1
I
CREOSOTED TIMBER
ITS PREPARATION AND
USES.
Norfolk Creosoting Co.
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA,
U. S. A.
E. A. BUELL, President.
WARNER MILLER, Vice-President.
EDMUND CHRISTIAN, General Manager.
LOUIS CHABLE, Secretary.
The present annual consumption of timber for industrial
purposes in the United States is about 40,000,000,000 feet B. M. There is, at
this date, not more than 21,300,000,000,000 feet B. M. oi standing timber, or
less than sixty years' supply. This does not account for firewood or for the
timber burned in annual forest fires. Of the coniferous growth the stand-
ing supply in the Eastern States will not last more than about sixteen years,
at the present rate of cut ; and the supply on the Pacific Coast will not
lengthen this period more than thirty years. Forest Statistics for the United
States, 1898.
PREFACE.
FREQUENT allusions are made by ancient writers to vari-
ous substances employed for the preservation of timber
and other vegetable fibre from decay. Tar and pitch were
used for the preservation of the statue of Zeus by Phidias
which stood in a grove at Olympus. The platform upon
which it stood was painted at regular periods with a bitu-
minous oil. The statue of Diana at Ephesus was of wood ;
even if its origin was miraculous, miracles were not relied
upon for its preservation, as Pliny asserts upon the authority
of Mucianus that the statue was kept saturated with the
Oil of Nard, which was much alike the Dead Oil of Coal Tar
of modern commerce.
Of all the methods employed by the human race for the
preservation of organic substances, there are perhaps none
which have been as good as those employed by the ancient
Egyptians. The results of their processes have lasted
through centuries and have absolutely proved the value of
antiseptics for the preservation of animal and vegetable
matter. When Pettigrew succeeded in withdrawing by
maceration the preservative from the heart of a mummy
embalmed three thousand years before, the heart at once
began to putrify ; a striking proof of the efficacy of the sub-
stances employed for its preservation, and that the im-
munity from decay was not due to an absolute chemical
transformation.
The Naphthalene of Dead Oil is to modern wood preserva-
tion what the Oil of Bitumen was to the preservation of
animal matter, and it is of these important processes that the
Norfolk Creosoting Company speaks through the pages of
this book to those whose interests make wooden structures
desirable. The processes described represent the best
modern practice in America and Europe, as developed and
elaborated since Dead Oil of Coal Tar came into use as a
timber preservative.
793312
CREOSOTED TIMBER ITS PREPA-
RATION AND USES.
THE DESTRUCTIVE TEREDO.
MANY who are familiar with the name and destructive
work of the teredo, or ship- worm, are ignorant of that
mollusk's history, of the method of its construction, and of
the principles involved in its operations. The following es-
say, compiled from various sources, on this bivalve covers the
ground in a manner that will, perhaps, prove satisfactory
alike to scientific and unscientific inquirers.
The teredo may have been hatched from one of a million
eggs from the same parent. In the earliest period of its
active life it is a free swimmer ; its body is at that time al-
most if not entirely contained within a bivalve shell ; it has
eyes, and it has what is called a foot, a soft, muscular mem-
ber projecting slightly from the body ; it is also provided
with two siphon tubes, side by side and opening in the same
direction, through one of which it takes in food and water
and through the other it ejects its waste. At this stage of its
existence the teredo may be no bigger than a pin's head ; it
may not be so big. While it is still of this diminutive size
it attaches itself by means of its foot to whatever wood it may
encounter, perhaps to a pile, and it begins at once to bore.
How the teredo bores, whether with its foot or with its
shell, is not absolutely known. The hole it makes is ex-
tremely small, like the animal itself ; but once inside the
teredo begins to grow rapidly, increasing the size of its hole
along with its own growth in a cone-shaped enlargement un-
til it has attained its size, after which the hole or burrow is
continued at a substantially uniform diameter. The tere-
do's eyes now disappear ; it has no further use for them, for
;8 - , ^ CREOSOTED TIMBER
it spends the remainder, and by far the greater part, of its
life within the wood.
The picture here given was drawn from a teredo removed
from the wood in which it was boring. One valve or half
of the teredo's shell is here shown ; there is a corresponding
half upon the other side of the body. The teredo's foot is
at this end of the body, at the opening in front between the
two valves of the shell. The teredo's body, including its
vital parts, is still almost wholly contained within the limits
of its shell, as in its earlier youth it was contained almost,
if not entirely ; the rest of the now greatly elongated teredo,
and much the greater part of its length, from a point a
little distance back of its shell to the other extremity, is in
reality but the skinny covering of the teredo's now greatly
elongated siphon tubes. In appearance, however, this is all
A Little Teredo Navalis, about actual size.
the body of the teredo, which has grown greatly, while the
shell, though it has grown greatly, too, seems relatively to
have grown but little ; it does not now seem to be the shell
of the mollusk, but a very small, thin and curiously formed
shell attached to the mollusk's head. At the teredo's other
extremity there are two small, thin, double-pointed shelly
projections, extending out parallel with each other and at
a little distance apart, which are called stylets or pallets.
These parts of the teredo's siphon tubes that remain
within the body or skinny covering are joined together; the
parts that are thrust out beyond the body, the ends of the
tubes, are divided, and these it puts forth between the stylets.
If the teredo is alarmed it draws in its siphons, and if it is
sought out in its burrow by some sharp-toothed enemy it
closes the sharp-pointed pallets together over its siphon tubes
to protect them.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
9
There are many varieties of the teredo. The shells and
stylets, which vary more or less in shape, are among their
distinguishing marks. The picture shows a small Teredo
navalis. A water-soaked twig containing a living teredo is
illustrated here at about its actual size.
The curved tubes that appear above the highest point of
the branch are the siphon tubes of the teredo, which is
inside the wood below and|boring downward ; along the up-
Showing the Teredo's Siphon Tubes.
per side of the branch are the shells of dead barnacles. The
teredo, from shells to stylets, is probably somewhere between
an inch and a quarter and two inches in length. Its longer
siphon tube, the intake tube, is sometimes extended in the
water clear of the wood for a length of an inch and three
quarters ; the shorter or outflow tube may then be extended
to a length of half an inch. The teredo's longer tube, how-
ever, is more likely to be extended about an inch clear of
the wood, with the shorter pipe correspondingly shorter.
The tubes vary in diameter also from time to time, their
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 11
thickness ranging from one thirty-second to three sixty-
fourths of an inch. In color they are of a milky white.
The tubes, especially the longer one, are pretty nearly
always in motion. The long tube is swayed here and there
in the water, sometimes quickly, oflener more slowly, and
sometimes with an undulating movement like that with
which an elephant at times sways its trunk. The long
tube may be extended at a right angle as seen in the picture,
or it may be extended almost straight down along the branch,
or it may be bent over in the direction opposite to that in
which it here appears, or it may be pointing straight up, with,
it may be, one or two slight curves in it, but it is usually more
or less in motion, and more or less curved. The end of this
tube appears sometimes like the smooth opening of an ordi-
nary pipe ; sometimes it has a regularly notched saw-tooth
edge, reminding the observer of the ornamental crown piece
on the top of the smokestack of a Western river steamer ;
sometimes it looks as though a jog had been cut in the end,
the pipe being sawed through for half its diameter and the
part so sawed split away from the end, the projecting lap
thus left folding over the opening to close the pipe when
the teredo wishes to close it. Sometimes the pipe has a little
shoulder in it all around close to the end, the extreme end
section or tip of the pipe then being uniformly smaller than
the rest ; sometimes when closed the pipe is pointed, like
the smaller pipe as seen in the picture.
The teredo does not eat the wood which it bores ; it feeds
on infusoria, most minute forms of animal life, which it
draws into its intake tube as it sweeps the tube about, or
which it takes perhaps from the surface of the wood in
which it is boring. The teredo can produce a vacuum in
its in-current tube, causing a current to lead to it in the
waters without, and so enabling it to control for its supply
a greater body of water than it could actually reach. Hav-
ing taken in a supply of food, the in-current tube is closed
and the food is carried to the stomach ; the surplus water
and the waste are carried off through the outflow tube.
While the teredo thus supplies itself with food it works
12 CREOSOTED TIMBER
away at its boring below, sending up the bored -out material
through its outflow tube and discharging it into the water.
Under ordinary conditions these borings are dissipated ; in
motionless water the borings fall almost straight to the
bottom, from whatever point in the water at which the
momentum imparted to them in throwing them out ceased.
The teredo moves its outflow tube about in different
directions as it does its inflow tube, so that the borings are
thrown in various directions. The upper sides of the nearer
barnacle shells and the end of the little branch are covered
with a fine debris from the teredo's excavations. The teredo
has its periods of rest and of greater or less activity. When
working slowly it throws up its borings in very minute
irregular shaped fragments; when working more rapidly it
often throws its borings up in what look like eight-inch
long or shorter sections of fine brown thread, the color being
that of the wood, the form resulting perhaps from the com-
pacting together into apparently one piece before delivery
of many of the minute particles such as it at other times
delivers separately.
Almost immediately upon beginning its boring in the
wood, the teredo begins to line the hole it bores from a
secretion of its own with a substance that forms a thin, limy
shell, or tube, attached to the walls of the hole. The teredo
extends this lining forward as it bores, and when it has
gone as far as it intends to go, it extends the thin, shelly
lining around in the rounded end of the boring, thus com-
pleting it.
There is printed herewith, at a little more than its actual
size, a picture of a fragment of wood split from a branch
which had been bored by small teredos, showing longitudi-
nal sections of two borings, and showing in the upper of the
two borings a small portion remaining of the thin, shelly
lining.
The habit of the teredo, after it once gets inside the wood,
is to bore with the grain. It never bores into its neighbor's
burrow, though it may bore exceedingly close to it ; it never
crosses another burrow in search of solid wood ; it never
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
13
bores out to the surface again. The teredo is highly con-
tractile. Sometimes when it has bored as far as it can go
and retain its communication with the water by means of
its siphons, which is essential to its existence, it contracts
to half its length and starts a boring at almost a right angle
with its previous boring, continuing in that direction until
it is far enough away to clear the previous boring, and then
starting along the grain again in the same direction as at
first.
Fragments of a Split Twig, showing Longitudinal Section of Teredo's
Burrows.
In Northern waters the teredo attains a length of three or
four inches and more, sometimes ten inches ; there are
some species in these waters, however, that are smaller than
any here described. In tropical waters the teredo commonly
attains a length of ten inches, and there are teredos that
grow to be six feet long.
The teredo attacks wharves, boats, fish-net stakes, any
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 15
wood under water that is unprotected. The holes made by
the teredos in the outside of the wood are so small that they
may be unnoticed, while inside the wood may be honey-
combed. A pile, for example, the teredos might attack all
the way up from the bottom to the high water line. Such a
stick might be fair upon the outside and yet be easily broken
off by a slight shock from a boat swaying against it, and
then be discovered to be perforated with borings in its
whole diameter.
CREOSOTE'S SCIENTIFIC STANDING.
DEAD OIL OF COAL TAR UNIFORMLY SUCCESSFUL.
Many years of experiment have proved that no process,
calculated for the preservation of timber, can hope for success
unless it replaces the liquid and semi-liquid portions of the
wood with a substance that is insoluble and nonvolatile,
and under the conditions which obtain in each particular
case.
Four substances approximate this requirement. Dead
Oil of Coal Tar, usually called " Creosote," a distillate of
the volatile portion of the bituminous coals ; Chlorid of
Zinc, Sulphate of Copper, and Bichlorid of Mercury. All
of these have violent toxic effects when exhibited in the
presence of organic bodies, and all are within reach com-
mercially. Each of them appropriately applied by the
methods known respectively as the Bethell Dead Oil of Coal
Tar Process, familiarly called Creosoting ; Burnettizing, Zinc
Chlorid Process ; Margaryizing, Sulphate of Copper Process,
and Kyanizing, Bichlorid of Mercury Process, have had a
more or less extended use. Only one of these processes,
Creosoting, has proven uniformly and universally successful,
it meeting all the conditions of exposure to which structural
timber is subjected. The remaining three, while good as
antiseptic treatment, are quite unlike Creosoting in that
16 CREOSOTED TIMBER
the conglomerates are very soluble in water, even at normal
temperature, and so in a comparatively short time dis-
appear under the influence of the moisture of the surround-
ings. The preserving liquid being replaced by water it is
but a step to the setting up of fermentative action and dete-
rioration. The Bethell, or " Creosoting " Process, as a timber
preservative has been uniformly successful from its inception
in 1836. For some years the apparatus used was from neces-
sity crude and primitive, but as the demand for artificially
preserved wood increased from year to year, the methods of
its preparation were more and more refined and perfected,
until, at the present day, the manufacturer can guarantee a
product as certain in its quality and uniformity as that of
any other industrial works.
While the conditions controlling the use of artificially
preserved wood are those that influence the choice of any
other building material, it can be laid down as a cardinal
principle, that for all structural purposes to which wood is
applicable, artificially preserved timber is, for economic
reasons, in every way superior to the natural product. There
are varying circumstances which indicate special treatment
to meet individual cases. As Creosoting, or Dead Oil of
Coal Tar Process, properly conducted does not alter the
elastic limit or affect the ultimate strength of the natural
wood, it follows that those varieties of timber which are
suitable for structural purposes, save only that they quickly
decay, have, by this means, their only defect made good.
Woods of uniform texture, with straight, open grain and
average rapid growth, are, as a rule, high in ultimate strength
and elastic limit. Such woods are especially well adapted to
the processes of artificial preservation. The sameness of the
growth and the uniformity of the cell structure make it
practicable to carry on the preliminary seasoning steps
rapidly, and at a very low temperature. The timber thus
prepared thoroughly absorbs the antiseptic qualities and
turns out a material of certain uniformity and excellence.
All woods are more or less adapted for the processes of
artificial preservation, the difference lying in the time and
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 17
methods required for the several steps of the process. The
more dense and fine-grained varieties require a longer time
than the coarser varieties for the preliminary seasoning, and
for the actual impregnation with the preserving liquid. The
hardest and most dense woods may be thoroughly impreg-
nated with the antiseptic, however.
The Dead Oil of Coal Tar used for preserving timber in
the process known as " Creosoting," is a product of the dis-
tillation of coal tar, a byproduct from the manufacture of
illuminating gas. In reference to their volatility, the dis-
tillates of coal tar arrange themselves into three groups :
The Naphthas, Dead Oil of Coal Tar, and Pitch. The first
group being very volatile, at ordinary temperatures, and con-
taining no substances of an antiseptic nature, have no value
for creosoting purposes. The third, being composed of sub-
stances which, while of strong antiseptic qualities, and quite
insoluble and nonvolatile at normal temperature, are, never-
theless, unavailable on account of the high temperatures
necessary for their manipulation. The second group includes
all those constituents of coal tar which are essential for
the preservation of timber, by the Creosoting or Dead Oil of
Coal Tar Process. Generally speaking, these substances are
either "acids" or "bases," and belong to the Hydrocarbon
Compounds, or to the Nitrogenized Compounds of the coal
tar derivatives.
The table on page 19 lists those constituents of Dead Oil of
Coal Tar which are known to have a more or less important
part in the process.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
19
TABLE No. 1.
DEAD OIL OF COAL TAR COMPOUNDS.
USED FOB THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
Name.
Symbol.
Fuses.
Vaporizes.
HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS,
ACIDS.
Naphthalene
OOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO
IB
^1
* I
LI o
ill
^12
Me
AIO
Mo
^18
\\ N
79
Liquid.
32.5
Liquid.
106
63
100
109
99
Liquid.
Liquid.
Liquid.
111
218
200
242
242
262
190
305
290
340
360 =b
350
116.7
135
152
170
211
230
251
240
236
243
252
. 274
360
Di-hyd . .
a, Methyl .
" b, "
Di, "
Tetrahyd .
Anthracene. Dihyd . .
Hexahyd .
Phenanthrene
Fluoranthrene
Retene
NlTROGENIZED COMPOUNDS,
BASES.
Pyridine
Picoline
Lutidine
Collidine
Rubidine
Viridine ...
QUINOLINE SERIES.
Leucoline
Isquinoline
Quinaldine .... ...
Cryptidine
20 CREOSOTED TIMBER
In addition to the substances listed in the preceding table
are a number of compounds of strong antiseptic qualities
which but for their solubility or volatility would be of
great value. Of these the Phenol (known commercially
as Carbolic Acid), and the Cresols are especially worthy of
note. To them was ascribed for a long time the merit of
Dead Oil of Coal Tar as a preservative of vegetable fibre,
the theory being that the exhibition of these substances,
having caused the coagulation of the albuminoids of the
tissues, rendered them indestructible. It is a cardinal prin-
ciple that a timber preservative must inherently possess the
properties that it is to impart to the tissue that it is intended
to preserve. It is a matter of common knowledge that the
phenols and cresols are quite volatile at normal temperature
and that they, as well as their compounds, are very unstable.
The success of the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process owes its
virtue to the presence of insoluble non-volatile substances
indifferent to the attacks of oxidation or putrefaction, under
the conditions to which its product is normally exposed.
Of these substances, by far the most abundant are the Naph-
thalene compounds (see Table 1), which occur in commercial
dead oil of coal tar to the extent of from thirty to sixty per
cent, by weight. Naphthalene proper, the most abundant
of the series, is in its pure state a white substance in the
form of closely adhering rhomboidal crystals. It fuses
at 79 C. and vaporizes at 212-220. Its specific gravity is
0.9778 at its boiling point. It is insoluble in cold water; spar-
ingly so in hot ; it is slightly volatile at normal temperatures.
Commercial Naphthalene has a pungent odor and acrid taste,
due to the presence of a small portion of Leucoline, a sub-
stance belonging to the Nitrogenized derivatives of the coal
tar series. Naphthalene Dihydride and Naphthalene Tetra-
hydride have more of the characteristics of Naphthalene,
the difference being a higher vaporizing point and a much
lower fusing point, with less volatility, at normal tempera-
tures.
Associated with the above are the compounds of the
Methyl Naphthalene series a and b, which are liquid at
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 21
ordinary temperatures, strongly antiseptic, insoluble in water
and non- volatile at usual temperatures. The inertness of
the compounds of the Naphthalene series, under such con-
ditions as obtain in the usual range of timber construction ;
the comparatively low temperatures required for their man-
ipulation, their marked physical advantages, coupled with
the fact that they form a very considerable percentage of
commercial Dead Oil of Coal Tar, class them among the most
useful and available of all the dead oil constituents, for the
artificial preservation of organic tissue. Anthracene Dihy-
dride, Anthracene Hexahydride the former fusing at 106
and vaporizing at 305 C. and the latter fusing at 63
and vaporizing at : 90 C. are the next of the Hydro-
carbons occurring in sufficient quantities to be worthy of
mention. Both are insoluble in water and are non-volatile
and liquid at allowable temperatures. They strongly par-
take of the physical characteristics of the Naphthalene
compounds, are strongly toxic in the presence of organic
life, and form an intimate mechanical mixture with those
substances.
Of the nitrogenized derivatives of Coal Tar, the Pyridine
series furnishes several very stable compounds which are
liquid at available, and insoluble and non-volatile at normal
temperatures. Their physical characteristics are such as to
admit of a very close mechanical combination with the sub-
stances of the Hydrocarbon derivatives. The Quinoline
series includes the most important of the purely antiseptic
constituents of the dead oil of coal tar. All, except the
Acridine, are liquids of an exceedingly high boiling point;
all are nearly, or quite, insoluble in water and are non-vola-
tile, and all mix readily and closely with the several substances ,
heretofore mentioned. The particular ingredients above
described are those only which, from their known physical
and chemical properties, are recognized as having an im-
portant office in the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process. That
there are other series quite as valuable associated with them
is not to be doubted ; the exceedingly fertile field of the
coal tar derivatives not as yet having been fully explored.
22 CREOSOTED TIMBER
The question of the applicability of artificially preserved
timber to any specific use is, of course, almost entirely a
commercial one. Whether a larger first cost, in order to
secure a longer life, is warranted, depends upon the condi-
tions which obtain in each particular instance. Generally
speaking, structures are intended for all time. The selection
of a material, meeting all the requirements of daily use, and
least affected by the destructive agencies to which it is sub-
jected, is the most economical, save only that the interest
on the first cost shall not exceed the expense of periodic
renewal with a less durable and less costly material, plus
the expenditure due interference by reason of such renewal
with the current uses of the structure. Creosoted timber,
having all the advantages of ease of manipulation and
adaptability to the endless variety of structural require-
ments possessed by it in its natural state is, within the
range of its applicability, the ideal structural material. Its
first cost being its only cost, the building once erected is
finished so far as material is concerned. For all classes of
marine construction it is the only material satisfying all the
conditions of durability and adaptability. Absolutely proof
against the attacks of every species of animal life, and wholly
inert in the presence of the most active oxidizing agencies
of sea water, it offers all the ad vantages of a timber construc-
tion without its susceptibility to the assaults of teredo and
limnoria, and all of the advantages of a metal construction
without the high first cost and the considerable fixed charges
due the maintenance of that class of structure. The quali-
ties which fit creosoted timber for marine construction are
exactly those which adapt it to every variety of structure
exposed to atmospheric action, including the most trying of
all conditions to which wood is subjected the alternate
wetting and drying of the interior of electrical and other
subways.
Plate 1 represents a seawall, or bulkhead, 1,800 feet long,
ten feet high above mean low water, protecting the rail ap-
proach to one of the largest tidewater coaling stations in the
United States. This construction is of creosoted sheet-piling
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
driven in one row, four inches thick, supported at the top
by two wharf-logs a part of the structure as originally
built. There is no support to the bottom, the slight depth
of water making this unnecessary. This bulkhead was first
constructed of untreated white oak on the same plan as at
present, except that it was supported at the bottom with a
row of round logs, bolted through to the bearing piles
which supported the superstructure as first erected. At the
Plate i.
expiration of five years the teredo had so destroyed the
sheet-piling and the bottom support that it was necessary to
rebuild the bulkhead. This was done with creosoted sheet-
piling ten years ago. At this time the creosoted timber is
as good as when first put in.
Plate 2 represents a retaining wall ten feet high above low
water, composed of a double row of three-inch sheet piling,
the front one of creosoted timber and the back one of un-
24
CREOSOTED TIMBER
treated wood. The sheet piling is supported at the top by
a double wharf-log of untreated wood and at the bottom by a
single piece of creosoted 6x8 timber, the whole supported
by a round creosoted pile every eight feet, tied back to an
untreated one, driven approximately twelve feet behind the
bulkhead, and covered by the earth behind. The expecta-
tion that the front row of creosoted sheeting would be able
to carry the load by the time that the back one of untreated
timber had decayed, has been fully realized and the struc-
ture is a good example of a substantial and durable construc-
tion at a minimum cost.
Plate 3 represents an excellent type of modern practice in
the construction of closed piers in deep water. The bulk-
head is made up of two rows of piling, the front one being
of round creosoted piles, driven in a close row, and sup-
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
25
ported at the top by two longitudinals, between which are
dovetailed the tie-logs extending across the pier. Back of
this is driven a sheet-pile bulkhead consisting of two rows
of three-inch plank, the front row of creosoted, and the back
row of untreated timber. This bulkhead is supported at
low water by a single longitudinal of creosoted 6x8 timber
secured to the round piles forming the front row. For rea-
26 CREOSOTED TIMBER
sons of immediate economy the apron surrounding this
pier was constructed of charred cypress piles. At the end
of seven years it became necessary to rebuild it on account
of the failure of the piling, which was so destroyed by the
teredo as to be unfit for further use.
Plate 4 represents cross-sections of the creosoted and
charred cypress piles used in the construction of the pier a
portion of which is shown in Plate 3. These specimens are
Plate 6.
taken from the materials used in the original construction
and very well represent the status of the two classes of
material at the expiration of seven years' exposure to the
action of the_teredo in Norfolk harbor.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
27
Plate 5 represents another example of the futility of
charring timber for its protection against marine insects.
This stick is from a charred cypress pile a part of the pier
before mentioned. The extraordinarily bad condition is
probably due to the fact that more or less of the char was
torn off in the work of driving through the unavoidable
I late 8.
28
CREOSOTED TIMBER
scraping of the sling chains, handsticks, etc., and the rubbing
against the " ways " of the piledriver.
Plates 6 and 7 represent a sheet-pile bulkhead, forming
a retaining wall and lumber wharf along a canal. The con-
struction is simple, consisting of a single row of creosoted
plank four inches thick, supported at the top by a longi-
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
29
P OWL ENGINEE
tadinal carried on creosoted round piles in front of the
sheet piling, and spaced eight feet apart. The entire struc-
ture is tied to an anchor-log, located well back in the bank,
by logs dovetailed into the longitudinal at suitable intervals.
Plate 11. Sections of Underground Creosoted Conduits.
30
CREOSOTED TIMBER
While this bulkhead has been entirely satisfactory, it is
open to criticism, in that the top longitudinal might have
been a creosoted 6x6, instead of an untreated 12x12, the
Plate 12. Underground Creosoted Conduits in Use.
former costing but three-fourths as much as the latter, and
lasting four times as long. The wooden ties might have
been of iron at a less cost and much greater life.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 31
Plate 8 represents non-creosoted white oak cross-ties
at the expiration of eight years' service ; while Plate 9 de-
lineates the only usage to which they were put.
Plate 10 shows a creosoted terminal or distributing pole, for
collecting and conveying to the subway the various electrical
conductors of a "district." Such poles, either rectangular
or octagon, are rapidly coming into favor as the cheapest
and in every way the most desirable for this purpose.
Plate 12 shows a subway of creosoted wood tubing. It
is an inexpensive construction and one that is permanent,
easily laid, and is less liable to injury from settlement of
the surrounding earth than any form of masonry or tiled
conduit.
Plate 11 presents a detail of the tubing. In this connec-
tion the following letter may be of interest:
NORFOLK CREOSOTING CO.,
Norfolk, Va.
Gentlemen: Replying to your inquiry regarding my experience with
creosoted wooden conduits in the telephone service, I beg to say that this
company, The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company, has in use
several million of feet of wooden duct treated with twelve pounds of dead
oil of coal tar per cubic foot by the vacuum process at your works at
Norfolk, Va.
The first creosoted duct conduit used by this company was laid in
Brooklyn, N. Y., in November, 1884, fifteen years ago, and upon recent ex-
amination the material showed no evidence whatever of any deterioration
in the fibre of the wood.
Creosoted conduits referred to have been placed in the various soils en-
countered throughout the territory of this company, with entirely satis-
factory results. Very truly yours,
J. C. REILLY,
General Superintendent.
The plates on page 32 represent a creosoted wood-paving
block after eighteen years' service, and a first-class granite
block under the same volume of traffic, after nine years'
use.
Creosoted Wood compared with Granite Paving Block.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 33
CREOSOTED TIMBER.
THE NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY'S METHOD OF PRESERV-
ING Woob FROM THE MOLLUSKS AND THE ELEMENTS.
The preservation of timber by the Dead Oil of Coal Tar
process, as carried on by all well-equipped creosoting plants,
consists of two distinct operations the preparation of the
wood, and its impregnation with the preservative. The
preparation of the wood necessary for the proper reception
of the preserving substances is the removal of all those por-
tions of the tissue which are subject to fermentative action.
This consists of the extraction of the liquids and semi-liquids
occupying the interfibrous spaces, and constituting the very
immature portions of the wood, without softening the cement
binding of the fitaailae^^r bundles of cellulose tissue, form-
ing the solid or fully matured part. Upon the successful
accomplishment of this entirely depends the value of arti-
ficially preserved wood for structural purposes. If this step
of the operation is conducted at too low a temperature, or
for too short a time, the sap or liquid part nearest the sur-
face will only be extracted, the consequence of which will
be an insufficient space for receiving the preservative. If,
on the other hand, the operation is carried on at too high a
temperature, or for too long a time, the resinous portion of
the bundles of fibrillse will be softened and the wood lose
its elasticity in just the proportion that the coherence of
the fibrillse is lessened. The temperature should never be
less than 100 C. or exceeding 130 C. Of the two possible
methods for the removal of the undesirable portions of the
timber, exposure to currents of dry air, and steaming
under pressure with an after drying in a vacuum, the latter
is now the universal practice. While the first-named plan
may seem the more rational, and the one least likely to
modify injuriously the physical structure, such is not the
case. Under proper manipulation, a more thorough desic-
cation, without harmful change of the organic structure, can
be accomplished in twelve hours less by the latter process,
than is ever possible with air drying which, under the most
.
II
a F
K .5
o -e
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 35
favorable circumstances, is a long-drawn-out operation, and
cannot do more than extract the water from that portion of
the sap which has not yet reached the semi-solid stage, thus
leaving in the tissues of the wood a very considerable
amount of resinous matter which occupies space that should
be ready to receive the creosote oil. The consequence of
this is a failure of the oil to reach many of the interfibrous
passages, which are either left empty or are filled with the
gelatinous part of the half-matured growth cells in which
are to be found the conditions that make putrefaction possi-
ble. ( In order to remove the sap from wood, it is first neces-
sary to vaporize it and then to bring about such external
circumstances which shall allow outflow of all gaseous mat-
ter from the interior of the wood. In order to vaporize the
sap it is necessary to break down the walls of the cells con-
taining the liquid and semi-liquid substances. This is
readily accomplished through the agency of heat applied
through the medium of a moist steam bath, at such a pres-
sure as to keep the temperature of the wood, and its sur-
rounding atmosphere, somewhat above the boiling point of
the sap. The maintenance of this condition for a few hours
is found to be quite sufficient to break down the sap-cell
tissue and to vaporize all those constituents that it is desir-
able to withdraw.] This point having been reached, the
-steam bath is discontinued -j-ftneHthe temperature being
maintained at, or slightly above, the vaporizing point of the
sap, the pressure of the atmosphere surrounding the wood
within the chamber is reduced below that of the interior of
the wood. The result of this condition is an outflow- of
vapor and air, continuing until equilibrium is restored.
This equilibrium is prevented by the use of an exhaust
pump until the absence of aqueous vapor in the discharge
from the pump indicates the completion of the operation.
At this stage the wood tissue is in a state very like that of a
sponge cleared of hot water ; every pore is gaping open and
ready to receive the oil.
In the practice of the Norfolk Creosoting Company the
most carefully dried lumber is steamed and subjected to the
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 37
action of the heated " vacuum " in order that there may be
nad that thorough and uniform penetration of the preserv-
ing liquid that is essential to the highest efficiency of the
product. The timber having been thus prepared the creo-
sote oil is admitted to the chamber, which is still kept under
the influence of the vacuum pump, at a temperature some-
what above the boiling point of the sap, at the pressure then
existing in the chamber. As the hot oil envelops the wood
and enters the interfibrous spaces, the aqueous vapor yet
remaining in the wood, by reason of its less specific gravity,
rises to the top of the containing chamber and is withdrawn
by the pump. By the time that the chamber is entirely
filled with oil, all the remaining moisture has escaped. The
exhaust pump is stopped and, in order to facilitate the
absorption of the oil by the wood, a pressure pump is set
to work supplying oil to the chamber at such pressure
as maybe desired. This operation is continued until the
requisite amount of oil has been put into the timber. .The
chamber is then opened and the timber withdrawn. The
apparatus is then ready for further use.
The successful conduct of the operation above outlined
exacts the most careful attention and skillful management,
supplemented by adequate and suitable appliances. The
wide divergence in the characteristics of timber ; the vary-
ing amounts of sap, due to the lapse of time since, and the
season in which the tree was felled ; its possible subsequent
immersion in water for a longer or shorter time ; the char-
acter of the soil and the conditions under which the tree
grew, whether in a dense forest or a comparatively open
country, whether it is of a rapid even growth, or a slow in-
termittent one, are all factors contributing to a more or less
perfect product. To the experienced operator these condi-
tions indicate, in each case, the proper course to be pursued.
Failure to observe and to take them into consideration is to
invite indifferent, uncertain and in the end unsatisfactory
results. Of equal importance is a proper understanding of
the circumstances under which the finished product is to be
used. Timber for piers, wharves and other structures in
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
39
tropical waters demand processes and degrees of thorough-
ness of treatment that are unnecessay in the harbors of
more temperate climates, which are, in turn, more exacting
than land and fresh- water construction.
It is as true as it is unfortunate, that, in the past per-
haps at present much creosoted work has fallen far below
NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY'S CYLINDER CARS, laden with Cross
Anns for American Telegraph & Telephone Company.
the reasonable expectation of the purchaser and user. As
creosoting is neither a secret or patented process, nor are its
operations complex, a close and systematic inspection of ma-
terials used at the place of manufacture is all that is necessary
for the buyer, and at the time that the creosoting is in pro-
gress. The cost of a competent intelligent inspection is a
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 4.1
justifiable and wise Expenditure, and such oversight is wel-
comed by the Norfolk Creosoting Company. The processes
of the treatment of timber with dead oil of coal tar having
been an established success for more than fifty years, it
follows that the only advantages possessed by one firm over
another are to be set down to either superiority of ap-
pliances and manipulation, fortunate location, and business
sagacity, or a combination of two or more of these circum-
stances, not one of which can be monopolized for any great
length of time or to any marked degree. The rules which
apply to the production of all staples hold equally to the
preservation of wood, and the proposition to supply a prop-
erly creosoted timber at a price much below the market
carries with it the burden of an explanation if it would
escape the reasonable suspicion of being other than it is
represented to be.
The engineers of the Norfolk Creosoting Company have
acquired, through personal experience, the information ap-
pearing in the preceding pages, consequently the company
feels itself warranted instating that its product cannot be
excelled in quality and adaptability for all the purposes to
which creosoted timber is suited. Its plant is modern in
every particular, with facilities adapted to all requirements,
and a daily capacity of 50,000 feet B. M. Each chamber is
provided with coils for heating, through the agency of super-
heated steam, to any desired temperature ; while for charg-
ing and discharging them there are suitably located power-
operated derricks, by means of which material is handled
with the greatest possible dispatch. Proper tanks and mix-
ing vats are had for storing and grading oil, together with all
the appliances convenient and necessary for its expeditious
manipulation and movement, while a well equipped labora-
tory is provided by the company for the use of inspectors.
An ample battery of boilers supplies steam for power and
for heating purposes, and adequate fire protection is afforded,
in accordance with the standard underwriters' requirements.
Through its excellent rail and water transportation facilities,
the company has direct access to the limitless pine forests of
42 CREOSOTED TIMBER
the South, the Atlantic seaboard, and at the same time it is
within easy range of the oil markets of the world.
Its direct connection with the seven important railway
systems terminating at Norfolk, and its location immediately
on the deep waters of Norfolk harbor, afford it the best of
advantages for shipment to any desired territory.
CREOSOTED ROUND PILING.
The table on the following page gives the most econom-
ical sizes for piling and poles that can be cut from whole
trees.
If creosoted piling is dapped through, or is cut off at the
top, so as to expose the untreated interior, it is necessary to
protect the parts so exposed with several coats of creosote
oil, applied hot ; or, if more convenient, a cement of equal
parts of coal tar and air-slaked lime, applied hot, will answer
the same end.
For all harbors of the North Atlantic Coast, including those
of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, twelve pounds of dead
oil of coal tar are quite sufficient. For the harbors of the
South Atlantic and Gulf, and the ports of the Caribbean Sea,
fifteen to twenty-four pounds per cubic foot, depending upon
the exact location and the conditions governing the particular
case, are required.
NEWPORT NEWS, VA., November 11, 1899.
NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY, Norfolk, Va.
Gentlemen: During the past twelve years I have had occasion to use
large quantities of creosoted material, both piles and lumber, and I take
pleasure in saying that all of such material that has been prepared under
the supervision of Mr. Edmund Christian, General Manager, has been
found to be perfectly satisfactory.
I may add that I have such confidence in Mr. Christian's skill and judg-
ment as an engineer, and his integrity as a business man, that I do not now
consider it necessary to put an inspector at his works.
W. A. POST, General Superintendent,
Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
43
CBEOSOTED ROUND PILING.
USUAL LENGTHS, SIZES AND SHIPPING WEIGHTS.
^*
f!
20
Diam. In.
Total
Cu. Ft.
Total Wt. Diam. In.
Total
Ou. Ft.
Total Wt.
Top.
6
Suit.
9
n
zo
Top.
Butt.
n
20
721
6.2
372
409
9
11
10.92
655
20
7
10
7.9
470
521
10
12
12.92
775
853
25
6
9
7.8
464
515
10
12
16.16
970
1066
25 9
11
13.56
813
895
12
14
23.02
1381
1519
30
8
11
14.88
893
982
12
14
27.64
1658
1824
35
9
12
21.16
1270
1396
13
16
39.76
2385
2624
40
6
12
18.30
1098
1208
7
13
22.45
2007
1482
40
8
14
27.66
1060
1825
10
15
34.54
2072
2280
45
7
14
28.05
1683
1851
9
16
39.75
2385
2624
45'
9
15
36.11
2166
2383
12
18
56.01
3360
3697
50
6
13
25.74
1544
1649
9
16
44.36
2661
2927
50
6
14
28.77
1726
1999
10
16
47.06
2824
3106
50
7
15
34.50
2070
2277
10
18
54.94
3296
3626
55
8
14
38.03
2282
2510
8
16
44.82
2689
2958
55
9
15
44.12
2647
2912
9
18
56.82
3409
3750
60
6
15
38.36
2301
2532
8
17
53.34
3200
3520
60
7
15
41.42
2485
2734
9
17
57.14
3428
3771
65
6
16
45.83
2750
3025
8
17
57.76
3465
3812
65
7
16
49.32
2960
3255
9
18
67.14
4028
4431
70
6
18
59.58
3575
3932
6
20
70.83
4250
4675
70
6
19
68.45
4107
4518
7
22
87.33
5240
5764
75
6
22
89.90
5394
5933
7
24
108.12
6487
7136
75
7
22
93.56
5614
6175
8
24
113.47
6708
7489
80
6
26
126.20
7572
8329
7
26
131.88
7913
8704
85
6
26
134.11
8047
8851
7
26
140.15
8409
9250
44
CREOSOTED TIMBER
CREOSOTED POLES FOR ELECTRIC KAIL-
WAYS, TELEPHONES AND TELE-
GRAPH LINES.
Least Diam.
Weight per Cub
c Feet.
Shape.
Length.
Total
Cubic Ft.
Top.
Butt.
10
12
15
Circular . .
25
5
10
7.85
438
450
475
30
5
12
12.48
693
712
756
35
6
13
18.00 ! 999
1034
1089
40
7 1 14
24.93
1383
1433
1509
45
7
14
28.05
1557
1611
1648
50
8
15
37.15
2061
2133
2249
55
8
16
44.78
2485
2573
2711
60
8
16
48.86
2711
2806
2958
65
8
17
56.85
3155
3265
3442
70
9
18
71.02
3941
4079
4300
75
9
18
81.22
4507
4666
4916
80
9
19
89.09
4944
5117
5394
Octagon . .
25
5
10
6.99
388
415
420
30
5
12
11.29
626
648
684
35
6
12
14.41
800
828
872
40
6
14
20.62
1144
1184
1247
45
7
14
25.14
1395
1444
1522
50
7
15
30.95
1717
1777
1873
55
8
15
36.78
2041
2113
2227
60
8
16
43.84
2433
2518
2654
65
8
17
51.98
2884
2986
3147
70
8
17
55.99
3107
3291
3390
75
8
18
65.27
3623
3749
3952
80
8
18
69.60
3862
3998
4215
Square . .
25
4
9
7.69
426
442
465
30
4
9
10.04
557
576
608
35
5
11
16.26
902
934
984
40
6
12
23.20
1287
1332
1404
45
6
12
26.25
1456
1506
1589
50
6
13
32.74
1816
1880
1982
55
7
14
43.66
2423
2507
2643
60
7
14
47.63
2643
2735
2883
65
7
15
55.42
2870
2970
3131
70
7
15
61.40
3407
3526
3717
75
7
16
72.17
4005
4145
4369
80
7
16
76.96
4271
4421
4768
NOTE. Lengths are in feet; other dimensions are in inches.
Weights are for treatments of 10, 12 and 15 pounds of oil re-
spectively.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
45
CREOSOTED CROSS-ARMS FOR AERIAL
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS.
ll
1 1 Lenf>
i *
/A. Size. |3
Cubic
Foot.
Weight in Pounds of Oil per
Cubic Foot.
10
n
15
1 2!-Q
O 7 3^4 x 4*4 2
0.182
10.1
10.5
11.
2 4'-C
0" " " 4
0.364
20.3
21.1
22.
3 6'-00'' " " 6
0.538
30.0
31.2
32.6
4 8'-C
0" \ 8
0.728
40.6
42.2
44.1
5 10'-00 V l " " 10 0.910 50.6 52.7
55.1
6 12'-00 7 " " 12 1.092 60.8 63.3
66.1
7 2'-7' 3 x4 I 2
0.214 11.7 12.4
12.7
8 5'-]
14 4
0.464 22.7 26.9
24.7
9 \ 7-7" " "6s 0.635 35.4 ; 36.8
37.4
10 j lO'-l" " " 8 0.847 47.3 49.1
49.7
11 12' -1" " "10 1.054 58.9
61.1
61.8
For cross-arms of any dimension and specification, a
treatment of 12 pounds of oil per cubic foot is recom-
mended.
46
CREOSOTED TIMBER
CREOSOTED WOOD CONDUITS FOR UNDER-
GROUND ELECTRICAL, CONDUCTORS.
IN
ii
^
Outside
Dimension,
Net
Length.
Spigot
Length.
Weight per Lineal Ft.
15 Ibs. Oil per Cu. Ft.
i
IV
Square 3" x 3''
8' -00"
IV
3.0 Ibs.
2
2''
" 3V * 3V
3.5 "
3
2V
" 4" x 4"
"
4.3 "
4
3''
" 4V* 4V
5.2 "
5
3V
" 5" x5"
6.4 "
All conduit is worked to exact outside dimension, and
then bored and reamed. The joints are so made as to allow
it to "build" in the trench without shimming or blocking.
The completed piece is then creosoted.
Creosoted wood tubing is superior to all other materials
for underground electrical conduits in that it is as durable
as tiling or masonry, and has a much smoother and more
uniform interior than either, presenting no sharp corners
to injure the cable as it is being drawn through.
The dead oil of coal tar contains no substance which is
in any way injurious to the cable or its covering.
It is easily entered and resealed between manholes.
Its extreme lightness makes any foundation, beyond a
single thickness of plank, unnecessary, even in the softest
earth. This fact, together with the narrowness of the trench
and the length of the pieces, reduces the construction charges
30% below that of a tile or masonry conduit of like capacity,
and make? it possible to work advantageously a much larger
force than would be otherwise possible. Special conduit
made and treated to specification by the Norfolk Creosoting
Company.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
47
CREOSOTED CROSS-TIES FOB STEAM AND
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.
Dimensions.
Feet B. M.
Feet, Cubic.
Weight.
10 Ibs. Oil.
n Ibs. Oil.
4x6-5
10.
0.833
45
48
4x6-6
12.
1.000 55
58
5x6-5
12.5
1.041
-~SZ
__ ii 60
5x6-6
15.
1.250
69
5x6-7
17.5
mil
EV^\[
6x8-6
24.
2.000
n 1$ f
'l!6 ^
6x8-7
28.
2.333
. m L
135
6x8- 7' -6"
30.
ItWiCll
1!^ ('
' 145
6x8-8
6 x 8 8'- 6"
32.
34
f '2.1566 ^
156-
154
7x7-7
28.5
2.390
132
164
138
7x7-8
32.6 2.716
149
157
7x7- 8'-6"
34.6
2.891
159
167
8x8-9
48.
4.000 220
232
8x 8-10
53.
4.416 243
256
8x 8-12
64.
5.333
293
309
8 x 10-10
66.6
5.555
305
322
8 x 10-12
80. 6.666 366 404
8 x 10-14
93.
7.750
426 449
Weights are for 10 and 12 pounds of oil, respectively, per
cubic foot.
The Norfolk Creosoting Company sizes all ties to exact
dimensions before treating, and they are ready for immediate
use on leaving the works. The company furnishes ties
under any specification and treatment.
48 CREOSOTED TIMBER
CREOSOTED BOX CULVERTS.
RAILWAY, STREET AND HIGHWAY USES.
This form of structure offers many advantages of utility
and low first cost for openings of three to twelve foot span.
They are as durable as masonry, and, on account of their
smooth walls and bottom, offer much less resistance to the
passage of water and are less liable to be obstructed by the
catching of brush and sticks against the walls and bottom.
Their lightness renders a much less expensive foundation
necessary, and their imperviousness makes them proof
against damage from frost; while their elastic character ex-
empts them from the results of vibration, due to passing
trains, so frequently disastrous to masonry structures.
All portions of these culverts are securely fastened; and,
when erection is complete, the entire structure is practically
one piece ; so that pavements do not cut out, nor walls fall
in, under the action of flood-water. Such a culvert, once
erected, is charged out with the assurance that there will
be no annual maintenance estimates for pointing up cracks
or painting iron work.
Culverts of any span, up to fourteen feet, and of any length,
are gotten out and treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Com-
pany in accordance with specifications, ready for use. Esti-
mates and plans are submitted when desired.
A treatment of fifteen pounds of oil per cubic foot is re-
commended.
TRUNK SEWERS AND ARTIFICIAL
CHANNELS.
Trunk sewers and artificial channels for streams are very
advantageously constructed of creosoted timber, where the
cross-section area is four feet or over; the channel being
either closed or open, and the cross-section being either cir-
cular or rectangular, or with vertical sides and V-shaped
floor. All joints are water-tight, and there is absolutely no
absorption of passing liquids, nor is the interior surface
broken or damaged by the sticks and stones and other
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 49
debris accompanying storm water, as is so often the case
with masonry conduits having plastered interiors. All in-
terior surfaces are dressed, and so present the least possible
resistance to the flow of water. In open channels the dif-
ference is 30 per cent, in its favor, as compared with the
smoothest of cement-plastered walls. The comparatively
thin walls reduce the excavation on their account 50 per
cent., while the rapidity with which the erection can be car-
ried on reduces the risk and expense attendant upon the
trenching. Except in very bad ground, no foundation is
needed, while in swampy places the quantity of timber
needed for the foundation of a masonry-conduit will be suf-
ficient for the floor of a creosoted one.
Structures of this character are gotten out and treated by
the Norfolk Creosoting Company, ready for use, in accord-
ance with specification. Plans and estimates submitted
when desired.
CREOSOTED "WOOD-BLOCK PAVEMENTS.
Creosoted wood-block pavements, properly laid on a suit-
able base, form one of the most durable and satisfactory
street coverings yet devised.
Creosoted wood being absolutely non-absorbent, such a
pavement takes up none of the liquids of the street and
furnishes no lodgment for any substance deleterious to
health.
Being perfectly sanitary, it is especially well adapted to
the streets of tropical and sub-tropical cities. By reason of
its peculiarly leathery surface, a creosoted block pavement
is especially pleasing to a horse, allowing him to travel
without apprehension of slipping ; so that he moves con-
fidently and easily and without that disagreeable slapping
so noticeable in horses travelling over other forms of smooth
pavements. Experience in the United States and in Europe
has shown that a properly constructed creosoted wood-block
pavement will carry a traffic of 3,500 tons per foot of street
width, per annum, for a period of fifteen years ; and that it
50 CREOSOTED TIMBER
deteriorates from wear and not from decay ; so that it may
be expected to last proportionately longer under a less
volume of traffic.
An instance of the great durability of such a pavement is
shown in the cut below, which is that of a creosoted wood-
paving block, laid on Market Street, in the City of Galveston,
Texas, after seventeen years' continual service. The block
was, when laid, six inches deep, the actual wear during the
seventeen years' service was somewhat less than one-half
inch, or approximately three one hundred ths inch, per
annum. The pavement from which this sample was taken
is yet in service at the end of twenty-four years, and is in
good condition except as to those portions which were not
properly repaired after having been torn up for the con-
struction of street-car tracks, sewers and water-pipe lines.
A creosoted wood-block pavement is superior to all others
in that it is noiseless, smooth without being slippery, imper-
vious and therefore sanitary, and because its great durability
renders maintenance charges a minimum.
Creosoted wood-paving blocks of any suitable dimension
furnished to any specification by the Norfolk Creosoting Com-
pany, who make a specialty. Specifications furnished upon
suitable information as to the governing conditions.
Twelve pounds of oil per cubic foot is recommended for
this class of work.
SPECIFICATION FOR CREOSOTED
TIMBER.
MATERIALS. Timber shall be of the dimension specified,
straight, free from windshakes, large or loose or decayed
knots, red-heart or anything impairing its strength or dura-
bility, and to be cut from sound live trees, and to be ...
OIL All oil shall be the heavy or dead oil of coal tar,
containing not more than 1^ per cent, of water, and not
more than 5 per cent, of tar, and not more than 5 per cent,
of carbolic acid.
It must not flash below 185 F. nor burn below 200 F.
and it must be fluid at 118 F. It must begin to distil at
320 F. and must yield between that temperature and 410
F. of all substances, less than 20 per cent., by volume.
Between 410 and 470 F. the yield of naphthalene must be
not less than 40 nor more than 60 per cent, by volume. At
two degrees above its liquefying point it must have a spe-
cific gravity of maximum 1.05 and minimum 1.015.
PROCESSES OF TREATMENT. Seasoning : This is to be accom-
plished by subjecting the timber to the action of live steam
for a period of from five to seven hours at a pressure of 35
to 55 pounds per square inch, the temperature not at any
time exceeding 275 F. unless the timber be water-soaked,
in which case it may reach 285 F. for the first half of the
period. At the expiration of the steaming the chamber
shall be entirely emptied of sap and water by drawing off
at the bottom. As soon as the chamber is cleared of all sap
and water a vacuum of not less than 20 inches shall be set
up and maintained in the chamber, for a period of from five
to eight hours, or until the discharge from the vacuum pump
has no odor or taste, the temperature in the chamber being
maintained at between 100 and 130 F. The chamber being
again emptied of all sap and water the oil is to be admitted,
the vacuum pump being worked at its full speed until the
chamber is filled with oil. As soon, thereafter, as is prac-
52 CREOSOTED TIMBER
ticable such a pressure shall be set up as shall cause the
entire charge of timber to absorb . . . pounds of oil within
. . . per cent, more or less (at a minimum penetration of 1^
inches in round timber for a treatment of 12 pounds of
oil per cubic feet, constituting a basis for determining the
penetration due to a treatment of any specific quantity of
oil) . . . inches from all exposed surfaces. The depth of
the penetration being ascertained by boring the treated
piece with an auger, making a hole not more than inch in
diameter, such pieces as are found not to have the required
penetration being returned to the chamber with a subse-
quent charge for further treatment.
INSPECTION. Inspection shall be made as the work pro-
gresses, and at as early a date as is practicable, in order that
there may be a minimum loss of time and materials due to
rejections.
The inspector, or other authorized agent of the purchaser,
shall have reasonable notice of the intention on the part of
the contractor to begin the treatment of a charge of timber,
and he shall have at all times during the treatment of the
timber under his charge access to the works, and all reason-
able and necessary facilities for ascertaining that all the re-
quirements of this specification are complied with. Such
" reasonable facilities "providing opportunity, at the proper
time, for measuring all timber, treatment-chambers, oil-
tanks, etc., and for taking samples of the oil being used, for
analysis, as often as he may deem necessary.
NOTE. All cut ends, mortises, tenons, and other incisions of the original
surface of creosoted timber, should be protected by not less than four coats of
creosote oil, applied boiling hot with a brush or mop. In the case of moor-
ing piles, fender piles, and other timber having the cut end exposed to the
weather, the portions so exposed should have, in addition to the creosote
oil, a heavy final coat of a paste made of equal parts of unslaked lime and
creosote oil, applied hot.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
53
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54 CREOSOTED TIMBER
RECTANGULAR WOODEN PILLARS.
Crippling Strength
Pounds per Sq. Inch.
Crippling Strength
Pounds per Sq. Inch.
1
6 + 1
I
1
6 + 1
a
^
1
1
10 d
d
t
1
5
10(2
i
i
i
1
Ends Pin
I
12.
13.2
14.4
4440
4250
4070
4020
3800
3580
3680
3430
3190
7.2
7.32
7.44
30.
31.2
32.4
2120
2020
1930
1620
1530
1450
1310
1230
1160
9.
9.12
9.24
15.6
3880
3370
2970
7.56
33.6
1830
1370
1100 ! 9.36
16.8
3700 3160
2760
7.68
34.8 i 1750
1300
1040 \ 9.48
18. I 3520 ; 2970 ; 2570 1 7.8
36.
1670
1230
980 \ 9.6
19.2 I 3350 2790 \ 2390
7.92
37.2
1590
1170
930 ! 9.72
20.4
3190
2620 i 2230
8.04
38.4
1520
1120
880
9.84
21.6
3040
2740 2080
8.16
39.6
1450
1060
840
9.96
22.8
2890
2320
1940
8.28
40.8
1390
1010
790
10.08
24. : 2740
2180 1810
8.4
42.
1330
960
760
10.2
25.2 2600 ! 2050
1690
8.52
43.2
1270
920
720
10.32
26.4 1 2470 ; 1930
1580
8.64
44.4
1220
880
690
10.44
27.6
2350
1820
1490
8.76
45.6
1170
840
650
10.56
28.8
2230
1720
1400
8.88
46.8
1120
800
620
10.68
length in inches.
d least side of cross-section in inches.
Formulae : Flat Ends ; Pin and Flat Ends ; Pin Ends.
5600 5600 5600
-i , I 2
656?
1 +
1.51 2
If desired the constant in the above formula, 5600, may be
replaced by 8000 pounds ultimate resistance to compression
of Georgia long-leafed yellow pine ; 7000 pounds ultimate
resistance to compression of white oak. Applicable to
either plain or creosoted timber.
CLASSIFICATION OF YELLOW
PINE LUMBER.
Southern Lumber and Timber Association, adopted February 14, 1883.
CLASSIFICATION. Flooring shall embrace four and five
quarter inches in thickness by three to six inches in width.
For example : 1 x 3, 4, 5 and 6 ; \\ x 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Boards shall embrace all thicknesses under one and one-
half by seven inches and up wide, including one and one-
half inches in thickness, by seven in width. For example :
f , 1, 1, \\ inches thick by seven inches and up in width.
Scantling shall embrace all sizes from two to five inches
in thickness, and two to six inches wide. For example :
2 x 2, 2 x 3, 2x4, 2 x 5,2 x 6, 3 x 3, 3x4, 3x5, 3x6, 4x4,
4 x 5, 4 x 6, 5 x 5, 5 x 6.
Plank shall embrace all sizes from one and one-half to five
inches in thickness by seven inches and up in width. For
example : 1, 2, 2, 3, 3$, 4, 4, and 5x7 and up in width.
Dimension sizes shall embrace all sizes, six inches and up
in thickness by seven inches and up in width, including 6x6.
For example : 6 x 6, 6 x 7, 7 x 7, 7 x 8, 8 x 8, 8 x 9, and up.
INSPECTION. Square edge : Flooring shall show no wane,
shall be free from through or round shakes or knots exceed-
ing one inch and a half in diameter, or more than six to a
board ; sap no objection.
Boards shall show no wane, shall be free from round or
through shakes, large or unsound knots ; sap no objection.
Scantling shall be free from injurious shakes, unsound
knots, or knots to impair strength ; sap no objection.
Plank shall be free from unsound knots, wanes, through
or round shakes ; sap no objection.
All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes,
and saw-butted.
MERCHANTABLE. Flooring shall show one heart face, re-
gardless of sap on opposite side ; free from through or round
56 CREOSOTED TIMBER
shakes, or knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more
than four to a board on face side.
Boards, nine and a half inches and under wide, shall show
one heart face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over
nine inches wide, shall show two-thirds heart on both sides ;
all free from round or through shakes, large or unsound
knots.
Scantling shall show three corners heart, free from injurious
shakes or unsound knots.
Plank, nine inches and under wide, shall show one heart
face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over nine inches
wide, shall show two-thirds heart on both sides ; all free
from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots.
DIMENSION SIZES. All square lumber shall show two-thirds
heart on two sides, and not less than one-half heart on two
other sides. Other sizes shall show two-thirds heart on faces,
and show heart two-thirds of the length on edges, excepting
where the width exceeds the thickness by three inches or
over, then it shall show heart on the edges for one-half its
length.
Stepping shall show three corners heart, free from shakes,
and all knots exceeding half an inch in diameter, and not more
than six to the board.
Rough Edge or Flitch shall be sawed from good heart tim-
ber, and shall be measured in the middle, on the narrow
face ; free from injurious shakes or unsound knots.
All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes,
and saw- butted.
Prime Flooring shall show one entire heart face and two-
thirds heart on the opposite side, clear of splits, shakes or
knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more than four to
the board.
Boards shall show one heart face and two-thirds heart on
the opposite side, free from shakes and large and unsound
knots.
Scantling shall show three corners heart, and not to ex-
ceed one inch of sap on fourth corner, measured diagonally,
free from heart shakes, large or unsound knots.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 57
Plank shall show one entire heart face, on opposite face
not exceeding one- sixth its width of sap on each corner, free
from unsound knots, through or round shakes ; sap to be
measured on face
DIMENSION SIZES. On all square sizes the sap on each cor-
ner shall not exceed one-sixth the width of the face. When
the width does not exceed the thickness by three inches, to
show half heart on narrow face the entire length ; exceed-
ing three inches, to show heart on narrow face the entire
length ; sap on wide faces to be measured as on square sizes.
Rough Edge or Flitch shall be measured in middle, on
narrow face, inside of sap, free from shakes or unsound
knots.
CLEAR. Flooring, Stepping and Boards shall be free from
knots, sap, pitch, and all other defects.
Scantling shall be free from sap, large knots, and other
defects.
Plank shall be free from large knots, sap or other defects.
Dimension Sizes shall be free from sap, large or unsound
knots, shakes through or round.
Resawed lumber is lumber sawn on four sides.
Rough Edge or Flitch is lumber sawn on two sides.
BALTIMORE, October 30, 1899.
NORFOLK CREOSOTING Co., Norfolk, Va.
Gentlemen: It gives us pleasure to testify to the valuable work that you
are doing and to the character of material that has been supplied us for our
various contracts along the Seaboard, where we have used creosoted piles
and timber.
We have been using your material constantly since you started your
works and have not had a complaint from any of the completed contracts
that we have done up to this time.
The work has been not only satisfactory, but the capacity of your plant
has been such as to give us prompt and reliable deliveries of material.
Yours very truly,
W. B. BROOKS, Jr., Vice-President,
Sanford & Brooks Co., Contractors.
58
CREOSOTED TIMBER
BOUND TIMBER.
BOARD MEASURE VOLUME.
Diameter
in
Inches.
LENGTH IN FEET.
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
11
37
43
49
55
61
67
74
12
48
56
64
72
80
88
96
13
61
71
81
91
101
111
122
14
75
88
100
112
125
137
150
15
91
106
121
136
151
166
181
16
108
126
144
162
180
198
216
17
124
148
169
190
211
232
253
18
147
171
196
220
245
269
294
19
169
197
225
253
280
309
338
20
192
224
256
288
320
352
384
21
217
253
289
325
361
397
433
22
243
283
324
364
404
445
486
23
271
313
359
406
452
496
541
24
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
25
331
386
441
496
551
606
661
26
363
423
484
544
605
665
726
27
397
463
530
596
661
726
794
28
432
504
576
648
720
793
864
29
469
547
625
703
782
860
938
30
507
591
676
761
845
930
1014
31
547
638
729
820
912
1004
1094
32
588
686
784
882
980
1078
1176
33
631
736
841
946
1051
1156
1263
34
675
787
900
1012
1125
1237
1351
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
59
APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OP WOODEN
RAILWAY TRESTLES.
Height of Bent,
Feet.
Feet Beam per Lineal
Foot.
Masonry Footings.
Cubic Yards per
Lineal Foot.
Pounds of Iron per
Lineal Foot.
If Filled. Cubic
Yards Earth Re-
quired per Lineal
Foot.
Stringer
Tico pieces
8*. 16.
Stringer
Three pcs.
7xlA.
Bolts and
Nuts.
Washers.
\
10 : 207
230
0.8
9.3
2.6
12
15
236
259
0.9
10.2
3.1
22
20
268
291
1.1
10.2
3.1
35
25
295
318
1.2
11.7
3.9
50
30
332
355
1.3
12.4
4.3
69
35
362
385
1.4
13.3
4.9
89
40
327
336
0.8
11.2
3.7
114
45
340
349
0.8
11.2
3.7
141
50
380
389
0.9
11.8
4.1
170
55
413
422
1.0
13.7
5.1
203
60
425
434
1.0
13.7
5.1
238
65
472
481
1.1
16.2
6.9
276
70
493
502
1.1
16.2
6.9
316
75
540
549
1.0
17.7
7.7
360
80
583
592
1.0
19.4
8.7
443
85
599
608
1.0
19.4
8.7
470
90
635
644
1.0
21.9
11.0
507
95
657
666
1.0
21.9
11.0
561
100
706
715
1.0
23.3
11.8
619
110
769
778
1.0
24.9
12.8
742
120
828
837
1.0
27.4
14.5
839
130
898
907
1.0
28.8
15.3
1021
140
986
995
1.0
32.9
18.0
1177
150
1052
1065
1.0
34.3
18.8
1344
60
CREOSOTED TIMBER
PROPERTIES OF SEASONED STRUCTURAL
WOODS.
Variety.
Weight
Cubic
Feet.
Ultimate Strength per Square Inch.
Tension.
Compres-
sion.
Shear
Across Gr.
Shear
WithGr.
Ash . .
50'
47
16,850
10,430
9,180
10,432
1,250
Beech, Amer
Birch, " ....
47
7,000
8,000
Cedar, Amer. Red .
40
10,000
5000
Cherry, Wild ....
Chestnut
42
41
36
35
25
25
53
11,500
6,000
14,000
9,000
9,000
11,000
8,000
5,300
6,800
10,300
6,800
6,000
8,000
616
1,250
800
800
400
Cypress ... . .
Elm, Amer. White .
Fi r-Spruce
Hemlock
Hickory, Amer. . .
Locust, Black ....
58
18,000
9,800
" Honey . . .
58
18,000
7,000
Maple, Amer
49
10,000
8,000
Oak, Amer. White .
50
10,000
7,000
2,000
800
" Red . .
45
10,000
6,000
2,000
Pine, " White .
25
10,000
8,500
800
400
Pine, Amer, Long-
Leafed Yellow . .
45
12,600
8,500
1,440
600
Shortleaf ....
40
5,900
Loblolly
Poplar
40
30
45
7,000
15,000
6,500
5,000
12,000
Teak, Indian ....
Sycamore
37
12,000
6,000
Walnut, Black . . .
40
8,000
8,000
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
61
1
*!
?l
i 1
H
^ I
-0 CM
->
62
CREOSOTED TIMBER
H
(M 10 rO CO
fir
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
63
g
4> -
I
. 3 2 9 5"
8 1 a | 1 i
<
*
8 * * M -5 2-
SSb^ii^l&B
i
^
i
. -"
t! <tf a
I
i
*s
1
ft o< ^ 2 0*2
i
^
ft$
^
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1o
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ii T ii T
^ ^ > fe
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_
1 1 1 1 i^l
-w ^
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1 i * " 11
1 fe
^
J TJ 'a -o | j a
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1
*" *S "S 'S "a^ *^ 3
s S
1
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listance to
COLU
1
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^
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ill
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64 CREOSOTED TIMBER
USEFUL INFORMATION.
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT. The British Thermal Unit, B.
T. U., as used by British and American engineers, is the
amount of heat consumed in raising one pound of water, at
its maximum density, one degree Fahrenheit; 965.7 B. T. U.
equal one unit of evaporation.
COMMERCIAL BOILER HORSE-POWER. A commercial " Boiler
Horse-Power " is the evaporation of thirty pounds of water,
per hour, from a temperature of 100 F., into steam at
seventy pounds gauge pressure ; equal to 34.5 units of evap-
oration (34.5 pounds of water evaporated from a temperature
of 212 F. into steam at the same temperature) ; also equal
to 33,305 B. T. U. per hour. Five pounds of average bitu-
minous coal should develop one horse-power per hour.
DEVELOPMENT OF HORSE-POWER. Twelve square feet of
heating surface (twelve square feet of area exposed to water
on one side and to heat on the other) ; or its equivalent, one
third square foot of effective grate area, should develop one
horse-power per hour.
ENGINE HORSE-POWER. An " Engine Horse-Power " is
the measure of energy expended in raising 33,000 pounds
one foot high in one minute. The effective horse-power of
any well-designed "Engine" is approximately 80$ of its
I. H. P.
7. H. P. = PS.(*\ ; also I. H. Pm =A.P.L.n.
V2.05 J 33,000
P = mean effective gauge pressure in pounds per sq. in.
8 = mston speed, in feet per minute.
' iiet diameter of cylinder in inches.
L = length of stroke, n number of strokes, half rev. per min.
A net area of piston in square inches also equal D.
WATER. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its
capacity four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases
as the square of the velocity.
The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated
at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacu-
um it will sustain a column of mercury 2?.9 inches, or a
column of water 33.9 feet high.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 65
To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of
water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.
Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to
half pound pressure per square inch ; this allows for
ordinary friction.
To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the
standard of speed) divide the number of gallons by 4, then
extract the square root, and the product will be the diame-
ter in inches of the pump cylinder.
To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at
100 feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of
the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example :
.Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the
diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100,
the number of gallons per minute (approximately).
To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given
height, multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by
the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an al-
lowance of 25 per cent, should be added for water friction and
a further allowance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder).
The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pres-
sure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted.
The area of the water piston, multiplied by the pressure of wa-
ter per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must be
made between the power and the resistance to move the pistons
at the required speed say from 20 to 40 per cent, according
to speed and other conditions.
To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give
the total number of cubic inches ; divide this amount by
231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches),
and the product is the capacity in gallons.
To find the number of gallons in a tank, multiply the inside
bottom diameter in inches by the inside top diameter in
inches, then this product by 34 ; point off four figures and
the result will be the average number of gallons to one inch
in depth of the tank.
66
CREOSOTED TIMBER
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
g^.
1 '
*
^
SJ
to'g
-
|*
1 1
| 1
&~-
4|?
^1
1
^ .
11
\*
!
rt
11
e
l |
S'1
1*
s
C>D^
a
ll
-1
P
et
ft
IS
J&
||
ll
II
1
e|
M
!
^
51
3u
i
101.99
1113.1
1043.0
0.00299
334.50
0.9661
13
2
126.27
1120.5
1026.1
0.00576
173.60
0.9738
12
3
141.62
1125.1
1015.3
0.00844
118.50 0.9786
ll
4
153.09
1128.6
1007.2
0.01107
90.33 j 0.9822
10
5
162.34
1131.5
1000.8
0.01366
73.21 0.9852
9
6
170.14
1133.8
995.2
0.01622
61.65 0.9876
8
7
176.90
1135.9
990.5
0.01874
53.39 \ 0.9897
7
8
182.92
1137.7
986.2
0.02125
47.06 i 0.9916
6
9
188.33
1139.4
982.5
0.02374
42.12 j 0.9934
5
10
193.25
1140.9
979.0
0.02621
38.15 0.9949
15
213.03
1146.9
965.1
0.03826
26.14 ; 1.0003
-1- 5
20
227.95
1151.5
954.6
0.05023
19.91 1.0051
10
25
240.04
1155.1
946.0
0.06199
16.13 1.0099
15
30
250.27
1158.3
938.9
0.07360
13.59 1.0129
20
35
259.19
1161.0
932.6
0.08508
11.75 1.0157
25
40
267.13
1163-4
927.0
0.09644
10.37 1.0182
30
. 45
274.29
1165.6
922.0
0.10770
9.28 1.0205
35
50
280.85
1167.6
917.4
0.11880
8.42 1.0225
40
55
286.89
1169.4
913.1
0.12990
7.69 1.0245
45
60
292.51
1171.2
909.3
0.14090
7.09 1.0263
50
65
297.77
1127.7
905.5
0.15190
6.58 1.2080
55
70
302.71
1174.3
902.1
0.1628
6.14 1.0295
60
75
307.38
1175.7
898.8
0.1736
5.76 1.0309
65
80
311.80
1177.0
895.6
0.1843
5.42 1.0323
70
85
316.02
1178.3
892.5
0.1957
5.12 j 1.0337
75
90
320.04
1179.6
889.6
0.2058
4.86 1.0350
80
95
323.89
1180.7
886.7
0.2165
4.62 1.0362
85
100
327.58
1181.9
884.0
0.2271
4.40 I 1.0374
90
105
331.13
1182.9
881.3
0.2378
4.20 1.0385
95
110
334.56
1184.0
878.8
0.2484
4.02 j 1.0396
100
115
337.86
1185.0
876.3
0.2589
3.86 S 1.0406
105
120
341.05
1186.0
874.0
0.2695
3.71 1.0416
115
130
347.12
1187.8
869.4
0.2904
3.44
1.0435
135
150
358.26
1191.2
861.2
0.3321
3.01
1.0470
155
170
368.29
1194.3
853.8
0.3737
2.67
1.0502
175
190
377.44
1197.1
847.0
0.4153
2.40
1.0531
210
225
391.79
1201.4
836.3
0.4876
2.05
1.0576
260
275
409.50
1206.8
823.2
0.5913
1.69
1.0632
310
325
424.82
1211.5
811.9
0.6960
1.43
1.0680
NOTE. The equivalent evaporation, at any temperature, is equal to the
given evaporation multiplied by the factor of its pressure and divided by the
factor of the desired pressure.
The equivalent evaporation from any other temperature than 212 F.
by adding to the given factor .00101 multiplied by the number of degrees
temperature below 212.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
67
*8<; e
JIM
oo oooo
til
O'd-ooOTtDooc>-TH
3ir>ooooooeocD?oooo?c5DCO
d r4 ! i-i CM' co tt-' 10 co c~-' en r-i w LO a
w ^ LO aj w' id oo TH
OOOOOr-
* IO ID C- CO O> O
68
CREOSOTED TIMBER
SHEET METALS.
WEIGHTS OF, PER SQUARE FOOT.
1 Thickness in\ 1
1 Inches. \
Wrought
Iron.
Cast Iron.
Steel.
Copper.
Brass.
Lead.
Zinc.
&
2.51
2.34
2.55
2.89
2.67
3.69
2.34
^
5.03
4.69
5.10
5.78
5.35
7.38
4.68
~fs
7.58
7.03
7.66
8.67
8.02
11.07
7.02
\
10.07
9.38
10.21
11.56
10.70
14.76
9.36
TS
12.58
11.73
12.76
14.45
13.37
18.45
11.70
%
15.10
14.07
15.33
17.34
16.05
22.14
14.04
T^
17.62
16.42
17.87
20.23
18.72
25.83
16.34
|
20.14
18.77
20.42
23.12
21.40
29.53
18.72
"&
22.65
21.11
22.97
26.01
24.07
33.22
21.08
25.17
23.46
25.52
28.90
26.75
36.91
23.44
tt
27.69
25.81
28.08
31.97
29.42
40.60
25.80
1
30.21
28.15
30.63
34.68
32.10
44.29
28.13
ft
32.72
30.50
33.18
37.57
35.19
47.98
30.49
?
35.24
32.85
35.73
40.69
38.28
51.67
32.81
if
37.76
35.19
28.28
43.35
41.37
55.37
35.17
1
40.28
37.54
40.83
46.25
43.75
59.06
37.50
NAILS AND SPIKES.
Nails.
Spikes.
Trade
Size.
Number
pei-
Pound.
Length in
Inches.
Number
per
Pound.
Length in
Inches.
Number
per
Pound.
Length in
Inches.
3d
400
v*k
640
11/4
30
33,
4d
300
Wb
380
1^/2
23
4
6d
150
2
210
2
13
5
8d
85
2^
115
21^2
10
6
10 d
60
3 "
77
3
7
7
16 d
40
31^2
48
3^72
5
8
20d
20
4
31
4
4 3 )2
9
30d
16
4^2
22
4 1 /2
40d
14
5
17
5
60d
S
6
11
6
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
69
s
5
K
-
=
OD
A
00000
I
o'o'ooo
II
1*
2<
70 CREOSOTED TIMBER
IRON CHAINS ("PROOF").
Diameter
of Bar.
Inches.
Weight per
Lineal Foot.
Pounds.
Breaking
Strain.
Pounds.
Diameter
of Bur.
Inches.
Weight per
Lineal Foot.
Pounds.
Breaking
Strain.
Pounds.
0.14
0.8
3000
1.%
18.3
88300
o.%
1.7
7000
Ufa
21.7
105200
0.^
2.5
12300
1.%
26.0
123500
o.%
4.3
19200
1.%
28.0 143300
0. 3 4
5.8
27000
l- 7 /8
32.0
164500
0. 7 / 8
8.0
37000
2.0
38.0
187000
1.0
. 10.7
49200
2.1/4
54.0
224400
Vk
12.5
59200
2.^
71.0
277000
i.\
16.0
73000
2.3 4
88.0
335300
MANILA ROPE (3 PLY).
Actual
Circum-
ference.
Approx-
imate
Diam.
Weight
per Lin.
Foot.
Breaking
Strain.
Actual
Circum-
ference.
Approx-
imate
Diam.
Weight
perLin.
Foot.
Breaking
Strain.
Inches.
Inches.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Inches.
Inches.
Pounds
Pounds.
0.%
0.24
0.19
560
6.
1.9
1.2
25500
1.
0.32
0.33
780
6.1/2
2.0
1.4
29100
i*fe
0.5
0.07
1560
7.
2.2
1.6
32700
2.
0.6
0.13
2730
7.^
2.4
1.9
36000
2.*fc
0.8
0.21
4270
8.
2.5
2.1
39800
3.
0.9
2.90
6100
9.
2.8
2.7
47000
3.^2
1.1
0.40
8500
10.
3.2
3.3
54000
4.
1.3
0.53
11500
11.
3.5
4.0
61300
4.^
1.4
0.67
14700
12.
3.8
4.7
68500
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
71
&
J
H 1
Q
spunoj
WW Md jy6}9M.
COOJOJi-ii-ii-JcJOOOOOOCJO
?a>W7 W> ScoP-aS
flWWFWww^JW
<foy v/nuvjf
9jD(iin5g- fo
. 10 -^ co CM rH o> co i> t
^lin^HC-tnCMOO
co c<i oa I-H i 1 1 1 1 i
?oo^ ^acf ;y/J?9,ti 06 co 10 ^ co co oi ea^i r4 d c> o* oo d
i-HOJCO^inLOCOC'-COCDO
ja
111
I^-g
2 -2
I
im: i
iii!
"
111 2 1
72
CREOSOTED TIMBER
WIRE GAUGES.
INCHES.
Number.
London or
Old English.
English
Legal
Standard.
Sfubbs
or Birm-
ingham.
Browne and
Sharpe.
Roebling.
000000
0.464
0460
00000
0.432
0.430
0000
0.4540
0.400
6.454
0.46000
0.393
000
0.4250
0.372
0.425
0.40964
0.362
00
0.3800
0.348
0.380
0.36480
0.331
0.3400
0.324
0.340
0.32486
0.307
1
0.3000
0.300
0.300
0.28930
0.283
2
0.2840
0.276
0.284
0.25763
0.263
3
0.2590
0.252
0.259
0.22942
0.244
4
0.2380
0.232
0.238
0.20431
0.225
5
0.2200
0.212
0.220
0.18194
0.207
6
0.2030
0.192
0.203
0.16202
0.192
7
0.1800
0.176
0.180
0.14428
0.177
8
0.1650
0.160
0.165
0.12849
0.162
9
0.1480
0.144
0.148
0.11443
0.148
10
0.1340
0.128
0.134
0.10189
0.135
11
0.1200
0.116
0.120
0.09074
0.120
12
0.1090
0.104
0.109
0.08081
0.105
13
0.0950
0.092
0.095
0.07196
0.092
14
0.0830
0.080
0.083
0.06408
0.080
15
0.0720
0.072
0.072
0.05706
0.072
16
0.0650
0.064
0.065
0.05082
0.063
17
0.0580
0.056
0.058
0.04525
0.054 -
18
0.0490
0.048
0.049
0.04030
0.047
19
0.0400
0.040
0.042
0.03589
O.Q41
20
0.0350
0.036
0.035
0.03196
0.035
21
0.0315
0.032
0.032
0.02846
0.032
22
0.0295
0.028
0.028
0.02534
0.028
23
0.0270
0.024
0.025
0.02257
0.025
24
0.0250
0.022
0.022
0.02010
0.023
25
0.0230
0.020
0.020
0.01790
0.020
26
0.0205
0.018
0.018
0.01594
0.018
27
0.01875
0.0164
0.016
0.01419
0.017
28
0.01650
0.0148
0.014
0.01264
0.016
29
0.01550
0.0136
0.013
0.01125
0.015
30
0.01375
0.0124
0.012
0.01002
0.014
31
0.01225
0.0116
0.010
0.00893
0.0135
32
0.01125
0.0108
0.009
0.00795
0.0130 '
33
0.01025
0.0100
0.008
0.00708
0.0110
34
0.00950
0.0092
0.007
0.00630
0.0100
35
0.00900
0.0084
0.005
0.00561
0.0095
36
0.00750
0.0076
0.004
0.00500
0.0090
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
74
CREOSOTED TIMBER
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
0.1
0.007854
0.31416
4.0
.1
12.5664
13.2025
12.5664
12.8805
8.0
.1
50.2655
51.5300
25.1327
25.4469
.2
0.031416
.-62832
.2
13.8544 1 13.1947 I i .2:52.8102 25.7611
.3
.070686
.94248
.3
14.5220 ! 13.5088 H .3 i 54.1061 ! 26 0752
.4
.12566
1.2566
.4
15.2053! 13.8230 ii .4 ! 55.4177 ! 26.3894
.5
.19635
1.5708
.5
15.9043
14.1372 !: .5; 56.7450 26.7035
.6
.28274
1.8850
.6
16.6190
14.4513 :i .6| 58.0880 i 27.0177
.7
.38485
2.1991
.7
17.3494
14.7655 ii .71 59.4468 27.3319
.8
.50266
2.5133
.8
18.0956
15.0796 ! .8 60.8212 I 27.6460
.9
.63617
2.8274
.9
18.8574
15.3938
.9
62.2114 ! 27.9602
1.0
0.7854
3.1416
5.0
19.6350
15.7080
9.0
63.6173
28.2743
.1
.9503
3.4558
.1
20.4282
16.0221
.1 65.0388
28.5885
.2
1.1310
3.7699
.2
21.2372
16.3363
.2 66.4761
28.9027
.3
1.3273
4.0841
.3
22.0618 ! 16.6504 !| .3 67.9291 i 29 2168
.4
1.5394
4.3982
.4
22.9022 ] 16.9646 ; ! .4 69.3978 29^5310
.5
1.7671
4.7124
.5
23.7583 i 17.2788 i| .5 70.8822 i 29 8451
.6
2.0106
5.0265
.6
24.6301 17.5929 ;| .6 72.3823 ! 30.1593
.7
2.2698
5.3407
.7
25.5176 17.9071 !, .7 73.8981 j 30.4734
.8
2.5447
5.6549
.8
26.4208 18.2212 .8 1 75.4296 ! 30 7876
.9
2.8353
5.9690
.9
27.3397
18.5354
.9
76.9769
31.1018
2.0
3.1416
6.2832
6.0
28.2743
18.8496
10.0
78.5398
31.4159
.1
3.4636
6.5973
.1
29.2247
19.1637
.1
80.1185
31.7301
.2
3.8013
6.9115
.2
30.1907 19.4779 .2 81.7128
32.0442
.3
4.1548
7.2257
.3 31.1725 1 19.7920 : .3 83.3229
32.3584
.4
4.5239
7.5398
.4 32.1699 i 20.1062 ! .4 ! 84.9487
32.6726
5
4.9087
7.8540
.5
33.1831 i 20.4204 | .5 86.5901 i 32.9867
!e
5.3093
8.1681
.6
34.2119 I 20.7345 i .6 88.2473 i 33.3009
.7
5.7256
8.4823
.7
35.2565 : 21.0487 j! .7189.9202 33.6150
.8
6.1575
8.7965
.8
36.3168 21.3628 .8 1 91.6088 33.9292
.9
6.6052
9.1106
.9
37.3928
21.6770
.9
93.3132 34.2134
3.0
7.0686
9.4248
7.0
38.4845
21.9911 i 11.0 95.0332 ! 34.5575
.1
7.5477
9.7389
.1 j 39.5919 ' 22.3053 II .1 1 96.7689 34.8717
.2
8.0425
10.0531
.2, 40.7150 I 22.6195 ; .2 : 98.5203 35.1858
3
8.5530
. 10.3673
.3141.8539; 22.9336;, .3100.2875,35.5000
.4
9.0792
10.6814
.4! 43.0084 23.2478 ,i .4102.0703 ! 35.8142
g
9.6211
10.9956
.5 44.1786 23.5619! .5 103.8689 i 36.1283
!e
10.1788
11.3097
.6
45.3646 23.8761 .6 105.6832 i 36.4425
7
10.7521
11.6239
.7
46.5663
24.1903 .7 107.5132 36.7566
!s
11:3411
11.9381
.8
47.7836
24 . 5044 ! . 8 109 . 3588 37 . 0708
.9
11.9459
12.2522
.9
49.0167
24.8186 .9
111.2202
37.3850
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 75
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
i
Jrea.
Circum-
ference.
i
Area.
Circum-
ference.
b
Area.
Circum-
ference.
12.0
113.0973
37.6991
16.0
201.0619
50.2655
20.0
314.1593
62.8319
.1
114.9901
38.0133 .1 i 203.5831; 50.5796 | .1
317.3087
63.1460
.2
116.8987
38.3274 .2 206.1199 50.8938 ! .2
320.4739
63.4602
.3
118.8229
38.6416:- .3 208.6724 51.2080 ' .3 323.654763.7743
.4
120.7628
38.9557 i .4 211.2407 51.5221 , .4 ; 326.8513! 64.0885
.5
122.7185
39.2699 .5:213.8246 51.8363 .5 330. 0636J 64.4026
.6
124.6898
39.5841 .6 216.4243 52.1504 ; .6 ! 333. 29l6i 64.7168
.7
126.6769
39.8982
.7 219.0397 52.4646 i .7
336.5353 65.0310
.8
128.6796
40.2124
.8
221.6708
52.7788
.8
339.7947
65.3451
9
130.6981
40.5265
.9
224.3176
53.0929
.9
343.0698
65.6593
13.0
132.7323
40.8407
17.0 226.9801 53.4071 1 21.0
346.4606
65.9734
.1
134.7822
41.1549 ; .1 1 229.6583 53.7212 i .1 349.6671
66.2876
.2
136.8478
41.4690 i
.2 232.3522 54.0354 .2 352.9894
66.6018
.3
138.9291
41.7832 :
.3 235.0618 54.3496 .3 356.3273
66.9159
.4
141.0261
42. 0973 j! .4:237.7871 54.6637 ! .41359.6809
67.2301
.5
143.1388
42.4115
.5 240.5282 54.9779 .5 : 363.0503
67.5442
.6
145.2672
42.7257 i
.6 243.2849 55.2920 j .6 366.4354 67.8584
\7
147.4114
43.0398
.7 246.0574 55.6062 .7 i 369.8361' 68.1726
.8
149.5712
43.3540
.8 ! 248.8456 55.9203 .8 i 373.2526
68.4867
.9
151.7468 43.6681
.9
251.6494
56.2345
.9
376.6848
68.8009
14.0
153.9380
43.9823
18.0
254.4690
56.5486
22.0
380.1327 69.1150
.3
156.1450
44.2965
.1
257.3043 56.8628
.1
383.5963 69.4992
.2
158.3677
44.6106
.2 260.1553 : 57.1770
.2 1 387.0756 69.7434
.3
160.6061
44.9248 .3|263.0220 57.4911:1 .3 i 390.5707
70.0575
.4
162.8602
45.2389 i .4 ' 265.9044 57.8053
.4
394.0814
70.3717
.5
165.1300
45.5531 .5 268.8025 58.1195
5
397.6078 70.6858
.6
167.4155
45.8673 .6 271.7164 58.4336
.61 401.15005 71.0000
.7
169.7167
46.1814 M .71274.6459 58.7478
.7 404.70781 71.3142
.8, 172.0336; 46.4956
.91 174.3662 46.8097
.8
.9
277.5911
280.5521
59.0619
59.3761
.8
.9
408.2814 71.6283
411.8707 71.9425
15. C
176.7146 47.1239
19.0
283.5287
59.6903
23.0
415.4756 72.2566
.1
179.0786
, 47.4380
.1 286.5211 : 60.0044 .1 1 419.0963! 72.5708
|
181.4584
47.7522 i .2:289.5292 60.3186 .2 i 422.7327 72.8849
183.853S
| 48.06641; .3 292.5530 60.6327 .3 426.384873.1991
.<
186.265C
48.3805 .4 i 295.5925 60.9469 I .4 430.0526 73.5133
P
188.6919
48.6947
.5 ; 298.6477 61.2611 ; .5 433.7361 73.8274
!<
191.134E
49.0088
.6'301.7186 61.5752 .6 ' 437.4354 74.1416
j
193.5928
49.3230
.7 304.8052 61.8894
.7 441.1503 74.4557
.1
196.0668
49.6372
.8
307.9075J 62.2035
.8
444.880$
74.7699
j
198.5565 49.9513
.9
311.0255 62.5177
.9
448.627C
75.0841
|
76 CREOSOTED TIMBER
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
j
Area.
Circum-
ference.
|
Area.
Oircum-
ference.
j
Area,
Circum-
ference.
24.0
452.3893
75.3982
28.0
615.7522
87.9646
32.0
804.24/7
100.5310
.1
456.1671 75.7124 ,i .1:620.1582! 88.2788
.1
809.2821
100.8451
A
459.9606! 76.0265 ' .2:624.5800! 88.5929 .2
814.3322
101.1593
463.7698; 76.3407 .3 629.0175! 88.9071 i .3
819.3980
101.4734
'.4
467.5947 76.6549
.41633.4707! 89.2212 ! .4 824.4796
101.7876
5
471.4352! 76.9690
.5 i 637.9397! 89.5354 ! .5 829.5768
102.1018
!e
475.2916J 77.2832
.6 i 642.4243! 89.8495 .6
834.6898
102.4159
.7
479.1636; 77.5973
.7 ! 646.9246
90.1637
.7
839.8185
102.7301
.8
483.0513! 77.9115
.8
651.4407
90.4779
.8
844.9628
103.0442
c
486.9547
78.2257
.9
655.9724
90.7920
.9
850.1229
103.3584
25.0
490.8739
78.5398
29.0
660.5199
91.1062
33.0
855.2986
103.6726
.1
494.8087
78.8540
.1
665.0830
91.4203
.1
860.4902
103.9867
.2
498.7592
79.1681
.2
669.6619 91.7345
.2
865.6973
104.3009
502.7255
79.4823
.3 ! 674.2565 92.0487
.3
870.9202
104.6150
[4
506.7075
79.7965
.4! 678.8668^ 92.3628
.4
876.1588
104.9292
5
510.7052
80.1106
.5 i 683.4928 92.6770
.5
881.4131
105.2434
'l
514.7185 80.4248
!6 688.1345
92.9911
.6
886.6831
105.5575
.7
518.7476 80.7389
.7 ! 692.7919
93.3053
.7
891.9688
105.8717
.8
.9
522.7924J 81.0531
526.8529 81.3672
.8
.9
697.4650
702.1538
93.6195
93.9336
.8
.9
897.2703
902.5874
106.1858
106.5000
26.0
530.9292 81.6814
30.0
706.8583
94.2478
34.0
907.9203
106.8142
.1
535.0211! 81.9956
.1
711.5786
94.5619
.1
913.2688
107.1283
.2
539.1287: 82.3097
.2 716.3145
94.8761
.2
918.6331
107.4425
.3
543.2521! 82.6239
.3 721.0662
95.1903
.3
924.0131
107.7566
.4
547.3911 82.9380
.4 1 725.8336
95.5044
.4
929.4088
108.0708
.5
551.5459i 83.2522
.5
730.6167
95.8186
.5
934.8202
108.3849
.6
555.7163! 83.5664
.6
735.4154
96.1327
.6
940.2473
108.6991
.7
559.9025 83.8805
.7
740.2299
96.4469
.7
945.6901
109.0133
.8
564.1044
84.1947
.8
745.0601
96.7611
.8
951.1486
109.3274
.9
568.3220
84.5088
.9
749.9060
97.0752
.9
956.6228
109.6416
27.0
572.5553
84.8230
31.0
754.7676
97.3894
35.0
962.1128
109.9557
.1
576.8043
85.1372
.1 759.64501 97.7035
.1
967.6184
110.2699
.2
581.0690! 85.4513
.2 1 764.5380 98.0177 .2
973.1397
110.5841
.3
585.3494 85.7655
.3 ! 769.4467
98.3319
.3
978.6768
110.8982
.4
589.6455 86.0796
.4 774.3712
98.6460
.4
984.2296
111.2124
5
593.95741 86.3938
.5
779.3113
98.9602
.5
989.7980
111.5265
'.6
598.2849! 86.7080
.6
784.2672 99.2743
.6
995.3822
111.8407
.7
602.6282 87.0221
.7
789.2388 99.5885
.7
1000.9821
112.1549
.8
606.98711 87.3363
.8
794.2260! 99.9026
g
1006.5977
112.4690
.9
611.3618
87.6504
.9
799.2290 100.2168
!9
1012.2290
112.7832
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
77
I
Area.
Circum-
ference.
s
Area.
Circum-
ference.
jj
Area.
Circum-
ference.
36.0
1017.8760
113.0960
40.0
1256.6371
125.6637
44.0
1520.5308
138.2301
.11023.5387 113.4115 .11262.9281 125.9779'; .1 1527.4502; 138.5442
.21029.2172 113.7257
.2 1289.2348 126.2920 i ; .2 1534.3853i 138.8584
.3;1034.9113 114.0398
.3 1275.5573 126.6062 j | .3 1541.3360 139.1726
.4i 1040. 6212 114.3540 j
.4 1281.8955 126.9203 ! .4 1548.3025
139.4867
.51046.3467 114.6681 i
.5 1288.2493 127.2345
.5
1555.2847
139.8009
.61052.0880 114.9823
.6 1294.6189, 127.5487 t
.6
1562.2826
140.1153
.7
1057.8449 115.2965
.7
1301.0042j 127.8628
.7
1569.2962
140.4292
.8
1063.6176 115.6106
.8
1307.4052
128.1770
.8
1576.3255
140.7434
.91069.4060
115.9248
.9
1313.8219
128.4911
.9
1583.3706
141.0575
37.01075.2101
116.2389
41.0
1320.2543
128.8053
45.0
1590.4313
141.3717
.111081.0299 116.5531
.1 1326.7024
129.1195
.1
1597.5077
141.6858
.211086.8654 116.8672
.2 1333.1663
129.4336
.2
1604.5999
142.0000
. 3 1092 . 7166 ! 117 . 1814 i . 3 1339 . 6458 129 . 7478 j
.3
1611.7077 142.3142
.41098.5835 117.4956 .41346.1410 130.0619
.511104.4662 117.80971! .51352.6520 130.3761
.4
.5
1618.8313 142.6283
1625.97051 142.9425
.61110.36451 118. 1239 i! .6 1359.1786 130.6903
.6 11633.1255! 143.2566
.711116.2786 118.4380
.7 1365.72101 131.0044 1
.7 1640.2962; 143.5708
.8
1122.2083 118.7522
.8 1372.2791; 131.3186 '
.8,1647.4826 143.8849
.9
1128.1538
119.0664
.9
1378.8529
131.6327 |
.9
1654.6847
144.1991
38.0
1134.1149
119.3805
42.0
1385.4424
131.9469
46.0
1661.9025
144.5133
.1
1140.0918
119.6947
.1
1392.0476
132.2611
.1
1669.1660
144.8274
.2
1146.0844
120.0088
.2
1398.6685 132.5752;
.2 1676.3853
145.1416
.3
1152.0927
120.3230
.3
1405. 3051 ! 132.8894 i
.3 1683.6502
145.4557
.4
1158.1167
120.6372
.4
1411.95741 133.2035 i
.41690.9308 145.7699
.5
1164.1564! 120.9513
.5
1418.6254
133.5177-
.511696.22721 146.0841
.6
1170.21181 121.2655
.6
1425.3092
133.8318
.6!l705.5392 146.3982
.7
1176.28301 121.5796
.7
1432.0086
134.1460
.7 1712.8670 146.7124
.8
1182.3698
121.8938
.8
1438.7238
134.4602
.8
1720.2105
147.0265
.9
1188.4724
122.2080
.9
1445.4546
134.7743
.9
1727.5697
147.3407
39.0
1194.5906
122.5221
43.0
1452.2012
135.0885
47.0
1734.9445
147.6550
.11200.7246
122.8363
.1 1458.9635 135. 4026 !j .1
1742.3351
147.9690
.21206.8742 ; 123.1504
.2 1465.7415 135. 7168 li .2
1749.7414
148.2832
.31213.0390 123.4646 .3 1472.5352; 136.0310 .3
1757.1635
148.5973
.4J1219.2207 123.7788 .4 J1479.3446 136.3451 '
.4 1764.6012' 148.9115
.5
1225.4175 124.0929
.5 1486.1697 136.6593
.51772.0546 149.2257
.6
1231.6300 124.4071
.6 1493.0105: 136.9734 .6
1779.5237
149.5398
.7
1237.8582
124.7212
.7
1499.8670, 137.2876
.7
1787.0086
149.8540
.8
1244.1021
125.0354
.8
1506.7393 137.6018
.8
1794.5091
150.1681
.9
1250.3617
125.3495
.9
1513.6272
137.9159
.9
1802.0254
150.4823
78 CREOSOTED TIMBER
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
Diameter.
Area.
Circum-
ference.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
48.0
1809.5974
150.7964
52.0
2123.7166
163.3628
56.0
2463.0086
175.9292
.1
1817.1050
151.1106
.1 2131.8926
163.6770
.1
2471.8130
176.2433
.2
1824.6684 151.4248
.2 J2140.0843
163.9911
.2
2480.6330
176.5575
.3
1832.2475^ 151.7389 1 .3 12148.2917
164.3053
.3
2489.4687
176.8717
.4
1839.8423 152.0531 ' .4 2156.5149
164.6195
.4
2498.3201
177.1858
5
1847.4528, 152. 3672 i, .5 2164.7537
164.9336
.5
2507.1873
177.5000
!e
1855 . 07901 152 . 6814 . 6 2173 . 0082
165.2479
.6
2516.0701
177.8141
.7
1862.7210! 152.9956 1 ,7i2181.2785
165.5619 .7
2524.9687
178.1283
.8
1870.3786
153. 3097 il .812189.5644
165.8761 .8
2533.8830
178.4425
.9
1878.0519
153.6239
.9 2197.8661
166.1903
.9
2542.8129
178.7566
49.0
1885.7409
153.9380
53.0
2206.1834
166.5044
57.0
2551.7586
179.0708
.1
1893.4457
154.2522
.1 2214.5165
166.8186
.1
2560.7200
179.3849
.2
1901.1662
154.5664
.2 12222.8653
167.1327
.2
2569.6971
179.6991
.3
1908 . 9024i 154 . 8805 | . 3 2231 . 2298
167.4469 1 .3
2578.6899
180.0333
.4
.5
1916.6543) 155.1947 : .4 ,2239.6100
1924.4218 155.5088 .52248.0059
167.7610 i .4J2587.6985
168.0752 1 .512596.7227
180.3274
180.6416
.6
1932.2051
155.8230:: .62256.4175
168.3894 ! .6
2605.7626
180.9557
.7
1940.0042
156.1372!! .7 2264.8448
168.7035 !
.7
2614.8183
181.2699
.8
1947.8189
156. 4513 !i .8 2273.2879
169.0177
.8
2623.8896
181.5841
.9
1955.6493
156.7655
.9
2281.7466
169.3318
.9
2632.4767
181.8982
50.0
1963.4954
157.0796
54.0
2290.2210
169.6460
58.0
2642.0794
182.2124
.1
1971.3572
157.3938
.1 2298.7112
169.9602
.1
2651.1979
182.5265
.2
1979.2348
157.7080! .2 2307.2171
170.2743
.2
2660.3321
182.8407
.3
1987.1280; 158.0221 i .32315.7386
170.58851 .3
2669.4820
183.1549
.4
1995 . 0370! 158 . 3363 ' . 4 2324 . 2759
170.9026 !
.4
2678.6476
183.4690
.5
2002.9617! 158.6504 .52332.8289
171.2168 I .5
2687.8289
183.7832
.6
2010.9020J 158.9646 i i .6 ; 2341.3976
171.5310 i .6
2697.0259
184.0973
.7
2018.8581 159.2787 i .7 2349.9820
171.8451 .7
2706.2386
184.4115
.8
2026.8299 159.5929
.8 J2358.5821
172.1593 .8
2715.4670
184.7256
.9
2034.8174 159.9071
.9 2367.1979
172.4735 .9
2724.7112
185.0398
51.0
2042.8206 160.2212 55.02375.8294
172.7876 59.0
2733.9710
185.3540
.1
2050.8395; 160.5354 .1 2384.4767
173.10171 .1
2743.2466
185.6681
.2
2058. 8742| 160.8495 .22393.1396
173.4159 .2
2752.5378
185.9823
.3
2066.9245 161.1637 ! .3 2401.8183
173.7301 .3
2761.8448
186.2964
.42074.9905 161.4779 .4 2410.5126
174.04421 .4
2771.1675
186.6106
.512083.0723; 161. 7920 | .5 2419.2227
.6 2091.1697 162.1062 .6 2427. b485
174.3584 .5 i 2780. 5058
174.6726i .612789.2599
186.9248
187,2389
.72099.2829 162.4203 .7 2436.6899
174.9867 ! .7
2799.2297
187.5531
.82107.4118 162.7345 !
.8 2445.4471
175.3009 1 .8
2808.6152
187.8672
.92115.5563
163.0487
.9
2454.2200
175.6150
.9
2818.0165
188.1814
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 79
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference.
|
Area.
Circum-
ference.
j
Area.
Circum-
ference.
60.0
2827.4334
188.4956
64.0
3216.9909
201.0620
68.0
3631.6811
213.6283
.1
2836.8660
188.809711 .1
3227.0518
201. 3767 jl .1
3642.3704
213.9425
.2
2846.3844
189. 1239^ .2
3237.1285
201.6902 .2
3653.0754
214.2566
.3
2855.7784
189.4380! .3
3247.2222
202.00441 .3
3663.7960
214.5708
.4
2865.2582
189.7522! .4
3257.3289
202.3186! .4
3674.5324
214.8849
.5
2874.7536
190. 0664 i .5
3267.4527
202.6327! .5
3685.2845 215.1991
.6
2884.2648
190. 3805 j .6
3277.5922
202. 9469 J .6
3696.0523, 215.5133
.7
2893.7917
190.6947 ! .7
3287.7474
203.2610 1 .7
3706.8359 215.8274
.8
2903.3343
191.0088 ! .8
3297.9183
203.5752 .8
3717.63511 216.1416
.9
2912.8926
191.3230 .9
3308.1049
203.8894 .9
3728.4500
216.4556
61.02922.4666
191.6372 1 65.013318.3072
204.3025'^ 69.0
3739.2807
216.7699
.1
2932.0563
191.9513 .1
3328.5223
204.5176 ! .1
3750.1270
217.0841
.2
2941.6617
192.2655 .2
3338.7590
204.8318 .2
3760.9891
217.3982
.3
2951.2828
192.5796 .3
3349.0085
205.14601 .3
3771.8668
217.7124
.4
2960.9197
192.8938 ! .4
3359.2736
205.4602 .4
3782.7603
218.0265
.5
2970.5722
193.70291! .5
3369.5545
205.77431 .5
3793.6695
218.3407
.6
2980.2405
193.5221 .6
3379.8510
206.08851 .6
3804.5944
218.6548
.7
2989.9244
193.8363 .7
3290.1633
206.4026 .7
3815.5350| 218.9690
.8
2999.6241
194.1504 | .8
3400.4913
206.7168 .8
3826.4913! 219.2832
.9 ; 3009.3395
194.4646
.9
3410.8350
207. 0310 i .9
3837.4633
219.5973
62.0
3019.0705
194.7787
66.0
3421.1944
207.3451 70.0
3848.4510
219.9115
.1
3028.8173
195.0929
.1
3431.5695
207.6593! .1
3859.4544
220.2256
.2
3038.5798
195.4071 1 .2
3441.9603
207.9734 .2
3870.4736 220.5398
.3
3048.3580
195.7212 .3
3452.3669
208.2876 .3
3881.5084; 220.8540
.4
3058.1520
196.0354 .4
3462.7891
208.6017 .4
3892.5590 221.1681
.5
3067.9616
196.3495 .5
3473.2270
208.9159 .5
3903.6252i 221.4823
.6
3077.7869
196.6637 .6
3483.6807
209.2301 .6
3914.7072 221.7964
.7
3087.6279
196.9779 .7
3494.1500
209.5442 1 .7
3925.8049: 222.1106
.83097.4847
.9,3107.3571
197.2920
197.6062
.8
.9
3504.6351
3515.1359
209.8584
210.1725
.8
.9
3936.9182
,3948.0473
222.4248
222.7389
63.o'3117.2453
197.9203
67.0
3525.6524
210.4867
71.0 '3959. 1921
223.0531
.1
3127.1492
198.2345 1 .1
3536.1845
210.8009 i .1
3970.3526 223.3672
.2
3137.0688
198.5847 .2
3546.7324
211.1150 .2
3981.5289 223.6814
.3
3147.0040
198.8628 .3
3557.2960
211.4292 .3
3992.7208 223.9956
.4
3156.9550
199.1770 .4
3567.8754
211.7433 .4
4003.9284 224.3097
.5
3166.9217
199.4911 .5
3578.4704
212.0575 .5
4015.1518 224.6239
.6
3176.9043
199.8053 j .6
3589.0811
212. 3717 i .6
4026.3908 224.9380
.7
3186.9023
200.1195 .7
3599.7075
212.6858 .7
4037.6456: 225.2522
.8
3196.9161
200. 4336 : .8
3610.3497
213.0000 .8
4048.9160 225.5664
.93206.9456 200.747811 .9
i \ \\
3621.0075
213.3141 .9
4060.2022
225.8805
80 CREOSOTED TIMBER
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
i
Area.
Circum-
ference.
5
Area.
Circum-
ference.
K
s
Area.
Circum-
ference.
72.0
4071.5041
226.1947
76.0
4536.4598
238.7610
80.0
5026.5482
251.3274
.1
4082.8217
226.5088 1 .1
4548.4051
239.0752 .1
5039.1229
251.6416
.2
4094.1550
226.8230 .2
4560.3673
239.3894 .2
5051.7124
251.9557
.3
4105.5040
227.1371 .3
4572.3446
239.7035! .3
5064.3180
252.2699
.4
4116.8687
227.4513 .4
4584.3377
240.0177 .4
5076.9394
252.5840
5
4128.2491
227.7655 .5
4596.3464
240.3318 .5
5089.5764
252.8982
!e
4139.6452
228.0796 .6
4608.3708
240.6460i! .6
5102.2292
253.2124
.7
4151.0571
228.3938 1 .7
4620.4110
240.9602 .7
5114.8977
253.5265
.8
4162.4846
228.7079 .8
4632.4669
241.2743 .8
5127.5819
253.8407
.9
4173.9279
229.0221 .9
4644.5384
241.5885 .9
5140.2818
254.1548
73.0
4185.3868
229.3363 77.0
4656.6257
241.9026
81.0
5152.9973
254.4690
.1
4196.8615
229.6504] .1
4668.7287
242.2168 ;
.1
5165.7287
254.7832
.24208.3519
229.9646 .2
4680.8474
242.5310
.2
5178.4757
255.0973
.34219.8579
230.2787 .3
4692.9818
242.8451
3
5191.2384
255.4115
.4
4231.3797
230.5929 .4
4705.1319
243.1592 :
.4
5204.0168
255.7256
.5
4242.9172
230.9071 .5
4717.2977
243.4734
.5
5216.8110
256.0398
.6
4254.4704
231.2212 .6
4729.4792
243.7876
.6
5229.6208
256.3540
.7
4266.0394
231.5354 .7
4741.6765
244.1017
.7
5242.4463
256.6681
.8
4277.6240
231.8495 .8
4753.8894
244.4159 !
8
5255.2876
256.9823
.9
4289.2243
232.1637
.9
4767.1181
244.7301
.9 5268.1446
257.2966
74.0
4300.8403
232.4779
78.0
4778.3624
245.0442
82.0
5281.0173
257.6106
.1
4312.4721
232.7920
.1
4790.6225
245.3580 |
.1
5293.9056
257.9247
.24324.1195
233.1062 .2
4802.8983
245.6725
.2
5306.8097
258.2389
.314335.7827
233.4203 .3
4815.1897
245.9867
.3
5319.7295
258.5531
.44347.4616
233.7345 .4
4827.4969
246.3009
.4
5332.6650
258.8672
.54359.1562
234.0487 .5
4839.8198
246.6150
.5
5345.6162
259.1814
.64370.8664
234. 3628 j! .6
4852.1584
246.9292
5358.5832
259.4956
.74382.5924
234.6770
.7
.4864.5128
247.?433
7
5371.5658
259.8097
.814394.3341
234.9911
.8
14876.8828
247.5575
.8
5384.5641
; 260.1239
.94406.0916
235.3053 1 .9
4889.26851 247.8717
.9
5397.5782
260.4380
75.04417.8647
235.6194 79.0
4901.6699
248.1858
83.0
5410.607S
260.7522
.114429.6535
235.9336 .1
J4914.0871
248.50001 .1
5423.6534
1 261.0663
.2 : 4441.458C
236.2478 .2
4926.5199
248.8141 ' .2
5436.7146
261.3805
.3:4453.2783
236.5619 .3
4938.9685
249.1283 .3
5449.7915
261.6947
.44465.1142
236.8761 .4
i4951.432S
249.4425
.4
5462. 884C
262.0088
.54476.965S
237.1902 .5
! 4963. 9127
249.7566
.5
5475. 992S
262.3230
.61 4488. 8332
237.5044 .6
,4976.4084
250.0708
.6
5489.116C
262.6371
.714600.7162
237.8186 .7
4988.9198
250.3850
.7
,5502.2561
262.9513
.8:4512.6151 238.1327
.94524.52961 238.4469
.8 5001.4469 250.6991 .8
.915013.9897 251. 0133 || .9
5515.4115 263.2655
5528.5826 263.5796
1
1
II
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 81
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
1
Area.
Circum-
ference,
fc
Area.
Circum-
ference.
Jj
Area.
Circum-
ference.
84.0
5541.7694
263.8938
88.0
6082.1234
276.4602
92.0
6647.6101
289.0265
.1
5554.9720
264.2079 .1 :6095.9542 276.7743 : 1 .1 6662.0692 289.3407
.2
5568.1902
264.5221
.2 6109. 8008 1 277.0885;! .2 6676.5441! 289.6548
.35581.4242
.45594.6739
264.8363
265.1514
A
6123.6631 277.4026 .3 6691.0347j 289.9690
6137.5411 277.7168 .4 6705.54101 290.2832
.5
5607.9392
265.4646
.5
6151.4348 278.0309
.5 6720.0630 290.5973
.6
5621.2203
265.7787
.6
6165.3442 278.3451] I .6 |6734.6008i 290.9115
.7
5634.5171
266.0929
.7
6179.2693 278.6593
.7
6749.1542
291.2256
.8
5647 8296
266.4071
.8 6193.2101 278.9740
.8
6763.7233
291.5398
.9,5661.1578
266.7212
.9 6207.1666 279.2876
.9
6778.3282
291.8540
85.05674.5017
267.0374
89.0
6221.1389 279.6017
93.0
6792.9087
292.1681
.1
5687.8614
267.3495 .16235.1268279.9159
.1
6807.5250
292.4823
.2
5701.2367
267.6637 .2 6249.1304 280.2301
.2 6822.1569
292.7964
.3
5714.6277
267.9779 .36263.1498280.5442 .36836.8046
293.1106
.4
5728.0345
268.2920: .4 6277.18491 280. 8584 j| ! 4 6851 ! 4680
293.4248
.5
5741.4569
268.6062: .5 6291.2356' 281.1725 '! .6 6866.1471
293.7389
.65754.8951
.7J5768.3490
268.9203
269.2345 1
.6 ;6305.3021 281.4867 ! i .6 6880.8419 294.0531
.7 16319.38431 281.8009 i i .7 6895.55241 294.3672
.8
5781.8185
269.5486
.8 J6333.4822 282.1150 .8 6910.2786! 294.6814
.9
5795.3038
269.8628
.9
6347.5958
282.4292
.9 6925.0205 294.9956
86.0
.1
5808.8048
5822.3215
270.1770
270.4911
90.0
.1
6361.7251
6375.8701
282.7433
283.0575
94.0 6939.7782 295.3097
.1 16954. 5515; 295.6239
.25835.8539
.36849.4020
270.8053
271.1194
.2 6390.0309 283.3717
.3 6404.2073 1 283.6858
.2 6969.3106J 295.9380
.3 6984.14531 296.2522
.4
5862.9659
271.4336
.4 6418.3995 284.0000
.4 6998.9658
296.5663
.5
5876.5454
271.7478
.516432.6073 284.3141
.5
7013.8019
296.8805
.6
5890.1407
272.0619
.616446.8309 284.6283
.6
7028.6538
297.1947
.7
5903.7516
272.3761
.7 6461.0701; 284.9425
.7
7043.5214
297.5088
.8
5917.3783
272.6902
.8 6475.3251
285.2566
.8
7058.4047
297.8230
.9
5931.0206
273.0044
.9 6489.5958
285.5708
.9
7073.3033
298.1371
87.05944.6787! 273.3186
. 15958. 3525 1 273.6327
91.0
.1
6503.8822
6518.1843
285.8849
286.1991
95.0
.1
7088.2184
7103.1488
298.4513
298.7655
.2
5972.0420
273.9469 .2 6532.5021 286.5133
.2
7118.1950 299.0796
.3
5985.7472
274.2610 .316546.8356 286.8274
.3
7133.0568 299.3938
.4
5999.4681
274 . 5752 I .4 6561 . 1848 287 . 1416
.4 7148.0343: 299.7079
.5
6013.2047
274.8894 .5 :6575.5498: 287.4557
.5 7163.0276 300.0221
.66026.9570
.76040.7250
275 . 2035 1 .6 6589 . 9304 287 . 7699
275.5177 .7 ;6604.3268 288.0840
.6 17178.0366 300.3363
.7 7193.0612 300.6504
.86054.5088
.96068.3082
275.8318 .8
276.1460 .9
II
6618.7388
6633.1666
288.3982
288.7124
.8 7208.1016 300.9646
.9 7223.1577 301.2787
82 CREOSOTED TIMBER
AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
CIRCLES.
V.'
Area.
Circum-
ference.
v!
5
Area.
Circum-
ference.
k
Area.
Circum-
ference.
96.0
7238.2295
\ 1 I
301.5929 : 97. 017389. 8113 304.73451 98.0,7542.9640 307.8761
.1
7253.3170
301 . 9071 1 .1 7405 . 0559 305 . 0486 ' . 1 7558 . 3656 308 . 1902
.2
7268.4202
302 .2212 i .2 1 7420 . 3162 305 . 3628 . 2 7573 . 7830 308 . 5044
.3
7283.5391
302 . 5354 i . 3 7435 . 5922 305 . 6770 ! . 3 1 7589 . 2161 308 . 81 86
.4
7298.6737
302.8405 , .47450.8839 305.9911 .4 7604.6648 309.1327
.57313.8240
303.1637 .57466.1913 306.3053
.5 7620.1293 309.4469
.67328.9901
303 . 4779 ! ! . 6 7481 . 51 44 306 . 6194
.6 7635.6095 309.7610
.717344.1718
303.7920; .77496.8532 306.9336
.77651.1054 310.0752
.87359.3693
304 . 1062 .8 7512 . 2078 307 . 2478
.8 7666.6170 310.3894
.97374.5824
304. 4203 ! ! .97527.5780 307.5619
: .9 7682.1444 310.7035
99.07697.6893
311.01771:100.0
7853.9816 314.1593
.17713.2461
311.3318:!
.2*7728.8206
311.6460 i
.37744.4107
311.9602 ! i
.417760.0166, 312.2743 ,j
.57775.6382' 312.5885 !
!6 7791. 2754
312.9026
.717806.9284
313.2168 j
.8J7822.5971
313.5309
.9
7838.2815
313.8451
LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARCS.
Deg.
In Terms of Radius.
Min.
In Terms of Radius.
Sec.
In Terms of Radius.
1
0.01745 32925 19943
1
0.00029 08882 08666
1
0.00000 48481 36811
2
.03490 65850 398871 2
.00058 17764 17331
2
.00000 96962 73622
3
.05235 98775 59830
3
.00087 26646 25997
3
.00001 45444 10433
4
.06981 31700 79773 4
.00116 35528 34663 i 4
.00001 93925 47244
5
.08726 64625 99716j 5
.00145 44410 43329: 5
.00002 42406 84055
6
.10471 97551 19660' 6
.00174 53292 519941 6
.00002 90888 20867
7
.12217 30476 39603
7
.00203 62174 60660, 7
.00003 39369 57678
8
9
.13962 63401 59546 8
.157079632679490 9
.00232 71056 69326
.00261 79938 77991
8
9
.00003 87850 94489
.00004 36332 31300
To ascertain the area or circumference of any circle whose diameter is
a whole number and greater than 100 and less than 1000. Find in the table
e gven ameer, ve y ; e area corresponng mupe y ,
and the circumference corresponding multiplied by 10 will be the area and
circumference, respectively, sought for. E. g., wanted the area and circum-
ference of a circle whose diameter is 432. Find in the table the area and
circumference of a circle whose diameter is 43.2, to be respectively 1465.7415
and 135.7168; the area and circumference of the given circle are 146,574.45
and 1357.168, respectively.
ITS PREPARATION -AND USES
83
FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH STRAIGHT
PIPES.
Initial Gauge
Pressure in
Pounds per
Square Inch.
Diameters of Pipes in Inches.
\ 1
i*
2
2^
3
4
5
6
8
Pounds of Steam Carried per Minute with one Pound Loss
of Pressure per 2W Diameter Length of Pipe.
1.
1.162.07
5.70
10.27
15.4525.38 46.85
77.30
115.90
211.4C
10. 1.442.57 7.1012.7219.1531.45 58.05 95.80143.60262.00
20. 1.703.02 8.3014.9422.4936.94 68.20112.60168.70307.80
30. 1.913.40 9.4016.8425.3541.63 76.84126.90190.10346.80
40. 2.103.7410.3018.5127.8745.77 84.49139.50209.00381.30
50. 12.27 4.04 11.20 20.01 30.13 49.48 91.34 150.80 226.00 412.20
60. 2.434.3211.9021.3832.1952.87 97.60161.10241.50440.50
70. |2.57 4.58 12.60 22.65 34.10 56.00 103.37 170.70 255.80 466.50
80. 2.71 4.82 13.30 23.82 35.87 58.91 108.74 179.50 269.00 490.70
90. 2.83 5.04 13.90 24.92 37.52 61.62 113.74 187.80 281.40 513.30
100. i2.95 5.25 14.50 25.96 39.07 64.18 118.47 195.60 293.10 534.60
120. 13.16 5.63 15.50 27.85 41.93 68.87 127.12 209.90 314.50 573.70
150. 3.45;6.14 17.00 30.37,45.72 75.09 138.61 228.80 343.00,625.50
Diameter of
Pipe in Inches.
*
I
*
2
*
3
4
5
6
8
Length of Pipe
in Diameters
of Equivalent 20
25
34
41
47
52
60
66
71
79
Resistance of
IGlobeValve.
Ascertain the horse-power of any size pipe appearing in
the above table, by doubling the pounds of steam carried by
the pipe per minute.
Ascertain the amount of any other loss of pressure by
multiplying the tabular figures, for the size pipe in question,
by the square root of the tabular loss, for the size pipe in
question.
Ascertain the flow, with one pound loss of pressure, for
any length of pipe by dividing 240 by the given length, in
terms of the diameter, and multiplying the square root of
this quotient by the tabular figures.
84
CREOSOTED TIMBER
CHIMNEYS.
s.
Height of Chimney in Feet.
8 .
el
CL?
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
125
150
175
200
^
H
^2
-S^
S
' s
n
S?
Commercial Horse-power.
ir
^
^
18
23
25
27
0.97
1.77
21
35
38
41
1.47
2.41
24
49
54
58
62
2.08 i 3.14
27
65
72 78 83
2.78
3.98
30
84
92 100 107 113
3.58
4.91
33
115 125 133 141|
4.47
5.94
36
141 152 163 173 182
5.47
7.47
39
183 183! 196 208 219
6.57 8.30
42
216; 231 245 258 271
7.76 9.62
48
311 330 348 365 389
10.44 12.57
54
363 427 449 472 503 551 113.51 15.90
60
505 539 565 593 632 692 748 16.98 19.64
66
658 694 728 776 849 918 98120.83 23.76
72
792 835 876 93410231105118125.08 28.27
78
: 9951038110712121310140029.73 '33.18
84
,1163 1214 1294 1418 1531 1637 34.76 38.48
90
1344 1415 1496 1639 1770 1893 40.19 44.18
96
1537
1616
1720
1876
2027
2167
46.01 50.27
i
lA
H =3.33 J i/ /i.
==
H, Horse-power ; h, height of chimney, in feet ; E, effec-
tive area, and A, actual area in square feet; D, diameter of
circular chimney, in inches. The above table and formula
are based on the assumption that an average consumption
of five pounds of the coal used per hour will generate one
horse-power.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
85
MEASURES.
OF LENGTH.
Inches.
Feet.
Yards.
Rods.
Miles.
63360
198
36
12
1
5280:
16.5
3.
1.
1760.
5.5
1.
320
1
1
Sq. Inches.
Sq. Feet.
Sq. Yards.
Sq. Hods.
Acres.
it
1
6272640
39204
1296
144
27878400.
43560.
272.25
9.
1.
3097600.
4840.
30.25
1.
102400
160
1
640
1
Pints, i
Quarts.
Gallons.
Pecks.
Bushels.
Cubic Inches.
64
16
8
2
1
33
8
4
1
8
2
1
4
1
1
2150.
537.6
268.8
67.2
33.6
LIQUID.
Gills.
Pints.
Qar&.
Gallons.
Cubic Inches.
32
8
4
1
8
2
1
4
1
1
231.
57.750
28.875
7.218
Inches.
.Fee/.
Yards.
Owtfc.
Perches.
46656
1728
27
1
1
128Cu.Ft.
25 Cu. Ft.
86
CREOSOTED TIMBER
MEASURES.
COMMERCIAL WEIGHT.
Ounces.
Pounds.
Owls.
Tons.
35840.
2240.
20.
1.
1792.
112.
1.
16.
1.
SPECIAL UNITS.
One palm, 3 inches.
One hand, 4 inches.
One span, 9 inches.
One fathom, 6 feet.
One cable length, 720 feet, 120 fathoms.
One shot, 90 feet.
One knot, nautical mile, 6086.07 feet.
One league, 3 knots.
One section, 640 acres.
One square acre, 208.71 feet by 208.71 feet.
One circular acre, 235.504 feet diameter.
British Imperial Dry Measures are JQ^ U. S. measures of
the same name.
A heaped bushel is 1J- times a struck bushel.
One British Imperial gallon, 277.274 cubic inches.
BOSTON, November 8, 1899.
E. A. BUEI/L, ESQ., President, NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY,
17 Granby Street, Norfolk, Va.
Dear Sir: I am glad to say that in filling my orders for large amounts
of creosoted material during the last three years, I have found your hand-
ling of the business very satisfactory. My inspector's reports and the ap-
pearance of the material agree in representing the treatment as thoroughly
and honestly done.
I have great confidence in the endurance of the timber and shall be
glad to offer you further business whenever I have orders to place.
Yours truly,
F. P. MclNTYRE, Purchasing Agent,
Mexican Central Railway Company, Limited.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES
87
FRENCH AND ENGLISH "WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.
Grains per Gramme 15.432 55
Pounds avoirdupois per
Kilo 2.20462
Tons per tonne 984206
Feet per metre 3.2808693
Inches per millimetre... .03937043
Miles per kilo 621377
Square feet per square
metre 107641
Square inch per square
millimetre 00155003
Cubic feet per cubic me-
tre 35.3156
Foot-pounds per kilo-
gramme 7.23308
Pounds per foot per kilo-
gram metre 671963
Pounds per square foot
per kilogramme per
square metre 204813
Pounds per square inch
per kilogramme per
square metre 14.2231
Pounds per cubic foot
per kilogrammes per
cubic metre 0062426
Gramme per grain 0.064799
Kilos per pound avoirdu-
pois 453593
Tonnes per ton 1.01605
Metres per foot 304797
Millimetre per inch 25.39977
Kilos per mile 1.60933
Square metres per square
foot.. 092901
Square millimetres per
square inch 645.148
Cubic metre per cubic
foot 028316
Kilogram metre per foot
per pound 138254
Kilogrammes per metre
per'pounds per foot 1.48818
Kilogrammes per square
metre per pound per
square foot 4.88252
Kilogrammes per square
millimetre per pounds
per square inch 00073
Kilogrammes per cubic
metre per pounds per
cubic foot 16.19
PHYSICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS.
MASS. Mass is the measure of quantity in a body as in-
dicated' l>y the amount offeree requisite for a given amount
of motion in a given time ; i. e., the mass of any body is the
measure of its inertia.
WEIGHT. Weight is the measure of the force with which
any body is impelled toward the centre of the earth.
DYNE. The C. G. S. Dyne is the measure of a force which,
applied to a mass of one gram for one second of time,
imparts to it a velocity of one centimeter per second.
ERG. The C. G. S. Erg is the unit of work, and in con-
sequence of energy also. It is the measure of the work
88 CREOSOTED TIMBER
done, or of the energy consumed, in exerting a force of one
dyne.
AMPERE. The Ampere is the unit of electrical current
strength, and is the current strength produced by an
electromotive force of one volt against a resistance of one
Ohm.
OHM. The Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance, and is
the resistance offered to the passage of an unvarying elec-
trical current, at the temperature of melting ice, by a column
of mercury, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross-
sectional area and 1.063 centimeters long.
VOLT. The Volt is the measure of electromotive force,
which, applied steadily to a conductor whose resistance is
one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere.
COULOMB. The Coulomb is the unit of quantity, and is
the measure of the amount of current conveyed by one
ampere in one second of time.
JOULE. The Joule is a unit of electrical energy, and is the
measure of the work done in maintaining a current of one
ampere against a resistance of one ohm for one second of
time.
FARAD. The Farad is the unit of capacity of a condenser
charged to a potential of one volt with one coulomb.
HENRY. The Henry is the unit of electrical self-induction,
and is the measure of the self-induction of a current in
which the variation of the current, of one ampere per
second, induces an electromotive force of one volt.
WATT. The Watt is the unit of rate of work, the electro-
motive force being one volt and the current strength one
ampere.
WEBER. The Weber, C. G. S., is the unit of flux, other-
wise called the line of flux.
GILBERT. The Gilbert C. G. S. unit of magnetomotive
force. It is produced by 0.7958 ampere-turns.
OERSTED. The C. G. S. Oersted is the unit of magnetic
reluctance.
GAUSS. The C. G. S. Gauss is the unit of flux-density, i.e.,
one weber per normal square centimeter.
ITS PREPARATION AND USES 89
AMORTIZATION TABLES.
The following tables, I and II, are based on the well-known
Fernow Formulae for determining the equivalent annual
charge due to an initial expenditure made now and recur-
ring each term of n years, and for determining the equiva-
lent annual charge due to an initial expenditure not now
occurring but first becoming necessary at the end of n years,
and then recurring at the end of each term of n years.
For Table I :
TO 1.0p n X O.Off
r ^J.Op" 1
For Table II :
_
1.0p n 1
r = Equivalent annual charge.
R = Initial expenditure.
p - Rate of interest.
n = Term of years.
r, the equivalent annual charge, is found from the table, by
multiplying the actual expenditure, in cents, by the amount
found under the required period of years and for the desired
interest rate.
WILMINGTON, DEL., November 15, 1899.
THE NORFOLK CREOSOTING Co., Norfolk, Va.
Gentlemen : We desire to express to you our satisfaction with the
manner in which yen have always handled our business. The ties, timber
and piling that you have creosoted for us have given the best of results.
We firmly believe that no better treatment, or more effective treatment,
can be given than yours, under the capable supervision of Mr. Christian.
Very truly yours,
BUSH & RAYNER,
W holesale Lumber Dealers.
90
S
CREOSOTED
EXPENDITURE OF ONE CENT. h3
&
FBI
:R
ro
3 1
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CD O O O
s
d d d d o
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CD C-- CO CD
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s
d d d d d
S
d d d d d
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S S
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o o o o o
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d d d d d
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00000
.
8 c 3 cl 5
S
d d d d o
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00000
II. ANNUAL CHARGES DUE TO A RENEWAL
i
CO
3 S S S
s
8
o o o o o
00000
^- O CD CO CO
S CM CM co in
o>
fe CD 8 C S
00000
o d d d o
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co in 1-1 c- c~-
Ti- LO CD CD CO
CO
s i
T-l t-l TH O CD
d d d d d
c.
S S S 1
s s 3 a s
d d d d d
CD
a s i
CD
in
o c- co o en
in ^t- 'i- * CM
_d_e_g__P_o_
CO CO C C- CD
in
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CM CM 05 CM <M
i 1 1 ! 1
o o o o o
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o d d d d
Interest
Rate.
li
*t- in CD t- CD
*. t. "ts. ts. >
^- in CD c-- o
INDEX.
CREOSOTED WORK. PAGE
Aerial Conductors 45
Conductors 45
Conduits 46
Contractors' Specifications 15
Creosote, Scientific Standing of. 15
Cross Arms 45
Cross Ties 47
Culverts 47
Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19
Pavement 49
Piling 43
Poles Railway, Telegraph, Telephone 44
Railway Work 44
Sewers 48
Specifications for Contractors 51
Telegraph Work 44
Telephone Work 44
Underground Work 46, 47, 48
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
Creosote's Scientific Standing 15
Norfolk Creosoting Company's Methods 33
Preface 5
Teredo, The Destructive 7
TABLES, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS.
Amortization 89, 90
Beam Formulae 63
Beams, Wooden, Ultimate Loads for 73
Chains, Iron 70
Chimneys 87
Circles, Areas and Circumferences of 74-82
Circular Areas 82
Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19
Gauges, Wire 72
Iron Chains 70
Iron Pipe 67-73
Manila Rope 70
Measures, Length, Commercial Weight 85, 86
Nails and Spikes 68
92 INDEX
TABLES, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. CONTINUED. PAGE
Pillars, Wooden 54
Plate Washers 69
Railway Trestle 59
Rope, Manila 70
Rope, Steel Wire 71
Saturated Steam, Properties of. 66
Screws 69
Sheet Metals 68
Steam, Properties of Saturated 83
Steam, Flow Through Straight Pipes 66
Steel Wire Rope 71
Structural Works, Properties of. 60
Timber, Round, B. M. Volume 58
Timber, Sections, Moments of Inertia 61
Trestle, Wooden, Railway, Approximate Amount of. 59
Units, Physical and Electrical 87
Weights and Measures, French and English 87
Yellow Pine, Specifications, etc 55
Barrett Manufacturing
Company
Land Title Building
Philadelphia, Pa.
Largest Distillers in the world
of COAL TAR and its
BY-PRODUCTS
(Roofing Pitch, Paving Composition,
Asphaltum Cement, Varnish, etc.)
Also Manufacturers of " Black
Diamond" Prepared Roofing
Roofers' & Slaters Felts
Insulating Fibres
Building Papers, Etc.
Correspondence respectfully invited
All our goods bear this trade-mark
Rcivport
Shipbuilding ana
Drp Dock Co,
WORKS AT NEWPORT NEWS, VA.
(ON HAMPTON ROADS)
Equipped with a Basin Dry
Dock capable of docking a
vessel 600 feet long, draw-
ing 25 feet of water, at any
stage of the tide. Repairs
made promptly and at rea-
sonable rates.
^engine Builders
FOR ESTIMATES AND FURTHER
PARTICULARS, ADDRESS
C. B. ORCUTT, President
No. i Broadway, New York
(ii)
W. W. CUMMER, President
J. CUMMER, Vice-President
E. C. FOSBURGH, Sec'y. aiid Manager
H. J. HOI^ISTER, Treasurer
THE CUMMER CO.
NORFOLK, VA.
MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF
ROUGH and DRESSED
KILN-DRIED
INorbr) yarolirja
Pi
ANNUAL CAPACITY, 60,000,000 FEET
(iv)
GARBETT-BDCHANAN COMPANY
3, 5 and 12 DECATUR ST.
Philadelphia
MANUFACTURERS OF
Roofing and Building
...Papers...
Goal Tar Products
SOLE MAKERS OF THE CELEBRATED
11 CANVAS BACK RED ROPE ROOFING"
The Cheapest and Most Durable Prepared
Roofing 011 the Market
(v)
ORGANIZED J867
The Citizens Bank
OF NORFOLK, YA.
CAPITAL (PAID IN), $300,000,00
SURPLUS AND PROFITS, $200,000.00
H. PETERS, President
J. W* PERRY, Vice-President
WALTER H. DOYLE, Cashier
INTEREST PAID ON TIME DEPOSITS BY SPECIAL
CONTRACT
Bills of Exchange issued on all the Principal
Cities of Europe. Charter authorizes Trust and
Fiduciary Accounts, and to act as Executor, Ad-
ministrator, Guardian, Assignee, Receiver, Trustee
and Agent.
Lock Boxes for rent in the best appointed
Deposit Vaults south of Philadelphia.
...DIRECTORS...
"WM. H. PETERS, McD. L. WRENN,
J. W. PERRY, JOHN N. WILLIAMS,
GEO. C. REID, GEO. A. SCHMEI.Z,
W. CHAS. HARDY, RICHARD H. BAKER,
G. M. SERPEU,, THOS. R. BORLAND,
WALTER H. DOYLE.
(vi)
Uhe Uunis
^Cumber Company
BALTIMORE, MD.
NORFOLK, VA.
MANUFACTURERS OF
Large Modern Saw Mills and Planing Mills at
Norfolk, Virginia
Planing Mills at Baltimore, Maryland
North Carolina Pine, Cypress
and Poplar
FOR FOREIGN SHIPMENT
WE ARE IN THE MARKET FOR
Mahogany and Cedar Logs
(vii)
J. B. SANFORD, President
W. B. BROOKS, JR., Vice- President
J. F. SINTON, Secretary and Treasurer
\V . H. TAYLOR, Manager
W. H. DORSRY, Engineer
Sar)ford o Broolc^
Lorrmarw
ii), Dock, Bridge ai)d Railroad
No. 21 Soubb Gay Sb.
Baltimore, Md.
BRANCH OFFICE, BAIvLBNTINE BLDG.
NORFOLK, VA.
(viii)
less Goal
The Standard Fuel of the United States Navy
The only Fuel that has been
Officially Endorsed by the Governments of
Great Britain and the United States
It is SMOKELESS, and contains more heat units to
the pound of coal and will evaporate more water, hold the
fire longer, and keep up steam better than any other coal.
It makes few clinkers and burns to a fine light ash.
It is easy for the engineers and firemen and economical
for the purchaser.
Castner, Curran & Bullitt
Sole Agents
328 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.
70 Kilby Street, Boston, Mass,
i Broadway, New York.
Citizens Bank Building, Norfolk, Va.
Neave Building, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Terry Building, Roanoke, Va.
Old Colony Building, Chicago, 111.
4 Fenchurch Avenue, London, England.
(ix)
Magnesia Carbonate
Very light and bulky, in fine powder
for manufacturing purposes
pure Quality
Made at the new factory of the
Hmerican
JMagncsia
Company
Plymouth JMeeting, pa.
For Insulating, Boiler and Steam Pipe Covering, Printing
Ink Making, for Lithographers' Use, Paint and Glass Manu-
facturers. Also for Plastic Making in Fireproof Buildings
FOR PARTICULARS APPLY TO
Office - i oo OliUiani Street
W. Edwin Peregoy, President E. A. Robertson, Secretary
W. W. Robertson, Treasurer and Manager
'PHONES
So. STATES, 447
So. BELL, 1013
Pocahontas Lumber Co.
.WHOLESALE
LUMBER, LATHS
SHINGLES AND PILING
Citizens Bank Building
Norfolk, Va.
(xi)
NICHOLS BROS.
74 Cortlandt Street 49 Commercial Place
NEW YORK NORFOLK, VA.
LOGGERS, SHIPPERS
AND EXPORTERS OF
PINE, OAK AND SPRUCE
PILES
DOCK AND BRIDGE TIMBER
(nil)
City National- Bank
Norfolk, Va.
United States Depositary
City Depositary and
United States Court Depositary
Capital Stock $200,000
Surplus Profits ?0,000
A. E. KRISE, Pres.
C. A. NASH, Vice-Pres. B. W. LEIGH, Cashier.
DIRECTORS
BARTON MEYERS, JOHN L. ROPER,
British Consul. President of John L. Roper
Lumber Co.
R. A. DODSON, W. T. SIMCOE,
New Atlantic Hotel. Of Russell & Simcoe, Dry
Goods.
C. W. FENTRESS, W. H. MINOR,
Of C. W. Fentress & Co., Capitalist.
Wholesale Butter and Cheese.
FLOYD HUGHES, JOHN SHERIDAN,
Of Whitehurst & Hughes, Of Black, Sheridan & Wilson,
Attorneys. Baltimore.
S. L. FOSTER, D. F. DONAVAN,
Of S. L. Foster & Son, Roof- Capitalist,
ing and S'dewalks.
We solicit your business and correspondence
Buy and sell foreign exchange
(xiii)
SUPPOSE
&U PPOSE your house is on fire, what is the easiest way
to summon the Fire Department?
SUPPOSE a member of your household is suddenly and
dangerously ill, immediate attendance of a
physician means life or death, how most
quickly obtain that attendance?
SUPPOSE any one of the many emergencies when
police aid is desirable or vitally necessary,
how may these guardians of life and property
be instantly notified ?
SUPPOSE unexpected guests arrive, the larder is low
# and the dinner hour near, how connect with
the butcher, the baker and the confectioner
and hurriedly gather the supplies that shall
make the dinner a credit to the housekeeper ?
SUPPOSE you wish to gather a group of guests for an
evening to do honor to an occasion or a
friend, how most conveniently communi-
cate with them and receive their acceptances
or regrets ?
SUPPOSE you are interested in the Stock Market or
commercial matter of any sort, but desire
to stop at your country house for a few
days, how keep in constant touch with Wall
Street and the market centres?
SUPPOSE you want seats for the play, a box for the
opera, a carriage for a drive, to engage
places at a restaurant, how in incredibly
short time arrange it all ?
SUPPOSE you are obliged to travel, leaving a member
of your family ill at home, how can you
receive news at any station from Boston to
Omaha from Montreal to Key West?
SUPPOSE you are worried and flurried and bored by
the petty details of living the marketing,
the shopping and the annoyance of the
hustling streets, how sit in your office or
library and press a button which shall do it
all for you?
SUPPOSE you would know the answer to these ques-
tions. Here it is : The greatest Luxury,
Convenience and Necessity of the century ;
TELEPHONE SERVICE
THE NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY TELEPHONE COMPANY
81 Willoughby St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Ryland & Brooks 2. s. GAY ST.
Lumber Co*
Baltimore, Md.
U. S. A.
North Carolina Pine ffl
Special attention given to EXPORT orders
Orders taken for all Kinds Bill Stuff
Pitch Pine, Short Leaf Pine, etc.
K. I,. MAYER WM. M. WHAI.EY
MHYER & CO.
Manufacturers, Agents
Importers and Dealers in
Machinery and Supplies
74 COMMERCIAL PLACE
NORFOLK, VA.
Saws, Rafting Gear, Bolts, Nuts, "Washers
Engines and Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, Syphons, Hose
Tools, Shaftings and Pulleys, Iron Pipe, Fittings,
Valves, Cocks, Etc.
Belting, Packing, Waste, Iron and Steel, Nails, Oils, Cordage
(xv)
E.B. WARREN & CO.
Chemical Works*
Paving Cements and Roofing Materials*
27th AND H STREETS, N. W.,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
JAPAN-BLACK VARNISH
Years of continual use have demonstrated its superiority.
25 and 30 cts* per gal., barrel included (f.o.b. Washington, D. C)
Unexcelled for Roofs, Railings, Smokestacks, and all iron work subject to
wear and exposure. Also, Woodwork (wagons, carts, etc.)
and all kinds of Brick\york. Elastic and durable.
Enamel Paint for Hearths.
PAVING AND ROOFING PITCHES;
Different Grades and Superior Quality.
TARRED ROOFING PAPERS
J-piy, 2-ply, 3-ply* Cheapest and Best
LIGHT AND HEAVY OILS OF COAL-TAR
TOMS CREEK COAL
Unsurpassed for STEAM Purposes
Produces a maximum amount of steam, with a minimum
of ash and clinker. Equally good for Railway, Manufac-
turing or Marine uses. Bears transportation well ; reaches
destination in nice lumpy condition, and retains its life and
strength even when exposed to tropical weather.
Try TOMS CREEK COKE for Foundry and Furnace Uses
Shipping Point, Lambert's Point, Norfolk, Va.
For further information, address
TRIGG & WILMER, Agents for
Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Co.
Norfolk, Va., U. S. A.
(xvi)
ESTABLISHED 1861
THOMAS C. BASSHOR & CO.
OFFICE AND STORE
28 Light Street
BOILER WORKS
Paca and Bush Sts., and B. & O. R. R.
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
BUILDERS OF
Boilers, Stacks ** Tanks
STEAM HEATING
High - Pressure Steam Piping
A SPECIALTY
DEALERS IN
Machinists' and Steamboat Supplies
AGENTS FOR
Fischer Self-Oiling Automatic Engines
Atlas Engines for General Use
CYLINDERS BORED IN PLACE
(xvii)
NATIONAL
COAL TAR COMPANY
JOO WILLIAM STREET
NEW YORK CITY
COAL TAR PRODUCTS
CREOSOTE OIL
(Dead Oil of Coal Tar)
ROOFING MATERIALS
PAVING MATERIALS :
BUILDING PAPERS
CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED
WITH RESPONSIBLE PARTIES
The Henry Walke Co,
88 Water Street, Corner Commerce
NORFOLK, VA.
MANUFACTURERS' AGENT AND
DEALER IN
HARDWARE, RAILROAD, STEAMBOAT
ENGINEER and MILL SUPPLIES
SHIP CHANDLERY
PAINTS, OILS, ETC.
A full stock always on hand of all material pertaining to
the Equipment and Running of Plants
41 Giant "and I AnfliAyi
"LGdlllGl
' Giant Planer
-Giant," ^Granite"
"Shawmut"
ALL SIZES TO 18-INCH ALWAYS ON HAND
AGENTS FOR
ivEs' STEAM: PU
MACHINERY REPAIRED
(xix)
A. D. FRENCH
44 BROAD STREET
NEW YORK CITY
U. S. A.
Manufacturer and "Wholesale Dealer in
Long Leaf Yellow Pine
Octagonal Poles
Railroad Ties, Cross Arms
Insulator Pins, Brackets
or any kind of Lumber for Telegraph
or Trolley Work*
Creosoted Wooden Poles
are cheaper and better than iron
ones for tropical work,
Send for Circular
I can save you money when in the market for creosoting.
Inquiries cheerfully answered.
(xx)
LIDGERWOOD
HOISTING ENGINES
are built to gauge on the duplicate part system
QUICK DELIVERY ASSURED
FOR QUALITY
AND DUTY
For PILE DRIVING
BUILDING
MINING
RAILROADS
CONTRACTORS and
GENERAL HOISTING
PURPOSES
I|OVER
16,000
IN USE
STEAM AND ELECTRIC HCISTS
Cableways, Hoisting and Conveying Devices
FOR
Mining, Quarrying, Logging, Dam Construction, Etc.
SEND FOR LATEST CATALOGUE
LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO.
96 Liberty St., NEW YORK
(xxi)
OSCAR F. SMITH, President JAMES CAI^ER, Vice-President
JNO. T. GIBBS, Secretary and Treasurer
River, Harbor and Dock
Improvements
217 WATER STREET
Corner Roanoke Square
NORFOLK, VA.
Bell Telephone 231
Southern States Telephone 35
(xxii)
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
G LIBRARY
MAY 25 1953^
LD 21-95m-ll,'50(2877slG)476
YA 0307G
793312
Engineering
'-...-
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY