Publication of The College »of A'gricult
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BEEF PRODUCTION
H* R. Guilbert
G. H. Hart
CALIFORNIA AGRICULTI
EXPERIMENT STATION and
EXTENSION SERVICE
MANUAL 2
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
University of California, Davis Libraries
http://archive.org/details/californiabeefpr02guil
California
BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. GUILBERT G. H. HART
California Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service
The College of Agriculture — University of California
THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California College of
Agriculture and sold for a charge which is based upon returning only a portion of the
production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which due to
relatively high cost of production or limited audience would otherwise be beyond the scope
of the College publishing program.
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
I. THE BEEF-CATTLE INDUSTRY 1
Present status 1
Range and wildlife problems 4
Production costs 7
Capitalization 8
Percentage calf crop 8
Beef per animal unit 8
Age of marketing 8
General management 8
Future possibilities 9
Literature cited 10
II. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND CATTLE BREEDING 1
Reproduction 1
Physiological basis for inheritance 3
Rumination 3
Rumen fermentation 4
Water utilization and heat regulation 5
Market factors in beef-type selection 8
Weight 8
Yield of wholesale cuts 8
Shape of wholesale and retail cuts 8
Proportion of meat to bone 8
Distribution of fat and lean 10
Dressing percentage 11
Production factors in beef-type selection 12
Size 12
Conformation 14
Efficiency of feed utilization and earliness of maturity 16
Environmental adaptation 18
Reproduction 23
Longevity 24
Lactation 24
Records of performance 24
Grading 25
Form 1, Get-of-sire record 29
Form 2, Individual life record 29
Form 3, Breeding list and reproductive record 35
Systematic identification 36
Selective breeding of commercial cattle 36
Selection of bulls 38
Selection and culling of cows 40
Crossbreeding 45
Literature cited 49
Recommended references 50
PAGE
III. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND CATTLE FEEDS i
Vitamins 1
Minerals other than calcium and phosphorus 3
Common salt 3
Iodine 4
Magnesium 7
Cobalt and copper 7
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies 8
Energy intake (total digestible nutrients) 9
Protein 9
Salt (sodium chloride) 9
Phosphorus 9
Calcium 10
Iodine 10
Vitamin A 10
Important toxic trace elements 12
Fluorine 12
Selenium 13
Molybdenum 14
Characteristics of range forage 14
Annual forage plants . 14
Perennial grasses 16
Browse 16
Acorns 18
Effect of rain on dry forage 19
Characteristics of harvested roughages, grains, and by-products 20
Legume hays 20
Nonlegume hays 20
Straw 21
Silage 21
Roots and tubers 21
Grains 22
Mill feeds 22
Beet by-products . 22
Dried fruits and fruit by-products 24
Molasses 24
Brewery and distillery by-products 24
Protein-rich concentrates 25
Preparation of feeds 26
Determination of the most economical feeds 26
Literature cited 28
Recommended references 28
IV. PRODUCTION OF FEEDER CATTLE 1
Percentage calf crop 1
Udder development and lactation 2
Range and irrigated pasture 2
Supplemental feeding of cows on range 3
Wintering cows on harvested roughages 8
PAGE
Planning the breeding season 9
Age of breeding heifers 9
Diseases affecting the calf crop 11
Growth and development of feeders 12
The principle of continuous growth 12
Supplemental feeding of calves and yearlings on the range 14
Wintering weaners and yearlings on harvested roughages 14
Adjustment of cattle numbers to feed supply 17
Management practices 18
Dehorning 18
Castration 19
Vaccination 19
Branding 20
Equipment 20
Weighing cattle 22
Selling policy 22
Literature cited 23
V. FATTENING CATTLE AND THE DRESSED PRODUCT 1
Recommended nutrient allowances 2
Expected gains 2
Feed capacity 2
Total digestible nutrients 3
Minimum roughage allowance 3
Protein allowance 4
Calcium and phosphorus 4
Carotene 4
General feeding rules 6
Fattening cattle on pasture 6
Finishing yearlings and two-year-olds on the range 6
Fattening cattle on irrigated pasture 10
Fattening cattle on beet tops , 13
Feed-lot rations 15
Silage 16
Wet beet pulp 17
Dried molasses beet pulp 18
Beet tops 18
Raisins and prunes 18
Dried orange pulp 19
Cane and beet molasses 19
Roots and tubers 19
Brewers' and distillers' grains 20
Rough rice 20
Straw 20
Creep-feeding of calves 21
General cattle-feeding problems 24
Age of cattle 24
Sex 26
Feeder and market grades 27
PAGE
Length of feeding period 28
Feeding practices 28
Production and conservation of manure 31
Necessary margin or spread 31
Beef cuts and their uses 34
Value of meat in the diet 35
Tenderness 35
Flavor 36
Color of the lean 36
Color of the fat 37
Fattening 38
Literature cited 39
CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart
MANUAL 2
Section I
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service
THE BEEF-CATTLE INDUSTRY
Present Status
Range and Wildlife Problems
Production Costs
Future Possibilities
Even so old and venerable an occupa-
tion as beef production may well be re-
viewed in its position in the general
scheme of things. Multitudinous plans are
now extant concerning such matters as
public-land use, wildlife, recreation,
water storage, stream flow, runoff, erosion,
and the type of ground cover desired. It
is necessary for all this planning to be
fitted together in some orderly fashion.
California is an area deficient in the
production of beef cattle— and all other
types of livestock; furthermore, it does
not grow enough feed for the animals
that are produced and finished here. Be-
cause it is still a great importing state
for livestock and feed, its cattlemen
should utilize all native resources and
find means by which to improve them.
Present Status
Table 1 (Sec. I) shows the number of
California livestock and poultry for 1942,
together with the production by classes.
Table 2(1) covers the feed requirements
for the same year, including pasture and
range. Table 3(1) presents the details of
beef production and feed requirements.
Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces
Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali-
fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford.
Some tables and other data from the original
circular are used in the manual.
Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi-
ment Station.
Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science
and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station.
Since about half of the feed-lot rations are
concentrates, at least 90 per cent of the
total beef tonnage produced was depend-
ent upon range, pasture, and harvested
roughage. For the United States as a
whole, only 10 to 15 per cent of the total
beef production has been attributed to
concentrates.
Stated briefly, the most important
problem facing the beef-cattle industry
in California is to share with the sheep
industry and with wildlife the forage pro-
duced on at least 60 per cent of the land
area of the state. Few people realize the
importance of this natural vegetation in
the production of wealth and the improve-
ment of human welfare. Over much of
the area the value of the produce per acre
is low ; but the large total number of acres
makes this forage the most valuable crop
produced in the state.
Piper and others (1) in a comprehen-
sive report in 1924 on national forage
resources, discussed the importance of
doing more extensive research on the
subject of pastures. Since their observa-
tions are equally pertinent today, the fol-
lowing significant statement is quoted
from the paper:
Relegated largely to land too poor or too
rough to till, neglected commonly by the farmer,
often abused by the grazier, ignored by most
investigators, our permanent pastures, both tame
and wild, still furnish nearly four-tenths, and our
rotation and temporary pastures over one-tenth,
of all the feed consumed by domestic animals.
Pasture is the key to profitable utilization of
Page 1— Section I
TABLE 1 (I)
Number of California Livestock and Poultry, and Production by Classes
Number on farms
Production from farms and feed lots in 1942
Jan. 1, 1942,
thousands
Jan. 1, 1943,
thousands
Meat
(live
weight),
million
pounds
Milk
(4 per
cent fat),
million
pounds
Eggs,
million
dozen
Wool,
million
pounds
Beef cattle and calves
1,526
786*
894
2,977t
12,4941
428§
1,545
786*
1,019
2,828t
14,034*
492§
- 475
236
197
162
60
58
5,133
159
Dairv cattle
Hogs
Sheep
24
Chickens
Turkeys
* Milk cows two years old and older,
t Stock animals,
j Hens and pullets of laying age.
§ Breeding hens.
Source of data:
California Agricultural Experiment Station. Feed requirements for California livestock and poultry
production. 4 p. 1943. (Litho.)
TABLE 2 (I)
Feed Bequirements for California Livestock and Poultry in 1942
Barley (or
equivalent),
thousand
tons
Protein
concentrate
(40 per cent
equivalent).
thousand
tons
Legume
hay,
thousand
tons
Nonlegume
hay,
thousand
tons
Silage or
soilage,
thousand
tons
Pasture and range
Irrigated,
thousand
acres
Nonirrigated,
thousand
acres
Beef cattle and
176
177
352
20
473
115
45
44
46
10
146
25
168
2,623
21
121
27
10
391
816
78
432
74
36
150
224
23
120
40 000
Dairy cattle
1,050
Sheep
18,000
Chickens
Turkeys
Totals
1,313
316
2,970
1,285
542
517
59,050
Source of data:
California Agricultural Experiment Station. Feed requirements for California livestock and poultry
production. 4 p. 1943. (Litho.)
TABLE 3 (I)
California Beef Production and Feed Requirements, 1942
Production
of live weight'
Feed requirements
Pasture and range
Barley or
equiva-
lent,
thousand
tons
Protein
concen-
trates,
thousand
tons
Legume
hay,
thousand
tons
Non-
legume
hay,
thousand
tons
Irrigated,
thousand
acres
Type of
production
Amount,
million
pounds
Per cent
of total
Non-
irrigated,
thousand
acres
Range and field
cleanup
Irrigated pastures
Feed lots
342
60
73
72
13
15
100
8
168
30
15
111
57
258
133
391
150
40,000
Total
475
176
45
168
150
40,000
Source of data:
Guilbert, H. R., L. W. Fluharty, and V. M. Shepard. California beef-production data. California Agr.
Exp. Sta. leaflet. 5 p. 1943. (Litho.)
Section I— Page 2
millions of acres of semi-waste land now lying
idle or unproductive. "Better pastures" should
be made the keynote in the promotion of Ameri-
can agricultural progress.
From the range breeding grounds in
this and in other states come the feeder
cattle that go to feed lots and utilize the
products of the cultivated lands and the
by-products of industry and agriculture.
The latter depend upon the return from
these by-products for their financial sta-
bility, just as the livestock industry de-
pends on this feed supply to finish the
livestock. Thus the advantage is mutual;
development and utilization of by-
products over recent years have belied
the old-time statement that California is
a poor place in which to eat beef.
At present the livestock industry is
handicapped by the limitation of its use
of the range. Involved are several condi-
tions, some of which are peculiar to Cali-
fornia. Over 40 per cent of the land area
of the state is publicly owned. This figure
includes such lands as public domain,
forest reserves, national parks and monu-
ments, Indian allotments, school sections,
and tax-delinquent lands. In addition,
there is a large holding of railroad lands;
for instance, several million acres belong
to the Southern Pacific Railroad. Many
of these areas outside the forest reserves
are in checkerboard ownership, mainly
because every alternate section was al-
lotted to the railroads along their rights
of way many years ago. This arrangement
prevents the efficient use of such land for
grazing.
The Taylor Grazing Act, administered
by the Department of the Interior, was
designed to bring the feed resources of
the 175,000,000 acres of public domain
in the United States under some measure
of control. In California, with approxi-
mately 16,000,000 acres of public domain,
two grazing districts have been estab-
lished (no. 1 in Mono and Inyo counties,
no. 2 in Modoc and Lassen counties).
Since these districts comprise less than
25 per cent of the public domain in the
state, some 12,000,000 scattered acres are
without control.
The Forest Reserves, established in
1909, long antedated the Taylor Grazing
Act. For years after controlled grazing
under the paid-permit plan was provided
in these extensive areas, which cover
19,000,000 acres of the state, grazing
resources were expected to be gradually
increased. But after thirty-five years, this
expectation still has not been realized.
Figure 1 (Sec. I) shows the trend in num-
bers of paid permits for domestic live-
stock grazed on national forests in
California from 1910 to 1946, and also
the trend in numbers of animals over the
same period. There has been a marked
decline in both. The complete picture is
even more serious because, in too many
areas, the reduced number of livestock
come out of the mountains in poor condi-
tion and must go to the feed lot, not direct
to slaughter as in former years.
In short, the future beef-cattle situation
in California is primarily involved with
feed supply, in which natural vegetation
on ranges and pastures is the most impor-
tant item.
The use of these lands, whether in pub-
lic or private ownership, depends on the
accumulation of more and more factual
data. With facts, procedures can be inau-
gurated to make way for increasing num-
bers of animals and to assure better
handling of those that already exist. In
this way the consumer can be supplied
with livestock products so that his diet
will better meet his physiological needs.
Efficient production will bring costs in
line with purchasing power, without too
great a strain on other important living
costs incidental to a better life for the
entire population.
Information on the physical resources
that affect livestock production in Cali-
fornia, including climatic data, land use,
characteristics of the different production
areas, and statistics on the movements of
feeder and slaughter cattle from outside
the state and inside, can be found in the
Page 3— Section I
J. 000 -
T 1 1 1 1 r
Catt/e a/?J /torses
/9/0-/3 Z9/4-/7 /9/S-2/ /922-£5 Z986-29 /S30-33 /S34-37 Z933-42 /943-4S
Fig. 1 (I) . Upper panel: Trend in numbers of paid permits for domestic livestock
grazed on national forests of California, from 1910 to 1945, four-year averages. Lower
panel: Trend in numbers of domestic livestock grazed under paid permit on national
forests. Data from United States Forest Service, California Region. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)
publication of Swedlund and Scott (2)
and its supplements. Arthur Shultis (3)
also gives information on such agricul-
tural data as regions, climate, and types
of agricultural enterprises.
Range and Wildlife Problems
Since the turn of the century, much
progress has been made toward a better
understanding of soil and plant relations,
especially under irrigation practices.
There is now a need for more study of
plant and animal relations, particularly
on the uncultivated lands. Forage stand
on the range and its composition in rela-
tion to livestock and wildlife must be
considered. In this connection, Shelford
(4) attacked the fundamental concepts of
certain plant ecologists who apparently
consider and name vegetation apart from
animals. These ecologists have desired to
learn the ultimate climax of vegetation
with the wild animals, or their equivalent
in domestic animals, excluded or reduced
to the early or original numbers. Shelford
restated the unity of the plant-animal
community and suggested principles that
make such a concept tenable. He expresses
his views as follows :
That a much broader and more flexible view
of controlling factors is tenable than the one
which holds that the animals are merely an
environmental factor acting upon plants. That
food relations, especially of abundant and influ-
ent animals, are usually flexible and rarely if
ever obligate; and that observation of appar-
ently restricted food relations made in one lo-
cality may not hold good under other conditions.
That the climaxes of nature (bioecological cli-
max) include that vegetation which occurs
with the pristine numbers and kinds of animals
present.
Regarding bioecological climaxes, Shel-
ford claimed that if bison held some of
the mixed prairie to the short-grass stage,
then short grass was the bioecological
climax, even though the climax with bison
excluded would have been quite different.
Section I— Page 4
California has not greatly increased
its number of beef cattle and sheep in
the last forty years. On the other hand,
through administrative policies prevent-
ing the use of fire, great changes in the
ground cover of vegetation have occurred
over a large acreage. Brush cover, cha-
mise, and chaparral of low forage value
have spread over land formerly producing
good ground feed. These large, ungraz-
able, brush-covered areas have created
a vicious circle in the scheme of grazing.
Since the same number of animals is
grazing less and less acreage, and since
wildlife competition continues, the result
is lower available feed, poorer condition
of livestock, and greater opportunity for
so-called overgrazing. The use of fire in
brush clearing has been extremely con-
troversial. Indiscriminate burning is as
ill-advised as attempting to prevent all
fires. Cooperation between state and fed-
eral forestry agents, the university and
county livestock groups on well-planned,
selective, controlled burning of brush-
land, followed by constructive man-
agement practice and reseeding where
necessary, is now making progress in
enhancing feed supply and in contribut-
ing essential knowledge upon which fu-
ture practice may be based.
In addition to burning, the practice of
bulldozing and other mechanical methods
of brush clearing, followed by planting
to grain crops or reseeding with forage
plants, is being followed more extensively
on the better sites and soils. Most of the
burning and clearing for improvement
has been done at the dense brush stage.
Evidence is accumulating that control at
the more open stage even with a year's
sacrifice of the grass cover required to
carry the fire may be the more practical
and profitable procedure, involving large
areas. With some brush types, clearing
the remaining seed plants by hand or by
other means may prevent recurrence in-
definitely (5,6).
Chamise, in particular, is so dense over
large acreages that grazing animals can-
not penetrate the stand. It is too woody
for browse feed and constitutes a serious
fire hazard. On the other hand, the tender
sprouting shoots which come up after a
fire has burned it off are fairly palatable
and nutritious, and are utilized along
with the ground feed which comes up in
quantity after the removal of brush-cover
competition. Work done by Veihmeyer
and Johnston (7) in Shasta and Tehama
counties has demonstrated the fact that,
along with an increase in feed, water is
conserved in the soil. In the experiments,
denudation by burning did not impair
infiltration capacity; the soil in burned
plots became wet throughout its full depth
as soon as that in adjoining unburned
plots. The more shallow-rooted ground
cover following the burn did not transpire
so much water as did the deeper-rooted
chamise ; in every instance, the total water
loss at the end of the dry season for the
full depth of soil was less in the burned
than in the unburned plots.
During the dry season, restoration of
spring and stream flow, following re-
moval of brush and trees, frequently
occurs. This is often vital in maintaining
water supply for livestock in such areas.
The much-abused term "overgrazing"
has been widely used by writers discuss-
ing the problems of uncultivated land.
There are marked differences in the type
of vegetative cover on range lands; over
much of California the ground feed con-
sists predominantly of annual plants. This
situation is generally thought to have re-
sulted from excessive use of perennials
and especially from prolonged summer
grazing, which has caused these plants
to decline and to be replaced by annuals.
Some annuals are miscalled weeds, de-
spite their high nutritive value to animals.
It is recognized that at intervals most
perennials must be allowed to reach the
flowering stage in order to maintain vigor
by replenishing the store of nutrients in
their roots. Enough seed must be pro-
duced for replacement or increase. Just
as alfalfa has a shorter life and produces
Page 5— Section I
less yield when continuously cut before
bloom, so will perennial grasses lose their
vitality and productivity under continu-
ous close cropping. Annuals, on the other
hand, depend solely on seed and the
growth of new plants each year. The
annuals common to California are re-
markably adaptable; their abundant seed
insures future crops even under the ad-
verse conditions induced by lack of mois-
ture, a short growing season, or very close
grazing. Successful seed production is
accomplished by many species, when
height growth is limited by grazing or
drought to 2 or 3 inches, even though a
height of 12 inches or more would be
normal under favorable circumstances.
As further insurance of species survival,
not all the seeds germinate at once; in
such species as bur clover, seeds may re-
main viable in the ground for several
years.
Domestic animals are obliged to com-
pete with wildlife for the natural vegeta-
tion. The term "wildlife," in connection
with range lands, properly refers not only
to game animals, but to all undomesti-
cated vertebrates and even invertebrates.
The importance of grasshopper and locust
damage is widely recognized.
Since game animals constitute a crop,
they must be managed so that their num-
bers and the available feed supplies re-
main in proper balance, especially where
predators are under reasonably strict con-
trol. The highly important rodent and
related species must be looked upon as
game (cottontail rabbits and gray squir-
rels), and also as pests and reservoirs of
human infections, particularly sylvatic
plague and tularemia. Collectively, wild-
life over much of the range area has more
effect on the vegetative cover than have
domestic animals.
In 1944, Storer, Evans, and Palmer (8)
reported a great many data on some ro-
dent populations in the Sierra Nevada
regions of California. "Rodents," they
state, "constitute one of the major dy-
namic forces of nature; they are second
Section I— Paqe 6
only to the insects and well above the
hoofed animals, wild and domestic, as
primary converters of vegetation." At a
field station near Bass Lake, Madera
County, these investigators showed an
active population of 60 rodents per acre
in summer— mice, chipmunks, ground
and gray squirrels, gophers, and chick-
arees. It was calculated that 23.5 pounds
of rodents had a food consumption of
1.6 to 2.6 pounds of dry matter daily.
They estimated that a 750-pound steer
daily needs about 14 pounds of dry mat-
ter. Sixty rodents on 1 acre, therefore,
require 12 to 18 per cent as much as a
beef animal, and those on 5% to 8%
acres have a food demand equivalent to
that of one average steer.
Just south of Bass Lake at O'Neals is
the San Joaquin Experimental Range of
the United States Forest Service. Al-
though some of the rodent species found
at Bass Lake are not a factor on this
range, they are replaced there by cotton-
tail and jack rabbits, and kangaroo rats.
Horn and Fitch (9) from their studies
at this location, present data of a similar
kind. They indicate that the forage con-
sumed and destroyed by pocket gophers
is largely compensated for by the in-
creased production which their cultivat-
ing activities in the soil accomplish.
Ground squirrels (6 on a /2 acre) and
kangaroo rats (8 on y± acre) were shown
to be detrimental; without doubt, they
took 15 per cent or more of the forage
on the plots where they were maintained.
The stocking of the enclosures was about
equal to the maximum population den-
sities known to exist on the range at the
start of the experiment.
The Division of Animal Husbandry of
the College of Agriculture, in cooperation
with the Forest Service, has been study-
ing different intensities of grazing on the
San Joaquin Experimental Range over
a period of twelve years. Animals were
placed in fenced areas at the approximate
rate of one to 10 acres, one to 15 acres,
and one to 20 acres, respectively.
All these data tend to show the impor-
tance of rodents as an uncontrolled vari-
able in grazing-intensity studies with
livestock. With cattle stocked at the rate
of one to 10 acres, the rodents may eat
and destroy forage sufficient to feed more
than one steer; at the rate of one to 15
acres, twice as much; and at the rate of
one to 20 acres, about three times as
much.
The conditions for which rodents may
largely be responsible should not be
charged against livestock. Furthermore,
high utilization of the vegetative cover is
not so serious from the plant-reproduction
standpoint on ranges composed of annual
plants; and systematic rodent control
soon pays dividends.
The deer population in California is
very large— roughly, about 1,000,000
head. In many places it is too large for
the feed supply, and losses from disease
and starvation occur every year. Fischer,
Davis, Iverson, and Cronemiller (10) of
the United States Forest Service have
studied the winter range of the interstate
deer herd in the Modoc National Forest.
In this forest the estimated deer popu-
lation has increased from 6,700 in 1923
to 46,000 in 1943. The livestock has been
continuously reduced from 35,404 cattle
and 76,539 sheep in 1923, to 23,907 cattle
and 46,308 sheep in 1943. Deer and live-
stock are not alike in their grazing habits
and plant preferences. The strain removed
from the plant cover by reducing permits
for cattle 32.0 per cent and permits for
sheep 39.5 per cent has been taken up
by the increased deer population. Plant
species favored by deer have continued
to decline, while those selected by live-
stock are increasing. The authors recom-
mend that 10,000 does be killed in this
area. Unless this problem is handled
wisely, nature will step in with increase
in predators, disease, and starvation ; nat-
ural resources will certainly be wasted.
The means by which these problems are
handled may well be considered an index
of the enlightenment of the people.
Not many years ago cattle were allowed
to live or die on the natural vegetation of
the range. Today, the supplementing of
range feed is essential and highly profit-
able. To many it may appear fantastic to
fertilize range lands; but the future may
prove fertilization to be a valuable and
economical means of producing a greater
amount of nutritious range feed.
Range lands differ greatly in produc-
tivity and in quality of feed. Moisture is
the greatest limiting factor in all the low-
altitude ranges, whereas temperature and
length of growing season are important
at the high altitudes. In most of the rolling
foothills, cattle prefer different areas at
different seasons, south slopes over north
slopes, bald over open wooded areas,
open areas over those under tree cover,
and swales over knolls. Type, palatabil-
ity, and nutritive value of plant cover are
involved in these preferences. In some
areas cattle spend most of their time graz-
ing swales, where the feed stays green
longer. Production in such locations has
been increased experimentally five- to ten-
fold by the use of fertilizers.
The establishment of superior plant
species through reseeding and manage-
ment offers great promise. As this knowl-
edge unfolds, the effects of management of
grazing practices on the plant cover may
become as important to beef-production
enterprises as the management of the cat-
tle. Jones and Love (11) give a detailed
report on the species of forage plants
recommended for reseeding in different
areas of the state; this circular also
gives information on the management of
brush fields and grazing management
practices to increase the quality and quan-
tity of forage production.
Production Costs
Since 1935 the Agricultural Extension
Service of the University of California
has cooperated with 87 cattle producers
in 14 counties to study and analyze beef-
production costs. Three distinct areas are
involved in these studies: the northeast
Page 7— Section I
mountain area, the south coast, and the
San Joaquin Valley. On most of these
ranches, sales of beef cattle represent the
major source of revenue, with the cattle
being used principally to market the
range and pasture feeds and the harvested
roughages. All the ranches in the studies
maintain breeding herds. A few of the
operators purchase some stockers and
feeders. On the average, about 280 breed-
ing cows and a total of about 730 animal
units per ranch are represented in these
studies. The progress of the project war-
rants discussion of the following impor-
tant factors in beef-production costs.
Capitalization. Based upon the pre-
war period, when the average price of all
cattle was about $8.00 per hundredweight,
and where the beef enterprise must be
charged with all the capital investment
in a ranch unit, net returns have not
justified a land and facility investment
much in excess of $125 per animal unit,
where the operator expects net earnings
of 5 per cent. In the studies the average
investment in land and facilities per ani-
mal unit is shown to be $161.66. The
extremes range from $90.76 to $187.46.
Where an interest rate of 5 per cent was
figured on capital invested in range and
pasture land, cattle, and facilities, the
charge against invested capital accounted
for 41.9 per cent of the sale value of all
beef.
The danger of overcapitalization of the
beef enterprise appears to be greater on
specialty beef-cattle ranches than on those
where beef-cattle production is merely a
part of the general farming program.
Percentage Calf Crop. The records
show a direct correlation between per-
centage calf crop and net income on these
ranches where the prevailing practice is
to maintain breeding herds. Under pre-
war price and cost conditions, and with
practices then employed, an average of
70 per cent calf crop appears necessary
on these ranches to prevent financial loss.
This percentage is based on the number
of breeding cows two years old and over
in the herd. The average percentage calf
crop shown in the study is 71.6 per cent,
with extremes from 50.6 to 95.2 per cent.
The younger the animals are when sold,
the greater is the necessity of obtaining
a high percentage calf crop.
Beef per Animal Unit. In the study
there is a direct relation between annual
production of beef per animal unit and
the net returns. For the ranches studied,
this production has averaged 291 pounds,
with extremes from 116 to 482 pounds.
The amount is closely associated with per-
centage of calf crop and age of marketing.
About 285 pounds of beef per animal unit,
under the prevailing price and cost con-
ditions, were required for these ranches
to pay total operating expenses of the
cattle enterprise.
Age at Marketing. Where these op-
erators breed and raise their cattle, the
studies point out, the greatest net income
per animal unit is obtained when market
animals are sold between the weaning and
the two-year-old stages. An analysis of
the records indicates that the optimum
point for selling within these age limits
depends mainly on percentage of calf
crop, weight for age, and quality of cattle.
General Management. The studies
emphasize the need for analyzing each
ranch unit separately, in order to find the
best methods for applying fundamental
principles of management. They also
show that certain production and market-
ing practices efficient for one ranch may
not be applicable to another.
As a group, the ranch operators show-
ing greatest net returns above all costs,
invested more time and money in sys-
tematic and careful breeding, feeding,
and culling practices than did the low-
income group.
Shultis (3) makes the following state-
ment:
Cattle . . . ranches vary widely, by location
and kind, in the size of the herd, and the acreage
required for an adequate family farm. Usually
100 breeding cows are considered necessary,
with sufficient owned or rented range land, and
sometimes with enough cropland to produce the
Section I— Page 8
required hay for supplementing the range.
Where all land is owned, as in the Coast Range,
500 to 5,000 acres are required for a herd of
this size, with an investment probably around
$20,000 for the range alone. Even in the moun-
tain region, where grazing rights on public lands
are available to ranchers, the total investment
for a stock ranch is rather high, since hay land
and private range are also required. The land,
buildings, and livestock would mean a minimum
investment of $25,000 to $30,000 for a cattle
business of 100 cows, with the usual bulls and
young stock. In fact, cattle ranches are usually
larger than this minimum and are rather
strongly held by owners of substantial means,
so that there is little opportunity for the new-
comer with limited capital.
Future Possibilities
It is possible to foresee, in the field of
beef-cattle breeding, an era of greatly
expanded potentialities, which depend
largely upon the vision and progressive-
ness of breeders. Knowledge has been ac-
cumulated to a point where the objectives
may now be more clearly defined. Prog-
ress has been made on the means by
which progeny performance can be sys-
tematically recorded, and bulls and fe-
males proved for their ability to transmit
desired characters to their offspring. In-
formation on the mechanisms of inheri-
tance and on breeding methods has
increased. Above all, the techniques of
artificial insemination have been suffi-
ciently perfected so that 100 insemina-
tions can be secured from a single serv-
ice; dilutions of semen adequate for 40
to 80 inseminations are common practice.
The rate of genetic improvement is
limited largely by the degree of selection
possible. Artificial insemination greatly
extends the selection potential for sires.
Already one beef bull has sired well over
three thousand calves. By this means, an
outstanding proved sire very easily could
produce a thousand bulls for normal use
in commercial herds and thus become the
grandfather of a hundred thousand
calves !
The action of hormones is gradually
being elucidated. Hormonal and other
physiological variations are involved in
genetic selection for type and special pro-
duction functions. Development of this
knowledge should more clearly define the
issues for breeders and geneticists alike,
and should show what combinations of
functions are compatible and genetically
attainable and what combinations are
antagonistic. General evidence, for exam-
ple, indicates some degree of antagonism
between ease of fattening and milk
production. It is known that excessive
fattening may be associated with hypo-
thyroidism and that extra thyroxine will
stimulate added production of milk even
in dairy cattle. Apparently, on the other
hand, good beef conformation obtained
by selection for shorter leg bones and
thick muscles without excessive fattening
tendency is compatible with high milk
production. This is exemplified to an un-
usual degree by the comparatively new
Dutch dual-purpose-type Friesian cattle.
Physiologists and nutritionists have
progressed toward a clearer understand-
ing of rumen function, activity, the inter-
relations among the microorganisms in
the rumen and between these and the host.
This information is involved with the
causes and prevention of bloat, and offers
a logical explanation of long-established
practices, such as gradual changing of
rations, of indigestion and toxemia from
sudden feed changes. Possibly it may also
be concerned with metabolic disturbances
or diseases, such as grass tetany, ace-
tonemia, and the etiology of the "acorn
calf." Microorganisms of the rumen are
important not only in digesting fiber, but
also in synthesizing numerous vitamins,
proteins from nonproteins— one type util-
izing the by-products of another, prevent-
ing accumulation of toxic materials, all
of which is essential to the well-being of
the cow herself.
These strides indicate that the prob-
lem of supplemental feeding involves not
only the needs of the cow, but also pro-
motion of most favorable conditions for
her partnership with the microorganisms
in her rumen, or paunch.
Page 9—Section I
Great progress is being made in con- practical application of this knowledge
trolling some of the insect pests that take to secure adequate nutrition ; to control
such a tremendous toll in the livestock parasites and diseases; to regulate tem-
industry. The remarkable effectiveness of perature through shelter, shade, or other
DDT, for example, has brought about means; to provide an ample supply of
intensive selective pressure on certain in- water ; and to improve other manage-
sects, and survivors have produced new ment practices that promote the well-
populations of resistant types. The prob- being of the animals and their efficiency
lem of thus producing strains for which of production.
there are no effective control measures What is considered relatively new to-
is now being appreciated. day may be commonplace tomorrow. Pos-
Many opportunities exist for increasing sibilities lie ahead, ready to be exploited,
the efficiency of production— not only by if the cattlemen will but study the availa-
improving the environment to suit the ble data on their business more critically,
animals, but also through breeding ani- more extensively, and more intensively
mals that are adapted to the existing en- than ever before. To facilitate such a
vironment. study, this manual summarizes the infor-
Improvement of environment implies mation— obtained by experiment and by
knowledge of the physiological require- practice— that is considered most practi-
ments of cattle for growth, fattening, re- cal and helpful in improving the efficiency
production, and lactation. It involves the of beef-cattle production in California.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Piper, C. V., et al.
Our forage resources. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1923:311-414. 1924.
(2) Swedlund, H. A., and G. A. Scott.
California livestock and poultry. A statistical summary 1867-1942. California Dept. Agr. Spec.
Pub. 192:1-137.
(3) Shultis, Arthur.
Farming in California for the newcomer. 26 p. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Revised, 1946. (Litho.)
(4) Shelford, V. E.
Some concepts of bioecology. Ecology 12:455-67. 1931.
(5) Love, R. M., and B. J. Jones.
Improving California brushlands. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 371:1-31. 1947.
(6) Biswell, H. H.
Effects of brush removal on game ranges in California. (Quarterly reports 1948-1949.) Univer-
sity of California and California Division of Fish and Game cooperating. (Mimeo.)
(7) Veihmeyer, F. J., and C. N. Johnston.
Soil moisture records from burned and unburned plots in certain grazing areas in California.
Amer. Geophysical Union Transactions 1944:72-88.
(8) Storer, T. I., F. C. Evans, and F. G. Palmer.
Some rodent populations in the Sierra Nevada of California. Ecol. Monog. 14:165-92. 1944.
(9) Horn, E. E., and H. S. Fitch.
Interrelations of rodents and other wildlife of the range. In: Hutchison, C. B., and E. I. Kotok.
The San Joaquin Experimental Range. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 663:96-129. 1942.
(10) Fischer, G. A., J. C. Davis, F. Iverson, and F. P. Cronemiller.
The winter range of the interstate deer herd, Modoc National Forest, California. U. S. Forest
Service, Region 5 Report. 20 p. 1944. (Mimeo.)
(11) Jones, Burle J., and R. M. Love.
Improving California ranges. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 129:1-48. 1945.
Section I— Page 10
In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes
necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or
chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which
are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products
is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.
Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture,
University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914.
J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.
5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.
CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. Guilbert and G. H, Hart
MANUAL 2
Section II
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA « COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND CATTLE BREEDING
Physiological Processes
Reproduction
Basis for Inheritance
Rumination
Rumen Fermentation
Water Utilization
Physiological Processes
Reproduction
According to many studies and practi-
cal observations, a high reproduction rate
is important to the financial stability of
a beef-cattle enterprise. The rate varies
significantly with environmental condi-
tions, especially feed supply. For example,
low calf crops follow periods of drought
and poor range feed.
Lactation constitutes a greater drain
on the breeding cow than gestation. This
is the basis for the much-discussed plan
of breeding cows to calve at two years of
age and vealing the calves early, as pre-
sented under "Production of Feeder Cat-
tle," Section IV. The establishment and
maintenance of normal rhythm of estrus
cycles (heat periods) in the open animal
is a more delicate index of a normally
functioning physiology of all body proc-
esses than is growth curve or weight gain.
Breeding cows commonly lose weight dur-
ing the dry season, which usually coin-
Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces
Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali-
fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford.
Some tables and other data from the original
circular are used in the manual.
Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi-
ment Station.
Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science
and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station.
Cattle Breeding
Market Factors
Production Factors
Records of Performance
Selective Breeding
Crossbreeding
cides with the latter part of gestation.
With calving, a further weight loss occurs,
upward of 100 pounds, followed by lacta-
tion on green feed. In spite of good feed,
the drain of lactation will often prevent
gains or will even result in losses. Thus
the cow may pass through the breeding
season without showing heat periods and
so miss having a calf the following year.
To prevent this trouble, one should supply
the breeding cow with feed that will en-
able her to return to her normal weight
at calving time each year. Means for ac-
complishing this result are given under
"Percentage Calf Crop" in Section IV,
"Production of Feeder Cattle." Supplying
1 bull for every 15 breeding females will
not help the situation when the need is
for supplemental feed to bring the breed-
ing cows into heat. Given proper feed,
25 or 30 cows can be served by a single
bull.
Estrus, or heat, is the external manifes-
tation that the genital tract is functioning
normally. Involved are the development
of a Graafian follicle containing the ovum
or egg in the ovary, ovulation, and prep-
aration of the lining mucosa of the uterus
for the implantation of the fertilized egg.
These processes are under hormone con-
trol.
Gonadotropin, a hormone secreted
Page 1— Section II
from the anterior part of the pituitary,
a small ductless gland at the base of the
brain, stimulates the growth of the Graaf-
ian follicles in the ovary. One follicle will
mature at each heat period (two follicles
in the case of twins) , rupture, and extrude
the ovum and follicular fluid. The cavity
thus created is filled by the formation of
the corpus luteum, or yellow body of the
ovary. Under the stimulation of growth,
the follicle produces the female sex hor-
mone, estrogen, which is found in the fol-
licular fluid. This hormone stimulates the
secretion of mucus in the vagina, initiates
contractions and growth changes in the
uterus, and brings on the manifestations
of estrus. The corpus luteum secretes an-
other hormone, progesterone, which stops
uterine contractions and continues to
prepare the lining of the uterus for im-
plantation of the fertilized ovum and the
maintenance of pregnancy.
The same pituitary hormone, gonado-
tropin, activates sperm production in the
male and stimulates the testes to produce
from special cells the male sex hormone
testosterone. This in turn, by stimulating
the prostate gland and seminal vesicles
(the accessory male glands), produces
sexual desire.
The sex hormones secreted by the testes
and the ovary also control the develop-
ment of secondary sexual characteristics-
masculinity in bulls, femininity in fe-
males. Spaying a heifer changes her body
conformation somewhat and results in
coarser appearance of the head. The alter-
ation in appearance of a steer, compared
with the well-developed crest, more mas-
sive head, horns, and shoulders, and deep
voice of a bull, is well known. Variation
in sex-hormone secretion is responsible
for difference in development of these
characteristics in individuals. Stockmen
have empirically long associated the com-
bination of characteristics recognized as
femininity with good breeding cows that
are good mothers; strongly developed
masculine appearance with good breeding
bulls. Normal sex-hormone secretion is
the scientific explanation of these practi-
cal observations.
Evidence from an extensive literature
on the relation of nutrition to reproduc-
tion has been reviewed (1). This in-
dicated that low food intake or any
deficiency (as of protein or phosphorus)
that affects appetite may act through the
pituitary gland to cause cessation or ir-
regularity of heat periods in the female
and to limit sexual desire and activity in
the male. Protein deficiency seems to have
a direct effect on the pituitary, independ-
ent of appetite or food intake.
Under these conditions of nutritional
deficiency all body cells, including the
pituitary and sex glands, are affected.
Reduction of hormone secretion from
the pituitary under such circumstances
has been demonstrated. Thus the direct
effect of inanition, with lessening of hor-
mone stimulation, is "doubled up" on the
ovaries or testes and could explain the
observed cessation of estrus and sexual
desire. Injection of the gonad-stimulating
hormone into animals suffering nutri-
tional privation has restored estrus and
ovulation in the female and sexual desire
in the male. The generally recognized fact
that reproductive functions are more sen-
sitive to undernutrition than most other
physiological processes may thus be ex-
plained.
The mechanism indicated, indeed, may
be a wise provision of nature to prevent
the onset of reproduction under condi-
tions unfavorable to survival of both
mother and offspring, and to assist the
adult animal to live through the critical
period.
Vitamin-A deficiency, on the other
hand, does not affect the recurrence of
heat until the advanced stages, when ap-
petite declines and the animal's general
condition is impaired. Breeding has been
observed with experimental animals in
the convulsive stages, but pregnancy was
not established. Deficiency to the night-
blindness stage during pregnancy causes
changes and necrosis of the placenta. Op-
Section II— Page 2
portunity for infection is increased; the
fetus may be killed and aborted, or born
too weak to live. Vitamin-A deficiency in
the male causes sterility through degen-
erative changes in the sperm-producing
cells of the testes, but does not affect sex-
ual desire until advanced stages. The
testicular damage is slowly repaired if
sufficient vitamin A is again supplied.
Insufficient iodine causes reproductive
failure through development of the defi-
ciency syndrome in the fetus that is still
in the uterus; but the mother shows no
clinical signs of the trouble.
When the delicate reproductive phe-
nomena are not occurring, the cow misses
rebreeding, gains weight as lactation
ends, and is more fleshy than the animals
that are again lactating. If bulls are pres-
ent she may become pregnant in the late
summer or fall and calve late the follow-
ing year or early the second year after
having her last calf, or be sold for slaugh-
ter in the winter because she is in good
flesh or thought to be barren. This ac-
counts for the large number of fetuses on
the killing floors in the winter season.
When pregnancy has gone beyond about
5 months of the gestation period, it affects
dressing percentage.
Physiological Basis for
Inheritance
The body cells of cattle contain 30 pairs
of bundles of hereditary determiners
called chromosomes— a total of 60. In the
formation of each ovum, or egg, and each
sperm, one or the other of each pair is
included, so that each germ cell has 30
chromosomes. These carry the deter-
miners of the hereditary qualities of the
individual. When the egg and sperm
unite, the resulting new individual has
60 chromosomes, one half coming from
each of its parents. In turn the new indi-
vidual will contribute 30 chromosomes to
its offspring, passing along one or the
other of the members of each pair that
it received from its parents. This is the
"halving and sampling" process of inheri-
tance; the inclusion in the germ cell of
one or the other member of any pair is
due to chance.
With all possible combinations of these
30 pairs, any cow or bull can transmit
over 1 billion different samples of its own
inheritance; and the combination from
both parents makes possible 1 billion
times 1 billion genetically different off-
spring. It is not strange, then, that no two
individuals (except identical twins from
a single egg split after fertilization) are
exactly alike. This variation gives one an
opportunity to select for desired charac-
teristics. Selection and systems of breed-
ing, such as inbreeding and line breeding,
are means of obtaining sires and dams
whose chromosomes contain similar he-
reditary determiners, so that the amount
of variation is reduced.
Some applications of these basic con-
cepts, along with important factors to
consider in beef-type selection, are dis-
cussed under "Cattle Breeding."
Rumination
Strictly herbivorous animals, such as
cattle, sheep, deer, and horses have special
anatomical arrangements of the gastro-
intestinal tract to care for large ingestion
of roughage. The first three species named
have a four-stomach arrangement; and
the horse has a large caecum, or blind gut,
whose counterpart in man is the small,
rudimentary vermiform appendix.
The four-stomach species are classed
as ruminants because the first stomach,
or rumen, can return boluses of ingesta
to the mouth by reverse peristalsis of the
esophagus. The bolus is then remasticated
and again swallowed, the entire process
being known as rumination, or chewing
the cud. Eructation or belching, a closely
related phenomenon, is used in eliminat-
ing the gases that form through fermenta-
tion. When expulsion of these gases is
interfered with, the immediate result is
bloating, which may even cause death.
Page 3— Section II
Rumination and eructation are involun-
tary or reflex acts, the nervous stimulus for
which is the scratching of coarse rough-
age on the mucosa of the anterior portion
of the rumen. This stimulation was first
demonstrated by workers at the South
Dakota Station. Through a fistula the ex-
perimenters passed an arm into the rumen
and, by scratching the mucous membrane,
started the eructation. Cole and his co-
workers (2) of the Division of Animal
Husbandry, University of California,
have demonstrated the cause of bloat to be
a lack of sufficient coarse roughage. Bloat
was produced experimentally by feeding
cows on soft, lush upper stems and leaves
of alfalfa and prevented by giving them
coarse hay before turning them out to
pasture. Sudangrass likewise inhibited
bloat, because the edges of the leaf are
rough and maintain the constant stimulus
for eructation. In experimental dairy ani-
mals fed no roughage from calfhood, but
supplied with concentrates only, Mead of
the California Station demonstrated a
failure of the rumen to develop ; no rumi-
nation took place, and too heavy a feeding
at any one time always resulted in some
degree of bloat. In view of this knowledge,
the stockman should recognize that when
bloat occurs on pastures or ranges, the
feed is too lush and tender. On such range
feed and irrigated pastures, the animals
need access to coarse hay or straw for
the normal functioning of their digestive
apparatus. Insufficient roughage tends to
reduce appetite and gain, even if acute
bloat is not produced. Recommended min-
imum roughage allowance is discussed
under "Fattening Cattle and the Dressed
Product," Section V.
Rumen Fermentation
The fermentation constantly going on
in the rumen results from the growth and
activity of microorganisms. Nutritionists
have made important progress in under-
standing some of the interrelationships
and functions, but the problems of re-
search are extremely complicated and
Section II— Page 4
knowledge is by no means complete. Di-
gestion in the rumen is accomplished by
enzyme systems produced by the micro-
organisms. The principal products of
carbohydrate digestion in ruminants are
volatile fatty acids such as acetic ; in non-
ruminants the main end product is sugar
(glucose).
Bacteria are primarily concerned with
cellulose digestion, but they also act on
starches and sugar, producing lower
fatty acids, carbon dioxide, and methane.
These fermentation gases must escape
through belching, or bloat occurs. Infu-
soria, with the help of bacteria, break
down carbohydrates and proteins, and
synthesize from amino acids animal pro-
teins of high value. The microorganisms
also synthesize vitamins and proteins
from nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea.
This reworking of the proteins and non-
protein nitrogen of feeds into bacterial
and infusorial protein, which becomes
available to the host lower in its digestive
tract, explains why biological value of
feed proteins is not so important in rumi-
nants.
The identity of the different types of
organisms making up the rumen flora and
fauna is not well established, but there
is strong evidence that they are interde-
pendent in function and that the propor-
tions of different types vary with the feed
supply. Inoculation apparently is passed
more or less directly from one animal
to another, as the organisms do not long
survive outside the anaerobic conditions
of the rumen. It appears that when the
composition of the ration is altered, some
time may be required for the active flora
to adapt to the new feed. The dying out
of various types of microorganisms has
been demonstrated experimentally in
animals fed very deficient rations. In
some cases, the animals failed to respond
on a good diet until they had received
inoculation of rumen contents from a
normal animal. Changing from a poor
ration to a rich diet may lead to toxic
effects because the microorganisms which
utilize decomposition products of pro-
teins, for example, may not be present
in sufficient numbers.
Fineness of grinding or other factors,
such as very lush pasture, speed the pas-
sage of feed through the rumen, decrease
cellulose digestion, and increase the
amount of carbohydrate digested to glu-
cose by intestinal enzymes. Decline in
butterfat percentage of milk has been
observed under these conditions.
Slowness in getting animals on feed
after long fasting is probably due to com-
plete dying out of rumen microorganisms
and slowness of reinoculation. Thus,
science has now shown justification, in
some cases, of the old practice of trans-
ferring the cud of a healthy cow to a
sick one, although the efficacy of the dish
rag in lieu of the cud has not been veri-
fied! These advances in knowledge, which
explain the necessity for gradual change
in ration when large differences in com-
position are involved, offer logical rea-
sons for many difficulties encountered in
practice.
McElroy and Goss of the California
Station and others have demonstrated
that the rumen contents of the cow are
an excellent source of thiamin, riboflavin,
pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, pyridox-
ine, biotin, and fat-soluble vitamin K.
Thus, under normal feeding practice, cat-
tle do not need a source of the vitamin-B
complex in their diet; they obtain it from
the microorganisms that manufacture the
complex in their own bodies. On the other
hand, the foregoing evidence indicates
that, under poor, dry range conditions,
the rumen contents are lacking in neces-
sary nutrients for the normal processes
of fermentation. As a consequence, the
welfare of the animal may be impaired.
Water Utilization and Heat
Regulation
Water supply and body-heat regulation
in husbandry deserve much more atten-
tion than they usually receive. Particu-
larly is this true in semiarid parts of the
world, where either quantity or quality of
water and high temperatures frequently
limit stock-raising activities. In many
parts of California inadequate water sup-
ply is a yearly problem, which may neces-
sitate the removal of cattle from grazing
areas before the feed supplies are ex-
hausted. Waters unfit for man to drink
must sometimes be given to livestock. The
excess of such solids as nitrates, magne-
sium, sulfates, and sulfites may result in
so-called alkali poisoning, with diarrhea,
general weakness, loss of appetite, and
even sudden death. The upper limit of
tolerance for cattle, according to the Okla-
homa Agricultural Experiment Station, is
1.5 per cent total dissolved salts. When
obliged to walk far to a source of supply
(the distance should not exceed 2%
miles) the cattle can drink enough water
at one time to suffice for 24 hours. Travel-
ing long distances to water is hardest on
cows nursing calves and may be a pri-
mary cause of weight loss. Water is essen-
tial to the functioning of all body cells;
to the transport of nutrients in digestion,
absorption, and blood circulation; and
to the elimination of waste products. It
is a primary factor in the regulation of
body temperature and is necessary in the
mechanics of rumination. Without suffi-
cient water, rumination ceases, all diges-
tive processes are impaired, and feed
consumption decreases or stops.
On many cattle ranges, much can prof-
itably be done to increase water supply
and improve distribution in relation to
the range feed. This is an important con-
sideration in efficient range use and man-
agement. The amount of water, as such,
consumed by livestock depends on the
water content of the feed, temperature,
shade, frequency of access to the supply,
and lactation or nonlactation. Water in
the feed in arid areas varies from 80 per
cent or better in green feed to as low as
10 per cent in the bleached dry feed in
the dry season. Thus, with great demand
Page 5— Section II
for water intake in hot weather and low
water content of dry feed, an average
daily consumption of 10 to 15 gallons
per head should be provided. Lactating
animals may consume more, and young
animals less. The Minnesota Station has
presented data showing that milking cows
require 3 pounds of water per pound of
milk produced. There is evidence, how-
ever, that after general requirements are
filled, no more water should be needed for
lactation than the actual volume of water
contained in the milk.
Water Utilization. Water is lost
from the body through urine and feces,
evaporation from the skin and lungs, and
milk production. For a fully grown ani-
mal, intake should equal outgo. On the
other hand, a growing animal will require
water to form a part of its new body tis-
sues. In general, the water content of feces
is about 80 per cent. When dry range
feeds are deficient, and especially when
feed is low in total soluble mineral, the
feces are dry, tend to pile up, and contain
less than 80 per cent moisture; this con-
dition indicates that the animals are not
doing well. The condition of feces in feed
lot, as well as on range, is a valuable
index. The total weight of the feces varies
with diet and water content.
According to Leitch and Thomson (3)
on the average the water in the feces of
steers and dry cows appears to approxi-
mate four times the dry matter ; in lactat-
ing cows, over five times.
Urine is the means of eliminating waste
products from the system, particularly the
end products of nitrogen metabolism in
the form of urea. It also stabilizes water
in the body when sudden changes in tem-
perature occur, with greater or less loss
from the skin or lungs. Sudden increase
in quantity of urine from exposure to cold
results in a fluid of less concentration.
In general, 5,000 to 7,000 milliliters—
roughly 5 to 7 quarts of urine— will be
voided daily. Excessive urination and cor-
respondingly greater water intake occur
when cattle consume beet tops, which are
high in soluble mineral and possibly in
other substances having a diuretic effect.
Heat Regulation. In warm-blooded
animals the body temperature is regulated
wkhin very narrow limits by delicate ad-
justment of heat production and dissi-
pation. Heat production occurs from
fermentation in the rumen, from combus-
tion of food, and, in animals losing weight
on poor feed, from combustion of the
body tissues. The animal also absorbs
heat from both sun and ground radiation
and from the air when the temperature
is higher outside the body than inside.
Disposal of heat occurs by evaporation
of water from the lungs and skin and also
by radiation and conduction from the
body surface. When the air temperature
is low, loss of heat is easier by radiation
and conduction. In the summer, when
air temperature may exceed body tem-
perature, loss of heat by radiation may
be less than the amount absorbed; and
then the animal pants with shallow,
rapid respirations to dissipate heat by
greater evaporation from the lungs. The
sweat glands of cattle have less functional
development than those of horses or man.
At 85° to 95° F, however, evaporation
from the skin is three to four times that
from respiration, according to Missouri
data. Length, color, and texture of hair
coat affect heat exchange by radiation
and conduction.
Forbes and his co-workers (4) , in basal
metabolism experiments, have shown
marked differences in shorn animals in
a calorimeter when increased heat pro-
duction for maintenance of body tempera-
ture occurred at 66° F. The regrowth of
hair in the same animal reduced this crit-
ical temperature to 56 1 /2° or below. Water
loss by evaporation from the lungs in the
cow is considerable, the upper limits
being 10 to 12 quarts in a 24-hour period.
Atmospheric humidity apparently plays
a minor role in this water evaporation.
Regan and Mead with experimental Hol-
stein dairy cows in a psychrometric room
at Davis found that a humidity of 90 per
Section II— Page 6
cent of air saturation affected the animals
very little compared with temperature.
When the latter was maintained at 80° F
with humidity at 60 per cent for more
than 24 hours, the body temperature rose
above normal, with the result that milk
flow and feed and water intake decreased.
Thus, decline in appetite results at the
upper critical temperature (the environ-
mental temperature beyond which the
animal cannot prevent body temperature
from rising above normal).
These facts emphasize the importance
of weather as an environmental factor.
Feed capacity and utilization are the im-
portant criteria in animal production;
but under rigorous climatic conditions
in warm countries and seasons, ability to
dissipate heat must be considered.
The low milk yields of European dairy
breeds in the tropics have been attributed
to loss of energy under high temperatures,
when extreme panting to dissipate heat
forces the whole body into rhythm with
the flank movements. The temperatures
were such that all heat dissipation neces-
sarily resulted from water evaporation,
since none could result from radiation.
In practical beef production, the differ-
ence between a good "doer" and a poor
one may often lie in greater ability to
dispose of excess heat. English investi-
gators found that the average skin tem-
perature of 8 fattening steers that had
gained an average of 19 pounds weekly
for the preceding 3 weeks was 20.7° C;
for 5 that had averaged 12 pounds per
week, 22.2° C.
Native tropical breeds, such as the
Brahman and Afrikaner, are physiologi-
cally fitted over generations and centuries
of adaptation to such environment. They
manifest lower pulse and respiration rate
than European breeds under identical
conditions, and do not seek shade so
quickly.
Some of the fundamental differences
between temperate-zone and tropical
breeds that influence the greater heat tol-
erance of the latter follow.
1. Relatively greater skin area and thus
greater surface for heat radiation in
relation to weight.
2. Relatively greater ability to perspire.
Data show more water evaporation
from the skin, and limited histologi-
cal studies on skin sections showed
greater numbers of sweat glands.
3. A distinctly shorter hair coat, which,
regardless of color, is generally
found on pigmented skin. Many
types have light hair color that re-
flects a higher proportion of sun ra-
diation. South African clipping tests
revealed 303 grams of hair in the
summer coat of a 600-pound Short-
horn; 30 grams on a 600-pound
Afrikaner. The winter coats con-
tained 505 and 129 grams of hair,
respectively.
4. Less capacity of the digestive tract.
Still undetermined physiological func-
tions and adaptations may be involved in
the heat tolerance of tropical cattle.
Cattle Breeding
The responsibility of the purebred
breeder is to supply commercial pro-
ducers with bulls that are uniformly pre-
potent for siring cattle of the higher
market grades, capable of converting
feeds into beef economically. To make
progress, the breeder must have his ob-
jectives clearly in mind and must study
the needs of commercial cattlemen. The
cattle not only must be adapted for prac-
tical conditions of production, but must
satisfy market requirements. Since com-
mercial cattlemen encounter these prob-
lems to a greater extent than average
breeders, they can, if well informed,
greatly influence the trend of purebred
selection through their preferential pur-
chase of bulls.
Some of the more important market
and production factors in beef -type selec-
tion are summarized in the following
paragraphs.
Page 7— Section II
Market Factors in Beef-Type
Selection
Weight. For slaughter steers, the
widest outlet at favorable prices has been
for carcasses weighing 500 to 650 pounds,
with 25 to 30 per cent fat in the edible
portion. These correspond to good and
choice to prime grades and to live weights
of 850 to 1,100 lbs. Heifers, with similar
feeding, reach the desired carcass com-
position at lighter weights than steers.
A primary objective, therefore, is to breed
cattle that will attain this carcass com-
position (degree of fatness) at these de-
sired weights under practical conditions.
Yield of Wholesale Cuts. The vari-
ation in value of carcasses fat enough to
satisfy the requirements of a given grade
depends much upon the proportion of
the wholesale cuts. Each cut differs in the
characteristics of muscle fibers, or per
cent of bone or both, and therefore sells
at a different price. Good and poor car-
casses are compared in figure 2 (II).
Data (5) on choice feeder steers (2- to 2
grade) fed to good-grade slaughter con-
dition yielded 59.3 per cent of higher-
priced round, rump, loin, and prime rib
cuts and 40.7 per cent of lower-priced
flank, plate, brisket, foreshank, and chuck.
According to Davis (6) , the average yield
from good-grade steers is 54 per cent of
the good cuts, and 46 per cent of the
poorer. With the higher-priced cuts at 26
cents per pound and the lower at 19
cents— a common spread— the difference
in yield shown above amounts to 40 cents
per 100 pounds, or $2.40 on a 600-pound
carcass.
Other California Experiment Station
data for cattle grading from good to
choice as feeders showed comparatively
small differences (less than 0.6 per cent)
in cut-out value; this was true also be-
tween good-choice Herefords, crossbred
Brahman-Herefords and Brahmans.Thus,
in type and outward appearance, animals
can vary markedly without materially
altering carcass value due to conforma-
tion so long as they are straight, trim,
and well balanced. Excessive weight in
shoulders and excessive depth in relation
to length increase the proportion of
cheaper cuts.
Shape of Wholesale and Retail
Cuts. Desirability and salability depend
much upon the shape of the cut. From
the standpoint of cooking, carving, and
serving, short thick cuts are preferable
to long thin ones. Variations in shape are
shown in the carcasses in figure 2 (II)
and in the rib cuts, figure 3 (II) . Low-set,
wide, thick body conformation, with
heavy muscling of back, loin, and hind-
quarters and heavy weight in relation to
height, are outward manifestations of
short bones and thick cuts.
Proportion of Meat to Bone. The
housewife, the principal meat buyer, is
particularly sensitive to the amount of
bone apparent in a cut. In contrast to
long bones and thin muscling, the shorter,
thicker cuts give the impression of more
lean in proportion to bone. In a compari-
son of 55 beef-type and 80 dual-purpose-
type Shorthorn steers (7) the former
averaged 28 per cent bone and 72 per cent
muscle in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
rib cuts ; the latter, 30 per cent bone and
70 per cent muscle. Other data show that
there is a high correlation between the
composition of these cuts and the rest of
the carcass. The extreme range in bone to
muscle proportion for individuals of the
135 head was from 36 per cent bone and
64 per cent muscle, to 21 per cent bone
and 79 per cent muscle. Some significant
differences were also found for the steers
from different sires. The extreme range
shows an opportunity for selection. The
difference between the average of the
milking type and the beef type, however,
was not great. Only small differences in
proportion of lean to bone have been found
in broad-breasted chickens and turkeys
compared with more angular types (8).
As Hammond's (9) extensive studies
show, selection for shorter bones and
thicker fleshing results in greater diam-
eter and thickness of bones, so that pro-
Section II— Page 8
portion by weight is little changed. Ham- in the muscle to bone ratio might be ob-
mond found as much muscle in relation tained by selecting for thick muscling and
to bone in sheep of the semiwild type as fine bone. This, however, would tend to
in improved breeds. Some improvement reduce size. Improvement, therefore, ap-
I
!"*. I .* ! ! '
m
Fig. .2 (II). Examples of (left) undesirable and (right) desirable beef carcasses. The poor car-
cass has too much length compared with thickness ; it is heavy in front, light in the rear quarter, and
flat-sided. The good carcass is shorter and thicker with less cheap meat in the shanks, neck, and ribs.
(From: Hammond, J. Farm animals; their breeding, growth, and inheritance. 199 p. Longmans,
Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By permission of the publisher.)
Page 9— Section II
J <■ >, >,
! < ■ ' ■ %
Fig. 3 (II). Cuts through the ribs of the carcasses shown in figure 2 (II). Upper: undesirable
cut; shallow "eye" muscle and large proportion of bone to edible meat. Lower: desirable cut; deep-
fleshed with small proportion of bone to edible meat. (From: Hammond, J. Farm animals; their
breeding, growth, and inheritance. 199 p. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By per-
mission of the publisher.)
pears somewhat limited, not only because
of existing variation for selection, but
also the necessity of having reasonably
good bone to meet production require-
ments. On this question, more data are
needed. If boning of carcasses becomes
a more general merchandising practice,
the yield of meat will assume greater di-
rect economic importance for processors
and producers.
Section II— Page 10
The proportion of fat-free lean to bone
increases during growth, and the propor-
tion of total edible meat to bone increases
markedly with fattening.
Distribution of Fat and Lean. The
ideal fat deposition is a moderate uniform
outside covering over the whole carcass,
a minimum of internal (including kid-
ney) fat, with abundance of fat inter-
spersed between the muscle fibers. This
ideal is illustrated to a remarkable degree
in figure 4 (II), showing the rib and
round cut from the carcass of an Aberdeen
Angus International grand champion.
The genetic factors for such distribution
of fat are more generally encountered in
Aberdeen Angus than in other beef
breeds. The external indications are gen-
eral plumpness of body; very smooth,
firm appearance; and, under the hand,
a feeling of firmness and resilience of
thick flesh, in contrast to the softer, flab-
bier touch of excess external fat.
According to Callow (10), at Cam-
bridge University, England, palatability
of boneless prime rib increases with fat-
ness up to a maximum of about 35 per
cent fat and decreases thereafter. This
optimum fatness corresponds with ani-
mals having carcass yields of 58 to 60
per cent of live weight. The proportion
of fat is about twice that of protein in
such a desirable cut!
Dressing Percentage. Carcass yield
depends primarily on degree of fatness.
Callow (10) has shown that for every 1
per cent increase in the dressing-out per-
centage, the fatty tissues of the carcass
increased by 1.43 per cent. Variation in
fatness accounted for 89 per cent of the
total variation in dressing percentage
under reasonably comparable conditions
of fill. Deposition of excess mesenteric
fat, which goes with the offal, tends to
decrease dressing percentage. Animals
having more length in relation to depth
than has been considered ideal in the past,
that are well balanced and solidly fleshed,
with straight, trim bodies are capable of
producing the high yields appreciated by
the buyer at degrees of finish popular
with the beef salesman and consumer.
In cut-out tests comparing individual
Hereford steers, then in comparing these
with Hereford-Brahman crossbreds, dif-
ferences in live-weight value due to dress-
ing per cent have amounted to $10 to
$12 per head at 1,000 pounds live weight,
while the maximum difference in value
due to conformation as it affected cut-out
value of the carcass was between $1 and
$2 per head. Dressed yield is important
in determining live-weight price, and is a
constant bargaining point. Perhaps too
much attention has been given to the $2
items and too little to the $10! Selection
Fig. 4 (II). Rib and round cuts from an Aberdeen Angus International champion carcass. Note
moderate but uniform external covering and excellent marbling. (Courtesy of Aberdeen Angus
Breeders' Association.)
Page 1 1— Section II
of beef cattle should emphasize more
"good doing" cattle capable of dressing-
out over 60 per cent at the moderate de-
gree of fatness characterizing good
slaughter grade.
For rapid and economical gains, feed
capacity is essential. This can be obtained
through reasonable length as well as
depth. Thin-fleshed, fine-boned, shallow-
bodied cattle may dress out well, but usu-
ally are poor feeders, slow in fattening.
Such cattle can result from long periods
of privation during earlier growth stages,
as well as from poor breeding.
Production Factors in Beef-Type
Selection
Size. There is no fundamental relation
between size (potential mature size) and
efficiency of feed utilization. Thus, there
is little difference in over-all efficiency of
sheep and cattle in converting feed energy
to body substance. It has also been shown
that smaller, very early-maturing steers
may utilize their feed just as economically
as larger steers, if both types are fed to
the same degree of fatness. On the other
hand, if the smaller type were fed to the
same weight as the larger, they would be
fatter and therefore would have required
more feed for 100 pounds' gain because
of the higher energy content of the in-
crease. Significant variations in efficiency
of feed utilization exist between individ-
uals or within groups of cattle of different
sizes.
If market requirements for carcass
weight and finish remain relatively fixed,
then, within limits discussed later, ideal
size can in general be defined as the larg-
est size which will, on a given plane of
nutrition, attain the required carcass com-
position (degree of fatness) at the desired
market weight. For example, large-sized
"growthy" steers on range or pasture
alone, or with a minimum of concentrate
supplement, may weigh 1,200 pounds or
more before attaining the most desirable
degree of finish. The same steers on a
Section II— Page 12
higher plane of nutrition— that is, put on
full feed in feed lots as calves or year-
lings—would easily fatten enough at the
more popular lighter weights. Somewhat
smaller, earlier-maturing types that more
nearly approach mature weight at about
1,000 pounds should be adapted to fatten-
ing at desired lighter weights on grass
and a minimum of concentrates, because
less demand for growth permits fattening
on a lower plane of nutrition.
Similarly, economy involves the pro-
duction of as large calves as the cows can
support well. While small calves from
small cows may be as economical as big
calves from big cows, a big-cow overhead
cost for small calves is uneconomical, just
as 70-pound Southdown lambs out of
Rambouillet or crossbred ewes are less
profitable than the 85- to 90-pound Hamp-
shire or Suffolk cross lambs that these
ewes are capable of producing to a desir-
able market finish.
There are limitations in attempting to
vary size to meet market requirements
under different production methods and
on different planes of nutrition. Extremes
of any kind are seldom right. Huge size
is usually accompanied by coarseness,
poor fleshing qualities, loose rather than
compact conformation, slow maturity and
fattening; such an animal may be other-
wise poorly adapted for harvesting feed
and for production conditions. On the
other hand, reduction in size and extremes
of earliness of maturity accompany de-
crease in milk production, reproductive
ability, and general vigor.
The medium within the range for the
species or breed is usually the best from
the standpoint of widest adaptability, gen-
eral vigor, reproductive efficiency, milk
production, and longevity. In good breed-
ing condition, mature cows weighing
1,200 to 1,350 pounds and bulls weighing
1,800 to 2,000 pounds represent this
medium-size range; but this weight must
be obtained in the right way to satisfy
all of the market and production require-
ments.
Fig. 5 (II). Changes in body proportion with age. To show these as
distinct from changes in size, all photographs are reduced to the same
height at the shoulders. Left: The proportions in animals of different ages
and levels of feeding. No. 11, calf at 2 days of age; no. 12, steer 30 months
old, on low level of nutrition; nos. 13 and 14, steers 11 and 22 months of
age, respectively, on high level of nutrition; no. 15, a bull of about 100
years ago. Right: The changes in body proportion of bulls as they grew.
No. 1, a calf at 2 days of age; no. 2, at 5 weeks; no. 3, at 13 months; no.
4, at 22 months; and no. 5, a mature bull of the modern type. (From:
Hammond, J. Farm animals; their breeding, growth, and inheritance.
199 p. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By permission of
the publisher.)
Page 13— Section II
Conformation. To judge conforma-
tion at different ages, one must under-
stand growth processes. Growth occurs
in three overlapping phases: a peak of
bone growth, a peak of muscle growth,
and a peak of fat development. Changes
in body proportion with age appear in
figure 5 (II). To show the changes in
body proportion as distinct from size,
all the photographs are reduced to the
same height at the shoulders. Pictures in
the right-hand column show changes in
proportion of bulls from 2 days to 5
years of age. Note the increase in thick-
ness development with age ; the calf has a
relatively greater proportion of legs, head,
and neck, but relatively little body depth,
width, loin, and hindquarter, compared
with animals at later stages.
Thickness growth, development of loin
and hindquarters are late-maturing parts.
The cannon bones enlarge and lengthen
relatively less than the next bone above,
and so on up the fore and hind limbs.
Short cannon bones, which mean a low-
set animal, have become recognized as a
desirable feature of beef type and as in-
dicating early maturity. This view is cor-
rect, because if this earliest-maturing part
does not cease length growth early, later-
maturing parts cannot be expected to de-
velop rapidly. If, however, a calf is
exceptionally thick and its proportions
approach those of an average mature ani-
mal, it is destined to become either an
exceptionally thick-bodied adult of mod-
erate size or a moderately thick small ani-
mal. Most often the latter is what actually
happens; the precociously mature and
thick-appearing calves that frequently
win in show rings tend to be disappoint-
ing in their later development. These
changes of proportion with age must be
kept in mind when one is selecting for
type and conformation.
The left column of figure 5 (II) shows,
in the picture second from the top (no.
12) , that a steer 30 months old, grown on
a low plane of nutrition, differed little in
body proportion from a 5-week-old calf
(opposite) on a high plane. Poor nutri-
tion restricts the growth of later-maturing
tissues more than it restricts skeletal
growth and other earlier-maturing parts.
This result clearly illustrates the necessity
of providing adequate environmental
conditions for full development of genetic
possibilities; otherwise, selection may be
inaccurate because of environmental ef-
fects. The next two pictures show the de-
velopment of well-fed steers at 11 and 22
months of age. The lower picture (no. 15)
illustrates a typical bull of about one
hundred years ago; this, in contrast to
the modern type on the right, indicates
how greatly thickness growth and early
maturity have been increased through
selection and breeding.
Table 4 (II ) gives weight and measure-
ments of especially desirable Herefords
at different ages and under favorable con-
ditions for growth and development.
These animals were not fitted, but were
in good breeding-herd condition. These
data may serve as a guide for desirable
weights and proportions at different ages.
Animals conforming rather closely to
these measurements, however, still might
not be desirable for breeding. For ex-
ample, they might be lacking in symmetry
and smoothness of conformation; defi-
cient in breed or sex character; rough and
open in the shoulders, low in the back,
possibly sloping in the rump. While a
good head in Herefords is usually about
twice as long as the width at eye level,
heads of this proportion might be con-
sidered poor if they showed a small,
tapering muzzle; coarseness; lack of
character, of femininity, or of masculin-
ity. It is practically impossible to measure
objectively all the external features that
make up good or poor individuals; but
those given may demonstrate some im-
portant features of good beef type.
Weight and thickness measurements
increase over a longer period than linear
measurements. Thus at 20 months the
females attained about 75 and bulls 65
per cent of the mature weight, but both
Section II— Page 14
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had reached about 95 per cent of height
growth and 90 per cent of length growth.
Round measurement and, especially,
heart girth, vary with weight. Early-
maturing animals in good condition, with
well-developed hindquarters, have round
measurements which in females are about
85 to 90 per cent as much as the height
after 16 months of age; in bulls, 95 to
over 100 per cent. Steers are intermediate
between females and bulls in growth, size,
and earliness of maturity.
Efficiency of Feed Utilization and
Earliness of Maturity. Efficiency of
feed utilization is controlled by a number
of factors. These primarily involve or
affect relative feed capacity, which means
feed intake in relation to the amount re-
quired for maintenance. Animals having
average maintenance requirements may
excel in efficiency by being able to con-
sume and convert greater than average
amounts of feed in relation to their met-
abolic body size. On the other hand,
animals of average feed consuming ca-
pacity may differ in efficiency through
variations in their metabolic rates that
increase or decrease the fraction of the
total feed required for maintenance. This
involves the endocrine system and in turn
the disposition of the animal. Docile,
quiet, or phlegmatic individuals are com-
monly recognized as "easy keepers." Ex-
perimental evidence indicates that both
types of variability commonly occur in
beef cattle and probably are of similar
magnitude— logically so since the digest-
ible nutrient requirement for mainte-
nance is nearly half the total intake of
cattle on full feed. Relative feed capacity
is not merely the size and capacity of the
gastrointestinal tract, although these may
be involved. Appetite and total feed con-
sumption are fundamentally affected by
digestion, absorption, and storage capaci-
ties for food nutrients, as influenced by
internal stimuli for growth and develop-
ment and by the ability to dispense read-
ily with the excess heat incident to high
intake and conversion of feed.
Although high rate of gain and in-
creased efficiency are frequently highly
correlated, this is not always true. In a
California test of the get of 4 sires, each
consisting of 10 steer calves, there were
lots that gained at the same rate but dif-
fered in efficiency, and lots with the same
efficiency that gained at significantly dif-
ferent rates. Thus, actual rate of gain and
efficiency were poorly correlated. There
was a direct correlation, however, of rela-
tive feed intake and relative rate of gain
with efficiency. From this, one may as-
sume that maintenance requirements of
these steers were essentially equal. These
lots by different sires varied considerably
in potential size and in the weight at
which they reached an equal degree of
fatness. In contrast with this are the re-
sults of individual feeding tests with 14
bull calves by one sire and with 7 by an-
other. The get of the first sire were con-
sistently more efficient than those of the
second. The first group actually ate less
per day than the second, although they
gained and weighed more and reached
equal finish. Moreover, between individ-
uals there was a negative correlation be-
tween relative feed intake and efficiency.
This strongly suggests that the get of one
bull required less for maintenance— were
truly more efficient in converting of feed.
Furthermore, practically all of the off-
spring of this sire are notably gentle,
quiet, and easily handled as well as being
strong feeders. This was also ascertained
by grade calves fed out before the bull
was used as a herd sire.
Work at the Bureau of Animal Industry
Station at Miles City, Montana, and by
the Montana Agricultural Experiment
Station indicates that the efficiency of feed
used by individual bulls is highly herit-
able—the performance of the individual
is a good index of the performance of his
offspring. If further critical work con-
firms these findings, then progeny testing
for this important factor in beef-type
selection would be unnecessary and "offi-
cial" feeding tests and indexing of bulls
Section II— Page 16
on this and other factors of desirability
may become a dominant factor in improv-
ing the usefulness of beef cattle. Indica-
tions of the possibilities are illustrated in
figure 6 (II).
Degree of earliness of maturity may be
defined as the rate at which an animal
attains mature weight, conformation, and
carcass composition. Figure 7 (II) il-
lustrates some variations in the maturing
of individuals in the University herd.
The middle curve shows the average
weight for age of Hereford females over
a period of years. Number 602 not only
gained more rapidly under the same en-
vironmental conditions, but also devel-
oped thickness, mature conformation, and
composition earlier than the average; yet
she attained the average weight for the
herd. To accomplish this high rate of
gain and yet thicken and fatten, she must
have had a high relative feed capacity.
Selection for early-maturing variations of
this kind (that is, without sacrifice of
size) automatically improves feed utiliza-
tion and has definitely been responsible
for much of the improvement made in
the past.
Fig. 6 (II) . Upper, left: This herd sire was bred by the University and proved in the San Joaquin
Experimental Range herd. His steer calves exhibited outstanding performance in the Fontana
Ranch feed lots. He was then used for several years in the University purebred herd. His sons were
fed individually from 9 months of age for periods of 120 to 165 days — until they reached choice
condition. The average weight at 8 months was 642 pounds; at 12 months, 930 pounds. The average
feed for 100 pounds gain was 705 pounds; the average daily gain, 2.59 pounds. Upper, right: A son
that weighed 685 pounds at 8 months; 950 pounds at 12 months; gained 2.83 pounds daily during
the feeding test; and made 100 pounds gain on 688 pounds of feed. Lower: In turn, his sons, in a
cobperator's herd made an average daily gain of 2.57 pounds during a 181-day feeding test and
required 645 pounds of feed for 100 pounds gain. (Photo by Reuben Albaugh.)
Page 17— Section II
N0.C02
Hew>aye**ge?
No.7U>
zo 30 ho 50
AaE. IN MONTHS
feO
Fig. 7 (II) . Early maturity variations in Hereford cows. The middle
curve represents an average weight curve for the University herd. No. 602
gained more rapidly yet matured earlier than average at about average
size. As a feed utilizer, this animal was doubtless more efficient than the
average. No. 716 matured earlier than the average but was small, slow in
gaining, and probably about average in efficiency of feed utilization.
Number 716 (fig. 7, II) gained more
slowly, but matured earlier than the aver-
age, at a much smaller weight. She prob-
ably had about average relative feed
capacity and efficiency. This type of in-
creased earliness of maturity would be
advantageous only where market finish
was demanded at a lighter weight under
good nutrition, or where the same finish
was wanted at average market weights on
a lower nutritional plane. By the time this
animal weighed 800 pounds, she con-
spicuously slowed in general growth and
could therefore fatten readily on a lower
plane. This example illustrates the fact
that selection for extremes in earliness
of maturity generally leads to decrease in
size.
Environmental Adaptation. Envi-
ronmental adaptation involves all the
Section II— Page 18
factors influencing the ability of animals
to thrive in the area where they happen
to be. It includes ability to utilize the feed
supply, to travel necessary distances for
feed and water, to go from winter to sum-
mer range, and to withstand the prevail-
ing climatic conditions. In the past, much
more consideration was given to improv-
ing the environment to suit the cattle than
to breeding cattle to suit the environment,
except where conditions of temperature
and disease compelled attention to the
problem. The use of tropical cattle, Brah-
man and their crosses, in areas of high
temperature is an example of this practice.
From the standpoint of the producer
and of the general welfare, ability of an
animal to thrive is more important than
ability to conform closely to some ideal
standard of conformation, color, or type
of hair coat that may be popular. Within
an area, however, selection of animals
that measure up to a standard of weight
and conformation automatically tends to
retain, for breeding, the individuals best
adapted to the climate. If, for example,
short glossy hair of uniform diameter is
advantageous in hot areas, then selection
of the best individuals for breeding may
result in a herd of cattle having short,
sleek coats. Conversely, a long woolly,
dull coat prevents excessive heat loss dur-
ing severe winters. Selection of the cattle
that thrive in cold climates has resulted in
this type of hair.
For efficient production one should not
only find practical ways of improving the
environment— through shelter and sup-
plemental feeding— but also select the
cattle best adapted to that environment.
In purchasing breeding stock, one may
secure better results by obtaining, from
an area having similar climate, animals
that meet the required standards and that
have been selected in that area for a long
period. Too frequently stockmen go a
long way from home for breeding stock,
without regard to climatic differences.
The Shorthorn, Aberdeen Angus, and
Hereford breeds all originated in Great
Britain and descended from cattle native
to northwestern Europe, where the tem-
perature fluctuations average about 35°
F in winter, 65° in summer. Conditions
similar to those where the breed was de-
veloped and improved through selective
breeding are usually the most favorable
to well-being.
In an earlier section were discussed the
sources of body heat, the mechanisms of
conservation and disposal to maintain
normal temperature for physiological
processes, and certain data bearing on the
problems. Whenever the heat from atmos-
pheric temperature, the radiant energy
from both the sun and ground, and the
internal heat caused by digestion and me-
tabolism of feed exceed the capacity of
the heat-disposal mechanisms, then the
body temperature rises, feed consumption
decreases, rumination ceases, and body
movements are restricted except for the
convulsive, rapid, shallow breathing to
increase cooling through water evapora-
tion from the respiratory tract.
Figure 8 (II) gives average monthly
temperatures for certain areas in Cali-
fornia through the year. These averages,
though a useful basis for generalization,
have limitations. For example, the day-to-
day maximum-minimum range and the
amount of exposure to sun radiation are
important. Animals and men can endure
longer periods of heat in the daytime if
the night temperature falls considerably
below the upper critical level for the in-
dividual and if cooling of the deeper
tissues and resting of the regulating mech-
anisms are permitted. The shaded area
(fig. 8, II), ranging from 35° F winter
to 65° average summer temperature, may
be considered ideal for temperate-zone
breeds. Coastal regions, northeastern
California, and higher elevations of the
state generally fall within this range. An
average monthly temperature of 75° may
be considered about the upper limit for
any extended period that does not result
in depressive effects. At Davis, for ex-
ample, the curve is within this range and
is fairly typical of the center portion of
the Great Valley. Only during July and
August does the average monthly tem-
perature reach or exceed 75° F. The
nights are usually cool. With adequate
water, some provision for shade, and a
feed supply that can be obtained without
too much time spent in traveling and in
grazing, the high temperature will limit
production only for short periods. The
effects of high summer temperature on
late-spring calves, however, are notice-
able.
The temperature ranges shown for
Chico and Bakersfield are representative
of the northern Sacramento Valley, the
middle and southern San Joaquin Valley,
and the adjacent lower foothills. For 3
to 5 months in these areas, the average
monthly temperature exceeds 75° F, and
Page 19— Section II
for 2 months it reaches or exceeds 80°.
Since the livestock industry is accustomed
to feed or weather conditions that restrict
gains, it has not been too much concerned
about these periods. Judging from data
gathered in other parts of the world and
from observations in these areas, how-
ever, high temperature does significantly
affect production. Certain difficulties now
attributed to feed supply and other factors
may really be due to temperatures that
exceed the tolerance of the cattle. In such
places, attention should be given not only
to feed, water, and shade, but also to se-
lection of better-adapted cattle from the
temperate-zone breeds.
The upper curves in figure 8 (II),
showing readings at Blythe and Brawley,
are representative of the subtropical con-
ditions of the Palo Verde and Imperial
valleys. Here the average temperature
stays above 75° F for 6 months, exceeds
85° for nearly 4 months, and reaches 90°
for 2 months. Clearly, this is outside the
adaptation range of temperate-zone cattle.
During the summer, even under favorable
conditions of irrigated pasture feed, gains
are seriously restricted. For year-round
beef-cattle production in these areas, in-
crease of heat tolerance through crosses
with tropical breeds is indicated. A start
has already been made. Further progress
may also be possible in developing arti-
ficial means of maintaining lower body
temperature of the animals.
If the several environmental influences
and the characteristics indicative of the
corresponding adaptabilities of animals
are known, then the breeder can make
positive selection accordingly. Some of
the more important information on char-
acteristics related to climatic adaptation
may be summarized as follows:
1. There is evidence of some variation
in heat tolerance between individual mem-
bers of the common beef breeds. Data
obtained in South Africa and in the
United States indicate that the breeds may
100
Bran/fey, average as?aaa/= 70.8°
3/yMe, average amua/- 69.7*
SaAersf/e/a', average 0/wt/a/* 64.6'
; C/t/co, average a/?/7aa/*62.5'
Daw's , average a/?aaa/=6/.7°
JFMAMJJA
Fig. 8 (II). Average monthly temperatures for Davis, Chico, Bakersfield, Blythe, and
Brawley. The shaded area varying from 35° F average winter temperature to 65° aver-
age summer temperature, is characteristic of the countries where the beef breeds
originated and is therefore considered ideal for their adaptation. An average monthly
temperature of 75° F is considered as the point beyond which heat has a depressive effect
on production.
Section II— Page 20
rank in the following order of decreasing
heat tolerance: Hereford, Shorthorn, and
Aberdeen Angus. The data were based
upon small samples and may not be rep-
resentative of the breeds as a whole. Two
samples taken in different parts of the
world, however, gave essentially the same
results. The apparently greater heat tol-
erance of Herefords is probably a factor
in their predominance in the Southwest.
Brahman and Afrikaner cattle that orig-
inated and were developed in the tropics
have high heat tolerance. Crosses between
them and the temperate-zone breeds tend
generally to have heat resistance that is
intermediate and proportional to the per-
centage relationship to the parent types.
2. Respiration rate, pulse rate, and
body temperature are good indices of
heat tolerance. Conditions are most favor-
able when heat regulation is accomplished
largely by radiation, by conduction to
the surrounding air, and by evaporation
of water from the skin surface. Condi-
tions become progressively unfavorable
for the animal as increased respiration
and blood circulation are called into play
to dispose of heat by assisting greater
water evaporation. The respiration rate
is easiest to determine, and observations
made under comparable conditions of
exposure in sun or in shade at tempera-
tures of 90° F or higher have value for
selection purposes. Respiration rates be-
tween 20 and 50 per minute are char-
acteristic of comfortable conditions for
cattle. Differences in rates between tem-
perate-zone breeds and tropical cattle in-
crease sharply at 80° and above. Rhoad
(11) suggested an index based on rec-
.tal temperature of animals exposed for
a definite time in the sun with air tem-
perature (shade) in the 90° F class.
The normal rectal temperature average
(101° F) is subtracted from the rectal-
temperature reading, multiplied by 10,
and subtracted from 100 to give a rela-
tive index 100-10 (BT-101). A score of
100 represents no temperature change,
or perfect adaptation under the test con-
ditions. The following data were thus
obtained: purebred Brahman, 93; %
Brahman, % Angus, 89; purebred Jersey,
86; % Brahman, % Angus, 76; grade
Hereford, 73; purebred Angus, 56. A
breeder interested in the problem might
classify a whole herd of purebreds in this
way within a short period. Body tempera-
ture of temperate-zone breeds may rise
to 106° F or more on hot days (90° F
and above), especially when the cattle
are exposed to direct sunlight.
3. The amount of loose skin character-
istic of Brahman cattle may contribute
to their greater heat tolerance. Increased
skin area for heat transfer to the sur-
rounding air is advantageous as long as
air temperature is lower than body tem-
perature. This factor may be involved in
the apparently somewhat greater toler-
ance of Herefords; for hot climates, the
tendency to breed away from loose skin
on throat, dewlap, and brisket may be a
mistake.
4. Coat color and character play a role
in climatic adaptation. Light coat color
reflects more sun and sky radiation than
dark color and thus prevents a larger
portion from being transformed to heat
at the body surface. The heat from radia-
tion in a 15-hour summer day may be
two to three times as much as internal
heat from metabolism (12) . How much is
actually absorbed by the animal, or how
much is dissipated from the hair and skin
surface to the surrounding air, has not
been determined. Penetration of the heat
produced depends on the type of hair
coat, the skin pigmentation, and perhaps
other factors.
The ideal for heat tolerance would ap-
pear to be light or white hair color over
a dark-pigmented skin, such as commonly
occurs in tropical cattle. Dark skin keeps
out the actinic rays, excess of which
would damage the deeper tissue layers.
White color in common beef breeds is
associated with white skin, which is sus-
ceptible to sunburn and photosensitiza-
tion, and which in Herefords predisposes
Page 21— Section II
to eye cancer. Breeding for red pigment
on the eyelids of Herefords would not
appear to impose much difficulty and
would be a factor of considerable eco-
nomic importance.
Under glaring midday light, white
Brahmans were found to reflect 22 per
cent of sun radiation, light fawn Jerseys,
14 per cent, Red Santa Gertrudes, 4 per
cent, and Black Aberdeen Angus, 2% per
cent. For low light intensity, the percent-
age reflection was 55, 40, 20, and 10,
respectively (13). Similar observations
were made in South Africa (14) .
Short, straight, glossy hair coats reflect
more radiation than duller, curly, or
woolly coats. The latter act as insulators
by trapping a layer of "dead air" around
the animal and thus tend to prevent heat
loss. This characteristic is desirable for
cold climates, undesirable for hot weather.
Clipping hair from cattle makes them
more comfortable at high temperature in
the shade ; but in the sun they suffer more
than unshorn cattle, whose hair provides
much protection.
It has been reported that cattle with
higher heat tolerance (Afrikaners) have
thicker skins and more hair fibers per
square inch than those poorly adapted
(14). The skin of Brahman cattle, how-
ever, has been found to be thinner than
that of common breeds, but denser in
texture.
A summary of tests in South Africa
(fig. 9, II) gives results with two groups
of temperate-zone cattle selected, when
calves, on the basis of hair coat. Under
otherwise comparable conditions, those
with glossy short coats had rectal tem-
peratures 1 to 1.5 degrees lower than
those with woolly coats when the air was
90° to 100° F. Corresponding differences
in pulse and respiration rates were ob-
served. Even in the shade, the glossy
animals maintained lower temperatures
because of greater efficiency in losing
heat from the skin surface. Curly-coated
calves that did not shed before hot
weather, failed to do so during the sum-
mer. Poorer heat tolerance resulted in
low nutrition, which interfered with nor-
mal shedding, so that a vicious circle was
SQt up. At 2 a /2 years of age there was
an average difference of 193 pounds in
weight in favor of the glossy-haired
group.
Thus, selection for short, straight-
haired cattle with a tendency to shed
early is indicated for hot climates. For
cold countries a longer coat, with a finer
undercoat of curly or furry hair efficient
for heat conservation, is desirable. Al-
though the hair of the same animal is
greatly modified by climate, as evidenced
by difference in summer and winter coats,
there is good opportunity to select in the
directions desired.
5. Some characters that contribute to
general adaptation are conformation of
legs, and texture and shape of feet.
Straight, strong legs and good feet, con-
ducive to free and easy stride, are impor-
tant in the traveling required to obtain
feed and water. Many defects of both
fore and hind limbs are found in the beef
breeds. A very common defect is the
sickle-hocked condition, with lack of bone
and tendon support below the hock. This
may become greatly accentuated with
heavy feeding, excessive weight, and too
little exercise; and it may interfere not
only with traveling, but also with breed-
ing efficiency of bulls. Cattle with sore
feet do not thrive under any conditions.
Some hoof textures are susceptible to
cracking and overgrowth, whereas others
are fine and dense, yet wear evenly. Well-
shaped feet have parallel toes with little
tendency to spread apart under the ani-
mal's weight. A common defect is the
tendency for the ends of the toes to curl
inward, widening the interdigital space—
a condition that increases chances for
mechanical injury and subsequent infec-
tion.
Constant selection to eliminate these
faults is necessary, particularly when they
are more or less characteristic of the foun-
dation cattle of a breed.
Section II— Page 22
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different environmental temperatures, with animals exposed to direct sunlight and under
shade. (Adapted from: Bonsma, J. C, and A. J. Pretorius. Influence of colour and coat
cover on adaptability of cattle. Farming in So. Africa, 18:101-20. 1943.)
Reproduction. Reproductive ability
is fundamental to economical beef pro-
duction. Large variations are usually the
result of poor feed or disease. Certain
differences in regularity of breeding,
abortions, and stillbirths, however, ap-
pear to be hereditary. The long-time aver-
age for Herefords and Shorthorns in the
University purebred herd at Davis, the
supplementary fed Hereford herd on
the San Joaquin Experimental Range,
and the large Hereford herd at the United
States Range Experiment Station at Miles
City, Montana, varied from 85.6 to 89.6
per cent pregnancies and from 81 to
83 per cent calf crops weaned. Over a
seventeen-year period, the Aberdeen
Angus herd at Davis had 94.7 per cent
pregnancies, and 85.5 per cent calf crop
weaned. On the average in the University
herds, 56.8 per cent of failures were dry
cows, 11.1 per cent were stillbirths or
calves that died shortly after birth, 3.9
per cent were deformed, 16.4 per cent
were abortions (not caused by brucella
infection), and 11.8 per cent were calf
Page 23— Section II
losses from accident, disease, and miscel-
laneous causes before weaning. Judging
from the evidence presented in a later
section on selection and culling of cows,
some of these failures may be hereditary;
carefully kept records may reveal the
problem and suggest bases for improve-
ment. A tendency for prolapse of the
vagina was one important cause of repro-
ductive failure and loss in Hereford cows
or for discarding them from the breeding
herd. In cattle, evidently, a breeding effi-
ciency approaching 95 per cent pregnan-
cies is possible. Differences in fertility are
also common in bulls and are especially
revealed by records kept and semen
studies made in artificial insemination.
Occasional bulls are sterile even though
sexually active.
Longevity. Since most beef females
are not permitted to start reproducing
until about three years of age, the length
of the productive period thereafter has
an important bearing upon the overhead
cost of developing breeding stock in rela-
tion to the number of calves produced.
The longer the good, proved, producing
cows can be kept without sacrifice of calf
crop or too much decrease in salvage
value, the less the percentage replacement
required. The proportion of younger ani-
mals that can be marketed is correspond-
ingly increased. Over a twenty-one-year
period, the average age of discarding
from the University purebred herd for
all causes was 9.1 years for Shorthorns,
9.5 for Herefords, and 11.9 for Angus.
The Angus averaged over two more calves
during the breeding life of the cows. In-
dividual data on Angus longevity is cited
in the section on selection and culling.
Longevity is apparently more common
in Angus cattle. Probably no cow has sur-
passed the record of the famous "Old
Granny," who lived to 36 years of age
and dropped her twenty-fifth calf when
she was 29. Selection and improvement
to extend longevity in this regard are pos-
sible in all breeds and should receive
more attention.
Lactation. The importance of good
milking cows in producing heavy, thrifty
calves is appreciated by most commercial
producers. Unfortunately, insufficient at-
tention is given to this factor by some
purebred breeders; and the widespread
use of nurse cows to develop the better
prospects among the calves unfortunately
perpetuates poor milking ability that
might otherwise be eliminated. One can
greatly improve milking ability by select-
ing bulls on the same basis recommended
for dairy cattle. Some bulls transmit,
with reasonable uniformity, superior
milk yield to their daughters. The best
method is to seek a bull whose dam and
sire have both produced good milking
daughters. Proved transmitting ability of
the parents is the best recommendation
for the prospective sire. If there is no
opportunity to observe or to secure in-
formation on the daughters of the parent
animals, then the milking ability of the
mother and of the sire's mother is the next
best criterion. Culling of poor milking
cows should be constantly practiced. Its
effect on average calf weight at weaning is
discussed on pages 42-43 (II).
Records of Performance
The first and most important step in
developing and applying a breeding pro-
gram is to determine the characteristics
and specifications of the ideal type. The
data summarized under "Production
Factors in Beef-Type Selection" should
help to clarify such problems. Though
present ideals can be illustrated in living
animals, precise specifications are difficult
to make, because the problem is com-
plex. The producer or breeder must
learn through continued observation on
ranches, at sales, shows, feed lots, mar-
kets, and beef coolers; and through study
of illustrative literature. The great breed-
ers of the past have been men who visu-
alized an ideal better than the current
standards. The second step is evaluation
of individual animals, and the third the
selection and mating of superior stock.
Section II— Page 24
Three breeding methods may be em-
ployed. The first, called mass selection,
consists in choosing the best individuals
by their appearance alone, without knowl-
edge of ancestry. This is the usual proce-
dure in commercial herds. Much progress
is made in this way, because superior
individuals often do transmit good char-
acters to their offspring. One cannot tell
with certainty, however, from outward
appearance (phenotype) what the animal
may transmit (genotype). Thus, two
polled individuals may produce a horned
offspring; two roan-colored parents may
produce red, white, or roan calves; two
blacks may produce a red. The same holds
true for conformational and other char-
acters of more direct economic . impor-
tance. The second method is pedigree
breeding, commonly used in purebred
herds. Individuality and performance of
the ancestors, as well as the animal's ap-
pearance, are relied upon for an estimate
of the probable transmitting ability. If
adequate information is available, this
kind of breeding is a great step in
advance. Too often, however, adequate
information is lacking; and too much
emphasis is placed upon fashionable
names and a sprinkling of noted animals
more or less remote in the pedigree,
rather than on the average excellence or
lack of it in all of the ancestors in the
first two or three generations.
If the sire has been proved, one need
not be greatly concerned over what is
back of him. His record for siring uni-
formly good cattle is in front of him and
that is of chief importance, largely taking
care of the top half of a given calf's pedi-
gree. Further, if the calf's mother is by
a good proved sire and from a good cow
family, that fact is the best present infor-
mation which can be obtained regarding
her probable transmitting ability. The
half brothers and half sisters, and other
collateral relatives not shown in the pedi-
gree, may be even more valuable indices
than the direct ancestors. Thus, accord-
ing to Rice (15), "Individuality tells us
what an animal seems to be. His pedigree
tells us what he ought to be, but his per-
formance as a breeding animal tells us
what he really is."
The third and more precise method of
evaluation is to select on the basis of
individuality and pedigree, determine
transmitting ability for the characters
desired, and then use as extensively as
possible the animals with proved trans-
mitting ability. More general uses of this
third step in breeding can significantly
increase future progress with beef cattle.
To find the few bulls that have trans-
mitting ability superior to the average,
many bulls must be systematically tested.
Progeny-performance breeding depends
upon adequate records. As already men-
tioned, such records for meat animals are
less simple or precise than weight of the
milk and determination by chemical test
of the quantity of butterfat produced by
the dairy cow. Weight for age may be
used as a measure of quantity of pro-
duction; over-all evaluation by grading
indicates the degree of excellence of the
product, and the adaptation of the animal
for production conditions. Although these
methods have limitations, they can serve
very well until more precise indices are
available.
The need for some systematic, yet rela-
tively simple, procedures for this purpose
is evidenced by the fact that numerous
breeders have evolved systems of their
own. Because of the interest in the subject
and the individual trial-and-error effort
being made, a grading guide and a set
of record forms are presented, in the hope
that they may prove useful and constitute
a step toward a uniform procedure. The
grading guide and forms illustrated are
the result of several years of study, experi-
ment, and experience; they include the
major items discussed under "Production
Factors in Beef-Type Selection."
Grading. Grading is an attempt to
measure all beef cattle with the same yard-
stick. It differs from ordinary judging in
that it classifies an animal not only in
Page 25— Section II
relation to the individuals in its particular
group, but also in relation to the beef-
cattle population as a whole. In show-ring
judging, the top of the classes and cham-
pions represent the best of the animals
that happen to be brought together; but
their grade, or degree, of excellence is
variable. The winners in the large shows
are usually first grade; but even here a
third- or fourth-place animal in one class
may sometimes be superior to the top
animal in another class. First-prize win-
ners and even champions in small shows
may grade rather low and may be con-
sidered not even good enough to raise
the standards of commercial cattle.
The grading guide, table 5 (II), is
a standard and a means of orientation
when one is considering breeding and
market animals. The terms used are famil-
iar to breeders and commercial cattlemen.
Grading is subject to errors in judgment.
The value of the records depends upon
the grader's knowledge and experience—
the same knowledge that is prerequisite
for good breeders, for no man ever breeds
better cattle than he knows, appreciates,
or can visualize. Experience has demon-
strated that grading in accordance with
this guide can be learned readily by stock-
men. It is based upon market grades, with
due consideration for breed, sex charac-
ter, and other characteristics that are em-
pirically associated with breeding ability.
The numerical grades are based upon
common occurrence of 30 per cent differ-
TABLE 5 (II)
Grading Guide for Beef Cattle Becords of Performance
Numerical
value
Description
Grade
designation
Breeding cattle
Market cattle
Feeders
Slaughter
100(1+)
The top of the grade represents outstanding animals
in strong competition. The middle and lower end
Top prime,
capable of cred-
Grade 1
97(1)
of the grade represent excellent breeding animals
Strictly fancy
itable showing
from standpoint of type, conformation, quality,
or select
in strong, single,
94(1-)
and character, capable of making a good showing
in strong competition
or carlot compe-
tition
91 (2+)
Cows in grade 2 are good enough to retain for breed-
ing test in purebred herds. This is a practical top
Top choice
Prime
Grade 2
88 (2)
for commercial cattle. The top of grade 2 repre-
sents the best of range bulls; the lower end of herd
Choice
to
85 (2-)
bulls. Cattle in this grade are well down the line or
out of the money in strong competition
Low choice
Low prime
82 (3+)
Cows usually should be culled from purebred herds ;
Top good
Top choice
Grade 3
79(3)
good commercial cattle; bulls rarely capable of
Good
to
76 (3-)
making much improvement except on very plain
cattle
Low good
Low choice
73 (4+)
Plain, upstanding, thin-fleshed, slow-maturing cat-
Top medium
Good
Grade 4
70(4)
tle, lacking in quality and character and having
Medium
Commercial
67 (4-)
serious defects of conformation. Should be culled
from commercial herds
Low medium
Low commercial
* Grade standards for carcass beef were revised and made effective January 1, 1951. The former U. S. Prime
and Choice grades were combined and henceforth will be designated as Prime. The old grade of U. S. Good is now
U. S. Choice. Young animals that formerly graded in the top half of U. S. Commercial will now be designated U. S.
Good. Mature animals and those not otherwise qualifying for the top of the old U. S. Commercial grade retain the
U. S. Commercial grade as before the revision. Qualification for U. S. Utility, Cutter, and Canner are unchanged.
In general, younger cattle are required to have less finish and marbling in the muscle than older ones in the
same grade!
Section II— Page 26
TABLE 6 (II)
Variation between the First Grading and Second Grading of the Same
Animals after a Year's Interval
Age at last
No variation
One third of a grade
Two thirds of a grade
One
grade
grading
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
Number
Per cent
Cows, 4 years and
over
75
56.8
41
31.1
13
9.8
3
2.3
Heifers, 3 years . . .
29
60.4
14
29.2
5
10.4
0.0
Heifers, 2 years. . .
29
44.7
33
50.7
3
4.6
0.0
Heifers, 1 year. . .
29
50.0
22
38.0
5
8.6
2
3.4
Bulls, 1 year
9
33.3
51.8
17
63.0
38.5
1
3.7
8.2
0.0
Total or average
171
127
27
5
1.5
ence in value per pound from the lower
to higher grades of commercial cattle.
The grades are assigned numerical values
in steps of 3, giving a total range of 33
per cent. These numbers, or per cent
grades, are useful for averaging and
otherwise handling the data statistically.
The grade designations 1-, 2, 2+, and so
on, are easier to remember and use in the
field.
Table 6 (II) summarizes tests covering
330 comparisons between two gradings
of the same animals by the same graders,
taken a year apart. These data show that
about 52 per cent graded the same both
times, 38.5 per cent varied a third of a
grade, and less than 10 per cent varied
more than this. Since many animals are
borderline between grades and since cat-
tle of all ages were included, the data
show that grading may be done with a
reasonable degree of repeatability when
environmental conditions are relatively
uniform. Poor feeding or other un-
favorable conditions can result in con-
formational characteristics more or less
indistinguishable from those produced by
poor breeding and thus may complicate
grading or make it inaccurate as a meas-
ure of hereditary differences.
Grading is a valuable means of analyz-
ing the herd, of knowing a large herd
better, and of recording information on
all cattle and their offspring instead of
depending upon memory, which at best
is not a permanent record. Grading rec-
ords can increase the pedigree informa-
tion to a more useful level and, in superior
pedigrees, can be of commercial value.
Some herd analyses are given in table
7 (II). As this table and grading chart
indicate, the first two herds must be culled
extensively if the owner wishes to avoid
producing bulls that are incapable of
making improvement except on very plain
cattle. The third herd contains a higher
proportion of acceptable cattle, and only
moderate culling is required.
Data from herd 1 show the advantage
of using both production records and in-
dividual selection in culling, instead of
working on the basis of individuality
alone. According to these figures, the
produce of 79 dams grading 2- (85) and
over, averaged 83.1 in grade, while the
produce of 110 dams grading 3+ (82)
or below averaged 81.8. A large percent-
age of cows fell into the upper end of
grade 3 and the lower brackets of grade 2.
The average of the calves tended strongly
toward the average of the herd, as usually
happens unless a very prepotent bull is
found. Given the same bulls, small im-
provement would have been made by cull-
ing all cows below grade 2—. Retaining
the good producers from the 3+ cows,
and eliminating some poor producers
from the grade 2- and better cows, re-
sulted in a group producing 68 per cent
of calves in the grade-2 range, compared
Page 27— Section II
TABLE 7 (II )
Analysis by Grades of Three Herds of Breeding Cows
Grade
Herd no. 1
Herd no. 2
Herd no. 3
designation
Number
of head
Per cent
of total
Number
of head
Per cent
of total
Number
of head
Per cent
of total
+
1
2
12
18
34
53
48
7
175
0.00 '
0.57
1.14
■ 1.71
11
29
88
110
45
2
285
2
9
17
28
21
22
5
104
00 ]
1 90 [ 10 6
8 70 J
+
6.86]
10.28 [36.57
19.43 J
30.28]
27.43 [61.72
4.00 J
3.80 ]
10.10 [ 44.90
31.00 J
38.60]
15.80 [ 55.10
0.70 J
16 30 ]
Grade 2
26 90 [ 63.4
20 20 J
+
21 20 ]
Grade 3
4 80 [ 26.0
0.00 I
Totals
100.00
100.00
100.00
with between 40 and 50 per cent if the
cows were selected on individuality alone.
The average prices in relation to grade
of bulls and females sold in the 1945 and
1946 Red Bluff sales appear in table
8 (II). In general the purchase price
varied directly with grade, and the price
spread increased markedly for grade 2+
bulls, which, according to the grading
chart, represent the top end of so-called
range bulls and the lower end of the herd-
bull prospects that are competed for,
both by commercial cattlemen and by the
breeders of purebreds.
TABLE 8 (II)
Average Prices in Relation to Grade, Eed Bluff Hereford Sales, 1945 and 1946*
Grade
Number of head
1945
1946
Percentage of total
1945
Average price, dollars
1945
1946
Bulls
I-
2+
2
2-
3+
3
1
0.4
33
16
12.3
6.6
48
59
17.8
24.2
93
84
34.5
34.6
67
84
24.9
34.6
27
10.1
1575.00
656.00
438.00
378.00
302.00
253.00
912.00
524.00
492.00
395.00
Cows
1-
2 +
2
2-
3+
3
2
2.7
3
2
3.8
2.7
10
19
25.0
26.0
25
50
33.0
68.6
22
29.0
7
9.2
992.00
451.00
397.00
292.00
240.00
1050.00
1162.00
541.00
398.00
* In 1946, bulls grading under 3 plus and heifers grading under 2 minus were "sifted" and not permitted to sell
through the auction ring.
Section II— Page 28
Figures 10 (II) and 11 (II) show the
front and back of record form no. 1 ; fig-
ures 12 (II) and 13 (II), record form 2;
and figure 14 (II) record form 3, which
is ruled the same on both sides. The sys-
tem is predicated upon the basic factors
in beef-type selection previously pre-
sented.
The procedure for keeping the records
in purebred herds is outlined as follows :
Form 1, Get-of-Sire Record
1. Use a separate sheet for males and
females.
2. Record, after a calf is born, the herd
number, date of birth, number of dam,
and her grade.
3. At weaning time, record date, weight,
grade, and condition of each calf. Special
feeding such as fitting for show or sale,
should be indicated under "Remarks."
The use of nurse cows is considered to
have no essential function in practical
beef production, but should be recorded.
4. Secure the same data on bulls 4 to
8 months after weaning ; or, if the animals
are sold before this age, give weight and
grade at the time of sale. The time of the
second weighing and grading will depend
on the time when most bull sales begin.
There are advantages in allowing as much
development as possible before the final
grading is done. Any females sold before
the next annual grading after weaning
should also be weighed and graded before
disposal.
5. Weigh and grade all animals re-
tained in the herd; do this once yearly
until maturity. The time can be decided
on the basis of convenience and favorable
conditions for handling the cattle. The
work should be done the same month each
year and can coincide with one of the
weighing and grading periods cited
above.
6. Data recorded on the front side of
the get-of-sire record will usually be lim-
ited to one year's calf crop. Data for the
year can be summarized when complete
for any age.
7. Summarize get-of-sire records as in-
dicated on the reverse side of form 1.
Both males and females and more than
one year's calf crop can be included if
desired. It will generally be well to sum-
marize weaning data so that information
may be secured as quickly as possible,
and to use a second summary for yearling
data, when the grading should be more
reliable. An actual record illustrates the
use of the get-of-sire summary (reverse
side of form 1, figure 11, II) . The graphic
summary shows at a glance the aver-
age or general trend of get, compared
with dams, and the "ceiling" grade of
dams on which improvement can be made
by the sire.
All essential data, except for heifers
and cows retained in the herd, can be
recorded directly on the get-of-sire sheets
at the time of weighing and grading.
Since only two sheets are required for
each sire, the mechanics of recording are
simplified, and the copying of records is
avoided.
Form 2, Individual Life Record
1. Fill out all blanks possible on the
front side of record for all females as
soon as decision has been made to retain
them in the herd. The pedigree and weight
data blanks may also be used for sires
retained for use in the herd. Grading and
weight data are transferred to date from
get-of-sire records.
2. Permanent grade for use in dam-
produce comparisons in get-of-sire sum-
maries should be based largely upon
yearling and two-year-old grades, since
growth and development at the age when
most commercial cattle are marketed are
of greatest practical significance.
3. Record the individual's weight and
grade directly on this sheet at annual
weighing and grading. Space is allowed
for weaning data and for annual records
up to seven years. Mature weights are
recommended for use in the pedigree.
4. Head may be described as poor, fair,
good, excellent, etc., and also by more
Page 29— Section
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specific terms such as "too long," "nar-
row muzzle," "coarse, lacking femininity
and character."
5. Wildness, nervousness, or similar
undesirable traits should be recorded
under "Disposition." Quiet disposition is
essential to efficiency. Wild animals usu-
ally should be culled, since the tendency
for transmission to offspring is strong
and since one wild animal may make a
whole herd difficult to handle.
6. Milking ability is reflected fairly well
by weaning weights; but more reliable
criteria are growth, fatness, and condi-
tion of hair of calves at 3 to 4 months,
before they begin to forage extensively
for themselves, coupled with observations
of udder development of the cows. Field
notes should be kept and transferred to
individual records.
7. Records of color and markings will
give information on the inheritance of
such variations as line back in Herefords,
and will give a better basis for decision
to discard or to retain because of other
more important considerations. The type,
character, color, and quantity of the hair
coat have a bearing on climatic adapta-
tion; these were previously discussed.
8. Data for the produce record can
be transferred from get-of-sire records.
Other data, such as show-ring winnings,
may be shown under "Remarks and Dis-
posal."
9. The reverse side of form 2 provides
space for the breeding record and for
other information and notes on life his-
tory. Breeding data may be transferred
from records on form 3 or similar "barn
record." Some cattlemen may not care to
transfer these data for each cow. To do so
is considered desirable, however, in order
to complete the whole picture for each
animal on one sheet. By use of such rec-
ords, strong evidence has come to light
indicating that many losses such as still-
births, premature dead calves, and other
reproductive failures are hereditary in
origin. The economic importance is so
great that such data can and should re-
ceive serious attention in selective breed-
ing. Data on actual length of gestation
may also contribute useful information
in these respects. Such records are also
helpful in diagnosing some infectious
causes of reproductive failure.
Form 3, Breeding List and
Reproductive Record
In many cases, pocket-sized records
will be more convenient. It is desirable,
however, to transfer them to more per-
manent and less easily lost forms. The
large form shown provides for the possi-
ble advance listing of the cows to be bred
to each bull and for recording the date
the last calf was dropped, breeding dates,
due date, calving date, herd number, and
sex of the calf resulting from the service
indicated.
Generally this record would be kept at
the barn or herdsman's quarters. As soon
as a sheet is completed, the record may
be filed in the office record book, and
data transferred to individual cow rec-
ords. The basic data from these records
may be summarized diagrammatically as
proposed by Mead (16) or according to
modifications of this plan as used by
Kingman (17) on the Wyoming Hereford
Ranch. Such records are extremely valu-
able in directing efforts in proper chan-
nels for improved calf crops and in
diagnosing some breeding troubles.
If consistently kept, these records
should aid materially in herd analysis,
in systematically proving bulls, and in
breeding more largely upon the basis
of progeny performance. Such records
would be essential if, in the future, the
breeders of purebred beef cattle see fit
to use cooperatively the techniques now
available for artificial insemination. A
few outstanding proved bulls, each siring
up to 500 calves yearly with artificial in-
semination, could provide large numbers
of higher-grade range bulls for natural
service. Such a procedure has enormous
potentialities in improving the commer-
cial beef-cattle population of the state.
Page 35— Section il
The value of the records depends
largely upon the knowledge, ability, and
integrity of the individual operator and
his continuous, unbiased study of the
problems involved. The records do not
represent a short cut to a cattle-breeding
Utopia for the novice. They should, how-
ever, make the efforts of experienced
cattlemen more effective and help the in-
experienced to get on the right track more
rapidly."
Systematic Identification. All major
beef-breed associations require tattooing
of the ears for permanent individual iden-
tification. Individual breeders usually de-
velop their own system. For small herds,
numbering the animals serially as they
are born is a simple procedure; and com-
monly, one can repeat the series without
duplication by the time numbers reach
999, thus avoiding more than three fig-
ures. The Aberdeen Angus Association
requires herd number in one ear and
an assigned herd, or breeder, identifica-
tion mark in the other. The University
herd, for example, is assigned the mark
"UCF."
For progeny performance and breed-
ing records of all kinds, convenient field
identification that will give as much in-
formation as possible without becoming
too complicated and conducive to error
is essential. This information can include
year of birth, sire, herd number, and the
number of the dam. To avoid errors, the
field identification number should coin-
cide with the tattoo number.
A good system with horned animals is
to tattoo serially in one ear and in the
other designate the sire by letter or num-
ber, along with the year of birth. For
example, left ear, 232; right ear, A5 or
1-5, indicating sire A or 1 and 1945 as
the year of birth. At about two years of
age, these numbers can be branded on the
horns for field identification. When men
on horseback are working the cattle in
pastures, horns branded both on the front
and back prove helpful.
Linn (18) has described an excellent
system of marking, particularly useful in
artificial insemination when cows are
brought into a breeding plant. This con-
sists of tattooing the serial number in one
ear; the dam number and sire number in
the other. An example is as follows : right
ear, herd number 521 ; left ear,
25
, indi-
420C
eating that cow no. 420 is the dam, C her
third calf, and 25 the number of the sire.
Linn also recommends giving the herd
number on the front of one horn and on
the top rear of the other. Later, if rebrand-
ing is necessary, it can be done on the
front and rear of the opposite horns.
Field identification of polled animals
is more of a problem. Neck chains and
"cold-iron" branding are two possibili-
ties. Suggestions for branding serially
with caustic fluid are given in Section IV.
With short-haired cattle, these brands
may be permanently legible; but with
longer- or curly-haired animals, clipping
the brands twice yearly is necessary to
facilitate field identification. Unless the
number brand is placed upon the loin, it
must be registered, along with the owner-
ship brand, with the Bureau of Livestock
Identification, California State Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Selective Breeding of
Commercial Cattle
Figure 15 (II) shows steers about 12
months old, representative of the 1 to 3
grades outlined in the chart, table 5 (II) .
There is no sharp line of demarcation
between grades, and borderline cases
often make the decision difficult. The con-
trast within the range of one whole grade,
however, is readily discerned from the
photographs. All these animals were rela-
tively smooth and trim. They varied
mostly in shortness and sturdiness of legs
and in depth, thickness, and development
of hindquarters, loin, and back. Many
defects not shown by these illustrations
could result in placing an animal in the
lower grades.
The data on 886 calves sired by 18 dif-
Section II— Page 36
<o"2 £"2
o o^2 rj
H O Z
fl <« tfi bD
ferent bulls from the University herd used
in commercial herds of several cooper-
ating cattlemen and in the San Joaquin
Experimental Range herd may be tabu-
lated as follows :
Average grade of bulls 88.8
Average grade of all cows 77.6
Average grade of all calves 82.0
Percentage of calves in :
Grade 1 0.34
Grade 2 41.87
Grade 3 49.20
Grade 4 8.57
If the average grade of the bulls is
added to the average of the cows, and the
sum is divided by 2, the result is not far
from the observed average of the calves.
Thus, the well-known genetic principle
that offspring tend toward an intermedi-
ate between the parents is demonstrated.
As is also well known, improvement is
slower as approach is made to the grade
of the bulls— more accurately, to the aver-
age of their ancestors in the first few
generations. This fact is illustrated below.
Average
grade
239 cows 72.3
239 calves 79.3
Improvement, 7.0 grade points or 0.78 of a
grade
886 cows 77.6
886 calves 82.0
Improvement, 4.4 grade points or 0.49 of a
grade
189 cows 82.2
189 calves 84.9
Improvement, 2.7 grade points or 0.30 of a
grade
Figure 16 (II ) gives a visual idea of the
progress made by using grade-2 bulls
on range cows. These bulls came from a
herd where constructive breeding has
been practiced for years; their near an-
cestors were all as good as the individual
bulls, or better. The cow herd was culled
regularly, and replacements were selected.
Figure 17 (II) is a uniform group of
low-set, thick-bodied, early-maturing
"good doing" calves, representing the
second generation of selective breeding
that started with grade-3 cows. These
calves averaged 83 grade points, or good
Section II— Page 38
to choice. The sire graded l-(94), and
his parents and grandparents all were
grade 1. These are fairly typical of second-
generation selective breeding. In 1943 the
calves in another cooperator's herd, for
example, ran 47 per cent choice, 53 per
cent good (mostly at the top of the
grade) ; the average of all was 83.6 grade
points.
The first cross of these bulls on medium
(grade 4) cows resulted in 82 per cent
grade-3 (or better) calves and 18 per
cent in the top end of grade 4.
Another genetic rule is that when both
parents vary at either extreme (good or
bad) from the average of the breed, the
offspring will generally be nearer the
average than the parents. Extremely tall
parents, for example, usually have off-
spring shorter than themselves but taller
than average. Naturally, therefore, some
poor individuals breed better than they
appear, and most of the offspring from
grade-1 beef cattle are themselves grade 2.
These generally recognized genetic
laws confirm the statements made in the
grading chart. Grade-2 commercial cattle,
with few exceptions, have reached a prac-
tical top, for this grade range is the
approximate average of present-day pure-
breds, and to go farther means competing
with breeders for outstanding herd sires.
Continuous use of the best range bulls
available, with strict culling of cows and
careful selection of replacement heifers, is
necessary to maintain the present average
quality until the average of the purebreds
is further improved. Grade-3 bulls can
rarely make much improvement except on
very plain cattle.
Selection of Bulls. The data pre-
sented above emphasize the desirability
of selecting higher-grade bulls having the
characteristics and adaptations set forth
in "Production Factors in Beef-Type Se-
lection." Too, these bulls have a greater
chance of breeding true if their ancestors
in the first two or three generations were
all as good as or better than the individ-
uals in question. Selection for ability to
i «t 5 c <u >.
* a v <-m 3 t« t>
" g j3 <U £ 3 «}
1 — .w au"
fc 8 £ & t £
sire milk production in the daughters, as
previously outlined, should be considered
when possible. Since steers are intermedi-
ate in size between bulls and females, bulls
should have more weight for age than
steers, more bone and ruggedness if size
is to be maintained. They should have
good head with obvious masculinity, be-
sides desirable body conformation.
Four- to eight-year-old proved bulls
have repeatedly demonstrated ability to
sire 50 to 60 calves a year under good
pasture conditions and with reasonable
off-season care. Such a bull at an initial
price of $750 results in no more yearly
bull cost per calf than a $250 bull siring
20 calves yearly on the range— a higher-
than-average number. This is one way to
make good bulls go farther, to justify the
higher cost, and to have all the difference
in calf value as profit.
Selection should be made from well-
fed bulls that have had a chance to de-
velop. Underfeeding may not only change
an animal's form, but may also prevent
the owner from determining potential
ability to make rapid gain.
Closely bred bulls having the type,
ruggedness, and other characteristics
stressed, more often breed uniformly true
to type than those with a great mixture
of lines of breeding. When desirable
blood lines have been proved, the breeder
should continue them and select con-
sistently the same type of bulls, in order
to secure uniformity in the herd.
Purebred bulls that have been raised
on cultivated pasture or in other close
confinement are in no condition for range
service. They should be purchased in time
to become acclimated and adjusted to
new feed. Usually they need to exercise
and toughen their muscle, not merely to
reduce their fat. Bulls should be well fed
and in good active condition when put in
service.
Selection and Culling of Cows.
Usually in California, improvement in
feed and other environmental conditions
and better management are necessary if
the benefits possible through selective
breeding are to be realized. Under ex-
tremely rigorous conditions, the plainer,
slower-developing animals may actually
do better than those bred for rapid growth
and early development.
The manner in which the animal grows
determines largely its shape and size and
the proportion of meat to bone and fat. A
splendidly bred beef animal that has ex-
perienced alternate stages of good gains
and severe losses in weight will appear
Fig. 17 (II). A group of "good to choice" weaner calves representing second generation from
University bred sires starting with grade-3 cows. The sire graded 1-, and his parents and grand-
parents were all in grade 1.
Section II— Page 40
, '■"■■■■ . ■
■■.>-;>-.■.:-;•■
Fig. 18 (II). Yearling heifers from selected cows and top bulls for herd replace-
ment. They were wintered on 13 pounds of mixed hay and 1% pounds of grain per
head daily. Their daily gain during the winter was 0.96 pound.
entirely different from one of equal breed-
ing that has made continuous growth
from calfhood. Since different parts of
the body do not develop at the same rate,
alterations of conformation may depend
on the age when development was re-
stricted. "Running out" or becoming
"fine-boned" is a common expression for
some of these effects. The remedy is more
logically applied through supplementing
or otherwise improving the feed supply
than through buying big-boned, rough
bulls. A realization of the manner in
which animals grow and react to environ-
ment can bring purebred breeders and
commercial cattlemen closer in a mutual
understanding of their respective prob-
lems.
Poor feed means low calf crop and a
high percentage of dry cows. If buyers
are allowed to pick out the good indi-
viduals, if there is automatic culling of
all dry cows, if undeveloped heifers are
bred, and if all heifer calves are required
for replacement, then the cow herd may
"run down" faster than improvement can
be made by good bulls. Although feed
supply and disease are the main factors
influencing calf crops, some nonbreeders
continue to occur in all herds regardless
of feed conditions. If feed is adequate,
then dry cows usually should be sold.
Nonbreeders may result from hereditary
abnormalities, infections, and injuries in
calving. All poor milkers should be culled.
Under inadequate feed conditions most
of the dry cows customarily sold are
pregnant and would drop calves in a few
months, while many cows with calves at
side may be the ones due to miss or be late
in calving the following year. The practice
of culling dry cows under these conditions
usually does not lead either to increased
calf crop or to herd improvement, for
many of the best cows are sold and poorer
ones are retained in the herd.
The most rapid progress is through
breeding enough of the best cows to the
best bulls to supply the heifers necessary
for replacement. Such heifers give
greater assurance of breeding true. The
results of this procedure are shown in
figures 16, 17, and 18 (II) . Weaning time
is ideal for selection and culling. One
should keep deep-bodied, naturally thick-
fleshed cows with good heads, that have
raised good calves and still maintain
thrifty condition. All long-headed, thin-
necked, shallow-bodied, flat-ribbed,
"dippy"-loined, light-hindquartered kinds
and old cows should be culled. The grad-
ing chart can serve as a guide and as a
Page 41— Section II
means of more clearly defining objectives
in selection and culling. A herd of quiet,
easily handled cattle is a distinct advan-
tage; selection for these qualities and a
culling of the wild cows should be prac-
ticed. Often one may best handle the
culled cows by placing them in a separate
pasture to prevent breeding and thus save
bull costs. Calves from culled cows may
be vealed or kept until weaning time.
Calves are commonly vealed in order to
sell fat cows. Frequently it may be profit-
able to raise the calves to weaning even
though the cows are sold cheaper as feed-
ers or low-grade slaughter animals. If held
for another season, cull cows consume
feed that can be utilized better by more
efficient animals. A systematic program of
breeding, culling, and feeding as outlined
will revolutionize in a few years the
quality of an ordinary herd. The effect of
selective breeding and culling in herds
representing the three principal beef
breeds is shown in figures 19, 20, and 21 A
and21B (II).
Longevity is important, and to keep
proved breeding cows as long as they are
productive is frequently desirable. At the
University Farm, under protected condi-
tions, occasional cows have regularly pro-
duced calves until fifteen to twenty years
of age.
Specific data on individual Angus cows
are as follows:
1 cow produced 12 calves in 15 years
1 cow produced 12 calves in 16 years
2 cows each produced 14 calves in 17
years
1 cow produced 15 calves in 17 years
1 cow produced 15 calves in 19 years
1 cow produced 16 calves in 20 years
On the San Joaquin Experimental
Range, efficient culling has done much to
improve the herd. The more complete
records kept there have revealed inter-
esting data. The breeding history of two
original cows, nos. 12 and 28, purchased
in 1935 appears at the top of page 43.
These two cows and their offspring, in
a herd free from infectious abortion, show
a disastrous reproductive history that
gives some evidence of being inherited.
Both hereditary and environmental fac-
tors may be involved. To obtain data on
a situation of this kind, one must have
carefully kept records.
The history of two other original cows,
nos. 19 and 45, maintained under iden-
tical conditions in the supplementally fed
A herd, appears at the bottom of page 43.
Of these cows, no. 19 graded 2- or low
choice; no. 45, 3+ or high good. The in-
creased value of the latter animal is read-
ily seen in the notably greater weight and
higher grade of her calves at weaning
time— probably the result of increased
milk production. The average difference
in the calf weaning weights was 152
pounds. No. 45, with 8 heavier calves,
produced a lifetime total of 1,595 pounds
more calf weight at weaning than no. 19
with seven light calves. The extra value
of such consistently heavier weights
would at least pay for the year-long main-
tenance of the dam. No. 19, not giving so
much milk, was always in better flesh,
graded higher, and might have been
looked upon as a better "doer."
Another pair of original cows, nos. 15
and 36, maintained in the B herd (not fed
supplements) present the following re-
production data:
Year No. 15 No. 36
1935 Calved Calved
1936 Calved Dry
1937 Calved Calved
1938 Calved Dry
1939 Calved Calved
1940 Calved Dry
1941 Calved Calved
1942 Culled for age Culled for age
There has been much discussion re-
garding cows that breed only in alternate
years. These data are evidence that such
animals exist. As soon as recognized, per-
haps, they should be culled. On the other
hand, no. 36, an average-sized cow, might
have produced a calf each year under bet-
Section II— Page 42
Cow
c inoc l j i -r 10 r f 1938, no. 125 calved heifer no. 827,
1936! aborted ™' i both culled
No. -1
1937' premature— died [1941, no. 818 calved heifer no. 160; 1944, no. 160 aborted
12
1938,' calved, heifer no. 818 J 1942 > no - 818 calved bull no. 227, died of bloat
pnllpH 1 1943, no. 818 calved bull no. 317, sold
[1944, no. 818, calf born dead
r 1938, no. 133, calf born dead
r
1935, calved
1939, no. 133 calved heifer no. 907 i
1942, no. 907, calf born dead
heifer no. 133 <
1940, no. 133 dry
1943, no. 907, calf born dead
1941, no. 133 aborted,
1944, no. 907 calved bull
Cow
culled
no. 428
No. \
1936, aborted
28
1937, calved bull no. 717, sold
1938, dry
1939, calved bull no. 939, sold
culled
ter nutrition ; but she did not do so under
conditions that still made it possible for
no. 15 to calve annually. No. 15 was a
small cow that never weighed over 875
pounds before calving. She recovered
parturition and lactation loss, returning
to about this weight each year. Record
keeping that permits observations of this
kind is not difficult if a system once be-
comes established and if equipment, par-
ticularly scales, is available. The most
difficult problem is practical and conven-
ient individual identification. At the San
Joaquin Experimental Range all cattle
are tattooed with a serial number in the
ear and with a corresponding number
branded on the hip with caustic branding
fluid. By being clipped twice yearly, the
brands are kept legible for easy field iden-
tification. With proper equipment and
quiet, well-managed cattle, this procedure
should also be practical in many commer-
cial herds. The year of birth may be indi-
cated in the serial number by the initial
number; for example, 1945 calves could
be marked 501, 502, and so on.
Cow No. 19
Year
Calved
Weaning age, Weaning weight,
in days in pounds
Grade
1935
Heifer 127
237
330
Good (3)
1936
Bull 220
260
400
Medium (4)
1937
Heifer 703
260
390
Low good (3-)
1938
Bull 804
248
410
Low good (3-)
1939
Heifer 957
267
400
Good (3)
1940
Heifer 045
233
425
High good (3+)
1941 (Dry)
1942
Heifer 280
2l7
327
Low choice (2-)
Culled for age
Cow No. 45
Year
Calved
Weaning age, Weaning weight,
in days in pounds
Grade
1935
Bull 104
241
465
Choice (2)
1936
Heifer 225
256
530
High good (3+)
1937
Heifer 709
246
560
Choice (2)
1938
Bull 809
246
545
High good (3+)
1939
Heifer 959
266
585
Choice (2)
1940
Bull 041
259
600
Choice (2)
1941
Heifer 124
235
511
Low choice (2-)
1942
Bull 275
258
481
Low choice (2-)
Culled for age
Page 43— Section II
Is
Fig. 19 (II) . Shorthorns of the type shown in each of the pictures above make excellent founda-
tion animals for the production of high-quality feeder cattle which will attain heavy weight for
age if good management practices are followed.
Section II— Page 44
Fig. 20 (II) . Individual performance records are kept on these very desirable Aberdeen Angus
females. Never pampered, they have been fed only for normal growth. Their depth and thickness
are due to natural fleshing. In the upper picture the cow on the right is the dam of the two heifers.
The average daily gain from birth has been 1.8 pounds for the 17-month-old heifer on the left;
2.2 pounds for the 6-month-old calf in the center. The seven heifers in the lower picture range from
14 to 17 months of age. Their average daily gain from birth has been 1.5 pounds.
Crossbreeding
The benefits of crossbreeding fall into
two general categories: first, increasing
general thrift, vigor, and rate of gain
through hybrid vigor (heterosis) ; sec-
ond, securing better adaptation, confor-
mation, and performance by combining
the desirable characteristics of different
breeds. Special features of breeds and
types that may be combined through
crossing are, for example, the polled con-
dition and the tendency for marbled flesh
of Aberdeen Angus, the milking ability of
Shorthorns, the adaptation to range and
the "rustling" ability of Herefords, and
the heat resistance of Brahmans.
A crossbred, by definition, is the prog-
eny that results from the mating of differ-
ent breeds. In the past, casual methods
of alternating the breeds of bulls used on
a miscellaneous assortment of breeding
cows have sometimes been employed. The
systematic breeding and culling programs
that have produced high-grade uniform
herds of Hereford, Shorthorn, or Aber-
deen Angus represent definite progress.
A commercial producer having a low-
grade herd of cows can advance faster
if he first improves his cattle by a suc-
cession of good, uniform-type, purebred
bulls of similar breeding. After the herd
becomes uniform and further improve-
ment is slow or uncertain, systematic
crossbreeding may then be employed to
advantage.
Page 45— Section II
:
Fig. 21A (II) . What type is best? That is a question of paramount interest among breeders and
producers. The upper row shows foundation cows of the University of California Aberdeen Angus
herd. The middle row shows two descendants (steer calves) that were Champion and Reserve
Champion Angus at the International, Chicago, in 1919 and 1921, respectively. The lower row shows
5 descendants: 3 purebred and 2 crossbred (including the Grand Champion heifer, Lula May-
flower) comprising the best group of 5 at the International in 1921. These cows are medium beef
type, with more scale, bone, body length, and leg length than have recently been popular. They were
feminine, a little lean of neck, sturdy, long-lived, excellent milkers, and great producers. The steers
which they produced were the straight, trim, smoothly fleshed kind with reasonable length in
relation to depth that recent carcass tests have shown to give high carcass yield and cut-out value
at the moderate degree of finish which is economical to produce and has widest consumer popularity.
Section II— Page 46
According to estimates, 60 to 70 per
cent of market swine and an equally large
percentage of range sheep are crossbreds,
or from types or strains that originated
from crossbreeding. Practical difficulties
in herd segregation and management have
prevented extensive use of crossbreeding
in beef cattle. Commercial production of
swine is based largely upon purebred
foundations; that of cattle, upon grades
whose ancestry frequently shows a mix-
ture of breeding. In some areas one breed
predominates to an extent where ranchers
cannot well obtain good bulls of another
breed locally. Bulls of a second breed are
sometimes less well adapted to the envi-
ronment than are those of the leading
breed in the area.
Often the advantage of crossbreeding
is a combination of hybrid vigor and spe-
cial adaptations. The hybrid vigor to be
expected would be the same, for example,
whether Shorthorn bulls were used on
Hereford cows or the reverse. Generally,
however, better results up to weaning age
might be expected when Hereford bulls
are used on Shorthorn cows, whose
greater average milk production would
favor the potentially greater growth rate
of their crossbred calves. Table 9 (II)
presents selected data from a crossbreed-
ing experiment conducted at the Miles
City (Montana) Experiment Station. The
complete report is available in circular
form (19) . The data in table 9 (II) show
higher weaning weights for the cross-
breds, particularly in the second cross
involving three breeds and when these
three-breed-cross heifers were back-
crossed to the Hereford. Similarly, rate
of feed-lot gain was consistently greater
for the crossbreds, and generally they
produced higher yield and carcass grade.
Efficiency of feed utilization did not ap-
pear significantly different between pure-
bred and crossbred cattle. Calf crop
percentages, as a whole, were higher for
crossbreds than for purebreds. The
authors point out that certain superior
f ' .
.:»:<:»
Fig. 21B (II) . These Herefords are the result
of selective breeding. The cow at the top pro-
vides ample milk for the calf, yet remains in
good condition herself. The bull (center) is a
proven sire. For five years he was mated with 60
to 70 of the top cows in the herd, and replace-
ment heifers, such as are shown in the lower
picture, were selected from this breeding. When
seven years old, this bull sired 62 calves under
meadow pasture conditions. The cow herd is
largely composed of his descendants.
Page 47— Section II
TABLE 9 (II)
Comparison of Hereford, Hereford x Shorthorn (first cross) ; Hereford, Hereford x
Shorthorn x Angus (second cross) ; and Hereford, Hereford x Short-
horn x Angus x Hereford (third cross) Steers
Hereford
Hereford X
Shorthorn
Hereford
Hereford X
Shorthorn X
Angus
Hereford
Hereford X
Shorthorn X
Angus X
Hereford
Purebred
First cross
Purebred
Second cross
Purebred
Third cross
Number of steers
Birth weight, pounds. . .
Weaning age, days
Weaning weight, pounds
Average daily feed lot
gain, pounds
Gain per 100 pounds
T.D.N
Dressing per cent
Average slaughter grade
38
79.1
180.3
402 6
1.81
18.30
56.3
Average
good
34
84.8
174.7
416.8
2.08
18.49
57.7
Average
good
46
79.2
174.7
386.2
1.79
18.17
58.0
Average
good
18
79.1
176.1
440.9
1.93
17.20
59.8
Low
choice
98
82.8
177.4
402.4
2.28
18.76
58.9
Low
choice
16
88.3
179.6
502.6
2.41
17.49
58.7
Average
choice
Source of Data:
Knapp, B. Jr., A. L. Baker, and R. T. Clark. Crossbred cattle for the northern Great Plains. U.S.D.A. Cir.
810:1-5. 1949.
performing lines of purebred Herefords
(not used in the crossing experiments)
made more rapid gain and were more
efficient than the crossbreds.
Similarly, crossbred steers in the Uni-
versity of California herd, full-fed from
weaning, have averaged heavier than
the purebreds, at least up to 12 months
of age. There was only a slight indication,
however, that the crossbreds involving all
the breeds gained more rapidly than the
straight Shorthorns, which were the heav-
iest of the purebreds. Data from the first
four calf crops in a crossbreeding experi-
ment with Aberdeen Angus and Here-
fords at the Ohio Experiment Station
have not shown any consistent or con-
spicuous advantages of the crossbreds.
The cross of Aberdeen Angus bulls on
females of strong Shorthorn breeding has
generally been rated high because the off-
spring were hornless and reasonably uni-
form in color (black or blue gray), and
because most Shorthorn cows make ex-
cellent mothers. The superior fleshing
quality of the Aberdeen Angus usually
shows up in this cross.
The crossing of Brahman cattle with
temperate-zone beef breeds is to obtain
climatic adaptation and resistance to ex-
ternal parasites and tick-borne diseases.
Hybrid vigor is also obtained. Experi-
ence indicates that the % to % Brahman
(generally % Brahman) carries enough
heat resistance to withstand the hotter
areas in the United States. The effort
generally has been to use the minimum
Brahman blood to attain climatic adap-
tation and the maximum of Shorthorn,
Hereford, or Aberdeen Angus blood for
superior beef conformation and early ma-
turity.
Contrary to the general idea that all
crossbreds should be marketed, extensive
experiments and experience with swine
and common practice with sheep show
that the crossbred dam may have a dis-
tinct advantage. The swine experiments
have shown that crossing the crossbred
dam with a sire of a third breed gives
added hybrid vigor and that the dam is
a superior mother. Apparently, from the
cattle experiment mentioned above the
three-breed cross and systematic rotation
of sires of the three breeds, starting on a
purebred or genetically equivalent grade
foundation herd of one breed, may prove
highly desirable. The herd segregation
Section II— Page 48
necessary to do the job right appears and upon consistent use of superior sires,
rather complicated for most beef-cattle along with a selection and culling of fe-
setups. males. Indiscriminate crossbreeding is as
To be successful, crossbreeding must likely to combine all the poor qualities
be based upon a good foundation herd of the parents as all the good ones.
Page 49— Section II
LITERATURE CITED
(1) GUILBERT, H. R.
Some endocrine relationships in nutritional reproductive failure. Jour. Anim. Sci. 1 :3. 1942.
(2) Cole, H. H., S. W. Mead, and Max Kleiber.
Bloat in cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 662:1-22. 1942.
(3) Leitch, I., and J. S. Thomson.
The water economy of farm animals. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 14:197-223. 1944.
(4) Forbes, E. B., W. F. Braman, and M. Kriss.
The influence of the environmental temperature on the heat production of cattle. Jour. Agr. Res.
33:579-89.1926.
(5) Guilbert, H. R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss.
Importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35. 1944.
(6) Davis, W. C.
Commercial cuts of meat. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 300:1-9. 1924.
(7) Hankins, 0. G., B. Knapp, Jr., and R. W. Phillips.
Muscle-bone ratio as an index of merit in beef and dual purpose cattle. Jour. Anim. Sci. 2:42-49.
(8) Harshaw, H. M., W. L. Kellogg, R. R. Rector, and S. J. Marsden.
The composition of turkeys of different varieties and strains. Poultry Sci. 22:126-36. 1943.
(9) Hammond, John.
Growth and development of mutton qualities in sheep. 597 p. Oliver and Boyd. London. 1932.
(10) Callow, E. H.
The food value of beef from steers and heifers and its relation to dressing-out percentage. Jour.
Agr. Sci. 34:177-89. England. 1944.
(11) Rhoad, A. 0.
A scale of heat tolerance for cattle. Abstracted in: Jour. Anim. Sci. 1 :85-86. 1942.
(12) RlEMERSCHMID, G.
Some aspects of solar radiation in relation to cattle in South Africa and Europe. Onderstepoort
Jour. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 18:327-53. 1943.
(13) Rhoad, A. O.
Absorption and reflection of solar radiation in relation to coat color in cattle. Amer. Soc. Anim.
Prod. Proc. 1940:291-93. 1940.
(14) Bonsma, J. C, and A. J. Pretorius.
Influence of colour and coat cover on adaptability of cattle. Farming in So. Africa 18:101-20.
1943.
(15) Rice, V. A.
Proved sires. Amer. Hereford Jour. 36:45. 1945.
(16) Mead, S. W.
A diagrammatic method of presenting the history of reproduction in a dairy herd. Jour. Dairy
Sci. 21 :283-87. 1938.
(17) Kingman, H. E.
A method of determining reproductive efficiency of a breeding herd. Amer. Hereford Jour.
36:51-54.1945.
(18) Linn,M.D.
Tips on artificial breeding of beef cattle. Western Livestock Jour. 23(54) :36, 82. 1945.
( 19) Knapp, B. Jr., A. L. Baker, and R. T. Clark.
Crossbred cattle for the northern Great Plains. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 810:1-15. 1949.
Section II— Page 50
Recommended References
(When ordering books, specify latest edition)
Anderson, A. L.
1943. Introductory animal husbandry. 777 p. The Macmillan Company, New York, N.Y.
Briggs, H. M.
1949. Modern breeds of livestock. 772 p. The Macmillan Company, New York, N.Y.
Farley, F. W.
1941. Hereford husbandry. 431 p. Walker Publications, Inc., Kansas City, Mo.
Hazelton, J. M.
1935. Hereford history and herd bull index. 530 p. The Hereford Journal Company, Kansas
City, Mo.
Hultz, F. S.
1930. Range beef production. 208 p. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Rice, V. A.
1942. Breeding and improvement of farm animals. 750 p. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, N.Y.
Sanders, A. H.
1914. The story of the Herefords. 1087 p. The Breeders Gazette, Chicago, 111.
Sanders, A. H.
1918. Shorthorn cattle. 1021 p. Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago, 111.
Sanders, A. H.
1928. A history of Aberdeen Angus cattle. 1042 p. The Breeders Gazette, Chicago, 111.
Snapp, R. R.
1939. Beef cattle, their feeding and management in the corn belt states. 550 p. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
United States Department of Agriculture.
1942. Keeping livestock healthy. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1942. 1276 p. (Price $1.75, from the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.)
Vaughan, H. W.
1937. Breeds of livestock in America. 780 p. R. G. Adams and Company, Columbus, Ohio.
Vaughan, H. W.
1941. Types and market classes of livestock. 607 p. College Book Company, Columbus, Ohio.
In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes
necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or
chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which
are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products
is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.
Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture,
University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914.
J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.
5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.
CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart
MANUAL 2
Section III
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND CATTLE FEEDS
Nutrient Requirements
Symptoms of Nutritional
Deficiencies
Important Toxic Trace
Elements
Characteristics of Range Forage
Harvested Roughages, Grains,
and By-products
Preparation of Feeds
Economical Feeds
Nutrient Requirements
The National Research Council* in
1945 issued a report, Recommended Nu-
trient Allowances for Beef Cattle (rev.
1950). Table 10 (Sec. Ill) from this re-
port gives the expected gains for different
ages, sexes, and production objectives;
also the necessary daily intake of total dry
feed equivalent, digestible nutrients, di-
gestible protein, calcium, phosphorus,
and carotene. Table 11 (III) presents the
same data expressed as percentage in the
ration or amount per pound of feed.
These tables of requirements and their
use, in conjunction with tables 12, 13, 14
(III), on the composition of feeds, are
discussed in sections IV and V.
* Much of the material in the following para-
graphs and in "Symptoms of Nutritional Defi-
ciencies," is adapted from the National Research
Council publication: Guilbert, H. R., Paul Ger-
laugh, and L. L. Madsen. Recommended nu-
trient allowances for beef cattle. A report of
the Committee on Animal Nutrition of the Na-
tional Research Council. 32 p. Washington, D.C.
1945. (Rev. 1951.) In many passages, the word-
ing is unchanged from the original text.
Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces
Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali-
fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford.
Some tables and other data from the original
circular are used in the manual.
Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi-
ment Station.
Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science
and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station.
Requirements for nutrients other than
those listed in tables 10 and 11 (III) are
briefly discussed in the text which follows.
Vitamins. Under usual conditions of
management, beef cattle receive enough
vitamin D from exposure to direct sun-
light or from sun-cured roughages. The
requirement for young calves is reported
to be about 300 international units per
100 pounds of live weight per day. Vita-
min D is essential to calcium and phos-
phorus utilization and to the prevention
of rickets and other bone abnormalities.
The water-soluble vitamins thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothe-
nic acid, and biotin, and the fat-soluble
vitamin K are synthesized by micro-
organisms in the rumen. So far as is
known, a dietary supply of these vitamins
is not essential after cattle are 2 months
of age and rumen function has been estab-
lished, provided the ration is otherwise
adequate. Possibly with gross deficiencies
of protein or other nutrients in the diet,
conditions in the rumen may not permit
the microorganisms to produce optimum
quantities of these essential vitamins.
Further research is needed to show defi-
nitely what bearing this problem may
have upon practical beef production.
The need of vitamin E in the diet of
cattle has not been demonstrated, nor is
Page 1— Section III
there evidence of rumen synthesis of this
vitamin, which is widely distributed in
feeds. Claims made for beneficial results
of vitamin-E therapy in reproduction in
cattle have not been substantiated up to
this time.
TABLE 10 (III)
Kecommended Daily Nutrient Allowances for Beef Cattle
(Based on air-dry feed containing 90 per cent dry matter)
Expected
daily gain,
pounds
Daily allowances per animal
Body
weight,
pounds
Total feed
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorus,
grams
Caro-
Per cent of
live weight
Per animal,
pounds
tene,*
milligrams
Normal growth, heifers and steers
400
1.6
3.0
12
0.9
7.0
20
15
24
600
1.4
2.7
16
0.9
8.5
18
15
36
800
1.2
2.4
19
0.9
9.5
16
15
48
1,000
1.0
2.1
21
0.9
10.5
15
15
60
Bulls, growth and maintenance (moderate activity)
600
2.3
2.7
16
1.3t
10.0
24
18
36
800
1.7
2.1
17
1.4
11.0
23
18
48
1,000
1.6
2.0
20
1.4
12.0
22
18
60
1,200
1.4
1.8
22
1.4
13.0
21
18
72
1,400
1.0
1.7
24
1.4
14.0
20
18
84
1,600
1.6
• 26
1.4
14.0
18
18
96
1,800
1.4
26
1.4
14.0
18
18
108
Wintering weanling calves
400
1.0
2.8
11
0.7
6.0
16
12
24
500
1.0
2.6
13
0.8
7.0
16
12
30
600
1.0
2.5
15
0.8
8.0
16
12
36
Wintering yearling cattle
600
1.0
2.7
16
0.8
8.0
16
12
36
700
1.0
2.4
17
0.8
8.5
16
12
■12
800
0.7
2.3
18
0.8
9.0
16
12
48
900
0.5
2.0
18
0.8
9.0
16
12
54
Wintering pregnant heifers
(Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)
700
1.5
2.9
20
0.9
10.0
18
16
42
800
1.3
2.3
20
0.9
10.0
18
16
48
900
0.8
2.0
18
0.8
9.0
16
15
54
1,000
0.5
1.8
18
0.8
9.0
16
15
60
* The recommended carotene allowances for fattening animals are at the same rate as for cattle in other classi-
fications. This is about the minimum rate that will result in significant storage, and thus assure contribution of
vitamin-A value for human use from the beef liver and fat. For optimum growth or feed-lot gains and freedom
from clinical symptoms, 1.5 mg. carotene for each 100 pounds body weight suffices for cattle previously depleted
of body stores. This level may be used except for pregnant or lactating cows when economically necessary. The
vitamin-A value of the liver and the body fat of animals so fed, however, would be practically nil. Actually no
dietary carotene or vitamin A is needed so long as the animals have sufficient storage reserve to meet physiological
needs.
t During periods of moderate to heavy service, a level of about 2.0 pounds of digestible protein is tenta-
tively suggested.
Section III— Page 2
TABLE 10 (III)— Continued
Body
weight,
pounds
Expected
daily gain,
pounds
Daily allowances per animal
Total feed
Per cent of
live weight
Per animal,
pounds
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorus,
grams
Caro-
tene,*
milligrams
Wintering mature pregnant cows
(Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)
800
1.5
2.8
22
1.0
11.0
22
18
48
900
1.0
2.2
20
0.9
10.0
18
16
54
1,000
0.4
1.8
18
0.9
9.0
16
15
60
1,100
0.2
1.6
18
0.8
9.0
16
15
66
1,200
0.0
1.5
18
0.8
9.0
16
15
72
Cows nursing calves, first 3 to 4 months after parturition
900-1,100 None
28
1.4
14.0
30
24
300
Fattening calves finished as short yearlings
400
Average
3.0
12
1.1
8.0
20
15
24
500
for
2.8
14
1.2
9.5
20
16
30
600
period
2.7
16
1.3
11.0
20
17
36
700
2.0 pounds
2.6
18
1.4
12.0
20
18
42
800
daily
2.5
20
1.5
13.5
20
18
48
900
2.3
21
1.5
14.5
20
18
54
Fattening yearling cattle
600
Average
3.0
18
1.3
11.5
20
17
36
700
for
3.0
21
1.4
13.5
20
18
42
800
period
2.8
22
1.5
14.0
20
19
48
900
2.2 pounds
2.7
24
1.6
15.5
20
20
54
1,000
daily
2.6
26
1.7
17.0
20
20
60
1,100
2.4
27
1.7
17.5
20
20
66
Fattening two-year-old cattle
800
Average
3.0
24
1.5
15.0
20
18
48
900
for
2.9
26
1.6
16.0
20
20
54
1,000
period
2.7
27
1.7
17.0
20
20
60
1,100
2.4 pounds
2.6
29
1.8
18.0
20
20
66
1,200
daily
2.4
29
1.8
18.0
20
20
72
Minerals Other than Calcium and
Phosphorus. Besides calcium and phos-
phorus, cattle require magnesium, sulfur,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, iodine, man-
ganese, iron, copper, and cobalt. Infor-
mation is presented on elements for which
deficiency symptoms are known, or for
which need of supplementation in a local-
ized area has been demonstrated.
Common Salt. Salt supplies sodium
and chlorine. The physiological require-
ments appear to be very low, about 1.5
grams daily of sodium and less than 5
grams daily of chlorine being sufficient
for growth. Larger amounts (11 grams
sodium and 15 grams chlorine for a cow
producing 2 gallons of milk daily) are
required for lactation. Since, however,
Page 3— Section III
salt is also used as a condiment, voluntary
intake is much above these apparent
physiological requirements. Consump-
tion depends upon the amount in the feed,
as well as upon other conditions, but
varies usually between 1.0 and 2.5 pounds
per month. Cattle should have free access
to salt.
Iodine. The use of salt containing
0.015 to 0.020 per cent potassium iodide
TABLE 11 (III)
Recommended* Daily Nutrient Content of Rations for Beef Cattle
(Based on air-dry feed containing 90 per cent dry matter)
Body
weight,
pounds
Expected
daily gain,
pounds
Daily feed
Per cent of
live weight
Per animal,
pounds
Allowance as per cent of ration or amount per pound of feed
Digestible
protein,
per cent
Total
digestible
nutrient,
per cent
Calcium,
per cent
Phos-
phorus,
per cent
Caro-
tene,*
milligrams
per pound
Normal growth, heifers and steers
400
1.6
3.0
12
7.5
58
0.37
0.28
2.0
600
1.4
2.7
16
5.6
53
0.25
0.21
2.2
800
1.2
2.4
19
4.7
50
0.19
0.17
2.5
1,000
1.0
2.1
21
4.3
50
0.16
0.16
2.8
Bulls, growth and maintenance (moderate activity)
600
2.3
2.7
16
8. If
63
0.33
0.25
2.2
800
1.7
2.1
17
7.8
65
0.28
0.22
2.7
1,000
1.6
2.0
20
6.4
60
0.22
0.18
2.7
1,200
1.4
1.8
22
6.0
59
0.19
0.17
3.0
1,400
1.0
1.7
24
5.4
58
0.17
0.15
3.2
1,600
1.6
26
5.4
54
0.15
0.15
3.7
1,800
1.4
26
5.4
54
0.15
0.15
4.2
Wintering weanling calves
400
1.0
2.8
11
6.4
55
0.32
0.24
2.2
500
1.0
2.6
13
6.2
54
0.27
0.20
2.3
600
1.0
2.5
15
5.3
53
0.24
0.18
2.4
Wintering yearling cattle
600
1.0
2.7
16
5.0
50
0.22
0.17
2.2
700
1.0
2.4
17
4.7
50
0.21
0.16
2.5
800
0.7
2.3
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.15
2.7
900
0.5
2.0
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.15
3.0
Wintering pregnant heifers
(Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)
700
1.5
2.9
20
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
2.1
800
1.3
2.3
20
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
2.4
900
0.8
2.0
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
3.0
1,000
0.5
1.8
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
3.3
* The minimum level of carotene for optimum growth and fattening and freedom from clinical symptoms is
one fourth of the amounts listed for various classes and weights. This level allows no margin of safety and permits
no storage, but may be employed for growth and fattening when economically necessary. The allowances listed
are adequate for reproduction with only a small margin of safety and very small storage in the new-born calf
(see footnote, table 10, III).
f" During periods of moderate to heavy service, a digestible-protein level of 7.5 to 8.0 per cent is tentatively
suggested.
Section III— Page 4
has effectively prevented goiter in iodine-
deficient areas. Griem and his associates
(1) have recommended, as sufficient,
iodized salt containing 0.01 per cent
iodine, stabilized to prevent loss. Without
stabilization, iodine is rapidly lost from
salt blocks in the field; to insure further
against loss, one should protect salt boxes
from direct sunlight and from rain.
An economical and effective way to
supply cattle with iodine is to purchase
the potassium iodide and mix it with salt
as needed. One ounce of potassium iodide
to 300 pounds of fine-ground salt gives a
mixture containing about 0.02 per cent.
The potassium iodide should be finely
ground, mixed thoroughly with a little
salt, and then mixed with the remainder
TABLE 11 (III)— Continued
Body
weight,
pounds
Expected
daily gain,
pounds
Daily feed
Per cent of
live weight
Per animal
pounds
Allowance as per cent of ration or amount per pound of feed
Digestible
protein,
per cent
Total
digestible
nutrient,
per cent
Calcium,
per cent
Phos-
phorus,
per cent
Caro-
tene,*
milligrams
per pound
Wintering mature pregnant cows
(Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)
800
1.5
2.8
22
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
2.2
900
1.0
2.2
20
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
2.7
1,000
0.4
1.8
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
3.3
1,100
0.2
1.6
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
3.7
1,200
0.0
1.5
18
4.5
50
0.20
0.18
4.0
Cows nursing calves, first 3 to 4 months after parturition
900-1,100
None
50
0.24
0.18
11.0
Fattening calves finished as short yearlings
400
Average
3.0
12
9.2
67
0.37
0.28
2.0
500
for
2.8
14
8.6
68
0.31
0.25
2.1
600
period
2.7
16
8.1
68
0.28
0.23
2.2
700
2.0 pounds
2.6
18
7.8
68
0.25
0.22
2.3
800
daily
2.5
20
7.5
68
0.22
0.20
2.4
900
2.3
21
7.2
68
0.21
0.19
2.6
Fattening yearling cattle
600
Average
3.0
18
7.2
65
0.25
0.21
2.0
700
for
3.0
21
7.0
65
0.21
0.19
2.0
800
period
2.8
22
6.8
65
0.20
0.19
2.2
900
2.2 pounds
2.7
24
6.7
65
0.18
0.18
2.2
1,000
daily
2.6
26
6.5
65
0.17
0.17
2.3
1,100
2.4
27
6.3
65
0.16
0.16
2.4
Fattening two-year-old cattle
800
Average
3.0
24
6.3
62
0.18
0.18
2.0
900
for
2.9
26
6.3
62
0.17
0.17
2.1
1,000
period
2.7
27
6.3
62
0.16
0.16
2.2
1,100
2.4 pounds
2.6
29
6.3
62
0.15
0.15
2.3
1,200
daily
2.4
29
6.3
62
0.15
0.15
2.5
Page 5— Section III
TABLE 12 (III)
Composition of Feeds
Feeds
Air-dry forages:
Alfalfa hay, average
Alfalfa hay, very leafy*. . .
Asparagus butts, dried
Barley hay*
Barley straw
Bean straw, field*
Bean straw, lima
Beet top3
Flax hulls
Cottonseed hulls
Oat hay, moderately green.
Oat straw,
Sudan grass hay, before
bloom
Vetch and oat hay, half
vetch
Winery pomace
Wild oat hay
Range forages:
Annual grasses, mostly soft
chess, seed stage, nearly
mature
Annual grasses, soft chess
and fescue, mature dry . .
Bur-clover, green, seed stage
Bur-clover, seed stage, dry
leached by 0.3 inch of rain
Bur-clover, seed stage, dry,
leached by 0.8 inch of rain
Broad-leaf filaree, mature
dry
Broad-leaf and red-stemmed
filaree, mixed, mature,
dry, leached
Broad-leaf filaree-grass mix-
ture as grazed by cattle . . .
Silages, roots, and tubers:
Alfalfa silage, slightly wilted
Carrots
Corn silage, well matured
average
Mangels
Potatoes
Potatoes, dried
Sorghum silage, sweet —
Sugar beets
Dry
matter,
per
cent
92.8
90.0
91.0
85.0
89.5
90.0
90.0
80.0
90.0
91.3
88.2
90.0
90.0
89.3
92.5
90.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
31.1
12.0
29.1
9.2
21.1
90.0
25.3
20.6
Total
digest-
ible
nutri-
ents,
per
cent
50.4
53.7
47.1
50.0
44.0
45.0
48.0
47.5
34.7
35.7
48.1
45.5
50.0
50.0
30.7
48.7
46.0
39.5
56.2
50.8
48.5
43.3
37.0
40.0
18.8
9.6
19.0
6.6
17.0
72.6
16.1
17.3
Digest-
ible
protein,
per
cent
10.8
12.4
9.7
4.4
1.0
3.0
6.0
7.7
0.8
0.5
3.3
1.5
6.7
7.0
1.9
3.6
11.8
10.6
10.3
0.0-2.0
4.0
0.8
1.0
0.7
0.7
3.0
0.7
1.0
Calcium
Per
cent
1.51
1.69
0.17
0.09
1.67
0.45
0.14
0.27
0.23
0.47
0.55
0.22
0.35
0.30
0.86
0.89
0.93
1.70
0.38
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.09
0.03
Grams
per
pound
6.85
7.68
0.77
0.41
7.54
2.08
0.64
1.22
1.04
2.13
2.50
1.00
1.59
1.36
3.90
4.00
4.20
7.70
10.40
1.72
0.27
0.36
0.09
0.05
0.18
0.41
0.13
Phosphorus
Per
cent
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.06
0.13
0.19
0.05
0.22
0.13
0.24
0.26
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.13
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.06
0.26
0.04
0.04
Grams
per
pound
0.95
1.09
1.13
0.27
0.59
0.23
1.00
0.59
1.09
1.20
1.13
0.91
0.01
1.40
1.36
1.32
0.59
0.45
0.27
0.27
0.36
0.09
0.27
1.16
0.18
0.18
Caro-
tene,
milli-
grams
per
pound
8.00
0.14
2.9
14.9
10.5
4.0
Approxi-
mate
relative
productive
value,
per cent
/barley = \
v ioo ;
Dotted lines (....) indicate lack of data; solid lines ( ) insignificant amounts or none present.
Sources of data:
Data for feeds marked with an asterisk (*) are taken from: Morrison, F. B. Feeds and feeding. 1050 p.
20th ed. The Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y. 1936.
Other data are from: The U. S. D. A. Yearbook. 1939; California Agricultural Experiment Station; and:
Guilbert, H. R., Paul Gerlaugh, L. L. Madsen. Recommended nutrient allowances for beef cattle. A report
of the Committee on Animal Nutrition of the National Research Council. 32 p. Washington, D. C. 1945.
Section III— Page 6
TABLE 12 (III)— Continued
Feeds
Dry
matter,
per
cent
Total
digest-
ible
nutri-
ents,
per
cent
Digest-
ible
protein,
per
cent
Calcium
Per
cent
Grams
per
pound
Phosphorus
Per
cent
Grams
per
pound
Caro-
tene,
milli-
grams
per
pound
Approxi-
mate
relative
productive
value,
per cent
(barley =»\
100 /
Concentrates:
Apple pomace, dried*
Babassu meal
Barley, California feed
Beans, recleaned*
Beet pulp, molasses, dried..
Beet pulp, wet
Brewers' grains, dried, from
California barley*
Brewers' grains, wet*
Coconut oil meal, old
process
Corn, dent, No. 2
Cottonseed, whole*
Cottonseed meal, cold
pressed (28 per cent pro-
tein)
Cottonseed meal (43 per
cent protein)*
Cottonseed meal (41 per
cent protein)
Distillers' corn grain, dried.
Distillery slop, whole*
Figs, dried
Fish meal, over 63 per cent
protein*
Hominy feed
Kafir
Linseed meal, Pacific Coast
(28 to 30 per cent protein)
Milo
Milo heads, ground
Molasses, cane
Oats, Pacific Coast
Peanut oil meal (38 to 43
per cent protein)
Rice bran
Rice polish
Rye
Soybean oil meal
Wheat, Pacific Coast
Wheat bran
89.4
92.7
90.0
90.9
92.0
12.3
91.1
23.9
92.7
85.0
92.7
93.5
93.5
92.8
93.2
92.5
90.5
88.1
90.0
90.7
89.6
76.0
90.0
93.6
91.2
90.0
-90.5
92.2
90.0
90.6
60.5
79.7
78.0
64.8
74.0
9.4
61.3
16.6
83.8
80.0
91.0
70.8
75.5
73.6
81.6
4.9
69.0
71.3
88.3
79.7
77.2
80.0
76.0
57.0
72.0
78.8
67.5
81.0
79.6
80.5
84.0
70.0
1.7
21.3
7.8
13.4
7.7
1.1
16.2
4.6
17.5
7.0
17.0
23.4
35.0
33.9
20.1
1.2
4.0
54.0
8.2
9.0
25.0
8.3
8.1
0.9
7.6
37.0
8.3
8.2
9.3
37.5
9.3
13.1
0.10
0.05
0.14
0.59
0.09
0.16
0.07
0.28
0.01
0.17
0.24
0.20
0.04
0.07
4.24
0.03
0.01
0.34
0.04
0.08
0.35
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.29
0.03
0.10
0.45
0.23
0.64
2.68
0.41
0.73
0.32
1.27
0.05
0.77
1.10
0.91
0.18
0.32
19.20
0.14
0.05
1.54
0.18
0.36
1.59
0.41
0.45
0.45
0.14
0.18
1.32
0.14
0.45
0.09
0.39
0.45
0.09
0.01
0.47
0.12
0.58
0.25
0.55
0.64
1.11
1.19
0.29
0.23
3.06
0.44
0.25
0.92
0.25
0.24
0.06
0.33
0.50
1.84
1.54
0.37
0.67
0.43
0.14
0.41
1.77
2.05
0.41
0.05
2.13
0.55
2.63
1.14
2.60
2.90
5.00
5.40
1.32
1.04
13.90
2.00
1.13
4.17
1.13
1.09
0.27
1.50
2.27
8.35
6.89
1.68
3.04
1.95
5.17
2.2
78
101
100
81
94
78
103
103
115
90
94
108
87
91
110
102
102
97
73
92
101
87
104
102
103
108
90
of the salt. The freshly prepared mixture
should be supplied at frequent intervals
in covered salt boxes.
Magnesium. Magnesium deficiency
may result from prolonged feeding of
calves on milk without grain or hay.
Under these conditions, blood magnesium
is lowered, and the animals usually die
in tetany. When natural feed is the source,
calves require about 0.6 gram of mag-
nesium daily per 100 lbs. of body weight.
Cobalt and Copper. Deficiency of
these elements has been demonstrated in
different parts of the world, including the
United States.
Cobalt deficiency has not been demon-
strated in California nor has uncompli-
cated copper deficiency. Less than 5 parts
per million of copper in the dry matter
of pastures causes loss of appetite, bleach-
ing of coat color, anemia, and, in many
cases, diarrhea. Ataxia and stiffness of
Page 7— Section
pasterns in calves sometimes occurs. Over
7 parts per million of copper appear ade-
quate when excess molybdenum or other
unknown factors do not complicate cop-
per utilization. The symptoms arising
from excess molybdenum in California
resemble those of copper deficiency, and
copper therapy is being successfully em-
ployed to counteract molybdenum.
Cobalt requirement appears to be met
by about 0.1 part per million in the dry
matter of pasture, or about 0.1 milligram
daily per 100 pounds of body weight. Less
than these amounts has led to progressive
emaciation, and, finally, to anemia.
The probability of copper deficiency
being involved in hair bleaching some-
times observed in the granite area of the
Sierra foothills, including the San Joa-
quin Experimental Range, has not been
fully explored. Limited data show low
or borderline copper content in dried
forage which may be complicated by
lower amounts of molybdenum than are
generally considered toxic. Supplemental
feeding of cottonseed cake prevented hair
bleaching in the San Joaquin Experi-
mental Range. Occasional occurrence of
an ataxic nervous disorder in calves has
been noted. Severe scouring, emaciation,
and extreme demineralization of bones
of cattle and sheep on peat-land clover
pasture, although complicated by heavy
parasite infestation, appear similar to
"peat scours" described in New Zealand
and involved with copper deficiency.
These indefinite observations are re-
ported here because more general recog-
nition of the problem in the field helps
to direct research attention to the affected
areas.
Symptoms of Nutritional
Deficiencies
Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies
most often encountered in California are
summarized in the following paragraphs.
In some cases the symptoms are specific.
Reduced appetite or growth, rough hair
coat, and general unthriftiness are com-
mon to most states of undernutrition.
Since deficiencies may range from very
mild cases to severe, they may exist
without causing gross symptoms. The
more insidious, mild, and often multiple
deficiencies, resulting in suboptimum per-
formance rather than dramatic symp-
toms, are most difficult to diagnose, but
are commonly the source of greatest eco-
nomic loss.
TABLE 13 (III)
Estimated Carotene Content of Feeds in Relation to Appearance and
Methods of Conservation
Feedstuff
Carotene,
milligrams
per pound
Fresh green legumes and grasses, immature
Dehydrated alfalfa meal, fresh, dehydrated without field curing, very bright green color
Dehydrated alfalfa meal after considerable time in storage, bright green color
Alfalfa leaf meal, bright green color
Legume hays, including alfalfa, very quickly cured with minimum sun exposure; bright green
color, leafy
Legume hays, including alfalfa, good green color, leafy
Legume hays, including alfalfa, partly bleached, moderate amount of green color
Legume hays, including alfalfa, badly bleached or discolored, traces of green color
Nonlegume hays, including timothy, cereal, and prairie hays, well cured, good green color. . . .
Nonlegume hays, average quality, bleached, some green color
Legume silage
Corn and sorghum silages, medium to good green color
Grains, mill feeds, protein concentrates, and by-product concentrates, except yellow corn and
its by-products
15-40
110-135
50-70
60-80
35-40
18-27
9-14
4-8
9-14
4-8
5-20
2-10
0.01-0.2
Section III— Page 8
TABLE 14 (III)
Composition of Calcium and Phosphorus Supplements
Calcium
Phosphorus
Fluorine,
per cent
Mineral supplement
Per cent
Grams
per pound
Per cent
Grams
per pound
Bone meal, raw, feeding
22.7
28.7
30.0
21.0
29.0
28.3
26.5
nil
38.3
16.0
nil
36.9
22.0
103
130
136
95
132
128
120
nil
174
72
nil
167
100
10.1
13.9
13.9
9.0
13.0
12.3
20.5
8.6
nil
24.0
22.4
nil
13.1
46
63
63
41
59
56
93
39
nil
109
102
nil
59
0.030
0.037
Defluorinated superphosphate
Dicalcium phosphate
0.15 or less
0.05
Disodium phosphate
Monocalcium phosphate
0.05
Monosodium phosphate
Oyster-shell "flour
Spent bone black
* Because of the limited number of products on the market, figures are given for two types of defluorinated
rock that are being produced for livestock feeding.
Energy Intake (Total Digestible
Nutrients). Lack of sufficient feed is
probably the most common deficiency in
beef cattle. In limited feeding during the
winter, on overstocked ranges, or during
the early green-feed period, low energy
intake may be the sole deficiency. The
results are slowing or cessation of growth
(including skeletal growth), loss of
weight, reproduction failure, and in-
creased death loss. On ranges and pas-
tures, low food intake commonly results
in increased mortality from toxic plants
and from lowered resistance to parasites
and diseases. Very commonly, however,
underfeeding is complicated by concomi-
tant shortage of protein and other nutri-
ents. (See fig. 26, IV.)
Protein. Shortage of protein is the
second most common deficiency in beef
cattle. These nitrogenous compounds are
the principal building materials for
muscle tissue, vital organs, hide, horns,
and hair. Feeds low in them are non-
legume roughage, common grains, and
mature range forage. Protein deficiency
results in poor growth, depressed appe-
tite, failure of milk secretion and of heat
periods. If the deficiency is severe, not
only does growth stop, but the muscle tis-
sues are too depleted to supply vital or-
gans, and the result is rapid weight loss,
weakness, and emaciation (fig. 22, III).
Salt (Sodium Chloride). Salt defi-
ciency is manifested by intense craving
for salt, lack of appetite, and unthrifty
appearance. Increased salt consumption
may also result from depraved appetite
caused by other deficiencies.
Phosphorus. Areas of phosphorus
deficiency are widespread throughout
the world, particularly in semiarid re-
gions, and are commonly associated with
phosphorus-deficient soils. As a rule,
phosphorus content decreases markedly
when plants fully mature and seeds shat-
ter; and this deficiency, along with that
of protein, commonly occurs when cattle
must subsist for long periods on mature,
nonleguminous dried grasses and herbs.
The earliest symptoms of phosphorus
deficiency are decrease in blood phos-
phorus, in appetite, and in rate of gain.
Milk production falls off. Efficiency of
feed utilization, particularly of protein,
is depressed. These effects are followed
by depraved appetite with specific crav-
ing for bones, but may be manifested by
chewing of wood, eating of dirt, and in-
creased consumption of salt. Long-
continued privation results in bone
changes, lameness and stiffness of joints.
Page 9-Section III
and even fracture of bones. Figure 23
(III) illustrates some effects of phos-
phorus deficiency.
Calcium. In contrast to phosphorus,
calcium deficiency in beef cattle is com-
paratively rare and mild; the symptoms
are inconspicuous. When fattening calves
are heavily fed on concentrates with lim-
ited quantities of nonlegume roughage,
their calcium intake is insufficient for op-
timum gain and bone development. Dried
range forage, if predominantly grasses,
may contain less than required minimum
quantities; and cereal straws are usually
deficient. Severe deficiency, which seldom
occurs, may so deplete the bones of cal-
cium and phosphorus that fractures re-
sult.
Iodine. The deficiency is usually
manifested by the production of dead or
nonviable goitrous calves. Occasional
borderline cases may survive; in these the
moderate thyroid enlargement that shows
as a swelling at the throat disappears in
a few weeks. Areas in which the iodine
content of feed and water is deficient are
localized. The whole lava country of
northeast California is considered a bor-
derline goiter area, with certain sharply
defined localities definitely deficient in
iodine. Even within these areas, there
appears to be seasonal variation in occur-
rence of goiter. Some areas in the heavy-
rainfall district of the north-coast section
are also deficient. In such areas, losses of
calves occur unless iodine is supplied.
Thin, small calves from cows in good con-
dition may possibly be a manifestation of
mild deficiency even though enlarged
glands are not observed.
Vitamin A. The natural source of vita-
min A for cattle is carotene, a yellow pig-
ment found in all green plant tissues. This
is the yellow coloring matter of carrots, of
milk, and of body fat of cattle. Carotene
may be changed in the animal body to
practically colorless vitamin A. In cattle
most of the storage accumulating under
favorable conditions is found in the liver
as the preformed vitamin. Significant
amounts of unchanged carotene are
stored, particularly in the body fat.
Carotene decomposes rapidly under ex-
posure to sun and air. Consequently, dry-
range forage, bleached hays, and straw
are lacking in this essential substance or
Fig. 22 (III). The cow on the left received a ration low in protein and phosphorus, similar in
composition to that of dry grass filaree range forage. She was thin and weak, and produced little
milk for her undersized calf. The cow on the right received the same ration plus 2 pounds daily
of cottonseed meal. She maintained thrifty condition and produced abundant milk and a "growthy"
calf. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)
Section III— Page 10
Fig. 23 (III) . The heifer in the upper picture gained for a 6-month period on a ration containing
0.13 per cent phosphorus. She maintained weight for a year on 0.09 per cent phosphorus, but lost
weight during 6 months when the ration contained only 0.07 per cent. Her appetite became poor
and depraved, her blood phosphorus low; she had no heat period for more than a year. The control
animal shown below received ample phosphorus supplement. She continued to gain, was thrifty,
and had regular heat periods. The photographs were taken at the close of the experiment. (From
Ext. Cir. 115.)
Page 11— Section III
contain only traces of it. Since grains and
other concentrate feeds, except yellow
corn, are deficient in carotene, cattle must
either have some green feed in the ration
or draw upon reserves stored in the liver
and fat tissues. If the period on deficient
feeds is prolonged, reserves are depleted,
and deficiency symptoms develop.
The first easily detected clinical symp-
tom of vitamin-A deficiency is night
blindness, readily observed when animals
are driven about in twilight, moonlight,
or other dim illumination. The trouble
may be present even though the animals
appear thrifty and are gaining at prac-
tically normal rates. When gross night
blindness is evident, vitamin A in the
blood is very low and liver reserves ap-
proach exhaustion. The next conspicuous
symptoms usually developed are muscu-
lar incoordination, staggering gait, and
convulsive seizures caused by a rise of the
cerebrospinal fluid pressure, which also
results in swelling and congestion around
the entrance of the optic nerve into the
eye. Total and permanent blindness in
young animals results from constriction
of the bony canals, and the pressure
causes atrophy of the optic nerves. The
eyes of affected cattle water profusely,
wetting the cheeks. In advanced defi-
ciency, nasal discharges are common.
Unless death in convulsion or from inter-
current disease, such as pulmonary in-
fection, intervenes, the corneas of the eyes
become clouded and may, if subjected to
infection, become ulcerated. Severe diar-
rhea in young calves and intermittent
diarrhea at advanced stages of deficiency
in adults are characteristic. In fattening
cattle generalized swelling, referred to as
anasarca, may occur.
Deficiency in bulls causes degeneration
of the testicular germinal epithelium, pro-
duction of defective sperm, and, finally,
loss of sexual interest. Recovery of sexual
desire promptly follows vitamin-A sup-
plement, but several months may be re-
quired before the sperm becomes entirely
normal.
Deficiency in the pregnant animal re-
sults in abortion or, at term, in birth of
weak or dead calves (fig. 24, III).
Important Toxic Trace Elements
Fluorine. Minute quantities of fluorine
are apparently needed to maintain the
teeth. This chemical element is one of the
halogen group to which iodine belongs.
Although widely distributed in soils,
waters, and in both animal and plant tis-
sues, it is not found in abundant quantity.
Dental enamel is relatively rich in the
substance and contains 100 to 200 micro-
grams per 100 grams of dry substance.
Fluorine is also found in much smaller
amounts in bones, skin, blood, and hair.
In 1931 Smith, Lantz, and Smith, in the
University of Arizona, College of Agri-
culture, proved that mottled enamel of the
teeth in children was due to the presence
of fluorine in drinking water at the very
slight concentration of 3 to 7 parts per
million. Incidence of mottled teeth among
the Pima Indians resident in Sacaton,
Arizona, was 100 per cent; and the drink-
ing water was found to contain 3.9 parts
per million (3.9 milligrams of fluorine
per liter of water) .
Toxic quantities of this substance from
natural sources may be ingested by live-
stock over long periods if the drinking
water contains much fluorine or if rock
phosphate or mineral mixtures contain-
ing it are supplied. Phillips, Hart, and
Bohstedt (2) show that an intake of 336
milligrams of fluorine per kilogram of
body weight has proved toxic, as indicated
by bone changes, molar teeth abrasion,
and, in the last year of the experiment,
noticeable failure in general health. In-
gestion of the usual minute amounts
must be continued over months to a year
or more before noticeable symptoms ap-
pear. The teeth changes in cattle are in the
molars, which become badly worn, with
very irregular grinding surfaces. The
enamel is dull, and the teeth become so
sensitive that the animals tend to lap cold
drinking water, but proceed to drink nor-
Section III— Page 12
Fig. 24 (III). The heifer
at the top received a ra-
tion deficient in vitamin
A but otherwise com-
plete; she became night
blind and aborted during
the last month of preg-
nancy. The heifer in the
middle picture received
the same ration, plus one
pound daily of dehy-
drated alfalfa meal dur-
ing the latter part of
pregnancy, and produced
a normal calf. The lower
heifer received 15 cubic
centimeters of codliver oil
daily, containing 2,600
units of vitamin A per
gram during a similar pe-
riod; she likewise pro-
duced a normal calf.
(From Ext. Cir. 115.)
mally if the water is warmed. The chronic,
cumulative, poisonous effect is shown by
the fact that the affected bony structures
contain ten to fifteen times as much fluo-
rine as similar bones of normal animals.
Poisoning by this element has been
found in Modoc County in cattle, horses,
and human beings. The waters from cer-
tain hot springs in Surprise Valley con-
tain low toxic quantities. The trouble was
readily prevented by keeping animals
from drinking such waters over long
periods of time.
Food and drug regulations take cogni-
zance of the efficiency of defluorination
of the rock phosphate used in animal feed.
Selenium. This element causes diffi-
culties on the eastern slope of the Rockies
Page 13— Section III
and on the Great Plains, but to date has
not been incriminated in California. It is
one explanation of the catch-all term
"alkali poisoning" on the range. The pri-
mary source of the material was igneous
rocks, which were broken down in early
geological times, the selenium finding its
way into sedimentary rock of Upper Cre-
taceous time and then into the Pierre and
Niobrara formations. It is taken up from
these areas by so-called converter wild
plants. When these decay, selenium is
returned to the soil in a form readily
available to cultivated crop plants. The
poisoning of animals results. This is the
so-called "selenium cycle."
Affected cattle develop a dermatitis and
a characteristic eroded condition of the
horn of the hoofs. The subject is fully
discussed in Bulletin 206 of the Wyoming
Station (3) and in Technical Bulletin 2 of
the South Dakota Station (4) . According
to this latter publication, molybdenum
has been found in conjunction with sele-
nium in some plants and is thought to
have a secondary and probably additive
effect.
Molybdenum. This is not generally
considered a necessary element in animal
nutrition although, according to Austra-
lian reports (5), extremely low levels of
molybdenum in forage associated with
what was considered normal copper con-
tent resulted in copper toxicity. Molyb-
denum is toxic when ingested even in
minute amounts in forage. It is widely
distributed in soils of granitic origin.
As with selenium, some plants take up
relatively much more of it than others.
Britton and Goss of the University of
California have found that it is present
in toxic quantities in California. It is the
causative factor of a long-known, ob-
scure malady of cattle over wide areas
in the San Joaquin Valley and in south-
ern California. This abnormality is ac-
companied by changes in the color of the
hair, by diarrhea, emaciation, and gen-
eral unthrif tiness ; death may occur if
the animals are left too long on the af-
fected areas after symptoms appear. The
symptoms appear mainly to be those of
copper deficiency. That molybdenum in-
terferes with copper assimilation or me-
tabolism has been demonstrated. The
growing of grasses which have a lower
molybdenum uptake than legumes in pas-
tures of affected areas and the use of
copper supplement are the preventive
practices currently indicated.
Cattle Feeds
Characteristics of Range Forage*
Annual Forage Plants. The princi-
pal forage plants of California foothill
and valley ranges are annuals that germi-
nate after the first autumn rains. They
make varied amounts of growth during
the winter, according to temperature and
moisture conditions. From February to
May is usually the period of greatest for-
age production. The relative abundance
of different species varies with soil, sea-
sonal distribution of rainfall, and close-
ness of grazing.
In general, the various forage species
are, in the early stages of growth, high in
water, protein, and minerals, and low in
crude fiber. The dry matter of actively
growing plants is much more digestible
than that of the leaves and stems of the
same plants in the mature stage; it has
the characteristics of a concentrate feed
rich in protein. The high moisture con-
tent in the early stages, coupled with the
animal's difficulty in obtaining sufficient
quantity, limits gains during this period.
The various species of forage plants differ
markedly in composition and nutritive
value when mature and dry. Since the
botanical composition of range forage
may vary greatly from year to year,
knowledge of chemical characteristics of
the principal types of plants is valuable
in judging the quality of the feed and in
* Unless otherwise indicated, data in this sec-
tion are from: Hart, G. H., H. R. Guilbert, and
H. Goss. Seasonal changes in chemical composi-
tion of range forage and their relation to nutri-
tion of animals. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui.
543:1-62. 1932. (Out of print.)
Section III— Page 14
selecting suitable supplements. These an-
nuals may be broadly classified as flower-
ing herbs, grasses, and legumes.
Of the flowering herbs or the broad-
leaved plants, the filarees (Er odium spp.)
are most important, often constituting
more than 50 per cent of the total forage.
In some areas other flowering plants may
contribute significantly to the forage
taken by cattle for limited periods.
Three species of filaree are widely dis-
tributed in California. Red-stem filaree
(Er odium cicutarium) is found generally
over the more fertile valley and foothill
ranges. White-stem filaree [Er odium
moschatum) is often found intermixed
with red stem, especially in the coastal
areas, and appears frequently in old cul-
tivated fields. During the growing sea-
son, these species, together with annual
grasses, produce very nutritious pasture.
The broad-leaved species (Er odium bo-
try s) and Er odium botrys f. montanum
predominate, or may be found only on
the poorer granitic, red, and gravelly soils,
or on other soil in the oak and digger-
pine belt of foothill areas. Livestock pre-
fer the red-stem and white-stem to the
coarser broad-leaved species. These are
higher in protein and minerals and lower
in fiber at comparable stages of growth
than broad-leaved filaree and, under the
same soil and moisture conditions, tend
to remain green somewhat later in the
season.
The filarees are high in calcium and
total soluble minerals. The dry matter in
the early stages of growth is rich in pro-
tein, but after maturity the amount is
ordinarily too low to meet the require-
ments of cattle. Dry filaree is low in phos-
phorus, and the wide ratio of calcium to
phosphorus is unfavorable to phosphorus
utilization. The fiber increases with ma-
turity and drying, so that total feed value
becomes a limiting factor in producing
gains. After long periods on dry feed the
feces of cattle that are eating considerable
quantities of filaree and other plants high
in soluble minerals, remain moist and
soft, whereas the droppings of cattle graz-
ing exclusively on dry grasses that are
low in ash, tend to become hard and dry.
A large number of species of annual
grasses is widely distributed on Califor-
nia ranges. Wild oats (Avena spp.),
bromes, fescues (Festuca spp.), and fox-
tail predominate. Wild oats and foxtail
(Hordeummurinum) are generally abun-
dant under good soil and moisture con-
ditions, while bromes and fescues
predominate in poorer soils. Closeness
of grazing may also affect the relative
abundance of different species. Under
light grazing, or complete protection,
taller-growing species, such as wild oats
and often such objectionable species as
ripgut, or needle brome (Bromus rigi-
dus) , flourish to the exclusion of shorter,
finer grasses, filaree, and legumes.
Most of the grass species are palatable
and nutritious in the early stages, but
become deficient in protein and low in
energy value at maturity. The available
calcium and the total mineral content of
dry grasses are low, in contrast to those
of filarees and clovers. Phosphorus con-
tent is also low, as with filaree. The seeds
of most species scatter quickly when ma-
tured and become relatively unavailable
for grazing. Some seeds no doubt are
obtained by cattle which graze on the fine
leaf material on the ground. Seeds are
relatively higher in phosphorus, and an
abundant seed crop may increase the
supply of this essential nutrient. Soft
chess (Bromus mollis) , probably the most
desirable of the annual brome-grass spe-
cies, retains the seeds in the seed heads
for a considerable time, and these heads
are grazed by cattle before the less nutri-
tious stems are eaten. The seeds of foxtail
and ripgut or needle brome, through me-
chanical injury to eyes and mouth, cause
significant damage. The fiber content of
grasses tends to be higher than in the red-
and white-stem filaree and clovers and
is of a tougher nature. Because of high
fiber and low digestibility of the dry,
mature grasses, the amounts that cattle
Page 15— Section III
can consume furnish little more than the
energy requirement for maintenance,
even when protein and mineral deficien-
cies are corrected by supplemental feed-
ing.
Legumes contain more protein than
grasses and flowering herbs. Bur clover
(Medicago hispida) , an outstanding spe-
cies, maintains relatively high nutritive
value even in the mature dry state. The
protein content may exceed 30 per cent
of the dry matter in the early stages of
growth. The amount decreases with ma-
turity, but mature dry bur clover aver-
ages about 15 per cent protein, an amount
more than necessary to meet minimum
requirements of cattle. It is, therefore, a
valuable supplement to other forage low
in protein. The calcium and phosphorus
content is adequate for nutritional re-
quirements. Digestibility is relatively
high, and gains continue when cattle have
dry feed containing abundant bur clover.
The plant is found on the richer, heavier
soils; and early fall rains accompanied
by warm weather make favorable "bur-
clover years." The seeds and pods have
about the same chemical composition as
the combined stems and leaves. Many
seeds are impervious to moisture and pass
through the digestive tract apparently
unchanged. The availability of the seeds
of this species for grazing, however, con-
tributes greatly to its nutritive value.
Spanish clover {Lotus americanus) and
hill lotus (Lotus humistratus) are less
important representatives of leguminous
plants. They usually constitute only a
small percentage of the total forage on
foothill ranges. Since they normally re-
main green after grasses and filaree have
dried, they are relished at that time and
extend the period of adequate nutrition
of the animals.
Various species of vetch occur in the
mountains and in some foothill areas.
They are commonly called "pea vines" by
stockmen and are relished by livestock.
Table 15 (III) shows the average chem-
ical composition of many samples of
these types of annual forage, collected at
different seasons and from various range
areas.
Perennial Grasses. Perennial
grasses, together with sedges and rushes,
make up the principal forage in higher
ranges and mountain meadows. Perennial
bunch grasses, in significant amounts, are
found on some coast ranges; partially
depleted stands respond to judicious graz-
ing practices. Some bunch grass also re-
mains in northeastern California ranges
and in the high mountains. Salt grass
(Distichlis spicata) , a sod-forming peren-
nial, occupies large areas of alkaline
valley land, remains green most of the
summer and provides fair forage for cat-
tle. Bermuda grass occupies extensive
areas of lowlands, and though it is a
serious pest in cultivated crops, it fur-
nishes good pasture for livestock during
the summer. In chemical characteristics,
all these grasses are somewhat similar,
though some are much more fibrous and
less palatable than others. The mature dry
forage of the coarser, tall-growing peren-
nial bunch grasses is low in protein, high
in fiber, and relatively unpalatable. In
general, the more fine leafy material there
is available the more nutritious is the
cured forage. Perennials have one out-
standing advantage; they start growth
more quickly and, being deep-rooted,
remain green longer than annuals, a char-
acteristic that prolongs the period of fa-
vorable feed conditions. Every practical
means of encouraging valuable perennial
grass species is desirable for improve-
ment of the range feed supply.
Browse. Bluebrush [Ceanothus inte-
gerrimus) , often locally called deer brush
or sweet birch, is among the most impor-
tant browse species in the foothills and
mountains. Thick stands frequently de-
velop after fires, and cattle make good
gains on this as practically the sole forage
for periods of from 2 to 4 months. Young
stands of low-growing browse provide
better forage than older plants, which
eventually become too high for grazing
Section III— Page 16
TABLE 15 (III)
Average Percentage Composition of Representative Annual Forage Species
Showing Seasonal Changes*
Forage species
Bur-clover:
Early green stage —
Bloom stage
Seed stage
Mature, dry
Wild oats:
Early green stage —
Bloom stage
Seed stage
Dry, seeds shattered
Dry, leached
Soft chess:
Bloom stage
Seed stage
Mature, dry
Dry, leached
Red-stem filaree:
Early green stage
Bloom stage
Seed stage
Mature, dry
Dry, leached
Broad-leaf filaree:
Early green stage —
Bloom stage
Seed stage
Mature, dry
Dry, leached
Crude
protei n
Nitrogen-
free
extract
and fat
Crude
fiber
Total
minerals!
Calcium
Phos-
phorus
32.9
44.7
12.8
9.7
1.1
0.45
24.2
49.2
18.2
8.4
1.5
.40
22.8
47.5
22.2
7.4
1.2
.32
16.7
46.4
30.7
6.1
1.5
.24
14.2
57.4
22.0
6.4
0.41
.38
10.0
54.7
31.3
4.0
0.24
.29
7.6
55.9
33.3
3.2
0.23
.25
5.4
58.4
32.6
3.7
0.26
.18
3.6
59.6
34.5
2.3
0.23
.11
13.6
53.6
28.2
4.6
0.35
.37
11.5
59.1
26.1
3.3
0.31
.33
7.7
60.9
28.0
3.4
0.35
.26
6.9
60.5
30.1
2.5
0.41
.14
29.8
45.4
11.3
13.5
2.2
.46
17.8
51.1
18.8
12.3
2.3
.46
15.9
51.8
20.4
11.8
2.6
.38
8.5
55.6
22.8
13.1
3.0
.18
5.5
58.9
29.1
6.5
2.6
.14
25.0
52.1
12.1
10.8
1.7
.39
14.6
55.1
22.1
8.2
1.4
.35
11.2
54.0
27.0
7.9
1.4
.32
6.4
57.2
28.3
7.9
1.7
.13
5.9
58.6
30.0
5.9
1.9
0.08
* All figures are expressed on the basis of moisture-free samples,
t Total minerals represent silica-free ash.
cattle. Bluebrush decreases in phosphorus
and increases in calcium as it matures,
and this fact may help to explain why it
is poor forage late in the season. The
stems and shoots also become tough, par-
ticularly on old plants; as a consequence,
the animals may have difficulty in getting
a. fill of leaves, whereas early in the sea-
son they browse on the leaves and the
tender shoots. Bluebrush contains a sapo-
nin, the toxicity of which for cattle has
not been demonstrated.
The seasonal changes in composition
of bitterbrush {Purshia tridentata) and
mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus mon-
tanus) appear to be similar to those of
bluebrush. Among other species that may
contribute considerable forage in some
areas are serviceberry (Amelanchier alni-
jolia) , coffeeberry (Simmondsia cali-
jornica), poison oak (Toxicodendron
diver silobum) , and leaves of various oak
species. Leaves of mountain white oak
(Quercus Garry ana) of northwestern
California appear to be higher in feed
value than those of other species. Various
mesquite species and screw beans are im-
portant browse plants in some desert
areas. The seeds and pods are rich in
protein and are especially nutritious.
In general the protein content of
browse species including desert and semi-
desert plants, such as sages [Artemisia
spp.), winter fat {Eurotia lanata) , and
Page 17— Section
shadscales {Atriplex spp.) , is higher than
that of dry grasses and weeds. If fairly
palatable species are present in sufficient
quantities, they constitute a valuable sup-
plement to dry forage; by remaining
green and succulent they provide caro-
tene, the precursor of vitamin A. Spanish
moss and mistletoe also have these sup-
plementary values. Consumption of lib-
eral quantities of mistletoe does not cause
abortion in cattle or sheep. The chemical
composition of various browse species is
given in table 16 (III).
Acorns. In some years the acorn crop
is heavy, and utilization of this large po-
tential feed resource is an important prob-
lem. Stockmen are divided in opinion
regarding the effects of acorns on cattle.
Some report ill effects, while others claim
that acorns aid materially in carrying
cattle when other feed is scarce. The vari-
ations in results may depend on the kind
of acorns and also on the nature of other
available feed.
Different varieties of acorns vary in
chemical composition, as is shown in
TABLE 16 (III)
Average Percentage Composition of Various Browse Species*
Browse and stages sampled
Crude
protein
Nitrogen-
free
extract
and fat
Crude
fiber
Total
minerals!
Calcium
Phos-
phorus
Bluebrush or sweet birch:
Leaves and new shoots, May 9. . .
Leaves and new shoots, May 26. .
Leaves and new shoots, June 21 .
Leaves and seeds, July 8
Leaves and few seeds, August 22.
Leaves only, September 19
Seedling twigs and whole plants,
July 23
Bitterbrush:
Leaves and twigs, May 19
Leaves, August 6
Leaves, September 14
Mountain-mahogany, August 7
Chokecherry, July 23
Oak leaves:
Mountain white oak, August 15..
Mountain white oak, September 20
Mountain white oak, October 15. .
Mountain white oak, t September
Blue oak, J September
Canyon live oak, J September. . .
Black oak.t September
Poison oak leaves, t September. . . .
Serviceberry, large-lea ved§
Serviceberry. small-leaved§
29.2
20.7
22.5
24.4
16.9
14.3
25.0
15.0
13.3
11.6
16.1
21.5
18.7
16.3
14.3
15.7
8.8
11.4
7.2
14.3
16.1
50.7
56.2
60.1
59.6
65.4
71.8
57.1
62.8
65.3
68.2
55.1
63.3
47.8
41.3
38.1
50.1
50.3
60.1
61.7
13.6
15.8
10.0
9.5
10.9
6.9
11.3
18.7
16.1
16.2
22.
17.0
35.2
30.6
20.3
26.6
23.6
14.4
7.5
7.2
7.5
6.5
6.8
7.1
6.6
3.5
5.4
3.9
6.3
5.9
9.8
10.0
9.2
1.9
7.7
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.8
2.5
2.0
0.56
.24
.21
.22
.12
.11
.31
0.72
.24
1.5
.18
1.2
.13
1.2
.13
1.4
.25
0.8
.26
0.9
.17
1.2
0.30
• All figures are expressed on the basis of moisture-free samples.
t Total minerals represent silica-free ash.
t The tannin analyses of these samples varied from 5.3 to 14.6 per cent and are not included with the nitrogen-
free extract and fat. The total of the protein, nitrogen-free extract and fat, fiber, and ash does not therefore equal
100 per cent. Data from: Mackie, W. W. The value of oak leaves for forage. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 150:1-21.
1903. (Out of print.)
§ Data from: Dayton, W. A. Important western browse plants. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 101:1-213. 1931.
Section III— Page 18
TABLE 17 (III)
Percentage Composition op Acorn Samples
Material
Mois-
ture
Crude
protein
Crude
Fat
Ash
Nitro-
gen-free
extract
Cal-
cium
Phos-
phorus
Tan-
nins
Black oak (Quercus Kelloggii)
Shell
Kernel
Whole nut
Quercus dumosa
Shell
Kernel
Whole nut
Blue oak (Quercus Douglasii)
Shell
Kernel
Whole nut
Water oak (Quercus lobata)
Shell
Kernel
Whole nut
Interior live oak (Quercus Wis
lizenii)
Shell
Kernel
Whole nut
35.58
38.35
37.60
43.60
44.88
44.58
41.34
40.55
40.75
36.23
42.02
40.57
25.67
30.80
0.96
4.29
3.43
1.41
2.63
2.29
1.47
3.50
3.03
1.99
3.10
2.82
1.34
3.49
27.90
9.25
14.07
19.10
3.68
7.96
20.52
2.99
7.08
21.28
3.30
7.84
34.07
5.80
11.24
0.61
14.70
11.05
1.01
4.34
3.42
1.41
5.78
4.77
0.54
5.50
4.25
0.63
17.77
14.47
0.73
1.28
1.14
1.30
1.02
1.10
1.83
0.79
0.98
1.64
1.02
1.08
0.74
1.08
1.01
34.22
32.13
32.71
33.58
43.45
40.65
33.43
46.39
43.39
38.32
45.06
43.44
37.55
41.06
40.40
0.19
0.06
0.09
0.18
0.06
0.09
0.23
0.03
0.08
0.18
0.04
0.08
0.31
0.04
0.09
0.01
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.06
0.01
0.06
0.05
1.68
1.85
1.81*
7.95
4.07
5.15
6.96
2.58
3.61
5.86
3.18
3.85
2.94
5.00
* Another sample had a tannin content of 6.4 per cent, indicating that acorns from different trees vary in com-
position as well as in palatability.
table 17 (III). Some are high in oil,
others comparatively low. Tannin content
is likewise variable. High fat content, as
well as tannin and other intestinal irri-
tants, may contribute to diarrhea. All
acorns are low in protein and minerals,
but they have considerable value if the
ration is otherwise complete.
In a feeding test in 1936 (6), 3 cows
on the San Joaquin Experimental Range
lost an average of 150 pounds in 2 months
when fed all the blue oak acorns they
would eat and given access to dry range
fojrage. Similar cows in another pasture
with few acorns lost only 25 pounds. One
cow which was fed acorns after the green
feed started, gained almost as fast as she
had previously lost on dry feed.
Since green feed is seldom available on
the range when acorns ripen and drop,
a second trial was run in 1942, in which
cottonseed cake as a supplement was
tested. Three cows were hand-fed 10 to
12 pounds of blue oak acorns daily, in
addition to natural dry forage on the
range. Four were fed 10 pounds of acorns
and 2 pounds of 43 per cent protein cot-
tonseed cake daily in addition to dry for-
age. Between September 21 and December
30, the first group lost an average of 174
pounds per head, as compared with an
average gain of 53 pounds for the second
group, which received the protein supple-
ment with the acorns.
This peculiar situation of weight loss
being accelerated by the eating of acorns,
and the counteraction by protein supple-
ment so that the acorns have significant
feed value, has been confirmed by cattle-
men. Evidently, therefore, a bountiful
crop of acorns should be regarded, not
as a curse, but rather as feed that can be
put to good use if supplemented with ade-
quate protein concentrate.
Effect of Rain on Dry Forage. Ac-
cording to laboratory experiments (7, 8)
Page 19— Section
dry forage contains 8 to 20 per cent of
water-soluble materials, most of which
are leached out by rains after the forage
has dried. Soluble carbohydrates make
up the larger part of this loss, though the
highest loss on a percentage basis is in
the mineral, the loss of which may vary
from 30 to nearly 70 per cent of the total
mineral content. Nearly all the common
salt is removed, a fact which partly ex-
plains the increase in salt consumption
after late rains have "spoiled" the feed.
The percentage loss of protein in labora-
tory experiments was 7 to 18 per cent
of the total. The percentage of protein in
the leached residue remains about the
same, or may even be higher because of
larger losses of other constituents. The
crude fiber content of the residue after
leaching is higher. Digestion experiments
show a decrease in digestibility of all nu-
trients, except fiber, after the soluble in-
gredients are leached out by rain. An
example of how apparently small changes
in digestibility may affect nutrients avail-
able for gain is shown in digestion experi-
ments with bur clover before and after
it was leached by 0.7 inch of rain. In 20
pounds of bur clover there were 12.5
pounds of digestible nutrients before
leaching and 10.7 pounds after leaching.
Since about 8 pounds of these nutrients
are needed to maintain a 1,000-pound
steer, evidently with the unleached clover,
4.5 pounds would be available for gain;
but with the leached, only 2.7 pounds.
Although the leaching caused a decrease
of about 15 per cent in digestibility, the
nutrients available for gain would be de-
creased about 40 per cent. This percent-
age of decrease occurs under practical
conditions, since animals are limited in
the amount of total feed they can con-
sume. The effect is apt to be greater than
indicated, since removal of soluble nutri-
ents, responsible for the taste of feed,
decreases palatability. If range feed re-
mains wet for a considerable length of
time, further damage is caused by molds
and other decomposing agencies. More-
Section Ill-Page 20
over, there may be considerable loss of
leaves that are shattered and beaten into
the soil by heavy rain.
Characteristics of Harvested
Roughages, Grains, and
By-products
Legume Hays. Legume roughages,
such as alfalfa and various clovers, are
higher in protein (table 12, III) than
other forage crops; the protein is of excel-
lent quality, the calcium content is high,
and, when well cured, the roughages con-
tain liberal amounts of carotene and other
accessory nutrients. For these reasons the
legume roughages are especially valuable
in combination with cereal grains and
other carbohydrate feeds.
In tests at the Kansas Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, gains of cattle were
greatest on hay cut at the bud stage, next
at one-tenth bloom, and least when ma-
ture. Hay from the early stages is some-
what laxative. Both for feed value and
for yield of digestible nutrients, early to
one-half bloom stages are preferable for
cattle. Careful curing saves leaves, the
most nutritious part of the plant; this
results in higher protein content and in
conservation of minerals and other im-
portant nutrients. Carotene is rapidly
decomposed during curing and sun ex-
posure, so that about 75 per cent is lost
even under most favorable conditions for
sun-curing. Nearly all carotene disap-
pears in slow-cured, and in bleached hays.
Proper haymaking increases not only feed
value, but also yields per acre, and palat-
ability; and it reduces waste in feeding.
Nonlegume Hays. California is a
leading state in production of cereal hay,
and large quantities are used in beef-cattle
feeding. Grain hays are low in protein
and calcium, compared with the legumes.
As hay is ordinarily cured, most of the
vitamin-A value is bleached out, but when
there is a significant amount of green
color, the amount of carotene present will
suffice to prevent deficiency. California
feeding tests and practical experience
have demonstrated that results compa-
rable with those of alfalfa are obtained in
fattening cattle when the protein and
other deficiencies are properly supple-
mented. Mixed hays, such as wild oats
and bur clover, and oats and vetch, are
intermediate in character. The feeding of
both legume and nonlegume roughage is
frequently preferable to either alone.
Meadow hay varies with the soil, moisture
condition, and type of grasses and grass-
like plants of which it is composed. Unless
clover is in the mixture, meadow hays
have much the same character as grain
hays.
The Washington Station has shown by
chemical analyses and by digestion trials
that the medium dough stage of maturity
is most desirable for wheat, beardless bar-
ley, and oat hays. The increased digesti-
bility found for later stages is more than
offset by shattering and leaf loss under
practical conditions. Curing to conserve
green color is important, not only for
palatability but also to retain carotene.
Straw. As plants mature, nutrients
formed in the green parts are largely
transported to the ripening seeds; the
straw that is left is low in protein, min-
erals, starch, fat, and vitamins, and high
in fiber. The digestibility and productive
value are much lower than in hays from
the same plants cut at earlier stages. Chaff
and leaf material have a higher value than
the coarser stems. When economically
handled and adequately supplemented,
the straws can be marketed to advantage
through cattle. Recommendations for
their utilization are given in Section IV,
"Production of Feeder Cattle," and Sec-
tion V, "Fattening Cattle and the Dressed
Product."
Silage. Corn and sorghum crops are
better conserved if ensiled, rather than
fed as dry roughage. Silage adds succu-
lence and palatability to rations. Corn
and sorghum silage require protein sup-
plements. Total feed value, as indicated
in table 12 (III) and confirmed by feed-
ing tests, is about one half that of aver-
age-quality hay. The tonnage secured and
cost of production in comparison with
hay are important considerations. Cheap
trench silos reduce the overhead cost. A
small acreage of silage crops may often
be a way of increasing the feed supply
for wintering young cattle; when used
with legume hay, this feed produces good
gains without additional concentrate sup-
plements. Silage is valuable in fattening
rations and for all classes of cattle. Sor-
ghum should be cut when the grain is
mature, otherwise the silage may be too
acid. Silage from legumes and grasses
may be satisfactorily made by adding 60
to 75 pounds of molasses to each ton of
green forage as it goes into the silo.
Roots and Tubers. The relative
values of some roots and tubers appear in
table 12 (III). When these feeds can be
grown economically or when culls are
available at low cost, they can be effec-
tively utilized in cattle rations. Roots and
tubers are high in moisture and low in
fiber; the dry matter is highly digestible.
Roots may be used in the same manner as
silage. Sugar beets and potatoes properly
fed are only slightly lower in value than
corn silage. Sugar beets, mangels, and po-
tatoes should be chopped or sliced. Stock
should be gradually accustomed to such
feeds, especially potatoes; too large
amounts may cause scours. Because of
solanine, a toxic substance present in
small amounts, badly sunburned or
sprouted potatoes should be fed only in
limited amounts, as a matter of safety,
although liberal quantities have been
given to cattle without apparent injury.
Care should be taken to supply adequate
amounts of protein feeds when roots and
tubers are used in the ration. An efficient
way to store and to utilize root crops is
to chop them into a silo along with corn
or other silage, or with dry roughage suf-
ficient to take up excess moisture.
Experience in Kern County, as reported
by the county farm advisor, has shown
that potatoes coarsely sliced and spread
with alternate layers of chopped barley
Page 21 -Section III
hay give a very satisfactory silage, agree-
able in odor and palatable to cattle. The
hay made up about 20 per cent of the
mixture. The silage settled and cured
without packing in the trench silo. Heat-
ing in the ensiling process seemed partly
to cook the potatoes, for afterward they
were rather mealy.
Considerable quantities of potato meal,
made by grinding sun-dried cull early
potatoes, have been prepared and fed in
the southern San Joaquin Valley. The
potatoes are spread, one layer deep, on
hard ground free from clods and are al-
lowed to dry for about 2 months. At the
end of this time they are very hard and
are usually ground in hammer mills,
which produce a somewhat powdery prod-
uct. Mixing this product with molasses
to reduce its dusty nature has been suc-
cessful. Practical tests indicate a value
about equal to that of barley when fed in
well-balanced rations.
Grains. The common grains, although
differing slightly in feeding value (table
12, III) , are similar in general character-
istics and are replaceable one for the other
in cattle rations. All grains are relatively
low in protein and should be fed either
with legume roughage, young green for-
age, or with a protein-rich supplement.
Grains are moderately rich in phos-
phorus, but are low in calcium. All except
yellow corn are deficient in vitamin A.
Barley is the basic carbohydrate con-
centrate feed in California. Table 12 (III)
shows the average value for digestible
protein and total digestible nutrients. The
normal range of variation in chemical
analyses of rolled and ground barley is
from 7 to 13 per cent total protein and
from 4 to 8 per cent crude fiber. Immature
barley that is not "well filled" may run
higher in protein, but because of high
fiber is lower in feeding value. Though the
poorer grades of barley may be utilized,
they are inferior to plump, heavy grain,
especially in fattening rations. Barley is
fairly palatable to cattle, but is best when
combined with other concentrate feeds.
Grain sorghums, such as milo, feterita,
and kafir, are lower in fiber than barley
and slightly higher in feeding value. They
may be used as the only grain in fattening
rations, but they combine well with other
grains, especially barley. Ground grain-
sorghum heads have somewhat lower
feeding value than the ground threshed
grain. If, however, one allows for the in-
cluded roughage by feeding increased
amounts, results are comparable with
those of threshed grain. The relatively
high moisture content that may be found
in threshed grain sorghums often causes
molding during storage.
Wheat has a slightly higher feeding
value than dent corn, but gives best re-
sults when it replaces not more than half
of the concentrate ration.
Oats, although too bulky to make satis-
factory fattening feed, are excellent as a
grain for growing cattle and as part of
the mixture in starting cattle on feed.
Dent corn ranks between grain sor-
ghums and wheat in total feed value. Its
nutritiousness, together with high palat-
ability, makes it a most desirable fatten-
ing feed.
Mill Feeds. Mill feeds are most ex-
tensively used in California for dairy
cattle and swine. When prices justify,
they may be satisfactorily fed to beef
cattle. For this latter purpose, however,
they should seldom be used to replace
more than 25 to 30 per cent of the con-
centrate ration for beef cattle. All of these
feeds are palatable.
Mill-run, wheat middlings, and rice
polish are higher in proteins than grains
and comparable with them in total digest-
ible nutrients.
Rice bran and wheat bran contain
more fiber than grains and are somewhat
bulky. Wheat bran is valuable in rations
for growing cattle and in fitting animals
for show or sale.
Beet By-products. Fresh pulp from
the sugar factories contains 90 to 95 per
cent water. When it is passed through a
press, the moisture content is reduced to
Section III— Page 22
between 85 and 90 per cent, and the prod-
uct is called pressed pulp. Siloed pulp is
wet pulp that has undergone fermentation
similar to silage; eventually it forms a
rather cheesy mass. The moisture content
usually varies from 87 to 90 per cent in
well-cured siloed pulp.
A small reduction in percentage of
moisture greatly enhances the dry-matter
content of wet-pulp products; for ex-
ample, if, by pressing, the pulp moisture
content is reduced from 94 per cent to 87
per cent, the dry matter is more than
doubled. Since the moisture content of
wet pulp is high and variable, the sugar
factories should adjust the price on the
basis of dry-matter content, and feeders
should compare the cost of digestible dry
matter with that of other common feeds.
Dried molasses beet pulp is produced
by spraying or mixing molasses with wet
pulp and dehydrating the two together.
The dried product commonly contains 8
to 10 per cent of moisture. The amount of
molasses in it is variable, but probably
averages about 30 per cent of the total dry
matter, when molasses is plentiful.
All beet-pulp products are low in pro-
tein and deficient in phosphorus.
Beet pulp is bulky and has physical
characteristics resembling roughage.
Since the fiber is highly digestible, how-
ever, the feed value of the dry matter is
comparable with that of barley. Beet pulp
is an excellent feed to combine with bar-
ley. Such a mixture may be fed more
heavily without danger of digestive dis-
turbances.
Beet tops consist of the leaves and the
crown of the plant. The dry matter in tops
Crude
protein
Tops 9.0
Leaves 13.5
Crowns 8.1
averages a little over 10 per cent of the
beet tonnage. About 40 per cent of the
dry matter is in the crowns, and 60 per
cent in the leaves. Average figures for
digestible composition appear in table 12
(III). The first text table at the bottom
of the page shows the wide difference in
composition between the crowns and the
leaves.
The high ash content of the leaves con-
tributes to their laxative effect. They may
also contain 3 to over 6 per cent oxalic
acid, an intestinal irritant. The amount
decreases during curing and ensiling, and
apparently oxalic acid is also decomposed
to some extent in the rumen. Cattle on
beet tops consume much water, and uri-
nate frequently. The high soluble-ash
content of the leaves and the presence of
betaine and other nonprotein nitrogen
compounds contribute to this effect. The
fiber content of beet tops is low, and the
digestibility and replacement value in
terms of other feed is comparatively high,
especially when this material is used in
limited quantities with other feeds. The
moisture content of fresh tops is about 80
per cent, field-cured tops 20 to 30 per
cent, and beet-top silage about 70 per
cent.
Maynard (9) has summarized data on
the feed value of beet by-products. His
figures, based upon digestible nutrient
content, are derived from feeding tests;
they are expressed in terms of the amounts
of corn grain and alfalfa that the beet by-
products would replace in the ration. The
summary included 106 experiments, and
the results appear in the second text table
below.
Nitrogen-free
extract
and fat
59.0
45.8
80.2
Crude
fiber
13.0
19.2
6.9
Ash
19.0
21.5
4.8
Corn and alfalfa replaced by
by-products of 1 ton of beets
Corn, Alfalfa,
pounds pounds
Beet tops 46 150
Wet pulp 41.6 99.5
Dried pulp 80.2 37.6
Corn and alfalfa replaced by
by-products from 13 3 /£ tons
average acre yield of beets
Corn, Alfalfa,
pounds tons
620 1.01
560 0.67
1274 0.25
Page 23— Section III
Thus, in livestock-feed production, the
by-products of the sugar-beet industry are
equal to the primary products of many
feed crops; efficient utilization of these
by-products is extremely important, not
only to the livestock industry, but also to
the stability of the beet-sugar industry. In-
formation on utilization of beet by-
products is presented in Section V, "Fat-
tening Cattle and the Dressed Product."
Additional data on sugar-beet by-product
value and use have been published by
Guilbert, Miller, and Goss (10). Making
beet-top silage by stacking the green tops,
drying them in the field, and either haul-
ing them loose or baling them in the field
is a practical method of conservation.
Dried Fruits and Fruit By-
products. Fruits and their by-products
are sometimes available at favorable
prices for fattening cattle. They are all
low in protein and high in carbohydrates.
Prunes, raisins, figs, dried peaches, and
dried pears are palatable to cattle and
have been fed to mature animals in
amounts of 4 to 6 pounds daily with satis-
factory results. Reference to table 12
( III ) will show their value relative to bar-
ley. When fed in excess, these fruits tend
to be laxative. A good rule is to limit such
feed to about 30 per cent of the concen-
trate rations. Dried apple pulp resembles
beet pulp in composition and may be used
similarly. Dried orange and other citrus
pulps compare favorably with barley in
total feed value. Dried pineapple pulp and
raisin pulp are lower in feed value be-
cause of higher fiber content.
Molasses. Most of the molasses used
in California is cane or blackstrap. Beet
molasses, including Steffens discard, has
been reported to be fairly similar to cane
molasses in feeding value, although it is
apparently less palatable and more laxa-
tive. Ordinarily feed analyses show Stef-
fens-discard beet molasses to have 6 to
9 per cent protein. Much of this is not true
protein, however, and its value for nutri-
tion of cattle is questionable. The dry
matter of cane molasses is low in protein ;
it consists largely of sugars, and about 9
to 12 per cent of mineral matter. The
moisture content usually varies from 18 to
20 per cent. Molasses is very palatable but
is laxative when fed in excess. In Cali-
fornia it is commonly a cheap source of
carbohydrates, and for this reason, may
be used to the extent of 20 to 25 per cent
of concentrate rations, or up to 10 to 15
per cent of the total ration, when grains
and ground roughages are fed mixed.
Fifteen to 20 per cent is about the right
amount to mix with ground roughage to
keep down dust and still not cake badly
in storage. Molasses is also valuable in
mixed ground rations to reduce dust; its
palatability makes more effective the use
of low-grade feeds. According to numer-
ous experiments, molasses does not have
a value in excess of that indicated by its
digestible nutrients when added to an al-
ready excellent ration including a variety
of palatable feeds. When other palatable
feeds are included in the ration, molasses
may be self-fed. It may also be poured
or sprayed over grain or roughage in
feed troughs or poured into troughs with
grains or other feeds placed on top of it.
Molasses at ordinary temperature weighs
about 11.8 pounds per gallon. Thinning
of molasses by heating is unnecessary
with modern molasses mixers. Detailed
information on methods of feeding and
handling may be secured from the Agri-
cultural Extension Service.
Brewery and Distillery By-
products. Wet brewers' grains, unless
pressed to remove part of the moisture,
contain about 25 per cent dry matter. The
fermentation process removes most of the
starch, leaving a residue higher in fiber,
protein, and fat, but lower in total feed
value than the original grains. When fed
fresh, wet brewers' grains are palatable
and wholesome. Because of high moisture,
souring and molding occur unless the
feed is used within a short time after pro-
duction. The digestible nutrient values
for the dried grains are shown in table
12 (III).
Section III— Page 24
Distillery slop contains about 94 per
cent water. It can be fed to cattle by
pumping into troughs. Molasses and
grains can be added to replace the carbo-
hydrates removed by fermentation. The
recovery of dry matter in the slop is about
35 per cent of that in original grains. The
liquid that may be strained off contains
about 2 per cent dissolved solids. The dry
matter is high in protein and fat, but
distillers' corn grain is lower in fiber than
brewers' grains. Because of high fat con-
tent, the total digestible nutrient value is
higher than that of the original grain, as
shown in table 12 (III). Distillers' rye
grain is low in feeding value and rela-
tively unpalatable.
Protein-rich Concentrates. In Cali-
fornia, cottonseed meal or cake is the most
commonly used protein-rich cattle feed.
At times, however, soybean meal, linseed
meal, fish meal, and other similar feeds
are available in quantity and compete as
economical sources of protein. One should
always consider these feeds when pur-
chasing protein supplements.
Cottonseed meal or cake varies in com-
position according to the manufacturing
process. Whole-pressed cake contains the
residue which remains after the oil has
been pressed from the whole seed, includ-
ing the hull. It is therefore higher in fiber
and lower in protein than cottonseed
products obtained from hulled seeds.
Whole- or cold-pressed cake is soft and
bulky and is therefore sometimes pre-
ferred for starting cattle on feed or, when
the price is favorable, for using large
quantities as a fattening feed rather than
as a protein supplement. Only limited
quantities are available. Cottonseed meal
or cake, other than the cold- or whole-
pressed cake, is available mostly in two
grades, namely, of 41 per cent protein and
43 per cent protein; it is sold in various
forms, such as nut-sized, sheep-sized, or
pea-sized cake, and as meal. Cottonseed
by-products contain small amounts of a
toxic substance called gossypol. This does
not, however, appear to have a toxic effect
on cattle, except perhaps on very young
calves. The so-called poisonous effect ex-
perienced with cattle is now known to be
vitamin-A deficiency, which occurs after
varying periods when no green forage or
hay is included in the ration. Dairy cows
at the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment
Station have been fed an average of over
10 pounds daily of cottonseed meal
through three successive gestation and
lactation periods without ill effect, when
sufficient carotene, the precursor of vita-
min A, was present in the hay. Whole cot-
tonseed, because of its oil content, is
higher in digestible nutrients but lower
in protein than the meal or cakes. It is a
satisfactory feed and may be used when
the price makes it economical.
Linseed meal, although somewhat lower
in digestible protein than 43 per cent cot-
tonseed meal, has given results equal or
superior to cottonseed meal in numerous
experiments with fattening cattle. The
protein content of the linseed meal used
in these tests probably averaged about 30
per cent digestible protein, as compared
with 34 to 35 per cent digestible protein
in 41 to 43 per cent protein cottonseed
meal. Linseed meal produced in Cali-
fornia usually ranges between 28 and 30
per cent total crude protein and 24 to 25
per cent digestible protein; more is there-
fore required than of cottonseed meal to
balance low-protein rations. Linseed meal
is slightly laxative, appears to have a
tonic effect, and is particularly credited
with the production of "bloom" and fine
condition of hair.
Fish meal of high quality, low in free
fatty acids, is an excellent protein feed
having about 40 per cent more digestible
protein than cottonseed meal. Cattle take
it readily in mixed rations and range
calves at weaning time have been taught
to eat it alone in a few days.
Meat meal, or tankage, has also been
successfully used as a protein supplement
in fattening rations; its value was about
proportionate to the digestible protein
content.
Page 25— Section
Sesame meal is palatable, gives excel-
lent results as a cattle feed, and has about
the same value as 43 per cent cottonseed
meal. Soybean meal is slightly higher,
both in digestible protein and in total
digestible nutrients, than 43 per cent cot-
tonseed meal. Feeding tests with cattle
show practically equal values for sesame
and soybean.
Peanut meal is very similar in value to
soybean and cottonseed meal.
Coconut meal contains only about half
the protein content of 43 per cent cotton-
seed cake, but is slightly higher in total
digestible nutrients. It is fairly palatable
to cattle when fed with other concentrate
feeds.
Perilla meal, hempseed meal, and
babassu meal are relatively new feeds and
appear on the market in limited and vari-
able quantities. Details of digestion ex-
periments on these feeds are given in
Bulletin 604 (11).
Mixtures of protein concentrates have
in general been superior to some of the
individual protein feeds fed alone.
Preparation of Feeds
All small grains, such as barley, wheat,
grain sorghums, and oats should be
ground or rolled for cattle feeding. Some
feeders prefer rolled to ground barley be-
cause it may be more uniform and less
wasteful to feed in windy weather. Where
there is no wind loss, a careful feeder will
obtain the same results from either
ground or rolled grain. For cattle feeding,
medium to coarse grinding is preferable
to fine, and the cost of grinding is much
less. Dent corn need not be ground for
cattle, if hogs are run with them to recover
the waste ; otherwise, corn should also be
ground.
Chopping or grinding of hay or other
roughage decreases necessary storage
space, saves waste, and sometimes labor,
in feeding; but it does not increase digest-
ibility. The saving of labor in chewing
does not materially affect the net value of
the feed. Fine grinding of roughage may
actually decrease digestibility, probably
because such forage does not remain for
a normal time in the rumen, where it is
subjected to bacterial digestion. Feeding
of chopped or ground hay mixed with
concentrates does not improve the nutri-
tional value of the feeds used, nor make
the ration better balanced than the same
feeds fed separately, although there may
be advantages in convenience and safety.
As a rule the poorer the quality of the
roughage, the greater the saving of wasted
feed by chopping. On the other hand, the
lower the price of the roughage the
greater the saving must be to pay chop-
ping costs. When a high quality of hay is
properly fed in suitable racks there is
little waste. If more attention is given to
harvesting and curing of roughage, there
will be less necessity for mechanical
preparation. Frequently there is too much
overhead cost in equipment and ma-
chinery for feed lots. Chopped hay re-
quires only one third to one half as much
storage space as long hay and slightly less
than baled hay. Use of pick-up choppers,
together with mechanical unloading de-
vices, is a method which can save much
labor both in harvesting and feeding. In-
formation on types of mills, power re-
quirements in relation to fineness of
grinding, and grinding costs can be ob-
tained from the Agricultural Extension
Service.
Determination of the Most
Economical Feeds
Ordinary feed analyses give the crude
protein, nitrogen-free extract, fat, fiber,
and ash content of feeds, but do not show
the amounts of these constituents that are
digestible, and, therefore, available to the
animal. The value of individual feeds
depends not only on the amount of di-
gestible nutrients they contain, but also
upon their palatability, their physical
effect, and their use with other feeds to
furnish the quantity and quality of pro-
tein, essential minerals, and vitamins
necessary to form a complete ration. If
Section III— Page 26
this information on individual feeds, to-
gether with rules and suggestions for
using them in complete rations, is con-
sidered, then their relative values may be
expressed with reasonable accuracy upon
the basis of their digestible protein and
total digestible nutrients. It should be
recognized, however, that feeds may vary
from the average analyses.
The last column in table 12 (III) gives
approximate relative productive values of
the various feeds, compared with barley.
As experiments have shown, a pound
of digestible nutrients from roughages
has less productive value than a like
amount from concentrates. The relative
values in table 12 (III) , therefore, give a
more accurate basis for comparing the
worth of concentrates and roughages, as
sources of total productive-energy value
at various prices per ton, than the digest-
ible-nutrient figures for these feeds. Pro-
tein or nutrients content, other than
energy value, has not been considered in
this table.
When the prices of high- and low-
protein feeds are about the same, one may
select the cheapest by computing the
worth of a series of feeds, compared with
barley, and choosing from those the ones
that will make a satisfactory ration. These
should be the ones that are priced lowest
in relation to their comparative value.
Example: If barley is quoted at $25 per ton,
what is rice bran worth? Barley price, $25 per
ton x 0.87 (the relative productive value factor
for rice bran) = $21.75, the relative value com-
pared with barley.
To determine the cheapest source of
protein concentrates, one must consider
both the digestible protein and the non-
protein, or the total digestible nutrients in
such feeds. For example, about 2 pounds
of coconut meal would be required to fur-
nish the same amount of protein as 1
pound of 43 per cent protein cottonseed
meal or cake. The 2 pounds of coconut
meal, however, furnish also about 1.3
pounds of nonprotein digestible nutrients
and would be approximately equal in pro-
tein and in total digestible nutrients to
1 pound of cottonseed meal plus 1 pound
of barley. Therefore, adding the price of
a ton of cottonseed meal to the price of
a ton of barley and dividing by 2 would
give the approximate replacement value
of a ton of coconut meal. One can make
similar comparisons for any feeds, in
order to arrive at a rough estimate of
their worth compared with the current
market price.
Page 27— Section
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Griem, W. B., E. B. Hart, J. W. Kalkus, and H. Welch.
Iodine — its necessity and stabilization. Natl. Res. Council Cir. Ill :l-8. 1942.
(2) Phillips, P. H., E. B. Hart, and G. Bohstedt.
Chronic toxicosis in dairy cows due to the ingestion of fluorine. Wisconsin Exp. Sta. Res. Bui.
123:1-30.1934.
(3) Beath, 0. A., H. F. Eppson, and C. S. Gilbert.
Selenium and other toxic minerals in soils and vegetation. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 206:1-
56. 1935.
(4) Moxon, A. L., 0. E. Olson, and Walter V. Searight.
Selenium in rocks, soils, and plants. South Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 2:1-94. 1939.
(5) Bull, L. B.
Chronic copper poisoning in grazing sheep in Australia. Proc. 14th Int. Vet. Congress. London,
1949.
(6) Wagnon, K. A.
Great steers from little acorns do not grow. Pacific Rural Press 146(13) :335. 1943.
(7) Guilbert, H. R., and S. W. Mead.
Digestibility of bur clover as affected by exposure to sunlight and rain. Hilgardia 6:1-12. 1931.
(8) Guilbert, H. R., S. W. Mead, and H. C. Jackson.
Effect of leaching on the nutritive value of forage plants. Hilgardia 6:13-26. 1931.
(9) Maynard, J.
Feed value of sugar beet by-products in terms of grain and alfalfa hay replaced. Through the
Leaves 32(3) :20-24. 1944. Published by Great Western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado.
(10) Guilbert, H. R., R. F. Miller, and H. Goss.
Feeding value of sugar beet by-products. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 702:1-24. 1947.
(11) Folger,A. H.
The digestibility of perilla meal, hempseed meal, and babassu meal, as determined for ruminants.
California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 604:1-8. 1937.
Recommended References
(When ordering books, specify latest edition)
Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Research Council.
1945. Recommended nutrient allowances for beef cattle. 32 p. National Research Council, 2102
Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. Revised 1951. (Price 50 cents.)
Morrison, F. B.
1936. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the student and stockman. 1050 p. The Morrison Pub-
lishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y.
United States Department of Agriculture.
1939. Food and life. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1939. 1165 p. (Price $1.50, from the Superintendent
of Documents, Washington, D.C.)
In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes
necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or
chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which
are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products
is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.
Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture,
University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914.
J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.
5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.
CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart
MANUAL 2
Section IV
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service
PRODUCTION OF FEEDER CATTLE
Percentage Calf Crop
Growth and Development
of Feeders
Analyses of cost studies, summarized
in Section I, "The Beef Cattle Industry,"
show that four fundamental rules should
be followed if feeds are to be marketed
most efficiently through the production
of feeder cattle.
1. Adopt a consistent, systematic breed-
ing and culling program, as outlined in
the Section II, "Physiological Processes
and Cattle Breeding."
2. Secure, through breeding, manage-
ment, feeding, and disease control, a high-
percentage calf crop.
3. Promote, through feeding and man-
agement, normal and continuous growth
of young cattle to secure efficient feed
utilization and a desirable product.
4. Adopt production and selling pol-
icies that will yield the highest return
from the annual feed supply.
In the subsequent pages, the applica-
tion of these rules is presented.
Percentage Calf Crop
Since the primary function of the
breeding herd is to produce calves, the
Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces
Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali-
fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford.
Some tables and other data from the original
circular are used in the manual.
Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi-
ment Station.
Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science
and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station.
Cattle Numbers Versus
Feed Supply
Management Practices
Selling Policy
breeding, feeding, and management of
the cow herd are discussed in this rela-
tion. The principal factors controlling
calf crop are as follows:
1. Plane of nutrition.
2. Season of breeding.
3. Proportion of bulls to cows and their distri-
bution on the range.
4. Selection of breeding stock by proper cull-
ing.
5. Control of infectious diseases affecting re-
production.
Figure 25 (Sec. IV) shows to what ex-
tent weights of purebred beef cows and
heifers varied during lactation and gesta-
tion periods, when abundant feed was
available throughout the year. These
cows, in high condition, did not change
much in amount of body fat. The curves,
therefore, reflect largely the changes in
weight caused by the developing fetus,
membranes, and uterine fluids and the
loss at calving time. Pregnant cows must
gain about 100 pounds between wean-
ing time and calving in order to main-
tain their flesh. As the lower curve shows,
heifers lose more weight than cows dur-
ing the first 3 months of lactation. They
must not only regain this loss but make
additional gain before their second calv-
ing if they are to grow and develop nor-
mally. For this reason heifers are more
sensitive to feed deficiencies than ma-
ture cows, and many heifers fail to breed
under poor feed conditions.
Page 1— Section IV
/,soc
Fig. 25 (IV). Varia-
tions in average weight of
purebred cows and heif-
ers during the lactation
and gestation periods.
(Data from: Guilbert, H.
R., and Alex McDonald.
Weight records on pure-
bred beef cattle during
growth, gestation, and lac-
tation, together with data
on reproduction. Amer.
Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc.
1933:244-53.)
A/fo/?£f?s after ca/w'rtjf
The poorest feed conditions usually
occur between weaning and the next calv-
ing. This is. a critical period, affecting
the next year's production. If cows or
heifers just maintain weight, actually they
lose about 100 pounds in condition, and
are thin after calving. Below a certain
plane of nutrition, either lactation or re-
production, or both, are impaired. Figure
26 (IV) illustrates such effects under
range conditions.
Udder Development and Lacta-
tion. During the last third of pregnancy
estrogenic hormone is produced by the
placenta and, through action upon the
anterior pituitary gland, stimulates
growth of the secretory tissue in the ud-
der. Similarly, artificial lactation in non-
pregnant animals may be induced by
implanting estrogen tablets under the
skin.
Evidence with sheep (1), which ap-
pears equally applicable to cows, shows
that good nutrition is very important if
the development made possible by the
hormone stimulation is to be realized.
Ideally, the pregnant female should be
in moderate condition up to the last third
of gestation, then she should be fed liber-
ally. Between a fat animal that loses
Section IV— Page 2
/O // /2
weight during the last of gestation and
a thinner one that gains rapidly, the lat-
ter tends to have the best udder develop-
ment and subsequent lactation rate even
though both reach parturition in the same
condition. Thus, apparently, nutrition
for udder growth must come from in-
coming nutrients rather than from body
stores. The value of a high plane of nutri-
tion before calving has long been recog-
nized by dairymen, and it is frequently
referred to as a "steaming up" process.
Poor lactation in many purebred cows
may result from improper management
as well as from heredity. When cows are
already too fat, they cannot eat enough
effectively to constitute "steaming up."
Range and Irrigated Pasture. A
balanced production unit consisting of
foothill range and irrigated pasture ap-
proaches the ideal for efficient yearlong
production under California conditions.
Such a set-up would usually comprise
10 to 15 acres of native range to 1 of
irrigated pasture. The range forage may
largely be utilized while it has high nu-
tritive value; thus its productive capacity
per acre is increased compared with
yearlong use. Irrigated pasture provides
adequate nutrition during the dry season
when range forage has low value. Excess
pasture growth in the spring may be made
into hay for supplemental feeding during
the winter months. Thus a yearlong sup-
ply of good feed may be provided, which
is the basis for high percentage calf crop,
adequate milk supply, heavy weaning
weights, and continuous growth and de-
velopment of young animals. Properly
managed, such a program can produce
good quality well-finished beef at young
age with little help from concentrates.
This is one of the most important objec-
tives confronting the beef cattle industry.
Cattle alternating between native range
and irrigated pasture have advantages
over yearlong use of either type of land.
Continuous heavy concentration of ani-
mals on a limited area increases the dif-
ficulty with parasites. Generally the
irrigated lands are not desirable during
the winter because of poor drainage,
muddy conditions unfavorable to the
livestock, and damage to fields caused by
trampling during rainy weather. During
the growing season for native forage,
good range provides a great variety of
feed which has not been equaled as yet
in cultivated mixtures for general nutri-
tive effect and well-being of animals. Fur-
thermore, the cheapest gains are usually
produced from native feed.
Supplemental Feeding of Cows on
Range. The characteristics of the prin-
cipal types of range forage are discussed
under "Nutrient Requirements and Cat-
tle Feeds." Because of the high-protein
and total-nutrient value of bur clover,
ranges containing an abundance of this
forage will maintain stock in good con-
dition late into the dry season. On most
ranges having annual-type forage, either
bur clover and other legumes are lacking
or the supply is inadequate to supplement
other forage throughout the dry season.
On the poorer type of grass-filaree ranges,
the cows usually continue to gain through
June, maintain weight through July, and
begin losing in August. This occurs al-
though forage is abundant and the cows
are not suckling calves. On better ranges
weight losses coincide with the time when
the most nutritious forage has been ex-
hausted through selective grazing and the
protein content of the forage eaten falls
below 7 or 8 per cent of the dry matter.
Fig. 26 (IV). The cows
in the upper picture lost
weight in the fall on range
feed alone, were thin after
calving, and became weak
on continued scant feed.
They produced calves that
averaged 386 pounds at
weaning time, and had
only a 61 per cent calf crop
the following year. The
cows in the lower picture
were on the same range
feed, which was supple-
mented with sufficient cot-
tonseed cake and barley to
maintain flesh. They pro-
duced calves that averaged
481 pounds at weaning, and
they had a 91 per cent calf
crop the following year.
(From Ext. Cir. 115.)
Protein supplements are therefore best
for securing effective use of such ranges.
Heavy weight losses occur at the time of
the first autumn rains. The feed value of
the old forage is reduced by its being
leached and beaten into the ground; the
new forage is too scant and watery to
supply sufficient feed. Greater total nutri-
ents as well as increased protein are
needed at this time. When a significant
quantity of the new feed develops, ade-
quate protein and minerals may be sup-
plied, although total feed value may still
be low. The supplement can, therefore,
be changed to grains or other carbohy-
drate feeds at this time if they are cheaper
sources of total digestible nutrients than
protein feeds. This may be an important
means of economizing when cold weather
retards the growth of the new forage for
a long period.
Information and suggestions for meet-
ing these conditions follow.
1. The main objective should be to feed
whatever kinds and amounts of feeds will
most economically overcome the existing
deficiency and keep the breeding cows in
thrifty condition. Actual amounts will
vary with the type of range and the
condition of the cattle. Supplementary
feeding pays if it is done well enough to
produce results.
The nutrient requirements appear in
tables 10 and 11 (III) under "Wintering
Pregnant Heifers" and "Wintering Ma-
ture Pregnant Cows." In establishing
these requirements for mature cows, con-
sideration has been given to the data on
average weights of breeding cows that
have been sufficiently improved through
breeding to show strongly the characteris-
tics of any of the three dominant beef
breeds. Generally, according to these data,
a weight of not less than 1,050 pounds
before calving is necessary to support
consistently regular rebreeding and maxi-
mum lactation, and to produce optimum
weights in the calves. Gains and feed re-
quirements in tables 10 and 11 (III) de-
pend on the assumption that the cows
are potentially of the same size and that
differences in weight are largely due to
condition— the situation generally encoun-
tered on the range. The gains during a
150-day wintering period and the nutrient
requirements are those necessary if the
lighter-weight cows are to attain about
1,050 pounds before calving. Using the
data from tables 10 and 11 (III) on re-
quirements and from table 12 (III) on
composition of feeds, table 18 (IV) was
prepared to show the relative adequacy
of range forage when bur clover consti-
tuted 40 per cent of the feed intake, the
inadequacy of 18 pounds' daily intake
of dry filaree and grass, and the effect
of 2 pounds of cottonseed cake in reliev-
ing the deficiencies.
2. A supplement fed daily over a longer
period results in better range utilization,
and is more effective than heavier feeding
begun late, after weight losses occurred.
3. Results on the San Joaquin Experi-
mental Range suggest the approximate
amounts of supplement and the feeding
schedule that may be necessary to main-
tain high calf crop and to produce heavy
weaner calves on the poorer types of
grass-filaree range. One pound of cotton-
seed cake was fed daily during August.
From September to the first rains 1% to
2 lbs. daily were fed. Then, supplements
were increased to 3 lbs. daily, then grad-
ually decreased as new forage developed.
If cold weather results in slow growth
of new feed, as much as 5 pounds daily
may be necessary for cows that have
calved during this period. The supple-
ments per cow will usually total 250-300
pounds when fed as indicated. The result-
ing increased crops of heavier calves,
worth more per pound, have yielded good
profits on this added expense. On better
ranges, the amounts required will be less,
or supplements may be unnecessary.
An average of seven years' data, 1937
to 1943, on the San Joaquin Experimen-
tal Range, comparing supplemental feed-
ing as outlined above with no supple-
mental feeding, follows.
Section IV— Page 4
Group A, Group B,
fed not fed
supplements supplements
Percentage of pregnancies 89.6 77.2
Percentage calf crop weaned 83.0 67.6
Average weaning weight, pounds 470.0 417.0
Average calf production per breeding cow, pounds 390.0 282.0
Average yearl y supplemental feed, pounds 365.0 18.0*
* Fed one year only, to prevent excessive death loss.
An average of 365 pounds of supple- 5. Feeding double amounts every other
mental feed yearly produced 108 pounds day is about as effective as daily feeding
more calf weight per breeding cow in the and reduces labor. If cows have been
herd; the heavier calves from cows re- taught to eat supplements as calves, no
ceiving supplements were worth more per difficulty in getting them to eat will be
pound at weaning; and there was greater experienced thereafter. Cattle can be
salvage value in these cows because of trained to come for feed when called,
better weight and condition. Figure 27 6. Feeds like cottonseed cake can be
(IV) shows the average weight curves of placed on the ground in dry weather,
the two groups. Feed bunks placed at convenient places
4. When barley and other grains are on the range are, however, preferable,
cheaper than cottonseed cake, the amount They save waste, and the operator can
of cottonseed cake can be reduced and use those feeds that are most economical,
additional supplements selected from the rather than be limited to one that may
cheapest sources of digestible nutrients, at times become exorbitant in price.
Three and one half pounds of average 7- Self-feeding concentrates with salt
alfalfa hay contain digestible protein in the mixture to limit consumption is
equal to that in 1 pound of 43 per cent being practiced on the range. Generally
protein cottonseed cake and double the 25 to 40 per cent salt in the mix will limit
amount of total digestible nutrients. Thus, concentrate consumption between 1.0 and
about 4 pounds of alfalfa can replace 1 3.0 pounds daily. According to prelimi-
pound of cake and 1 pound of barley, nary data from the San Joaquin Experi-
When practical and economical, limited mental Range, the amount of supplement
hay feeding may be substituted for con- consumed with a given salt concentration
centrate supplements. varied with change in forage conditions.
TABLE 18 (IV)
Nutrient Requirements of a 1,000-Pound Pregnant Cow in Relation to Nutrients
Supplied by Range Forage Containing Bur-clover and by Forage Consisting
of fllaree and grass supplemented with cottonseed cake
Total
feed,
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorous,
grams
Carotene,
milligrams
18
9.0
0.9
16
15
55
Dry range feed: 40 per cent bur-
clover; 60 per cent grass andfila-
ree mixture
20
18
2
20
8.5
7.2
1.5
8.7
0.9
0.0-0.2
0.7
79
86
2
88
18.4
13
10
23
Dry mixed broad-leaf filaree and
grass
Cottonseed cake (43 per cent protein)
Total
0.7-0.9
Page 5— Section IV
7050
7000
^ 950
^900
750
700
Group A, st/pp/efi?enfa//i/ fed from Aug. fo Feb.
A- Group 3, A/o sc/pp/e/nes?/a/ feed-^*^
\ t
%*
Breed/tig season
I I I L
J L
Ca/y/ng period
J L
J I I I
Jan. fe£>. Mar Apr Mai/ Jane Ja/y Aagr. Sept- Ocf. Nov. Dec.
Fig. 27 (IV) . Seven-year average-weight curves of the entire A and B
groups of females of breeding age, including replacement heifers, on
the San Joaquin Experimental Range. Weights are on the basis of 12-
to 14-hour overnight stand without feed and water. Weight drop in July
is partly due to culling of cows and adding lighter-weight replacement
heifers. Cows of group A, four years old and over, averaged about 1,050
pounds before calving. This difference in average weight between groups
caused by supplemental feeding, is reflected in the difference in produc-
tion shown in the tabulation given at the top of page 5.
Apparently, therefore, a standard mix
may not be relied upon to control closely
the concentrate intake in relation to the
needs of the animal. Such control is es-
sential if optimum results are to be se-
cured. When the salt percentage was
varied to secure desired consumption
levels, the results were equal to daily
feeding of comparable amounts of sup-
plement without salt. Actual salt con-
sumption may vary from less than 0.5 to
over 1.0 pound daily. Thus far no
deleterious effects on cattle have been
reported. Hofland (2) in Sweden re-
ported that excess salt markedly reduced
the microflora of the rumen. Cardon (3)
of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment
Station reported no detrimental effect on
digestion. Access to a plentiful and con-
veniently placed water supply is essential,
for the animals must drink large quanti-
ties to enable them to excrete the excess
salt. If the labor cost is sufficiently re-
duced or supplemental feeding made pos-
sible where daily feeding is impracticable,
the practice has real merit.
8. First-calf heifers and the thinner
cows may need extra feed and special
care. Where practicable, the segregation
of such animals from the main cow herd,
to allow feeding according to needs, in-
creases the effectiveness of supplements
used.
A systematic supplemental feeding plan
such as this one provides adequate pro-
tein and phosphorus and adds materially
to the total energy intake. It results in
larger calf crop, heavier calves, shorter
breeding season, less trouble in calving,
fewer retained placentas, and lower death
rate, and permits early calving.
On ranges where there is no browse or
other source of green forage, a prolonged
dry season may result in vitamin-A defi-
ciency and calf losses. Such losses are
especially probable when a short green-
feed season intervenes between two long
drought periods. Information and recom-
mendations for this special type of supple-
mental feeding are presented as follows:
1. Nonlactating animals with meager
reserves may store, in 4 or 5 months on
Section IV— Page 6
green feed, sufficient vitamin A to protect
them for 6 to 7 months on dry feed.
2. Lactating animals, under similar
conditions, possibly store less on green
forage, and their reserves become de-
pleted more rapidly when on dry forage.
Heifers have less storage than cows under
similar feed conditions and therefore be-
come depleted in shorter time.
3. Cows and heifers may produce weak
calves that die soon after birth, or die
after a few days, of diarrhea, without
themselves showing symptoms of defi-
ciency.
4. If vitamin-A reserves are depleted
during the latter part of pregnancy to
the point where the cows are night-blind,
premature birth of dead calves results.
Because of the usual season of breeding,
early abortions of small fetuses are not
typical of vitamin-A deficiency.
5. If losses from vitamin-A deficiency
are suspected, arrangements for diagnosis
can be made through the local Agricul-
tural Extension Service office or through
a veterinarian. Diagnosis is made by tests
on the liver of the fetus for vitamin A
and the blood of the mother for brucel-
losis.
6. Losses from vitamin-A deficiency
cease quickly when green forage becomes
available or when suitable supplements
are fed.
7. As an insurance against such losses
when range forage dries early, supple-
ments should be given a month or more
before the beginning of the calving season
if cows are bred to calve during the fall
and early winter. Supplementing should
be considered regardless of time of calv-
ing if the cows have subsisted exclusively
on dry forage for 5 to 6 months.
8. Providing the breeding herd with
Sudan or other green pasture, when pos-
sible, is a practical way of obviating
vitamin-A deficiency. Even a few days
on such forage will usually carry them
over the critical period.
A daily intake of 55 to 65 milligrams
of carotene during the last month of ges-
tation will assure the birth of normal
calves from cows whose reserves have
been nearly depleted. It may be inade-
quate for subsequent lactation if new for-
age is further delayed. This amount of
carotene will be supplied by approxi-
mately: {a) 15 to 20 pounds of hay con-
taining only traces of green color; (6)
3 to 4 pounds of green alfalfa hay that
would be called "good" by stockmen ; (c)
2 pounds daily of highest quality sun-
cured hay containing about 35 milligrams
of carotene per pound; (d) 0.6 pound of
dehydrated alfalfa meal containing 100
milligrams of carotene per pound. One
may use table 13 (III) to estimate caro-
tene content of feeds roughly by their
appearance.
Since the feeding of several pounds of
hay daily tends to act as a substitute for
range feed, rather than a supplement to
it, by discouraging the cattle from graz-
ing, it is generally most practical to use
concentrated sources. Dehydrated meal
bought especially for this purpose should
be analyzed for carotene, by a commer-
cial laboratory, and the amount fed cal-
culated on this basis.
9. Liver oils containing 2,000 to 20,000
U.S.P. units of preformed vitamin A per
gram may, under some conditions, be a
cheaper supplement than the sources of
carotene mentioned. Such oils are tested,
and their vitamin-A value is stated and
guaranteed by the manufacturer. The re-
quirement to assure reproduction in cows
whose reserves are almost depleted dur-
ing late stages of pregnancy is about
30,000 U.S.P. units daily. This will be
furnished by:
a) About 15 cubic centimeters (ap-
proximately a /2 ounce) daily of fish-liver
oil containing 2,000 U.S.P. units per
gram.
b) About 3 cubic centimeters (%o
ounce) daily of fish-liver oil containing
10,000 units per gram, or 1% cubic cen-
timeters of oil containing 20,000 U.S.P.
units per gram.
c) Two ounces of the highest-potency
Page 7— Section IV
TABLE 19 (IV)
Examples of Adequate Rations for Wintering Pregnant Cows,
Initial Weight 900 Pounds
Total
daily feed,
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorus,
grams
Carotene,
milligrams
Requirements
20
10
0.9
18
16
55
Rations in pounds:
1. Alfalfa hay, 4; oat hay, 16
2. Oat and vetch hay, moderately
20
20
20
18.8
9.9
10.0
10.1
10.2
0.94
1.40
2.16
0.84
47
50
137
14.4
20
24
19
19.3
206
200
3. Alfalfa hay
4. Corn silage, 25; straw, 10; cot-
tonseed meal, 1 .5
388
158
oil, in a single dose, or one third of this
amount fed on grain or other feed, in
three doses, should supply enough vita-
min A to protect against deficiency for
a month. This vitamin in oil decomposes
rapidly when mixed with other feed and,
accordingly, should be added immedi-
ately before feeding.
The results of supplementary feeding
as recommended are illustrated in figure
24(111).
Wintering Cows on Harvested
Roughages. Information and sugges-
tions, particularly applicable to wintering
cows in northeastern California counties,
are itemized as follows:
1. The amount of feed required will
depend upon the condition of the cattle,
the amount of grazing, the severity of the
weather, and the method of feeding to
avoid waste.
The recommended nutrient allowances
for wintering pregnant cows and heifers
are given in tables 10 and 11 (III).
Table 19 (IV) , based on data from tables
10, 11 and 12 (III) , shows how these re-
quirements are met by rations containing
common California feeds. As previously
mentioned, these recommended allow-
ances are based upon the nutrients re-
quired by cows, varying in weight at the
beginning of winter, to attain a desirable
minimum weight of 1,050 pounds before
calving. Condition must be the deciding
Section IV— Page 8
criterion of adequate feeding if cattle vary
from average in size.
2. From 18 to 22 pounds daily of good-
quality meadow or alfalfa hay, containing
about 50 per cent total digestible nutri-
ents, properly fed will produce gains and
maintain condition. With lower-quality
nonlegume hay, a pound of protein sup-
plement daily is desirable, and larger
quantities of hay may be required.
3. In case of hay shortage, each pound
of grain or other concentrate feed may
replace 2 pounds of roughage. Roughage
should not ordinarily be reduced below
8 to 10 pounds daily.
4. Grains are satisfactory concentrate
supplements to feed with alfalfa or other
legume hays.
5. Three and one-half pounds of good
alfalfa hay are about equivalent to 1
pound of 43 per cent protein cottonseed
cake for balancing low-protein roughages.
6. Cows in strong condition in the fall
can be wintered on grain straw that is
supplemented with 3 to 6 pounds of good-
quality legume hay or 1 to 2 pounds of
cottonseed cake. Some forage of bright-
green color is recommended to insure
against vitamin-A deficiency. If no leg-
ume hay is fed with straw, cattle should
have access to bone meal, ground lime-
stone, or oyster-shell flour.
Although the ideal situation is to keep
all animals in thrifty condition, some
cows and heifers may be thin at weaning
time. These are most effectively and eco-
nomically fed by separating them from
the other cattle, by starting on feed early,
and by more liberal feeding as indicated
by the requirement data in tables 10 and
11(111).
Planning the Breeding Season.
Cows kept in thrifty condition through
adequate feeding will breed readily and
produce a high percentage of calves uni-
form in age. "Short-aged" or "off-season"
calves are undesirable and should be
avoided. Even if some sacrifice in calf
crop must be made for one season, in
order to adjust the herd to a short breed-
ing period, timed to the feed conditions,
the change will pay in the long run. If
cows and bulls are in good condition, 3
to 4 months of breeding season is suffi-
cient and results in uniform calf crops.
This is particularly important in smaller
herds from the standpoint of sales, espe-
cially of feeder cattle.
In areas with severe winter weather, the
calf crop should be timed to come as early
as possible and yet escape the danger of
late storms. In the northeastern counties
the bulls should usually be placed with
the herd in June or July.
When one is operating yearlong on
valley or lower foothill ranges, to have
calving come in October, November, and
December is possible and advantageous
when the program of supplemental feed-
ing as outlined is followed. Cows will
milk sufficiently well to nourish the calves
until new feed is abundant, and by this
time the calves are large enough to take
advantage of the forage as well as the
' full milk flow. Such calves can be weaned
in July or August, at a weight of 400 to
500 pounds. They can then continue to
gain on dry forage and supplements, and
the cows are spared the drain of milking
for a long period on dry forage. Most
cows will breed late and therefore calve
in the spring unless proper feed condi-
tions have been provided during fall and
winter. Spring calves are satisfactory
when green forage is provided in the
summer by valley or mountain ranges.
Such calves are preferred by ranchers
who have permits on the national forests,
partly because calves under 6 months of
age are not counted when going into for-
est range.
Bulls should be acclimated and in good
condition when put into service. Those
two to six years of age are generally most
satisfactory. Older bulls may be used
under good pasture conditions. Four bulls
for each 100 cows are the usual number
used on the range. Under rough range
conditions the number should be in-
creased. In a small field of good pasture
a mature bull will serve 50 to 75 cows.
Under range conditions a good rider who
will keep the bulls and cows well dis-
tributed is valuable. On fenced ranges
rotation of bulls is a practical way of
increasing calf crop and reducing the
breeding period. Under this system half
the bulls are turned with the cows for
10 to 14 days; then these are taken out
for rest and extra feeding and fresh bulls
turned with the herd. After two such shifts
all the bulls can be left with the herd
during the remainder of the season.
By breeding under pasture conditions
on the home range, by adequate feeding,
and by rotating the bulls, some ranchers
have decreased the number required, and
have used the extra money to buy better
bulls. The effect of this practice was an
increased calf crop and a high percentage
of calves dropped within a period of 6
weeks.
Age of Breeding Heifers. Growth
and development rather than age are the
best criterion for proper time of breeding
heifers. As discussed under planning of
the breeding season, there is usually one
best time for calving in any locality. For
this reason, few commercial cattlemen
find it advantageous to plan regularly
for both fall and spring calves; and choice
is largely between breeding heifers as
yearlings (12 to 16 months of age) or as
Page 9— Section IV
two-year-olds. For well-grown heifers in
good condition, breeding at 18 months
and calving at 27 months would be ideal.
This practice is common in purebred
herds. The Hereford Association does not
permit registration of a calf born to a
dam under 24 months of age. Breeding
at 18 months of age in commercial herds
would lead to "off-season" calves; and
it is difficult to change the calving season
by earlier breeding once a certain time
has become established.
For commercial cattle, breeding re-
placement heifers at two years of age
and calving first at three years are gen-
erally recommended.
The drain of gestation is relatively
small, and pregnancy may even stimulate
growth. A newborn beef calf usually
weighs 65 to 80 pounds. About 75 per
cent of this weight is obtained during
the last 3 to 4 months of gestation. The
calf contains about 15 pounds of protein
and 3 pounds of fat. The feed requirement
for pregnancy in addition to that for the
cow's maintenance and growth is com-
paratively small.
In contrast to these small amounts of
nutrients in the calf at birth, the milk
produced in the first 4 months of lacta-
tion should contain about 65 pounds of
protein, 70 pounds of fat, and 90 pounds
of carbohydrates. The calf that required
9 months of gestation to attain a weight
of 75 pounds should gain 225 pounds or
more in the first 4 months after birth.
These data indicate the comparative drain
of gestation and lactation on the mother.
If breeding yearling heifers is to be
recommended, the following conditions
and practices are advisable:
1. Heifer calves should weigh 450
pounds or more when weaned, should be
fed for normal growth (1 pound daily or
more) from then to the next good grass
season, and should weigh 650 to 700
pounds when bred.
2. The pregnant heifers should be fed
liberally through the winter or the dry
season so that they will grow and fatten
enough to be in good-grade slaughter
condition by calving time.
3. The heifers should be given assist-
ance with difficult calving; a close watch
at this time will prevent excessive loss of
heifers and calves.
4. The calves should be disposed of for
veal at 8 to 10 weeks of age to stop the
drain of lactation, stimulate rebreeding,
and permit normal development of the
heifers.
5. Small-type (small-boned) bulls tend
to produce smaller calves at birth than
large-type bulls. Similarly, Aberdeen
Angus calves tend to be smaller at birth
than Herefords or Shorthorns, and Angus
or Angus-cross calves tend to have shorter
gestation periods than straight-bred Here-
ford calves. For these reasons, the breed-
ing of yearling heifers to small-type or
to Aberdeen Angus bulls might minimize
difficult parturitions. The age of the bull
does not affect the size of the calves. A
bull of potentially large size will tend to
sire just as large calves in his youth as
in maturity.
If these practices are followed under fa-
vorable conditions, there is a good oppor-
tunity to increase the economic efficiency
of beef production. Table 20 (IV) pre-
sents data from four ranches in Monterey
County, where the general plan as out-
lined was followed. A group of two-year-
old heifers at the time their calves were
sold for veal is shown in figure 28 (IV) .
The first calves from heifers calving as
three-year-olds are commonly 50 pounds
or more lighter than the offspring of ma-
ture cows because of lower birth weight
and less milk supply. According to ob-
servations, however, at weaning time the
second calves of three-year-old cows do
not weigh more than the first calves of
three-year-old heifers.
In a test of age at breeding, at the
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station,
the calves were not vealed, but allowed
to nurse to normal weaning age. As four-
and five-year-old cows, those that had
calved first as two-year-olds had calves
Section IV-Page 10
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from
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significantly smaller at weaning than their
mates of the same age that calved first at
three years.
Unless early breeding is managed as
recommended, the following disadvan-
tages more than offset the extra calves
obtained :
1. Heavy death losses of heifers and
of calves at calving time.
2. Posterior paralysis and permanent
injury to the genital tract at calving.
3. Stunting of heifers during the nurs-
ing period, and interference with intelli-
gent selective breeding and culling.
4. Inferior calves, due to lack of milk.
5. Failure to rebreed, resulting in a
large percentage of dry three-year-olds.
Diseases Affecting the Calf Crop.
Contagious abortion, commonly called
Bang's disease or Brucella infection, is
the most common infectious cause of calf
losses. This disease is characterized by
abortion of fetuses from early to late
stages of pregnancy and by placentas
commonly retained. Diagnosis is made
by means of a blood (agglutination) test.
Infection is spread largely through feed
and water contaminated by discharges
from cows— rarely from bulls. Veterinary
advice should be secured regarding diag-
nosis and control measures, including
vaccination. Only a small percentage of
cows abort the second time under range
conditions. Some cows carrying and
spreading infection do not abort at all.
Culling out all known aborters under
these conditions and replacing them with
susceptible heifers may keep the disease
active rather than build up herd immu-
nity.
Trichomoniasis is a venereal infection
transmitted by the bull. It is characterized
by very early abortions of decomposed
fetuses. Frequently vaginal discharge and
recurrence of "heat" in cows thought to
be pregnant are the only signs of this
disease. It is difficult to diagnose definitely
under range conditions. Disposal of in-
fected bulls is the principal remedy.
Page 11— Section IV
Fig. 28 (IV) . Well-grown two-year-old heifers weighing over 800 pounds at the time their calves
were sold for veal. These heifers calved satisfactorily and rebred for the next calf crop without sig-
nificant effect on their growth, development, and future usefulness. (Photo by Reuben Albaugh.)
Vibrio foetus apparently causes more
abortion than heretofore supposed. It
generally has been considered a self-
limiting disease of minor importance.
The organism can be transmitted by the
bull and also in semen used in artificial
insemination. Improved techniques have
facilitated definite diagnosis, but no ef-
fective means of control or treatment have
yet been established.
In dealing with any of these disease
problems one should seek veterinary ad-
vice.
Growth and Development
of Feeders
The Principle of Continuous
Growth. An animal resembles a machine
or a factory in that it is most efficient
when operating at full capacity. Even
under ideal conditions, nearly half of the
total feed eaten is used for maintenance.
The value in the practice of feeding for
continuous growth is illustrated in figure
29 (IV).
The steers fed for maximum gain had
access to good pasture along with the
mothers until weaned, then were fed grain
on pasture to promote rapid gain and
finish. They weighed 900 pounds in less
than 14 months and were "choice" slaugh-
ter cattle. This method of feeding is prac-
tical where a breeding herd is maintained
under farm conditions with forage and
grain plentiful.
The curve illustrating limited supple-
ments fed represents a practical approach
to the ideal under poor range conditions.
A little more than 300 pounds of total
Section IV— Page 12
$00
soo
1 1 1 r
/. fed for
max/ //?///?? £&//?
2. l/m/ted sapp/ement
'Sfed
-*- A/o st/pp/e/7?e/?£ fed
Fig. 29 (IV). Growth
curves of steers showing the
variation in time required
to reach 900 pounds, as de-
termined by feed condi-
tions. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)
9 (2 /5 V8 2/
/Ige /'/? mo/? Ms
24 27 30
supplemental feed permitted these steers
to gain continuously from weaning to the
next grass season, and to attain a weight
of 900 pounds and fleshy feeder condition
in 21 months.
The steers represented by the third
curve had the same breeding and the same
range feed as those fed supplements, but
they received no supplemental feed. They
made no gain during the 6-rnonth period
from weaning until the next grass season,
though dry forage was plentiful. They
gained rapidly on good feed only to lose
heavily again under adverse feed condi-
tions. Obviously these steers that gained
and lost and required 31 months to reach
900 pounds, ate much more total feed
than those that required only 14 or 21
months to attain the same weight. They
not only required more feed but also in-
curred added interest, risk, and other
costs, and yielded a product of lower
value.
The dry season (in the valleys) or the
winter season (in the mountains) is usu-
ally the most costly period for producing
gains. It is important to secure results
so that cost per pound is reduced to a
minimum. Calves or yearlings that gain
well during the winter or dry season will
gain somewhat less during the subsequent
grass season than cattle that make no gain
or lose weight. The problem is to secure
economical gains during the high-cost
period without subsequently minimizing
cheap pasture gains. Numerous tests have
shown that a gain of about 1 pound daily-
permits normal development, retains flesh
and thrifty condition, and yet does not
detract materially from subsequent pas-
ture gains; it results in heavier cattle
worth more per pound because of their
higher condition and bloom.
A gain of about 1 pound per day for
calves that will be sold as feeders at the
end of the next grass season is a sound
objective. If steer calves are to be finished
as long yearlings by feeding on grass, 1%
to 1% pounds daily during the winter are
desirable. Yearlings that make such gains
can finish on grass under favorable con-
ditions. Detailed experiments on the im-
portance of continuous growth in beef
cattle were reported in Bulletin 688 (4) .
Page 13— Section IV
Supplemental Feeding of Calves
and Yearlings on the Range. Sugges-
tions for meeting the above-mentioned
objectives under range conditions are
given in the following five paragraphs.
1. Teach the calves to eat supplements
while in the corral at weaning time. Un-
less green pasture or excellent dry forage
is available, continue supplemental feed-
ing when the calves are turned out on
pasture.
2. On most dry range forage, 1 to 1%
pounds daily of cottonseed cake or its
equivalent in other protein feed will meet
the requirements in table 4 (II) and
will continue to produce gains until rains
have leached out the forage. One may
have to increase the supplement allow-
ance to 2 or 3 pounds daily for the period
when the old feed is spoiled by rain and
new forage is scant. Decrease the allow-
ance as feed improves and discontinue it
when the new feed produces gains. If
grains are cheaper, protein supplement
can be held at 1 to IV2 pounds, and grain
substituted for the remainder of the feed.
The results of this system of feeding are
illustrated in figure 29 (IV) . Steer calves
fed in this manner weigh about 600
pounds in the spring and 850 to 900
pounds at the end of the next grass sea-
son. Heifers will be somewhat lighter in
weight.
3. To finish with a short feeding period
on grass as long yearlings, calves may
have to be fed more liberally (3 to 4
pounds daily) during the fall and winter.
Feeding of concentrates on the early green
forage may sometimes be a practical pro-
cedure for speeding up gain while native
feed is watery, and may be continued
throughout the green-feed season.
4. For moderate growth of yearlings
on dry feed, 1% pounds of cottonseed
cake daily will suffice until the first rains.
Subsequently, the feed required to con-
tinue gains and maintain condition is
similar to that outlined for calves.
5. Utilizing foothill and valley range
in the winter and spring and providing
irrigated summer pasture or good moun-
tain range are practical ways of continu-
ing normal gains in young cattle and of
decreasing the time when supplements are
required. ,
Wintering Weaners and Year-
lings on Harvested Roughages. No
class of cattle responds more profitably
to liberal feeding than calves during their
first winter. It is much more important
that calves be wintered well if they are
to be sold as fleshy yearling feeders than
if they are to be marketed as aged grass
cattle or hay-fed beef. Often the calves
remain too long with the cows in the fall,
or feeding is not begun promptly at wean-
ing time; consequently they lose weight
and bloom. Liberal feeding from weaning
time on is essential for best results. Tables
10 and 11 (III) show recommended nu-
tritive allowances for wintering growing
calves and yearlings. Feeding practices
that have proved profitable and should
produce % to 1% pounds of gain daily
are itemized as follows:
1. Provide well-drained corrals or other
feeding places where the cattle have wind-
breaks and can find a dry place in which
to lie down. Gains are difficult to obtain
on young cattle even with abundant feed,
unless they can be reasonably comforta-
ble and can rest. In dry cold weather little
shelter other than windbreaks is neces-
sary. Favorable feeding conditions are as
important as adequate feed.
2. Clean out mangers of the feed racks
frequently to prevent waste in feeding and
to provide fresh feed to induce optimum
consumption.
3. When calves are allowed all they will
eat of high-quality legume hay or mixed
hay containing one half legumes, they will
produce moderate gains under favorable
conditions. The amount of hay varies with
the size of the calves; from 10 to 15
pounds daily is the usual range.
4. With low-protein nonlegume meadow
hay or grain hay, give, in addition to all
the hay they will eat, % to 1 pound daily
of cottonseed meal or its equivalent.
Section IV-Poge 14
5. For gains of more than 1 pound
daily, 2 pounds of concentrates, in addi-
tion to all the roughage the calves will
eat, are recommended. With legume hay,
grain is satisfactory; with nonlegume
hay, 1 pound each of high-protein feed
and of grain are recommended (fig. 30,
IV).
6. Ten to 15 pounds of silage daily with
all the legume hay that the calves will
consume (8 to 10 pounds), make an
excellent wintering ration that produces
good gains without concentrate supple-
ment.
7. Calves wintered as indicated should
weigh 500 to 600 pounds in the spring,
800 to 900 pounds at the end of the fol-
lowing pasture season.
8. Calves turned out on scant, early
spring feed and given hay in addition
frequently shrink. In their desire for fresh
feed, they commonly do not eat much hay
and therefore fail to get enough nourish-
ment from the pasture.
An example of the effect on appetite,
rate, and economy of gain resulting from
using a protein supplement with low-
protein and low-phosphorus roughage is
shown in table 21 (IV) by the calf-win-
tering tests at the Nebraska Agricultural
Experiment Station. The hay used con-
tained only 5 to 6 per cent protein. The
addition of 1 pound daily of cottonseed
cake to the ration increased hay consump-
tion and produced over six and one half
times as much gain; and 168 pounds of
cottonseed cake saved nearly 3 tons of hay
for each 100 pounds of gain produced.
Moreover, these calves averaged 66
pounds heavier at the end of the next
grass season.
In the Colorado trials shown in table
21 (IV), cottonseed cake was a supple-
ment to palatable meadow hay containing
TABLE 21 (IV)
Results of Feeding Concentrate Supplements with Hay for Wintering Calves
North Platte, Nebraska*
(average of 5 trials,
10 head per lot)
Prairie hay
Prairie hay
plus 1 pound
cottonseed
cake daily
North Park, Coloradof
(average of 2 trials,
32 head per lot)
Mountain
meadow hay
Winter period — feeding hay with and without supplement
Mountain
meadow hay
plus 0.8 pound
daily of cotton-
seed cake
Number of days in winter period
Average initial weight, pounds
Average final weight, pounds
Average daily gain, pounds.
Average daily feed, pounds
Feed consumed for 100 pounds' gain, pounds
150
410
584
1.16
15.3
1,330
Summer period— grazing without supplement
148
692
259
1.74
146
755
185
1.27
159
770
248
1.56
159
804
Total summer gain, pounds
220
Average daily summer gain, pounds
1.38
Total winter and summer gain, pounds
284
350
362
393
* Brouse, E. M. Wintering calves in the Nebraska sandhills. Nebraska Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 357:1-29. 1944.
t Rochford, L. H. Summary of six range calf wintering tests. Color'ado Agr.*Ext. Service Report 1931. (Mimeo.)
Page 15— Section IV
Fig. 30 (IV). These yearling steers, when weaned at 8 months of age, averaged 546 pounds in
weight. They were fed an average daily ration of 12 pounds mixed hay and 2.5 pounds grain per
head during the winter, in which period their average daily gain was 1.3 pounds. Here they are
shown on meadow pasture without grain, being held for sale as choice feeders. Note that proper
care and feeding make gentle cattle.
8.5 per cent protein. It did not increase
the consumption of this hay and improved
the rate and economy of winter gains to
a less extent than in the Nebraska trials.
In both sets of trials the cattle that
received no supplement made greatest
gains during the summer. The combined
difference in total winter and summer
gains in favor of supplements averaged
66 pounds in the Nebraska experiments.
In the Colorado experiments, the differ-
ence in gain during both periods was only
31 pounds; but the cattle fed supplements
showed more bloom and were appraised
higher at the end of the summer than
those wintered on hay alone. Since calves
are usually not sold at the end of winter,
the profit from supplemental feeding is
really measured by the difference in
weight and sale value at the end of the
next grass season.
In California, numerous field tests with
wild meadow hay, and with grain hay
similar in composition to prairie hay,
have given the same kind of results as
the Nebraska trials; little or no gain was
made during the winter. Feeding 1 pound
of cottonseed cake and 1 pound of grain
daily with the hay, however, resulted in
winter gains of 1 pound or more daily.
The record below is an example.
Table 22 (IV) gives examples of ade-
quate and inadequate rations for produc-
ing 1 pound of gain daily, using tables 10
and 11 (III) on recommended allowances
and table 12 (III) on the composition of
feeds. Ration 1 is that fed in the Nebraska
trials, with composition estimated on
the basis of averages. Compared with
requirements, the ration is low in total
digestible nutrients, digestible protein,
and phosphorus. The protein and phos-
phorus deficiencies reduced the total feed
intake. The gain was only 0.15 pound
daily. Adding 1.0 pound of cottonseed
meal to this ration (ration 2, table 22,
IV) brought the protein and phosphorus
nearly up to recommended allowances
Average
weight.
Date Number of head pounds
Feb. 12, 1937 92 steers 425 1
April 8, 1938 92 steers 608 J
Feb. 12, 1937 72 heifers 3% )
April 8, 1938 68 heifers* 500 5
* Four heifers killed for ranch meat.
Section IV— Page 16
Average daily
gain, pounds
.. 1.36
0.82
TABLE 22 (IV)
Adequate and Inadequate Eations for Wintering Calves of 450 Pounds' Initial
Weight and 600 Pounds' Final Weight
Total
feed,
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorus,
grams
Carotene,
milligrams
12
15
6.5
8.0
0.75
0.80
16
16
12
12
25
Requirements < „.. lf
( 600-pound calf
30
Rations, in pounds:
1. Prairie hay (Nebraska trial, table 20).
2. Prairie hay plus 1 pound daily cot-
tonseed cake (Nebraska trial, table
20)
10.6
12.95
12
15
12
11.8
5.7
6.7
6.6
8.2
6.33
6.8.
0.27
0.66
1.23
1.55
0.76
0.83
24
28
68
89
13
49
5
10
13
15.8
17
13
85
95
3. Weight 450 pounds: alfalfa, 10; barley,
2
195
Weight 600 pounds: alfalfa, 13; barley, 2
4. Weight 450 pounds: oat hay, 10, cot-
tonseed cake, 1 ; barley, 1
5. Weight 450 pounds: corn silage, 20
(dry equivalent. 5.8); alfalfa hay, 6.
250
80
236
and made the daily gain about 1.0
pound. As ration 3 shows, 10 pounds
of alfalfa hay (about all a 450-pound
calf will eat) with 2 pounds of barley
meet the requirements for total digestible
nutrients and phosphorus, and supply
an excess of other nutrients. Increas-
ing the hay to 13 pounds by the end of
the period meets requirements for 600
pounds weight. Ration 5 illustrates an-
other excellent feed combination for win-
tering. One can calculate other rations
similarly by using the data in tables 10,
11, and 12 (III) . As table 11 (III) shows,
53 to 55 per cent total of digestible
nutrients is required in the ration. Ex-
cellent-quality roughage contains this
amount and needs no concentrate supple-
ment to meet this requirement. Average
roughages containing 48 to 50 per cent
total digestible nutrients should be fed
with about 2 pounds of concentrate feeds.
Bleached hays containing no green
color are deficient in carotene. One should
therefore feed some green-colored forage,
to prevent vitamin-A deficiency.
Yearlings may be wintered satisfacto-
rily on the same types of feeds suggested
for calves, except that larger amounts are
required. There is less need for supple-
ment other than for minimum protein;
and more of the coarser feeds may be
employed.
Adjustment of Cattle Numbers
to Feed Supply
One important problem confronting
cattle breeders and graziers is adequate
provision for seasonal and annual varia-
tions in the feed supply. Adjustments to
meet the situation must differ with indi-
vidual ranches. The following sugges-
tions, however, have proved practical for
wide application:
1. Provide for a proper balance be-
tween summer and winter feed supply.
This is as essential when cattle are main-
tained on a single ranch unit as when
winter feed and summer feed are supplied
by separate units.
2. Stock the ranges moderately, so that
ample forage is available in average years
for maximum gains, and excess forage
waste through nonuse is avoided.
3. Build up a reserve of hay and other
feeds in good years and in times of low
prices, to meet drought and other extreme
conditions.
4. Maintain some reserve of fat on
breeding cattle so that weight losses can
Page 17— Section IV
be withstood in emergency without inter-
fering with future production.
On foothill and valley ranches that nor-
mally carry cattle yearlong on the range
without hay feeding, a hay reserve of at
least % ton or preferably a ton per animal
unit is advantageous. It is cheaper insur-
ance against an extreme feed shortage
than stocking so lightly that sufficient dry
feed remains on the ground for the emer-
gency of delayed fall rains. Dry feed is
spoiled by rains and wasted from nonuse
during average years, whereas hay under
shelter can be kept for many years with-
out significant loss of value. This policy
permits as complete use of the range as
is consistent with its conservation. As a
result, one can secure higher returns in
pounds of beef per acre without gambling
on the drought years. In some areas silage
is an excellent feed to reserve for emer-
gencies.
The effect of trying to increase numbers
over the feed supply was strikingly shown
at the New Mexico Experiment Station.
Under adequate adjustment of cattle to
feed, cows averaged about 1,000 pounds
in weight, the calf crop was about 90 per
cent, and the calf weight at weaning about
400 pounds. When the same amount of
feed was consumed by 30 per cent more
cattle, the cows weighed 650 to 700
pounds, the calf crop was about 40 per
cent, and the weight of calves 300 pounds
or less. In the first case, it was estimated,
30 per cent of the feed went for calf pro-
duction and 70 per cent for maintenance;
in the latter, 90 per cent of the total feed
went for maintenance, and only 10 per
cent was recovered in production.
Management Practices
Dehorning. The advantages of de-
horning are as follows :
1. Dehorned cattle require less space
in feed lots, and eat more quietly; there
is less fighting away of timid animals
from feed.
2. Dehorned cattle require less space
Section IV— Page 18
in shipment and are less apt to bruise
and injure one another.
3. Dehorned cattle present a more at-
tractive and uniform appearance.
• For all these reasons there is price dis-
crimination against horned animals, both
as feeders and as slaughter cattle. The
disadvantage of dehorning is the labor
of the operation and the setback to the
cattle. The younger the cattle are when
dehorned, the less they are affected. In
one test, when yearling cattle were de-
horned after arriving at the feed lot, 15
days were required for them to regain
weight; thereafter the gains were normal.
On California foothill and valley
ranges where fall and early winter calves
are practicable, dehorning can be done
in January and February, when the dan-
ger from blowflies is least. This is a fur-
ther advantage of early calves in these
sections. For younger calves having "but-
tons" (small horns not attached solidly
to the head) dehorning with caustic paste
has been found satisfactory. Directions
for using the caustic paste are supplied by
the manufacturer. Some operators cut off
the larger horns (up to about 1% inches
long) with a knife or with the spoon
gouge, and lightly apply caustic to the
wound. This has a cauterizing effect and
is intended to destroy any horn cells not
otherwise removed. Bleeding, however,
may wash away the caustic, and some
horn growth or scurs may develop. If the
gouge is used carefully, caustic is un-
necessary. Indeed, its use actually delays
healing.
Another method of dehorning calves
that has been favorably demonstrated in
Monterey County is to cut the horn or
button off with a large knife or dehorn-
ing shears close to and level with the head
and then to sear the wound with a hot
iron. The irons used are concave to fit
over the horn area and have a burning
edge % to % inch in diameter. There
are 3 sizes: the inside diameter of the
small iron is about that of a dime; the
middle iron, that of a nickle; and the
large iron, that of a quarter. The iron
used will depend on the size of the wound.
The success of this operation depends on
the skill of the operator. The wound
should be seared enough to stop any
bleeding and to destroy any horned
growth cells that might not have been re-
moved by cutting. Caustic is not employed
with this method.
For dehorning calves or yearlings with
larger horns, various types of clippers or
dehorning saws are used. In either proc-
ess, a circle of skin, *4 to % inch in diam-
eter, should be removed with the horn to
insure a smooth poll. If the horn is taken
off close to the head, one can reduce
bleeding by pulling the two arteries lying
between the skin and the bone on either
side of each horn. For this operation
sharp-nosed pliers are used. In pulling
the artery, about % inch is removed, leav-
ing a crushed end underneath the skin.
With a little practice and suitable pli-
ers, this can be done in a few seconds.
Livestock-supply companies offer various
powders and liquid applications that are
more or less effective for reducing bleed-
ing and repelling flies. If there is no dan-
ger of flies, and if instruments are kept
sterile by dipping, in disinfectant between
operations, treatment of the wound is
usually unnecessary.
If, because of the danger of maggots,
dehorning cannot be done when the calves
are very young, it is commonly delayed
until the following winter or spring.
If wounds become infested with blow-
fly maggots or screwworms, the maggots
can be killed with benzol, removed with
swabs and forceps, and the wound treated
with fly repellent. Pine tar and bone oil
are common ingredients of such prepara-
tions. Castor oil poured into the wound
is very effective in promoting healing and
has some fly-repellent properties.
Adequate equipment, as the chute
shown in figure 31 (IV) , or a calf -mark-
ing table, results in better work and is
much easier on men and animals than
roping, "flanking," or "mugging." To use
extra time for careful work is more profit-
able than to set a record for the number
of cattle worked on per hour.
Castration. Bull calves can be cas-
trated at any time from a few weeks to
7 months of age. Preferably, however,
they should be castrated before they are
4 months old; if the operation is deferred
until after 7 months, they will tend to
show some stagginess. As with dehorn-
ing, there is less hemorrhage and setback
with younger than with older animals.
The usual method is to cut off the lower
third of the scrotum, slit the membrane
covering each testicle, force out the testi-
cles, and sever the cord by scraping with
a knife. Probably a preferable method is
to pull the scrotum down, insert a sharp,
thin-bladed knife entirely through from
the side and about halfway up ; then with
one stroke slit the scrotum to the end.
Remove the testes by pulling without re-
moving the covering membrane. This
method takes little time, insures drainage,
rapid healing, and leaves the entire cod
intact. There is little bleeding.
The hands of the operator and the
knife should be kept clean and as nearly
sterile as possible by being dipped in a
disinfectant solution between operations.
The wound should likewise be disinfected.
Chlorazene solution, weak solutions of
sheep dip, Lysol, or similar preparations
are satisfactory. Danger of maggot in-
festation must be considered as in de-
horning. Castration with burdizzo-type
instruments crushes the cords without sev-
ering the scrotum, avoids blood loss and
maggot infestation. If carefully done, this
method is satisfactory. In actual practice,
however, a higher percentage of cattle so
treated show more stagginess than do
those castrated with the knife. Castration
by the "elastrator" method at about 30
days of age appears promising. Some
difficulty and setback have occurred with
larger calves.
Vaccination. Blackleg immunization
through vaccination is an almost uni-
versal practice. Immunity should be es-
Page 19— Section IV
tablished as early in life as possible. On
ranges of lower altitude, calves are com-
monly vaccinated when they are castrated
and are branded in the late winter or
early spring. In later-calving areas, calves
are usually vaccinated at marking time
and before they go to summer range.
Although outbreaks may occur at any sea-
son, the greatest danger is in spring and
fall. Single doses of modern vaccines im-
munize for life. Detailed directions are
supplied by biological companies manu-
facturing the vaccines.
In anthrax-infected areas, routine vac-
cination is necessary. Veterinary service
should be employed in all anthrax out-
breaks.
Branding. All brands and marks must
be approved and recorded by the Live-
stock Identification Service, California
State Department of Agriculture, Sacra-
mento. To avoid unnecessary damage to
hides and to the animals, brands should
be as small as is consistent with ease of
identification. Since the brand increases
in area with growth of the cattle, small
brands may be used if the calves are only
a few months old. Hot-iron branding is
most commonly employed and, in gen-
eral, is most satisfactory. Cold-iron
branding, by using a caustic fluid, causes
very little pain and, when carefully ap-
plied, makes a permanent brand in the
skin. Since it does not change the direc-
tion of hair growth as does the hot iron,
it becomes illegible when the hair grows
out. Caustic branding fluid is therefore
not recommended for general range use.
Whenever possible, branding, castrating,
dehorning, and vaccinating should be
done before the calves are 4 months of
age and while they are with their mothers.
Equipment. A good set of corrals and
equipment is essential for efficient han-
dling and management of cattle. Every
effort should be made to work cattle
quietly and easily, inflicting only a mini-
mum amount of injury. This careful han-
dling, together with culling of wild or
nervous animals, results in gentle, easily
worked cattle.
Equipment should include a calf chute
and marking table, squeeze chute, parting
gates, loading chute, and scales. The port-
able squeeze chutes and marking tables
now sold cost practically the same as
home-built ones. Figure 31 (IV) shows a
satisfactory and inexpensive type of
Some Branding Hints*
1. DO brand with a hot iron. You can't freeze on a brand with a cold iron.
2. DON'T let the iron get red hot. It may start the hair burning, and usually results in a poor
brand. At proper heat the iron is about the color of ashes.
3. DON'T use a forge or a coal fire. Wood is the best fuel for heating the iron.
4. DON'T use caustic compounds. They may cause a bad sore and leave a scar rather than a
brand. The result many times is unreadable. If you must use caustic, first clip the area to be
branded.
5. DON'T use a small iron (horse iron) on cattle. The result is generally unreadable.
6. DON'T use a thin iron or one that is burned up. It may cut too deep or make a thin scar that
the hair covers over.
7. DON'T join the letters of your brand — ^E. Such an iron will never heat or burn evenly. The
result is usually a blotch.
8. DON'T try to brand a wet animal. The brand may scald the animal or leave a blotch or a bad
sore. Also, it's likely to be unreadable.
9. DON'T feel sorry for the animal. The iron must burn deep enough to remove the hair and outer
layer of skin. The smoke you see is mostly burning hair and the burn is practically painless.
10. DON'T get in a hurry. The cow has plenty of time and she has to wear the brand the rest of
her life. Furthermore, someone will have to read the brand from time to time.
11. DON'T mount your iron on a flat piece of steel. You might as well use a frying pan if you do.
If you have your iron made or if you make it yourself, have plenty of air space behind the iron
(behind the burning surface). The burning edge should be about Vs inch thick.
* Compiled by the Agricultural Extension Service, Tulare County.
Section IV-Page 20
Fig. 31 (IV) . This cattle chute and squeeze is adapted from what is known as the Nevada low-
cost dehorning chute. The body squeeze and neck squeeze operate as in other types of chutes. The
distinguishing feature is the absence of a front exit ; the animals leave the chute through one side
which is hinged and operated as a side gate.
Page 21— Section IV
squeeze chute for the dehorning and
branding of cattle.
Means for controlling lice, ox warble,
flies, and other external parasites should
receive attention. Spraying equipment is
replacing more expensive dipping vats for
most purposes, especially in the use of
some of the new insecticides. Information
and plans for beef-cattle equipment can
be obtained through the Agricultural Ex-
tension Service, University of California,
Berkeley.
Weighing Cattle. A set of scales is
a good ranch investment, not only for use
when making sales, but also for weighing
the cattle kept on the ranch. Weighing
the different classes at the beginning and
end of the pasture season, dry season, or
winter period gives the stockman a defi-
nite basis upon which to plan feeding
practices, supplemental feeding, and es-
tablish a selling policy. Weights can usu-
ally be taken when cattle are brought to
the corrals for other purposes. Because
of great variations in "shrinks" and
"fills," apparent gains or losses over short
periods are not very reliable. Cattle
should be weighed as nearly as possible
under the same conditions each time to
obtain reliable data. Steer and heifer
weights should always be obtained and
recorded separately because of the dif-
ferences in gains usually made by the two
classes. To determine more accurately
gains during short periods, weighing after
12 hours (overnight) without feed and
water is recommended.
Selling Policy
Cost records over a period of years for
the individual ranch, coupled with infor-
mation on market demand, are the best
basis for deciding at what age to market
and whether to finish the cattle or to sell
them as feeders.
* In general, cost-of-production records
on breeding ranches show that the total
pounds of beef produced from a given
amount of feed are greatest where cattle
are sold as yearlings. Because of the over-
head charge of the breeding herd, calf
cost per hundred pounds at weaning time
is usually greater than for the same ani-
mal a year later. Total ranch production,
in the form of two-year-old feeders, is
usually less than if all the surplus is sold
as yearlings and a larger breeding herd
is kept. The price of calves, compared
with yearlings and two-year-olds, and of
feeders compared with finished cattle in
relation to total tonnage of beef produced,
must be known to determine the best
means of marketing the ranch feed sup-
ply.
Practical sorting of cattle before offer-
ing them for sale should be a part of the
policy whether the animals are sold at
home or elsewhere. The wider the varia-
tion in quality and weight, the greater the
need for sorting. A single buyer is always
more attracted to well-sorted loads. If
several buyers are in the field, sorting is
still more advantageous. The buyer who
is seeking a uniform lot of top-quality
cattle will discount his bid if inferior ani-
mals are included in the offering. On the
other hand, the buyer who is satisfied
with plain cattle may pay the full market
price for that kind, but will pay little, if
any, premium for top quality. This same
principle applies in sorting according to
weight.
Section IV-Poge 22
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Wallace, L. R.
The growth of lambs before and after birth in relation to the level of nutrition. Jour. Agr. Sci.
38:93-401. England, 1947.
(2) HOFLAND, S. A.
The connection between deficiency diseases and disturbances in the microflora of the rumen.
(Section 4b.) Fourteenth Inter. Vet. Conf. Proc. London, 1949.
(3) Cardon, G. P.
Information to the authors from the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station.
(4) Guilbert, H« R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss.
The importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35.
1944.
In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes
necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or
chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which
are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products
is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.
Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture,
University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914.
J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.
5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.
CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION
H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart
MANUAL 2
Section V
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural Experiment- Station and Extension Service
FATTENING CATTLE AND THE DRESSED PRODUCT
Recommended Nutrient
Allowances
Fattening Cattle on Pasture
Feed-lot Rations
Creep-feeding of Calves
General Cattle-feeding
Problems
Necessary Margin or Spread
Fattening Cattle
Feed-lot fattening accounted for about
15 per cent of the total beef tonnage pro-
duced in California in 1942 (table 3, Sec.
I). The fattening process is the most
expensive stage of production from the
standpoint of feed cost per pound of gain,
but is essential if one is to capitalize upon
the cheaper gains made in the production
of feeder cattle. In converting feed into
edible products, it is the most efficient
stage, because more of the gain is then
recovered in edible portion of the carcass
and less in inedible offal. During the
fattening process, dressing percentage
changes from 50 to 55 per cent to 58 to
60 per cent, and occasionally more. This
increase in yield, coupled with the added
fat necessary to increase tenderness and
palatability and to protect the carcass
from shrinkage and spoilage during
aging, facilitates merchandising and
offers a desirable product to the con-
sumer. These are basic reasons for the
spread in price between feeder and
slaughter cattle— a spread also affected by
Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces
Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali-
fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford.
Some tables and other data from the original
circular are used in the manual.
Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus-
bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi-
ment Station.
Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science
and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station.
feed costs and other factors of supply
and demand.
Proper adjustment among feeds to be
used, cattle to be fed, and feeding prac-
tices is of utmost importance in fattening
cattle. Points to consider are :
1. Feed, whether raised or purchased,
is the greatest item of cost and one over
which the feeder can exercise consider-
able control. For best results, rations
should possess: {a) quality in each feed,
for maximum digestibility; (6) balance
of feeds, to supply adequate protein, min-
erals, and vitamins; (c) variety, to assure
provision of all required nutrients and
palatability; and (d) economy, to permit
profit.
2. On good-quality rations, younger
cattle use less feed to produce gain and
also make cheaper gains than older cat-
tle. When properly fed, calves require
only 65 to 75 per cent, and yearlings 75
to 85 per cent as much feed to produce
gain as two-year-olds of the same type
and grade fed in a similar manner.
3. To meet Pacific Coast market de-
mands, calves are fattened for 5 to 8
months; yearlings, 3 to 5 months; and
two-year-olds, 2 to 4 months. The total
gain usually required for finishing calves
is 300 to 500 pounds; yearlings, 225 to
350 pounds; and two-year-olds, 125 to
250 pounds.
4. Steers make slightly more gain than
Page 1— Section V
heifers. Heifers, however, fatten faster
than steers. The California market does
not demand so high a degree of finish on
the heifers; therefore, a shorter feeding
period is required for them. Spayed heif-
ers do not gain more economically than
open heifers, nor do they excel in dress-
ing percentage.
5. Well-finished heifer calves and year-
lings slaughtered at 750 pounds, or less,
yield as well as steers of comparable age
and grade, and show little, if any, more
carcass waste. The carcasses of heavier
and older heifers are usually more waste-
ful than those of steers of similar age and
finish. In quality and palatability, heifer
beef is equal to steer beef.
6. Feeder cattle of high quality have
wider adaptability than those of poor
quality. A good general rule is to give
most of the best feed to the best cattle.
7. Two- and three-year-old cattle and
good-quality early-maturing yearling
heifers may fatten on pasture without
concentrate supplements. Yearling steers
will gain rapidly on good pasture, but
will rarely fatten without concentrates.
Where it can be practiced, pasture fatten-
ing, aided by supplements when neces-
sary, usually results in more economical
gains than feed-lot feeding.
8. Creep-feeding is profitable under
certain conditions. Well-bred, properly
creep-fed calves attain a weight of 700
to 800 pounds and desirable market finish
at 10 to 12 months of age.
9. Careful attention to feeding prac-
tices is fully as important as right selec-
tion of rations and cattle. Proper sorting
of the animals, correct preparation of
feeds, regularity of feeding, and content-
ment of the herd often mean the differ-
ence between profit and loss.
10. The necessary margin, or spread,
between the feeder value and the selling
price of the animals when fat, depends
largely on the relation among feed prices,
cattle prices, and the amount of feed re-
quired to produce gain.
Recommended Nutrient Allowances
Tables 10 and 11 (III) give recom-
mended allowances for different weights
of fattening calves finished as short year-
lings, for yearling cattle, and for two-
year-olds.
Expected Gains. The expected gains
shown for the different ages of fattening
cattle may commonly be obtained with
good-quality steers fed from medium- or
fleshy-feeder to top-good or choice condi-
tion. The indicated gains may be exceeded
when consumption of feed or total digesti-
ble nutrients exceeds that in the tables,
or when the cattle are brought up from
thin or medium-feeder condition to a
slaughter grade of medium or good. On
the other hand, inferior cattle lacking in
feed capacity or cattle fed to higher de-
grees of finish may not make the gains
indicated. Both feed consumption and
gains vary with the individuality of the
cattle, with quality and palatability of
feed, with weather conditions, and with
management practice. Gains are lower
for heifers than for steers of comparable
grade and weight.
Feed Capacity. The figures in tables
10 and 11 (III) under "Daily feed, per
cent of live weight" and "Daily feed per
animal" closely represent the total feed
capacity of fattening cattle of various
ages, weights, and degrees of fatness. For
convenience, this information is given in
terms of feed having 90 per cent dry mat-
ter, an amount fairly representative of
most hays and concentrates. The data
have been checked with large-scale feed-
ing operations involving thousands of
cattle, and with numerous feeding trials
conducted by experiment stations.
Cattle fed for long periods, during
which their weights pass through practi-
cally the whole range shown for their age
class may, under intensive concentrate
feeding, reach maximum feed consump-
tion before the end of the period, rather
than consume increasing amounts with
age as indicated. Under these conditions,
Section V— Page 2
consumption often decreases toward the
end of the period.
The practice of marketing cattle by the
time they reach this leveling-off stage and
before consumption declines should re-
ceive due consideration. In California this
practice is more widespread than in the
Corn Belt, where concentrates are more
plentiful and longer feeding periods and
higher finish more common. (See also
"Minimum Roughage Allowance" in this
section.)
Total Digestible Nutrients. The
total digestible nutrients (T.D.N.) , digest-
ible protein, calcium, and phosphorus
requirements in table 10 (III) are given
in amounts per day and in table 11 (III)
on the basis of required percentages in a
mix. The latter can serve as a guide where
milled and mixed rations are used; the
percentages of feeds in a mix are then
controlled at the mixing plant, and the
cattle fed according to appetite. Table 23
(V) gives examples of both methods for
computing rations and shows how their
adequacy can be checked with the recom-
mended allowances.
The recommended total-digestible-nu-
trient allowances are about minimum for
the expected gains shown and for attain-
ment of desirable finish in feeding periods
of average length. They are based upon
the maximum roughage utilization that
is compatible with feed capacity and with
digestible-nutrient requirement.
In rations with sufficient roughage to
promote normal rumen activity and other
digestive processes, the maximum total-
digestible-nutrient content is about 75 per
cent. Where concentrates are favorably
priced, as compared with roughage, one
may use rations with higher percentages
of total digestible nutrients than the mini-
mum figures shown in the table.
Roughages usually contain 45 to 53
per cent total digestible nutrients on a
90 per cent dry-matter basis, with 50 per
cent as a rough average. Similarly, 75
to 80 per cent total digestible nutrients
can be taken as the range for commonly
used concentrates. On these bases the total
digestible nutrients would be 60 to 62
per cent in a ration having 40 per cent
concentrates and 60 per cent roughage;
62.5 to 65 per cent in one having 50 per
cent each of concentrates and roughage;
65 to 68 per cent in one having 60 per
cent concentrates and 40 per cent rough-
age; and 67.5 to 71 per cent in one having
70 per cent concentrates and 30 per cent
roughage.
Minimum Roughage Allowance.
To promote normal physiological activity
of the gastrointestinal tract, one must
feed a certain amount of coarser rough-
age containing stemmy material or leaves
with rough surfaces. Finely ground
roughages will not suffice. Apparently
both bulk and roughages are involved in
bloat prevention.
Food intake is limited on the one hand
by the bulk-handling capacity of the in-
testinal tract; on the other, by the daily
digestible-nutrient storage capacity of the
animals. Comparison of fattening rations
varying in bulk indicates that those con-
taining 70 to 75 per cent concentrates are
concentrated enough to permit maximum
total-digestible-nutrient intake. More con-
centrated rations do not appear to result
in greater total-digestible-nutrient intake
(except possibly for short periods) ; when
they are given, total feed (bulk) capacity
is not fully utilized. The recommended
minimum allowance for roughage is
therefore tentatively set at 0.7 to 0.8
pound (air-dry basis) for each 100
pounds of live weight— the minimum
below which some trouble is likely to
occur is about 0.5 pound.
Lack of sufficient roughage may partly
account for the conspicuous decreases in
total feed consumption sometimes noted
during the latter part of the fattening
period. Deficiency of calcium or of vita-
min A is less probable with rations con-
taining the higher levels of roughage, and
such rations are consistent with a sound
and permanent type of agriculture.
The principle of minimum roughage
Page 3— Section V
applies not only to cattle in feed lots,
but also to those on very lush pasturage
containing an abundance of leafy, fine-
stemmed legumes. Voluntary consump-
tion of about 5 pounds daily of straw by
mature animals on such pasture has been
observed, the amount varying seasonally
with condition of growth, stage of matu-
rity, and botanical composition of the
herbage. The addition of dry feed not
only helps to prevent bloat, but also tends
to counteract excessive laxative effects,
increase pasture consumption, and im-
prove the thrift and gains of the animals.
Protein Allowance. In the light of
experimental evidence, the allowances
in tables 10 and 11 (III) are regarded as
the minimum consistent with palatabil-
ity, necessary food consumption, and
expected gains. They are especially rec-
ommended when protein feeds are scarce
and expensive. Offering a variety of
palatable feeds, checking the adequacy
of phosphorus supply, and making the
rations complete in other respects are
especially advisable when minimum levels
for fattening rations are used. When pro-
tein feeds are plentiful and favorably
priced, the protein allowances for fatten-
ing cattle may be increased 10 to 20 per
cent above the recommended minimum.
Protein feeds in excess of these amounts
are not recommended, because they are
usually higher priced than other concen-
trates and are no more efficient than
grains for fattening. If the excess protein
included in many feed-lot rations were
used to promote continuous growth of
stock cattle and high calf crops in breed-
ing herds, far greater returns would be
shown for these valuable feeds.
Calcium and Phosphorus. The re-
quirements given in tables 10 and 11
(III) will be met by most otherwise well-
balanced rations. With heavy concentrate
feeding of fattening calves and minimum
allowance of nonlegume roughage, cal-
cium supplement is required for optimum
gain, finish, and bone development. Sim-
ilarly, rations consisting of alfalfa hay,
molasses, and beet pulp (either wet or
dry), with little or no grain or concen-
trate protein feed, require phosphorus
supplements. The calcium and phospho-
rus in feed-lot rations should be checked
with the table of requirements. It is just
as important to avoid the extra expense
and trouble of feeding minerals, when
they are not needed, as it is to supply
them when they are necessary.
Carotene. Cattle store vitamin A and
carotene in the liver and body fat during
times of abundant intake from green pas-
ture. The amount stored varies with age
and duration of high intake. So long as
sufficient storage reserves remain, no di-
etary source is required. Many rations
used in California feed lots contain forage
with little or no green color. Grains and
by-product feeds are extremely low in
carotene or are devoid of it. Carotene
deficiency in feed-lot rations is therefore
relatively common, and the symptoms are
sometimes encountered.
If cattle enter the feed lot with a de-
pleted reserve because of prolonged graz-
ing on dry range, carotene deficiency may
occur unless roughage of bright green
color is used. In 1934, a striking example
of this trouble was found in a herd of
560 head of yearling steers and heifers
brought from dry range and fed on
bleached hay and straw, cottonseed meal,
raisin stems, and barley. After 25 days
on this ration, gains were low, the cattle
unthrifty, their coats rough, and their
eyes watering. Many showed defective
vision in twilight, and some were defi-
nitely night-blind. The addition of 3
pounds of bright alfalfa hay or lima-bean
straw remedied the condition. Within 30
days gains became normal, and the cattle
thrifty. Another group— 350 head of older
animals— brought to the feed lot earlier,
showed similar symptoms after 120 days
on feed. They also responded to green
roughage in the ration.
If it were not for previous storage in
the animal and relatively short feeding
periods, deficiency symptoms would be
Section V— Page 4
TABLE 23 (V)
Examples of Adequate Fattening Rations, Illustrating Computation on the Basis
of Quantities of Nutrients per Steer Daily and on the Basis of Requirements
and Nutrients Expressed as Percentages in the Ration
Total feed
(dry or
equivalent),
pounds
Total
digestible
nutrients,
pounds
Digestible
protein,
pounds
Calcium,
grams
Phos-
phorus,
grams
Carotene,
milligrams
Fattening calves, weight 600 pounds
Rations in pounds:
Alfalfa hay, 3; corn silage, 10;
milo, 4.5; barley, 4.5; cotton-
seed meal, 1
15.9
11.3
1.39
25.4
26.8
120
Oat and vetch hay (bleached), 6;
molasses beet pulp, 4; barley, 6;
cottonseed meal, 0.5
16.5
11.0
1.37
27.5
21.4
12*
Req uirements
16.0
11.0
1.30
20.0
17.0
35
Yearling steers, weight 800 pounds
Rations in pounds:
Mixed milled feed (oat and vetch
hay, 40 per cent; barley, 35 per
cent; molasses, 25 per cent), 15
pounds
Wet beet pulp, 40 pounds
15.0
5.3
2.1
9.25
3.76
1.33
0.86
0.44
0.37
22.2
16.4
2.5
17.5
2.0
4.3
48
Wet brewers' grain, 8 pounds
22.4
22.0
14.34
14.00
1.67
1.50
41.1
20.0
23.8
19.0
48
Requirements
45
Yearling steers, weight 800 pounds, mixed milled ration
Pounds of feed per 100 pou nds of mix :
Oat hay 25....
Alfalfa hay 10.
Barley 30
Molasses dried beet pulp. . . 20
Molasses 10
12.5
5.0
23.4
14.8
5.7
3.7
0.83
1.05
2.40
1.06
0.02
1.65
0.07
0.15
0.01
0.05
0.04
01
0.05
0.02
0.12
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.27
0.19
200
194
Totals in 100 pounds of mixed
65.1
65.0
7.01
6.8
0.33
0.20
394
Requirements per 100 pounds of
mixed feed
205
Two-year-old steers, weight 1,000 pounds, mixed milled ration
Poundsof feed per 100 pounds of mix:
Alfalfa hay 10. .. .
5.04
1.08
0.150
0.020
194
Oat hay, moderately green . 40. . .
19.20
1.30
o.uo
0.090
320
'Barley 30
23.00
2.30
0.001
0.120
Milo 8...
6.40
0.66
0.001
0.020
Molasses 8. . .
4.60
0.07
0.020
0.005
2.94
1.35
0.010
0.040
Totals in 100 pounds of mixed
feed
61.18
6.76
0.292
0.295
-514
Requirements per 100 pounds of
mixed feed
62.00
6.30
0.16
0.16
210
* The amount of carotene furnished by bleached hay having only a trace of green color may promote normal
gains and prevent night blindness, but does not meet recommended allowance for moderate liver storage.
Page 5— Section V
much more common. Data on storage and
time for depletion are in Section III. Cat-
tle on rations of cottonseed hulls and meal
commonly become vitamin-A deficient in
90 to 120 days. In table 10 (III) , the rec-
ommended allowance of 6.0 milligrams
per 100 pounds of body weight is the
minimum amount that will provide for
moderate liver storage and thus contrib-
ute vitamin A for human food. Optimum
feed-lot gains and freedom from clinical
symptoms can be assured by as little as
1.5 milligrams per 100 pounds of live
weight. One to 3 pounds daily of good
green alfalfa hay will meet requirements.
Table 13 (III) is a rough guide for esti-
mating the carotene content of feeds from
their appearance.
General Feeding Rules. Five rules
have proved convenient for rough esti-
mation of rations and for calculating the
total feed required for fattening. These
are for general guidance only. As a check
on balance and adequacy, tables 10, 11,
and 12 (III) should be used, along with
other data and discussion given under
"Nutrient Requirements and Cattle
Feeds," Section III.
1. At least three (preferably more)
feeds should be included in feed-lot ra-
tions.
2. Fattening cattle will consume 2.3 to
3.0 pounds of dry feed, or its equivalent,
for each 100 pounds live weight. Gen-
erally they will take 3 pounds per hun-
dredweight early in the fattening period
and decrease the amount later. Generally
in California, the average for the period
is close to 2.7 or 2.8 pounds per hundred-
weight.
3. For rapid gain and finish, calves re-
quire at least 68 per cent total digestible
nutrients in the ration, or 1% to 2 pounds
of concentrates per 100 pounds live
weight. Yearlings require 65 per cent total
digestible nutrients in the ration, or 1%
to IV2 pounds of concentrates per 100
pounds live weight. Two-year-old cattle
on good-quality pasture or roughage may,
over a longer period, fatten without con-
centrates; but in the feed lot, for rapid
finish, the ration should contain about
62 per cent total digestible nutrients, or
1 to 1% pounds of concentrates per 100
pounds live weight.
4. When a good legume hay is used as
the sole roughage, and the rest of the
ration consists of various carbonaceous
concentrates, no protein supplement, such
as cottonseed meal, is required. When
nonlegume roughage is used, 8 to 10 per
cent in the mix (or roughly 2 to 2%
pounds per 1,000 pounds live weight)
of cottonseed cake, or its equivalent,
should be fed.
5. When cattle are fattened on green
pasture, no protein supplement is re-
quired. On dry pasture containing bur
clover, 1 to 2 pounds of cottonseed cake,
or its equivalent, for each 1,000 pounds
live weight is recommended. On dry pas-
ture with no legumes, the amount of pro-
tein concentrate should be increased by
feeding 2 to 2% pounds for each 1,000
pounds live weight.
Fattening Cattle on Pasture
Finishing Yearlings and Two-
Year-Olds on the Range. In experi-
ments conducted over the past several
years on the San Joaquin Experimental
Range, good-grade long-yearling and two-
year-old beeves were finished on a range
that is poor from the standpoint of fatten-
ing cattle. This experience emphasizes the
possibilities of finishing a significant pro-
portion of the cattle on the better foothill
and valley range so that they will compare
favorably with feed-lot cattle. In a more
favorable environment, less total concen-
trate supplement would be required than
in the experimental tests.
The conditions necessary to finish long-
yearling steers to good slaughter grade
are as follows:
1. Maintain the breeding herd in good
condition for maximum calf weaning
weights and percentage calf crop, as out-
lined under "Production of Feeder Cat-
tle," Section IV.
Section V— Page 6
2. Breed for fall calves so that as long-
yearlings they have had two full green-
forage seasons.
3. Supplement calves from weaning
time for continuous growth. For best re-
sults in finishing, according to data in
Bulletin 688 (1) and subsequent tests, a
gain of 1 pound or more daily should be
obtained during the dry and winter sea-
sons after weaning. About the same
amount of concentrates was required
whether the cattle were given none after
weaning, enough for % to % pound gain,
or enough for 1 to 1% pounds gain. When
more of the total feed was used to produce
continuous growth, less was required for
finishing, and the total weight produced
was significantly greater.
4. When range forage becomes abun-
dant and good enough to produce gains,
supplemental feeding may be discontin-
ued. Cattle will continue longer to come
on call if 3 to 4 pounds of supplement
are offered than if less is fed. Often they
will cease to come in for a pound of cot-
tonseed cake, or other feed, before the
grass alone will produce gains. Appar-
ently they sense whether the feed is worth
the effort of a long trip to the supple-
mental feeding source.
5. One may either allow the cattle to
graze without supplement until the feed
dries, or start full feeding toward the end
of the green-feed season. Tests thus far
have shown the latter procedure to be
the better. When good green feed is avail-
able, gains comparable with those in feed
lots are obtained, fattening is more rapid,
and less concentrates will be required for
100 pounds of gain.
6. One pound of concentrates for each
100 pounds live weight is about the maxi-
mum that can be given safely with once-
daily feeding. In hot weather, evening
feeding is preferable; the heat produced
by this large intake of nutrients at one
time is more readily eliminated during
the cooler night, and less trouble may be
encountered with animals going off feed.
With twice-daily feeding, 1% pounds
or more of concentrates per 100 pounds
live weight may be used. The rate of gain
and fattening is thereby increased; and
so the cattle can be made ready for an
earlier market or finished before the
range forage deteriorates too much.
7. Cattle to be fattened in this way can
be managed best in small fields conven-
ient for feeding, where choice feed, shade,
and water are readily obtained. They can
be started on concentrates while green
feed is still available, if wire-enclosed
feeding corrals are constructed near water
and the animals are brought in to feed
once daily. Later they can be trained to
come on call or at sight of the feed truck.
8. Cattle should be in fleshy-feeder to
medium-slaughter condition toward the
end of the grass season in order to make
good-grade beef with a 40- to 90-day full
feed. Figure 32 (V) shows the appear-
ance of different groups at the start and
finish of the fattening period.
9. Cattle should be started on feed grad-
ually. Use 1 to 2 pounds per head daily
until all are eating; then add 1 pound a
day until 5 or 6 pounds are consumed.
Increase, thereafter, 1 pound per head
every 2 to 4 days until 1 pound per 100
pounds live weight is reached. Watch the
cattle carefully, and stop the increases or
reduce the allowance at the first sign of
scouring or going off feed.
10. Surplus heifers can be fattened in
this way as yearlings more easily than
steers and require less total concentrates.
Two-year-old steers are more easily fat-
tened than yearlings and can be managed
as outlined above; but as yearlings they
will have received minimum supplements
during the dry season to promote gain
and prevent loss of flesh.
Table 24 (V) shows data from 9 groups
of steers and 2 groups of heifers.
All cattle groups shown in the table
had been fed supplements to promote con-
tinuous gains after weaning. As yearlings,
the two groups later marketed as two-
year-olds had also received supplements
during the dry-feed and winter period.
Page 7— Section V
Fig. 32 (V). Steers fed for continuous growth and finished on the San Joaquin Experimental
Range. Upper and lower left show two-year-old steers, group A-38, table 24 (V) , at the beginning
and end of the finishing period. Upper and lower right show long-yearling steers, group A-41-3, at
the start of the finishing period and before shipment to market. Both groups produced grade A or
good carcasses, corresponding with the 1951 designation of U. S. Choice.
Thus, before finishing began, most of the
cattle had weights and condition compa-
rable with those attained by cattle that
had not received supplements on the same
range a year later.
As the table shows, there were consid-
erable differences in the shipping shrink-
age of the various groups. In order that
the selling weight might be used as the
final weight, and that the picture of actual
body-weight increase might be fairly ac-
curate, the full weight at the time feeding
began, minus the same percentage shrink
that occurred in marketing, was used as
the initial weight. The gains so computed
were comparable with gains figured on
the basis of initial and final shrunk
weights on the range (overnight without
feed and water) as far as available data
permitted comparison.
The grain used for steer groups A-35,
A-38, A-36, and A-39, and heifer group
A-38 was rolled barley. Groups A-40/1,
A-40, A-41/2, and A-41/3 received a mix-
ture of rolled barley, ground grain sor-
ghum, and beet pulp. Steer and heifer
groups A-37 were hand-fed fish meal;
the molasses was self-fed.
Two-year-old steers that had completed
most of their growth were more easily
fattened than yearlings on comparable
rations, but required more feed for 100
pounds gain.
The concentrate feed required for 100
pounds gain varied for the grain-fed
steers from a low of 441 pounds to a high
of 725. A rough average might be 600
pounds, an amount comparable with feed-
lot concentrate requirements. Range feed-
ing had the advantage of a cheaper
roughage than harvested and milled hay.
Finishing of steer groups A-41/2,
A-41/3 and heifer group A-38 began
while green forage was still available. At
this time their gains were more rapid,
comparable with feed-lot records, and
considerably higher than for groups
started after the forage was nearly all
dry. Considering that the two A-41 steer
groups made good and choice carcass
grades, the feed-for-gain relation was also
favorable.
Heifers are easier to fatten than steers,
but in these tests were not carried beyond
the commercial grade.
The lifetime total of concentrates for
the two-year-olds, including supplemental
feeding after weaning, at the yearling
stage, and during the finishing period,
was 1,310 to 1,460 pounds. For the year-
Section V— Page 8
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ling steers that graded good, trie lifetime
total was 1,400 to 1,738 pounds. These
amounts do not exceed the concentrates
commonly required in feed lots for finish-
ing cattle of comparable age. The feed
for 100 pounds gain in these trials, and
in the ranch trials shown in table 25 ( V) ,
can be used in figuring feed costs and
necessary margins.
Fattening Cattle on Irrigated Pas-
ture. One of the major problems of Cali-
fornia production is the economical
finishing of high-quality beef at moderate
weights with a minimum use of concen-
trates.
As table 3(1) shows, irrigated pastures
accounted for an estimated 13 per cent
of total beef tonnage in 1942. Irrigated-
pasture development has been rapid dur-
ing recent years and appears likely to
continue. The carrying and production
capacity, coupled with the saving in labor
of harvesting feeds, makes livestock pro-
duction practicable on relatively high-
priced lands. By using irrigated pastures
in con j unction, jone can utilize the native
feed when it is most nutritious and abun-
dant, and can greatly extend the period
of continuous growth and development of
livestock without resorting to concentrate
supplements. Irrigated pastures serve for
both growing and fattening cattle.
Proper management of pastures, as well
as of livestock, is essential to high produc-
tion of forage and of beef. Irrigated pas-
ture is discussed in Extension Circular
125 (2) . Local up-to-date information on
the subject can be obtained from county
Agricultural Extension offices. Some im-
portant considerations in cattle manage-
ment may be summarized as follows:
1. The ideal pasture for fattening cat-
tle is a thick sward of fine, leafy, palatable
vegetation which is neither too mature
nor too lush and watery. Forage of de-
sirable botanical composition, managed
so that it can be utilized at the proper
growth stage should contain 60 per cent
or more of digestible nutrients in the dry
matter— a value equivalent to ration com-
posed of about 40 per cent concentrates
and 60 per cent hay. Generally for cattle
the pasture should contain not more than
50 per cent legumes. Leafy, palatable
grasses grown in highly fertile soil and
grazed at the proper stage contains more
than enough protein and minerals for the
needs of the cattle. The nutritional value
and physiological effects of good grass
may be superior to the legumes, which are
frequently responsible for bloat, purga-
tive or laxative effects, and other difficul-
ties. Legumes, however, are an economical
means of supplying the large quantities
of nitrogen essential to both yield and
quality of forage.
2. Building up a higher state of fertility
than has generally been realized is essen-
tial for high yield of superior quality
pasture. Data from areas of the world
where pasture production and manage-
ment are most advanced show that the
nitrogen equivalent of 600 to over 1,000
pounds of ammonium nitrate is required
annually. This may be acquired through
legumes and manuring or, in the case of
grass pastures, through chemical fertiliza-
tion. Phosphorus, sulfur, and/or other
elements may be required in specific
areas.
Careful adjustment of cattle numbers
to forage supply, along with judicious
scheduling of irrigation and grazing, is
essential to utilization at the proper
growth stage for optimum nutritive ef-
fect. Concentration of sufficient stock on
an area to graze it down evenly and to
distribute the urine uniformly requires
frequent rotation. This practice affords
fresh feed at frequent intervals, which is
conducive to higher consumption and
avoids radical change in quality due to
growth stage. Pasturing before the pas-
ture gets too high not only insures higher
nutritive value, but also encourages the
grasses to form a thick continuous sward.
This probably improves the microclimate
at the ground surface and certainly will
Section V— Page 10
TABLE 25 (V)
Results of Ranch Fattening Trials on Dry Range Forage
Cattle
Two-year-old steers.
Two-year-old steers .
Two-year-old heifers
Yearling heifers.
Num-
ber
of
cattle
24
97
444
250
Average daily ration, pounds
Dry grass-filaree range
Barley 3.0
Cottonseed cake 2.0
Dry grass-filaree range
Barley 3.3
Beet pulp 2.2
Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 4.3
Grain hay 3.2
Dry grass-filaree range
Barley 4.1
Dried beet pulp 2.3
Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 2.7
Dry grass-filaree range
Barley 3.6
Dried beet pulp 3.4
Cottonseed cake (43 per
cent protein) 1.8
Average
initial
weight,
pounds
650
733
552
Length
of
period,
days
169
75
60
87
Average
daily
gain,
pounds
1.24
1.54
1.32
Pounds feed for
100 pounds' gain
Concentrates. .403
Concentrates. .633
Hay 209
Concentrates. .684
Concentrates. .523
make the pasture less susceptible to dam-
age by trampling when wet. It's short fine
feed that fattens the cattle!
3. On irrigated pasture, bloat is fre-
quently a problem. Its causes are dis-
cussed under "Physiological Processes
and Cattle Breeding" (Sec. II), and in
the paragraphs on "Minimum Roughage
Allowance" (V). More detailed informa-
tion is given in Bulletin 662 (3).
The practical control of bloat depends
upon maintaining a suitable mixture of
grasses and legumes, as indicated above,
and upon meeting the minimum require-
ment for coarse roughage. Even in the
absence of acute bloat, cattle will not do
well when the moisture content of the feed
is too high and the fiber content too low,
as commonly occurs in the late summer
and fall. Cattle sometimes scour, lack fill,
and graze indifferently on feed that ap-
pears excellent. On similar feed other
cattle, having access to dry roughage,
were well filled and apparently gaining
well. In tests of individual cows at this
experiment station, more pasture was con-
sumed daily, when the minimum rough-
age requirement was met by feeding
coarse, dry roughage in addition, than
when pasture was provided without dry
roughage.
4. The fat of cattle on green pasture
tends to be more yellow in color than that
of cattle on dry rations, because of the
abundant carotene. If the carcasses are
otherwise desirable and are fat enough
to meet grade requirements, the color of
fat should not influence the grade. Now
that more people realize the value of caro-
tene as a source of vitamin A, there is less
prejudice than formerly against yellow
fat.
5. The dry matter in pastures may be
55 to 70 per cent digestible. The physical
and chemical nature of the feed, however,
and the high moisture content, usually
keep the intake of total digestible nutri-
ents below the optimum for rapid fatten-
ing. Concentrate supplements therefore
increase gain, rate of fattening, and the
desirability of carcasses of pasture-fed
cattle.
6. Green pastures contain enough pro-
tein to fatten cattle of all ages. Carbo-
Page 1 1— Section V
hydrate concentrates, such as grains and
by-product feeds, are therefore better
adapted, and usually cheaper, as supple-
ments than such protein concentrates as
cottonseed cake.
7. The general rules already given for
quantity of concentrate supplement and
method of feeding on the range (Sec.
Ill) apply to irrigated pasture. Often,
however, on such pasture, a longer feed-
ing period can be planned, and less con-
centrates fed per head daily. The younger
the cattle, the higher the proportion of
concentrate feed required for rapid fat-
tening.
8. The moist conditions prevalent in
irrigated pastures, and the large numbers
of animals concentrated on small areas,
with consequent frequent regrazing, favor
repeated infestation with internal para-
sites, particularly stomach worms. The
symptoms may easily be confused with
those produced by immature, watery, lax-
ative forage with too little roughage; and
both conditions often are present at the
same time. If cattle have rough coats, fail
to gain, or lose weight and develop diar-
rhea, veterinary services should be em-
ployed for definite diagnosis. Younger
cattle are usually more affected than older
ones. The recommended treatment is
about 15 grams of phenothiazine for
calves, 25 grams for yearlings, and 40
grams for mature cattle. On infested pas-
ture, three to four treatments yearly will
usually control the parasites. As a rule,
the drug is administered in capsules.
Tightly packed ^-ounce, 1-ounce, and
l^-ounce-size capsules approximately
furnish the doses recommended above.
If the cattle are not parasitized and do
not respond to dry roughage or appro-
priate change in grazing management,
specific deficiencies or the presence of
excess molybdenum or other salts should
be investigated (see "Nutrient Require-
ments and Cattle Feeds," Section III).
9. For best results in hot weather,
shade should be provided, especially when
concentrates are being fed. Artificial
shades can be constructed at low cost.
Tests of several kinds of shade at the
Imperial Valley Field Station by Kelley
and Ittner (4) gave the following sig-
nificant results:
1. The function of shade is to reduce
heat burden induced by direct sun radia-
tion. No shade can appreciably influence
air temperature.
2. Shades reduced radiant heat burden
by 60 to 65 per cent. At 100° F it was
calculated that an unshaded animal must
lose a total of 1,344 B.T.U. more heat per
hour than a shaded one through vapori-
zation of water. Over a 10-hour period
this would require extra vaporization,
largely through respiration, of 1.6 gal-
lons of water. This increased load is
sufficient to heat 9.2 gallons of ice water
to boiling!
3. The best height for the shade is 10
to 12 feet. This cuts off sun radiation and
permits good exposure to the cooler sky,
yet the shadow does not move so fast that
animals have to move frequently to hot
ground. The difference in heat load under
high (12 feet) and low (6 feet) shades
was estimated at 8 to 10 B.T.U. per square
foot of exposed body surface. This dif-
ference imposed by the low shade during
a 10-hour period for an average animal
may be calculated as equivalent to the
mechanical work of lifting a 2,000-pound
weight about 800 feet or the heat equiva-
lent for melting 8 to 10 pounds of ice and
heating the water to boiling.
4. Shades covered to a depth of 6 inches
or more with straw gave the greatest in-
sulation against radiation. Aluminum
shades while new and bright reflected
well and were nearly as effective as straw.
Galvanized iron was least desirable. It
became extremely hot and re-radiated
to the cattle, making them visibly less
comfortable.
5. For very hot conditions, such as Palo
Verde and Imperial valleys, added relief
was given by a sub-roof of burlap placed
a foot or so above the backs of the cattle
Section V— Page 12
which was kept wet by overhead sprin-
klers.
Although considerable numbers of cat-
tle are being fattened on irrigated pasture
in California, only a little reliable infor-
mation is available on different pasture
mixtures and concentrate supplements.
Table 26 (V) includes data from ranch
trials on meadow and alfalfa pasture, and
from experiment-station trials on alfalfa
pasture with and without supplement.
Fattening Cattle on Beet Tops. The
yield of beet tops in relation to beet ton-
nage, the proportion of crown and leaf,
the chemical composition, the digestibil-
ity, and other characteristics of this feed
have been discussed under "Nutrient Re-
quirements and Cattle Feeds" (Section
ni).
Although much of this valuable feed
resource is not recovered by pasturing
the scattered tops in the field, this method
is most commonly employed.
Two-year-old steers or heifers, long-
yearling heifers in fleshy feeder condi-
tion, and mature cows are the animals
best adapted for finishing on beet-top
pasture. Since the feeding period does
not usually exceed 90 days, and the gain
from beet tops alone varies from 1.0 to
1.5 pounds daily, these classes of cattle
are the only ones that can attain satis-
factory slaughter condition. Beet-top pas-
tures are also used for growing feeder
cattle or for carrying stock cattle during
the fall before new range feed becomes
available.
Information and recommended proce-
dures may be itemized as follows :
1. To obtain best results from beet-top
pasture, one should not allow the cattle
to roam at will over a large field. By using
temporary cross fences, one can limit
their grazing to smaller areas at a time
and can move them often to fresh feed.
Cattle well along in the fattening stage
should not have to graze the fields too
closely. After they have salvaged the best
of the tops, a follow-up herd of stock
cattle or animals early in the fattening
stage should be used to clean up the re-
maining feed.
2. The tops from 1 to 1% acres of beets
yielding 15 to 20 tons per acre will sup-
port 1 animal unit for about 90 days.
3. The tops should be allowed to cure
for 7 to 10 days before being used as
pasture. The grazing area should be lim-
ited by fencing so that the feed is utilized,
and the cattle should be moved to a new
area every 10 to 14 days. Good utilization
requires keen judgment; pasturing an
area 1 day too long may cost many
pounds of gain, and moving 1 day too
soon may cost many feed days. Such ro-
tation requires more provision of fencing
and water, but gives better results. Fur-
thermore, preparation of the land for the
next year is not delayed.
4. Access to hay, dry stubble, or supple-
mentary grain adds needed variety, in-
creases gains, and improves finish.
5. Water loss of cattle on beet tops is
high through both feces and urine; and
water intake is correspondingly high,
especially in hot weather. Adequate drink-
ing water, therefore, must be provided.
6. Cattle on beet tops are subject to
choke and bloat caused by hard crowns
or small beets lodging in the esophagus.
Losses may be heavy, unless the animals
are carefully watched, especially toward
the end of the forenoon and evening graz-
ing periods. If found in time, the lodged
crown or the beet can be removed or
pushed on down the esophagus with a
well-lubricated heavy rubber hose.
7. In a controlled test, steers ate ap-
proximately 60 per cent crown and 40
per cent leaf, when allowed free choice,
whereas the percentage yield weight of
crown was 40 per cent, and of leaf 60
per cent. Discarding of leaf is commonly
noted among cattle pasturing tops. These
data indicate the loss of feed value that
occurs from selective grazing, trampling,
and the like, in pasturing scattered tops.
Piling tops by hand, or bunching and
windrowing them with harvesting ma-
chinery, would materially reduce loss and
Page 13— Section V
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TABLE 27 (V)
Eanch Tests with Fattening Cattle on Beet Tops
Number and class of cattle
Period
on feed,
days
Area
pastured,
acres
Yield of
beets,
tons
Average
daily
gain,
pounds
Beef
produced
per acre,
pounds
781 two-year-old. steers
451 two-year-old steers
127 two-year-old steers and heifers.
55 two-year-old steers
830
135
57
16.6
12.0
16.0
14.0
1.43
1.30
1.56
91
116
91
* Beet tops not completely utilized.
increase beef production per acre. Opti-
mum utilization, however, depends upon
harvesting the dried tops, or making beet-
top silage and including it with other
feeds in a well-balanced ration. Infor-
mation on such methods appears under
"Feed-lot Rations," which follows.
Table 27 (V) presents the results of
several ranch trials with cattle on beet-top
pasture.
Feed-lot Rations
Both farmers and commercial feeders
in California have several alternatives
when planning rations for feed-lot fatten-
ing. The farmer who uses cattle primarily
to market his ranch feeds can often plan
his crop program to produce feeds that
will combine in a satisfactory fattening
ration without the aid of any purchased
supplements.
The total tonnage of digestible nutri-
ents from alfalfa hay, grain hay, and
threshed grains that is available to be
marketed through cattle in California ex-
ceeds that from all other harvested feeds
and by-products combined. These feeds,
therefore, are the basis of most feed-lot
rations. Important points to be considered
in using hay and grain are as follows:
1. The higher the quality of roughage,
the greater its digestibility, and therefore
less concentrates are required to bring the
ration up to the minimum total-digestible-
nutrient requirements in tables 10 and 11
(III). Careful curing of roughages har-
vested at the best stage of growth for
maximum yield of digestible nutrients,
therefore, can significantly reduce con-
centrate requirements for fattening. On
the other hand, one can depend almost
entirely for digestible nutrients on the
concentrates, feeding limited roughage
largely to supply bulk. (See "Minimum
Roughage Allowance" in this section.)
Low-grade roughage can be and is com-
monly used in this way by large commer-
cial operators, who depend on buying
cheaply these low-grade hays and straws.
When maximum concentrates are fed,
roughage supplies only a small percentage
of the total digestible nutrients ; and vari-
ation of 40 to 50 per cent total digestible
nutrients in the roughage causes only
small variation in their percentage in the
ration. For this reason extensive feeders
commonly say that if cattle receive
enough concentrates, any kind of rough-
age can serve for bulk. Since, however,
roughages are depended on not only for
bulk and total digestible nutrients but
also for much calcium, phosphorus, caro-
tene, and protein, quality of roughage
should be a primary consideration, espe-
cially with farmer feeders.
2. A ration composed solely of a full
feed of barley and alfalfa hay can meet
nutritive requirements and produce ex-
cellent gains and finish. One must, how-
ever, watch for digestive disturbances and
bloat. As stated in "General Feeding
Rules" in this section, a combination of
three or more feeds is preferable. When
equal parts of cereal and alfalfa hay are
fed, the cattle go on feed faster, and there
is less tendency for digestive upsets, going
off feed, scouring, severe coccidiosis, and
Page 15— Section V
the like, than when alfalfa hay is used
alone, particularly if the hay is very fine
and leafy.
3. A combination of two or more grains
is always preferable to a single grain.
Milo alone is somewhat superior to barley
alone. For best results, wheat should not
form over 50 per cent of the concentrate
ration.
4. The proportion of hay to grain will
depend upon the age class and the quality
of cattle, and upon the costs of hay and
grain in relation to their productive feed
values. The rations, however, should con-
tain not less than the minimum percent-
ages of total digestible nutrients shown
in tables 10 and 11 (III). When making
up rations, these tables in Section III,
"Nutrient Requirements and Cattle
Feeds," and the general feeding rules on
page 6 (V) should be consulted.
Grain and hay rations can often be
made more efficient and economical by
the addition of palatable feeds other than
protein concentrates. Recommendations
for the use of several other feeds in re-
placing a portion of the grain or hay,
especially in feed-lot fattening, are now
presented.
Silage. The advisability of using si-
lage in cattle fattening depends on the
character and prices of the feeds to be
replaced, the yield and cost of the silage
per acre, and the probable returns from
other crops that might be grown instead.
Numerous tests have shown that silage
will usually improve grain-and-hay ra-
tions, particularly those lacking variety.
When silage is added to a barley and al-
falfa ration, bloat rarely occurs. Rations
that already possess quality, variety, and
balance may be made more economical by
the use of good-quality silage to replace
more expensive feeds. When cattle are
given a full feed of concentrates, corn si-
lage, and alfalfa hay, the feed-replacement
value of the silage per ton may be more
than half that of the hay as shown by the
following examples: An average of five
trials at the Idaho Station gives the results
of adding corn silage to long alfalfa hay
and barley for fattening steers weighing
896 pounds at the start and fed an aver-
age of 137 days. The alfalfa-barley lots
ate'25.5 pounds of hay and 8.89 pounds
of barley per head daily. Their daily gain
averaged 1.72 pounds; their shrinkage to
market, 3.6 per cent; and their carcass
yield, 60.2 per cent. The silage-fed lots
consumed daily 19.3 pounds hay, 18.5
pounds silage, and 8.76 pounds barley,
and made an average daily gain of 1.90
pounds. Their shrinkage to market was
4.2 per cent, and their carcass yield, 60.6
per cent. In these five trials each ton of
silage replaced 964 pounds of long alfalfa
hay and 115 pounds of ground barley.
One California stockman, cooperating
with the Agricultural Extension Service,
conducted a 106-day trial wherein 170
head of two-year-old steers were fed daily
per head an average of 13.7 pounds of
corn silage, 14.6 pounds of mixed alfalfa
and grain hay, and 9.3 pounds of a mix-
ture of barley, molasses, and cottonseed
meal. An equal number of steers com-
parable in grade and weight received 17.3
pounds of the hay and 11.3 pounds of
the concentrates per head daily, but no
silage. In this trial, 1 ton of silage re-
placed 217 pounds barley, 221 pounds
molasses, 72 pounds cottonseed meal, 345
pounds alfalfa, and 231 pounds grain
hay. The average yield and carcass grade
of the two lots were about the same.
Good-quality corn silage added to a
ration consisting of legume hay alone will
increase the rate of gain and may show
a value per ton equal to the hay. In rations
composed of grain, hay, and silage, the
silage is fed at the rate of 1.5 to 3 pounds
per 100 pounds live weight.
In California, corn and sorghums for
silage are ordinarily produced under irri-
gation. Yields of from 15 to 20 tons are
not uncommon on good land. The value
of the trench silo as an inexpensive and
satisfactory means of storing silage has
been fully demonstrated (fig. 33, V).
Cost-of-production studies show that corn
Section V— Page 16
Fig. 33 (V) . In this trench silo, corn yielding
60 bushels of grain and 18 tons silage per acre
was stored with practically no loss from spoil-
age. When the silage was fed to yearling steers
in a daily ration at the rate of 14.7 pounds per
head, along with 5.3 pounds grain and 8.7
pounds alfalfa hay, the cattle made a net daily
gain of 2.33 pounds per head.
silage represents fully as high a use of
land as alfalfa when it can be fed near
where it is produced.
The value of corn silage varies consid-
erably with the amount of grain it in-
cludes. Grain yield depends somewhat on
the strain of corn or sorghum used. Hy-
brid seed corn, giving high grain yield,
can significantly increase silage value and
decrease other grain required in the ra-
tion. Significant amounts of grain from
sorghum silage pass through cattle un-
digested. The possibility of reducing this
loss is suggested by experiments at the
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
A combination knife-hammer mill was
used with a regular silage cutter. Atlas
sorghum was topped at the silo ; the heads
were finely ground in the combination
mill and dropped on the feed table of the
cutter. The combined ground heads and
cut forage were blown into the silo. A
feeding test showed 12 per cent more gain
from a ton of this silage than from the
same feed run through the cutter only.
Wet Beet Pulp. Most of the wet beet
pulp in California has been utilized by
a few commercial feeders, located near
sugar factories, who are prepared to han-
dle large tonnages of pulp with little trans-
portation. Recently this product has been
more widely distributed among farmer
feeders in the beet-growing districts rela-
tively near the sugar factories.
Wet beet pulp is bulky and is palatable
to cattle. The dry matter is composed
mainly of carbohydrates, and the fiber is
highly digestible. Wet pulp is deficient
in both protein and phosphorus; but, if
provision is made to offset the deficiency,
and the price is right, this feed can often
improve the effectiveness and economy of
grain-and-hay rations. When the feed lot
is located near the source of supply, wet
pulp in its various forms, fresh, siloed,
or pressed, may be a cheap feed. Because
of its high moisture content, it cannot eco-
nomically be transported far. The wide
variation in moisture content greatly af-
fects its value per ton. Fresh pulp, which
may contain as little as 5 per cent dry
matter, is obviously worth far less than
siloed or pressed pulp containing 13 to
15 per cent. Cattle usually prefer well-
fermented siloed pulp to the fresh prod-
uct. Even if the silo is large, loss from
shrinkage commonly amounts to 40 per
cent of the dry matter, because of fer-
mentation and oxidation. Possibilities of
reducing these losses, inducing a better
type of fermentation and producing a si-
lage with a more pleasant odor through
the addition of molasses or, still better,
barley or other grain, providing leaching
by rain is prevented, has been shown by
Guilbert, Miller, and Goss (5).
Cattle take readily to wet pulp. When
fully accustomed to it and given all they
will eat, if little or no concentrate is used
in the ration, they may consume up to 8
to 10 pounds per 100 pounds animal
weight.
Page 17— Section V
In an average of four feeding trials at
the Colorado Agricultural Experiment
Station, siloed wet pulp added to a ration
of barley, cottonseed cake, and alfalfa
hay increased the gain, the selling price,
the dressing percentage, and the carcass
grade of fattening calves. Each ton of wet
pulp replaced 142 pounds barley, 2.7
pounds cottonseed cake, and 342 pounds
alfalfa hay. Tests at the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station have well demon-
strated the possibilities of overcoming the
phosphorus deficiency in beet pulp by the
addition of a small amount of steamed
bone meal. In these tests feeding of 0.1
pound per head daily of steamed bone
meal to cattle receiving a ration of wet
beet pulp, molasses, and alfalfa hay in-
creased the feed consumption, doubled
the rate of gain, and materially reduced
the cost of gain. Under these condi-
tions the alfalfa hay supplied adequate
protein.
Siloed pulp, fresh-pressed pulp, and
dried molasses beet pulp were compared
in two ranch feed-lot trials near Wood-
land. When both trials were averaged,
there was no significant difference in rate
of gain between the lots receiving dried
pulp and those securing siloed pulp. The
latter lots, however, required less dry
matter for 100 pounds of gain. Tests at
the Colorado Station showed dried pulp
to have about 90 per cent of the value of
equivalent dry matter in siloed pulp— a
value in substantial agreement with the
results at Woodland. In both trials the
rate of gain was slightly less on fresh-
pressed than on siloed pulp, and the dry
matter of the latter appeared to be some-
what more efficiently utilized.
Dried Molasses Beet Pulp. Where
used to replace not more than half of the
grains in a grain-and-hay ration or in
feeding concentrates on pasture, dried
molasses beet pulp has a feeding value
about equal to barley. It is very palatable,
helps to get cattle on feed quickly, and
decreases digestive disturbances.
Beet Tops. As shown under "Nutrient
Requirements and Cattle Feeds," Section
III, beet tops are a valuable replacement
for part of the concentrates as well as part
of the roughage in a fattening ration.
Because of the high mineral content and
laxative effect, best results are obtained
when limited amounts are fed. For year-
ling steers weighing about 700 pounds,
a good ration would be grain 8 to 10
pounds, alfalfa hay 6 pounds, and beet-
top dry matter 6 pounds (equivalent to
about 9 pounds of dried tops or 20 pounds
of beet-top silage) . For half the grain, one
might substitute either the same weight
of dried beet pulp, or 40 to 45 pounds
of wet pulp. The addition of 0.1 pound
daily of ground limestone (calcium car-
bonate) to counteract oxalic acid and
minimize scouring has been recom-
mended by the Colorado Experiment
Station. Fed in this way, beet tops have
produced up to 250 pounds of beef per
acre, or more than double that obtained
by pasturing.
Raisins and Prunes. In years of sur-
plus raisin crops, large amounts are used
in livestock feed; they are satisfactory
in cattle fattening, to replace not more
than 40 per cent of the grain. In one ranch
feeding trial in Tulare County, raisins
and dried molasses beet pulp were com-
pared in fattening rations for two lots of
50 yearling steers each. The feeding pe-
riod was 111 days. Good-quality muscat
raisins, including very few stems, were
used at the rate of 2.6 pounds daily to
replace an equal amount of pulp. In addi-
tion, each lot of steers ate 3.4 pounds of
barley and 17.5 pounds of alfalfa hay per
head daily. The rate of gain and the feed
required to produce gain were slightly in
favor of the raisin-fed lot, but the differ-
ence in this respect was not significant.
When an effort was made to increase the
raisins beyond 40 per cent of the total
concentrates, some were left in the trough.
Other ranch feeders report similar results.
Raisins available for livestock feed are
Section V-Page 18
apt to vary more in quality than a product
like dried beet pulp. In years of fair price
for raisins very little, if any, of the better
grades will go for livestock feed. Some
lots of raisins contain numerous stems,
which decrease the feeding value. Wire
and nails are sometimes present and may
cause serious trouble if swallowed.
Dried prunes may be used in the same
way as raisins. They can be ground in a
hammer mill along with barley or other
grain to make more available the nutri-
tive value in the pits. Ten to 15 per cent
prunes ground with 85 to 90 per cent
barley go through the mill satisfactorily.
Dried Orange Pulp. This product
has total digestible nutrients equivalent
to barley and is fairly palatable. Feeding
experiences in California indicate that it
should be fed only in limited amounts if
its greatest value is to be obtained. Dried
orange pulp and other citrus pulps were
used to replace 25 to 45 per cent of corn
in fattening rations at the Texas Station.
When fed in these proportions, they pro-
duced results equal to corn.
Cane and Beet Molasses. Accord-
ing to total digestible nutrients, cane and
beet molasses are about equal, and have
three fourths the feeding value of barley
(table 12, III) . In cattle-fattening rations
the greatest returns from molasses are ob-
tained when it is added to rations lacking
in palatability. When used in small quan-
tities, molasses may show a feed replace-
ment value equal to barley. In excess of
25 per cent of the grain ration, the value
falls to three fourths that of barley. Mo-
lasses is commonly used in cut mixtures,
on wet beet pulp, and often is sprinkled
or sprayed over long hay. Hay that has
been through a hammer mill needs an
admixture of molasses to reduce dust and
facilitate handling. Molasses stimulates
the activity of the rumen microorgan-
isms—a fact that explains part of its bene-
ficial effects. By providing readily avail-
able sugar for these microorganisms it
discourages their action on cellulose, and
somewhat reduces crude-fiber digestion.
Thus molasses may reduce the digestibil-
ity of straw; but this effect will be more
than offset by the greater quantity con-
sumed by the animals. The characteristics
of molasses and recommendations for
mixing it with other feeds are further
discussed under "Nutrient Requirements
and Cattle Feeds," Section III.
Roots and Tubers. Cull potatoes,
sugar beets, carrots, and other roots and
tubers can often be used efficiently with
other feeds in cattle fattening. High in
moisture content, such products cannot
be economically transported far. They
give best results when fed in limited quan-
tities to add succulence and palatability
to grain-and-hay rations, especially in
cattle fattening.
In one Idaho Agricultural Experiment
Station trial, potatoes and corn silage
were compared as supplements with al-
falfa and barley for fattening. The steers
were fed for 159 days, and their average
weight for the period was about 1,030
pounds. The potatoes were used at the
rate of 16.9 pounds daily, or about 1.5
pounds per 100 pounds weight of the
steers. In this trial the potatoes had a
feed-replacement value about equal to
that of corn silage. In two trials at the
Colorado Station, potatoes and corn si-
lage were compared in calf-fattening ra-
tions in which the other feeds were barley,
cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay. The
calves were fed for 194 days and aver-
aged, for the period, about 610 pounds
in weight. The potatoes were fed at the
rate of 16.4 pounds, or about 2.7 for each
100 pounds weight of the calves. In the
Colorado trials the potatoes, fed in rela-
tively heavy amounts, were worth much
less than corn silage.
Potatoes can be successfully ensiled,
but it is better to mix them with some
dry feed. In the Colorado trials, a silage
composed of 82 per cent cull potatoes and
18 per cent corn fodder was about equal
to corn silage in the fattening ration of
calves.
Dried potato meal can replace about
Page 19— Section V
50 per cent of the concentrate ration for
fattening cattle. Since it contains less than
half as much digestible protein as barley,
protein concentrate allowance must be
correspondingly increased. Conservation
and utilization of root crops are discussed
under "Nutrient Requirements and Cattle
Feeds," Section III.
Brewers' and Distillers' Grains.
Wet brewers' grains and distillers' grains
contain 75 to 80 per cent moisture and
distillery slop 93 to 96 per cent moisture.
These products should be fed fresh to
avoid danger of spoilage. Their economic
use is therefore confined to feed-lot oper-
ations located near the brewery or dis-
tillery. Ordinarily these feeds are used in
fattening the lower grades of mature cat-
tle, and maximum amounts are fed. A
1,000-pound animal may consume 40 to
50 pounds of wet brewers' grains contain-
ing about 10 to 12 pounds of dry matter;
or up to 200 pounds of distillery slop,
containing about the same amount. To
meet the additional dry-matter require-
ments, one should feed dry roughage and
some grain or other carbonaceous concen-
trate. Since the dry matter of wet grains
is 20 to over 25 per cent digestible pro-
tein, protein supplements are not neces-
sary. For best results and most efficient
utilization of these feeds, especially dis-
tillery slop, the quantity fed should be
limited. Cheapness of the slop has encour-
aged maximum feeding; but, as a rule,
gains are then considerably less than with
usual feed-lot rations. For 1,000-pound
steers, a ration consisting of 2 to 4 pounds
of grain, 2 to 4 pounds of molasses, 10
to 12 pounds of hay, and 16 to 20 gallons
(130 to 160 pounds) of slop has proved
satisfactory. The hay should contain
enough green color to assure a carotene
content that is adequate for preventing
vitamin-A deficiency. For younger cattle
reduce the slop and increase the grain.
Rough Rice. Ground rough rice is
palatable to cattle and satisfactory for use
in combination with grain and hay ra-
tions. In a trial at the Missouri Agricul-
tural Experiment Station it was fed to
yearling steers at the rate of 13.1 pounds
daily to replace a like amount of shelled
corn. Other feeds in the ration were cot-
tonseed meal and soybean hay. The rice
proved highly palatable ; and in this trial,
where it was fed as the only grain, it was
worth 76 per cent as much as shelled corn.
Straw. When hay is high priced and
straw is cheap and abundant, the latter
may be used efficiently in fattening ra-
tions if fed in limited amounts. The feed-
ing value of each kind of straw differs
according to stage of maturity when cut
and amount of grain or seed included.
In general, grain straws are worth
about half as much as alfalfa hay. They
are low in productive value, protein, and
palatability, and are high in fiber content.
In feeding value, the common California
grain straws usually rank as follows : oat,
barley, and wheat.
Ordinary field-bean straw is coarse and
fibrous. The feeding value does not differ
greatly from that of grain straw unless a
great number of the beans are included.
Lima-bean straw is the best kind ordi-
narily available in California. It is usually
leafy and palatable. In feeding value it is
about equal to good grain hay, when fed
in combination with other good-quality
roughage.
Small amounts of pea straw and alfalfa
straw are available for livestock feeding.
These are usually intermediate in value
between lima-bean and grain straw.
For best results in fattening, straw from
grains and field beans should be limited
to 25 to 30 per cent of the total roughage.
Lima-bean straw can satisfactorily con-
stitute half of the total roughage.
Examples of adequate rations com-
puted from the data in table 12 (III) on
feed composition appear in table 23 ( V) ,
along with the requirements shown in
tables 10 and 11 (III). The first section
of table 23 (V) shows rations for fatten-
ing calves and yearlings, together with the
amounts of nutrients furnished daily. The
second section gives sample rations for
Section V— Page 20
yearling and two-year-old steers; shows
the nutrients furnished; and specifies the
requirements, computed on the basis of
percentages.
The results of numerous California
feeding tests and of ranch feeding records
are presented in table 28 ( V) . These may
be used in computing fattening costs and
necessary margins.
Creep-feeding of Calves
Under certain conditions in California,
the creep-feeding of calves continues to
grow in use and popularity. In this prac-
tice, young calves are allowed access to
extra feed while they are still nursing.
The feed is placed in a self-feeder, trough,
or rack within a small enclosure. In the
fence are openings through which the
calves may enter but which are too small
for the cows. Calves that will be fattened
and slaughtered young are often creep-fed
to induce faster finish and shorten the
feeding period after weaning. Well-bred
calves when properly creep-fed attain a
weight of 700 to 800 pounds and a desir-
able market finish at 10 to 12 months of
age. Such calves may not gain so well in
the feed lot after weaning, as calves that
receive no grain during their nursing
period. When calves are creep-fed from
a few weeks of age, however, the total
feed required to fatten them is usually
less than if they are not fed until after
weaning. Creep-feeding during the nurs-
ing period produces more uniform calves.
Calves from heifers and inferior milking
cows usually eat more from the feeder
than the others do. When natural feed
conditions are unfavorable, creep-feeding
indirectly helps the cows, for the calves
then draw less heavily upon them during
the latter part of the nursing period.
Good breeding in cattle is desirable in
all feeding operations; but in creep-
feeding for market finish, the well-bred
calf of good quality is essential. The sires
should be superior purebred Hereford,
Shorthorn, or Angus bulls. The cows
should be above average range quality.
Creep-feeding is adapted to pastures
and ranges where the herd comes regu-
larly to a central point for water, salt,
shade, or rest. Such ranges must be acces-
sible by truck. The method is impractical
on rough hilly ranges, or on any range
where cattle graze over vast areas and
infrequently gather at a central point, or
where transportation of feed is difficult.
Best results have been obtained with
so-called "early calves," which are started
on feed before they are 3 months of age.
Such calves are dropped before the green-
grass season. They learn to eat grain
early, take full advantage of a heavy milk
flow from the cows while the grass is
good, and by the time the grass is dried
are ready to consume comparatively large
amounts of grain. Calves will learn to eat
grain at 4 to 6 weeks of age. When the
creep is constructed near the watering
place, salt grounds, corral, or loafing
ground of the herd, almost immediately
some calves will enter it through curios-
ity; and, after these few calves have
started to eat, nearly all the others will
follow their example.
Early in the creep-feeding period, the
ration should contain a variety of good-
quality grains or grain substitutes. When
the calf is young, the grass green, and
the cow's milk abundant, protein supple-
ments are not necessary. After the grass is
dry and the milk is decreased, one part
pea-sized cottonseed cake or meal may
well be added to every 10 to 12 pounds
of carbonaceous feeds. If fish meal is sub-
stituted for cottonseed cake or meal, about
one third less is required to provide the
necessary protein. Linseed meal or soy-
bean meal may substitute for cottonseed
meal pound for pound. If the cows and
calves are on good-quality pasture, hay
is usually not provided in the creep-
feeder. When grazing conditions are poor
and forage is of low quality or scarce,
good alfalfa meal or alfalfa-molasses meal
will be of material benefit when added
to the concentrate mixture in the self-
feeder. High-quality long alfalfa hay may
Page 21— Section V
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also be fed in a separate rack alongside
the self-feeder. When silage is near at
hand, it may be found practical and bene-
ficial during the creep-feeding period,
especially when grass or dry roughage
consumed is of poor quality.
In creep-feeding calves for the first
time, stockmen are apt to grow impatient
at the seemingly slow progress made for
the first 2 or 3 months; by this time,
however, the results become more evident.
Experience has shown that where calves
are being finished for market, the self-
feeder is usually more practical to use
than hand-feeding in trough.* The open-
ings in the creep fence should be made
for the calves to walk through. Sometimes
a fence is constructed to permit the calves
to crawl under, but this practice is not so
satisfactory. Rarely will any trouble from
overeating be experienced in self-feeding
if the calves have been taught to eat grain
at 2 to 3 months of age. When feeding is
delayed until later, difficulty from over-
eating may result if self-feeders are used.
When the calves are weaned and brought
into the feed lot, the same self-feeder can
be moved into the lot.
Weaning creep-fed calves is a simple
matter. The calves are advanced enough
in the feeding period so that they do not
miss their mothers, and if they are con-
tinued on feed without radical change in
the ration, no setback is experienced.
Stockmen have been surprised to see how
these calves maintain their "milk-fat"
bloom after weaning.
Creep-feeding of calves on the range
is a means of stabilizing weaning weights
in the same way that supplemental feed-
ing of breeding herds stabilizes percent-
age calf crop with forage conditions
varying from year to year.
The results of fattening several differ-
ent lots of calves which were creep-fed
before weaning are summarized in table
29 (V).
* Plans for the construction of a calf creep
and self-feeder are available from the Agricul-
tural Extension Service, University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley, California.
Section V— Page 24
General Cattle-feeding Problems
Age of Cattle. After maintenance re-
quirements are met, young cattle can use
feed for both growth and fattening,
whereas the mature animals' use of the
ration above maintenance is confined to
the production of fat. For this reason
calves fed on complete rations, possessing
quality, variety, and balance, produce
more economical gains than yearlings,
which in turn make cheaper gains than
two-year-olds. Since young cattle require
more concentrates, less roughage, and
higher-quality feeds, the older cattle are
better adapted for fattening when large
amounts of coarse bulky roughages are
to be utilized. Two- and three-year-old
steers, for example, are often fattened on
pasture or beet tops without concentrates,
or may be fairly well finished in the feed
lot on hay alone or such rations as hay
and silage. Roughage rations alone will
not fatten calves or yearling steers. If
such rations are of good quality, yearling
steers will make satisfactory gains on
them, but mostly in the form of growth.
Well-bred yearling heifers With early-
maturing tendencies sometimes fatten
without concentrates if the roughage or
pasture is good and relatively high in
digestibility.
Since two-year-old cattle need less of
their feed for growth, the fattening period
required is only about half as long as for
calves. Sometimes conditions warrant lim-
ited feeding, and the time for each class
is accordingly increased.
The younger the animals, the greater is
the attention necessary to details of feed-
ing. Calves are unusually susceptible to
irregular feeding practices and to muddy
feed lots.
Superior type, high quality, and desir-
able conformation are essentials in fat-
tening calves. Plain and rough animals
do not finish readily at this age, although
they make good gains. Such animals had
better be held for fattening later on.
The time for marketing calves and year-
lings is more flexible than that for two-
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year-olds. If current market conditions
are unfavorable, calves or yearlings may
be held for several additional weeks or
even months and continue to make effi-
cient gains. Two-year-olds have a much
narrower time limit for producing eco-
nomical gains.
Sex. The average calf crop is about
equally divided between steers and heif-
ers. Over a period of years about half the
heifers— theoretically the best ones— are
retained for breeding-herd replacements.
This means that about 25 per cent of the
annual output from breeding herds is
composed of heifers that compete directly
with steers in the feeder- and slaughter-
cattle market. Usually a substantial price
spread exists between steers and heifers,
both as feeders and when the animals are
ready for slaughter. In years when cattle
numbers are expanding, there is a tend-
ency to hold back more heifers for breed-
ing; supplies of all slaughter cattle are
usually lighter, and the spread in price
between steers and heifers is less than in
periods of overproduction, when a greater
percentage of heifers and cows is offered
for market.
For years, prejudice has existed in the
markets against heifers, based largely on
the danger of their being pregnant and
the claim that heifers produce more waste-
ful carcasses than steers. To overcome the
objection to bred heifers and to permit
running of market heifers with the gen-
eral herd, some producers have followed
the practice of spaying. The criticism that
heifer carcasses are wasteful is somewhat
reduced with the trend toward marketing
more of them as yearlings and calves.
Numerous tests have been conducted
at state experiment stations to determine
the extent of justification for discrimi-
nating against feeder and slaughter heif-
ers as compared with steers of the same
age, grade, and weight. From the results
of these experiments and from field tests
in California, significant conclusions may
be drawn:
1. Heifers, both spayed and open, fatten
faster than steers and therefore reach a
given slaughter grade sooner than steers.
The heifers usually make smaller gains
than steers; but when both classes are
marketed with the same degree of finish
and before they become excessively fat,
economy of gain is not greatly different.
Ranch records were obtained by the
Agricultural Extension Service on 1,149
yearling heifers as compared with 587
steers of the same age and quality, fed
on similar rations. Each class was sold
at a weight and finish suitable for Cali-
fornia markets. The different lots of steers
were fed 75 to 135 days; the heifer lots
72 to 118 days. The steers averaged a
daily net gain of 1.90 pounds; the heifers,
1.81 pounds. The heifers produced their
gains on 16 per cent less feed than the
steers.
In six experiments cited by Morrison
(6) heifer calves fattened for 165 days
compared with steer calves fed for 233
days gained the same, 2.24 pounds daily.
The feed required for 100 pounds gain
was slightly less for the heifers.
2. If slaughtered before excessively fat
(good or good to choice grades at 750
pounds or less in weight) , yearling heifers
yield comparably with steers and show
little, if any, more waste of carcass. Under
these conditions, cutting tests revealed no
appreciable difference in percentage of
desirable cuts. If fattened to the choice
or prime grades, however, heifers are
less desirable in the market, their car-
casses are more wasteful, and their cost
of fattening is unnecessarily increased.
3. Two-year-old heifers produce more
internal fat and carcass waste than year-
ling heifers and calves, and compare less
favorably with steers of the same age than
do the younger heifers.
4. In tests at the Nebraska and Cali-
fornia stations, spaying neither increased
the rate and economy of gain nor im-
proved dressing percentage. Any advan-
tage from spaying comes through the
guarantee that heifers are not bred, or
from convenience in allowing market
Section V— Page 26
heifers to graze with the general herd on
the range.
5. In quality and palatability, heifer
beef is equal to steer beef.
Thin cows and bulls, if healthy and
not too old, will make heavy gains on
good pasture or in the feed lot. They are
not, however, nearly so efficient as young
growing animals or mature steers in beef
production, and require a wider margin
between feeder and fat prices. Sometimes,
especially during the fall, thin range cows
and bulls can be purchased cheaply. Pa-
cific Coast markets for slaughter cows
and bulls are relatively strong and con-
stant. Under such conditions the feeder
who knows his markets, is a good judge
of these classes of cattle, and has plenty
of cheap feeds, can often purchase feeder
cows and bulls to advantage. Rarely, if
ever, does it pay, however, to use heavy
amounts of high-priced feeds for fattening
cows or bulls. When plenty of good pas-
ture is available, opportunity for profit
from purchasing feeder cows is increased
if the cows produce calves that will fatten
as veal early enough in the season to per-
mit the cows to fatten after the veal is
sold. In the purchase of cows for feeding
on ranches that maintain breeding herds,
the danger of introducing Bang's and
other diseases should be seriously con-
sidered.
Feeder and Market Grades. The
different grades of feeder cattle are illus-
trated in figure 16 (II). Those in grade
1, 2, and the top of grade 3 are low-set,
thick-fleshed, deep- and wide-bodied ani-
mals having plenty of capacity, moderate-
sized bone, short, wide heads, quiet
disposition, and good weight for age.
Animals of these grades can be depended
upon to gain rapidly and economically,
and to finish readily as calves, yearlings,
or two-year-olds; they are also the first
to fatten on range or other pasture. They
meet a wide market demand when prop-
erly finished and are the most desirable
kinds to breed and raise, because of their
wide adaptability. The top of grade 2 and
grade 1 animals can, with sufficient finish,
attain prime slaughter grade and easily
and efficiently reach the choice grade. For
California markets the producer is usu-
ally justified in feeding such cattle until
they are in choice to prime slaughter con-
dition.
As a rule the finer-boned, slimmer-
bodied kinds illustrated by grade 3 and
3- in figure 16 (II) gain less well. They
produce trim, tidy carcasses, however,
and are usually fed to good to choice
slaughter grade.
Large, coarse, rough, and heavy-boned
animals may also be classed in the top
of grade 4 and the lower end of grade 3.
Such cattle may make large gains, but
are slow in maturing; when fed at an
early age, they tend to grow rather than
to fatten. As long yearlings and two-year-
olds, such cattle often can be used to
advantage in marketing large amounts of
cheap roughage with moderate amounts
of concentrates. The carcasses are apt to
be wasteful and unattractive. It rarely
pays to attempt to fatten them in excess
of requirements for the good to choice
grade.
Grade 4, or medium and common feed-
ers, are plain, leggy, shallow bodied, flat
ribbed, light muscled, long necked, and
narrow headed. Often they have nervous
dispositions, lack feed capacity, and make
light gains. They are capable of economi-
cally making only commercial or good-
grade slaughter cattle, depending on age
at marketing.
The slaughter grades referred to above
are the 1951 revised designations. See
footnote table 5 (II) for brief description.
Trials at the Illinois Agricultural Ex-
periment Station (table 30, V) show the
difference in the grain (corn) required
to bring to choice or to good slaughter
condition various grades of feeder cattle.
For practical purposes, the amount of
fat required of a good-grade carcass is
sufficient to make very desirable beef. The
excess fattening required for the higher
grades improves the quality of the lean
Page 27— Section V
TABLE 30 (V)
[Relation between Feeder Grade and Feed Required to Reach Choice and Good
Slaughter Condition
Initial feeder grade and final slaughter
Bushels corn required
Per cent of fat in carcass
condition *
First trial
Second trial
First trial
Second trial
Choice feeder to Choice slaughter
44.4
24.7
31.5
35.7
36.1
40.2
19.8
35.1
55.8
35.2
41.4
34.1
25.2
27.4
28.8
27.3
33.2
25 8
Good feeder to Good slaughter
28.7
34.5
28
25 9
* Slaughter grade designations are those employed before January 1, 1951.
only to a limited extent and is wasteful,
both because of the feed required and
because of the fat that goes into trim-
mings and the garbage pail. As the data
show, the corn required to put one choice
feeder steer into choice slaughter condi-
tion would finish two choice feeder steers
to good slaughter condition. The lower
the grade of feeder, the more feed is re-
quired to reach the higher grades. Many
lower-grade steers, even if sufficiently fat,
will not make the higher grades because
of defects in conformation.
An experienced buyer and feeder who
understands the limitations of the lower
grades can sometimes realize more profit
from them than from the upper grades.
Frequently the margin between feeder
and slaughter price is wide enough, on
this class of cattle, to permit profitable
feeding when a greater demand for better
kinds makes the margin too narrow. For
the breeder and grower, however, the
poorer grades always represent a poor
investment.
Length of Feeding Period. If cattle
are fed to a very high degree of finish,
gains become much more expensive dur-
ing the latter part of the feeding period.
Gains at this stage consist more of fat
and less of water, feed consumption per
unit of animal weight is lessened, and less
of the feed consumed can be used for
building body tissues. Although some fat
is necessary to give proper flavor, exces-
sively fat animals are an economic loss.
Less-fat animals utilize the producers'
feed more efficiently; and cuts of meat
that are only moderately fat cause less
waste to the consumer.
Feeding Practices. Sorting of cattle,
preparation and mixing of feeds, regu-
larity of feeding, and contentment of ani-
mals, all affect the rate and economy of
gains in both pasture and feed lot.
Sorting: Many feeders pay dearly for
the practice of feeding and selling cattle
in a "run-of-the-mill" fashion. There is
much to be gained through proper sorting,
especially if large numbers are involved
and if the weight, quality, condition, and
class vary considerably. Where practica-
ble, the sorting of light cattle from heavy,
horned from hornless, steers from heifers,
and better quality from inferior, with the .
placing of the nervous, "high-headed"
The following tabulation indicates the approximate dressing percentages of slaughter cattle in
relation to slaughter grades. The tabulation is based on grade designations effective prior to
January, 1951, but should apply also to the corresponding 1951 grade designations.
Dressing percentages
Steers and heifers, grade
Cows, grade
63-60
Choice
60-57
Good
57-54
Commercial
Good
54-50
Utility
Commercial
50-35
Cutters and
canners
Section V— Page 28
kind by themselves, will bring beneficial
results. Some cattle gain poorly, not be-
cause of type, breeding, or quality, but
because of disease, parasites, or injury.
These "poor doers" should be segregated,
fed separately, and sold at the earliest op-
portunity. After such sorting, the feeder
can better adjust the kind and amount of
feed to be used, according to the appetite
and efficiency of the cattle. Less trouble
will be experienced with overeating, un-
dereating, or going off feed. One great
advantage in sorting comes at market
time. All lots must not be disturbed every
time a sale is made. Well-sorted cattle are
always more attractive to the buyer. Both
the upper and the lower grades look better
when segregated. Only to a very limited
degree can good cattle be expected to
promote the sale of poor ones. Finally,
if the feeder does not have his cattle
sorted, the buyer will sort them for him,
often to his disadvantage.
Mixing of feeds: Grinding and chop-
ping feeds are discussed under "Nutrient
Requirements and Cattle Feeds," Section
III. The desire to feed concentrates
and roughages mixed together is the chief
reason why many feeders prefer chopped
or ground hay. Other feeders choose to
feed concentrates and roughages sepa-
rately. Both methods have their advan-
tages and limitations. Where the operator
depends upon hired help to feed large
numbers of cattle, the mixing of all feeds
together is somewhat safer, with less dan-
ger that the cattle may receive too much
concentrate; and labor cost also is re-
duced. The advocates of feeding concen-
trates and roughages separately declare
that by so doing they can more nearly
judge the appetite of the cattle for con-
centrates as compared with roughages
and can thus better regulate percentages
in a ration. Further, they can more con-
veniently adjust the percentages of each
class of feed for different lots of cattle.
The separation of concentrates and rough-
ages also permits one to offer the two
classes of feeds at different times of the
day. The careful and experienced feeder
with small numbers of cattle can undoubt-
edly feed more accurately and with
greater control by giving concentrates
separately from roughages.
Regularity of feeding: Concentrates
must be given with great care. One seri-
ous mistake may cancel a week's gain.
Concentrates should be introduced into
a ration slowly and cautiously, particu-
larly when cattle have not been used to
them. Feeder cattle that have received
concentrate supplements in their stocker
stage start on feed more readily and are
quieter and easier to handle. If cattle are
brought to a strange feed lot and are en-
tirely unaccustomed to concentrates, it is
well to feed them on roughage alone for
two or three days before starting the con-
centrates. In separate feeding of concen-
trates, V2 to % pound at a time may be
given to calves or light yearlings for the
first four or five feeds. Older and heavier
cattle may be started on % to 1 pound.
Initial amounts can be a little greater if
the cattle are used to concentrates.
All increases in concentrated feeds
should be made gradually and only as
the animals will clean up their feed read-
ily without digestive disturbances. Trou-
ble can often be avoided by making more
frequent and smaller increases rather
than fewer and greater increases. The
amount of increase and the time required
to bring the cattle to full feed must de-
pend upon the stockman's judgment. Few
lots react alike to a given ration.
If cattle go "off feed"— refuse to clean
up their ration, or have such digestive
disturbances as scouring or bloat— the ra-
tion should be reduced, and more dry
roughage and less concentrates used for
a few days. If only a few animals have
difficulty, they should be segregated from
the others. If many go off feed or show
digestive disturbances, something is seri-
ously wrong with the ration, the method
of feeding, or both.
At no time during the feeding period
should any radical changes be made, in
Page 29— Section V
Fig. 34 (V) . An economical type of feed-bunk construction for convenient feeding of silage, cut
mixtures, wet beet pulp, or wet brewers' grains. In the right background is a mound built to reduce
muddy feed-lot conditions.
either the kind or the amount of concen-
trates or roughages. Many lots of cattle
suffer severe setbacks from such proce-
dure. Changes in feed or too sudden in-
creases lead to digestive disturbances and,
in cattle having latent coccidiosis, may
bring on acute symptoms, such as scour-
ing, bloody mucus in the manure, and,
in severe cases, fresh blood from the rec-
tum. Segregating such animals to mini-
mize spread of infection and feeding them
exclusively on dry hay is practical.
Fattening cattle require clean, fresh
feed and should not be required to eat
anything once refused or dirty. Use such
feed for stock cattle or other animals not
being fattened for market.
When all concentrates and roughages
are fed in a cut mixture, concentrates may
compose a slightly greater percentage of
the total feed at the start than where these
two classes of feeds are given separately.
With cut mixtures, however, it is always
safer to employ a series of different mix-
tures for bringing the cattle to full feed.
An alternative is to limit at first, and
gradually increase the allowance of a sin-
gle mix. Cattle coming directly from rich
pasture go on feed rapidly; those which
Concentrates (per cent of total mix)
Roughages (per cent of total mix)....
have been losing weight on poor feed
must be handled more carefully. The
schedule illustrating how rations of cut
mixtures can be changed gradually in
four stages is shown at the bottom of the
page.
Content ment of animals: Fattening
cattle that are comfortable and contented
utilize their feed better and gain faster
at less cost. The following suggestions are
for the inexperienced cattle feeder:
1. Limit the number of cattle to be fed to-
gether to 75, preferably 50 or 60, head.
2. Provide at least 2 feet of space at the feed
troughs for young cattle and about 2% to 3 feet
for mature ones.
3. Always handle cattle quietly, with as little
commotion as possible.
4. In the feed lot, provide liberal bedding of
straw when necessary for comfort. The straw
will help to retain much of the fertilizer value
of the liquid portion of the manure.
5. In the absence of sheds, windbreaks are a
decided protection against cold, driving rains.
Shade promotes contentment in hot weather.
6. Mud is the bane of many an operator who
feeds cattle in the rainy season: it often presents
a difficult problem. Mud is more detrimental
when it occurs in the latter, and more expensive,
part of the fattening period. It affects gains on
calves and yearlings sooner than on older cattle.
These points are important when one is plan-
ning the season of feeding.
Mix 1
. 20
. 80
Mix 2
40
60
Mix 3
50
50
Mix 4
60-70
40-30
Section V— Page 30
Fattening cattle will withstand much if they
can find a reasonably dry, or at least firm, spot
in which to lie down. When they are forced to
wade through deep mire for prolonged periods,
with no good spot for rest, gains are sharply
reduced and sometimes disappear. Mud-covered
cattle may be discounted by the buyer, and the
loss further increased.
In locating the feed lot, one should take ad-
vantage of any sandy, gravelly soil or rocky
knolls. On flat ground the building of mounds
in the lots (figure 34, V) helps to some extent.
Often, especially with small numbers, cattle
may have separate bed grounds adjoining the
feeding corral. Such lots, when kept well bedded
with straw, will be a welcome change to the
animals for a few hours each day. On some
farms, barns or sheds constructed for other pur-
poses can be converted at little expense into
feeding and bedding places during inclement
weather. The cattle feeder who finds it neces-
sary or feasible to fatten cattle each year in wet
feed yards may well investigate the advisability
of paving a portion of his feed lots if other
means of combating the mud problem are not
satisfactory.
The minimum space for fattening cattle is
100 to 125 square feet per animal. Twenty-five
to 30 square feet that can be bedded under a
shed in addition to 75 to 100 square feet of lot
space per head is ample. An inexpensive shed
bedded with straw and a paved lot may be a
cheaper and more permanent solution of the
mud problem than graveling larger areas or
building mounds, especially on heavy, poorly
drained soils. This arrangement also protects
feed from rain and conserves manure.
Production and conservation of
manure. Studies cited by Morrison (6)
indicate that manure production from
fattening cattle, including bedding, is
about % ton per month. In California
trials, extending over a 210-day period
with fattening calves, about % ton of
bedding was used per animal. Including
this bedding, about 3 tons of manure
(as hauled) or 1.6 tons of air-dry ma-
nure were produced by each steer. This
amounts to 460 pounds per month. For
two-year-old cattle, about 700 pounds
per month would be a fair estimate.
On a wet basis, these figures agree
well with Morrison's data. Since more
than half the nitrogen excreted is in the
urine, use of bedding is particularly im-
portant in conserving this valuable fer-
tilizer constituent. When animals are
bedded under a shed, it is usually unneces-
sary to clean out the manure during an
ordinary feeding period if there is always
a liberal bedding of fresh straw. Manure
leached by rain loses much of its fertilizer
value. Some convenient feed-lot equip-
ment is shown in figure 35 (V) .
Necessary Margin or Spread
If feeder cattle are purchased or valued
at $7 per hundredweight and must sell
when fat at $9 in order for the owner to
"break even" on the feeding enterprise,
the difference of $2 is the necessary mar-
gin or spread. The discussion that follows
shows the principal reasons for the wide
variation in the margin necessary for
cattle-fattening operations.
In pasture fattening of cattle the cost
of producing 100 pounds gain is often
less than the sale price per hundredweight
of the cattle when fat and sometimes less
than the value per hundredweight at the
beginning of the feeding period. In feed-
lot fattening of cattle, however, the cost
of producing 100 pounds gain usually
exceeds the selling price per hundred-
weight, and profit must be derived from
enhancing the value of the feeder weight.
Under very favorable price relations be-
tween cattle and feed and when good gains
are made, the cost of 100 pounds gain
in the feed lot may be less than the selling
price of the cattle.
In computing the cost of producing
gain, one must consider numerous items.
The major item is the feed. Other items
are labor, interest, depreciation, taxes,
mortality risk, transportation, and mar-
keting costs. Many cattle feeders consider
the value of the fertilizer produced by the
cattle to be equal to the labor charge. In
some instances fertilizer credit may offset
other minor costs in addition to labor.
When considered separately and in-
dependently, the effect of each of the
principal factors on cost of gain and
consequent necessary margin is as fol-
lows.
Page 31— Section V
tig. 35 (V) . Upper: The feeding shed is located to permit good drainage. It provides feed storage
space, shelter for animals in wet weather, and shade in hot weather. Center: The movable grain
bunk is sturdy and convenient for use where concentrates and roughages are fed separately. Lower:
The stanchion-type hay rack is built in sections and can be readily moved. This type of rack reduces
waste of hay to a minimum.
Section V— Page 32
1. A greater cost or value of the feeder
cattle per hundredweight tends to lessen
the necessary margin because the original
cost more nearly approaches the cost of
producing gain.
2. A greater weight of the animals as
feeders tends to reduce the necessary mar-
gin because more pounds of original
weight are sold at the final price. Any
advantage from greater weight of older
animals may, however, be more than off-
set by their requirement of more feed to
produce gain than younger or lighter
animals.
3. The production of maximum gain
from each unit of feed can effectively aid
in lowering the necessary margin. The
stockman's judgment and skill can influ-
ence this important item more than any
other.
4. A lower cost for feed per ton of
digestible nutrients and a smaller over-
head cost obviously tend to reduce the
necessary margin.
The manner in which all these factors
combine will finally decide the necessary
margin in fattening cattle.
Since prices of feeder cattle and feed
are the most variable among the impor-
tant factors governing necessary margin,
table 31 (V) was compiled to show how
greatly these two factors do affect the
margin. To arrive at the margins shown
in the table, the following constants were
arbitrarily selected:
It was assumed that a 700-pound steer
was fed for 150 days, made an average
net daily gain of 2 pounds, and attained
a net sale weight of 1,000 pounds when
fat. His average weight during the feed-
ing period was 850 pounds, and he con-
sumed daily 3 pounds of concentrates and
dry roughage per 100 pounds of average
weight. The assumed rate of gain and
feed consumption are based on numerous
actual records of fattening cattle under
practical feed-lot conditions.
In computing costs and determining
the different required margins shown in
table 31 (V) , the charges included cost of
the steer, cost of feed, and interest on the
purchase cost of the steer for 5 months
at 6 per cent. Charges did not include
such items as death loss, equipment costs,
taxes, and labor; nor was any credit al-
lowed for manure.
Table 31 (V) brings out three signifi-
cant points, long recognized by experi-
enced cattle feeders :
1. The most favorable situation in re-
spect to necessary margin is when the
feeder-cattle market is relatively high and
TABLE 31 (V)
The Effect of Varying Prices of Feeder Cattle and Feed on Necessary Margin 1
(All prices shown in dollars)
Cost of feed
Necessary margin
at a given
cost of feeder cattle per hundredweight
per ton
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
10.00
0.78
1.17
1.55
1.93
2.31
2.70
3.08
3.46
3.84
4.23
4.61
0.50
0.88
1.27
1.65
2.03
2.41
2.80
3.18
3.56
3.94
4.33
0.22
0.60
0.98
1.37
1.75
2.13
2.51
2.90
3.28
3.66
4.04
-0.07
0.32
0.70
1.08
1.47
1.85
2.23
2.61
3.00
3.36
3.76
-0.35
0.04
0.42
0.80
1.18
1.57
1.95
2.33
2.71
3.10
3.48
-0.63
-0.25
0.14
0.52
0.90
1.28
1.67
2.05
2.43
2.81
3.20
-0.91
-0.53
-0.15
0.24
0.62
1.00
1.38
1.77
2.15
2.53
2.91
-1.20
-0.81
-0.43
-0.05
0.34
0.72
1.10
1.48
1.87
2.25
2.63
-1.48
12.00 . . .
-1.09
14.00
-0.71
16.00
-0.33
18.00 :*
0.05
20.00
0.44
22.00
0.82
24.00. ..
1.20
26.00
1.58
28.00
1.97
30.00
2.35
* Necessary margins shown in the table are based on the following assumptions: A 700-pound feeder steer, fed 150
days to attain 1,000 pounds' weight after consuming feed at the rate of 3 pounds daily per 100 pounds' live weight or
a total of 3,825 pounds of feed. Charges include the cost of the steer, 6 per cent interest on that cost, and the cost of
the feed, but they do not include such items as labor, equipment costs, mortality, and taxes.
Page 33— Section V
the prices of feeds are very low. If under
these conditions, good feeding practices
are followed, even feed-lot operations
sometimes show a profit when no margin
exists between the price paid for feeder
cattle and their sale price when they are
fat.
2. More margin is required when the
price levels of both feeder cattle and feeds
are low than when the feeder-cattle mar-
ket is high and feed market is low. Less
margin is necessary, however, when both
feeder cattle and feeds are low in price
than when both are high.
3. The least favorable situation of all
in respect to necessary margin is to have
a low feeder-cattle market and high-priced
feeds. When such a price relation pre-
vails, a margin of $4 per hundredweight,
or even more, may not enable the feeding
enterprise to break even.
By careful planning to bring proper
adjustment between feeds to be used, cat-
tle to be fed, and feeding practices to be
employed, the stockman can often mate-
rially reduce his necessary margin and
enhance his chance for greater profit.
Such planning calls for a knowledge of
the adaptability, requirements, and lim-
itations of the various classes and grades
of cattle. It necessitates an understanding
of feeds and their values and requires
good business judgment. The information
and recommendations in this circular
will serve as reference material for the
operator who is planning a cattle-feeding
program adapted to his own ranch or
feed-lot conditions.
The Dressed Product
The ultimate aim of livestock produc-
ers should be the economical production
and wide distribution of the kinds and
qualities of meats that not only fulfill
broad consumer demand and physiologi-
cal needs, but also contribute to real gas-
tronomical satisfaction.
According to studies made in this coun-
try before 1941, the annual consumption
of meat per person varied from 94 pounds
in families with an income of less than
$500 a year to as much as 250 pounds
for families with incomes of $5,000 a
year. High employment and purchasing
power greatly increase demand. Thus,
the industry must be able to adjust pro-
duction costs and methods with changing
economic conditions if meat is to main-
tain a reasonably stable level in the aver-
age dietary.
Beef Cuts and Their Uses. Figure
36 (V) shows the location of wholesale
and retail cuts to be found in the beef
carcass. The identification of each cut, its
approximate percentage of the carcass
weight, and its principal uses are shown
in the tabulation which appears on the
following page.
Fig. 36 (V) . Wholesale and retail cuts of beef carcass. For identification of cuts see the accom-
panying tabulation. (Chart prepared by United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agri-
cultural Economics, Division of Livestock, Meats, and Wool.)
Section V— Page 34
Wholesale Percentage
cuts of carcass
1. Hind shank 4.0
2. Round 15.0
3. Rump 5.0
4. Loin end 7.0
5. Short loin 13.5
6. Flank 3.5
7. Rib 9.5
8. Trimmed chuck 17.0
9. Neck 5.0
10. Fore shank 5.5
11. Brisket 6.5
12. Plate 8.5
Retail cuts and
principal uses
1 to 3, soup bones ; 4, hock.
1 to 14, round steaks; 15, heel for pot-roasting or
corning.
Steaks or roasts.
1 to 6, sirloin steaks.
1 to 3, club or Delmonico steaks; 4 to 11, Porter-
house steaks. (Kidney knob, 3 per cent, included
with short loin.)
1, flank steak; 2, stews or hamburger.
1 to 4, rib roasts ; 5, short ribs.
1 and 2, bottom chuck pot roasts; 3 and 4, top chuck
pot roasts; 5 to 7, chuck rib roasts and pot roasts.
1, boneless pot roasts, stews, or hamburger.
1 to 3, soup bones; 4, shoulder clod (small pot
roast).
1, stews, boiling meat, or corned beef.
1, stews, boiling meat, corned beef; 2, short ribs.
Value of Meat in the Diet. The fac-
tors that influence the quality of dressed
beef are important to producers in plan-
ning their production programs.
Meat is the nucleus of well-balanced
meals. Its value and place in the human
diet may be summarized as follows :
1. Meats are rich in proteins having
high biological and supplementary value
for cereal and other vegetable proteins.
The average serving provides more pro-
tein than any other article in the diet.
2. The average serving of meat ranks
high among other foods as a source of
energy.
3. Meats head the list of foods in
amount of phosphorus, iron, and copper,
but are low in calcium. Liver contains
substances other than copper and iron
that are valuable for relieving anemia.
4. Lean meat contains liberal amounts
of the vitamin-B complex. Fresh lean meat
contains enough vitamin C to prevent
scurvy. Liver is a rich source of vitamin
A and supplies all known vitamins.
5.- Meat is 95 to 98 per cent digestible.
It contains nitrogenous extractives that
stimulate appetite and digestion, contrib-
ute to the flavor of meat, and hence in-
crease the pleasure of eating.
Beef is more variable than pork or lamb
because of the greater difference in age
and condition of the animals. There is
also more difference in tenderness of vari-
ous parts of the beef carcass. Demands
of different classes of consumers vary. In
buying beef the consumer considers pro-
portion of meat to bone, relation of lean
to fat, distribution of fat and lean, color
and texture of fat, lean, and bone. To the
average consumer tenderness is the first
consideration in satisfaction of eating,
and normal variations in flavor rank sec-
ond. If flavor happens to be disagreeable
through spoilage or other causes, flavor
then is paramount. Breeding, feeding,
age, sex, methods of slaughtering, curing
and ripening, and manner of cooking all
influence the desirability of the product.
Tenderness. The degree of tenderness
of beef depends on the amount of con-
nective tissue. Tenderness decreases with
age and presumably with exercise. In
calves the muscle-fiber bundles are small,
giving fine texture, whereas in mature
animals they are larger and the surround-
ing connective tissue becomes thicker,
producing coarser "grain." Deposition of
fat in and between these connective tissues
disperses them and increases tenderness.
Continuous growth and development
contribute to tenderness. The animal so
grown not only is younger when marketed
but perhaps develops less connective tis-
sue than cattle which are subjected to
alternate gains and losses. Quin (7) in
South Africa reported that as animals be-
come thin and emaciated through semi-
Page 35— Section V
starvation during drought periods, the
fat, including that interspersed through
the muscles (marbling) , disappears. Next,
the animal is forced to start feeding on
its own flesh to protect and nourish the
more vital systems. As this muscle atro-
phy or wastage progresses, the amount
of connective tissue increases through the
remaining muscle and thereby causes
toughness. During subsequent periods of
feed abundance the animal may fatten,
but largely outside the muscle ; the inter-
nal structure of the muscle shows a net-
work of fibrotic scar tissue of the previous
dry or winter season. It then appears
marbled with connective tissue instead of
fat. This condition reduces palatability,
digestibility, and therefore food value.
In Quin's opinion, prevention of these
periods of excessive weight losses and
muscle wastage would help solve the
tough-meat problem.
To attain the same degree of tender-
ness, older animals must be fattened more
than younger ones. There are two types
of connective tissue— yellow and white.
When cooked with moist heat, white con-
nective tissue changes to gelatin, and thus
increases in tenderness. Supporting mus-
cles, such as the back and loin, are more
tender than the muscles of locomotion.
The retailer separates the cuts on this
general basis. The more tender cuts are
used for steaks, chops, and roasts that
are cooked with dry heat. The less tender
cuts are made tender by moist heat, such
as boiling or pot-roasting. Enzyme action
that occurs in the tissues while aging in
the cooler increases tenderness and im-
proves flavor. The extent to which beef
can be aged depends largely on the degree
of fatness; fat protects the surface of the
carcass from molds and from bacterial
action.
In studies at the Kansas Station, beef
produced on phosphorus-deficient pasture
or feed-lot rations proved inferior in
keeping quality, shrinkage, and palatabil-
ity. The low-phosphorus rations caused
changes in relative amounts of phospho-
rus, calcium, and nitrogen, especially in
the fat. The tissues became more perme-
able. More juice could be pressed out.
These conditions of increased permeabil-
ity and higher moisture losses were asso-
ciated with earlier spoilage and hence
limited the aging period.
Flavor. Beef flavor is affected by age,
sex, finish, aging or curing, cooking, and
seasoning. Intensity of flavor increases
with age from veal to mature beef. Flavor
is affected by fat, particularly that inter-
spersed with the lean (marbling). The
flavor of the lean is due in large measure
to the meat extractives (the water-soluble
materials that are found in broth) . Feeds
usually play only a very minor role in
beef flavor except as they govern degree
of fatness. Juiciness is important in flavor.
Well-finished beef will remain juicy and
hence better flavored than poorly finished
beef.
The amount of "watering off" both in
cooking and in the butcher's tray depends
not only on finish, but also on the amount
of glycogen in the muscles at time of
slaughter. During the changes in the mus-
cle ending in rigor mortis, glycogen is
converted to lactic acid, lowering the pH.
Low glycogen content caused by fatigue
and lack of feed before slaughter results
in higher pH (less acid), a more closed
structure of the meat, and less tendency
to "weep." This, within limits, may be
desirable for the tender cuts, but is un-
favorable toward tenderizing during ag-
ing. Moreover, higher acidity inhibits
bacteria and molds and increases resist-
ance to spoilage.
Color of the Lean. The color of lean
beef is due primarily to muscle hemo-
globin (iron-containing red coloring mat-
ter), but the brightness is modified by
the amount and distribution of fat in
the lean. Muscle hemoglobin increases
with age and presumably with exercise.
Whereas veal is very light, the meat from
bulls and from aged cows is dark. The
amount of muscle hemoglobin bears no
relation to the hemoglobin in the blood.
Section V— Page 36
Although exercise perhaps affects the
color of the lean, it apparently is a minor
factor under practical conditions. At the
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station,
exercise equivalent to traveling more than
7 miles daily during fattening failed to
change the color of lean beef materially.
Although grass-fed cattle are commonly
thought to kill darker than feed-lot cattle,
experiments at the Virginia Station re-
vealed no difference when grass-fed and
feed-lot cattle had equal finish. Similarly
no practical difference was found by the
Kansas Station, although delicate anal-
yses revealed slightly more muscle hemo-
globin in pasture-fed cattle.
The freshly cut surface of beef is dark,
similar to venous blood. Upon exposure
to air it brightens to resemble arterial
blood. This brightening is rapid for 30
minutes and continues for as much as
3 hours. After this time it may darken
again permanently, owing to decomposi-
tion of the hemoglobin.
In some carcasses the cut surface of
the "eye of beef" or other muscles fails
to brighten and may be almost black. This
condition is known in the trade as "dark"
or "black cutters." It may occur even in
young, well-bred, and well-finished ani-
mals. It is commonly said to be caused
by overheating, excitement, and exercise
before slaughtering, or by improper
bleeding. The condition is not predictable
before slaughter. Because of its appear-
ance, sales are induced by sacrifice in
grade and price. Chicago packers have
estimated their combined yearly loss at
one million dollars. Considerable investi-
gational work has been done on the prob-
lem by experiment stations and by a
committee of the National Livestock and
Meat Board. The findings are reviewed
in Kansas Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion Technical Bulletin 58 (8).
The conclusion has been reached that
dark-cutting beef is caused by deficiency
of glycogen (animal starch) in the tissue
at the time of slaughter. The dark beef
is low in lactic acid and sugar (glucose) ,
contains practically no glycogen, and has
a high rate of oxygen uptake, which keeps
the muscle hemoglobin reduced to the
dark venous form. The environmental or
individual variations responsible are still
imperfectly understood. The condition
may be produced by insulin injections
that deplete carbohydrate reserves and
cause shock. It appears to be promoted
by starvation for 3 days, such as fre-
quently occurs in shipment, particularly
if followed by extreme fatigue, induced
by sudden exposure to low temperature
and shivering. It appears to be more com-
mon in nervous animals and in those
having little exercise during fattening.
Such animals may be more subject to
shock under starvation and drastic en-
vironmental changes. Although the trou-
ble occurs in California, it appears to be
less important there than on the midwest-
ern markets.
Color of the Fat. Yellow color of beef
fat is caused by deposition of carotene,
the precursor of vitamin A. Carotene can-
not be formed in the animal body; it must
be obtained from plant sources. It is pres-
ent in all green plant tissue and in yellow
roots.
The amount of carotene in the fat of
cattle depends on: (a) the carotene con-
tent of the feed, (b) hereditary variation
that limits its storage, and (c) storage as
affected by the age of the animal. Green
pasture is rich in carotene and hence
tends to produce the most color in beef
fat. Even the best-cured hays have lost
a high percentage of this constituent ; thus
they have less tendency to produce yellow
fat. Grains, oil meals, and other concen-
trates are all low in carotene.
The meat trade frequently associates
yellow color with "cake"-fed cattle. Cot-
tonseed cake contains no carotene, how-
ever, and a ration of cottonseed cake and
hulls produces white fat. Cake-fed cattle
often are "warmed up" on grass or fed
for a short time on dry forage, and they
commonly retain the yellow color accu-
mulated during the green-feed season.
Page 37— Section V
The calf at birth contains no carotene,
regardless of the mother's feed. Storage
increases with age, so that under the same
feed conditions yearlings have less fat
color than two-year-olds, and they in turn
less than mature cattle. On the same feeds,
Jersey and Guernsey cattle store more
carotene in their fat tissues and secrete
more in their milk than Holstein or beef
breeds. The latter change more of the
carotene to colorless vitamin A. Individ-
ual variations with respect to fat color
occur within breeds.
Old cows and grass-fed cattle which
often are not well finished are most likely
to have yellow fat. Hence, this color was
thought to indicate poor quality, and
there has been prejudice against it, al-
though it is the same color that is highly
prized in cream and butter. The carcasses
of young well-finished cattle may be yel-
low if the animals have had feeds high
in carotene. On the other hand, dairy
cattle fed exclusively on feeds lacking in
carotene have white fat. Color is therefore
not a reliable index of quality. Yellow fat,
though often coincidental with lower
grades, is not necessarily associated with
soft fat or any other condition affecting
desirability. In view of these facts, color
should be minimized in beef grading.
Discrimination against yellowness may
be unfortunate for both consumers and
producers. Often the latter can economi-
cally produce high-quality beef in other
respects by utilizing pasture and forages
that are cured to retain highest nutritive
value. Although the prejudice has been
difficult to overcome, it is now gradually
disappearing.
Fattening. Fattening occurs in three
overlapping phases : first, around the kid-
neys and internal organs; second, over
the surface of the muscles; third, in the
lean tissues. Cattle poorly bred for beef
cannot readily or economically be brought
to the final stage. They tend to become
wasteful in internal and external fat with-
out distributing it evenly over the body
and through the lean. The tendency for
marbling and fine texture of lean is hered-
itary. Fattening increases yield, tender-
ness, flavor, and to a slight extent the
proportion of hindquarter to forequarter.
Adequate finish protects the carcass in
the cooler and permits aging. It increases
juiciness and decreases moisture loss in
cooking. Excessive fat does not improve
flavor; it is uneconomical to produce and
largely goes into garbage.
Some of the results of cooperative in-
vestigations between experiment stations
and the National Livestock and Meat
Board on quality and palatability of beef
are summarized as follows:
No important differences were found
in quality or palatability of meat from
different beef breeds. The chief differ-
ences between meat from cattle of im-
proved and unimproved breeding, fed
similarly, were found to be in weight for
age, in yield, and in appearance of the
carcasses. Heifer and steer beef were
found equal in palatability.
Various practical balanced rations
comparing, for example, corn with wheat,
cottonseed meal with linseed meal, and
hay with silage, have not, in general,
much affected the palatability of the re-
sultant meat. Beef from three-year-old
steers fed 8 pounds of grain daily on good
pasture was fatter and more attractive but
only slightly more palatable than the beef
from steers fed on good pasture alone.
Apparently the color, tenderness, and de-
sirability of lean depend more upon other
factors than upon the amount and char-
acter of the grass or grasses that the ani-
mal has eaten.
Heifer beef proved definitely more ten-
der than beef from cows five years old
or over, although there were no marked
differences between them in flavor or juic-
iness. On the other hand, roasts from
fattened two-year-old and yearling steers,
though more palatable in general than
roasts from fattened calves, showed no
significant differences in tenderness. Dis-
tribution of fat through the lean was more
satisfactory in beef from yearling and
Section V-Page 38
two-year-old cattle than in beef from stricken pasture produced meat contain-
calves finished as short yearlings. Age of ing a most undesirable flavor and odor
the animal had little influence on the per- according to the results secured in one
centage of the various cuts of beef among trial.
fattened calves, yearlings, and two-year- Producers can control or influence the
olds. quality and desirability of the beef by
Richness of juice appeared to improve the following methods:
somewhat with increasing finish, although 1. Breeding and selecting for thick-muscled,
a highly desirable richness of juice does early-maturing cattle, which fatten readily and
. . r . , J distribute the fat evenly,
not require excessive finish. 2. Feeding to promote continuous growth.
Creep-feeding previous to weaning in- 3. Fattening at an early age or to a degree
creased the fatness, dressing percentage, adequate for particular classes, grades, and ages
storage quality, and attractiveness of the ° f ™vLrnmg at the proper time and careful
resultant beet. handling of cattle to prevent injuries and
Steers that had lost weight on drought- bruises in shipment to market.
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Guilbert, H. R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss.
The importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35.
1944.
(2) Jones, Burle J., and J. B. Brown.
Irrigated pastures in California. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 125:1-47. Revised, 1949.
(3) Cole, H. H., S. W. Mead, and Max Kleiber.
Bloat in cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 662:1-22. 1942.
(4) Kelley, C. F., and N. R. Ittner.
Artificial shades for livestock in hot climates. Agr. Engin. 29:239-42. 1948. Also unpublished
data by same authors.
(5) Guilbert, H. R., R. F. Miller, and H. Goss.
Feeding value of sugar beet by-products. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 702:1-24. 1947.
(6) Morrison, F. B.
Feeds and feeding. 1050 p. 20th ed. The Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y. 1936.
(7) Quin,J.I.
Physiological aspects of animal nutrition, locomotion, and body heat. Part I, Problem of animal
nutrition in South Africa. Farming in So. Africa 13:95-98. Mar., 1938. Part II, Influence of loco-
motion on grazing animals. Farming in So. Africa 13:149-51. Apr., 1938. Part III, Body heat
and its control. Farming in So. Africa 13:195-97. May, 1938.
(8) Loy, H. W., J. L. Hall, et al.
Quality of beef. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 58:1-86. 1944.
In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes
necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or
chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which
are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products
is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.
Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture,
University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914.
J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.
5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.
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