1 I CREOSOTED TIMBER ITS PREPARATION AND USES. Norfolk Creosoting Co. NORFOLK, VIRGINIA, U. S. A. E. A. BUELL, President. WARNER MILLER, Vice-President. EDMUND CHRISTIAN, General Manager. LOUIS CHABLE, Secretary. The present annual consumption of timber for industrial purposes in the United States is about 40,000,000,000 feet B. M. There is, at this date, not more than 21,300,000,000,000 feet B. M. oi standing timber, or less than sixty years' supply. This does not account for firewood or for the timber burned in annual forest fires. Of the coniferous growth the stand- ing supply in the Eastern States will not last more than about sixteen years, at the present rate of cut ; and the supply on the Pacific Coast will not lengthen this period more than thirty years. Forest Statistics for the United States, 1898. PREFACE. FREQUENT allusions are made by ancient writers to vari- ous substances employed for the preservation of timber and other vegetable fibre from decay. Tar and pitch were used for the preservation of the statue of Zeus by Phidias which stood in a grove at Olympus. The platform upon which it stood was painted at regular periods with a bitu- minous oil. The statue of Diana at Ephesus was of wood ; even if its origin was miraculous, miracles were not relied upon for its preservation, as Pliny asserts upon the authority of Mucianus that the statue was kept saturated with the Oil of Nard, which was much alike the Dead Oil of Coal Tar of modern commerce. Of all the methods employed by the human race for the preservation of organic substances, there are perhaps none which have been as good as those employed by the ancient Egyptians. The results of their processes have lasted through centuries and have absolutely proved the value of antiseptics for the preservation of animal and vegetable matter. When Pettigrew succeeded in withdrawing by maceration the preservative from the heart of a mummy embalmed three thousand years before, the heart at once began to putrify ; a striking proof of the efficacy of the sub- stances employed for its preservation, and that the im- munity from decay was not due to an absolute chemical transformation. The Naphthalene of Dead Oil is to modern wood preserva- tion what the Oil of Bitumen was to the preservation of animal matter, and it is of these important processes that the Norfolk Creosoting Company speaks through the pages of this book to those whose interests make wooden structures desirable. The processes described represent the best modern practice in America and Europe, as developed and elaborated since Dead Oil of Coal Tar came into use as a timber preservative. 793312 CREOSOTED TIMBER ITS PREPA- RATION AND USES. THE DESTRUCTIVE TEREDO. MANY who are familiar with the name and destructive work of the teredo, or ship- worm, are ignorant of that mollusk's history, of the method of its construction, and of the principles involved in its operations. The following es- say, compiled from various sources, on this bivalve covers the ground in a manner that will, perhaps, prove satisfactory alike to scientific and unscientific inquirers. The teredo may have been hatched from one of a million eggs from the same parent. In the earliest period of its active life it is a free swimmer ; its body is at that time al- most if not entirely contained within a bivalve shell ; it has eyes, and it has what is called a foot, a soft, muscular mem- ber projecting slightly from the body ; it is also provided with two siphon tubes, side by side and opening in the same direction, through one of which it takes in food and water and through the other it ejects its waste. At this stage of its existence the teredo may be no bigger than a pin's head ; it may not be so big. While it is still of this diminutive size it attaches itself by means of its foot to whatever wood it may encounter, perhaps to a pile, and it begins at once to bore. How the teredo bores, whether with its foot or with its shell, is not absolutely known. The hole it makes is ex- tremely small, like the animal itself ; but once inside the teredo begins to grow rapidly, increasing the size of its hole along with its own growth in a cone-shaped enlargement un- til it has attained its size, after which the hole or burrow is continued at a substantially uniform diameter. The tere- do's eyes now disappear ; it has no further use for them, for ;8 - , ^ CREOSOTED TIMBER it spends the remainder, and by far the greater part, of its life within the wood. The picture here given was drawn from a teredo removed from the wood in which it was boring. One valve or half of the teredo's shell is here shown ; there is a corresponding half upon the other side of the body. The teredo's foot is at this end of the body, at the opening in front between the two valves of the shell. The teredo's body, including its vital parts, is still almost wholly contained within the limits of its shell, as in its earlier youth it was contained almost, if not entirely ; the rest of the now greatly elongated teredo, and much the greater part of its length, from a point a little distance back of its shell to the other extremity, is in reality but the skinny covering of the teredo's now greatly elongated siphon tubes. In appearance, however, this is all A Little Teredo Navalis, about actual size. the body of the teredo, which has grown greatly, while the shell, though it has grown greatly, too, seems relatively to have grown but little ; it does not now seem to be the shell of the mollusk, but a very small, thin and curiously formed shell attached to the mollusk's head. At the teredo's other extremity there are two small, thin, double-pointed shelly projections, extending out parallel with each other and at a little distance apart, which are called stylets or pallets. These parts of the teredo's siphon tubes that remain within the body or skinny covering are joined together; the parts that are thrust out beyond the body, the ends of the tubes, are divided, and these it puts forth between the stylets. If the teredo is alarmed it draws in its siphons, and if it is sought out in its burrow by some sharp-toothed enemy it closes the sharp-pointed pallets together over its siphon tubes to protect them. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 9 There are many varieties of the teredo. The shells and stylets, which vary more or less in shape, are among their distinguishing marks. The picture shows a small Teredo navalis. A water-soaked twig containing a living teredo is illustrated here at about its actual size. The curved tubes that appear above the highest point of the branch are the siphon tubes of the teredo, which is inside the wood below and|boring downward ; along the up- Showing the Teredo's Siphon Tubes. per side of the branch are the shells of dead barnacles. The teredo, from shells to stylets, is probably somewhere between an inch and a quarter and two inches in length. Its longer siphon tube, the intake tube, is sometimes extended in the water clear of the wood for a length of an inch and three quarters ; the shorter or outflow tube may then be extended to a length of half an inch. The teredo's longer tube, how- ever, is more likely to be extended about an inch clear of the wood, with the shorter pipe correspondingly shorter. The tubes vary in diameter also from time to time, their ITS PREPARATION AND USES 11 thickness ranging from one thirty-second to three sixty- fourths of an inch. In color they are of a milky white. The tubes, especially the longer one, are pretty nearly always in motion. The long tube is swayed here and there in the water, sometimes quickly, oflener more slowly, and sometimes with an undulating movement like that with which an elephant at times sways its trunk. The long tube may be extended at a right angle as seen in the picture, or it may be extended almost straight down along the branch, or it may be bent over in the direction opposite to that in which it here appears, or it may be pointing straight up, with, it may be, one or two slight curves in it, but it is usually more or less in motion, and more or less curved. The end of this tube appears sometimes like the smooth opening of an ordi- nary pipe ; sometimes it has a regularly notched saw-tooth edge, reminding the observer of the ornamental crown piece on the top of the smokestack of a Western river steamer ; sometimes it looks as though a jog had been cut in the end, the pipe being sawed through for half its diameter and the part so sawed split away from the end, the projecting lap thus left folding over the opening to close the pipe when the teredo wishes to close it. Sometimes the pipe has a little shoulder in it all around close to the end, the extreme end section or tip of the pipe then being uniformly smaller than the rest ; sometimes when closed the pipe is pointed, like the smaller pipe as seen in the picture. The teredo does not eat the wood which it bores ; it feeds on infusoria, most minute forms of animal life, which it draws into its intake tube as it sweeps the tube about, or which it takes perhaps from the surface of the wood in which it is boring. The teredo can produce a vacuum in its in-current tube, causing a current to lead to it in the waters without, and so enabling it to control for its supply a greater body of water than it could actually reach. Hav- ing taken in a supply of food, the in-current tube is closed and the food is carried to the stomach ; the surplus water and the waste are carried off through the outflow tube. While the teredo thus supplies itself with food it works 12 CREOSOTED TIMBER away at its boring below, sending up the bored -out material through its outflow tube and discharging it into the water. Under ordinary conditions these borings are dissipated ; in motionless water the borings fall almost straight to the bottom, from whatever point in the water at which the momentum imparted to them in throwing them out ceased. The teredo moves its outflow tube about in different directions as it does its inflow tube, so that the borings are thrown in various directions. The upper sides of the nearer barnacle shells and the end of the little branch are covered with a fine debris from the teredo's excavations. The teredo has its periods of rest and of greater or less activity. When working slowly it throws up its borings in very minute irregular shaped fragments; when working more rapidly it often throws its borings up in what look like eight-inch long or shorter sections of fine brown thread, the color being that of the wood, the form resulting perhaps from the com- pacting together into apparently one piece before delivery of many of the minute particles such as it at other times delivers separately. Almost immediately upon beginning its boring in the wood, the teredo begins to line the hole it bores from a secretion of its own with a substance that forms a thin, limy shell, or tube, attached to the walls of the hole. The teredo extends this lining forward as it bores, and when it has gone as far as it intends to go, it extends the thin, shelly lining around in the rounded end of the boring, thus com- pleting it. There is printed herewith, at a little more than its actual size, a picture of a fragment of wood split from a branch which had been bored by small teredos, showing longitudi- nal sections of two borings, and showing in the upper of the two borings a small portion remaining of the thin, shelly lining. The habit of the teredo, after it once gets inside the wood, is to bore with the grain. It never bores into its neighbor's burrow, though it may bore exceedingly close to it ; it never crosses another burrow in search of solid wood ; it never ITS PREPARATION AND USES 13 bores out to the surface again. The teredo is highly con- tractile. Sometimes when it has bored as far as it can go and retain its communication with the water by means of its siphons, which is essential to its existence, it contracts to half its length and starts a boring at almost a right angle with its previous boring, continuing in that direction until it is far enough away to clear the previous boring, and then starting along the grain again in the same direction as at first. Fragments of a Split Twig, showing Longitudinal Section of Teredo's Burrows. In Northern waters the teredo attains a length of three or four inches and more, sometimes ten inches ; there are some species in these waters, however, that are smaller than any here described. In tropical waters the teredo commonly attains a length of ten inches, and there are teredos that grow to be six feet long. The teredo attacks wharves, boats, fish-net stakes, any ITS PREPARATION AND USES 15 wood under water that is unprotected. The holes made by the teredos in the outside of the wood are so small that they may be unnoticed, while inside the wood may be honey- combed. A pile, for example, the teredos might attack all the way up from the bottom to the high water line. Such a stick might be fair upon the outside and yet be easily broken off by a slight shock from a boat swaying against it, and then be discovered to be perforated with borings in its whole diameter. CREOSOTE'S SCIENTIFIC STANDING. DEAD OIL OF COAL TAR UNIFORMLY SUCCESSFUL. Many years of experiment have proved that no process, calculated for the preservation of timber, can hope for success unless it replaces the liquid and semi-liquid portions of the wood with a substance that is insoluble and nonvolatile, and under the conditions which obtain in each particular case. Four substances approximate this requirement. Dead Oil of Coal Tar, usually called " Creosote," a distillate of the volatile portion of the bituminous coals ; Chlorid of Zinc, Sulphate of Copper, and Bichlorid of Mercury. All of these have violent toxic effects when exhibited in the presence of organic bodies, and all are within reach com- mercially. Each of them appropriately applied by the methods known respectively as the Bethell Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process, familiarly called Creosoting ; Burnettizing, Zinc Chlorid Process ; Margaryizing, Sulphate of Copper Process, and Kyanizing, Bichlorid of Mercury Process, have had a more or less extended use. Only one of these processes, Creosoting, has proven uniformly and universally successful, it meeting all the conditions of exposure to which structural timber is subjected. The remaining three, while good as antiseptic treatment, are quite unlike Creosoting in that 16 CREOSOTED TIMBER the conglomerates are very soluble in water, even at normal temperature, and so in a comparatively short time dis- appear under the influence of the moisture of the surround- ings. The preserving liquid being replaced by water it is but a step to the setting up of fermentative action and dete- rioration. The Bethell, or " Creosoting " Process, as a timber preservative has been uniformly successful from its inception in 1836. For some years the apparatus used was from neces- sity crude and primitive, but as the demand for artificially preserved wood increased from year to year, the methods of its preparation were more and more refined and perfected, until, at the present day, the manufacturer can guarantee a product as certain in its quality and uniformity as that of any other industrial works. While the conditions controlling the use of artificially preserved wood are those that influence the choice of any other building material, it can be laid down as a cardinal principle, that for all structural purposes to which wood is applicable, artificially preserved timber is, for economic reasons, in every way superior to the natural product. There are varying circumstances which indicate special treatment to meet individual cases. As Creosoting, or Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process, properly conducted does not alter the elastic limit or affect the ultimate strength of the natural wood, it follows that those varieties of timber which are suitable for structural purposes, save only that they quickly decay, have, by this means, their only defect made good. Woods of uniform texture, with straight, open grain and average rapid growth, are, as a rule, high in ultimate strength and elastic limit. Such woods are especially well adapted to the processes of artificial preservation. The sameness of the growth and the uniformity of the cell structure make it practicable to carry on the preliminary seasoning steps rapidly, and at a very low temperature. The timber thus prepared thoroughly absorbs the antiseptic qualities and turns out a material of certain uniformity and excellence. All woods are more or less adapted for the processes of artificial preservation, the difference lying in the time and ITS PREPARATION AND USES 17 methods required for the several steps of the process. The more dense and fine-grained varieties require a longer time than the coarser varieties for the preliminary seasoning, and for the actual impregnation with the preserving liquid. The hardest and most dense woods may be thoroughly impreg- nated with the antiseptic, however. The Dead Oil of Coal Tar used for preserving timber in the process known as " Creosoting," is a product of the dis- tillation of coal tar, a byproduct from the manufacture of illuminating gas. In reference to their volatility, the dis- tillates of coal tar arrange themselves into three groups : The Naphthas, Dead Oil of Coal Tar, and Pitch. The first group being very volatile, at ordinary temperatures, and con- taining no substances of an antiseptic nature, have no value for creosoting purposes. The third, being composed of sub- stances which, while of strong antiseptic qualities, and quite insoluble and nonvolatile at normal temperature, are, never- theless, unavailable on account of the high temperatures necessary for their manipulation. The second group includes all those constituents of coal tar which are essential for the preservation of timber, by the Creosoting or Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process. Generally speaking, these substances are either "acids" or "bases," and belong to the Hydrocarbon Compounds, or to the Nitrogenized Compounds of the coal tar derivatives. The table on page 19 lists those constituents of Dead Oil of Coal Tar which are known to have a more or less important part in the process. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 19 TABLE No. 1. DEAD OIL OF COAL TAR COMPOUNDS. USED FOB THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. Name. Symbol. Fuses. Vaporizes. HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS, ACIDS. Naphthalene OOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO IB ^1 * I LI o ill ^12 Me AIO Mo ^18 \\ N 79 Liquid. 32.5 Liquid. 106 63 100 109 99 Liquid. Liquid. Liquid. 111 218 200 242 242 262 190 305 290 340 360 =b 350 116.7 135 152 170 211 230 251 240 236 243 252 . 274 360 Di-hyd . . a, Methyl . " b, " Di, " Tetrahyd . Anthracene. Dihyd . . Hexahyd . Phenanthrene Fluoranthrene Retene NlTROGENIZED COMPOUNDS, BASES. Pyridine Picoline Lutidine Collidine Rubidine Viridine ... QUINOLINE SERIES. Leucoline Isquinoline Quinaldine .... ... Cryptidine 20 CREOSOTED TIMBER In addition to the substances listed in the preceding table are a number of compounds of strong antiseptic qualities which but for their solubility or volatility would be of great value. Of these the Phenol (known commercially as Carbolic Acid), and the Cresols are especially worthy of note. To them was ascribed for a long time the merit of Dead Oil of Coal Tar as a preservative of vegetable fibre, the theory being that the exhibition of these substances, having caused the coagulation of the albuminoids of the tissues, rendered them indestructible. It is a cardinal prin- ciple that a timber preservative must inherently possess the properties that it is to impart to the tissue that it is intended to preserve. It is a matter of common knowledge that the phenols and cresols are quite volatile at normal temperature and that they, as well as their compounds, are very unstable. The success of the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process owes its virtue to the presence of insoluble non-volatile substances indifferent to the attacks of oxidation or putrefaction, under the conditions to which its product is normally exposed. Of these substances, by far the most abundant are the Naph- thalene compounds (see Table 1), which occur in commercial dead oil of coal tar to the extent of from thirty to sixty per cent, by weight. Naphthalene proper, the most abundant of the series, is in its pure state a white substance in the form of closely adhering rhomboidal crystals. It fuses at 79 C. and vaporizes at 212-220. Its specific gravity is 0.9778 at its boiling point. It is insoluble in cold water; spar- ingly so in hot ; it is slightly volatile at normal temperatures. Commercial Naphthalene has a pungent odor and acrid taste, due to the presence of a small portion of Leucoline, a sub- stance belonging to the Nitrogenized derivatives of the coal tar series. Naphthalene Dihydride and Naphthalene Tetra- hydride have more of the characteristics of Naphthalene, the difference being a higher vaporizing point and a much lower fusing point, with less volatility, at normal tempera- tures. Associated with the above are the compounds of the Methyl Naphthalene series a and b, which are liquid at ITS PREPARATION AND USES 21 ordinary temperatures, strongly antiseptic, insoluble in water and non- volatile at usual temperatures. The inertness of the compounds of the Naphthalene series, under such con- ditions as obtain in the usual range of timber construction ; the comparatively low temperatures required for their man- ipulation, their marked physical advantages, coupled with the fact that they form a very considerable percentage of commercial Dead Oil of Coal Tar, class them among the most useful and available of all the dead oil constituents, for the artificial preservation of organic tissue. Anthracene Dihy- dride, Anthracene Hexahydride the former fusing at 106 and vaporizing at 305 C. and the latter fusing at 63 and vaporizing at : 90 C. are the next of the Hydro- carbons occurring in sufficient quantities to be worthy of mention. Both are insoluble in water and are non-volatile and liquid at allowable temperatures. They strongly par- take of the physical characteristics of the Naphthalene compounds, are strongly toxic in the presence of organic life, and form an intimate mechanical mixture with those substances. Of the nitrogenized derivatives of Coal Tar, the Pyridine series furnishes several very stable compounds which are liquid at available, and insoluble and non-volatile at normal temperatures. Their physical characteristics are such as to admit of a very close mechanical combination with the sub- stances of the Hydrocarbon derivatives. The Quinoline series includes the most important of the purely antiseptic constituents of the dead oil of coal tar. All, except the Acridine, are liquids of an exceedingly high boiling point; all are nearly, or quite, insoluble in water and are non-vola- tile, and all mix readily and closely with the several substances , heretofore mentioned. The particular ingredients above described are those only which, from their known physical and chemical properties, are recognized as having an im- portant office in the Dead Oil of Coal Tar Process. That there are other series quite as valuable associated with them is not to be doubted ; the exceedingly fertile field of the coal tar derivatives not as yet having been fully explored. 22 CREOSOTED TIMBER The question of the applicability of artificially preserved timber to any specific use is, of course, almost entirely a commercial one. Whether a larger first cost, in order to secure a longer life, is warranted, depends upon the condi- tions which obtain in each particular instance. Generally speaking, structures are intended for all time. The selection of a material, meeting all the requirements of daily use, and least affected by the destructive agencies to which it is sub- jected, is the most economical, save only that the interest on the first cost shall not exceed the expense of periodic renewal with a less durable and less costly material, plus the expenditure due interference by reason of such renewal with the current uses of the structure. Creosoted timber, having all the advantages of ease of manipulation and adaptability to the endless variety of structural require- ments possessed by it in its natural state is, within the range of its applicability, the ideal structural material. Its first cost being its only cost, the building once erected is finished so far as material is concerned. For all classes of marine construction it is the only material satisfying all the conditions of durability and adaptability. Absolutely proof against the attacks of every species of animal life, and wholly inert in the presence of the most active oxidizing agencies of sea water, it offers all the ad vantages of a timber construc- tion without its susceptibility to the assaults of teredo and limnoria, and all of the advantages of a metal construction without the high first cost and the considerable fixed charges due the maintenance of that class of structure. The quali- ties which fit creosoted timber for marine construction are exactly those which adapt it to every variety of structure exposed to atmospheric action, including the most trying of all conditions to which wood is subjected the alternate wetting and drying of the interior of electrical and other subways. Plate 1 represents a seawall, or bulkhead, 1,800 feet long, ten feet high above mean low water, protecting the rail ap- proach to one of the largest tidewater coaling stations in the United States. This construction is of creosoted sheet-piling ITS PREPARATION AND USES driven in one row, four inches thick, supported at the top by two wharf-logs a part of the structure as originally built. There is no support to the bottom, the slight depth of water making this unnecessary. This bulkhead was first constructed of untreated white oak on the same plan as at present, except that it was supported at the bottom with a row of round logs, bolted through to the bearing piles which supported the superstructure as first erected. At the Plate i. expiration of five years the teredo had so destroyed the sheet-piling and the bottom support that it was necessary to rebuild the bulkhead. This was done with creosoted sheet- piling ten years ago. At this time the creosoted timber is as good as when first put in. Plate 2 represents a retaining wall ten feet high above low water, composed of a double row of three-inch sheet piling, the front one of creosoted timber and the back one of un- 24 CREOSOTED TIMBER treated wood. The sheet piling is supported at the top by a double wharf-log of untreated wood and at the bottom by a single piece of creosoted 6x8 timber, the whole supported by a round creosoted pile every eight feet, tied back to an untreated one, driven approximately twelve feet behind the bulkhead, and covered by the earth behind. The expecta- tion that the front row of creosoted sheeting would be able to carry the load by the time that the back one of untreated timber had decayed, has been fully realized and the struc- ture is a good example of a substantial and durable construc- tion at a minimum cost. Plate 3 represents an excellent type of modern practice in the construction of closed piers in deep water. The bulk- head is made up of two rows of piling, the front one being of round creosoted piles, driven in a close row, and sup- ITS PREPARATION AND USES 25 ported at the top by two longitudinals, between which are dovetailed the tie-logs extending across the pier. Back of this is driven a sheet-pile bulkhead consisting of two rows of three-inch plank, the front row of creosoted, and the back row of untreated timber. This bulkhead is supported at low water by a single longitudinal of creosoted 6x8 timber secured to the round piles forming the front row. For rea- 26 CREOSOTED TIMBER sons of immediate economy the apron surrounding this pier was constructed of charred cypress piles. At the end of seven years it became necessary to rebuild it on account of the failure of the piling, which was so destroyed by the teredo as to be unfit for further use. Plate 4 represents cross-sections of the creosoted and charred cypress piles used in the construction of the pier a portion of which is shown in Plate 3. These specimens are Plate 6. taken from the materials used in the original construction and very well represent the status of the two classes of material at the expiration of seven years' exposure to the action of the_teredo in Norfolk harbor. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 27 Plate 5 represents another example of the futility of charring timber for its protection against marine insects. This stick is from a charred cypress pile a part of the pier before mentioned. The extraordinarily bad condition is probably due to the fact that more or less of the char was torn off in the work of driving through the unavoidable I late 8. 28 CREOSOTED TIMBER scraping of the sling chains, handsticks, etc., and the rubbing against the " ways " of the piledriver. Plates 6 and 7 represent a sheet-pile bulkhead, forming a retaining wall and lumber wharf along a canal. The con- struction is simple, consisting of a single row of creosoted plank four inches thick, supported at the top by a longi- ITS PREPARATION AND USES 29 P OWL ENGINEE tadinal carried on creosoted round piles in front of the sheet piling, and spaced eight feet apart. The entire struc- ture is tied to an anchor-log, located well back in the bank, by logs dovetailed into the longitudinal at suitable intervals. Plate 11. Sections of Underground Creosoted Conduits. 30 CREOSOTED TIMBER While this bulkhead has been entirely satisfactory, it is open to criticism, in that the top longitudinal might have been a creosoted 6x6, instead of an untreated 12x12, the Plate 12. Underground Creosoted Conduits in Use. former costing but three-fourths as much as the latter, and lasting four times as long. The wooden ties might have been of iron at a less cost and much greater life. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 31 Plate 8 represents non-creosoted white oak cross-ties at the expiration of eight years' service ; while Plate 9 de- lineates the only usage to which they were put. Plate 10 shows a creosoted terminal or distributing pole, for collecting and conveying to the subway the various electrical conductors of a "district." Such poles, either rectangular or octagon, are rapidly coming into favor as the cheapest and in every way the most desirable for this purpose. Plate 12 shows a subway of creosoted wood tubing. It is an inexpensive construction and one that is permanent, easily laid, and is less liable to injury from settlement of the surrounding earth than any form of masonry or tiled conduit. Plate 11 presents a detail of the tubing. In this connec- tion the following letter may be of interest: NORFOLK CREOSOTING CO., Norfolk, Va. Gentlemen: Replying to your inquiry regarding my experience with creosoted wooden conduits in the telephone service, I beg to say that this company, The New York and New Jersey Telephone Company, has in use several million of feet of wooden duct treated with twelve pounds of dead oil of coal tar per cubic foot by the vacuum process at your works at Norfolk, Va. The first creosoted duct conduit used by this company was laid in Brooklyn, N. Y., in November, 1884, fifteen years ago, and upon recent ex- amination the material showed no evidence whatever of any deterioration in the fibre of the wood. Creosoted conduits referred to have been placed in the various soils en- countered throughout the territory of this company, with entirely satis- factory results. Very truly yours, J. C. REILLY, General Superintendent. The plates on page 32 represent a creosoted wood-paving block after eighteen years' service, and a first-class granite block under the same volume of traffic, after nine years' use. Creosoted Wood compared with Granite Paving Block. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 33 CREOSOTED TIMBER. THE NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY'S METHOD OF PRESERV- ING Woob FROM THE MOLLUSKS AND THE ELEMENTS. The preservation of timber by the Dead Oil of Coal Tar process, as carried on by all well-equipped creosoting plants, consists of two distinct operations the preparation of the wood, and its impregnation with the preservative. The preparation of the wood necessary for the proper reception of the preserving substances is the removal of all those por- tions of the tissue which are subject to fermentative action. This consists of the extraction of the liquids and semi-liquids occupying the interfibrous spaces, and constituting the very immature portions of the wood, without softening the cement binding of the fitaailae^^r bundles of cellulose tissue, form- ing the solid or fully matured part. Upon the successful accomplishment of this entirely depends the value of arti- ficially preserved wood for structural purposes. If this step of the operation is conducted at too low a temperature, or for too short a time, the sap or liquid part nearest the sur- face will only be extracted, the consequence of which will be an insufficient space for receiving the preservative. If, on the other hand, the operation is carried on at too high a temperature, or for too long a time, the resinous portion of the bundles of fibrillse will be softened and the wood lose its elasticity in just the proportion that the coherence of the fibrillse is lessened. The temperature should never be less than 100 C. or exceeding 130 C. Of the two possible methods for the removal of the undesirable portions of the timber, exposure to currents of dry air, and steaming under pressure with an after drying in a vacuum, the latter is now the universal practice. While the first-named plan may seem the more rational, and the one least likely to modify injuriously the physical structure, such is not the case. Under proper manipulation, a more thorough desic- cation, without harmful change of the organic structure, can be accomplished in twelve hours less by the latter process, than is ever possible with air drying which, under the most . II a F K .5 o -e ITS PREPARATION AND USES 35 favorable circumstances, is a long-drawn-out operation, and cannot do more than extract the water from that portion of the sap which has not yet reached the semi-solid stage, thus leaving in the tissues of the wood a very considerable amount of resinous matter which occupies space that should be ready to receive the creosote oil. The consequence of this is a failure of the oil to reach many of the interfibrous passages, which are either left empty or are filled with the gelatinous part of the half-matured growth cells in which are to be found the conditions that make putrefaction possi- ble. ( In order to remove the sap from wood, it is first neces- sary to vaporize it and then to bring about such external circumstances which shall allow outflow of all gaseous mat- ter from the interior of the wood. In order to vaporize the sap it is necessary to break down the walls of the cells con- taining the liquid and semi-liquid substances. This is readily accomplished through the agency of heat applied through the medium of a moist steam bath, at such a pres- sure as to keep the temperature of the wood, and its sur- rounding atmosphere, somewhat above the boiling point of the sap. The maintenance of this condition for a few hours is found to be quite sufficient to break down the sap-cell tissue and to vaporize all those constituents that it is desir- able to withdraw.] This point having been reached, the -steam bath is discontinued -j-ftneHthe temperature being maintained at, or slightly above, the vaporizing point of the sap, the pressure of the atmosphere surrounding the wood within the chamber is reduced below that of the interior of the wood. The result of this condition is an outflow- of vapor and air, continuing until equilibrium is restored. This equilibrium is prevented by the use of an exhaust pump until the absence of aqueous vapor in the discharge from the pump indicates the completion of the operation. At this stage the wood tissue is in a state very like that of a sponge cleared of hot water ; every pore is gaping open and ready to receive the oil. In the practice of the Norfolk Creosoting Company the most carefully dried lumber is steamed and subjected to the ITS PREPARATION AND USES 37 action of the heated " vacuum " in order that there may be nad that thorough and uniform penetration of the preserv- ing liquid that is essential to the highest efficiency of the product. The timber having been thus prepared the creo- sote oil is admitted to the chamber, which is still kept under the influence of the vacuum pump, at a temperature some- what above the boiling point of the sap, at the pressure then existing in the chamber. As the hot oil envelops the wood and enters the interfibrous spaces, the aqueous vapor yet remaining in the wood, by reason of its less specific gravity, rises to the top of the containing chamber and is withdrawn by the pump. By the time that the chamber is entirely filled with oil, all the remaining moisture has escaped. The exhaust pump is stopped and, in order to facilitate the absorption of the oil by the wood, a pressure pump is set to work supplying oil to the chamber at such pressure as maybe desired. This operation is continued until the requisite amount of oil has been put into the timber. .The chamber is then opened and the timber withdrawn. The apparatus is then ready for further use. The successful conduct of the operation above outlined exacts the most careful attention and skillful management, supplemented by adequate and suitable appliances. The wide divergence in the characteristics of timber ; the vary- ing amounts of sap, due to the lapse of time since, and the season in which the tree was felled ; its possible subsequent immersion in water for a longer or shorter time ; the char- acter of the soil and the conditions under which the tree grew, whether in a dense forest or a comparatively open country, whether it is of a rapid even growth, or a slow in- termittent one, are all factors contributing to a more or less perfect product. To the experienced operator these condi- tions indicate, in each case, the proper course to be pursued. Failure to observe and to take them into consideration is to invite indifferent, uncertain and in the end unsatisfactory results. Of equal importance is a proper understanding of the circumstances under which the finished product is to be used. Timber for piers, wharves and other structures in ITS PREPARATION AND USES 39 tropical waters demand processes and degrees of thorough- ness of treatment that are unnecessay in the harbors of more temperate climates, which are, in turn, more exacting than land and fresh- water construction. It is as true as it is unfortunate, that, in the past per- haps at present much creosoted work has fallen far below NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY'S CYLINDER CARS, laden with Cross Anns for American Telegraph & Telephone Company. the reasonable expectation of the purchaser and user. As creosoting is neither a secret or patented process, nor are its operations complex, a close and systematic inspection of ma- terials used at the place of manufacture is all that is necessary for the buyer, and at the time that the creosoting is in pro- gress. The cost of a competent intelligent inspection is a ITS PREPARATION AND USES 4.1 justifiable and wise Expenditure, and such oversight is wel- comed by the Norfolk Creosoting Company. The processes of the treatment of timber with dead oil of coal tar having been an established success for more than fifty years, it follows that the only advantages possessed by one firm over another are to be set down to either superiority of ap- pliances and manipulation, fortunate location, and business sagacity, or a combination of two or more of these circum- stances, not one of which can be monopolized for any great length of time or to any marked degree. The rules which apply to the production of all staples hold equally to the preservation of wood, and the proposition to supply a prop- erly creosoted timber at a price much below the market carries with it the burden of an explanation if it would escape the reasonable suspicion of being other than it is represented to be. The engineers of the Norfolk Creosoting Company have acquired, through personal experience, the information ap- pearing in the preceding pages, consequently the company feels itself warranted instating that its product cannot be excelled in quality and adaptability for all the purposes to which creosoted timber is suited. Its plant is modern in every particular, with facilities adapted to all requirements, and a daily capacity of 50,000 feet B. M. Each chamber is provided with coils for heating, through the agency of super- heated steam, to any desired temperature ; while for charg- ing and discharging them there are suitably located power- operated derricks, by means of which material is handled with the greatest possible dispatch. Proper tanks and mix- ing vats are had for storing and grading oil, together with all the appliances convenient and necessary for its expeditious manipulation and movement, while a well equipped labora- tory is provided by the company for the use of inspectors. An ample battery of boilers supplies steam for power and for heating purposes, and adequate fire protection is afforded, in accordance with the standard underwriters' requirements. Through its excellent rail and water transportation facilities, the company has direct access to the limitless pine forests of 42 CREOSOTED TIMBER the South, the Atlantic seaboard, and at the same time it is within easy range of the oil markets of the world. Its direct connection with the seven important railway systems terminating at Norfolk, and its location immediately on the deep waters of Norfolk harbor, afford it the best of advantages for shipment to any desired territory. CREOSOTED ROUND PILING. The table on the following page gives the most econom- ical sizes for piling and poles that can be cut from whole trees. If creosoted piling is dapped through, or is cut off at the top, so as to expose the untreated interior, it is necessary to protect the parts so exposed with several coats of creosote oil, applied hot ; or, if more convenient, a cement of equal parts of coal tar and air-slaked lime, applied hot, will answer the same end. For all harbors of the North Atlantic Coast, including those of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, twelve pounds of dead oil of coal tar are quite sufficient. For the harbors of the South Atlantic and Gulf, and the ports of the Caribbean Sea, fifteen to twenty-four pounds per cubic foot, depending upon the exact location and the conditions governing the particular case, are required. NEWPORT NEWS, VA., November 11, 1899. NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY, Norfolk, Va. Gentlemen: During the past twelve years I have had occasion to use large quantities of creosoted material, both piles and lumber, and I take pleasure in saying that all of such material that has been prepared under the supervision of Mr. Edmund Christian, General Manager, has been found to be perfectly satisfactory. I may add that I have such confidence in Mr. Christian's skill and judg- ment as an engineer, and his integrity as a business man, that I do not now consider it necessary to put an inspector at his works. W. A. POST, General Superintendent, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 43 CBEOSOTED ROUND PILING. USUAL LENGTHS, SIZES AND SHIPPING WEIGHTS. ^* f! 20 Diam. In. Total Cu. Ft. Total Wt. Diam. In. Total Ou. Ft. Total Wt. Top. 6 Suit. 9 n zo Top. Butt. n 20 721 6.2 372 409 9 11 10.92 655 20 7 10 7.9 470 521 10 12 12.92 775 853 25 6 9 7.8 464 515 10 12 16.16 970 1066 25 9 11 13.56 813 895 12 14 23.02 1381 1519 30 8 11 14.88 893 982 12 14 27.64 1658 1824 35 9 12 21.16 1270 1396 13 16 39.76 2385 2624 40 6 12 18.30 1098 1208 7 13 22.45 2007 1482 40 8 14 27.66 1060 1825 10 15 34.54 2072 2280 45 7 14 28.05 1683 1851 9 16 39.75 2385 2624 45' 9 15 36.11 2166 2383 12 18 56.01 3360 3697 50 6 13 25.74 1544 1649 9 16 44.36 2661 2927 50 6 14 28.77 1726 1999 10 16 47.06 2824 3106 50 7 15 34.50 2070 2277 10 18 54.94 3296 3626 55 8 14 38.03 2282 2510 8 16 44.82 2689 2958 55 9 15 44.12 2647 2912 9 18 56.82 3409 3750 60 6 15 38.36 2301 2532 8 17 53.34 3200 3520 60 7 15 41.42 2485 2734 9 17 57.14 3428 3771 65 6 16 45.83 2750 3025 8 17 57.76 3465 3812 65 7 16 49.32 2960 3255 9 18 67.14 4028 4431 70 6 18 59.58 3575 3932 6 20 70.83 4250 4675 70 6 19 68.45 4107 4518 7 22 87.33 5240 5764 75 6 22 89.90 5394 5933 7 24 108.12 6487 7136 75 7 22 93.56 5614 6175 8 24 113.47 6708 7489 80 6 26 126.20 7572 8329 7 26 131.88 7913 8704 85 6 26 134.11 8047 8851 7 26 140.15 8409 9250 44 CREOSOTED TIMBER CREOSOTED POLES FOR ELECTRIC KAIL- WAYS, TELEPHONES AND TELE- GRAPH LINES. Least Diam. Weight per Cub c Feet. Shape. Length. Total Cubic Ft. Top. Butt. 10 12 15 Circular . . 25 5 10 7.85 438 450 475 30 5 12 12.48 693 712 756 35 6 13 18.00 ! 999 1034 1089 40 7 1 14 24.93 1383 1433 1509 45 7 14 28.05 1557 1611 1648 50 8 15 37.15 2061 2133 2249 55 8 16 44.78 2485 2573 2711 60 8 16 48.86 2711 2806 2958 65 8 17 56.85 3155 3265 3442 70 9 18 71.02 3941 4079 4300 75 9 18 81.22 4507 4666 4916 80 9 19 89.09 4944 5117 5394 Octagon . . 25 5 10 6.99 388 415 420 30 5 12 11.29 626 648 684 35 6 12 14.41 800 828 872 40 6 14 20.62 1144 1184 1247 45 7 14 25.14 1395 1444 1522 50 7 15 30.95 1717 1777 1873 55 8 15 36.78 2041 2113 2227 60 8 16 43.84 2433 2518 2654 65 8 17 51.98 2884 2986 3147 70 8 17 55.99 3107 3291 3390 75 8 18 65.27 3623 3749 3952 80 8 18 69.60 3862 3998 4215 Square . . 25 4 9 7.69 426 442 465 30 4 9 10.04 557 576 608 35 5 11 16.26 902 934 984 40 6 12 23.20 1287 1332 1404 45 6 12 26.25 1456 1506 1589 50 6 13 32.74 1816 1880 1982 55 7 14 43.66 2423 2507 2643 60 7 14 47.63 2643 2735 2883 65 7 15 55.42 2870 2970 3131 70 7 15 61.40 3407 3526 3717 75 7 16 72.17 4005 4145 4369 80 7 16 76.96 4271 4421 4768 NOTE. Lengths are in feet; other dimensions are in inches. Weights are for treatments of 10, 12 and 15 pounds of oil re- spectively. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 45 CREOSOTED CROSS-ARMS FOR AERIAL ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. ll 1 1 Lenf> i * /A. Size. |3 Cubic Foot. Weight in Pounds of Oil per Cubic Foot. 10 n 15 1 2!-Q O 7 3^4 x 4*4 2 0.182 10.1 10.5 11. 2 4'-C 0" " " 4 0.364 20.3 21.1 22. 3 6'-00'' " " 6 0.538 30.0 31.2 32.6 4 8'-C 0" \ 8 0.728 40.6 42.2 44.1 5 10'-00 V l " " 10 0.910 50.6 52.7 55.1 6 12'-00 7 " " 12 1.092 60.8 63.3 66.1 7 2'-7' 3 x4 I 2 0.214 11.7 12.4 12.7 8 5'-] 14 4 0.464 22.7 26.9 24.7 9 \ 7-7" " "6s 0.635 35.4 ; 36.8 37.4 10 j lO'-l" " " 8 0.847 47.3 49.1 49.7 11 12' -1" " "10 1.054 58.9 61.1 61.8 For cross-arms of any dimension and specification, a treatment of 12 pounds of oil per cubic foot is recom- mended. 46 CREOSOTED TIMBER CREOSOTED WOOD CONDUITS FOR UNDER- GROUND ELECTRICAL, CONDUCTORS. IN ii ^ Outside Dimension, Net Length. Spigot Length. Weight per Lineal Ft. 15 Ibs. Oil per Cu. Ft. i IV Square 3" x 3'' 8' -00" IV 3.0 Ibs. 2 2'' " 3V * 3V 3.5 " 3 2V " 4" x 4" " 4.3 " 4 3'' " 4V* 4V 5.2 " 5 3V " 5" x5" 6.4 " All conduit is worked to exact outside dimension, and then bored and reamed. The joints are so made as to allow it to "build" in the trench without shimming or blocking. The completed piece is then creosoted. Creosoted wood tubing is superior to all other materials for underground electrical conduits in that it is as durable as tiling or masonry, and has a much smoother and more uniform interior than either, presenting no sharp corners to injure the cable as it is being drawn through. The dead oil of coal tar contains no substance which is in any way injurious to the cable or its covering. It is easily entered and resealed between manholes. Its extreme lightness makes any foundation, beyond a single thickness of plank, unnecessary, even in the softest earth. This fact, together with the narrowness of the trench and the length of the pieces, reduces the construction charges 30% below that of a tile or masonry conduit of like capacity, and make? it possible to work advantageously a much larger force than would be otherwise possible. Special conduit made and treated to specification by the Norfolk Creosoting Company. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 47 CREOSOTED CROSS-TIES FOB STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. Dimensions. Feet B. M. Feet, Cubic. Weight. 10 Ibs. Oil. n Ibs. Oil. 4x6-5 10. 0.833 45 48 4x6-6 12. 1.000 55 58 5x6-5 12.5 1.041 -~SZ __ ii 60 5x6-6 15. 1.250 69 5x6-7 17.5 mil EV^\[ 6x8-6 24. 2.000 n 1$ f 'l!6 ^ 6x8-7 28. 2.333 . m L 135 6x8- 7' -6" 30. ItWiCll 1!^ (' ' 145 6x8-8 6 x 8 8'- 6" 32. 34 f '2.1566 ^ 156- 154 7x7-7 28.5 2.390 132 164 138 7x7-8 32.6 2.716 149 157 7x7- 8'-6" 34.6 2.891 159 167 8x8-9 48. 4.000 220 232 8x 8-10 53. 4.416 243 256 8x 8-12 64. 5.333 293 309 8 x 10-10 66.6 5.555 305 322 8 x 10-12 80. 6.666 366 404 8 x 10-14 93. 7.750 426 449 Weights are for 10 and 12 pounds of oil, respectively, per cubic foot. The Norfolk Creosoting Company sizes all ties to exact dimensions before treating, and they are ready for immediate use on leaving the works. The company furnishes ties under any specification and treatment. 48 CREOSOTED TIMBER CREOSOTED BOX CULVERTS. RAILWAY, STREET AND HIGHWAY USES. This form of structure offers many advantages of utility and low first cost for openings of three to twelve foot span. They are as durable as masonry, and, on account of their smooth walls and bottom, offer much less resistance to the passage of water and are less liable to be obstructed by the catching of brush and sticks against the walls and bottom. Their lightness renders a much less expensive foundation necessary, and their imperviousness makes them proof against damage from frost; while their elastic character ex- empts them from the results of vibration, due to passing trains, so frequently disastrous to masonry structures. All portions of these culverts are securely fastened; and, when erection is complete, the entire structure is practically one piece ; so that pavements do not cut out, nor walls fall in, under the action of flood-water. Such a culvert, once erected, is charged out with the assurance that there will be no annual maintenance estimates for pointing up cracks or painting iron work. Culverts of any span, up to fourteen feet, and of any length, are gotten out and treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Com- pany in accordance with specifications, ready for use. Esti- mates and plans are submitted when desired. A treatment of fifteen pounds of oil per cubic foot is re- commended. TRUNK SEWERS AND ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS. Trunk sewers and artificial channels for streams are very advantageously constructed of creosoted timber, where the cross-section area is four feet or over; the channel being either closed or open, and the cross-section being either cir- cular or rectangular, or with vertical sides and V-shaped floor. All joints are water-tight, and there is absolutely no absorption of passing liquids, nor is the interior surface broken or damaged by the sticks and stones and other ITS PREPARATION AND USES 49 debris accompanying storm water, as is so often the case with masonry conduits having plastered interiors. All in- terior surfaces are dressed, and so present the least possible resistance to the flow of water. In open channels the dif- ference is 30 per cent, in its favor, as compared with the smoothest of cement-plastered walls. The comparatively thin walls reduce the excavation on their account 50 per cent., while the rapidity with which the erection can be car- ried on reduces the risk and expense attendant upon the trenching. Except in very bad ground, no foundation is needed, while in swampy places the quantity of timber needed for the foundation of a masonry-conduit will be suf- ficient for the floor of a creosoted one. Structures of this character are gotten out and treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Company, ready for use, in accord- ance with specification. Plans and estimates submitted when desired. CREOSOTED "WOOD-BLOCK PAVEMENTS. Creosoted wood-block pavements, properly laid on a suit- able base, form one of the most durable and satisfactory street coverings yet devised. Creosoted wood being absolutely non-absorbent, such a pavement takes up none of the liquids of the street and furnishes no lodgment for any substance deleterious to health. Being perfectly sanitary, it is especially well adapted to the streets of tropical and sub-tropical cities. By reason of its peculiarly leathery surface, a creosoted block pavement is especially pleasing to a horse, allowing him to travel without apprehension of slipping ; so that he moves con- fidently and easily and without that disagreeable slapping so noticeable in horses travelling over other forms of smooth pavements. Experience in the United States and in Europe has shown that a properly constructed creosoted wood-block pavement will carry a traffic of 3,500 tons per foot of street width, per annum, for a period of fifteen years ; and that it 50 CREOSOTED TIMBER deteriorates from wear and not from decay ; so that it may be expected to last proportionately longer under a less volume of traffic. An instance of the great durability of such a pavement is shown in the cut below, which is that of a creosoted wood- paving block, laid on Market Street, in the City of Galveston, Texas, after seventeen years' continual service. The block was, when laid, six inches deep, the actual wear during the seventeen years' service was somewhat less than one-half inch, or approximately three one hundred ths inch, per annum. The pavement from which this sample was taken is yet in service at the end of twenty-four years, and is in good condition except as to those portions which were not properly repaired after having been torn up for the con- struction of street-car tracks, sewers and water-pipe lines. A creosoted wood-block pavement is superior to all others in that it is noiseless, smooth without being slippery, imper- vious and therefore sanitary, and because its great durability renders maintenance charges a minimum. Creosoted wood-paving blocks of any suitable dimension furnished to any specification by the Norfolk Creosoting Com- pany, who make a specialty. Specifications furnished upon suitable information as to the governing conditions. Twelve pounds of oil per cubic foot is recommended for this class of work. SPECIFICATION FOR CREOSOTED TIMBER. MATERIALS. Timber shall be of the dimension specified, straight, free from windshakes, large or loose or decayed knots, red-heart or anything impairing its strength or dura- bility, and to be cut from sound live trees, and to be ... OIL All oil shall be the heavy or dead oil of coal tar, containing not more than 1^ per cent, of water, and not more than 5 per cent, of tar, and not more than 5 per cent, of carbolic acid. It must not flash below 185 F. nor burn below 200 F. and it must be fluid at 118 F. It must begin to distil at 320 F. and must yield between that temperature and 410 F. of all substances, less than 20 per cent., by volume. Between 410 and 470 F. the yield of naphthalene must be not less than 40 nor more than 60 per cent, by volume. At two degrees above its liquefying point it must have a spe- cific gravity of maximum 1.05 and minimum 1.015. PROCESSES OF TREATMENT. Seasoning : This is to be accom- plished by subjecting the timber to the action of live steam for a period of from five to seven hours at a pressure of 35 to 55 pounds per square inch, the temperature not at any time exceeding 275 F. unless the timber be water-soaked, in which case it may reach 285 F. for the first half of the period. At the expiration of the steaming the chamber shall be entirely emptied of sap and water by drawing off at the bottom. As soon as the chamber is cleared of all sap and water a vacuum of not less than 20 inches shall be set up and maintained in the chamber, for a period of from five to eight hours, or until the discharge from the vacuum pump has no odor or taste, the temperature in the chamber being maintained at between 100 and 130 F. The chamber being again emptied of all sap and water the oil is to be admitted, the vacuum pump being worked at its full speed until the chamber is filled with oil. As soon, thereafter, as is prac- 52 CREOSOTED TIMBER ticable such a pressure shall be set up as shall cause the entire charge of timber to absorb . . . pounds of oil within . . . per cent, more or less (at a minimum penetration of 1^ inches in round timber for a treatment of 12 pounds of oil per cubic feet, constituting a basis for determining the penetration due to a treatment of any specific quantity of oil) . . . inches from all exposed surfaces. The depth of the penetration being ascertained by boring the treated piece with an auger, making a hole not more than inch in diameter, such pieces as are found not to have the required penetration being returned to the chamber with a subse- quent charge for further treatment. INSPECTION. Inspection shall be made as the work pro- gresses, and at as early a date as is practicable, in order that there may be a minimum loss of time and materials due to rejections. The inspector, or other authorized agent of the purchaser, shall have reasonable notice of the intention on the part of the contractor to begin the treatment of a charge of timber, and he shall have at all times during the treatment of the timber under his charge access to the works, and all reason- able and necessary facilities for ascertaining that all the re- quirements of this specification are complied with. Such " reasonable facilities "providing opportunity, at the proper time, for measuring all timber, treatment-chambers, oil- tanks, etc., and for taking samples of the oil being used, for analysis, as often as he may deem necessary. NOTE. All cut ends, mortises, tenons, and other incisions of the original surface of creosoted timber, should be protected by not less than four coats of creosote oil, applied boiling hot with a brush or mop. In the case of moor- ing piles, fender piles, and other timber having the cut end exposed to the weather, the portions so exposed should have, in addition to the creosote oil, a heavy final coat of a paste made of equal parts of unslaked lime and creosote oil, applied hot. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 53 <01>COt- aaco-H COOOt-t- OCOCOO C&OCOCQ CQO^ OXNt-CO t-COOt- CO^CO t-coc&co ' m^axo rncoio COCOOiQ lOlQ^^ ^ CO CO ocooco Scot- co ooco t- CO CO 10 * * CD 0) CD CO CO OQOCOCD CNOCO ^^coco co ^Oi) COCOO'-I COCQ r-i(MiOO) OO) OOt-CDiO COCNOCD t-rHOO^ acot-co '' CDCDO -HO 1 * COOt- ' ^CO '-'O ^^ CS1COCOCO CO-*^ (NCfiCOCO i> (MOO CDCOCDUJ cocsi-'O ot-io CMNCMd (NCS1CMO) r* rn -" CQ^^CO ocqcocsi ^coaco (Mco-'io OC01> O^OCD i oocgcq ocooco CO OCOiOiO 10 ^ rtrtT-l I-l CflCDCO'O C005COOO ^O> COOOOt- CDiQiO'* ^^(N iHrH 54 CREOSOTED TIMBER RECTANGULAR WOODEN PILLARS. Crippling Strength Pounds per Sq. Inch. Crippling Strength Pounds per Sq. Inch. 1 6 + 1 I 1 6 + 1 a ^ 1 1 10 d d t 1 5 10(2 i i i 1 Ends Pin I 12. 13.2 14.4 4440 4250 4070 4020 3800 3580 3680 3430 3190 7.2 7.32 7.44 30. 31.2 32.4 2120 2020 1930 1620 1530 1450 1310 1230 1160 9. 9.12 9.24 15.6 3880 3370 2970 7.56 33.6 1830 1370 1100 ! 9.36 16.8 3700 3160 2760 7.68 34.8 i 1750 1300 1040 \ 9.48 18. I 3520 ; 2970 ; 2570 1 7.8 36. 1670 1230 980 \ 9.6 19.2 I 3350 2790 \ 2390 7.92 37.2 1590 1170 930 ! 9.72 20.4 3190 2620 i 2230 8.04 38.4 1520 1120 880 9.84 21.6 3040 2740 2080 8.16 39.6 1450 1060 840 9.96 22.8 2890 2320 1940 8.28 40.8 1390 1010 790 10.08 24. : 2740 2180 1810 8.4 42. 1330 960 760 10.2 25.2 2600 ! 2050 1690 8.52 43.2 1270 920 720 10.32 26.4 1 2470 ; 1930 1580 8.64 44.4 1220 880 690 10.44 27.6 2350 1820 1490 8.76 45.6 1170 840 650 10.56 28.8 2230 1720 1400 8.88 46.8 1120 800 620 10.68 length in inches. d least side of cross-section in inches. Formulae : Flat Ends ; Pin and Flat Ends ; Pin Ends. 5600 5600 5600 -i , I 2 656? 1 + 1.51 2 If desired the constant in the above formula, 5600, may be replaced by 8000 pounds ultimate resistance to compression of Georgia long-leafed yellow pine ; 7000 pounds ultimate resistance to compression of white oak. Applicable to either plain or creosoted timber. CLASSIFICATION OF YELLOW PINE LUMBER. Southern Lumber and Timber Association, adopted February 14, 1883. CLASSIFICATION. Flooring shall embrace four and five quarter inches in thickness by three to six inches in width. For example : 1 x 3, 4, 5 and 6 ; \\ x 3, 4, 5 and 6. Boards shall embrace all thicknesses under one and one- half by seven inches and up wide, including one and one- half inches in thickness, by seven in width. For example : f , 1, 1, \\ inches thick by seven inches and up in width. Scantling shall embrace all sizes from two to five inches in thickness, and two to six inches wide. For example : 2 x 2, 2 x 3, 2x4, 2 x 5,2 x 6, 3 x 3, 3x4, 3x5, 3x6, 4x4, 4 x 5, 4 x 6, 5 x 5, 5 x 6. Plank shall embrace all sizes from one and one-half to five inches in thickness by seven inches and up in width. For example : 1, 2, 2, 3, 3$, 4, 4, and 5x7 and up in width. Dimension sizes shall embrace all sizes, six inches and up in thickness by seven inches and up in width, including 6x6. For example : 6 x 6, 6 x 7, 7 x 7, 7 x 8, 8 x 8, 8 x 9, and up. INSPECTION. Square edge : Flooring shall show no wane, shall be free from through or round shakes or knots exceed- ing one inch and a half in diameter, or more than six to a board ; sap no objection. Boards shall show no wane, shall be free from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots ; sap no objection. Scantling shall be free from injurious shakes, unsound knots, or knots to impair strength ; sap no objection. Plank shall be free from unsound knots, wanes, through or round shakes ; sap no objection. All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes, and saw-butted. MERCHANTABLE. Flooring shall show one heart face, re- gardless of sap on opposite side ; free from through or round 56 CREOSOTED TIMBER shakes, or knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more than four to a board on face side. Boards, nine and a half inches and under wide, shall show one heart face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over nine inches wide, shall show two-thirds heart on both sides ; all free from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots. Scantling shall show three corners heart, free from injurious shakes or unsound knots. Plank, nine inches and under wide, shall show one heart face and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over nine inches wide, shall show two-thirds heart on both sides ; all free from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots. DIMENSION SIZES. All square lumber shall show two-thirds heart on two sides, and not less than one-half heart on two other sides. Other sizes shall show two-thirds heart on faces, and show heart two-thirds of the length on edges, excepting where the width exceeds the thickness by three inches or over, then it shall show heart on the edges for one-half its length. Stepping shall show three corners heart, free from shakes, and all knots exceeding half an inch in diameter, and not more than six to the board. Rough Edge or Flitch shall be sawed from good heart tim- ber, and shall be measured in the middle, on the narrow face ; free from injurious shakes or unsound knots. All stock to be well and truly manufactured, full to sizes, and saw- butted. Prime Flooring shall show one entire heart face and two- thirds heart on the opposite side, clear of splits, shakes or knots exceeding one inch in diameter, or more than four to the board. Boards shall show one heart face and two-thirds heart on the opposite side, free from shakes and large and unsound knots. Scantling shall show three corners heart, and not to ex- ceed one inch of sap on fourth corner, measured diagonally, free from heart shakes, large or unsound knots. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 57 Plank shall show one entire heart face, on opposite face not exceeding one- sixth its width of sap on each corner, free from unsound knots, through or round shakes ; sap to be measured on face DIMENSION SIZES. On all square sizes the sap on each cor- ner shall not exceed one-sixth the width of the face. When the width does not exceed the thickness by three inches, to show half heart on narrow face the entire length ; exceed- ing three inches, to show heart on narrow face the entire length ; sap on wide faces to be measured as on square sizes. Rough Edge or Flitch shall be measured in middle, on narrow face, inside of sap, free from shakes or unsound knots. CLEAR. Flooring, Stepping and Boards shall be free from knots, sap, pitch, and all other defects. Scantling shall be free from sap, large knots, and other defects. Plank shall be free from large knots, sap or other defects. Dimension Sizes shall be free from sap, large or unsound knots, shakes through or round. Resawed lumber is lumber sawn on four sides. Rough Edge or Flitch is lumber sawn on two sides. BALTIMORE, October 30, 1899. NORFOLK CREOSOTING Co., Norfolk, Va. Gentlemen: It gives us pleasure to testify to the valuable work that you are doing and to the character of material that has been supplied us for our various contracts along the Seaboard, where we have used creosoted piles and timber. We have been using your material constantly since you started your works and have not had a complaint from any of the completed contracts that we have done up to this time. The work has been not only satisfactory, but the capacity of your plant has been such as to give us prompt and reliable deliveries of material. Yours very truly, W. B. BROOKS, Jr., Vice-President, Sanford & Brooks Co., Contractors. 58 CREOSOTED TIMBER BOUND TIMBER. BOARD MEASURE VOLUME. Diameter in Inches. LENGTH IN FEET. 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 11 37 43 49 55 61 67 74 12 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 13 61 71 81 91 101 111 122 14 75 88 100 112 125 137 150 15 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 16 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 17 124 148 169 190 211 232 253 18 147 171 196 220 245 269 294 19 169 197 225 253 280 309 338 20 192 224 256 288 320 352 384 21 217 253 289 325 361 397 433 22 243 283 324 364 404 445 486 23 271 313 359 406 452 496 541 24 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 25 331 386 441 496 551 606 661 26 363 423 484 544 605 665 726 27 397 463 530 596 661 726 794 28 432 504 576 648 720 793 864 29 469 547 625 703 782 860 938 30 507 591 676 761 845 930 1014 31 547 638 729 820 912 1004 1094 32 588 686 784 882 980 1078 1176 33 631 736 841 946 1051 1156 1263 34 675 787 900 1012 1125 1237 1351 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 59 APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OP WOODEN RAILWAY TRESTLES. Height of Bent, Feet. Feet Beam per Lineal Foot. Masonry Footings. Cubic Yards per Lineal Foot. Pounds of Iron per Lineal Foot. If Filled. Cubic Yards Earth Re- quired per Lineal Foot. Stringer Tico pieces 8*. 16. Stringer Three pcs. 7xlA. Bolts and Nuts. Washers. \ 10 : 207 230 0.8 9.3 2.6 12 15 236 259 0.9 10.2 3.1 22 20 268 291 1.1 10.2 3.1 35 25 295 318 1.2 11.7 3.9 50 30 332 355 1.3 12.4 4.3 69 35 362 385 1.4 13.3 4.9 89 40 327 336 0.8 11.2 3.7 114 45 340 349 0.8 11.2 3.7 141 50 380 389 0.9 11.8 4.1 170 55 413 422 1.0 13.7 5.1 203 60 425 434 1.0 13.7 5.1 238 65 472 481 1.1 16.2 6.9 276 70 493 502 1.1 16.2 6.9 316 75 540 549 1.0 17.7 7.7 360 80 583 592 1.0 19.4 8.7 443 85 599 608 1.0 19.4 8.7 470 90 635 644 1.0 21.9 11.0 507 95 657 666 1.0 21.9 11.0 561 100 706 715 1.0 23.3 11.8 619 110 769 778 1.0 24.9 12.8 742 120 828 837 1.0 27.4 14.5 839 130 898 907 1.0 28.8 15.3 1021 140 986 995 1.0 32.9 18.0 1177 150 1052 1065 1.0 34.3 18.8 1344 60 CREOSOTED TIMBER PROPERTIES OF SEASONED STRUCTURAL WOODS. Variety. Weight Cubic Feet. Ultimate Strength per Square Inch. Tension. Compres- sion. Shear Across Gr. Shear WithGr. Ash . . 50' 47 16,850 10,430 9,180 10,432 1,250 Beech, Amer Birch, " .... 47 7,000 8,000 Cedar, Amer. Red . 40 10,000 5000 Cherry, Wild .... Chestnut 42 41 36 35 25 25 53 11,500 6,000 14,000 9,000 9,000 11,000 8,000 5,300 6,800 10,300 6,800 6,000 8,000 616 1,250 800 800 400 Cypress ... . . Elm, Amer. White . Fi r-Spruce Hemlock Hickory, Amer. . . Locust, Black .... 58 18,000 9,800 " Honey . . . 58 18,000 7,000 Maple, Amer 49 10,000 8,000 Oak, Amer. White . 50 10,000 7,000 2,000 800 " Red . . 45 10,000 6,000 2,000 Pine, " White . 25 10,000 8,500 800 400 Pine, Amer, Long- Leafed Yellow . . 45 12,600 8,500 1,440 600 Shortleaf .... 40 5,900 Loblolly Poplar 40 30 45 7,000 15,000 6,500 5,000 12,000 Teak, Indian .... Sycamore 37 12,000 6,000 Walnut, Black . . . 40 8,000 8,000 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 61 1 *! ?l i 1 H ^ I -0 CM -> 62 CREOSOTED TIMBER H (M 10 rO CO fir ITS PREPARATION AND USES 63 g 4> - I . 3 2 9 5" 8 1 a | 1 i < * 8 * * M -5 2- SSb^ii^l&B i ^ i . -" t! fe Z % rt 2"rt _ 1 1 1 1 i^l -w ^ "S s- lg 1 i * " 11 1 fe ^ J TJ 'a -o | j a I ^ 1 *" *S "S 'S "a^ *^ 3 s S 1 | tj f jjii listance to COLU 1 * ^ 1' ^ J'a '3 a fc t> O P co H II ' ill 1 1 j f NDITIO ill , 1 | .2 II B T3~ fl ^ .- eS "Js J ^ 5 -S S * . ^ a g a a 1 i. i i i Jo o" ^ 5 I 5 1 II _2 ^ *> ^ .8 J 5 73 - "2 T3 a ts t "S | *> OJ O) 8 H 2 M -s I 1 1 S 1 fi fi S fi 13 -rJ o o o o V 0) ft ft ft ft ^ &* fa CO CO CO CO 64 CREOSOTED TIMBER USEFUL INFORMATION. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT. The British Thermal Unit, B. T. U., as used by British and American engineers, is the amount of heat consumed in raising one pound of water, at its maximum density, one degree Fahrenheit; 965.7 B. T. U. equal one unit of evaporation. COMMERCIAL BOILER HORSE-POWER. A commercial " Boiler Horse-Power " is the evaporation of thirty pounds of water, per hour, from a temperature of 100 F., into steam at seventy pounds gauge pressure ; equal to 34.5 units of evap- oration (34.5 pounds of water evaporated from a temperature of 212 F. into steam at the same temperature) ; also equal to 33,305 B. T. U. per hour. Five pounds of average bitu- minous coal should develop one horse-power per hour. DEVELOPMENT OF HORSE-POWER. Twelve square feet of heating surface (twelve square feet of area exposed to water on one side and to heat on the other) ; or its equivalent, one third square foot of effective grate area, should develop one horse-power per hour. ENGINE HORSE-POWER. An " Engine Horse-Power " is the measure of energy expended in raising 33,000 pounds one foot high in one minute. The effective horse-power of any well-designed "Engine" is approximately 80$ of its I. H. P. 7. H. P. = PS.(*\ ; also I. H. Pm =A.P.L.n. V2.05 J 33,000 P = mean effective gauge pressure in pounds per sq. in. 8 = mston speed, in feet per minute. ' iiet diameter of cylinder in inches. L = length of stroke, n number of strokes, half rev. per min. A net area of piston in square inches also equal D. WATER. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacu- um it will sustain a column of mercury 2?.9 inches, or a column of water 33.9 feet high. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 65 To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to half pound pressure per square inch ; this allows for ordinary friction. To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed) divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the product will be the diame- ter in inches of the pump cylinder. To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100 feet of piston speed per minute, square the diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example : .Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, the number of gallons per minute (approximately). To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given height, multiply the total weight of the water in pounds by the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an al- lowance of 25 per cent, should be added for water friction and a further allowance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder). The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pres- sure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water piston, multiplied by the pressure of wa- ter per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must be made between the power and the resistance to move the pistons at the required speed say from 20 to 40 per cent, according to speed and other conditions. To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give the total number of cubic inches ; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), and the product is the capacity in gallons. To find the number of gallons in a tank, multiply the inside bottom diameter in inches by the inside top diameter in inches, then this product by 34 ; point off four figures and the result will be the average number of gallons to one inch in depth of the tank. 66 CREOSOTED TIMBER PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. g^. 1 ' * ^ SJ to'g - |* 1 1 | 1 &~- 4|? ^1 1 ^ . 11 \* ! rt 11 e l | S'1 1* s C>D^ a ll -1 P et ft IS J& || ll II 1 e| M ! ^ 51 3u i 101.99 1113.1 1043.0 0.00299 334.50 0.9661 13 2 126.27 1120.5 1026.1 0.00576 173.60 0.9738 12 3 141.62 1125.1 1015.3 0.00844 118.50 0.9786 ll 4 153.09 1128.6 1007.2 0.01107 90.33 j 0.9822 10 5 162.34 1131.5 1000.8 0.01366 73.21 0.9852 9 6 170.14 1133.8 995.2 0.01622 61.65 0.9876 8 7 176.90 1135.9 990.5 0.01874 53.39 \ 0.9897 7 8 182.92 1137.7 986.2 0.02125 47.06 i 0.9916 6 9 188.33 1139.4 982.5 0.02374 42.12 j 0.9934 5 10 193.25 1140.9 979.0 0.02621 38.15 0.9949 15 213.03 1146.9 965.1 0.03826 26.14 ; 1.0003 -1- 5 20 227.95 1151.5 954.6 0.05023 19.91 1.0051 10 25 240.04 1155.1 946.0 0.06199 16.13 1.0099 15 30 250.27 1158.3 938.9 0.07360 13.59 1.0129 20 35 259.19 1161.0 932.6 0.08508 11.75 1.0157 25 40 267.13 1163-4 927.0 0.09644 10.37 1.0182 30 . 45 274.29 1165.6 922.0 0.10770 9.28 1.0205 35 50 280.85 1167.6 917.4 0.11880 8.42 1.0225 40 55 286.89 1169.4 913.1 0.12990 7.69 1.0245 45 60 292.51 1171.2 909.3 0.14090 7.09 1.0263 50 65 297.77 1127.7 905.5 0.15190 6.58 1.2080 55 70 302.71 1174.3 902.1 0.1628 6.14 1.0295 60 75 307.38 1175.7 898.8 0.1736 5.76 1.0309 65 80 311.80 1177.0 895.6 0.1843 5.42 1.0323 70 85 316.02 1178.3 892.5 0.1957 5.12 j 1.0337 75 90 320.04 1179.6 889.6 0.2058 4.86 1.0350 80 95 323.89 1180.7 886.7 0.2165 4.62 1.0362 85 100 327.58 1181.9 884.0 0.2271 4.40 I 1.0374 90 105 331.13 1182.9 881.3 0.2378 4.20 1.0385 95 110 334.56 1184.0 878.8 0.2484 4.02 j 1.0396 100 115 337.86 1185.0 876.3 0.2589 3.86 S 1.0406 105 120 341.05 1186.0 874.0 0.2695 3.71 1.0416 115 130 347.12 1187.8 869.4 0.2904 3.44 1.0435 135 150 358.26 1191.2 861.2 0.3321 3.01 1.0470 155 170 368.29 1194.3 853.8 0.3737 2.67 1.0502 175 190 377.44 1197.1 847.0 0.4153 2.40 1.0531 210 225 391.79 1201.4 836.3 0.4876 2.05 1.0576 260 275 409.50 1206.8 823.2 0.5913 1.69 1.0632 310 325 424.82 1211.5 811.9 0.6960 1.43 1.0680 NOTE. The equivalent evaporation, at any temperature, is equal to the given evaporation multiplied by the factor of its pressure and divided by the factor of the desired pressure. The equivalent evaporation from any other temperature than 212 F. by adding to the given factor .00101 multiplied by the number of degrees temperature below 212. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 67 *8<; e JIM oo oooo til O'd-ooOTtDooc>-TH 3ir>ooooooeocD?oooo?c5DCO d r4 ! i-i CM' co tt-' 10 co c~-' en r-i w LO a w ^ LO aj w' id oo TH OOOOOr- * IO ID C- CO O> O 68 CREOSOTED TIMBER SHEET METALS. WEIGHTS OF, PER SQUARE FOOT. 1 Thickness in\ 1 1 Inches. \ Wrought Iron. Cast Iron. Steel. Copper. Brass. Lead. Zinc. & 2.51 2.34 2.55 2.89 2.67 3.69 2.34 ^ 5.03 4.69 5.10 5.78 5.35 7.38 4.68 ~fs 7.58 7.03 7.66 8.67 8.02 11.07 7.02 \ 10.07 9.38 10.21 11.56 10.70 14.76 9.36 TS 12.58 11.73 12.76 14.45 13.37 18.45 11.70 % 15.10 14.07 15.33 17.34 16.05 22.14 14.04 T^ 17.62 16.42 17.87 20.23 18.72 25.83 16.34 | 20.14 18.77 20.42 23.12 21.40 29.53 18.72 "& 22.65 21.11 22.97 26.01 24.07 33.22 21.08 25.17 23.46 25.52 28.90 26.75 36.91 23.44 tt 27.69 25.81 28.08 31.97 29.42 40.60 25.80 1 30.21 28.15 30.63 34.68 32.10 44.29 28.13 ft 32.72 30.50 33.18 37.57 35.19 47.98 30.49 ? 35.24 32.85 35.73 40.69 38.28 51.67 32.81 if 37.76 35.19 28.28 43.35 41.37 55.37 35.17 1 40.28 37.54 40.83 46.25 43.75 59.06 37.50 NAILS AND SPIKES. Nails. Spikes. Trade Size. Number pei- Pound. Length in Inches. Number per Pound. Length in Inches. Number per Pound. Length in Inches. 3d 400 v*k 640 11/4 30 33, 4d 300 Wb 380 1^/2 23 4 6d 150 2 210 2 13 5 8d 85 2^ 115 21^2 10 6 10 d 60 3 " 77 3 7 7 16 d 40 31^2 48 3^72 5 8 20d 20 4 31 4 4 3 )2 9 30d 16 4^2 22 4 1 /2 40d 14 5 17 5 60d S 6 11 6 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 69 s 5 K - = OD A 00000 I o'o'ooo II 1* 2< 70 CREOSOTED TIMBER IRON CHAINS ("PROOF"). Diameter of Bar. Inches. Weight per Lineal Foot. Pounds. Breaking Strain. Pounds. Diameter of Bur. Inches. Weight per Lineal Foot. Pounds. Breaking Strain. Pounds. 0.14 0.8 3000 1.% 18.3 88300 o.% 1.7 7000 Ufa 21.7 105200 0.^ 2.5 12300 1.% 26.0 123500 o.% 4.3 19200 1.% 28.0 143300 0. 3 4 5.8 27000 l- 7 /8 32.0 164500 0. 7 / 8 8.0 37000 2.0 38.0 187000 1.0 . 10.7 49200 2.1/4 54.0 224400 Vk 12.5 59200 2.^ 71.0 277000 i.\ 16.0 73000 2.3 4 88.0 335300 MANILA ROPE (3 PLY). Actual Circum- ference. Approx- imate Diam. Weight per Lin. Foot. Breaking Strain. Actual Circum- ference. Approx- imate Diam. Weight perLin. Foot. Breaking Strain. Inches. Inches. Pounds. Pounds. Inches. Inches. Pounds Pounds. 0.% 0.24 0.19 560 6. 1.9 1.2 25500 1. 0.32 0.33 780 6.1/2 2.0 1.4 29100 i*fe 0.5 0.07 1560 7. 2.2 1.6 32700 2. 0.6 0.13 2730 7.^ 2.4 1.9 36000 2.*fc 0.8 0.21 4270 8. 2.5 2.1 39800 3. 0.9 2.90 6100 9. 2.8 2.7 47000 3.^2 1.1 0.40 8500 10. 3.2 3.3 54000 4. 1.3 0.53 11500 11. 3.5 4.0 61300 4.^ 1.4 0.67 14700 12. 3.8 4.7 68500 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 71 & J H 1 Q spunoj WW Md jy6}9M. COOJOJi-ii-ii-JcJOOOOOOCJO ?a>W7 W> ScoP-aS flWWFWww^JW co i> t ^lin^HC-tnCMOO co c o* oo d i-HOJCO^inLOCOC'-COCDO ja 111 I^-g 2 -2 I im: i iii! " 111 2 1 72 CREOSOTED TIMBER WIRE GAUGES. INCHES. Number. London or Old English. English Legal Standard. Sfubbs or Birm- ingham. Browne and Sharpe. Roebling. 000000 0.464 0460 00000 0.432 0.430 0000 0.4540 0.400 6.454 0.46000 0.393 000 0.4250 0.372 0.425 0.40964 0.362 00 0.3800 0.348 0.380 0.36480 0.331 0.3400 0.324 0.340 0.32486 0.307 1 0.3000 0.300 0.300 0.28930 0.283 2 0.2840 0.276 0.284 0.25763 0.263 3 0.2590 0.252 0.259 0.22942 0.244 4 0.2380 0.232 0.238 0.20431 0.225 5 0.2200 0.212 0.220 0.18194 0.207 6 0.2030 0.192 0.203 0.16202 0.192 7 0.1800 0.176 0.180 0.14428 0.177 8 0.1650 0.160 0.165 0.12849 0.162 9 0.1480 0.144 0.148 0.11443 0.148 10 0.1340 0.128 0.134 0.10189 0.135 11 0.1200 0.116 0.120 0.09074 0.120 12 0.1090 0.104 0.109 0.08081 0.105 13 0.0950 0.092 0.095 0.07196 0.092 14 0.0830 0.080 0.083 0.06408 0.080 15 0.0720 0.072 0.072 0.05706 0.072 16 0.0650 0.064 0.065 0.05082 0.063 17 0.0580 0.056 0.058 0.04525 0.054 - 18 0.0490 0.048 0.049 0.04030 0.047 19 0.0400 0.040 0.042 0.03589 O.Q41 20 0.0350 0.036 0.035 0.03196 0.035 21 0.0315 0.032 0.032 0.02846 0.032 22 0.0295 0.028 0.028 0.02534 0.028 23 0.0270 0.024 0.025 0.02257 0.025 24 0.0250 0.022 0.022 0.02010 0.023 25 0.0230 0.020 0.020 0.01790 0.020 26 0.0205 0.018 0.018 0.01594 0.018 27 0.01875 0.0164 0.016 0.01419 0.017 28 0.01650 0.0148 0.014 0.01264 0.016 29 0.01550 0.0136 0.013 0.01125 0.015 30 0.01375 0.0124 0.012 0.01002 0.014 31 0.01225 0.0116 0.010 0.00893 0.0135 32 0.01125 0.0108 0.009 0.00795 0.0130 ' 33 0.01025 0.0100 0.008 0.00708 0.0110 34 0.00950 0.0092 0.007 0.00630 0.0100 35 0.00900 0.0084 0.005 0.00561 0.0095 36 0.00750 0.0076 0.004 0.00500 0.0090 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 74 CREOSOTED TIMBER AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 1 Area. Circum- ference. 1 Area. Circum- ference. 1 Area. Circum- ference. 0.1 0.007854 0.31416 4.0 .1 12.5664 13.2025 12.5664 12.8805 8.0 .1 50.2655 51.5300 25.1327 25.4469 .2 0.031416 .-62832 .2 13.8544 1 13.1947 I i .2:52.8102 25.7611 .3 .070686 .94248 .3 14.5220 ! 13.5088 H .3 i 54.1061 ! 26 0752 .4 .12566 1.2566 .4 15.2053! 13.8230 ii .4 ! 55.4177 ! 26.3894 .5 .19635 1.5708 .5 15.9043 14.1372 !: .5; 56.7450 26.7035 .6 .28274 1.8850 .6 16.6190 14.4513 :i .6| 58.0880 i 27.0177 .7 .38485 2.1991 .7 17.3494 14.7655 ii .71 59.4468 27.3319 .8 .50266 2.5133 .8 18.0956 15.0796 ! .8 60.8212 I 27.6460 .9 .63617 2.8274 .9 18.8574 15.3938 .9 62.2114 ! 27.9602 1.0 0.7854 3.1416 5.0 19.6350 15.7080 9.0 63.6173 28.2743 .1 .9503 3.4558 .1 20.4282 16.0221 .1 65.0388 28.5885 .2 1.1310 3.7699 .2 21.2372 16.3363 .2 66.4761 28.9027 .3 1.3273 4.0841 .3 22.0618 ! 16.6504 !| .3 67.9291 i 29 2168 .4 1.5394 4.3982 .4 22.9022 ] 16.9646 ; ! .4 69.3978 29^5310 .5 1.7671 4.7124 .5 23.7583 i 17.2788 i| .5 70.8822 i 29 8451 .6 2.0106 5.0265 .6 24.6301 17.5929 ;| .6 72.3823 ! 30.1593 .7 2.2698 5.3407 .7 25.5176 17.9071 !, .7 73.8981 j 30.4734 .8 2.5447 5.6549 .8 26.4208 18.2212 .8 1 75.4296 ! 30 7876 .9 2.8353 5.9690 .9 27.3397 18.5354 .9 76.9769 31.1018 2.0 3.1416 6.2832 6.0 28.2743 18.8496 10.0 78.5398 31.4159 .1 3.4636 6.5973 .1 29.2247 19.1637 .1 80.1185 31.7301 .2 3.8013 6.9115 .2 30.1907 19.4779 .2 81.7128 32.0442 .3 4.1548 7.2257 .3 31.1725 1 19.7920 : .3 83.3229 32.3584 .4 4.5239 7.5398 .4 32.1699 i 20.1062 ! .4 ! 84.9487 32.6726 5 4.9087 7.8540 .5 33.1831 i 20.4204 | .5 86.5901 i 32.9867 !e 5.3093 8.1681 .6 34.2119 I 20.7345 i .6 88.2473 i 33.3009 .7 5.7256 8.4823 .7 35.2565 : 21.0487 j! .7189.9202 33.6150 .8 6.1575 8.7965 .8 36.3168 21.3628 .8 1 91.6088 33.9292 .9 6.6052 9.1106 .9 37.3928 21.6770 .9 93.3132 34.2134 3.0 7.0686 9.4248 7.0 38.4845 21.9911 i 11.0 95.0332 ! 34.5575 .1 7.5477 9.7389 .1 j 39.5919 ' 22.3053 II .1 1 96.7689 34.8717 .2 8.0425 10.0531 .2, 40.7150 I 22.6195 ; .2 : 98.5203 35.1858 3 8.5530 . 10.3673 .3141.8539; 22.9336;, .3100.2875,35.5000 .4 9.0792 10.6814 .4! 43.0084 23.2478 ,i .4102.0703 ! 35.8142 g 9.6211 10.9956 .5 44.1786 23.5619! .5 103.8689 i 36.1283 !e 10.1788 11.3097 .6 45.3646 23.8761 .6 105.6832 i 36.4425 7 10.7521 11.6239 .7 46.5663 24.1903 .7 107.5132 36.7566 !s 11:3411 11.9381 .8 47.7836 24 . 5044 ! . 8 109 . 3588 37 . 0708 .9 11.9459 12.2522 .9 49.0167 24.8186 .9 111.2202 37.3850 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 75 AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. i Jrea. Circum- ference. i Area. Circum- ference. b Area. Circum- ference. 12.0 113.0973 37.6991 16.0 201.0619 50.2655 20.0 314.1593 62.8319 .1 114.9901 38.0133 .1 i 203.5831; 50.5796 | .1 317.3087 63.1460 .2 116.8987 38.3274 .2 206.1199 50.8938 ! .2 320.4739 63.4602 .3 118.8229 38.6416:- .3 208.6724 51.2080 ' .3 323.654763.7743 .4 120.7628 38.9557 i .4 211.2407 51.5221 , .4 ; 326.8513! 64.0885 .5 122.7185 39.2699 .5:213.8246 51.8363 .5 330. 0636J 64.4026 .6 124.6898 39.5841 .6 216.4243 52.1504 ; .6 ! 333. 29l6i 64.7168 .7 126.6769 39.8982 .7 219.0397 52.4646 i .7 336.5353 65.0310 .8 128.6796 40.2124 .8 221.6708 52.7788 .8 339.7947 65.3451 9 130.6981 40.5265 .9 224.3176 53.0929 .9 343.0698 65.6593 13.0 132.7323 40.8407 17.0 226.9801 53.4071 1 21.0 346.4606 65.9734 .1 134.7822 41.1549 ; .1 1 229.6583 53.7212 i .1 349.6671 66.2876 .2 136.8478 41.4690 i .2 232.3522 54.0354 .2 352.9894 66.6018 .3 138.9291 41.7832 : .3 235.0618 54.3496 .3 356.3273 66.9159 .4 141.0261 42. 0973 j! .4:237.7871 54.6637 ! .41359.6809 67.2301 .5 143.1388 42.4115 .5 240.5282 54.9779 .5 : 363.0503 67.5442 .6 145.2672 42.7257 i .6 243.2849 55.2920 j .6 366.4354 67.8584 \7 147.4114 43.0398 .7 246.0574 55.6062 .7 i 369.8361' 68.1726 .8 149.5712 43.3540 .8 ! 248.8456 55.9203 .8 i 373.2526 68.4867 .9 151.7468 43.6681 .9 251.6494 56.2345 .9 376.6848 68.8009 14.0 153.9380 43.9823 18.0 254.4690 56.5486 22.0 380.1327 69.1150 .3 156.1450 44.2965 .1 257.3043 56.8628 .1 383.5963 69.4992 .2 158.3677 44.6106 .2 260.1553 : 57.1770 .2 1 387.0756 69.7434 .3 160.6061 44.9248 .3|263.0220 57.4911:1 .3 i 390.5707 70.0575 .4 162.8602 45.2389 i .4 ' 265.9044 57.8053 .4 394.0814 70.3717 .5 165.1300 45.5531 .5 268.8025 58.1195 5 397.6078 70.6858 .6 167.4155 45.8673 .6 271.7164 58.4336 .61 401.15005 71.0000 .7 169.7167 46.1814 M .71274.6459 58.7478 .7 404.70781 71.3142 .8, 172.0336; 46.4956 .91 174.3662 46.8097 .8 .9 277.5911 280.5521 59.0619 59.3761 .8 .9 408.2814 71.6283 411.8707 71.9425 15. C 176.7146 47.1239 19.0 283.5287 59.6903 23.0 415.4756 72.2566 .1 179.0786 , 47.4380 .1 286.5211 : 60.0044 .1 1 419.0963! 72.5708 | 181.4584 47.7522 i .2:289.5292 60.3186 .2 i 422.7327 72.8849 183.853S | 48.06641; .3 292.5530 60.6327 .3 426.384873.1991 .< 186.265C 48.3805 .4 i 295.5925 60.9469 I .4 430.0526 73.5133 P 188.6919 48.6947 .5 ; 298.6477 61.2611 ; .5 433.7361 73.8274 !< 191.134E 49.0088 .6'301.7186 61.5752 .6 ' 437.4354 74.1416 j 193.5928 49.3230 .7 304.8052 61.8894 .7 441.1503 74.4557 .1 196.0668 49.6372 .8 307.9075J 62.2035 .8 444.880$ 74.7699 j 198.5565 49.9513 .9 311.0255 62.5177 .9 448.627C 75.0841 | 76 CREOSOTED TIMBER AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. j Area. Circum- ference. | Area. Oircum- ference. j Area, Circum- ference. 24.0 452.3893 75.3982 28.0 615.7522 87.9646 32.0 804.24/7 100.5310 .1 456.1671 75.7124 ,i .1:620.1582! 88.2788 .1 809.2821 100.8451 A 459.9606! 76.0265 ' .2:624.5800! 88.5929 .2 814.3322 101.1593 463.7698; 76.3407 .3 629.0175! 88.9071 i .3 819.3980 101.4734 '.4 467.5947 76.6549 .41633.4707! 89.2212 ! .4 824.4796 101.7876 5 471.4352! 76.9690 .5 i 637.9397! 89.5354 ! .5 829.5768 102.1018 !e 475.2916J 77.2832 .6 i 642.4243! 89.8495 .6 834.6898 102.4159 .7 479.1636; 77.5973 .7 ! 646.9246 90.1637 .7 839.8185 102.7301 .8 483.0513! 77.9115 .8 651.4407 90.4779 .8 844.9628 103.0442 c 486.9547 78.2257 .9 655.9724 90.7920 .9 850.1229 103.3584 25.0 490.8739 78.5398 29.0 660.5199 91.1062 33.0 855.2986 103.6726 .1 494.8087 78.8540 .1 665.0830 91.4203 .1 860.4902 103.9867 .2 498.7592 79.1681 .2 669.6619 91.7345 .2 865.6973 104.3009 502.7255 79.4823 .3 ! 674.2565 92.0487 .3 870.9202 104.6150 [4 506.7075 79.7965 .4! 678.8668^ 92.3628 .4 876.1588 104.9292 5 510.7052 80.1106 .5 i 683.4928 92.6770 .5 881.4131 105.2434 'l 514.7185 80.4248 !6 688.1345 92.9911 .6 886.6831 105.5575 .7 518.7476 80.7389 .7 ! 692.7919 93.3053 .7 891.9688 105.8717 .8 .9 522.7924J 81.0531 526.8529 81.3672 .8 .9 697.4650 702.1538 93.6195 93.9336 .8 .9 897.2703 902.5874 106.1858 106.5000 26.0 530.9292 81.6814 30.0 706.8583 94.2478 34.0 907.9203 106.8142 .1 535.0211! 81.9956 .1 711.5786 94.5619 .1 913.2688 107.1283 .2 539.1287: 82.3097 .2 716.3145 94.8761 .2 918.6331 107.4425 .3 543.2521! 82.6239 .3 721.0662 95.1903 .3 924.0131 107.7566 .4 547.3911 82.9380 .4 1 725.8336 95.5044 .4 929.4088 108.0708 .5 551.5459i 83.2522 .5 730.6167 95.8186 .5 934.8202 108.3849 .6 555.7163! 83.5664 .6 735.4154 96.1327 .6 940.2473 108.6991 .7 559.9025 83.8805 .7 740.2299 96.4469 .7 945.6901 109.0133 .8 564.1044 84.1947 .8 745.0601 96.7611 .8 951.1486 109.3274 .9 568.3220 84.5088 .9 749.9060 97.0752 .9 956.6228 109.6416 27.0 572.5553 84.8230 31.0 754.7676 97.3894 35.0 962.1128 109.9557 .1 576.8043 85.1372 .1 759.64501 97.7035 .1 967.6184 110.2699 .2 581.0690! 85.4513 .2 1 764.5380 98.0177 .2 973.1397 110.5841 .3 585.3494 85.7655 .3 ! 769.4467 98.3319 .3 978.6768 110.8982 .4 589.6455 86.0796 .4 774.3712 98.6460 .4 984.2296 111.2124 5 593.95741 86.3938 .5 779.3113 98.9602 .5 989.7980 111.5265 '.6 598.2849! 86.7080 .6 784.2672 99.2743 .6 995.3822 111.8407 .7 602.6282 87.0221 .7 789.2388 99.5885 .7 1000.9821 112.1549 .8 606.98711 87.3363 .8 794.2260! 99.9026 g 1006.5977 112.4690 .9 611.3618 87.6504 .9 799.2290 100.2168 !9 1012.2290 112.7832 ITS PREPARATION AND USES AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 77 I Area. Circum- ference. s Area. Circum- ference. jj Area. Circum- ference. 36.0 1017.8760 113.0960 40.0 1256.6371 125.6637 44.0 1520.5308 138.2301 .11023.5387 113.4115 .11262.9281 125.9779'; .1 1527.4502; 138.5442 .21029.2172 113.7257 .2 1289.2348 126.2920 i ; .2 1534.3853i 138.8584 .3;1034.9113 114.0398 .3 1275.5573 126.6062 j | .3 1541.3360 139.1726 .4i 1040. 6212 114.3540 j .4 1281.8955 126.9203 ! .4 1548.3025 139.4867 .51046.3467 114.6681 i .5 1288.2493 127.2345 .5 1555.2847 139.8009 .61052.0880 114.9823 .6 1294.6189, 127.5487 t .6 1562.2826 140.1153 .7 1057.8449 115.2965 .7 1301.0042j 127.8628 .7 1569.2962 140.4292 .8 1063.6176 115.6106 .8 1307.4052 128.1770 .8 1576.3255 140.7434 .91069.4060 115.9248 .9 1313.8219 128.4911 .9 1583.3706 141.0575 37.01075.2101 116.2389 41.0 1320.2543 128.8053 45.0 1590.4313 141.3717 .111081.0299 116.5531 .1 1326.7024 129.1195 .1 1597.5077 141.6858 .211086.8654 116.8672 .2 1333.1663 129.4336 .2 1604.5999 142.0000 . 3 1092 . 7166 ! 117 . 1814 i . 3 1339 . 6458 129 . 7478 j .3 1611.7077 142.3142 .41098.5835 117.4956 .41346.1410 130.0619 .511104.4662 117.80971! .51352.6520 130.3761 .4 .5 1618.8313 142.6283 1625.97051 142.9425 .61110.36451 118. 1239 i! .6 1359.1786 130.6903 .6 11633.1255! 143.2566 .711116.2786 118.4380 .7 1365.72101 131.0044 1 .7 1640.2962; 143.5708 .8 1122.2083 118.7522 .8 1372.2791; 131.3186 ' .8,1647.4826 143.8849 .9 1128.1538 119.0664 .9 1378.8529 131.6327 | .9 1654.6847 144.1991 38.0 1134.1149 119.3805 42.0 1385.4424 131.9469 46.0 1661.9025 144.5133 .1 1140.0918 119.6947 .1 1392.0476 132.2611 .1 1669.1660 144.8274 .2 1146.0844 120.0088 .2 1398.6685 132.5752; .2 1676.3853 145.1416 .3 1152.0927 120.3230 .3 1405. 3051 ! 132.8894 i .3 1683.6502 145.4557 .4 1158.1167 120.6372 .4 1411.95741 133.2035 i .41690.9308 145.7699 .5 1164.1564! 120.9513 .5 1418.6254 133.5177- .511696.22721 146.0841 .6 1170.21181 121.2655 .6 1425.3092 133.8318 .6!l705.5392 146.3982 .7 1176.28301 121.5796 .7 1432.0086 134.1460 .7 1712.8670 146.7124 .8 1182.3698 121.8938 .8 1438.7238 134.4602 .8 1720.2105 147.0265 .9 1188.4724 122.2080 .9 1445.4546 134.7743 .9 1727.5697 147.3407 39.0 1194.5906 122.5221 43.0 1452.2012 135.0885 47.0 1734.9445 147.6550 .11200.7246 122.8363 .1 1458.9635 135. 4026 !j .1 1742.3351 147.9690 .21206.8742 ; 123.1504 .2 1465.7415 135. 7168 li .2 1749.7414 148.2832 .31213.0390 123.4646 .3 1472.5352; 136.0310 .3 1757.1635 148.5973 .4J1219.2207 123.7788 .4 J1479.3446 136.3451 ' .4 1764.6012' 148.9115 .5 1225.4175 124.0929 .5 1486.1697 136.6593 .51772.0546 149.2257 .6 1231.6300 124.4071 .6 1493.0105: 136.9734 .6 1779.5237 149.5398 .7 1237.8582 124.7212 .7 1499.8670, 137.2876 .7 1787.0086 149.8540 .8 1244.1021 125.0354 .8 1506.7393 137.6018 .8 1794.5091 150.1681 .9 1250.3617 125.3495 .9 1513.6272 137.9159 .9 1802.0254 150.4823 78 CREOSOTED TIMBER AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. Diameter. Area. Circum- ference. 1 Area. Circum- ference. 1 Area. Circum- ference. 48.0 1809.5974 150.7964 52.0 2123.7166 163.3628 56.0 2463.0086 175.9292 .1 1817.1050 151.1106 .1 2131.8926 163.6770 .1 2471.8130 176.2433 .2 1824.6684 151.4248 .2 J2140.0843 163.9911 .2 2480.6330 176.5575 .3 1832.2475^ 151.7389 1 .3 12148.2917 164.3053 .3 2489.4687 176.8717 .4 1839.8423 152.0531 ' .4 2156.5149 164.6195 .4 2498.3201 177.1858 5 1847.4528, 152. 3672 i, .5 2164.7537 164.9336 .5 2507.1873 177.5000 !e 1855 . 07901 152 . 6814 . 6 2173 . 0082 165.2479 .6 2516.0701 177.8141 .7 1862.7210! 152.9956 1 ,7i2181.2785 165.5619 .7 2524.9687 178.1283 .8 1870.3786 153. 3097 il .812189.5644 165.8761 .8 2533.8830 178.4425 .9 1878.0519 153.6239 .9 2197.8661 166.1903 .9 2542.8129 178.7566 49.0 1885.7409 153.9380 53.0 2206.1834 166.5044 57.0 2551.7586 179.0708 .1 1893.4457 154.2522 .1 2214.5165 166.8186 .1 2560.7200 179.3849 .2 1901.1662 154.5664 .2 12222.8653 167.1327 .2 2569.6971 179.6991 .3 1908 . 9024i 154 . 8805 | . 3 2231 . 2298 167.4469 1 .3 2578.6899 180.0333 .4 .5 1916.6543) 155.1947 : .4 ,2239.6100 1924.4218 155.5088 .52248.0059 167.7610 i .4J2587.6985 168.0752 1 .512596.7227 180.3274 180.6416 .6 1932.2051 155.8230:: .62256.4175 168.3894 ! .6 2605.7626 180.9557 .7 1940.0042 156.1372!! .7 2264.8448 168.7035 ! .7 2614.8183 181.2699 .8 1947.8189 156. 4513 !i .8 2273.2879 169.0177 .8 2623.8896 181.5841 .9 1955.6493 156.7655 .9 2281.7466 169.3318 .9 2632.4767 181.8982 50.0 1963.4954 157.0796 54.0 2290.2210 169.6460 58.0 2642.0794 182.2124 .1 1971.3572 157.3938 .1 2298.7112 169.9602 .1 2651.1979 182.5265 .2 1979.2348 157.7080! .2 2307.2171 170.2743 .2 2660.3321 182.8407 .3 1987.1280; 158.0221 i .32315.7386 170.58851 .3 2669.4820 183.1549 .4 1995 . 0370! 158 . 3363 ' . 4 2324 . 2759 170.9026 ! .4 2678.6476 183.4690 .5 2002.9617! 158.6504 .52332.8289 171.2168 I .5 2687.8289 183.7832 .6 2010.9020J 158.9646 i i .6 ; 2341.3976 171.5310 i .6 2697.0259 184.0973 .7 2018.8581 159.2787 i .7 2349.9820 171.8451 .7 2706.2386 184.4115 .8 2026.8299 159.5929 .8 J2358.5821 172.1593 .8 2715.4670 184.7256 .9 2034.8174 159.9071 .9 2367.1979 172.4735 .9 2724.7112 185.0398 51.0 2042.8206 160.2212 55.02375.8294 172.7876 59.0 2733.9710 185.3540 .1 2050.8395; 160.5354 .1 2384.4767 173.10171 .1 2743.2466 185.6681 .2 2058. 8742| 160.8495 .22393.1396 173.4159 .2 2752.5378 185.9823 .3 2066.9245 161.1637 ! .3 2401.8183 173.7301 .3 2761.8448 186.2964 .42074.9905 161.4779 .4 2410.5126 174.04421 .4 2771.1675 186.6106 .512083.0723; 161. 7920 | .5 2419.2227 .6 2091.1697 162.1062 .6 2427. b485 174.3584 .5 i 2780. 5058 174.6726i .612789.2599 186.9248 187,2389 .72099.2829 162.4203 .7 2436.6899 174.9867 ! .7 2799.2297 187.5531 .82107.4118 162.7345 ! .8 2445.4471 175.3009 1 .8 2808.6152 187.8672 .92115.5563 163.0487 .9 2454.2200 175.6150 .9 2818.0165 188.1814 ITS PREPARATION AND USES 79 AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 1 Area. Circum- ference. | Area. Circum- ference. j Area. Circum- ference. 60.0 2827.4334 188.4956 64.0 3216.9909 201.0620 68.0 3631.6811 213.6283 .1 2836.8660 188.809711 .1 3227.0518 201. 3767 jl .1 3642.3704 213.9425 .2 2846.3844 189. 1239^ .2 3237.1285 201.6902 .2 3653.0754 214.2566 .3 2855.7784 189.4380! .3 3247.2222 202.00441 .3 3663.7960 214.5708 .4 2865.2582 189.7522! .4 3257.3289 202.3186! .4 3674.5324 214.8849 .5 2874.7536 190. 0664 i .5 3267.4527 202.6327! .5 3685.2845 215.1991 .6 2884.2648 190. 3805 j .6 3277.5922 202. 9469 J .6 3696.0523, 215.5133 .7 2893.7917 190.6947 ! .7 3287.7474 203.2610 1 .7 3706.8359 215.8274 .8 2903.3343 191.0088 ! .8 3297.9183 203.5752 .8 3717.63511 216.1416 .9 2912.8926 191.3230 .9 3308.1049 203.8894 .9 3728.4500 216.4556 61.02922.4666 191.6372 1 65.013318.3072 204.3025'^ 69.0 3739.2807 216.7699 .1 2932.0563 191.9513 .1 3328.5223 204.5176 ! .1 3750.1270 217.0841 .2 2941.6617 192.2655 .2 3338.7590 204.8318 .2 3760.9891 217.3982 .3 2951.2828 192.5796 .3 3349.0085 205.14601 .3 3771.8668 217.7124 .4 2960.9197 192.8938 ! .4 3359.2736 205.4602 .4 3782.7603 218.0265 .5 2970.5722 193.70291! .5 3369.5545 205.77431 .5 3793.6695 218.3407 .6 2980.2405 193.5221 .6 3379.8510 206.08851 .6 3804.5944 218.6548 .7 2989.9244 193.8363 .7 3290.1633 206.4026 .7 3815.5350| 218.9690 .8 2999.6241 194.1504 | .8 3400.4913 206.7168 .8 3826.4913! 219.2832 .9 ; 3009.3395 194.4646 .9 3410.8350 207. 0310 i .9 3837.4633 219.5973 62.0 3019.0705 194.7787 66.0 3421.1944 207.3451 70.0 3848.4510 219.9115 .1 3028.8173 195.0929 .1 3431.5695 207.6593! .1 3859.4544 220.2256 .2 3038.5798 195.4071 1 .2 3441.9603 207.9734 .2 3870.4736 220.5398 .3 3048.3580 195.7212 .3 3452.3669 208.2876 .3 3881.5084; 220.8540 .4 3058.1520 196.0354 .4 3462.7891 208.6017 .4 3892.5590 221.1681 .5 3067.9616 196.3495 .5 3473.2270 208.9159 .5 3903.6252i 221.4823 .6 3077.7869 196.6637 .6 3483.6807 209.2301 .6 3914.7072 221.7964 .7 3087.6279 196.9779 .7 3494.1500 209.5442 1 .7 3925.8049: 222.1106 .83097.4847 .9,3107.3571 197.2920 197.6062 .8 .9 3504.6351 3515.1359 209.8584 210.1725 .8 .9 3936.9182 ,3948.0473 222.4248 222.7389 63.o'3117.2453 197.9203 67.0 3525.6524 210.4867 71.0 '3959. 1921 223.0531 .1 3127.1492 198.2345 1 .1 3536.1845 210.8009 i .1 3970.3526 223.3672 .2 3137.0688 198.5847 .2 3546.7324 211.1150 .2 3981.5289 223.6814 .3 3147.0040 198.8628 .3 3557.2960 211.4292 .3 3992.7208 223.9956 .4 3156.9550 199.1770 .4 3567.8754 211.7433 .4 4003.9284 224.3097 .5 3166.9217 199.4911 .5 3578.4704 212.0575 .5 4015.1518 224.6239 .6 3176.9043 199.8053 j .6 3589.0811 212. 3717 i .6 4026.3908 224.9380 .7 3186.9023 200.1195 .7 3599.7075 212.6858 .7 4037.6456: 225.2522 .8 3196.9161 200. 4336 : .8 3610.3497 213.0000 .8 4048.9160 225.5664 .93206.9456 200.747811 .9 i \ \\ 3621.0075 213.3141 .9 4060.2022 225.8805 80 CREOSOTED TIMBER AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. i Area. Circum- ference. 5 Area. Circum- ference. K s Area. Circum- ference. 72.0 4071.5041 226.1947 76.0 4536.4598 238.7610 80.0 5026.5482 251.3274 .1 4082.8217 226.5088 1 .1 4548.4051 239.0752 .1 5039.1229 251.6416 .2 4094.1550 226.8230 .2 4560.3673 239.3894 .2 5051.7124 251.9557 .3 4105.5040 227.1371 .3 4572.3446 239.7035! .3 5064.3180 252.2699 .4 4116.8687 227.4513 .4 4584.3377 240.0177 .4 5076.9394 252.5840 5 4128.2491 227.7655 .5 4596.3464 240.3318 .5 5089.5764 252.8982 !e 4139.6452 228.0796 .6 4608.3708 240.6460i! .6 5102.2292 253.2124 .7 4151.0571 228.3938 1 .7 4620.4110 240.9602 .7 5114.8977 253.5265 .8 4162.4846 228.7079 .8 4632.4669 241.2743 .8 5127.5819 253.8407 .9 4173.9279 229.0221 .9 4644.5384 241.5885 .9 5140.2818 254.1548 73.0 4185.3868 229.3363 77.0 4656.6257 241.9026 81.0 5152.9973 254.4690 .1 4196.8615 229.6504] .1 4668.7287 242.2168 ; .1 5165.7287 254.7832 .24208.3519 229.9646 .2 4680.8474 242.5310 .2 5178.4757 255.0973 .34219.8579 230.2787 .3 4692.9818 242.8451 3 5191.2384 255.4115 .4 4231.3797 230.5929 .4 4705.1319 243.1592 : .4 5204.0168 255.7256 .5 4242.9172 230.9071 .5 4717.2977 243.4734 .5 5216.8110 256.0398 .6 4254.4704 231.2212 .6 4729.4792 243.7876 .6 5229.6208 256.3540 .7 4266.0394 231.5354 .7 4741.6765 244.1017 .7 5242.4463 256.6681 .8 4277.6240 231.8495 .8 4753.8894 244.4159 ! 8 5255.2876 256.9823 .9 4289.2243 232.1637 .9 4767.1181 244.7301 .9 5268.1446 257.2966 74.0 4300.8403 232.4779 78.0 4778.3624 245.0442 82.0 5281.0173 257.6106 .1 4312.4721 232.7920 .1 4790.6225 245.3580 | .1 5293.9056 257.9247 .24324.1195 233.1062 .2 4802.8983 245.6725 .2 5306.8097 258.2389 .314335.7827 233.4203 .3 4815.1897 245.9867 .3 5319.7295 258.5531 .44347.4616 233.7345 .4 4827.4969 246.3009 .4 5332.6650 258.8672 .54359.1562 234.0487 .5 4839.8198 246.6150 .5 5345.6162 259.1814 .64370.8664 234. 3628 j! .6 4852.1584 246.9292 5358.5832 259.4956 .74382.5924 234.6770 .7 .4864.5128 247.?433 7 5371.5658 259.8097 .814394.3341 234.9911 .8 14876.8828 247.5575 .8 5384.5641 ; 260.1239 .94406.0916 235.3053 1 .9 4889.26851 247.8717 .9 5397.5782 260.4380 75.04417.8647 235.6194 79.0 4901.6699 248.1858 83.0 5410.607S 260.7522 .114429.6535 235.9336 .1 J4914.0871 248.50001 .1 5423.6534 1 261.0663 .2 : 4441.458C 236.2478 .2 4926.5199 248.8141 ' .2 5436.7146 261.3805 .3:4453.2783 236.5619 .3 4938.9685 249.1283 .3 5449.7915 261.6947 .44465.1142 236.8761 .4 i4951.432S 249.4425 .4 5462. 884C 262.0088 .54476.965S 237.1902 .5 ! 4963. 9127 249.7566 .5 5475. 992S 262.3230 .61 4488. 8332 237.5044 .6 ,4976.4084 250.0708 .6 5489.116C 262.6371 .714600.7162 237.8186 .7 4988.9198 250.3850 .7 ,5502.2561 262.9513 .8:4512.6151 238.1327 .94524.52961 238.4469 .8 5001.4469 250.6991 .8 .915013.9897 251. 0133 || .9 5515.4115 263.2655 5528.5826 263.5796 1 1 II ITS PREPARATION AND USES 81 AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 1 Area. Circum- ference, fc Area. Circum- ference. Jj Area. Circum- ference. 84.0 5541.7694 263.8938 88.0 6082.1234 276.4602 92.0 6647.6101 289.0265 .1 5554.9720 264.2079 .1 :6095.9542 276.7743 : 1 .1 6662.0692 289.3407 .2 5568.1902 264.5221 .2 6109. 8008 1 277.0885;! .2 6676.5441! 289.6548 .35581.4242 .45594.6739 264.8363 265.1514 A 6123.6631 277.4026 .3 6691.0347j 289.9690 6137.5411 277.7168 .4 6705.54101 290.2832 .5 5607.9392 265.4646 .5 6151.4348 278.0309 .5 6720.0630 290.5973 .6 5621.2203 265.7787 .6 6165.3442 278.3451] I .6 |6734.6008i 290.9115 .7 5634.5171 266.0929 .7 6179.2693 278.6593 .7 6749.1542 291.2256 .8 5647 8296 266.4071 .8 6193.2101 278.9740 .8 6763.7233 291.5398 .9,5661.1578 266.7212 .9 6207.1666 279.2876 .9 6778.3282 291.8540 85.05674.5017 267.0374 89.0 6221.1389 279.6017 93.0 6792.9087 292.1681 .1 5687.8614 267.3495 .16235.1268279.9159 .1 6807.5250 292.4823 .2 5701.2367 267.6637 .2 6249.1304 280.2301 .2 6822.1569 292.7964 .3 5714.6277 267.9779 .36263.1498280.5442 .36836.8046 293.1106 .4 5728.0345 268.2920: .4 6277.18491 280. 8584 j| ! 4 6851 ! 4680 293.4248 .5 5741.4569 268.6062: .5 6291.2356' 281.1725 '! .6 6866.1471 293.7389 .65754.8951 .7J5768.3490 268.9203 269.2345 1 .6 ;6305.3021 281.4867 ! i .6 6880.8419 294.0531 .7 16319.38431 281.8009 i i .7 6895.55241 294.3672 .8 5781.8185 269.5486 .8 J6333.4822 282.1150 .8 6910.2786! 294.6814 .9 5795.3038 269.8628 .9 6347.5958 282.4292 .9 6925.0205 294.9956 86.0 .1 5808.8048 5822.3215 270.1770 270.4911 90.0 .1 6361.7251 6375.8701 282.7433 283.0575 94.0 6939.7782 295.3097 .1 16954. 5515; 295.6239 .25835.8539 .36849.4020 270.8053 271.1194 .2 6390.0309 283.3717 .3 6404.2073 1 283.6858 .2 6969.3106J 295.9380 .3 6984.14531 296.2522 .4 5862.9659 271.4336 .4 6418.3995 284.0000 .4 6998.9658 296.5663 .5 5876.5454 271.7478 .516432.6073 284.3141 .5 7013.8019 296.8805 .6 5890.1407 272.0619 .616446.8309 284.6283 .6 7028.6538 297.1947 .7 5903.7516 272.3761 .7 6461.0701; 284.9425 .7 7043.5214 297.5088 .8 5917.3783 272.6902 .8 6475.3251 285.2566 .8 7058.4047 297.8230 .9 5931.0206 273.0044 .9 6489.5958 285.5708 .9 7073.3033 298.1371 87.05944.6787! 273.3186 . 15958. 3525 1 273.6327 91.0 .1 6503.8822 6518.1843 285.8849 286.1991 95.0 .1 7088.2184 7103.1488 298.4513 298.7655 .2 5972.0420 273.9469 .2 6532.5021 286.5133 .2 7118.1950 299.0796 .3 5985.7472 274.2610 .316546.8356 286.8274 .3 7133.0568 299.3938 .4 5999.4681 274 . 5752 I .4 6561 . 1848 287 . 1416 .4 7148.0343: 299.7079 .5 6013.2047 274.8894 .5 :6575.5498: 287.4557 .5 7163.0276 300.0221 .66026.9570 .76040.7250 275 . 2035 1 .6 6589 . 9304 287 . 7699 275.5177 .7 ;6604.3268 288.0840 .6 17178.0366 300.3363 .7 7193.0612 300.6504 .86054.5088 .96068.3082 275.8318 .8 276.1460 .9 II 6618.7388 6633.1666 288.3982 288.7124 .8 7208.1016 300.9646 .9 7223.1577 301.2787 82 CREOSOTED TIMBER AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. V.' Area. Circum- ference. v! 5 Area. Circum- ference. k Area. Circum- ference. 96.0 7238.2295 \ 1 I 301.5929 : 97. 017389. 8113 304.73451 98.0,7542.9640 307.8761 .1 7253.3170 301 . 9071 1 .1 7405 . 0559 305 . 0486 ' . 1 7558 . 3656 308 . 1902 .2 7268.4202 302 .2212 i .2 1 7420 . 3162 305 . 3628 . 2 7573 . 7830 308 . 5044 .3 7283.5391 302 . 5354 i . 3 7435 . 5922 305 . 6770 ! . 3 1 7589 . 2161 308 . 81 86 .4 7298.6737 302.8405 , .47450.8839 305.9911 .4 7604.6648 309.1327 .57313.8240 303.1637 .57466.1913 306.3053 .5 7620.1293 309.4469 .67328.9901 303 . 4779 ! ! . 6 7481 . 51 44 306 . 6194 .6 7635.6095 309.7610 .717344.1718 303.7920; .77496.8532 306.9336 .77651.1054 310.0752 .87359.3693 304 . 1062 .8 7512 . 2078 307 . 2478 .8 7666.6170 310.3894 .97374.5824 304. 4203 ! ! .97527.5780 307.5619 : .9 7682.1444 310.7035 99.07697.6893 311.01771:100.0 7853.9816 314.1593 .17713.2461 311.3318:! .2*7728.8206 311.6460 i .37744.4107 311.9602 ! i .417760.0166, 312.2743 ,j .57775.6382' 312.5885 ! !6 7791. 2754 312.9026 .717806.9284 313.2168 j .8J7822.5971 313.5309 .9 7838.2815 313.8451 LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARCS. Deg. In Terms of Radius. Min. In Terms of Radius. Sec. In Terms of Radius. 1 0.01745 32925 19943 1 0.00029 08882 08666 1 0.00000 48481 36811 2 .03490 65850 398871 2 .00058 17764 17331 2 .00000 96962 73622 3 .05235 98775 59830 3 .00087 26646 25997 3 .00001 45444 10433 4 .06981 31700 79773 4 .00116 35528 34663 i 4 .00001 93925 47244 5 .08726 64625 99716j 5 .00145 44410 43329: 5 .00002 42406 84055 6 .10471 97551 19660' 6 .00174 53292 519941 6 .00002 90888 20867 7 .12217 30476 39603 7 .00203 62174 60660, 7 .00003 39369 57678 8 9 .13962 63401 59546 8 .157079632679490 9 .00232 71056 69326 .00261 79938 77991 8 9 .00003 87850 94489 .00004 36332 31300 To ascertain the area or circumference of any circle whose diameter is a whole number and greater than 100 and less than 1000. Find in the table e gven ameer, ve y ; e area corresponng mupe y , and the circumference corresponding multiplied by 10 will be the area and circumference, respectively, sought for. E. g., wanted the area and circum- ference of a circle whose diameter is 432. Find in the table the area and circumference of a circle whose diameter is 43.2, to be respectively 1465.7415 and 135.7168; the area and circumference of the given circle are 146,574.45 and 1357.168, respectively. ITS PREPARATION -AND USES 83 FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH STRAIGHT PIPES. Initial Gauge Pressure in Pounds per Square Inch. Diameters of Pipes in Inches. \ 1 i* 2 2^ 3 4 5 6 8 Pounds of Steam Carried per Minute with one Pound Loss of Pressure per 2W Diameter Length of Pipe. 1. 1.162.07 5.70 10.27 15.4525.38 46.85 77.30 115.90 211.4C 10. 1.442.57 7.1012.7219.1531.45 58.05 95.80143.60262.00 20. 1.703.02 8.3014.9422.4936.94 68.20112.60168.70307.80 30. 1.913.40 9.4016.8425.3541.63 76.84126.90190.10346.80 40. 2.103.7410.3018.5127.8745.77 84.49139.50209.00381.30 50. 12.27 4.04 11.20 20.01 30.13 49.48 91.34 150.80 226.00 412.20 60. 2.434.3211.9021.3832.1952.87 97.60161.10241.50440.50 70. |2.57 4.58 12.60 22.65 34.10 56.00 103.37 170.70 255.80 466.50 80. 2.71 4.82 13.30 23.82 35.87 58.91 108.74 179.50 269.00 490.70 90. 2.83 5.04 13.90 24.92 37.52 61.62 113.74 187.80 281.40 513.30 100. i2.95 5.25 14.50 25.96 39.07 64.18 118.47 195.60 293.10 534.60 120. 13.16 5.63 15.50 27.85 41.93 68.87 127.12 209.90 314.50 573.70 150. 3.45;6.14 17.00 30.37,45.72 75.09 138.61 228.80 343.00,625.50 Diameter of Pipe in Inches. * I * 2 * 3 4 5 6 8 Length of Pipe in Diameters of Equivalent 20 25 34 41 47 52 60 66 71 79 Resistance of IGlobeValve. Ascertain the horse-power of any size pipe appearing in the above table, by doubling the pounds of steam carried by the pipe per minute. Ascertain the amount of any other loss of pressure by multiplying the tabular figures, for the size pipe in question, by the square root of the tabular loss, for the size pipe in question. Ascertain the flow, with one pound loss of pressure, for any length of pipe by dividing 240 by the given length, in terms of the diameter, and multiplying the square root of this quotient by the tabular figures. 84 CREOSOTED TIMBER CHIMNEYS. s. Height of Chimney in Feet. 8 . el CL? 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 125 150 175 200 ^ H ^2 -S^ S ' s n S? Commercial Horse-power. ir ^ ^ 18 23 25 27 0.97 1.77 21 35 38 41 1.47 2.41 24 49 54 58 62 2.08 i 3.14 27 65 72 78 83 2.78 3.98 30 84 92 100 107 113 3.58 4.91 33 115 125 133 141| 4.47 5.94 36 141 152 163 173 182 5.47 7.47 39 183 183! 196 208 219 6.57 8.30 42 216; 231 245 258 271 7.76 9.62 48 311 330 348 365 389 10.44 12.57 54 363 427 449 472 503 551 113.51 15.90 60 505 539 565 593 632 692 748 16.98 19.64 66 658 694 728 776 849 918 98120.83 23.76 72 792 835 876 93410231105118125.08 28.27 78 : 9951038110712121310140029.73 '33.18 84 ,1163 1214 1294 1418 1531 1637 34.76 38.48 90 1344 1415 1496 1639 1770 1893 40.19 44.18 96 1537 1616 1720 1876 2027 2167 46.01 50.27 i lA H =3.33 J i/ /i. == H, Horse-power ; h, height of chimney, in feet ; E, effec- tive area, and A, actual area in square feet; D, diameter of circular chimney, in inches. The above table and formula are based on the assumption that an average consumption of five pounds of the coal used per hour will generate one horse-power. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 85 MEASURES. OF LENGTH. Inches. Feet. Yards. Rods. Miles. 63360 198 36 12 1 5280: 16.5 3. 1. 1760. 5.5 1. 320 1 1 Sq. Inches. Sq. Feet. Sq. Yards. Sq. Hods. Acres. it 1 6272640 39204 1296 144 27878400. 43560. 272.25 9. 1. 3097600. 4840. 30.25 1. 102400 160 1 640 1 Pints, i Quarts. Gallons. Pecks. Bushels. Cubic Inches. 64 16 8 2 1 33 8 4 1 8 2 1 4 1 1 2150. 537.6 268.8 67.2 33.6 LIQUID. Gills. Pints. Qar&. Gallons. Cubic Inches. 32 8 4 1 8 2 1 4 1 1 231. 57.750 28.875 7.218 Inches. .Fee/. Yards. Owtfc. Perches. 46656 1728 27 1 1 128Cu.Ft. 25 Cu. Ft. 86 CREOSOTED TIMBER MEASURES. COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. Ounces. Pounds. Owls. Tons. 35840. 2240. 20. 1. 1792. 112. 1. 16. 1. SPECIAL UNITS. One palm, 3 inches. One hand, 4 inches. One span, 9 inches. One fathom, 6 feet. One cable length, 720 feet, 120 fathoms. One shot, 90 feet. One knot, nautical mile, 6086.07 feet. One league, 3 knots. One section, 640 acres. One square acre, 208.71 feet by 208.71 feet. One circular acre, 235.504 feet diameter. British Imperial Dry Measures are JQ^ U. S. measures of the same name. A heaped bushel is 1J- times a struck bushel. One British Imperial gallon, 277.274 cubic inches. BOSTON, November 8, 1899. E. A. BUEI/L, ESQ., President, NORFOLK CREOSOTING COMPANY, 17 Granby Street, Norfolk, Va. Dear Sir: I am glad to say that in filling my orders for large amounts of creosoted material during the last three years, I have found your hand- ling of the business very satisfactory. My inspector's reports and the ap- pearance of the material agree in representing the treatment as thoroughly and honestly done. I have great confidence in the endurance of the timber and shall be glad to offer you further business whenever I have orders to place. Yours truly, F. P. MclNTYRE, Purchasing Agent, Mexican Central Railway Company, Limited. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 87 FRENCH AND ENGLISH "WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Grains per Gramme 15.432 55 Pounds avoirdupois per Kilo 2.20462 Tons per tonne 984206 Feet per metre 3.2808693 Inches per millimetre... .03937043 Miles per kilo 621377 Square feet per square metre 107641 Square inch per square millimetre 00155003 Cubic feet per cubic me- tre 35.3156 Foot-pounds per kilo- gramme 7.23308 Pounds per foot per kilo- gram metre 671963 Pounds per square foot per kilogramme per square metre 204813 Pounds per square inch per kilogramme per square metre 14.2231 Pounds per cubic foot per kilogrammes per cubic metre 0062426 Gramme per grain 0.064799 Kilos per pound avoirdu- pois 453593 Tonnes per ton 1.01605 Metres per foot 304797 Millimetre per inch 25.39977 Kilos per mile 1.60933 Square metres per square foot.. 092901 Square millimetres per square inch 645.148 Cubic metre per cubic foot 028316 Kilogram metre per foot per pound 138254 Kilogrammes per metre per'pounds per foot 1.48818 Kilogrammes per square metre per pound per square foot 4.88252 Kilogrammes per square millimetre per pounds per square inch 00073 Kilogrammes per cubic metre per pounds per cubic foot 16.19 PHYSICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS. MASS. Mass is the measure of quantity in a body as in- dicated' l>y the amount offeree requisite for a given amount of motion in a given time ; i. e., the mass of any body is the measure of its inertia. WEIGHT. Weight is the measure of the force with which any body is impelled toward the centre of the earth. DYNE. The C. G. S. Dyne is the measure of a force which, applied to a mass of one gram for one second of time, imparts to it a velocity of one centimeter per second. ERG. The C. G. S. Erg is the unit of work, and in con- sequence of energy also. It is the measure of the work 88 CREOSOTED TIMBER done, or of the energy consumed, in exerting a force of one dyne. AMPERE. The Ampere is the unit of electrical current strength, and is the current strength produced by an electromotive force of one volt against a resistance of one Ohm. OHM. The Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance, and is the resistance offered to the passage of an unvarying elec- trical current, at the temperature of melting ice, by a column of mercury, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross- sectional area and 1.063 centimeters long. VOLT. The Volt is the measure of electromotive force, which, applied steadily to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere. COULOMB. The Coulomb is the unit of quantity, and is the measure of the amount of current conveyed by one ampere in one second of time. JOULE. The Joule is a unit of electrical energy, and is the measure of the work done in maintaining a current of one ampere against a resistance of one ohm for one second of time. FARAD. The Farad is the unit of capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of one volt with one coulomb. HENRY. The Henry is the unit of electrical self-induction, and is the measure of the self-induction of a current in which the variation of the current, of one ampere per second, induces an electromotive force of one volt. WATT. The Watt is the unit of rate of work, the electro- motive force being one volt and the current strength one ampere. WEBER. The Weber, C. G. S., is the unit of flux, other- wise called the line of flux. GILBERT. The Gilbert C. G. S. unit of magnetomotive force. It is produced by 0.7958 ampere-turns. OERSTED. The C. G. S. Oersted is the unit of magnetic reluctance. GAUSS. The C. G. S. Gauss is the unit of flux-density, i.e., one weber per normal square centimeter. ITS PREPARATION AND USES 89 AMORTIZATION TABLES. The following tables, I and II, are based on the well-known Fernow Formulae for determining the equivalent annual charge due to an initial expenditure made now and recur- ring each term of n years, and for determining the equiva- lent annual charge due to an initial expenditure not now occurring but first becoming necessary at the end of n years, and then recurring at the end of each term of n years. For Table I : TO 1.0p n X O.Off r ^J.Op" 1 For Table II : _ 1.0p n 1 r = Equivalent annual charge. R = Initial expenditure. p - Rate of interest. n = Term of years. r, the equivalent annual charge, is found from the table, by multiplying the actual expenditure, in cents, by the amount found under the required period of years and for the desired interest rate. WILMINGTON, DEL., November 15, 1899. THE NORFOLK CREOSOTING Co., Norfolk, Va. Gentlemen : We desire to express to you our satisfaction with the manner in which yen have always handled our business. The ties, timber and piling that you have creosoted for us have given the best of results. We firmly believe that no better treatment, or more effective treatment, can be given than yours, under the capable supervision of Mr. Christian. Very truly yours, BUSH & RAYNER, W holesale Lumber Dealers. 90 S CREOSOTED EXPENDITURE OF ONE CENT. h3 & FBI :R ro 3 1 o o o o o CD O O O s d d d d o S CD C-- CO CD 8 d d d d d 8 8 i 3 a in CM o> co o S CD CD 3 d d d d d d d d d d S3 1 8 00000 00000 s d d d d d S d d d d d s S S 8 S d d d d d o o o o o T-l s S d d d d d S d d d d d a d d d d d S g o i 00000 . 8 c 3 cl 5 S d d d d o " 00000 II. ANNUAL CHARGES DUE TO A RENEWAL i CO 3 S S S s 8 o o o o o 00000 ^- O CD CO CO S CM CM co in o> fe CD 8 C S 00000 o d d d o CD CO _o__g_g_o_o_ d d d d d 00000 co in 1-1 c- c~- Ti- LO CD CD CO CO s i T-l t-l TH O CD d d d d d c. S S S 1 s s 3 a s d d d d d CD a s i CD in o c- co o en in ^t- 'i- * CM _d_e_g__P_o_ CO CO C C- CD in 3 co co 3 S CM CM 05 CM ^- in CD c-- o INDEX. CREOSOTED WORK. PAGE Aerial Conductors 45 Conductors 45 Conduits 46 Contractors' Specifications 15 Creosote, Scientific Standing of. 15 Cross Arms 45 Cross Ties 47 Culverts 47 Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19 Pavement 49 Piling 43 Poles Railway, Telegraph, Telephone 44 Railway Work 44 Sewers 48 Specifications for Contractors 51 Telegraph Work 44 Telephone Work 44 Underground Work 46, 47, 48 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. Creosote's Scientific Standing 15 Norfolk Creosoting Company's Methods 33 Preface 5 Teredo, The Destructive 7 TABLES, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. Amortization 89, 90 Beam Formulae 63 Beams, Wooden, Ultimate Loads for 73 Chains, Iron 70 Chimneys 87 Circles, Areas and Circumferences of 74-82 Circular Areas 82 Dead Oil of Coal Tar Compounds 19 Gauges, Wire 72 Iron Chains 70 Iron Pipe 67-73 Manila Rope 70 Measures, Length, Commercial Weight 85, 86 Nails and Spikes 68 92 INDEX TABLES, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. CONTINUED. PAGE Pillars, Wooden 54 Plate Washers 69 Railway Trestle 59 Rope, Manila 70 Rope, Steel Wire 71 Saturated Steam, Properties of. 66 Screws 69 Sheet Metals 68 Steam, Properties of Saturated 83 Steam, Flow Through Straight Pipes 66 Steel Wire Rope 71 Structural Works, Properties of. 60 Timber, Round, B. M. Volume 58 Timber, Sections, Moments of Inertia 61 Trestle, Wooden, Railway, Approximate Amount of. 59 Units, Physical and Electrical 87 Weights and Measures, French and English 87 Yellow Pine, Specifications, etc 55 Barrett Manufacturing Company Land Title Building Philadelphia, Pa. Largest Distillers in the world of COAL TAR and its BY-PRODUCTS (Roofing Pitch, Paving Composition, Asphaltum Cement, Varnish, etc.) Also Manufacturers of " Black Diamond" Prepared Roofing Roofers' & Slaters Felts Insulating Fibres Building Papers, Etc. Correspondence respectfully invited All our goods bear this trade-mark Rcivport Shipbuilding ana Drp Dock Co, WORKS AT NEWPORT NEWS, VA. (ON HAMPTON ROADS) Equipped with a Basin Dry Dock capable of docking a vessel 600 feet long, draw- ing 25 feet of water, at any stage of the tide. Repairs made promptly and at rea- sonable rates. ^engine Builders FOR ESTIMATES AND FURTHER PARTICULARS, ADDRESS C. B. ORCUTT, President No. i Broadway, New York (ii) W. W. CUMMER, President J. CUMMER, Vice-President E. C. FOSBURGH, Sec'y. aiid Manager H. J. HOI^ISTER, Treasurer THE CUMMER CO. NORFOLK, VA. MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF ROUGH and DRESSED KILN-DRIED INorbr) yarolirja Pi ANNUAL CAPACITY, 60,000,000 FEET (iv) GARBETT-BDCHANAN COMPANY 3, 5 and 12 DECATUR ST. Philadelphia MANUFACTURERS OF Roofing and Building ...Papers... Goal Tar Products SOLE MAKERS OF THE CELEBRATED 11 CANVAS BACK RED ROPE ROOFING" The Cheapest and Most Durable Prepared Roofing 011 the Market (v) ORGANIZED J867 The Citizens Bank OF NORFOLK, YA. CAPITAL (PAID IN), $300,000,00 SURPLUS AND PROFITS, $200,000.00 H. PETERS, President J. W* PERRY, Vice-President WALTER H. DOYLE, Cashier INTEREST PAID ON TIME DEPOSITS BY SPECIAL CONTRACT Bills of Exchange issued on all the Principal Cities of Europe. Charter authorizes Trust and Fiduciary Accounts, and to act as Executor, Ad- ministrator, Guardian, Assignee, Receiver, Trustee and Agent. Lock Boxes for rent in the best appointed Deposit Vaults south of Philadelphia. ...DIRECTORS... "WM. H. PETERS, McD. L. WRENN, J. W. PERRY, JOHN N. WILLIAMS, GEO. C. REID, GEO. A. SCHMEI.Z, W. CHAS. HARDY, RICHARD H. BAKER, G. M. SERPEU,, THOS. R. BORLAND, WALTER H. DOYLE. (vi) Uhe Uunis ^Cumber Company BALTIMORE, MD. NORFOLK, VA. MANUFACTURERS OF Large Modern Saw Mills and Planing Mills at Norfolk, Virginia Planing Mills at Baltimore, Maryland North Carolina Pine, Cypress and Poplar FOR FOREIGN SHIPMENT WE ARE IN THE MARKET FOR Mahogany and Cedar Logs (vii) J. B. SANFORD, President W. B. BROOKS, JR., Vice- President J. F. SINTON, Secretary and Treasurer \V . H. TAYLOR, Manager W. H. DORSRY, Engineer Sar)ford o Broolc^ Lorrmarw ii), Dock, Bridge ai)d Railroad No. 21 Soubb Gay Sb. Baltimore, Md. BRANCH OFFICE, BAIvLBNTINE BLDG. NORFOLK, VA. (viii) less Goal The Standard Fuel of the United States Navy The only Fuel that has been Officially Endorsed by the Governments of Great Britain and the United States It is SMOKELESS, and contains more heat units to the pound of coal and will evaporate more water, hold the fire longer, and keep up steam better than any other coal. It makes few clinkers and burns to a fine light ash. It is easy for the engineers and firemen and economical for the purchaser. Castner, Curran & Bullitt Sole Agents 328 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. 70 Kilby Street, Boston, Mass, i Broadway, New York. Citizens Bank Building, Norfolk, Va. Neave Building, Cincinnati, Ohio. Terry Building, Roanoke, Va. Old Colony Building, Chicago, 111. 4 Fenchurch Avenue, London, England. (ix) Magnesia Carbonate Very light and bulky, in fine powder for manufacturing purposes pure Quality Made at the new factory of the Hmerican JMagncsia Company Plymouth JMeeting, pa. For Insulating, Boiler and Steam Pipe Covering, Printing Ink Making, for Lithographers' Use, Paint and Glass Manu- facturers. Also for Plastic Making in Fireproof Buildings FOR PARTICULARS APPLY TO Office - i oo OliUiani Street W. Edwin Peregoy, President E. A. Robertson, Secretary W. W. Robertson, Treasurer and Manager 'PHONES So. STATES, 447 So. BELL, 1013 Pocahontas Lumber Co. .WHOLESALE LUMBER, LATHS SHINGLES AND PILING Citizens Bank Building Norfolk, Va. (xi) NICHOLS BROS. 74 Cortlandt Street 49 Commercial Place NEW YORK NORFOLK, VA. LOGGERS, SHIPPERS AND EXPORTERS OF PINE, OAK AND SPRUCE PILES DOCK AND BRIDGE TIMBER (nil) City National- Bank Norfolk, Va. United States Depositary City Depositary and United States Court Depositary Capital Stock $200,000 Surplus Profits ?0,000 A. E. KRISE, Pres. C. A. NASH, Vice-Pres. B. W. LEIGH, Cashier. DIRECTORS BARTON MEYERS, JOHN L. ROPER, British Consul. President of John L. Roper Lumber Co. R. A. DODSON, W. T. SIMCOE, New Atlantic Hotel. Of Russell & Simcoe, Dry Goods. C. W. FENTRESS, W. H. MINOR, Of C. W. Fentress & Co., Capitalist. Wholesale Butter and Cheese. FLOYD HUGHES, JOHN SHERIDAN, Of Whitehurst & Hughes, Of Black, Sheridan & Wilson, Attorneys. Baltimore. S. L. FOSTER, D. F. DONAVAN, Of S. L. Foster & Son, Roof- Capitalist, ing and S'dewalks. We solicit your business and correspondence Buy and sell foreign exchange (xiii) SUPPOSE &U PPOSE your house is on fire, what is the easiest way to summon the Fire Department? SUPPOSE a member of your household is suddenly and dangerously ill, immediate attendance of a physician means life or death, how most quickly obtain that attendance? SUPPOSE any one of the many emergencies when police aid is desirable or vitally necessary, how may these guardians of life and property be instantly notified ? SUPPOSE unexpected guests arrive, the larder is low # and the dinner hour near, how connect with the butcher, the baker and the confectioner and hurriedly gather the supplies that shall make the dinner a credit to the housekeeper ? SUPPOSE you wish to gather a group of guests for an evening to do honor to an occasion or a friend, how most conveniently communi- cate with them and receive their acceptances or regrets ? SUPPOSE you are interested in the Stock Market or commercial matter of any sort, but desire to stop at your country house for a few days, how keep in constant touch with Wall Street and the market centres? SUPPOSE you want seats for the play, a box for the opera, a carriage for a drive, to engage places at a restaurant, how in incredibly short time arrange it all ? SUPPOSE you are obliged to travel, leaving a member of your family ill at home, how can you receive news at any station from Boston to Omaha from Montreal to Key West? SUPPOSE you are worried and flurried and bored by the petty details of living the marketing, the shopping and the annoyance of the hustling streets, how sit in your office or library and press a button which shall do it all for you? SUPPOSE you would know the answer to these ques- tions. Here it is : The greatest Luxury, Convenience and Necessity of the century ; TELEPHONE SERVICE THE NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY TELEPHONE COMPANY 81 Willoughby St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Ryland & Brooks 2. s. GAY ST. Lumber Co* Baltimore, Md. U. S. A. North Carolina Pine ffl Special attention given to EXPORT orders Orders taken for all Kinds Bill Stuff Pitch Pine, Short Leaf Pine, etc. K. I,. MAYER WM. M. WHAI.EY MHYER & CO. Manufacturers, Agents Importers and Dealers in Machinery and Supplies 74 COMMERCIAL PLACE NORFOLK, VA. Saws, Rafting Gear, Bolts, Nuts, "Washers Engines and Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, Syphons, Hose Tools, Shaftings and Pulleys, Iron Pipe, Fittings, Valves, Cocks, Etc. Belting, Packing, Waste, Iron and Steel, Nails, Oils, Cordage (xv) E.B. WARREN & CO. Chemical Works* Paving Cements and Roofing Materials* 27th AND H STREETS, N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. JAPAN-BLACK VARNISH Years of continual use have demonstrated its superiority. 25 and 30 cts* per gal., barrel included (f.o.b. Washington, D. C) Unexcelled for Roofs, Railings, Smokestacks, and all iron work subject to wear and exposure. Also, Woodwork (wagons, carts, etc.) and all kinds of Brick\york. Elastic and durable. Enamel Paint for Hearths. PAVING AND ROOFING PITCHES; Different Grades and Superior Quality. TARRED ROOFING PAPERS J-piy, 2-ply, 3-ply* Cheapest and Best LIGHT AND HEAVY OILS OF COAL-TAR TOMS CREEK COAL Unsurpassed for STEAM Purposes Produces a maximum amount of steam, with a minimum of ash and clinker. Equally good for Railway, Manufac- turing or Marine uses. Bears transportation well ; reaches destination in nice lumpy condition, and retains its life and strength even when exposed to tropical weather. Try TOMS CREEK COKE for Foundry and Furnace Uses Shipping Point, Lambert's Point, Norfolk, Va. For further information, address TRIGG & WILMER, Agents for Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Co. Norfolk, Va., U. S. A. (xvi) ESTABLISHED 1861 THOMAS C. BASSHOR & CO. OFFICE AND STORE 28 Light Street BOILER WORKS Paca and Bush Sts., and B. & O. R. R. BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. BUILDERS OF Boilers, Stacks ** Tanks STEAM HEATING High - Pressure Steam Piping A SPECIALTY DEALERS IN Machinists' and Steamboat Supplies AGENTS FOR Fischer Self-Oiling Automatic Engines Atlas Engines for General Use CYLINDERS BORED IN PLACE (xvii) NATIONAL COAL TAR COMPANY JOO WILLIAM STREET NEW YORK CITY COAL TAR PRODUCTS CREOSOTE OIL (Dead Oil of Coal Tar) ROOFING MATERIALS PAVING MATERIALS : BUILDING PAPERS CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED WITH RESPONSIBLE PARTIES The Henry Walke Co, 88 Water Street, Corner Commerce NORFOLK, VA. MANUFACTURERS' AGENT AND DEALER IN HARDWARE, RAILROAD, STEAMBOAT ENGINEER and MILL SUPPLIES SHIP CHANDLERY PAINTS, OILS, ETC. A full stock always on hand of all material pertaining to the Equipment and Running of Plants 41 Giant "and I AnfliAyi "LGdlllGl ' Giant Planer -Giant," ^Granite" "Shawmut" ALL SIZES TO 18-INCH ALWAYS ON HAND AGENTS FOR ivEs' STEAM: PU MACHINERY REPAIRED (xix) A. D. FRENCH 44 BROAD STREET NEW YORK CITY U. S. A. Manufacturer and "Wholesale Dealer in Long Leaf Yellow Pine Octagonal Poles Railroad Ties, Cross Arms Insulator Pins, Brackets or any kind of Lumber for Telegraph or Trolley Work* Creosoted Wooden Poles are cheaper and better than iron ones for tropical work, Send for Circular I can save you money when in the market for creosoting. Inquiries cheerfully answered. (xx) LIDGERWOOD HOISTING ENGINES are built to gauge on the duplicate part system QUICK DELIVERY ASSURED FOR QUALITY AND DUTY For PILE DRIVING BUILDING MINING RAILROADS CONTRACTORS and GENERAL HOISTING PURPOSES I|OVER 16,000 IN USE STEAM AND ELECTRIC HCISTS Cableways, Hoisting and Conveying Devices FOR Mining, Quarrying, Logging, Dam Construction, Etc. SEND FOR LATEST CATALOGUE LIDGERWOOD MFG. CO. 96 Liberty St., NEW YORK (xxi) OSCAR F. SMITH, President JAMES CAI^ER, Vice-President JNO. T. GIBBS, Secretary and Treasurer River, Harbor and Dock Improvements 217 WATER STREET Corner Roanoke Square NORFOLK, VA. Bell Telephone 231 Southern States Telephone 35 (xxii) UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. G LIBRARY MAY 25 1953^ LD 21-95m-ll,'50(2877slG)476 YA 0307G 793312 Engineering '-...- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY