 169). 166. Distinction between the moral and the re- 
 ligious standpoints the latter looks upon duty as the action of the 
 Divine Will, and thus comes into personal relation to God (p. 169) ; 
 distinction of sin, crime, and evil as the categories of religion, civil 
 authority, and morality (p. 170). 167. Consecration of self, the re- 
 nunciation of selfish egotism ; observance of religious ceremonies is 
 intended to make consecration easy, because it gives the support of 
 the whole church to each member of it (p. 170) ; but there is danger 
 sometimes of confounding ceremonies with religion itself (p. 171). 
 168. Religious peace and reconciliation may come through conse- 
 cration of self, or through that and the practice of religious cere- 
 monial (p. 171) ; but often it is only the rough discipline of life 
 which brings home to the mind the truth of religion (p. 172) ; recon- 
 
xxii ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 ciliation must not be mere stoicism or fanatical asceticism, but cheer- 
 ful activity in one's vocation (p. 173) ; discontent with one's lot ; the 
 blase mood (p, 174). 
 
 CHAPTER XVI II. The Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 
 169. Three stages feeling and consecration, symbolism and cere- 
 monial, religious insight and reconciliation (p. 175). 170. The first 
 stage of religion a mysterious impulse toward the infinite (p. 176). 
 171. The family instructs the child in its own chosen form of wor- 
 ship (p. 176). 172. Reflection on the dogmas of revealed religion 
 leads to insight into their rational basis (p. 177). 173. The three 
 stages are all essential to complete religious experience (p. 178). 
 174. Religious education is the last and highest form of the particu- 
 lar elements of education (p. 179). 
 
 THIRD PART. Particular Systems of Education. INTRODUC- 
 TION. Historical systems of education. 175. The number of peda- 
 gogical principles is limited to a few ideas, and hence there are only 
 a limited number of historic systems (p. 183) ; the deduction of the 
 fundamental ideas and the three general forms of civilization and 
 their corresponding systems of education (p. 185). 176. Civiliza- 
 tion conditions all education and furnishes its object and aim ; an 
 outline of the three great phases of civilization (p. 185) the Oriental 
 civilizations, together with the Greek and Roman, form the first ; 
 the Jewish, the second; Christian civilization, the third (p. 187). 
 177. The national, the theocratic, the humanitarian systems of 
 education based on the three types of civilization (p. 188). 
 
 CHAPTER I. The System of National Education. 178. The 
 family is the natural germ out of which grow the other institutions, 
 and it furnishes the basis of national education (p. 190) ; the mean- 
 ing of pietas ; Des Coulanges and ancestor-worship ; Hegel's defini- 
 tion of Oeist (p. 191). 179. National education includes three 
 systems passive, active, individual (p. 191). 180. The passive a sub- 
 jection, first, to the family authority (China) ; second, to the caste (In- 
 dia) ; third, to the cloister (Thibet) (p. 192). 181. The active system 
 is directed against the restraint of Nature ; first, the Persian, whose aim 
 is conquest ; second, the Egyptian, whose aim is preparation for death 
 and the immortal life ; third, the Phoenician and the conquest of the 
 ocean (p. 192). 182. The individual system with the Greek aims at 
 freedom and its expression in the work of art. 183. The aesthetic 
 (Greek) aim is followed by the practical (Roman) aim, which seeks 
 individuality in its essential form of rights under equal laws ; the 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. xx iii 
 
 German tribes possessed a morbid love of individuality for its own 
 sake (p. 194). 
 
 CHAPTER II. First Group the System of Passive Education. 
 184. The rational basis of passive education, the desire to free man 
 from the thralldom of Nature by mutual social help ; its defect lies in 
 the fact that it produces a new thralldom to social order, which, how- 
 ever, is better than the former thralldom to Nature (p. 196). 185. 
 Family education, in its purest form in China (p. 196). 186. The 
 family feeling (pietas) demanding obedience to paternal authority 
 and the protection and guidance of the younger by the elder (p. 197). 
 187. Family education consists in learning the network of usages or 
 etiquette ; punishment corrective only ; endless number of maxims of 
 obedience ; Hegel's description of the Chinese (p. 198) ; the Chinese 
 alphabet ; Chinese schools and fourfold system of examinations ; effect 
 of exclusive cultivation of the memory in producing a conservative 
 people (p. 199). 188. Chinese reading and writing (p. 200). 189. 
 Caste education in India ; the station determined by birth and not by 
 education (p. 200). 190. Education consists in learning the cere- 
 monies due from one caste to the others (p. 201) ; examples of this 
 (p. 202). 191. Literature of India ; fables and proverbs ; the Hito- 
 padesa (p. 202). 192. Monkish education in Thibet ; its reaction 
 against Nature, against the family, and against civil society and in- 
 dustry (p. 203). 193. Division into monks and laity (p. 204). 194. 
 The Chinese Buddhism and Indian hermit system form a natural 
 transition to the cloister system of Thibet (p. 204) ; the defect of 
 quietism ; contrast of Lamaism and Christian monasticism ; nirvana ; 
 selfishness versus selfhood ; the Sankhya doctrine of India the root 
 of Buddhist theology (p. 205). 
 
 CHAPTER III. Second Group the System of Active Education. 
 195. Active education subordinates family, caste, and cloister to an 
 objective purpose of conquest military as in Persia, future life as 
 in Egypt, industrial as in Phoenicia (p. 206). 196. Military educa- 
 tion for the purpose of establishing an absolute, unlimited empire 
 by subjugation of all neighboring nations ; history of Persia (p. 207), 
 the absolute limit of Persian conquest found in Grecian individuality 
 (p. 208). 197, Persian education in truth-speaking, in riding horse- 
 back, and in the use of the bow and arrow ; its contrast with education 
 in India and Thibet (p. 208) ; explanation of truth-speaking as indi- 
 cating a sense of the reality of finite things the Hindoo believed 
 finite things to be a dream-product; the uses of social order, its 
 3 
 
xxiv ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 sacredness to the Chinese and Hindoos ; its better appreciation by 
 the Persians and active peoples (p. 209). 198. Herbeds, Mobeds, 
 Destur-mobeds among the Magi; the Persian deities Ormuzd and 
 Ahriman at war with each other (p. 210). 199. Priestly education 
 of Egypt for the sake of preparing man in this life for the next ; how 
 the Persian meets death ; in Egypt the death-court the supreme tri- 
 bunal (p. 211) ; Osiris and Amenti (p. 212). 200. School studies ; aim 
 in life ; Chinese, Hindoo, Buddhist, Persian, and Egyptian contrasted 
 (p. 212) ; Egyptian science ; engineering ; surveying, why so impor- 
 tant ; hieroglyphics ; method of teaching arithmetic ; cost of rearing 
 a child up to manhood only four dollars (p. 213). 201. Industrial 
 education of Phoenicia resembles in its aim that of the other active 
 (i. e., restless) peoples ; manufacture of articles of luxury ; commerce ; 
 Phoenician quarter in foreign cities ; education in deceit, and in in- 
 difference toward family and native land ; love of gain ; extent of Phoe- 
 nician commerce and manufactures ; the alphabet (p. 214). 202. 
 Branches of study ; sacrifice of first-born to Moloch produced filial 
 indifference necessary to a nation of sailors (p. 215). 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Third Group the System of Individual Education. 
 203. Individuality contains both passivity and activity ; it desires 
 to be rather than to have ; its three principles beauty (Greek), legal 
 rights (Roman), daemonic love of individuality (German tribes) (p. 
 216) ; characterization of these principles (p. 217) ; Norse sea-kings, 
 knights-errant, " cow-boys " (p. 218). 204. Esthetic education. 
 Gracefulness, the expression of freedom in the control of the limbs, 
 constitutes the essence of Greek beauty (p. 218). 205. At first 
 athletic games formed the chief education in Greece ; then politics 
 and poetry (p. 218) ; an account of the games ; cultivation of the 
 sense of the beautiful in the human form ; followed by a race of 
 artists who fixed in stone the ideal types of gracefulness (p. 220). 
 206. Composite races of Greece ; Dorians, -SColians, lonians ; gym- 
 nastics, music, poetry ; Athens the supreme center of Greek indi- 
 viduality (p. 221). 207. Education in the heroic age ; epic histo- 
 ries and adventures (p. 221) ; Hercules, Melkarth, Izdubar, Mar-duk, 
 Babel (p. 222). 208. Gymnastics, music, grammatics (p. 222). 
 209. Objects aimed at in gymnastics (p. 222). 210. Music ex- 
 pressed to the ear what gracefulness did to the eye a sense of 
 rhythm and self-control (p. 222) ; rhythm explained ; the nine muses ; 
 Hegel's description of the Greek spirit ; Qreek faculty of interpret- 
 ing the sounds and movements in Nature (p. 223). 211 The citb- 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 ern; the flute at Thebes (p. 223); strange theory of Aristotle in 
 regard to the immoral effect of flute-music (p. 224). 212. Gram- 
 mar or literary culture; Iliad, Odyssey, ^Esop, and tragic poets 
 (p. 224). 213. The Peloponnesian war destroyed the Greek 
 worship of the beautiful (p. 224); sophists; Diogenes the Cynic; 
 Socrates and his teaching of conscious investigation of motives ; the 
 oracle or external omen versus conscience (p. 225). 214. Socrates' 
 doctrine that virtue can be taught ; Plato's Dorianism ; Aristotle's 
 modern views (p. 226). 215. Dissolution of the Greek principle 
 in Stoicism and Epicureanism (p. 227). 216. Educational signifi- 
 cance of Stoicism and Epicureanism to be found in the fact that 
 they both depend on a careful discipline of the intellect and will, 
 whereas early Greek life was spontaneous not labor, but play (p. 
 228) ; Marcus Aurelius (p. 229). 
 
 CHAPTER V. Practical Education. 217. The Roman makes 
 usefulness rather than beauty his principle, and the ideal of the use- 
 ful is to him the political power of the State which makes possible to 
 the citizen all the good things life itself, and all the enjoyments of 
 life (p. 229) ; discussion of the peculiarity of the Roman character ; 
 its history ; outlaws living on a border-land ; compact ; the political 
 bond the highest religion ; private right of property and the net- 
 work oi, laws that protect it ; essential dualism in the Roman con- 
 sciousness (p. 230). 218. -^Esthetic culture, which was religion to 
 the Greeks, was to the Romans mere amusement ; three epochs in 
 Roman education (p. 231). 219. The first epoch, juristic and mili- 
 tary (p. 231) ; laws of the twelve tables ; fugitives to the Roman hills ; 
 Latin words expressing self-control and severe self-criticism (p. 232) ; 
 ancestor- worship in Rome ; Christianity adapted to solve the contra- 
 diction of the Roman mind (p. 233). 220. Education of woman in 
 Rome contrasted with that in Greece (p. 233). 221. Education by 
 the mother ; by a jurist ; in the army ; stress laid on implicit obedi- 
 ence ; schools called ludi ; love of moderation (p. 234) ; Shakespeare's 
 " Coriolanus " (p. 235). 222. Influence of Greece after the conquest ; 
 aesthetic education supplants the old Roman education ; study of 
 Greek language and rhetoric (p. 235); Greek philosophy; Cicero, 
 Seneca, Boethius : use of rhetoric ; Apollonius of Rhodes (p. 236). 
 223. Literary trifling and the study of art for amusement ; belles- 
 lettres ; salons; Sallust, Pliny, Nero (p. 237). 224. Wearied of 
 amusement in art, the Roman betook himself to mysticism and 
 secret rites borrowed from Persian and Egyptian mysteries (p. 238). 
 
xxv i ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 225. Grades of initiation in the mysteries ; Mithras, Isis, Pytha- 
 goreanism ; Apollonius of Tyana ; the Illuminati (p. 239). 226. Ab- 
 stract individual education. The individualism of the Germanic 
 tribes called abstract because pure and simple ; its characteristics ; 
 why called dmmonic (p. 240) ; Berserker rage ; tragedy of Brunhild 
 in the old Norse Edda (p. 241). 
 
 CHAPTER VI. The System of Theocratic Education. 227. The 
 Roman idea of the genus humanum ; same idea reached by the He- 
 brew prophets in the doctrine of a Messiah recognized as God by all 
 nations ; the Jewish view of Nature as entirely distinct from God ; 
 God a pure, spiritual personality (p. 249) ; Jewish proselytes ; in what 
 the Jewish and Roman ideas are identical (p. 243). 228. Emanci- 
 pation from idolatry and superstition through the worship of God as 
 absolutely above Nature ; the ceremonial law as God's direct will and 
 not as a natural law ; the decalogue (p. 244). 229. Patriarchal ele- 
 ment, hereditary people of God ; hierarchical element, observance of 
 ceremonial law ; cultivation of the memory (p. 245). 230. A prog- 
 ress from the external to the internal and from lower to higher (p. 
 245). 231. At first the inducement of external prosperity and the 
 threat of punishment for disobedience ; then the insight into the 
 fact that the law contains its own reward ; Jesus Sirach, Plato's 
 " Republic " and " Laws " (p. 246). 232. In the law was revealed an 
 ideal standard of conduct by which each one could criticise his own 
 life ; the belief that the one true religion will prevail everywhere ulti- 
 mately (p. 248). 233. The Prince of Peace ; not beautiful, not 
 great in battle, but holy ; this ideal the highest of all ideals (p. 249). 
 
 CHAPTER VII. The System of Humanitarian Education. 234. 
 The systems of national and theocratic education unite in that of hu- 
 manitarian education (p. 250) ; this looks upon all men as having the 
 same ultimate possibilities ; the goal to be reached is the brotherhood 
 of all men and the realization of the consciousness of freedom in each. 
 Its ideal is the foundation of such institutions as secure the common 
 good of all without suppressing the individuality of each. The best 
 institution enables each of its members to participate to the greatest 
 degree in the good of all, and it encourages self-activity in the high- 
 est degree (p. 251). 235 and 236. The epochs of humanity-educa- 
 tion are three monkish, chivalric, citizen, corresponding to the 
 predominance of the Greek, Roman, and Protestant Christianity (p. 
 253). 237. The epoch of monkish education ; within the Greek 
 Church the principle of renunciation of the world took strongest 
 
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS XXvii 
 
 hold, and produced the hermit phases of Christianity, together with 
 the first phase of monasticism (p. 253) ; St. Francis and St. Dominic 
 make essential changes in monasticism (p. 254). 238. The one- 
 sidedness of monasticism ; its tendency toward Oriental quietism (p. 
 254). 239. Its tendency to reproduce the historic past rather than 
 to realize an ideal in the present (p. 254). 240. The three vows of 
 poverty, chastity, obedience, signify the rejection of the institutions 
 of civilization civil society, the family, the state ; relation of La- 
 maism to Christian monasticism ; Abbe Hue (p. 255) ; explanation 
 of the effect of the three vows (p. 256). 241. Monkish discipline- 
 fasts, vigils, penances (p. 256) ; espionage (p. 257). 242. The with- 
 drawal of the religious element into cloisters leaves the secular world 
 to barbarism ; the Roman Church corrects this defect (p. 257). 
 243. The epoch of chivalric education. 243. By the principle 
 of sanctity in works, the Roman Church brings back religion into 
 the secular, and chivalric education arises (p. 258). 244. Industry 
 was admitted side by side with religious ceremonial in the Roman 
 Church ; Tauler's " Imitation of the Life of Christ " (p. 258). 245. 
 The education of chivalry in the practice of arms, in knightly eti- 
 quette, and poetry (p. 259). 246. Chivalry goes to the opposite ex- 
 treme of monkish education in its placing unbounded value on indi- 
 viduality ; eccentricity of knight-errantry (p. 260). 247. Downfall 
 of chivalry (p. 260) ; the Crusades ; free cities ; free citizenship (p. 
 261). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. Tlie Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil 
 Life. 248. The growth of cities and free citizenship finds especial 
 recognition in Protestantism, whose most important feature is the 
 recognition of secularism (p. 262). 249. The phases of development 
 three citizen education in the two forms of pietism and Jesuitism, 
 a reaction in favor of classics and history on the one hand and 
 toward the study of natural science on the other, the reconciliation 
 of these in the education of the future (p. 262). 250. Civil edu- 
 cation as such overcomes the one-sidedness of chivalric and monkish 
 education (p. 263) ; sensuality and love of display (p. 264). 251. 
 Utility becomes a very important principle (p. 265). 252. Found- 
 ing of schools for citizens' children ; defects of educational methods ; 
 Melanchthon, Amos Comenius, Sturm, Roman law, and medicine at 
 Bologna and Salerno ; Protestant universities (p. 266). 253. The 
 citizen class is recognized as one of the three estates ; French the 
 language of courts; unscrupulous, worldly-wise maxims; self- 
 
xxviii ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 estrangement of the nobles (p. 268). 254. Two religious systems- 
 Jesuitic and pietistic (p. 269). 255. Jesuitic education character- 
 ized ; Claudius of Aquaviva ; dialectics ; rhetoric ; physics ; morals ; 
 declamation; diplomatic conduct (p. 270); obedience; discipline; 
 number of schools ; emulation ; supervision (p. 271). 256. Pie- 
 tism as the counterpart of Jesuitism its tendency toward quietism ; 
 its estrangement from the world ; its ^negative dependence on works 
 (p. 272) ; its espionage ; its attitude toward Nature, history, and phi- 
 losophy ; the catechism, the Bible and hymn-book ; the feeling of 
 abandonment by God (p. 273) ; Spener and Francke ; Quakers and 
 Puritans ; the truth of pietism ; the truth of Jesuitism (p. 274). 
 
 CHAPTER IX. The Ideal of Culture. 257. Civil education rested 
 on the fourfold basis of (a) marriage and the family, (b) labor and 
 enjoyment of its products, (c) equality of all before the law, (d) the 
 duty of acting according to conscience ; a counter-reaction now set 
 in against Jesuitism and pietism (p. 275) ; this was the study of 
 Latin and Greek and the study of natural science (p. 276). 258. 
 The humanist ideal was supposed to be attained through the study 
 of Latin and Greek (p. 276) ; the uselessness and remoteness of these 
 studies gave the mind an ideal drift ; the true reason for the study 
 of Latin and Greek self -estrangement (p. 277); Trotzendorf and 
 Sturm, the founders of academic methods that still prevail; dis- 
 cipline of mind (p. 278). 259. The philanthropic ideal was found 
 in the study of natural science and of useful knowledge (p. 279) ; it 
 spared no pains to make the pupil's work interesting ; it sought cos- 
 mopolitanism, and found its ideal realized in the state of Nature 
 the savage in America or Otaheite (p. 280) ; Rousseau ; the Philan- 
 thropina of Basedow ; the French Revolution ; Pestalozzi (p. 281) ; 
 Fichte ; the dangers of humanism ; the " moderns " (p. 282) ; self- 
 estrangement studies; the imaginary "natural man" of Rousseau 
 (p. 283) ; Friedrich Froebel (p. 284). 260. Free education or edu- 
 cation of all classes of society for free citizenship (p. 284) ; moral 
 culture ; the consciousness of the essential equality of all men (p. 
 285) ; the education by means of the newspaper ; modern literature ; 
 universal toleration ; fraternal interest of each in all ; commerce 
 uniting all nations ; facilities of rapid transit, rapid communication, 
 and the printed page, hasten forward the participation of each in 
 the life of the whole race (p. 286). 
 
TJNIVEBeiTX 
 -> 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. THE science of education can not be deduced 
 from a simple principle with, such strictness as logic, 
 ethics, and like sciences. It is rather a mixed science, 
 which has its presuppositions in many others. In this 
 respect it resembles medicine, with which it has this 
 also in common, that it must make a distinction between 
 a sound and an unhealthy system of education, and must 
 devise means to prevent or to cure the latter. It may, 
 therefore, have, like medicine, the three departments of 
 physiology, pathology, and therapeutics. 
 
 [* The science of education is not a complete, independent sci- 
 ence by itself. It borrows the results of other sciences, e. g., it 
 presupposes psychology, physiology, aesthetics, and the science 
 of rights (treating of the institutions of the family and civil 
 society, as well as of the state) ; it presupposes also the science 
 of anthropology, in which is treated the relation of the human 
 mind to nature. Nature conditions the development of the in- 
 dividual human being. But the history of the individual and 
 the history of the race present to us a record of continual eman- 
 cipation from nature, and continual growth into freedom, i. e.,- 
 into ability on the part of man to know himself and to realize 
 himself in the world by making the matter and forces of the 
 
 * The [ ] include an analysis of, and commentary on, the text. EDITOR. 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 world his instruments and tools. Anthropology shows us how 
 man as a natural being i. e., as having a body is limited. 
 There is climate, involving heat and cold and moisture, the 
 seasons of the year, etc.; there is organic growth, involving 
 birth, growth, reproduction, and decay ; there is race, involving 
 the limitations of heredity ; there is the telluric life of the planet 
 and the circulation of the forces of the solar system, whence 
 arise the processes of sleeping, waking, dreaming, and kindred 
 phenomena; there is the emotional nature of man, involving 
 his feelings, passions, instincts, and desires ; then there are the 
 five senses, and their conditions. Next, there is the science of 
 phenomenology, treating of the steps by which mind rises from 
 the stage of mere feeling and sense-perception to that of self- 
 consciousness, i. e., to a recognition of mind as true substance, 
 and of matter as mere phenomenon created by Mind (God). 
 Then follows psychology, including the treatment of the stages 
 of activity of mind, as so-called " faculties " of the mind, e. g., 
 attention, sense-perception, imagination, conception, understand- 
 ing, judgment, reason, and the like. Psychology is generally 
 made (by English writers) to include, also, what is here called 
 anthropology and phenomenology. After psychology, there is 
 the science of ethics, or of morals and customs ; then, the science 
 of rights, already mentioned ; then, theology, or the science of 
 religion ; and, after all these, there is philosophy, or the science 
 of science. Now, it is clear that the science of education treats 
 of the process of development, by and through which man, as a 
 mere animal, becomes spirit, or self-conscious mind ; hence, it 
 presupposes all the sciences named, and will be defective if it 
 ignores nature or mind, or any stage or process of either, espe- 
 cially anthropology, phenomenology, psychology, ethics, rights, 
 aesthetics, religion, or philosophy. 
 
 Here is a conspectus showing the systematic classification and 
 arrangement of the topics necessary to a full treatment of man as 
 a spiritual being, according to Rosenkranz (who follows Hegel) : 
 
 PART I. ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 A. The soul in its unity with the body. 
 
 I. Natural qualities that affect mental development. 
 
 (1) Telluric influences of locality, climate, seasons, etc. 
 
 (2) Race peculiarities. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 (3) Individual endowments of temperament, talents, idio- 
 syncrasy. 
 
 II. Natural processes that arise in the human organism, and 
 produce various shades and varieties of character. 
 
 (1) Difference of sex. 
 
 (2) Age : infancy, youth, maturity, old age. 
 
 (3) Alternation of sleeping and waking. 
 III. Feeling. 
 
 (1) Feeling as distinction of the soul into subject and 
 
 object (pleasure and pain). 
 
 (2) External and internal feeling or (a) sensations of 
 
 touch, taste, smell, hearing, seeing, and (b) emo- 
 tions of love, hate, joy, sorrow, fear, hope, envy, etc. 
 
 (3) Feeling of personality or individual identity in con- 
 
 tradistinction to sensations and emotions. 
 3. The soul in its struggle against its union with the body : 
 I. Dreams. 
 
 (1) Ordinary dreams that occur in sleep. 
 
 (2) Waking dreams that take the form of (a) presenti- 
 
 ments, (b) hallucinations, (c) "second-sight," so 
 called. 
 
 (3) Hypnotism : (a) somnambulism, (b) " animal magnet- 
 
 ism " or " magnetic sleep," (c) clairvoyance. 
 II. Sanity and insanity. 
 
 (1) In what sanity consists. 
 
 (2) Derangement: (a) idiocy and feeble-mindedness, (b) 
 
 lunacy, (c) raving madness. 
 
 (3) Cure of insanity. 
 III. Habit. 
 
 (1) How the soul makes new and strange things familiar 
 
 and natural by repetition. 
 
 (2) By habit the soul makes a second nature in place of 
 
 its animal nature, controlling its body in accord- 
 ance with customs, fashions, and ethical laws. 
 
 (3) The body obedient to the soul becomes a symbol. 
 
 C. The symbolical manifestation of the soul by means of its body. 
 I. Mimicry and gestures (conventional mimicry of different 
 
 nations). 
 
 II. Physiognomy and facial expression. 
 III. The voice. 
 3 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 PART II. PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE SOUL 
 (or the history of consciousness and its views of the world). 
 
 A. Consciousness. 
 
 I. Sensuous certitude. 
 II. Perception. 
 
 III. Understanding (the discovery of laws of nature and the 
 announcement of ethical laws for itself). 
 
 B. Self-consciousness. 
 
 I. The non-personal, or that which is devoid of self. 
 II. The ego. 
 III. The ego related to other egos. 
 
 C. Rational self-consciousness (or that view of the world that 
 
 recognizes it as a manifestation of reason). 
 
 PART III. PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 A. Theoretical mind (or the intellect). 
 I. Sense-perception. 
 
 II. Representation (or mental picturing), 
 
 (1) Recollection. 
 
 (2) Imagination and fancy. 
 
 (3) Memory. 
 IIL Thinking. 
 
 (1) Understanding. 
 
 (2) Reflection. 
 
 (3) Speculative thinking. 
 
 B. Practical mind (or the will). 
 
 I. Practical feeling (or the emotions that lead to action of 
 
 the will). 
 II. The species of practical feeling. 
 
 (1) Appetite (or desire for present objects of sense-per- 
 
 ception). 
 
 (2) Inclination or propensity (desire for absent ob- 
 
 jects). 
 
 (3) Passion (or desire that absorbs the entire thought 
 
 and will). 
 
 111. Happiness as the result of regulated impulses and their 
 gratification. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 PART IV. ETHICS. 
 
 A. The good (established form of civilization). 
 I. "Will realized in the form of law. 
 
 II. Caprice and arbitrariness (its sphere). 
 III. Freedom. 
 
 (1) Self-legislation (autonomy). 
 
 (2) Self-rule (autocracy). 
 
 (3) Independence (autarky). 
 
 B. Morality. 
 I. Duty. 
 
 (1) The deed of the individual. 
 
 (a) Free-will (voluntary and involuntary action). 
 
 (b) The purpose proposed to be accomplished by 
 
 the deed. 
 
 (c) The ethical intention of the deed. 
 
 (2) Duty. 
 
 (a) Division into duties toward one's self and toward 
 
 society. 
 
 (b) Collision of duties. 
 
 (c) Relation of duties to ability to perform them. 
 II. Virtue. 
 
 (a) System of virtues (physical, intellectual, and 
 
 practical).* 
 
 (b) Self-discipline. 
 
 (c) Character. 
 III. Conscience. 
 
 C. Ethical institutions, or science of rights. 
 I. Bights of the individual. 
 
 (1) Natural rights. 
 
 (a) Personal freedom. 
 
 (b) Property. 
 
 (c) Contract. 
 
 (2) Wrong. 
 
 (3) Punishment. 
 
 II. Particular rights (i. e., those that appertain to institutions). 
 
 (1) The family. 
 
 (2) Civil society and the community. 
 
 (a) The nature of society. 
 
 * " Practical " used in the Aristotelian sense of belonging to the mil. 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 (b) Its functions in detail. 
 
 (a) Human wants (food, clothing, shelter, etc.), 
 
 and the division of labor, in order to 
 supply them. 
 
 (b) Courts of law, civil and criminal. 
 
 (c) Civil and municipal authority (having 
 
 charge of public peace and order, sani- 
 tary regulations, public works for the 
 common benefit, such as highways, 
 water-works, police, poor-house, jail, 
 markets, tax-levies, etc.). 
 
 (c) The commonwealth. 
 (3) The state. 
 
 (a) The legislative power. 
 
 (b) The administrative power. 
 
 (c) The supreme executive power. 
 
 III. International relations and the history of nations. 
 
 (1) The national state. 
 
 (a) The states of the passive peoples. 
 
 (a) Patriarchal state (China). 
 
 (b) Caste state (India). 
 
 (c) Cloister state (Thibet). 
 
 (b) The states of active peoples. 
 
 (a) Warrior state (Persia). 
 
 (b) Priestly-agricultural state (Egypt). 
 
 (c) Manufacturing and commercial state (Phoe- 
 
 nicia). 
 
 (c) The states of free individuality. 
 
 (a) ^Esthetic individuality (Greece). 
 
 (b) Practical (will-power) individuality (Rome). 
 
 (c) Chivalric individuality (the German or 
 
 " Holy Roman " Empire). 
 
 (2) The theocratic state. 
 
 (a) Jewish theocracy. 
 
 (a) Mosaic rule. 
 
 (b) Talmudic rule. 
 
 (b) Mohammedan state. 
 (8) Humanitarian state. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 PART V. ^ESTHETIC ART. 
 
 A. The beautiful. 
 
 I. The nature of the beautiful. 
 II. The ugly. 
 III. The comic. 
 
 B. Art. 
 
 I. The ideal. 
 II. Style. 
 III. The work of art. 
 
 C. The system of fine arts. 
 
 I. Plastic arts and those that offer visible shapes. 
 
 (a) Architecture. 
 
 (b) Sculpture. 
 
 (c) Painting. 
 II. Music. 
 
 III. Poetry. 
 
 (a) Epic. 
 
 (b) Lyric. 
 
 (c) Dramatic. 
 
 PART VI. RELIGION. 
 
 A. The nature of religion. 
 
 I. Subjective process (regeneration). 
 
 (a) Unconscious unity with God. 
 
 (b) The fall, and consciousness of sin. 
 
 (c) The atonement and reconciliation, 
 II. Objective process (worship). 
 
 (a) Prayer. 
 
 (b) Ceremonial. 
 
 (c) Sacrifice. 
 
 III. Absolute process (the Church). 
 
 (a) The Church educates the individual by awakening 
 
 his consciousness of sin and leading him to regen- 
 eration. 
 
 (b) The Church organizes worship and provides times, 
 
 places, and a consecrated priesthood. 
 
 (c) The Church organizes a universal missionary move- 
 
 ment to extend its view of the divine world-order 
 to all men. 
 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 B. Religious phenomenology. 
 
 I. Religions of mere emotion. 
 
 (1) Fetichism. 
 
 (2) Worship of elements. 
 
 (3) Worship of plants and animals. 
 II. Religions of imagination. 
 
 (1) Cosmogonies. 
 
 (2) Ethical-heroic. 
 
 (3) Allegorical. 
 
 III. Religions of pure thought. 
 
 C. Historic systems. 
 
 I. Religion of absolute substance (the heathen religions). 
 II. Religion of absolute subjectivity (Jewish). 
 III. Religion of absolute spirituality (Christianity which holds 
 that the Absolute is Divine-human). 
 
 PAKT VII. SCIENCE. 
 
 A. Sciences of nature. 
 I. Matter mechanics. 
 II. Force dynamics. 
 
 (1) Gravitation. 
 
 (2) Cohesion. 
 
 (3) Reaction against cohesion. 
 
 (a) Sound acoustics. 
 
 (b) Heat. 
 
 (c) Light. 
 
 (4) Magnetic polarity. 
 
 (5) Electric polarity. 
 
 (6) Chemical polarity. 
 
 (7) Meteorological process, 
 
 (a) Process of the atmosphere winds, tempera- 
 
 ture, zones, etc. 
 
 (b) Process of the water. 
 
 (c) Fire process. 
 III. Life organics. 
 
 (1) Geology. 
 
 (a) Mineralogy. 
 
 (b) Stratification. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 (c) Configuration of the surface of the earth. 
 
 (a) The factors : mountains, rivers, sea. 
 
 (b) The formations : insular, continental, and 
 
 peninsular. 
 
 (2) Vegetation botany. 
 
 (3) Animal zoology. 
 
 (a) Structure of animal form. 
 
 (b) Vital process. 
 
 (c) Classification of animals. 
 B. Sciences of spiritual individuality. 
 
 I. Anthropology. 
 II. Phenomenology. 
 
 III. Psychology. 
 
 IV. Ethics. 
 
 (1) The will. 
 
 (2) Morality. 
 
 (3) Institutions of civilization, 
 V. Esthetic art. 
 
 VI. Religion* 
 VII. Philosophy.] 
 
 2. Since education is capable of no such exact 
 definitions of its principle and no such logical treat- 
 ment as other sciences, the treatises written upon it 
 abound more in shallowness than any other literature. 
 Short-sightedness and arrogance find in it a most con- 
 genial atmosphere, and uncritical methods and declama- 
 tory bombast flourish as nowhere else. The literature 
 of religious tracts might be considered to rival that of 
 the science of education in its superficiality and assur- 
 ance, if it did not for the most part seem itself to belong, 
 through the fact that it attempts to influence human 
 conduct, to the science of education. But teachers as 
 persons should be treated in these their weaknesses and 
 failures with the utmost consideration, because with 
 most of them the endeavor to contribute their mite for 
 the improvement of education arises from pure motives, 
 
10 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and the work of teaching tends to foster the habit of 
 administering reproof and giving advice. 
 
 [The scope of the science of education being so broad, and its 
 presuppositions so vast, its limits are not well defined, and its 
 treatises are very apt to lack logical sequence and conclusion ; 
 and, indeed, frequently to be mere collections of unjustified and 
 unexplained assumptions, dogmatically set forth. Hence the 
 low repute of educational literature as a whole.] 
 
 3. The charlatanism of educational literature is also 
 increased by the fact that schools have become profitable 
 undertakings, and the competition in this business tends 
 to encourage the advertising of one's own merits. 
 
 When " Boz " in his " Nicholas Nickleby " exposed the shocking 
 doings of an English boarding-school, many teachers of such schools 
 were, as he assures us, so accurately described that they openly com- 
 plained he had aimed his caricatures directly at them. 
 
 [Moreover, education furnishes a special vocation, that of 
 teaching. (All vocations are specializing being cut off, as it 
 were, from the total life of man. The " division of labor " re- 
 quires that each individual shall concentrate his endeavors on 
 his own specialty and be a part of the whole.)] 
 
 4. In the system of the sciences, the science of 
 education belongs to the philosophy of spirit and in 
 this, to the department of practical philosophy, the 
 problem of which is the comprehension of the essence 
 of freedom ; for education is the conscious influence of 
 one will upon another, so as to produce in it a conform- 
 ity to an ideal which it sets before it. The idea of sub- 
 jective spirit, as well as that of art, science, and religion, 
 forms an essential presupposition for the science of 
 education, but does not contain its principle. In a com- 
 plete exposition of practical philosophy (ethics), the sci- 
 ence of education may be distributed under each of its 
 several heads. But the point at which the science of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 education branches off in practical philosophy is the idea 
 of the family, inasmuch as here the distinctions of age 
 rjid degrees of maturity are taken account of as arising 
 from nature, and the claim of children upon their par- 
 ents for education makes itself manifest. All other 
 phases of education, in order to succeed, must presup- 
 pose a true family life. They may extend and comple- 
 ment the school, but can not be its original foundation. 
 
 In this systematic exposition of education, we must not allow 
 ourselves to be led into error by those theories which do not recog- 
 nize family nurture as an essential educative influence, but demand 
 that children shall be removed from their parents at an early age, 
 and brought up in institutions provided for infants. The Platonic 
 philosophy is the most respectable representative of this class. Mod- 
 ern writers who testify their great pleasure at seeing the world full 
 of children, but who would dispense with the loving care of the fam- 
 ily in their education, offer us only a weak and impractical imitation 
 of the Platonic " Republic." 
 
 [The science of education, as a special science, belongs to the 
 collection of sciences (already described, in commenting on 1) 
 included under the philosophy of spiritual being or Mind, and 
 more particularly to that part of it which relates to the will (ethics 
 and science of rights, rather than to the part relating to the in- 
 tellect and feeling, as anthropology, phenomenology, psychology, 
 aesthetics, and religion. " Subjective spirit " includes anthro- 
 pology, phenomenology, and psychology. " Theoretical " relates 
 to the intellect, " practical " relates to the will, in this philoso- 
 phy). The province of practical philosophy is the investigation 
 of the nature of freedom, and the process of securing it by self- 
 emancipation from nature. The science of education presup- 
 poses the conscious exertion of influence on the part of the will 
 of the teacher upon the will of the pupil, with a purpose in view 
 that of inducing the pupil to form certain prescribed habits, 
 and adopt prescribed views and habits. According to this defi- 
 nition, the unconscious influences which are so powerful in 
 forming human character are not included under the term 
 "education" (Erziehung) as here used. The entire science of 
 
12 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 man (as above shown) is presupposed by the science of educa- 
 tion, and must be kept constantly in view as a guiding light. 
 The institution of the family (treated in practical philosophy) 
 is the starting-point of education, and, without this institution 
 properly realized, education would find no solid foundation. 
 The right to be educated on the part of children and the duty 
 to educate on the part of parents are reciprocal ; and there is 
 no family life so poor and rudimentary that it does not furnish 
 the most important elements of education no matter what the 
 subsequent influence of the school, the vocation, and the state.] 
 
 5. Much confusion also arises from the fact that 
 many do not clearly enough draw the distinction be- 
 tween education as a science and education as an art. 
 As a science, it busies itself with developing a priori 
 the idea of education in the universality and necessity 
 of that idea, but as an art it is the concrete special re- 
 alization of this abstract idea in any given case. And, 
 in any such given case, the peculiarities of the person 
 who is to be educated and, in fact, all the existing cir- 
 cumstances necessitate an adaptation of the universal 
 aims and ends, that can not be provided for beforehand, 
 but must rather test the ready tact of the educator who 
 knows how to take advantage of the existing conditions 
 to fulfill his desired end. Just here it is that the edu- 
 cator may show himself inventive and creative, and that 
 pedagogic talent can distinguish itself. The word " art " 
 is here used in the same way as it is used when we say, 
 the art of war, the art of government, etc. ; and rightly, 
 for we are talking about the possibility of the realization 
 of the idea or theory. 
 
 The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to such a 
 degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change ; on the con- 
 trary, he must be sure that the pupil shall learn through his ex- 
 perience the independence of the object studied, which remains un- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 influenced by his variable personal moods, and the adaptation on the 
 teacher's part must never compromise this independence. 
 
 [The science of education distinguished from the art of educa- 
 tion: the former containing the abstract general treatment, and 
 the latter taking into consideration all the conditions of con- 
 crete individuality, e. g., the peculiarities of the teacher and the 
 pupil, all the local circumstances, and the power of adaptation 
 known as " tact."] 
 
 6. If conditions which are local, temporal, and in- 
 dividual, are fixed as constant rules, and carried beyond 
 their proper limits, unavoidable error arises. The for- 
 mulae of teaching are admirable material upon which to 
 apply the science, but are not the science itself. 
 
 [The special conditions and peculiarities considered in educa- 
 tion as an art may be formulated and reduced to system, but 
 they should not be introduced as a part of the science of edu- 
 cation.] 
 
 7. The science of education must (1) unfold the 
 general idea of education ; (2) must exhibit the particu- 
 lar phases into which the general work of education is 
 divided ; and (3) must describe the particular standpoint 
 upon which the general idea realizes or will realize it- 
 self in its special processes at any particular time. 
 
 [The science of education has three parts : First, it considers 
 the idea and nature of education, and arrives at its true defini- 
 tion ; second, it presents and describes the special provinces into 
 which the entire field of education is divided ; third, it considers 
 the historical evolution of education by the human race, and the 
 individual systems of education that have arisen, flourished, and 
 decayed, and their special functions in the life of man.] 
 
 8. The treatment of the first part is logically too 
 evident to offer any difficulty. It would not do to sub- 
 stitute for it the history of education, because history 
 uses and hence presupposes all the ideas that are treated 
 of in the general and particular divisions of the system. 
 
14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 (Reference to Or. Thaulow's pamphlet on "Pedagogics as a 
 Philosophical Science." Berlin, 1845.) 
 
 [The scope of the first part is easy to define. The history of 
 education, of course, contains all the ideas and definitions of the 
 nature of education ; but it must not for that reason be substi- 
 tuted for the scientific investigation of the nature of education, 
 which alone should constitute this first part (and the history of 
 education be reserved for the third part).] 
 
 9. The second division unfolds the subject of the 
 physical, intellectual, and practical culture of the human 
 race, and constitutes the main part of all books on the 
 science of education. Here arises the greatest difficulty 
 as to the limitations, partly in relation to the amount of 
 explanation to be given to the ideas that are borrowed 
 from other sciences, partly in relation to the degree of 
 amplification allowed to the details. Here is the field 
 of the widest possible differences. If, e. g., one studies 
 out the idea of the school with reference to the dif- 
 ferent species which may arise, it is evident that he 
 can extend his treatise indefinitely ; he may, for exam- 
 ple, go into the consideration of technological schools of 
 all kinds, for mining, navigation, war, art, etc. 
 
 [The second part includes a discussion of the threefold nature 
 of man as body, intellect, and will. The difficulty in this part 
 of the science is very great, because of its dependence upon 
 other sciences (e. g., upon physiology, anthropology, etc.), and 
 because of the temptation to go into details (e. g., in the prac- 
 tical department, to consider the endless varieties of schools for 
 arts and trades).] 
 
 10. The third division distinguishes between the 
 different standpoints which are possible in the working 
 out of the conception of education in its special ele- 
 ments, and which therefore produce different systems of 
 education wherein the general and the particular are 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 united or realized in different ways. In every system 
 (historically realized) the general principles that belong 
 to the idea of education (treated under the first division), 
 and the different phases of physical, intellectual, and 
 practical culture of man (treated under the second di- 
 vision), must be found. But the mode of treatment is 
 decided by the historical standpoint which gives reality 
 in a special form to the system of education. Thus it 
 becomes possible to discover the essential contents of 
 the history of education from its idea, since this can fur- 
 nish only a limited number of systems. 
 
 The lower standpoint always merges into the higher, and in so 
 doing first attains its full meaning, e. g. : Education for the sake of 
 the nation is set aside for higher standpoints, e. g., that of Christi- 
 anity ; but we must not suppose that the " national phase " of edu- 
 cation was counted as naught from the Christian standpoint, but 
 rather that now, being assigned its proper limits, it can unfold its 
 true idea. This is seen to be the case in the fact that the national 
 individualities become indestructible by being incorporated into 
 Christianity a fact that condemns the abstract seizing of such re- 
 lations. 
 
 [The third part contains the exposition of the various nation- 
 al standpoints furnished (in the history of the world) for the 
 bases of particular systems of education. In each of these sys- 
 tems will be found the general idea underlying all education, 
 but it will be found existing under special modifications which 
 have arisen through its application to the physical, intellectual, 
 and ethical conditions of the people. But we can deduce the 
 essential features of the different systems that may appear in 
 history, for there are only a limited number of systems possible. 
 Each lower form finds itself complemented in some higher form, 
 and its function and purpose then become manifest. The sys- 
 tems of " national " education (i. e., Asiatic systems, in which 
 the individuality of each person is swallowed up in the substan- 
 tiality of the national idea just as the individual waves get 
 lost in the ocean on whose surface they arise) find their com- 
 plete explanation in the systems of education that arise in Chris- 
 
16 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tianity (the preservation of human life being the object of the 
 nation, it follows that, when realized abstractly or exclusively, 
 it absorbs and annuls the mental independence of its subjects, 
 and thus contradicts itself by destroying the essence of what it 
 undertakes to preserve, i. e., human life, which demands freedom 
 and enlightenment ; but within Christianity the principle of the 
 state is found so modified that it is consistent with the infinite, 
 untrammeled development of the individual, intellectually and 
 morally, and thus not only life is saved, but spiritual, free life 
 is attainable for each and for all).] 
 
 11. The last system must be that of the present, 
 and since this is certainly, on one hand, the result of all 
 the past which still dwells in it, while, on the other 
 hand, engaged in preparing for the future, education 
 demands the unity of the general and particular princi- 
 ple as its ideal, so that looked at in this way the science 
 of education at its end returns to its beginning. The 
 first anc! second divisions already contain the idea of the 
 system necessary for the present. 
 
 [The history of pedagogy ends with the present system as the 
 latest one. As science sees the future ideally contained in the 
 present, it is bound to comprehend the latest system as a reali- 
 zation (though imperfect) of the ideal system of education. 
 Hence, the system, as scientifically treated in the first part of 
 our work, is the system with which the third part of our work 
 ends.] 
 
FIRST PART. 
 
 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION, 
 
FIBST PART. 
 
 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 12. THE idea of the science of education in gen- 
 eral must distinguish 
 
 (1) The nature of education in general ; 
 
 (2) Its form ; 
 
 (3) Its limits. 
 
 [The nature of education, its form, its limits, are now to be 
 investigated. ( 13-50.)] 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE NATTJBE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 13. THE nature of education is determined by the 
 nature of mind that it can develop what it is in itself 
 only by its own activity. Mind is in itself free ; but, if 
 it does not actualize this possibility, it is in no true sense 
 free, either for itself or for another. Education is the 
 influencing of man by man, and it has for its end to lead 
 him to actualize himself through his own efforts. The 
 attainment of perfect manhood as the actualization of 
 the freedom essential to mind constitutes the nature of 
 education in general. 
 5 
 
20 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The completely isolated man does not become man. Solitary 
 human beings who have been found in forests, like the wild girl of 
 the forest of Ardennes, sufficiently prove the fact that the truly hu- 
 man qualities in man can not be developed without reciprocal action 
 with human beings. Caspar Hauser, in his subterranean prison, is 
 an illustration of what man would be by himself. The first cry of 
 the child expresses in its appeals to others this helplessness of man's 
 spiritual being on its first advent in nature. 
 
 [The nature of education determined by the nature of Mind 
 or Spirit, whose activity is always devoted to realizing for itself 
 what it is potentially to becoming conscious of its possibilities, 
 and to getting them under the control of its will. Mind is po- 
 tentially free. Education is the means by which man seeks to 
 realize in man his possibilities (to develop the possibilities of the 
 race in each individual). Hence, education has freedom for its 
 object.] 
 
 14. Man, therefore, is the only fit subject for edu- 
 cation. "We often speak, it is true, of the education of 
 plants and animals ; but, even when we do so, we apply 
 other expressions, as "raising," "breaking," "breeding" 
 and " training," in order to distinguish it from the edu- 
 cation of man. " Training " consists in producing in 
 an animal, either by pain or pleasure of the senses, an 
 activity of which, it is true, he is capable, but which he 
 never would have developed if left to himself. On the 
 other hand, it is the nature of education only to assist 
 in the producing of that which the subject would strive 
 most earnestly to develop for himself if he had a clear 
 idea of himself. We speak of raising trees and animals, 
 but not of raising men ; and it is only a planter who 
 looks to his slaves for an increase in their number. 
 
 The education of men is quite often enough, unfortunately, only 
 a " breaking," and here and there still may be found examples where 
 one tries to teach mechanically, not through the almighty power of 
 the creative Logos, but through the powerless and fruitless appeal to 
 physical pain. 
 
THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 21 
 
 [Man is the only being capable of education, in the sense 
 above defined, because the only conscious being. He must know 
 himself ideally, and then realize his ideal self, in order to become 
 actually free. The animals and plants may be trained, or culti- 
 vated, but, as devoid of self -consciousness (even the highest ani- 
 mals not getting above impressions, not reaching ideas, not 
 seizing general or abstract thoughts), they are not realized for 
 themselves, but only for us. (That is, they do not know their 
 ideal as we do.)] 
 
 15. The idea of education may be more or less 
 comprehensive. "We use it in the widest sense when 
 we speak of the education of the race, for we under- 
 stand by this expression the connection which the situa- 
 tions and undertakings of different nations have to each 
 other, as steps toward self-conscious freedom. In this 
 the world-spirit is the teacher. 
 
 [Education, taken in its widest compass, is the education of 
 the human race by Divine Providence. Here education (Er- 
 ziehung) is recognized to include much more than the "con- 
 scious " exertion of influence as defined in 4.] 
 
 16. In a more restricted sense we mean by educa- 
 tion the shaping of the individual life by the laws of 
 nature, the rhythm of national customs, and the might of 
 destiny ; since, in these, each one finds limits set to his 
 arbitrary will. These mold him into a man often with- 
 out his knowledge. For he can not act in opposition to 
 nature, nor offend the ethical sense of the people among 
 whom he dwells, nor despise the leading of destiny with- 
 out discovering through experience that upon the Neme- 
 sis of these substantial elements his subjective power can 
 dash itself only to be shattered. If he perversely and 
 persistently rejects all our admonitions, we leave him, 
 as a last resort, to destiny, whose iron rule must educate 
 him, and reveal to him the God whom he has ignored. 
 
22 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 It is, of course, sometimes not only possible, but necessary for 
 one, moved by the highest sense of morality, to act in opposition to 
 the laws of nature, to offend the ethical sense of the people that sur- 
 round him, and to brave the blows of destiny ; we are not, however, 
 now speaking of a sublime reformer or martyr, but of the perverse, 
 the frivolous, and the conceited. 
 
 [In a narrow sense, education is applied to the shaping of 
 the individual by his environment, so that his caprice and 
 arbitrariness shall give place to rational habits and views, in 
 harmony with nature and ethical customs. He must not abuse 
 nature, nor slight the ethical code of his people, nor despise the 
 gifts of Providence (whether for weal or woe), unless he is will- 
 ing to be crushed in the collision with these more substantial 
 elements.] 
 
 17. In the narrowest sense, which, however, is the 
 usnal one, we mean by education the influence which 
 one individual exerts on another in order to develop the 
 ktter in some conscious and methodical way, either 
 generally or with reference to some special aim. The 
 teacher must, therefore, be relatively finished in his 
 own education, and the pupil must possess complete 
 confidence in him. If authority be wanting on the one 
 side, or respect and obedience on the other, this ethical 
 basis of development will be lacking, and it can not be 
 replaced by talent, knowledge, skill, or prudence. 
 
 Education takes on this form only under the culture which has 
 been developed through the influence of town life. Up to that time 
 we have the naive period of education, which is limited to the gen- 
 eral powers of nature, of national customs, and of destiny, and which 
 lasts for a long time among the rural populations. But in the city 
 a greater complication of the environment owing to the uncertainty 
 of the results of reflection (one's environment being chiefly human 
 and given to reflection, and not so simple as the rural environment 
 of plants and animals), the specializing of individuality, through the 
 need of the possession of many arts and trades (and consequent 
 division of labor), these render it impossible for men longer to be 
 
THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 23 
 
 ruled by mere custom. The Telemachus of Fenelon was educated 
 * to rule himself by means of reflection ; the actual Telemachus in the 
 heroic age lived simply according to custom. 
 
 [In the narrowest but most usual application of the term, we 
 understand by " education " the influence of the individual upon 
 the individual, exerted with the object of developing his powers 
 in a conscious and methodical manner, either generally or in 
 special directions, the educator being relatively mature, and ex- 
 ercising authority over the relatively immature pupil. Without 
 authority on the one hand and obedience on the other, educa- 
 tion would lack its ethical basisa neglect of the will-training 
 could not be compensated for by any amount of knowledge or 
 smartness.] 
 
 18. The general problem of education is the de- 
 velopment of the theoretical and practical reason in the 
 individual. If we say that to educate one means to 
 fashion him into morality, we do not make our defini- 
 tion sufficiently comprehensive, because we say nothing 
 of intelligence, and thus confound education and ethics. 
 A man is not merely a human being in general, but, as 
 a rational, conscious subject, he is a peculiar individual, 
 and different from all others of the race. 
 
 [The general province of education includes the development 
 of the individual into the theoretical and practical reason im- 
 manent in him. The definition which limits education to the 
 development of the individual into ethical customs (obedience 
 to morality, social conventionalities, and the laws of the state 
 Hegel's definition is here referred to : " The object of education 
 is to make men ethical ") is not comprehensive enough, because 
 it .ignores the side of the intellect, and takes note only of the 
 will. The individual should not only be man in general (as he 
 is through the adoption of moral and ethical forms which are 
 general forms, customs, or laws, and thus the forms imposed by 
 the will of the race), but he should also be a self-conscious sub- 
 ject, a particular individual (man, through his intellect, exists 
 forhimself as an individual, while through his general habits 
 and customs he loses his individuality and spontaneity).] 
 
24: THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 19. Education must lead the pupil, by a connected 
 series of efforts previously foreseen and arranged by the 
 teacher, to a definite end ; but the particular form which 
 this shall take must be determined by the individuality 
 of the pupil and the other conditions. Intermittent ef- 
 fort, sudden and violent influences, may accomplish much, 
 but only systematic work can advance and fashion him 
 in conformity with his nature ; and, if this is lacking, it 
 does not belong to education, for this includes in itself 
 the idea of an end, and that of the technical means for 
 its attainment. 
 
 [Education has a definite object in view, and it proceeds by 
 grades of progress toward it. The systematic tendency is essen- 
 tial to all education, properly so called.] 
 
 20. But as culture comes to mean more and more, 
 there becomes necessary a division of labor in teaching 
 on account of technical qualifications and special infor- 
 mation demanded, because as the arts and sciences are 
 continually increasing in number one can become learned 
 in any one branch only by devoting himself exclusively 
 to it, and hence becoming a specialist. A difficulty 
 hence arises, which is also one for the pupil, of pre- 
 serving, in spite of this unavoidable one-sidedness, 
 the unity and wholeness which are necessary to hu- 
 manity. 
 
 The na/ive dignity of the happy savage and the good-natured 
 simplicity of country people appear to very great advantage when 
 contrasted with the narrowness of a special trade, and the endless 
 curtailing of the wholeness of man by the pruning processes of city 
 life. Thus the often-abused savage has his hut, his family, his cocoa- 
 tree, his weapons, his passions ; he fishes, hunts, plays, fights, adorns 
 himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he is the center of a whole, 
 while a modern citizen is often reduced by culture to a mere shred of 
 humanity. 
 
THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 25 
 
 [Division of labor has become requisite in the higher spheres 
 of teaching. The growing multiplicity of branches of knowl- 
 edge creates the necessity for the specialist as teacher. With 
 this tendency to specialties it becomes more and more difficult 
 to preserve what is so essential to the pupil his rounded human 
 culture and symmetry of development. The citizen of modern 
 civilization sometimes appears to be an artificial product by the 
 side of the versatility of the savage man.] 
 
 21. As it becomes necessary to divide the work of 
 instruction, a difference between general and special 
 schools arises, also, from the needs of growing culture. 
 The former give to the pupil with various degrees of 
 completeness all the sciences and arts reckoned as be- 
 longing to "general education," and which were in- 
 cluded by the Greeks under the general name of Ency^ 
 clopsedia. The latter are known as special schools, 
 suited to particular needs or talents. 
 
 The isolation of country life renders it often necessary, or at least 
 desirable, that one man should develop culture symmetrically in very 
 different directions. The poor tutor is required not only to instruct 
 in all the sciences, he must also speak French, and be able to play the 
 piano. 
 
 [From this necessity of the division of labor in modern times 
 there arises the demand for two kinds of educational institu- 
 tions those devoted to general education (common schools, col- 
 leges, etc.), and special schools (for agriculture, medicine, me- 
 chanic arts, etc.)]. 
 
 22. For any person, his actual education compared 
 with its infinite possibilities remains only an approxima- 
 tion, and it can be considered as only relatively finished 
 in particular directions. Education is impossible to him 
 who is born an idiot, since the want of the power of 
 generalizing and of ideality of conscious personality 
 leaves to such an unfortunate only the possibility of a 
 mechanical training. 
 
26 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Sagert, the teacher of the deaf-mutes in Berlin, has made lauda- 
 ble efforts to educate idiots, but the account, as given in his publica- 
 tion, " Cure of Idiots by an Intellectual Method," Berlin, 184G, shows 
 that the results obtained were only external ; and, though we do not 
 desire to be understood as denying to this class the possession of a 
 mind in potentia, it appears in them to be confined by disease to an 
 embryonic state. 
 
 [The infinite possibility of culture for the individual leaves, of 
 course, his actual accomplishment a mere approximation to a 
 complete education. Born idiots are excluded from the possi- 
 bility of education, because the lack of universal ideas in their 
 consciousness precludes to that class of unfortunates anything 
 beyond a mere mechanical training.] 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 
 
 23. THE general form of education is determined 
 by the nature of the mind : mind has reality only in so 
 far as it produces it for itself. The mind is (1) immediate 
 (or potential); but (2) it must estrange itself from itself, 
 as it were, so that it may place itself over against itself 
 as a special object of attention ; (3) this estrangement is 
 finally removed through a further acquaintance with the 
 object it feels itself at home in that on which it looks, 
 and returns again enriched to the form of immediate- 
 ness (to unity with itself). That which at first appeared 
 to be another than itself is now seen to be itsqlf. 
 
 Education can not create ; it can only help to develop to reality 
 what was already a possibility ; it can only help to bring forth to 
 light the hidden life. 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 27 
 
 [Spirit, or mind, makes its own nature ; it is what it produces 
 a self -result. That is to say : it produces its ideas through 
 self-activity, and only in proportion to its stock of ideas their 
 number and importance can mind be said to be realized. Ideas 
 form its " nature," and they are made by the self -activity of 
 mind. From this follows the form of education. It commences 
 with (1) undeveloped mind that of the infant wherein nearly 
 all is potential, and but little is actualized ; (2) its first stage of 
 development is self -estrangement it is absorbed in the observa- 
 tion of objects around it ; (3) but it discovers laws and principles 
 (universality) in external nature, and finally identifies them with 
 reason it comes to recognize itself in nature to recognize con- 
 scious mind as the creator and preserver of the external world 
 ^and thus spirit becomes at home in nature. Education does 
 not create, but it emancipates. It does not make self -activity, 
 but it influences it to develop itself. " Self -estrangement " as 
 here used is perhaps the most important idea in the philosophy 
 of education. Rosenkranz and others have borrowed it from 
 Hegel, who first used it in his " Phenomenology of Spirit " (p. 
 353) in explaining the revolutionary reaction against established 
 authority and traditional faith as it had been manifested in the 
 French Revolution. The explanation of the effect of the study 
 of classics, pure mathematics, the effect of foreign travel, of the 
 isolated life of students at universities, of wearing special garbs 
 that distinguish one's order from the rest of the community, in 
 short, of any study of strange and far-off phases of the world 
 the explanation is to be found in the principle of self -estrange- 
 ment, and its annulment by changing what was foreign into 
 what is familiar.] 
 
 24. All culture, whatever may be its special pur- 
 port, must pass through these two stages of estrange- 
 ment, and its removal. Culture must intensify the dis- 
 tinction between the subject and the object, or that of 
 immediateness, though it has again to absorb this dis- 
 tinction into itself ; in this way the union of the two 
 may be more complete and lasting. The subject recog- 
 nizes, then, all the more certainly that what at first ap- 
 
28 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 peared to it as a foreign existence belongs to it poten- 
 tially as its own possession, and that it conies into actual 
 possession of it by means of culture. 
 
 Plato, as is known, calls the feeling with which knowledge must 
 begin, wonder ; but this can serve as a beginning only, for wonder 
 itself can only express the tension between the subject and the object 
 upon their first presentation to each other a tension which would 
 be impossible if they were not in themselves identical. Children 
 have a longing for the far-off, the strange, and the wonderful, as if 
 they hoped to find in these an explanation of themselves. They want 
 the object to be a genuine object. That to which they are accus- 
 tomed, which they see around them every day, seems to have no 
 longer any objective energy for them ; but an alarm of fire, banditti 
 life, wild animals, gray old ruins, Robinsons' adventures on far- 
 off happy islands, etc. everything high colored and glaring leads 
 them irresistibly on. The necessity of the mind's making itself for- 
 eign to itself is that which makes children prefer to hear of the ad- 
 venturous journeys of Sindbad rather than news of their own city 
 or the history of their nation. On the part of youth this same 
 necessity manifests itself in their desire of traveling. 
 
 [This process of self-estrangement and its removal belongs to 
 all culture. The mind must fix its attention upon what is for- 
 eign to it, and penetrate its disguise. It will discover its own 
 substance under the seeming alien being. That is to say, it will 
 discover the rational laws that underlie the strange and foreign 
 being, and thereby come to recognize reason or itself. Wonder 
 is the accompaniment of this stage of estrangement. The love 
 of travel and adventure arises from this basis. Culture endeav- 
 ors first to develop the contrast of the strange to the familiar, 
 but it does this in order to annul it and make the alien into the 
 well-known. Thus it enlarges the individual by making him 
 more inclusive, by making him contain his environment.] 
 
 25. This activity of the mind in concentrating it- 
 self consciously upon an object with the purpose of 
 making it one's own, or of producing it, is work. But 
 when the mind gives itself up to its objects as chance 
 may present them, or through arbitrariness, careless as 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 29 
 
 to whether they have any result, such activity is play. 
 Work is laid out for the pupil by his teacher authori- 
 tatively, but in his play he is left to himself. 
 
 [Labor is distinguished from play : The former concentrates 
 its energies on some object, with the purpose of making it con- 
 form to its will and purpose ; play occupies itself with its object 
 according to its caprice and arbitrariness, and has no care for 
 the results or products of its activity ; work is prescribed by 
 authority, while play is necessarily spontaneous.] 
 
 26. Thus work and play must be sharply distin- 
 guished from each other. If one does not insist on re- 
 spect for work as an important and substantial activity, 
 he not only spoils play for his pupil (for this loses all its 
 attraction when deprived of the antithesis of an earnest, 
 set task), but he undermines his respect for real exist- 
 ence. On the other hand, if he does not give him space, 
 time, and opportunity, for play, he prevents the pecul- 
 iarities of his pupil from developing freely through the 
 exercise of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the pupil 
 back refreshed to his work, since in play he forgets 
 himself in his own way, while in work he is required 
 to forget himself in a manner prescribed for him by 
 another. 
 
 Play is of great importance in helping one to discover the true 
 individualities of children, because in play they may betray thought- 
 lessly their inclinations. The antithesis of work and play runs 
 through the entire life. Children anticipate in their play the earnest 
 work of after-life ; thus the little girl plays with her doll, and the 
 boy pretends he is a soldier and in battle. 
 
 [Work and play : the distinction between them. In play the 
 child feels that he has entire control over the object with which 
 he is dealing, both in respect to its existence and the object for 
 which it exists. His arbitrary will may change both with per- 
 fect impunity, since all depends upon his caprice ; he exercises 
 his powers in play according to his natural proclivities, and 
 
30 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 therein finds scope to develop his own individuality. In work, 
 on the contrary, he must have respect for the object with which 
 he deals. It must be held sacred against his caprice, must not 
 be destroyed nor injured in any way, and its purpose must like- 
 wise be respected. His own personal inclinations must be entirely 
 subordinated, and tne business that he is at work upon must be 
 carried forward in accordance with its own ends and aims, and 
 without reference to his own feelings in the matter. Thus work 
 teaches the pupil the lesson of self-sacrifice (the right of superi- 
 ority which the general interest possesses over the particular), 
 while play develops his personal idiosyncrasy.] 
 
 27. Work should never be treated as if it were 
 play, nor play as if it were work. In general, the prac- 
 tice of the arts and the study of the sciences stand in 
 this relation to each other : the accumulation of stores 
 of knowledge is the recreation of the mind which is en- 
 gaged in independent creation, and the practice of arts 
 fills the same office to those whose work is to collect 
 knowledge. 
 
 [Without play, the child would become more and more a ma- 
 chine, and lose all freshness and spontaneity all originality. 
 Without work, he would develop into a monster of caprice and 
 arbitrariness. From the fact that man must learn to combine 
 with man, in order that the individual may avail himself of the 
 experience and labors of his fellow-men, self-sacrifice for the 
 sake of combination is the great lesson of life. But as this 
 should be voluntary self-sacrifice, education must train the 
 child equally in the two directions of spontaneity and obedi- 
 ence. The educated man finds recreation in change of work.] 
 
 28. Education seeks to transform every particular 
 condition so that it shall no longer seem strange to the 
 mind or in any wise foreign to its own nature. This 
 identity of the feeling of self with the special character 
 of anything done or endured by it, we call habit (Ge- 
 wohnheit customary activity, habitual conduct or be- 
 havior. Character is a "bundle of habits"). It con- 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 31 
 
 ditions formally all progress; for that which is not 
 yet become habit, but which we perform with design 
 and an exercise of our will, is not yet a part of our- 
 selves. 
 
 [Education seeks to assimilate its object to make what was 
 alien and strange to the pupil into something familiar and 
 habitual to him. The pupil is to attack, one after the other, 
 the foreign realms in the world of nature and man, and con- 
 quer them for his own, so that he can be " at home " in them. 
 It is the necessary condition of all growth, all culture, that one 
 widens his own individuality by this conquest of new provinces 
 alien to him.. By this the individual transcends the narrow 
 limits of particularity and becomes generic the individual be- 
 comes the species. A good definition of education is this : It is 
 the process by which the individual man elevates himself to the 
 species.] 
 
 29. (1) Habit may be, in the first place, indiffer- 
 ent as to the subject-matter to which it relates. But 
 that which is to be considered as indifferent or neutral 
 can not be defined in the abstract, but only in the con- 
 crete, because anything that is indifferent as to whether 
 it shall act on this particular man, or in this special situ- 
 ation, is capable of another or even of the opposite 
 meaning for another man or even for the same man in 
 other circumstances. Here, then, appeal must be made 
 to the individual conscience in order to be able from 
 the depths of individuality to decide what we can per- 
 mit to ourselves and what we must deny ourselves. 
 The aim of education must be to arouse in the pupil 
 this spiritual and ethical sensitiveness which does not 
 look upon anything as merely indifferent, but rather 
 knows how to seize in everything, even in the seem- 
 ingly unimportant, its universal human significance. 
 
 But, in relation to the highest interests, he must learn 
 6 
 
32 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 that what concerns his own immediate personality 
 is entirely indifferent, and must be subordinated to 
 them. 
 
 [Therefore, the first requirement in education is that the 
 pupil shall acquire the habit of subordinating his likes and dis- 
 likes to the attainment of a rational object. It is necessary that 
 he shall acquire this indifference to his own pleasure, even by 
 employing his powers on that which does not appeal to his in- 
 terest in the remotest degree. Habit is " formal," i. e., it is an 
 empty form that will fit any sort of activity or passivity. Habit 
 can make anything a second nature.] 
 
 30. The indifference of habit to its subject-matter 
 disappears when external considerations of usefulness 
 or hurtfulness (advantage or disadvantage) come into 
 view. Whatever tends as a means to the realization of 
 an end is useful, but that is hurtful which, by contra- 
 dicting it, hinders or destroys it. Usefulness and hurt- 
 fulness being then only relative terms, a habit which is 
 useful for one man in one case may be hurtful for 
 another man, or even for the same man, under different 
 circumstances. Education must, therefore, accustom the 
 youth to judge as to the expediency or inexpediency of 
 any action by its relation to the essential vocation of his 
 life, so that he shall avoid that which does not promote 
 its success. 
 
 [Habit soon makes us familiar with subjects which seem re- 
 mote from our personal interest, and they become agreeable to 
 as. The objects, too, assume a new interest upon nearer ap- 
 proach, as being useful or injurious to us. That is useful which 
 serves us as a means for the realization of a rational purpose ; 
 injurious, if it hinders such realization. It happens that objects 
 are useful in one respect and injurious in another, and vice, versa. 
 Education must make the pupil capable of deciding on the use- 
 fulness of an object by reference to its effect on his permanent 
 Tocation in life. 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 33 
 
 81. But the absolute distinction for the subject- 
 matter of habit is the moral distinction between the 
 good and the bad. For from this standpoint alone can 
 we finally decide w^hat is allowable and what is forbid- 
 den, what is useful and what is hurtful. 
 
 [But good and evil are the ethical distinctions which furnish 
 the absolute standard to which to refer the question of the use- 
 fulness of objects and actions.] 
 
 32. (2) As relates to form (in contradistinction to 
 subject-matter), habit may be either passive or active. 
 The passive is that which teaches us to bear the vicissi- 
 tudes of nature as well as of life with such composure 
 that we shall hold our ground against them, being al- 
 ways equal to ourselves, and that we shall not allow our 
 power of acting to be paralyzed through any mutations 
 of fortune. Passive habit is not to be confounded with 
 obtuseness in receiving impressions, a blank abstraction 
 from the affair in hand, which at bottom is nothing 
 more than a selfishness which desires to be left undis- 
 turbed ; it is simply composure of mind in view of 
 changes over which we have no control. While we 
 vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure 
 inwoven as these are with the change of seasons, of .the 
 weather, or with the alternation of life and death, of hap- 
 piness and misery we ought nevertheless to harden our- 
 selves against them, so that at the same time, in our con- 
 sciousness of the supreme worth of the soul, we shall build 
 up the inaccessible stronghold of freedom in ourselves. 
 
 Active habit (or behavior) is found realized in a wide range of 
 activity which appears in manifold forms, such as skill, dexterity, 
 readiness of information, etc. It is a steeling of the internal for ac- 
 tion upon the external, as the passive is a steeling of the internal 
 against the influences of the external. 
 
34 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 [Habit is (a) passive or (b) active. The passive habit is that 
 which gives us the power to retain our equipoise of mind in 
 the midst of a world of changes (pleasure and pain, grief and 
 joy, etc.). The active habit gives us skill, presence of mind, 
 tact in emergencies, etc.] 
 
 33. (3) Habit (i. e., fixed principles of behavior, 
 active and passive) is the general form which culture (or 
 the outcome of education) takes. For, since it reduces 
 a condition or an activity within ourselves to an instinct- 
 ive use and wont (to a second nature), it is necessary for 
 any thorough education. But as, according to its content 
 (or subject-matter to which it relates), it may be either 
 proper or improper ( 29), advantageous or disadvan- 
 tageous ( 30), good or bad ( 31), and according to its 
 form may be the assimilation of the external by the in- 
 ternal, or the impress of the internal upon the external 
 ( 32), education must procure for the pupil the power 
 of being able to free himself from one habit and to 
 adopt another. Through his freedom he must be able 
 not only to renounce any habit formed, but to form a 
 new one ; and he must so govern his system of habits 
 that it shall exhibit a constant progress of development 
 into greater freedom. We must discipline ourselves 
 constantly to form and to break habits, as a means to- 
 ward the ever- developing realization of the good in us. 
 
 We must characterize those habits as corrupting which relate 
 only to our convenience or our enjoyment. They are often not 
 blamable in themselves, but there lies in them a hidden danger that 
 they may allure us into luxury or effeminacy. It is a false and me- 
 chanical way of looking at the mind to suppose that a habit which 
 has been formed by a certain number of repetitions can be broken by 
 an equal number of denials. We can never renounce a habit, which 
 we decide to be pernicious, except through clearness of judgment 
 and firmness of will. 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 35 
 
 [Education deals altogether with the formation of habits. 
 For it aims to make some condition or form of activity into a 
 second nature for the pupil. But this involves, also, the break- 
 ing up of previous habits. This power to break up habits, as 
 well as to form them, is necessary to the freedom of the indi- 
 vidual.] 
 
 34. Education comprehends, therefore, the recip- 
 rocal action of the opposites : authority and obedience ; 
 rationality and individuality ; work and play ; habit and 
 spontaneity. If these are reconciled in a normal man- 
 ner, the youth is now free from the tension of these 
 opposites. But a failure in education in this particular is 
 very possible through the freedom of the pupil, through 
 special circumstances, or through the errors of the edu- 
 cator himself. And for this very reason any theory of 
 education must take into account in the beginning this 
 negative possibility. It must consider beforehand the 
 dangers which threaten the pupil, in all possible ways 
 even before they surround him, and fortify him against 
 them. Intentionally to expose him to temptation in 
 order to prove his strength, is devilish; and, on the 
 other hand, to guard him against the possible chance of 
 dangerous temptation, to wrap him in cotton (as the 
 proverb says), is womanish, ridiculous, fruitless, and 
 much more dangerous ; for temptation comes not alone 
 from without, but quite as often from within, and secret 
 inclination seeks and creates for itself the opportunity 
 for its gratification, often perhaps an unnatural one. 
 The truly preventive activity consists not in an abstract 
 seclusion from the world, all of whose elements are in- 
 nate in each individual, but in the activity of instruc- 
 tion and discipline, modified according to age and 
 culture. 
 
36 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The method that aims to deprive the youth of all free and indi- 
 vidual intercourse with the world only leads to continual espionage, 
 and the consciousness that he is watched destroys in him all elasticity 
 of spirit, all confidence, all originality. The police shadow of con- 
 trol undermines all self-reliance, and systematically accustoms him 
 to dependence. The tragi-comic story of Peter Schlemihl * shows, 
 it is true, that one can not lose his own shadow without falling into 
 the saddest fatalities ; but the shadow of a constant companion, as 
 in the pedagogical system of the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness 
 and ease of mind. And ii one endeavors too strictly to guard against 
 that which is ill-mannered and forbidden, the intelligence of the 
 pupils reacts in deceit against such efforts, till the educators are 
 amazed that such crimes as often come to light can have arisen under 
 such careful control. 
 
 [Education deals with these complementary'relations (antithe- 
 ses) : (a) authority and obedience ; (b) rationality (general forms) 
 and individuality ; (c) work and play ; (d) habit (general custom) 
 and spontaneity. The development and reconciliation of these 
 opposite sides in the pupil's character, so that they become his 
 second nature, remove the phase of constraint which at first ac- 
 companies the formal inculcation of rules, and the performance 
 of prescribed tasks. The freedom of the pupil is the ultimate 
 object to be kept in view, but a too early use of freedom may 
 work injury to the pupil. To remove a pupil from all tempta- 
 tion would be to remove possibilities of growth in strength to 
 resist it ; on the other hand, to expose him needlessly to temp- 
 tation is fiendish. The cure of vicious tendencies is best accom- 
 plished by strict discipline in such habits as strengthen the pupil 
 against them.] 
 
 35. If there should appear in the youth any de- 
 cided moral deformity which is opposed to the ideal of 
 his education, the instructor must at once make inquiry 
 as to the history of its origin, because the negative and 
 the positive are very closely connected, and, what ap- 
 pears to be negligence, rudeness, immorality, foolish- 
 
 * See F. H. Hedge's " Prose Writers of Germany," for a translation ot 
 Adalbert von Chamisso's " Wonderful History of Peter Schlemihl." 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 37 
 
 ness, or oddity, may arise from some real needs of the 
 youth which in their development have only taken a 
 wrong direction. 
 
 [Deformities of character in the pupil should be carefully 
 traced back to their origin, so that they may be explained by 
 their history. Only by comprehending the historic growth 
 of an organic defect are we able to prescribe the best reme- 
 dies. Such deformities are often mere symptoms of deeper 
 evils.] 
 
 36. If it should appear on such examination that 
 the negative action was only a product of willful igno- 
 rance, of caprice, or of arbitrariness on the part of the 
 youth, then this calls for a simple prohibition on the 
 part of the educator, no reason being assigned. His 
 mere authority must be sufficient to the pupil in such a 
 case. Only when this has happened more than once, 
 and the youth is old enough to understand, should the 
 prohibition be accompanied with a brief statement of 
 the reason therefor. 
 
 This should be brief, because the explanation must retain its 
 disciplinary character, and must not become extended into a doc- 
 trinal essay, for in such a case the youth easily forgets that it was 
 his own misbehavior which was the occasion of the explanation. The 
 statement of the reason must be honest, and it must present to the 
 youth the point most easy for him to seize. False reasons are morally 
 blamable in themselves, and they tend only to confuse. It is a great 
 mistake to unfold to the youth the broadening consequences which 
 his act may bring. These possibilities seem to him too uncertain to 
 affect him much. The severe lecture wearies him, especially if it be 
 stereotyped, as is apt to be the case with fault-finding and talkative 
 instructors. But more unfortunate is it if the painting of the gloomy 
 background to which the consequences of the wrong-doing of the 
 youth may lead, should fill his feelings and imagination prematurely 
 with gloomy fancies, because then the representation has led him one 
 step toward a state of wretchedness which in the future man may 
 become fearful depression and degradation. 
 
38 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 [If the negative behavior of the pupil (his bad behavior) re- 
 sults from ignorance due to his own neglect, or to his willful- 
 ness, it should be met directly by an act of authority on the part 
 of the teacher (and without an appeal to reason). An appeal 
 should be made to the understanding of the pupil only when he 
 is somewhat mature, or shows by his repetition of the offense that 
 his proclivity is deep-seated, and requires an array of all good 
 influences to re-enforce his feeble resolutions to amend.] 
 
 37. If the censure is accompanied with a threat 
 of punishment, then we have the kind of reproof which 
 in daily life we call "scolding"; but, if a reprimand 
 is given, the pupil must be made to feel that it is in 
 earnest. 
 
 [Reproof, accompanied by threats of punishment, is apt to de- 
 generate into scolding.] 
 
 38. Only when all other efforts have failed is pun- 
 ishment, which is the real negation of the error, the 
 transgression, or the vice, justifiable. Punishment in- 
 tentionally inflicts pain on the pupil, and its object is, 
 by means of this sensation, to bring him to reason, a 
 result which neither our simple prohibition, our expla- 
 nation, nor our threat of punishment, has been able to 
 reach. But the punishment, as such, must not refer to 
 the subjective totality of the youth, i. e., to his disposi- 
 tion in general, but only to the act which, as result, is 
 a manifestation of that disposition. It nevertheless acts 
 on the disposition, but mediately through pain ; it does 
 not touch directly the inner being ; and this (return of 
 the deed upon the doer) is not only demanded by justice, 
 but is even rendered necessary on account of the sophis- 
 try that is inherent in human nature, which assigns to 
 a deed many motives (and takes refuge against blame 
 by alleging good motives). 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 39 
 
 [After the failure of other means, punishment should be re- 
 sorted to. Inasmuch as the punishment should be for the pur- 
 pose of making the pupil realize that it is the consequence of 
 his deed returning on himself, it should always be administered 
 for some particular act of his, and this should be specified. The 
 " overt act " is the only thing which a man can be held account- 
 able for in a court of justice ; although it is true that the har- 
 boring of evil thoughts or intentions is a sin, yet it is not a 
 crime until realized in an overt act. It is a mistake to punish 
 for " general naughtiness," or for evil intent, or for the " subject- 
 ive totality " as Rosenkranz calls it. Any particular deed is one 
 of a thousand possible deeds the intention or disposition con- 
 tains the totality of all these possible deeds, but they belong to 
 the pupil as his exclusive property for which he is not respon- 
 sible to his fellow human beings until he by an act of the will 
 makes one of the possible deeds actual.] 
 
 39. Punishment as an educational means is never- 
 theless essentially corrective, since, by leading the youth 
 to a proper estimation of his fault and a positive change 
 in his behavior, it seeks to improve him. At the same 
 time, it stands as a sad indication of the insufficiency of 
 the means previously used. The youth should not be 
 frightened from the commission of a misdemeanor or 
 from the repetition of his negative deed through fear 
 of punishment a system which leads always to terror- 
 ism; but, although this effect may be incidental, the* 
 punishment should, before all things, impress upon him 
 the recognition of the fact that the negative is not al- 
 lowed to prevail without limitation, but rather that the 
 good and the true have the absolute power in this world, 
 and that they are never without the means of overcom- 
 ing anything that contradicts them. 
 
 In the statute-laws, punishment has a different office. It must 
 first of all satisfy justice, and only after this is done can it attempt 
 to improve the guilty. If a government should proceed on the same 
 basis as the educator, it would mistake its task, because it has to deal 
 
40 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 with adults, whom it elevates to the honorable position of responsi- 
 bility for their own acts. The state must not go back to the genesis 
 of a negative deed in the disposition, or the motives, or the circum- 
 stances. It must assign to a secondary rank of importance the bio- 
 graphical factor which contains the origin of the deed and the cir- 
 cumstances of a mitigating character, and it must consider first of 
 all the deed in itself. It is quite otherwise with the educator ; for he 
 deals with human beings who are relatively undeveloped, and who 
 are only growing toward responsibility. So long as they are still 
 under the care of a teacher, the responsibility of their deed belongs 
 in part to him. If we confound these two standpoints on which pun- 
 ishment is administered, that of the state and that of education, we 
 work much evil. 
 
 [Corrective punishment seeks solely the improvement of the 
 delinquent ; retributive punishment under statute laws seeks 
 only the return of the deed upon the doer ; i. e., to satisfy the 
 claims of justice. Hegel, in his " Philosophy of History," in 
 speaking of state punishments in China, drew this distinction 
 and pointed out its significance.] 
 
 40. Punishment as a negation of a negation, con- 
 sidered as an educational means, can not be determined, 
 as to its application, by mere reference to the deed, but 
 must always be modified by the peculiarities of the in- 
 dividual offender and by the other circumstances. Its 
 administration calls for the exercise of the ingenuity and 
 tact of the educator. 
 
 [Punishment should be regulated, not by abstract rules, but in 
 
 view of the particular case and its attending circumstances, for 
 
 the reason that it is for correction and not for retribution. 
 
 Retributive punishment need only consider the magnitude of 
 
 the offense.] 
 
 41. Generally speaking, we must take into consid- 
 eration the sex and the age : (1) some kind of corporal 
 punishment is most suitable for children, (2) isolation 
 for older boys and girls, and (3) punishment based on 
 the sense of honor for young men and women. 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 1 
 
 [Sex and age of pupil should be regarded in prescribing the 
 mode and degree of punishment. Corporal punishment is best 
 for pupils who are very immature in mind ; when they are more 
 developed they may be punished by any imposed restraint upon 
 their free- wills which will isolate them from the ordinary rou- 
 tine followed by their fellow-pupils. (Deprivation of the right 
 to do as others do is a wholesome species of punishment for 
 those old or mature enough to feel its effects, for it tends to 
 secure respect for the regular tasks by elevating them to the 
 rank of rights and privileges.) For young men and women, the 
 . punishment should be of a kind that is based on a sense of 
 honor. This distinction by Rosenkranz is very important. It 
 is based on Hegel's distinction alluded to above ( 39) of correct- 
 ive from retributive punishment. In cities, suspension of the 
 pupil from school, and his transfer to another school on resto- 
 ration, is one of the most effective means ever devised for devel- 
 oping in the pupil a self-control that secures good behavior 
 without resort to corporal punishment.* 
 
 42. (1) Corporal punishment is the production of 
 physical pain, generally by whipping, and this kind of 
 punishment, provided always that it is not too often ad- 
 ministered or with undue severity, is the kindest method 
 of dealing with willful defiance, with obstinate careless- 
 ness, or with a really perverted will, so long or so often 
 as the higher perception is closed against appeal. The 
 imposing of other physical punishment, e. g., that of 
 depriving the pupil of food, partakes of cruelty. The 
 view which sees in the rod the panacea f for all the 
 teacher's embarrassments is reprehensible, but equally 
 so is the false sentimentality which assumes that the 
 dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a 
 
 * "Keport of St. Louis Public Schools for 1873-"T4," pp. 200-202. 
 
 t " Although Orbilism is reprehensible," says Eosenkranz, referring to 
 the flogging schoolmaster of Horace : " Memini qus9 plagosum mihi parvo 
 Orbilium dictare" (so. Carmina). Hor. Ep., 2, 1, 71. 
 
42 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 child, and confounds self-conscious humanity with child- 
 humanity, to which a blow is the most natural form of 
 reaction, when all other forms of influence have failed. 
 
 The fully-grown man ought never to be whipped, because this 
 kind of punishment reduces him to the level of the child, and, when 
 it becomes barbarous, to that of a brute animal, and so is absolutely 
 degrading to him. In the English schools the rod is much used. If 
 a pupil of the first class be put back into the second at Eton, he, 
 although before exempt from flogging, becomes liable to it. But 
 however necessary this system of flogging may be in the discipline of 
 the schools of the English aristocracy, flogging in the English army 
 is a shameful thing for the free people of Great Britain. 
 
 [Corporal punishment should be properly administered by 
 means of the rod, subduing willful defiance by the application of 
 force.] 
 
 4:3. (2) By isolation we remove the offender tem- 
 porarily and locally from the society of his fellows. 
 The boy or girl left alone, in abstract independence, cut 
 off from all companionship, suffers from a sense of help- 
 lessness. The time passes heavily, and soon he is very 
 anxious to be allowed to return to the company of par- 
 ents, brothers and sisters, teachers, and fellow-pupils. 
 
 To leave a child entirely to himself without any supervision, even 
 if one shuts him up in a dark room, is as mistaken a practice as to 
 leave a few together without supervision, as is sometimes done when 
 they are kept after school ; in such situations they give the freest 
 rein to their childish wantonness and commit the wildest pranks. 
 
 [Isolation makes the pupil, realize a sense of his dependence 
 upon human society, and of his need for the constant expression 
 of this dependence by co-operation in the common tasks. Pupils 
 should not be shut up in a dark room, nor removed from the 
 personal supervision of the teacher. (To shut up two or more 
 in a room without supervision is not isolation, but association ; 
 only it is association for mischief, and not for study.) (All good 
 behavior that is not founded on fear must take its rise in a sense 
 of honor. Corporal punishment degrades the man or the youth 
 
THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 43 
 
 who has arrived at a sense of honor. In communities where 
 children acquire this sense at a very early age, corporal punish- 
 ment should be dispensed with altogether, and punishments re- 
 sorted to that develop a sense of responsibility by causing the 
 culprit to feel the effect of his deeds in depriving him of privi- 
 leges common to all good pupils.)] 
 
 44. (3) This way of isolating a child does not prop- 
 erly touch his sense of honor, and is soon forgotten, be- 
 cause it relates to only one side of his conduct. It is 
 quite different from punishment based on the sense of 
 honor, which, in a formal manner, shuts the youth out 
 from social participation because he has attacked the prin- 
 ciple which holds society together, and for this reason can 
 no longer be subsumed under its generality (i. e., allowed 
 to participate in the society of his fellows). Honor is the 
 recognition of one individual by others as their equal. 
 Through his transgression, or it may be his misdemeanor, 
 he has simply lost his equality with them, and in so far 
 has separated himself from them, so that his banishment 
 from their society is only the outward expression of the 
 real isolation which he himself has brought to pass in 
 his inner nature, and which he by means of his negative 
 act only betrayed to the outer world. Since the pun- 
 ishment founded on the sense of honor affects the whole 
 ethical man and makes a lasting impression upon his 
 memory, extreme caution is necessary in its application 
 lest a permanent injury be inflicted upon the character. 
 The idea of his perpetual continuance in disgrace, de- 
 stroys in a man v all aspiration for improvement. 
 
 Within the family this feeling of honor can not be so actively 
 developed, because every member of it is bound to every other im- 
 mediately by natural ties, and hence is equal to every other. Within 
 its sacred circle, he who has isolated himself is still beloved, though 
 it may be through tears. However bad may be the deed he has com- 
 7 
 
44 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 mitted, he is never given up, but the deepest sympathy is felt for him 
 because he is still brother, father, etc. But first in the relation of 
 one family with another, and still more in the relation of an indi- 
 vidual with any institution which is founded not on natural ties, but 
 is set over against him as an entirely independent existence, this feel- 
 ing of honor appears. In the school, and in the matter of ranks and 
 honors in a school, this is very important. 
 
 [Punishment based on the sense of honor may or may not 
 be based on isolation. It implies a degree of maturity on the 
 part of the pupil. Through his offense the pupil has destroyed 
 his equality with his fellows, and has in reality, in his inmost 
 nature, isolated himself from them. Corporal punishment is ex- 
 ternal, but it may be accompanied with a keen sense of dishonor. 
 Isolation also may, to a pupil who is sensitive to honor, be a 
 severe blow to self-respect. But a punishment founded entirely 
 on the sense of honor would be wholly internal, and have no ex- 
 ternal discomfort attached to it. He who " attacks the principle 
 that holds society together," by doing things that tend to de- 
 stroy that social union, should be excluded from it or " not sub- 
 sumed under its generality." Social union is a common bond, 
 a general condition, or a participation. Regularity, punctuality, 
 silence, attention, and industry, are indispensable for the associ- 
 ated effort of the school, and the pupil who persistently violates 
 these conditions should be isolated from the school.] 
 
 45. It is important to consider well this gradation of 
 punishment which, starting with physical pain, which 
 appeals to the senses, passes through the external tele- 
 ology (appeal to external motives) of temporary isolation 
 up to the idealism (appeal to one's ideal) of the sense of 
 honor both in relation to the different ages at which 
 they are appropriate and to the training which they 
 bring with them. Every punishment must be consid- 
 ered merely as a means to some end, and, in so far, as 
 transitory. The pupil must always be deeply conscious 
 that it is very painful to his instructor to be obliged to 
 punish him. This pathos of another's solicitude for his 
 
THE tJMITS OF EDUCATION. 45 
 
 cure, which he perceives in the mien, in the tone of the 
 voice, in the hesitation with which the punishment is 
 administered, will become a purifying fire for his soul. 
 
 [The necessity of carefully adapting the punishment to the 
 age and maturity of the pupil renders it the most difficult part 
 of the teacher's duties. It is essential that the air and manner 
 of the teacher who punishes should be that of one who acts from 
 a sense of painful duty, and not from any delight in being the 
 cause of suffering. Not personal likes and dislikes, but the ra- 
 tional necessity which is over teacher and pupil alike, causes the 
 infliction of pain on the pupil] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 46. As respects its form, education reaches its lim- 
 its with the idea of punishment, because this is the ef- 
 fort to conquer the negative reality (i. e., the resistance 
 which it meets in the pupiPs opposition) and to make it 
 conformable to its positive idea. But the general limits 
 of education are found in the idea of its function, which 
 is to fashion the individual into theoretical and practical 
 rationality. The authority of the educator at last be- 
 comes imperceptible, and it passes over into advice and 
 example, and obedience changes from blind conformity 
 to free gratitude and attachment. Individuality wears 
 off its rough edges, and is transfigured into the univer- 
 sality and necessity of reason without losing in this pro- 
 cess its personal identity. Work becomes enjoyment, 
 and he finds his play in a change of activity. The 
 
4:6 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 youth takes possession of himself, and can be left to 
 himself. 
 
 There are two widely differing views with regard to the limits 
 of education. One lays great stress on the weakness of the pupil and 
 the power of the teacher. According to this view, education has for 
 its province the entire formation of the youth. The despotism of 
 this view often manifests itself, where large numbers are to be edu- 
 cated together, and with very undesirable results, because it assumes 
 that the individual pupil is only a specimen of the whole, as if the 
 school were a great factory where each piece of goods is to be stamped 
 exactly like all the rest. Individuality is reduced by the tyranny of 
 such despotism to one uniform level till all originality is destroyed, 
 as in cloisters, barracks, and orphan asylums, where only one indi- 
 vidual seems to exist. There is a kind of pedagogy, also, which fan- 
 cies that one can thrash into or out of the individual pupil what one 
 will. This may be called a superstitious belief in the power of edu- 
 cation. The opposite extreme is skeptical, and advances the policy 
 which lets alone and does nothing, urging that individuality is uncon- 
 querable, and that often the most careful and far-sighted education 
 fails of reaching its aim in so far as it is opposed to the nature of the 
 youth, and that this individuality has made of no avail all efforts to- 
 ward the obtaining of any end which was opposed to it. This view 
 of the fruitlessness of all educational efforts engenders an indiffer- 
 ence toward it which would leave, as a result, only a sort of vegeta- 
 tion of individuality growing at hap-hazard. 
 
 [Punishment is the final topic considered under the head of 
 " Form of Education," and it introduces us to the next topic, 
 " The Limits of Education." In the act of punishment, the 
 teacher abandons the legitimate province of education, which 
 seeks to make the pupil rational or obedient to what is reason- 
 able, as a habit, and from his own free-will. The pupil is pun- 
 ished in order that he may be made to conform to the rational, 
 by the application of constraint. Another will is substituted for 
 the pupil's, and good behavior is produced, but not by the pu- 
 pil's free act. In disobedience and in the occasion for the use 
 of punishment accordingly education encounters its negative 
 limit the limit that excludes it and refuses to receive it. While 
 education finds a negative limit in punishment, it finds a posi- 
 tive limit in the accomplishment of its legitimate object, which 
 
THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 47 
 
 is the emancipation of the pupil from the state of imbecility, 
 as regards mental and moral self-control, into the ability to 
 direct himself rationally. The school has done its work and is 
 no longer needed. When the pupil has acquired the discipline 
 which enables him to direct his studies properly, and to control 
 his inclinations in such a manner as to pursue his work regular- 
 ly, the teacher is superfluous for him he becomes his own teach- 
 er. There may be two extreme views on this subject the one 
 tending toward the negative extreme of requiring the teacher to 
 do everything for the pupil, substituting his will for that of the 
 pupil, and the other view tending to the positive extreme, and 
 leaving everything to the pupil, even before his will is trained 
 into habits of self-control, or his mind provided with the neces- 
 sary elementary branches requisite for the prosecution of further 
 study.] 
 
 47. (1) The first limit of education is a subjective 
 one, a limit found in the individuality of the youth. 
 This is a definitive (insurmountable) limit. "Whatever 
 does not exist in this individuality as a possibility can 
 not be developed from it. Education can only lead and 
 assist ; it can not create. "What Nature has denied to a 
 man, education can not give him any more than it is 
 able, 011 the other hand, to annihilate entirely his origi- 
 nal gifts, although it is true that his talents may be sup- 
 pressed, distorted, and measurably destroyed. But the 
 decision of the question in what the real essence of any 
 one's individuality consists can never be made with cer- 
 tainty till he has left behind him his years of develop- 
 ment, because it is then only that he first arrives at the 
 consciousness of his entire self; besides, at this time, 
 many superficial acquirements will drop off ; and on the 
 other hand, talents, long slumbering and unsuspected, 
 may first make their appearance. Whatever has been 
 forced upon a child in opposition to his individuality, 
 whatever has been only driven into him and has lacked 
 
48 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 receptivity on his part or a demand for cultivation, re- 
 mains attached to his being only as an external orna- 
 ment, a parasitical outgrowth which enfeebles his own 
 proper character. 
 
 We must distinguish from that false tendency which arises 
 through a misunderstanding of the limit of individuality, the affecta- 
 tion of children and young persons who often suppose, when they see 
 models finished and complete in grown persons, that they themselves 
 are endowed by Nature with the power to develop into the same. 
 When they see a reality which corresponds to their own possibility, 
 the anticipation of a like or a similar attainment moves them to an 
 imitation of it as a model personality. This may be sometimes car- 
 ried so far as to be disagreeable or ridiculous, but should not be too 
 strongly censured, because it springs from a positive striving after 
 culture, and needs only proper direction. 
 
 [The subjective limit of education (on the negative side) is 
 to be found in the individuality of the pupil the limit to his 
 natural capacity.] 
 
 48. (2) The second or objective limit of educa- 
 tion lies in the means which can be appropriated for it. 
 That the talent for a certain culture shall be present is 
 certainly the first thing ; but the cultivation of this tal- 
 ent is the second, and no less necessary. But how much 
 cultivation can be given to it extensively and intensively 
 depends upon the means used, and these again are con- 
 ditioned by the material resources of the family to 
 which one belongs. The greater and more valuable the 
 means of culture which are found in a family, the greater 
 is the immediate advantage which the culture of each 
 one has at the start. With regard to many of the arts 
 and sciences this limit of education is of great signifi- 
 cance. But the means alone are of no avail. The finest 
 educational apparatus will produce no fruit where cor- 
 responding talent is wanting, while on the other hand 
 
THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 talent often accomplishes incredible feats with very lim- 
 ited means, and, if the way is only once open, makes of 
 itself a center of attraction which draws to itself with 
 magnetic power the necessary means. The moral cult- 
 ure of each one is, however, fortunately from its very 
 nature, out of the reach of such dependence. 
 
 In considering the limit made by individuality we recognize the 
 side of truth in that indifference which considers education entirely 
 superfluous, and in considering the means of culture we find the 
 truth in the other extreme, that of pedagogical despotism, which fan- 
 cies that it can command whatever culture it chooses for any one 
 without regard to his individuality. 
 
 [The objective limit to education lies in the amount of time 
 that the person may devote to his training. It, therefore, de- 
 pends largely upon wealth, or other fortunate circumstances.] 
 
 49. (3) Finally r , the absolute limit of education 
 is the time when the youth has apprehended the prob- 
 lem which he has to solve, has learned to know the 
 means at his disposal, and has acquired a certain facil- 
 ity in using them. (Th e end and aim of education is 
 the emancipation of me youth A It strives to make him 
 self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so it 
 wishes to retire and leave to him the sole responsibility 
 for his actions. To treat the youth after he has passed 
 this point of time still as a youth, contradicts the very 
 idea of education, which idea finds its fulfillment in 
 the attainment of this state of maturity by the pupil. 
 Since the completion of education cancels the original 
 inequality between the educator and the pupil, nothing 
 is more oppressing, nay, revolting to the latter than to 
 be excluded by a continued state of dependence from 
 the enjoyment of the freedom which he has earned. 
 
 The opposite of this extreme, which protracts education beyond 
 its proper time and produces this state of inward revolt, is the undue 
 
50 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 hastening of the emancipation. The question whether one is pre- 
 pared for freedom has been often opened in politics. When any peo- 
 ple have gone so far as to ask this question themselves, it is no longer 
 a question whether that people are prepared for it, for without the 
 consciousness of freedom this question would never have occurred to 
 them. 
 
 [The absolute limit of education is the positive limit (see 46), 
 beyond which the youth passes into freedom from the school, as 
 a necessary instrumentality for further culture.] 
 
 50. Although teachers must now leave the youth 
 free, the necessity of further culture for him still re- 
 mains. But it will no longer come directly through 
 them. Their prearranged, pattern-making work is now 
 supplanted by self -education. Each sketches for him- 
 self an ideal to which in his life he seeks to approximate 
 every day. 
 
 In the work of self-culture one friend can help another by advice 
 and example ; but he can not educate, for education presupposes in- 
 equality of acquirement and authority. The necessities of human 
 nature produce societies in which equals seek to influence each other 
 in a pedagogical way, since they establish certain grades or orders 
 based on steps of culture. They presuppose education in the ordi- 
 nary sense. But they wish to bring about education in a higher 
 sense, and therefore they veil the last form of their ideal in the mys- 
 tery of secrecy. To one who lives on contented with himself and 
 without the impulse toward self -culture, unless his unconcern springs 
 from his belonging to a savage state of society, the Germans give 
 the name of Philistine, and he is always repulsive to the student 
 who is intoxicated with an ideal. 
 
 [The prearranged pattern-making work of the school is now 
 done, but self-education may and should go on indefinitely, and 
 will go on if the education of the school has really arrived at its 
 " absolute limit " i. e., has fitted the pupil for self-education. 
 Emancipation from the school does not emancipate one from 
 learning through his fellow-men. Man's spiritual life is one 
 depending upon co-operation with his fellow-men. Each must 
 avail himself of the experience of his fellow-men, and in turn 
 
THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 51 
 
 communicate his own experience to the common fund of the 
 race. Thus each lives the life of the whole, and all live for 
 each. School-education gives the pupil the instrumentalities 
 with which to enable him to participate in this fund of experi- 
 ence this common life of the race. After school-education 
 comes the still more valuable education, which, however, with- 
 out the school, would be in a great measure impossible.] 
 
SECOND PART. 
 
 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
> 
 
SECOND PART. 
 
 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 INTKODTJCTIOK 
 
 51. EDUCATION in general consists in the develop- 
 ment in man of his inborn theoretical and practical ra- 
 tionality ; it takes on the form of labor, which changes 
 that state or condition, which appears at first only as a 
 mere thought, into a fixed habit, and transfigures in- 
 dividuality into a worthy humanity. Education ends 
 in that emancipation of the youth which places him on 
 his own feet. The special elements which form the 
 concrete content of all education in general are the life, 
 cognition, and will of man. Without life mind has no 
 phenomenal reality ; without cognition, no genuine 
 i. e., conscious will ; and without will, no self -confirma- 
 tion of life and of cognition. It is true that these three 
 elements are in real existence inseparable, and continu- 
 ally exhibit their interdependence. But none the less 
 on this account do they themselves prescribe their own 
 succession, and they have a relative and periodical as- 
 cendency over each other. In infancy, up to the fifth, 
 or sixth year, the purely physical development takes the 
 
 precedence; childhood is the time of learning, in a 
 
 8 
 
56 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 proper sense, an act by which the child gains for him- 
 self the picture of the world, such as mature minds, 
 through experience and insight, have painted it ; and, 
 finally, youth is the transition period to practical activity, 
 to which the self-determination of the will must give 
 the first impulse. 
 
 [Education is the development of reason innate in man 
 theoretical as intellect, practical as will-power. It is a labor 
 that changes an ideal into a real, making what is potential into 
 an actual ; transfiguring the " natural " man, so to speak, into a 
 spiritual man. Education forms "habits." It develops ideal 
 human nature into real human nature by means of this forma- 
 tion of habits. (Play differs from labor in this, that it does not 
 seek to transform an ideal into a real, but to make a semblance 
 of contradiction between the ideal and real ; it makes a reality 
 seem to be what it is not.) There are three special elements in 
 man, each of which needs education : these are life (bodily or- 
 ganism), cognition (knowing faculty or intellect), and will. To 
 some extent there is a succession of periods based on this dis- 
 , tinction : (1) the period of nurture, lasting till the sixth year r 
 or during infancy, in which the education of the body is more 
 important than the education of the mind; (2) the period of 
 the school, lasting through childhood say to fourteen years 
 in which general or intellectual education is most important ; (3) 
 the period of youth from fourteen to eighteen in which the 
 most important education is the specializing of the practical ap- 
 plication of knowledge and strength to particular forms of duty, 
 hence will-education. While these periods are thus distin- 
 guished by the relative importance of the three different disci- 
 plines, it is essential that no one of these disciplines shall be 
 neglected in any period.] 
 
 52. The classification of the special elements of 
 education is hence very simple: (1) the physical, (2) 
 the intellectual, (3) the practical (in the sense of will- 
 education). We sometimes apply to these the words 
 orthobiotics, didactics, and pragmatics. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 57 
 
 ^Esthetic training constitutes only an element of intellectual 
 education, just as social, moral, and religious training form elements 
 of practical (or will) education. But because these latter elements 
 concern themselves with the action of the individual upon the ex- 
 ternal world, the name " pragmatics " is appropriate. In this sphere, 
 education (Padagogik) should coincide with politics, ethics, and re- 
 ligion. But it is distinguished from them through the skill with 
 which it puts into practice the problems of the other two (life and 
 cognition). The scientific arrangement of these ideas must therefore 
 show that the former, as the more abstract, constitutes the condition, 
 and the latter, as the more concrete, the ground of the former, which 
 is presupposed ; and in consequence of this it is itself their principle 
 and teleological presupposition, just as in man the will presupposes 
 the cognition, and cognition life ; while, at the same time, life, in a 
 deeper sense, must presuppose cognition, and cognition will. 
 
 [The classification in pedagogics is based on the distinction 
 of the three elements in man that require education : (1) Physi- 
 cal (correct living = orthobiotics) ; (2) intellectual (correct per- 
 ceiving, knowing, and thinking = didactics) ; (3) practical (cor- 
 rect action, proper habits = pragmatics). -^Esthetic training, or 
 the sense for the appreciation and production of the beautiful, 
 falls, in a threefold division, into the second into theoretic 
 education. Social, moral, and religious training belong to the 
 third division, as they concern the will and its utterance in deeds. 
 " Pragmatics " signifies the doctrine of human deeds, and in- 
 cludes the spheres of ethics, politics, and religion. (There may 
 be defined a fivefold system of education, basing the distinction 
 on the institutions of civilization : (a) Nurture = the education 
 of the family ; (b) the school, or education into the convention- 
 alities of intelligence ; (c) the art, trade, or profession that forms 
 the vocation in life = the education of civil society ; (d) the 
 political education into citizenship, resulting from obedience to 
 laws and participation in making and sustaining them ; (e) re- 
 ligious education. These five forms of education depend on (a) 
 the family, (b) the school, (c) civil society, (d) the State, (e) 
 the Church. The school is properly a transition between the 
 family and civil society, and forms the institution of education 
 par excellence. Hence, while education, very properly, is defined 
 so as to include all of human life, there is a period specially 
 characterized as " education " which transpires in the school, a 
 
58 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 special institution that partakes of the character of the family 
 on the one hand, and of civil society on the other. In the school, 
 of course, there should be some attention paid to all spheres of 
 education, but its main business should be the acquisition " of 
 the picture of the world such as mature minds through experi- 
 ence and insight have painted it " (see 51 near the end), or, in 
 other words, conventional items of information, insights into 
 laws and principles, and the elementary processes of their com- 
 bination. This makes the "view of the world" which each 
 civilized human being is supposed to possess. It is important 
 to know the exact province of the school, and to see that it is 
 only one of the five forms of education that civilization provides 
 for man. Much of the carping criticism leveled against schools, 
 in times of financial distress or general social depression, is 
 based on the assumption that the province of the school is all 
 education instead of a small but very important fraction of it. 
 The school may do its share of correct education, but it can not 
 correct the effects of neglect of family nurture, nor insure its 
 youth against evil that will follow if civil society furnishes no 
 steady employment, no opportunity for settled industry, and 
 the state no training into consciousness of higher manhood by 
 its just laws, and by offering to the citizen a participation in 
 the political process of legislation and administration, carefully 
 guarding its forms so that its politics does not furnish a train- 
 ing in corruption. Nor can the school insure the future of its 
 pupils unless the Church does its part in the education of the 
 individuals of the community.) " The scientific arrangement of 
 these ideas " i. e., life, intellect, and will " must show that the 
 former, as more abstract, constitute the conditions " i. e., life 
 is the condition of intellect, and both intellect and life the con- 
 ditions of will while "the latter, as more concrete, are the 
 ground of the former " i. e., intellect is the ground of life, or, 
 in other words, its final cause, and so will is the ground and 
 final cause of intellect. Intellect contains all that life contains, 
 and much more namely : While life realizes its totality of spe- 
 cies only in many individuals, and each individual is a partial 
 and special half of the species as male or female, the intellect 
 as consciousness is subject and object in one, and each indi- 
 vidual intellect is potentially the entire species each thinking 
 being can think all the thoughts of the greatest thinkers of the 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 59 
 
 race. So, will contains all that intellect contains, and more. 
 For what is potential in intellect (the identity of subject and 
 object of thought) is real in the will. The will makes objective 
 its internal subjective forms, and in its highest ethical activity 
 it becomes conscious freedom.] 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 53. THE art of living rightly is based upon a com- 
 prehension of the process of life. Life is the restless 
 dialectic process which ceaselessly transforms the inor- 
 ganic into the organic, and at the same time produces 
 the inorganic, and separates from itself whatever part 
 of its food has not been assimilated, and that which has 
 become dead and burned out. The organism is healthy 
 when it corresponds to this idea of the dialectic process 
 of a life which moves up and down, inward and out- 
 ward ; of formation and reformation ; of organizing and 
 disorganizing. All the rules for physical education, or 
 of hygiene, are derived from this conception. 
 
 [The rules of hygiene are derived from an insight into the 
 twofold process of assimilation and elimination which goes on 
 in the living organism with relation to the inorganic substances 
 which it uses.] 
 
 54. It follows from this that the change of the 
 relatively inorganic to the organic is going on not only 
 in the organism as a whole, but also in its every organ 
 and in every part of every organ ; and that the organic, 
 as soon as it has attained its highest point of energy, is 
 
60 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 again degraded to the inorganic and thrown out. Every 
 cell has its history. Activity is, therefore, not contra- 
 dictory to the organism, but favors in it the natural 
 progressive and regressive metamorphosis. This process 
 can go on harmoniously that is, the organism can be in 
 health only when not merely the whole organism, but 
 each special organ, is allowed, after its productive activ- 
 ity, the corresponding rest and recreation necessary for 
 its self-renewal. We have this periodicity exemplified 
 in waking and sleeping, also in exhalation and inhalation, 
 excretion and taking in of material. "When we have 
 discovered the relative antagonism of the organs and 
 their periodicity, we have found the secret of the peren- 
 nial renewal of life. 
 
 [Perpetual change goes on in the living organism, converting 
 the inorganic into organic tissue and then reconverting it. This 
 alternation is the basis of the demand for the alternation of pro- 
 ductive activity with rest and recreation in the whole physical 
 system.] 
 
 55. Fatigue makes its appearance when any organ, 
 or the organism in general, is denied time for the return 
 movement into itself and for renovation. It is possible 
 for some one organ, without injury, as if isolated, to 
 exercise a great and long-continued activity, even to the 
 point of fatigue, while the other organs rest ; as, e. g., 
 the lungs, in speaking, while the other parts are quiet ; 
 on the other hand, it is not well to speak and run at the 
 same time. The idea that one can keep the organism 
 in better condition by inactivity is an error which rests 
 upon a mechanical view of life. Equally false is the 
 idea that health depends upon the quantity and excel- 
 lence of the food; without the force to assimilate it, 
 it is poison rather than nourishment. True strength 
 
DIETETICS. 61 
 
 arises only from activity. [Mention of works on hy- 
 giene here is omitted in this translation.] 
 
 [Fatigue defined. It may occur with the whole organism or 
 with a part. The idea that total rest is healthy is a misappre- 
 hension. The organism requires alternation of rest and activity, 
 which alternation itself is activity because it is change. Hence, 
 " true strength arises only from activity."] 
 
 56. Physical education, as it concerns the repairing, 
 the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided into (1) 
 dietetics, (2) gymnastics, (3) sexual education. In real 
 life these activities are scarcely separable, but for the 
 sake of exposition we must consider them apart. In the 
 regular development of the human being, moreover, the 
 repairing system has a relative precedence to the motor 
 system, and the latter to the sexual maturity. But edu- 
 cation can treat of these ideas only with reference to 
 the infant, the child, and the youth. 
 
 [Physical education treats of (a) the repairing activity or nu- 
 trition, (b) the motor or muscular activity, and (c) the nervous 
 activity, as far as they concern children and youth. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 (A.) DIETETICS. 
 
 57. DIETETICS is the art of sustaining the normal 
 repair of the organism. Since this organism is, in the 
 concrete, an individual one, the general principles of 
 dietetics must, in their manner of application, vary with 
 the sex, the age, the temperament, the occupation, and 
 the other conditions of the individual. Education as a 
 
62 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 science can only go over its general principles, and these 
 can be named briefly. If we attempt to speak of de- 
 tails, we fall easily into triviality. So very important 
 to the whole life of man is the proper care of his physi- 
 cal nature during the first stages of its development, 
 that the science of education must not omit to enumer- 
 ate the various systems which different people, accord- 
 ing to their time, locality, and culture, have made for 
 themselves ; many, it is true, embracing some preposter- 
 ous ideas, but in general never devoid of justification in 
 their time. 
 
 [Dietetics defined. Details here are trivial.] 
 [ 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, relating to diet, omitted. 
 The following is a brief summary of the contents : 
 58, 59, 60, 61, treat of food for infants. 62, why 
 children need much sleep. 63 treats of clothing of 
 children.] 
 
 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should 
 be accustomed for the sake of their physical well-being, 
 as well as because, in a moral point of view, it is of the 
 greatest significance. Cleanliness will not endure that 
 things shall be deprived of their proper individuality 
 through the elemental chaos. It retains each as distin- 
 guished from every other. While it makes necessary 
 to man pure air, cleanliness of surroundings, of clothing, 
 and of his body, it develops in him a sense by which 
 he perceives accurately the particular limits of being in 
 general. 
 
 [Cleanliness means " a place for everything and everything in 
 its place." To take a thing out of its proper relations is to " de- 
 prive it of its proper individuality," and in an " elemental chaos '' 
 everything has lost its proper relations to other things, and has 
 no longer any use or fitness in its existence.] 
 
GYMNASTICS. 63 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 (B.) GYMNASTICS. 
 
 65. GYMNASTICS is the art of the normal training 
 of the muscular system. The voluntary muscles, which 
 are regulated by the nerves of the brain, in distinction 
 from the involuntary automatic muscles depending on 
 the spinal cord, while they are the means of man's inter- 
 course with the external world, at the same time react 
 upon the automatic muscles in digestion and sensation. 
 Since the movement of the muscular fibers consists in 
 the alternation of contraction and expansion, it follows 
 that gymnastics must bring about a change of movement 
 which shall both contract and expand the muscles. 
 
 [Gymnastics. The voluntary and involuntary muscles distin- 
 guished : the voluntary muscles form the means of communica- 
 tion with the external world, and also react on the automatic 
 functions of digestion, sensation, etc. Gymnastics seeks to de- 
 velop the voluntary muscles in a normal manner, and through 
 these indirectly to affect favorably the development of the other 
 bodily systems and processes.] 
 
 66. The system of gymnastic exercise of any na- 
 tion corresponds always to its mode of fighting. So long 
 as this consists in the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand 
 contest, gymnastics will seek to increase as much as 
 possible individual strength and adroitness. As soon as 
 the far-reaching missiles projected from fire-arms be- 
 come the center of all the operations of war, the indi- 
 vidual is lost in a body of men, out of which he emerges 
 only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the charge, in close 
 contests, and in the retreat. Because of this incorpora- 
 tion of the individual in the one great whole, and because 
 
64: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 of the resulting unimportance of personal daring, gym- 
 nastics can never again be what it was in ancient times. 
 Besides this, the subjectiveness of the modern spirit is 
 too great to allow it to devote so much attention to the 
 care of the body, or so much time to the admiration of 
 its beauty, as was given by the Greeks. 
 
 The Turner societies and Turner-halls in. Germany belong to 
 the period of subjective enthusiasm of the German student popula- 
 tion, and had a political significance. At present, they have been 
 brought back to their proper place as an educational means, and 
 they are of great value, especially in large cities. Among the mount- 
 ains, and in rural districts, special arrangements for bodily exercise 
 are less necessary, for the matter takes care of itself. The situation 
 and the instinct for play help to foster it. In great cities, however, 
 the houses are often destitute of halls or open places where the chil- 
 dren can take exercise in their leisure moments. In these cities, 
 therefore, there must be some gymnastic hall where the sense of fel- 
 lowship may be developed. Gymnastics are not so essential for 
 girls. In its place, dancing is sufficient, and gymnastic exercise 
 should be employed for them only where there exists any special 
 weakness or deformity, when it may be used as a restorative or pre- 
 servative. They are not to become Amazons. The boy, on the con- 
 trary, needs to acquire the feeling of good-fellowship. It is true 
 that the school develops this in a measure, but not fully and simply, 
 because in school the standing of the boy is determined through his 
 intellectual ambition. The college youth will not take much inter- 
 est in special gymnastics unless he can gain distinction in it. Run- 
 ning, leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too tame for their more 
 mature spirits. They can take a lively interest only in the exercises 
 which have a warlike character. "With the Prussians, and some other 
 German states, gymnastic training is provided for in the military 
 training. 
 
 [Gymnastics affected by the national military drill. The an- 
 cient tribes and nations found special bodily training indispen- 
 sable to success in war, and even to national preservation. Gun- 
 powder and improved fire-arms have almost rendered gymnas- 
 tics obsolete the successful army, other things equal, being the 
 one composed of men thoroughly disciplined in manoeuvres, and 
 
GYMNASTICS. 65 
 
 possessed individually of tact and versatility necessary to ma- 
 nipulate the destructive fire-arms now used. The Greeks (see 
 204-216) paid so much attention to pure gymnastics because 
 they worshiped the beautiful as the highest manifestation of the 
 divine, and therefore looked upon their own physical perfection 
 as the highest object of life. The favorite exercises with our 
 students are boating, ball-playing, bicycle-riding, etc., rather 
 than boxing, fencing, wrestling, and " exercises which have a 
 warlike character," as Rosenkranz enumerated them in 1840.] 
 
 67. The fundamental idea of gymnastics must al- 
 ways be that the spirit shall rule over its body and make 
 this an energetic and docile servant of its will. Strength 
 and adroitness must unite and become confident skill. 
 Strength, carried to its extreme, produces the athlete ; 
 adroitness, to its extreme, the acrobat. Education must 
 avoid both. All gigantic strength, as well as acrobatic 
 skill, fit only for display, must be discouraged and so too 
 must be the idea of teaching gymnastics with the motive 
 of utility ; e. g., that by swimming one may save his life 
 when he falls into the water, etc. Among other things, 
 utility may also be a consequence ; but the principle in 
 general must always be the necessity of the spirit of 
 subjecting its bodily organism to the condition of a per- 
 fect instrument, so that it may ever find it equal to the 
 execution of its will. 
 
 [Gymnastics, therefore, in modern times must aim chiefly at 
 developing the body for the sake of physical strength and en- 
 durance, with a view to the demands of useful industry and 
 mental culture on the bodily health and vigor. Health requires 
 harmonious development ; the exercises must develop the parts 
 of the body so as not to produce disproportion. The result of 
 gymnastics is to give the mind control over the body as a whole 
 the will interpenetrates, as it were, the various organs, and by 
 this means the conscious mind can re-enforce the automatic 
 functions of the body ; the will-power can to a certain degree 
 even ward off disease.] 
 
66 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 68. Gymnastic exercises form a series from simple 
 to compound. There seems to be so much arbitrari- 
 ness in plays and games that it is always very agreeable 
 to the mind to find, on nearer inspection, some rational 
 order. The movements are (1) of the lower, (2) of the 
 upper extremities ; (3) of the whole body, with relative 
 predominance, now of the upper, now of the lower ex- 
 tremities. We distinguish, therefore, foot, arm, and 
 trunk movements. 
 
 [Gymnastic exercises classified : (1) of the lower extremities : 
 (a) walking, (b) running, (c) leaping (including varieties and 
 modifications, such as walking on stilts, skating, dancing, bal- 
 ancing, bicycle-riding, etc.); (2) of the upper extremities: (a) 
 lifting, (b) swinging, (c) throwing (including also the modifica- 
 tions of climbing, carrying, pole and bar exercises, quoits, ball 
 and nine-pin playing, rowing, etc.) ; (3) of the whole body : (a) 
 swimming, (b; riding, (c) fighting. Foot, arm, and trunk move- 
 ments. Such games as base-ball, and such athletic exercise as 
 rowing are practiced as whole-body movements.] 
 
 69. (1) The first series of foot-movements is the 
 most important, and conditions the carriage of all the 
 rest of the body. They are (a) walking ; (5) running ; 
 (c) leaping: each of these being capable of modifica- 
 tions, as the high and the low leap, the prolonged and 
 the quick run. Sometimes we give to these different 
 names, according to the means used, as walking on 
 stilts ; skating ; leaping with a staff, or by means of the 
 hands, as vaulting. Dancing is only the art of the 
 graceful mingling of these movements. 
 
 TO. (2) The second series includes the arm-move- 
 ments, and it repeats also the movements of the first 
 series. It includes (a) lifting ; (5) swinging ; (c) throw- 
 ing. All pole and bar practice comes under lifting, 
 
GYMNASTICS. 67 
 
 also climbing and carrying. Under throwing, come 
 quoits, and ball-throwing, and nine-pin playing. All 
 these movements are distinguished from each other, not 
 only quantitatively but also qualitatively, in the position 
 of the stretched and bent muscles ; e. g., running is 
 something differsnt from quick walking. [Omission 
 here of notes on books relating to the physiology of ex- 
 ercise.] 
 
 71. (3) The third series, or that of movements of 
 the whole body, differs from the preceding two, which 
 prepare the way for it, in this, that it brings the organism 
 into contact with an object, which it has to overcome 
 through its own activity. This object is sometimes 
 an element, sometimes an animal, sometimes a man. 
 Our divisions then are (a) swimming ; (6) riding ; (c) 
 single combat (fencing, boxing, wrestling, etc.). In 
 swimming, one must conquer the yielding liquid by 
 arm and foot movements. The resistance met on ac- 
 count of currents and waves may be very great, but it 
 is still that of a will-less and passive object. But in 
 riding man has to deal with a self-willed being whose 
 vitality calls forth not only his strength but also Ms 
 intelligence and courage. The movement is therefore 
 very complicated, and the rider must be able perpetually 
 to individualize his activity according to the circum- 
 stances ; at the same time, he must give attention not 
 only to the horse, but to the nature of the ground and 
 the entire surroundings. But it is only in the struggle 
 with men that gymnastics reaches its highest point, for 
 in this man offers himself as a living antagonist to man 
 and threatens him with danger. It is no longer the 
 spontaneous activity of an unreasoning existence ; it is 
 
68 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the resistance and attack of intelligence itself with 
 which he has to deal. Fencing, or single combat, is the 
 truly chivalrous exercise, and this may be combined 
 with horsemanship. 
 
 In the single combat there is found also a qualitative gradation, 
 whence we have three systems : (a) boxing and wrestling ; (6) fencing 
 with sticks; and (c) rapier and broadsword fencing. In the first, 
 which was cultivated to its highest point among the Greeks, direct 
 immediateness rules. In the boxing of the English, a sailor-like 
 propensity of this nation, fighting with the fists is still retained as a 
 custom. Fencing with a stick is found among the French mechan- 
 ics, the so-called compagnons. Men often use the cane in their con- 
 tests ; it is -a sort of refined club. When we use the sword or rapier, 
 the weapon becomes deadly. The Southern Europeans excel in the 
 use of the rapier, the Germans in that of the broadsword. But the 
 art of single combat is much degenerated, and the pistol-duel, 
 through its increasing frequency, proves this degeneration. 
 
 NOTE. The paragraphs 72-V9, relating to sexual education, are de- 
 signed for parents rather than for teachers, the parent being the natural 
 educator of the family, and sexual education relating to the preservation and 
 continuance of the family. This chapter is accordingly, for the most part, 
 omitted here. It contains judicious reflections, invaluable to parents and 
 guardians. Tr, 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 80. Mens sana in corpore sano is correct as a peda- 
 gogical maxim, but false in the judgment of individual 
 cases ; because it is possible, on the one hand, to have a 
 healthy mind in an unhealthy body, and, on the other 
 hand, an unhealthy mind in a healthy body. Neverthe- 
 less, to strive after the harmony of soul and body is the 
 material condition of all normal activity. The develop- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 69 
 
 ment of intelligence presupposes physical health. Here 
 we are to speak of the science of the art of teaching, 
 technically called " didactics." This had its presupposi- 
 tion on the side of Nature, as was before seen, in physi- 
 cal education, but in the sphere of mind it presupposes 
 psychology and logic. Instruction implies considera- 
 tions of psychology as well as of logical method. 
 
 [Education has to note bodily conditions of the mind, and to 
 prescribe methods of physical training. It has more especially 
 to note also the nature of mind and comprehend the science of 
 psychology, and prescribe the methods of developing the several 
 powers of the mind. It has also to study logic in order to mas- 
 ter the proper arrangement of studies and the order of teaching 
 the several topics belonging under each study.] 
 
 (a) The Psychological Presupposition. 
 
 81. In a complete system of philosophy, didactics 
 could refer to the conception of mind which would 
 have there been unfolded in psychology ; and it must 
 appear as a defect in scientific method if psychology, or 
 at least the conception of the theoretical mind, has to be 
 treated again within the science of education. We must 
 take something for granted. Psychology, then, will here 
 be consulted no further than is requisite to place on a 
 sure basis the educational function which relates to it. 
 
 [Psychology, as a science, is unfolded within the philosophy 
 of spirit as an antecedent presupposition of the science of ethics 
 (which forms the third part of the science of spirit, see analysis 
 and commentary to 1, pages 4, 5, of this work). Hence the 
 philosophy of education, which belongs to ethics (or social sci- 
 ence), presupposes psychology, and in its proper place in an 
 entire system might refer to it as already established. Here, in 
 treating of intellectual education, we must give an outline of psy- 
 chology.] 
 
70 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 82. To education the conception of attention is 
 the most important of all those derived from psychol- 
 ogy. Mind is essentially self-activity. Nothing exists 
 for it which it does not posit as its own. We hear it 
 often said that outside conditions make an impression 
 on the mind, but this is an error. Mind lets nothing 
 act upon it unless it has rendered itself receptive to it. 
 Without this preparatory self -excitation the object does 
 not really penetrate it, and it passes by the object un- 
 consciously or indifferently. The horizon of perception 
 changes for each person with his peculiarities and cult- 
 ure. Attention is the adjusting of the observer to the 
 object in order to seize it in its unity and diversity. 
 Relatively, the observer allows, for a moment, his rela- 
 tion to all other surroundings to cease, so that he may 
 establish a relation with this one. "Without this essen- 
 tially spontaneous activity, nothing exists for the mind. 
 All result in teaching and learning depends upon the 
 clearness and strength with which distinctions are made, 
 and the saying, fiene qui distinguit bene docet, applies 
 as well to the pupil. 
 
 [The conception of attention the most important one in 
 pedagogics. Nothing exists for the mind unless the mind gives 
 attention to it i. e., voluntarily entertains it. Attention is self- 
 activity, not a passivity of the mind. It is the will acting upon 
 the intellect, and hence a combination of intellect and will. Out 
 of the infinitely manifold objects before the senses each object 
 is capable of endless subdivision, and there is no part so small 
 that it does not possess variety and the possibility of further 
 subdivision attention selects one special field or province, and 
 refuses to be diverted from it. It neglects all else and returns 
 again and again from the borders of the field of attention and 
 takes note of the relation of the surrounding objects to the ob- 
 ject of special attention. It makes it the essential thing, and 
 considers everything else only as related to it. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 71 
 
 It is interesting to note how the higher faculties (so-called 
 " faculties " one must not, however, suppose these faculties as 
 isolated " properties " of the mind, existing side by side, like 
 properties of a thing) all originate from the process of attention ; 
 they are higher powers or " potencies " of attention. Isaac New- 
 ton ascribed his superiority to other men in intellectual power 
 simply to the greater power of attention. Attention appears : 
 first, as a mere power of isolating one object from others a 
 power of concentration upon it to the exclusion of others ; sec- 
 ondly, it discriminates distinctions within the object or analyzes 
 it : thus analysis is continued attention the second power or 
 potence of attention ; thirdly, it seizes again upon one of the 
 distinctions found by analysis, and becomes abstraction; ab- 
 straction might be named the third power or potence of atten- 
 tion ; fourthly, the attention may be directed to essential rela- 
 tions of the elements found by analysis and abstraction their 
 essential relations to each other. This is a process of synthetic 
 thought, a grasping-together, a comprehension a higher activ- 
 ity of mind a fourth potence of the power of attention. It is the 
 most important matter in psychology, this process of synthesis, 
 through necessary relation. To find that one object of atten- 
 tion, A, involves another, B (i. e., possesses essential relation to 
 it, such that A can not exist without B) is to find a necessary 
 synthesis. It is to discover that instead of A by itself, or B by 
 itself, there is one existence having two phases to it, one phase 
 being A, and the other phase being B. It is a finding of one in 
 place of two, and is a synthetic act of mind. The synthesis is 
 not an arbitrary one. It is a discovery of truth : A and B were 
 really two aspects of one and the same being which we may call 
 A B, but they seemed to be independent. The process of atten- 
 tion, up to its fourth power, is thus an ascent of cognition from 
 seeming to being. The perception of dependence (" essential re- 
 lation " is dependence) is the perception of synthesis, and belongs 
 to the activity of comprehension. Reflection, as a mental activ- 
 ity (or " faculty "), is the process of discovering relations and 
 dependencies among objects hence it is a stage of synthesis 
 belonging to what we call here the " fourth power of attention." 
 The student of educational psychology should follow out this 
 mode of exploring the mind, and define for himself all of the 
 so-called " faculties " and mental acts, in terms of attention. He 
 
72 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 must note, too, that the act of attention is an act of the mind 
 directed upon itself, the will controlling the intellect, because it 
 confines its own activity (i. e., the perception in general) to a 
 special field), i. e., makes it a perception of a special object to the 
 exclusion of others). This synthesis is, as just remarked, the 
 most important theme of psychology it is also the most won- 
 derful a veritable fountain of surprise. For the strangest thing 
 to learn in psychology is that the process of reflection (the direc- 
 tion of the mind in upon itself) discovers the truth about the 
 objects or things in the world. The first activity of sense-per- 
 ception notices objects as independent of each other, as having 
 no essential relations. Reflection, or attention in its higher 
 powers, discovers necessary relations, and forms more adequate 
 ideas of the truth. Isaac Newton saw the sun and planets as 
 one gravitating whole a system and his knowledge certainly 
 came nearer the truth than did the knowledge of previous astron- 
 omers who merely knew the sun and planets in their separate 
 existence. In going into the truth of objects the mind goes 
 into itself at the same time. Psychology points backward to 
 the great fact that reason made both the world and the human 
 intellect.] 
 
 83. Attention, depending as it does on the self- 
 determination of the observer, can therefore be im- 
 proved, and the pupil made attentive, by the educator. 
 Education must accustom him to an exact, rapid, and 
 many-sided attention, so that at the first contact with 
 an object he may grasp it sufficiently and truly, and that 
 it shall not be necessary for him always to be changing 
 his impressions concerning it. The twilight and par- 
 tialness of intelligence which force a pupil always to 
 new corrections because he has all along failed to give 
 entire attention must not be tolerated. 
 
 [Attention (depending as it does upon the voluntary powers 
 of the mind) can be developed or educated. (The fact that the 
 child is capable of exercising his will-power on his intellect is 
 the fundamental fact that makes all intellectual education pos- 
 sible. There is no intellect, strictly speaking, until the will has 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 73 
 
 combined with the perception.) Self-determination or self -activ- 
 ity is the characteristic principle of life or living being. Related 
 to itself it becomes consciousness. By new relations to itself it 
 develops the mental orders or stages of thinking (perception, 
 representation, understanding, reason, as described in the com- 
 mentary to the preceding section). Aristotle (in his book on the 
 Categories) distinguishes between first and second substances 
 (ova-tai) referring to the object of perception (this animal or 
 thing) and the object of the intellect (animal or thing as general 
 concept). By the Arabians (Avicenna) this doctrine becomes a 
 psychological doctrine of first and second intention of the mind 
 (intentio animi). With the first intention we perceive objects 
 of sense or "primary substances"; with the second intention 
 we perceive universal objects or " second substances." " Inten- 
 tion " here signifies the act of attention or the directing inward 
 of the intellect by the will upon its own processes, so that the 
 process of the " first intention " becomes the object of the " sec- 
 ond intention." This wonderful insight is an anticipation of 
 Fichte's modification of the Kantian philosophy. In the " Science 
 of Knowledge " (Wissenschaftslehre) Fichte has laid the basis 
 for the only true psychology by a deduction of the main func- 
 tions of mind from self -activity as Ego. The intellect and the 
 will are discriminated : the forms of sense-perception (time and 
 space), the categories of the intellect (causality and substantiality), 
 the principles of the will (the moral ideas of duty and virtue).] 
 
 84. We learn from psychology that mind does not 
 consist of distinct faculties, but that what we choose to 
 call so are only different activities of the same power. 
 Each one is just as essential as the other, on which ac- 
 count education must grant to each faculty its claim to 
 the same fostering care. Although we construe the 
 axiom a potiorifit denominatio quite correctly to mean 
 that man is distinguished from animals by thought, and 
 by will mediated by thought [i. e., will-activity based on 
 rational motives, action directed by moral principles], 
 we must not forget that feeling and imagination are not 
 less necessary to a truly complete human being. The 
 
74: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 special directions which the activity of cognitive (or 
 theoretical as opposed to practical intelligence or the 
 will) intelligence takes are (1) sense-perception, (2) 
 representation (or imagination), (3) thinking. Dialecti- 
 cally, they pass over into each other ; not only does per- 
 ception grow into representation, and representation into 
 thinking, but thinking goes back into representation, 
 and this again into perception. In the development of 
 the young, the perceptive faculty is most active in the 
 infant, the representative faculty in the child, and the 
 thinking faculty in the youth ; and thus we may distin- 
 guish an intuitive, an imaginative, and a logical epoch. 
 
 Great errors arise from the misapprehension of these different 
 phases and of their dialectic, since the different forms which are suit- 
 able to the different grades of youth are mingled. The infant cer- 
 tainly thinks while he perceives, but this thinking is to him uncon- 
 scious. Or, if he has acquired sense-perceptions, he makes them into 
 mental images, and manifests his freedom in making them the sport 
 of his fancy. This play of fancy must not be taken for mere amuse- 
 ment ; it also signifies that he takes care to preserve his intellectual 
 balance, and his power of assimilation while engaged in filling his 
 consciousness with material. Herein the delight of the child for 
 fairy-tales finds its deeper reason. The fairy-tale constantly tran- 
 scends the limits of common actuality. The abstract "common 
 sense " can not endure this arbitrariness and want of fixed condi- 
 tions, and thus would prefer that children should read, instead, 
 home-made stories of the " Charitable Ann," of the " Heedless Fred- 
 erick," of the " Inquisitive Wilhelmine," etc. Above all, it praises 
 Campe's * " Robinson Crusoe," which contains much heterogeneous 
 matter, but nothing improbable. When the maturity of youth neces- 
 sitates the transition into the earnestness of real life, the drying up 
 of the imagination and the sway of the understanding supervene. 
 
 * J. H. Campe, the disciple of Basedow, wrote an adaptation of De Foe's 
 work, under the title of" Kobinson der Jiingere," with a view to teach how 
 "to live according to Nature." First edition, 1779; fifty-seventh edition, 
 1859 I Note by ED. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 75 
 
 [(Note what has been said above in 82.) Perception, con- 
 ception, and thinking are named as the three stages of intellect. 
 Perception (German word, Anschaueri) here refers simply to the 
 contemplation of objects by the senses. Conception (German 
 word, Vorstellen) makes in the mind a picture of the object, 
 but a general picture a representation of the object in its 
 outlines a representation that will correspond not only to the 
 particular object, but to all objects of the same class. Think- 
 ing perceives the essential relations of the object, its depend- 
 encies on its environment, and the reciprocal action. Educa- 
 tion produces in the pupil the ability to carry back the activ- 
 ity of the higher faculties into the lower ones, as stated in the 
 text. In the presence of perception the mind learns to be able 
 to recall the general representation of the type or class of objects, 
 and compare the object before the senses with the general type 
 or the definition. It enables it also to think in the presence of 
 the object, and to perceive essential relations at the same time 
 that it is occupied with perception and conception. Thus it 
 elevates the lower faculties to thinking perception and to think- 
 ing conception. The child delights in fairy-tales because they 
 sport with the fixed conditions of actuality, and present to him 
 a picture of free power over nature and circumstances. Thus 
 they, to some extent, prefigure to him the conquest which his 
 race has accomplished, and is accomplishing it is made to ap- 
 pear as the exploits of some Aladdin, or Jack the Giant-Killer. 
 To modify, change, or destroy " the limits of common actuality " 
 is the perpetual work of the race. It molds the external world 
 to suit its own ideas. Play is the first education that the child 
 gets to prepare him for this human destiny. The term " dia- 
 lectic " is a stumbling-block to the reader unacquainted with 
 German philosophy. " Dialectically they pass over into each 
 other " i. e., in tracing out either of these phases of intellect 
 we discover that it implies each of the others in order to its own 
 completeness and perfection. Perception is increased immensely 
 in power by adding to it conception, which brings the aid of the 
 general image in which are summed up all previous perceptions ; 
 thus perception re-enforced by conception is an individual activ- 
 ity re-enforced by the sum total of the race activity, or at least 
 by the sum total of all previous activity of the same individual 
 as well as by what he has learned from his fellows. Thus, too, 
 
76 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OP EDUCATION. 
 
 perception is still more increased by adding to it the thinking 
 activity which perceives necessary relations. Agassiz looks at a 
 new fish from the Amazon River and sees at once its type and 
 its variations knows at once the great mass of its properties, 
 functions, faculties, habits, and history, simply by its classifica- 
 tion under already known genera, species, and sub-classes. This 
 enables him to distinguish at once its variations from the gen- 
 eral type and to see the significance of its peculiarities. In the 
 same manner a botanist (Prof. Gray, for example) glances at a 
 tree as he passes it rapidly, from the car-window. He sees its 
 resemblances and its differences, however, in that rapid glance, 
 because he subsumes it under all that he knows all that is 
 known, in fact, as the aggregate result of all observations for 
 thousands of years. By recognizing its series, class, sub-class, 
 order, sub-order, tribe, genus, species, and variety, he is instantly 
 in possession of information enough to make a library of books 
 on the subject of that one tree. He saw enough, too, in the 
 rapid glance to inform himself of its individual differences, its 
 particular size, age, shape, and condition, in so far as these were 
 peculiar. Contrast this with the information obtained by the 
 sense-perception of an observer endowed with excellent sight 
 but no knowledge of botany. Science, which is the product of 
 conception and thinking, thus re-enforces sense-perception, and 
 ' dialectically " the latter demands for its perfection those higher 
 activities, and, vice versa, thinking and conception, which deal 
 with the universal or the possibility and the process which cre- 
 ates particular individuals, demand sense-perception to take 
 cognizance of those individuals.] 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (a) Psychology (continued). 
 (1) The Intuitive Epoch. 
 
 85. SENSE-PEKCEPTION, as the beginning of intel- 
 lectual culture, is the free grasping of an object immedi- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 77 
 
 ately present to the mind. Education can do nothing 
 directly toward the performance of this act ; it can only 
 assist in making it easy : (1) it can isolate the object of 
 consideration ; (2) it can give facility in the transition 
 to another ; (3) it can promote the many-sidedness of the 
 interest, by which means the return to a perception 
 already obtained has always a fresh charm. 
 
 [Sense-perception (German Anschauung) is called intuition 
 in all the earlier translations of Kant, because the Latin word 
 intueri was suggested by Kant as an equivalent for anscliauen. 
 Hence " intuitive epoch " means epoch of sense-perception. Per- 
 ception can be assisted by isolation of the object to be perceived. 
 The pupil should be trained to look for certain properties and 
 attributes, and to note their peculiarities. The categories under 
 which one may classify these properties and attributes are fur- 
 nished by reflection. Hence, when one in the so-called " object- 
 lessons " trains the pupil to note in all objects certain constantly 
 recurring predicates, such as color, shape, frangibility, solubility, 
 size, number, taste, smell, etc., he is bringing thought and con- 
 ception " back into perception " (see previous section) and ele- 
 vating mere perception into thinking perception. The difference 
 between ordinary perception and scientific perception lies just 
 here: while the former is unsystematic and fragmentary, and 
 does not accumulate or collect and retain data in the form of 
 general ideas, the latter is systematic, exhaustive and cumu- 
 lative. Thinking gives the system. Hence, the training of 
 perception is the subordination of it to the will, and the intro- 
 duction of complete systematic habits of activity in place cf 
 accidental perception.] 
 
 86. There are many things which can not be pre- 
 sented to immediate perception, however desirable it 
 may be. We must then have recourse to a mediated 
 perception, and supply the lack of actual seeing by rep- 
 resentations through pictures and models. But here the 
 difficulty presents itself, that there are many objects 
 which we are not able to represent in their true size, 
 
78 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and we must have a reduced scale, whence results a diffi- 
 culty as to the selection of the best standard. An ex- 
 planation is then also necessary as a judicious supple- 
 ment to the picture. 
 
 [All perceivable objects should be learned by actual perception 
 so far as is possible. When remoteness in space and time or in- 
 accessibility on account of size prevents this, a good substitute 
 offers itself in the way of pictorial representation. The picture, 
 of course, idealizes much it magnifies some objects and reduces 
 others, and it never presents all of the features found in nature. 
 But it omits unessential details for the most part, and this fact 
 makes a picture much easier to learn than the real object, al- 
 though the knowledge is not so practical. The picture is com- 
 monly nearer the type or general form of the object than real 
 specimens ; the real specimens have much about them that is 
 accidental, and need much comparison to discover what is the 
 normal type. The picture gives this type at once, % and hence 
 gives assistance to the pupil half digests his mental fooci for 
 him, in fact. Hence the pictorial representation has advantages 
 (it is easy of apprehension because it is a perception reduced to 
 conception), and disadvantages (the pupil does not get the 
 strength that comes from reducing the specimens of nature to 
 their types by his own efforts).] 
 
 87. Pictures are extremely valuable aids to in- 
 struction when they are correct and characteristic. Cor- 
 rectness must be demanded in these substitutes for nat- 
 ural objects, historical persons, and scenes. Without 
 this correctness, the picture, if not an impediment, is, to 
 say the least, useless. 
 
 It is only since the last half of the seventeenth century, i. e., 
 since the disappearance of the genuine art of painting, that the pict- 
 ure-book has appeared as an educational means ; first of all, coming 
 from miniature-painting. Up to that time, public life was more 
 picturesque with its display of arms, furniture, houses, and churches ; 
 and men, from their fondness for constant travel, had their hun- 
 ger for immediate perception sated. It was only afterward, when, 
 m the excitement of the Thirty Years' War, the arts of sculpture and 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 79 
 
 painting and Christian and pagan mythology became extinct, that 
 there arose a greater necessity for pictured representations. The 
 Orb is Rerum Sensualium Pictus, which was also to be Sijanua lin- 
 guarum reserata, of Amos Comenius, appeared first in 1658, and was 
 reprinted in 1805. Many valuable illustrated books followed. Since 
 that time innumerable illustrated Bibles and histories have appeared, 
 but many of them look only to the pecuniary profit of the author or 
 the publisher. [The remainder of this section, devoted to a criticism 
 of the German illustrated books of the period, is omitted.] 
 
 [Accuracy is, above all, demanded in pictorial representations. 
 The picture-book came into use chiefly after the decline of paint- 
 ing. Comenius (1658) gave a great impulse to education by his 
 book, which attempts to convey a knowledge of the world by 
 pictures.] 
 
 88. Children have naturally a desire to collect 
 things, and this may be so guided that they shall collect 
 and arrange plants, butterflies, beetles, shells, skeletons, 
 etc., and thus gain exactness and reality in their percep- 
 tion. .Especially should they practice drawing, which 
 leads them to form exact images of objects. But draw- 
 ing, as children practice it, does not have the educational 
 significance of cultivating in them an appreciation of 
 art, but rather that of educating the eye, as this must be 
 exercised in estimating distances, sizes, and colors. It 
 is, moreover, a great gain in many ways, if, through a 
 suitable course of lessons in drawing, the child is ad- 
 vanced to a knowledge of the elementary forms of na- 
 ture. 
 
 That pictures should affect children as works of art is not to be 
 required. They confine themselves at first to distinguishing the 
 outlines and colors, and do not yet appreciate the execution. If the 
 children have access to real works of art, we may safely trust in their 
 power, and quietly await their moral and aesthetic effect. [Notice of 
 a work on drawing omitted.] 
 
 [Children should be exercised in classification. They should 
 collect and arrange cabinets for themselves. This will give 
 10 
 
80 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 them ability in recognizing the type in the specimen, the gen- 
 eral in the particular. Drawing, too, is excellent for the train- 
 ing of sense-perception, if from objects direct, inasmuch as it 
 requires the pupil to omit all that is not characteristic of the 
 object. How far lines suffice to delineate an object, and fix it 
 unmistakably, and what these few lines are, the art of drawing 
 teaches. Characterization must be learned first before any at- 
 tempt at a3sthetic effect. But true works of art must be placed 
 where the child will receive a silent education from them, al- 
 though no positive instruction is given in them.] 
 
 89. In order that looking at pictures shall not de- 
 generate into mere diversion, explanations should accom- 
 pany them. Only when the thought embodied in the 
 illustrations is pointed out, can they be useful as a means 
 of instruction. Simply looking at them is of as little 
 value toward this end as is water for baptism without 
 the Holy Spirit. Our age inclines at present to the 
 superstition that man is able, by means of simple sense- 
 perception, to attain a knowledge of the essence of 
 things, and thereby dispense with the trouble of think- 
 ing. Illustrations are the order of the day, and, in the 
 place of enjoyable descriptions, we find inferior pict- 
 ures. It is in vain to try to get behind things, or to 
 comprehend them, except by thinking. 
 
 [Pictorial representation is of little service, unless accom- 
 panied by analysis and explanation. Mere gazing upon a 
 picture is like the thoughtless gazing upon real objects it is 
 not systematic, and does not separate the essential from the 
 accidental, nor exhaust the subject.] 
 
 90. The ear as well as the eye must be cultivated. 
 Music must be considered the first educational means to 
 this end, but it should be music inspired by ethical 
 purity. Hearing is the most internal [i. e., it reveals to 
 us the internal character of objects] of all the senses, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 81 
 
 and should on this account be treated with the greatest 
 delicacy. Especially should the child be taught that he 
 is not to look upon speech as merely a useful vehicle for 
 communication and for gaining information ; it should 
 also give pleasure, and therefore he should be taught to 
 speak distinctly and with a good intonation, and this 
 can be reached only through careful attention. 
 
 Among the Greeks, extraordinary care was given to musical cul- 
 tivation, especially in its ethical relation. Sufficient proof of this is 
 found in the admirable detailed statements on this point in the " Re- 
 public " of Plato, and in the last book of the " Politics " of Aristotle. 
 Among modern nations, also, music holds a high place, and makes 
 its appearance as a constant element of education. Piano-playing 
 has become general, and singing is also taught. But the ethical sig- 
 nificance of music is too little considered. Instruction in music often 
 aims only to train pupils for display in society, and the tendency of 
 the melodies which are played is restricted more and more to orches- 
 tral airs of an exciting or bacchanalian character. The railroad- 
 gallop style only makes the nerves of youth vibrate with stimulating 
 excitement. Oral speech, the highest form of the personal mani- 
 festation of mind, was also treated with great reverence by the an- 
 cients. Among us, communication is so generally carried on by -^ 
 writing and reading that the art of speaking distinctly, correctly, |j 
 and agreeably, has become very much neglected. Practice in decla- i 
 mation accomplishes, on the whole, very little in this direction. But f 
 we may expect that the increase of public speaking occasioned by J 
 our political and religious assemblies may have a favorable influence j 
 in this particular. 
 
 [Training of the ear by music and by correct speaking. Tones 
 are of all kinds solemn, joyous, lively, sad, contemplative, dis- 
 cordant and suggestive of hate and bitterness, harmonious and 
 sweet and suggestive of love and agreement, etc. There is a 
 long scale of degrees to each one of these feelings and passions, 
 and music can present all shades of each. Even the keys have 
 each a special character. The German composers have used 
 these and other properties of tones to advantage in constructing 
 great musical dramas, in which pure music accomplishes results 
 similar to words in poetry.] 
 
82 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (a) Psychology (continued). 
 (2) The Imaginative Epoch. 
 
 91. THE activity of perception results in the for- 
 mation of an internal picture or image which intelli- 
 gence can call up at any time at pleasure, and imagine 
 it as occupying an ideal space, although the object is 
 absent, in fact, and thus this image or picture becomes a 
 sort of general schema (or pattern applicable to a class 
 of objects), and hence an image-concept. The mental 
 image may (1) be compared with the perception from 
 which it sprang, or (2) it may be arbitrarily altered and 
 combined with other images, or (3) it may be held fast 
 in the form of abstract signs or symbols which intelli- 
 gence invents for it. Thus originate the functions (1) 
 of the verification of conceptions, (2) of creative imagi- 
 nation, and (3) of memory. For their full treatment, 
 we must refer to psychology. 
 
 [(1) Verification of conceptions through comparison of the 
 conception with the perception -,'(2) creative imagination, which 
 modifies or combines images; (3) memory, which holds fast 
 perceptions by attaching them to arbitrary or conventional 
 symbols, such as words.] 
 
 92. (1) The mental image which we form of an 
 object may be correct ; again, it may be partly or wholly 
 defective, if we have neglected some of the predicates 
 of the perception which presented themselves, or in so 
 far as we have added to it other predicates which only 
 seemingly belonged to it, and which were attached to it 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 83 
 
 only by its accidental connection with other existences. 
 Education must, therefore, foster the habit of comparing 
 our conceptions with the perceptions from which they 
 arose ; and these perceptions, since they are liable to 
 change by reason of their connection with other objects, 
 must be frequently compared with our conceptions pre- 
 viously derived by abstraction from them. 
 
 [Method of verification and its function.] 
 93. (2) "We are thus limited in our conceptions by 
 our perceptions, but we exercise a free control over our 
 conceptions. We can create out of them, as simple ele- 
 ments, the manifold mental shapes which Ve do not 
 treat as given to us by objects, but as essentially our own 
 work. In the science of education, we must not look 
 upon this freedom as if its exercise were only to afford 
 gratification, but we must see in it the reaction of the 
 absolute independence of mind against the dependence 
 in which the empirical reception of impressions from 
 without and their reproduction in conceptions place it. 
 In this process, it not only fashions in itself or repro- 
 duces the phenomenal world, but it produces for itself a 
 world which is all its own. 
 
 [Emancipation of the mind takes place through its ascent 
 into formative power, and this is realized in two ways : (a) in 
 reaching the general types of objects, the mind finds the one 
 form that stands for many, and gains ability to see the one in 
 the many, the power to hold the essential and permanent with- 
 out depending on anyone particular object or specimen or act of 
 sense-perception ; (b) in reproducing, by aid of the general con- 
 ception or abstract definition, a number of special examples, it 
 is able to fashion them in various ways, and yet endow them all 
 with possible attributes and characteristics. The mind thus has 
 free scope of realization, and can, in an ideal world of its own 
 creation, participate in creative activity.] 
 
8i THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 94 The study of art comes here to the aid of educa- 
 tion, especially of poetry, the highest art and at the same 
 time the most easily communicated. The imagination 
 of the pupil can be led by means of the classical works 
 of creative imagination to the formation of a good taste 
 both as regards ethical merit and beauty of form. The 
 proper classical works for youth are those which nations 
 have produced in the childhood of their culture. These 
 works bring children face to face with the picture of 
 the world which the human mind has sketched for itself 
 in one of the necessary stages of its development. This 
 is the real reason why our children never weary of 
 reading Homer and the stories of the Old Testament. 
 Polytheism and the heroism (as well as hero-worship) 
 which belongs to it are just as substantial an element of 
 the view of the world that childhood forms as monothe- 
 ism with its prophets and patriarchs. The standpoint of 
 modern civilization is above both of these, because it is 
 mediated by both, and embraces both in itself. 
 
 The best literature designed for the amusement of children from 
 their seventh to their fourteenth year consists always of that which 
 is honored by nations and the world at large. One has only to 
 notice in how many thousand forms the story of Ulysses is repro- 
 duced by the writers of children's tales. Becker's " Ancient Stories," 
 Gustav Schwab's most admirable " Sagas of Antiquity," Karl Grimm's 
 " Tales of Olden Times," etc., what were they without the well-talk- 
 ing, wily favorite of Pallas and the divine swine-herd I And just as 
 indestructible are the stories of the Old Testament up to the separa- 
 tion of Judah and Israe}. These patriarchs with their wives and 
 daughters, these judges ai^d prophets, these kings and priests, are by 
 no means ideals of virtue tfrom the standpoint of our modern lifeless 
 morality, which would smooth out of its pattern-stories for the " dear 
 children " everything thaj; is hard and uncouth. For the very reason 
 that the shadow-side is ^iot wanting here, and that we find envy, 
 vanity, evil desire, ingratitude, craftiness, and deceit, among these 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 85 
 
 fathers of the race and leaders of God's chosen people, have these 
 stories so great an educational value. Adam, Cain, Abraham, Joseph, 
 Samson, and David, have justly become as truly world-historical 
 types as Achilles and Patroclus, Agamemnon and Iphigenia, Hector 
 and Andromache, Ulysses and Penelope. 
 
 [In the epoch of the development of the imagination the study 
 of art and literature comes in. The first classics for youth are 
 those which have been developed by nations in their earliest 
 stages. Not only the light sides, but the darker sides of char- 
 acter in these naive stories, are essential to their educative 
 effect. They furnish types of human character, and types of 
 human situations, a knowledge of which constitutes wisdom. 
 The conception of the characters of Cain, Joseph, Samson, 
 David, Saul, Ulysses, Penelope, Achilles, and the like, furnishes 
 a ready classification for special instances of character that we 
 encounter in our experience.] 
 
 95. There may be produced, also, out of the sim- 
 plest and na'ivest phases of different epochs of culture 
 of one and the same people, stories which answer to the 
 imagination of children, and represent to them the char- 
 acteristic features of the past of their people. 
 
 The Germans possess such a collection of their stories in their 
 popular books of the " Invulnerable Sigfried," of the " Heymon Chil- 
 dren," of " Beautiful Magelone," " Fortunatus," " The Wandering 
 Jew," " Faust," " The Adventurous Simplicissimus," " The Schild- 
 biirger," " The Island of Felsenburg," " Leonard and Gertrude," etc. 
 Also, the poetical art works of the great masters which possess na- 
 tional significance must be mentioned here, as the " Don Quixote " 
 of Cervantes. 
 
 [Every child should read as indispensable the stock of stories 
 which furnish these general types of character and situation. 
 " Kobinson Crusoe," " Gulliver's Travels," " Don Quixote," the 
 "Arabian Nights," Plutarch's "Lives," Homer's "Iliad" and 
 "Odyssey," and the dramas of Shakespeare, should be read 
 sooner or later. Earlier than these, the old English stories 
 and fairy-tales, and even " Mother Goose's Melodies." A scale 
 thus extending from the earth to the fixed stars of genius 
 furnishes pictures of human life of all degrees of concreteness. 
 
86 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The meager and abstract outline is given in the nursery-tale, 
 and the deep, comprehensive grasp of the situation with all of 
 its motives is found in Shakespeare. The summation of the 
 events of life in " Solomon Grundy " has been compared to the 
 epitome furnished by Shakespeare in the " Seven Ages," and the 
 disastrous voyage of the " Three Men of Gotham " is made a 
 universal type of human disaster arising from rash adventure. 
 The bald incident related in the nursery rhyme gives the child 
 a typical fact or event which answers for a general concept and 
 enables him to " re-enforce " (see commentary to 84) his sense- 
 perception, so that he acquires conscious experience far more 
 rapidly than he could do without its aid.] 
 
 96. The commonest form in which the childish 
 imagination finds exercise is that of fairy-tales ; but edu- 
 cation must take care that it has these in their proper 
 shape as national productions, and that they are not of 
 the morbid kind which artificial poetry so often gives 
 us in this species of literature, and which not seldom 
 degenerate into sentimental caricatures and silliness. 
 
 The East Indian stories are most excellent because they have 
 their origin with a child-like people who live wholly in the imagina- 
 tion. By means of the Arabian filtration, which took place in Cairo 
 in the flourishing period of the Egyptian caliphs, all that was too 
 characteristically Indian was excluded, and they were made in the 
 " Tales of Sheherazade," a book for all peoples, with whose far-reach- 
 ing power in child-literature the local stories of a single people, as, 
 e. g., Grimm's admirable ones of German tradition, can not compare. 
 Fairy-tales made to order, like those with a mediaeval Catholic tend- 
 ency, or very moral and dry, as we often see them, are-a bane to the 
 youthful imagination in their insipid sweetness. We* must here add, 
 however, that lately we have had some better success in our attempts 
 since we have learned to distinguish between the naive natural poetry, 
 which is without reflection, and the poetry of art, which is more or 
 less molded by criticism and a conscious ideal. This distinction has 
 produced good fruits even in the picture-books of children. The 
 pretensions of the gentlemen who printed illustrated books contain- 
 ing nothing more solid than the alphabet and the multiplication- 
 table have become less prominent since such men as Speckter, Fro'h- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 87 
 
 lich, Gutsmuths, Hofmann (the writer of "Slovenly Peter"), and 
 others have shown that seemingly trivial things can be handled with 
 intellectual power, if one is blessed with it, and that nothing is more 
 opposed to the child's imagination than the childishness into which 
 so many writers for children have fallen when they attempted to de- 
 scend with dignity from their assumed lofty standpoint. Men are 
 beginning to understand that Christ promised the kingdom of heaven 
 to little children on other grounds than because they had, as it were, 
 the privilege of being thoughtless and foolish. 
 
 [Importance of avoiding morbid tendencies in the stories for 
 
 children. They must be naive and not sentimental ; but mere 
 
 childishness is to be avoided.] 
 
 97. For youth and maidens, especially as they ap- 
 proach manhood and womanhood, the cultivation of the 
 imagination must yield place and allow the earnestness 
 which deals with the actual affairs of the world to mani- 
 fest itself in its undisguised energy. This earnestness, 
 no longer through the symbolism of play but in its ob- 
 jective reality, must now thoroughly penetrate the con- 
 ceptions of the youth so that it shall prepare him to 
 seize hold of the machinery of active life. Instead of 
 the all-embracing Epos, now comes Tragedy, whose 
 purifying process, through the feelings of fear and pity, 
 unfolds to the youth the secret of all human destiny sin, 
 and its expiation. The works best adapted to lead to 
 an interest in history and the aflfairs of the actual world 
 are those of biography of ancient times, Plutarch ; of 
 modern times, the autobiographies of Augustine, Cellini, 
 Rousseau, Goethe, Yarnhagen, Jung -Stilling, Moritz 
 Arndt, etc. These autobiographies contain a view of 
 the growth of individuality through its interaction with 
 the influences of its time, and, together with the letters 
 and memoirs of great or at least noteworthy men, tend 
 to produce a healthy excitement in the youth, who must 
 
88 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 learn to fight his own battles through a knowledge of 
 the battles of others. To introduce the youth to a 
 knowledge of nature and man no means are better than 
 books of travels which describe for us the charm of the 
 first interview, the joy of discovery, instead of the gen- 
 eral consciousness of the conquests of mind. 
 
 If educative literature on the one hand broadens the field of 
 knowledge, on the other it may also promote its elaboration into 
 ideal forms. This happens, in a strict sense, through philosophical 
 literature. But only two species of this are to be recommended to 
 youth : (1) well-written treatises which endeavor to solve a single 
 problem with spirit and thoroughness ; or, (2) when the intelligence 
 has grown strong enough for it, the classical works of a true philoso- 
 pher. German literature is fortunately very rich in treatises of this 
 kind in the works of Lessing, Herder, Kant, Fichte, Schleiermacher, 
 Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Schiller. But nothing does more harm 
 to youth than the study of works of mediocrity, or those of a still 
 lower rank. They stupefy and narrow the youthful mind by their 
 empty, hollow, and constrained style. It is generally supposed that 
 these standard works are too difficult, and that one must first seize 
 them in a trivial and diluted form in order to understand them. This 
 is one of the most prevalent and most dangerous errors, for these 
 " introductions " or " explanations," " easily comprehended treatises," 
 " summary abstracts," are, because of their want of originality and 
 of the acuteness which belongs to it, much more difficult to under- 
 stand than the standard work itself, to which they propose to con- 
 duct us. Education must train the youth to the courage which will 
 attempt classical works in philosophy, and it must not allow any such 
 miserable preconceived opinions to grow up in his mind as that his 
 understanding is totally unable to comprehend works like Fichte's 
 " Science of Knowledge," the " Metaphysics " of Aristotle, or Hegel's 
 " Phenomenology." No science suffers so much as philosophy from 
 this false popular opinion, which understands neither itself nor its 
 authority. The youth must learn how to learn to understand, and, 
 in order to do this, he must know that one can not immediately un- 
 derstand everything in its minutest subdivisions, and that on this ac- 
 count he must have patience, and must resolve to read over and over 
 again and to think over what he has read. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 89 
 
 [Earnestness must predominate over play, as the child ad- 
 yances into youth and youth into riper age. Aristotle said that 
 tragedy purifies the mind, by fear and pity, from the passions 
 depicted in the drama as having tragic results. Certainly in the 
 dramas of Sophocles and JEschylus we see presented the great 
 problem of a human deed and its reaction on the doer. But 
 the Greek consciousness had not arrived at the solution of the 
 problem of sin and responsibility which Christian nations now 
 accept. (Edipus sins through ignorance but suffers all the same 
 as if perfectly enlightened. According to modern ideas of 
 justice, involuntary ignorance palliates the crime. The remarks 
 on the study of the deepest and most original works in philoso- 
 phy can not be too highly praised. The " courage " which will 
 attempt Aristotle, Kant, or Hegel is a rare and valuable disci- 
 pline, at least for the sake of what it can do in mastering other 
 subjects than philosophy. There is no lesson the student can 
 learn so important to him as this: The most difficult of 
 writings can be mastered by repeated attacks that concentrate 
 the whole energy on a small portion. Let a student read one 
 page of Kant's " Critique of Pure Reason " when his mind, is 
 fresh, concentrating his full attention upon it. His first read- 
 ing will not suffice to give him much insight. But if he repeats 
 his reading of this one page every week for six months he will 
 discover within himself not only new ideas but new faculties. 
 While this progresses he will be delighted to find that other less 
 difficult works, which, however, formerly had required his full 
 strength to master, have now become quite easy. It is like sub- 
 stituting for the flame of an alcohol-lamp that of an oxy- 
 hydrogen blowpipe : the difficulties melt away before his new 
 power of analysis disciplined on the dry and abstruse philo- 
 sophical work. By this exercise the youth overcomes that worst 
 of intellectual obstacles the belief that what he can not under- 
 stand at first trial is permanently beyond his powers: "My 
 mind was not made for that kind of work." The motto of the 
 school-room should be, "Each may master the deepest and 
 wisest thoughts that the human race has transmitted to us." 
 Repeated attacks by concentrated attention not only master 
 the abstruse problem, but leave the mind with a permanent 
 acquisition of power of analysis for new problems. The biog- 
 raphies of Plutarch present well-executed pictures of men of 
 
90 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 colossal characters placed in difficult situations. Philosophical 
 works, if taken up in later youth, should be classical treatises on 
 special problems of thought. Abstracts and summaries are 
 generally to be avoided.] 
 
 98. (3) Imagination returns again within itself to 
 perception in that it replaces, for .conceptions, percep- 
 tions themselves, which are to remind it of the previous 
 conception [as, fdr example, imagination calls a crafty 
 man a " fox," and indicates a whole class of men by this 
 symbol. The symbol retains under the new meaning 
 also the old meaning]. These perceptions may resemble 
 in some way the perception which lies at the basis of 
 the conception, and be thus more or less symbolical ; or 
 they may be merely arbitrary creations of the creative 
 imagination, and are in this case pure signs. [~VVh6n the 
 symbolic term loses its old meaning, and retains only its 
 new meaning, it becomes a " pure sign," and is no longer 
 a symbol. Thus, a studious man may be called a " book- 
 worm," which at first would suggest the mite that de- 
 stroys books, but' by-and-by loses that suggestion, and 
 suggests only the concept of a person devoted to books. 
 Thus " book-worm " is first a symbol, and then becomes 
 a mere conventional sign of a conception.] In common 
 speech and writing, we call the free 'retaining of these 
 perceptions created by imagination, and the recalling of 
 the conceptions denoted t>y them, memory. It is by no 
 means a particular faculty 'of the mind, which is again 
 subdivided into memory of persons, names, numbers, 
 etc. As to its form, memory is the stage of the disso- 
 lution of image-making representation ; but, as to its 
 content, it arises from the interest which we take in a 
 subject-matter. From this interest results careful atten- 
 tion, and from this latter, facility in the reproductive 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 91 
 
 imagination. If these acts have preceded, the fixing of 
 a name, or of a number, in which the content interesting 
 us is, as it were, summed up, is not difficult. When 
 interest and attention animate us, it seems as if we did 
 not need to be at all troubled to remember anything. 
 All the so-called mnemonic helps only serve to make 
 more difficult the act of memory. This act is in itself 
 a double function, consisting of, first, the fixing of the 
 sign, and second, the fixing of the conception subsumed 
 under it. Since the mnemonic technique adds to these 
 one more conception, through whose means the things 
 with which we have to deal are to be fixed, it makes the 
 function of remembering three-fold, and forgets that 
 the connecting link and its relations to the sign and the 
 subsumed conception wholly arbitrary and highly arti- 
 ficial must also be remembered. The true aid for 
 memory consists in not helping it at all, but in simply 
 taking up the object into the ideal regions of the mind 
 by the force of the infinite self-determination which 
 mind possesses [that is to say, the true help consists in 
 associating the object with its kindred through ideas of 
 species and genera or classes], 
 
 Lists of names, as e. g., of the Roman emperors, of the popes, of 
 the caliphs, of rivers, mountains, authors, cities, etc. ; also numbers, 
 as, e. g., the multiplication-table, the melting-points of minerals, the 
 dates of battles, of births and deaths, etc., must be learned without 
 aid. All indirect means only serve to do harm here, and are required 
 as self -discovered devices only in case that interest or attention has 
 become weakened. 
 
 [Memory. The German word G-eddchtniss is contrasted with 
 the word Erinnerimg ; the former may be translated " memory," 
 and the latter " recollection " recollection, the reproduction of 
 the perceived object in its particular existence, and memory the 
 reproduction of it by its general type. With the general type 
 
92 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the mind is able to master the infinite diversity of nature and 
 reduce all to a few classes. Mnemonic artifices are to be es- 
 chewed. " Memory is the stage of the dissolution of the con- 
 ception " ; this means that the power of representation becomes 
 less and less, a mere recalling of what has been perceived, and, 
 as the mind strengthens, it passes over into a faculty which calls 
 up universals, or general concepts in the place of particular im- 
 ages. Memory, in this technical sense, deals with words each 
 word standing for some universal concept. Language is there- 
 fore something that can be used by a whole people its words, 
 standing, as they do, for universals, express for each individual 
 the contents of his observations, no matter how peculiar they 
 may be. Memory, as thus contradistinguished from mere recol- 
 lection, is therefore synthetic, inasmuch as it constructs or puts 
 together the essential characteristics of the object in the form 
 of a definition and subsumes objects perceived under it. While 
 recollection recalls the exact object which it perceived before, 
 memory recognizes in the object before it its class or species, 
 and thus recalls and adds to the object the sum total of previous 
 experience in regard to this object. (See commentary to 84 
 for further discussion of this. The difference between the mem- 
 ory of the scientific man and that of the unscientific is there illus- 
 trated.) It must not be understood here that the " definition " 
 implied in the " word " is a conscious one. Most of the words 
 we use have never been defined consciously, that is to say, we 
 have never reflected on the definition; but we carry with us 
 an unconscious definition all the same, and, when we identify or 
 recognize objects before us, we use the unconscious definition, 
 taking notice of the features of the object one after the other, to 
 see whether they correspond to the features which we remember 
 as general characteristics of the class. 
 
 How what is symbolic becomes conventional is perhaps the 
 most interesting question in the psychology of early education. 
 The child passes from the symbolical stage to the conventional 
 stage of culture, and enters the stage of " youth " in the techni- 
 cal sense of the word, as here employed. Conventional studies, 
 like the alphabet and orthography, can not be well taken up 
 until the child has reached this conventional epoch of growth. 
 In the old hieroglyphic system, the letter A represented the face 
 of an ox, and was symbolic. Since the Phoenicians transplanted 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 93 
 
 the alphabet among other peoples, A has been a conventional 
 sign for a particular sound. 
 
 Recollection may be cultivated. A magnet will increase its 
 force if a slight increase is made daily to the weight it supports. 
 So the memory of numbers and dates may be indefinitely in- 
 creased by committing an additional one or two each day to 
 memory, and taking care by frequent reviews that nothing once 
 memorized shall escape. But equal care should be taken not to 
 overburden the power of recollection by undertaking too many 
 new items at a time. Let the student make a special effort with 
 precisely the kind of recollection that he is most deficient in, be 
 it names, dates, shapes, or whatever it be, and he will find that, 
 by persistent practice for a few months, he can bring the special 
 power to the front. The habit of attention to likeness and dif- 
 ference, so that the mind at once takes in the species and differ- 
 entia involuntarily, is the habit that secures good memory.] 
 
 99. The means to be used (and these are based on 
 the nature of memory itself) are, on the one hand, the 
 pronouncing and writing of the names. or numbers, and, 
 on the other, repetition ; by the former means we gain 
 distinctness and by the latter sureness of memory. 
 
 All artificial contrivances for quickening the memory dwindle in 
 comparison with the art of writing, in so far as this is not looked 
 upon as a means of relieving the memory. That a name or a num- 
 ber should be this or that, is for the intelligence a mere result of 
 chance, an entirely meaningless accident to which we have uncondi- 
 tionally to submit ourselves as something not dependent on our wills. 
 The intelligence must be accustomed to put upon itself this con- 
 straint. In the sciences, especially in philosophy, our reason helps to 
 derive one thought from another by means of its dependence on it, 
 and we can discover names through this fact of dependence and deri- 
 vation. 
 
 [Repetition and the writing down of names and numbers are 
 the best means for fixing them in the memory.] 
 
94 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 % 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (a) Psychology (continued). 
 (3) The Logical Epoch. 
 
 100. IN representation by means of mental im- 
 ages there is attained a general idea or a notion in so 
 far as the empirical details are referred to a schema, as 
 Kant called it. But the necessity of the connection of 
 the particular details with the general schema is wanting 
 to it. To develop this idea of necessity is the task of 
 the thinking activity, which frees itself from all mental 
 pictures, and with its clearly defined determinations 
 transcends image-concepts. The thinking activity, there- 
 fore, is emancipated from dependence on the senses, to 
 a higher degree than the v processes of conception and 
 perception. The notion, judgment, and syllogism, de- 
 velop forms which, as such, have no power of being 
 perceived by the senses. But it does not follow from 
 this that he who thinks can not return out of the think- 
 ing activity and carry it with him into the sphere of 
 image-concepts and perception. The true thinking ac- 
 tivity deprives itself of no content. The form of ab- 
 straction affecting a logical purism which looks down 
 upon conception and perception as forms of intelligence 
 quite inferior to itself is a pseudo-thinking, a morbid 
 and scholastic error. Education will be the better on 
 its guard against this the more it has led the pupil by 
 the legitimate road of perception and conception to 
 thinking. Memorizing especially is an excellent pre- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 95 
 
 paratory school for the thinking activity, because it 
 gives practice to the intelligence in exercising itself in 
 abstract ideas. 
 
 [In the general images of the faculty of conception, necessity 
 of connection is yet wanting. Thinking, technically so called, 
 discovers necessary relations. The logical distinctions are no- 
 tions, judgment, syllogism. Within the notion are the ideas of 
 universal, particular and individual (or singular). The thinking 
 activity " returns " to perception and conception, as illustrated 
 in 84, re-enforcing them. It is important for the teacher to 
 be able to recognize the grades of simple perception from those 
 grades re-enforced by thought as explained in that section. As 
 an example of necessary relations, take the quantitative phases 
 of any thing or event. In every triangle the sum of its three 
 angles is 180. Every circumference of a round object is equal 
 to the diameter multiplied by 3*14159 + .] 
 
 101. The fostering of the sense of truth, from the 
 earliest years up, is the surest way of leading the pupil 
 to gain the power of thinking. The unprejudiced, dis- 
 interested yielding to truth, as well as the effort to shun 
 all deception and false seeming, is of the greatest value 
 in strengthening the power of reflection, as this consid- 
 ers nothing of value but the actually existing objective 
 interaction of things and events. 
 
 The indulging of an illusion as a pleasing recreation of the intel- 
 ligence should be allowed, while lying must not be tolerated. Chil- 
 dren have a natural inclination for mystifications, for masquerades^ 
 for raillery, and for theatrical performances, etc. This inclination 
 to illusion is perfectly normal with them, and should be permitted. 
 The graceful kingdom of art is developed from it, as also the poetry 
 of conversation with its jest and wit. Although this sometimes be- 
 comes stereotyped into very prosaic conventional forms of speech, it 
 is more tolerable than the awkward honesty which takes everything 
 in its simple literal sense. And it is easy to discover whether chil- 
 dren in such play, in the activity of free joyousness, incline to the 
 side of mischief by their showing a desire of satisfying their selfish 
 interest. Then they must be checked, for in that case the sprightli- 
 
96 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ness of harmless joking gives way to gloomy calculation and dissimu- 
 lation. 
 
 [A sense of truth should be fostered from childhood up. 
 Prejudice and self-interest must be habitually set aside for 
 the truth for the perception of things as they actually are. 
 Great care, therefore, must be exercised to prevent an undue 
 tendency to illusions (the activity of the productive imagina- 
 tion, however essential it may be) from weakening the sense of 
 truth.] 
 
 102. An acquaintance with logical forms is to be 
 recommended as a special educational help in the cult- 
 ure of intelligence. The study of mathematics does 
 not suffice, because it, itself, already presupposes logic. 
 Mathematics is related to logic in the same way as 
 grammar, the physical sciences, etc. The logical forms 
 must be known explicitly in their pure independence 
 and not merely in their implicit state as immanent in 
 objective shapes. 
 
 [An acquaintance with logical forms is important for the 
 thorough education of the intellect. Logical forms give the 
 archetypes or simplest shapes of all problems that occur else- 
 where. Neither mathematics nor any other application of logic 
 in the sciences can supply the place of a logical training.] 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION (continued). 
 
 (5.) The Logical Presupposition, or the Method. 
 
 103. THE logical presupposition of instruction i& 
 the order in which the subject-matter develops for the 
 consciousness. The subject, the consciousness of the 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 97 
 
 pupil, and the activity of the instructor, interpenetrate 
 each other in instruction, and constitute in actuality one 
 whole. 
 
 [Instruction presupposes a certain logical order of develop- 
 ment in its theme. In arithmetic, for example, fractions must 
 not be studied before simple addition. Political geography 
 should be studied after mathematical and physical geography ; 
 grammar, after reading and writing ; general history after the 
 history of one's own country. 
 
 The three elements which instruction combines are: (1) the 
 subject to be taught ; (2) the consciousness of the pupil ; (3) the 
 insight and labor of the teacher.] 
 
 104. (1) First of all, the subject which is to be 
 learned has a specific determinateness which demands 
 in its exposition a certain fixed order of sequence. 
 However arbitrary we may be, the subject has a certain 
 determination of its own which no mistreatment can 
 wholly crush out, and this inherent immortal rationality 
 is the general foundation of instruction. 
 
 To illustrate : however one may handle a language in teaching 
 it, he can not change the words in it, or the inflections of the declen- 
 sions and conjugations. And the same restriction is laid upon our 
 inclinations in the different divisions of natural history in the theo- 
 rems of arithmetic, geometry, etc. The theorem of Pascal remains 
 still the same theorem wherever it is set forth. 
 
 [The subject has a nature of its own which requires it to be 
 studied in a certain definite order. Whatever modifications are 
 made in the subject to adapt it to the immature mind of the 
 pupil, this essential nature of the subject must not be changed. 
 
 As regards the " logical presupposition " above spoken of, it 
 is clear enough that all subjects to be taught possess logical re- 
 lations of dependence of one part on another and of the parts 
 on the whole. There must be therefore a certain order of ex- 
 position of the subject : the dependent parts must be shown in 
 their dependence, otherwise the subject will not be taught prop- 
 erly. We can not teach the zones or parallels and meridians 
 unless we have previously taught the spherical form of the earth. 
 
98 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Much change and adaptation will be made by the teacher in 
 order to make the subject entertaining to his pupil and easy of 
 access, but the logical order of dependence of one topic on an- 
 other within arithmetic, geometry, natural history, grammar, 
 etc., can not be changed ; he must take it as it is, for that is its 
 intelligible order and must be followed. The words of the 
 classic author must be translated as they stand, and not from 
 the end backward, if we would find sense in them.] 
 
 105. (2) But the subject must be adapted to the 
 consciousness of the pupil, and here the order of pro- 
 cedure and the exposition depend upon the stage which 
 he has reached intellectually, for the special manner of 
 the instruction must be conditioned by this. If he is in 
 the stage of sense-perception, we must use the illustra- 
 tive method ; if in the stage of image-conception, that 
 of combination ; and if in the stage of thinking, that of 
 demonstration. The first exhibits the object directly, 
 or some representation of it; the second considers it 
 according to the different possibilities which exist in it, 
 and turns it around on all sides (and examines its rela- 
 tions to other things) ; the third demonstrates the ne- 
 cessity of the relations in which it stands either with it- 
 self or with others. This is the natural order from the 
 standpoint of the developing intelligence : first, the ob- 
 ject is presented to the perception ; then combination 
 with other things shows its relations and presents its 
 different phases ; and, finally, the thinking activity cir- 
 cumscribes the restlessly moving reflection by the idea 
 of necessity. Experiment in the method of combina- 
 tion is an excellent means for a discovery of relations, 
 for a sharpening of the attention, for the arousing of a 
 many-sided interest ; but it is no true dialectic, though 
 it be often denoted by that name. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 99 
 
 Illustration is especially necessary in the natural sciences and 
 also in aesthetics, because both of these departments appeal to sense- 
 perception. [Omission here of reference to editions of atlases and 
 wall-maps.] 
 
 [With regard to the second point mentioned above the con- 
 sciousness of the pupil or his grade of advancement, this too 
 must be considered, as well as the logical order of the develop- 
 ment of the subject. Inasmuch as instruction is a leading of 
 the ignorant into knowledge by translating the unknown into 
 the known, there are two factors involved: (a) the unknown 
 subject; (b) the stock of knowledge already possessed by the 
 pupil. The knowledge already possessed is the means by which 
 the unknown can be grasped and retained. All learning is a 
 translating of an unknown into a known, just as the learning 
 of a foreign language proceeds by translating the unfamiliar 
 words into familiar words and thereby changing the strange 
 into the familiar. This being so, unless constant reference is 
 had by the teacher to the stock of familiar ideas belonging to 
 the pupil, there is imminent danger to instruction ; it may pass 
 off into the process of exchanging unknown words for unknown 
 words a movement entirely within the realm of the unfamiliar. 
 Such a process is not instruction, whatever else it may be. Thus 
 the method of instruction must be largely determined by the 
 consciousness (what he knows) or stage of advancement of the 
 pupil. If the pupil is young and has few ideas of abstract 
 depth, but mostly ideas of objects perceived by the senses, then 
 the method must be one of illustration. It must translate the 
 subject into particular objects of sense-perception so far as this 
 is possible. If such a process is not possible with a given branch 
 of instruction, then that branch must not be taken up now ; its 
 logical presupposition requires it to be preceded by other 
 studies. 
 
 If the pupil has reached the stage of thinking by means of 
 mental images or pictures of the mind (Vorstellungen), then the 
 method may be less illustrative and may combine objects and 
 symbolize to some extent (as in fairy-stories, or as in any stories 
 when the objects used are types of whole classes of objects); 
 or, in the stage of reflection there may be demonstration or the 
 showing up of logical necessity, or the relations of cause and 
 effect, or of power and manifestation, or of fact and logical pre- 
 
100 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OP EDUCATION. 
 
 supposition, or any logical relation the object may have to other 
 objects or to the whole environment in which it is found. 
 
 These three stages make up the range of the " consciousness " 
 of the pupil he may be in the (a) first stage, and mere percep- 
 tion or beholding of external objects be his chief mental ac- 
 tivity, or (b) he may be active in representing objects, that is to 
 say, active in his fancy, imagination, or recollections ; or (c) ac- 
 tive in discovering relations between objects, and hence active 
 in the application of such abstract conceptions as identity and 
 difference, likeness and unlikeness, force and manifestation, 
 whole and parts, cause and effect, thing and properties, etc. 
 
 " Combination," spoken of in the text, means the considera- 
 tion of the various phases and properties of the subject under 
 different relations. It is necessary to multiply the examples 
 and see the object under new combinations in order to discover 
 all of the possibilities in it. The individual oak-tree before us 
 is only one of infinite possible examples of the oak, and, as 
 each actual oak differs from every other in some respect, we 
 learn some new possibility with each new specimen. Thus we 
 add or combine by experience the possibilities which together 
 make up the nature or entire being of an object. Water is 
 easily discovered to have three states liquid, solid (as ice), and 
 aeriform (as steam). It is only one of these states at a time, and 
 all only in succession. Hence the necessity of " combination " 
 or of discovery of different relations or of the behavior of the ob- 
 ject under different " combinations " or environments, in order 
 to learn its totality of possible being. The idea of necessity ar- 
 rives when one has reached a totality of " combination." This 
 may be reached only relatively in the realm of experience ; we 
 may treat the total of states actually discovered thus far as the 
 absolute totality this we do as a fact in practical experience, 
 e. g., we do not hesitate to treat water as though it had only three 
 possible states, liquid, solid, and gaseous. But the true absolute 
 necessity comes only from the logical side of presupposition. 
 Every fact has a presupposition which is the logical condition 
 of its existence. This oak-tree presupposes space and time, and 
 could not exist without them. All the properties that follow 
 from the nature of space and time may be named as logical con- 
 ditions absolutely necessary to the existence of the oak-tree. 
 
 "Experiment in the method of combination is an excellent 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 means for the discovery of relations," but " it is no true dialec- 
 tic," or, in other words, it does not discover the inward necessity 
 which appertains only to the logical presupposition, because the 
 dialectical method does not make combinations or experiments 
 at hap-hazard, but by careful analysis and observation of the 
 object discovers in what manner its essential properties demand 
 or presuppose other objects. Given one object, it unfolds the 
 system to which it belongs. The dialectic proceeds from the 
 part to the whole, following the thread of dependence which 
 may be discovered in any object. 
 
 In aesthetics, or the science of art (architecture, sculpture, 
 painting, and music), illustration is necessary, because presenta- 
 tion to the senses is essential to the nature of art. 
 
 106. The demonstrative method, in order to bring 
 about its proof of necessity, has a choice of many differ- 
 ent ways. But we must not imagine, either that there 
 are an unlimited number, and that it is only a chance 
 which one we shall take ; or that they have no connec- 
 tion among themselves, and run, as it were, side by side. 
 It is not, however, the business of pedagogics to develop 
 different methods of proof ; this belongs to logic. We 
 have only to remember that, logically taken, proof must 
 be analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analysis begins 
 with the single individual, and leads out from it by in- 
 duction to the general principle from which its exist- 
 ence results. Synthesis, on the contrary, begins with a 
 general which is presupposed as true, and leads from 
 this through deduction to the special determinations 
 which were implicit in it. The regressive search of 
 analysis for a determining principle is invention / the 
 forward progress of synthesis from the simple elements 
 seeking for the multiplicity of single individuals is con- 
 struction. The former method has been called the heu- 
 ristic [from the Greek word for to discover, evpeiv] ; the 
 
102 THE SPECIAL 'CEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 latter, the architectonic. Each, in its result, passes over 
 into the other ; but their truth is found in the dialectic 
 method, which in each phase allows unity (of principle) 
 to separate into diversity (of particulars), and diversity 
 to return into unity. While in the analytic as well as 
 in the synthetic method the mediation of the individual 
 with the general, or of the general with the individual, 
 brings in the phase of particularity as only subjectively 
 connected with it, in the dialectic method we have the 
 going over of the general through the particular to the 
 individual, or to the self-determination of the idea, and 
 it therefore rightly claims the title of the "genetic" 
 method. We can also say that while the inventive 
 method gives us the idea (notion) and the constructive 
 the judgment, the genetic gives us the syllogism which 
 leads the determinations of reflection back again into 
 substantial identity. 
 
 [The demonstrative method deals with necessary relations, 
 and uses the forms of demonstration furnished it by logic, 
 namely, analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analytic demonstra- 
 tion, according to Rosenkranz, begins with some object, as a 
 whole, and proceeds to find its derivation or dependence on some- 
 thing else, and thus gradually leads out to the idea of that larger 
 whole in which the object exists as a part (invention). Synthetic 
 demonstration, on the other hand, proceeds from a principle to 
 the particular results that follow from it (construction). " Each 
 of these passes over into the other in its result," i. e., the result 
 of analysis is synthesis, because in our analysis of the object we 
 discovered dependence and derivation, and hence discovered that 
 it was not a true whole or totality, but involved something else 
 hence we found that the compass of its being was greater than 
 we had at first supposed we have added to it, and our analysis 
 proves to have been synthesis rather. 
 
 So, too, synthesis or construction is really an analysisof the 
 constituent elements of the principle. By deducing (analyzing) 
 what is given us in the principle, we discover the results or spe- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 103 
 
 cial characteristics that the principle produces ; hence we rise to 
 the idea of the total, which includes both the principle and its 
 results, and the demonstration involves both analysis and syn- 
 thesis. 
 
 The one-sided methods of analysis and synthesis are therefore 
 always united in fact, although they seem to be separate when we 
 consider them abstractly ; we find them to be dialectic methods, 
 therefore, if we look upon both of the phases of their activity. 
 In the former (analytic), diversity returns to unity the sub- 
 ordinate unities are traced back to their higher unity, or in the 
 latter (synthesis) unity separates into diversity ; the higher unity 
 gives rise to lower unities. In the analytic method there is a 
 " mediation of the individual " object with the general object, 
 i. e., a tracing of the relations of the individual to other individ- 
 uals with which it forms a totality or higher unity. In the syn- 
 thetic method there is a " mediation of the general or total with 
 the particular object," because we see how a force, power, energy, 
 or principle develops particular forms. In both of these, when 
 considered superficially or inadequately and one-sidedly, there 
 is only a subjective connection stated between the particulars 
 and the general " subjective connection " meaning a connection 
 only in our minds, and not an essential connection which would 
 be one existing in the object as a real dependence upon other 
 objects. In the dialectic method, or in the method which sees 
 both synthesis and analysis in each step, we see in every phase 
 the principle of self -activity, because we see that the subordinate 
 objects arise through the energy of the totality, and the energy 
 of the totality produces the subordinate phases and unities. All 
 totalities must be self-determined or self -active, because they can 
 not be at the same time totalities and depend on anything be- 
 yond them for their movement or form. This self-active totality 
 is called by the Hegelian philosophy (from which Eosenkranz 
 borrows it) "the self-determination of the notion (Begriff) or 
 idea," because in that philosophy the technical term for self- 
 activity is Begriff (idea or notion). Inasmuch as it shows self- 
 activity as the principle that connects the general with the par- 
 ticular, and hence explains all things through evolution, it 
 " rightly claims the title of genetic (or development) method." 
 
 " The inventive or analytic method gives us the idea or notion " 
 (Begriff), because it proceeds beyond the particular object to its 
 12 
 
104: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 genesis in a higher unity whose energy or self -activity has pro- 
 duced it; it has therefore explained the object through self- 
 activity (Begriff). 
 
 "The constructive method (synthetic) gives the judgment 
 (Urtheil)" In Hegelian technique, the distinction arising 
 through self-activity (distinction into active and passive or actor 
 and acted upon) in the notion (Begriff) is called judgment ( Ur- 
 theil). 
 
 The analytic method leads us back to self-activity (Begriff, 
 notion). The synthetic method leads us to distinction of uni- 
 versal and individual (Urtheil, judgment). The genetic method 
 leads us to syllogism (Schluss). In the same system of philoso- 
 phy, Schluss, or syllogism, is the technical term for the unity of 
 all the phases of self -activity, and includes the universal or self- 
 active, and the particular (or distinguished phases of active and 
 passive that form an antithesis), and it is the unity of these two, 
 or that which is self-identical and self -distinct in one act (just 
 as mind or consciousness is subject and object of itself).] 
 
 107. (3) The living mediation of the pupil with 
 the content which is to be impressed upon his conscious- 
 ness is the work of the teacher, whose personality cre- 
 ates an individual or peculiar method ; for, however 
 clearly the subject may be defined, however exactly the 
 psychological stage of the pupil may be regulated, the 
 teacher can not do away with his own individuality 
 even in the most objective relations. This individuality 
 must penetrate the whole with its own exposition, and 
 that peculiarity which we call his manner, and which 
 can not be determined a priori, must appear. The 
 teacher must place himself on the standpoint of the pu- 
 pil, i. e., he must adapt himself ; he must see that the 
 abstract is made clear to him in the concrete, i. e., he 
 must illustrate ; he must fill up the gaps which will cer- 
 tainly appear, and which may mar the thorough seizing 
 of the subject, i. e., he must supply. In all these rela- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 105 
 
 tions the pedagogical tact of the teacher may prove it- 
 self truly ingenious in varying the method according to 
 the changefulness of the ever-varying needs, in contract- 
 ing or expanding the extent, in omitting or accumulat- 
 ing examples, in stating, or only indicating, what is to 
 be supplied. The true teacher is free from any super- 
 stitious belief in any one procedure as a sure specific 
 which he follows always in a monotonous bondage. 
 This freedom can only be enjoyed by him who is capa- 
 ble of the highest method. The teacher has arrived at 
 the highest point of ability in teaching when he can 
 make use of all means, from the loftiness of solemn 
 seriousness, through smooth statement, to the play of 
 jest yes, even to the incentive of irony, and to humor. 
 
 Education can be in nothing more ostentatious than in its 
 method, and it is here that charlatanism can most readily intrude 
 itself. Every little change, every pitiful modification, is proclaimed 
 aloud as a new or an improved method ; and even the most foolish 
 and superficial changes find at once their imitators, who themselves 
 conceal their effrontery behind some trifling differences, and, with 
 ridiculous conceit, hail themselves as inventors. 
 
 [" The living mediation of the pupil," etc. " Mediation " here 
 refers to the adjustment and adaptation of the subjects taught 
 to the pupil, so as to suit his intellectual and moral capacity and 
 meet his special difficulties. The teacher adopts his own method 
 within limits. He finds that his capacity and peculiarities make 
 it most convenient to lead the pupil to his task in this way 
 rather than in that way. But all teachers must (a) keep in view 
 the standpoint of the pupil, (b) use illustration, (c) supply neces- 
 sary steps to make the connection clear to the pupil. The live 
 teacher is careful to avoid being hampered by the limits of any 
 one method, although he finds use for all on occasions.] 
 
106 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION (continued). 
 
 (c) Instruction. 
 
 108. ALL instruction starts from the inequality be- 
 tween those who possess knowledge and ability and 
 those who have not yet obtained them. The former are 
 qualified to teach, the latter to learn. Instruction is the 
 act which gradually cancels the original inequality of 
 teacher and pupil, in that it converts what was at first 
 the property of the former into the property of the lat- 
 ter by means of his own activity. 
 
 [Instruction presupposes two parties, one possessing knowledge 
 and ability, and the other lacking them.] 
 
 (1) The Subjects of Instruction. 
 
 109. The pupil is the apprentice, the teacher the 
 master, whether in the practice of any craft or art, or in 
 the exposition of any systematic knowledge. The pupil 
 passes from the state of the apprentice to that of the 
 master through that of the journeyman. The appren- 
 tice has to appropriate to himself the elements; jour- 
 neyman ship begins, by means of their possession, to be- 
 come independent ; the master combines with his tech- 
 nical skill the freedom of production. His authority 
 over his pupil consists only in his knowledge and ability. 
 If he has not these, no external support, no trick of false 
 appearances which he may put on, will serve to create 
 it for him. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 107 
 
 [Distinction of three stages : (a) apprenticeship, (b) journey- 
 manship, (c) mastership after the old distinction of degrees of 
 perfection in the trades.] 
 
 110. These stages (1) apprenticeship, (2) journey- 
 manship, (3) mastership are fixed limitations in the di- 
 dactic process; but they are relative in the concrete. 
 The standard of special excellence varies with the dif- 
 ferent grades of culture, and must be varied that it may 
 have validity for each period of time. The master is 
 complete only in relation to the journeyman and ap- 
 prentice; to them he is superior. But, on the other 
 hand, in relation to the infinity of the problems of his 
 art or science, he is by no means complete ; to himself 
 he must appear as one who begins ever anew, one who 
 is ever striving, one to whom a new problem ever rises 
 from every achieved result. He can not discharge him- 
 self from work, he must never desire to rest on his 
 laurels. He is the truest master whose finished per- 
 formances only force him on to never-resting progress. 
 
 [The standard of mastership varies with the demands of the 
 age or nation. In judging a particular example, we must always 
 take the standard into consideration. The true master always 
 regards himself an apprentice before the new problems that step 
 forth out of the solution of the old ones.] 
 
 111. The possibility of culture is found in general, 
 it is true, in every human being ; nevertheless, as a prac- 
 tical matter, there are distinguished : (1) incapacity, as 
 the want of all gifts ; (2) mediocrity ; (3) talent and 
 genius. It is the part of psychology to give an account 
 of all these. Mediocrity characterizes the great mass 
 of intelligences that are merely mechanical, and that 
 wait for external impulse as to what direction their en- 
 deavors shall take. Not without truth, perhaps, may 
 
108 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 we hypothetically presuppose a special talent in each 
 individual, but this special talent in many men never 
 makes its appearance, because under the circumstances 
 in which it finds itself placed it fails to find the exciting 
 occasion which shall give them the knowledge of its ex- 
 istence. The majority of mankind are contented with 
 the mechanical impulse which makes them into some- 
 thing, and impresses upon them certain characteristics. 
 Talent shows itself by means of the confidence in its 
 own especial productive possibility, which manifests it- 
 self as an inclination, or as a strong impulse, to occupy 
 itself with the special object which constitutes the ob- 
 ject of its ability. Education has no difficulty in dealing 
 with mechanical natures, because their passivity is only 
 too ready to follow prescribed patterns. It is more dif- 
 ficult to manage talent, because it lies between medioc- 
 rity and genius, and is therefore uncertain, and not only 
 unequal to itself, but also is tossed now too low, now 
 too high, is by turns despondent and over-excited. The 
 general maxim for dealing with it is to spare it no diffi- 
 culty that lies in the subject to which its efforts are di- 
 rected. Genius must be treated much in the same way 
 as talent. The difference consists only in this, that 
 genius, with a premonition of its creative power, usually 
 manifests its decision with less doubt for a special prov- 
 ince of activity, and, with a more intense thirst for cult- 
 ure, subjects itself more willingly to the demands of 
 instruction. Genius is in its nature the purest self-de- 
 termination, in that it feels, in its own inner existence, 
 the necessity which exists in the object to which it de- 
 votes itself ; it lives, as it were, in its object. But it 
 can create no valid place for the new idea, which is in it 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 109 
 
 already immediately and subjectively, if it has not united 
 itself to the already existing culture as its objective pre- 
 supposition ; on this ground it thankfully receives in- 
 struction. 
 
 [Abstractly speaking, each human being has the possibility in 
 him of every talent that has appeared or will appear in the 
 human race. But, practically, there is immense difference in 
 the facility with which individuals can realize this possibility. 
 Hence we have the scale : (1) incapacity (pure dunce) ; (2) medi- 
 ocrity (mechanical intelligence, who can do the average task as 
 others do) ; (3) the talent and genius who have great self -activity. 
 The talent has an inclination to his vocation, but is not perfectly 
 clear as to all of the means that lead to it ; does not value indus- 
 try as much as he ought, or despises the methods discovered be- 
 fore him. The genius is clear as to methods sees all that has 
 been as tools and materials out of which to build his ideals and 
 therefore works with a passion.] 
 
 112. But talent and genius offer a special difficulty 
 to education in the precocity which often accompanies 
 them. But by precocity we do not mean that they 
 early render themselves perceptible, since the early 
 manifestation of gifts by talent and genius, through 
 their intensity of decision and self-confidence, is to be 
 looked at as perfectly legitimate. But precocity is 
 rather the hastening forward of the human being in 
 feeling and moral sense, so that, where in the ordinary 
 course of nature we should have a child, we have a 
 youth, and a man in the place of a youth. We may 
 therefore find precocity among those who belong to the 
 class of mediocrity, but it is developed most readily 
 among those possessed of talent and genius, because 
 with them the early appearance of superior gifts may 
 very easily bring in its train a derangement of the feel- 
 ings and the moral nature. Education must deal with 
 
HO THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 it in so far as it is inharmonious, and reminds us of the 
 pourri avant cFetre muri, and see to it strictly that 
 the demands made on it from without shall not minister 
 to vanity ; and must take care, in order to accomplish 
 this, that social naturalness and lack of affectation be 
 preserved in the pupil. 
 
 Our age has to combat this precocity much more than others. 
 We find, e. g., authors, who, at the age of thirty years, in which they 
 publish their collected works or write their biography, are chilly 
 with the feelings of old age. . . . Music has been the sphere in which 
 the earliest development of talent has shown itself, and here we find 
 the absurdity that the cupidity of parents has so forced early talents 
 that children of four or five years of age have been made to appear 
 in public. 
 
 [Precocity denned : not intense self-confidence, but the omis- 
 sion of some natural stage of development. Education must 
 take care that its vanity is not encouraged, and do all in its 
 power to prevent aifectation and self -consciousness, which de- 
 stroy the proper relation of the pupil to his fellows.] 
 
 113. Every sphere of culture contains a certain 
 quantity of knowledge and ready skill which may be 
 looked at, as it were, as the created result of the cult- 
 ure. It is desirable that every one who turns his atten- 
 tion to a certain line of culture should take up into him- 
 self the traditional learning which controls it. In so far 
 as he does this, he is professionally educated. The con- 
 sciousness that one has in the usual way gone through a 
 school of art or science, and has been made familiar with 
 the general inheritance of the acquisitions of a special 
 department, creates externally a salutary composure 
 which is very favorable to internal progress. "We must 
 distinguish from the professionally educated the dilettant 
 and the self-taught man. The dilettant or amateur busies 
 himself with an art, a science, or a trade, from free incli- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. HI 
 
 nation, without having gone through any strict training 
 in it. As a rule, he dispenses with elementary thorough- 
 ness, and hastens toward the enjoyment which produc- 
 tion gives. The conscious amateur confesses this him- 
 self, makes no pretension to mastership, and calls him- 
 self in distinction from the professional, who subjects 
 himself to rules a tyro. But the self-deluded dilet- 
 tant, on the contrary, conceals his weakness, cherishes in 
 himself the self-conceit that he is equal to the heroes of 
 his art or science, constitutes himself the first admirer 
 of his own performances, explains their want of suc- 
 cess by accidental circumstances, never by their own 
 want of excellence ; and, if he has money, or edits a 
 paper, is intoxicated with being the patron of talent 
 which produces such works as he would willingly pro- 
 duce or pretends to produce. The self-taught man 
 has often true talent, or even genius, to whose develop- 
 ment nevertheless the inherited culture has been denied, 
 and who by good fortune has through his own strength 
 worked his way into a field of effort. The self-taught 
 man is distinguished from the amateur by the thorough- 
 ness and the industry with which he acts : he is not 
 only equally unfortunate with him in the absence of 
 school-training, but is much less assisted by advice of 
 the competent. Even if the self-taught man has for 
 years studied and practiced much, he is still haunted by 
 a feeling of uncertainty as to whether he has yet reached 
 the standpoint at which a science, an art, or a trade, 
 will receive him publicly. It is of very great conse- 
 quence that man should be comprehended and recog- 
 nized by man. The self-taught man, therefore, remains 
 embarrassed, and does not free himself from the appre- 
 
112 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 hension that he may expose some weak point to a pro- 
 fessional, or he falls into the other extreme he be- 
 comes presumptuous, steps forth as a reformer, and, if 
 he accomplishes nothing, or earns only ridicule, he sets 
 himself down as a martyr unrecognized by an unap- 
 preciative and unjust world. 
 
 It is possible that the dilettant may get beyond the stage of su- 
 perficiality and subject himself to a thorough training ; then he ceases 
 to be a dilettant. It is also possible that the self-taught man may be 
 on the right track, and may accomplish as much as, or even more than, 
 one trained in the usual way. In general, however, it is very desir- 
 able that every one should go through the regular course of the in- 
 herited means of education, partly that he may be thorough in the 
 elements, partly to free him from the anxiety which he may feel lest 
 he in his solitary efforts spend labor on some superfluous work su- 
 perfluous because done long before, and of which he, through the ac- 
 cident of his want of culture, had not heard. We must all learn by 
 ourselves, but we can not teach ourselves. Only genius can do this, 
 for it must be its own leader in the new paths which it opens. Gen- 
 ius alone passes beyond where inherited culture ceases. It bears 
 this in itself as of the past, and uses it as material for its new crea- 
 tion ; but the self-taught man, who may possibly be a genius, wastes 
 his time in doing things already accomplished, or sinks into eccen- 
 tricity, into secret arts and sciences, etc. 
 
 [The professionally educated, the dilettant or amateur, and 
 the self-taught, (a) The professionally educated masters thor- 
 oughly what the experience of the race has transmitted to his 
 own specialty, and hence increases his own stature by standing 
 on the shoulders of the human race, (b) The dilettant wishes 
 to eat of the kernel without breaking the shell, and is a sort of 
 futile individual who amuses himself by producing what is good 
 for nothing when produced, (c) The self-taught man works 
 with great industry and thoroughness, but has not access to the 
 best means, i. e., the traditional culture of the race as taught in 
 the schools. lie works under embarrassment, haunted with the 
 feeling that the professionally educated see defects in his train- 
 ing, or, throwing off his embarrassment, he plays the role of 
 " reformer," and becomes imbittered against the world.] 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 113 
 
 114. These ideas of the general steps of culture, of 
 special gifts, and of the ways of culture appropriate to 
 each, which we have set forth above, have a manifold 
 connection with each other which can not be established 
 a priori. We can, however, remark that apprenticeship, 
 the mechanical intelligence and the professional educa- 
 tion ; secondly, journeymanship, talent, and dilettante- 
 ism ; and, finally, mastership, genius, and self-education, 
 have a relationship to each other. 
 
 [Correspondence (a) between apprenticeship, mechanical intel- 
 ligence, and professional education; also (b) between journey- 
 manship, talent, and dilettanteism ; (c) between mastership, 
 genius, and self -education.] 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (c) Instruction (continued). 
 
 (2) The Act of Learning. 
 
 115. IN the process of instruction the interaction 
 between pupil and teacher must be so managed that the 
 exposition by the teacher shall excite in the pupil the im- 
 pulse to reproduction. The teacher must not treat his 
 exposition as if it were a work of art which is its own 
 end and aim, but he must always bear in mind the need 
 of the pupil. The artistic exposition, as such, will, by 
 its completeness, produce admiration ; but the didactic, 
 on the contrary, will, through its perfect adaptation, 
 call out the imitative instinct, the power of new creation. 
 
 From this consideration we may justify the frequent statement 
 that is made, that teachers who have an elegant diction do not really 
 
THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 accomplish so much as others who resemble in their statements less 
 a canal flowing smoothly between straight banks than a river which 
 works its foaming way over rocks and between ever-shifting banks. 
 The pupil perceives that the first is considering himself when he 
 speaks so finely, perhaps not without some coquettish self-compla- 
 cency; and that the second, in the repetitions and the sentences 
 which are never finished, is concerning himself solely with him. The 
 pupil feels that not want of facility or awkwardness, but the holy 
 zeal of the teacher, is the principal thing, and that this latter uses 
 rhetoric only as a means. 
 
 [The teacher should expound the subject in such a way as to 
 arouse in the pupil an impulse to reproduce it. It differs in 
 this respect from a work of art, which seeks only complete pres- 
 entation and the appearance of self-existence. The pupil sees in 
 the elegant diction of one teacher a studied attempt to win ad- 
 miration for himself, while in the inelegant repetitions and un- 
 finished sentences of another teacher he feels the genuine and 
 exclusive interest manifested in his own progress.] 
 
 116. In the act of learning there appears (a) a me- 
 chanical element, (5) a dynamic element, and (<?) one in 
 which the dynamic again mechanically strengthens it- 
 self. 
 
 [The process of learning involves (a) a mechanical element ; 
 (b) a dynamic element ; (c) a dynamic element re-enforced by 
 the mechanical element (i. e., dynamic attention re-enforced by 
 mechanic regularity, punctuality, and system, so as to constitute 
 industry).] 
 
 117. (a) The mechanical element consists in this, 
 that the right time be chosen for each lesson, an exact 
 arrangement observed, and the suitable apparatus, which 
 is necessary, procured. It is in the arrangement that 
 especially consists the educational power of the lesson. 
 The spirit of scrupulousness, of accuracy, of neatness, is 
 developed by the external technique, which, however, 
 should be subordinated to the interests of the subject 
 studied. The teacher must, therefore, insist upon it 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 115 
 
 that work shall cease at the exact time, that the work be 
 well done, etc., for on these little things many greater 
 things, in an ethical sense, depend. 
 
 To choose one's time for any work is often difficult because of 
 the pressure of a multitude of demands, but in general it should be 
 determined that the work requiring the strongest and keenest energy 
 of the thinking activity and of memory should have appropriated to 
 it the first half of the day. 
 
 [The mechanical element consists in (1) right time (punctu- 
 ality) ; (2) exact arrangement (regularity) ; (3) neatness and ac- 
 curacy (system). These constitute the mechanical morals of the 
 school-room, and furnish a sort of training in self-control and 
 obedience to rule that forms the basis of all more spiritual mo- 
 rality. Attention to these punctilios often seems a waste of ener- 
 gy; but it tells on the moral character as nothing else does, and 
 makes his future life far more successful. The importance of 
 choosing the morning hours for studies requiring hardest think- 
 ing or greatest strain on the memory.] 
 
 118. (5) The dynamical element (i. e., the self-ac- 
 tivity of the pupil) consists of the previously developed 
 power of attention, without which all the exposition 
 made by the teacher to the pupil remains entirely for- 
 eign to him. All apparatus is dead, all arrangement of 
 no avail, all teaching fruitless, if the pupil does not by 
 his free self-activity receive into his inner self what one 
 teaches him, and thus make it his own property. 
 
 [The dynamical element is the activity of the pupil's will 
 directed on the intellect ; its general form being attention (see 
 82, 83). It is the door that opens the mind of the pupil the 
 mechanical element relates to externals, the dynamical to the 
 internal, the self-activity of the pupil.] 
 
 119. This appropriation must not limit itself, how- 
 ever, to the first acquisition of any knowledge or skill, 
 but it must give perfect command over whatever the 
 pupil has learned ; it must make it perfectly familiar 
 
 13 
 
THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and natural, so that it shall appear to be a part of him- 
 self. This must be brought about by means of repe- 
 tition. This will mechanically secure that which the 
 attention first grasped. 
 
 [Besides attention, there must be repetition frequent reviews 
 in order to transmute the new knowledge and skill into per- 
 manent possession ("into faculty" as Herbert Spencer says). 
 Repetition corresponds to habit in will-training, and is itself 
 mechanical hence with it the dynamical is re-enforced by the 
 mechanical, and the best name for the union of the two is 
 industry.] 
 
 120. (c) The careful, persistent, living activity of 
 the pupil in these acts we call industry. Its negative 
 opposite is laziness, which is deserving of punishment 
 inasmuch as it proceeds from a want of self-determina- 
 tion. Man is by nature lazy. But mind, which is only 
 what it does, must resolve upon activity. This connec- 
 tion of industry with human freedom, with the very 
 essence of mind, makes laziness appear blameworthy. 
 The really civilized man, therefore, no longer knows 
 that absolute inaction which is the greatest enjoyment 
 to the barbarian, and he fills up his leisure with a variety 
 of easier and lighter work. The positive opposite of 
 industry is the unreasonable activity which rushes in 
 breathless chase from one action to another, from this 
 to that, over-tasking the person with the immense quan- 
 tity of his work. Such an activity, seldom directed 
 with proper deliberation, is unworthy of a man. It de- 
 stroys the serenity and repose which in all industry 
 should penetrate and inspire the deed. Nothing is more 
 repulsive than the beggarly pride of such stupid labo- 
 riousness. One should not permit for a moment the 
 pupil, seeking for distinction, to begin to pride himself 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 117 
 
 on an extra industry. Education must accustom him to 
 use a regular diligence. The frame of mind suitable for 
 work often does not exist at the time when work should 
 begin, but more frequently it makes its appearance after 
 we have begun. The subject takes its own time to 
 awaken us. Industry, inspired by a love and regard for 
 work, has in its quiet uniformity a great force, without 
 which no one can accomplish anything essential. The 
 world, therefore, holds industry worthy of honor ; and 
 to the Romans, a nation of the most enduring persever- 
 ance, we owe the inspiring words, " Incepto tantum 
 opus est, ccctera res expediet" ; and, "Labor improbus 
 omnia vincit" Unflinching labor conquers everything. 
 
 " Every one may glory in his industry ! " This is a true word 
 from the lips of a truly industrious man, who was also one of the 
 most modest. But Lessing did not, however, mean by them to char- 
 ter Pharisaical pedantry. The necessity sometimes of giving one's 
 self to an excess of work injurious to the health generally arises 
 from the fact that he has not at other times made use of the requi- 
 site attention and the necessary industry, and then attempts suddenly 
 and as by a forced march to storm his way to his goal. The result 
 of such over-exertion is naturally entire prostration. The pupil is, 
 therefore, to be accustomed to a generally uniform industry, which 
 may increase from time to time without his thereby overstraining 
 himself. What is really gained by a youth who has hitherto neg- 
 lected time and opportunity, and who, when examination presses, 
 overworks himself, perhaps standing the test with honor, and then 
 must rest for months afterward from the over-effort ? On all such 
 occasions attention is not objective and dispassionate, but rather be- 
 comes, through anxiety to pass the examination, restless and cor- 
 rupted by egotism ; and the usual evil result of such compulsory in- 
 dustry is the ephemeral character of the knowledge thus gained. 
 " Lightly come, lightly go," says the proverb. 
 
 A special worth is always attached to study far into the night. 
 The student's " midnight oil " always claims for itself a certain ven- 
 eration. But this is a sad vanity. In the first place, it is injurious 
 
118 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 to contradict Nature by working through the night, which she has 
 ordained for sleep ; secondly, the question is not as to the number of 
 hours spent in work and their position in the twenty-four, but as to 
 the quality of the work. With regard to the value of my work, it is 
 of no moment whatsoever whether I have done it in the morning or 
 in the evening, or how long I have labored, and it is of no conse- 
 quence to any one except to my own very unimportant self. Finally, 
 the question presents itself whether these gentlemen who boast so 
 much of their midnight work do not sleep in the daytime ! 
 
 [Industry defined as the vital, circumspect, persistent activity 
 of the pupil. Its opposite is laziness, which deserves corrective 
 punishment. Man by nature is lazy. Since mind develops into 
 existence only through self -activity, industry is a fundamental 
 virtue because through it alone can spiritual growth take place. 
 Spiritual growth produces freedom, i. e., emancipation from the 
 limitations of time and space, giving man possession of the past 
 and present within himself and in his environment, however 
 distant. The savage loves intervals of absolute inaction; the 
 civilized man hates torpidity, but rests himself by change of 
 work. He supplements his vocation by avocations. Industry 
 has besides its negative opposite a positive opposite which is 
 over-haste and over-exertion.] 
 
 121. But industry has also two other opposites 
 seeming-laziness and seeming-industry. Seeming-lazi- 
 ness is the neglecting of the usual activity in one de- 
 partment by the individual because he is so much more 
 active in another. The mind possessed with the liveliest 
 interest in one subject buries itself in it, and, because of 
 this, can not give itself up to another which before had 
 engrossed the attention. Thus it appears more idle than 
 it is, or rather it appears to be idle just because it is 
 more industrious. This is especially the case in passing 
 from one subject of instruction to another. The pupil 
 should acquire such a flexibility in his intellectual pow- 
 ers that the rapid relinquishment of one subject and the 
 taking up of another should not be too difficult. Noth- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 119 
 
 ing is more natural than that when he has become thor- 
 oughly aroused on one subject he should, on going back 
 to the subject that has just been presented to him, feel 
 himself still attracted to the former, and remain indif- 
 ferent to the following lesson, which may relate to an 
 entirely different topic. The young soul is brooding 
 over what has been said, and is really exercising an in- 
 tense activity, though it appears to be idle. But in 
 seeming-industry all the external motions of activity, 
 all the mechanism of work, manifest themselves noisily, 
 while there is no true energy of attention and produc- 
 tivity. One busies himself with all the apparatus of 
 work ; he heaps up instruments and books around him ; 
 he sketches plans ; he spends many hours staring into 
 vacancy, biting his pen, gazing at words, drawings, num- 
 bers, etc. Boys, under the protection of so great a scaf- 
 folding for work erected around them, often carry on 
 their own amusements. Men, who arrive at no real 
 concentration of their force, no clear defining of their 
 vocation, no firm decision as to their action, dissipate 
 their power in what is too often a great activity with 
 absolutely no result. They are busy, very busy ; they 
 have hardly time to do this thing because they really 
 wish or ought to do that ; but, with all their driving, 
 their energy is all dissipated, and nothing comes from 
 their countless labors. 
 
 [Industry is opposed to (T) seeming-laziness, which neglects 
 some things to attend to others which are considered more impor- 
 tant ; all specialization is of this character. (3) It is opposed 
 likewise to seeming-industry, which goes through all the mo- 
 tions of industry in a noisy and ostentatious manner, but is in- 
 ternally idle. Importance of disciplining the mind to turn 
 completely from one subject to another.] 
 
120 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (c) Instruction (continued). 
 (3) The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 
 
 122. Now that we have learned something of the 
 relation of the teacher to the taught, and of the process 
 of learning itself, we must examine the mode and man- 
 ner of instruction. This may have (I) the character of 
 contingency : the way in which our immediate existence 
 in the world, our life, teaches us ; or it may be given 
 (#) by the printed page ; or (3) it may take the shape 
 of formal oral instruction. 
 
 [The modality that is to say, the mode and manner in which 
 the instruction is given, hence its form or method. Instruction 
 (1) the lessons of experience; (2) by the written or printed 
 page ; (3) oral.] 
 
 123. (/) For the most, the best, and the mightiest 
 things that we know we are indebted to life itself. 
 The sum of perceptions which a human being makes 
 for himself up to the fourth or fifth year of his life is 
 incalculable ; and after this time w^e continue involun- 
 tarily to gain by immediate contact with the world 
 countless ideas. But we understand, by the phrase " the 
 school of life," especially the ethical knowledge which 
 we gain by what happens in our own lives. 
 
 If one may say, Vitm non scholce discendum est, one can also say, 
 Vita docet. Without the power exercised by the immediate world 
 our intelligence would remain abstract and lifeless. 
 
 [Instruction by experience begins with infancy and con- 
 tinues through life. Especially in the first four or five years 
 the sum of perceptions from this source is enormous. What 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUC 
 
 ftae child learns of the ways of life, manners, and customs, and 
 moral principles ; proper habits of eating and drinking, care of 
 the person and clothing, forms to be observed toward the various 
 ranks in the family and society ; glimpses of the action of the 
 law of the state, its resistless might, its punishment of crime ; 
 numerous observations on the division of labor and its sustenta- 
 tion by trade and commerce ; the daily and weekly spectacle of 
 the rites and ceremonies of religion : here is the education of 
 life through the four institutions of civilization family, civil 
 community, state, and church. The education that one gets 
 by adopting a trade or form of industry and earning his living, 
 or by acting as a citizen, obeying the laws and assisting at the 
 ballot-box to make them, or in the army risking one's life to 
 defend them each of these is a peculiar form of the education 
 that life offers, and its results can not be obtained through any 
 other form certainly not by the school however much the 
 school may re-enforce them.] 
 
 124. (#) What we learn through books forms a 
 contrast to that which we learn through living. Life 
 forces upon us its wisdom ; the book, on the contrary, is 
 entirely passive. It is locked up in itself ; it can not be 
 altered ; but it waits by us till we wish to use it. We 
 can read it rapidly or slowly ; we can simply turn over 
 its leaves what in modern times one calls reading 
 we can read it from beginning to end or from end to be- 
 ginning ; we can stop, begin again, skip over passages, 
 or cut them short, as we like. To this extent the book is 
 the most convenient means for instruction. If we are in- 
 debted to life for our perceptions, we must chiefly thank 
 books for our understanding of our perceptions. We 
 call book-instruction " dead " when it lacks, for the 
 exposition which it gives, a foundation in illustration 
 addressed to sense-perception, or when we do not add to 
 the printed description the perceptions which it implies ; 
 and these two are quite different. 
 
122 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 [Instruction through books is in some respects the opposite 
 of instruction through living, because life forces its wisdom on 
 us, while the book is entirely passive. The book is the most con- 
 venient form of instruction. We must have gained by experi- 
 ence from real life a sort of alphabet or key, with which we may 
 spell out or unlock the meaning of the wisdom stored up in 
 books. Unless we can translate what the book says into elements 
 of our own experience, it is dead to us.] 
 
 125. Books, as well as life, teach us many things 
 which we did not previously expect to learn directly from 
 them. From the romances of Walter Scott, for example, 
 we learn, first of all, while we read them for entertain- 
 ment, the English language, and English and Scotch 
 history and geography. . . . We must distinguish from 
 such books as those which bring to us, as it were acci- 
 dentally, a knowledge for which we were not seeking, 
 the books which are expressly intended to instruct. 
 These " text-books " must (a) in their consideration of 
 the subject give us the principal results of any depart- 
 ment of knowledge, and denote the points from which 
 the next advance must be made, because every science 
 comes to results which are themselves again new prob- 
 lems ; (5) in the consideration of the particulars they 
 must be exhaustive, i. e., no essential elements of a sci- 
 ence must be omitted. But this exhaustiveness of exe- 
 cution has different meanings according to the stand- 
 points of those for whom it is made. How far we shall 
 pass from the universality of the principal determina- 
 tions into the multiplicity of the particular, into the 
 fullness of detail, can not be definitely determined, and 
 must vary, according to the aim of the book, whether 
 for the apprentice, the journeyman, or the master ; (<?) 
 the expression must be precise, i. e., the maximum of 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 123 
 
 clearness must be combined with the maximum of 
 brevity. 
 
 The writing of a text-book is on this account one of the most 
 difficult tasks, and it can be successfully accomplished only by those 
 who are masters in a science or art, and who combine with great 
 culture and talent great experience as teachers. Unfortunately, 
 many masters of science hold in low esteem, the writing of text- 
 books because they think that they are called upon to devote them- 
 selves entirely to the spread of science, and because the writing of 
 compendiums has come to be in bad repute through the fact that 
 authors and publishers have made out of text-books a profitable busi- 
 ness and good incomes. In all sciences and arts there exists a quan- 
 tity of material which is common property, which is disposed of now 
 in one way, now in another. Hence the majority of compendiums 
 can be distinguished from each other only by the kind of paper, 
 printing, the name of the publisher or bookseller, or by arbitrary 
 changes in the arrangement and execution. The want of principle 
 with which this work is sometimes carried on is incredible. Many 
 governments have on this account fixed prices for text-books, and 
 commissioners to select them. This in itself is right and proper, but 
 the use of any such book should be left optional, so as to avoid the 
 one-sidedness of a science patronized by government and as it were 
 licensed or introduced by law. A state may through its censorship 
 oppose poor text-books, and recommend good ones for introduction ; 
 but it may not . . . establish as it were a national system of sci- 
 ence or of art, in which only the ideas, laws, and forms sanctioned by 
 it shall be allowed. The Germans are fortunate, in consequence of 
 their philosophical criticism, in the production of better and better 
 text-books. ... So much the more unaccountable is it that, with 
 such excellent books, the evil of such characterless books, some of 
 them defectively, some of them atrociously written, should still exist 
 when there is no necessity for it. The good old fashion of paragraph- 
 writing has become obnoxious, under the name of compendium-style, 
 as the most stiff and affected style of writing. 
 
 [The recorded wisdom of the entire human race is preserved 
 in books, and hence the chief province of the school is to endow 
 the pupil with the power to use books profitably through life so 
 that he may perpetually draw from that reservoir of wisdom, 
 and re-enforce and interpret his own life. A " text-book " (a) 
 
124: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 gives us the summed-up results in a department of knowledge, 
 and indicates the new problems that occupy present attention ; 
 (b) it must include all phases, so as to give a rounded view of 
 the entire subject without going exhaustively into details ; (c) 
 it must use clear and precise language, and be brief. Govern- 
 ment prescription of text-books.] 
 
 126. A text-book must be differently written ac- 
 cording as it is intended as a book for private study or 
 to be accompanied by oral explanation. If the former, 
 it must go more into details, and must develop more 
 clearly the internal relations ; if the second, it should 
 be shorter, and proceed from axiomatic and clear postu- 
 lates to hints and suggestions that must have an epi- 
 grammatic keenness which should leave something to be 
 guessed. Because for these a commentary is expected 
 which it is the teacher's duty to supply, such a sketch is 
 usually accompanied by the fuller text-book which was 
 arranged for private study. [Illustrations here omitted.] 
 [Text-books (a) for private study ; (b) for use in school.] 
 
 127. (3) The text-book which presupposes oral ex- 
 planation forms the transition to oral instruction itself. 
 Since speech is the natural and original form in which 
 mind manifests itself, no book can rival it. The living 
 word is the most powerful agent of instruction. How- 
 ever common and cheap the art of printing may have 
 rendered books as the most convenient means of educa- 
 tion however the multiplication of facilities for inter- 
 course and the increasing rapidity of transportation may 
 have facilitated the immediate viewing of human life as 
 the most impressive educational means nevertheless 
 the living word still asserts its value. In two cases es- 
 pecially it is indispensable : one is when some knowl- 
 edge is to be communicated which is in process of dis- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 125 
 
 covery and as yet is found in no compendium ; and the 
 other when a living language is to be taught, for in this 
 case the printed page is entirely inadequate. One can 
 learn from books to understand Spanish, French, Eng- 
 lish, Danish, etc., but not to speak them ; to do this he 
 must hear them, partly that his ear may become accus- 
 tomed to the sounds, partly that his vocal organs may 
 learn correctly to imitate them. 
 
 [Oral instruction. The living word is the most powerful 
 agent of instruction, and hence can produce effects where other 
 means are inadequate. The latest discoveries, the commentary 
 on the book, as well as the pronunciation of foreign languages 
 for these things oral instruction is indispensable.] 
 
 128. Life surprises and overpowers us with the 
 knowledge which it offers ; the book, impassive, waits 
 our convenience ; the teacher, superior to us, perfectly 
 prepared in comparison with us, consults our necessity, 
 and with his living speech uses a gentle force to which 
 we can yield without losing our freedom. Listening is 
 easier than reading. 
 
 Princes seldom read themselves, but have servants who read to 
 them. 
 
 [Although oral instruction is the most powerful means of 
 arousing and interesting the pupil, yet its object should be to 
 emancipate the pupil from the need of it, and (a) make him in- 
 terested in knowledge for itself, so that he will eagerly follow it 
 through the (1) text-book, (2) reference-book, and (3) library ; 
 (b) seek to master the material poured in upon him by experi- 
 ence of life.] 
 
 129. Oral instruction may (1) give the subject, 
 which is to be learned, in a connected statement, or (#) 
 it may develop it by means of question and answer. 
 The first method is called the acroamatic, the second 
 the erotematic. The first (the acroamatic or lecture- 
 
126 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 system) presupposes the theoretical inequality of the 
 teacher and the taught. Because one can speak while 
 many listen, this is especially adapted to the instruction 
 of large numbers. The second method (the erotematic) 
 is either that of the catechism or the dialogue. The 
 catechetical is connected with the first kind of oral in- 
 struction above designated because it makes demand 
 upon the memory only for what is already learned, and 
 is very often and very absurdly called the Socratic 
 method. In the dialogue, we try, by means of an in- 
 terchange of thought, to investigate in company with 
 others some problem, proceeding according to the neces. 
 sary forms of reason. But in this we can make a dis- 
 tinction. One speaker may be superior to the rest, may 
 hold in his own hand the thread of the conversation, 
 and may guide * it himself ; or, those who mingle in it 
 may be perfectly equal in intellect and culture, and may 
 each take part in the development with equal independ- 
 ence. In this latter case, the true reciprocity gives us 
 the proper dramatic dialogue, which contains in itself 
 all forms of exposition, and may pass from narration, 
 description, and analysis, through satire and irony, to 
 genuine humor. When it does this, the dialogue is the 
 highest product of the intellect, and the means of its 
 purest enjoyment. 
 
 The system of alternate teaching, in which the pupil takes the 
 teacher's place and instructs others, can be used only where the sub- 
 ject taught admits of a mechanical treatment. The Hindoos made 
 use of it in very ancient times. Bell and Lancaster f have trans- 
 planted it for the teaching of poor children in Europe and America. 
 For the teaching of the elementary accomplishments reading, writ- 
 ing, and arithmetic as well as for the learning by heart of names, 
 
 , a guide. t Monitorial system. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 127 
 
 sentences, etc., it suffices, but not for any scientific culture. Where 
 we have large numbers to instruct, the giving of the fully developed 
 statement (the acroamatic method) is necessary, since the dialogue, 
 though it may be elsewhere suitable, allows only a few to take part 
 in it. And, if we take the interrogative (erotematic), we must, if we 
 have a large number of pupils, make use of the catechetical method 
 only. What is known as the conversational method has been some- 
 times suggested for our university instruction. Diesterweg, in Ber- 
 lin, insists upon it. Here and there the attempt has been made, but 
 without any result. In the university, the lecture of the teacher as 
 a self -developing whole stands in contrast with the scientific discus- 
 sion of the students by themselves, in which they as equals work 
 over with perfect freedom what they have heard. Diesterweg was 
 wrong in considering the lecture-system as the principal cause of the 
 lack of scientific interest which he thought he perceived in our uni- 
 versities. Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Wolf, Niebuhr, 
 etc., taught by lectures and awakened the liveliest enthusiasm. But 
 Diesterweg is quite right in saying that the students should not be 
 degraded into writing-machines. This is generally conceded, and 
 a pedantic amount of copying more and more begins to be con- 
 sidered as out of date at our universities. Nevertheless, a new ped- 
 antry, that of the mere lecture, should not be introduced ; but a brief 
 summary of the lecture may be dictated and answer all purposes, or 
 the lecture may be afterward written out by the pupil from memory. 
 The great efficacy of the oral exposition does not so much consist in 
 the fact that it is perfectly free, as that it presents to immediate view 
 a person who has made himself the bearer of a science or an art, and 
 has found what constitutes its essence. Its power springs, above all, 
 from the solidity of the lecture, the originality of its content, and 
 the elegance of its form ; whether it is read or declaimed is a matter 
 of little moment. Niebuhr, e. g., read, word for word, from his 
 manuscript, and what a teacher was he ! The catechetical way of 
 teaching is not demanded at the university except in special exami- 
 nations ; it belongs to the private work of the students, who must 
 learn to be industrious of their own free impulse. The private tutor 
 can best conduct reviews. The institution which presupposing the 
 lecture-system combines in itself original production with criticism, 
 and the connected exposition with the conversation, is the profes- 
 sional school. It pursues a well-defined path, and confines itself to 
 small classes of scholars whose grades of culture are very nearly the 
 14 
 
128 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 same. Here, therefore, the dialogue can be developed with best effect 
 because it has a fixed foundation, and each one can take part in the 
 conversation ; whereas, from the variety of opinions in a large class, 
 it is easily perverted into an aimless talk, and the majority, having 
 no chance to speak, become weary. 
 
 [Oral instruction of two kinds : (1) the lecture, acroamatic, and 
 (2) erotematic, or the form of catechism and dialogue. (Acroa- 
 matic, from aKpodopai, the Greek verb for to hear lectures, was 
 applied to Aristotle's oral lectures, which were given to a few 
 pupils, and related to his most profound and abstruse doctrines ; 
 hence, also called esoteric, i. e., inner, doctrines as opposed to 
 the exoteric, or outer, doctrines. Erotematic, from epwraw, the 
 Greek verb to ask, means the interrogative method.)] 
 
 130. As to the way in which the lecture is carried 
 out, it may be arranged for those who have undertaken 
 the entire course of instruction in its thorough, system- 
 atic form, or for those who have in view only a gen- 
 eral, inexact education, without intending to go through 
 the complete course. The ancients called the first 
 method the esoteric and the second the exoteric, as we 
 give to such lectures now, respectively, the names scho- 
 lastic and popular. The first makes use of terms which 
 have become technical in science or art, and proceeds to 
 combine the isolated ideas in a strict, logical manner ; 
 the second endeavors to substitute for technicalities gen- 
 erally understood designations, and conceals the exact- 
 ness of the formal conclusion by means of a style of 
 narration. It is possible to conceive of a perfectly me- 
 thodical treatment of a science which at the same time 
 shall be generally comprehensible if it strives to attain 
 the transparency of real beauty. A scientific work of 
 art may be correctly said to be popular, as, e. g., has 
 happened to Herder's " Ideas toward a Philosophy of 
 the History of Mankind." 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 129 
 
 Beauty is the element which is comprehended by all, and as we 
 declare our enmity to caricatures in picture-books and books of amuse- 
 ment, and to the mischievous character of " compendiums," so we must 
 also oppose the popular publications which style themselves " Science 
 made easy," etc., in order to attract more purchasers by this alluring 
 title. . . . Kant says : " In the effort to produce in our knowledge the 
 completeness of scholarly thoroughness, and at the same time a pop- 
 ular character, without in the effort falling into the errors of an af- 
 fected thoroughness or an affected popularity, we must, first of all, 
 look out for the scholarly completeness of our scientific knowledge, 
 the methodical form of thoroughness, and first ask how we can make 
 really popular the knowledge methodically acquired at school, i. e., 
 how we can make it easy and generally communicable, and yet at the 
 same time not supplant thoroughness by popularity. For scholarly 
 completeness must not be sacrificed to popularity to please the peo- 
 ple, unless science is to become a plaything or a trifling." It is per- 
 fectly plain that all that has been said above ( 81-107) on the psy- 
 chological and the logical methods must be taken into account in the 
 style of the exposition in the two kinds of oral method. 
 [Technical and popular lectures.] 
 
 131. It has been already remarked ( 21), in speak- 
 ing of the nature of education, that the office of the in- 
 structor must necessarily vary with the growing culture. 
 But attention must here again be called to the fact that 
 education, in whatever stage of culture, must conform 
 to the law which, as the internal logic of being, deter- 
 mines all objective developments of Nature and of his- 
 tory. The family gives the child his first instruction ; 
 between this and the school comes the teaching of the 
 tutor ; the school stands by itself over against the fam- 
 ily, and presents three essentially different forms accord- 
 ing as (1) it imparts a general preparatory instruction, 
 or (2) special teaching for different callings, or (3) a 
 universal scientific cultivation. Universality and par- 
 ticularity are united in individuality, which therefore 
 contains both the general and the particular freely in 
 
130 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 itself. All citizens of a state should have (1) a general 
 education which (a) makes them familiar with reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, these being the means of all 
 theoretical culture ; then (5) hands over to them a pict- 
 ure of the world in its principal phases, so that they as 
 citizens of the world can direct their course on our 
 planet ; and, finally, it must (c) instruct each in the his- 
 tory of his ovvn state, so that he may see that the cir- 
 cumstances in which he lives are the result of special 
 circumstances in the past in their connection with the 
 history of the rest of the world, and so may learn rightly 
 to estimate the interests of his own country in view of 
 their necessary relation to the future. This work the 
 elementary schools have to perform. From this through 
 the Realschule [our scientific course in the high-school] 
 they pass into the school where some particular branch 
 of art is taught, or through the Gymnasium [classical 
 course of a high-school or college] to the university. 
 Upon the general basis of university training develop 
 (2) the educational institutions that aim at some special 
 education which leads to the exercise of some art. 
 These we call technological schools, where one may 
 learn farming, mining, a craft, a trade, navigation, war, 
 etc. This kind of education may be specialized indefi- 
 nitely with the growth of culture, because any one 
 branch is capable in its negative aspect of such division 
 into special schools, as, e. g., foundling hospitals and or- 
 phan asylums, blind, and deaf and dumb, institutions. 
 The abstract universality of the elementary (common) 
 school and the one-sided particularity of the technologi- 
 cal school, however, unite in a sort of concrete univer- 
 sality as a ground that includes both, which, without 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION*. 131 
 
 aiming directly at utility, treat science and art on all 
 sides as their own end and aim (and constitutes what 
 is called the scientific spirit). " Scientia est potentia" 
 said Lord Bacon. Practical utility results indirectly 
 through the progress which scientific cognition makes 
 in this free attitude toward the world, because it collects 
 itself and avoids dissipation through manifold details by 
 seizing the idea of the whole and getting insight into 
 the details by that means. This organic whole of in- 
 struction is properly called a university. By it the edu- 
 cational system is perfected. 
 
 It is important to note that no more than these three types of 
 schools can exist, and that they must all exist in a perfectly organ- 
 ized civilization. Their titles and their plans and arrangements may 
 be very different among different nations at different epochs, but 
 this need not prevent the recognition in them of the three essential 
 logical phases universal, particular, singular on which they are 
 founded. Still less should the imperfect ways in which they mani- 
 fest themselves induce us to condemn them. It is the modern tend- 
 ency to undervalue the university as an institution which we had 
 inherited from the middle ages, and with which we could at present 
 dispense. This is an error. The university presents just as neces- 
 sary a form of instruction as the elementary school or the techno- 
 logical school. Not the abolition of the university, but a reform 
 which shall adapt it to the spirit of the age, is the advance which 
 we have to make.* That there are to be found, outside of the 
 university, men of the most thorough and elegant culture, who can 
 give the most excellent instruction in a science or an art, is most cer- 
 tain. But it is a characteristic of the university in its teaching to do 
 away with the dependence on hap-hazard and mere luck which is un- 
 avoidable in case of private voluntary efforts. The university offers 
 to the student an organic, self-conscious, encyclopedic representation 
 of all the sciences, and thus it creates to a greater or less degree an 
 intellectual atmosphere which no other place can give. Through 
 this, all sciences and their aims are seen in their just claims for con- 
 
 * Eoscnkranz wrote this in 1847, on the eve of revolutionary scenes. 
 11 
 
132 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 sideration, and a personal stress is laid upon the connection of one 
 science with another. The imperfections of a university, which arise 
 through the rivalry of external ambition, through the necessity of 
 financial success, through scholarships, etc., are finite affairs which 
 it has in common with all human institutions, and on whose account 
 they are not all to be thrown away. Art-academies are for art what 
 universities are for science. They are inferior to them in so far as 
 they appear more under the form of special schools, as schools of ar- 
 chitecture, of painting, and conservatories of music ; because it must 
 be granted that architecture, sculpture, painting, music, the orches- 
 tra, and the drama, are, like the sciences, bound together in a uni- 
 versitas artium, and that by means of their internal reciprocal action 
 new results would follow. Academies of art, as isolated schools for 
 masters, which have no teaching properly so called, are not indis- 
 pensable, and serve only as a prytaneum for meritorious scholars, 
 and to reward industry through the prizes which they offer. In 
 their idea they belong with the university, this appearing externally 
 in the fact that most of their members are university professors. But 
 as institutions for ostentation by which the ambition of the learned 
 was flattered, and princes surrounded with a halo of science as 
 scientific corporations attached to courts, they have lost all sig- 
 nificance. They flourished with the Ptolemies and the Egyptian 
 caliphs, and with absolute monarchical governments. In modern 
 times we have passed beyond the abstract jealousy between the so- 
 called " humanities " and the natural sciences, because we compre- 
 hend that each part of the totality can be realized in a proper sense 
 only by its development as relatively independent. Thus the Gym- 
 nasium has its place as that elementary school which, besides giving 
 a general culture, by means of the knowledge of the language and 
 history of the Greeks and Romans, prepares for the university; 
 while, on the other hand, the Realscliule, by special attention to nat- 
 ural science and the living languages, furnishes the required prepa- 
 ration to the technological schools. Nevertheless, because the uni- 
 versity embraces the science of Nature, of technology, of trade, of 
 finance, and of statistics, the pupils who have graduated from the 
 so-called high-schools (hohern Burgerschulen) and from the Real- 
 sclmlen will also be brought together at the university with the 
 graduates of the Gymnasia. 
 
 [The order of educational institutions ; the course of study ; 
 the kinds of schools. (1) Family ; (2) private tutor or govern- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 133 
 
 ess; (3) district school; (4) high-school, general or classical 
 course ; (5) university. District-school course of study, (a) the 
 rudiments, reading, writing, arithmetic, the means of all theo- 
 retical culture ; (b) a picture of the world in geography, and se- 
 lections of poetry and prose given in the school readers ; (c) his- 
 tory of one's own state, and its relation to the history of the 
 world. The necessity of three institutions to complete the whole 
 course of study district or elementary school, high or second- 
 ary school, the university. Art academies. The jealousy between 
 the " humanities " (classical studies) and the natural sciences.] 
 
 132. The organization of the school will be deter- 
 mined in its details by its peculiar aim. But in general 
 every school, no matter what it teaches, ought to have 
 some system of rules and regulations by which the rela- 
 tion of the pupils to the institution, to each other, to the 
 teacher, and that of one teacher to another, as well as to 
 the supervisory authority, the programme of lessons, the 
 apparatus, the changes of work and recreation, shall be 
 clearly set forth. The course of study must be arranged 
 so as to avoid two extremes : on the one hand, it has to 
 keep in view the special aim of the school, and according 
 to this it tends to contract itself. But, on the other hand, 
 it must consider the relative dependence of one spe- 
 cialty upon other specialties and upon general culture. 
 It must leave the transition free, and in this it tends to 
 expand itself. Experience alone is competent so to 
 assign the limits that the special task of the school shall 
 neither be sacrificed nor deprived of the means of per- 
 formance which it (since it is also always only a part of 
 the whole culture) receives by means of its reciprocal 
 action with other departments. The programme must 
 assign the exact amount of time which can be appro- 
 priated to each study. It must prescribe the order in 
 which they shall follow each other ; it must, as far as 
 
134 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 possible, unite kindred subjects, so as to avoid the use- 
 less repetition which dulls the charm of study ; it must, 
 in determining the order, bear in mind at the same time 
 the necessity imposed by the subject itself and the psy- 
 chological progression of intelligence from perception, 
 through conception, to the thinking activity which 
 grasps all. It must be periodically submitted to revis- 
 ion, so that all matter which has, through the changed 
 state of general culture, become out of date, may be re- 
 jected, and that which has proved itself indispensable 
 may be appropriated, so that it may be kept up to the 
 requirements of the times. And, finally, the school 
 must, by examinations and reports, aid the pupil in the 
 acquirement of a knowledge of his real standing. The 
 examination lets him know what he has really learned, 
 and what he is able to do : the report shows him a his- 
 tory of his culture, exhibits to him in what he has made 
 improvement and in what he has fallen behind, what 
 defects he has shown, what talents he has displayed, 
 what errors committed, and in what relation stands his 
 theoretical development to his ethical status. 
 
 The struggle between the Gymnasia and the industrial interests 
 of the community is a very interesting phase of educational history. 
 They were asked to widen their course so as to embrace mathe- 
 matics, physics, natural history, geography, and the modern lan- 
 guages. At first they stoutly resisted; then they made some 
 concessions; finally, the further they went the more they found 
 themselves in contradiction with their true work, and so they pro- 
 duced, as an independent correlate, the Realschule. After this was 
 founded, the Gymnasium returned to its old plan, and is now again 
 able to place in the foreground the pursuit of classical literature and 
 history. It was thus set free from demands made upon it which 
 were entirely foreign to its nature. The examination is, on its peda- 
 gogic side, so adapted to the pupil as to make him conscious of his 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 135 
 
 own condition. As to its external side, it determines whether the 
 pupil shall pass from one class to another or from one school to an- 
 other, or it decides whether the school as a whole shall display its 
 results to the public an exhibition which ought to have no trace of 
 ostentation, but which, as a matter of fact, is often tinctured with 
 pedagogical charlatanism. 
 
 [The rules and regulations of the school. The course of study, 
 limited by the aim of the school, but, on account of the depend- 
 ence of one specialty upon all the rest, must include some gen- 
 eral outline of the whole that will indicate the position and scope 
 of the specialty. The programme defines the amount of time 
 given to each study, and the order of their sequence. It must 
 conform to the laws of logical arrangement of topic, and of psy- 
 chological development of the pupil. Examinations and reports 
 aid the pupil by showing him where his work is successful and 
 where defective.] 
 
 133. The direction of the school on the side of 
 science must be held by the school itself, for the pro- 
 cess of the intellect in acquiring science, the progress of 
 the method, the peculiarities of the subject-matter and 
 the order of its development, have their own laws, to 
 which instruction must submit itself if it would attain 
 its end. The school is, however, only one part of the 
 whole of culture. In itself it divides into numerous de- 
 partments, together constituting a great organism which 
 in manifold ways comes into contact with the other 
 organisms of the state. So long as teaching is of a 
 private character, so long as it is the reciprocal relation 
 of one individual to another, or so long as it is shut up 
 within the circle of the family and belongs to it alone, 
 so long it has no objective character. It receives this 
 first when it grows to a school. Historically speaking, 
 the school first appears as an auxiliary of the church ; 
 but this first form, in time, disappears. Religion is the 
 absolute relation of man to God which subsumes all 
 
136 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 other relations. In so far as religion exists in the 
 form of a church, those who are members of the same 
 church may have common instruction given them on 
 the nature of religion. Instruction on the subject is 
 proper, and it is even enjoined upon them as a law as 
 a duty. But beyond the limits of their own society 
 they may not extend their sway. The church may ex- 
 ert, itself to make a religious spirit felt in the school 
 and to make it penetrate all the teaching ; but it may 
 not presume, because it has for its subject the absolute 
 interest of men, the interest which is superior to all 
 others, to determine also the other objects of education 
 or the method of treating them. The technical acqui- 
 sitions of reading, writing, and arithmetic, drawing and 
 music, the natural sciences, mathematics, logic, anthro- 
 pology and psychology, the practical sciences of finance 
 and the municipal regulations, have no direct relation 
 to religion. If we attempt to establish one, there in- 
 evitably appears in them a morbid state which destroys 
 them ; not only so, but piety itself disappears, for these 
 accomplishments and branches of knowledge are not in- 
 cluded in its province. 
 
 Such treatment of art and science may be well-meant, but it is 
 always an error. It may even make a ludicrous impression, which 
 is a very dangerous thing for the authority of religion. If a church 
 has founded a system of schools, it must see to it that all which is 
 there taught except the religious instruction, i. e., all of science and 
 art, shall have no direct connection with it as a religious institution. 
 [The management of the school, as regards its course of study, 
 the methods used, and the interpretation given to knowledge, 
 must be vested in the faculty of the school. But, as the school 
 is only a part of the entire system of education, it receives di- 
 rection from all other institutions of society. The school had 
 its origin in the church.] 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 137 
 
 134. The church, as the external manifestation of 
 religion, is concerned with the absolute relation of man 
 to God, which, however, is special in itself as opposed 
 to man's other relations; the state, on the contrary, 
 seizes the life of a nation according to its explicit 
 totality. The state should conduct the education of all 
 its citizens. To it, then, the church must appear only 
 as a school, for the church instructs its own people con- 
 cerning the nature of religion, partly by teaching proper 
 (that of the catechism), partly in an edifying way, by 
 preaching. From this point of view, the state can look 
 upon the church only as standing side by side in the 
 same rank with those schools which prepare for a 
 special vocation. The church appears to the state as 
 that school which assumes the task of educating the re- 
 ligious faculty. Just as little as the church should the 
 state attempt to exercise any influence over the essential 
 matters of science and art. In this they are exactly 
 alike, and must acknowledge the necessity which both 
 science and art contain within themselves and by which 
 they develop their contents. The laws of logic, mathe- 
 matics, astronomy, morals, aesthetics, physiology, etc., 
 are entirely independent of the state. It can decree 
 neither discoveries nor inventions. The state occupies 
 the same ground as science, both presupposing the free- 
 dom of self-consciousness. It is true that the church 
 teaches man, but it demands from him at the same time 
 belief in the truth of its dogmas. It rests, as the actual 
 church, on presupposed authority, and sinks finally all 
 contradictions which arise in experience in the absolute 
 mystery of the existence of God. The state, on the 
 contrary, elaborates its idea into the form of laws, i. e., 
 
138 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 into general determinations, of whose necessity it con- 
 vinces itself. It seeks to give to these laws the clearest 
 possible form, so that every one may understand them. 
 It concedes validity only to that which can be proved, 
 and sentences the individual according to the external 
 side of the deed (" overt act "), not, as the church does, on 
 its internal side that of disposition (the state of the 
 heart). Finally, it demands in him consciousness of 
 his deed, because it makes each one responsible for his 
 own deed. It has, therefore, the same principle as 
 science, for the proof of necessity and the unity of 
 consciousness with its object constitute the essence of 
 science. Since the state includes the school as one of 
 its educational instrumentalities, it is from its very- 
 nature called upon to guide its regulation in accordance 
 with the principles that govern the unfolding of con- 
 sciousness. 
 
 The church calls this " profanation." One might say that the 
 church, in the absolute mystery which is the object of its faith, al- 
 ways represents the absolute problem for science, while the state, as 
 to its form, coincides with science. Whenever the state abandons 
 strictness of proof when it begins to measure the individual citizen 
 by his disposition and not by his deed, and, in place of the clear in- 
 sight of the rational self-consciousness, sets up the psychological 
 compulsion of a hollow mechanical authority, it destroys itself. 
 
 [" The state seizes the life of a people in its explicit totality," 
 i. e., all human relations, and hence must conduct the education 
 of its citizens. To the state the church is not the institution, 
 but one of several co-ordinate institutions. The state should 
 not dictate in matters of science and art, nor in matters of con- 
 science. The state and science are alike in presupposing the free- 
 dom of self -consciousness ; the state in making the individual 
 responsible for his deed requires consciousness and freedom as 
 conditions of conviction in case of crime ; science presupposes 
 freedom of thought, freedom from authority, and clear insight 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 139 
 
 into the necessity of the demonstration, i. e., clear consciousness. 
 The church, however, does not relinquish the demand for au- 
 thority.] 
 
 135. Neither the church nor the state should at- 
 tempt to control the school in its internal management. 
 Still less can the school constitute itself into a state 
 within the state ; for, while it is only one of the tem- 
 porary means which are necessary for developing citi- 
 zens, the state and the church lay claim to the whole 
 man his whole life long. The independence of the 
 school can then only consist in this, that a directory is 
 created within the state which takes the schools under 
 its control, and which as a school board endeavors to 
 provide for the needs of the school, while externally 
 it adjusts them to the church and state with the other 
 ethical powers. The emancipation of the school can 
 never reasonably mean its abstract isolation, or the ab- 
 sorption of the ecclesiastical and political life into the 
 school ; it can signify only the free reciprocal action of 
 the school with state and church. It must never be for- 
 gotten that what makes the school a school is not the 
 total process of education, for this falls also within the 
 family, the state, and the church ; but that the proper 
 work of the school is the process of instruction, by which 
 the pupils shall gain knowledge, and the acquirement of 
 accomplishments by practice. 
 
 The confusion of the idea of instruction with that of education 
 in general is a common defect in superficial treatises on these themes. 
 The radicals, among those who are in favor of so-called " emancipa- 
 tion," often erroneously appeal to " free Greece," which generally for 
 this fond ignorance is made to stand as authority for a thousand 
 things of which it never dreamed. In this fictitious Hellas of " free 
 beautiful humanity," they say the limits against which we strive to- 
 day did not exist. The biographies of Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Di- 
 15 
 
140 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 agoras, Socrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and of others, who were 
 condemned on account of their " impiety " (d<re/3em), tell quite another 
 story. 
 
 [Limitations of church and state in their control over the 
 school school independent in the control of its internal man- 
 agement. " Emancipation of the school," in 1848, a great politi- 
 cal watchword. Education (ErzieJiung) distinguished from in- 
 struction ( Unterricht).] 
 
 136. The inspection of the school may be carried 
 out in different ways, but it must be required that its 
 special institutions shall be included and cared for as an 
 organized and interrelated whole, framed in accordance 
 with the idea of the state, and that one division of the 
 ministry shall occupy itself exclusively with it. The 
 division of labor will specially affect the schools for 
 teaching particular vocations. The prescription of the 
 subjects to be studied in each school as appropriate to it, 
 of the course of study, and of the object thereof, prop- 
 erly falls to this department of government (the school 
 board), is its immediate work, and its theory must be 
 changed according to the progress and needs of the 
 time. . . . Sketches of plans for school systems, how- 
 ever correct they may be, depend upon the actual sum 
 of culture of a people and a time, and must therefore 
 continually modify their fundamental ideal. The same 
 is true of the methods of instruction in the special arts 
 and sciences. Niemeyer, Schwarz, Herbart, in their 
 sketches of pedagogics, Beneke in his " Theory of Edu- 
 cation," and others, have set forth in detail the method 
 of teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic, languages, 
 natural science, geography, history, etc. Such directions 
 are, however, ephemeral in value, and only relatively 
 useful, and must, in order to be truly practical, be of teo 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 
 
 revised in accordance with universal educational princi- 
 ples, and with the progress of science and art. [Notes 
 on questions of school supervision in Prussia, in 1848, 
 here omitted.] 
 
 [School inspection. Inspection ought to extend over the 
 whole, so that it may treat each part in its organic relation to 
 the rest. Programmes of studies, methods of teaching special 
 branches, are of ephemeral value and need frequent revision.] 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PRAGMATICS (EDUCATION OF THE WILL). 
 
 137. BOTH physical and intellectual education are 
 in the highest degree practical. The first reduces the 
 merely natural (i. e., the body) to a tool which mind 
 shall use for its own ends ; the second guides the intelli- 
 gence, by ways conformable to its nature, to the neces- 
 sary method of the art of teaching and learning, which 
 finally branches out in the nation into a system of mu- 
 tually dependent school organizations. But in a nar- 
 rower sense we mean by practical education the method- 
 ical development of the will. This phrase more clearly 
 expresses the topic to be considered in this division 
 than another sometimes used in the science of education 
 (Bestrebiingsvermogen^ conatiye power). The will is 
 already the subject of a science of its own, i. e., of 
 ethics ; and if the science of education would proceed 
 in anywise scientifically, it must recognize and presup- 
 pose the idea and the existence of this science. It should 
 
14:2 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 not restate in full the doctrines of freedom, of duty, of 
 virtue, and of conscience, although we have often seen 
 this done in works on education. Education has to deal 
 with the ideas of freedom and morality only so far as to 
 fix the technique of their process, and at the same time 
 to confess itself weakest just here, where - nothing is of 
 any worth without pure self-determination. 
 
 [The special elements of education are : A. Physical Education ; 
 B. Intellectual Education ; C. Pragmatics, or Education of the 
 Will. "Practical" refers to the will-power. The complete 
 science of the will is called Ethics. Education borrows the 
 conclusions of that science and restates them only in outline.] 
 
 138. The pupil must (1) become civilized ; i. e., he 
 must learn to govern, as a thing external to him, his 
 natural egotism, and to make the forms which civilized 
 society has adopted his own. (2) He must 'become im- 
 bued with morality ; i. e., he must learn to determine 
 his actions, not only with reference to what is agreeable 
 and useful, but according to the principle of the good ; 
 he must become internally free, form a character, and 
 must habitually look upon the necessity of freedom as 
 the absolute measure of his actions. (3) He must be- 
 come religious ; i. e., he must discern that the world, 
 with all its changes, himself included, is only phenom- 
 enal ; the affirmative side of this insight into the empti- 
 ness of the finite and transitory (which man would so 
 willingly make everlasting) is the consciousness of the 
 Absolute existing in and for itself. The Absolute, with- 
 out change and entirely unaffected by the process of 
 manifestation, constitutes no factor of its changes, but, 
 while it actually makes them its object, permeates them 
 all, and freely distinguishes itself from them. In so far 
 as man relates himself to God, he cancels all finitude 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 143 
 
 and transitoriness, and by this feeling frees himself from 
 the externality of phenomena. Virtue on the side of 
 civilization is politeness; on that of morality, consci- 
 entiousness ; and on that of religion, humility. 
 
 [The youth must (1) become civilized; (2) acquire a moral 
 will ; (3) become religious. Civilized man subordinates his ani- 
 mal selfishness and wears the forms of society as though they 
 were his nature. Morality subjects all motives to one supreme 
 motive, the principle of the good. Religion sees the world and 
 all its phenomena, including the " deeds done in the body," to be 
 mere transient appearances, while, on the other hand, in God it 
 contemplates absolute existence above the realm of change and 
 decay. 
 
 Three stages of virtue: (a) politeness the virtue of civiliza- 
 tion ; (b) conscientiousness the virtue of morality ; (c) humility 
 the virtue of religion. Humility is the virtue named in the 
 Beatitudes as possessed by " the poor in spirit," the " poverty " 
 wedded by St. Francis (Dante's Paradiso, canto xi, 58).l 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 EDUCATIOK OF THE WILL (continued), 
 (a) Social Culture. 
 
 139. THE social development of man constitutes 
 the beginning of practical education. It is not neces- 
 sary to suppose a special social instinct. The inclination 
 of man to the society of men does not arise from the 
 identity of their nature alone, but is also in each special 
 instance affected by particular relations. The natural 
 starting-point of social culture is the family. But this 
 in turn educates the child for society, and by means of 
 
144 TEE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 society the individual enters into relation with the world 
 at large. Thus natural sympathy changes to polite be- 
 havior, and the latter again to the thrifty and circum- 
 spect deportment, whose proper ideal nevertheless is 
 before all the ethical purity which combines with the 
 wisdom of the serpent the harmlessness of the dove. 
 
 [The beginning of all eduction of the will is to be found in 
 social manners and customs. This is given in the family, where 
 the child learns the manifold forms of behavior toward others, 
 his equals, inferiors, and superiors.] 
 
 14.0. (1) The family is the natural social circle to 
 which man primarily belongs. In it all the immediate 
 differences which exist are compensated by the equally 
 immediate unity of the relationship. The subordina- 
 tion of the wife to the husband, of the children to their 
 parents, of the younger children to their elder brothers 
 and sisters, ceases to be subordination, through the in- 
 timacy of love. The child learns obedience to authority, 
 while it satisfies its parents and finds its own gratifica- 
 tion in their approval. All the relations in which he 
 finds himself within the family are penetrated by the 
 warmth of implicit confidence, which can be replaced 
 for the child by nothing else. In this sacred circle the 
 tenderest emotions of the heart are developed by the 
 personal interest of all its members in what happens to 
 any one of their number, and thus the foundation is 
 laid of a susceptibility to all genuine or hearty social 
 intercourse. 
 
 Nothing more unreasonable or inhuman could exist than those 
 modern theories (of. French socialists) which would destroy the 
 family and would leave the children, the offspring of the unbridled 
 natural instinct, to grow up in public nurseries. This appears to be 
 very humane to them ; indeed, these, socialists talk of nothing but 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 145 
 
 the interests of " humanity " they are never weary of uttering their 
 insipid jests on the institution of the family, as if it were the prin- 
 ciple of all narrow-mindedness. Have these fanatics, who are seek- 
 ing after an abstraction of humanity, ever examined our foundling- 
 hospitals, orphan asylums, barracks, and prisons, to discover in some 
 degree to what an atomic barren intelligence a human being de- 
 velops who has never formed a part of a family ? The family is, of 
 course, only one phase in the grand order of the ethical organization ; 
 but it is the substantial phase from which man passively proceeds, 
 but into which, as he founds a family of his own, he actively returns. 
 The child lives in the family, shares the common joy and grief, and 
 feels sympathy with all. In the emotion with which he sees his 
 parents approach death while he is hastening toward the full enjoy- 
 ment of existence, he experiences the finer feelings which are so 
 powerful in creating in him a deeper and more tender understand- 
 ing of everything human. . . . 
 
 [The family is the natural social circle its association does not 
 depend on free choice, but on the natural accident of birth. All 
 the differences of rank, all subordination and inferiority, are at 
 once compensated by the natural intimacy of kinship and family 
 love. Each one feels his unity of substance with the other mem- 
 bers of the family, and hence suffers in their sorrow and rejoices 
 in their happiness. Hence, obedience to the authority of the 
 parents is rendered by the child with an intense feeling of grati- 
 fication at winning their approval. This development of living 
 for others and through others in the family lays the foundation 
 of social intercourse.] 
 
 141. (2) The family, however, educates the chil- 
 dren not for itself but for civil society. In the latter a 
 system of manners and customs is formed which fur- 
 nishes a social formula or fixed code of etiquette to 
 determine the behavior of the individual in society. 
 This social code endeavors to subdue the natural rough- 
 ness of man, at least as far as it manifests itself exter. 
 nally. Because he is a spiritual being, man is not to 
 yield himself to his immediate impulses ; he is to ex- 
 hibit to man his naturalness as under the control of 
 
146 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 spirit. The etiquette of propriety on the one hand 
 facilitates the manifestation of individuality by means 
 of which one person becomes interesting to others, inas- 
 much as it encourages free expression of individual dif- 
 ferences, and, on the other hand, since its forms are 
 alike for all, it makes them recognize the equality of 
 each individual with all others, and so makes their inter- 
 course easier. 
 
 The conventional form is no mere constraint ; but essentially a 
 protection not only for the freedom of the individual, but much 
 more the protection of the individual against the rude impetuosity 
 of his own naturalness. Savages and peasants for this reason are, in 
 their relations to each other, by no means as unconstrained as one 
 often represents them, but hold closely to a ceremonious behavior. 
 There is in one of Immerman's stories, "The Village Justice," a 
 very excellent picture of the conventional forms with which the 
 peasant loves to surround himself. The scene in which the towns- 
 man, who thinks that he can dispense with forms among the peasants, 
 is very entertainingly taught better, is exceedingly valuable in an 
 educational point of view. The feeling of shame which man has in 
 regard to his mere naturalness is often extended to relations where 
 it has no direct significance, when this sense of shame is appealed to 
 in children in reference to things which are really perfectly indiffer- 
 ent externalities. 
 
 [The object of the social code is to subdue the natural rude- 
 ness that belongs to man as a mere animal, and thus clothe the 
 brutal with a garb of unselfish forms. The essence of politeness 
 consists in treating others as if they were perfectly ideal people. 
 The polite person utterly ignores all rudeness shown him, and 
 treats others as if they intended the same politeness toward him. 
 He prefers others before himself, and adopts as a second nature 
 the form of divine charity or " altruism," which devotes itself to 
 the good of others. Politeness is only the form of this altruism ; 
 morality and religion are the substance of it. Since the form of 
 politeness is the same for all the same for the king as for the 
 beggar it follows that politeness is the ceremonial form by 
 which we celebrate the equality of all men in the substance of 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 
 
 their humanity. " All are equal before God " ; and also before 
 the ideal of politeness. This, as Rosenkranz says, makes social 
 intercourse easier.] 
 
 142. Education with regard to social culture lias 
 two extremes to avoid: the youth may, in his effort to 
 prove his individuality, become vain and conceited, and 
 fall into a sort of mania for attracting the attention of 
 others ; or he may become slavishly dependent on con- 
 ventional forms, a kind of social pedant. This state of 
 nullity which contents itself with the mechanical polish 
 of social formalism is ethically more dangerous than the 
 tendency to a marked individuality, for it betrays empti- 
 ness ; while the effort toward a peculiar differentiation 
 from others, and the desire to become interesting to 
 others, indicate power. 
 
 [Two extremes of social culture to be avoided : (1) accentua- 
 tion of individuality by deviations from the code of politeness to 
 such a degree as to become a mania for attracting attention; 
 (2) slavish dependence on the conventional forms to such an ex- 
 tent as to appear constrained and pedantic. The latter indicates 
 weakness of individuality, the former strength.] 
 
 143. When we have a harmony of the manifesta- 
 tion of the individual with the expression of the recog- 
 nition of the equality of others, we have what is called 
 proper deportment or politeness, which combines dig- 
 nity and grace, self-respect and modesty. We call it, 
 when fully complete, urbanity. It treats the conven- 
 tional forms with irony, since, at the same time that it 
 yields to them, it allows the productivity of spirit to 
 shine through them in small deviations from them, as if 
 it were fully able to make others in their place. 
 
 True politeness shows that it remains master of forms. It is 
 very necessary to accustom children to courtesy and to bring them 
 up in the etiquette of the prevailing social custom ; but they must 
 
14:8 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 be prevented from falling into silly formality which makes the 
 highest perfection of polite behavior to consist in a blind following 
 of the dictates of the last fashion-journal, and in the exact copying 
 of the phraseology and directions of some book on manners. One 
 can best teach and practice politeness when he does not merely copy 
 the social technique, but comprehends its original idea. . . . 
 
 [Urbanity the name for perfect politeness. (Notice that ur- 
 banity is from urbs, the Latin for city, while politeness is from 
 polis, the Greek for city as if social culture were born in cities, 
 where the constant intercourse of people renders necessary a 
 code of manners.) Urbanity " treats the conventional forms of 
 politeness with irony," i. e., it lets it be apparent that it does not 
 practice the strict forms of etiquette mechanically, but merely 
 submits to them outwardly, while within it feels a much more 
 tender and hearty respect for others than is or can be expressed 
 by those stiff, conventional forms. It therefore " makes small 
 deviation from them" in the direction of greater familiarity 
 and friendliness, showing that it possesses the substance of 
 politeness in its devotion to the good of others, and that it can 
 therefore invent new forms of etiquette. Within the family 
 there reigns the unconstrained expression of devotion to others 
 in polite society, the conventional forms of considerateness 
 for others' welfare in its perfect form of urbanity, a sort of 
 shining through of the family love.] 
 
 144. (3) But to fully initiate the youth into the 
 institutions of civilization one must not only call out 
 the feelings of his heart in the bosom of the family, not 
 only give to him the formal refinement necessary to his 
 intercourse with society ; it must also perform the pain- 
 ful duty of making him acquainted with the mysteries 
 of the ways of the world. This duty is painful, because 
 the child naturally feels an unlimited confidence in all 
 men. This confidence must be modified and restricted 
 but not destroyed. The mystery of the way of the 
 world is the practice of deception which originates in 
 selfishness. "We must provide against it by a proper 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 
 
 degree of distrust. We must teach the youth that he 
 may be imposed upon by cunning, dissimulation, and 
 hypocrisy, and that therefore he must not give his con- 
 fidence lightly and credulously. He himself must learn 
 how he can, without using deceit, gain his own ends in 
 the midst of the throng of opposing interests. 
 
 Kant in his pedagogics calls that worldly-wise behavior, by which 
 the individual is to demean himself in opposition to others, impene- 
 trability. By its means man learns how to " manage men." Egotism 
 is like the blast of a simoom in its withering effects on the moral 
 character when it is practiced as Lord Chesterfield recommends it in 
 his letters to his son. . . . The sum of his teachings amounts to this, 
 that we are to consider every man to be an egotist, and to convert 
 his very egotism into a means of finding out his weak side, i. e., to 
 flatter him by exciting his vanity, and by means of such flattery to 
 ascertain his limits. In common life, the expression " to know the 
 world " means about the same thing as having been deceived and 
 betrayed. 
 
 [Social culture has also a negative duty that of forewarning 
 youth against the selfishness of the world and its forms of 
 deceit and violence. Cunning, dissimulation, and hypocrisy, 
 may impose on the youth. He must be on his guard.] 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 EDUCATION OF THE WILL (continued). 
 (5) Moral Culture. 
 
 145. THE essential element of social culture is 
 found in moral character. "Without this latter, every 
 graceful device of behavior remains worthless, and can 
 never attain that purity of humility and dignity which 
 
150 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 are possible to it in its unity with morality. For the 
 detailed treatment of this idea the science of education 
 must refer to ethics itself, and can here give the part of 
 its content which relates to education only in the form 
 of educational maxims. The principal categories of 
 ethics in the domain of morality are the ideas of duty, 
 virtue, and conscience. Education must lay stress on 
 the truth that nothing in the world has any absolute 
 value except will guided by the right. 
 
 [Morality is a department of Ethics in the system here fol- 
 lowed. Ethics includes manners and customs, forms of eti- 
 quette, statute laws, forms of government, the organized forms 
 of human industry and the like as well as morality, which is 
 only the subjective aspect of Ethics. Ethics relates, therefore, to 
 the whole of the formal part of life that fits man to live in the 
 institutions of civilization. Morality refers to the individual 
 conviction of duty hence, to the internal ideal, the form of the 
 perfect man. The principal categories of Morality are (1) Duty ; 
 (2) Virtue ; (3) Conscience. " Nothing in the world has an abso- 
 lute value except will guided by the right," Rosenkranz says, 
 " except the pure will." In his philosophy " pure will " means 
 the will as self-related. "When I guide my action by moral law 
 I guide my will by my will instead of letting external circum- 
 stances or internal impulses guide it. The will acting upon the 
 will is pure will, and this is the essence of morality. Again, 
 morality is the form of will or that general form of volition 
 which will not contradict itself and reduce to zero. Immoral 
 acts injure one's self and society, and, if persisted in, would ulti- 
 mately cripple or destroy the self and society, and thus cancel the 
 will itself. Hence, the pure will is the form in which the will 
 of the individual re-enforces the will of society, and is in turn 
 re-enforced by it.] 
 
 146. Thence follows (1) the maxim relating to the 
 idea of duty, that we must accustom the pupil to un- 
 conditional obedience to it, so that he shall perform it 
 for no other reason than that it is duty. The perform- 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 151 
 
 ance of a duty may bring with it externally a result 
 agreeable or disagreeable, useful or harmful; but the 
 consideration of such consequences ought never to de- 
 termine us. This moral demand, though it may appear 
 to be excessive severity, is the absolute foundation of 
 all genuine ethical practice. All " highest happiness " 
 theories, however finely spun they may be, when taken 
 as a guide for life, lead at last to sophistry, and to con- 
 tradictions ruinous to life. 
 
 [The pupil must be accustomed to unconditional obedience 
 to duty. Eudemonism, or the doctrine that we should seek the 
 highest happiness, is not a sufficient theory, because it implies 
 that the individual shall weigh the consequences of his deed. 
 But no individual can weigh the consequences of his puniest 
 act.] 
 
 147. (2) Yirtue must make actual what duty com- 
 mands, or, rather, the actualizing of duty is virtue. And 
 here we may mention, by way of caption, that the prin- 
 cipal things to be considered under virtue are (a) the 
 dialectic of particular virtues, (5) moral discipline, and 
 (<?) character. 
 
 [Virtue, which is the practice of actualizing duty, involves 
 
 three things : (a) the dialectic of the different forms of virtue ; 
 
 (b) moral discipline ; (c) character as the result.] 
 
 148. (a) From the dialectic [i. e., the consideration 
 of the interdependence of the virtues and their mutual 
 support, as well as their reciprocal limitation] of particu- 
 lar virtues there follows the educational maxim that we 
 must practice all with equal faithfulness, for all together 
 constitute an ethical system complete in itself, in which 
 no one virtue is indifferent to another. 
 
 Morality should recognize no distinction of superiority among 
 the different virtues. They reciprocally determine each other. There 
 16 
 
152 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 is no such thing as one virtue which shines out above the others, nor 
 is there any special gift for virtue. The pupil must be taught that 
 there are no great and no small among the virtues, for that one which 
 may at first sight seem small is inseparably connected with that 
 which is seemingly the greatest. Many virtues are attractive by rea- 
 son of their external consequences, as, e. g., industry because of suc- 
 cess in business, worthy conduct because of the respect paid to it, 
 charity because of the pleasure attending it ; but man should not 
 practice these virtues because he enjoys them : he must devote the 
 same amount of self-sacrifice and of assiduity to those virtues which 
 (as Christ said) are to be performed in secret. 
 
 It is especially valuable, in an educational respect, to gain an 
 insight into the transition, of which each virtue is empirically capa- 
 ble, into a negative as well as into a positive extreme. The differ- 
 ences between the extremes and the golden mean are differences in 
 quality, although they arrive at this difference in quality by means 
 of difference in quantity. Kant has, as is well known, attacked the 
 Aristotelian doctrine of the ethical /ueo-JrTjs, since he was considering 
 the qualitative difference of the disposition or intention as the decid- 
 ing principle. This is the correct procedure when treating of the 
 moral subject that acts, but in the objective development of the 
 actions themselves, we arrive, on the other hand, at the determina- 
 tion of a quantitative Jimit, e. g., a man, with the most earnest inten- 
 tion of doing right, may be in doubt whether he has not, in any task, 
 done more or less than was fitting for him. 
 
 As no virtue can cease its demands upon us, no one can permit 
 any exceptions or any provisional circumstances to come in the way 
 of his duties. Our moral culture will always certainly manifest itself 
 in very unequal phases if we, out of narrowness and weakness, neg- 
 lect entirely one virtue while we diligently cultivate another. If 
 we are forced into such unequal action, we are not responsible for 
 the result ; but it is dangerous and deserves punishment if we vol- 
 untarily encourage it. The pupil must be warned against a certain 
 moral negligence which consists in yielding to certain weaknesses, 
 faults, or crimes, a little longer and a little longer, because he has 
 fixed a certain time after which he intends to do better. Up to that 
 time he allows himself to be a loiterer in ethics. Perhaps he will as- 
 sert that his companions, his surroundings, his position, etc., must 
 be changed before he can alter his internal conduct. Wherever edu- 
 cation or temperament favors sentimentality, we shall find birth-days, 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 153 
 
 new-year's-day, confirmation-day, etc., selected as these turning- 
 points. It is not to be denied that man proceeds in his internal life 
 from epoch to epoch, and renews himself in his most internal nature, 
 nor can we deny that moments like those mentioned are especially 
 favorable in man to an effort toward self -transformation because they 
 invite self-examination ; but it is not to be permitted that the youth, 
 while looking forward to such a moment, should consciously persist 
 in his evil-doing. If he does, we shall have as consequences that when 
 the appointed time which he has set at last arrives, at the stirring of 
 the first emotion he perceives with terror that he has changed noth- 
 ing in himself ; that the same temptations are present to him, the 
 same weakness takes possession of him. In our business, in our theo- 
 retical endeavors, it may certainly happen that, on account of want 
 of time, or means, or humor, we may put off some work to another 
 time ; but morality stands on a higher plane than these, because it, 
 as the concrete absoluteness of the will [see commentary to 145 : 
 morality demands only such actions as do not contradict the will of 
 the social whole ; immoral acts are therefore such as would destroy 
 society if persisted in], makes unceasing demand on the whole and 
 undivided man. In morality there are no vacations, no interims. 
 As we in ascending a flight of stairs take good care not to make a 
 single misstep, and give our conscious attention to every step, so we 
 must not allow any exceptions in moral affairs, must not appoint 
 given times for better conduct, but must await these last as natural 
 crises, and must seek to live in time as in eternity. 
 
 [The dialectic is the interaction of the several species of 
 virtues, where they conflict, or where they mutually limit, or, 
 finally, where they re-enforce each other. 
 
 Virtues are to be practiced not because they are pleasurable, 
 but because of the duties they involve. 
 
 Some virtues, however, have negative and positive extremes 
 wherein they conflict, and find quantitative limits. Aristotle 
 mentions the following virtues as consisting in a mean (/ueo^TTjs) 
 between two extremes courage (between rashness and coward- 
 ice), temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, proper 
 mean between ambition and the want of it, meekness, plain 
 speaking of the truth, pleasantry, sociability, modesty, righteous 
 indignation. 
 
 No virtue may be neglected for another. The worst results 
 follow from the habit of procrastinating the performance of a 
 
154 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 duty or the indulgence of a weakness until a fixed day. The 
 person who " turns over a new leaf " on an important epoch is 
 apt to turn it back again soon after. The will must not be 
 trifled with. Duty must be obeyed now. To permit a tempo- 
 rary lapse from virtue occasionally is as inadmissible as allow- 
 ing one's self now and then a misstep in ascending a flight of 
 stairs. Such missteps undo the whole work.] 
 
 14-9. (5) From moral culture springs the injunction 
 of self-government. The action of education on the 
 will with a view to form habits in it, is discipline or 
 training in a narrower sense. Moral training teaches us 
 to know the relation in which we in fact, as historical 
 persons, stand to the idea of the good. From our per- 
 sonal knowledge of ourselves as individuals we derive 
 the idea of our limits ; from the absolute knowledge of 
 ourselves as human, on the other hand, which reveals to 
 us freedom as the innermost ideal of our spiritual na- 
 ture, we derive the conception of the resistless power of 
 the genuine will for the good. But to actualize this 
 conception we must have practice. This practice consti- 
 tutes the proper moral culture. Every man must devise 
 for himself some special set of rules, which shall be de- 
 termined by his peculiarities and his resulting tempta- 
 tions. These rules must have as their innermost essence 
 the subduing of self, the vanquishing of his negative 
 arbitrariness by means of the universality and necessity 
 of the will. 
 
 In order to make this easy, the youth may be practiced in re- 
 nouncing for himself even the arbitrariness which is permitted to him. 
 One often speaks of moral discipline as if it belonged especially to 
 the middle ages and to Catholicism ; but this is an error. Ascetic 
 discipline in its one-sided form as relying on works of piety, and for 
 the purpose of mortification, belongs to them ; but discipline in gen- 
 eral is a necessary instrumentality of morals. The keeping of a 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 155 
 
 journal is said to assist in the practice of virtue, but its value de- 
 pends on how it is kept. To one it may be a curse, to another a 
 blessing. Fichte, Goethe, Byron, and others, have kept journals and 
 have been assisted thereby ; while others, as Lavater, have been hin- 
 dered by them. Vain people will every evening record with pen and 
 ink their admiration of the correct course of life which they have 
 led during the day. 
 
 [From the exercise of virtue (German Askese, not quite "as- 
 ceticism," from the Greek "Aa-Kijffis) arises the maxim enjoining 
 self-control. The will for the good is (see 145, commentary) 
 . the will for the form of all will that does not contradict itself 
 the form in which all may act, never contradict, but always 
 re-enforce each other, and hence the good is the form of resist- 
 less human might.] 
 
 150. (c) The result of the practice in virtue, or, to 
 express it philosophically, of the individual actualization 
 of freedom, is the methodical development of the indi- 
 vidual will as character. This conception of character 
 is a merely formal one, for it considers only the un- 
 changeable habit formed by the will, and according to 
 which it directs its course in dealing with external af- 
 fairs. As there are good, strong, and beautiful charac- 
 ters, so there are also bad, weak, and detestable ones. 
 When in the science of education, therefore, we speak 
 so much of the building up of a character, we mean 
 good character, or the making permanent of a direction 
 of the individual will toward the actualization of the 
 good. Freedom ought to be the character of character. 
 Education must, therefore, observe closely the inter- 
 action of the factors which go to form character, viz., 
 (a) the temperament, as the natural character of the 
 man ; (/3) external events, the historical element ; (7) 
 the energy of the will, by which, within its limits of 
 nature and history, it realizes the idea of the good in 
 
156 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 and for itself as the proper ethical character. Tem- 
 perament determines the mode and manner of our ex- 
 ternal manifestation of ourselves ; the events in which 
 we live assign to us the ethical problems, but the will in 
 its sovereignty stamps its seal on the structure built up 
 from these materials. Education aims at accustoming 
 the youth to freedom, so that he shall always measure 
 his deed by the idea of the good. It does not desire a 
 formal independence, which may also be called charac- 
 ter, but a real independence resting upon the conception 
 of freedom as that which is absolutely necessary. The 
 pedagogical maxim is, then : Be independent, but be so 
 through doing good. 
 
 According to preconceived opinion, stubbornness and obstinacy 
 indicate a firm basis of character. But these may spring from weak- 
 ness and indecision, on which account one needs to be well on his 
 guard. A gentle disposition, through enthusiasm for the good, may 
 attain to quite as great a firmness of will. Coarseness and meanness 
 are on no account to be tolerated. 
 
 [The methodical development of the individual will, by the 
 practice of virtue or vice, produces character, in the formal sense 
 of the word as indicating either good or bad character. We 
 mean good character when we use the word absolutely, and 
 speak of a "person of character." Education takes account 
 of the factors that form character. (1) The temperament and 
 natural proclivities ; (2) the external historic environment ; (3) 
 the energy of the will.] 
 
 151. (3) The consideration of the culture of charac- 
 ter leads to the subject of conscience. This is the com- 
 parison which the moral agent makes between himself 
 as he is and his ideal self. He compares himself, in his 
 past or future, with his nature, and judges himself ac- 
 cordingly as good or bad. This independence which 
 belongs to the ethical judgment is the true soul of all 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 157 
 
 morality, the negation of all self-illusion and of all de- 
 ception through another. The educational maxim is: 
 Be conscientious. Depend in your final decision en- 
 tirely on your conception of what is right. 
 
 The self-examination prompted by conscience prevails through- 
 out all the situations of life, and is the ground of all our rational 
 progress. Fichte's stern words remain, therefore, eternally true: 
 " He who has a bad character, must absolutely create for himself a 
 better one." 
 
 [Conscience the criticism which the ideal self makes on the 
 
 realized self. This is the highest authority within man.] 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 EDUCATION OF THE WILL (continued). 
 
 (c) Meligious Culture. 
 
 152. SOCIAL culture contains the formal phase, mot 
 al culture the real phase, of the practical mind. Con' 
 science forms the transition to religious culture. In its 
 universal and necessary nature, it reveals the absolute 
 authority of spirit. The individual discerns in the 
 depths of his own consciousness commands possessing 
 universality and necessity to which he has to subject 
 himself. They appear to him as the voice of God. Re- 
 ligion makes its appearance as soon as the individual 
 distinguishes the Absolute from himself, as a personal 
 Subject existing for and by Himself, and therefore for 
 him. The atheist remains at the stage of insight into 
 the absoluteness of the logical and physical, aesthetic 
 and practical categories. He may, therefore, be per- 
 
158 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION". 
 
 fectly moral. But lie lacks religion, though he loves to 
 characterize his uprightness by this name, and to trans- 
 fer the dogmatic definitions of positive religion into the 
 ethical sphere. It belongs to the province of religion 
 that I demean myself toward the Absolute not merely as 
 my own substance, I alone being the conscious subject, 
 but that for me the substance in itself is also a conscious 
 personal subject. If I look upon myself as the only ab- 
 solute, I make myself devoid of spiritual essence. If I 
 am the only absolute self-consciousness, there remains 
 only the impulse to a persistent conflict with every self- 
 consciousness not identical with me. Such a self -con- 
 sciousness would be only theoretical irony [i. e., it would 
 deny itself in another, while it pretended to recognize 
 itself in that other]. In religion I know the Absolute 
 as essence, when I am known by Him. Everything else, 
 myself included, is finite and transitory, however sig- 
 nificant it may be, however relatively and for the mo- 
 ment the Infinite may exist in it. In all finite existence 
 the Infinite manifests itself only temporarily. But the 
 Absolute, realizing itself, distinguishing itself from it- 
 self even in its unity with itself, is always self-identical, 
 and takes up all the unrest of the phenomenal world 
 back again into its simple essence. 
 
 [Politeness is the form, morality the substance or reality of 
 the will or practical side of man. Conscience is the bridge that 
 leads from morality over to religion. Religion begins when the 
 individual recognizes personality in the highest principle in the 
 universe. A " moral order of the world," a " persistent force," 
 a " supreme idea," and " an absolute harmony " are, respectively, 
 practical, physical, logical, and esthetic categories, but neither 
 of them is a religious category. The highest principle must be 
 a Person, and I must recognize him as such, and his recognition 
 of me is the highest object of my destiny.] 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 159 
 
 153. This process of the individual spirit, in which 
 it rises out of the multiplicity of all relations into union 
 with the absolute as the substantial subject, and in whom 
 nature and history are united, we may call, in a re- 
 stricted sense, a change of heart. . . . The highest emo- 
 tions of the heart culminate in religion, whose warmth 
 is inspired by practical activity and conscientiousness. 
 
 [" Change of heart " Rosenkranz says Gemutli, which means 
 the inner life of the soul and also a cheerful disposition. Hegel 
 says that only the Teutonic branches of the human race possess 
 Gemutli, " that undeveloped, indefinite totality of spiritual being 
 realized in the will rather than in the intellect." The Romanic 
 nations he distinguishes as having " character," but not Gemutli. 
 Character surrenders itself to a principle, but heart surrenders 
 itself to a principle only with a reserve, for " heart " feels its 
 own personality, and will not surrender to an abstraction, but 
 only to a person.] 
 
 154. Education has to prepare man for religion in 
 the following respects : (1) It gives him the conception 
 of it ; (2) it endeavors to have this conception realized 
 in his life ; (3) it subordinates the theoretical and practi- 
 cal process in adapting him to a special standpoint of 
 religious culture. 
 
 In the working out or detailed treatment of the science of educa- 
 tion, the position which the conception of religion occupies is very 
 uncertain. Many writers on education place it at the beginning, 
 while others reserve it for the end. Others naively bring it forward 
 abruptly in the midst of heterogeneous surroundings, but know very 
 little to say concerning it, and urge teachers to kindle the fire of re- 
 ligious feeling in their pupils by teaching them to fear God. Through 
 all their writing, we hear the cry that in education nothing is so im- 
 portant as religion. Rightly understood, this saying is quite true. 
 The religious spirit, the consciousness of the Absolute, and the rever- 
 ence for Him, should permeate all. Not unfrequently, however, we 
 find that what is meant by religion is theology, or the church cere- 
 monial, and these are only one-sided phases of the total religious 
 
160 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 process. [Allusion to religion in English colleges and universities 
 
 omitted.] Religion must form the culminating point of education. 
 
 It takes up into itself the didactical and practical elements, and gives 
 
 to their matter a universal form. 
 
 [The respects in which education has to prepare the youth for 
 religion are threefold : (1) It must teach him its theory ; (2) it 
 must train him into the habit of religious observances and a re- 
 ligious life; (3) it must make these theoretical and practical 
 phases of religion conform to the tenets of some particular de- 
 nomination or " to some special standpoint of religious culture."] 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 EDUCATION OF THE WILL. (c) BeligiOUS Culture (COD- 
 
 timied). 
 
 (/) The Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 155. RELIGION, in common with every spiritual 
 activity, must pass through three stages feeling, con- 
 ception, and comprehension. Whatever the special 
 character of any religion may be, it can not avoid this 
 psychological necessity, either in its general history or 
 in the history of the individual. The teacher must 
 understand this process, partly in order that he may 
 make it easier to the pupil, partly that he may guard 
 against the perversion of the religious feeling which 
 may arise through the fact of the youth's remaining in 
 one stage after he is ready for another and needs it. 
 The science of education must therefore here refer to 
 the philosophy of religion for a complete discussion of 
 this idea. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 161 
 
 [Religion has three stages : (a) feeling ; (I) conception or repre- 
 sentation ; (c) comprehension or insight. These, it will be noted, 
 correspond to the three psychological stages of the intellect 
 ( 84), the perceptive (or intuitive), imaginative, and logical 
 epochs.] 
 
 156. (1) Eeligion exists first as religions feeling. 
 The individual is through feeling still immediately 
 under the control of the divine, does not yet distin- 
 guish himself from the absoluteness of his own essence, 
 and is in so far swayed by it. In so far as he feels the 
 divine, he is a mystery to himself. This beginning is 
 indispensable. Religion can not be produced in men 
 by an education in external matters ; its genesis belongs 
 rather to the primitive depths in which God himself 
 and the individual soul are essentially one. 
 
 The educator must not allow himself to suppose that he is able 
 to make a religion. Religion dwells originally in every individual 
 soul, for every one is born of God. Education can only aid the de- 
 velopment of the religious feeling. As far as regards the psychologi- 
 cal form, it was quite correct for Schleiermacher and his followers 
 to characterize the essential element of the religious feeling as the 
 feeling of dependence, for feeling takes its character from that 
 which it feels ; it depends upon its object. But in so far as God con- 
 stitutes the object of the feeling, there enters it absolute emancipa- 
 tion, or the opposite of all dependence. I have maintained this in 
 opposition to Schleiermacher. Religion lifts man above the finite, 
 temporal, and transitory, and frees him from the pressure of external 
 circumstances. Even the lowest form of religion does this; and 
 when it is said that Schleiermacher has been unjustly criticised for 
 this expression of dependence, this distinction is overlooked. 
 
 [Peeling or emotion is the indispensable first basis of religion. 
 But if it goes no further than mere feeling, the devotee does not 
 find himself able to recognize God as personal. To him God is 
 therefore a fetich, an immediate manifestation in matter, and 
 hostile to man's freedom and intelligence. Schleiermacher held 
 that religion arose in the feeling of dependence, and that this 
 remained its essential element. But Rosenkranz points out that 
 
162 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 religion lifts man above the trammels of the finite and transi- 
 tory, and therefore gives him independence of the world.] 
 
 157. But religious feeling as such rises into some- 
 thing higher when the spirit distinguishes the content 
 of this religious feeling from any other content which 
 it also feels, forms for itself a mental image of it, and 
 thus objectifies it, and thereby is enabled to assume a 
 free attitude toward it. 
 
 We must not understand that the religious feeling is destroyed 
 in this process ; in rising from vague feeling to a mental image of 
 the object of feeling, it persists as a necessary form of the intelli- 
 gence. 
 
 [A higher stage of religion rises out of this vague and nebu- 
 lous condition of mere feeling, and begins to define the divine as 
 an object of the imagination.] 
 
 158. If the mind is held back and prevented from 
 passing out of the simplicity of feeling into the act of 
 distinguishing its object by perception, or recalling it 
 and representing it as a mental image, if its efforts 
 toward the forming of this representation are continually 
 redissolved into feeling, then feeling, which w^as as the 
 first step perfectly healthy and correct, will become 
 morbid and degenerate into a wretched mysticism. 
 Education must, therefore, remember that this feeling 
 is not destroyed by the progress of its content into per- 
 ception and conception on the side of psychological 
 form, but rather that it attains truth thereby. 
 
 [Mysticism is produced by the arrested development of re- 
 ligious feeling. The devotee holds back from mental images 
 and forms of the imagination, fearing to anthropomorphize the 
 conception of the Divine Being. He does not, however, for this 
 reason, attain a purer idea of Him, but tends rather to destroy 
 all the attributes of personality in his conception of the Absolute, 
 and leave it an empty abstraction like the Brahm of the Hindoos, 
 or the Supreme Being (Vtre Supreme) of the French deists. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 163 
 
 Education, therefore, makes a mistake if it attempts to elevate 
 the pupil at once from the stage of feeling to that of compre- 
 hension and insight without passing through the stage of im- 
 agination.] 
 
 159. (2) Representation retains perception, trans- 
 formed into conception. It develops the different phases 
 of the religious content, and follows each of these to its 
 consequence. Imagination controls the individual con- 
 ceptions, but by no means with that absoluteness which 
 is often supposed ; for each picture has in itself its logi- 
 cal consequence to which imagination must yield ; e. g., 
 if a religion represents God as an animal, or as half ani- 
 mal and half man, or as man, the conception chosen has 
 in its development its consequences for the imagination. 
 
 [Religious imagination is not mere idle fancy, but its images 
 have a logical sequence, and adumbrate a series of profound 
 ideas.] 
 
 160. We rise out of the stage of representation 
 when the mind tries to define the universality of its 
 content according to its necessity, i. e., when it begins 
 to think. But for the imagination the necessity of its 
 pictures is a hidden assumption. The thinking ac- 
 tivity, however, recognizes not only the contradiction 
 which exists between the sensuous, limited form of the 
 individual representation, and the essential nature of its 
 content, but also the contradiction in which the concep- 
 tions find themselves with respect to each other. 
 
 [It is in attempting to discover the contents of these religious 
 images that the mind rises to the true concrete insight. Thought 
 needs at first these mental pictures, and without them can not 
 begin at all. Hence so-called deism, which rejects the imagina- 
 tive stage of religious culture altogether, is not able to rise to a 
 concrete doctrine of God as a divine human Person such as 
 Christianity reveals, but makes Him to be a being with the nega- 
 17 
 
164: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tion of all attributes, because such a deity transcends everything 
 finite, and everything thinkable is regarded as finite.] 
 
 161. If the mind is prevented from passing out of 
 the motley pictures of conception to the supersensuous 
 clearness and simplicity possessed by the object of the 
 thinking activity if the content which it already be- 
 gins to seize as idea is again dissolved into the discon- 
 nected images of the picture-world then the religion of 
 imagination, which was a perfectly proper form as the 
 second step, becomes perverted into some form of idola- 
 try, either coarse or refined. Education must therefore 
 not oppose the thinking activity if the latter undertakes 
 to criticise the images and pictures in which religious 
 conceptions are embodied; on the contrary, it must 
 seek to guide this thinking activity so that the dis- 
 covery of the contradictions which unavoidably adhere 
 to sensuous form shall not mislead the youth into the 
 folly of throwing away, with the husk that has become 
 useless, also the religious kernel itself. 
 
 It is an error for educators to desire to hold back the imagi- 
 nation from religious feeling, but it is also an error to detain the 
 mind, which is on its formal side essentially the activity of knowing, 
 in the stage of imagination, and confine it to the office of picturing 
 the conventional religious allegories. The more, in opposition to 
 this, the mind is carried away with the charm of thinking, the more 
 is it in danger of condemning the essence of religion itself as a mere 
 fictitious conception. As a transition-stage the religion of imagina- 
 tion is perfectly normal, and it does not in the least impair freedom 
 if, for example, one has personified evil as a living devil in bodily 
 shape. The error does not lie in this, but in the making independ- 
 ent existences out of these sensuous forms of religion. The reaction 
 of the thinking activity against such sensuous embodiment then 
 undertakes in its negative freedom and independence as realized in 
 critical thought to despise the content also, as if it were a mere con- 
 ception. 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 165 
 
 [Again, if religion is arrested at the standpoint of imagination, 
 it becomes fixed in the form of idolatry. Hence, education has 
 before it the difficult task (especially in our Sunday-schools) of 
 guiding rather than repressing the critical tendency of pupils 
 who are beginning to inquire for themselves into the contradic- 
 tions and absurdities of the images and allegories in which the 
 imagination has embodied religious truth. Spiritually under- 
 stood, these very contradictions are the most wonderful and ad- 
 mirable product of the history of religion, and altogether the 
 most valuable and profound part of its revelation.] 
 
 162. (3) In the thinking activity the mind attains 
 that form of the religions content which is identical 
 with that of its simple self -consciousness, and above 
 which there is no further progress for the intelligence 
 as theoretical. Bnt we distinguish three varieties in 
 this thinking activity : the abstract, the reflective, and 
 the speculative. The abstract gives ns the religions 
 content of consciousness in the form of abstractions or 
 dogmas, i. e., propositions which set up some doctrine 
 as a universal, and add to it a reason for its neces- 
 sity. The reflective stage busies itself with the mutual 
 relation of dogmas, and with an examination of the 
 grounds alleged for their necessity ; it is essentially 
 critical, and hence skeptical. The discussion of the 
 dogmas, which is carried on in this process of reasoning 
 and skeptical investigation, gives place to speculative 
 thinking, which recognizes the free unity of the con- 
 tent and its form as its own proper self-determination 
 of the content, creating its own differences. Education 
 must know these three stages of the intelligence, partly 
 that it may in advance preserve an equipoise, and pre- 
 vent going to extremes in the midst of the changes 
 which the progressive development produces in the 
 consciousness ; partly that it may be able to direct the 
 
166 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 process of change itself, in accordance with the proper 
 order of development of these phases of mind. "We 
 should, for example, not try to prevent the criticism of 
 the abstract understanding by the reflective stage nor 
 that of the imagination by the thinking activity. But 
 the stage of reflection is not to be regarded as the last 
 and highest possibility of the thinking activity, although, 
 in the vain conceit of its skepticism, it often takes itself 
 for such, and, with the emptiness of mere negation to 
 which it holds, often brings itself forward into unde- 
 sirable prominence. It becomes evident, in this view, 
 how very necessary for man, with respect to religion, is 
 a genuine philosophical culture, so that he may not lose 
 a sure conviction of the existence of the Absolute in a 
 life of culture divided between adherence to unyielding 
 dogmas on the one hand, and shifting, unstable opinions 
 on the other hand. 
 
 [Three varieties of religious thought on the plane of insight : 
 (a) abstract, (b) reflective, (c) speculative. The abstract sets 
 forth the doctrines as abstract dogmas. The reflective busies 
 itself over the mutual relation of the dogmas and the proofs 
 of their necessity. This leads to skepticism. The speculative 
 thinking sees the logical necessity of self -activity in the Abso- 
 lute, and hence the consequent logical necessity for concrete 
 attributes such as belong to a Creator. It recognizes the person- 
 ality of the Absolute, and now comprehends the contradictions 
 and apparent absurdities in the allegorical forms submitted to it.] 
 
 163. Education must then not fear the overthrow 
 of dogmatic abstraction, since its downfall is an indis- 
 pensable means for theoretical culture in its totality, 
 and the consciousness can not dispense with it in its 
 history. But education has, in dealing with concrete 
 cases, carefully to discern in which of these stages of 
 culture its pupil is. For if mankind as a race can not 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 167 
 
 get along without philosophy, it by no means follows 
 that this necessity exists for each individual. To chil- 
 dren, to women, and to all simple and limited lives, the 
 form of the religion of the imagination is well suited, 
 and the form of religion for the speculative intellect 
 has only a small degree of significance to them. Edu- 
 cation must not, then, desire powerfully and prema- 
 turely to develop the thinking activity before the in- 
 telligence has grown through the earlier stages of 
 development. 
 
 The forced efforts at thinking which many teachers demand in 
 the sphere of religion is no less impractical than the want of all 
 guidance into rightly ordered meditations on religious subjects. It 
 is natural that to the lower form of intelligence a higher form should 
 appear to be frivolous in its behavior toward it, because it has as yet 
 felt no need of change of form as the higher has ; and on this ac- 
 count it looks upon the discrediting of a sacred symbol or emblem 
 or the overthrow of a dogma as the destruction of religion itself. In 
 our time the idea is very prevalent that the substance itself must 
 change with the changing of the psychological form, and that there- 
 fore a religion on the stage of feeling can no longer be the same in 
 its essence with a religion on the stage of representation in mental 
 images, or on the stage of clear thought. These suppositions, which 
 are so popular, and are considered to be high philosophy, spring 
 from the superficiality of psychological inquiry. 
 
 [Religious education, therefore, must not fear these changes 
 from feeling to imagination and from imagination to reflection, 
 for they are indispensable to the full religious consciousness, 
 and Christianity is essentially a religion of all these stages, and 
 especially of the highest thought. Just as in psychology we said 
 that thinking goes back and re-enforces sense-perception and 
 conception ( 100), so the stage of insight goes back and re- 
 enforces religious feeling and religious imagination. And it is 
 for feeling and imagination only as thus re-enforced by thinking 
 insight that Christianity is the true religion. But for all this it 
 is by no means proper to attempt to prematurely develop the 
 stage of religious insight, for such attempt can only end in pro- 
 
168 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ducing that critical skeptical stage above described. It is in 
 teresting to notice the view that Rosenkranz holds concerning 
 the capacity of women to understand philosophy. It was the 
 common view held throughout the civilized world forty years 
 ago, when this book was written. Since that time the education 
 of girls has ascended step by step until college education has 
 proved the mind of woman specially adapted to high studies.] 
 
 164. The theoretical education of the religious 
 feeling endeavors, therefore, to unite the presupposi- 
 tion of reason in the religious content with the freedom 
 of philosophical criticism, and to elevate it to self- 
 assured insight by means of the proof of the necessity 
 of its determinations. This is the only reasonable peda- 
 gogical way, not only to prevent the degeneration of the 
 religious consciousness into a miserable mysticism or 
 into empty formality, but also to remove these if they 
 are already existent. 
 
 External seclusion avails nothing. The crises of the world- 
 historical changes in the religious consciousness penetrate the 
 thickest cloister-walls. . . . 
 
 [Theoretical religious education endeavors to re-enforce the 
 stages of religious emotion and religious imagination by the 
 stage of insight into the necessary nature of the divine.] 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 EDUCATION OF THE WILL. (<?) Religious Culture (con- 
 tinued). 
 
 (#) The Practical Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 165. THEORETICAL education has already a practical 
 implication, for it gives man definite conceptions and 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 169 
 
 thoughts of the Divine, and defines his relation to God. 
 But in a narrower sense that education is practical 
 which relates to the Will as such. Education has in 
 this respect to distinguish (1) consecration, (2) the ini- 
 tiation of the youth into the forms of worship as found 
 in some particular religion, and (3) his reconciliation 
 with his lot. 
 
 [The will side of religious education is treated under three 
 heads: (a) consecration of self; (&) ceremonial initiation, and 
 uniting with the church ; (c) religious reconciliation with one's 
 lot in life.] 
 
 166. (1) Religious feeling presupposes morality as 
 an indispensable condition without which it can not at- 
 tain its ideal. But while man from a merely moral 
 standpoint places himself in relation to the idea of duty, 
 the religious standpoint of the Church differs from it in 
 this, that it holds the necessity of the good to be the 
 self-determination of the Divine "Will, and thus gives all 
 human conduct a personal relation to God, changing the 
 good to the holy and evil to sin. Education must, 
 therefore, first accustom the youth to the idea that, in 
 doing the good, he unites himself with God as with the 
 absolute Person, but that in doing evil he separates him- 
 self from him. The consciousness that through his 
 deed he comes into relation with God himself, affirma- 
 tively or negatively, deepens the moral standpoint with 
 its formal obedience to the commands of virtue, to the 
 standpoint of the heart that finds its all-sufficient prin- 
 ciple in love. 
 
 [Distinction between the moral and the religious standpoint. 
 While the moral makes duty the highest, the religious looks 
 upon the good as the action of the Divine Will, and thus places 
 the individual in a direct personal relation to God. The good 
 
170 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 thus becomes the holy, and evil becomes sin. The distinction 
 between sin, crime, and evil is a very interesting one: sin is 
 violence done by the individual to his relation to God's will ; 
 evil is a general negation of the form of self -activity, and hence 
 negative to the interests of humanity moral evil being the self- 
 contradiction of the will, or the will of the individual set against 
 the will of mankind in general ; crime is the negation of the 
 law of the state ; crime must be an overt act a deed actually 
 done and not merely deliberated upon ; but it must be a deed 
 intended to be done. Sin is internal, and may or may not be 
 accompanied by external deeds. In contrast to crime it lies in 
 the disposition of the heart. Moral evil may be conscious or un- 
 conscious strictly moral evil must be conscious and a violation 
 of conscience. But ethically all attacks upon institutions, 
 family, society, state, church, are moral evils, whether the in- 
 tention is good or bad. The plea of conscience is not valid to 
 justify a murder, an assault on the state or the church, or on 
 the sacredness of the family.] 
 
 167. (2) The ceremonial recognition of the sense 
 which grows in the child that he has an uninterrupted 
 personal relation to the Absolute as a person, constitutes 
 the beginning of the practical education in religion. 
 The second step is the initiation of the child into the 
 objective forms of worship established in some particu- 
 lar religion. Through religious training the child learns 
 to renounce his egotism ; through attendance on religious 
 services he learns to give expression to his religious feel- 
 ing in prayer, in the use of symbols, and in church fes- 
 tivals. Education must, however, endeavor to retain 
 freedom with regard to these forms, so that they shall 
 not be confounded with religion itself. Religion pre- 
 sents itself in these ceremonies, but they as mere forms 
 are of value only in so far as there dwells in them the 
 spirit which produces them as its external manifestation. 
 
 If the mechanism of ceremonial forms is taken as religion itself, 
 the service of God degenerates into the false service of religion, as 
 
EDUCATION OP THE WILL. 
 
 Kant has designated it in " Religion within the Limits of Pure Rea- 
 son." Nothing is more destructive of the sensibility to all real re- 
 ligious culture than the want of earnestness with which prayers, 
 readings from the Bible, attendance on church, the communion, etc., 
 are often practiced by teachers. But one must not conclude, from 
 this defect on the part of teachers, that an ignorance of all sacred 
 forms in general would be more desirable for the child. 
 
 [The religious discipline of consecration educates to renuncia- 
 tion of selfish egotism, while the union with the church teaches 
 the expression of the religious feeling in prayer, the use of 
 symbols, and the observance of the solemnities of the church* 
 Education has to guard, however, against the danger of con- 
 founding forms with religion itself.] 
 
 168. (3) It is possible that a man on the standpoint 
 of ecclesiastical religions observances may be fnlly con- 
 tented ; he may be entirely taken np with the ceremo- 
 nies of worship, and pass his life in these occupations 
 in perfect religions peace. Bnt by far the greater num- 
 ber of men will see themselves forced to experience the 
 truth of religion in the hard vicissitudes of their lot, 
 since they engage in secular activities, and create for 
 themselves a past whose consequences condition their 
 future. They limit themselves through their deeds, 
 which they perform as partly voluntary and partly in- 
 voluntary authors : involuntary, in so far as they are im- 
 pelled to their deeds by the totality of events ; voluntary, 
 in so far as they originate them and react on the world 
 around them. Nay, man is responsible for deeds of 
 omission as well as of commission. The history of the in- 
 dividual man appears, therefore, on the one hand, if we 
 consider its material, as the work of circumstances ; but, 
 on the other hand, if we reflect on the form, as the act 
 of a self-determining agent. "Want of freedom (the be- 
 ing determined through the given situation) and free- 
 
172 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 dom (the origination of the act) are united in actual life 
 as a finality which is exactly so, and can not become 
 anything else. The essence of the spiritual being stands 
 always over against this unavoidable limitation as that 
 which is in itself infinite and eternal, as beyond all his- 
 tory, because the absolute spirit, in and for itself, has no 
 history. That which man calls his history is only the 
 manifesting of himself and his continual withdrawal 
 out of this manifestation into himself, an act which co- 
 incides witli the transcending of all manifestation on 
 the part of the absolute spirit. From this infinite es- 
 sential nature which belongs to him there arises for the 
 individual spirit the impulse toward a beatific life, i. e., 
 a life freed from external contingencies even in the 
 midst of their process. He gratifies this impulse nega- 
 tively through the contemplation of what has happened 
 as past and gone, as that which lives now only ideally 
 in the memory ; or he contemplates it in a new actual 
 existence more perfect than the old one which he has 
 planned in order to realize the idea of freedom which 
 constitutes his ideal nature. This constant new-birth 
 out of the grave of the past to the life of a more beau- 
 tiful future is the true solution of the problem of life. 
 The false solution may assume different forms. It may 
 abstain from all action because man through action limits 
 himself and becomes accountable to others ; but this is 
 to despair of freedom, for it condemns the spiritual be- 
 ing to the loss of its selfhood ; for its nature demands 
 activity. The abstract quietism of the Indian yogis, of 
 the Buddhists, of the fanatical ascetics, of the Protest- 
 ant recluses, etc., is an error of this kind. Or, second- 
 ly, man may become indifferent to the ethical conse- 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 173 
 
 quences of his deeds. In this case he acts, it is true ; 
 but, because he has no faith in the necessary connection 
 of his deeds with their consequences as results of his 
 choice, a connection which he would ascribe to mere 
 chance, he loses his spiritual essence. This is the error 
 of indifference and its trifling, which denies the open 
 mystery of human life as built up by freedom out of 
 materials furnished by Fate. Education must, there- 
 fore, imbue man with respect for the circumstances and 
 events of his environment, and at the same time inspire 
 with faith in the inexhaustible resources of the human 
 spirit, since only by continually producing better things 
 can he elevate himself above his past. This practical 
 acknowledgment of the necessity of freedom as the de- 
 termining principle of life gives the highest satisfaction, 
 to which practical religious feeling may arrive, for the 
 state of beatitude develops itself in it that blessedness 
 which refuses to admit that it is circumscribed by fini- 
 tude and transitoriness, and which possesses the undy- 
 ing courage to strive always anew for perfection, with 
 cheerful resignation when defeated ; and by this means 
 happiness and misery, pleasure and pain, are conquered 
 by the power of disinterested self-sacrifice and sincere 
 humility. 
 
 The escape from action in an artificial exclusion of all relation 
 to external events, which often sinks to a veritable brutifying of man, 
 is the distinguishing feature of all monkish education. In our time 
 [1848] there is especial need of a reconciliation between man and des- 
 tiny, for all the world is discontented. The worst form of discontent 
 is when one is, as the French say, blase ; though the word is not, as 
 many fancy, originally French, but from the Greek jSAcffc/j/, to wither. 
 It is true that all culture passes through phases, each of which be- 
 comes temporarily and relatively wearisome, and that in so far one 
 
174: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 may be blase in any age. But in modern times this state of feeling 
 has increased to that of thorough disgust at existence disgust which 
 nevertheless at the same time hungers for enjoyment. The one who 
 is blase has enjoyed everything, experienced everything, mocked at 
 everything. He has passed from the enjoyment of pleasure to sen- 
 timentality, i. e., to rioting in feeling ; from sentimentality to that 
 irony which despises the shallowness of mere feeling, and from this 
 to the tormenting consciousness of his entire weakness and empti- 
 ness w r hen he has discarded feeling. He ridicules this also, as if it 
 were a consolation to fling away the universe like a squeezed lemon, 
 and to assert that in empty nothing lies the truth of all things. And 
 yet, nevertheless, this irony furnishes the point on which education 
 can fasten, in order to kindle anew in him the religious feeling, and 
 to lead him back to a loving recognition of the world, and to a 
 proper interest in the circumstances and events of his time. The 
 greatest difficulty which education has to encounter here is the co- 
 quetting with this blase mood, the miserable affectation of superior- 
 ity, and the self-ccmplacency which have undermined the man and 
 made him incapable of all simple and natural enjoyment. It is not 
 too much to assert that many pupils of our Gymnasia are affected 
 with this malady. Our literature is full of its products. We inveigh 
 against its dissipation, and nevertheless at the same time can not re- 
 sist a certain kind of pleasure in it. Diabolical sentimentality ! 
 
 [Religious peace does not often come to the individual solely 
 through personal consecration and the strict performance of 
 ceremonial observances. It is the encountering of the hard 
 vicissitudes of life that brings home to the individual the 
 lessons of religion and elevates him to that higher religious 
 state of mind called reconciliation with one's lot, or religious 
 peace and consolation which are a sure indication that this indi- 
 vidual has renounced the world and has joined his life to the 
 eternal order, and is therefore secure from the arrows of fortune, 
 no matter how much his energies may be given to the accom- 
 plishment of tempolfcl enterprises. Quietism, which renounces 
 all action, is the false religious peace, for spirit is essential ac- 
 tivity, and the will must forever realize the good anew by 
 changing nature into a more pliant instrument of the spirit. 
 The antithesis of this consolation of religion is the state of mind 
 described as blase and Weltschmerz.'] 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 175 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 EDUCATION OF THE WILL, (c) Religious Culture 
 (continued). 
 
 (3) The Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 
 
 169. IN comparing the stages of the theoretical 
 and practical culture of the religious feeling their in- 
 ternal correspondence appears. Feeling, as immediate 
 knowledge of God, and the consecration of the objects 
 of sense to holy purposes by means of piety; imagina 
 tion with all its images, and the church services with 
 their symbolism and ceremonial observances; finally, 
 the comprehending of religion in its highest spiritual 
 meaning, and the reconciliation of man with his lot as 
 the internal emancipation from the dominion of external 
 events all these correspond to each other. If we grasp 
 this parallelism as a whole, we have the course which 
 religion must take in its historical process, in which ifr 
 (1) begins as natural, (2) goes on to historical differences 
 of form, and (3) unites these finally in a rational faith. 
 These stages await every man in so far as he lives 
 through a complete religious culture, but this may be 
 for the individual a question of chance. 
 
 [The absolute process of religious culture would take one 
 through three stages : (a) beginning with the natural, (b) it 
 would next develop differences of form, and (c) unite these, 
 through insight, in a rational faith.] 
 
 170. (1) A child has as yet no definite religious 
 feeling. He is still only a possibility capable of growth 
 
 in all directions. But, since he is a spiritual being, the 
 18 
 
176 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 .essence of religion is active in him, though as yet in an 
 unconscious form. The substance of spirit attests its 
 presence in every individual, through his mysterious 
 impulse toward the infinite and eternal, and toward in- 
 tercourse with God. This is the elementary stage of 
 natural religion, which must not be confounded with 
 the religion which makes Nature the object of worship 
 (fetichism, etc.). 
 
 [In the child brought up in modern civilization natural re- 
 ligion manifests itself as an impulse toward the infinite and 
 eternal, and toward communion with God.] 
 
 171. (2) But the child comes in contact with defi- 
 nite forms of religion, and will naturally, through the 
 mediation of the family, be introduced to some one of 
 them. His religious feeling takes now a particular di- 
 rection, and he accepts religion in one of its historical 
 forms. This special realization of religion meets the 
 precise want of the child, because it brings into his con- 
 sciousness, by means of teaching and forms of worship, 
 the principal elements which are found in the nature of 
 religion. 
 
 [The family introduces the child to its own chosen form of 
 worship, and he accepts it and finds in it satisfaction.] 
 
 172 (3) In contradistinction to the natural basis of 
 religious feeling, all historical religions rest on the au- 
 thoritative basis of revelation from God to man. They 
 address themselves to the imagination, and offer a system 
 of objective forms of worship and ceremonies. But 
 spirit, as eternal, as self-identical, can not forbear as 
 thinking activity to subject the traditional religion to 
 criticism and to compare it as a phenomenal existence 
 with its perfect ideal. From this criticism arises a re- 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 177 
 
 ligion which satisfies the demands of the reason, and 
 which, by means of insight into the necessity of the his- 
 torical process, leads to the exercise of a genuine tolera- 
 tion toward its many-sided forms. This religion recon- 
 ciles the unity of the thinking consciousness with the 
 religious dogmas and ceremonies, which, in the history 
 of religious feeling, appear theoretically as dogma, and 
 practically as the command of an absolute and incom- 
 prehensible authority. The religion of reason is just as 
 simple as the unsophisticated natural religious feeling, 
 but its simplicity is at the same time master of itself. 
 It is just as specific in its determinations as any histori- 
 cal form of religion, but its determinateness is at the 
 same time universal, since it is worked out by the think- 
 ing reason. 
 
 [If the individual reflects on the nature of religion in itself 
 arid the ground for its appearance in this or that denomina- 
 tional form, he may arrive at a justification of all forms and 
 ceremonies, finding the occasion of each in its historic genesis. 
 In this he reaches a genuine toleration, but not the negative 
 state of indifference that is wont to accompany toleration ; for 
 he sees, through these forms, their revelation of the divine.] 
 
 173. Education must superintend the development 
 of the religious consciousness toward an insight into the 
 necessary sequence of its different stages. Nothing is 
 more absurd than for the educator to desire to avoid the 
 introduction of a particular form of religion, or a defi- 
 nite creed, as a middle stage between the natural begin- 
 ning of religious feeling and its end in philosophical 
 culture. Only when a man has lived through the en- 
 tire range of a one-sided phase through the crudeness 
 of such a concrete individualizing of religion, and has 
 come to recognize the universal nature of religion in a 
 
178 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 special form of it which excludes other forms only 
 when the spirit of a church has taken him into its num- 
 ber, is he ripe to criticise religion in a conciliatory 
 spirit, because he has then gained a religious character 
 through that historical experience. The self-compre- 
 hending universality must have such a solid basis as this 
 in the career of the man ; it can never form the begin- 
 ning of one's culture, but it may constitute the end 
 which turns back again to the beginning. Most men 
 remain at the historical standpoint. The religion of 
 reason, as that of the minority, constitutes in the differ- 
 ent religions the invisible church, which seeks by pro- 
 gressive reform to purify these religions from supersti- 
 tion and unbelief. It is the duty of the state, by making 
 all churches equal in the sight of the law, to guard re- 
 ligion from the temptation of impure motives, and, 
 through the granting of such freedom to religious indi- 
 viduality, to help forward the unity of a rational insight 
 into religion which is distinct from the religious feeling 
 only in its form, not in its content. Not a philosopher, 
 but Jesus of Nazareth, freed the world from all selfish- 
 ness and all bondage. 
 
 [These three phases in the absolute religious process are essen- 
 tial to complete religious experience. Certainly the first and 
 second forms are indispensable the stage of religious emotion 
 and the stage of membership in a denominational body. The 
 third stage, that of membership in the invisible church, has no 
 meaning to those who have not entered the visible church in 
 some one of its communions.] 
 
 174. With this highest theoretical and practical 
 emancipation, the general work of education ends. It 
 remains now to be shown how the general idea of edu- 
 cation shapes its special elements into their appropriate 
 
EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 179 
 
 forms. From the nature of education, which concerns 
 itself with man in his entirety, this exposition belongs 
 partly to the history of culture in general, partly to the 
 history of religion, partly to the philosophy of history. 
 The pedagogical element in it always lies in the ideal 
 which the spirit of a nation or of an age creates for it- 
 self, and which it seeks to realize in its youth. 
 
 [With religious education, which unites theoretical and prac- 
 tical education by offering to the intellect the view of the first 
 principle of the universe, and by offering to the will a revelation 
 of the divine purpose in creation as the ultimate guide for all 
 practical action, education ends. The science of education, hav- 
 ing expounded these departments, has now left for it only the 
 survey of the historical systems that have prevailed in the 
 world.] 
 
THIRD PART. 
 
 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
THIRD PART. 
 
 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 INTKODTJCTIOK 
 
 HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 175. THE general idea of education is individual- 
 ized, in its realization in human history, according to its 
 elements, into specific ideas which we call pedagogical 
 principles. The number of these principles is not un- 
 limited, but the idea of education admits only a certain 
 definite number. If we deduce them, therefore, we 
 deduce at the same time the history of pedagogics, 
 which can from its very nature do nothing else than 
 realize the possibilities involved in the idea of educa- 
 tion. Such a deduction may be called an a priori con- 
 struction of history, but it differs from what is gener- 
 ally denoted by this term in not pretending to deduce 
 single events and characters. All empirical details are 
 confirmation or illustration for it, but it does not attempt 
 to seek this empirical element a priori. 
 
 The history of pedagogics is still in the stage of infancy. Some- 
 times it is taken up into the sphere of politics ; sometimes into that 
 of the history of culture. The productions of some of the most dis- 
 tinguished writers on the subject are now antiquated. [Omission 
 
184 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 here of references to the works of Niemeyer, Schwarz, Cramer, Stral- 
 sund, Alexander Kapp, of Brzoska's and Mager's " Pedagogical Re- 
 views."] But with regard to modern pedagogics we have relatively 
 very little. Karl von Raumer,* in 1843, began to publish a " History 
 of Pedagogics since the Time of the Revival of Classical Studies," and 
 has accomplished much of value on the biographical side. But the 
 idea of the general connection and dependence of the several phases 
 has not received much attention, and since the time of Pestalozzi 
 books have assumed the character of biographical confessions. Strum- 
 pell, in 1843, collected and systematized the educational material 
 found in the writings of the philosophers Kant, Fichte, and Herbart. 
 [The exposition of the historical systems that have prevailed 
 in the world is derived partly from the history of culture, partly 
 from the history of religion, and partly from the philosophy of 
 history. The educational element in a nation must always be 
 interpreted through the ideal which the spirit of a nation or an 
 age creates for itself and seeks to realize in its youth. 
 
 Each historical system has a definite idea or principle lying at 
 its basis. It may seem at first as though there might be an in- 
 definite number of these principles, but such is not the fact. 
 Human nature is a definite thing as a reality, and its ideal 
 is also something definite, namely, rational culture. Reason is 
 logical and systematic. Hence, the development of the human 
 race into reason can give only such phases as the two extremes 
 and their combination permit. Man starts as a natural being 
 and becomes a spiritual being. He begins in thralldom to time 
 and space, and develops self-determination and freedom in his 
 intellect and will. Man's first phase of growth into civilization 
 is characterized by absolute authority correlated with absolute 
 subjection. The institutions which help him to free himself 
 from nature (family, civil society, state, church) assume an atti- 
 tude of absolute authority toward the individual. That is to 
 say, the first stage of the development of civilization sets up its 
 institutions of civilization in the form of nature. As civiliza- 
 
 * The larger portion of this excellent work of Karl von Raumer has 
 been translated into English, and published under separate articles in the 
 volumes of Dr. Henry Barnard's "American Journal of Education." The 
 thirty volumes of Dr. Barnard's work constitute an encyclopedia of edu- 
 cation. ED. 
 
HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 185 
 
 tion is the process of mediation between nature and spirit, three 
 general .phases only are possible in the history of civilization : 
 (a) The phase in which institutions take on the form of nature, 
 and crush out all individual freedom; (b) the phase in which 
 pure spirit or the personal God governs his people directly as 
 a chosen people, and sets them free from all forms of Nature- 
 worship; (c) the phase in which man himself enters into the 
 positive individual freedom of spirit. In 177, Rosenkranz 
 names three phases: (a) National Education; (b) Theocratic 
 Education ; (c) Human Education. There is in this classifica- 
 tion an a priori element which necessitates three and only three 
 general forms (the subdivisions of these three forms are, of 
 course, indefinitely manifold). Experience alone discovers for 
 us the nations and people who may be classified under these 
 three classes.] 
 
 176. Man is educated by man for humanity. This 
 is the fundamental idea of all education. But, in the 
 shaping of this science, we can not begin with the idea 
 of humanity as such, but only with the natural form in 
 which it primarily manifests itself that of the people 
 or nation. But the naturalness of this principle disap- 
 pears in the course of its development, since nations act 
 and react upon each other, and begin gradually to per- 
 ceive the unity of their common humanity. But the 
 freedom of spiritual being from nature makes its ap- 
 pearance explicitly in the transcendent form of abstract 
 theistic religion, in which God is recognized as the ruler 
 over Nature, which on the other hand is conceived as 
 merely dependent ; and his chosen people plant the root 
 of their nationality no longer in the earth, but in this 
 belief. The unity of the abstractly natural and ab- 
 stractly spiritual determinateness is the concrete unity 
 of the spirit with nature, in which it recognizes nature 
 as its necessary organ, and itself as in its nature divine. 
 Spirit in this stage, as the internal presupposition of the 
 
186 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 two previously named, takes up into itself on one hand 
 the phase of nationality, since this is the form of the 
 immediate individualization (of modern civilization); 
 but it no longer distinguishes between nations as if they 
 were abstractly severed the one from the other, as the 
 Greeks shut out all other nations under the name of 
 barbarians. It also takes up into itself the phase of 
 spirituality, since it knows itself as spirit, and knows it- 
 self to be free from nature, and yet it does not estrange 
 itself from the world as the Jews did in their repre- 
 sentation of pure spirit, to whom nature seemed to be 
 only the work of divine caprice. Humanity knows na- 
 ture as its own, because it knows the divine spirit and 
 its creative energy manifesting itself in nature and his- 
 tory, as also the essence of its own spirit. Education 
 can be complete only with Christianity as the religion 
 of humanity. 
 
 [Man is educated by man for humanity, i. e., for the realiza- 
 tion of all the possibilities of humanity as a whole in each in- 
 dividual ; education of the youth shall give him the results of 
 all human experience. But humanity in its complete unfolding 
 is not to be found at the beginning of history. The totality of 
 a people or nation is the highest realization of humanity that 
 can be found at first (countless ages pass away before science, 
 art, philosophy, and theology come to exist). " The naturalness 
 of this principle," i. e., the bond that unites a people, is a natural 
 and not an artificial bond ; it does not depend on leagues and 
 treaties, but on community of descent and consequent identical 
 race-peculiarities, common language, manners and customs, and 
 traditions. Each individual of a people finds himself living in 
 this identity with his people just as he finds himself living in 
 identity with a family. The family identity (called " identity " 
 because it is a common life, the same for each, consisting of 
 mutual relations and common possessions in which each owns 
 an undivided share) is a " natural " one in the fact that it, too, 
 arises from the laws of nature and not from free choice. The 
 
HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 187 
 
 individual, e. g., can not choose his ancestry. This natural 
 unity of people gradually gives place to the recognition of com- 
 mon humanity and an observance of humane duties toward all 
 men. 
 
 The spiritual nature of man (his will, intellect, and heart) is 
 opposed to his animal nature. Matter is exclusive ; animal 
 gratifications are exclusive and selfish; spiritual life is par- 
 ticipation; the intellect and the moral will develop through 
 sharing all acquisitions with others. Wisdom is a product of 
 the race, and not of one individual exclusively ; the greater the 
 number who participate in wisdom, the better for all. The 
 second phase of the history of culture is the one in which God is 
 revealed as a pure spiritual being, not identical with the sun or 
 moon or any part of nature, or indeed with the whole of nature. 
 In the contemplation of this pure ideal man begins to see that 
 his own destiny is something transcending nature. "The 
 chosen people plant the root of their nationality " not in any 
 particular territory or feature of nature, but in their faith in 
 Jehovah. The Jewish nationality is a sort of pivot on which 
 the history of the world turns from the thralldom of nature to 
 the freedom of spirit. Nevertheless, spirit is not free when it 
 simply renounces nature and regards it as a work of divine ca- 
 price. It must conquer nature and use it for spiritual purposes 
 or rational ends before it is free in the highest sense. Concrete 
 freedom is therefore said to be a unity of spirit and nature, but 
 it is a unity in which nature is subordinated to an instrument, 
 and spirit is exalted to the end and aim of creation. In this it 
 " takes up into itself the phase of nationality," or, in other 
 words, modern civilization retains the form of the nation or of 
 separate peoples, but at the same time it repudiates more and 
 more the jealousy and hatred that was wont to be directed to 
 outside nations. It also "takes up into itself the phase of 
 spirituality," i. e., besides retaining nationality, modern civiliza- 
 tion also worships God as a person, and places on the summit 
 the ideal of the divine-human. By this it " knows itself to be 
 free from nature," i. e., to be immortal and able to survive 
 death and live without this world. " Humanity knows nature 
 as its own " because it recognizes its right to use it for its own 
 advantage ; it sees nature as created by Absolute Reason for the 
 behoof of reasonable creatures made in his image. Hence edu- 
 19 
 
188 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 cation becomes "complete wi-th Christianity as the religion of 
 humanity."] 
 
 177. We have thus three different systems of edu- 
 cation : (1) the National ; (2) the Theocratic ; and (3) the 
 Humanitarian. The first works after the manner of na- 
 ture, since it educates the individual as a type of his 
 race. The original nationality endeavors sharply to dis- 
 tinguish itself from others, and to impress on each per- 
 son the stamp of its uniform type. One individual is 
 like every other, or at least should be so. The second 
 system in its manner of manifestation is identical with 
 the first. It even marks the national difference more 
 emphatically ; but the ground of the uniformity of the 
 individuals is with it not merely the natural element in 
 common, but the common interest is the result of the 
 spiritual unity, which neglects nature, and concentrates 
 its whole attention upon the events of its own history ; 
 satisfied with no present, it remains in continual self- 
 alienation, looking back to its past, or forward to its fu- 
 ture. The theocratic system educates the individual as 
 the servant of God. He is the true Jew only in so 
 far as he is this ; the genealogical identity with father 
 Abraham is a condition but not the principle of the 
 nationality. The third system emancipates the indi- 
 vidual, and elevates him to the enjoyment of freedom 
 as his essence ; educates him within national limits which 
 no longer separate but unite ; and, in the consciousness 
 that each, without any kind of mediation, has a direct 
 relation to God, makes of him a man who knows him- 
 self to be a member of the spiritual world of humanity. 
 We can have no fourth system beyond this. From the 
 side of the state-pedagogics we might characterize these 
 
HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 189 
 
 systems as that of the nation-state, the God-state, and 
 the humanity-state. From the time of the establishment 
 of the last, no one nation can attain to any sovereignty 
 over the others. By means of the world-religion of 
 Christianity, the education of nations has come to the 
 point of taking, for its ideal, man as determining him- 
 self according to the demands of reason. 
 
 [Three different systems of education founded on the stages of 
 civilization : (a) National ; (b) Theocratic ; (c) Humanitarian 
 "humanitarian" not used here in a sentimental sense; it ex- 
 presses rather the missionary sense love for the souls of men of 
 whatever race or land ; the care of the civilization for its un- 
 fortunate, the care of the highest for the lowest. It is a civil- 
 ization that interests itself in all nature as a revelation of the 
 divine, and hence specializes its work in the several sciences, in- 
 vestigating the humblest orders of nature with as much pains- 
 taking care as the mightiest. 
 
 The National system works " after the manner of nature, since 
 it educates the individual as a type of his race " ; education among 
 the people of Asia does not attempt to develop individualism, 
 but only to repress individuality and produce perfect conformity 
 to the established type of behavior, just as Nature compels new 
 acorns to be like the old ones. Species is tyrannical in nature, 
 allowing only the slightest of variations from the type. But in 
 the highest civilization individuality is cherished to such a degree 
 that social caste, intellectual modes of thought, habits of behavior, 
 and vocation may be completely varied in the second generation. 
 In the second system (the Theocratic) the uniformity of indi- 
 viduals is based on its spiritual unity, a continual straining of 
 the mind after what is not present a past to which it looks 
 back with longing as the days of patriarchal ancestors who lived 
 in close personal favor with Jehovah, or a future in which it ex- 
 pects peace and plenty, and the renewal of divine favor. The 
 Jewish child must be educated as a servant of God. The race 
 principle, based as it is on nature, yields in the case of the He- 
 brews to the purely spiritual principle of service of Jehovah. 
 If one serves Jehovah, it is not necessary that he be descended 
 from Abraham. 
 
190 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The third system has for its ideal the brotherhood of all men, 
 and continually impels the nations toward commerce in articles 
 of use and beauty, necessity and luxury, as well as the inter- 
 change of ideas and the mutual toleration of differences. 
 
 There can be no fourth system beyond this, because this com- 
 pletely mediates the particular with the universal, holding as its 
 end and aim the perfect collection of all that the individual pro- 
 duces into the market of the world, material and spiritual, and 
 the perfect distribution of all thence again to the individual, so 
 that each helps all and all help each. Each person gives his 
 mite to the world ; each person receives from the world infinitely 
 more than he gave, not in quantity but in quality, enriched by 
 variety and all manner of precious attributes. For each locality 
 has a limited number of precious material productions, and like- 
 wise a few spiritual gifts ; by world-commerce each locality is 
 made to abound in the desirable productions of all climes, and 
 the spiritual gifts of all places and all times are brought to every 
 human being. This is achieved progressively by the inspiration 
 pf Christianity as it gradually regenerates society.] 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 178. THE National is the primitive system of edu- 
 cation, since the family is the organic starting-point of 
 all education, and it grows into the basis of nationality. 
 
 Education has always in view the preparation of youth for life 
 in institutions. Even inorganic peoples, those in a state of nature 
 the so-called savage races are possessed of something more than u, 
 mere physical education ; for, though they set much value upon 
 gymnastic and warlike practices, and give much time to them, they 
 inculcate also respect for parents, for the aged, and for the decrees 
 of the community. Education with them is essentially family train- 
 ing, and its object is to cultivate in children a natural love and rev- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 191 
 
 erence for the elders and those in authority. That the finer forms to 
 which we are accustomed are wanting must not be forgotten. Be- 
 sides, education among all these people of nature is very simple and 
 much the same, though great differences in its administration may 
 exist, arising from differences of geographical situation or race char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 [The National is the primitive system of education because it 
 is the education of the family, which is the germ out of which 
 grows civilization. The education of the family lays chief stress 
 on what Rosenkranz calls " naturliche Pietat" i. e., love and 
 reverence for parents and blood-relatives, and obedience to eld- 
 ers what the Romans called pietas, the affection and respect 
 due to parents and departed ancestors ; it expressed the piety of 
 ancestor-worship, which is the oldest form of religion. (See Des 
 Coulanges' La Cite Antique.} Rosenkranz says: "Education 
 has always in view the production of spirit (Geisf) Geist being 
 the technical term in Hegel's Philosophy for the social life of 
 man in the institutions of civilization ; Geist might here be 
 translated ' civilization,' although its literal ordinary meaning is 
 apm/."] 
 
 179. National education is divided into three spe- 
 cial systems : (1) passive, (2) active, (3) individual. It 
 begins with the humble attitude of an utter subjection 
 to nature, and ends with the arrogance of an equally 
 entire rejection of nature. 
 
 [Three systems of National education : (1) passive (China, 
 India, Thibet); (2) active (Persia); (3) individual (Greece and 
 Rome).] 
 
 180. Man subjects himself at first to the natural 
 authority of the family; he obeys unconditionally its 
 behests. Then he substitutes for the family, as he goes 
 on in his culture, the artificial family of his caste, to 
 whose rules he again unconditionally yields. To relieve 
 himself from this artificiality and this tyranny, at last 
 he breaks away from the family and from the training 
 that prepares him for family and caste. He flees from 
 
192 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 both, and, becoming a monk, lie again subjects himself to 
 the tyranny of his order. A monk presents to us only 
 a specimen of his species all are alike. 
 
 [(1) The passive, (a) Man begins in the humble attitude of 
 subjection to Nature as it is found in the family : he obeys the 
 authorities of the family implicitly. The Chinese state is founded 
 on patriarchal rule, (b) The Indian civilization substitutes caste 
 for family, and obeys its rules, (c) Then he revolts against the 
 tyranny of caste, and subjects himself to a new tyranny, the rules 
 of the cloister the Buddhist civilization in its purest form. 
 These phases of civilization will be treated in detail further on.] 
 
 181. This absolute abstraction from nature and 
 from education that fits one for life in family and caste, 
 this quietism of spiritual isolation, is the ultimate result 
 of the passive system. In opposition to this, the active 
 system seeks the positive vanquishing of natural re- 
 straints. Its people are courageous. They attack other 
 nations in order to rule over them as conquerors. They 
 live for the continuation of their life after death, and 
 for this purpose build for themselves tombs of granite. 
 They brave the dangers of the sea. The unvaried prose 
 of the patriarchal state, the fantastic dreamy reveries of 
 the caste-state, the ascetic self-renunciation of the cloister- 
 state, yield gradually to the recognition of the world of 
 reality, and the fundamental principle of Persian edu- 
 cation consisted in the inculcation of veracity. 
 
 [The passive system (1) results in quietism or the renunciation 
 of activity and the adoption of a life of seclusion and meditation. 
 We shall see ( 184) the ground for this result : its view of the 
 world and its relation to the Absolute Being explains the pecul- 
 iarity of its civilization. (2) The active system directs itself 
 against restraints thrust upon it by Nature, (a) The Persian 
 strives to overcome limits and boundaries, and to extend his do- 
 minion over space. (See the peculiar ground for this in his re- 
 ligion, 195). (b) The Egyptian civilization is directed toward 
 
THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 193 
 
 a preparation for the life after death (see 199). (c) The Phoe- 
 nician braves the dangers of the sea. Note in 197 the remark- 
 able thought of Hegel on the contrast between the Persians and 
 the Hindoos in respect to the education in telling the truth 
 " inculcation of veracity."] 
 
 182. But tlie nationality which is occupied with 
 simple, natural elements other nations, death, the mys- 
 tery of the ocean may revert to the abstractions of the 
 previous stage, which in education often takes on cruel 
 forms nay, often truly horrible. First, when spiritual 
 being begins not only to suspect its nature, but rather 
 to recognize itself as the true essence ; and when the 
 God of Light places as the motto on his temple the 
 command to self-knowledge, the natural individuality 
 becomes free. Neither the passive nor the active sys- 
 tem permits the free self-distinction of the individual 
 from his fellows. In them, to be an individuality is a 
 betrayal of the very idea of their existence, and even 
 the suspicion of such a thing is sufficient to destroy ut- 
 terly and mercilessly the one to whom it refers. Even 
 the solitary individuality of the despot is not the one- 
 ness of free individuality ; but he is also only a speci- 
 men of his kind, although the only specimen. Nation- 
 ality rises to individuality through the free dialectic of 
 its component peoples, whereby it dissolves its presup- 
 position, or the peculiarities that arise from limitations 
 by alien nationalities. 
 
 [The defects and limits of the "active" systems liable to 
 revert to the abstractions of the passive systems, and take on 
 cruel forms (Phoenician Moloch-fires, Egyptian slavery, Persian 
 luxury, etc.). (3) The individual system is far in advance of the 
 passive and active systems in the fact that it is based on a recog- 
 nition of individuality in the divine, and hence permits itself to 
 develop individuality in men. Apollo, the god of light, places 
 
194: PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the motto " Know thyself " over his temple at Delphi, and, under 
 the inspiration of this command, the Greek people gradually free 
 themselves from blind obedience to custom, and seek to find a 
 necessity in reason for all things in nature and history. The 
 later civilization borrows this from the Greeks, and also borrows 
 the Greek idea of the beautiful. " The free dialectic of its com- 
 ponent peoples," as in the Persian wars, gradually wears off, or 
 dissolves the national peculiarities of the peoples around the 
 Eastern Mediterranean, and develops them all toward the prin- 
 ciple of individuality, which they enter at the time of the Alex- 
 andrian conquest.] 
 
 183. Nevertheless, individuality must always pro- 
 ceed from natural conditions. JEsthetically it seeks na- 
 ture, but nature in the form of living body, in order, by 
 penetrating it with mind, to make of it a work of art ; 
 practically it seeks it, partly to disdain it in gloomy res- 
 ignation, partly to enjoy it in revels of excessive sensu- 
 ality, and to heighten the extravagance of its own in- 
 ternal morbid self-consciousness by cruel or shameless 
 public spectacles. 
 
 The Germans were not savage in the common signification of this 
 term. They were men each one of whom constituted himself will- 
 ingly a center for others, or, if this was not the case, renounced them 
 in proud self-sufficiency. All the glory and all the disgrace of our 
 history lie in the power of individualizing which is divinely infused 
 into our veins. As a natural element, if this be not controlled, it 
 degenerates easily into intractableness, into violence. The Germans 
 need, therefore, in order to be educated, severe discipline, the impo- 
 sition of difficult tasks ; and for this reason they attack such subjects 
 as Roman law, Greek philology, Gallic usages, etc., in order to work 
 off their superfluous strength. The natural love of independent in- 
 dividuality which characterized the German found its needed com- 
 plement in Christianity. The history of the German race shows that 
 it would have been destroyed by this extreme tendency toward indi- 
 viduality which led to minute political divisions and to weak political 
 ties. The German people, full of faith in their own personal resources, 
 ventured forth upon the sea, and managed their ships as skillful 
 horsemen their chargers. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION". 195 
 
 [Individuality, however, must always have a natural basis, for 
 its differences will not be found in the common rational endow- 
 ment of intellect and will. Hence it happens that we find the 
 first nation that sets up individuality as its principle seeking it 
 in the form of the beautiful as it shines through physical nature, 
 especially in the human body. The second nation, the Roman, 
 seeks individuality practically for epicurean enjoyment and 
 sensuality, or for Stoic renunciation, setting up its natural in- 
 dividual self as a target for the universe. (These peculiarities 
 will be explained in detail in g 203-225.) The German " ab- 
 stract individualism " (treated in 226), which is that of the 
 love of isolated personal freedom, needs severe discipline (such 
 as feudal vassalage) to educate it into the necessary feeling of 
 dependence on society.] 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FIRST GKOUP THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 184. ALL education desires to free man from his 
 finitude, to make him ethical, to unite him with God. 
 It begins, therefore, with a negative relation to natural 
 conditions, limits, and restraints, but at once falls into a 
 contradiction of its aim, by converting this opposition 
 to nature into a natural necessity. Spirit (that is to say, 
 man acting in institutions) subjects the individual (1) to 
 the rule of the family as the institution that is the closest 
 approximation of nature ; (2) to the rule of the caste 
 as to a principle in itself spiritual, mediated through 
 the division of labor, which it nevertheless, through the 
 principle of hereditary descent, joins again to the fam- 
 ily ; (3) to the abstract self-determination of the monk- 
 ish quietism, which turns itself away as well from the 
 
196 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 family as from work, and makes this flight from nature 
 and human society, this absolute passivity, his educa- 
 tional ideal. 
 
 We shall not here enter into the details of these systems, but 
 simply endeavor to make clear their distinctions and remove the 
 vagueness which is generally found in the descriptions of them 
 abounding in educational works, which employ the terms " hierarch- 
 ical and theocratical education " without historical accuracy. 
 
 [The rational ground for the system of " passive education." 
 It sets out to free man from thralldom to Nature, and hence as- 
 sumes a " negative relation " toward " natural conditions," i. e., 
 it refuses to permit the individual to give free rein to his animal 
 impulses, but constrains him to obey the rules and regulations 
 ordained for the establishment and preservation of institutions. 
 First, the institution of the family is set up as the supreme ob- 
 ject of life in China. Secondly, the division of labor (the voca- 
 tions of life) is made the basis of caste, which is the chief con- 
 cern of the Hindoo. Then the renunciation of all concrete life 
 for the sake of monastic institutions is the requirement of the 
 third species of " passive education," as found in Central Asia, 
 and more or less in Ceylon and Farther India.] 
 
 I. Family Education. 
 
 185. The family is the organic starting-point of all 
 education. The nation looks upon itself as a family. 
 Among all uncivilized people education is family edu- 
 cation, though they are not conscious of its necessity. 
 Identical in principle with these people, but distin- 
 guished from them through the fact that it is conscious 
 of it, the Chinese nation, in its laws, regulations, and 
 customs, has established the family as the absolute basis 
 of its life, and the only principle of its education. 
 
 [The " organic starting-point of all education " is the family, 
 that is to say, the family is the institution that most resembles 
 a product of Nature ; it arises through the natural relations of 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE 
 
 sex and parentage on the one hand, and through the necessary 
 ethical laws that perfect and secure these natural relations on 
 the other hand. The first form of the nation is a direct out- 
 growth of the family. The tribe is patriarchal in its organiza- 
 tion. The first collection of tribes into a nation retains the same 
 form. The Chinese nation (437,000,000 of people !) is a vast fam- 
 ily of families. Mere tribes can not be civilized because they 
 have to devote their entire attention to protecting their narrow 
 borders from neighboring tribes. When these tribes are united 
 into a great nation the border-land recedes, and all classes of 
 people may devote themselves to productive industry.] 
 
 186. The natural element of the family is found in 
 marriage and kinship; the spiritual element, in love. 
 We may call the nature of family feeling, which is the 
 immediate unity of both elements, by the Latin name 
 of pietas. In so far as this appears not merely as a sub- 
 stantial feeling, but at the same time as conscious rule of 
 action, there arises from it the subordination involved 
 in the implicit obedience of the wife to the husband, of 
 children to the parents, of the younger children to the 
 elder. In this obedience man first renounces his will- 
 fulness and his natural selfishness ; he learns to master 
 his passions, and to conduct himself with deferential 
 gentleness. 
 
 When the principle that governs the family is transferred to po- 
 litical relations, there arises the tyranny of the Chinese state, which 
 can not be fully treated here. We find everywhere in it an analogi- 
 cal relation to that of parents and children. In China the ruler is 
 the father and mother of the people ; the civil officers are represent- 
 atives of a paternal authority, etc. It follows that in school the chil- 
 dren will be ranked according to their age. The authority of parents 
 over children is absolute, but its exercise is in point of fact very mild. 
 The abandonment of daughters by the poorest classes in the great 
 cities is no instance to the contrary, for the government rears the 
 children in foundling asylums, where they are cared for by nurses 
 appointed by the state. 
 
198 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 [The family has a natural element and a spiritual element, 
 (a) kinship by marriage and parentage : (b) love ; (c) pietas, or 
 affectionate loyalty to one's relatives is the unity of love and 
 kinship. Obedience and providential care are the mutual duties 
 arising out of the relation of subordination within the family.] 
 
 187. These relations which are conditioned by na- 
 ture take on the external shape of a definite ceremonial, 
 the learning of which is a chief element of education, 
 In conformity with the naturalness of the pervading 
 principle all crimes against it are punished by whipping 
 with the rod, which, however, does not entail dishonor. 
 In order to lead man to self-control and to obedience to 
 those who are naturally set over him, education devel- 
 ops an endless number of fragmentary maxims to keep 
 his attention ever watchful over himself, and his be- 
 havior always fenced in by a code of prescriptions. 
 
 We find in such moral sentences the substance of what is called, 
 in China, philosophy. 
 
 [The family preserves itself by a code of observances con- 
 stituting a ceremonial or system of etiquette which forms the 
 chief part of education. How to behave, is the important ques- 
 tion. For details regarding the rules of etiquette in China, see 
 Hegel's "Philosophy of History." Five mutual duties named 
 . in the Shu-King as fundamental, (1) between the emperor and 
 his people ; (2) between parents and children ; (3) between elder 
 and younger brothers; (4) between husband and wife; (5) be- 
 tween friend and friend. " The son may not accost the father 
 when he comes into the room ; he must seem to contract himself 
 to nothing at the side of the door, and may not leave the room 
 without his father's permission." The same obedience must be 
 shown to the elder brother. The son does not receive honor for 
 his meritorious deeds ; they are attributed to his father. The 
 school flourishes there because it is the road to all preferment in 
 the state. The Chinese alphabet has a separate sign for each 
 word, and has to be mastered by an enormous effort of the 
 memory ten thousand of these characters being necessary for 
 graduating as a scribe. The primary reading-books are filled 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 199 
 
 with maxims relating to etiquette and behavior, and have to be 
 memorized, words, characters, and all. Strict examinations are 
 held to sift out the incompetent and admit the competent to a 
 higher course of study. The third grade of examination is held 
 by the chancellor of the province twice in three years, and suc- 
 cessful candidates receive the degree of Blooming Talent (B. T., 
 instead of B. A. /), and are qualified for primary teachers, lawyers, 
 notaries public, or physicians. The fourth examination is held 
 at the capital of the province and under the direction of two 
 imperial examiners sent from Pekin. In some instances as 
 many as twenty thousand " blooming talents " attend this ex- 
 amination, but only one in a hundred of the candidates is suc- 
 cessful in obtaining the degree of " Licentiate." The licentiates 
 may enter the fifth and highest examination held in the Im- 
 perial Palace at Pekin, and if they pass are entitled at once to 
 membership in the Imperial Academy and a salary for life. 
 This academy furnishes committees of counsel to whom the 
 emperor refers all difficult matters for consideration and report. 
 These five sifting examinations have at last obtained as net 
 result the men best fitted of all for carrying on the Chinese 
 government in the prescribed path, for they have had not 
 only to learn by heart the five classics of Confucius, filled with 
 maxims of family piety and patriarchal etiquette, but they have 
 had to prove in the final examination that they understand and 
 are able to defend the doctrines on which the government is 
 founded. In the first and second examinations only verbal 
 memory is tested and no insight required. The minute details 
 of Chinese education are of importance to us as proving clearly 
 the function of the exclusive education of the memory. Con- 
 servative people without aspiration and firmly bound to the 
 established order of things can be produced without fail by 
 schools that lay great stress on verbal memory (e. g., " learning by 
 heart " the capricious orthography of the English spelling-book, 
 historical dates, geographical names, arithmetical tables, etc., 
 etc.).] 
 
 188. The theoretical education includes reading, 
 writing i. e., painting the letters with a brush arith- 
 metic, and the making of verses. But these accomplish- 
 ments are not looked at as means of culture, but as 
 20 
 
200 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 qualifications for official position. The Chinese possess 
 formally all the means for literary culture printing, 
 libraries, schools, and academies ; but the extent to 
 which these appliances are used is not great. Their 
 value has been often overrated because of their external 
 resemblance to those found among us. 
 
 [The effort requisite to learn the Chinese alphabet is sufficient 
 to commit to memory all the Chinese classics. Hence, the library 
 is not so important in that country as in Europe and America, 
 where one may learn to read with so little trouble. Hence, too, 
 the obstacle in the way of original literary production.] 
 
 II. Caste Education. 
 
 189. The members of the family, as a matter of 
 course, differ from each other in sex and age, but this 
 difference is entirely immaterial as far as the nature 
 of their employment goes. In China, therefore, every 
 position is open to each man ; he who is of humblest 
 birth in the great state-family can climb to the highest 
 honor. But the next step in the development of the 
 state, as an institution, is that on which the division of 
 labor is made the principle, and a new distinction added 
 to that of the family : each one shall perfect himself 
 only in that labor which was allotted to him as his own 
 through his birth into a particular family. This fatal- 
 ism (the distinction of caste) breaks up the life, but in- 
 creases the social tension, by the necessary mutual de- 
 pendence that flows from the division of labor; for 
 human civilization moves on the one hand toward the 
 deepening of its distinctions ; on the other, toward lead- 
 ing them back into the unity which continually works 
 against the natural tendency to fix human activity in ruts. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 201 
 
 [Distinction of caste imposes a new yoke on the individual. 
 The highest preferment is not open to each as in the family 
 state ; in India, the station of life is absolutely determined by 
 birth. If born a Brahman, he may be a religious teacher, and 
 the object of unbounded reverence on the part of the other 
 castes. There are warriors and merchants and common labor- 
 ers, besides many mixed castes founded on intermarriages. The 
 members of the lowest castes are far more degraded and brutally 
 treated than the negro slaves of the West India Islands.] 
 
 190. The chief work of education thus consists in 
 teaching each one the rights and duties of his caste so 
 that he shall observe their precise limits, and not pollute 
 himself by passing beyond them. As the family-state 
 concerns itself with fortifying the distinctions founded 
 on nature by a far-reaching and vigorous ceremonial, so 
 the caste-state must do the same with the distinctions of 
 caste. A painful etiquette becomes more and more ex- 
 acting in its requisitions, the higher the caste, in order 
 to make the isolation more sharply defined and more 
 perceptible. 
 
 This feature penetrates all exclusively caste-education. All aris- 
 tocracy exiles itself on this account from its native country, speaks a 
 foreign language and loves its literature, adopts foreign customs, 
 lives in foreign countries in Italy, Paris, etc. In this way man be- 
 comes " distinguished." But that he should strive thus to " distin- 
 guish " himself has its ultimate ground in the accident of his birth, 
 and this is assuredly always the principle of the caste-state in which 
 it is to be found in its most perfect form. The castes require gene- 
 alogical records, which are of the greatest importance in determining 
 the destiny of the individual. The Brahman may strike dead one of 
 a lower caste who has denied him by contact, without becoming 
 thereby liable to punishment ; he would be regarded as criminal, in 
 fact, if he neglected to kill him. Thus it was formerly with the 
 officer who did not immediately kill the citizen or common soldier 
 who struck him a blow. 
 
 [Education consists chiefly in teaching the etiquette and cere- 
 monies proper to one's caste. To omit one of these observances 
 
202 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 is to become defiled, and requires a complicated ceremony of 
 purification. The Chinese etiquette is very simple compared 
 with that of India : " The Brahman must rest on a particular foot 
 when rising ; read the Yedas, each word separately, or doubling 
 them alternately, or forward and backward ; must not look at 
 the sun when rising or setting, nor at its reflection in the water ; 
 must not step over a rope at which a calf is fastened, nor go 
 out when it rains ; must not look at his wife when she eats, or 
 when she sneezes ; must not step on ashes, cotton-seeds, or 
 broken crockery," etc., etc. One of the lowest caste may be 
 struck dead if he comes in the way of a Brahman ; if he hears the 
 Vedas read, he must have melted lead poured into his ears, etc.] 
 
 191. The East Indian education is far deeper and 
 richer than the Chinese. Its theoretical instruction also 
 includes reading, writing, and arithmetic ; but these are 
 subordinate, as mere means for the higher activities of 
 poetry, speculation, science, and art. The practical edu- 
 cation limits itself strictly by the lines of caste, and since 
 the caste system constitutes a whole in itself, and each 
 for its permanence needs the others, it can not forbear 
 giving utterance suggestively to what is universally hu- 
 man in the soul, in a multitude of fables (Hitopadesa) 
 and apothegms (sentences of Bartrihari), especially in- 
 tended for the education of princes, and furnishing a 
 sort of mirror of the world. 
 
 Xenophon's Cyropedia is not Greek but Indian in its plan. 
 
 [The Brahman caste may be said to be devoted to religious lit- 
 erature and worship. Through them have arisen epic and dra- 
 matic poems, systems of philosophy, science, and art. The Hito- 
 padesa is the Indian JEsop, and contains a multitude of fables 
 for the instruction of the sons of a king. They are ingeniously 
 interwoven. The animals of one fable relate other fables. The 
 pigeon relates to the crow the fable of the tiger and the trav- 
 eler ; the king of the mice relates the fable of the deer, the jackal, 
 and the crow ; the crow relates the fable of the blind vulture, 
 the cat, and the birds, etc.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 203 
 
 III. Monkish Education. 
 
 192. Family education demands unconditional 
 obedience toward parents and toward all who stand in 
 an analogous position. Caste-education demands un- 
 conditional obedience to the duties of the caste. The 
 family punishes with the rod ; the caste, by excommuni- 
 cation, by loss of honor. The negative tendency against 
 nature appears in both systems in the form of a strict 
 ceremonial, distinguishing between the differences aris- 
 ing from nature. The family as well as the caste has 
 within it a fountain of manifold activity, but it has also 
 just as manifold a limitation of the individual. The 
 impulse toward higher civilization is forced, therefore, 
 to turn against nature in general. It must become in- 
 different to the family. But it must also oppose the 
 social order, and the fixed distinctions of division of 
 labor as necessitated by nature. It must become indif- 
 ferent to labor and the fruits derived from it. That it 
 may not be conditioned either by nature or by human 
 civilization, it denies both, and makes its action to con- 
 sist in producing an abstinence from all action. 
 
 [Monkish education "turns against nature" altogether, and 
 does not, like the family and the caste, lay emphasis on differences 
 arising from nature (such as sex, age, birth, hereditary de'scent, 
 etc.). Labor, and even the fruits of labor, are a matter of in- 
 difference to it. The activity of Buddhism is directed toward 
 abstention from activity. Here the passive education culmi- 
 nates.] 
 
 193. Such an indifference toward nature and the 
 social order produces the education which we have 
 called monkish. Those who perpetuate the race, care 
 for food, clothing, and shelter, and for these material 
 
204 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 contributions, as the laity, receive in return from those 
 who live this contemplative life the spiritual reward of 
 participation in the blessings which wait upon ascetic 
 contemplation. The family institution as well as the 
 institution of human labor is subordinated to the abstract 
 isolation of the cloister, in which the individual lives 
 only for the purification of his soul. All things are 
 justified by this end. Castes are found no more ; only 
 those are bound to the observance of a special ceremonial 
 who as nuns or monks subject themselves to uncondi- 
 tional obedience to the rules of the cloister, these rules 
 solemnly enjoining on the negative side celibacy and 
 cessation from business, and on the positive side prayer 
 and performance of ceremonial rites. 
 
 [Such a system requires a distinction of the people into laity 
 and monks. For with Buddhist monks alone the race would 
 soon perish. The laity supply the material wants of the monks, 
 and keep up the race. The dreadful oppression of ceremonial 
 which prevails in Chinese etiquette and Hindoo observance of 
 caste is avoided in Buddhism. All is simplified. There are 
 three hundred million Buddhists scattered over China, Farther 
 India, Ceylon, and among the Mongolians of Siberia. In China 
 Buddhism takes on an essentially modified form; it does not 
 replace the family principle as in Thibet.] 
 
 194. In the school of the Chinese Tao-tse, and in 
 the command to the Brahman after he has established 
 a family to become a hermit, we find the transition as 
 it actually exists to the Buddhistic quietism which has 
 covered the rocky heights of Thibet with countless 
 cloisters, and reared the people who are dependent upon 
 it into a child-like amiability, into a contented repose. 
 Art and science have here no value in themselves, and 
 are regarded only as ministering to religion. To be able 
 to read, in order to mutter the prayers, is desirable, 
 
THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 205 
 
 With the conscious purpose of the monk to reduce self 
 to nothing, as the highest good, the system of passive 
 education attains its highest point. But civilization can 
 not content itself with this abstract and dreamy absence 
 of all action, though it demands a high stage of cult- 
 ure ; it has recourse therefore to action, partly on the 
 positive side to conquer nature, partly to double its own 
 existence by building up human institutions. Inspired 
 with affirmative courage, it descends triumphantly from 
 the mountain-heights, and fears secularization no more. 
 
 [In Thibet every father who has four sons must dedicate one 
 of them to monastic life. The supreme object of life among the 
 Buddhists where Lamaism prevails for Lamaism is a political 
 form, not at all coextensive with Buddhism as a religion is to 
 attain the elevated spiritual condition of the monastic order. 
 Failing in this highest object, the people strive to share in the di- 
 vine favors dispensed or obtained by the priests. The Buddhistic 
 view of the world is in sharp contrast with the Christian view, 
 although its monasticism as well as its ceremonial has a close 
 external resemblance to the f orins of the Catholic Church ; and, 
 in fact, Lamaism may have borrowed its ceremonial from East- 
 ern Christians in the eighth century or later. The Buddhist 
 seeks nirvana, or the absolute repose of being ; a state in which 
 he is freed not only from all earthly cares and distracting 
 thoughts, but also from all cares and thoughts of whatever 
 description. In fact, while Christianity seeks deliverance from 
 selfishness, Buddhism seeks deliverance from selfhood, and aims 
 to lose all consciousness, as the Sankhya doctrine of India, which 
 is apparently the root of Buddhist theology, plainly teaches. 
 In this respect the " passive " education comes most strongly into 
 contrast with the " active " education. The former seeks to free 
 itself from evil by passively renouncing not only all action, but 
 life itself. The latter strives to conquer evil by action, and edu- 
 cates to a life which helps itself by helping others.] 
 
206 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SECOND GROUP. THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 
 
 195. ACTIVE education elevates man from his com- 
 plete subjection to the family, caste, and asceticism, into 
 a concrete activity guided by a definite aim which sub- 
 ordinates those institutions into means of its own devel- 
 opment, and grants to each independence on condition 
 of its perfect accord with the spirit of the whole. These 
 aims are the military state, the future condition after 
 death, and industry. There is always an element of 
 nature present, which gives occasion to the activity ; but 
 this no longer appears, like the family, the caste, the 
 egoistic personal seclusion of the cloister, as immedi- 
 ately dwelling within the individual, but as something 
 outside of himself which limits him ; and yet, as his 
 destined career has an internal relation to him, is es- 
 sential to him and assigns to him the object of his 
 activity. The Persian has for his object of conquest, 
 other nations; the Egyptian, death; the Phoenician, 
 the sea. 
 
 [Active education in contrast to passive education directs its 
 efforts outward with a view to accomplish some new conquest. 
 Passive education was conservative, and aimed to crush out in- 
 dividuality by imposing on it burdensome codes of etiquette, 
 ceremonies, and moral order. Active education has the opposite 
 tendency. The Persian strives to prepare his youth for military 
 conquest. The Phoenician educates for foreign commerce, the 
 perils of the sea and hostile lands. The Egyptian makes this 
 life a preparation for immortality, building gigantic tombs, and 
 embalming the corporeal hull of the soul, so that it may serve 
 its purpose again at the resurrection.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 2Q7 
 
 I. Military Education. 
 
 196. That education which would emancipate a 
 nation from the passivity of isolation and one-sided de- 
 velopment must throw it into a process of intercourse 
 with other forms of civilization. A nation does not 
 find its real limits in its territorial boundaries ; it can 
 leave its habitat and seek a new and distant one. Its 
 true limit is made by another nation. The nation which 
 feels its own genuine substantiality turns itself there- 
 fore against other nations in order to subject them and 
 to reduce them to the condition of mere accidents of it- 
 self as substance. It begins a system of conquest which 
 has in itself no limitations, but goes from one nation to 
 another, and extends its course indefinitely. The final 
 result of this attack on other nations is that it combines 
 them against it, and is in its turn invaded and conquered. 
 
 The early history of the Persian is twofold : the patriarchal in 
 the high valleys of Iran, and the religio-hierarchical among the 
 Medes. We find under these circumstances a repetition of the prin- 
 cipal characteristics of the Chinese, Indian, and Buddhist education ; 
 even the Indian is included, because in ancient Zend there were also 
 castes. Among the Persians themselves, as they descended from 
 their mountains to the conquest of other nations, there was properly 
 only a military nobility. The priesthood was subjected to the royal 
 power which represented the concrete might of the nation. Of the 
 Persian kings, Cyrus attacked Western Asia; Cambyses, Africa; 
 Darius and Xerxes, Europe ; until at last the reaction of the spirit- 
 ually higher nationality of Greece did not content itself with mere 
 self-protection, but under the Macedonian Alexander returned the 
 attack upon Persia itself. 
 
 [Intercourse with foreign nations is the prime source of na- 
 tional activity. The Persian desires to establish an uncondi- 
 tioned empire. To do this he must reduce to submission the 
 tribes and states that border on his frontier. Out of the Eu- 
 
208 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 phrates Valley in earlier times the Chaldeans and Assyrians had 
 made inroads upon the separate branches of the Aryan race, 
 which are now united and form the Persian Empire. On the 
 north and east the Mongolian tribes menaced the peace of his 
 border-land. Under Cyrus the valley of the Euphrates, and 
 later, all Syria and Asia Minor are subdued ; under Cambyses, 
 Egypt. But the Persian can not annihilate border-lands, al- 
 though he removes them thousands of miles from his capital. 
 Beyond Asia lies Europe. Greece contains another Aryan peo- 
 ple in whom are beginning the impulses toward a new civiliza- 
 tion far more favorable to individual development than anything 
 that has yet appeared. Darius and Xerxes attempt to conquer 
 this new limit, but fail at last. Greece, aroused by the contest, 
 and learning to know its own power, returns the attack in the 
 following century, and all the territory that Persia had conquered 
 yields to Alexander and his generals.] 
 
 197. Education enjoined upon the Persians (1) to 
 speak the truth ; (2) to learn to ride horseback, and to 
 use the bow and arrow. There is implied in the first 
 command a recognition and acknowledgment of the re- 
 ality of things and events, the negation of all dreamy 
 absorption, of all fantastical vagueness ; and in this light 
 the Persian, in contrast with the Hindoo, appears to be 
 sober and reasonable. In the second command is im- 
 plied warlike practice, but as yet that of the nomadic 
 tribes. The Persian fights on horseback, and thus ap- 
 pears in contrast to the Indian hermit-seclusion and the 
 quietism of the Lamas as restless and in constant motion. 
 
 The family increases in value as it rears a large number of war- 
 riors. To have many children was a blessing. The King of Persia 
 gave a premium for all children over a certain number. Nations 
 were assembled as nations for war ; hence the immense multitude of 
 a Persian army. Everything family, business, possessions must 
 be regardlessly sacrificed to the one aim of war. Education, there- 
 fore, cultivated an unconditional obedience to the king ; the slightest 
 inclination to assert an individual independence was high treason 
 
THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 209 
 
 and was punished with death. In China, on the contrary, duty to 
 the family is paramount to duty to the state, or rather is itself duty 
 to the state. The civil officer who mourns the loss of one of his 
 family is released during the period of mourning from the duties 
 of his function. 
 
 [The education of the Persians is said to have laid great stress 
 on (1) speaking truth, and (2) learning to ride horseback, and use 
 the bow and arrow. To speak the truth implies a respect for 
 the facts and events of the world as they are. Under the pas- 
 sive peoples there prevailed a greater respect for human ordi- 
 nances, etiquette, caste, etc.. The Hindoo looked upon all 
 nature as pure illusion a sort of dream which is imposed upon 
 man because of his fallen condition. East Indian poetry gives 
 rein to the imagination, and allows truth to interpose no limits 
 to its exaggerations. Hence truth-speaking seems to have great 
 significance. It could not be encouraged among people who 
 despised real facts and events and held in contempt all ex- 
 istence. We must not, however, count the civilizations of 
 Brahminism and Buddhism as of no value. They are immense 
 steps in advance of mere tribal civilization. In his first step 
 away from mere savage life man exaggerates the importance of 
 ethical usages and despises in a corresponding degree the facts 
 and events of Nature. In mere tribal life the savage fears 
 Nature, and has no peace from its inconstancy and dreadful 
 might. After long progress he comes to revere human social 
 order as superior. The members of the family are supple- 
 mented and rendered equal by mutual help, so that infancy, old 
 age, sickness, calamity, and sex are robbed of their special ter- 
 rors. The state performs a similar service in insuring the in- 
 dividual against vicissitude, and especially against violence from 
 mankind. Civil society protects the individual from famine, in 
 case of failure of crops in one particular locality. But notwith- 
 standing the importance of social order, the nations of Eastern 
 Asia go to extremes in their reverence for it. The Western 
 Asiatic nations, whom Rosenkranz calls " active nations," cor- 
 rect this one-sidedness in various ways. The Persian trained 
 his youth carefully in observing accurately the exact state of 
 facts and events by insisting on scrupulous statements. He 
 taught him to ride horseback and use the bow and arrow. Here 
 the state as such became the most important institution, whereas 
 
210 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 in China the family, in India the divisions of civil society, in 
 Thibet the church, were most important.] 
 
 198. The theoretical education, which was limited 
 to reading, writing, and to instruction in religious cere- 
 monial, was in the hands of the magi, the number of 
 whom was estimated at eighty thousand, and who them- 
 selves had enjoyed the advantages of a careful education, 
 as is shown by their gradation into Herbeds, Mdbeds, and 
 Destur-mdbeds, i. e., into apprentices, journeymen, and 
 masters. The very fundamental idea of their religion 
 was military ; it demanded of man to tight on the side 
 of the king of light, and guard against the princes of 
 darkness and evil. It gave to him the honor' of a free 
 position between the world-moving powers and thus the 
 possibility of a self -chosen career, by which means vigor 
 and chivalrous feeling were developed. Eeligion di- 
 rected the activity of man toward the realities on this 
 planet, making it its object to increase the dominion of 
 the good, by purifying the water, by planting trees, by 
 extirpating troublesome wild beasts. Thus it increased 
 bodily comfort, and no longer, like the monk, treated 
 this as a mere negative affair. 
 
 [The Magi, a separate tribe, said to number eighty thousand, 
 furnished the teachers of reading, writing, and religion. They 
 had three degrees of advancement in culture among them ap- 
 prentice, journeyman, and master (Herbed, Mobed, and Destur- 
 mobed). The religion of China has a family character the wor- 
 ship of ancestors ; the religion of Old Persia has a character tend- 
 ing to promote the interests of the state a military tendency. 
 Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), the good spirit, fights against Angra- 
 Mainya (Ahriman), the evil spirit. The Persian religion teaches 
 that life is a warfare, and that all good men must fight on the side 
 of Ormuzd, the king of light. It was enjoined by religion to con- 
 quer the desert by planting trees and digging wells and increas- 
 ing bodily comfort. This is in contrast to the spirit of Buddhism.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 211 
 
 II. Priestly Education. 
 
 199. War achieves its purpose through, its capacity 
 to inflict death. It deals out death, and by its means 
 decides who shall serve and who obey. But the nation 
 that finds its activity in war, though it makes death the 
 servant of its purpose, yet finds its own limit in death. 
 Other nations are only its boundaries, which it can pass 
 over by fighting with and conquering them. But death 
 itself it can never escape, whether it come in the sands 
 of the desert that buried for Cambyses an army which 
 he sent to the oracle of the Libyan Ammon or in the 
 sea, that scorns the rod * of the angry despot, or by the 
 sword of the free man f who guards his household gods. 
 On this account, a people stands higher that in the midst 
 of life reflects on death, or rather lives for it. The edu- 
 cation of such a nation must be priestly, because death 
 is the means of the transition to the future life, and con- 
 sequently it, like birth, becomes a sacrament. The fam- 
 ily-state, the caste-state, the monkish-state, and the mili- 
 tary-state are not hierarchies in the sense that the 
 national life is directed by a priesthood. But in Egypt 
 this was actually the case, because the chief educational 
 tribunal was the death-court which judged only the 
 dead, awarding to them or denying them the honor of 
 burial as the result of their whole life. Its award, how- 
 ever, affected also the honor of the surviving family. 
 
 [War is directed against the limits of national sovereignty. 
 Death is a natural limit to life. War succeeds because it deals 
 out death to the enemy. While the Persian directs his energies 
 
 * Xerxes ordered the Hellespont to be scourged with rods because his 
 bridge was broken by the waves. 
 
 t Say, at Marathon, Salamis, and Thermopylae. 
 21 
 
212 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 against the limit of the state, the Egyptian occupies himself 
 with the consideration of the supreme limit of life itself. The 
 leading idea of Egyptian civilization seems to be the prepara- 
 tion for death. Tho death-court that decided upon the merits 
 of the life of each individual at his decease furnished the most 
 important educative influence in the land. It established an 
 ideal standard of living and gave daily illustrations of its appli- 
 cation to particular examples. Those who approximated this 
 ideal were awarded the honor of being embalmed they were 
 considered fit to dwell with Osiris in the "still kingdom of 
 Amenti." The priestly caste in Egypt were the teachers.] 
 
 200. General education here limited itself to read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic. Special education con- 
 sisted properly only in training the youth for a definite 
 vocation within the circle of the family. In this fruit- 
 ful and warm land the expense of supporting children 
 was very small. The division into classes was without 
 the cruel features of the Indian civilization, and life 
 itself in the narrow valley of the Nile was very social, 
 abounding in festivities, and in eating and drinking, and 
 was brave and cheerful, because the familiarity with 
 death heightened the force of enjoyment. In a stricter 
 sense only, the warriors, the priests, and the kings had 
 an education. The aim of life, which was to determine 
 at death its eternal future, to secure for itself a passage 
 into the still kingdom of Amenti, manifested itself ex- 
 ternally in the care which they expended on the pres- 
 ervation of the dead hull of the immortal soul, and on 
 this account devoted its temporal life to building tombs 
 to last an eternity. The Chinese builds a wall to secure 
 his family-state from attack ; the Hindoo builds pagodas 
 for his gods ; the Buddhist erects for himself monastic 
 cells ; the Persian constructs in Persepolis the tomb of 
 his kings, where they may retire in the evening of their 
 
THE SYSTEM OP ACTIVE EDUCATION. 213 
 
 lives after they have rioted in Ecbatana, Babylon, and 
 Susa ; but the Egyptian builds his own tomb, and car- 
 ries on war only to protect it. 
 
 [The Egyptian finds it possible to conquer Nature and make it 
 serve him. He builds canals and dikes to regulate the over- 
 flow of the Nile, and thereby get the utmost service from the 
 fertilizing power of the fine soil that the river brings down to 
 him from the mountains at the south. Observation of Nature, 
 necessary for the purpose of utilizing the Nile freshets, leads him 
 to a knowledge of astronomy, the construction of calendars, and 
 to hydraulic engineering. He understands irrigation, the con- 
 struction of canals, dams, and reservoirs. He invents the science 
 of geometry, so far as it is required in surveying, because he has 
 to recover his farm every year after the inundation, and fix anew 
 its boundaries. Farms on the banks of the river are liable to be 
 washed away by new channels cut through by freshets, or the 
 old landmarks may be covered up or destroyed ; hence he is 
 led to a more careful system of laws on the subject of landed 
 property, the rights and privileges appertaining to its use and 
 its ownership. Egypt invents writing by hieroglyphics, and 
 develops out of it two other systems, the syllabic and alphabetic. 
 The priestly caste taught arithmetic, geometry, surveying and 
 mensuration, civil engineering, reading and writing and music 
 to youth of their own caste as well as to the caste of warriors. 
 Plato, however, tells us that the children of the Egyptians were 
 taught to read in classes. Diodorus says that even the artisans 
 were taught to read. Perhaps this was necessary to the numer- 
 ous artisans who engraved inscriptions on the temples and 
 tombs. We learn that arithmetic was taught by means of 
 games and plays, such as trading pieces of money, guessing at 
 the number of grains of wheat held in the hand, or by arrang- 
 ing pupils in military lines. The cost of living was so cheap 
 that four dollars in our money would have supported a single 
 individual until twenty years of age.] 
 
 III. Industrial Education. 
 
 201. The system of active education was to find 
 its solution in a nation which wandered from the coast 
 
PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 of the Red Sea to the foot of the Lebanon Mountains 
 on the Mediterranean, and ventured forth upon the sea 
 which before that time all nations had avoided as a dan- 
 gerous and destructive element. The Phoenician was 
 industrial, and needed markets where he could dispose 
 of the products of his skill. But while he sought for 
 them he disdained neither force nor deceit : he planted 
 colonies ; he stipulated that he should have in the cities 
 of other nations quarters for himself; he induced the 
 nations to adopt articles of luxury, and insensibly intro- 
 duced among them his culture and even his religion. 
 The education of such a nation must have seemed pro- 
 fane, because it fostered indifference toward family and 
 one's native land, and made restless and even passionate 
 activity subservient to gain. The practical understand- 
 ing and utilitarianism rose to a high dignity. 
 
 [The Phoenician resembles the other active peoples in having 
 for his supreme aim the conquest of a limit to his being. In- 
 dustry aims to conquer Nature in so far as it limits our lives in 
 the form of three wants food, clothing, and shelter. In order 
 to overcome these completely, man must lay under contribution 
 all lands and all climates. One locality compensates for the de- 
 ficiencies of another. Commerce, then, is the form of industry 
 that aids most effectively the conquest over Nature. The Phoeni- 
 cian leaves his home and braves the ocean. Education must be of 
 such a character that it will wean the youth from love of home. 
 Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradis, were places of 
 great security on the land side, while they afforded security 
 for shipping on the seaward side. Manufactures of metallic 
 goods, glass, linen textures dyed with the wonderful Tyrian 
 purple, furnished the home productions with which to obtain 
 the coveted articles of foreign peoples. Tin from Cornwall, 
 amber from the Baltic, gold-dust from Western Africa, were 
 brought home and used in manufactures. Trains of loaded 
 camels pierced the deserts and arrived at the great cities on the 
 Euphrates. Phoenician colonies settled Cyprus, Crete, Carthage, 
 
THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 215 
 
 Gades (Cadiz). The Phoenician carried the alphabetic writing 
 of Egypt to all parts of Europe, for in commerce writing is in- 
 dispensable.] 
 
 202. Of the education of tlie Phoenicians we know 
 only so much as to enable us to conclude that it was 
 certainly various and extensive : among the Carthagini- 
 ans, at least, that their children were practiced in read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic, in religious duties; sec- 
 ondly, in a trade; and, finally, in the use of arms. 
 Commerce became with the Phoenicians their chief oc- 
 cupation, and self-interest made them brave to plow the 
 inhospitable sea and, led by curiosity, penetrate the 
 horror of its vast distances, but yet conceal from other 
 nations their discoveries and wrap them in a veil of 
 fable. 
 
 It is a beautiful testimony to the quality of the Greek inind that 
 Plato and others assign as a cause of the low state of arithmetic and 
 mathematics among the Phoenicians and Egyptians the want of free 
 and disinterested investigation. 
 
 [Education assumes a utilitarian character for a commercial 
 people especially arithmetic and penmanship form the com- 
 mercial arts. Inasmuch as affection for home and parents 
 would injure the quality of the sailor, education rooted out this 
 affection. The fearful worship of Moloch, the fire-god, to whom 
 they sacrificed children, laying them in his red-hot arms in the 
 presence of mothers who were not permitted to express their 
 pain by cries was a powerful means of educating parental and 
 filial indifference necessary to produce a population of commer- 
 cial adventurers. Their religious rites thus assisted to form the 
 national character. Not only arithmetic and writing, but cun- 
 ning and deceit were taught, as necessaiy for skillful bargains.] 
 
216 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THIRD GROUP. THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION 
 
 203. ONE-SIDED passivity as well as one-sided activ- 
 ity is subsumed under individuality, which makes itself 
 into its own end and aim. The Phoenician made gain 
 his aim ; his activity was of a utilitarian character. In- 
 dividuality as an educational principle is indeed selfish 
 in so far as it endeavors to cultivate its own peculiarity, 
 but it is at the same time noble. It desires not to have, 
 but to ~be. Individuality also begins in what is natural, 
 but it elevates nature by means of art to ideality. The 
 principle of beauty gives place to the principle of cult- 
 ure, which renounces the charm of appearance for the 
 knowledge of the true. The aesthetic individuality is 
 followed by the practical, which has no longer any basis 
 in natural relations, but proceeds from an artificial basis 
 a state formed for a place of refuge. In order to cre- 
 ate an internal unity in this, a definite code of laws is 
 framed; in order to assure its external safety, the in- 
 vincible warrior is demanded. Education is therefore, 
 more exactly speaking, training in juristic and military 
 affairs. The morality of the state is undermined as it 
 brings into its mechanism one nation after another, until 
 it encounters an individuality, become daemonic, which 
 makes its war-hardened legions tremble with weakness. 
 We characterize this individuality as daemonic because 
 it desires recognition simply for its own sake. Not for 
 its beauty and culture, not for its knowledge of business 
 and its bravery, only for its peculiarity as such does it 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 217 
 
 claim value, and in the effort to secure this it is ready 
 to hazard life itself. In its naturally growing existence 
 this individuality is deep, but at the same time without 
 self-limit. The nations educate themselves to this in^ 
 dividuality when they destroy the Roman world that 
 of self-limit and balance which they find. 
 
 [Individuality contains both passivity and activity. Rosen- 
 kranz understands by "individual education" that education! 
 which has for its sole aim the development of the individual! 
 instead of seeking an external object for which it subordinates 
 the individual. It desires not to have, but to ~be. The phases of 
 " individual " education are three : (a) aesthetic education, which 
 seeks to make a work of art out of man ; it develops into a love of 
 truth, and finally sets aside seeming for being ; (b) practical edu- 
 cation, that of Rome, deals not with the beautiful nor with the 
 true, but with the realization of the will in its essence. The 
 will of man is not revealed in caprice and arbitrariness, nor in 
 mere customary usages. The essential forms are embodied in 
 laws of justice and in rights. For these express what is and may 
 be universal the common ground of all particular volitions. 
 Violate the law, and each man's deed is against the deeds of all 
 other men. Without law the aggregate action of man tends 
 toward self-nullification. The Roman principle in the world- 
 history concerns the discovery and enunciation of the just self- 
 limitation of will, and it has bequeathed to the world the code 
 of laws and forms of municipal government which make possi- 
 ble modern civilization. The Greek has left us the ideal stand- 
 ard of the beautiful and the statement of the true, as well as the 
 form of its investigation. Each of these activities involves the 
 culture of the individual: (a) the graceful body; (b) the de- 
 veloped intellect; (c) the formation of character. The Greek 
 individuality is undermined by the discovery of the principle of 
 truth as higher than beauty. The Roman principle is under- 
 mined by the conquest of all nations ; its success destroys it by 
 removing the tension which had existed against other nations, 
 and which had helped it to form the Roman character. It now 
 encounters the third phase of individuality that of the Gothic 
 or Teutonic nations. These northern peoples do not make special 
 
218 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 individuality their object either in the form of the beautiful, of the 
 true, or of the firm and just character. They make general indi- 
 viduality their object, without any special aims, or with any and 
 all aims. Individuality of this sort is called " daemonic " by 
 Rosenkranz, because it does not consider any other motives than 
 recognition of the peculiar self of the individual, counting as 
 naught all possessions, wisdom, justice, sacred ordinances, and 
 demanding recognition solely. This trait of the Gothic race re- 
 appears always when its individuals settle on a border-land or 
 resort to partisan warfare. The chieftains of the Scottish bor- 
 der-land, the Norse sea-kings, the Crusaders, the knights of 
 Charlemagne, the Cid even the " cow-boy " desperadoes of our 
 own border-land exhibit this supreme love of individuality for 
 its own sake. Rome conquered the northern peoples, and then 
 taught them civil law and military tactics. They then assumed 
 the mastership of the world, and modern history begins.] 
 
 I. ^Esthetic Education. 
 
 204. The system of individual education begins 
 with the transfiguration of the immediate individuality 
 into beauty. On the side of nature this system is pas- 
 sive, for individuality is given through nature ; but on 
 the side of spirit it is active, for spirit must determine 
 to restrain itself within limits as the essence of beauty. 
 
 [^Esthetic individuality involves a passive side, in so far as it 
 presupposes the body as an organic product of nature. It pro- 
 ceeds to cultivate its natural gifts by training through gymnas- 
 tics, and this is its active side. Self-control, manifested physical- 
 ly, produces what we call gracefulness, and gracefulness is the 
 Greek ideal of beauty. It may be defined as the bodily mani- 
 festation of freedom. Every limb of a Greek statue seems to be 
 posed as it is because the soul within thus wills it. "Self- 
 limitation " is a characteristic of Greek character moderation, 
 the golden mean, being its manifestation.] 
 
 205. Here the individual is of value only in so far 
 as he is beautiful. At first beauty is apprehended as 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 219 
 
 natural, but secondly it is carried over into the realm of 
 spirit (i. e., into the institutions of civilization), and the 
 good is posited as identical with the beautiful. The 
 ideal of aesthetic education demands always that there 
 shall be also an external unity of the good with the 
 beautiful, of spirit with Nature; 
 
 We can not here give in detail the history of Greek education. 
 It is the best known among us, and the literature in which it is 
 worked out is very extensive. . . . We must content ourselves with 
 mentioning the chief epochs which follow from the nature of its 
 principle. 
 
 [The beautiful was first realized in the living bodies of ath- 
 letes (the " natural " phase of the beautiful). In the next place 
 it was realized in social forms, civil and political. The " natu- 
 ral " phase of the beautiful was developed in the games. There 
 were the great national games : the Olympian, celebrated once in 
 four years ; the Isthmian, once in two years ; the Nemean, once 
 in two years ; the Pythian, once in four years ; so that nearly 
 every year there was a great national celebration in' which it 
 was determined who of all Greece should carry off the prize at 
 wrestling, boxing, and throwing the discus, the spear, or the 
 javelin ; who could excel at running, leaping, the chariot-race, 
 or the horseback-race. The preparation for these great national 
 festivals took place in every village in the land every week and 
 every day. The daily labor for the necessities of life was all 
 well enough, but the Greek considered games of far greater im- 
 portance. -Games were in fact his highest religious ceremonies. 
 For he believed that his gods were supremely beautiful human 
 forms, in whose likeness human beings were intended to be. 
 The games were instituted to celebrate this likeness of man to 
 the gods as well as to develop and increase this likeness. The 
 people attended these games and in time each and all became 
 good judges of what is beautiful and graceful in human form 
 just as a community that attends horse-races comes to know at a 
 glance the good points of a horse. Neighboring villages unite 
 for more general games on special occasions. Then the entire 
 state has its festival. The victors in each state go up to those 
 great national games founded by heroes and demi-gods in order 
 
220 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 to decide their relative claims for the leadership. Among a 
 people thus educated as to the living work of art, it became 
 possible for such artists to arise as Phidias, Polycletus, and 
 Praxiteles. Their \\orks could be appreciated as never since. 
 The perfection in form and gracefulness of carriage reached by 
 the victors in the games are fixed for eternity in shapes of stone, 
 and no one is considered fully educated in any civilized land 
 until he knows something about the Greek ideal of the beauti- 
 ful. Greek education has thus resulted in preparing for us one 
 phase of the world-education. The statues of gods and demi- 
 gods that have come down to us cause our unbounded astonish- 
 ment at their perfection of form. It is not their resemblance to 
 living bodies, not their anatomical exactness that interests us, 
 nor their so-called " truth to nature," but their gracefulness and 
 serenity, their " classic repose." Whether these statues represent 
 gods and heroes in action or in sitting and reclining postures, 
 there is ever present this "repose," which means indwelling 
 vital activity, and not mere rest as opposed to movement. 
 They are full of movement, though at rest, and full of repose 
 when in violent action. In their activity they manifest con- 
 siderate purpose and perfect self-control. The repose is of the 
 soul and not a physical repose. Even sitting and reclining 
 figures for example, the so-called Theseus from the Parthenon, 
 or the torso of the Belvedere are replete with will-power in 
 every limb, so that the repose is seen to be voluntary self- 
 restraint, and not the repose which accompanies the absence of 
 vital energy.] 
 
 206. Education was in Greece thoroughly national. 
 Education gave to the individual the consciousness that 
 he was a Greek and no barbarian, a free man, and so 
 subject only to the laws of the state, and not to the ca- 
 price of any one person. Thus the nationality was freed 
 at once from the despotic unity of the family and from 
 the exclusiveness of caste, through the fact that it com- 
 bined within itself the manifold talents of individuals 
 of different races. Thus the Dorian race held as essen- 
 tial, gymnastics; the ^Eolians, music; the lonians, po- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 221 
 
 etry. The JEolian individuality was absorbed in the 
 development of the two others, and the latter unfolded 
 an internal antagonism. The education of the Dorian 
 race was national education in the fullest sense of the 
 word ; in it a uniform public education was given to 
 all in common, even including the young women ; 
 among the Ionic race it was also in its subjects taught 
 truly national, but in its form it was select and private 
 for those belonging to various great families and clans. 
 The former, reproducing the Oriental phase of abstract 
 unity, educated all in one mold ; the latter was the nurs- 
 ery of particular individualities. 
 
 [Greek education gave the individual the consciousness of 
 freedom from the despotism of arbitrary will. The laws were 
 the will for all. Neither family nor caste prevailed over the in- 
 dividual. Since the Amphictyonic League united the different 
 Greek states without consolidating them, the distinctions of in- 
 dividuality were preserved. While the Dorian races (of Sparta, 
 Argos, and Messenia) held to gymnastics almost exclusively, the 
 jEolians (of Bceotia and Thessaly) cultivated music as of equal 
 importance, and the lonians (of Athens and the islands of the 
 Archipelago) included poetry as especially essential. The Dori- 
 ans tended toward the Persian form of Orientalism, educating 
 all in one mold and repressing individualism. But, as the main 
 object of its education was individualism, it contradicted itself 
 by forcing all into one type. Especially in Athens we find the 
 nursery of individuality in all its peculiarity.] 
 
 207. (1) Education in the heroic age was without 
 any systematic arrangement, and left each one perfectly 
 free. They told the histories of the adventures of other 
 heroes, and by their own deeds gave material for similar 
 histories to others. 
 
 The Greeks began where the last stage of the active system of 
 education ended with piracy and the seizure of women. Swimming 
 was a universal practice among the sea-dwelling Greeks, just as in 
 
222 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 England the mistress of the ocean rowing is the most prominent 
 exercise among the students, and for its encouragement public re- 
 gattas are held. 
 
 [In the heroic age education fitted the individual for advent- 
 ures, chiefly in the interest of the welfare of Hellas, however. 
 Surrounding peoples were called " barbarians," and were thought 
 to possess no rights that the Greek was bound to respect. The 
 heroes belong to the maritime states, and are associated with ad- 
 ventures on the sea. Hercules, who seems to have been sug- 
 gested by the Phoenician Melkarth, is of a more humane type 
 than the Phoenician educational ideal. There is a trace of a sun- 
 myth in his twelve labors, showing Oriental origin, and doubtless 
 the hero is a reminiscence, through several modifications, of the 
 hero Izdubar and the famous god Mar-duk of the Euphrates Val- 
 ley (the great " Tower of Babel " was dedicated to Mar-duk).] 
 
 208. (2) In the period of state-education proper, 
 education developed itself systematically; and gym- 
 nastics, music, and grammatics, or literary culture, consti- 
 tuted the general pedagogical elements. 
 
 [Besides gymnastics and music, grammatics, or study of letters 
 and literature, is named as an element of the later education.] 
 
 209. Gymnastics aimed not alone to render the 
 body strong and agile, but, far more, to produce in it a 
 noble carriage, a dignified and graceful manner of ap- 
 pearance. Each one fashioned his body into a living, 
 divine statue, and in the public games the nation crowned 
 the victor. 
 
 (Note on the Greek relation of CUTTJS and eJWvTjAas here omitted.) 
 [Objects aimed at in gymnastics. See commentary on 204 
 
 and 205.] 
 
 210. It was the task of music, by its rhythm and 
 measure, to fill the soul with well-proportioned harmony. 
 So highly did the Greeks prize music, and so variously 
 did they practice it, that to be a musical man meant the 
 same with them as to be a cultivated man with us. 
 
THE SYSTEM OP INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 223 
 
 Education in this branch was very painstaking, inas- 
 much as music exercises a very powerful influence in 
 developing discreet behavior and self-possession into a 
 graceful naturalness. 
 
 Among the Greeks we find a spontaneous delight in Nature a 
 listening to her voices, the tone of which reveals the internal qualities 
 of things. In comparison with this tender sympathy of the Greeks 
 with Nature who heard in the murmur of the fountains, in the 
 dashing of the waves, in the rustling of the trees, and in the cry of 
 animals, the voice of divine personality the sight and hearing of the 
 Oriental people for Nature is dull. 
 
 [Music expressed to the ear what gracefulness did to the eye 
 a sense of rhythm. Rhythm is appearance of an internal meas- 
 ure, a principle that regulates and harmonizes external appear- 
 ance. The Greek temple was a petrified hymn to the gods 
 (Goethe said that architecture is " frozen music "). Music did 
 not have the narrow meaning that it possesses in our language. 
 It referred to the nine Muses and to all rhythmical culture. In 
 Hegel's " Philosophy of History " is found the most wonderful 
 characterization of the Greeks. The ear with which they list- 
 ened to the tones of Nature murmur of fountains, rustling of 
 trees, cries of animals, etc. revealed to them the spiritual beings 
 which they conceived to be behind natural appearances. The 
 faculty of thus interpreting Nature was called parrela, as Hegel 
 (p. 245, English translation) calls to our attention.] 
 
 211. The stringed instrument, the cithern, was pre- 
 ferred by the Greeks to all wind instruments because it 
 was not exciting, and allowed the accompaniment of 
 recitation or song, i. e., a simultaneous spiritual activity 
 on the part of the performer, in poetry. Flute-playing 
 was first brought from Asia Minor after the victorious 
 progress of the Persian war, and was especially culti- 
 vated in Thebes. They sought in vain afterward to 
 oppose the wild excitement raised by its influence. 
 
 [The cithern (iciddpa, pronounced nearly like guitar, which is its 
 modern equivalent) was first preferred. The flute, used after- 
 
224 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ward in Thebes, is spoken of by the ancients as dangerous to the 
 virtues of the people. Aristotle (" Politics," book viii, chap, vi) 
 says, " The flute is not a moral instrument, but rather one that 
 will inflame the passions." This surprises us.] 
 
 212. Grammar comprehended letters (ypdpnara), 
 i. e., the elements of literary culture, reading and writ- 
 ing. Much attention was given to correct expression. 
 The fables of JSsop, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, and 
 later the tragic poets were read, and partly learned by 
 heart. The orators borrowed from them often the orna- 
 ment of their commonplace remarks. 
 
 [The favorite reading-books were " -^Esop," the " Iliad," and 
 ** Odyssey," and later the tragic poets, certainly a rich collection.] 
 
 213. (3) The internal growth of what was peculiar 
 to the Grecian state came to an end with the war for 
 the Hegemony. Its dissolution began, and the philo- 
 sophical period followed the political. The beautiful 
 ethical life dissolved before the thoughts of the true, 
 beautiful, and good. Individuality developed the habit 
 of reflection, and undertook to subject freedom, the ex- 
 isting regulations, laws and customs, to the criticism of 
 reason, and to inquire whether these were in and for 
 themselves universal and necessary. The Sophists, as 
 teachers of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, under- 
 took to extend the cultivation of reflection ; and this in- 
 troduced instability where the moral customs had hith- 
 erto obtained unquestioning obedience. Among the 
 women, the ffetcerce undertook the same revolution ; in 
 the place of the Trorvia wryp appeared the beauty, who 
 stood apart from her sex in the consciousness of her 
 charms and in the perfection of her varied culture, and 
 exhibited herself to the public admiration. The tend- 
 ency to idiosyncrasy often approached willfulness, ca- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 225 
 
 price, and whimsicality, and opposition to the national 
 moral sense. A Diogenes in a tub became possible ; the 
 genial but graceful frivolity of an Alcibiades charmed, 
 even though it was openly condemned ; a Socrates com- 
 pleted the rupture in the popular consciousness, and urged 
 upon the system of the old morality the pregnant ques- 
 tion, whether virtue could be taught ? Socrates worked 
 as a philosopher who was at the same time an educator. 
 Pythagoras had imposed upon his pupils of both sexes 
 the strict and narrow discipline of a common, exactly 
 defined manner of living. Socrates, on the contrary, 
 freed his disciples in general, those who conversed 
 with him leading them to the consciousness of their 
 own individuality. He introduced a revolution into 
 the education of youth in that he taught them, instead 
 of a thoughtless obedience to moral customs, to seek to 
 comprehend things and events by their purpose in the 
 world, and to rule their actions by deliberate consider- 
 ation of ends and aims. Outwardly he conformed to 
 the popular standard in politics, and in war (as at Mara- 
 thon) ; but in the direction of his teaching he was sub- 
 jective and modern. 
 
 [The Peloponnesian war broke up the internal unity of Greece 
 and put an end to the worship of the beautiful. Teachers of 
 grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy taught the youth to criticise 
 existing customs and regulations. All simplicity disappeared. 
 Individuality approached whimsicality. Socrates completed the 
 revolution. He is the first to elevate blind adherence to custom 
 to free moral action. He recognizes conscience or individual 
 standard of right, and urges each one to rule his actions by re- 
 flection upon what is just and expedient. Before his time divi- 
 nation was resorted to, or an appeal was made to the oracle or 
 to the auspices on the occasion of any new undertaking. The 
 will looked to some external event some sign, portent, or omen 
 
226 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 to guide its action. With Socrates begins the mode to which 
 we are accustomed, the decision through reflection on several 
 courses of action possible.] 
 
 214. This idea, that virtue could be taught, was 
 realized especially by Plato and Aristotle ; the former 
 inclining to Dorianism, the latter holding to the prin- 
 ciple of individuality in nearly the modern sense. As 
 regards the pedagogical means gymnastics, music, and 
 grammar both philosophers substantially agreed. But, 
 in the seizing of the pedagogical development in gen- 
 eral, Plato held that the education of the individual be- 
 longed to the state alone, because the individual was to 
 devote himself wholly to the state. On the other hand, 
 while Aristotle also holds that the state should, as a 
 general thing, conduct the education of its citizens, and 
 that the individual should be trained for the interest of 
 the state, yet he recognizes also the family, and the pe- 
 culiarity of the individual, as positive powers, to which 
 the state must accord relative freedom. Plato sacrifices 
 the family to the state, and must therefore have sacred 
 marriages, nurseries, and common and public educational 
 institutions. Each one shall do> only that which he is 
 fitted to do, and shall work at this one employment so 
 as to perfect his skill in it ; but to what he shall direct 
 his energies, and in what he shall be instructed, shall be 
 determined by the government, and the individuality 
 consequently is not left free. Aristotle also will have 
 for all the citizens a uniform, common, and public edu- 
 cation ; but he allows, at the same time, independence 
 to the family and self-determination to the individual, 
 so that a sphere of private life presents itself within the 
 etate : a difference by means of which a much broader 
 scope of individuality is possible. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 227 
 
 These two philosophers have come to represent two very differ- 
 ent directions in the science of education, which at intervals, in cer- 
 tain stages of culture, reappear the one, the tyrannical guardian- 
 ship of the state which assumes the work of education, tyrannical to 
 the individual ; and the other, the free development of the liberal 
 system of state-education, which directs itself against idiosyncrasy 
 and fate. 
 
 [Plato inclines to the Spartan form of civilization, and would 
 
 have strict control exercised by wise men in power. Aristotle 
 
 inclined to the direction of greater individualism, and his views 
 
 are approximately those of the present day.] 
 
 215. The complete dissolution of the principle of 
 aesthetic individuality takes place when the individual, 
 in the decay of public life, in the disappearance of all 
 beautiful morality, isolates himself, and seeks to gain in 
 his isolation such strength that he can bear the changes 
 of fortune with composure "ataraxy." The Stoics 
 sought to attain this end by turning their attention in- 
 ward into pure internality, and thus, by preserving the 
 self-determination of abstract thinking and willing, 
 maintaining their equanimity : the Epicureans endeav- 
 ored to do the same, with this difference, however, that 
 they strove after a positive satisfaction of the senses by 
 filling them with concrete pleasurable sensations. As a 
 consequence of this, the Stoics withdrew from practical 
 life in order to maintain their independence of external 
 conditions, and to preserve their mental quiet unbroken. 
 The Epicureans lived in companies, because they height- 
 ened the results of their pleasure - seeking principle 
 through harmony of f eeling and through the sweetness 
 of friendship. In so far the Epicureans were Greeks 
 and the Stoics Romans. "With both, however, the beauty 
 of manifestation was secondary to the immobility of the 
 inner feeling. The plastic union of the good and the 
 
228 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 beautiful was destroyed by the extremes of thinking and 
 feeling. This was the advent of the Eoman principle 
 among the Greeks. 
 
 [With the principle of Stoicism the Greek has finally deserted 
 the aesthetic standpoint and arrived at the Roman principle. To 
 be imperturbable ("ataraxy") in the midst of calamity is the 
 object of both Stoics and Epicureans. The former strives, by 
 cultivating his will through self-denial and his intellect through 
 reflection, to build for himself a world in the depths of his soul 
 secure from external events. The Epicurean seeks to make the 
 most of the world as it actually is, and to make sure of happiness, 
 but he takes care to hold his feelings under restraint, and, like the 
 Stoic, to create his happiness by thinking and willing.] 
 
 216. The educational significance of Stoicism and 
 Epicureanism consists in this, that, after the public 
 moral life was sundered from the private, the individual 
 began to educate himself, through philosophical culture, 
 into stability of character, for which reason the Eoman 
 emperors particularly disliked the Stoics. At many 
 times, a devotion to the Stoic philosophy was sufficient 
 to make one suspected. But, at last, a noble emperor, 
 in order to win himself a hold in the chaos of things, 
 was forced himself to become a Stoic, and took refuge 
 in the inaccessible calm of the depths of thought occu- 
 pied in reflecting on its own nature, and of the will en- 
 gaged in restraining itself by ethical maxims. Stoics 
 and Epicureans both had what we call an ideal. The 
 Stoics used for this ideal the expression, " kingdom " ; 
 as Horace says, sarcastically, "Sapiens est rex nisi 
 pituita molesta est." 
 
 [With Stoicism and Epicureanism, education assumes a new 
 significance, because both depend on careful training of intellect 
 and will. The early stages of Greek life were spontaneous ; edu- 
 cation simply enjoined the following of blind custom. Heredi- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 229 
 
 tary instincts rendered it all easy and natural. Greece came 
 under Roman power, and this contradiction between native 
 Greek customs and the course of educated thought and feeling 
 became very marked. Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic emperor, 
 whose " Meditations " we prize so much, rendered Stoicism ac- 
 ceptable with the government of Rome.] 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION (continued). 
 
 II. Practical Education. 
 
 217. THE outcome of the dissolution of the beau- 
 tiful individuality is the earnest individuality that di- 
 rects all its labor to the achievement of purposes useful 
 to the state, which, on the one hand, considers carefully 
 end and means, and, on the other hand, seeks to realize 
 the end through the corresponding means, and in this 
 effort subordinates mere beauty of form to usefulness. 
 The practical individuality is therefore directed to the 
 achievement of an external object, since it is not its own 
 purpose like the beautiful, as it was even in the case of 
 the Stoics and Epicureans, but has an external object, 
 and finds its satisfaction not so much in this after it is 
 attained as in the striving for its attainment. 
 
 [The Eoman makes usefulness rather than beauty the supreme 
 end. He looks upon things and events as means to ends. But 
 the end or object for which all things, even the lives of individ- 
 uals, are means, is Rome. While the individuality of the Greek 
 is educated for beauty, and hence for its own culture and not for 
 an external end and aim, the Eoman individuality is educated 
 for the preservation and prosperity of the state. But in this 
 
230 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 we must not forget that the Roman differs from the Persian 
 who is educated for the conquest of boundaries and the extension 
 of the sway of the nation. The Persian does not distinguish be- 
 tween the state in the abstract and the king in the concrete. 
 But Romans always make this distinction, and never confound 
 the abstract sovereignty to which all owe their lives and prop- 
 erty with individuals in authority. Even the most absolute dic- 
 tator is simply a means and not an end ; he must " see that the 
 republic does not suffer detriment." Therefore it is that the 
 Roman education is an " individual system," and not a one-sided 
 "active" or "passive" system. The historical myths and le- 
 gends relate that Rome was settled by fugitives and outlaws on 
 the border-land of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Etruscans. 
 This colluvies, as Livy calls it, the dregs of the surrounding 
 peoples, must unite for its own safety, and form a govern- 
 ment on a .purely artificial basis. All other nations had united 
 on a religious basis. But these peoples had different religions 
 and different manners and customs. The political bond, pure and 
 simple, is set up as the highest. It becomes the object of religion 
 in fact. Another interesting feature is the fact that compact or 
 contract is the essence of the Roman spiritual life. Founded 
 not on religion, but on mutual agreement for common safety, the 
 Roman state exists as a sort of higher will of each individual. 
 Two or more wills unite and consolidate in a sort of higher, re- 
 sultant will. Such is a contract. To sum up Roman education 
 in a word, one may say that his idea of the all-importance of a 
 contract and the implicit obedience which the individual should 
 render it, is the great educative influence always present with 
 the Roman in the republic. On the basis of this idea arises the 
 noble patriotism which the citizen displays when he offers up 
 his life and property for the safety and honor of Rome. On the 
 same basis arises the opposite feeling of private right, the intense 
 enjoyment of private property, and the network of civil laws 
 which protect it. The Roman unites in his consciousness these 
 two antithetic notions : (a) utter devotion of life and property 
 for the state; (b) absolute freedom and independence within the 
 limits of his private property. In his mind he reconciles and 
 adjusts these two relations the one for Rome, the other for him- 
 self. This makes the Roman character peculiar in the history of 
 the world. There is this dualism in it.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OP INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 231 
 
 218. The education of this system begins with 
 strict simplicity. But, after it has attained its object, 
 it gives itself up to the pursuit of aesthetic culture as a 
 recreation, not for the sake of producing works of art, 
 but in order to enjoy them and without any further ob- 
 ject. "What was to the Greeks a real delight in the 
 beautiful became therefore with the Eomans simply an 
 aesthetic amusement, and as such must finally become 
 wearisome. The Eoman earnestness of individuality 
 made for t itself a new object in mysticism, which was 
 distinguished from the original one in that it concealed 
 in itself a mystery and exacted an activity that was 
 partly theoretical and partly ascetic. 
 
 [^Esthetic culture, which was religion with the Greeks, there- 
 fore becomes mere idle amusement with the Romans. There 
 are three epochs in Roman education : (1) the strictly simple edu- 
 cation of the republic; (2) the education for amusement and 
 the enjoyment of fine arts ; (3) the education into secret rites 
 and mysteries which took place in the latter days, when the 
 special religions of all nations had been mingled, and a tendency 
 to eclecticism prevailed.] 
 
 219. (1) The first epoch of Roman education, as 
 properly Koman, was the juristic-military education of 
 the republic. The end and aim of the Roman was 
 Rome ; and Rome, as from the beginning an eclectic 
 state, could endure only through the adaptation of its 
 laws and external politics to hold together the composite 
 elements of the nation, and subordinate each interest to 
 the interest of the whole. It bore the same contradic- 
 tion within itself as in its external attitude. The latter 
 forced it into an attitude of violence against neighboring 
 nations ; the plebeians were likewise opposed to the pa- 
 tricians in the same attitude of violence, for they robbed 
 
232 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 them gradually of all their privileges. On this account 
 education directed itself partly to giving a knowledge 
 of the law, partly to training for war. The boys were 
 obliged to commit to memory and recite the laws of the 
 Twelve Tables, and all the young men were subject to 
 military service. The Roman possessed no individuality 
 of native growth, but one formed through the inter- 
 mingling of various national stocks ; fugitives collecting 
 on the Roman hills furnishing the population. This 
 developed a very great energy. Hence from the first 
 he was attentive to his own conduct ; he watched jeal- 
 ously over the limits that bounded his rights from the 
 rights of others, measured his strength, moderated him- 
 self, and constantly guarded himself. In contrast with 
 the careless cheerfulness of the Greeks, he therefore ap- 
 pears gloomy. 
 
 The Latin tongue is crowded with expressions which paint pres- 
 ence of mind, effort at reflection, a critical attitude of mind, the im- 
 portance of personal control : as gravitas morum, sui compos esse, 
 sibi constare, austeritas, vir strenuus, vir probus, vitam honestam 
 gerere, sibimet ipse imperare, etc. The Etruscan element imparted 
 to this earnestness a peculiarly stiff, ceremonial, solemn character. 
 The Roman was no longer, like the Greek, unembarrassed in the 
 presence of naturalness. He was ashamed of nudity; verecundia, 
 pudor, were genuinely Roman. Vitam prceferre pudori was disgrace- 
 ful. On the contrary, the Greek gave to Greeks a festival in exhibit- 
 ing the splendor of his naked body, and the inhabitants of Crotona 
 erected a statue to Philip solely because he was perfectly beautiful, 
 Simply to be beautiful, only beautiful, was enough for the Greek. 
 But a Roman, in order to be recognized, must have done something 
 for Rome : se bene de republica mereri. 
 
 [Rome, being an eclectic state, could exist only by subordinat- 
 ing all interests to the supreme one of the safety of the state. 
 The individual may cherish all other interests as private inter- 
 ests, but must not allow them to interfere with the public cause. 
 Here, for the first time, is freedom of the individual in such 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 233 
 
 matters as manners and customs and modes of religious worship 
 that were peculiar to the separate tribes which united to form 
 Rome. Each family had its own " household gods." Strange, 
 too, we find ancestor-worship in Rome in almost as pure a form 
 as it exists in China. It seems to have been arrested in its de- 
 velopment by the establishment of an artificial abstraction, the 
 republic as absolute. Education had to make the youth ac- 
 quainted with the written law of the " Twelve Tables," which 
 recited the fundamental limitations of private freedom and pos- 
 session that are rendered necessary to secure the public weal. 
 These laws concerned chiefly the forms of transference of proper- 
 ty and the forms of recovery. The individuality of the Roman is 
 realized in private property through the fact that the supreme 
 power, political and religious, re-enforces his private will and 
 protects it in its rights within the limits prescribed in the code 
 of laws. Private ownership in this sense is a participation on 
 the part of the particular will of the individual in the universal 
 or collective will of the state. The other side of education was 
 the preparation for military service. 
 
 Most remarkable is the vocabulary of Latin words expressing 
 the gravity, soberness, austerity, probity, honesty, self-restraint, 
 composed manners, etc., of this people. His (the Roman's) mind 
 is divided between the private and the public interests, and 
 always under a sort of constraint never spontaneous and free 
 like the Greek in early ages before Greek philosophy had super- 
 induced reflection. All modern peoples that have entered civili- 
 zation inherit from Rome this double consciousness of the self 
 and the public interest, but not in the contradictory form which 
 it once assumed. Christianity solved its contradiction by giving 
 to it an infinite ground in the doctrine of the divine-human and 
 of the atonement.] 
 
 220. In the first education of children the Eoman 
 mother was especially influential, so that woman with 
 the Eomans took generally a more moral, a higher, and 
 a freer position. It is worthy of remark that, while the 
 beautiful woman set the Greeks at variance, among the 
 Eomans, through her ethical authority, she acted as 
 reconciler. 
 
234 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 [Woman in Greece as the ideal of the beautiful in the person 
 of Helen set states at variance. In Rome the daughters of the 
 Sabines, stolen by the Romans, reconciled the conflicting armies. 
 In Rome woman took a higher and freer position.] 
 
 221. The mother of the Roman helped to form 
 his character ; the father undertook the work of instruc- 
 tion. "When, in his fifteenth year, the boy exchanged 
 the toga prcetextata for the toga virilis, he was usually 
 sent to some relative, or to some respectable jurist, as 
 his guardian, to learn thoroughly, under his guidance, 
 the laws and political usages of the state ; with the sev- 
 enteenth year began military service. All education was 
 for a long time entirely a private affair. On account of 
 the necessity of the mechanical unity which war demands 
 in its evolutions, the greatest stress was laid upon obe- 
 dience. In its restricted sense instruction was given 
 in reading, writing, and arithmetic ; the last being, on 
 account of its usefulness, more esteemed by the Romans 
 than by the Greeks, who gave more time to geometry. 
 The schools, very characteristically, were called Ludi^ 
 because their work was, in distinction from other o'ccu- 
 pations, regarded simply as a recreation, as play. 
 
 The Roman recognized with pride this distinction between the 
 Greek and himself ; Cicero's introduction to his " Essay on Oratory " 
 expresses it. To be practical was the one result aimed at by the 
 reflective character of the Romans, which was always proposing 
 to itself new objects and seeking the means for their attainment ; 
 which loved moderation, not to secure beauty thereby, but respected 
 it as a means for a happy success (medium tenuere leati) ; which did 
 not possess serene self-limitation, or crooQpoo-vvr], but rather carefully 
 estimated quid valeant humeri, quid ferre recusent ; but which, as a 
 matter of course, went far beyond the Greeks in persistency of will, 
 in constantia animi. The schools were at first held publicly in 
 booths at the intersection of streets ; hence the name trivium. Very 
 significant for the Roman is the predicate which he conferred upon 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 235 
 
 theoretical subjects when he called them artes bonce, optimce, liber Or 
 les, ingenues, etc., and brought forth the practical element in them 
 (their relation to the will). 
 
 [The influence of the Koman mother over her son is well 
 portrayed in Shakespeare's " Coriolanus." At fifteen the Roman 
 youth studied the laws ; at seventeen entered the army. Obedi- 
 ence emphasized. Branches of study. Schools called by the 
 Romans places for sport and recreation (ludi) ; by Greeks, places 
 of leisure (<rx<>\^). The difference between the Roman and the 
 Greek in the matter of self-possession of individuality; the 
 Roman has constancy of purpose ; the Greek, serene self -limita- 
 tion, i. e., moderation and self-control in his reaction against 
 impulses and external incitements.] 
 
 222. (2) But the practical education could no 
 longer keep its ground after it had become acquainted 
 with the aesthetic. The conquest of Greece, Asia Minor, 
 and Egypt made necessary, in a practical point of view, 
 the acquisition of the Grecian tongue, so that these 
 lands, so permeated with Grecian culture, might be 
 governed effectively. The Roman of family and prop- 
 erty, therefore, took into his service Greek nurses and 
 teachers who should give to his children, from their 
 earliest years, instruction in the Greek tongue. It is 
 the first instance in the history of education in which 
 a nation has undertaken to teach a foreign tongue to its 
 youth. 
 
 Moreover, the usefulness of it in political and other 
 affairs caused the study of Greek rhetoric, so that not 
 only in the deliberations of the senate and in the assem- 
 blies of the people, but in pleadings before the courts, 
 the Eoman citizen might gain his cause by its aid. 
 Whatever effort the Koman government made to pre- 
 vent the invasion of the Greek rhetorician was all in 
 
 vain. The Eoman youth sought this very useful knowl- 
 23 
 
236 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 edge even abroad, e. g., in the flourishing school of rhet- 
 oric on the island of Rhodes. 
 
 At last, even the study of philosophy commended 
 itself to the practical Roman, in order that he might 
 obtain consolation amid the disappointments of life. 
 When his practical activities did not bring him any re- 
 sult, he devoted himself in his poverty to abstract con- 
 templation. The Greeks desired philosophy for its own 
 sake ; the ataraxy of the Stoics, Epicureans, and skeptics 
 even wished to be considered the result of a necessary 
 principle ; but the Roman, on the contrary, wished to 
 lift himself by philosophemes above trouble and mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 This direction which philosophy took is noteworthy, not alone 
 in Cicero and Seneca, but at the fall of the Roman Empire, when 
 Boethius wrote in prison his immortal work on the " Consolation of 
 Philosophy." 
 
 [After the conquest of Greece and the necessary introduction 
 of the study of the Greek language in order to rule Egypt, Asia, 
 and places where that language had been carried by the Alex- 
 andrian conquests, the Roman education changes rapidly, and 
 introduces literary studies. The useful art of rhetoric, so neces- 
 sary to the politician and the barrister, initiated this change. 
 Greek teachers of rhetoric taught the most eminent Roman 
 politicians. Apollonius of Rhodes taught both Cicero and 
 Cffisar. Afterward the poets and historians, and finally the 
 philosophy of Greece, came to be studied.] 
 
 223. The earnestness which pursued a definite ob- 
 ject degenerated into its opposite. .^The idleness of the 
 wealthy Eoman, who felt himself to be the lord of a 
 world without limits, led to desire for enjoyment and 
 dissipation, which, in its entire want of moderation, 
 abused Nature. The most elegant form of the educa- 
 tion that became prevalent at this period was that in 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 237 
 
 belles-lettres ', which, also for the first time came to belong 
 to the sphere of education. There had been a degenera- 
 tion of art in India and Greece, but never an artistic tri- 
 fling. But in Rome there arose a pursuit of art in order 
 to win a certain consideration in social position, and to 
 create a species of recreation adapted to the enmd of a 
 soul satiated with sensual debauchery. Such a treatment 
 of art is unworthy, for it no longer recognizes its inde- 
 pendent significance, but subordinates it as a means to 
 personal gratification. Literary salons then appear. 
 
 In the introduction to his " Catiline," Sallust has painted excel- 
 lently this complete revolution in the Roman education. The 
 younger Pliny in his letters furnishes ample material to illustrate for 
 us this pursuit of belles-lettres. In Nero it became insanity. We 
 should transgress our prescribed limits did we enter here into par- 
 ticulars. Its analysis shows the perversion of the aesthetic into the 
 practical, the aesthetic losing thereby its proper nature. But the 
 Roman could not avoid this perversion, because, according to his 
 original tendency, he could not move except toward the utile et ho- 
 nestum. 
 
 [Mere literature, as means of amusement, and trifling with 
 matters of art, now entered the education of the idle Roman 
 possessed of wealth. He did not attain the genuine aesthetic, but 
 rather destroyed it by perverting its aim to mere amusement. 
 The Greek had produced it in a religious mood. The Roman 
 enjoyed it as an idle pastime.] 
 
 224. (3) But this pursuit of fine art, this mere 
 showy display, must at last weary the Roman. He 
 sought for himself an object to which he could devote 
 himself again with some degree of exertion. His do- 
 minion over the world was assured, and conquest as an 
 object could no more charm him. National religion 
 had fallen with the destruction of the national indi- 
 vidualities. The soul looked out over its political life 
 into an empty void. It sought to establish a relation 
 
238 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 between itself and another world filled with imaginary 
 spiritual powers. In place of the depreciated nationality 
 and its religion there enters the eclecticism of mystic 
 orders. There had been, it is true, here and there, in 
 national religions certain secret signs, rites, words, and 
 meanings ; but now, for the first time in the history of 
 the world, there appeared secret organizations as edu- 
 cational societies, which concerned themselves only with 
 the private individual and were indifferent to nation- 
 ality. Everything had been profaned by the roughness 
 of violence. They believed no longer in the old gods, 
 and the superstitious faith in ghosts and evil spirits be- 
 came only a thing fit to frighten children with. Thus 
 they took refuge in secrecy, which for "blase men had a 
 piquant charm. 
 
 [When the Roman Empire had conquered the world, she had 
 at the same time destroyed the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the city 
 of Rome which made it politically sacred. The rights of citizen- 
 ship were conferred by the emperors on the inhabitants of cities 
 in all parts of the world. The peculiar religions of the con- 
 quered nations were adopted and recognized and their gods trans- 
 ported to Rome and set up in the Pantheon. Such toleration 
 of all religions enforced on the peoples composing the Empire 
 necessarily sapped the foundations of religious education and 
 caused a wide-spread indifference as to sacred matters. One 
 set of heathen gods is just as good as another, and neither of 
 them receives the worship of the educated Roman. Accord- 
 ingly, the religious sentiment takes refuge in a sort of mystic 
 pantheism, using especially Persian and Egyptian forms. The 
 worship of Mithras and Isis became common.] 
 
 225. The education of the mysteries was twofold, 
 theoretical and practical. In the theoretical we find a 
 regular gradation of symbols and symbolical acts through 
 which one seemed gradually to approach the revelation 
 of the secret ; the practical contained a regular grada- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 239 
 
 tion of ascetic actions [disciplinary training] alternating 
 with an abandonment to wild orgies. These two forms 
 of education elevated one from the rank of the novice 
 to that of the initiated. The degrees of the orders 
 formed an instrumentality for the development of ethi- 
 cal growth, and this form has been retained in the edu- 
 cation of all such secret worship, mutatis mutandis, 
 down to the Illuminati. 
 
 In the Roman Empire, its Persian element was the worship of 
 Mithras; its Egyptian, that of Isis ; its Grecian, the Pythagorean 
 doctrines. All these three, however, were much mingled with each 
 other. The Roman legions, who really no longer had any native 
 country, spread these artificial religions throughout the whole world. 
 The breaking away from established forms led often to clairvoyance, 
 which was not yet understood, and to belief in miracles. Apollonius 
 of Tyana, the messiah of heathenism, is the principal figure in this 
 group ; and, in comparison with him, Jamblichus appears only as an 
 enthusiast, and Alexander of Abonoteichus as an ordinary impostor. 
 [Secret societies with graded symbolism and secret initiations 
 celebrated the esoteric or inner meaning which was supposed to 
 underlie all religions, especially the Persian and Egyptian. 
 Those who seized the deep meaning called themselves the illu- 
 minated. In 1776 Adam Weishaupt founded the Illuminati re- 
 ferred to in the text. Apollonius of Tyana (A. D. 30-70) collected 
 a mass of doctrines from the East, resembling what passes for 
 "esoteric Buddhism" or "theosophy" in our literature of 1886. 
 Jamblichus was an extravagant Neo-Platonist, holding the doc- 
 trines of the pre-existence of the soul and the descent of creation 
 by a lapse (" fall " or degradation) from the Absolute. Alex- 
 ander of Abonoteichus (in Paphlagonia), a notorious sorcerer, 
 about the middle of the second century A. D., who gave himself 
 out for a prophet. His life was written by Lucian.] 
 
 III. Abstract Individual Education. 
 
 226. What the declining nations in their despair 
 sought for in these mysteries was individuality, which 
 
24:0 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 in its special singularity is conscious of the universality 
 of the rational world of institutions as its own essence. 
 This individuality existed more immediately in the Ger- 
 manic race, but, nevertheless, on account of its peculiar 
 nature, it attained its true actualization first in Christian- 
 ity. It can be here only pointed out that the Germanic 
 people most thoroughly, in opposition to Nature, to men, 
 and to the gods, felt themselves to be independent, as 
 Tacitus says, " Securi adversus homines, securi adversus 
 Deos" This individuality, which had for its object 
 only itself, must necessarily be destroyed, and was saved 
 only by Christianity, which overcame and enlightened 
 its daemonic and defiant spirit. We can not speak here 
 of a system of education. Respect for personality, the 
 free acknowledgment of the claims of woman, the loy- 
 alty to the leader chosen by themselves, loyalty to their 
 chosen companions (the idea of comradeship) these 
 features all deserve to be well noted, because from them 
 arose the feudalism of the middle ages. What Csesar 
 and Tacitus tell us of the education of the Germans ex- 
 presses only the free play allowed itself by individuality, 
 which in its rudimentary savage state had no other form 
 in which to manifest itself than wars of conquest. 
 
 To the Roman there was something daemonic in the German. 
 He perceived dimly in him his future, his master. When the Ro- 
 mans first met the Cimbri and Teutons in the field, their commander 
 had to accustom them gradually to the fearful sight of the wild, 
 giant-like forms. 
 
 [The individualism of the Germanic race is called " abstract " 
 by Rosenkranz because that race loved individuality pure and 
 simple. They cared neither for men nor gods, having that in- 
 toxication of i bravery which utter desperation gives. The Ger- 
 manic individuality is here called demonic (not demonic}, in the 
 Greek sense of "possessed by a spirit." It is a sort of madness 
 
THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 241 
 
 or frenzy the Berserker rage, described in Kingsley's " Hypa- 
 tia," as possessing the Norsemen in battle. (See 203.) They 
 had loyalty to their friends and leaders, and acknowledged the 
 claims of woman. The tragedy of Brunhild in the old Norse 
 Edda shows how deeply prophetic was their sentiment regarding 
 woman.] 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 
 
 227. THE system of national education was founded 
 on the substantial basis of the family institution ; its 
 second phase is the division of the nation by means 
 of division of labor which it makes permanent in 
 castes ; its third stage presents the fre^e antithesis of the 
 laity and clergy ; next it makes war, immortality, and 
 trade, by turns, its end ; after this, it sets up beauty, 
 patriotic duty, and the immediateness of individuality, 
 as the essence of human nature ; and at last dissolves 
 the unity of nationality in the consciousness that all 
 nations are really one since they are all human be- 
 ings. In the intermixture of races in the Horn an world 
 arises the conception of the human race, the gmus hu- 
 manum. Education had become eclectic : the Eoman 
 legions leveled the national distinctions. In the waver- 
 ing of all objective morality, the necessity of self-edu- 
 cation in order to the formation of character appeared 
 ever more and more clearly ; but the conception, which 
 lay at the foundation, was always, nevertheless, that of 
 Eoman, Greek, or German education. But in the midst 
 of these nations another system had striven for develop- 
 
24:2 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS tF ElUCATIfN. 
 
 ment, and this did not base itself on the natural bond of 
 nationality, but made this, for the first time, only a sec- 
 ondary thing, and made the direct relation of man to 
 God its chief idea. In this system God himself is the 
 teacher. He manifests to man his will as law, to which 
 he must unconditionally conform, for no other reason 
 than that he is the Lord and man is his servant who can 
 have no other will than His. The obedience of man is, 
 therefore, in this system mere mechanical submission to 
 authority, until through experience he gradually attains 
 to the knowledge that the will * f God has in it the very 
 essence of his own will. Descent, talent, events, work, 
 beauty, courage all these are indifferent things com- 
 pared with the subjection of the human to the divine 
 will. To believe in God is the way to be well-pleasing 
 to him. Without this unity with God, what is natural 
 in national descent is of no value. According to its 
 form of manifestation, Judaism is not so advanced as 
 the Greek spirit. It is not beautiful, but rather gro- 
 tesque. But in its essence, as the religion of the con- 
 tradiction between the absolute, divine ideal and the 
 finite and the imperfect existence of the world, it takes 
 a step beyond Nature, which it perceives to be created 
 by an absolute, conscious, and reasonable will ; while 
 the Greek concealed in a myth concerning the birth of 
 Gaea, his mother-earth, the fact of the dependence of all 
 Nature on a higher source. The Jews have been pre- 
 served in the midst of all other civilizations by the elas- 
 tic power of the thought of God as one who was free 
 from the control of Nature. The Jews have a patriotism 
 equal to that of the Romans. The Maccabees, for ex- 
 ample, were not inferior to the Romans in greatness. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF THE* CKATIC EDUCATION. 243 
 
 Abraham is the genuine Jew because he is the genuinely faith- 
 ful man. He does not hesitate to obey the horrible and inhuman 
 command of his God. Circumcision was made the token of the 
 national unity, but the nation may assimilate members to itself 
 from other nations through this rite. The essential condition 
 of membership in the chosen people always lies in belief in a 
 spiritual relation to which the natural relation is secondary. The 
 Jewish nation makes proselytes, and these are widely different 
 from the Socii of the Romans or the Metoeci (Merot/coi) of the 
 Athenians. 
 
 [Quite in contrast to the " individual " education is the sys- 
 tem of " theocratic " education. The " unity of nationality is 
 dissolved in the consciousness that all nations are really one 
 since they are all human beings." This refers to the last stage 
 of Roman history. The Romans had conquered all nations and 
 imposed upon them the Roman law and the double conscious- 
 ness (above described) of public and private rights. Upon the 
 conquest of a new country, its youth, able to bear arms, were 
 conscripted into the army and sent to some remote part of the 
 empire where they were opposed to a foe so unlike themselves in 
 language and customs as to cause them to cleave loyally to the 
 Roman standard as the only means of self-preservation. Be- 
 sides, it was only through Rome that they could ever hope to 
 hear from their native land or return to it. By this plan the 
 conquered peoples became thoroughly intermingled throughout 
 the army. Those who fought side by side learned to respect 
 each other. Slowly there arose the idea of the genus liumanum, 
 the idea of all men as of one blood. 
 
 While this leveling of national distinctions had gone on 
 within the Roman Empire, there arose another movement paral- 
 lel to it, but in the deepest recesses of the human spirit. It was 
 the theocratic education that developed the idea of the personal 
 God, who is not a special limited God, but the God of all people. 
 While Greek poetry is beautiful, Hebrew poetry is sublime. It 
 presents the strong contrast between a Creator of infinite power 
 and his finite works. God is above and apart from all Nature, 
 The Persian makes Ahura-Mazda identical with the natural 
 element, light. But the Bible says that light was created by a 
 mere word of the Divine Person.] 
 
244 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 228. To the man who knows Nature to be the 
 work of a single, transcendent, rational Creator, she loses 
 independence. He is negatively freed from her control, 
 and sees in her only a means. As opposed to the hea- 
 then conceptions richly endowed with the poetic imagi- 
 nation, this seems to be a backward step, but for the 
 emancipation of man it is a progress. He no longer 
 fears Nature, but her Lord, and admires Him so much in 
 his works that prose rises to the dignity of poetry even 
 in this teleological contemplation (which celebrates the 
 purpose of Nature rather than Nature herself). Since 
 man stands above Nature, education is directed to morali- 
 ty as such, and expresses itself in manifold qualifications, 
 by means of which the distinction of man from Nature 
 is definitely stated. The ceremonial law appears often 
 arbitrary, but in its prescribed ceremonies it offers man 
 the satisfaction of placing himself as will in relation to 
 will (human will in relation to Absolute Will). For ex- 
 ample, if he is forbidden to eat any specified part of an 
 animal, the ground of this command is not merely nat- 
 ural (i. e., based on hygienic reasons) it is the will 
 of the Deity. Man learns, therefore, in his obedience 
 to such directions, to free himself from his self-will, 
 from his natural appetites. This thorough renunciation 
 of mere subjectivity (selfishness) is the beginning of 
 wisdom, the purification of the will from all individual 
 egotism. 
 
 The Decalogue contains the rational substance of the law ex- 
 pressed for all time. Many of our modern much-admired authors 
 exhibit a superficiality bordering on shallowness when they confine 
 their comments to the absurdity of the miracles, and omit all notice 
 of the profound depth of the moral struggle of the Jewish people, 
 and fail to see the practical rationality of the ten commandments. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 245 
 
 [When a religion teaches man that Nature is only a created 
 object, and that the Creator is a conscious person, he does not 
 any longer worship forces and material forms, but sees in them 
 only a means for the realization of spiritual ends. With such a 
 belief education is directed toward what is ethical. In obeying 
 the " law " man obeys the will of deity and not a mere blind 
 necessity of unconscious Nature.] 
 
 229. Education in this theocratical system is in 
 one respect patriarchal. The family is very prominent, 
 because it is considered to be a great happiness for 
 the individual to belong from his earliest life to the 
 company of those who believe in the true God. In 
 another respect it is hierarchical, inasmuch as its cere- 
 monial law develops a special function, to be filled by 
 those whose duty it is to see that obedience is paid to 
 its multifarious regulations. And, because these are 
 often perfectly arbitrary, education must, above all, see 
 that they are committed to memory so thoroughly that 
 they may always be remembered. The Jewish mono- 
 theism shares this necessity with the superstition of hea- 
 thenism. 
 
 [In the theocratic system education is at first patriarchal be- 
 cause the family is the link that connects the individual with 
 the faithful chosen people. Secondly, the education is provided 
 by the priests who have to preserve the ceremonial law in its 
 purity, and see to its observance. What is prescribed by divine 
 command must be committed to memory ; hence the tendency in 
 this species of education to exclusive cultivation of the memory.] 
 
 230. But the technique proper of the ceremonial 
 mechanism is not the most important educational ele- 
 ment of the theocracy. We find this in its historical 
 significance, since its history throughout has an educa- 
 tional character. For the people of God show us always, 
 in their intercourse with Him, a progress from the ex- 
 
216 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ternal to the internal, from the lower to the higher, 
 from the past to the future. Their history, therefore, 
 abounds in situations very interesting in an educational 
 point of view, and in characters which are eternal models. 
 [To the command to obey is added a promise of material pros- 
 perity and a threat of punishment. The history of the chosen 
 people shows a gradual progress away from the state of mind 
 which looks to material reward for obeying spiritual laws.] 
 
 231. (1) The will of God as the absolute authority 
 is at first to this people, as law, external. But soon God 
 adds to the command to obedience, on the one hand, the 
 inducement of a promise of material prosperity, and on 
 the other hand the threat of material punishment. The 
 fulfillment of the law is also encouraged by reflection 
 on the profit which it brings. But, since these motives 
 are all external, we rise finally into the insight that the 
 law is to be fulfilled, not on account of those motives, 
 but because it is the will of the Lord ; not alone because 
 it is conducive to our happiness, but also because it is 
 in itself holy, and written in our hearts : in other words, 
 man proceeds from the standpoint of abstract legality, 
 through the reflection of eudsemonism (i. e., the expecta- 
 tion of selfish gain for our obedience), to the internality 
 of moral sentiment the course of all education. 
 
 This last standpoint is especially represented in the excellent 
 collection of aphorisms of Jesus Sirach a book rich in pedagog- 
 ical insight, which paints with master-strokes the relations of hus- 
 band and wife, parents and children, master and servants, friend and 
 friend, enemy and enemy, and the dignity of labor as well as the 
 necessity of its division. This priceless book forms a companion- 
 piece from the theocratic standpoint to the " Republic " and " Laws " 
 of Plato, in which he treats the province of ethics. 
 
 [The history of the Jews shows the discipline that they un- 
 dergo. They come to see that the law must be obeyed, not be- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 247 
 
 cause it brings prosperity, but because it is the law of holiness 
 and its fulfillment makes men resemble God. In the progress 
 of this nation we see three stages which are repeated in all in- 
 dividuals who become thoroughly educated : (1) abstract legality, 
 mechanical obedience without insight or purpose ; (2) " the re- 
 flection of eudasmonism " " reflection," because the doer sees in 
 his deed his own profit or gain, i. e., a reflection of self as in a 
 mirror ; (3) to the internality of moral sentiment, obedience to 
 the law, because it leads to holiness or union with God. See the 
 book " Ecclesiasticus " in the " Apocrypha," " containing the 
 "Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach," for this insight into the 
 law of holiness.] 
 
 232. (2) The progress from the lower to the higher 
 appeared in the conquering of the natural individuality. 
 Man, as the servant of Jehovah, must have no will of 
 his own ; but selfish naturalness arrayed itself so much 
 the more vigorously against the absolute " Thou shalt," 
 allowed itself to descend into alienation from the law, 
 and often reached the most unbridled extravagance. But 
 since the law with its inexorable strictness always re- 
 mained the same, contrasting its persistence with the 
 inequalities of human acts, it forced man to come back 
 to it, and to conform himself to its demands. Thus he 
 learned self-criticism, thus he rose from the natural into 
 the spiritual. This progress is at the same time a prog- 
 ress from necessity to freedom, because self-criticism 
 gradually opens a way into the insight that the will of 
 God is the true outcome of man's own self-determina- 
 tion. Because God is one and absolute, there arises the 
 expectation that his will will become the basis for the 
 will of all nations and men. The criticism of the un- 
 derstanding must recognize a contradiction in the fact 
 that the will of the true God is the law of only one 
 
 nation. Other nations, moreover, were repelled from 
 
 24 
 
248 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 the Jews by reason of their worship of God as a gloomy 
 mystery, and they detested that race as odium generis 
 humani. And thus is developed the thought that the 
 isolation of the believers will come to an end as soon as 
 the other nations recognize their faith as the true one, 
 and are received into it. Thus here, in the deepest 
 penetration of the soul into itself, as among the Romans 
 in the fusion of nations, we see appear the idea of the 
 human race. 
 
 [Progress appeared in another respect in the degree to which 
 the people could subdue their natural appetites and lusts and 
 submit to the law of Jehovah. The ideal standard of conduct 
 being furnished by the law, each Jew could criticise his own life 
 by it. This criticism, moreover, gave him insight into the fact 
 that the law of holiness was at the same time the true outcome 
 of his own self-determination that is to say, the true means of 
 his own perfection, and not an arbitrary regulation of Jehovah 
 forced on man against his true interests. Again, as a conse- 
 quence of this insight, it became evident that the law is the 
 means of perfection for all men, and that Jehovah is the God 
 of all nations, and not the God of the Jews alone, and that He 
 ought to be recognized by all people. When this is done the 
 chosen people will be no longer exclusive. At this point the 
 Jewish theocracy has reached the idea of the human race as be- 
 longing to one religion, and from a different standpoint has 
 come to the same result that the Roman civilization has done.] 
 
 233. (3) The progress from the past to the future 
 developed an ideal of a servant of God who fulfills all 
 the law, and therefore blots out the empirical contra- 
 diction involved in the fact that the " Thou, shalt " of 
 the law did not attain adequate reality. This Prince of 
 Peace, who shall gather all nations under his banner, 
 can therefore have no other thing predicated of him 
 than holiness. He is not beautiful as the Greeks repre- 
 sented their ideal, not brave and practical as was the 
 
THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION". 249 
 
 venerated Virtus of the Eomans ; he does not place an 
 infinite value on his individuality as the German does ; 
 but he is represented as insignificant in appearance, as 
 patient, as humble, as he who, in order to reconcile the 
 world, takes upon himself the infirmities and disgrace 
 of all others. The heathen nations have only a lost 
 paradise behind them ; the Jews have one also before 
 them. From this belief in the Messiah who is to come, 
 from the certainty which they have of conquering with 
 him, from the power of esteeming all present things of 
 small importance in view of such a future, springs the 
 indestructible nature of the Jews. They ignore the fact 
 that Christianity is the necessary result of their own his- 
 tory. As the nation of the future, they are the world- 
 historical nation par excellence, the nation among na- 
 tions, whose education whenever the Jew has not 
 changed and corrupted his nature through modern cult- 
 ure is still always patriarchal, hierarchal, and mne- 
 monic (dwelling on the memory of its past history). 
 
 [The " Prince of Peace " is to gather all peoples under his 
 banner of holiness. The Messiah is to come and restore the lost 
 paradise. In view of this ideal, which has the Absolute God for 
 the guaranty of its realization, the Jew regards his nation as the 
 nation of the future, and end ares the trials of the present with 
 infinite fortitude. The same ideal in Christianity creates the 
 martyrs whose stubborn individuality endures not only persecu- 
 tion but death cheerfuilyT^This education, therefore, furnishes 
 the deepest ground for individuality sought by the Greeks, 
 Romans, and Teutonic peoples with only partial success. It is 
 the bsj^isjior all future education. All men are of one blood, and 
 alrfave the same destiny, namely, holiness, or participation in 
 the divine nature.] 
 
250 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 
 
 234. THE systems of national and theocratic edu- 
 cation came to the same result, though by opposite ways, 
 and this result is the conception of a human race in the 
 unity of which the distinctions of different nations com- 
 bine and complement each other so as to form a perfect 
 whole. But with them this result is a mere ideal, and 
 they remain in their actual state without realizing it. 
 They picture to themselves the ideal of the advent of 
 the Messiah. But these ideals exist only in the mind, 
 and the actual condition of the people sometimes does 
 not correspond to them at all, and sometimes only in a 
 slight degree. The idea of spiritual perfection had in 
 these presuppositions the possibility of its concrete act- 
 ualization ; one individual man must become conscious 
 of the universality and necessity of the will as being the 
 very essence of his own freedom, so that all external 
 authority should be canceled in the self-rule of spirit, 
 which is a law unto itself. Natural individuality ap- 
 pearing as national traits was still acknowledged, but was 
 deprived of its abstract one-sidedness. The divine au- 
 thority of the truth of the individual will is to be recog- 
 nized, but at the same time freed from its estrangement 
 toward itself. While Christ was a Jew and obedient 
 to the divine law, he knew himself as the universal man 
 who determines for himself his own destiny ; and, al- 
 though distinguishing God, as subject, from himself, 
 yet holds fast to the unity of man and God. The system 
 of humanitarian education began to unfold from this 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 251 
 
 principle, which no longer accords the highest place to 
 the natural unity of national individuality, nor to ab- 
 stract obedience to the command of God, but to that 
 freedom of the soul which knows itself to be uncondi- 
 tioned by aught in time or space. Christ is not a mere 
 ideal of thought, but is known as a living member 
 of actual history, whose life, sufferings, and death for 
 freedom form the guaranty of its absolute justification 
 and truth. The aesthetic, philosophical, and political 
 ideal are all found in the universal nature of the Chris- 
 tian ideal, on which account no one of them appears 
 one-sided in Christian life. The principle of human 
 freedom excludes neither art, nor science, nor politics. 
 
 [The national systems begin with China, and end with Rome. 
 Their outcome is the same as that of the theocratic system of 
 education the conception of a human race in which the differ- 
 ences and distinctions of nations are swallowed up and harmo- 
 nized. A new system of education arose in the Roman Empire, 
 and in the new nations that sprang from its ruins a system 
 founded on the Christian idea. "What there was positive in all 
 former educational ideals is contained in the Christian ideal. 
 The brotherhood of all men and the common heritage of an in- 
 finite destiny make the attainment of all kinds of perfection 
 possible. Art, science, politics, morality, and industry, are in- 
 cluded, but harmonized by the new ideal. This new ideal may 
 be stated in the formula : The goal of progress in Christian civ- 
 ilization is the greatest perfection of the whole, and the simul- 
 taneous realization of the good of the whole race in each indi- 
 vidual. The earlier stages of human civilization accepted, as 
 goal, the perfection of institutions as a whole at the expense of 
 individuality. Complete subordination, which was necessary for 
 the perfect working of the patriarchal state, could not be at- 
 tained without a suppression of independence on the part of the 
 single individual. Progress is marked by the rise of institu- 
 tions which secure their greatest perfection through the greatest 
 development of the individual. For example, the education of 
 
252 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 all people up to the point of independent self-activity is neces 
 sary for an ideal representative democracy.] 
 
 235. In its conception of man the humanitarian 
 education provides for separate nationalities (local, inde- 
 pendent self-governments), thus securing the good feat- 
 ure in "national" education, and likewise for the sub- 
 jection of all men to the divine law, which was taught 
 in the theocratic system, but it will no longer permit 
 the former to grow into an isolating exclusiveness, and 
 the latter into a despotism which includes the former 
 as an unessential element. But this principle of hu- 
 manity and human nature took root so slowly that the 
 two elements, out of which it developed, were revived 
 within it in their peculiar one-sidedness, and had to 
 be again overcome and united anew. These stages of 
 culture were the Greek, the Kornan, and the Protest- 
 ant Churches, and education was metamorphosed to suit 
 the formation of each of these. 
 
 For the sake of brevity we shall confine ourselves in what fol- 
 low.--"* pointing out general characteristics ; the unfolding of details 
 is intimately bound up with the history of politics and of civiliza- 
 tion. "We shall be contented if we correctly indicate the general 
 course of their history. 
 
 [Humanitarian education (IIumanitats-ErzieJiung human- 
 ity-education) took root so slowly that the two phases which 
 were united within it often fell out of harmony and developed 
 one-sidedly, now one predominating and now the other. It be- 
 came often necc39aryrVvyWercome these extreme tendencies and 
 restore equilibrium. First, there would be a sort of relapse out 
 of the Christian ideal into a heathen ideal, and the national sys- 
 tem of education would be approached. Then a reaction would 
 set in, and an extreme reached closely resembling the theocratic 
 system. The three phases of the Church Greek, Roman, and 
 Protestant suggest the three forms of individualism: (a) tho 
 aesthetic, (b) the practical or political, (c) the chivalric.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 253 
 
 236. Within education we can distinguish these 
 thiee stages of development as three epochs : the monk- 
 ish, the chivalric, and that education which is to fit one 
 for civil life. Each of these endeavored to express all 
 that belonged to humanity as such ; but it was only after 
 the recognition of the moral nature of the family, of 
 labor, of culture, and of the conscious equal title of all 
 men to their rights, that this became really possible. 
 
 [Rosenkranz distinguishes three epochs in humanitarian edu- 
 cation : (a) the monkish ; (b) chivalric ; (c) citizen.] 
 
 I. The Epoch of Monkish Education. 
 
 237. The Greek Church seized the Christian prin- 
 ciple still abstractly as deliverance from the world, 
 and therefore, in the education proceeding from it, it 
 arrived only at the negative form, defining the univer- 
 sality of the individual man (i. e., his essence, his true 
 destiny) as the renunciation of self. In the dogmatism 
 of its teaching, as well as in the ascetic severity ^ its 
 practical conduct, it was a reproduction of the theo- 
 cratic principle. But when this had assumed the form 
 of national centralization, the Greek Church dispensed 
 with the ascetic severity, and, as far as regards its form, 
 it returned again to the quietism of the Orient. 
 
 [The Greek Church laid emphasis on the principle of renun- 
 ciation, which is only one of the e^-u^ts cf the Christian ideal. 
 Its education, accordingly, took a negative tendency toward the 
 passive systems of the extreme East. Its asceticism also repro- 
 duced the theocratic principle. Passivity and quietism, the com- 
 plete subjugation of self, the renunciation of all secular aims, 
 the world, the flesh, and the devil, the withdrawal from civiliza- 
 tion as something repugnant to holiness, characterize this first 
 epoch- Holy men retired to the deserts and lived as hermits. 
 
254 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Then they lived in Christian societies in artificial hermitages, 
 cells constructed within high monastic walls. Then in the 
 Roman epoch the monks came out of their cells and entered so- 
 ciety to elevate it under the leadership of St. Dominic and St. 
 Francis. It was discovered that quietism and withdrawal from 
 the world left the mass of mankind to spiritual degradation. 
 Christ had not withdrawn to the desert, but had come nigh hu- 
 manity in its busy haunts and sought to convert it. So the Do- 
 minicans turned toward science and learning and became the 
 teachers of the wealthy and powerful classes. The Franciscans 
 became popular preachers, going among the poor and lowly, and 
 carrying the gospel. Then came Protestantism, taking the fur- 
 ther step of recognizing the secular in itself, considered as a neces- 
 sary element of the Christian ideal of humanity.] 
 
 238. The monkish education is in general identical 
 in all religions, in that, through its concentration of its 
 entire attention upon itself in its practical activity, and 
 the stoicism of its way of thinking, through the cloister- 
 seclusion of its external existence and the mechanism of 
 a thoughtless subjection to a general rule as well as to 
 the special command of superiors, it fosters a spiritual 
 and bodily dullness. The Christian monachism, there- 
 fore, as the perfect realization of the ideal of monachism, 
 is at the same time the complete exposure of the defect 
 of the principle, because, in merely renouncing the 
 world instead of conquering it and gaining possession of 
 it, it contradicts the very principle of Christianity. 
 
 [The defect of monachism, as measured by the entire scope of 
 Christianity, has been seen : it renounces the world instead of 
 conquering it.] 
 
 239. We must notice, as the fundamental error of 
 this whole system, that it does not in free individuality 
 seek to produce the ideal of divine-humanity, but to 
 copy its historical manifestation in an external repro- 
 duction. Each human being must complete the Atone- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 255 
 
 ment by offering up as sacrifice his own individuality. 
 
 Each biography has its Bethlehem, its Tabor, and its 
 
 G-olgotha. 
 
 [Monachism aims rather to copy an historic past than to rein- 
 carnate its divine principle in a new present life. Bethlehem, 
 Tabor, and Golgotha, doubtless come, or should come, into every 
 complete life, but under new forms peculiar to the occasion.] 
 
 240. Monachism looks upon the freedom from 
 one's self and from the world, that Christianity de- 
 mands, only as an entire renunciation of self, which it 
 seeks to compass, like Buddhism, by the vows of pov- 
 erty, chastity, and obedience, which must be taken by 
 each individual. 
 
 This rejection of property, of marriage, and of individual volition, 
 is at the same time the negation of work, of the family, and of re- 
 sponsibility for one's actions. In order to avoid the danger of ava- 
 rice and covetousness, of sensuality and of nepotism, of error and of 
 guilt, monachism seizes the convenient device of complete severance 
 from all the objective world without being able fully to carry out this 
 negation. Monkish education must, in consequence, be very particular 
 about an external separation of its disciples from the world, so as 
 to make the task of alienation from the world easier and more de- 
 cided. It therefore builds cloisters in the solitudes of the desert, in 
 the depths of the forest, on the summits of mountains, and surrounds 
 them with high windowless walls ; and then, so as to carry the isola- 
 tion of the individual to its farthest possible extreme, it constructs, 
 within these cloisters, cells, in imitation of the caves of the first her- 
 mits a seclusion the immediate consequence of which is boundless 
 and most paltry curiosity. 
 
 [Christian monachism resembles in many of its forms that 
 of Buddhism. In fact, the Abbe Hue, who visited Thibet in 
 1845, found so many ceremonies of Lamaism nearly identical 
 with corresponding ones of the Catholic Church that he was 
 obliged to infer that they had been borrowed from the latter. 
 This is not improbable, when we consider the extent to which 
 Christian monachism spread over Western Asia in the first four 
 centuries. The peculiar form of Buddhism known as Lamaism 
 
256 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 is of later origin than the Christian Hermit epoch, and indeed 
 at least one century later than St. Benedict's reform in monach- 
 ism. In 622 Buddhism was introduced into Thibet, and Lhasa 
 (Lassa) founded the date of the birth of Mohammed. Its trans- 
 formation into Lamaism may have been as late as the eleventh 
 century. 
 
 Three vows poverty, chastity, and obedience indicate the 
 attitude toward the secular world. The three chief secular in- 
 stitutions : (a) the family is attacked by the second vow, which 
 aims at celibacy ; (b) civil society, or the institution for the pro- 
 duction and distribution of property by means of industry, is at- 
 tacked by the first vow, which renounces property ; (c) the state 
 is attacked by the third vow, which renounces allegiance to any 
 but its religious superiors. That this extreme of quietism was a 
 necessary resort in the epoch when it was established may be 
 granted without question. The Church has, however, found it 
 from time to time desirable to restrict this form of life. It aims 
 to restrict monastic life to those who have made a hopeless 
 failure in a secular life, and by it save them from despair and 
 sin. In early ages it was thought to be the only life of holiness ; 
 now it is thought to be auxiliary to holiness in some cases.] 
 
 241. Theoretically, monkish education seeks, by 
 means of complete silence, to place the soul in a state of 
 spiritual immobility, which, through the want of all in- 
 terchange of thought, at last sinks into entire apathy 
 and antipathy toward all intellectual culture. The chief 
 feature of this practicaT^culture is caused by the mis- 
 taken idea that one should ignore Mature, instead of 
 morally freeing himself from her control. As Nature 
 again and again asserts herself, the monkish discipline 
 proceeds to ill-treat her, and strives through fasting, 
 through sleeplessness, through voluntary self-inflicted 
 pain and torture, not only to subdue the wantonness of 
 the flesh, but to destroy the love of life till it shall be- 
 come a positive loathing of existence. In and for them- 
 selves the objects renounced by the monkish vow prop- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 257 
 
 erty, the family, and individual choice are not immoral. 
 The vow is, on this account, very easy to violate. In 
 order to prevent all temptation to this, monkish educa- 
 tion invents a system of supervision, partly open, partly 
 secret, which deprives one of all freedom of action, all 
 freshness of thinking and of willing, and all poetry of 
 feeling, by means of the perpetual shadow of spies and 
 informers. The monks are well versed in all police- 
 arts, and the well-graded series of supervisors and gen- 
 eral inspectors in the hierarchy spurs them on always to 
 distinguish themselves in these arts of espionage. 
 
 [Monkish discipline of fasts, vigils, and penances. Necessity 
 of espionage the support of individual resolution by the super- 
 vision of one's companions and superiors.] 
 
 242. The gloomy breath of this education pene- 
 trated all the relations of the Byzantine state. Even 
 the education of the emperor was infected by it ; and in 
 the strife for freedom waged by the modern Greeks 
 against the Turks, the priors of the cloisters were the 
 real leaders of the insurrection. Independence of indi- 
 viduality, as opposed to monkish self-abnegation, was 
 compelled more or less to degenerate into the crude 
 form of soldier and pirate life. But this principle of 
 free individuality was not left to manifest itself in this 
 unlawful manner ; on the contrary, it was built up posi- 
 tively into humanity ; and this the German world, under 
 the guidance of the Roman Church, undertook to ac- 
 complish. 
 
 [Deserted by the religious element, secularity in the Eastern 
 Empire took on irregular and barbarous forms. In the West, 
 under the " Holy Roman Empire," whose seat was in Germany, 
 secularity came to be more penetrated by the influence of the 
 Church, and thus arose the epoch of chivalric education.] 
 
258 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 II. The Epoch of Chivalric Education. 
 
 243. The Romish Church annulled the principle 
 of abstract substantiality of the Greeks (i. e., that sup- 
 pressed individuality in behalf of divinely ordained 
 religious ceremonies) through the practical aim which 
 she set up in the principle of sanctity in works, and by 
 means of which she raised up German individuality to 
 the idealism of chivalry, i. e., a free military service in 
 behalf of Christendom. 
 
 [By the principle of sanctity in works (Pelagianism), the 
 Church raised German individuality to the idealism of chivalry. 
 This seems strange to ordinary Protestant views. The Roman 
 Catholic principle, however, corrected in this way the faulty ab- 
 straction of the Greek Church.] 
 
 244. As a matter of course the system of monkish 
 education which was taken up into this epoch as one of its 
 elements was modified to conform to it ; e. g., the Bene- 
 dictines were accustomed to labor in agriculture and in 
 the transcribing of books, and this contradicted the idea 
 of monachism, since that in and for itself tends to an 
 absolute forgetf ulness of the world and a perfect absence 
 of all activity in the individual. The begging orders 
 were public preachers, and made popular the idea of 
 love and unselfish sacrifice for others. They gave an 
 impulse to self-education, especially by holding up the 
 ideal of the life of Christ ; e. g., in Tauler's classical 
 book on the " Imitation of the Life of Jesus," and in 
 the work of Thomas - & - Kempis, which resembles it. 
 Through a constant contemplation of the mental pict- 
 ure of Christ, who suffered and died for love, they 
 sought to find content in divine rest and self-forget- 
 fulness. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 259 
 
 f Monachism in the West was modified by the mentioned prin- 
 ciple of sanctity in works, so that ora et labora became the 
 motto. Industry was admitted side by side with religious cere- 
 monial. Agriculture, copying of manuscripts, some of the trades, 
 etc., were followed by the monks. It retained, however, elements 
 of quietism.] 
 
 245. German chivalry sprang from feudalism. The 
 education of those pledged to military duty had become 
 confined to practice in the use of arms. The education 
 of the chivalric vassals pursued the same course, refining 
 it gradually through the influence of court society and 
 through poetry, which devoted itself either to the art of 
 relating graceful tales, or to the glorification of woman. 
 Girls were brought up without especial care. The boy 
 until he was seven years old remained in the hands of 
 women ; then he became a lad (a young gentleman), 
 and learned the art of offensive and defensive warfare, 
 on foot and on horseback ; between his sixteenth and 
 eighteenth year, through a formal ceremony (the laying 
 on of the sword), he was duly authorized to bear arms. 
 But whatever besides this he might wish to learn was 
 left to his own caprice. 
 
 [The education of chivalry was confined to practice in the use 
 
 of arms, to knightly etiquette, and poetry.] 
 
 246. In contradistinction to the monkish education, 
 chivalry placed an infinite value on individuality, and 
 this it expressed in its extreme sensibility to the feeling 
 of honor. Education, on this account, endeavored to 
 foster this consciousness of self-importance by means of 
 the social isolation in which it placed the knightly order. 
 The knight did not delight himself with domestic af- 
 fairs, but he sought for him who had been wronged, 
 since in helping him to his rights he could find enjoy- 
 
 25 
 
260 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ment as a conqueror. He did not live in simple mar- 
 riage, but strove for the piquant pleasure of making the 
 wife of another the lady of his heart, and this often led 
 to moral and carnal infidelity. And, finally, the knight 
 did not obey alone the general laws of knightly honor, 
 but he strove, besides, to discover for himself unusual 
 tasks, which he should undertake with his sword, in 
 defiance of all criticism, simply because it pleased his 
 caprice so to do. He sought adventures. 
 
 [While the monkish education repressed individuality, chiv- 
 alry placed unbounded value on it. Monachism did not, it is 
 true, repress essential individuality, after the manner of Oriental 
 systems. It gave the soul assurance of infinite individuality as 
 its eternal reward. In distinguishing between holiness and finite 
 aims, however, it went to an extreme in repressing the latter. 
 The knight took no pleasure in the prose of common life. He 
 sought adventure. He must find some person who had been 
 robbed or kidnapped whose wrongs he would undertake to right. 
 He looked about for some odd and peculiar enterprise, so that he 
 might realize his individuality in its pursuit. Eccentricity was 
 supposed to be essential to individuality.] 
 
 247. The reaction against the numberless fantastic 
 extravagancies arising from chivalry developed the idea 
 of the spiritual chivalry which was to unite the cloister 
 and the town, absolute self-denial and military life, sep- 
 aration from the world and the sovereignty over the 
 world. Although this was an undeniable advance, it was 
 an untenable synthesis which could not long delay the 
 dissolution of chivalry, which, as the rule of the stronger, 
 led to the destruction of all regular culture founded on 
 principles, and brought on a protracted period of absence 
 of all education. In this perversion of chivalry to a 
 grand vagabondism, and even to robbery, noble souls 
 often rushed into ridiculous excesses. The downfall of 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 261 
 
 chivalry prepared the way for citizenship, whose educa- 
 tion, however, did not, like the TTO\I,S and the civitas 
 of the ancients, limit itself to the narrow bounds of 
 special local interests, but, through the presence of the 
 principle of Christianity, accepted the whole circle of 
 humanity as the aim of its culture. 
 
 [Knight-errantry developed into a more rational form of chiv- 
 alry, namely, the orders devoted to special religious purposes. 
 But these did not retard the decay of the entire institution of 
 chivalry. The Crusades furnished the highest opportunity for 
 the spirit of knightly individuality, and, when they had suc- 
 ceeded in giving a new consciousness to Christendom by uniting 
 the East and West, there was nothing left for chivalry to do. It 
 degenerated into a grand vagabondism. The Crusades impover- 
 ished royal treasuries, and weakened the power of the aristocra- 
 cies. But the cities gained immensely, because they furnished 
 troops and money to carry on the wars. Their charters were 
 made strong and liberal. They were the nurseries of freemen. 
 The growth of cities put an end to chivalry, and inaugurated 
 the present epoch of education, that whose object is citizenship.] 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION' (continued}. 
 
 III. The Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil 
 
 Life. 
 
 248. THE condition of cities had gradually im- 
 proved through trade and industry, and this state of 
 affairs now found in Protestantism its spiritual confir- 
 mation. Protestantism, as the self-assurance of the in- 
 dividual that he was directly related to God without 
 
262 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 dependence on the mediation of any man, adopted the 
 principle of the autonomy of the soul, and began to 
 develop Christianity, as the principle of humanitarian 
 education, into concrete actuality, and to free it from 
 the creations of the imagination, with which monasticism 
 and chivalry had clothed it. The cities were not mere- 
 ly, in comparison with the clergy and the nobility, the 
 " third estate " ; but the citizen who himself managed 
 his political affairs, and defended his interests with 
 arms, developed into the order of state-citizen, which 
 absorbed the clergy and nobility, and the state-citizen 
 found his ultimate ideal in pure humanity conscious of 
 its rationality. 
 
 [The growth of citizenship found a special confirmation in the 
 Protestant movement, whose most important feature was the 
 recognition of secularism as one essential phase of Christian civ- 
 ilization.] 
 
 249. The phases of this development are (1) civil 
 education as such, within which we find also the chival- 
 ric education metamorphosed into the so-called nobility 
 education, these two forms, however, being controlled, 
 as to education, within Catholicism by Jesuitism, within 
 Protestantism by pietism. (2) Against this exclusive 
 tendency toward the Church, we find reacting on the one 
 hand the devotion to a study of antiquity, and on the 
 other the friendly alliance with immediate actuality, i. e., 
 with Nature. "We can name these periods of the his- 
 tory of education those of its ideals of culture. (3) But 
 the true aim of all culture must forever remain moral 
 freedom. After education had arrived at a knowledge 
 of the meaning of idealism and realism, it must seize as 
 its absolute aim the moral emancipation of man into 
 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 263 
 
 humanity; and it must subordinate its culture to this 
 aim, inasmuch as technical dexterity, social accomplish- 
 ment, proficiency in the arts, and scientific insight, can 
 attain to their proper rank only through moral purity. 
 
 [The three phases of development of this epoch are : (1) The 
 education of the citizen as opposed to the education of the no- 
 bility, both controlled by religious education Jesuitism within 
 Catholicism and Pietism within Protestantism. (2) A counter- 
 movement arose as a reaction against the too exclusive control 
 of the Church, on the one hand devoted to the study of ancient 
 languages and history, on the other hand devoted to natural 
 science. (3) The further progress of education unites aad recon- 
 ciles these two tendencies.] //d&' 
 
 :*\ 
 
 1. Civil Education as swc)L^ /.. ,cXoJk. sr 
 
 250. The one-sidedness of monkish anocMvalric 
 education was overcome by civil education in so far as 
 it set aside the celibacy of the monk and the estrange- 
 ment of the knight from his family, doing this by in- 
 creasing the hold of family life upon the individual ; for 
 it set up, as its standard of perfect living, the positive 
 morality of marriage and the family in the place of the 
 negative duty of holiness of the celibate ; while, instead 
 of the poverty and idleness of monkish piety and instead 
 of chivalric wealth, it taught that property and labor 
 were worthy objects of man i. e., it advocated the self- 
 determined morality of civil society and of its transac- 
 tions; and, finally, instead of the slavery of the con- 
 science, in the form of implicit obedience to the com- 
 mand of others, and instead of the freakish self-sufficien- 
 cy of the caprice of the knights, it demanded obedience 
 to the laws of the commonwealth as representing his 
 own self-conscious, actualized, practical reason, in which 
 
264 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 laws the individual can recognize and acknowledge him- 
 self. 
 
 As this civil education left free the enjoyment of the body, 
 sensuality was without bounds for a time, until, after men became 
 accustomed to labor and to know their privileges and capacities for 
 physical satisfaction, they gradually learned a moderation which 
 sumptuary laws and prohibitions of gluttony and drunkenness could 
 never create from the external side. "What the monk inconsistent- 
 ly enjoyed with a bad conscience, the citizen, like the preacher in 
 Ecclesiastes, could take possession of as a gift of God. After the 
 first millennium of Christianity, when the earth had not, according 
 to the current prophecies of the millennialists, been destroyed, and 
 after the great plague in the fourteenth century, there was felt an 
 immense pleasure in living, which manifested itself externally in the 
 fifteenth century in delicate wines, dainty food, great eating of meat, 
 drinking of beer, and, in the domain of dress, in trunk-hose, peaked 
 shoes, plumes, golden chains, bells, etc. There was much venison, 
 but as yet no potatoes, no tea and coffee. The temper of men was 
 quarrelsome. [Reference here to Sebastian Brant, etc., omitted.] 
 
 [Civil education (a) overcomes the estrangement of the knight 
 from his family and of the monk from secularity. It sets up 
 marriage and the family as the ethical ideal ; (b) it opposes the 
 poverty of the monk and the wealth of the knight by claiming 
 for labor and its productions a higher place; (c) instead of 
 obedience to the spiritual superior and the caprice of the knight, 
 it required obedience to the laws of the commonwealth as laws 
 demanded by the reason and self-interest of all. Great sensu- 
 ality prevailed for a time after the advent of this epoch.] 
 
 251. In contrast with the heaven-seeking of the 
 monks and the sentimental love-making of the knight, 
 civil education established, as its principle, usefulness, 
 which investigated in things their adaptation to various 
 purposes in order to gain such mastery over them as 
 was found possible. The understanding was trained 
 with all exactness, that it might clearly perceive the ob- 
 jects in the world. But since family-life did not allow 
 the self -concentration of the individual ever to become as 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 265 
 
 great as was the case with the monk and the knight, 
 and since the cheer of a sensuous enjoyment in cellar 
 and kitchen, in clothing and furniture, in social games 
 and in gorgeous pageants, penetrated the whole being 
 with soft pleasure, there was developed a sense of pro- 
 priety and sobriety, a sort of house-morality, and, united 
 with the prose of labor, a warm and kindly disposition, 
 which left room for innocent merriment and roguery, 
 and found its serious transfiguration in the staid and 
 solemn demeanor at church. Beautiful burgher-state, 
 thou wast weakened by the Thirty Years' War, and hast 
 been only accidentally preserved sporadically in Old 
 England and in some places in Germany, only to be at 
 last swept away by the flood of modern world-pain, 
 political sophistry, and anxiety for the future ! 
 
 [Usefulness, or adaptation of finite things to rational purposes, 
 was set up as the principle. The extremes of individualism 
 were tempered by the family influence at home and by the in- 
 fluence of the clergy and the ceremonies of the Church.] 
 
 252. The citizen paid special attention to public 
 education, heretofore wholly dependent upon the Church 
 and the cloister ; he organized city schools, whose teach- 
 ers, it is true, for a long time possessed only superficial 
 culture, and were often employed only for uncertain or 
 short terms. The society of the brotherhood of the 
 Hieronymites introduced a better system of instruction 
 before the close of the fourteenth century, but education 
 had often to be obtained from the so-called traveling 
 scholars (vagantes, fiacchantes, scholastic^ goliardi, etc.). 
 The teachers of the so-called scholce exteriores, in dis- 
 tinction from the schools of the cathedral and cloister, 
 were called here locati, there stampuales in German, 
 
266 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Kinder-Matter. The institution of German schools 
 soon followed the Latin city schools. In order to re- 
 move the anarchy in school matters, the citizens aided 
 the rise of universities by donations and foundations, 
 and sustained the street-singing of the city scholars 
 (currende\ an institution which was well-meant, but 
 which often failed of its end because on the one hand it 
 was often misused as a mere means of subsistence, and 
 on the other hand the sense of honor of those for whom 
 it was established not unfrequently became, through 
 their manner of living, lowered and degraded. The 
 defect of the monkish method of instruction became 
 ever more apparent, e. g., the silly tricks of their mne- 
 motechnique, the utter lack of anything which deserved 
 the name of any practical knowledge. The necessity 
 of instruction in the use of arms led to democratic forms. 
 Printing favored the same. Men began to concern 
 themselves about good text-books. Melanchthon was 
 the hero of the Protestant world, and as a pattern was 
 beyond his time. His " Dialectics," " Rhetoric," " Phys- 
 ics," and " Ethics," were reprinted innumerable times, 
 commented upon, and imitated. After him Amos Co- 
 menius, in the seventeenth century, had the greatest in- 
 fluence through his " Didactica Magna" and his " Janua 
 Reserata." In a narrower sphere, treating of the founda- 
 tion of philology in the gymnasiums (classical schools), 
 the most noticeable is Sturm, of Strasburg. The uni- 
 versities in Catholic countries limited themselves to the 
 scholastic philosophy and theology, together with which 
 we find slowly struggling up to notice the study of 
 Roman law and medicine in Bologna and Salerno. But 
 Protestantism first raised the university to any real uni- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 267 
 
 versality. Tubingen, Konigsberg, "Wittenberg, Jena, 
 Leipsic, Halle, and Gottingen were the first schools for 
 the study of all sciences, and for their free and produc- 
 tive pursuit. 
 
 [Here begins the organization of the school as an independent 
 institution. Traveling scholars. " Outside schools," as distin- 
 guished from those of the cathedral and cloister. Endowments 
 of universities by wealthy citizens. Melanchthon's text-books 
 for Protestant schools. Comenius (1592-1671) shows in all 
 directions the influence of his study of Lord Bacon's works. 
 In the " Advancement of Learning " one finds the basis of the 
 Janua, Linguae, Latince, Reserata of Comenius, as well as his sys- 
 tem of classification and grading of pupils, and of his course of 
 study. "Know all things (learning); master all things and 
 one's self (virtue) ; find the relation of all to God (piety) " : these 
 Comenius held to be the objects of the school. 
 
 John Sturm, of Strasburg (1507-1589), long before Comenius, 
 had laid the foundation of what has become the traditional 
 course of instruction and methods of study in the classical 
 schools for preparation for college. Scholastic philosophy and 
 theology still held the chief place in Catholic universities. The 
 German universities became the first schools for the study of all 
 science.] 
 
 253. The cities, which at first appeared with the 
 clergy and the nobility as the third estate, formed an 
 alliance with monarchy, and both together produced a 
 transformation of the chivalric education. Absolute 
 monarchy reduced the knights to mere nobles, to whom 
 it conceded the prerogative of appointment as spiritual 
 prelates as well as officers and counselors of state, but 
 only on the condition of the most complete submission ; 
 and then, to satisfy them, it invented the artificial social 
 revels of splendid court-life, and a charming and impos- 
 ing array of beauty. In this condition, the education 
 of the nobles was essentially changed in so far as to cease 
 
268 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 to be merely military. To tlie practice of arms, which, 
 moreover, was made of very much less consequence by 
 the democratic device of fire-arms, must be now added a 
 special training of the mind which could no longer dis- 
 pense with some knowledge of history, heraldry, gene- 
 alogy, literature, and mythology. Since the French 
 nation gave tone to the style of conversation, and after 
 the time of Louis XI Y controlled the politics of the 
 Continent, the French language, as conventional and 
 diplomatic, became a constant element in the education 
 of the nobility in all the other countries of Europe. 
 
 Practically, the education of the noble endeavored to equip the 
 individual with accomplishments, so that he should, by means of the 
 important quality of an advantageous personal appearance and the 
 prudence of his agreeable behavior, make himself into a ruler of all 
 other men, and even of his equals in rank i. e., he should copy in 
 miniature the manners of an absolute sovereign. The practical 
 knowledge of men was on this account made of the highest impor- 
 tance, and, under the form of ethical maxims, taught how to disco vei 
 the weak side of every man, and so be able to outwit him. Mundus 
 vult decipi, ergo decipiatur. According to this, every man had his 
 price. They did not believe in the Nemesis of a divine ordination ; 
 on the contrary, disbelief in the higher justice was taught. One 
 must be so elastic as to suit himself to all situations, and, as a carica- 
 ture of the ancient ataraxy, he must acquire as a second nature a 
 manner perfectly indifferent to all changes, the impassibility of an 
 aristocratic repose, the amphibious cold-bloodedness of the " gentle- 
 man." The man of the world, like a worldling, sought his ideal in 
 endless dissimulation, and this, as the flowering of his culture, he 
 made his chief end. Intrigue, in love as well as in politics, was the 
 soul of the nobleman's existence. 
 
 They endeavored to procure refinement of manners by sending 
 the young man away with a traveling tutor. This was very good, but 
 degenerated at last into the mechanism of the mere sight-seeing 
 tourist. The noble was made a foreigner, a stranger to his own coun- 
 try, by means of his abode at Paris or Venice, while the citizen grad- 
 ually outstripped him in genuine culture. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 269 
 
 [The citizen-class appeared as a " third estate " between the 
 nobles and the clergy (as explained in the commentary on 247). 
 The power of the king increased, and, assisted by the cities, was 
 able to reduce the haughty nobles to obedience to law and order. 
 The education of the nobility now ceased to be exclusively mili- 
 tary. History, heraldry, literature, etc., began to be studied. Es- 
 pecially important is the fact that the French language became 
 the court language for diplomacy as well as for polite intercourse. 
 
 The nobleman was educated to make himself a ruler over 
 men. Great attention was given to his personal carriage. Cer- 
 tain worldly-wise maxims, entirely unscrupulous as to moral 
 contents, became current. " The world wishes to be deceived, 
 therefore let it be deceived." "Every man has his price." 
 This worldliness assumed the form of a versatile diplomacy 
 which was able to pursue its ends through dissimulation, pre- 
 serving, under all its different faces, the impassivity of aristo- 
 cratic repose, which was the ideal of the " gentleman." 
 
 The self -estrangement (see 23, 24, commentary) necessary 
 for culture was sought in foreign travel and residence abroad, 
 besides, in the use of the French language when at home, in 
 London, or Vienna.] 
 
 254. The education of the citizen as well as that 
 of the noble was taken possession of, in Catholic coun- 
 tries by the Jesuits, in Protestant countries by the Pie- 
 tists : by the first, with a military strictness ; by the sec- 
 ond, in a sociable and gentle form. Both, however, 
 agreed in destroying individuality, inasmuch as the one 
 degraded man into a will-less machine for executing the 
 commands of others, and the other deadened him in 
 cultivating the feeling of his sinful worthlessness. 
 
 [Two religious systems of education : (a) the Jesuits ; (b) the 
 Pietists.] 
 
 (a) Jesuitic Education. 
 
 255. Jesuitism combined the maximum of worldly 
 freedom with an appearance of the greatest piety. Pro- 
 
270 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ceeding from this standpoint, it devoted itself in edu- 
 cation to elegance and showy knowledge, to diplomacy 
 and what was suitable and convenient in morals. To 
 secure future power, it adapted itself not only to youth 
 in general, but especially to the youth of the nobler 
 classes. To please the latter, the Jesuits laid great stress 
 upon a fine deportment. In their colleges dancing and 
 fencing were well taught. They knew how well they 
 should by this course content the noble, who had already 
 usurped the name of education for these technical ac- 
 complishments useful in giving formal expression to 
 personality. 
 
 In instruction they developed so exact a mechanism that they 
 gained the reputation of having model school regulations, and even 
 Protestants sent their children to them. From the close of the six- 
 teenth century to the present time they have based their teaching 
 upon the Ratio et institutio studiorum Societatis Jesu of Claudius of 
 Aquaviva. Following that, they distinguished two courses of teach- 
 ing, a higher and a lower. The lower included nothing but an ex- 
 ternal knowledge of the Latin language, and some fortuitous knowl- 
 edge of history, of antiquities, and of mythology. The memory was 
 cultivated as a means of keeping down free activity of thought and 
 clearness of judgment. The higher course comprehended dialectics, 
 rhetoric, physics, and morals. Dialectics was expounded as the art 
 of sophistry. In rhetoric, they favored the polemical and emphatic 
 style of the African fathers of the Church and their gorgeous phrase- 
 ology ; in physics, they followed Aristotle closely, and especially en- 
 couraged reading of the books " De Generatione et Corruptione " and 
 " De Coelo," on which they commented after their fashion ; finally, 
 in morals casuistic skepticism was their central point. They made 
 much of rhetoric on account of their sermons, giving to it careful 
 attention. They laid stress on declamation, and introduced it into 
 their showy public examinations through the performance of Latin 
 school comedies, and thus amused the public, disposed them to ap- 
 proval, and at the same time quite innocently practiced the pupil in 
 the art of assuming a feigned character. 
 
 Diplomatic conduct was made necessary to the pupils of the Jes- 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 271 
 
 uits as well by their strict military discipline as by their system of 
 mutual mistrust, espionage, and informing. Implicit obedience re- 
 lieved the pupils from all responsibility as to the moral justification 
 of their deeds. This exact following out of all commands, and re- 
 fraining from any criticism as to principles, created a moral indiffer- 
 ence, and, from the necessity of having consideration for the peculiar- 
 ities and caprices of the superior on whom all others were depend- 
 ent, arose eye-service. The coolness of mutual distrust sprang from 
 the necessity which each felt of being on his guard against every 
 other as a tale-bearer. The most deliberate hypocrisy and pleasure in 
 intrigue merely for the sake of intrigue this subtilest poison of moral 
 corruption were the result. Jesuitism had not only an interest in the 
 material profit, which, when it had corrupted souls, fell to its share, 
 but it also had an interest in the educative process of corruption. 
 With absolute indifference as to the idea of morality, and absolute 
 indifference as to the moral quality of the means used to attain its 
 end, it rejoiced in the efficacy of secrecy, and the accomplished and 
 calculating understanding, and in deceiving the credulous by means 
 of its graceful, seemingly scrupulous, moral language. 
 
 It is not necessary to speak here of the morality of the order. 
 It is sufficiently recognized as its fundamental contradiction, that 
 while it taught that the idea of morality insists upon the eternal 
 necessity of conformity to duty in every deed, on the other hand 
 it taught that in actual practice this conformity to moral precept 
 should be made to depend on circumstances. As to discipline, 
 they were always guided by their fundamental principle, that body 
 and soul, as in and for themselves one, could vicariously suffer for 
 each other. Thus penitence and contrition were transformed into a 
 perfect materialism of outward actions, and hence arose the punish- 
 ments of the order, in which fasting, scourging, imprisonment, morti- 
 fication, and death were formed into a mechanical artificial system. 
 
 [The Jesuit system of education, organized in 1584 by Clau- 
 dius of Aquaviva, was intended to meet the active influence of 
 Protestantism in education. It was remarkably successful, and 
 for a century nearly all the foremost men of Christendom came 
 from Jesuit schools. In 1710 they had six hundred and twelve 
 colleges, one hundred and fifty-seven normal schools, twenty- 
 four universities, and an immense number of lower schools. 
 These schools laid very great stress on emulation. Their ex- 
 periments in this principle are so extensive and long-continued 
 26 
 
272 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 that they furnish a most valuable phase in the history of peda- 
 gogy in this respect alone. In the matter of supervision they 
 are also worthy of study. They had a fivefold system, each 
 subordinate being implicitly obedient to his superior. Besides 
 this, there was a complete system of espionage on the part of 
 teachers and pupil monitors.] 
 
 (5) Pietistic Education. 
 
 256. Jesuitism would make machines of man, Pi- 
 etism would dissolve him in the feeling of his sinful- 
 ness : either would destroy his individuality. Pietism 
 proceeded from the principle of Protestantism, as, in 
 the place of the Catholic Pelagianism with its sanetifica- 
 tion by works, it offered justification by faith alone. In 
 its tendency to internality, i. e., to laying stress on the 
 inward state of the heart and the attitude of the will, 
 was its just claim. It would have even the letters of 
 the Bible learned with religious emotion. But in its 
 execution it fell into the error of one-sidedness in that 
 it placed, instead of the actual freedom accorded to the 
 individual by the spirit of Christianity, the imprison- 
 ment of a limited personality, supplanted free individu- 
 ality by the personality of Christ in an external manner, 
 and thus brought back into the very midst of Protest- 
 antism the principle of monachism an abstract re- 
 nunciation of the world. Since Protestantism had de- 
 stroyed the idea of the cloister, it could produce 
 estrangement from the world only by exciting public 
 opinion against such social amusements and culture as 
 it stigmatized as worldly for its members, e. g., card- 
 playing, dancing, the theatre, etc. Thus it became 
 negatively dependent upon works ; for since its follow- 
 ers remained in constant relation with the world, so that 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 273 
 
 the temptation to backsliding was a permanent one, it 
 must watch over them, exercise an indispensable moral- 
 police control over them, and thus, by the distrust of 
 each other which was involved, take up into itself the 
 Jesuitical practice, although in a very mild and affec- 
 tionate way. Instead of the forbidden seclusion of the 
 cloister, it organized a separate company, which, in its 
 regularly constituted assembly, we call a conventicle. 
 Instead of the cowl, it put on its youth a dress like that 
 of the world in its cut, but scant and drab-colored ; it 
 substituted for the tonsure a fashion of cutting and part- 
 ing the hair, and it often went beyond the obedience 
 of the monks in its expression of pining humility and 
 punctilious submission. Education within such a circle 
 could not well recognize Nature and history as revela- 
 tions of God, but it must consider them to be obstacles 
 to their union with God, from which death alone could 
 completely release them. The soul, which knew that 
 its home could be found only in the future world, must 
 feel itself to be a stranger upon the earth, and from such 
 an opinion there must arise an indifference and even a 
 contempt for science and art, as well as an aversion for 
 a life of active labor, though an unwilling and forced 
 tribute might be paid to it. Philosophy especially was 
 to be shunned as dangerous. Bible-reading, the cate- 
 chism, and the hymn-book, although quite mechanically 
 used, were the one thing needful to the " poor in spirit." 
 Religious poetry and sacred music were, of all the arts, 
 the only ones deserving of any cultivation. The educa- 
 tion of Pietism endeavored, by means of a carefully 
 arranged series of symbolic expressions, to create in its 
 disciples the feeling of their absolute nothingness, vile- 
 
274 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ness, godlessness, and abandonment by God, in order to 
 lift them out of the abyss of despair in regard to them- 
 selves and the world, and bring them into a warm, dra- 
 matic, and living relation to Christ a relation in which 
 all the erotic passion of the mystical fervor of the men- 
 dicant-friars was renewed in a somewhat milder form 
 and with a strong tendency to a sickening sentimentality, 
 [The Protestant counterpart of Jesuitism was Pietism, in 
 which there was a tendency toward relapse into the principle of 
 monachism. It laid so much stress on the letter that there was 
 not strength enough left to duly emphasize the spirit. J. Spener 
 (1635-1705) and A. H. Francke (1663-1727) were the founders 
 of this movement. It came so far as to be hostile toward the 
 cultivation of the intellect and practical will. There should be 
 no aesthetics except in the matter of sacred songs ("psalm- 
 tunes ") ; no science, and no history except sacred history. The 
 Quakers and the Puritans who settled in America brought with 
 them some of the features of the Pietists. The truth of Pietism 
 was its struggle to realize the living presence of God in the af- 
 fairs of men. The truth of Jesuitism was the importance to the 
 Church of preventing a separation between secular education 
 and religious education. The Church, during its first twelve 
 centuries, had held aloof from the secular. From the thirteenth 
 to the sixteenth centuries it had striven to bring the Church into 
 the secular, and thereby to guide and mold it. The Jesuit move- 
 ment was a renewal of the Dominican and Franciscan move- 
 ments (see commentary to 234) of the thirteenth century. 
 Then the danger came from Arabian schools of science and 
 philosophy in Spain ; now it was Protestantism, with its doc- 
 trine of the right of individual judgment.] 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 275 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. III. The 
 
 Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil Life 
 (concluded). 
 
 8. The Ideal of Culture. 
 
 257. CIVIL education arose from the recognition 
 of marriage and the family, of labor and enjoyment, of 
 the equality of all before the law, and of the duty of 
 self-determination. Jesuitism in the Catholic world and 
 Pietism in the Protestant were the reaction against this 
 recognition a return into the asceticism of the middle 
 ages ; not, however, in its purity, but mitigated by some 
 regard for worldly affairs. In opposition to this reac- 
 tion the interests of citizen-life produced another, in 
 which it undertook to save individuality by means of a 
 different kind of alienation. On the one hand, it be- 
 came absorbed in the study of the Greek and Roman 
 world ; on the other hand, it occupied itself with the 
 practical interests of the present. In the former case, 
 it placed man outside of his present world in a distant 
 past which held to the present no immediate relation^ 
 in the latter case took him out of himself and occupied 
 his attention with the affairs which were to serve him 
 as means of his comfort and enjoyment. In the former 
 it created an abstract idealism a reproduction of the 
 ancient view in the^lattei* it set up an abstract real- 
 ism in a high appreciation of things which ought to be 
 
 considered of value only as a means. In the one direc- 
 20 
 
276 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tion, individuality was lost in the contemplation of ex- 
 tinct nations ; in the other, it was lost in a world of 
 business. In one case, the ideal was that of the aesthetic 
 republicanism of the Greeks; in the other, the utili- 
 tarian cosmopolitanism of the Eomans. But, in reaction 
 against these two extremes, there arose a form that 
 united them and reconciled them in a humanity that 
 treated even the beggar and the criminal with pity and 
 mercy. 
 
 [Civil education rested on these four things recognized by the 
 new spirit of civilization : (a) marriage and the family ; (b) labor 
 and enjoyment of its products ; (c) equality of all before the law, 
 no personal tyranny ; (d) the duty of thinking for one's self and 
 acting according to the dictates of one's own conscience. Jesuit- 
 ism and Pietism were the Catholic and Protestant reactions 
 against this new spirit. A counter-reaction against these now 
 set in : the study of the Greek and Latin classics on the one 
 hand and a study of natural science on the other. These were 
 (a) the humanist ideal, and (b) the philanthropic ideal.] 
 
 (a) The Humanist Ideal. 
 
 258. The Oriental-theocratic education is preserved 
 in Christian education through the Bible. Through the 
 mediation of the Greek and Eoman Churches the views 
 of the ancient world were taken up, but not entirely as- 
 similated. To accomplish this latter function was the 
 problem of humanist education. It aimed to teach the 
 Latin and Greek languages, expecting thus to secure as 
 effect a purely human character in a broad, cosmopoli- 
 tan sense. The Greeks and Eomans being sharply 
 marked nationalities, how could one cherish such ex- 
 pectations ? It was possible only relatively in contrast, 
 partly to an urban population from whom all genuine 
 political sense had departed, partly in contrast to a 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 277 
 
 church limited by a confessional, to which the idea of 
 humanity as such had become almost lost in dogmatic 
 differences of opinion on trifling details. The spirit was 
 renewed in the first by the contemplation of the pure 
 patriotism of the ancients, and in the second by the dis- 
 covery of rational insight among the heathen. In con- 
 trast to the provincial Philistinism and against the want 
 of refined ideals and the lack of refined taste, was ar- 
 rayed the power of culture derived from the contem- 
 plation of antique art. The so-called uselessness of 
 learning dead languages imparted to the mind, it knew 
 not how, an ideal drift. The very fact that it could not 
 find immediate profit in its knowledge gave it the con- 
 sciousness that there is something of a higher value than 
 material profit. The ideal of the humanities was the 
 truth to nature which was found in the monuments of 
 the ancient world. The study of language as form, 
 must lead one involuntarily to the actual seizing of its 
 meaning. The Latin schools grew into Gymnasia, and 
 the universities contained not merely professors of elo- 
 quence, but also teachers of philology. 
 
 [The study of the Latin and Greek classics was supposed to 
 secure the development of a pure humanity, or in other words to 
 develop human nature in its entirety. The Greeks and Komans 
 had been true to nature, and the study of their languages and 
 literatures would do most to set the youth into harmony with 
 himself. These reasons are not quite so satisfactory as those 
 which ground the importance of classic study on the fact that 
 modern civilization is derivative ; resting on the Greek for its 
 aesthetics and science ; resting on the Roman for its legal and 
 political forms. A study of Latin and Greek gives the modern 
 youth a "self-estrangement" which ends by his becoming fa- 
 miliar with the view of the world held at Rome and Athens. 
 When he can see the world from the standpoints of those peoples 
 who were Competent by their original genius to invent art and 
 
278 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 science and jurisprudence, our modern youth finds himself re- 
 turned from out his " self -estrangement " with the capacity to 
 see and comprehend those important strands of his civilization 
 that were before invisible to him or seen only dimly. The study 
 of Latin and Greek is the study of the embryology of our civil- 
 ization. 
 
 In this view we are interested especially in the history of the 
 modern study of the classics. Trotzendorf (1490-1556), who went 
 to Wittenberg in 1518 and taught with Melanchthon, and was rec- 
 tor of the Gymnasium at Gorlitz for twenty-five years, is one of 
 the most important names. Sturm is another (see 252, com- 
 mentary). The powerful effect of classic study in giving the 
 youth possession of himself has been noted for centuries. The 
 explanation of it has varied. In the expression " humanities " 
 (humaniora, or Uterce humaniores) is suggested the theory that 
 the classics are especially adapted to humanize the youth. If 
 this means that they give him an insight into human nature as 
 nothing else does, the expression is very apt. Human nature 
 has shown itself especially in the Greek and Roman peoples, ris- 
 ing to wonderful heights of intellect and will-power. But this 
 does not state so directly the present value of those languages as 
 the view above presented, namely, that they give- the pupil the 
 point of view of the original inventors of art, science, and juris- 
 prudence, and hence their study is to all modern civilized peo- 
 ples (whose culture is derivative) a study of their own spiritual 
 embryology, and therefore indispensable for direct self-knowl- 
 edge. The vague expression "discipline of mind" has been 
 much used to express the valuable result of classic study, but it 
 does not hint at the genuine source of the culture as the word 
 humanities does.] 
 
 (5) The Philanthropic Ideal. 
 
 259. The humanitarian tendency reached its ex- 
 treme in the complete forgetting of the present, and the 
 neglect of its just claim. Man discovered at last that 
 he was not at home with himself, although he had made 
 himself at home in Rome and Athens. He spoke and 
 wrote Latin, if not like Cicero, at least like Muretius, but 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 279 
 
 he often found himself awkward in expressing his mean- 
 ing in his mother-tongue. He was often very learned, 
 but he lacked judgment. He was filled with enthusiasm 
 for the republicanism of Greece and Borne, and yet at 
 the same time was himself exceedingly servile to his ex- 
 cellent and august lords. Against this gradual deadening 
 of active individuality, the result of an abnormal study 
 of the classics, w T e find now reacting the education of 
 the age of revolution, which we generally call the philan- 
 thropic education. It sought to make men friendly to* 
 the immediate course of the world. It placed over 
 against the learning of the ancient languages for their 
 own sake the acquisition of the branches useful in earn- 
 ing one's living mathematics, physics, geography, his- 
 tory, and the modern languages, calling these the real- 
 ity-studies (" Healien "). Nevertheless, it retained chief 
 place in the instruction in the Latin language because 
 the Romance languages have sprung from it, and be- 
 cause, through its long domination, the entire terminol- 
 ogy of science, art, and law, is derived from it. Phi- 
 lanthropic education desired to develop the social side 
 of its pupils through a compendium of practical knowl- 
 edge and personal accomplishments, and to lead him 
 out of the hermit-like sedentary life of the book-pedant 
 into the fields and the woods. It desired to imitate life 
 even in its method, and to instruct entertainingly in the 
 way of play or by conversation. It would add to the 
 printed words and names the objects themselves, or at 
 least their representation by pictures ; and in this direc- 
 tion, in the literature which it prepared for the enter- 
 tainment of children, it sometimes strayed into childish- 
 ness. It performed a great service when it gave to the 
 
280 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 body its due, and introduced simple, natural dress, bath- 
 ing, gymnastics, pedestrian excursions, and thereby hard- 
 ened it against the influences of wind and weather. 
 As this system of education, so friendly to children, 
 believed that it could not soon enough begin to honor 
 them as citizens of the world, it committed the error of 
 presupposing as already finished in its children much 
 that it itself should have gradually developed ; and as it 
 wished to educate the pupil into the general ideal of 
 humanity rather than into that of a particular province 
 or sect, it became indifferent concerning the concrete 
 distinctions of nationality and religion. It agreed with 
 certain philologists in placing, in an indirect manner, 
 Socrates above Christ, because he had worked no mir- 
 acles, and taught only morality. In such a dead cos- 
 mopolitanism, individuality disappeared in the indeter- 
 minateness of a general "humanity," and saw itself 
 forced to agree with the humanistic education in pro- 
 claiming the truth of nature as the educational ideal, 
 with the distinction that, while humanism believed this 
 ideal realized in the Greeks and Eomans, Philanthro- 
 . pinism found itself compelled to presuppose an abstract 
 natural man, and often manifested a not unjustifiable 
 pleasure in recognizing in the Indian of North America, 
 or the savage of Otaheite, the genuine man of Nature. 
 Philosophy developed these abstract views into the idea 
 of a rational political state-government, which should in- 
 corporate within its organism the scientific knowledge 
 of whatever is rational, and should adopt as reforms all 
 changes demanded by the growth of such science. 
 
 The course which the development of the philanthropic ideal 
 has taken is as follows : (1) Rousseau, in his writings, " mile " and 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 281 
 
 the " Nouvelle Heloise," first preached the evangel of natural educa- 
 tion, the emancipation from historic precedents and tradition, the ne- 
 gation of existing culture, and the return to the simplicity and inno- 
 cence of Nature. Although he often himself testified in his expe- 
 rience his own proneness to evil in a very discouraging manner, he 
 fixed as an almost universally accepted axiom in French and German 
 pedagogics his principal maxim, that man is by nature good. (2) 
 The reformatory ideas of Rousseau met with only a very infrequent 
 and sporadic introduction among the Romanic nations, because 
 among them education was too dependent on the Church, and re- 
 tained its cloister-like seclusion in seminaries, colleges, etc. In Ger- 
 many, on the contrary, they were put into practice, and the Philan- 
 thropina, established by Basedow in Dessau, Brunswick, and Schnep- 
 fenthal, made experiments, which nevertheless very soon departed 
 somewhat from the extreme views of Basedow himself, and had many 
 excellent results. (3) Humanity exists in concrete* only in the form of 
 nations. The French nation, in their first Revolution, tried the ex- 
 periment of emancipating themselves from historic tradition, of lev- 
 eling all distinctions of culture, of enthroning a despotism of reason, 
 and of organizing itself as humanity, pure and simple. The event 
 showed the impossibility of such an undertaking. The national 
 energy, the historical impulse, the love of art and science, came forth 
 from the midst of the revolutionary movement which was directed 
 to their destruction more vigorously than ever. The grande nation, 
 their grande armee, and gloire that is to say, glory for France 
 supplanted all the humanitarian phrases. In Germany the philan- 
 thropic circle of education was limited at first to the higher ranks. 
 There was no exclusiveness in the PhilantTiropina, for there nobles 
 and citizens, Catholics and Protestants, Russians and Swiss, were 
 mingled ; but these were always the children of wealthy families, and 
 to these the plan of education was adapted. 
 
 Then appeared Pestalozzi and directed education also to the 
 lower classes of society those which are called, not without some- 
 thing approaching to a derogatory meaning, the people. From this 
 time dates popular education, the effort for the intellectual and 
 moral elevation of the hitherto neglected atomistic human being of 
 the non-property-holding multitude. There shall in future be no 
 dirty, hungry, ignorant, awkward, thankless, and will-less mass, de- 
 voted alone to an animal existence. We can never rid ourselves of 
 the lower classes by having the wealthy give something, or even their 
 
282 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 all, to the poor ; but we can rid ourselves of them in the sense that 
 the possibility of culture and independent self-support shall be open 
 to every one, because he is a human being and a citizen of the com- 
 monwealth. Ignorance and rudeness, and the vice which springs 
 from them, and the malevolent frame of mind that hates civil laws 
 and ordinances and generates crime these shall disappear. Educa- 
 tion shall train man to self-conscious obedience to law, as well as to 
 kindly feeling toward the erring, and to an effort not merely for their 
 punishment, but for their improvement. But the more Pestalozzi 
 endeavored to realize his ideal of human dignity, the more he com- 
 prehended that the isolated power of a private man could not attain 
 it, but that the nation itself must make the education of its people 
 its first business. Fichte by his lectures first made the German na- 
 tion fully accept these thoughts, and Prussia was the first state 
 which, by her public schools and her military preparation for de- 
 fense, led the way with clear consciousness in providing for national 
 education ; while among the Romanic nations, in spite of their more 
 elaborate political formalism, it still depends partly upon the Church 
 and partly upon the accident of private enterprise. Pestalozzi also 
 laid a foundation for a national pedagogical literature by his story of 
 "Leonard and Gertrude." This book appeared in 1784, the same 
 year in which Schiller's " Robbers " and Kant's " Critique of Pure 
 Reason " announced a new phase in the drama and in philosophy. 
 
 The incarnation of God, which was, up to the time of the Ref- 
 ormation, an esoteric mystery of the Church, has since then become 
 continually more and more an exoteric problem of the state. 
 
 [In the schools of Trotzendorf and Sturm the youth were 
 trained as though they were to live in Rome or Athens. A 
 wise insight into the principle of self-estrangement takes note of 
 the importance of so conducting the return from it that the pu- 
 pil does not get set in foreign ways so firmly that he never re- 
 turns to his present environment. The danger of humanism is 
 that it makes the means into the end, and does not provide for 
 a return out of the Latin and Greek world to the modern world. 
 The moderns, represented by (a) the natural sciences, (b) the mod- 
 ern languages and literatures, and (c) modern history, constitute 
 the return phase of this course of study. It is not a question of 
 preferring one for the other : they are parts of one whole. Any 
 school education, no matter how meager, should have discipline 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 283 
 
 studies and information studies or self-estrangement studies 
 and familiar-reality studies. The latter studies the "mod- 
 erns " or the " information " studies are advocated by the " phil- 
 anthropic " or " philanthropinist " educators under the name of 
 " real " studies. The outcome of these two extremes, separately 
 carried out, results, curiously enough, in setting up an ideal hu- 
 man nature. Humanism sets up the Greek and Roman human- 
 ity, while Philanthropinism, or realism, sets up an imaginary 
 "natural man" unspoiled by artificial culture: (1) Rousseau 
 preached the evangel of " return to Nature." It is amazing to 
 see how universally his maxim has been adopted, and how 
 thoughtlessly it is used. There is a confusion here between 
 " nature " as it exists in real forms in time and space, and " na- 
 ture " as it exists as an ideal, which is not yet realized. Human 
 nature is not a real form in time and space, like a rock or tree, 
 but is brought forth by self -activity, self-development. More- 
 over, human nature is a participation on the part of one indi- 
 vidual in the results that his race have brought forth. Educa- 
 tion seeks to render the individual able to participate in the 
 experience of all men giving him the result of their percep- 
 tion and reflection, of their deeds and the consequences for weal 
 or woe that flowed from them. Civilization is not an artificial 
 structure in the sense that Rousseau dreamed it to be, but it is 
 the gigantic revelation, of what is in human nature as a possi- 
 bility, worked out in extenso in time and space. 
 
 (2) Rousseau's educational ideas were suppressed among the 
 Romanic nations, but were put into practice in Germany, espe- 
 cially by Basedow in his " Philanthropinum." In France they 
 were not acted upon in education, but they produced a far more 
 startling effect in exploding the French Revolution. 
 
 (3) The French tried to emancipate themselves from historic 
 tradition and to live " according to Nature," but with most dis- 
 mal results. It is likely to prove useful for many centuries as 
 an educational spectacle. The nation discovered its " state of 
 nature " to be a " self -estrangement," from which it slowly re- 
 turned through the process of Bonapartism to Bourbonism; 
 again to make new departures and new returns before finally 
 reaching the true state of human nature. 
 
 Perhaps the happiest result of Rousseau is his effect on Pesta- 
 lozzi. The education of the people as people popular educa- 
 27 
 
284: PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tion that reaches all classes owes to Pestalozzi the greatest 
 debt, and through him to Rousseau still a large obligation. We 
 shall in the future rid ourselves of the " dirty, hungry, ignorant, 
 thriftless, thankless, and will-less masses devoted to a merely ani- 
 mal existence." They will all be developed in youth in the 
 school and made self-active and intelligent, and by this means 
 become self -helpful. Pestalozzi made the problem clear to all 
 Europe. Fichte persuaded Prussia to adopt public education as 
 a state policy. Since the Franco-Prussian War, public schools 
 for the education of the people have spread very widely through- 
 out Europe. 
 
 Since Pestalozzi, and with him as one of the greatest of edu- 
 cational reformers, has appeared Friedrich Froebel. His mission 
 was directed to providing a proper form of school education for 
 the younger children not qualified to enter the primary school. 
 The school has begun hitherto with teaching the " convention- 
 alities of intelligence," reading, writing, etc. Froebel would 
 have the younger children receive a symbolic education, plays, 
 games, and occupations which symbolize the primitive arts of 
 man. Play should be the activity utilized for the first education 
 of the child.] 
 
 3. Free Education. 
 
 260. The ideal of culture of the humanist and 
 the philanthropic education was taken up into the con- 
 ception of an education which recognizes the family, 
 social station, the nation, and religion .as positive ele- 
 ments of the practical spirit, but which will require that 
 each of these shall be defined from within through the 
 idea of humanity, and brought into reciprocal relation 
 with all the others. Physical development shall become 
 the object of a national system of gymnastics, adopted 
 universally by the people, and including the drill in the 
 use of arms. Instruction, in respect to a general en- 
 cyclopedic culture, ought to be the same for all, and 
 parallel to this should run a system of special schools to 
 
THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION. 285 
 
 prepare for the special vocations of life. The method 
 of instruction ought to be the simple exposition of the 
 special idea of each branch, and this should not be sacri- 
 ficed any longer to the formal breadth of a literary treat- 
 ment of many things which may find outside the school 
 its opportunity, but within it has no meaning except as 
 the history of a science or an art. Moral culture must 
 be combined with family affection and the knowledge 
 of the laws of the commonwealth, so that the collision 
 between individual morality and objective legality may 
 ever more and more disappear. Education ought, with- 
 out violently estranging the individual from the inter- 
 nality of the family, to accustom him gradually to the 
 life of the people as it actually exists, because a knowl- 
 edge of human nature [as one obtains it by associating 
 with all classes in public schools] furnishes the standpoint 
 whence to obtain a just survey of the whole, and is the 
 only thing which can prevent the cynicism of private 
 life, the one-sidedness of knowledge and perverseness 
 of will, and the spirit of caste, which has so extensively 
 prevailed. The individual ought to be educated into a 
 self -consciousness of the essential equality and freedom 
 of all men, so that he shall recognize and acknowledge 
 himself in each one and in all. But this essential and 
 solid unity of all men must not degenerate into the in- 
 sipidity of a humanity without distinctions, but instead 
 it must realize the form of a concrete individuality and 
 nationality, and transfigure the idiosyncrasy of its nation 
 into a broad humanity. The unrestricted striving after 
 beauty, truth, and freedom, presently and of its own 
 accord, and not merely through ecclesiastical interme- 
 diation, will lead to religion. 
 
286 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The education of the state must furnish a preparation 
 for the unfettered activity of self-conscious humanity. 
 
 [In the " free education " of the future, whose object shall be 
 the emancipation of each individual, there must be schools that 
 give a common general education, supplemented by special 
 schools for the special vocations of life. The education by the 
 newspaper is one of the most noteworthy phenomena of our 
 time. Where all the people read and where the vast majority of 
 the people live in cities or near railroad-stations in the country, 
 the daily newspaper brings to each person at his breakfast a sur- 
 vey of the entire world. Compared with the village gossip in 
 olden times, this general survey is a miraculous instrument of 
 education in the humanizing direction. While it educates it 
 governs, and few nations now exist that do not consider very 
 carefully how their conduct will appear, when it, by the tele- 
 graph and the daily newspaper, is placed under the inspection of 
 the entire world. Modern literature, which follows the daily 
 newspaper into every family, contributes an increasingly power- 
 ful element in education. The prose novel makes every one fa- 
 miliar with the peculiarities of foreign people, and a genuine 
 human interest in the details of life, as they exist among all 
 nations has arisen. This is producing universal toleration for 
 differences of custom and views of the world, and on the other 
 hand rapidly drawing together all peoples who have become 
 reading peoples. 
 
 These instrumentalities, the printing-press, railroads, tele- 
 graphs, and postal systems, which facilitate travel and per- 
 sonal acquaintance, and still more the intercommunication and 
 acquaintance by the printed page, are hastening forward that 
 stage of public opinion which demands in the name of Christian 
 civilization that each individual shall share in the heritage of 
 realized wisdom of the entire race.] 
 
 THE END. 
 
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