mmmmmmwm^ummmmmmmmmm «7^-""»ixW?!j?',r4=^''- "/ 1\^ >:^>r. W^'^ii^. '^. '-'Ik »»WWm*i«M»««'Bn»rw.>« rfif ■■ ■» \-'»v*viyr^ l i| l i|i l i'i ll f,f;rj!l ll ii l lMI WOil ^ l H IIII U l i l lltMH i mmmimm fm iMiimi^ I ^^ fciS |T^^ ■>1-.U-....SV>».>Y,.M,».>.-. n A 'R ►T ]7Tmv OF Knowledge « Hli II II ■1 1 iro mIE5. ■;'!:■: ^^HH iirtMii'^, »#«W»8ia«M^A^'«^ h LIBRARY • OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN IN MEMORY OF HENRY WOLFSOHN 'jB^sjEs:ss^s2 lo^ THE DELUGE. — LAST POINT OF LAND ABOVE THE WATERa DRAWN BY GUSTAVH DOR^. *' Infinite Riches and Mnch Learning in a Little Space/^ CARLETON'S TREASURY. A VALUABLE HAND-BOOK OF GENERAL INFORMATION. AND A CONDENSED ENCYCLOPEDIA OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE, BEING A REFERENCE BOOK UPON NEARLY EVERY SUBJECT THAT CAN BE THOUGHT OF. Containing, in a Condensed Form, what can otherwise be learned only from a great many large Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, etc. Including^ among other Important Subjects, whole chapters upon Astronomy, Geology. Mineralogy, Chemistry, Electricity, Vegetable Creation, Fine Arts, Jurisprudence, Ancient History, Animal Creation, Chronology, Literature, Medieval Learning, Geography, English Literature, Medieval History, British History, Modern History. WITH A COMPLETE ANALYTICAL INDEX FOR READY REFERENCE. EDITED BY THE ABLEST TALENT THE WORLD AFFORDS, And Profusely Illustrated. EIGHTEENTH EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED. <4S>. NEW YORK ; G. JV, Carleto7i & Co. SAN FRANCISCO : \SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION.] COPYKIGHT, 1881, BY G. W. CARLETON & CO. 12 S3 The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.— See page 47. ** Culture is not a Substitute for Life^ but the Key to ity — Mr. Leslie in The New Republic PREFACE. HE design of this work is to furnish, in One Volume, a Handbook of General Information, in which a compressed yet sufficiently com- prehensive account is given of all those subjects a knowledge of which could otherwise only be acquired by years of study, or after a large and varied course of reading. The best writers have been consulted as authorities in all the different branches of Science, Art, History, Literature, &c., and a resume of each subject is given under an appropriate heading. The narrative form has been preserved, and a con- secutive and progressive result is attained by beginning with the '' Origin and Cause" of all things, and follow- ing a natural sequence through the successive studies of Astronomy, Geography, Mineralogy, Chemistry, Nat- ural History, Ethnology and Chronology; then through Language and Literature, early Greek and Roman Philosophy, Mythology, and Ancient History, and so on through Medieval and Modern History, down to our own times. Modern History is made to assume a more The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.- ^See page 13. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. Viii PREFACE. interesting form, by treating that of all the European nations in a contemporaneous narrative. The depart- ments of History and Literature, especially, are full of interest, and much useful knowledge is given nnder the headings of Jurisprudence and Concluding Miscellaneous Questions. The question-and-answer form serves to define the heading and meaning of each paragraph, making the subject in hand more thoroughly outlined and more permanently arranged in the mind, by a pertinent allu- sion to its merit or its importance. This arrangement, together with a thorough Alphabetical Index, enables the reader to master the gist of any of the subjects included in the volume in a short time, and thus meets the need which is more and more felt every day, of getting the greatest amount of knowledge in the short- est possible way. The convenient shape in which the volume is pub- lished will render it a constant and useful companion ; and the Editors believe it will become a Household Friend, containing, as it does, more varied information than any other reference book of its size, and easier to consult than any encyclopaedia, for the thread of each separate subject remains unbroken until the whole story is told. '"^Z in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133. GENERAL CONTENTS. PAOl ASTRONOMY . ii GEOGRAPHY 23 GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. . . .32 CHEMISTRY— HEAT— THE ATMOSPHERE- SOUND 39 LIGHT— ELECTRICITY— MAGNETISM . . 50 MATTER AND MOTION — MECHANICS — WATER 55 THE VEGETABLE CREATION .... 64 THE ANIMAL CREATION 70 ETHNOLOGY .8a CHRONOLOGY 85 Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65, X GENERAL CONTENTS, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, &c. . . . 93 PAOl GREEK AND ROMAN PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE 102 MEDIEVAL LEARNING AND ARTS . 115 CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN LITERATURE . 122 ITALY 122 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL . . . . . . 124 FRANCE 125 GERMANY, &C. . . ... . . 130 THE NETHERLANDS, &C I34 ENGLISH LITERATURE . . . . . 136 EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS I37 EARLY SCOTTISH WRITERS ..... 139 ERA OF ELIZABETH, JAMES L, AND CHARLES I. — 1553 TO 1649 ....... 141 ERA OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE REVOLUTION 1649 TO 1689 14^ ERA OF WILLIAM IIL, ANNE, AND GEORGE L — 1689 TO 1727 148 ERA OF GEORGE II. — 1727 TO 1760 . . . . 151 ERA OF THE EARLY PART OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE IIL — 1760 TO 1800 154 ERA OF THE CONCLUSION OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III., AND REIGNS OF GEORGE IV., WILLIAM IV., AND VICTORIA — 1801 TO 1865 ... 162 Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. ^ GENERAL CONTENTS. XI PAGH LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 168 THE FINE ARTS PAINTING 169 170 SCULPTURE, &C 178 ARCHITECTURE 185 MUSIC . igc THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRU- DENCE 194 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS . . .207 HISTORICAL 219 ANCIENT HISTORY 223 THE HEBREWS 223 THE BABYLONIANS, ASSYRIANS, EGYPTIANS AND OTHERS 232 GREECE, ITS LEGENDS AND MYTHOLOGY . . 241 " , ITS CREDIBLE HISTORY .... 256 ROME ......,,, 262 MEDIEVAL HISTORY . . . . ' . .287 BRITISH HISTORY, until 1603 .... 307 " " , FROM 1603 UNTIL 1714 , . 334 ** " , FROM 1 7 14 TILL THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA . . 354 Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. Xii GENERAL CONTENTS, PAOl MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY . . 373 FRANCE UNTIL 1560 373 AUSTRIA AND SWITZERLAND 376 THE REFORMATION 380 FRANCE RESUMED . . . . . . . 385 THE NETHERLANDS 394 RUSSIA, SWEDEN, POLAND, DENMARK , » . 396 PRUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA RESUMED • . . 402 FRANCE CONCLUDED . . . • . . 4^4 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS . 421 ANALYTICAL INDEX . . . c . xiii Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. C ^ RL E T O IST'S Household Encyclopedia ANALYTICAL INDEX. Aaron, Abbasides, the Aberdeen, Aborigines, Abraham, Abulfeda, Abyla, Abyssinian Expedition, British, Academeia, Academy, origin of the word. Acclimatising of plants, Achaean League, Achaia, Acheron, Achilles, Acoustics, to whom of special importance, Acropolis, the. Act of parliament, of settlement, Action and reaction of bodies ; examples of, Actium, battle of, A. D., Adams, John, Addison, Joseph, 136, Adelung, Adhesion of bodies. Advocate, the Lord, 227 293 29 224 224 117 243 373 106 106 69 261 256 25^ 244 260 198 352 60 273 219 428 149 134 59 206 ^diles, ^neas, ^olian harp, -^olus, Aerolites ; why nous, ^schylus, ^sculapius, ^sop, ^Esthetics, Africa, 23 ; natives, their race and conditio n. Age, the Augustan, , Bronze, , Golden, , Iron, Silver, Ages, the Dark, Stone, Bronze, 228 244 249 249 lumi- 57 103, 262 104, 249 103 219 31 274 242 242 242 242 287 207 287 252 304 Iron , Middle, Aglaia, Agra, the capital of India, Agricola subdues Bri- tain, 278, 308 Ahasuerus, 235 Ahriman, 235 Ainsworth, W. H. 166 Air, deteriorated by breathing ; injurious The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. V bo William Shakspeare was Born 1564; Died 1616. — See page 143 w* CO 0) bo tiv ANALYTICAL INDEX. A. V V effects of breathing Alexander the Great, 235 1 73 bad, 42 ; when it best 236, 239 09 retains the sun's heat, Alexandra of Denmark, 1 § 47 ; how compressed ; Princess, 372 8 the science which Alexandria, 239; library 0^ CO treats of its proper- of, 292 8 j« ties, 48 ; how altered Alexandrian school, 240 5 g' by heat, 48 ; uses, 49, Alexandrines, loi « m 65 ; dry, a bad electric Alecto, 250 CO c9 vi conductor, 53 (see Alfred the Great, 314 A C Atmosphere). Alfieri, 124 4) (0 Air pump. 92 Algae, ()(i 0* u Aix-la-Chapelle, Char- Algebra, origin of, 293 3 s lemagne buried at, Algiers, bombarded by I 294 ; treaty of, 359 British fleet; taken by J3 Akenside, Mark, 153 French, 425 2 M Alani, the. 284 Algiers, Dey of, 425 ^ "5? Alaric, takes Rome, 284 Alhambra, the, 305 Uh o Albert, French Social- Alison, Sir Archibald, 167 V ist, 418 All is lost but honor, 376 (^ , Prince of Eng- All men have their R '% V land, 370 ; death of. 372 price, author of, 356 3 ^ Albert-Edward, Prince Alloys, 39 S cS of Wales, 372 Alnwick, siege of, 318 "d ll Albertus Magnus, 115 Alpheus, river, 243 g < Albi, 381 Alps, 24 CO 3 Albigenses, 380 Alto relievo, sculpture j3 •O Albion, meaning of. 307 in, 180 H ^ Albrecht I. of Austria, Aluminous soil, 35 SJ b/) 3 376, 378 Alva, Duke of, ^gc c s Alchemists, 39 A. M., 75 Alchemy, origin of, 117 Amadis of Gaul, 120 CO (0 "53 Alcibiades, 105, 260 Amazon, the river, 25 •d > Alcuin, 294 Amazons, 243 1 Alderman, origin of. 315 Amber, its electric ^ Ale, from what pre- power, 53 (U t, pared. 67 Ambrose, 115 A J Alembert, D', 406 Ambrosia, 248 »« ^ Alexander of Hales, 115 America, its distance J3 I. of Russia, 401 from Europe ; its ex- c I. of Scotland, 319 tent ; wily called the II. of Scotland, 319 New World ; its dis- (4 3 3 .2 III. of Scotland, 319 coverers, 31 ; Cabot, a. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330 Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. o AJVAZ YTICAL INDEX. A. XV Columbus, Vespucci, Anchises, 244 CO 1 31, 306 ; origin of the Ancient History, 219 1^ name, 307 ; United literature, of what « States of, 362 it consists, 94 o America, North, 23 ; Andes, 24 03 rivers, 26 ; lakes, 26 ; Angelo, Michael, 171, 172 s people, 31 ; principal Angles ; the, 311 ; ar- o countries, 31 ; chief rive in England, 312 CO towns, 31 Anglo-Saxon race, Z^ \ (0 America, South, 23, 31 ; origin of term, 312 ; people ; principal kingdoms, 312 ; insti- iS countries, 31 ; re- tutions ; distinctions at markable for volca- of rank, 315 ; serf- 1 noes, 37 dom, 316 c American Declaration Aniello, Tommaso, .s of Independence, 362 Animal creation (see «r American Indian race, Zt, Animals), 70 1 ' Literature, 168 Animal kingdom (see £ writers, the more Animals), 70 t»4 eminent, 169 Animal painting, 170 o Stamp Act, 361 Animalcules, 74, 75 Animals, ideas that first •3 ment of, 362 occur to the mind o O modern opinion of, 363 concerning, 70 ; the American war, 181 2- lower, what meant 1814, 367 by ; prey on each '^ Amerigo Vespucci, 31, 306 other ; nature's plan ^ Amiens, treaty of -i^dd for ridding fne f^ Ammon, 238 ground of dead, ; i ; C Ammonite, t^Z \ origin the balance of animal H of the word, 238 life ; animal life, how o Amphibious animals, 74 affected by climate ; G Amphictyon, 257 how at one time Qt Amphictyonic Council, 256 classed ; this classifi- (0 Amphitheatres, Roman, 279 cation, why -aban- t Amphitrite, 246 doned ; the modern Amphitryon, 243 classification of ; the Q Amram, 226 sub-kingdoms in this Amsterdam, 28 classification ; rayed ; Analysis, chemical ; Dulpy ; jointed, 72 ; .2 how effected ; value 3ack-boned, 72, 78 ; •3 of, 40 gregarious ; pairing ; Anarchy, 221 oviparous ; vivipa- The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. V a, Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C.— See page 273 xvi ANALYTICAL INDEX, A. V rous ; DVOviparous,73 ; Aphrodite, 248 J. digitigrade quadru- Apis, 238 1 peds ; plantigrade Apocrypha, 93 i b quadrupeds ; hiber- Apollo, 244, 246 % N nating ; domestic ; Belvidere, 181 Q "§ amphibious ; parasi- Apostle, meaning of, 96 ^ tic ; lowest forms of, Apotheosis, 242 6 3 .. 74 ; cold-blooded, 78 ; Appeal, courts of, in 2 suck -giving, 78, 80 ; Great Britain, 205 X O pouched ; gnawing. to Rome, instance •a 4) 80 ; ruminating ; of, 269 a thick-skinned ; wild. Apple of Discord, ori- fi 81 ; difference be- gin of, 252 tween the intelligence April, origin of name, ZZ Q (0 of the lower, and Apse, the, 187 ha that of man, 82 ; four- Aquarius, 20 ^ £ handed ; two-handed. Aqueous rocks, 32 M 8> 81 ; fabulous, of the Aquinas, Thomas, 115 5 1 Middle Ages, 121 Arabella Stuart, Lady, 2 .2 Anne, Queen of Eng- Zl^^ 335 .. land, husband and Arabians, modern Eu- s (4 '5 family, 351; death of, 354 rope indebted to the, 293 < Anne, Princess of Den- Arabian Nights' Enter- to 3 a mark, 333 tainments, origin of ; P CO Anno Domini, 219 how made known in V 3 Annual plants, 68 Europe, 117 Annual Register, the Arabic Language, 94 H O first, 154 literature, period § Anson, Lord, 357 of, 116 ^ Antarctic Circle, 19 Arachnida, the, 78 < Antennae of insects, 77 Arago, 418 6 Anthem, 192 Arcadia, 256 ft X Anti-corn-law League, 370 Arcadian simplicity, 256 2 V Jacobin, the ; poet- Arcadius, 288 •55 A) JS ry of, chief writers Arch, the, in ancient •g in, 161 architecture, i^^ J (4 Antiochus Epiphanes, 240 Arch of Titus, 281 V III., 240 Archbishop of Canter- 1 (d Antiquities, British, 208 bury, first, 315 ^ Antisthenes, 106 Archaeology, 207 ii (A Antoninus Pius, 275 Archimedes, 108 (U > Antony, Mark, 273 Architecture, of the Mid- c g Apelles, 170 dle Ages, 119 ; in an- V rhe Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. ANALYTICAL INDEX. A. xvii cient times ; Cyclo- Army, first standing, in pean ; styles of Gre- Europe, ^ 375 cian, 185 ; Roman, Arno, the river, 267 186 ; Saracenic ; By- Arnold of Winkelried, 378 zantine, 187 ; Eliza- Artaxerxes, 235 bethan, 188; Gothic, Artemis, 247 119, 187 ; Italian, 189 ; Arthur, King, 312 Renaissance, 188 ; and his Knights of Scottish, 189; Tudor, 188 the Round Table, 120 Architrave of a build- Articulata, the 72, 76 ing, 190 Art of painting, 17c Arctic Circle, the, 19 , the ceramic (see Archons, 257 Ceramic), 182, 183 Areopagus, 258 Arts, occult, 118 ; the Ares, 247 ; Hill of 258 fine, 169 ; plastic, Argentine Confedera- 178 ; the faculty of, 216 tion, 31 Aryans, 94 Argillaceous soil, 35 Ar^^an races, 234 Argolis, 256 Ascanius, 244 Argonautic expedition, 242 Ascham, Roger, 139 Argus, • 248 Asia, 23 ; principal Ariadne, 255 countries of, 30 ; Arianism, 115 people of, what often Aries, 20 called, 30 Ariosto, 123 Asiatic Russia, 30 Aristides, 259 Turkey, 30 Aristocratic govern- Aspasia, 260 ment, 220, 221 Assassination, instances Aristarchus ; a modern, 109 of, 429 Aristippus, 105 Assembly of Divines at Aristocles, 106 Westminster, 339 Aristophanes, 104, 262 Assignats, 470 Aristotle, 104, 262 Asshur, 232 Arithmetical figures, or- Assyria, 232 igin of, 393 Assyrian captivity, 228; Arius, 115 religion, 232 ; sculp- Arkwright, Richard, 365 tures, 233 Armada, the Spanish, 332 Assyrians, 224, 232 Armagh, See of, 311 Astophus, 292 Arminians, 134 Astrologers, 22 Arminius, 134 Astrology, nature of; Armoria. bearings, 210 nations believed to be Arnim, 134 proficient in ; confi- Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70.— See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. XVlll ANALYTICAL INDEX.- 118 105 418 115 254 257 243 243 245 dence in, how shak- en, Astronomy, 11 ; notions of the ancients re- specting, II, Ateliers Nationaux, Athanasius, Athene, 247, Athenian government, Athens, 28, 254, 256, 257 Atlantic Ocean, 23 ; or- igin of name, Atlantis, Atlas, Atmosphere, the, of what composed, 41 ; its vital principle, 41; its height not of uni- form consistency, 47 ; where it best retains the sun's heat ; its pressure on the earth; its pressure, why not felt by us, 47 ; exam- ples of its pressure ; temperature at which water boils affected by pressure of the; its pressure, how meas- ured, 48; its salubrity, how maintained (see Air), Atropos, Atterbury, Dr. Francis, Attic salt, wit. Attica, Attila, 284 ; a modern. Attraction, capillary, 59 ; examples of. Attraction of gravita- tion ; principle of ; how affected by dis- 65 250 151 257 257 256 28s 60 tance, 56 ; why not the same in all parts of globe at the sea- level, 57 ; operation of, as regards liquids, 58 Attrition, 34 Augeas 243 Augsburg, confession of, 382 Augurs, the, 265 Augury, origin of, 265 August, origin of name, 88 Augustan age, 274 Augustus Caesar, 273, 274 ; successors of, 274 Augustine, St. 115, 121 Aurelius, 283 Aureola, in art, 178 Aurora, 248 Aurora Borealis, 54 Auspices, the, 265 Austen, Miss, 166 Austerlitz, battle of, 413 Australia, 20, 30 Austria, 27, 430 ; capi- tal of, 28 ; origin of the national impor- tance of, 376 ; first connection of, with Hungary and Bo- hemia, 377 Austrian succession, war of the, 404 Autocrat, 220 Auto da F6, an, 394 Autonomy of states, 222 Auvergne, extinct vol- canoes in, 37 Aventine Hill, 277 Avernus, lake of, 2O5 Aves, 78 ; nature of, orders of, 79 Avignon, residence of the Popes at, 302 The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. — 03 Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Grods See page 248 1 6 ANALYTICAL INDEX. B. xix 1 S "3 c E Baal, 235 5. Barnacle, erroneous be- % Baalbeck, 235 lief respecting the, 76 S Babel, 232 Barnave, 407 C9 Babylon, 229, 232 Barometer, construc- (^ Babylonia, 232 tion of ; why called ;h •S Babylonian religion, 232 weather-glass, 48 I M Babylonians, 224, 232 Baron, dignity of, intro- <4 Babylonish Captivity, 229 duced, 317 *s Bacchantes, 248 Baronets first created, 336 rt ^ Bacchus, 248 Barron, Isaac, 147 ** Bach, 191 Barrows, 208 Bacon, Lord, 143, 2iZ^ Basalt, -2,7, CO o Bacon, Roger, 300 Basilica, a, 186 ^ s Bagdad, caliphs of, 293 Bas-relief, sculpture in, 180 s Baiae, 265, 281 Bass Rock, the, 348 p< g- Baillie, Joanna, 156 Bastile, 389 ; destroyed, 407 CO 00 Bajazet, 304 Batavi, 394 u J -s Balance of nature ; Batrachia, the, 78 V) what meant by ; in- Battle of Actium, 273 to stance of its derange- Austerlitz, 413 c4 M G by man, 32 Bannockburn, 323 . Baliol, John, 322 Blenheim, 351 a> g Ballantyne, James, 166 Bosworth, 326 s CO Balloon, a, 49 Bothwell Bridge, 344 J ■^ Balmerino, Lord, 358 Bunker's Hill, 362 i <4 Baltic Sea, 23 Clontarf, 315 ^ Balzac, 130 Corunna, 367 M Bancroft, George, 169 Cressy, 300, 344 CO 3 Banim, John, 166 Culloden, 358 (4 3 o Bank-note, 214 Dettingen, 357 fi •g Banks, Sir Joseph, 162 Dunbar, , 341 u '4 Banks established in Edgehill, 340 >» ^ Great Britain, 350 Flodden, 331 Bannockburn, battle of, 323 Fontenoy, 357 0) Barbauld, Mrs. 156 Grandson, 379 c ^ Barbour, John, 139 Hastings, 316 cS Bards, the, 301 Jena, 414 W Barebones Parliament, 341 Killiecrankie, 347 4^ Barley, chief use of, 67 Leipsic, 415 Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230 The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12. — See page 242. XX ANALYTICAL INLEX.- -B. Battle of Lutzen, ■ Malplaquet, Marathon, Marengo, Marston Moor, Morat, Morgarten Naseby Nations, Oudenarde, Pavia, Pharsalia, Philiphaugh, Philippi, Pinkie, Plassey, Platea, Poictiers, Prague, Prestonpans, Pultova, Quebec, Ramillies, Salamis, Sempach, Sheriffmuir, Shrewsbury, the Boyne, the Nile, Trafalgar, Wagram, Waterloo, Worcester, Battles of the Civil in England, Baxter, Richard, Bay, a, Bay of Naples, Bayard, Chevalier, Bayle, B.C., Bear, tlie Great, Beaton, Cardinal, 3S5 351 235,259 412 .340 379 378 340 415 351 375 271 551 375 360 259 324 384 2>S^ 398 360 351 259 378 356 325 348 412 414 341 War 340 147 23 265, 281 the, 375 128 219 13 332 Beattie, James, Beaumont, Francis, Beautiful, the, Beauty, lines of Keats on, Becket, Thomas a, Beckford, William, Bede, Bed of justice, a. Bee, eyes of the, Beer, from what pre- pared, Beethoven, Belfast, Belgae, Belgium, 27 ; capital of, 28 ; kingdom of, con- stituted, Belisarius, Bell, Currer, Belles-Lettres, 216, Belligerents, Bellini, Bellona, Belshazzar, Benedictine monks, Ben Nevis, Benecke, Benefit of clergy, Bentham, Jeremy, Benvenuto Cellini, Beranger, Bergheim, Berkeley, Dr. George, Berlin, 28; congress of, Berlin Decree, the, Berne, Bernadotte, Berry, Duke de, Bethlehem, Bewick, Thomas, Beza, Bias, 15s 143 219 219 320 157 116 406 77 67 191 29 394 424 288 166 217 201 192 247 234 290 29 134 200 163 182 129 175 151 431 367 28 423 417 230 184 383 102 The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54 ANALYTICAL INDEX. B. xxi Bible, meaning of the Blind Harry, 140 (U 0) W W 1 word ; in what lan- Blockade, the right o.^ 201 1 [ guages originally Boadicea, 308 6 V written, 95 ; transla- Boccaccio, 123 n O tions, 96 ; present Boeotia, 256 5? 03 English veision exe- Boeotians, 260 CO s cuted, 96 ; prophetic Boerhaave, 135 ■i Q books of, 229 ; au- Bohemia, 377 1 thorized version ef- Bohemians, 301 s i fected, 335 Boiardo, 123 Biblia Pauperum, the, 184 Boileau, 127, 392 Bibliographer, a, 97 Bolingbroke, Lord, 150, 355 •a t) Bibliography, 97 Bolivia, 31 ^ Biennial plants, (i2> Bolognese school of pq c Bilderdyke, 135 painting, leading • IH Bill, a, 198 painters of the, 172 ef Bills of exchange, 213 ; Bombay, 30 S ho invented, 305 Bombyx mori, the, 78 < Bimana, the, 81 Bonaparte, Napoleon, cit i«-l Birds, nature of, 79 ; (see Napoleon). ^ o orders of, 79 ; climb- , Louis, 419 'm CO i^g> 79 ; gallinaceous. , Louis Napoleon, 419 < L4 80 ; perching, 79, 80 ; Bonheur, Rosa, 174 4> U S rapacious, 79, 80 ; Book, the first printed t vy ^ running, 79 ; scrap- in England, 138 U.1 ing ; swimming, 79 ; Books, ancient form of ; S wading, 79 how prepared before >» Bismarck, 430 the invention of print- 3 «Q Birmingham, 28 ing, 97 Bivalve shells, 76 ; ex- Bopp, 134 H ample of, 76 Border of England and c Black, pipes for warm- Scotland settled, 319 % a ing houses, why Boreas, 249 u painted, 43 Borneo, 23 2 rt Black Hole of Calcutta, 360 Boroughs, - 296 .S ^ Black, Joseph, 161 Bossuet, 127, 392 c ^ Blackstone, Sir William, 204 Boston, 31 S ♦; Blair, Dr. Hugh, 158 Boswell, James, 155 n Blake, Admiral, 341 , Sir Alexander, 166 i t^ Blanc, Louis, 418 Bosworth, battle of, 326 5 , Mont, 28 Bothwell, Earl of, 333 v ? Blank verse, 100 Bridge, battle of, 34^ Blenheim, battle of, 351 Boulders, 34 •0 2 rhe Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles.— See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. bo Pi xxii ANALYTICAL , INDEX. B. V en Bourbon, House of, 384 arms of, how quar- 1 Bourbons restored to tered, 2 TO (see Eng- « France, 416 land). Bouidaloue, 127, 392 "Britain, Great;' first N Bower, Walter, 1.39 introduced, 1,7^^ o Boyle, Hon. Robert, , Great, under the 6\ Lectures, 148 Stuarts, 335 to 347, .. Boyne, battle of, 348 352 to 354; the civil 3 Bradford, 28 war in, 339 ; the Com- o Brahe, Tycho, 131 monwealth, 341 ; the Brahma, 303 Restoration, 342 ; the 1 Brahmanical religion, 303 Revolution, 347 ; Na- rj Brain, the, 84 tional Debt com- Brandenburg, Duchy of, 402 mences ; in the 17th ^ U , Kingdom of, 402 century, 350 ; under hfl Brantome, 126 the House of Han- .2? Brass, 38 over, 355 to 373 ; re- 9i Brazil, 31 ; 427, empire bellion of 1715, 356 ; M of, 427 rebellion of 1745,358 ; CO Bread, 67 at war with America, Bread and Circuses, 274 2i(y2> \ ^t war with 'S Bremen, 427 France, 365 to 368 ; » of ; origin of the annual income of. ^ name, 307 ; visited by 372 ; National Debt Julius Caesar ; sub- of, 372 ; progress of S dued by Agricola, since 1707, 372; causes u 375> 308 ; added to of the great pros- 4:3 Roman dominion, perity of, 373 375, 308 ; Roman Britain, Great, and Ire- ^ walls in, 309 ; mis- land,United Kingdom ^ CS sionaries to ; Christi- of, 27 ; capital of, 28 ; anity introduced into, 313 foreign possessions of, 30 Britain, Great, 23 ; its British Antiquities, 208 rivers, 26 ; the high- Cabinet, the, 194 V est mountain in, 29 ; Colonies, law in C law in, 203 ; royal he, 204 The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815 See page 368. m ANALYTICAL INDEX. B. British Constitution, the, 194 Essayists, the, 149 Flag, changed at the union with Ire- land, 367 ■ Government, na- ture of the, history of, hill-forts, India, Parliament, consists the first, Brittany, origin of, Bronte, Miss, Bronze, Bronze Age, the, Brougham, Lord, 162, Brown, Charles B., Browne, Sir Thomas, Bruce, James, , Marjorie, , Michael, , Robert, Brueys, Brumaire, the month, Brunton, Mrs., Brunswick, House of, Brussels, Brutus, Lucius Junius, , Marcus Junius, Bruyere, Bryant, W. C, Bucephalus, Buchanan, George, 194 310 209 371 353 312 166 39 242 167 169 144 159 323 152 322 127 90 166 355 28 263 272 127 169 239 140 Buckingham, Duke of, Buddha, Buddhism, nature of, Buffon, the Count de. Building, part of a. Bulb, a ; examples ol^ Bulbous plants, Bunker's Hill, battle of, Bunsen, Bunyan, John, Burgundians, Burgundy, Duke of, incorporated with xxm 304 304 129 190 68 68 362 134 147 284 374 375 283 France, Burial, Roman, Burke, Edmund, 159, 364, 408 148 157 160 144 361 146 Burleigh, Lord Burnet, Gilbert, Burney, Frances, Burns, Robert, Burton, Robert, Bute, Earl of, Butler, Samuel, Butterfly, transforma- tions of the ; lenses of the eye of a, Byng, Admiral, Byron, Lord, 164, 424 Byzantine architecture, grand specimens of, Byzantine Artists, Empire, 284, 287 ; 77 360 187 170 duration of ; charac- ter of, Byzantium, 288 2^4 The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. xxiv ANALYTICAL INDEX. C. ( Cabinet pictures, 177 ■n Califs, the. 292 , the British, 194 of Bagdaa, 293 Cabot, Sebastian, 31, 306 Caligula, 274, 275 Cade, Jack, 325 Calliope, 251 Cadmus, 255 Caloric, 42 Caelian Hill, 277 Calorific, 42 Cjesar, Julius, iii Calpe, 243 , the designation, 274 Calvin, John £26, 383 , Augustus, 273 Calypso, 245 Borgia, 421 Cambridge, 28 , Caius, 275 Cambyses, 234 , Caius Julius, 271 ; Camden, William, 144 visits Britain, 308 ; Cameron, Richard, 344 assasination of, gen- Cameronians, the. 344 eral opinion of, 272 Camisard, origin of. 390 Cairns, 208 Cam i sards, the. 39c Cairo, 237 Camoens, 125 Caius Caesar, 275 Campan, Memoirs of Julius Caesar, 271 Madame, 404 272, 308 Campbell, Lord, 167 Julius Caesar Oc- , Sir Colin, 371 tavianus, 273 , Thomas, 164 Calais, meaning of, 310; Campus Martins, 277 taken by Edward III., Canaan, 225 324 : an English pos- Canada, 30, 31 ; chief session, 324, 376; towns in, 31 ; surren- taken from English, 376 ders to Great Brit- Calcareous rocks, 34 ain, 360 Calcutta,. 30, 360 Canaletto, 172 Black Hole of, 360 Cancer, 20 ; tropic of, 19 taken from Eng- Candidate, origin of, 268 lish, 359; recovered, 360 Canicula, the star, 14 Calderon, 124 Canidae, the. 81 Caledonians, the, 308 Can is Major, the con- Calendar month, a, 88 stellation. 14 , the Julian, 86; the Canning, George, 161 Gregorian, 86 ; the Canon law, the. 202 French revolutionary, 90 of Scripture, the. 95 Calends, at the Greek, 89 Canons Regular, 313 The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302 Pi ANALYTICAL INDEX. C. xxv O 09 Canopy of Heaven, the, 14 Carrier, 410 1 1 Canova, Antonio, 182 Carthage, 253 ; de- d Canterbury, 28 stroyed, 270 ^ .3 , first Archbishop of, 314 Cartha^enians, the, 269 bo c , pilgrimages to, 320 Cartwright, Rev. D. E., 265 12 s Canterbury Tales, na- Caryatides, 186 u o ture of Chaucer's, 137 Casca, 272 ^ ■% Canute and the sea. Cash, origin of word, 211 bo (It story of, 314 Casimir, John, 399 "u Cape, a, 23 Cassandra, 244 3 Q o of Good Hope, 30; Cassius, 272 o its passage discovered, 306 Castalian Fountain, 251 CO u o Cap of Liberty, 407 Castes, 238 4) Q Capet, Hugh, 295 Castles in Britain, old, 209 CO Capetian dynasty, 295 Casus belli, a, 201 tH V Capillary attraction, 59; Catiline, 271 rn examples of, 60 Catechisms, the Larger 6 Capital, a, 28 and Shorter, 340 stock, 214 Catherine L of Russia, 398 ,4 Capitol of Rome, 278 ; n. of Russia, 398 ; CO CO 2 saved by geese, 266 death of, 401 2 fl Capitoline Hill, 266, 277 Cathedrals, 291 Capricorn, tropic of, 19 Cato, 270 :h Capricornus, 20 Cat-tribe, the, ^ 81 CO Caraccis, the, 172 Cats, a Dutch writer, 135 4> :3 Caracalla, 283 Catullus, 112 CO Caractacus, 308 Caucasus, Mount, 250 '0 d Carbonic acid, 41 Caucasian race, des- m Carbonic acid gas, un- cribed; why so called, 82 a wholesome ; supports Cause of all things, the 0) *j vegetation, 42 Great First, 11 CO !3 Carburetted hydrogen Cauvin, Jean, 126, 2>^2i c* gas, 40 Cavaignac, 418 < •s Carey, Dr. Henry, 192 Cavaliers, the, 338 l4-l 4-1 u Carisbrook Castle, 340 Cave, Edward, 154 « Carleton, William, 166 Cavendish, ' 330 13 4J Carlisle, 28 Caverns of Cuma, 265 % jf Carlovingian dynasty, 293 Caxton, William, 138, 326 CO 3 Carlyle, Thomas, 167 Cecil, William, 330 o Carnivora, 81 Celestial globes, 13 iS Carnot, 411 Cellini, Benvenuto, 182 Caroline-Matilda,Queen Celsus, 113 (U < .2 of Denmark, 402 Celtic language, 94 eo Q 1 Vlichael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563.— See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators See page 278. a' XXVI ANAL YTICAL INDEX.- Celtic race, ^2) Censors, 268 Censorship of the press, loi Cent, a, 213 Centaurs, 245 Central heat of earth ; ■ how manifested, . 2)^ Centrifugal force, 16 Centurion, Roman, 276 Century, 87 Ceramic art, the, 182; by whom cultivated in ancient times ; re- vived in Italy, 183 Cerberus, 243, 251 Cereal plants, why so called, 67 Ceres, 246, 247 Cervantes, 124 Cetacea, the, 81 Ceylon, 23, 30 Chaldee language, 94 Chalk beds, t^t^ Chalmers, Rev. Dr. 167 Chaluz, Castle of, 321 Chaldea, 232 Chaldeans, 224, 232 Chalybeate springs, 37 Chambers, Ephraim, 154 , Sir William, 189 Chambord, Count de, 417 Champollion, 207 Channel, a, 24 Channel Islands, origin of their possession by England, 317 Charing, 322 Cross, origin of, 322 Charlemagne, 293 ; Em- peror of the Romans ; his crown preserved at Vienna, 294 Charles I. of England, 34a 346 i45> ZZ^ I his collision with parliament, 336 ; his measures respect- ing the church in Scotland, 338 ; his fate ; his family, Charles II. of England, 340, 342 ; his death, Charles V., Emperor of Germany, 380, 394 404 374 375 376 416 397 397 293 421 295 294 VI. of Germany — VII. of France, — VIII. of France, — IX. of France, — X. of France, — XI. of Sweden, — XII. of Sweden, — Edward, Prince, — Martel, — of Anjou, — of Lorraine, — the Bald, — the Bold, death, the Simple, 374 379 300 369 251 Charlotte, Princess, Charon, Chartres, Duke de, 410, 417 Charybdis, whirlpool of, 27 Chatham, , Earl of, Chateaubriand, Chatterton, Thomas, Chaucer, Geoffrey, Cheiroptera, the, 81 ; name given to them by Linnaeus, Chelonia, the. Chemical affinity, analysis ; how ef- fected, 40 ; value of. Chemical decomposi- 28 363 129 155 137 81 78 40 40 tion. 40 Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. VNIYEftSITY Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133 . C4 00 8, CO ANALYTICAL INDEX. C, xxvii !? & a. V V 01 Chemical discoveries, 40 Church, first great divis- CO 1 1 Chemistry defined ; ori- ion in the, 291 2 gin of the science of England, con- of, 39, 118 stitution of, how sup- z Cheops, 237 ported, 199; orders of CO •a c Chevalier, the Young, clergy in the, 20c enters Edinburgh, 358 Church of Scotland, c Chevalier Bayard, 575 constitution of, how 3q .2 Chevalier de St. George, 352 supported, general as- s Chili, 31 Chicago, 31 sembly of the, 200 ; u Chilon, 102 the Free, 20c 2 China, 30; character of. Church, the Greek, 29c 30 ; in the Middle , the Latin, 29a It Ages, 302 ; subdued , the Medieval, 290 by Mongols, 303 ; in the Middle Ages, xn Great Wall of, 302 influence of the, 297 biO "o Chivalry, influence of. Church of England at 1 bo G 298, 299 the Restoration, 343 ^ Chloris, 249 Cibber, 150 Christ, birth of, 230 ; Cicero, no, 271, 286 ; 03 q' S meaning of, 230; cru- residence of, 282 'm cified, 275 Cid, the, 124 >^ u f-i Christian Era, the, 85 Cimabue, 171 ^ 5 J Christian IV. of Den- Cimbri, the, 270 S mark, 401 Cimbric war, 270 a> VII. of Denmark, 402 Cimmerian darkness, 265 o ctf Christianity, 231, 238 ; Cimmerians, the, 265 adopted by Constan- Cincinnati, 31 4) tine, 284 ; introduced Cincinnatus, 266 5 6 into Britain, 313 Circe, 245 3 Christians under early Cirrus, the cloud, 46 ^ Roman emperors, 281 ; Cities, Free, 296 (U u ^ why persecuted by Citizenship, Roman, 268 ■2 (*H Romans, 286 City of palm-trees, 22^ o Christopher North, 166 Civil day; a, how di- (0 .2 Chronology defined, 85 vided, ' 92 tJ S of ancient times history, 219; rights, 220 uncertain, 224 month, a, 88 (0 > Chrysalis, 77 rights, ^z D Chrysostom, 115 war in England, 3 ^ fc Church, the Fathers of 326 ; the great, 339 ; 1-t (U the, 1-5 ; councils of chief battles of the the, 290 great, 340 »— » 09 V .2 > C<1 H L ] fe Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. en xxviu ANALYTICAL INDEX. Civil year, 87 Civilization, summary of events which pro- moted modern, 307 Clan, a, 220 Clare, John, 165 Clarendon, Earl of, 146 Clarke, Dr. Samuel, 151 Classical languages, 94 Classics, the Delphian, loi Claude Lorraine, 173 Claudius, 274 Clay, zz, 35 Cleithenes, 258 Clement of Alexandria, 115 Cleobulus, Cleopatra, Clergy, the regular ; the secular, Clergy, benefit of the, of the church of 273 291 200 England, Clients, the, Climate, how it affects animal life. 200 264 72 251 360 93 315 289 250 Clinical, what meant by, 217 Clio, Clive, Lord, Clocks, when invented, Clontarf, battle of, Clotaire, Clotho, Clouds, what they are ; why they disappear in fine weather, 44 ; height of the ; where most found ; how caused ; classification of, Clovis, Clyde, the river. Coal, of what composed. Coat of arms, 46 289 26 36 210 Cobden, Richard, Cockburn, Mrs., Cocoon, a. Code Napoleon, Codrus, Coke, Sir Edward^ Colbert, Colchis, Cold, 42 ; why it be- comes suddenly cold in some fine climates when the sun sets. Cold-blooded animals, Coleoptra, the, Coleridge, Samuel Tay- lor, Coligny, Coliseum, the, College, a, Collins, William, Coleman, the Younger, George, Cologne, Colonization, Colony, a. Colossus of Rhodes, Color, as effecting heat, 43 ; in the skin an ef- fect of circumstances ; of the negro ; how accounted for. Colors, primary ; com- pound ; prismatic ; of the rainbow, how pro- duced. Columbaria, Columbidae, the Columbus, Christopher, 31, 306; discoveries of, 306 Columella, 113 Combustion, 41 Comedy, Comets, 14; their ap 371 i6c 202 257 204 39^ 242 51 73 77 163 381 278 215 152 156 296 223 223 261 51 283 80 100 Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. O4 The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.— See page 47 1 & 2. ANALYTICAL INDEX. C. xxix 03 pearaiice, 14 ; their name, 284 ; patriarchs nature, 15; their num- of, 291; taken by Ma- m 1 Mh ber ; their motion, 14 homet, . 304 1 Q < CO Comines, Philippe de 125 Constantius, 283 Common law, 203 Constellations, 13 ; K Commonwealth, the, 341 names and situations 6\ 5? Compass, the Mariner's. of the ; how learned, 13 fl (-1 (See Mariner's Com- Constitution, a, 221 ^ pass.) Constitutional mon- Q Comte, Augusta, 130 archy, 221 > 3 V Comus, 248 Consuls, Roman, 264 ►M Conchology, 76 , mercantile, the > Concord, temple of, at exequator of, 206 § 2 Rome, 278 Continental literature, 122 2 £ Concordat, a, 203 Continents ; their num- I 4) Concordats, 203 ber, 23 Concordia, 265 Contraband of war, 202 A ^ Conde, 388 Convention of estates, a, 223 *S i , Prince of, 388 Convocation, 199 the Great, z^'^ Cook, Captain, discov- (U f3 Conditional convention eries of, 365 a between England and Cooper, Anthony Ash- 3 'o Turkey, 431 ley, 150 a Condorcet, 129 , J. F., 169 g Confederate States of , the painter, 176 >» a America, 429 Cope, General, 358 A (^ Confession of Augs- Copenhagen, 28 4) cd burg, ^ 382 Copernicus, Nicolas, 131 a •d Confession of Faith, Copper, 35 ; alloyed, 39 1 CO > Westminster, 340 Copyright, 168 Confucius, 98, 302 Corallifera, the, 75 > w Conge d' elire, a, 199 Corday, Charlotte, 409 Conglomerate, 34 Cork, 29 2 a Congress of Vienna, 416 Corn, 67 ; Indian, 67 % ctf of Berlin, changes Corn-laws, 370 S 3 effected by, 431 Cornaro, Louis, ' 123 Congreve, 150 Corneille, Pierre, le Consols, 213 Grand, 127, 392 3 rt Constance, Huss and Cornwall, Duchy of, 205 iJ C s Jerome burned at, 381 Coronation, a, 198 u K m Constantine, 283 Corporation, a, 223 TJ •d Constantinople, 28 ; Corinth, 256 § a founded ; origin of Coriolanus, 266 rhe First English Encyclopaedia w as Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. XXX ANALYTICAL INDEX. C. Correggio, 172 Lord Protector, 341, Corsica, taken by 342 ; in Ireland, 341 ; France, 393 in Scotland, 341 ; Corunna, battle of, 367 death, 34 -i Corvinus, Matthias, 377 Cromwell, Richard, 342 Cosmogony, ^23 Cronos, 246 Cotton, Charles, 145 Crown, the, the term Council of Five Hun- how employed, 198 dred, 411 Crusades, the, 297 ; Councils of the Church, 290 origin of the word ; Country villas of the value of the, 298 Romans, 281 Crust of the earth, what County, origin of, 315 meant by the, 32 Coup d'Etat, a, 412 Crustacea, the, 76 of i8th Brumaire, 412 Cryptogamia ; the. of December 2d, plants included in 1851, 419 the ; how repro- Court of High Commis- duced, 66 sion, ^ 339 Cryptogamous plants of Session, 204 (see Cryptogamia) ; of St. Germain, 352 vegetation in dwell- of Star Chamber, 2>Z^ ing houses, familiar Cousin, Victor, 130, 219 examples of, 67 Covenanters, the, 2i2>^ Crystallisation, 41 Coverdale, Myles, 96 Cuba, 23, 31 Cowley, Abraham, 145 Cudworth, Dr. Ralph, 147 Cowper, William, 159 Culdees, the, 313 Crabbe, Rev. George, 162 Culloden, battle of, 358 Cranmer, Thomas, 329 Cuma, 281 Crannoges, 209 , caverns of, 265 Crater, a, 36 Cumaean sibyl, 265 Crawford, Robert, 152 Cumberland, Duke of, 358 Cressy, battle of, 324 ; , origin of, 312 ; gunpowder first used severed from Scot- by the English at the, 300 land, 319 Crete, the bull of, 243 Cumulus, the cloud, 4^ Crusa, 244 Cunningham, Allan, 166 Crimean War, 371 Cupid, 247 Crito, 105 Curfew, the, 317 Croesus, as rich as, 234 Currency, 214 Cromlech, a, 208 Currents, 27 Crompton, Samuel, 365 Cursores ; the, birds in- Cromwell, Oliver, 339 ; cluded in, 79 Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. 8" Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305 M 0) (4 ANALYTICAL INDEX. D. xxxi Cuticle, the, 84 Cyclopean architecture, 185 CO Cutis vera, tiie, 84 Cymri, the, 312 ca 1 Ciirtius, Marcus, 257 Cynics, the, 106 [ 2 Cuvier ; his clasbifica- Cynthia, 247 c3 o tion of animals, ' 72 Cynosarges, 106 It Cuyp, 175 Cyprus, 248 ; secured to b Cycle ; a, a lunar ; a England, 431 1 metonic, 91 Cyrus, 229, 234 cS cl Cyclones, 49 Cythera, 248 o Cyclops, the, 245 Czar, — ina, — ovitch, 397 4) to a D. 0) i Da Costa, 135 method of writing ^ A 2 Daguerre, M., 178 previous to 1752, 87 % ctf D'Alembert, 129 D'Aubigny, J. H. M., 130 ^ ^ •a a Dalton, John, 167 Dauphin, the ; origin of, 392 oT vi Damiens, 393 David, King of Israel, 228 > to Damp appearance of , the painter, 174 ^ S walls and paved pas- I. of Scotland ; na- ^ sages of buildings. ture of his reign, 319 0^ how caused, 44 II. of Scotland, 323 y, C5 u Daniel, 229 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 167 v.* 5 Daniel the poet, 142 Day, an intercalary, Z6 ; ctf *« Danish invasions of New Year's, 87 ; a o England ; dynasty in civil, 92; how divided, ^ to England, 314 ; de- 92 ; a sidereal, 92 ; a oT 1 scents on Ireland, 315 solar, 92 ; the, when .5J 2 H Danish and German it begins, 92 I rt War, 427 Days and nights, differ- fl Dante, 122 ence in the length of, •s 01 a Danton, 407, 409 how caused, - 18 S S3 Danube, the river, 26 Days of the week, origin 'C O Darien, Isthmus of, 31 of the English names ^ expedition, 350 of the, 89 ; names of to V Darius I., 234, 235 the, employed in the 3 cj II., 235 records of Parliament, 89 6 Dark Ages, the, 287 Days in a decade of the 1 Darnley, Lord, 331, 332 French revolutionary « Dates, example of the calendar, names of the, 90 i CO Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49 Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. xxxii ANALYTICAL INDEX. D. D. D., 218 De Ruyter, 34X Deborah, 228 Derwentwater, Earl of, 356 Decades of the French Descartes, 126 revolutionary calen- Despot, a. 220 dar ; names of the Dettingcn, battle of, 357 days in the, 90 Deucalion, 242 Decadi, the day, 90 De Vyck or Wyck, Decameron, the 123 Henry, 93 Decandolle, 129 De Witt, 341 December, origin of the Dew, 44 name, 86 Dey of Algiers, 425 Deciduous trees, 69 Dialect, a, 94 Decimal system legal- Diana, 247 ized in France, 412 Diaz, Bartholomew de, 306 Decker, Thomas, 144 Dickens, Charles, 166 Declaration of rights, 348 Dictator, a, 221 Defender of the Faith, 328 Dictators, the. 268 Defoe, Daniel, 149 Diderot, 129, 406 Degree, a geographical, Dido, 253 how divided, 24 Dies Irse, the, 191 Degrees in a university, 218 Dies Jovis, 89 De Groot, 135 Luna, 89 Delenda est Carthago, 270 Martis, 89 Delhi, the capital of In- Mercurii, 89 dia, 304 . Saturnii, 89 Delphi, the oracles of, 254 Solis, 89 Delphian classics, the, 10 1 Veneris, 89 Del Principe, 123 Diet of Spires, 382 Delta, a, 35 of Worms, 382 Demagogue, a, 221 Dieu et mon Droit, 324 Demand and supply. Digitigrade quadrupeds , 74 law of, 214 Dijon, 375 j Demeter, 247 Diocletian, 283' Democratic govern- Diodorus Siculus, 109 ment, 220, 221 Diogenes, 106 Democritus, 107, 262 Diomedes, 243 Demosthenes, 262 Dionysius of Halicar- Denham, Sir John, 145 nassus, 109 Denmark, 27 ; early his- Diplomatist, a. 206 tory, capital of, 28 Diptera, the. 77 De Quincey, Thomas, 167 Directory, the French, De Retz, Cardinal, 388 of public worship. De Rosny, 384 the Westminster, 340 " Order of the Garter " was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. V (4 The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8 8. c4 1 ANALYTICAL INDEX. D. xxxiii a, V Discord, throwing the Drake, Sir Francis, 33c V apple of, 252 Drama, the original 1 Discordia, 252 form of, 100 ; in the 1 M 2 Discount, 214 middle ages, 120 n ^ M Disintegration, mean- Dramatic poetry, 99 .s ing of. 34 Drayton, 142 D Disraeli, Benjamin, 166 Dress of the Romans, 282 s 53 ; flashes, how pro- saint of, 121 ; origin .S 1 duced ; how demon- of the word, 310, 312; to o o strated in nature. 54 origin of the kingdom 4) CO 0) lO Electrifying machine, 53, 54 of, 314; under Saxons ts SL Elementary substances. and Danes, 314, 315; 2 their number; their na- under Normans, 316 ; CO ^ ture; their compounds. border of it and Scot- J how discovered. 40 land settled, 319; Ire- •8 »n Elements, the four. 39 land attached to, 320; M Elevation-plan, an. 190 Wales added, 332; s a Elgin Marbles, the, 180 under the Plantage- tn c" Eliot, George, 166 nets, 321 to 325 ; un- 1 Elis, 243, 256 der the Tudors, 326 ; CO Elixir Vitae, 117 the Reformation in. HJ Elizabeth, Queen of 328; under Henry g rt England, 329 VIII., 329 ; Scotland tC of England, prin- united to ; at .the M u Wi cess. 335 Union, state of, 353 00 § Elizabethan architecture ,188 English expelled from '3 Elliot, Miss, i6o France, 374 Q Elliot, Sir Gilbert, 152 English language,. 94 ; u ^ ^ u Elves, 119 nature of ; number of Elysian Fields, 282 words in the ; words Emerson, Ralph W., 169 used in literature ; ■M Empedocles, 262 words used in speak- PQ 1 Emperor, an. 220 ing the, 136 cd ctf Encyclop3edia,first Eng- English language, how o lish, 154 affected by the Nor- 1 Solomon's Temple was Destroye d in the Year 70. — See page 230 1 rhe Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered i2.-See page 242. i PL, xxxvi AJVAL YTICAL INDEX. E. man Conquest ; of Entozoa, the, 76 V 0) what composed, 317 Eorls, Anglo-Saxon, 315 1. 1 English law ; nature Eos, 249 ft) of ; courts, 203 Epic poetry ; the heroic "S M English literature ; epic, 99 > c when it commences, Epictetus, 113 -o 137 ; in the reign of Epicurus, 107, 262 0" s Elizabeth, change in, Epicureans, 107 I 141 ; condition of, Epidermis, the, 84 CO from 1649 to 1689, Equator, the, 18 s M 145 ; from 1689 to Equinoctial points, 18 s rt 1727, 148; 1727 to Equinoxes, 18 s 1760, 151 ; 1760 to Equites, 276 6 & 1800, 154; of the Equity, 203 > nineteenth century, 162 courts in England, 203 c English national anthem, 192 Era, an; the Christian; c English newspapers, the Hebrew; Roman; O commencement of, 145 Greek; Mohammedan, 85 m English painters of the Erasmus Desiderius, 134 to present day, 176 Erastianism, 201 Q V4 ^ English Parliament Erato, 251 to constituted, 321 Erie, lake, 26 1) school of painting, Eris, 252 ^ rise of the ; distin- Esau, 225 •d guished painters of Esculent plants, 67 > .§ the, 175, 176 Esquiline Hill, 274, 277 •^ English war-cry in the Esquire, the distinction if a> Middle Ages, 122 of, 199 0) a English writers, noted Essayists, British, 149 2: <«-i for the profuse use of Essenes, the, 96 (U o words from the Latin, Estates, Convention of, 223 .2 c 0) 136 ; early, 137 ; from of the Realm, 222 u C !S 1553 to 1649, 141- Etats-Generaux, first "i S 145 ; from 1649 to assembled, 373 s &< 1689, 145-148 ; from Etching, 184 rt 4-> 2 1689 to 1727, 148-151 ; Ethics, 102 CO V4 from 1727 to 1760, Ethnology defined, 82 to CO 151-154; from 1760 Etna, Mount, 37, 247 1 o to 1800, 154-162 ; of Etruria, 267 to the 19th century, 162-168 Etruscan ware, 267 ia Engravings, 184 Ettrick Shepherd, the, 165 to Entablature of a build- Et tu, Brute, 272 I o ing, 190 Etymology, 93 0) The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407 • Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. ANALYTICAL INDEX. F. xxxvn 257 108 Euboea, Euclid, Euphrates, the river, 224, 232 Euphrosyne, 251 Euphuism, origin of the term, 142 Euripides, 103, 262 Europa, 255 Europe, 23; principal rivers, 26; principal countries, 27; highest mountains, 28; popu- lation, 32; volcanoes, 37 ; origin of the name, 255 Europe, five great pow- ers of, 426 Europe, political chan- ges effected by Berlin 431 Congress, Euryale, 253 by what examples examples shed Eurydice, Eusebius, Euterpe, Evans, Miss, Evaporation, promoted ; of, Evelyn, John, Evergreens ; of ; how they their leaves, Exarch of Ravenna, Exchange, bills of ; rate of ; the Stock, Exequator of a consul. Exogenous trees ; ex- amples of. Exotic plants ; largely used in Great Britain, Ezekiel, 251 115 251 166 44 146 69 213 206 69 69 229 Fabian policy, Fabius, Fableor, a, Fabliaux, Faci lis descensus Averno, Faculty, a learned, Faculty of arts ; of di- vinity ; of law ; of medicine, Faed, Thomas, the painter, Fahrenheit's thermom- eter, Fairfax, the poet, Fairies, Falconer, William, 269 269 125 125 265 216 216 177 43 142 119 155 Falernian wine, Falernus Ager, Falls of Niagara, Fama (fame), Family system, the, Farquhar, Fasces, Fates, the. Father of history,' of his people, of tragedy, Fathers of the church, the. Fauns, the, Fawkes, Guy, Feathers, tad electric conductors, 283 283 26 252 220 150 268 250 107 375 103 115 265 334 53 The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. ( V bfi Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C.— See page 273. xxxviii ANALYTICAL INDEX. F. V February, origin of the Fishes, nature of, 78 1 name, 88 Five great powers of « Federal Union, a, 222 Europe, 426 £ Felidae, the, 81 Fixed stars, 13 N Feltham, Owen, 144 Flag of England before o Felton, 336 the union with Scot- S' Fenelon, 128 land, 353 .. Ferdinand I. of Austria, 377 Flag of Scotland before ? , Duke of Orleans, 417 the union with Eng- 1 and Isabella, 306 land, 353 Ferguson, Dr. Adam, 159 Flag of Great Britain 1 Fergusson, Robert, 160 after the Union, 353 ; g Ferns, ^d after the union with Ferrier, Miss, 166 Ireland, 367 09 4) Ferruginous springs, 37 Flag of the United Festivals of the French States, 428 X revolutionary calen- Flamens, 264 V dar, ' 90 Flanders acquired by Fetish, a, 119 the Duke of Bur- .2 Fetishism, where preva- gundy, 394 lent, 119 Flavel, John, 147 Feudal system, 295 ; dis- Flaxman, John, 182 < advantages of the. Flemish school of paint- .s 296 ; wars, how con- ing, noted painters of s ducted under the, 295 the, 174 *3 Fibrous plants, 67 Fletcher, John, 143 Fichte, 134 Flodden, battle of, 331 o Fief, a, 295 Flora, 249 Fief-holders, examples Floreal, the month, 90 of large, 295 Florence, 28 ; capital j5 ftf Fielding, Henry, 153 of Tuscany, 267 ; a a Field of the Cloth of free city, 296 ; birth- S Gold, 375 place of Amerigo o Fifth-monarchy men, 337 Vespucci ; capital of 5 Fine arts, the, 169 the Florentine Re- o Finis Poloniae, 400 public, 422 M cd Finland acquired by Florentine Republic, 422 cu Russia, 401 school of painting, cd Fire-balls, 57 head of the, 172 Fire of London, the Fly, why it can walk on 09 Great, 342 the ceiling, 77 > Firmament, mearing Flying insects, legs of, 78 C of ; color of the, 14 Focus, the, 52 The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. ANALYTICAL INDEX. F. xxxii Fogs, what they are ; why they disappear in fine weather, 44 ; a common cause of them at sea, 45 Fontenelle, 128 Fontenoy, battle of, 357 Foote, Samuel, 154 Forces sustaining the planets, 16 Fordoun, John of, 139 Forest laws, 317 Fortuna (fortune), 252 Forum, the Roman, 278 Fossils, 2>Z Fox, Charles James, 363 , George, 344 France, 27 ; capital of, 28 ; patron saint of, 121 ; ancient name, 266 ; origin of, 289 ; first so called, 294 , modern, how consoli- dated, 374 ; English expelled from, 374 ; history of modern, 374 to 376 ; 385 to 393 ; 404 to 420 ; the Revolution in, 405 ; divided into depart- ments, 407 ; monarchy abolished in, 408 ; a republic, 408 to 413 ; an empire, 413 ; a monarchy, 417 ; a re- public, 418, 419 ; an empire, 419, 420 ; difference of govern- ment in England and ; a republic, 420 (See France and French.) Francis I. of France, 375 Francis II. of , Sir Philip, de Sales, France, 332, 376 362 126 425 Franco-Italian War, Franco-Prussian War, 420, 430 Frankfurt, a free city, 296 Franklin, Franklins, Franks, Frascati, Frederick I. Benjamin 169, 428, 429 316 284, 289 282 of Prussia II. of Prussia, of Saxony, Prince of Wales, death of, — the Great, William Prussia, William I. of II. of 402 403 382 360 403 403 403 Prussia, Free Church of Scotland, 201 296 374 220 120 215 134 cities, cities of France, Freedom, Zt^^ Freemasons, Free-trade, Freiligrath, French Academy estab- lished, 387 French comedy, the cre- ator of, 127 French Directory, 411 emigrants, 407 invasion of Egypt, 412 invasion of Ireland, ^i^d literature, 125 ; the Augustan age of, 126 French names of the days of the week, ori- gin of the 89 The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. Xl ANAL YTICAL INDEX.- F. French Pi-otestants, per- XIV., i26;of theiSth secution of ; settle in century, 128 ; 19th Great Britain, 390 century, 129 French Republic estab- Fresco painting, 178 lished, 408 Freytag, 134 Republic, the Friction, cause of ; in second, 418 moving bodies, meth- republican calen- ods adopted to over- dar instituted, 408 ; come, 59 abolished, 414 Friday, origin of the French Revolution of name, 89 1789, 365. 405 ; chief Frederick shall, siege causes of the, 405 ; fate of, 398 of the Church at the ; Friends, 344 number that perished Frieze, a, 190 during the, 410 Frigid Zones, why so French Revolution of cold, 20 July, 1830; revolution Frimaire, the month, 90 of 1848,417 ; effect of Frisians, 394 on Continental Eu- Frobisher, 330 rope, 425 Frogs, 78 ; early condi- French revolutionary tion of, 79 calendar ; names of Froissart, 125 the months according Fronde, members of the; to ; names of the days origin of ; wars of, 388 in a decade of the ; Frondeur, 388 festivals of the ; de- Frost, 42 ; use of, 45 cades of the, 90 ; how Froude, J. A., 166 long in use, 91 Fructidor, 90 French school of paint- Fruits, best known in ing, leading painters Great Britain, 69 ^ of the, 173 Fruit trees, the more re- French tragedy, the cre- markable, 69 ator of, 127 Fulcrum of a lever, 62 war, cause of the Funds, the, 213 great ; effects of it on Fungi, edible ; poison- England, 368 ous ; where they French writers, sum- usually grow, 66 mary of, previous to Fungous plants (see the reign of Louis Fungi). XIV., 125 ; during Furies, the, 250 the reign of Louis Fusillades, 409 The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. - « s: The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long.— See page 302 ANALYTICAL INDEX, G. xli .1 a ctf G. (U 1 bo g Gainsborough, the paint- Genoa, a free city, 296 , S o er, 176 birth-place of Colum- u O •ri Galaxy, the, 14 bus, 306 A CIS Galba, 275 Genre pictures, 177 bo Galen, 114 Gentiles, 231 .s Galileo, 123 Gentleman's Magazine, 3 Q o Gall, Dr., ^zz the, 154 cT Galland, M., 117 Geography, what it CO *g Gallery pictures. 177 teaches, 23 Q Gallia, 266 Geology, 32 ; not an CO Gallinaceous birds. 79 ancient science, 38 u Gait, John, 166 George I. of England, xh Galvani, 55> 124 355 ; death of, 357 u Galvanic battery, a 55 II. of England, „ u r] Galvanism ; origin I of 357 ; death of, 360 H the word. 55, 124 III. of England, CO CO 2 Gama, Vasco de, 306 360 ; family of, 368 ; 2 •S Game laws, origin ( 3f, 317 death of, 369 Games, Isthmian, Ne- IV. of England, mean ; Olympic ; Py- death of, 369 9i s thian. 250, 254 Prince of Denmark, 35 2 3 CO Ganges, the river, 30 German empire abol- 00 "1 Gardiner, Colonel, 358 ished ; restored, 430 q Garibaldi, 425 language, the, 94 m Garrick, David, 160 literature, 130; ! Garter, order of the, its general character of 0) jj origin, 122 recent, 134 g ^ Gaul, 266 ; under the German school of paint- s ctf Franks, 289 ing, leading painters < Gauls invade Italy, 266 of the, 173 (41 u Gaunt, John of, 325* 326 German writers,' the ex 4> Gay, John, 150 most noted, 131 0. Ge, 245 Germany, 27 ; capital of, 28 rt 2 Gebir, 118 , Electors of, 414 CO C 3 Gemini, 20 , origin of petty ii General Assembly, the, 200 states in, 294 § '% Genesis, 223 Germinal, the month, 9c Geneva, Z^Z Gerusalemme Liberata, 123 I .2 U (U - 1 ll — Genghis Khan, l^Z Geryon, 243 Q - \^ichael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. o xlii ANALYTICAL INDEX. Gessler, 378 Geysers, 38 Ghazels, 117 Gheraerd, 134 Ghibellines, the, 305 Ghiberto, Lorenzo, 181 Giant's Causeway, ^iTi Gibbon, Edward, 136, 158 Gibraltar, taken by ;he English, 351 Gideon, 228 Gifford, William, 161 Gil Bias, 128 Giotto, 171 Girondists, 407 Glacial action, 46 Glaciers ; origin of the word, 46 Gladiators, Roman, 279, 280 Glasgow, 29 Glass, a bad electric conductor ; its elec- tric power, 53 Glass-making, 41 Glencoe, massacre of, 349 Glendower, Owen, 325 Globe, the (see Earth). Gloucester, 28 Gnomes, 119 Gnostics, the, 96 Godfrey of Bouillon, 298 Gods, Olympic, 246 ; Roman names of. Goldsmith, Oliver, Goliath, Good Hope, Cape of, passage discovered, Gordian-knot, the ; to cut the, Gordius, Gordon, Lord George, Riots, Gorgon s, the, Gospel, meaning of, Gothic architecture, cathedral, the 246, 247 Greek names of, 247 ; tute- lary, Goethe, 132, Gold ; often found in quartz, 35 ; alloyed. Golden Age, the. Golden number, the, why so called ; how to find the, 254 134 39 242 91 parts of a, Goths, the, Government, aristocra- tic ; democratic ; forms of ; monarchi- cal ; patriarchal, 220 ; ecclesiastical, 222 ; municipal, 223 ; dif- ference of in France and England, Gower, John, Gracchi, the, Graces, the, Graecas calendas, ad, Graecia, Grahame, Rev. James, Grains, Grallatores, the ; ex- amples of. Grandson, battle of, Great Britain, first in- troduced, (See Britain, Great.) Granite, Grasses ; artificial, Grasshoppers, Gravel, Gravitation (see Attrac- tion of Gravitation). Gray, Thomas, 154 228 306 255 255 36^; 364 253 97 187 188 284 419 137 270 251 89 241 165 67 79 379 334 32 77 34 153 Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Captain Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133, fe AxVALYTICAL INDEX.- Great Bear, the constel- lation, Britain (see Brit- ain, Great). Greatest happiness of the greatest number, author of the phrase, Greece, 27, 241; origin of name, 241 ; capital of, 28 ; period dis- tinguished for philos- ophy and literature in ; the seven wise men of, 102 ; chief States of ; credible history of ; govern- ment of, 256 ; period of greatest prosperity, 259 ; subject to Mac- edon ; under the Romans, 260, 261 ; celebrated writers of ; philosophers of, 262 ; modern society, how benefited by, 261 ; under the Turks ; in- dependence of, Greece and Rome, na- ture of the intercourse between, Greek architect, the most noted, Greek architecture, ori- gin of ; styles of ; period of, Greek calends, at the, ' church, era, the, language, the, literature, mythology, painters, the most renowned. ^3 163 424 281 185 186 89 290 85 94 102 241 170 Greek oracles, rebellion, sculpture, the xliii 253 424 su- periority of, to what ascribed ; when it at- tained perfection, Greek sculptures, cele- brated, 180, year, the, Greeks, education of the, Greenock, Gregarious animals, Gregorian calendar, the, chant, the, Gregory I., the Great, Grenada, Grenville, Mr., Greuze, Grimm, the brothers, Groat, a, Grote, George, Grotius, Hugo, 135, Ground-plan, a, Grub street writers, Guarini, Guelfs, the, Guelph, Guiana, Guicciardini, Guido Reni, Guilds, Guinea in money, ori- gin of the word. Guise, Dukes of, Guizot, Gulf, a. Gulf Stream, the. Gunpowder invented ; first used by the Eng- lish, Gunpowder Plot, the. 179 181 85 287 29 73 Z6 190, 297 296 296 305 361 174 134 212 166 201 190 148 123 305 355 31 123 172 296 212 376 130 23 27 300 334 Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle, — See page 13. upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. n xliv ANALYTICAL INDEX. -H. Gustavus Adolphus, 385, 397 I Gutenberg, John, Vasa, 397 I Gypsies, the, 305 304 H. Habeas Corpus Act, Hades, Hadrian, 275 ; country residence of, Hafiz, Hail, what it is. Hale, Sir Matthew, Hall, Sir Joseph, , Mrs. S. C, Flam, Hamadryads, Hamburg, 296, Hamilton, Alexander, , Sir William, . William. Hamlet, Prince of Den- mark, Hammer of the ScotS; the, Hampden, John, Handel, Hannibal, Hanover, a principality of the British sover- eigns, 355 ; lost to Britain, 370 ; house of, Hanse Towns, the, Hapsburg, castle of, dynasty of, 376 ; house of, 380 ; ex- piry of the male line of the house of, Hardicanute, Hargrave, James, 343 246 281^ 117 45 147 142 166 225 252 427 428 161 152 401 322 339 191 269 355 427 403 314 365 Harleian Collection, the, 168 Harlequin, origin of, 114 Harley, Robert, Earl of Oxford, Harold, the Dane, , the Saxon, Haroun al Raschid, Harpies, the, Harvey, George, Hastings, battle of, -, Warren, Hawkins, Sir John, Haw^thorne, Nathaniel, Haydn, Hazlitt, William, Heat, latent ; how pro- duced, 42 ; radiation of ; radiation of af- fected by color ; ab- sorption of depend- ing on color ; good conductors of, 43 ; in ice, Heathens, Hebe, Hebrew era, the, judges, language, the literature, the best 168 314 316 T17 250 177 316 364, 271 169 191 165 45 84 248 85 228 94 95 specimens of ancient, Hebrew monarchy com- menced, 228; divided, 228 Hebrew musical instru- ments, prophets. 190 229 Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. bo The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.- -See page 45 ^ ANALYTICAL INDEX. H. xlv V Hebrew Sabbath, origin Henry II. of France, 376 (U 1 of, 89; when begun, 90 III. of France 385 1 Hebrews (see Israel, IV. of France , the 1 Q and Jews), 223, 224 Great, 385 Hebrides, the. 29 Heptarchy, the, z-^i Hecate, 250 Hephoestus, 247 W4 Hecla, Mount, 37 Hera, 247 _c ^ Heeren, 134 Heracleidae, 243 to" Q Hegel, 134 Heracles, 243 3 Hegira, the, or Hejira, 85 ,292 Heraldry, 209 > 3 ffi Heidelberg, 384 Heralds, 299 (0 0> Heine, 134 Herbaceous plants, dZ > t Helen, 243 Herbert, 178 § 2 Helena, 284 Herculaneum, 281, 282 Q* Helicon, Mount, 253 Hercules, the labors of, 242 1 S Heliopolis, 235 , Pillars of, 243 1 Helios, statue of, 261 Herder, 134 1 ^ Hellas, 241 Heritable jurisdictions t«-l o Hellenes, the. 241 in Scotland abolished, 359 O Helots, 257 Hermann, 134 § 0) Helvetia, 377 Hermes, 247 "S, O Helvetian republic, 425 Hero, 255 2 O Helvetius, 129 Herod, 230 o Hemans, Mrs., 165 Herodotus, 107, 262 *g) Hemispheres, 24 Hero-worship, 241 >» 0^ Hengist, 311 Her rick, Robert, 143 ^ Henry, Matthew, 147 Herschel, Sir John, 167 rt , Patrick, 428 , Sir William, 162 a "2 tn Henry I. of England, 319 Hesiod, 102, 241, 262 1 > II. of England, 320 Hesperides, gardens of 9> Q III. of England, 321 the. 243 0) > o" IV. of England, 325 Hestia, 247 »o V. of England, 325 Heylin, Peter, 144 t G VI. of England, 325 Hibernia, Z^9 I rt VII. of England, Hieroglyphics, 237 G u u ii 326 ; character of. 327 Hill, Aventine, 277 B 3 s Henry VIII. of Eng- , Coelian, 277 est c4 land ; wives of, 327 ; , Capitoline, 266, 277 "3 c children of, 328 ; his , Esquiline, 274, 277 u o quarrel with the fort, British, 209 j£ m Pope ; Supreme head , Mars, 258 •d 0) of the Church, 328; of Ares, 258 § a death of, 329 , Palatine, 263, 277 \ a 1 rhe First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. xlvi ANALYTICAL INDEX, H. 46 46 24 Hill, Pincian, 277 , Quirinal, 277 , Viminal, 277 Hills, 24 ; why they cause clouds, Hilly countries, why the most rainy, Himalaya mountains, the, Hindostani language, the, 94 Hindus, the, 303 Hindu sacred books, ancient, 98 Hindustan ; another name for, 30 Hippocrates, 104, 262 • , the Roman, 113 Historical painting, 170 History, the father of, 107 , ancient ; civil ; medieval ; modern ; profane ; sacred, 219, 224 Hoadly, Dr. Benjamin, 151 Hoar frost, 44 Hobbes, Thomas, 144 Hobbima, 175 Hoffman, 134 H ogarth, the French, 1 74 , William, 175 Hogg, James, 165 Holbein, 173 Holcroft, Thomas, 156 Holland, 27 ; capital of, 28 , Lord, 396 Holstein and Schleswig, 401 ; war respecting, 427 Holy Alliance, the, 416 Office, the, 394 orders, 200 Roman Empire abolished, 414 Homer, 102, 241, 262 112. Honi soit qui mal pense, Honorius, Hood, Thomas, Hooft, Hook, Theodore, Hooker, Richard, Horace, Horn, Count, Horner, Francis, Horology defined, Horsa, Horsley, Dr. Samuel, Hoshea, Hot springs. Hotspur, Harry, Hours, the, how desig- nated. House of Bourbon, of Brunswick, of Commons, the, 194 ; number of mem- bers of the, 196 ; Speaker of the, House of Hanover, of Hapsburg, 376, 380 ; expiry of the 122 288 165 166 143 287 395 162 311 158 228 36 325 93 385 355 197 355 male line of the. House of Lords, num ber of members of the, 197 Houses of Parliament, 194-198 ; chairman in the. House of Valois, Houses of York and Lancaster ; united, Howard, Henry, Huber, Therese, Hugo, Victor, Huguenots, 381, 2,^(i^ 389 Hull, 28 Human society, the foundation of, 220 403 197 385 326 138 134 130 Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. ^ ANALYTICAL INDEX, xlvii Humber, the river, 26 Huron, lake, 26 Humboldt, Alexander, 133 Huss, John, 381 , Karl Wilhelm, ^ZZ Hussites, 380 Hume, David, 153 Hutton, James, 162 Hundred Days, Reign Huttonian theory, the. 162 of the, 415 Huygens, the astrono- Hungary, early inhabi- mer, 93 tants of ; troubled by Hybernating animals. 74 the Turks ; becomes Hydatid, the. 76 a kingdom ; attached Hyde, Edward, 146 10 Bohemia, 377 ; Hydraulics, 59 literature of ; use of Hydrostatics, 59 the Latin language in, 135 Hygiene, 217 Huns, 284 Hymen, 248 Hunt, Leigh, 165 Hymenoptera, the. 77 Hunter, John, 161 Hymettus, Mount, 261 I, island of, I Immortality of the soul, 84 Ice, 43 ; heat in ; used Improvisatori, 117 as glass ; of sea-water Improvising, 117 not salt as the water. 45 Inchbald, Mrs., 156 Icebergs ; whence they Incitatus, 275 come ; means of dis Inclined plane, the, 61, covering the ap d-i^ ; examples of the. 63 proach of, 46 Independents, the, 337 Iceland, 23 Index Expurgatorius, Ich Dien, 324 the, 98 Iconoclast, 291 India ; situation of ; Ida, 248 how governed ; the Ideal in art, the, 179 chief cities in, , 30 ; Ides, 89 classical language of, Idolator, an. 231 94 ; law in. 204 Idyll, an. 99 India Company, East, 371 Ignatius of Loyola, 391 House, 371 Igneous rocks, 32 in the middle ages, 303 Illiad, Homer's, 102 traffic between it Ilissus, the river, 257 and Europe, in the Ilium, 243 middle ages. 306 Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. xlviii ANALYTICAL INDEX. 1. India, first voyage to, by the Cape, Indian corn, where largely used, Indian Ocean, revolt, Indies, West, why so called. Indigenous plants, Indo - European guages, the, Germanic Ian- lan- ; ap- how guages, the, Inertia of bodies, Infusoria, the, 74 pearance of the they propagate. Inorganic bodies. Inquisition, the, Insecta, the, Insectivora, the, Insects, orders of ; trans- formation ; antennae of; eyes of, 77 ; legs of the flying, 78 ; spin- ning, Insessores, the, 79 ; ex- amples of. Instinct, Institutes, Calvin's, Intercalary day, an. International law ; au- thorities on, Inverness, lona, Ionic Greeks, Iran, Ireland, 23; its lakes; its rivers, 26 ; its gen- eral character ; its chief towns, 29 ; pa- tron saint, 121 ; Ro- man name of, 309 ; 306 67 . 23 371 306 69 94 94 60 75 55 394 76 80 78 80 82 383 Z6 201 29 313 257 234 ancient state of; Chris- tianity introduced into, 311 ; Danish descents on, 315 ; at- tached to English monarchy, 320 ; par- liament first instituted in, 323; the Reforma- tion in ; made a king- dom, 329 ; Rebellion of 1798 in ; French invasion of; united to Great Britain, Ireland, W. H., his for- geries. Iris, Iron Age, the, , cause of rust in. Ironstone, Irving, Washington, Isaac, Isaiah, Isis, Islam, Islands ; the principal, 23 ; volcanic, Ismael, storming of, Israel, tribes of, 225 ; under the judges, 228; kingdom of; kingdom of, terminated, 228; in captivity ; lost ten tribes of, 229 (See Hebrews and Jews). Israelites, 225 ; form of government of the (see Israel), Isthmian Games, Italian literature, when it begins, painters, two of 160 249 242 42 169 225 229 238 292 37 399 the noted early, — pottery, 227 254 122 173 i8j Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. CO ANALYTICAL INDEX. ^J. xlix Italian schools of paint- ing, the three greatest painters of the, Italian sculptors, i8i, writers, summary of the chief, 122, Italy, 27; capital of, 28; 171 182 123 early condition of, 262 ; invaded byGauls, 266; French kingdom of, 423; modern king- dom of, (See Rome, Roman.) Ivan I., 426 396 Jacob, sons of, Jacobin Club, the, Jacobites, the. Jacquerie, Jacques Bonhomme, Jamaica, 2^^, 31 ; ac- quired by Britain, 225 407 349 302 302 342 James I. of Scotland, 139, 324 II. of Scotland, 324 III. of Scotland, 324 IV. of Scotland, 324, ZZ"^ V. of Scotland, 140, 324 VI. of Scotland, 140 ; family of, i^Z James I., King of Great Britain, 334 ; charac- ter of ; his notions of church polity, 335 ; death of, 336 James II. of England ; family of, 346; leaves England, 347, in Ire- land ; retires to France, 348; death of, 352 James, G. P. R., 166 Jameson, George, 176 Janitor, origin of, 265 Janizaries, the, 424 Jansen, 391 Jan Steen, 175 Jansenist controversy, 391 January, origin of the name, 88, 265 James, 264 Japan, 30 Jarden, Karl du, 175 Jardin des Plantes es- tablished, Jasmin, Jason, Java, Jay, John, Jefferson, Thomas, Jeffrey, Francis, Jena, battle of, Jenner, Edward, Jephthah, Jeremiah, Jerome, of Prague, Jerrold, Douglas Jerusalem, 30 ; taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 229; taken by Pompey ; taken by Titus, 230 ; plundered by Titus, 280; submits to Omar, 387 129 242 23 428 428 162 414 161 228 229 115 381 166 The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. ANALYTICAL INDEX. ^J. 298 230 228 275 266 292 ; Godfrey Bouil- lon, King of ; sur- renders to Saladin, Jerusalem, temple built, 228 ; destroyed, Jesse, Jesuits, the, 391 ; sup- pressed in France, 393 Jesus Christ, birth of, 230 ; crucified, Jetliro, Jews ; government of, 227 ; in captivity, 228, 229 ; under the Mac- cabees ; under the Romans ; dispersed, 230 ; religion of the ; the civilized world, how indebted to the, 231 ; condition of, in England, in 12th and 13th centuries, Joan of Arc, Joe Miller, John, King of England, 321 of Gaunt, 325, 326 of Gordoun, 139 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, , his Taxation no Tyranny, ^t^T) Joint-stock undertak- ings, 213 Jones, Inigo, 189 , Sir William, 156 Jonson, Ben, 142 Joseph, 225 I. of Austria, 404 Josephine, 411 ; di- vorced, 4.14 322 374 151 232 227 246 229 230 227 228 Josephus, Flavius, Joshua, Jove, Judah, 227 ; kingdom of, 228 ; inhabitants of the kingdom of, in captivity, Judas Maccabeus, Judea, Judges, Hebrew, , the appointment of, 205 Jugurtha, 270 Jugurthine War, 270 Julian the Apostate, 284 Julius Caesar, in ; his calendar, Z(> Julian Calendar ; de- fect of the ; abolished, Z() Julus, 244 July, origin of the name, ZZ June, origin of the name, 88 Junius, 362 Juno, 246, 247 Jupiter, the planet, 12 ; color of, 13 ; satel- lites of, 15 Jupiter, 246, 247 Jurisprudence, 201 Jury, a; trial by, 205, 315 ; the grand, 206 Jussieu, Laurent de, 67, 129 ; his classifica- tion of plants, 67 Justinian; Pandects and Institutes of, 288 Justinian, the Code of, 202 Tutes. the, 311 Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. i s. 4> A^mbrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248 s,, ANALYTICAL INDEX. K, L. li ■ 1 K. CO 1 3 Kaiser, 394 Kilmarnock, Lord, 358 w '2 Kangaroo, the, 80 Kit-cat pictures, 177 :s Kant, Immanuel, 132 Klopstock, 132 W) Kantian philosophy, 132 Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 177 M Karamsin, 135 Knight, Charles, 168 ^H C Karl du Jarden, 17s Knights of Malta, 424 u g w Katrine, loch, 29 of St. John, 298, 424 I C (« Keats, John, 219, 165 Templar, 298 iS Kemble, John, 160 Knowledge, Society for A rt ^ , Sarah, 160 Diffusion of Useful, 168 1-^ Kempis. Thomas £i,. 116 Knox, John, 140 ho o Kenmure, Viscount, 356 Koch, Paul de, 130 to w o Kenneth, king of Scots 318 Koran, the, 98 0) ?> Keppler, 131 Korner, 134 n3 Keppler's Laws, 131 Kosciusko, 400 a Kilkenny, statute of. 324 Kotzebue, 133 to S Killarney, lakes of, 26 Kyles 310 J 4) in Killiecrankiv, battle of, 347 M .s 1 L. W v (0 c: J Labors of Hercules, 242 Lakes of North Amer- 8 rt Labruyere, 127 ica, 2b 0^ •d Lacedaemonians, the, 259 Lamartine, 130 t>i Lachesis, 250 Lamb, Charles, 164 3 Lac of rupees, a, 213 Lamennais, 129 c o Laconia, 256 Lancaster, Duke of, 325 4-> £3 •g Lactantius, 115 , House of, 326, 327 8 1 J>adislaus, 377 , the Duchy of,- 205 >» ^ Laertes, 244 Land, extent of the ; V ^ Lafayette, 407 how divided, 23 ; 3 Lafontaine, 127 features of the, 24 La Harpe, 129 Landscape painting, 170 c G tion of, 94 Lee, Sophia and Har- <41 •d Laocoon, 254 riet, 157 0* _« Lares, the, 264 Leeds, 28 I Q Larva, the, 77 Legion of Honor insti- « Lassen, 134 tuted, 413 (1 CO Latimer, Hugh, 329 , Roman, 276 ^ Latin language, 94, Legionaries, Roman ; ^ "S 263 ; when it began equipment of, 276 .0 & to be superseded, 115 Leguminous crops, d'^ C4 > Latin Church,. 290 Leibnitz, 131 M C Latin, Patristric, 115 Leipsic, battle of, 415 .s £3 Latins, the, 262 , staple trade of, 131 "S O Latitude, 24 Leith, 29 4) n Latium, 262 Leland, John, 139 > 03 Laud, Archbishop, 340 Lely, Sir Peter, 175 u to ^ Laurel, use of, by the Le Notre, 392 Q CO Greeks and Romans, 283 Lens, a ; focus of a, 52 CIS Lava, 36 Leo, 20 0) 03 Lavater, 132 Isaurus, 291 a 13 La Vendue, war in. 410 Leonardo da Vinci, 171 > 4J Lavoisier, 129 Leonidas, 259 "S Law, John, 392 Leopold of Austria, 378 if lU ■ international, 201 ; of Belgium, 369, 424 •a 1 martial, 203 : com- Lepidoptera, 77 IS (m mon ; English, 203 ; Lepidus, 273 T) o the Canon, 202, 203 ; Lepsius, 134 4) .2 a Roman civil, 202 ; in Lern^ean hydra, 244 4) !H Great Britain, 203 ; Lesage, 128 cd in India ; in the Brit- Leslie, Charles, 151 % £ ish colonies ; in Scot- Lessing, 132 CJ CO land, 204 ; of demand L'etat, c'est moi, 389 M fe and supply, 214 ; the Lethe, 248 CO CO faculty of, 216 Lettres de Cachet, 389 (d cT o Laws of the Medes and Leuwenhoek, 135 6 Q ^ Persians, 234 Lever, the, 62 ; power. c s Laws of nature, II how modified by; ful- s Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 176 crum of a, 62 ; exam- 0) Leander, 255 ples of the, 66 The Bastile was a Prison in Paris; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407 Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. ANALYTICAL INDEX.- liii Levites, Leyden, John, -, siege of, 395 ; ori- gin of the university of, Liberation, war of, Liberty, cap of, of the press, loi, Liberum Veto, the, Libra, Library, origin of the word, Libretto of an opera, Lichens, Lichfield, Lictors, Liebig, Baron, Liege, Liffey, the river, Light, the source of; rate at which it trav- els ; time it takes to reach the earth ; re- fraction of ; reflection of, 50 ; polarization of; uses of, 51 ; arti- ficial, 52 ; phosphor- escent, Lightning ; injury to buildings from, how averted, Lillo, Lilly, William, Limerick, Limestone, Lincoln, , Abraham, Linnaean system of bot- any, Linnaeus, 67, Linne, Karl, Lion of the North, the, Lisbon, 227 165 396 415 407 168 399 20 97 100 28 268 133 296 26 earth- 53 54 150 118 29 ZZ 28 429 67 132 132 385 28 Lisbon, great quake at, 426 Literature ; ancient, of what it chiefly con- sists, 94 ; rabbinical, 95 ; the two great varieties of, 99 ; Greek, 102 ; Roman, no ; Arabic, 116 ; Italian, 132 ; Portu- guese ; Spanish, 124 ; French, 125; German, 130; Dutch, 134; Rus- sian; Magyar or Hun- garian, 135 ; English, 137 ; how promoted in the 15th century, 138 ; commencement of cheap ; pioneers of popular ; recent remarkable change in, 168 ; American, 168 Littleton, Sir Thomas, Liverpool, Livy, L. L. D., Lloyds, Loadstone, the. Lobsters, Lochs, Locke, John, Lockhart, J. G., Logarithms, discoverer of, Logic, Lombards, the, Lombardy, Lomond, loch, London, 28 ; during the Roman occupa- tion, 309 ; first char- ter to ; the Tower built, 318 ; first bridge 204 28 III 218 211 54 76 29 146 166 141 102 289 289 29 The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles.— See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. liv ANALYTICAL INDEX. L. built, 320 ; the Great Louis le D^bonuair, 294 Fire of; St. Paul's Bonaparte, 419 Cathedral destroyed — Napoleon, 419 rebuilt ; the Great Philippe, 417 Plague of, 242; streets Quatorze style, 39^ lit with gas, 368 — , St., 373 Londonderry, 29 Louvois, 393 , siege of, 348 Lovatt, Lord, Z^^ Longfellow, H. W., 169 Lovelace, Richard, 143 Longinus, 109 Lover, Samuel, 166 Longitude, 24 Lowell, J. R., 169 Lope de Vega, 124 Lowth, Dr. William, '51 Lord Advocate, the, 206 Lubeck, 296, 427 Deputy in Ireland, 326 Lucan, 112 Protector Crom- Lucian, 109 well, 341 Lucretius, III Lords Spiritual, 197 Lucullus, 239 of the Congrega- Lunacy, origin of the tion, 332 term. 22 Louis IL of Hungary, 377 Lunar cycle, a, 91 IX. of France, 373 month, 21, 88 | XI. of France, 374 rainbow, a. 51 XII. of France, 375 Luther, Martin, 381, 382 XIII. of France, 386 Lutheran Church, creed XIV. of France, of the. 382 387; character of, 389; Lutzen, battle of. 385 his contemporaries in Luxembourg, 392 England ; his treat- Lyceum, origin of the ment of Charles II. of word. 104 England, 390 ; death Lycurgus, 257 of, 391 ; description Lydia, 234 of the reign of, 392 Lydians, 224 Louis XV. of France, Lyell, Sir Charles, 167 393; character of, 393; Lyly, John, 142 death of, 394 Lyndsay, Lady Anne, 160 Louis XVI. of France, , Sir David, 140 394, 404; character Lyric poetry ; varieties of, 405 ; fate of, 408 of. 99 Louis XVII. of France, 411 Lysippus, 181 XVIII. of France, 416 Lytt eton. Lord, 153 Louisiana, sold to the L y 1 1 n , Sir Edward United States, 429 Bulwer, 166 The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. CO cr CO O V ANALYTICAL INDEX.- -M. lY M. Macaulay, Lord, Macbeth, Maccabees, Maccabeus, Judas Macchiavelli, Macchiavellism, MacCulloch, Horatio, the painter, Macedon, Macedonian phalanx, Machinery, examples of mechanical powers in, 65 ; special use of, Mackenzie, Henry, Maclise, Macneill, Hector, Macpherson, James, Macrobius, Madagascar, Madeira, Madras, Madrid, Maecenas, Magazines, the first English, Magi, the. Maggots, how brought into connection with decaying substances, Magna Charta, 321 ; leading provisions of. Magnetic poles of the earth. Magnetism, Magnets, artificial, Magyars, the, Magyar language, the, literature. Mahogany-tree, 166 318 230 230 123, 422 422 177 239 239 64 157 178 161 155 114 23 23 30 28 274 154 235 71 321 55 54 54 377 135 135 70 Maid of Orleans, the, 374 of Norway, the, 319 Mail-coaches intro- duced, 365 Maintenon, Madame de, 391 Maize (see Indian corn). Majesty, his most Chris- tian, 375 Majolica, 183 Malayan race described ; why so called, Malbrook, Malcolm Canmore, H. of Scotland, HI. of Scotland, IV. of Scotland, Malebranche, Mallet, David, 152, Malplaquet, battle of, Malstrora whirlpool, the. Malt, Malta, Knights of, taken by the Brit- ish, 366, Mamelukes, the. Mammalia, the, 78 ; na- ture of ; orders of the, 80 ; swimming, Man, his place in animal creation, 82 ; his duty to lower animals, difference between his intelligence and that of the lower animals ; to what order of ani- mals assigned ; why said to be an account- 83 318 318 318 319 128 351 27 67 424 424 424 81 the 71, the 71 ^ The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. d V bo William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143 CO Ivi ANALYTICAL INDEX. M. 0) able being ; races of, Marlowe, Christopher, 142 0) 1 82 ; examples of the Marmontel, 129 CO '6 races of, 82 ; circum- Mars, the planet, 12 ; 1 c o stances that tend to color of, 13 8 1 degrade the races of ; Mars, 247 0^ CO of what he consists ; Mars' Hill, 258 8 "bJ) present state of man- Marseillaise, the, 193 0" CO C kind, 84 Marston Moor, battle w W Man, Isle of, 29 of, _ 340 rt Manchester, 28 Marsupialia, the, 80 ^ C Mandeville, Sir John, 138 Martel, Charles, 293 a> 2 03 Manes, the, 264 Martial law, 202 1> Mantchee dynasty in Mary, Queen of Eng- China, 303 land, 329 g Maps, how constructed ; Mary, Queen of Scots, cf what they represent, 25 331 ; her husbands, A ^ O^ Mar, Earl of, 356 {?>2, 2,2>?> ; her fate, 2>3Z Marat, 409 Mary, consort of Wil- t) Marathon, battle of, 235, 259 liam III., 347 ; death % Marble, Parian, 35 of, . 350 « March, origin of the Masaniello, 423 .0 t) name, 88 Masonic Guilds of the S 4^ Marco Polo, 300 Middle Ages, 119 rt Marengo, battle of, 412 Massacre of St. Barthol- •d .t3 Margaret, Queen of omew, 381 < Scotland, her influ- of the loth of Au- CO j3 ence on Scotland, 318 gust, 1792, 408 Margaret Tudor, 330, 331 Massillon, 127 buo Maria Louisa, 414 Massinger, Philip, 143 (U Theresa, 377, 403 Materia Medica, 217 Si Marie Antoinette, 404; Matter, defined, 55 ; den- m *" fate of, 408 sity of ; not destructi- U Marine painting, 170 ble ; examples of it -d > 2 Mariners' compass, the, assuming new shapes, 56 1 h 25, 55 ; invented, Matilda, 319 *j 300 ; its needle, how Maude the Good, 319 a •a made to turn ; points Mauritius, 23 A •w J of the, 25 Mausoleum, origin of Im rt Maritime enterprise in the word, 114 the reign of Eliza- Maximian, 275 C! T3 beth, 330 Maximilian I. of Aus- '■3 c4 C 3 Marius, 270 tria, 379 3 03 Marlborough, Duke of, 35 1 May, origin of the name, S^ The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588.— See page 330 The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. ANALYTICAL INDEX.- -M. V Mayence, printing in- vented at, 305 Mayne, James, 166 Mazarin, Cardinal, 387 McCullough, J. R., 167 M. D., 218 Mean time, 92 Mecca, 292 Mechanical combina- tion of substances, 64 Mechanical powers, 61 ; examples of in ma- chinery, 62, (iT^ Medes, 224, 233 and Persians, laws of the, 234 Medical jurisprudence, 217 Medici, the, 305 , Catharine de, 381 , Lorenzo de, 305 Medicinal plants, 67 Medicine, the faculty of, 216 Medieval, meaning of, 220 history, 219, 287 learning and arts, 115 Mediterranean Sea, 23 ; has very little tide, and why, 27 Medusa, 253 Medusae, the, use of, 76 Megaera, 250 Melancthon, 382 Melpomene, 251 Memnon, 236 Memphis, 237 Mendel, David, 133 Mendelssohn, 192 Menelaus, 243 Mental philosophy, 102 Mercantile consuls (see Consuls). Mercury, 245, 247 Mercury, the planet, 12 ; color of. Meridian, the, Merle, Jean Henri, Merovingian dynasty, Merowig, Mersey, Mesopotamia, meaning Messiah, meaning of, Messidor, the month, Metals, the principal, 35 ; good electric con- ductors. Metaphysics, Metastasio, Metempsychosis, author of the doctrine of, Meteorolites, why lumi- nous. Meteorology, Methodists, the, Methuen Treaty, Meton, Metonic cycle, a. Metre, Metropolis, a, Mexico, Meyerbeer, Michael Angelo, 171, Michelet, Mickle, William, Microscope, Midas, ears of. Middle Ages, the,, 287 ; fancies regarding the unseen world preva- lent in the, 119 ; fabu- lous animals of the ; saints of the, 121 ; English war-cry in the, 122 ; manners in Ivii 13 17 130 289 289 26 224 229 90 53 102 124 103 57 55 357 426 91 91 100 28 31 192 172 129 155 52 254 Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. 1 The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278 Iviii ANALYTICAL INDEX. M. C/} the latter part of the, denly while rolling 0) 299; intelligence, how along hills, 44 1 j3 communicated in the. Mite, the ; legs of ; how 1 S 301 ; traffic between it breathes, 78 tj t3 India and Europe, Mitford, Miss, 166 C4 § how conducted in the, 306 Mithridates, 239 M 1 Midian, 226 the Great, 239 Mildew, 67 Mizraim, 236 a> Mile, origin of, 280 Modern civilization. >^ Military dictator, 221 summary of events > •a Milky Way, the, 14 which promoted, 307 Milliarium Aureum, 280 benefited by the Ro- en Miltiades, 289 mans, 286; indebted to .3 •g Milton, John, 145 the Arabians, 293 3 0. Mimi, the, 114 Mogul, the Great, 303 CO Mimicry, origin of the Mohammed, 292 •3 1-c word. 114 II., 304 H Mind,the; the seat of the, 84 Mohammedanism, 292 >» 0) Mineral springs. 37 Mohammedan era, 85 J^ 1 Mineralogy, 35 ; as Moisture, exhaled into 4> known to the ancients, 38 the atmosphere, what (in Minerals, 35 becomes of it, 44 V Minerva, 247 Moisture in the inside 2 c 11 Ming dynasty in China, Z^Z of glass windowsjhow o p Minnesingers, 301 caused, 44 0) (/3 a Minos, 255 Moli^re, 127, 353 ^ ■3 Minotaur, the. 255 Mollusca, the, 72,76 u ■M 0) Minstrels, 301 Momentum, 61 (4 Mirabeau, 407 Mommsen, 134 (0 s Miracle play, 120 Momus, 114, 248 Mississippi, the river, 26 Monarchy, in Great (4 O Mississippi scheme. 392 Britain a national in- CO o Missionaries to Britain, 313 stitution, why, 198 % e Missouri, the river, 26 Monarchy abolished in r^ Mist, what it is ; why it England, 340 ; abol- > disappears in fine ished in France, 408, 418 C weather; why it some- Monarchy, constitu- '-d V > V M a> XI times disappears sud- tional, 221 > 'S > ( Daptain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779 — See page 365. . Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. 4 ANALYTICAL INDEX. M. Ivix 4) Monarchical govern- Moon, the; its size, 15; CO 1 ment, 220 its substance ; its 1 p Monasteries, 290 ; abol- light ; its mountains V ished in England, 328 and valleys ; not in- z Monday, origin of the habited ; its motions, •o name, 89 21 ; why we never see OS Money, origin of the more than one side of a word. 211 it ; its phases ; eclipse .2 Mongolia, 302 of the ; how caused, • 22 Mongolian race, de- Moore, Dr. John, 157 c^ scribed ; why so , Sir John, 367 called, 83 , Thomas, 164 >> ^ Mongols, the, 302 ; sub- Moors, kingdom of the, due China, 303 ; re- 293 ; driven from ligion of the. 304 Spain, 304 C Monk, General, 342 Moraine, a, 64 a{ Monmouth, Duke of. Moral Philosophy, 102 342 ; his fate, 346 Morat, battle of, 379 Monopoly, 215 Moray, Randolph, Earl Monotheism, 231 of, 323 q" Monotremata, the. 80 More, Hannah, 159 .5 Monroe Doctrine, the, 429 , Sir Thomas, 138, 328 ctf Monroe, James, 429 Morgan, Lady, 166 S Montagu, Lady Mary Morgarten, battle of, 378 o Wortley, 150 Morning Star of the Ref- V Montaigne, 126 ormation, 325 S Montesquieu, Baron de. 128 Morpheus, 248 « Montgomery, Alexander ,141 Mosaic record, the, 227 C , James, 165 Moses, character of, 226 a Month, origin of the Moser, 134 3 term, 88 ; a lunar, 21, Mosheim, 132 88; a calendar; a civil, Moslem, 292 88 ; the, how divided Mosque of Omar, 292 by the Romans, 89 Moss, Thomas, 155 o Monthly Review, the. 162 Mosses, ()(i Months, origin of the Motion, tendency of a **3 names of the ; the, body in a state of, 60 *C when named and ar- Mould, 67 > ranged,88; how named Mountain, highest in u in the French revolu- Europe, 28 ; the high- > tionary calendar, 90 est in Great Britain, 29 Montreal, 31 Mountainous countries, Montrose, Marquis of, 340 why the most rainy, 46 Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. 00 CO V bo 2. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 6« >• S" & s. Ix ANALYTICAL INDEX. N. Mountains, 24 ; cause Mummery, origin of the M 1 of, 18; why they cause word, 120 1, clouds, 46 ; tops of Municipal government, 223 0' d § high, why perpetually Murat, 423 o covered with snow, 47 Murchison, Sir Roder- < o Mount Caucasus, 250 ick J., 167 ^ CO Etna, 247 Murillo, 175 T3 Helicon, 253 Murray, Earl of, 333 (0 Q o Hymettus, 261 Muses, the, 251 *s ^ Ida, 248 Music ; of the ancients. Nebo, 226 190 ; national ; Scot- a *-• Olympus, 246 tish, 192 5 .2 Ossa, 246 Musical composers; the i Pelion, 246 great modern, 191 .5 >» Sinai, 226 Musical instruments of 3 Mozart, 191 the Hebrews, 190 eg Q g^ Mule, 73 Mussulman, 292 •d (« MuUer, 134 Mutiny act, the, 349 Mulock, Miss, 166 Mysteries, 120 c Mulready, the painter, 176 Myth, a, 241 .2 Mum, origin of the word, 120 Mythology, Greek, 241 ; 5 5 9 1 Mummeries, 120 Roman, 264 1 >*4 CO N. ^4 "Si ^ Names of the days of Napier, John, 141 ** the week, origin of , Lord, of Magdala, 372 CO g the ; employed in the , Sir Charles, 371 '3 records of parliament, 89 Naples, 281 ; bay of, i •a o Names of the days in a 265, 282 ; patron saint 1 o decade of the French of, 121 s revolutionary calendar, 90 Napoleon Bonaparte, 1) J3 2 Names of the months, 365, 411 ; tactics of ; "^ origin of the, 88 first consul ; marries 2 4) Names of the months Josephine ; in Egypt, ^ rt in the French revolu- 412 ; emperor of the CO 4> 5 tionary calendar, 90 French, 413 ; changes CA 3 s^ Nancy, siege of, 379 made by him on con- S .s Nantes, Edict of, 386, 389 tinental States, 415, a a o J J Naphtha, i2> 430 ; divorces Joseph- ulius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.— See page 47 1 s. s. ANALYTICAL INDEX. N. ' Ixi 9> V ine and marries Maria Neo-Platonism, 108 Louisa ; his Russian Nepos, Cornelius, 112 C/3 1 ii campaign ; abdication Neptune, the planet, 12 1 Q CO e S of, 415 ; exile and Neptunian theory, the, 162 < death of, 368, 416 Neptune, 246, 247 o\ Napoleon II., 416 Nero, 274 ; character of; t^ a; Napoleon III. ; policy successors of, 275 C ^ of ; exile and death of, 420 Nerva, 275 co" O 4> Napoleon, the Code, 414 Nestor, 244 >3 Q Narcissus, 253 Netherlands, attached > 3 Naseby, battle of, 340 to Austria, 379 ; CO > Nasmyth, Alexander, 177 early history of the, t Natatores, the ; the best 394 ; history of the o u known, 79 Northern ; history of s PU Nation, a, 27, 220 the Southern, 396 ; "o > CO National Covenant, 338 kingdom of the, as 1> O debt of England ; defined by the Treaty A ^ commencement of of Vienna ; divided, •§ the, 350 ; present 423 ; language and c O amount of, 372 literature of the, 134 G National music, 193 New Brunswick, 30 a Nations, battle of, 415 Newcastle, 28 2 O Natural philosophy. Newfoundland, 23 c o definition of, 64 New Orleans, 31 S 5 Nature ; the laws of. Plymouth, 38S >^ 1 1 ; the balance of ; style, adopted in .Q instance of its de- England, 360 ; differ- 13 c4 rangement by man, 72 ence between the old s Navarre, kingdom of, 385 and the ; how adopted 1 '> Nave, the, 188 in Great Britain, Zd Q Neander, 133 Newspapers, their first > o" Neapolis, 281 appearance in Eng- Neap tide, a, 26 land, 145 C Nebo, Mount, 226 Newton, Sir Isaac, 148 % c?i Parasitic animals ; A ■«f Palaeotherium, the, z^y plants. 74 u r] •• Palatinate, the, 335, 384 Parian marble, Z'-i ^ "5 Palatine Hill, 263, 277 Paris, 28 ; patron saint W) o Pale, the, 324 of, 121 C5 Palestine, 227 , son of Priam, 243 Paley, Dr. William, 158 , Count de. 417 c Palimpsests, 97 , parliament of. 3^8 w Palissy, Bernard, 183 Park, Mungo, 159 6 CO Palladio; the English, 189 Parliament, a, 222 ; u Palladium, the, 244 names of the days of ■^ ^ Palm, Van der, 135 the week employed (U a Palmer, John, 365 in the records of, 89 ; s -B Palmerston, Lord, 147 Houses of, T94-198 ; (0 .2 Palmyra, 228 a session of ; dura- • •1 ^ Pau, 249 tion of, 196 ; Houses Pandects and Institutes of, chairmen in the, X U 1) of Justinian, 288 197 ; an act of, 198 ; 6 < Pandora, 250 of England first con- 2 rt Panis et Gircenses, 274 stituted, 321 ; of Ire- 0) "3 Pantheon, the, 277 land instituted, 323 ; G O Pantomime, the, origin the Scots, 334 ; the > c of the word, 114 Long; the Barebones, Pantomimi, the, 114 341 ; the first British, 6 i Paoli, General, 393 353 ; the imperial. 3 s Papal dominions, capi- ^66 ; of Paris, 387, 406 | fe c tal of, 28 Parmenides, 107 rt Paper, origin of the Parnassus, 251 CO •tH a < word, 97 ; invented, Parnell, Thomas, 150 A ^ % < ' Order of the Garter" was a Knighth ood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients.— See page ii8 ANALYTICAL INDEX. P. Ixv lU ! Paros, 35 Peers, by whom created, 195 w i Parsees, religion of the, 235 Pegasus ; to mount, 253 1 Parthenon, the, 260 Peisistratus, 258 1 t-l CO Parthian darts, 236 Pelasgians, 241 1 ^ Parthians, the, 236 Peleus, 244, 252 2 C Pascal, Blaise, 126, 391 Pelion, 246 o peals to Rome, 269 Pentateuch, the, 226 U «M Paul de la Roche, 174 Penny, origin of the I. of Russia, fate word, 212 bo •1-1 of, 401 Pepin, 292, 295 CO V a Pebbles, 34 Periander of Corinth, 102 bo Pecuniary ; origin of Pericles, 179, 259 < CI 6 the word, 211 Period, a prehistoric ; a o CO Pediment of a building, evidence of a prehis- 2 (0 the, 190 toric, 223 Peel, Sir Robert, 371 Peripatetic philosophy, 104 Peerage, the, 195 ; Peripatetics, 105 *^ ^ grounds on which Peronne, 375 fc^ ^ persons are raised to Persecution in Scot- CUD o (1 the ; ranks in the, land, 332 c < 195; national distinc- Persepolis, 235 V o G c4 tions in the, 196 Perseus, 255 1 1 "he Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles.— See page 23. -J The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. Ixvi ANALYTICAL INDEX. P. Persia, 30 ; ancient Philippi, battle of, 273 name of, 234 Philippics, 262 Persian empire, 230 ; Philips, Ambrose, 150 extent of, 234 -, John, 145 language, the, 94 Philistines, 227 Persians, 224 Phillip, John, the paint- Perspective, 170 er, 177 Perth, 29 Philology defined, 93 Peru, 31 Philomela (Philomel), 253 Peter III. of Russia, 398 Philosopher's stone, the, 117 the Great, 397 Philosophers of Greece, 262 the Hermit, 298 Philosophy ; m e n t a 1 ; Pindar, 155 moral, 102 ; peripa- Petrarch, 123 tetic, 104 ; the Scotch , the English, 142 school of, 161 Petroleum, 38 Phocidae, the, 81 Pewter, 39 Phocis, 256 Phaedon, 105 Phoebus, 247 Phaedrus, 112 Phoenicia, 235 Phaeton, 249 Phoenicians, 224, 236 Pharaoh, 226 Phoinikes, 269 Pharaohs, the, ' 236 Phosphorescent light, 53 Pharisees, 231 Photography, 178 Pharmacopaeia, a, 217 Phrenology, founder of, 133 Pharmacy, 217 Physalis, the, 76 Pharos, 240 Physics, definition of, 64 Pharsalia, battle of, 271 Pibroch, a, 192 Pheme, 252 Pichegru, 411 Phidias, 179, 262 Picts, the, 312 Philadelphia, 31 Pictures, different kinds founded, 345 of, 177 Philip II. of Spain, 394, 395 Piece of eight, a, 212 of Macedon, 239, 260 Pigeon tribes, the, 80 Philiphaugh, battle of, 340 Pigments, 170 Philippa, Queen, 324 Pilgrim Fathers, the, 337 Philippe de Comines, 125 Pilgrimages to the Holy , Duke of Orleans, Land, 297 387, 392 to Canterbury, 320 , Duke of Orleans, Pilgrims, costume of, 297 407, 409, 411 Pillar dollar, the, 212 Egalite, 407 409 Pillars of Hercules, 243 IV. of France, 374 Pincian Hill, 277 VI. of France, 392 Pindar, 103, 262 • Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. ANALYTICAL INDEX.- -P. Ixvii 156 70 331 43 257 20 78 102 425 342 24 Pindar, Peter, Pine-trees, Pinkie, battle of Pipes for warming houses, why painted black, Piraeus, Pisces, the Sign, , the. Pistil of a plant, Pittacus, Pitt, William, Pius IX., Plague of London, the Great, Plains, Planets, the ; their size ; their number ; largest of the ; the principal ; what they are, 12 ; how distinguished from stars ; their colors ; the most beautiful of the, 13 ; secondary, 15 ; how sustained in the heavens ; their shape, Plans of buildings, Plantagenet ; Goeffrey, 320 ; dynasty ; origin of, 320 ; end of Plantation of Ulster, Plantigrade quadrupeds^ 74 Plants, how produced, 64 ; kinds of ; their kind^ of life ; how nourished ; effect on of light; use of the air to ; their seeds, how produced; seeds of, how they grow ; vitality of the seeds of, 65 ; cryptoga- 16 190 326 mous ; their seeds, how diffused by na- ture ; that fling their seeds from them when ripe ; fungous, dd ; classification of, 67 ; esculent ; cereal ; fibrous ; medicinal, 67 ; leguminous, bul- bous ; annual ; bien- nial ; perennial ; herbaceous ; orchide- ous, 68 ; exotic ; exotics used in Great Britain; indigenous; acclimatizing of, 69 ; parasitic, 74 (See Trees, Fruits.) Plassey, battle of, 360 Plastic arts, the, 178 Platea, battle of, 259 Plato, 106, 262 Platonic affection, 106 Plautus, 1 10 Playing-cards, invented, 184 Plebiscitum, the, Plebs, the, Pleiades, the, Pleione, Plinth of a column, the, Pliny the elder, the younger, Plotinus, Plough, constellation of the, Plumb-line, the, Plutarch, Pluto, Plutonic theory, the, Pluviose, the month, Plymouth, P. M., Pneumatics, 268 264 245 245 190 113 113 108 13 109, 262 243, 246 162 90 28 9Z 48 Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. i 0) bo 2. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242 i bo (4 Ixviii ANALYTICAL INDEX. P. 4\ Poe, Edgar Allan, 169 Pope, Alexander, 150 4) 05 1 Poet-laureate, the, office Pope, the, 290 \ 1 of, 167 Popery, No, 36^ R Poetry defined ; princi- Popes at Avignon, 302 "S M pal kinds of ; epic ; Population of Europe, 32 0) > .s lyric ; dramatic, 99 of the world, 32 (4H i> Poetry of the Anti- Poquelin, 127 0" 5 Jacobin, 161 Porphyrins, 108 I Poictiers, battle of, 324 Portia, 272 CO Points of the compass, 25 Portland Vase, the, 183 u M Poland, form of gov- Port-royalists, the, 390 ; ^ s .2' ernment in ; first par- suppressed, 391 ^ >» tition of, 399 ; second Portrait painting, 170 43 partition of ; third Portsmouth, 28 1 > partition of, 400 Portugal, 28; capital of, 130 M c Polar regions ; why so 28 ; independence of, 486 c G cold, 20 Portuguese literature, 124 (U Pole, meaning of the Poseidon, 247 term, 18 Positivism ; founder of, 130 % CO t Pole Star, the, how Post meridian, 93 [^ ^ known, 13 ; how use- Potato, the; when in- ■q CO (U ful, 14 troduced into Europe, 68 S rt Poles, 301 Potemkin, Prince, 399 a> W , the north and Potter, Paul, 174 C •d south, 18 Pound in money ; ori- (U > .t; Political economy, 214 gin of the word, 212 C h^ Pollen of a plant, 65 Poussin, Nicholas, 173, 392 oT u Polo, Marco, 300 Power-loom invented, 365 4 4> (0 *> Presbyterians, the, 337 Prophet, a. 227 < c4 Prescott, W. H., 169 Prophetic books, 229 c K Press, liberty of the ; Proserpine, 246 i V its freedom in the Protean-like, 253 !3 ^ United Kingdom, 168 Protective policy in n a Prester John, 302 trade. 215 ..» irt" Preston, 28 Protector Somerset, the, 329 c% ^ 9f> 195 astronomy, 105 g" •d Primum Mobile, the, 105 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 240 Prince, the Black, 324 Pudding-stone, 34 of Wales, origin of, 322 Puifendorf, 131 g o Consort, the, 370 Pulley, the. 63 •0 c Uj Princeps Senatus, 272 Pulse crops. 68 ^ ctf Printing invented, 305 ; Pultova, battle of. 398 2 OS introduced into Eng- Punic faith. 269 C s land, 138, 326 ; ma- wars. 269 chinery introduced, 368 Punica fides. 269 o Prior, Matthew, 149 Puranas, the. 98 Prism, the, 51 Puritans, the, 344 V ►*< Prismatic colors, 51 Purple, the Roman ; 6 .2 Prisoners of war, 202 raised to the. 282 ^ Privy Council, the, 194 Pushkin, 135 11 1 Pro-consul, 268 Pussilla Roma, 282 -d V < rhe Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles.— See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. Ixx ANALYTICAL INDEX. Q, R. Puteoli, 265, 282 Pyrrhus, 267 Pygmalion, 253 Pythagoras, 103, 262 Pyiamids, the, 237 Pythia, the, 254 Pyrenees, the, 24 Pythian games, 250, 254 Pyrrha, 242 Python, 250 Q. Quadrumana, the, 81 Queen Margaret, of Quadrupeds ; digiti- Scotland, 318 grade ; plantigrade, 74 Mary, of England, 329 Quaestors, 268 Mary II., of Eng- Quakers, 344 land, 347, 350 Quarterly Review, the. 161, 162 332, zzz Quartidi, the day, 90 Matilda, of Eng- Quartz, 35 land, 319 Quebec, 31 Philippa, of Eng- , battle of, 360 land, 324 Queen Anne, of Eng- Victoria, of Eng- land, 351 land, 370 Eleanor, of Eng- Quevedo, 124 land, 322 Quincy, Josiah, 428 Elizabeth, of Eng- Quintidi, the day, 90 land, 329 Quintilian, \\\ Quirinal Hill, 277 R. Rabbinical literature, 95 Raeburn, Sir Henry, 177 Rabelais, 125 Railways commenced, 370 Races of man, 82 ; ex- Rain, how produced ; amples of the, 83 ; cir- why heavy rains occur cumstances that tend in warm as well as in to degrade the, 84 cold weather ; use of, Racine, Jean, 127, 392 45 ; why hilly coun- Radcliffe, Mrs., 158 tries are the most Radiata, the, 72 rainy, 46 The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815.— See page 368. i 1 ANALYTICAL INDEX. R. Ixxi s. Rainbow, the ; its col- Reformation in Ireland, 329 4> ors, how produced ; in Scotland, 332 \Ji a lunar ; when seen Regency, in England, V on a small scale, 51 the, 368 p Raleigh, Sir Walter, Regent Murray, 333 330 \ his fate, 336 Orleans, 392 h Ramillies, battle of, 351 Rehoboam, 228 to Ramsay, Allan, 151 Reichstadt, Duke of, 416 § Randolph, Earl of Reid, Dr. Thomas, 161 1 Moray, 323 Reign of Terror, the, 409 "o Ranke, 134 of the hundred CO Ranz des vachos, the, 193 days, 415 o Raphael ; his cartoons, 171 Reinhard, 134 u Raptores, the, 79 ; birds Rembrandt, 174 in included in, 80 Remus, 263 a Rasores, the, 79; nature Renaissance, the, 122 of ; examples of, 80 architecture, 188 c Raumer, Von, 134 Rennie, John, 189 a Ravaillac, 386 Reptiles ; nature of ; D Ravenna, Exarch of, 289 orders of, 78 to ^3 Ray, John, 148 Reptilia, the, 78 Raynal, 129 Republic, a, 221 2 Realm, estates of the, 222 Requesens, General, 395 Reason, the goddess of, 410 Restoration in England, CO «3 Reasoning, the Socratic the, 342 method of, 105 Rete mucosum, the, 84 C Rebellion of 1715, 356 Retina of the eye ; iJ of 1745, 358 images of objects, how "3 Red Republicans, the, 418 condensed on the, 52 Red Sea, the, 23 Retz, Cardinal de, 388 s^ , passage of, 226 Revelation, 232 Reform, a, 221 Revenons h. nos mou- Bills, 369 tons, author of, 127 t4 Reformation, remark- Review, the, 149 ^^ able fact concerning , the Edinburgh, 162 fi the, ^ 384 , first English, 162 Reformation in England, , the Monthly, 162 6 the ; immediate cause , the Quarterly, 162 O of the ; leading feat- Revolution, a, 221 o ures of the, 328 ; the in England of Morning Star of the, 323 1688, 347; the Revo- Reformation in Ger- lution settlement, 349 o many, the, 380 Revolution, the French; ^ The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619.— See page I45- 1 William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. Ixxii ANALYTICAL INDEX. R. chief causes of the River Tigris, 224, 232 French, 405 ; in Paris , the largest in the of 1830 ; the French world, 25 of 1848, 417 Rivers of Europe, 26 Revolution in Nether- of Great Britain, 26 lands, 423 of Ireland, 26 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 176 of North America, 26 Rhadamanthus, 255 Rizzio, David, 332 Rhetoric, 216 Roads, Roman, 280 Rhine, the river, 26 Robert, first Duke of Rhinoceros, the, 81 Normandy, 300 Rhode Island, 345 Robert I. of Scotland, 323 Rhodes, Colossus of, 261 II. of Scotland, 323 Rhone, the river, 26 III. of Scotland, 323 Rhyme ; antiquity of, 10 1 Roberts, David, 177 Rice ; where largely Robertson, Dr. Wil- used, 67 liam, 158 Richard Coeur de Lion, 320 Robespierre, 407, 409 II. of England, 325 Rochefoucauld, 127 III. of England, 325 Rochelle, the strong- ■ of Cirencester, 138 hold of the Hugue- Richardson, Samuel, 154 nots ; siege of, 387 Richelieu, Cardinal, 386 Roche, Paul de la, 174 Richmond, North Rocks, in what forms America, 31 found ; stratified ; un- Richter, 134 stratified ; aqueous ; Ridley, 329 igneous ; sediment- Rienzi, 302 ary, 32 ; volcanic, zz ; Right of Search, the, 367 Silurian ; calcareous, Rights, civil, 83 34; siliceous, 35 Riot Act, the, 355 Rocky Mountains, the, 24 River Alpheus, 243 Rodentia, the, 80 Arno, 267 Rodney, Sir George, 363 Danube, 289 Rogers, Samuel, 163 Euphrates 224, 232 Roland, 407 Ilissus, 257 Rollin, 128 Nile, 226, 412 , Ledru, 418 Pactolus, 254 Rollo, 300 Peneus, 261 Roman architecture, Rubicon, 271 character of, 186 Styx, 244, 251 Roman camps, 209 Thames, 320 Catholic disabilities Tiber, 262, 264 removed, 369 The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long.— See page 302. ANAL YTICAL INDEX. R. Ixxiii Roman centurion, 276 Roman writers. 286 citizenship, 268 years, how reck- conquests, how oned. 86 maintained, 280; ben- Romans, religion of the, efit of the, 285 264 ; country villas Roman civil law, the. 202 of, 281 ; dress of the, dominions, extent 282 ; favorite wine of of. 274 the, 283 ; general • education. 287 character of the, 285 ; empire, population modern society, how of, 277 ; decline of benefited by the, 286 the, 283 ; when di- Romans, the, how they vided, 284 ; end of divided the month. 89 the ; moral to be Romans distinguished drawn from the fall for literature, etc. ; of the, 285 summary of. no Roman era, the. 85 Romans, the, not so dis- Hippocrates, the. 113 tinguished for philos- kingdom. 263 ophy and literature legion, 276 as the Greeks, no literature, 286 ; the Romance, origin of the most brilliant period word. 120 of. no Romances of the Middle Roman names and ar- Ages ; why so called. 120 rangement of the Romanus sum, 269 months. 88 Rome, traditionary date Roman republic, 263, of the foundation of. 267 ; government of. 85; ancient; founded 267 ; duration of, 274 by Romulus, 263 ; a Roman roads, 280 maritime power, 269 ; school of painting. chief buildings of ; head of the. 171 size and condition of, Roman science, 287 277 ; seven hills of, sculpture, charac- 277; taken by Alaric, ter of. 181 284 ; the capital of senate, under the modern Italy, - 28, 426 emperors. 275 Rome and Greece, na- Roman slaves, 277 ture of the intercourse standards. 276 between. 281 subjugation of Romulus, 263 Greece, 270 Augustulus, 285 triumvirate. 273 Ronsard, 126 walls in Britain, 309 Rope-dancers ; how Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172, M* g. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278 CIS Ixxiv ANALYTICAL INDEX. S. 09 Hhey preserve their Rtickert, 134 1 equilibrium, 61 Ruisdaal, 175 GO 1 0) 3 Rosa Bonheur, 174 Rule Britannia, 193 1 w Roscius, no Ruminantia, the, 81 5 TJ Roscommow, Earl of, 145 Rimes, n6 Rosen, ,134 Runnymede, 321 Rose, Sir Hugh, 371 Rupee, a, 213 :3 Rosetta stone, the, 207 Rupert, Prince, 339 i: S Rosicrucians, the, 119 Russell, Earl, 167 u t ^ Rossi, 425 , Lord William, 346 > 1 '2 Rossini, 192 Russia, 2Z ; capital of, ctf 1 X Rostra, the, 278 28 ; Asiatic, 30 ; 4> Rostrum, 278 style of reckoning it: o Rotiiera, the, 75 the year in, 87 ; his- vT o Roundheads, 328 tory of commences ; (4 CO : ^ Round towers, 209 succession to the (J 1 Rousseau, 128, 406 throne of, 397 ; Fin- Vi '3 Rowe, 150 land acquired by, 401 .3 (3 Royal Academy, the, 176 Russians, 301 "3 Oi Scottish Academy, Rust in Iron, cause of, 42 w the, 177 Rybats of a building. Rubens, 174 the, 190 H Rubicon, the river ; Rye, 67 >^ 4> passing the, 272 Rye-hous€ Plot, 346 D -d § P. a c3 s, 2 1 Sabbath, origin of, 89 St. Andrew, 121 o Sabines, legend of the, 263 St. Andrew's day, 121 \ !3 Sacheverell riots, 354 St. Anthony of Padua, 121 w CO Sackville, Thomas, 142 St. the Great, 121 Q o Sacred canon, the, 95 St. Augustine, 121, 313 cs O ——history, 219 St. Bartholomew, mas- to y badducees, 231 sacre of, 381 ^ c3 Sadoc, 231 St. Basil, 121 : S CO Saemund the Wise, 116 St. Benedict, 121, 290 *o ft, Sagas, the, 116 St. Columba, 313 > fj Sagittarius, 20 St. David, 121 5i H L San Francisco, 31 St. David's day, 12 j > •2 > c 'aptain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. 00 & Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geogfrapher, Died 1859. — See page 133 en M u ANALYTICAL INDEX, S. Ixxv s St. Denis, 121 Salamis, battle of, 256 u ^ 00 1 St. Domingo, 31; island Sales, Francis de, 126 QQ 1 1 of. 393 Salic law, the, 370 1 h St. Francis of Paula, 121 Salisbury, 28 Z St. Genevieve, 121 Sallust, III, 271, 287 .s "2 St. George, 121 Salmanassar, 228 £ S and the Dragon, Salt, made from sea- 1 1 story of, 121 ; how water, 26 3 commemorated, 122 Salvator Rosa, 173 n 1 St. George for merry Samaria, 228 s M England, 122 Samian wine, 261 g St. George's channel, 29 Samos, 261 1 & St. George's day, 121 Samson, 228 2 s St. Germain, court of, 352 Samuel, 228 s St. Giles, 121 Sand, George, 130 c St. Helena,island of, 368,416 Sandstone, 33 "S St. Januarius, 121 Sanscrit language, the, 94 ? St. John, Henry, 150 Sans peur et sans re- St. Kentigern, 313 proche, 375 St. Lawrence, the river, 26 Sappho, 103, 262 CO c St. Louis, the town of, 31 Saracens, 292 St. Louis, 373 Saracenic architecture, 187 X (4 St. Margaret, 318 Sardanapalus, 233 :3 St. Martin of Tours, 121 Satellites, 14; what they G U St. Mungo, 313 are; their number, 15 (U U V St. Ninian, 313 Saturday, origin of the 4-i ftf St. Patrick, 121, 311 name, 89 s « St. Patrick's day, 121 Saturn, the planet, 12 ; ft> s St. Paul's Cathedral in color of, 13; satellites 5 6 London, 342 of, 15 ; the god, 246 •s 5» X St. Petersburg, 28 ; Saul, 228 ^ founded, 398 Sauria, the, 78 ^ St. Pierre, 129 Savonarola, 422 •d *i St. Salvador discovered, 306 Saxe, Marshal, 357 *S St. Sophia, church of. Saxon settlements in « Constantinople, 304 North Britain, 312 A St. Stephen's Chapel, Saxons, the, arrive in (U 1 Westminster, built, 320 England, 311 00 > Saints' days, 121 Scalds, the, 301 ^ « of the Middle Ages, 121 Scandinavia, 299 00 > , patron, 121 Scandinavian religion, 300 1 Saladin, 298 Scansores, the, 79 ; ex- 2 Salamanders, 119 amples of, 3o n > ] Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle.— See page 13. 00 CO 1 Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65 P. Ixxvi ANALYTICAL INDEX. S. Schiller, 132 of the crowns of Eng- 03 Scheiling, 134 land, and, 334 ; treat- 1 1 Schlegel, "^ZZ ment of the church 0* d s Schleiermacher, 134 of, by Charles L, 338 ; t Schleswigand Holstein, era of persecution in. P« % 401 ; war respecting, 427 343; Presbyterianism CO Scholastics, the, 115 finally established in, 09 Id Schomberg, Duke of, 348 347 ; united to Eng- C *C Schools of painting. 171 land, state of, at the *s 1 Schwarzerd, 382 Union, 353 (4 a. Science, men eminent in. Scotland, church of (see a ^ 1760 to 1800, 161 Church). 1 d Scipio, 270 Scots, the, 312 I •t3 ^milianus, 270 Scott, Sir Michael, 139 •S ^ Scirgerefa, 315 , Sir Walter, 164 O Scone, the stone of. 322 Scottish architecture, 189 CO Q >» Scorpio, the sign. 20 Border, the, 29 •d § Scotch school of Philo- dialect, 139 cd o sophy, the, 161 law, 204 b£ c Scotland, its leading di- literature, revival .2 visions ; its islands ; of in the i8th century, 151 w rt Its chief towns, 29 ; Scottish music, 193 ^ 1 its lochs, 29 ; patron painter, the earli- S. saint of, 121; supreme est, 176 I *i civil court in, 204 ; painters, distin- to Scotland in British guished, 177 •5 history, explanation of philosophers, the {3 ij the long-continued in- more noted, 161 V dependence of, 310 ; Scottish poets, 1727- A -«-• origin of, 312 ; Chris- 1760, 151, 152 ; of the (0 0> c tianity introduced in- secondhalf of theiSth CO (0 'c3 to, 313 ; early mon- century, 160 ; in the a c archy of, 318 ; border early part of the 19th o O between England and, century, 165 f^ settled; Cumberland Scottish writers, lan- .a '3 severed from, 319 ; guage employed by *-> •G competition for the the early, 139 ; to the Hi n throne of, 322 ; under reign of James VI., ^ the Stuarts, 323 ; the 139; writers, 1727- to 4> 2 Reformation in, 332 ; 1760, 151 ; 1760-1800, (0 3 o — and France, con- 154-162 ; of the 19th S nection between, 332 ; century, 162, 168 0) i parliament of union Screw, the, 62, d^ z ■ [ulius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page in The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. ANAL YTICAL INDEX.- Ixxvii Scripture history com- mences, , the canon of, Scriptures (see Bible), Scudery, Mademoiselle de, Sculpture, how prac- ticed, 78 ; among the ancients ; superiority of Greek, to what as- cribed, 179 ; in bas- relief ; in alto- relievo, 180 ; Roman ; revived in Italy, Sea, the law of jurisdic- tion over the. Seas, examples of, Sea-sand, how formed, Seasons, change of the, how caused. Sea-water, nature of, 26 ; where it freezes ; the ice of, not so salt as the water, Sea- weeds, Seceders, Secondary planets, Secret tribunals. Sedimentary rocks, Sedley, Sir Charles, Seeds of plants (see Plants). Seine, the river, Selden, John, Seleucidae, Seleucus Nicanor, Semiramis, of the North, the, Semitic languages, the, nations, Sempach, battle of, Sempill of Beltress, Senate, a, 224 95 95 126 181 27 34 45 66 201 15 299 32 145 26 144 240 240 233 399 94 224 378 152 222 Senate, Roman, under the emperors, Senatus Populus que Romanus, Seneca, iii, Sennacherib, Sensation, the centre of, Senses, the, Sepoys, September, origin of the name, Septidi, the day, Septuagint, the, Serfdom, 84, 220; Anglo- Saxon, 316 ; in Rus- sia abolished. Serfs, Seven champions of Christendom, the, wise men of Greece, the, — wonders of the world, the, Severn, the river, Servetus, Servi, the, Sesostris, Seven years' war, the, Seventeenth century in Britain, character of, Severus dies at York, Sevigne, Madame de, Sextidi, the day, Shaftesbury, Earl of (the third). Shannon, the river, Shakespeare, William, 143, Shaster, the, Sheffield, Shelley, Percy Bysshe, Shells, univalve ; bi- valve, 275 277 287 233 84 84 371 90 96 401 121 102 114 26 zH 264 237 359 350 309 127 90 150 26 98 28 165 76 The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. Ixxviii ANALYTICAL INDEX.- Shem, 224 Silver Age, the, 242 Shenstone, William, 153 Sinai, Mount, 226 Sheridan, Richard Brin- Sinking Fund, the, 252 sley, 156 Sirens, the, 252 Sheriff, origin of, 315 Sirius, the star, 14 Sheriff muir, battle of, 356 Sismondi, 130 Sherlock, 147 Sisyphus, 251 Shetland Isles, 29 ; how Situation of places on obtained by Scotland, 324 the globe, how found Shield in heraldry, the, 210 out ; how defined, 24 Shilling, origin of the Siva, ^ 303 word, 212 Skin, color in the, an Shinar, Plain of, 224 effect of circum- Ship-money, 337 stances; nature of the, 84 Shiraz, 235 Skinner, Rev. John, 152 Shire, origin of, 315 Slate, 7,7, Shooting-stars, 57 Slave, a, ^^, 220 Shrewsbury, battle of, 325 Slavery abolished in Sibert of Essex, 321 British possessions, 369 Sibylline books, 250 Slaves, Roman, 277 Sibyls, the, 250 Slavonians, the, 301 Sicilian Vespers, 421 Smart, Christopher, 155 Sicilies, Kingdom of the Smelting, 35 Two, 423 Smith, Adam, 159, 214 Siddons, Mrs., 160 , Charlotte, 158 Sidereal day, a, 92 , Horace, 165 Sidney, Sir Philip, 142, 143 , James, 165 Sidon, 236 , Rev. Sydney, 162, 165 Siege of Alnwick, 318 SmollettjTobias George, 153 of Friedrickshall, 398 Smugglers, 215 of Leyden, 395 Snow, what it is ; its use, 45 ; tops of high of Nancy, 379 mountains, why per- of Rochelle, 387 petually covered with, 47 of Vienna, 400 Snow-flakes, 41 Silenus, 248 Snorri Sturleson, 116 Siliceous rocks, 35 Snyders, 174 Silk, a bad electric con- Soap, 40 ductor, 53 Sobieski, John, 399 Silk-worm, the, how it Social amelioration, 215 spins, 78 Social war, the 270 Silurian rocks ; why so Society for the diffusion called, 34 of Useful Knowledge, 168 Crcesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 334. J? V Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305 ANALYTICAL INDEX, S. Ixxix 0* Society, the foundation the Moors driven & of human, 220 from, 304 ; the In- 4> 1 Society of Jesus, the, 391 quisition in, 394 ; de- 1; 2 Socrates, 262 ; doctrines cline of, 426 ; recent q O of ; fate of, 105 events in, 430 pci eft u oi Socratic method of rea- Spanish Armada, the, 330 b V soning, 105 literature, 124 3 >• Sodor and Man, Bishop succession, war of c "* of, why so called, 197 ^^y 35 1) 391 Soil, substances found school of painting. A o in the, 35 two great masters of ^ Solar day, a, 92 the, 175 system, the, 12 Sparta, 256 CO Solder, tinsmith's, 39 Speaker, of the House c Solemn League and of Commons, 197 •0 s o Covenant, 340 Species, what meant by. % a Solomon, 228 72 ; instance of a A 2 Solon, 102^ 258 slight exception of cd Somerset, Protector, 329 the rule of ; why im- 1 •d § Somerville, William, 153 portant to preserve Somnus, 248 pure each variety of, 73 i to Sophistry, origin of the Specific gravity, <^^ term, 106 Spectator, the, 149 c3 Sophists, the, 106 Spenser, Edmund, 143 ^ S £ Sophocles, 103, 262 Spenserian stanza, the. Sorbon, Robert, 125 loi, 142 I Sorbonne, the, 125 Spiders ; legs of, 78 (« «»4 Soul, immortality of, 84 Spinning insects, 78- CO o Sound, what it is ; its machinery in- ^ 5 rate of speed, 49 ; how vented, 365 to a o best conducted, 50 Spinoza, 135 JU H South, Dr. Robert, 147 Spires, diet of, 382 Bl Southampton, 28 Spirits, from what pre- is Southern Cross, the con- pared, 67 •0 stellation, 13 Spirits of the elements, 119 u Southern Ocean, the, 23 Sponge, what it is,- 75 5 o South-sea bubble, 357 Sponges, where chiefly 1 Southey, Robert, 163 found, 75 s Southwell, 143 Spontaneous produc- 3 en Spagnoletto, 175 tions, no, exploded e to 3 Spain, 27 ; capital of, notions concerning, 74 1 28 ; the Moors in, 293; Spore, a ; difference be- **- I Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49 Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. Ixxx ANAL YTICAL INDEX. S. tween a seed and a ; spores, how diffused by nature, 66 Spottiswood, John, 141 S. P. Q. R., 276 Sprat, Dr. Thomas, 147 Spring-balance, a, 57 tide, a, 26 Springs, 37 ; mineral, 2,^ ; chalybeate ; fer- ruginous, 37 ; oil, 38 Spurzheim, 133 Stabat Mater, the, 191 Stael, Madame de, 129 Staffa, 33 Stagyrite, the, 104 Staining glass, the art ^ of, 178 6tamens of a plant, 65 Standards, Roman, 276 Stanfield, 176 Stars, what they are, 12 ; how distinguished from planets ; fixed ; how arranged ; why not seen by day, 13 ; the largest and bright- est, 14 ; shooting, 57 Star-Chamber, the, 2>2>^ States, autonomy of ; union of, 222 General first as- sembled in France, 373 Stationer, origin of the term, 98 Statute of Drogheda, 326 of Kilkenny, 324 Steam-engine perfected, 365 Steam navigation intro- duced, 368 Steele, Sir Richard, 149 Steelyard, the, 6;^ Steen, Jan, 175 Stephen I. of Hungary, -, of England, Stephenson, Robert, Sterling, what meant by; origin of, Sterne, Laurence, Stewart, Dr. Dugald, Stheno, Stilling, Stillingfleet, Stock Exchange, the, Stockholm, Stoical philosophy, nature of the. Stoics, the, Stonehenge, Stones, rounded, found in beds of rivers, how produced, Stone of Scone, the, Stowe, Mrs., Strabo, 109, Strafford, Earl of. Strait, a. Strange, Sir Robert, Stratified rocks, 32 ; names of. Stratus, the cloud, Strauss, Strawberry Hill, Strelitzes, the, Struensee, Stuart, Elizabeth, 335 ; death of, , Lady Arabella, dynasty, com 377 320 218 211 157 161 253 134 147 213 28 107 107 208 mencement of the, Stuart line extinct, Styx, the, 244, Suck-giving animals. Suckling, Sir John, Sue, Eugene, 34 322 169 262 24 185 Z3 46 134 157 398 402 342 335 323 358 251 78 143 130 " Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8 ANALYTICAL INDEX. -T. Ixxxl V Suez, 226 Supporters in heraldry, 210 V Sulla, 271 Surgeon, origin of the CO 1 Sullan proscriptions, 271 word, 217 1 M CO Sully, 126, 385 Surgery, 217 to * Sun, the centre of the Surrey, Earl of, 138 C solar system, 12 ; its Suwaroff, Count ; la- 4> size, 15 ; explanation conic dispatch of, 399 s •S of its apparent rising Suzerain, 295 J3 £ and setting, 16 ; in Sweden, history of, 397 ; V the meridian, 17 ; ceases to be one of w J3 eclipse of the, how the great powers of to H caused ; annular Europe, 398 .2 4>> (8 eclipse of the, 22 ; Sweden and Norway ; ^5 s 3 the source of light. capital of, 28 50 ; why in some fine Sweyn, 314 s n climates it becomes Swift, Jonathan, 149 1 oo suddenly cold when Swiss Confederation, 378 § h g the sun sets, 51 Switzerland, 27 ; capital Sunday, origin of the of, 28 ; in the Middle g s name, 89 Ages; Roman name of, 37; % CO Sun-dials, 92 Sydney, Algernon, 34^ - o Suns, 12 Sylphs, ii« Superior, lake, 26 Syria ; for what remark- o !S '3 Superstition, 119 able, 3c bo < a n T. 13 Tacitus, 113, 287 Tarquin, 263 CO Tadmor, 228 Tarshish, 236 «r 6 Talleyrand, 407, 417 Tartarus, 243 t *3 4) Talmud, the, 95 Tartary, 30 j3 1 Talmudists, 95 Tartessus, 236 g « Tamerlane, 303 Tasmania, - 23 »-i n Tannahill, Robert, 166 Tasso, Torquato, 123 ^ Tantalus, 256 Tassoni, 123 ^ o 43 Tara, 311 Tatler, the, 149 r! ^ Tarantula, the, 78 Taurus, 20 bo d Targum, the, 95 Tay, the river, 26 < Tarpeia, 278 Taylor, Jeremy, 144 t3 O C Tarpeian Rock, 278 , John, 145 1 rhe Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles.— See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page i8i. Ixxxii ANALYTICAL INDEX. T. Teak, the, 70 Thermidor, the month, 90 Telemachus, 244 Thermometer, the ; Telescope, the, 52 scales of, 43 Tell, William ; and the Thermopylae, Pass of, 259 apple ; legend of, 378 Theseus, 249, 250 Telford, Thomas, 218 Thespis, 100 Tempe, Vale of, 261, 282 Thessaly, 256 Temperate zones ; why Thetis, 244, 252 of moderate tempera- Thiers, 130, 418 ture, 19 Thirty Years' War, 384 Temple of Concord, 278 Thomas ^ Kempis, 116 Temple of Jerusalem, Aquinas, 115 built ; destroyed, 228, 230 Thomson, James,. 152 Temple of Jupiter Cap- — — , Rev. John, 177 itolinus, 278 Thorwaldsen, Bertel, 182 Temple, Sir William, 147 Thothmes III., 236 Tendon Achilles, the, 244 Thrace, 2S4 Teniers, David, the Thralls, 316 younger, 174 Thrush, 80 Tennant, William, 166 Thucydides, 107, 262 Tennyson, Alfred, 167 Thunder, 54 Terburgh, 175 Thursday, origin of the Terence, no name, 89 Tereus, ~ 253 Tiber, the river, 262, 264 Terpsichore, 251 Tiberius, 275 Tertullian, 115 Tibullus, 112 Test and Corporation Tickell, 150 acts abolished, 369 Tide, a neap ; a spring. Thackeray, W. M., 166 26 ; a sea noted for Thales, 102 very little, 27 Thalia, 251 Tides, nature of the ; Thames, the river, 26, 320 causes of the, 26 Thanes, 316 Tieck, 134 Thaumaturgist, a, 121 Tiers ^tat, the, 374 Thebans, the, 260 Tigris, the river, 224, 232 Thebes, in Egypt, 236, 237 Tillotson, 147 Themistocles, 259 Tilly, Count, 384 Theocracy, a, 222, 227 Timber trees, 70 Theocritus, 108, 262 Time, divisions of, 85 ; Theodoric the Great, 288 mean, 92 Theodosius the Great, 288 Timur the Tartar ; sub- Theophrastus, 106 dues India, 303 Therapeutics, 217 Tinctures in heraldry, 210 Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. •8 If Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Grods. — See page 248 ANALYTICAL INDEX. ^T. Ixxxiii (0 0) Tinsmiths' solder, 39 Treaty of Vienna, 416, 423 1 Tintoretto, 172 Trees, evergreen ; de- 09 1 I (0 Tisiphone, 250 ciduous ; exogenous ; 1 a Titans, the, 245 endogenous ; fruit ; i a Tithe, 227 valuable for timber. ii Titian, 172 69 ; valuable for gen- :s Titus, 230, 275 ; arch in eral purposes ; for 60 honor of, 281 their bark ; the tallest U Tivoli, 282 known, 70 ; of lib- \* •S Toads, early condition erty, 408 \ OS of, 79 Trial by jury, 205, 315 s, 5 Tobacco first brought by ordeal, 315 (U !o to England, 330 Tribes of Israel, 225 ; 5 Tocqueville, De, 130 the lost, 229 Toga, the Roman, 282 Tribunals, secret, 299 bo c o Torcy, 392 Tribunes, the, 267 s rT Tories, the, 349 Tribute to Rome, 280 S) Tornadoes, 49 Tricolor flag, 407 w Toronto, 31 Tridi, the day, 90 !> Torricelli, 124 Tritons, the, 252 CO C CO Torrid zone ; why the Triumvirate, the Roman, 273 -a warmest region, 19 Trojan war, 243 l5 Torture, judicial, 345 Trollope, Anthony, 166 43 Tournaments, 299 , Mrs., 166 V G Toussaint-Louverture, 413 Tromp, Van, 341 CO • iH Towers, round, 209 Tropic of Cancer, 19 V CO 2 Tower of London, built, 318 Capricorn, 19 G "< .2 Trade, contraband; free; Troubadours, the, 301 hi •-1 protection in, 215 Troy, 243 8 t« Trade-winds, 49 Tubers,68 ; examples of, ()Z 0^ •d Trafalgar, battle of, 366 Tudor dynasty, begin- M Tragedy, 100; the father ning of, 326 CO ^ 8 of, 103 Tuesday, origin of the 3 o Trajan, 275, 283 name, 89 Transcendentalism, 132 Turenne, Marshal, 385, 388 8 1 Transmigration of souls, Turgot, ' 405 « 103 ; author of the Turkey ; capital of, 28 ; Oh 1 doctrine of, 103 Asiatic, 30 3 3 Trapassi, 124 Turks, the, 297 ; besiege m .£3 Treaty, the Methuen, 426 Vienna, 400 ( J2 Washington, George, Wedgewood, Josiah, 183 c« s Ui 362, 428 Wednesday, origin of O , city of, 31 name, 89 Water, extent of the ; Week, origin of English 3 2 w how divided, 23 ; at names of the days of Xi *-• u ^ what temperature the Z^ CO most dense ; expan- (See Days.) fi sion of, exemplified. Weeks, substitute for ft 44 ; temperature at French revolutionary D which it boils^ how affected by atmos- calendar, 90 .bo •a Weight, 57 ca a CO pheric pressure ; heat Wellesley, Sir Arthur, S W at which it boils at 367, z^^, 371 tC the top of Mont Wellington, Duke of. '♦J 5^ Blanc ; why it boils 367, l^^ a c at a lower heat at the Wellingtonia, gigantea. B top of a high hill, 48 ; the, 70 ■*-> how affected by the Welsh, the, 512 Q 3 attraction of gravita- Werner, ^ 62 u tion, 58 ; how sup- Wernerian theory, 162 0) plied to towns; height Wesley, John, 357 "rt to which it will rise ; West, Benjamin, 176 s Waterford, 29 Western Isles, 29 2 , Lion of Scot- English language. land, 319 number of, 136 ; the *; the Silent, 395 derivation of ; where Williams, Roger, 345 treated of. MV J Wilson, Alexander, 161 Worms, Diet of, J82 15 , John, 166 Wordsworth, William, 163 5 Winchester, 28 World, largest river in •d Winckleman, 134 the, 25 ; population 1 Windows, moisture on of the, 32 ; the New ; inside, how cai ised, 44 its discoverers, 31 ; The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. ANALYTICAL INDEX, X, Y, Z. Ixxxix seven wonders of, 114; languages of, 93 {See Earth) Wotten, Sir Henry, 142 Wouvermans, 175 Wren, Christopher, 189, 342 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 138 Wyntoun, Andrew, 139 X. Xenophon, 105, 108, 262 I Xerxes, Xenophanes, 107 1 235 Y. Yankee Doodle, Year, a ; defined; solar ; Egyptian ; Greek, 85; Roman, Zd ; leap- year ; civil, 87 ; when begun by ancients ; New Year's day, Zedekiah, Zendavesta, Zend language, Zeno, Zero, Zeus, Zipporah, Zodiac, signs, 20 193 37 York, 28 and Lancaster, Houses, 326; united, 32} York, Cardinal, 358 , Duke of, 326 , old name of, 309 229 98 98 107, 262 43 241, 247 226 eof, 21 Zollverein, the, Zones, the, Zoology, Zoophytes, Zoroaster, , religion of, Zschokke, Zwingli, 427 19 70 75 98, 235 235 134 383 THE END OF INDEX. or THE VNrVERS^TY Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. carleton's Household Encyclopedia OF GENERAL 'INFORMATION. ASTRONOMY. 1. Sfate the origin or Great First Cause of all things. — God, the Creator and Preserver, by whose good Providence we live, dnd move, and have our being. 2. What is the terin ordinarily efnployed to signify the Creator and His works ? — A common expression is Nature ; we also speak of the Laws of Nature. 3. How can we learn what are the Laws of Nature? — By studying various branches of science, such as Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, and the like. 4. What does astronomy teach? — The nature and motions of the heavenly bodies, including our Earth. 5. Is that an ancient science? — Yes ; but it has been greatly improved in modern times. 6. What were the notions generally entertained among ancient nations respecting the heavenly bodies ?—KiiC\QiiWy it was be- ll Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13, Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist. — See page 65. O 12 ASTRONOMY. Solar System. lieved that the earth was a fixed body, around which th^ sun, planets, and stars revolved at different distances. 7. What has been found to be the true explanation ? — That the sun is a central body, round which the earth and other planets revolve, the whole forming the Solar System. 8. How 7nany planets are there? — More than a hundred ; the principal ones are eight in number— namely. Mercury, Venus the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 9. What are the planets? — Like the earth, they are all thought to be worlds, deriving light and heat from the sun. 10. Are the eight principal planets all of one size? — No ; they greatly differ in size— Jupiter is the largest. 1 1 . Are the stars in our solar system ? — No ; they are situated far beyond it. 12. What are the stars ?—l!hQ stars are suns, at an incon- ceivable distance from the earth, and are believed to have planets revolving round them. Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47, 00 ASTRONOMY. ^X & 13. How do we know a planet from a star? — The planets « shine with a steady lustre, while the stars twinkle. ^ 14. Mention another distinction. — The planets are seen to P change their places among the other heavenly bodies, but the ^ stars have seemingly each a fixed place in the heavens, and are accordingly called fixed stars. 15. Is it not usual to call the planets stars? — In a general or wide sense, all the smaller heavenly bodies are called stars. 16. Give an exajnple. — Venus is spoken of as a morning or evening star, according to the time of its appearance ; and the same is said of Jupiter. 17. Are the planets distinguishable by any particular color ? — . Venus is a pure sparkling white; Mercury, a dullish blue; Saturn, a reddish tinge ; Mars, a fiery red ; Jupiter, white. The most brilliant of the whole are Venus and Jupiter. 18. Why do we not see the stars during the day? — Because they are lost in the blaze of sunlight. 19. How are the stars arranged? — For convenience of de- scription, astronomers group them in constellations. 20. Mention a well-known constellation. — The cluster of star^ called Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, but which is familiarly known as the plough. 21. Where is the constellation Ursa Major seen? — In the northern part of the heavens. 22. Mention another constellation. — There is one called Orion, from a fabulous hero of antiquity ; three stars in a straight line in this constellation are called Orion's Belt. 23. Is there any other noted constellation? — One, consisting of four stars, is called the Southern Cross, but it is not seen in the northern part of the world. 24. How can we learn the names and situations of- the constel- lations? — By studying celestial globes and maps on which they are pictured. 25. There is a star called the North or Pole Star ; how do we know it? — The North Star is situated nearly due north, and is nearly in line with two stars in the Great Bear or Plough, usually called the Pointers. I A The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 14 ASTRONOMY. 26. Of what service is the north star? — At night it is useful in guiding travellers and mariners, by showing them the northerly direction. 27. Which is the largest and brightest of all the stars ? — SiriuS' otherwise called Canicula, or the Dog-star. 28. Where is Sirius situated? — In the constellation Canis Major, or the great dog, below the feet of Orion. 29. What was at one time believed respecting the Dog-star ? — That it caused particularly hot weather for a number of days in summer, which, from that circumstance, were called the Dog-days. 30. Is that belief exploded? — Entirely so. People yet speak familiarly of the dog-days ; but it is now known that though the star appears in summer, it has no influence on the weather. ^i. A broad white streak is seen in the sky at night ; what is it called? — It is called the Galaxy, or Milky-way. 32. Of what does it consist? — The Milky-way is composed jf stars, but at so remote a distance that they appear only as a luminous haze in the firmament. 33. What is meant by firmament? — It is a term signifying the vast expanse of sky visible from the earth. 34. Is there any other phrase employed ?—Yq% ; we say " the canopy of heaven," from its resemblance to a great rounded canopy overhead. 35. What is the color of the firmament? — In clear weather it appears to be blue ; but the blueness is chiefly an effect of vapor in the air; for the drier the air is, the blue is always the darker; and, in very dry climates, and on the tops of high mountains, it becomes almost black. 36. What does the solar syste7n include besides the planets? — • It includes comets, and also satellites. 37. What is the appearance of comets? — A comet usually resembles a star with a long streaming tail. 38. Are there many comets? —There are many hundreds, but they are seldom seen from the earth. 39. What is the motion of comets? — They travel in all direo* Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great W^ealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. ASTRONOMY. jc tions; sometimes approaching the sun, and at other times going far into space. 40. What is their nature? — They are generally composed ol a light matter, through which the stars can be seen. 41. When comets appear, do they injuriously affect the ea7-thf — They are not found to do any injury, and are believed to fulfil some useful purpose in creation. A Comet. 42. What are satellites?— T^x^Y 2lXQ bodies attending on 01 revolving round planets; they are sometimes secondary planets. 43. Are there matiy satellites? — Our earth has one. Mars nas two (discovered in 1877), Jupiter has four, Saturn eight, Uranus four, and Neptune has one. 44. What do we call our satellite ? — The Moon. 45. Is 7iot the sun, as a central body, very much larger than any of the planets? — Yes; very much larger. It is one million four hundred thousand times greater than the earth. 46. What is the size of the earth ? — Its diamete r at t he equator is 7,925 miles, and its circumference or girth is 24,900 miles. 47. What is the earth's distance from the sun? — Nearly ninety-two millions of miles. 48. What is the size of the moon? — Its diameter is only 2,16a miles, or little more than a fourth the diameter of the earth. 49. What is the shape of the earth? — It is a round balJ or globe, shaped like an orange, being a little thicker when measured across the equator than from pole to pole. 50. Has it the appearance of a' globular body ? — No ; to ordiry ary observation it appears like a level plain. Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. i6 ASTRONOMY. 51. How do we know it is round? — By looking to the sea on a clear day, when we see the tops of approaching vessels first appear, and gradually the lower parts. 52. Standing on the shore, how far can you see along the sur- face of the ocean ? — At most from eight to nine miles. 53. Are all the planetary bodies round? — Yes; they are all globular in form, and so are the satellites. 54. What sustains the planets in the heavens? — They are sus- tained in their appointed courses by two contending forces, one drawing them towards the sun, and the other urging them in a direction that would carry them away from the sun. 55. How were these forces impressed on them?—i:hQSQ forces were impressed on them by the Creator, and are among the most wonderful of His works. 56. Give an example of the drawing forces. — When an object falls to the ground it is because the earth, as the larger body, draws the small one to it. 57. What is this drawing force usually called? — It is called gravitation. 58. Give an example of the other force. — When a carriage- wheel goes rapidly round on a wet day, it throws sparks of dirt from it. In the same manner a grinding-stone whirling in contact with water throws off a shower of spray. 59. What is this repelling force ordinarily called? — It ia called centrifugal force— that is, the impulse to fly from the centre. 60. Where in the Scripture are we re7ninded that the earth is unsupported in empty space? — ^Job, speaking of the power and goodness of God, says : " He hangeth the earth upon noth- ing." 61. How do gravitation and centrifugal force act in the case of the satellites? — Just as the earth revolves round the sun, so the satellites revolve round their respective planets. 62. Explain how the sun appears to rise in the morning, to wheel over the earth, and set in the evening. — This is only a deception of the senses; it is the earth that is in reality turning round, but we can neither see nor feel it moving. Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. ASTRONOMY. 1 7 63. Mention a familiar exafnple of this kind of deception.-^ When we are gliding smoothly along in a railway-train, we are apt to think that the fields and other objects are moving past us. 64. But we speak of the sun rising and setting, and say thi saine thing of the moon. — These are only convenient phrases; all that is now meant by them is, that the sun or moon seems to rise and set. 65. What are the inotions of the earth ? — The earth has two distinct motions; it rotates on its own axis, and it revolves round the sun. 66. What is meant by rotating on its axis?—T\\'3X it goes round in the manner of a ball on a spindle. (i']. What time is occupied by this rotation? — Twenty-four hours, which form a day. 68. What is this motion ordinarily called? — The diurnal motion. 69. Describe the diurnal motion. — The diurnal motion is from west to east. In the morning, the darkened portion of the earth turns towards the sun, which then seems to rise, and daylight ensues. In the evening, that part of the earth which was in the west sinks in the east, and there is darkness oy the apparent setting of the sun. 70. Then, the sun is always shining on some part of ths earth ? — Yes ; the sun lights up different parts in turn ; when it is morning with us, it is evening somewhere else ; when we are sleeping in the darkness of night, others are in the blaze of noonday. 71. What is signified by noon? — Twelve o'clock at mid-day, when the part of the earth we are upon is most fully opposite the sun. 72. What is that position of the sun relative to our part of thd earth called? — The sun is said to be on our meridian. 73. What length of time does the revolution of the earth round the sun occupy? — 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 49 seconds, which form a solar year. 74. What is caused by the annual revolution? — The change o\ The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503, — See page 181. 18 ASTRONOMY. seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, according ta the relative position of the earth and the sun at different periods. 75. What is 7neant by the orbit of the earth? — It is the path which it traverses in its annual revolution. 'jd. What is the form of this orbit ; is it a circle or an ovalf — The earth's orbit is of an oval form. ']']. Ingoing round the sun, what is the posture of the earth? — The earth's axis does not stand perpendicular to the plane in which its orbit lies, but has a slight obliquity or inclination; it always, however, keeps nearly the same inclination, and for a long period points sensibly in the same direction. 78. What is the consequence of this position of the earth's axis? — That the several parts of the earth are more turned towards the sun at one part of the orbit than at another, and thus experience a change of seasons, and a difference in the length of days and nights. 79. If the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what would ensue? — There would be no change of seasons; but a belt of the earth round the middle, between the two ends of the axis, would have perpetual summer; while the parts • owards the ends would suffer perpetual winter. 80. What are the ejtds of the axis called? — The North and South Poles. 81. What is the meaning of the term pole? — It is a Greek word, signifying a pivot or turning-point. 82. What is the ecliptic? — It is an imaginary circle which the sun appears to traverse in the heavens in the course of a year, in consequence of the earth's motion in its orbit. 83. What is the equator? — It is an imaginary line round the middle of the globe, midway between the two poles. 84. HoT' is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equator ?^^ The ecliptic crosses the equator in a slanting or obliqua direction at two points, so that one half of it is to the north of the equator, and the other half to the south. 85. What are the two crossing points called? — The equinoxes, or equinoctial points; because when the s"n is in these points, Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods.— See page 248. K/i U\ ASTRONOMY. 19 the days and nights are equal all over the earth ; this is on the 20th March and 23d September. 2>6. How far does the sun ever recede north or south from tht equator as he travels in the ecliptic f — To a distance depending on the obliquity of the earth's axis, which is rather more than one-fourth of the distance of the equator from the pole. 87. Ho7u are these distances marked on globes and maps f — By two lines or circles : the one to the north being called the Tropic of Cancer, and the one to the south the Tropic of Capricorn. 88. What are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles f — Two ima- ginary lines round the globe, at the same distance from the poles that the tropics are from the equator. 89. How do these circles divide the earth's surface? — Into five regions, called zones, distinguished by differences of climate. 90. Which is the warmest region ? — That lying between the two tropics, called the Torrid Zone. 91. Explain the reason, — Because the sun's path lies within /he regions of the Mavens exactly opposite ; twice a year he west CCUTHiPOLfl Is exactly overhead, and is never vertically above my other part of the earth's surface ; so that his rays, here falling per- pendicularly, or nearly so, give the earth the full benefit of their heat. 92. In what parts of the earth is the temperature generally most moderate ? — In the two belts called the Temperate zones, Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70.— See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12. — See page 242, 20 ASTRONOMY, lying on opposite sides of the torrid zone, and between it and the polar circles. 93. Why? — Because the rays of the sun always fall ob- liquely, and thus produce less heat than in the torrid zone. 94. What are the regions within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles called?— The Polar Regions, or Frigid Zones. 95. Why? — Because as the earth goes round in its annual motion, the obliquity of its axis causes each pole to be com- pletely turned away from the sun, so that the sun never rises for months together, and during the whole of this pe- riod the climate is intensely cold. However, for a few rnonths annually, the poles are constantly turned towards the sun, so that it never sets. 96. Is there not great heat during the time that the sun never tets? — No; for it only goes round and round the lower part of the sky, and never rises high enough to produce much effect, ox be able to melt the ice and snow formed during the long b y John Guttenberg.-See page 305 CO « t) to GEOGRAPHY. 31 104. Of what race are the natives of Africa? — They are mostly negroes, and are in general in a barbarous condition. 105. How far distant is the continent of America from Europe^ -^About tiiree thousand miles. 106. Why is America sometimes called the New World? — Because it was not discovered till about the end of the fifteenth century. 107. Who were its discoverers? — Christopher Columbus, Sebastian Cabot, and Amerigo Vespucci, from the last of whom it was named. 108. Of what extent is America? — It consists of two great stretches of land, called North and South America, unitedly extending several thousand miles. 109. What unites these? — A long narrow neck of land, called the Isthmus of Darien. no. What are the principal countries in North A7nerica? — Canada and other British possessions, the United States, and Mexico. 111. What are the principal countries in South America ? — Peru, Chili, Paraguay, Guiana, Brazil, the Argentine Confederation, and Bolivia. 112. In what respect do the people of North and South America chiefly differ ? — Excepting Mexico, the people of North America are mostly of English origin, while those of South America, and also of Mexico, are generally of Spanish or Portuguese extraction. 113. What are the principal cities in North America? — New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Boston, St Louis, Cincin- nati, Richmond, New Orleans, Chicago, San Francisco, Toronto, I I Montreal, and Quebec, — these last three being in Canada. 1 14. What city is the seat of government of the United States? — Washington, in the District of Columbia. 115. What is meant by the West Indies? — A series of islands, the larger of which are Cuba, St. Domingo, and Jamaica. 116. Where are the West Indies situated? — In the broad bend of the Atlantic, between North and South America. o A 0) biO C<1 Cu «> CO I d I b c o «> Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49- Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821, — See page 411. S 32 GEOGRAPHY. 117. What zs reckoned to be the population of the whole worlds —A thousand millions of people, about 280 millions of whom belong to Europe. GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 1. What is meant by Geology? — The science which is con- cerned with the structure of the earth's crust. 2. Explain what is meant by the earth's crust. — The outward portion of the globe, which is composed of rocks, beds of clay, sand, and other substances. 3. Do the whole of these substances lie in confused heaps ? — • No ; they are found to lie in a certain order or arrangement, 4. What do we gather from a study of these circumstances? — We learn much of the past history of the globe, besides a knowledge of materials that are useful in the arts. Unstratified Rocks. Stratified Rocks. 5. In what forms are rocks usually found? — Some are found in layers or strata, one above another, and are said to be stratified ; other rocks are in huge, irregularly-shaped masses, and are said to be unstratified. 6. What is thought to be the cause of these distinctions? — It is believed that stratified rocks were disposed in layers as a sediment from water, and therefore they are called aqueous or sedimentary roc^s] while the unstratified were produced by the agency of fire, and are called igneous. 7. What is sometimes a special condition of the igneous rocks ? — In certain circumstances they have been thrown up through openings and chinks, in which case they are called volcanic. 8. What is the general character of unstratified rocks ? — They Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 3^ are hard and sparkling ; one kind, well known for its beauty and durability, is Q2\\Q6i granite. 9. Mention one of the volcanic kind. — Basalt, which appears in columnar masses at the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, at Staffa in Scotland, and other places. 10. Give the names of sotne of the stratified rocks. — Clayslate, limestone, sandstone, chalk-beds, and ironstone. 11. What is found in so?ne of the stratified rocks f — The re- mains of plants and animals. 12. How did these remains become incorporated in stratified rocks? — While the rocks were forming by the settlement of loose materials in water, animals and plants became embedded in the deposit. 1 3. Do these animal and vegetable remains retain their original form f— Many of them do, but they have all been changed into stone, and in this condition are called fossils. Palceon- tology — a term from the Greek palaios, old, and logos, a dis- course — is the branch of geology which treats of this subject. 14. What is learned from an exa7nination of such remains ?—>. A knowledge of what kinds of animals and plants existed on the earth during a long course of past ages. 15. Mention one of the larger-sized quadrupeds found in a fossilized state ? — The Palaeotherium, which varied in bulk from that of a hog to a rhinoceros. Palaeotherium. 16. Mention a well-known fossil shell. — The Ammonite, shaped like a horn, and common in the south of England. 17. How did the rocks which contain these animal remains beco7ne buried at depths below the surface of the earth? — The The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503 —See page 181. 0) O c« < at a o c M 00 M •o s to V bo < 0) 34 GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. globe has undergone many convulsions, submerging some layers of rock, and bringing others towards the surface ; and seas and land have, in course of time, changed places. 18. How have mountains come to exist? — In some instances, by the eruption of igneous rocks; in others, masses have been left prominent by some agency which has worn down or denuded the rest of the surface. 1 9. Are there various agencies concerned in wearing down the surface? — Yes; the air and running water are constantly wearing down and carrying away parts of the solid rocks. Ice, in the form of glaciers and icebergs, has also denuded the surface. 20. How has sea-sand been formed? — Sea-sand, like clay and various kinds of earth, is formed of the disintegrated materials of certain rocks. 21. What produces the rounded stones foufid in the beds of rivers and elsewhere ? —P'iqcqs of rock rounded by attrition. 22. Explain this. — The pieces of rock have b^en rolled about in water till the corners have been rubbed off. 23. What are these rounded stones called? — When large, they are called boulders, when smaller, pebbles, and when of a very small size, lying in beds, they are spoken of as gravel. 24. What is meant by Silurian rocks? — Strata of sedimentary rocks, many of them limestone, caled Silurian, because found in a part of England where a people called the Silures once lived. 25. What is conglomerate ? — Rocks or large stones composed of small and large pebbles firmly cemented together ; such pebbles being the gravel of an early sea. 26. What is another najnefor conglomerate ? — Pudding-stone, from its resemblance to the mixture in a plum-pudding. 27. What are calcareous rocks? — Those partaking of the nature of limestone, so called from calx, the Latin word for lime. Chalky and limey soils are said to be calcareous. 28. What is marble? — Marble is the name given to various kinds of limestone rocks, which admit of a fine polish ; some varieties contain small fossilized plants and animals. Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Grods. — See page 248. GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 35 29. What is ''Parian Marble?" — A white variety of. marble found in the island of Paros, in the ^gean Sea, and used by the ancient Greeks for their statues. 30. What are siliceous rocks f — Those partaking of the nature of flint, the Latin word for which is silex. Sandy soils are said to be siliceous. 31. What is quartz? — A white sparkling rock, in which gold is often found. 32. What are downs ? — Large tracts where sand has accu- mulated in heaps, which are sometimes covered with grass. 33. What is a clayey soil called? — An aluminous or argilla- ceous soil. 34. What is the oris^in of the word aluminous? — Aluminous is from the Latin alumen, signifying alum, which is one of the bases of clay. 35. What is the origin of the word argillaceous ? — Argillaceous is from the Latin argilla, signifying white clay. 36. Besides silex, lime, and clay, what other substances are found in the soil ?— In most inst2inces the soil contains decayed vegetable or animal matter, with some other ingredients, the whole constituting the earth of gardens and fields. 37. What is a delta?— A triangular-shaped tract of land found at the mouth of some rivers, and so called from its resemblance to the Greek letter delta {A). 38. What is meant by Mi7ieralogy?—1\iQ department of science which treats of minerals. 39. What is meant by minerals?— Miner^ih is the general name for all the different substances that make up the earth's crust, such as clay, sand, limestone and other rocks, flint, black-lead, salt, coal, and the like. 40. What are ores ?— Ores are those minerals from which metal can be extracted by smelting. 41. What is smelting ?—Ro2isting ore with fire, by which the pure metal flows from the earthy part of the mineral. 42. What are the principal metals? — Gold, silver, iron, lead. Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. '^f?;7"T.^hQrs oFH^cules, in Mythology, Numbered i2.-See page 24 2. 36 GEOLOGY— MINERALOG Y. zinc, copper, tin, nickel, and antimony; but there are many others. 43. Are all metals produced by sjnelting? — All except gold, which is found in a pure state ; also copper and silver, which are found pure in some places. 44. What is coal? — A dark-colored, inflammable sub- stance, properly called fossil-coal, because it is dug from the earth. 45. Of what is fossil-coal composed? — Chiefly of vegetable matter, compressed into a compact mass. 46. How can vegetable matter have become sunk so as to forjn coal?—^y the submergence of land in one of the convulsions which have caused the sea to rush in and cover the land. 47. Of what species of vegetable 7natter does coal usually con- sist? — Of forests of trees and ferns, upon the quality of which the richness of the coal depends. 48. In digging for coal and other fossils, whether does it become cold or warm as we descend? — It becomes the more hot the lower we descend into the earth. 49. What belief is entertained from this fact? — That the cen- tre of the globe is in a state of very great heat. 50. How is the central heat of the globe manifested on the sur- face ? — By volcanoes and hot mineral springs. 51. What are volcanoes? — Mountains which, through open- ings, occasionally throw up burning matter or lava, together with stones, ashes, and, in some instances, mud. 52. What is the opening of a volcano called? — The crater. 53. How is the burning matter ejected from the crater?-^ Sometimes it is thrown to a height in the atmosphere, accompanied with dense smoke ; at other times, it flows as a stream of burning lava down the sides of the mountain, destroying fields and houses in its course. 54. When the lava cools, what is its usual appearance? — ■ That of a hard, black rock, but porous, or full of small holes. 55. Are there many volcanoes? — They are some hundreds in number. The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, I789^-Se^_pag^j407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. GEO LOG Y— MINER A LOGY. 37 56. Which are the more remarkable in Europe ?—Eindi in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, and Hecla in Iceland. 57. In what part of the earth are volcanoes most numerous ? In South America. 58. Do volcanoes ever occtcr i?t the sea /—Yes ; they sometimes break out in the bed of the ocean, and throw up materials which form volcanic islands. 59. Are there any extinct volcanoes f— There are many such ; some may be seen in Auvergne in France, with their craters, resembling great basins covered with green turf. Mount Etna, in Sicily. 60. What is the origin of the term volcano?— It is from Vul- can, a heathen deity, who was supposed by the ancients to re- side under Mount Etna, engaged in forging thunderbolts for Jupiter. 61. Why are certain springs called mineral springs ? — Because they contain a quantity of some soluble mineral, such as various kinds of salts, iron, and lime. 62. What are the springs called that contain iron? — Chaly- beate springs, from chalybs, the Greek word for steel ; they are also called ferruginous springs, from ferrum, the Latin word for iron. 2 A The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 38 GEOLOGY— MINERALOGY. 63. How are mineral substances imparted to springs? — The water dissolves them in passing through rocks and other strata that contain them, and if the rocks are hot, the conse- quence is that the mineral water is warm. 64. What is petroleum? — Natural oil, which gushes in springs from the earth, and is sometimes spoken of as naphtha. 65. Where are these oil-springs found? — In Burmah and in other parts of Asia, France, Italy, and North America. 66. How is the oil formed in the earth ? — It is believed to be a result of the earth's internal heat acting on beds of a rich kind of coal. The heat may be said to distill the oil from the coal — perhaps first raising a gas, which is reduced to a liquid state by the pressure of the earth. 67. Is petroleum or naphtha an object of manufacture? — Yes; it has latterly been made from petroleum-coal, which is dug in Scotland ; the oil so produced and refined being generally known as parafine-oil, which is burned in lamps. 68. What are geysers? — Boiling springs in Iceland, in which the water is ejected in a column to a great height, the force being probably the steam generated low down by the heat. 69. What are earthquakes ? — Disturbances in the crust of the earth, sometimes only slight tremblings, but at other times violent convulsions accompanied with loud noises. 70. What is supposed to be the "cause of earthquakes? — Vol- canic action, by which, according to geology, many changes have been effected on the surface of the globe. 71. Is geology an ancient science ? — No ; it is of comparatively modern origin, and new discoveries in it are constantly being made. 72. Were ancient nations acquainted with mineralogy? — • Only in a limited way. They knew of certain ores which they worked for purposes of art. 73. Substantiate that fact by a quotation from scripture. — In Deuteronomy, eighth chapter and ninth verse, it is said of the Hebrews, that they shall have " a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass." 74. What is brass? — A composition of copper and zinc. The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815.— See page 368. GEO LOG Y— MINER A LOGY. 39 75. What is bronze? — A composition of copper and tin. 'jd. For what is bronze much used? — Bronze is much used in fabricating casts of statues and objects of an ornamental kind. TJ. What is pewter ? — A mixture of brass, lead, and tin. 78. What is tinsmith's solder ? — A mixture of lead, and tin. 79. What are such composite metals called? — They are called alloyed metals or alloys. 80. Is the gold of coinage alloyed? — Yes ; it consists of about eleven parts of gold and one part of copper, the copper alloy being added to give hardness. 8 1 . How does the infusion of copper alter the color of gold ? — It gives it a reddish tinge ; if the mixture consists of gold and silver, the color is a delicate yellow. 82. Is there any metal tnixed with the copper coinage of the United Kingdom? — Yes; the copper coinage is a mixture of copper and nickel — the nickel giving great hardness. 83. Was there not at one tiine a belief that the baser metals could be transmuted into gold? — That strange belief was once entertained by a set of enthusiasts, who labored to discover the art of making gold. 84. What were those enthusiasts called? — Alchemists. 85. Although alchemists failed in gold making-, were their labors useless ? — No; the alchemists made a number of discov- eries concerning the properties of matter, and so laid the foun- dation of the science of Chemistry. CHEMISTRY— HEAT— ATMOSPHERE- SOUND. 1. What is meant by chemistry? — The science which treats of the elementary properties of substances, and their changes. 2. What did the ancients consider to be the elements ? — Thev The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See pa^e 172. William Shakspeare was Born 1564; Died 1616. — See page 143. 40 CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE—SO UND. spoke of fire, air, earth, and water as the four elements. 3. Were th y right in saying so? — No ; fire is only an extreme condition of heat, air is a mixture of several elements, and so are earth and water. 4. How ma7iy elementary substances are now known? — Chem- istry has made known about sixty. 5. What is their nature? — The greater number are metals ; five are gases, or fluids in the form of air ; the others can only be described as non-metallic. All the objects we see around us, including the air we breathe, are compounds of some of these elements. 6. How have they been compounded? — Such has been the work of nature — all has been adjusted in a scheme of compre- hensive Beneficence. 7. How are these compounds discovered? — Practical chemists analyze them in their laboratories. 8. What is Chemical Analysis ? — The disunion or separation of the elementary ingredients of a body. 9. How is chemical analysis effected? — By a great variety of ingenious operations, in many of which heat performs an im- portant part. 10. Have discoveries of this kind proved valuable? — Exceed- ingly so. Besides extending a knowledge of nature, the dis- coveries of chemists have made known many useful medicines; also coloring matters and other preparations which are of great service to mankind. 11. Mention so7ne of these useful preparations. — Soap for washing, which is made chiefly from the union of an alkali called soda with tallow. Another is carburetted hydrogen gas, which is extracted from coal, and used for lighting houses and towns. 12. What is chemical affinity ?--T\\^ natural attraction of dif- ferent kinds of matter for each other, by which they combine to form another body; water being an example of a combina- tion of hydrogen with oxygen. 13. What is chemical decomposition? — The dissolving of bodies into their original elements. The Rei -amous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588.— See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. O CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE—SO UND. 4 1 14 Where have we an example of this? — In the dissolution of animal substances when buried in the earth. 15. Is it possible to transform a liquid into a solid body f—^ Yes ; for example, the syrup of the sugar-cane can be trans- formed into sugar, a solid, dry article. 16. In what manner does the liquid syrup assume this charac- ter? — It crystallizes. 17. What is crystallization ? — A spontaneous arrangement of particles into regular fixed shapes. 18. Are there other instances of crystallization? — There are many such ; but none is so beautiful as that often seen in flakes of snow, which are of various regular forms. Flakes of Snow— magnified. 19. What is vitrif action? — The process of converting cer- tain materials into glass by fusing them together by heat. 20. What materials are used for the making of glass .?— Sand or flint, and some alkaline salt. 7.1. Is the art of glass-?naking ancient ?~Yqs ; but it is only in modern times it has been brought to a high degree of per- fection, as is seen in the finer kinds of crystal. 22. O/" what gases is the atmosphere composed ?— Chiefly ni- trogen, with oxygen, and a small quantity of carbonic acid— the nitrogen is nearly four to one of oxygen. 23. But is not the oxygen the vital principle of the air ? Yes ; but it needs a strong dilution of nitrogen ; oxygen, however, is the great supporter of animal life, and maintains combus- tion. 24. Explain combustion. — Combustion is the combining of some substances with oxygen, attended with red heat, and usually with flames, whence it follows that the fire will go out Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278. 42 CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE— SOUND. if deprived of oxygen. In blowing a fire, it is the rush of oxy. gen which is the true cause of the fierce blaze. 25. What is the cause of rust on iron ? — Oxygen entertng into combination with the surface of the metal, the combination being promoted by moisture ; rusting is an ordinary term foi the oxidizing of iron. 26. Is the coinmon air deterioated by breathing? — It Is. Pure air is chemically changed in the act of breathing, and what we exhale has lost its oxygen, and is loaded with carbonic acid gas. 27. Is carbonic acid gas wholesome ? — Inhaled, even in small quantity, it is very injurious to animal life ; but, on the con- trary, it supports vegetation. 28. Where are the injurious effects of breathing bad air felt ) — In close rooms where several persons are sleeping or sit- ting ; this is a common cause of fevers and other illnesses. 29. What is caloric ? — It is a term sometimes employed to signify heat, and is from the Latin word calor, heat ; when anything produces heat, it is said to be calorific. 30. What is latent heat? — Heat which is concealed in g body, and does not manifest its presence under ordinary cir- cumstances. 31. /y the development of fire by friction, and by the striking of a flint on steel, a result of latent heat ? — No ; that opinion was once entertained, but is now abandoned. 32. What, then, produces the heat ? — It is supposed to be caused by the violent arresting or retardation of motion. 33. Explain this more fully. — Motion — as, for example, the motion of a wheel on an axle — being greatly retarded by friction, or suddenly arrested, as in the case of a steel striking a flint, heat is the consequence, and sparks of fire are probably produced. 34. What do we feel in the absence of heat? — The sensation of cold. 35. What is frost? — A very low degree of heat, which turns water to ice, and this begins to take place when the thermometer indicates thirty-two degrees. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133. CHE MIS TR Y—HEA T^A TMO SPHERE— SO UND. 43 f6. What is ice? — Water frozen into a hard and compact ns /ss. Certain fresh-water lakes in North America produce ice in perfection for the cooling of beverages. 37. What is a therfnojneter ? — An instrument for measuring heat, consisting of a glass tube with mercury, which rises or falls according to the surrounding temperature. 38. What is the scale of the thermometer ? — It consists of equal divisions, called degrees, made alongside the tube, and numbered from O or zero, at the bottom, to 212 at the top — 32 degrees is the freezing-point, 98 blood-heat, and 212 the boiling-point. 39. Is that the only scale ? — No ; on the continent of Europe other scales are employed; but this, which is called the Fahrenheit thermometer, from the name of its constructor, is the one used in Great Britain, and chiefly referred to. 40. What is meant by radiation of heat ? — The process by which heat is given off. Heat is radiated or sent off in rays from the sun, from a fire, or from any heated object. 41. Does the absorption of heat in any way depend on color ? —Yes. Black garments more readily absorb heat than those which are white. 42. Where does this fact influence the inode of dressing? — In India and other hot countries, where the natives dress them- selves chiefly in light white garments. 43. Does color affect the radiation of heat ? —Yes ; a black surface gives off heat better than a light one ; for example, pipes for warming houses give off more heat when they are black than when they are light-colored. 44. What are bodies called which receive and convey heat readily? — Good conductors of heat. 45. Give an example of a good conductor of heat. — Metals are good conductors, as is felt in the handle of a metal tea-pot, in which a piece of wood, as being a bad conductor of heat, has to be interposed. 46. Do not woollen garments give warmth? — It is a popular error to say they do; they only, as being bad conductors oi heat, keep the animal warmth from leavmg us. Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle.— See page 13. upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— S ee page 65 44 CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE—SO UND, 47. At what temperature is water most dense? — At about 4a degrees. When heat is appHed the water expands, and after- wards beginning to boil, flies off as steam. 48. What takes place when the temperature of water sinki below 40 degrees? — The water expands until it reaches 32 de- grees, when it assumes the form of ice. 49. How is the expansion of water in freezing familiarly exem- plified? — In the bursting of water-pipes during frost. 50. What promotes evaporation ? — The heat of the sun, and artificial heat. 51. Give an example of evaporation. — When a wetted piece of cloth is hung out to dry, the moisture is exhaled or car- ried off by evaporation into the atmosphere. 52. Does evaporation go on upon a great scale in nature?— Yes ; from sea and land, and from all animals, there is a con- stant exhalation, but more in hot than cold weather. 53. What causes the moisture on the inside of glass windows? — The exhaled breath and other moisture is condensed on the glass in consequence of the cold outside. 54. If it be very cold outside, what ensues? — The moisture on the glass is frozen, and assumes a feathery appearance. 55. Why do walls and paved passages inside of buildings sometimes have a damp appearance ? — Because their cold con- denses the floating moisture in the atmosphere ; this is seen in mild but moist weather. 56. What is dew .^— The condensation of atmospheric mois- ture on blades of grass or other objects, during the night. 57. What is hoar frost? — Dew frozen by cold. 58. What becomes of all the moisture exhaled into the atmo- sphere ? — It forms fogs, mist, and clouds, which are only va- por condensed by cold, and so rendered visible. 59. Why do fogs, mist, and clouds disappear in fine weather? —They are dispelled by heat, their moisture resuming an in- visible condition. 60. Why does mist sometimes disappear suddenly while rolling Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.— See page 47. CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE—SO UND. 45 along hills? — The mist, in its passage, comes into a warmer atmosphere, and so vanishes. 61. What is a common cause of fogs at sea? — Sudden chilli- ness of the atmosphere, by which the exhaled vapor assumes the form of mist. When the sea happens to be of a mild temperature, the fogs become intense. 62. When mists and clouds are not dispelled by heat, what usually ensues? — They drop down as rain or snow. 63. But why do heavy rains occur in warm as well as in cold weather? — The reason is, that the atmosphere becomes over- saturated with moisture, and must necessarily yield it as rain. 64. What is the use of rain ? — Rain is of the greatest value in irrigating and refreshing the earth, in supporting vegeta- tion, and in supplying water for the use of man and the lower animals. 65. What is snow? — Particles of water frozen in the atmo- sphere; when rain-drops are frozen in falling, they form hail. 66. Is frost of any particular use? — It is of value in destroy- ing hosts of insects and other vermin which would be inju- rious to vegetation; also in mouldering down the hard clods of earth in newly-turned-up fields and gardens. 67. Is snow of any use ? — When it lies one or two feet deep for any length of time, it shelters tender vegetation from the severity of frost, and is so far of service to agriculture. 68. Does sea-water freeze ? — Yes ; but very slowly and imper- fectly, and is seen chiefly in the polar regions. 69. Is the ice of sea-water salt? — It is less so than sea-water ; in freezing, a portion of the saline particles is rejected. 70. Is there any heat in ice ? — To the touch ice always con- veys the sensation of extreme cold, but by the thermometer ice can be shown to vary in having more or less heat like other bodies. 7 1 . Can ice be made to serve the purposes of glass ? — Yes ; when sawn into thin slabs, it may serve as glass for windows ; but this can take place only in excessively cold countries, where the rays of the sun are too feeble to overcome the frost. The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 46 CHEMISTR Y—HEA T—A TMOSPHERE—SO UND, 72. What are glaciers?— RngQ masses of ice and snow which sHde down from lofty situations to valleys; the word glacier is from^/^ tion. 12,- What is jneant by the balance of nature? — It has been thought that nature has adjusted a balance between the pro- duction and destruction of animal life, and that man may in- discreetly interfere to disturb this arrangement. 13. Mention an instatice of man having disturbed the balance of animal life ? — In France, so many small birds have been in- discreetly killed, that the vegetation is in many places des- troyed by caterpillars. Had the birds been let alone, they would have destroyed the caterpillars, and thus the " balance of nature" would not have been deranged. 14. How does climate affect animal life? — In cold countries the number of animals is limited, while in tropical regions the abundance of animal life, particularly as regards insects and reptiles, is excessive and troublesome. 15. How were animals at one tiine classed? — As beasts or quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles, worms, and insects. 16. Why was this classification abandoned? — Because it was found to be imperfect, and left out a number of creatures that could not be included in any of these divisions. 17. Who attempted a new classificatiojt ? — Cuvier, a French naturalist, whose arrangement is now adopted. According to this plan, the whole animal kingdom is, in the first place, divided into four provinces or sub-kingdoms. 18. Mention these sub-kingdoms. — I. Radiata, or Rayed Ani' mals; 2. Mollusca, or Pulpy Animals ; 3. Articulata, or Jointed Animals; and, 4. Vertebrata, or Back-boned Animals. 19. How are these departments subdivided? — ^Each is divided into classes ; classes are divided into orders ; orders into fam- ilies and genera ; and the genera into species and varieties. 20. Does the systein inchide all living creatures whatsoei'er ? — It is designed to do so ; but new animals, particularly of lower kinds, are constantly being discovered, and they require to be added. 21. What is meant by species ? — It is a term applied to any form which is maintained uniformly through a succession of The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. i THE ANIMAL CREA TION. y. generations. For example, the horse is one species, and the ass another ; and though there is a resemblance between the two, each continues its own species alone. 22. Are there not exceptions to this rz^te ?~Only in a slight degree. The horse and ass produce a hybrid called the mule, but the mule has no descendants. Nature seems to inter- pose a check to such mixture of races, however much they lesemble each other. 23. Are all dogs of one species ?—Y qs ; but they are of dis- tmctly-marked varieties, each of which it is important to pre- serve pure, for any intermixture produces deterioration. 24. Are not different varieties of sheep sofneti^nes blended with advantage ?~ThQY are ; but such artificial breeds are of temp- orary value ; they require constant care, and often also re- newal—nature here, again, interposing to preserve distinct- ness of variety. 25. Can we corijecture what nature 7neans by preserving dis- tinct?tess in classes, species, and varieties of animals ? — It seems part of a wise design to prevent confusion in the animal cre- ation. 26. What are gregariotis animals .?— Those which like to live in flocks and herds ; sheep and cattle are gregarious, and so are many birds, such as rooks, and a number of smaller birds at certain seasons. 27. What are pairing animals ? — Those which pair, male and female, for a season, in order mutually to support their young until they are able to seek food for themselves. Small birds offer an example of pairing animals. A few birds pair for life. 28. What are oviparous animals? — Those produced from eggs ; they are called oviparous from two Latin words, ovu7n, an ^gg, and pario, I produce. Birds are oviparous. 29. What are viviparous animals? — Those produced in a living state ; they are called viviparous from the Latin words vivus, alive, and pario, I produce. 30. What are ovoviparous animals ? — Those within which the eggs are hatched before the young are produced ; the common hzard is an example. Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278, 74 THE ANIMAL CREA TION. 31. What are digitigrade quadrupeds ? — Those which walk on their toes, of which the dog and cat are examples ; the term digitigrade is from the the Latin digitus, a finger or toe, 2Ln6. gradior, I walk. 32. What are plantigrade quadrupeds? — Those which walk on the sole of the foot, of which the bear is an example; the term plantigrade is from the Latin planta, the sole of the foot, dindgradior, I walk. 33. What are hybernating animals? — Those which pass the winter in a secluded and dormant state, of which the bat is an example ; the term hybernating is from the Latin hiberno, I winter. 34. What are domesticated aniinals ? — Those which are usually reared in a tame state in association with man, such as the dog, cat, fowls, pigeons, canary birds, the horse, ass, ox, and some others. 35. What are amphibious animals? — Those which can live either in water or on land, such as the frog; they are called amphibious, from two Greek words signifying a double life. 36. What are parasitic animals ?— Those which habitually live within or upon other animals from which they draw their nourishment. There are parasitic plants as well as animals. 37. What are reckoned the lowest forms of ammal life ?-^ Those belonging to the Radiata. 38. Mention sojne of the Radiata. — The Infusoria, or ani- malcules, so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, and usually found in stagnant water, also in sour beer, and some other liquids. 39. Are these sfnall creatures produced spontaneously in the liquids in which they are found? — No ; no animals whatever can be produced but from the germ of previous animals hke itself. In animal, as in vegetable life, there is no spontaneous production. 40. Was not the contrary once believed? — It was. In ancient times there prevailed a belief that certain insects were pro- duced by putrefaction ; and not long since, there was a notion Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. CO THE ANIMAL CREATION. 75 that small eels could be produced by horse-hairs dropped into stagnant water. All such notions are now exploded. 41. But have not conditions a powerful effect on anintal life? — Certainly; but the conditions— as in the souring of beer — only aid the principles of reproduction. Without the condi- tions, the germ of the animal would remain dormant. 42. What is the appearance of the Infusoria ? — They are of various grotesque forms. Some resemble branches of plants, some are like tulips, and some are twisted like screws. Those Various forms of Animalcules. of one order are called Rotifera, from the rotatory motion of certain organs which surround the mouth. 43. How do these strange creatures propagate? — Some lay eggs ; but the greater number divide their bodies into parts, each of which becomes a new animal. 44. What are Zoophytes? — Radiata, so named from their re- semblance to growing plants, and which seem to form a con- necting link between animal and vegetable life. 45. What are the Corallifera ? — One of the orders of zoo- phytes, which raise great structures of coral from the bottom of the sea. 46. Have sponges any connection with this order? — Yes; they are allied to the corallifera, and are found chiefly in the Red and Mediterranean Seas. What we call sponge is the framework of the zoophyte cleared of the living matter. 47. What are Polypi? — A class of the radiata, so called from two Greek words signifying many feet. Some of them form floating fleshy masses, without organs of sense, and possess Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist. — See page 65, O 76 THE ANIMAL CREATION. numerous arms or tentacula. When cut in pieces, each be- comes an individual polypus. 48. What are the Mediisce ? — Another class of the radiata, resembling floating masses of jelly, with depending tentacula, which may be seen in the ocean and also near the coast. The Physalis is a good example. 49. What can be the use of the medusce? — They are probably of use in furnishing food to whales, also to the herring, and some other kinds of sea-fish. 50. What are the Entozoa ? — They are a class of the radiata, which parasitically live within the bodies of other animals. 51. Mentwn 07te of the entozoa. — The hydatid, which is some- times found in the brains of sheep, causing a fatal disease ; the germs of such creatures are understood to be introduced through the food. 52. What kind of animals are the Mollusca, which form the second sub-kingdom ? — They consist of several classes of soft and pulpy animals, including some shell-fish and snails. 53. What are univalve shells? — Those having one shell, of which there is an example in the limpet. 54. What are bivalve shells? — Those having two shells, of which there is an example in the oyster. 55. What is meant by Conchology ? — The branch of zoology connected with the study of shells. 56. What animals are included in the sub-kijigdom Articu- lata? — Certain jointed animals, of which there is a well-known class called the Crustacea ; in it are included crabs, lobsters, prawns, and barnacles. 57. What is the barnacle ? — It is a shell-fish which attaches itself by a stem to the bottom of ships, or any floating piece of wood ; also to branches of trees Which hang over and touch the salt water. At one time it was thought that the barnacle hatched a kind of goose — a belief now known to be quite erroneous. 58. Mention another well-known class in the Articulata. — The class Insecta, in which are comprehended an innumerable Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. Of rj/^ P ^NlYERs ^' Of what does ancient literature chiefly consist? — Of the Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. LANG UA GE, LITER A TURE, E TC. 95 writings of the Hebrews, Chinese, Hindus, Greeks, and Romans. 14. What are the best specimens of ancient Hebrew literature? — The books of the Old Testament. 15. What is the Tabmid? — It is the name given to the book which comprehends the Jewish law, both written and oral, together with the commentaries of learned Hebrews. Those who attach importance to these traditions are called Tal- mudists. The word Talmud is from the Hebrew lamad, to teach. 16. What is meatit by " the Canon of Scripture?" — It signi- fies the Scriptures which have been established as authentic by the decision of councils of the church ; the term^^;^^;^, in Greek, means a rule or standard. The " sacred canon " compre- hends the whole of the Scriptures except the Apocrypha. 17. What is meant by the Apocrypha ? — The term Apocrypha is from a Greek word signifying that which is hidden, but latterly anything spurious, or false, or without authority ; it is now applied to certain books which have been rejected Irom the canon of Scripture as being of doubtful authenticity, or not worthy to be included in the Holy Bible. 18. What is the meaning of the luord "Bible ?" — It is from the Greek biblos, a book, and is applied to the whole of the Old and New Testament Scriptures. 19. What are the languages in which the Bible was originally written f— The Old Testament was written mainly in Hebrew, but partly also in Chaldee, and the New Testament in Greek. 20. What is meantbya"Targu7nr'—i:he word targujn is Hebrew, and signifies /;z/^r/r^/^//^/2 ; it is applied to certain ancient Chaldee versions of the Pentateuch and other parts of Scripture ; also to some versions of more modern date ; there are therefore several Targums. 21. What is Rabbinical Literature ?— It consists of a vast array of works, chiefly in Hebrew and Arabic, by learned rabbis (masters or teachers), which treat mainly of questions springing out of the law, but occasionally branching out into the wider realms of philosophy, history, grammar, and poetry. Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. p6 LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, ETC. Rabbinical literature began after the return from captivity; in fact, it is just another name for Jewish literature. 22. Who were the Essenes ? — They were a fraternity among the Jews previous to and after the birth of Christ; their his- tory is involved in considerable obscurity, but it is known that they were ascetics who aspired to excessive cerem.onial purity according to the Levitical law. 23. Who were the Gnostics f — They were early Christian sects, who derived their name from the Greek word gnosis, know- ledge, as applied to revealed religion. They considered that, from their superior philosophical perceptions, they had coiie :o " know" the nature of those truths which common Chris- tians could only " believe." Hence they elevated Gnosis above Pistis (faith). The religious belief of the Gnostics was tinc- tured with the mysticism of the East and the philosophy of 1 I y*V the name given to a kind of letter or alpha- V\{h M T T F H ^^^ "^^^ ^" ^^^^y times by the Scandinavian ^h-tl^MlxirM ^"^ German peoples. They were much em- 1 r 1 1\ I I n4 n ployed as symbols in divination and other U[;^ tr^PrN ^^S^^^^ practices. Old monuments covered IS V k \ r c>t> t-[\ ^^^^ Runic symbols still exist in many parts n h M f [\> Fm c>f the British Islands. Dfl ^ ^)1\' ff^'^ I H ^^' ^^^^ ^^"^ Thomas a Kempzsf—HQ was a native of Kempen. in Germany, where he was born in 1379; he became a monk in an Augustinian con- vent near Zwoll, and wrote several works of a religious nature ; one of these, styled the Imitation of Christ, justly admired for its piety and simplicity, has been translated into many languages, and perhaps been more frequently printed than any other book, except the Bible. 14. What was the period in which Arabic learning and liter- ature flourished? — It extended from the 8th to the 14th cen- tury, when the learning and arts of the Arabians were extin- The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. S MEDIEVAL LEARNING AND ARTS. 117 guished by the barbarous tribes who migrated from Central Asia. 1 5. Who was Abulfeda .?'— He was a Syrian ruler, distinguished as a writer of several works in Arabic, on geography, history, and other subjects; he died in 1331. 16. Who was Hafiz? — He was an eminent Persian poet, who died about 1388. His collection of works is entitled the Divdn, and consists chiefly of odes, or, as they are called in Persian, ghazels. 1 7. What was the origin of the Arabian Nights' Etitertaimnents f — The work under that title is a collection of stories abound- .ng in wild oriental fictions which originated partly in India, Persia, and Arabia, and were perfected in Persia shortly after ehe reign of the Caliph Haroun al Raschid. 18. When did Haroun al Raschid live ? — He lived in the 8th century, and was a contemporary of Charlemagne. 19. When did the Arabian Nights' Entertainments become knowjt in Europe? — They were first made known under a French translation by M. Galland, 1704; but the best trans- lation is the English one executed by Dr. Edward Lane, and published in 1839. 20. What are Improvisator i ? — Improvisatori is the Italian name applied to persons who make extempore verses, some- times in public places of resort for general amusement ; the term signifies to invent without premeditation. 21. Is the practice of improvising ancient ? — Yes; it greatly prevailed during the middle ages, and served the purposes of literature where books were little known. The practice is still pursued in several Eastern countries. 22. What was Alchemy? — A supposed hidden or secret art of transmuting the baser metals into gold, by means of an unknown substance called Wi^ Philosopher s stone ; also the art of making an elixir to prolong human life, called the Elixir Vitce. 23. Where did alchemy originate ? — It originated in ancient times in Egypt, and after being practised among the Romans, it formed a pursuit of various learned enthusiasts in the mid- The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 118 MEDIEVAL LEARNING AND ARTS. die ages. The term alchemy is Arabic, and is supposed to be from Cham, the Scripture name of Egypt. 24. How did the science of Chemistry originate ? — It origina- ted in the vain pursuits of the alchemists, who, while engaged in their secret experiments with retorts and crucibles, made many real and valuable chemical discoveries, and founded the science of chemistry. 25. Who was Gebir ? — He was an Arabian alchemist, who lived in the 8th century, and wrote the first book on chem- istry. 26. What were Occult Arts? — They were hidden or secret arts ; the term occult, from the Latin, signifies concealed. The ancients practised various arts of this kind, such as divination or fortune-telling, necromancy, alchemy, and astrology. 27. Explain the nature of Astrology. — It was the delusive art of divining the fortune of individuals from the position of the heavenly bodies at the time of their birth. The term as- trology is from the Greek, and signifies a knowledge of the stars. 28. What nations were believed to be proficients in astrology? — The Egyptians, Chaldseans, Hindus, Chinese, and latterly the Arabians, who pursued it with great ardor from the 7th to the 13th century. 29. What was the great discovery that shook confidence in as- trology ? — The discovery by Copernicus of the true system of planetary motions (1540), after which astrology was pursued only by weak-minded persons and impostors. The latest as- trologer of any note in England was William Lilly, in the reign of Charles I. 30. Who was Nostradamus? — He was a celebrated French astrologer ol the i6th century ; he received encouragement from the court of France, and died 1566. Nostradamus wrote an almanac, which served as a model for subsequent ones. 31. Who was Paracelsus ? — He was a clever and audacious Swiss, born about 1493, who adopted this name, and became The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409, AFRICAN HEATHEN DEITY ; HOLDING A CARVED WOODEN FETISH. Up. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June 18, 1815.— See page 368. MEDIEVAL LEARNING AND ARTS. n^ notorious for his real or pretended cures of diseases, in which he repudiated Galen and all the old medical authorities. Para- celsus partook of the nature and manner of a charlatan, but his novel views helped considerably to break up antiquated notions, and to improve the practice of medicine. He was killed, 1 541. 32. Who were the Rosicrucians ? — They were members of a secret society, alleged to have been founded by Christian Ros- enkreutz, a German, in the 14th century, who was said to have lived in India and Egypt, and there learned ancient mys- tic arts. The Rosicrucians had various fraternities at the be- ginning of the 17th century, but they ultimately died out. 33 What peculiar fa7icies regarding the unseen world pre- vailed in the middle ages? — There was a belief in " Spirits of the Elements" — the spirits of fire being called Salamanders ; those of the water, Undijies ; of the air. Sylphs ; and of the earth, Gnomes; all which ridiculous and superstitious fancies have been made available by poets. 34. What is Superstition ? — Absurd opinions concerning the order of Nature and attributes of God ; such as a belief in magic, witchcraft, fetishes, fairies, and ghosts. 35. What is a fetish ? — A fetish is a thing supposed to be invested with marvellous powers, such l.s a tree, carved piece of wood, or any bundle of trash. 36. Where has a belief iti fetishes prevailed? — Among heathen nations in ancient and modern times ; but it now more parti- cularly prevails in certain negro nations of Africa. 37. What are fairies or elves ? — They were imagined to be diminutive, bright, lively, aerial beings, usually of a kindly disposition, though sometimes a little malignant. A belief in beings of this kind prevailed from the earliest times among the Teutonic and Celtic nations of Europe. 38. What style of Arc?iitecture arose in the middle ages ? — The pointed or Gothic style, as developed in the building of abbeys, churches, and other ecclesiastical structures. 39. What were the Masonic Guilds of the middle ages ? — They were fraternities of practical architects and masons, who wer© The First English Newspaper was Printed in i6ig. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 120 MEDIEVAL LEARNING AND ARTS, employed to rear those grand ecclesiastical structures which still survive to attest the piety of the founders, and the skill of the artisans who constructed them. 40. Were the masonic fraternities stationary ? — No ; the) moved about from country to country, fostered by the church, and protected by the rulers who required their ser- vices. These medieval fraternities are typified in the lodges of "free-masons," in modern times. 41. What was the state of the drama i7i the middle ages? — • There was no drama, properly so called ; the ancient Greek and Roman drama had sunk and disappeared, and the only theatrical performances consisted of " mysteries and miracle plays," and " mummeries." 42. What were Mysteries a?id Miracle Plays? — They were a species of drama founded on the historical parts of the Old and New Testaments, and the lives of the saints, performed first in churches, and afterwards on platforms in the streets. Their original design was to instruct the people, but they lat- terly degenerated into scenes of coarse and irreverent buf- foonery. 43. What were the Mmmnerzes of the middle ages ? — Mum- meries were sports in masks ; a mummer is one whose face b y John Gu ttenbe rg.-See page 305 to a o H a a c o to a 2 o J3 H CONTINENTAL LITERA TURE. 127 Madame de Sevigne, celebrated for her epistolary talents; her letters, written mostly to her daughter, are esteemed models of simplicity, liveliness, and elegance of expression ; they consist of several volumes. She held a high place in the literary circles of Paris. — Died 1696. Pierre Corneille, the creator of French tragedy; his dramas are highly esteemed for their declamatory grandeur by his countrymen, by whom he is called " Le grand Corneille." — Died 1684. Jean Baptiste Moliere— the name Moliere being assumed in place of Poquelin. Moliere was the creator of French com- edy, and takes the highest rank as a writer of humorous and -satirical plays. — Died 1673. Jean Racine, a dramatist, contemporary with Corneille and Moliere ; the subjects of his plays are chiefly taken from clas- sical and Scriptural sources. — Died 1697. Brueys, a theological writer and comic dramatist, but re- membered only as the writer of a modernized version of an old play, in which in a droll litigation about sheep, occurs the phrase, " revenons h nos moutons" (let us return to our sheep, Dx proper subject in hand) — a phrase now often quoted in a jocular sense. The name of this play is L'Avocat Patelin. Lafontaine, a poet and fabulist, whose fables in verse will ever occupy a prominent place in French literature. — Died 1695. Boileau, the most famous of the French satirical poets; his principal works are his Satires, his EpUres, and his Art Po^tique, a performance of high finish. — Died 171 1. Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon, three pulpit orators, distinguished for their fervid and persuasive eloquence. Bossuet, who died 1704, and Massillon, who died 1742, have left sermons which are probably not surpassed in splendor and grace of rhetoric by any similar compositions. Rochefoucauld, a nobleman, author of Maximes Morales, noted for their searching and severe exposition of the motives of human conduct. — Died 1680. Bruyere, or Labruyere, celebrated for works on character and manners. — Died 1696. Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49- Napoleon Bonaparte, Bom in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. S 128 CONTINENTAL LITERATURE. Bayle, a philosophical writer, who in his Dictionnaire His* tort'que et Critique, has shown all the qualities of his remarkn able mind — wit, logic, learning, and scepticism. — Died 1706. Vauban, a marshal of France in the reign of Louis XIV., and famous for his system of fortifying towns, on which sub- ject he left several works at his death in 1707. Malebranche, a writer on philosophical subjects ; his most famous work is his Recherche de la V&it^. — Died 171 5. Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray, an eminent writer of works of a philosophical and religious nature, but best known as the author of a classic romance, Telemaque, prepared for the special use of his pupil, a grandson of Louis XIV., the young Duke of Burgundy, who died 17 14. Fenelon died 1715. Fontenelle, author of numerous poetical, oratorical, dramatic, philosophical, and scientific writings. He possessed a fine temper and gentle disposition, and died when he had nearly finished his looth year, 1757. II. The following were the distinguished writers of the 1 8th century — Rollin, a historian, whose writings though refined in style are diffuse and uncritical. — Died 1741. Lesage, poet, dramatist, and novelist, famed as the author of Gil Bias. — Died 1747. Baron de Montesquieu, a celebrated author and political philosopher ; his great work, which occupied him 20 years, was L Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of Laws), often quoted on questions of civil liberty. — Died 1755. Voltaire— properly, Francis Marie Arouet de Voltaire— the most voluminous and distinguished of all the French writers —poet, dramatist, historian, and philosopher. By his subtle and sarcastic genius Voltaire exercised a prodigious influence over his countrymen, and powerfully aided in bringing on the Revolution.— Died 1778. Jean Jacques Rousseau, dramatist, novelist, and writer on speculative subjects, but extravagant in his theories, and in. "Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344.— See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients — See page ii8. CONTINENTAL LITERATURE I2g tractable ; though classed with French writers, he was a na- tive of Geneva. — Died 1778. The Count de Buffon, naturaHst ; Marmontel, novelist ; La Harpe, literary biographer and critic ; Raynal, historian ; Hel- vetius, writer on philosophical subjects ; D'Alembert and Con- dorcet, mathematicians ; Lavoisier, chemist ; Diderot, m.ora- list and romance writer; and St. Pierre, author ot Paul et Vzrginie ; rank among the leading men of science and letters in France, in the latter part oi tne ibth century. 12. In the present century, France has had the following authors of note — Baroness de Stael-Holstein, ordinarily called Madame de Stael, was daughter of Necker, the famous financier, and be- came celebrated for her novels and other productions ; her best-known work is Corinne, ou i'ltalie (Corinne, or Italy.) — Died 1817. Laplace, a celebrated astronomer, author of the Mdcanique Cdeste and Systhme du Monde, works of the highest value to science. — Died 1827. Laurent de Jussieu, born at Lyons, 1748, Professor of Botany in Paris, whose fame rests on his system of plants, known as the Jussieuan or Natural System, which is now generally adopted. The work in which his views are set forth is en- titled Genera Plantarum. — Died 1836. Decandolle, native of Geneva, follower of Jussieu, whose system of botany he improved, and author of several import' ant works on the vegetable kingdom. — Died 1841. Vicomte de Chateaubriand, a writer on political and specu- lative subjects; his works are of a pious and imaginative kind, but want solidity. — Died 1848. Beranger, a poet, celebrated for his lyrical and patriotic songs. — Died 1857. Jasmin was a contemporary poet in hum- ble life, who wrote in the patois of the south of France. Michelet, born 1798, a brilliant historian, and author of sev- eral polemical novels. — Pied 1874. Lamennais, one of the most celebrated of the politico-re* ligious writers in the present century. — Died 1854. The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503-— See page 181. 130 CONTINENTAL LITERATURE, Sismondi, a native of Geneva, but of Italian descent, who finally resided in France; he wrote on political economy, in which he adopted the advanced views of Adam Smith ; his greatest works, however, are the Histories of Italy and France, which are voluminous, and greatly appreciated. — Died 1842. Victor Cousin, born 1792, an eminent writer on philosophi- cal subjects and on education ; his works are very numer- ous.— Died 1867. Guizot, born 1787, a writer of historical and political trea- tises, and a statesman of note in the reign of Louis-Philippe. -Died 1874. Thiers, born 1797, writer of the History of the French Re- volution in several volumes, and an eloquent speaker, but unsound and unpractical in his notions of public policy. De Tocqueville, an eminent writer on politics and the phil- osophy of history. — Died 1859. Lamartine, a lyrical and descriptive poet, born 1792, died 1869; Victor Hugo, poet and novelist, born 1802; Balzac, novelist ; Paul de Kock, novelist ; Eugene Sue, novelist ; and Madame Dudevant, who calls herself George Sand, born 1804, are the principal writers of fiction in recent times. Jean Henri Merle, who, for family reasons, assumed the name D'Aubigne, born at Geneva, 1794, but classed as a French writer ; his well-known work is a Histoire de la Refor- jitaiwn, which has been translated into English. — Died 1872. Auguste Comte, an ingenious writer on mental philosophy, and founder of the system of speculation known as " Positiv- ism."— Died 1857. 13. What zs Positivism? — It is a philosophical system whic'i rejects theology and metaphysics as fruitless specula- tions on things beyond the lange of the human faculties, and confines itself to deducing the laws of positively ascertained phenomena. Germany. 14. Is German literature of ancient date? — There were many popular poems and other inartistic productions of an early period, but the classical German literature begins as late as 4) H Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248. CONTINENTAL LITERATURE. 131 the 1 8th century, with the writings of Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller. 15. What was the Nibelung en-lied? — It was a series of old ballads united so as to make one plot, of a heroic kind. Nibel^ ungen was the name of an ancient royal race, and lied signi- fies a song. The Nibelungen-lied was sung by the minne- singers — troubadours of Germany. 16. Have there been many German writers? — Yes ; although the literature is of comparatively recent origin, there has been a great abundance of writers, the sale of whose works forms U staple trade at Leipsic. 17. The following are the most noted writers and philoso- phers of Germany — Nicolas Copernicus — originally Copemik — a native of Prussia, eminent for his mathematical and astronomical knowl- edge. The system of astronomy which goes by his name is, however, not exclusively his ; it is more the work of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton ; but in his De Revolutionibus Orbium^ Copernicus argues for the sun being the centre of the plane- tary system ; from which circumstance he is usually called the originator of the present system of astronomy — Died ^543. Tycho Brahe, a native of Denmark, much of whose life was 6pent in Germany ; he succeeded Copernicus as an astron- omical discoverer, and added greatly to the general knowledge of the planets and stars. — Died 1601. Kepler, a native of Wurtemberg, who for some time acted as assistant to Tycho Brahe ; his fame rests on his discovery of certain laws of light and of planetary motion, known as " Kepler's Laws." — Died 1630. Puffendorf, native of Saxony, a celebrated jurist or writer on legal institutes. He was successively a professor at Hei- delberg in Germany, and Lunden in Sweden, at which latter place he wrote his famed work, De Jure Naturce et Gentium (The Laws of Nature and of Nations), which remains an au- thority on the subject. — Died 1694. Leibnitz, a native of Leipsic, celebrated for his erudition Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70.— See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 132 CONTINENTAL LITERATURE. and philosophical researches ; he wrote numerous works on natural theology, the human mind, and the moral government of the world. — Died 1716. Karl Linne, best known by his Latinized name, Linnaeus, a native of Sweden, who attained to great celebrity as a natur- alist, especially for his discoveries in botany, and classifica- tion of plants known as the Linncean or Artificial System, — Died 1778. Mosheim, a native of Lubeck, author of an ecclesiastical History in Latin ; also of works which contributed to the for- mation of a pure style of prose German composition. — Died 1755- Lessing, a native of Saxony, dramatist and literary critic, who helped to emancipate German literature from corrupted French influences. — Died 1781. Lavater, a native of Zurich, Switzerland, whose great work is a treatise on Physiognomy, or a method of determining character by the countenance. He was shot in the streets of Zurich when the French, under Massena, captured the city in 1799; but he lingered on till 1801. Immanuel Kant, born at Konigsberg, but of Scotch descent, became a professor in the university of his native city, ^nd wrote various treatises on Reason and Ethics. In these are embraced the "Kantian Philosophy," or "transcendentalism," signifying that which transcends or goes beyond the limits of experience. — Died 1804. Goethe, poet, dramatist, and novelist, the greatest of the German writers, born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1749; his most famed production is Faust, a dramatic poem, of which there have been several translations. — Died 1832. Klopstock, eminent as a German poet ; his writings are chiefly lyrical and dramatic, but he is best known in England as author of the Messiah, a religious epic of a high order. — Died 1803. Schiller, born in Wurtemberg, 1759, poet, dramatist, and historian ; his fame mainly rests on his tragedies of the Rob' The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. CONTINENTAL LITERATURE. 133 bers, Walienstein, Tell, and Marie Stuart, and on his splendid lyrics. — Died 1805. Kotzebue, a prolific German dramatist, one of whose plays, under the name of The Stranger, is known in England. He was assassinated at Mannheim, 1819, on account of his hostility to the liberal movement. The two Humboldts, brothers, natives of Prussia— Karl Wilhelm, the elder, famed for his philological treatises ; died 1835. Alexander, one of the greatest of naturalists and geo- graphers ; his latest and best-known work is Cosmos, a dis- quisition on the physical structure of the universe. — Died 1859. August Wilhelm von Schlegel, native of Hanover, lyrical poet, and writer of various works connected with literary criticism. He had a good knowledge of English, and trans- lated Shakspeare into German. — Died 1845. Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, a native of Suabia, who studied medicine at Vienna, and there became the founder of phren- ology ; died 1828. Spurzheim, educated at Treves, associated himself with Gall, and became the popular expounder of the phrenological system, which he considerably extended. — Died 1832. Niebuhr, born at Copenhagen, 1776, mastered 20 languages before he was aged thirty. He wrote several historical and philological works; his best-known production is Rdmische Geschichte (History of Rome). — Died 1831. Neander — originally David Mendel — was born of Jewish parents at Gottingen, 1789, and adopted the name Neander on being baptized. He is allowed to be by far the greatest of ecclesiastical historians ; his best-known work in his Kir- chengeschichte (Church History), which shows extraordinary erudition. — Died 1850. Baron Liebig, born at Darmstadt, 1803, one of the greatest chemists of recent times, at one time Professor of Chemistry at the University of Giessen, in Hesse, and afterwards at Munich. He was the author of numerous and well-known works on chemical science, written chiefly to improve agricul- ture and sanitary knowledge. — Died 1873. 6 A The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. T34 CONTINENTAL LITERATURE, German literature has latterly been enriched by the writ* ings of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel — philosophy ; Reinhard, Paulus, Schleiermacher, and Strauss — biblical criticism ; Wolf, Hermann, Muller, the two brothers Grimm, Bopp, Benecke, Adelung, Lassen, Rosen, Lepsius, Herder, and Bunsen^ philology and critical research; Winckelman, Heeren, Ranke, Von Raumer, and Mommsen — archaeology and history ; and Korner, Uhland, Heine, Ruckert, and Freiligrath — poetry. In prose-fiction, Germany has the productions of Richter, Tieck, Hoffman, Arnim, Zschokke, Therese Huber, Wagner, Moser, Stilling, Goethe, and Freytag; few German novels, however, have been relished by English readers, to whom the general strain of German sentiment appears to be unintelli- gible. 18. What is the general character of German literature in the f resent day? — It is much less occupied with philosophical sys- tems and metaphysical speculations than formerly. Numer- ous works are now produced on different branches of physi- cal science, also on historical and antiquarian subjects. The Netherlands, Etc. 19. What is the language of the Netherlands? — It is the Dutch, a branch of the great Teutonic stock, to which belongs the Modern German, 20. Is Dutch literature of ancient date?—'^o ; until compara- tively late times, the learned men of the Netherlands wrote in Latin, and generally Latinized their names ; recently, there have been a number of writers in Dutch, but their works are little known beyond their own country. 21. The following are the more noted of the learned men of the Netherlands — Desiderius Erasmus— originally called Gheraerd— a native of Rotterdam, one of the most vigorous promoters of the Reformation, and writer of various philological and theologi- cal works. — Died 1536. Arminius— originally James Hermann— born 1560, studied theology, and became the founder of the sect of Arminians, Whose doctrines concerning the decrees of God and divine The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June 18, 1815. — See page 368. CONTINENTAL LITERA TURE. 135 grace are opposed to those of Calvin, and have extensively prevailed in the Church of England. — Died 1609. Hugo Grotius — originally De Groot — a native of Delft, author of various political, theological, and historical treatises, likewise of poems in Latin verse ; his great work was De Jure Belli et Pads (The Laws of War and Peace), which has been translated into various languages, and remains an authority on the subject. — Died 1645. Spinoza, a native of Amsterdam, of Jewish descent, who spent much of his life as a meditative recluse at the Hague, where he wrote several works on ethics and philosophy. Spinoza's views are usually called atheistic ; strictly, they were pantheistic, and have never received any practical ac- ceptance. — Died 1677. Leuwenhoek, a native of Delft, where he spent his life in constructing microscopes, and in making discoveries in animal physiology by means of these instruments. When Peter the Great passed through the Netherlands, he visited Leuwen- hoek, who, by a microscope, showed him the circulation of the blood in the tail of an eel. — Died 1723. Boerhaave, born near Leyden, 1668, became one of the most celebrated physicians and anatomists of the i8th century; to his lectures at the University of Leyden pupils flocked from all parts of the civilized world. — Died 1738. The list of modern Dutch writers in miscellaneous litera- ture and poetry, includes Hooft, Vondel, Cats, Van der Palm, Van Lennep, Bilderdyke, andDa Costa. 22. Who was Karamsin ? — He was the most eminent prose writer that Russia has produced; born 1766; his great work is a History of the Russian Empire, v^niten in the Russian lan- guage, and highly esteemed. — Died 1826. 23. Who was Pushkin? — He was the most distinguished poet of Russia, born 1796; he wrote several narrative poems and dramas in the Russian language, and has been sometimes called the Russian Byron. — Died 1837. 24. What is the literature of the Magyars ? — It is the litera- The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 136 ENGLISH LITERATURE. ture of Hungary, composed in the Magyar language, which bears a resemblance to the Turkish. Specimens of Magyar poetry have been translated into English by Sir John Bow- ring. 25. Who was Oehlenschldger ? — He was a celebrated Scandi- navian poet and dramatist, born near Copenhagen, 1779. His works, which are highly appreciated in Denmark and Ger- many, extend to 41 volumes.— Died 1850. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 1. What is the nature of the English language? — It is a composition of Anglo-Saxon, French, and Latin, with words from various other languages. 2. How nia7iy words are there in the English language ? — There are upwards of 42,000, of which 13,000 are Anglo-Saxon, and 29,000 French and Latin — the Latin being imported chiefly through the French. 3. What words are employed in speaking? — In ordinary con- versation, Anglo-Saxon words are almost exclusively used ; uneducated persons employ only a limited stock of words — seldom more than a few thousand. 4. What words are employed in literature ?—SomQ writers employ more Anglo-Saxon words than any others. Examples of simple and nervous Anglo-Saxon are found in the works of Bunyan, and in the authorized version of the Bible. 5. What writers are noted for the prof use use of words from the Latin? — Addison, Samuel Johnson, Gibbon, and some others in the i8th century. 6. Give one or two examples of words from the Anglo-Saxon and Latin having the same meaning. — "Assemble" is from the Latin ; " meet together," from the Anglo-Saxon. " Ex- claim" is from the Latin ; " cry out," from the Anglo-Saxon. "Ultimate" is from the Latin ; " the last," from the Anglo- Saxon. In each of these examples the meaning is the lame. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330 The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302 ENGLISH LITERATURE, 137 7. In what works is derivation of words made the subject oj study? — In treatises on Philology and Etymology; derivations are also found in etymological dictionaries. 8. What is the effect of using words from the Latin ? — The effect is to give variety and a certain dignity to sentences ; but when used profusely, the composition becomes pompous, and scarcely intelligible to ordinary readers. 9. What is noTcv the plan followed by good writers ? — It is to make no particular choice of words, but to use such, what- ever be their origin, as are best suited to express their ideas. 10. When does English literature commence? — It properly begins with the works of Chaucer and Gower in the 14th century when the language had settled into its present com- posite form, although still uncouth in its orthography, and in some of its expressions. Spenser says of Chaucer — *' Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled Marly English Writers. 11. Who was Chaucer? — Geoffrey Chaucer was the earliest English poet ; he was born in London, 1328, and was employed at the court of Edward III. ; as an ambassador to Genoa, he v^isited Petrarch, with whom he had congenial literary tastes; late in life he wrote his Canterbury Tales, which are an en- during monument of his genius. — Died 1400. 12. What is the nature of the Canterbury Tales ?— They are in verse, purporting to be related for mutual amusement by a party of equestrian pilgrims from the Tabard Inn, South- wark, to Canterbury. These tales are now little read on ac- count of a number of the words being obsolete, or in an old orthography; but their merit places Chaucer in the first rank of English poets. 13. Who was Gower? — John Gower, a contemporary of Chaucer, was an English gentleman of property, who wrote several poems, some in Latin, some in English; those in English are admired for their lively expression of natural feeling —Died 1408. Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278, 138 ENGLISH LITERATURE. 14. Who was Sir John Mandeville? — He is usually reckoned the first English prose writer ; about 1356 he wrote an ac- count of his travels in foreign countries, a work consisting of a curious mixture of truth and fable, and valuable as a specimen of English prose composition in the 14th century. 15. Who was John Wickliffe? — He was a learned ecclesi- astic (born 1324, died 1384), who executed a translation of the Scriptures from the Latin, which remains one of the valuable relics of the English language in the 14th century. 16. Who was Richard of Cirencester? — He was a monkish chronicler of the 14th century, famed for his history of the Anglo-Saxons, and a description of Britain in Latin, entitled De Situ Briia?inice ; a manuscript of this last work was dis- covered at Copenhagen in 1747, and has been translated and published in England. Richard died about 1401. 17. What projnoted literature in the \^th century? — The dis- covery of the art of printing, which was introduced into Eng- land by William Caxton about 147 1. 1 8. What was the first book printed in Britain ? — It was The Game of Chess, printed by Caxton, 1474 ; Caxton translated or wrote about sixty different books, all of which went through his own press before his death in 1491. 19. Mention other early writers of note. — Henry Howard, eldest son of the Duke of Norfolk, and usually called Earl of Surrey, was the first of the distinguished poets in England after Chaucer and Gower; his poems are chiefly lyrical, and are refined in style. Surrey was a gallant soldier, and conducted an important expedition into Scotland, 1542. Falling under the displeasure of Henry VHL, he was beheaded, 1547. Sir Thomas Wyatt, lyrical poet, a contemporary of Surrey at the court of Henry VUL, remarkable for the tenderness of his songs and sonnets. — Died 1541. Sir Thomas More, the pious and learned chancellor of Henry VHL, by whom he was barbarously condemned and beheaded, 1535, wrote several works in Latin and English; his best known production is a curious philosophical work in Latin, under the title of Utopia, descriptive of an imaginary country. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 39 where everything is perfect. From this work comes the term '• Utopian," signifying that which is chimerical or impractic- able. John Leland, the first English antiquarian writer, died 1552; and Roger Ascham, a writer of educational and other treatises, who assisted Queen Elizabeth in her classical studies ; died 1 568. These were two learned men of note in England at the middle of the i6th century. Early Scottish Writers. 20. What language was employed by the early Scottish writers ? —Some wrote in Latin ; others wrote in the Scottish verna- cular of the period, which bore a resemblance to the English of Chaucer, and which, with some modifications, now consti- tutes what is called the Scottish dialect. 21. Mention the more remarkable Scottish writers previous to the reign of James VI. — Sir Michael Scott of Balwearie, distinguished for his learn- ing and knowledge of the occult sciences ; among the ignor- ant, he was reputed to be a magician, and there are numer- ous mythic legends concerning his marvellous performances. He wrote several scientific treatises in Latin. — Died 1291. John of Fordoun wrote in Latin a work, styled the Scoti- chronicon, purporting to be a history of Scotland from the beginning of the world ; it brought the history down to the death of David L, in 11 53. Fordoun died about 1385. His work was afterwards extended to 1437, by Walter Bower, abbot of Inchcoln^. John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen in 1357, is reckoned the earliest Scottish poet. Some of his poems are lost; that which remains is The Bruce, a versified history of the trans- actions by which the family of Robert Bruce obtained the Scottish crown. — Died 1395. Andrew Wyntoun, prior of the monastery of St.^erf, Loch- leven, about 1420, completed his Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, a historical narrative in verse. James L of Scotland, an accomplished prince, educated in Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. 140 ENGLISH LITER A TURE. England, wrote some elegant poetry ; his best known work is The Kings Quhair (Quire or Book), which contains poetry equal to that of any of his English contemporaries. This royal poet was barbarously assassinated, 1437. Blind Harry is the name given to a wandering poet, blind from his infancy, who recited The Adventures oj Sir William Wallace in verse, which, in a modernized form, remains a popular favorite. Blind Harry flourished about 1460. William Dunbar occupies a high rank among Scottish poets ; his poems, allegorical, moral, and comic, were com- posed about 1491 ; they are still highly relished, and would be more so but for their antiquated orthography. — Died about 1520. Gavin Douglas was a younger son of Archibald, fifth Earl of Angus, and became bishop of Dunkeld; about 1500 he wrote several poems, the longest of which is The Palace of Honor ; he also produced a Scottish metrical version of Virgil's ^neid. — Died 1521. Scott says of him in Marmion — " He gave rude Scotland Virgil's page." Sir David Lyndsay, born about 1490, was at first a compan- ion of James V.when a boy, and afterwards filled the office of Lord Lyon King-at-arms ; Lyndsay wrote some remarkable poems, chiefly satiric and humorous, which contributed to bring about the Reformation in Scotland. — Died about 1555. James V. of Scotland is reputed to have written some humorous but somewhat coarse songs and ballads. — Died 1542. George Buchanan, born 1506, was eminent for his scholar- ship, and his exertions in favor of the Reformation ; except- ing two pieces, he wrote in Latin, into which language he translated the Psalms of David. Buchanan became princi- pal of St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews, 1566, and after- wards acted as tutor to James VL; his greatest work is a His- tory of Scotland, in Latin, which has been translated into English. — Died 1582. John Knox, the Scottish Reformer, who died in 1572, and was characterized by the Earl of Morton as " one who nevef Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. ENGLISH LITER A TURE. 141 feared the face of man," wrote several theological works ; but his chief production was a History of the Reformation of Religion within the realm of Scotland. Alexander Montgomery, a poet who wrote about 1568 ; his principal work is The Cherry and the Slae (sloe), a rural alle^ gory abounding in beautiful imagery. James VI. of Scotland, who became James I. of England, was a voluminous author ; his works most frequently referred to are Basilicon Doron (Royal Gift), or Instructions concern- ing Government to his son Henry ; DcE7nonolgie, a dialogue on witchcraft ; and A Counterblast to Tobacco, written for the purpose of bringing tobacco-smoking into disrepute. — Died 1625. John Napier, of Merchiston, born 1550, attained to lasting fame by his discovery of Logarithms — a short method of calculation, valuable in many mathematical operations, de- scribed by him in a treatise on the subject. — Died 161 7. John Spottiswood (1565 — 1639), successively Archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews in the reign of James VI., was author of a History of the Church of Scotland, which is considered to be, on the whole, a faithful and impartial narrative. William Drummond (1585 — 1649) was a P^et in Scotland, contemporary with Ben Jonson, who visited him at his seat of Hawthornden, in the vicinity of Roslin. Drummond's poems consist of madrigals, epigrams, sonnets, and other pieces, dis- tinguished by a play of fancy and harmony of versification. The Era of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I.— 1553 to 1649. 22. What change took place in English literature in the reign of Elizabeth ? — It became more truly national, and acquired a vigor and elegance far beyond what it had hitherto pos- sessed ; poetry and the drama, in particular, rose to a high degree of excellence. 23, To what was the change imputed? — To the outburst of free opinion consequent on the Reformation, also to the favor shown to literature and men of genius by Queen Elizabeth, which favor was continued by James I. and Charles I. with the view of counteracting Puritanism. The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 142 ENGLISH LITERATURE. 24. Mention the principal poets and dramatists in this era.—^ Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset (1536— 1608), writer of a poem entitled The Mirror for Magistrates, remarkable for its vigor of allegorical description. John Lyly,born about 1554, flourished as a dramatist in the reign of Elizabeth, but is only remembered as the writer of two works, entitled Euphues, or the Anatomy of Wit, and Eu- phues and his England. They are written in an affected, bom- bastic style, and gave rise to the term Euphuism, a method of speaking in bombastic and allegorical language, which was in vogue at the court of Elizabeth. Sir Philip Sidney (15 54— 1586), a most accomplished writer of sonnets, and called the English Petrarch. He was mortally wounded in a battle in the Netherlands, 1586, and among numerous elegies on his death was a famed one by Spenser, under the title of Astrophel. Christopher Marlowe (1565— 1593), author of a poem, The Passionate Shepherd to his Love, beginning — " Come, live with me, and be my love," by which he is best remembered ; but he was also the author of a number of dramas of merit. Edmund Spenser (1553 — 1599), the most luxuriant and melo- dious of all our descriptive poets; his great work is The Faery Queen, which presents a wondrous scene of enchant- ment and beauty. Spenser had a large grant of lands in Ireland from Queen Elizabeth, but, driven from that country, he died in poverty at Westminster. From him comes the term " Spenserian stanza"— a verse of eight lines, each of ten syllables, with a concluding line in twelve syllables called an Alexandrine. Southwell, Daniel, Drayton, Fairfax, Sir Henry Wotton, Donne, and Joseph Hall, are all celebrated for their poetry in different departments, in the reign of Elizabeth. Ben Jonson (1574 — 1637), great as a poet and dramatist Some of his lyrics — for example, that beginning — Drink to me only with thine eyes," Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 143 are exquisitely beautiful. Among his dramas are, Every Man in his Humor, The Silent Woman, The Fox, The Alchemist, and Cynthia's Revels. On his tomb in Westminster Abbey is inscribed, " O Rare Ben Jonson." Francis Beaumont (1585— 1616) and John Fletcher (1576— 1625), were two young men of genius who united their powers in a remarkable manner to compose plays, of which they wrote fifty-two ; these dramas, tragical and comic, still keep their place in English literature. William Shakspeare, born at Stratford-on-Avon, 1564, is the greatest of English poets and dramatists— his works show- ing the most extraordinary versatility of fancy, felicity of ex- pression, and knowledge of human character. He died 1616, and it was only after his decease that the grandeur of hie genius was appreciated. The first edition of his works was published in 1623. Philip Massinger (1584— 1640), a distinguished tragic poet and dramatist in the reign of James I. ; his play, entitled A New Way to Pay Old Debts, still keeps its place in the acted drama. Sir John Suckling, author of several beautiful small poems ; Robert Herrick, a writer of exquisite lyrics; and Richard Lovelace, a writer of odes and sonnets- -rank among the high- class poets at the early part of the 17th century, 25. Mention the more distinguished prose writers of this era.— Sir Philip Sidney, already noted as a poet, was an accom- plished prose writer ; his best known work in this department was Arcadia, a heroic romance, which was read and admired at the court of Elizabeth and her successor. Richard Hooker (1553— 1600), a learned theologian, author of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, a work which is consid- ered to be a powerful vindication of the Church of England and of ecclesiastical establishments generally. Francis Lord Bacon (i 561— 1626), chancellor of England in the reign of James L, a luminary of learning, and author of several philosophical works ; his great work is the Instaura^ tion of the Sciences, in which is comprehended the Novum Or' Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. S 144 ENGLISH LITERATURE, ganum, defining the proper method of prosiecuting philoso- phical researches. This great statesman was convicted oi corrupt piajtices, and besides being fined ;^4o,ooo, was for a time confined In the Tower — an often-quoted instance of high intellect associated with imperfect moral principle. Bacon's Essays are well known. William Camden (1551 — 1623), 2Mthor oi Britannia, 2i cele- brated work in Latin, giving an account of Britain from re- mote antiquity, and of which, a translation appeared in 1610; it is a valuable repository of antiquarian and topographical knowledge. Robert Burton (1576 — 1640), a country clergyman, author of a learned and curious work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, which has been frequently reprinted. Thomas Hobbes (1588 — 1679), ordinarily called Hobbes of Malmesbury, a learned and philosophical writer; his chief works are the Leiiiathan, and a Treatise on Human Nature, both containing profound views, but abounding in doctrines which have led to much controversy. John Selden (1584 — 1654), a learned writer and distin- guished political chamcter ; his largest work is a Treatise on Titles of Honor, but is less known than Table- Talk, a collec- tion of his best sayings published after his death. Jeremy Taylor (1613 — 1667), an eminent divine, and author of The Liberty of Prophesying, Holy Living, and Holy Dying, and other theological and devotional works, which are highly prized for their learning, piety, and beauty of style. Sir Thomas Browne (1605— 1682), an able antiquary and physician, author of Religio Medici (The Religion of a Phy- sician), and an Inquiry into Vulgar Errors, a work which dis- plays great eloquence, learning, and shrewdness. Thomas Decker, a writer of plays, and author of The Gull's Horn Book, a satirical work on the fashionable follies of the day; Sir Thomas Overbury, a witty and ingenious describer of character; Owen Feltham, author of Resolves — Divine Moral, and Critical ; and Peter Heylin, a writer on Geography — all flourished in the reign of James I. Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 145 Charles I. was an accomplished writer, besides being a patron of art. A work has been usually ascribed to him, en- titled the Elkon Basilik^ (Royal Image or Picture), which con tains an affecting description of his position, character, an mind, during his confinement in the Isle of Wight. The wa, . which did not appear till after his decease, is nowbelieveo nof to be Charles's composition, but it probably was revi^d and added to by him. John Taylor, an enthusiastic royalist in the reig'ii of Charles I., who had originally been a waterman on the Thames, kept a public-house in London, and wrote doggerel verses, which are now considered curious, as descriptive of events of his time. Taylor described himself " His Majesty's Water Poet" by which designation he is still spoken of. He made an ad- venturous journey to the Highlands of Scotland, regarding which he narrates some surprising incidents.— Died 1654. 26. When did English newspapers begin .?— The earliest Eng- 1 lish newspapers or news-letters belong to the reign of James i L, and were in the form of small quarto pamphlets. The first appeared in 1619; but newspapers embracing general intelli- gence did not appear until the reign of Charles I. The Era of the Comtnontcealth to the Bevolution^ie49 to 1689, 27. What was. the condition of 'literature during this era ?— In England, there was a series of distinguished writers in poetry and prose ; but in Scotland litera- ture suffered a remarkable eclipse, and did not prosper till long afterwards. 28. Mention the names of some of the English poets in this ^r«.— Abraham Cow- ley, Edmund Waller, Sir John Denham, Charles Cotton, the Earl of Roscommon, John Philips, and Sir Charles Sedley. But the works of *hese and some others are now little read, and the really great poets of the period possessing a lasting fame are as follows- J°^° ^"^°'^- John Milton (1608— 1674), author of Paradise Lost, a poem 7 The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. [46 ENGLISH LITERATURE, in blank verse— the greatest epic in the English language ; he also wrote a number of minor poems of great beauty, includ- ing L Allegro, II Penseroso, and Co?nus. Milton also distin- guished himself as a writer of treatises in favor of the Com- monwealth and the principles of civil liberty. Samuel Butler (161 2 — 1680), author of Hudibras, a satirical poem, written after the Restoration, and designed to burlesque the republican and over-zealous ly religious party which had recently held sway. John Dryden (1631 — 1700), a poet and dramatist by profes- sion, who flourished in London for many years after 1660. Dryden (called by his admirers " Glorious John") is chiefly renowned for his poems, among which are included, Absalom and Achitophel, a satire, the Year of Wonders, Mac Flecnoe, and Fables ; also, Alexander's Feast, or the Power of Music, an Ode for St. Cecilia s Day, which is now better known than all his other poems. He also translated Virgil's ^neid into English verse, Thomas Otway (165 1— 1685), a young contemporary of Dryden, noted for his tragedy of Venice Preserved. 29. Mention the most noted prose writers of this era.- Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1608— 1674), who was Lord Chancellor for several years after the Restoration, wrote a History of the Rebellion, or great civil war in England, a volu- minous work, which is prized for its liveliness of style and accuracy of facts. Izaak Walton (1593— 1683), ordinarily styled "Old Izak Walton," is renowned as the author of the Complete Angler, a work full of pleasing observations on rural subjects, which appeared in 1653 ; it has been often reprinted. John Evelyn (1620— 1706), a gentleman of easy fortune, who distinguished himself by writing several scientific works in a popular style ; he is best remembered as the author of Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest Trees, and of a Diary, which has proved a most valuable addition to our store ol historical materials. John Locke (1632— 1704), the greatest philosophical writet Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People. — See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248. U ENGLISH LITER A TURE. 147 of the period; his principal production is the Essay on tht Human Under sta7tdmg, still a standard work. Samuel Pepys (1632 — 1703), a contemporary of Evelyn ; like him, he wrote a diary, styled his Memoirs, which abounds in amusing particulars concerning the court of Charles II. and the manners of his day. Dr. Ralph Cudworth (1617 — 1688), an eminent divine and philosophical writer; his principal production is the True Intellectual Syste?n of the Universe, a work of great learning, acuteness, and loftiness of thought, the object of which was to overthrow certain atheistical theories. Barrow, Tillotson, Sherlock, Stillingfieet, South, Wilkins, Pearson, and Sprat, were all divines in the Church of Eng- land after the middle of the 17th century, celebrated for their theological writings — sermons in particular — which are still highly esteemed. Richard Baxter, John Owen, John Flavel, and Matthew Henry were all celebrated Nonconformist preachers after the middle of the 17th century, and their works still hold a high place in theological literature. John Bunyan (1628 — 1688), the son of a tinker, was perse- cuted after the Restoration for holding unlawful Nonconform- ist assemblies ; while in prison on a charge of this kind, he wrote the Pilgrim's Progress from this World to that which is to come — an allegory composed in simple but singularly effec- tive English, which remains, perhaps, the most popular work in the language. Sir William Temple (1628 — 1699), was a noted diplomatist, statesman, and miscellaneous writer, who possesses a high reputation as a polisher of the English language. From his younger brother. Sir John Temple, the late Lord Palmerston (Henry-John Temple) was descended. Sir Matthew Hale (1609 — 1676), celebrated as a learned and upright judge in the time of the Commonwealth and Charles II., was the author of various works, chiefly on nat- ural philosophy. His principal theological work, partaking of Calvinistic views, is entitled Contemplations, Moral and Divine. Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12. — See page 242. G > a c u O CO w CQ u C ^3 148 ENGLISH LITERATURE. The Honorable Robert Boyle (1626— 1692), son of the Earl of Cork, was eminent as a writer on natural philosophy and theological subjects. He instituted and endowed the " Boyle Lectures," to combat atheistical doctrines, and these are still delivered annually. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 — 1727) holds by universal consent the highest rank among the natural philosophers of ancient and modern times. His great work is in Latin, and ordinarily known as the Principia (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). Newton, who was noted for his piety and amiability of character, wrote also some treatises on theo- logical subjects. John Ray (1628— 1705), an eminent naturalist at the middle of the 17th century ; he was the author of some treatises on plants and geography, but is best remembered as the writer of a work first published in 1691, entitled The Wisdom of God in the Works of Creation. Gilbert Burnet (1643— 1715), a native of Edinburgh, at first a Presbyterian minister in Scotland, and at last, by favor of William HL, Bishop of Salisbury; his great work is his His- tory of My Own Times, giving an outline of the events of the civil war, and a full narrative of what took place from the Restoration till 17 13. Burnet's work remains a standard book in English literature. The Era of the Meigns of William III., Anne, and George I.— 1689 to 1727. 30. Was literature in this era independent of support from private patrons? — No; following an ancient practice, it was still customary for writers to secure some kind of encourage- ment from wealthy and titled persons before adventuring on publication; in return for which they generally appended a dedication to their patron. 31. What were Grub Street writers ?— They V7erQ an abject class of authors who lived in and about Grub Street, a low street in London, and were notorious for their slanderous inventions and mercenary dedications. 32. Why did not writers generally depend exclusively on public The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. xsrXTT Of THt Of TORTOISE HUNTING IN THE TROPICS. DESCRIBED BY DEFOE. — 149. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 149 support ? — Because, as yet, the numbers of readers and pur- chasers of books was Hmited ; it is only in recent times that authors have been able to depend exclusively on public pa- tronage, and to care little for any special private favor. 33. Who were the British Essayists ? — They were a series of writers of essays on men and manners, who commenced this entertaining species of literature in the reign of Queen Anne. The essays appeared in certain small periodicals, the earlier of which were the Review, Tatier, and Spectator. 34. Mention the principal writers in the era from 1689 to 1727.— Daniel Defoe (166 1 — 1731), miscellaneous writer and novel- ist ; best known as the author of Robinson Crusoe, a fiction universally appreciated ; he also wrote a satirical poem, styled the True-born Englishinan, and a History of the Union of Eng- land and Scotland. Defoe is likewise celebrated as the ear- liest of the essay writers; his productions in this department appeared in a periodical called the Review, 1704. Sir Richard Steele (1675 — 1729) was an Irishman by birth, who became popularly known in London as " Jovial Dick Steele ;" he organized the Tatier, 1709, and afterwards the Spectator, 171 1, in both of which works he was ably assisted by Addison. Steele possessed great fertility of invention, as respects incident and character, and his papers abound in inimitable touches. Joseph Addison (1672— 1719), poet, dramatist, and miscel- laneous prose writer, assisted Steele in the Tatier, also in the Spectator, to which he contributed many papers of great lit- erary finish, including those on Sir Roger de Coverley. Johnson says of him, " whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostenta- tious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison." Matthew Prior (1664 — 1721), a poet whose works include odes, songs, epistles, epigrams, and tales— all beautiful in versi- fication, and full of humor and fine feeling. Jonathan Swift (1667 — 1745), a ppet and miscellaneous political writer, whose works abound in satire and invective; The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 1 50 ENGLISH LITER A TURE. his best known productions are the Tale of a Tub, and Gullu ver's Travels ; the purity of his prose style renders it a model of English composition. Swift occupied the position of dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, and is ordinarily spoken of as " Dean Swift." Alexander Pope (1688— 1744), an eminent poet, celebrated for his Essay on Man, which abounds in splendid passages which are constantly quoted ; also the Rape of the Lock, and the Dunciad ; this last was a severe satire on inferior Grub Street poets and pretenders. Pope's verse is exceedingly fluent, and he shows an acute knowledge of human character. Henry St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke (1678 — 1751), wrote a number of historical and speculative treatises, which are eloquent and imaginative, but generally unsound in principle ; his works extend to several volumes. Pope opens his Essay on Man with an address to Bolingbroke — " Awake my Saint John ! leave all meaner things To low ambition and the pride of kings." Thomas Parnell (1679— 171 8), a poet contemporary with Swift and Pope, best remembered for his poem. The Hermit, John Gay (1688— 1732), poet and dramatist, author of Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London ; Fables, and the play of the Beggar s Opera ; he also wrote various songs and ballads, of which Black-eyed Susan remains one of the most popular. Tickell, and Ambrose Philips, as poets ; and Rowe, Lillo, Congreve, Vanbrugh, Farquhar, and Gibber, as dramatists, considerably enriched the literature of the first half of the 1 8th century. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1690 — 1762), eldest daughter of the Duke of Kingston, who had lived with her husband at Constantinople, became celebrated for her Letters, which are models of the epistolary style — easy, familiar, and elegant, and interesting from their pictures of eastern manners and their fashionable gossip. Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671 — 1713), famed as a metaphysician ; his great work is entitled The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 18 15.— See page 368 c» ENGLISH LITERATURE. 151 Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times \ as a moralist he maintains doctrines in opposition to Hobbes. Dr. George Berkeley (1684— 1753), who became Bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland, was, like Shaftesbury, eminent as a writer on metaphysical subjects; his works, of which his J heory oj Vision is the most remarkable, form an important landmark in philosophical science. His system is generally spoken of as idealistic — that is, a system which makes the reality of the world depend on the human consciousness of it. Dr. Francis Atterbury, Dr. Samuel Clarke, Dr. William Lowth, and Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, were all celebrated English divines in this era, and have left theological works of great note. With these writers may be associated Charles Leslie, author of a work, still popular, A Short ajid Easy Method with the Deists. Dr. Humphrey Prideaux (1648 — 1724), was author of The Connection of the History of the Old and New Testame7its, a work highly esteemed, and invaluable to all students of divinity. 35. Who was Joe Miller? — He was a facetious and popular comedian, who acted at Drury Lane Theatre in the early part of the 1 8th century, and died 1738. After his death, a volume of jests, collected by a literary man named Mottley, was issued as Joe Miller s Jests ; and the name " Joe Miller" has ever since been associated with books of this kind. The Era of the Heign of George II.— 1727 to 1760, 36. What was remarkable in this era ? — The revival of liter- ature in Scotland after a long depression. The revival was of two kinds — the rise of poets who wrote in the Scottish dialect, and were therefore distinctly national, and the rise of writers, Scotchmen by birth, whose works were a contribution to English literature. 37. Mention some of the national poets of Scotland at this 'period. — ' The first place is due to Allan Ramsay (1686 — 1758), who wrote many popular ballads and songs ; but the work from which he derives lasting fame is the Gentle Shepherd, a pas« The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619.— See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 1 52 ENGLISH LITER A TURE. toral in the Scottish dialect of singular beauty — perhaps the finest pastoral ever written — which appeared in 1725. Ram- say lived and died in Edinburgh, where a monument has lately been erected to his memory. The poets of Scotland of lesser note in this era were Sem- pill of Beltrees, William Hamilton of Bangour, Robert Craw- ford, Sir Gilbert ElUot, and Rev. John Skinner. 38. Who were the writers, Scotchmen by birth, who at this time enriched English literature ? — Thomson, Mallet, Hume Smollett, and some others. The more noted of this class take their place among English writers in the following list — James Thomson, born at Ednam, near Kelso, 1700, author of The Seasons, a poem in blank verse, abounding in beautiful rural imagery and fine feeling ; he also wrote The Castle oj Indolence, and some other poems. Thomson died in 1728, and was buried at Richmond. His tomb is referred to in a melli- fluous and tender Ode on his death by Collins — *' In yonder grave a Druid lies, Where slowly winds the stealing wave. The year's best sweets shall duteous rise, To deck its Poet's sylvan grave ■ ' Remembrance oft shall haunt the shore, When Thames in summer wreaths is drest, And oft suspend the dashing oar, To bid his gentle spirit rest !" William Collins (1720 — 1756), famed for his odes, particu- larly his Ode to the Passions, his Dirge in Cymbeline, and other poems characterized by great imagination and sweetness. Dr. Isaac Watts (1674 — 1748), a name ever to be pronounced with reverence ; he was the author of numerous small poems and hymns of great beauty and simplicity ; he likewise wrote treatises on Logic, and on the Improvement of the Mind. Michael Bruce, a youthful poet in Scotland, who died 1767, composed a number of beautiful Scripture paraphrases and other pieces, which have been much admired. Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709— 1784), " the Leviathan of English literature," scholar, poet, essayist, lexicographer, and miscel- laneous writer. Beginning the profession of an author about The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. EJ^GLISH LITER A TURE. 153 173 1, he wrote London, a satire in verse ; The Rambler, dLnd Idler, two series of essays; Rasselas ; Lives of the Poets, and vari- ous other works ; but his great production was his Dictionary 0/ the English language, which occupied him seven years, and appeared in 1755. Johnson visited the Hebrides in 1773, and wrote an account of his journey. William Some rvi lie (1692 — 1742), author of The Chase, 2t.poQm on field-sports; William Shenstone (1714 — 1763), pastoral and elegiac poet ; David Mallet (1700 — 1765), writer of ballads, one of which, William arid Margaret, is of particular excellence ; Mark Akenside (1721 — 1770), author of Pleasures of the Imagi- nation, a poem more classical than popular ; and George Lord Lyttleton (1709— 1 773). writer of various poems of merit — were among the distinguished literary men in this era. Thomas Gray (17 16 — 1771), a poet who, though writing little, greatly excelled most of his contemporaries; his poem, Elegy written in a Country Churchyard, is deservedly among the most popular in the language. David Hume (171 1— 1776), eminent as a metaphysician and historian; his first production was his Treatise on Human Nature, published in 1738, and the views in which were of a sceptical tendency. Hume, however, is best known by his History of Eftgland, w^hich was not completely issued until 1762 ; this history, though popular from the ease and elegance of the narrative, is now considered to be not a good authority. Henry Fielding (1707— 1754), the greatest of the i8th cen- tury novelists, but so coarse in some of his pictures of char- acter, that he is now less popular than formerly ; his prin- cipal works are Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones, and Amelia, which have been often reprinted. Tobias George Smollett (1721 — 1771), distinguished as a historian, novelist, and poet, made literature a profession. He wrote a continuation of Hume's history, but his chief popularity is derived from his Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, and Humphrey Clinker, novels which abound n char- acteristic humor; he also wrote some poems, the most ad- mired being his Ode to Independence. Smollett stands prom- Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. ;^ 154 ENGLISH LITERATURE. inently out as an author at the close of the reign of George II., and commencement of the reign of George III. Samuel Foote (1721— 1777), an actor, author of humorous plays and farces at one time very popular, and whose wit- ticisms are scattered through the old jest-books. Samuel Richardson (1689 — 1761), was a printer in London, who acquired celebrity as a novelist ; his works are Pamela, Clarissa Harlowe, and Sir Charles Grandison, all very volum- inous and tedious, but acknowledged to be true pictures of the human character. 39. When did Magazines begin ? — The Gentleman's Magazine the first of this class of monthly periodicals, was commenced in 1731, by Edward Cave, who employed Samuel Johnson as one of its contributors. 40. When did EncyclopcEdias begin? — The first English Encyclopaedia, or Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, was that of Ephraim Chambers, published in 1728, and often re- printed until superseded by the later encyclopaedias. 41. When did Annual Registers begin? — The first was com- menced by Robert Dodsley, a bookseller in London, in 1758, and is still carried on. Dodsley, who was originally a foot- man, wrote a poem. The Muse in Livery, and did service to literature as a collector and publisher of old plays and poems. Tlie Era of the Early Part of the Keign of George III.— 1760 to 1800. 42. Mention the more noted authors of this era. — Some of the distinguished writers of the reign of George III. had already risen to fame in the reign of George II. — for example Hume, Smollett, and Johnson. Leaving out these, the following were among the more eminent writers of this period. — Oliver Goldsmith (1728 — 1774), a native of Ireland, bred to medicine, but an author by profession. He wrote the beautiful and well-known poems, The Traveller, and The Deserted Village ; the exquisite novel, The Vicar of Wake- field ; the plays. She Stoops to Conquer and The Good-natured Man ; besides other works of much excellence. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. ENGLISH LITERA TURE. 155 James Boswell (1740 — 1795), a young advocate at the Scot- tish bar, took an extraordinary fancy for Johnson, and fre- quently visiting him in London, collected his sayings in his celebrated Life of that personage, one of the most amusing works ever written. Boswell also narrates his Tour to the Hebrides with Johnson in 1773. James Macpherson (1738 — 1793), originally a schoolmaster in the Highlands, and acquainted with Gaelic, wrote The Poems of Ossian, founded on scraps of poetic legend — which, unfortunately for his reputation, he represented as the real composition of Ossian, son of Fingal, a Celtic hero or bard of the 4th century. Thomas Chatterton, born 1752, a youth of precocious poetic genius, who in a fit of desperation killed himself with arsenic, 1770, wrote some odes and other poems as avowedly his own productions, but is chiefly remarkable for imposing many others as compositions of the 15th century. Dr. Thomas Percy, latterly Bishop of Dromore, editor of the Reliques of EjiglishPoetry, in which several old songs and bal- lads are revived ; and Thomas Warton, author of a History of English Poetry, were two literary celebrities between 1765 and 1780. William Falconer, born in Edinburgh about 1730, and bred a sailor, wrote the Shipwreck, a poem which became a favo- rite from its vivid and accurate descriptions. The author perished at sea, 1769, thus in the end terribly realizing his own poetic fancies. James Beattie (i735— 1803), a native of Kincardineshire, attained celebrity as the author of the Minstrel, a didactic poem in the Spenserian stanza, also for his ethical work, an Essay on Truth. Christopher Smart, author of the Song to David (died 1770) ; William Mickle, a native of Dumfriesshire, author of Cumnor Hall, and other poems of merit (died 1789) ; and Thomas Moss, author of The Beggar s Petition (died 1808), are numbered among the noted writers of this era. Dr. John Wolcot, a physician in London, wrote, between Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle, — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to E xist.— See page 65. 156 ENGLISH LITERATURE. 1778 and 1808, a large number of satirical pieces in verse, under the adopted name of Peter Pindiar ; these effusions were once exceedingly popular, but are now nearly all for- gotten. Wolcot died 181 9. Mrs. Barbauld (1743 — 1825), occupied a respectable place a3 a literary lady in this era. She wrote poems, lyrical and de- votional, and some very excellent essays. Her contributions to Evenings at Home, a w^ork for children, are well known. Sir William Jones (1746—1794), an eminent linguist, with able, statesman-like views, performed important services, by his oriental researches, particularly in connection with the languages and antiquities of India. Joanna Baillie (1762 — 1851), daughter of a Scottish parish minister, w^rote a series of dramas, entitled Plays on the Pas- sions, which appeared about 1798, but are unsuited for acting. Richard Brinsley Sheridan, born in Dublin, 1751, became celebrated as a writer of clever and popular plays; in 1775 he produced his comedy. The Rivals, and shortly afterwards, The School for Scandal, and The Critic. Sheridan had also a political career, his speeches in parliament being marked by flashes of eloquence and wit. From his singular improvi- dence, he died in distress, 1816. George Colman the Younger, a comic dramatist, contem- porary with Sheridan, wrote a number of popular plays, in- cluding The Heir at Law, and the musical opera of Inkle and Yarico, between 1784 and 1800; he afterwards produced a variety of clever poetical effusions. — Died 1836. Thomas Holcroft (1745 — 1809), was a noted translator of works from the French, one of the best known of these productions being the Tales of the Castle, from the French of Madame de Genlis. He was also the author of thirty plays, the most admired of which is The Road to Ruin, a comedy. Mrs. Elizabeth Inchbald, an actress about 1780, gained celebrity as author of two tales. The Simple Story, and Nature and Art; latterly shjg edited a well-known collection of plays. —Died 1821. X lulius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. ENGLISH LITERATURE, 157 Laurence Sterne, born in 171 3 at Clonmel, in Ireland, was the son of an officer in the army, and became a clergyman in England ; as a novelist, he was next in order of time and genius to Fielding and Smollett. Excelling in the comic and pathetic, he wrote Tristram Shandy, which was completed in 1767, and The Sentimental Journey, which appeared in 1768, the year of his death. Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford, third son of Sir Robert Walpole — born 1717, was a noted man of letters in this era. He revived romance-writing by producing The Castle of Otranto, but he has had greater fame on account of \i\^ Letters, which embrace a vast amount of curious information regard- ing the fashionable world during his time. His dwelUng, Strawberry Hill, was an extraordinary museum of curiosities. — Died 1797. Henry Mackenzie, born at Edinburgh 1745, eminent as the author of The Man of Feeling, a novel which appeared in 1771 ; he wrote some other novels of less note, and was the principal contributor to the Mirror and Lounger, He long survived these literary efforts, and died in 1831. Frances Burney (1752 — 1840), authoress of Evelina, a simple novel of great merit, published in 1778, also of Cecilia ; after- wards, she was a keeper of the robes to the queen of George HI., an office of which she gives an account in her Diary, a work in several volumes. Miss Burney was married in 1793 to a French refugee officer, the Count d'Arblay, by whose name she accordingly became known. William Beckford (1759 — 1844), a wealthy English gentle- man, was the author of Vathek, an Arabian tale, which ap- peared in 1786. Byron praises this romance for its correct- ness of costume, beauty of description, and power of imagin- ation. Beckford wrote some other works of less note. Sophia and Harriet Lee, two sisters who died at an ad- vanced age — the last survivor in 1851 — gained celebrity for their Canterbury Tales, which appeared in 1797. Dr. John Moore, born at Stirling, 1729; some time a med- ical practitioner in Glasgow, and afterwards in London, was the author of Zeluco, and other fictions. — Died 1802. His 7a The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 1 5 8 ENGLISH LITER A TURE, eldest son was General Sir John Moore, who distinguished himself in the famous retreat in the Peninsula. Charlotte Smith was the authoress of several popular novels, which appeared about 1790; one of her female con- temporaries as a romance-writer was Mrs. Ann Radcliffe, who produced her Mysteries of Udolpho in 1797. Dr. William Robertson (1721 — 1793), a minister of the Church of Scotland, was eminent as an historian ; his works, which are written in a luminous and elegant style, are. His- tory of Scotland, History of the Reign of Charles V., History of America, and Historical Disquisition on Ancient India — all of which are now standard works in English literature. Edward Gibbon (1737 — 1794), was a historian of great erudi- tion and comprehensive and critical intellect. While resid- ing at Lausanne, in Switzerland, in 1787, he completed his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a work involving immense research, and which places the author as the first of English historians; his style, however, though splendid, is not good, and his representation of ecclesiastical history must be received with caution. The work has been translated into almost every European language. Dr. William Paley (1743 — 1805), archdeacon of Carlisle, was eminent for his ethical and philosophical writings ; his best known works are his Elements of Moral and Political Philos- ophy, published in 1785; hx^ Horce Paulince (1790); and his Natural Theology, 1802. Dr. Hugh Blair, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, author of Serjnons, distinguished for their elegance of style (died 1800) ; Dr. Samuel Horsley, bishop of St Asaph, critic and scholar, and author of various controversial disquisitions (died 1806); and Dr. Richard Watson, bishop of Llandaff, anthorof An Apology for the Bible (died 1816) ; occupied a high rank among divines towards the conclusion of the i8th century. William Wilberforce (1759—1833), eminent as a statesman, philanthropist, and writer on religious subjects ; he is most prominent, however, for his extraordinary exertions in favor Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 159 of the abolition of slavery within the British dominions, which he lived to see effected. Edmund Burke (1730 — 1797), a native of DubHn, eminent as a philosophical and eloquent statesman, wrote several po- litical and other treatises ; his most famous work is his In- quiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beauti- ful, but his best is Reflections 07i the French Revolution. Dr. Adam Smith, born at Kirkcaldy, 1723, was for some years Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, where he wrote his Theory of the Moral Sentiments. Smith is best known by his Wealth of Nations, a work com- prehending advanced views of political economj^ which ap- peared in 1776, and remains the great text-book on the sub- ject. Dr. Adam Ferguson (1724 — 1816), a native of Perthshire, eminent for his learning, was for some years Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. His chief works are the History of Civil Society, published in 1766; In- stitutes of Moral Philosophy, 1769 ; and History of the Roman Re- public, 1783— this last the most valuable of all his writings. Mrs. Hannah More (1745 — 1833), a pious and literary lady, wrote a number of religious and moral treatises, which ap- peared from 1782 to 1819, but her best known production is a novel, Ccelebs ift Search of a Wife, 1809. James Bruce of Kinnaird, a Scottish gentleman of ancient family and property, born 1730, wrote an account of his Travels to discover the Sources of the Nile, which appeared in 1790. —Died 1794. Mungo Park, a native of Selkirkshire, born 1771, acquired celebrity from his Travels in Africa, which appeared 1799, and attained great popularity. This observant and enterpris- ing traveller perished in a second African expedition, 1805. William Cowper (1731 — 1800), an eminent poet, spent part of his life as a recluse at Olney, in Buckinghamshire ; his chief poems are Table Talk, The Progress of Error, The Task, and Expostulation, but he wrote a number of minor pieces, includ- ing John Gilpin. His works are mostly didactic, and beat evidence of a thoughtful mind and gentle spirit. Cowper Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. 160 ENGLISH LITERATURE. forms a connecting-link between the 18th-century poets and those of later times. 43. Who was David Garrick .?— He was a celebrated actor of the i8th century, born 1716. Garrick was great alike in comedy and tragedy, and was manager of Drury Lane Thea- tre for 29 years. He retired from the stage, 1776, and died 1779- 44. Who were the Kembles f—Th^y were a remarkable family of actors subsequent to the age of Garrick. The most noted of the group was John Kemble (1757— 1823,) and his sister Sarah, who became Mrs. Siddons (1755— 1 831), both eminent in representing the tragic characters of Shakspeare. 45. What were the Ireland forgeries? — They were forgeries of various documents alleged to be the writings of Shaks- peare, executed by a youth, W. H. Ireland (1777— 1834). For a time they imposed on the public; but the fraud was at length detected, and ultimately acknowledged, 1805. 46. What Scottish poets appeared in the second half of the \%th century ?—TherQ were ten or more, whose lyrics and other pieces enrich the National literature of Scotland. The more famed members of the group were as follows : Lady Anne Lyndsay who about 1771, wrote the ballad, Auld Robin Gray ; by marriage, her name became Lady Anne Barnard. — Died 1825. Miss Elliot and Mrs. Cockburn, each the authoress of aversion oi The Flow- ers of the Forest — both versions are popular. 1* Robert Fergusson, born at Edin- burgh, 1750, attained celebrity as a Robert Burns. Scottish poet of city-lif e, and died 1 774. Robert Burns, the greatest of the Scottish poets, son of a small farmer in Ayrshire, born January 25th, 1759 ; his works were first issued in 1786, and at once stamped him as a poet of the highest order. His life was an almost continuous Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The OccuU Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. en V bo ct P. ENGLISH LITERATURE. i6l struggle with difficulties, and he died prematurely, July 21st, 1796. Alexander Wilson (1766— 181 3), a native of Paisley, author of Watty and Meg, and other poems, chiefly humorous. He em- igrated to the United States, and there produced a meritorious work on America7t Ornithology. Hector Macneill (1746— 1818), author of the poem, Scotland's Skaz'th, or the History of Will and Jean, designed to picture the evils of intemperance. Macneill wrote also some popular lyrics. 47. What was the " Poetry of the Anti- Jacobin ?"—Vi consist- ed of clever poetical effusions contributed to the Anti- Jaco- bin, a weekly paper in London, 1797, which had been estab- lished to counteract the wild Jacobin sentiments propagated by the French revolutionists, 48. Who were the chief writers in the Anti- Jacobin? — The two most noted were William Gifford, who ultimately became editor of the Quarterly Review (died 1826); and George Can- ning, who attained celebrity as a statesman (died 1827). 49. What is to be ujiderstood by the " Scotch SchooF of Phil- osophy f—ThdA, designation has been applied to a system of sober and rational inquiry into the faculties and modes of operation of the human mind, which originated in Scotland in the i8th century, in opposition to the scepticism of Hume. 50. Mention some of the more rioted Scottish philosophers.— Dr. Thomas Reid, author of an Inquiry into the Human Mind (died 1796); Dugald Stewart, author of Outlines of Moral Philosophy diXidi other works (died 1828); Dr. Thomas Brown (died 1820) ; and Sir William Hamilton (died 1856), whose profound philosophical works have lately been published. 51. Mention some of the more emi7tent men of science in this era.—John Hunter, eminent in surgical and anatomical science (died 1793) ; Edward Jenner, who attained universal celebrity as the discoverer of vaccination (died 1823) ; Joseph Black (died 1799), and Joseph Priestley (died 1804), both dis- tinguished for their discoveries in chemistry and natural phil- osophy; James Watt, the great perfecter of the steam- The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidei;e, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. 162 ENGLISH LITERATURE. engine (died 1819) ; Sir Joseph Banks, distinguished as a naturaHst (died 1820); and Sir William Herschel, a native of Hanover, eminent for his astronomical discoveries (died 1822). 52. What was the " Huttonian Theory f" — It was a theory propounded by James Hutton, an emment geologist (died 1797), to the effect that certain beds and masses of rock took their form and character from fire, or had been produced by igneous agency. 53. What was the " Wernerian Theory ?" — It was to the effect that all rocks, including, of course, those referred to by Hutton, took their form and character from water, or were produced by aqueous agency. This theory was given to the world by Werner, an eminent German mineralogist. The Huttonian is sometimes called the " Plutonic theory ;" while the Wernerian is sometimes called the " Neptunian theory." 54. What is now thought of these contending theories ? — Geo- logists are generally of opinion that the views of Werner, as far as the rocks referred to by Hutton are concerned, are wrong. Tlie Era of the Conclusion of the Tteign of George III., and Meigns of George ir^Williani IV., and Victoria— 1801 to 1865. 55. When did Reviews begin ? — The earliest was the Monthly Re7>i(rw, begun 1749 ; and some others were commenced in the i8th century; but the first established of any note was the Edinburgh Review, which began in 1802. 56. By whom was the Edinburgh Review begun ? — It was set on foot by a group of able young writers, of Whig principles, including Francis Jeffrey, Rev. Sydney Smith, Francis Horner, Henry Brougham, and some others. 57. Whe7t was the Quarterly Review begun? — It was com- menced in 1809, by writers professing Tory or Conserva- tive principles, and became the political opponent of the Edinburgh. 58. Mention the more noted writers from the beginning of the \<^th century. — Rev. George Crabbe, born in Suffolk 1754, author of TM Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. ENGLISH LITER A TURE. 163 Village, Parish Register, The Borough, Tales of the Hall, and other poems, published between 1781 and 1818. Crabbe has been called " the poet of the poor," for many of his simple and pathetic descriptions refer to humble life in rural dis- tricts. — Died 1832. Jeremy Bentham (1748— 1832), was an eminent writer on Political Economy and Jurisprudence ; he adopted as his standard principle in social questions, " the greatest happiness of the greatest number" — a phrase often since quoted. Samuel Rogers, son of a banker in London, born 1763, was the author of various poems which were issued only after long and patient study. Rogers was essentially the poet of taste. His principal poems are Pleasures of Memory, Human Life, and Italy. After being a noted man of letters for the greater part of a century, he died 1855. William Wordsworth, born in Cumberland 1770, author of The Excursion, a philosophical poem in blank verse ; The White Doe of Rylstone, Sonnets on the River Duddon, and num- erous minor poems, abounding in pathos, grace of imagery, and subtle beauty of language. His noble sonnets have rarely, if ever, been surpassed. The term " Lake School," applied to Wordsworth and his personal friends and brother- poets, Coleridge and Southey, has little or no meaning, and is now falling into disuse. — Died 1850. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, born in Devonshire 1772, a pro- found thinker and imaginative poet wrote numerous poems, of which the three most appreciated are Christabel, Genevieves and The Ancient Mariner. — Died 1834. Robert Southey, born at Bristol 1774, was noted not only as a poet, but as a biographer, antiquary, critic, and historian. While young, he wrote a poem, Wat Tyler, which he after- wards withdrew ; his later and best known poems are Thalaba The Curse of Keha7na, and Roderick, The Last of the Goths. His most popular prose works are the Life of Nelson, and Life of John Wesley; he wrote numerous articles- in the Quarterly Review, and was the author altogether of above 100 volumes. Southey was appointed poet-laureate in 1813.^ Died 1843. Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 03 O 164 ENGLISH LITERATURE. Charles Lamb, born in London 1775, poet and essayist, was remarkable for his humor, and kindness of feeling. His poems are now little heard of, and his fame rests chiefly on his essays, which were contributed to the London Magazine under the signature of Elia. By his assumed designation, Lamb is best known in literature. — Died 1834. Thomas Moore, born in Dublin 1779, became distinguished for his sentimental lyrics and his poetical satires. The more conspicuous of his political satires were his Twopenny Post- bag, and The Fudge Family in Paris ; but these and all his other poetical effusions have been obscured by the brilliancy of his Irish Melodies, and his Lalla Rookh, both alike imper- ishable. — Died 1852. Thomas Campbell, born in Glasgow 1777, and for a time a tutor in the Island of Mull, was the author of the Pleasures oj Hope, which appeared in 1799, and at once placed its youthful author in the first rank of poets. Campbell afterwards wrote Gertrude of Wyoming, and other poems , also several songs, two of which. The Exile of Erin, and Ye Mariners of England. will ever remain popular. — Died 1844. Walter Scott, born in Edinburgh 1771, was eminent as a poet, but more so as a novelist. He began his literary career as an editor of old ballads, a collection of which, with some modern imitations, was published under the title of Min- strelsy of the Scottish Border. His first poem. The Lay of the Last Minstrel, appeared in 1802, and was succeeded by Mar- mion. The Lady of the Lake, and The Lord of the Isles ; these, and most of his other poems, were exceedingly fluent and descriptive, and marked by strong national feeling. Waver- ley, the first of his celebrated novels, appeared in 1814. He was created a baronet by George IV. Scott died at Abbots- ford, his favorite country residence on the Tweed, 1832. George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron, born in London 1788, was one of the most eminent English poets of this era. His first volume of poetry, entitled Hotirs of Idleness, appeared in 1807, and on its being reviewed unfavorably by the Edin- burgh Review, he was provoked to write a severe satire, En- glish Bards and Scotch Reviewers. In 181 2 appeared the first The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. w ENGLISH LITERATURE. 165 part of his Childe Harold, and afterwards he produced in quick succession The Giaour, Bride of Abydos, Corsair, Lara, Siege of Corinth, Prisoner of Chillon, and other poems. Byron excelled in painting strong and gloomy passions, and no poet in modern times has so effectually stirred the depths of the human heart. His great work is Childe Harold, a noble poem in the Spenserian stanza. — Died in Greece, 1824. William Hazlitt was a miscellaneous writer, whose criticisms on poetry, Byron the drama, and the fine arts, and also his essays, show a bold and vigorous mind ; his sparkling and pungent style is partic- ularly fascinating. — Died 1830. Rev. Sydney Smith, a clergyman of the Church of Eng- land, born 1 77 1, began his literary career as one of the ori- ginators of the Edinburgh Rez'iew. He produced a number of works of passing interest, poetical and satirical, all in the cause of social amelioration, and marked by a fine genial spirit. He died 1845, and an amusing memoir of his life ha? been given to the world by his daughter, Lady Holland. 59. Mention sorne noted poets contemporarywith, or successor f to, Scott and Byron. — Percy Bysshe Shelley (drowned 1822); James-Henry Leigh Hunt, ordinarily called Leigh Hunt, who was eminent as an essayist as well as a poet (died 1859); John Keats (died 1821); James Montgomery, religious poet (died 1854); and Thomas Hood, eminent for his humorous and pa- thetic poetry (died 1845). 60. Mention some of the minor but popular poets of this era. — Henry Kirke White (died 1806); John Leyden (died 181 1) ; Rev. James Grahame (died 181 1) ; John Clare, known as the " Northamptonshire Peasant" (died 1864) ; James and Horace Smith, authors of the Rejected Addresses ; and Mrs. Hemans (died 1835). 61. Mention some poets in the early part of the igth century who used the Scottish dialect. — James Hogg, known as the O The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 1 66 ENGLISH LITER A TURE. " Ettrick Shepherd," author of The Queens Wake, and the greatest Scottish poet after Burns (died 1835) ; Robert Tan- nahill, author of several fine lyrics (died 1810) ; and Allan Cun- ningham, ballad and song writer (died 1842). Those of less note were James Mayne, William Tennant, and Sir Alexander Boswell. Latterly, some beautiful and popular Scottish lyrics have been written by James Ballantine, Edinburgh. 62. Who was John Wilsdn ? — He was a poet, novelist, and miscellaneous writer, born at Paisiey 1785 ; but though a Scotsman by birth, his writings belong to English literature. He was a noted contributor to Blackwood' s Magazine, in which he was known as " Christopher North." Wilson was some years Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. — Died 1854. 63. Mention some eminent novelists of this era. — Besides Scott and Wilson, the list of novelists includes J. G. Lock- hart, John Gait, Theodore Hook, Samuel Lover, C. J. Lever, lohn Banim, William Carleton, W. H. Ainsworth, G. P. R. lames, Anthony Trollope, and Benjamin Disraeli — this last sinter being also a statesman distinguished for his eloquence. There has been likewise a number of female novelists. 64. Mention the 7nore eminent of the female novelists ? — Mrs. Opie, Lady Morgan (originally Miss Owenson), Miss Austen, Mrs. Brunton, Miss Mitford, Miss Ferrier, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Mrs. Trollope, Miss Bronte (better known by her pseudonym of Currer Bell), Miss Evans (who writes under the name of George Eliot), Mrs. Henry Wood, and Miss Mulock. But this list could be greatly enlarged. 65. Mention four celebrated writers of fiction of our own times. — W. M. Thackeray (died 1863) ; Douglas Jerrold (died 1857) ; Charles Dickens (died 1870) ; and Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton (died 1873). 66. Mention four eminent historians of our own times. — Lord Macaulay (died 1859), author of History of England, fro7n the Accession of James II. ; J. A. Froude, author of The History of England fro7n the fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth, a work, the first part of which was written to vindicate the character of Henry VHL ; George Grote (died 1871), author The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815 See page 368. ENGLISH LITER A TURE. 167 of The History of Greece, a work of great erudition, and Sir Archibald Alison (died 1867), author of The History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution. 67. Mention sofne distinguished scientific writers in the pres* ent century. — Sir Humphry Davy, noted for his discoveries in chemistry (died 1829) ; John Dalton, also eminent for chemical discoveries, particularly as concerns gases (died 1844) ; Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Roderick Impey Murchison (died 1871), eminent geologists; Sir David Brewster (died 1868), eminent for his discoveries in natural philosophy ; Hugh Miller, a popular illustrator of geology (died 1856) ; Richard Owen, eminent for his expositions of natural history and physiology; Sir John Herschel (died 1871), eminent for his astronomical speculations, and his brilliant success in diffus- ing a knowledge of his favorite science. 68. Mention some noted miscellaneous writers iti our own times. — Thomas De Quincey, an essayist distinguished for subtlety of fancy and intellect (died 1859) ; John Ramsay M'Culloch, writer on political economy (died 1864) ; Rev. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, author of various theological works (died 1847) ; Thomas Carlyle, author of the History of Frederick the Great, and numerous other historical and politico-moral works; John Stuart Mill (died 1873), author of works on logic and political economy ; Henry, Lord Brougham (died 1868), writer of Memoirs of the Statesinen of the Reign of George III., and many other works ; John, Lord Campbell (died 1861), author of Lives of the Chancellors ; and John, Earl Russell, a distinguished statesman, and author of several works. 69. Mention an English eminent poet in the reign of Victoria. -Alfred Tennyson, born 18 10, author of In Meinoriain, Idylls of the King, and numerous other poems. Mr. Tennyson holds the office of poet-laureate, which was previously held by Wordsworth. 70. What is the office of poet-laureate? — It is an office rn the gift of the sovereign, which originated about the reign of Ed- ward IV. Until recent times, the duty of the laureate was to write an ode on the birthday of the sovereign, and some- The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 168 ENGLISH LITER A TURE. times on the occasion of a national victory. The office is now honorary, with emoluments amounting tO;^i27 annually. 71. What zs the " Harlezan Collection?" — It is a collection of valuable manuscripts in the British Museum, purchased by parliament in the reign of George IV. The collection was formed by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, an eminent states- man and great patron of literature, who died 1724. 72. When was the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowl^ edge established? — It was established in 1825, and in 1827 it commenced to issue treatises, the first of which was written by Lord Brougham. The society existed only a few years, but was of great service in promoting a popular taste for literature. 73. When did cheap literature of the kind now prevalent begin? — It began in 1832, in the reign of William IV. One ol the most eminent pioneers of this species of popular lit- erature was Charles Knight, London. 74. Me?ttion a remarkable change that has taken place in litera- ture. — The decline of dramatic and poetic literature, and a corresponding increase in the number of novels, written less to depict real life than to excite and startle — ordinarily called " sensational novels ;" such a marked change being coincident with alterations in public taste. 75. What is ''copyright?" — It is a right of property pos- sessed by authors in the works they compose, which right they can sell or assign. In the United Kingdom, the right, with some qualifications, is valid for 42 years, or during the lifetime of the author. The law of copyright dates only from the reign of Queen Anne. 76. What is'' liberty of the press?" — It is the printing and vending of books, newspapers, and other kinds of literature without interruption from any public authority. This free- dom prevails in its fullest extent in the United Kingdom, the only statutory restriction imposed being on the issue of works of an immoral tendency. 'J']. Has literature been successfully cultivated in the United States of America? — Yes; but only in recent times, when there have been numerous writers, whose works exhibit the The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. THE FINE ARTS. 169 same characteristics as those of their EngHsh contemporaries. 78. Mention some of the earlier American writers. — Benjamin Frankhn, man of science and statesman, who, besides Essays and miscellaneous papers, wrote his Autobiog' raphy, an amusing work which details his youthful struggles as a printer. — Died 1790. Jonathan Edwards, died 1758, and Timothy Dwight, died 1830; both eminent for their theological writings. Charles Brockdon Brown, celebrated for his xiOY^\?>— Arthur Mervyn and others— which appeared from 1798 to 1804.— Died 1809. 79. Mention some more recent American writers. — George Bancroft (born 1800), eminent for his History of America, and other works. Washington Irving, historical and miscellaneous writer, but best known as author of the Sketch-Book (died 1859). W. H. Prescott, author of The History of Ferdinand and Isabella, and other works (died 1859). Ralph W. Emerson, a very subtle metaphysician of the transcendental school. James Russell Lowell, author of the Biglow Papers. J. K. Paulding (died i860), Edgar Allan Poe (died 1849), and W. C. Bryant, poets. Dr. Noah Webster (died 1843), celebrated ^^r his Dictionary of the English Language. Nathaniel Hawthorne (deceased), J. F. Cooper (died 1851), and Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, novelists. The most popular of living American poets is Henry Wads- worth Longfellow, author of Evangeline, the Song of Hia- watha, and other poems. THE FINE ARTS. I. What are the Fine Arts f — They include Painting, Sculp- 8 Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278. 170 THE FINE ARTS. ture, Architecture, Music, and other branches of art of a re- fined or ornamental nature. Painting. 2. In what does Painting co7isist ? — It consists in the repre- sentation of natural and artificial objects by means of colors on walls, canvas, paper, and other flat surfaces. 3. Mention some of the leading departments in the art of painting. — Historical painting, landscape painting, marine painting, portrait painting, animal painting, and the painting of droll scenes and familiar objects. Historical painting, which embraces subjects in scripture and civil history, is considered to be the highest department in the art. 4. Is the art of painting of ancient date? — Yes ; it was prac- tised in Egypt at a very remote period, and in ancient Greece, and in Rome. 5. Who was Apelles? — He was the most renowned of the Grecian painters, and flourished between 336 and 306 b. c. For some years he practised his art at the court of Philip of Macedon, and executed a picture of Alexander the Great. The finest of Apelles's paintings was his Venus rising from the Sea, with a shower of silver drops falling round her like a veil of gauze. 6. What is Perspective? — It is the science which teaches the art of depicting and placing objects in the manner in which they appear to the eye in nature — the parts which are near being larger than those at a distance, according to cer- tain rules and proportions. 7. What are Pigments ? — They are the coloring substances employed by painters, and usually consist of chemical and mechanical preparations of metal united with oil — the re- sult being what is termed "oil painting," as distinguished from painting with water-colors or with size. 8. Who were the Byzantine artists? — They were artists of Byzantium or Constantinople, by whom the art of painting was preserved during the middle ages, and communicated by them to Italy, Germany, and other countries early in the 13th century. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133 THE FINE ARTS. x'J\ {» I 2 couragement from successive popes and wealthy ecclesias- " I tics, who employed them to decorate places of public wor- 9. From whom did the Byzantine artists and their successors re- ceive encoicrageinent in Italy and elsewhere ? — They received en- ship with subjects from sacred history. 10. Mention two of the noted early Italian painters. — Cima- bue, who flourished about 1270, and Giotto, about 1300; but there were several others. 11. What is meant by schools of painting ? — By *' schools" is signified styles of treating subjects which have been adopted in different cities and countries. Thus, there are the Roman, Florentine, Bolognese, and Venetian, which constitute the Italian schools ; also the French, Spanish, Flemish, Dutch, and English schools. 12. Mention the three greatest painters of the Italian school. — Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael, all of whom flourished at the beginning of the i6th century, and gave a new character to art. 13. What was the most celebrated work of Leonardo da Vinci f — The Last Sttpper, a painting executed on an inner wall in a monastery at Milan about the year 1500; this great work, which has been often copied in engravings, is now in a very decayed condition. 14. Who was Raphael? — He was the greatest of the Italian painters. His proper name was Raffaelle Sanzio of Urbino ; he was born in 1483, and died when 36 years of age, 1520. His in- structor was Perugino, a famed Italian artist. During his short career, Raphael Raphael. rose to the highest fame as an artist, and he stands at the head of the Roman school. His chaste nobleness of design, simplicity and beauty of proportion, and truth to nature, are his leading characteristics. His greatest picture is the Trans- figuratio7i in the Vatican at Rome. He is called by the Ital- ians the " Divine Raphael," 15. What are the Cartoons of Raphael? — They are paintings Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist. — See page 65. PQ O 172 THE FINE ARTS. in water-colors on stout paper, representing subjects from the New Testament, designed as patterns for tapestry ; seven of these were purchased by Charles I., and were placed in Hampton Court. 16. State some particulars concerning Michael Angela.— His name, in full, was Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; he was born in Tuscany, 1474. Although placed at the head of the Flor- entine school, his gieat works were executed in Rome— his most famous production being the Last Judgment, which is painted on the ceiling and end wall of the Sistine chapel, and is remarkable for its representation of the grand and the ter- rible. Michael Angelo, who was great in sculpture and arch- itecture, as well as in painting, died 1563. 17. Who was Correggiof—Ue was the founder of the school of Parma or Lombardy, which had for its chief char- ^cterictics a harmony of colors and a powerful contrast of light and shade. Correggio died 1534. His most famous pic- ture, called La Notte (the night), is in the collection at Dres- den ; it represents the Virgin bending over the Infant Jesus, from whom streams a celestial light, which irradiates sur- rounding objects — a marvellous triumph of art. 18. Who was Titian? — He was a very eminent painter of the Venetian school, born about 1480, and a contemporary of Correggio. The most celebrated of Titian's pictures is the Assumption of the Virgin, which he painted for an altar-piece in 1 5 16; it is considered to be one of the finest pictures in the world. Titian died 1576, and was succeeded in the Vene- tian school by Tintoretto and Paul Veronese. 19. Who was Canaletto ? — He was a later painter of the Vene- tian school, who died in London, 1768. His pictures, which are exceedingly fine, represent architectural subjects, chiefly the palaces of Venice. 20. Who were the Caraccis? — They were three noted pain- ters, founders of the Bolognese school, kinsmen and fellow- laborers, who flourished about 1600. Some of the finest works of Annibal Caracci are in Bologna. The Caraccis were fol- lowed by Domenichino (died 1641), and Guido Reni, both of whom have left grand pictures on sacred subjects. Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. THE FINE ARTS. 173 21. Who was Albert Diirer? — He has been styled the father of the German school of painting, and prince of artists. He was born at Nurnberg, 147 1, and distinguished himself in youth by his exquisite carving; he subsequently adopted painting as his profession. He excelled in originality and accuracy of design. Albert Durer died 1528. 22. Who was Holbein? — Hans Holbein was a painter of the German school, a contemporary of Albert Durer ; removing to England, he executed several portraits of Henry VHI. ; born 1498; died 1554. 23. Who was Salvator Rosa f — He was an Italian artist of extraordinary genius — painter, poet, musician, and actor- born 161 5 ; he practised painting at Rome, where he was at the height of his reputation in 1639, His favorite landscapes are gloomy and romantic solitudes, which are painted with great force of imagination. — Died 1673. 24. Who was Claude Lorraine ? — He was a great landscape painter; his proper name was Claude Gelee, and he had the name Lorraine from being born in that province of France, 1600. Claude practised his ait at Rome, and became remark- able for his exquisite representation of rural scenery. — Died 1682. 25. Mention two leading masters of the French school. — Nicholas Poussin (died 1665), and Charier Le Brun (died 1690). Poussin was celebrated for his landscapes, with scr'p- tural and classic figures, which possess a certain poetic feel- ing. Le Brun, who was of Scottish extraction, executed vari- ous historical paintings for Louis XIV. 26. Who were the Vernets f — There have been three note- able French painters of that name — father, son, and grand- son. The first, Claude Joseph Vernet, born at Avignon, 1714, was renowned for his sea-pieces, with shipping, which are well known from engravings. The second. Carle Vernet, born 1758, was equally celebrated for his battle-pieces. The third, Horace Vernet, born 1789, attained distinction for his gigantic pictures representing events in recent French history, which embellish the walls of the royal palaces. 27. Who was Waiteau f — He was a French painter, bora c o *■' 2 a •d e > O (U t-l O u u V K •o c The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. «} 174 THE FINE ARTS. 1684, whose style of art is very peculiar. Watteau's pictures represent rural fStes, with fancifully-dressed shepherds and shepherdesses — a species of Arcadian poetry on canvas ; died 1 72 1. A scene with people of fashion scattered theatri- cally about among trees, is said to be " after Watteau." 28. Who was Greuze? — He was a celebrated French painter, born 1726, who carried art forward to the 19th century. Greuze excelled in exciting and pathetic scenes — his series of pictures depicting the history of a prodigal son, in the gallery of the Louvre, being perhaps the best known. He has been styled the" French Hogarth." — Died 1805. 29. Who was David? — He was a French painter, greatly encouraged by Napoleon I., and gained celebrity as the founder of a French classical style, which is now, however, regarded as too formal. — Died 1825. Paul de la Roche (died 1856) held a high place in the French school of historical painting. 30. Who is Rosa Bonheur? — She is a French lady, born at Bordeaux, 1822, who has gained celebrity as an animal painter. Her pictures are remarkable for their beauty, vigor and fidelity to nature. 31. Who was Rubens? — Peter Paul Rubens, born 1577, stands at the head of the Flemish school of painters. He ex- celled in coloring and in boldness of execution ; all his figures being remarkable for strong physical development. The grand pictures of Rubens represent Scripture subjects, one of the best known of which is the Descent fro7n the Cross, in the cathedral at Antwerp. — Died 1640. 32. Who are the other noted painters of the Flemish school ' — Anthony Van Dyck, died in England, 1641 ; David Teniers the Younger, celebrated for vivid transparent effects — died 1694 ; and Snyders, noted for hunting scenes — died 1657. 33. Who was Rembrandt? — Rembrandt was a painter ad-^ mitted to be the head of the Dutch school, born 1606. His pictures are noted for originality of design, and a rich golden tone of coloring. — Died 1669. 34. Who was Paul Potter? — He was an eminent painter of the Dutch school, born 1625. His grandest and best known Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg, — See page 305, THE FINE ARTS, 175 piece is his Bull, now in a national collection at the Hague, which is visited by innumerable tourists for the pleasure of seeing this single picture. — Died 1654. 35. Mention some other distinguished painters of the Dutch school? — Cuyp, Terburgh, Ostade, Hobbima, Karl du Jarden, Jan Steen, Van de Velde, Ruisdaal, Gerard Douw, Berghem, and Wouvermans — all of whom flourished in the 17th century. 36. What is a ge?teral characteristic of the Dutch school? — Many of the pictures, particularly those of Ostade and the elf^^r Teniers, represent scenes of low humor, others have a higher aim. Ruisdaal is celebrated for his dashing water- falls, and Berghem and Wouvermans for their beautiful small pictures representing subjects with animals. 37. Mention two great masters in the Spanish school? — Velas- quez, who died 1660; and Murillo, who died 1682. Murillo is by far the most eminent Spanish painter, and his works are numerous and highly prized. He is well known for pictures of beggar boys, also for his sacred subjects, particularly the Virgin and Child, in which he excels. 38. Who was Spagnoletto ? — He was a native of Spain named Ribera, but proceeding, while young, to Italy, he was there called Spagnoletto, or the little Spaniard, by whir^ he became known in art. He excels as a painter of gloomy and ghastly subjects, such as martyrdoms and heads of aged and dying monks, all strikingly faithful to nature. — Died 1656. 39. When did painting rise to eminence in England? — Not till the 1 8th century; but previously, through the encourage- ment given to the fine arts, by Charles I., a class of native painters had begun to rise up. 40. Who was Sir Peter Lely ? — He was a native of West- phalia, born 1617 or 1618, who came to England, and was ap- pointed state-painter by Charles H., who had known him in Holland. Lely is best known for his charmingly executed portraits of the beauties of the court of Charles H. — Died 1680. 41. Who was Hogarth? — William Hogarth, born 1697, Was the first distinguished English painter, and with him the Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. 175 THE FINE ARTS. English school commenced ; he was at the height of his fame in 1745. Hogarth's chief pictures were moral and satiric; those best known being the March to Finchley, Marriage h la Mode, and the Rakes Progress. These, and his other pictures, all highly esteemed, have been often engraved. — • Died 1764. 42. Who was Sir Joshua Reynolds f — He was the greatest of English portrait-painters, born 1723. He excelled in style and coloring — his pictures being soft and delicate in tone, with a high intellectual quality. He was the first President of the Ro3^al Academy, founded 1768, and delivered Discourses ifn Paintijtg, which, often printed, form a valuable manual for young and aspiring artists. — Died 1792. 43. Mention some noted English painters contemporary with Rey7iolds. — Gainsborough, a painter of portraits, also of cot- tage-doors and other rural scenes — died 1788; Benjamin West, a historical painter — died 1820; and John Opie — died 1807. One of the greatest of Reynolds' successors in portrait painting was Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 — 1830). 44. Who are the Landseers ? — They are a family of artists — the father, John Landseer, an engraver (died in his 83d year, (852), and three sons; Thomas, engraver ; Charles, a painter; and Sir Edwin (died 1873), celebrated for his numerous fine paintings of deer and other animals. 45. Mention so7ne other noted English painters of recent years. — Turner, famed for landscapes (died 185 1); Stanfield (died 1867), celebrated for sea-pieces ; Ward, eminent as a historical painter; Mulready (died 1863), famed for his pictures repre- senting domestic and familiar subjects ; Frith, noted for his success in pieces representing a multitude of figures ; and Cooper, painter of cattle- pieces, etc. 46. Who was the earliest Scottish painter? — The first native painter in Scotland was George Jamesone, born in Aberdeen about 1586 ; after studjnng under Rubens at Antwerp, he at- tained eminence as a portrait painter in his native country. Died at Edinburgh, 1644. 47. When did a school of painters arise in Scotland? — In the " Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. THE FINE ARTS. 1 77 i8th century, through the instructions given by an institu- tion called the " Board of Trustees," estabUshed to encourage different departments of art. Latterly, the fine arts in Scot- land have been promoted by the Royal Scottish Acadejny. 48. Mention some distinguished Scottish painters. — Alexander Nasmyth (1758— 1840), a distinguished landscape painter; Sir David Wilkie (1785 — 1841), inimitable in his domestic scenes; Sir Henry Raeburn (1756 — 1823), a portrait painter, whose works are remarkable for their delicacy and richness of color ; Rev. John Thomson (1778 — 1840), landscape painter; and David Roberts (1796 — 1864), celebrated for his grand, irchitectural pieces ; for the most part of his life, however, Roberts pursued his profession in London. Besides these, Scotland has lately produced a host of painters — John Philip, Thomas Faed, Horatio MacCulloch, Noel Paton, George Harvey, etc. — well known in the higher branches of art. 49. What are " gallery pictures ?" — They are paintings of a large size, adapted for public galleries, and are so called to distinguish them from "cabinet pictures," or those of a small size suited for ordinary apartments. 50. What is meant by "kit-cat" pictures? — The term hit-cat IS applied to portraits on canvas measuring about 23 inches broad by 36 inches in depth ; it originated in the fact of Sir Godfrey Kneller, a painter in the early part of the i8th cen- tury, having executed portraits that size of members of the Kit-cat Club. This club took its name from Kit (or Christo- pher) Cat, in whose tavern it held its meetings. 51. What are "genre" pictures? — The French word genre signifies " kind," and is employed to designate pictures of some special variety. The best known genre pictures are those with figures having a certain moral aim — pictures, in fact, which tell a story, but do not attain the character of being historical. For example, the chief productions of Hogarth, Greuze, Wilkie, and Mulready 2iXe genre pictures. 52. What are " Pre-Raphaelite" pictures ? — They are pictures by certain painters who believe that they adhere to the prin- ciples which they conceive to have guided the art that pre- The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. 178 THE FINE ARTS. vailed previous to Raphael. Such pictures are usually charao terized by considerable attention to minutiae. 53. What is meant by the ''aureola' in art P~The aureola is a halo of light or glory depicted around divine persons; the term is from auru7n, Latin for gold. When the aureola is limited to the head, it is styled a nimbus, Latin for a cloud. The nimbus is sometimes in the form of a ring. These sym- bols were originally pagan, and introduced into Christian art by the Byzantine painters. 54. What is " Fresco" painting .?— The Italian word fresco signifies " fresh or cool," and is applied to painting on freshly- laid plaster. The painting is in water-colors, which become incorporated with the moist plaster, and produce a vivid and permanent effect. Fresco painting has lately been adopted with success by W. Dyce (deceased), Maclise, and Herbert, in adorning the Houses of Parliament, Westminster, with subjects of historical interest. 55. What is " Photography?"— \\, is a process of recent ori. gin (in which the sun's light and certain chemicals are em- ployed), for the purpose of producing pictorial representa. tions, chiefly small likenesses. The term is from the Greek fhos, light, and grapho, I write. To M. Daguerre, a French painter (died 1851), the honor is chiefly due of having been concerned in bringing the process into practical use about 1839. 56. What is the date of the oldest painted glass-wifzdows in Europe?— T\\Q oldest existing colored glass-windows are found in certain churches in Germany and France, and date from the loth to the 12th centuries. Some in England are as old as the 14th century. The art of staining glass for church windows has lately undergone great improvement as respects coloring, drawing, and mechanical details. Sculpture, Etc. 57. What are the Plastic arts?— The term plastic is from a Greek word signifying " to form," and is applied to sculp- ture, pottery, and other arts by which rude masses of mattei are fashioned into shape. 58. In what manner is sculpture practised? — Its higher de' Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. THE FINE ARTS. 1 79 partment consists in carving marble or some other kind of stone into forms imitative of the human figure. Usually, as a guide, the artist first forms a model in clay of the required figure, and copies it with his chisel. 59. Is sculpture an ancient art? — Yes; it was practised in ancient times by the Assyrians, Egyptians, Etrurians, Greeks, and Romans, specimens of whose sculpture are preserved in museums. 60. By whom was sctdpture carried to a high degree of pe7-fec- tion?—By the Greeks, who are admitted to have excelled all other nations in ancient and modern times. 61. To what special circimistance h as the superiority of Greek sculpture been ascribed? — It is thought to have been greatly promoted by the frequent public exercises and games, which were calculated to develop the best proportions in the humap form ; also to a high sentiment of veneration for the gods, and the wish to represent them in the highest style of art- hence the elegant sculpture of gods and goddesses in marble, to place in groves and temples. 62. What is the " ideal" in art ?■ —The " ideal" is that perfec- tion which exists only in the imagination. The ordinary human figure being more or less imperfect, sculptors, in form- ing figures of gods or goddesses, endeavored to avoid every mortal blemish, and to give expression to the highest concep- tions of grace and dignity. 63. Has the " ideal" of beauty, then, no actual counterpart in nature? — It has not ; and yet, by its harmony and chasteness of design, it pleases the eye, and excites agreeable emotions. The ideal is therefore the poetry of art, and it was in this lofty quality that the Greek sculptors had no rivals. 64. When did Greek sculpture attain a perfect condition ? — In the time of Pericles, a ruler of Athens, and great patron of art, about 440 B. c. He employed Phidias to embellish Athens; and in the works of that artist sculpture attained to the sub- lime in execution. Phidias has been called the " sculptor of the gods." 65. What were the grandest works of Phidias ? — The Olym- pian Zeus or Jupiter, at Elis ; and the Athene or Minerva, in Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12. — See page 242. M cu 180 THE FINE ARTS. the Parthenon at Athens. The nude parts of both figures were in ivory, the draperies of sohd gold, and the e)^es were precious stones. These figures are believed to have been the grandest ever produced by the art of sculpture. Phidias died about 432 B. C. 66. What is sculpture in " bas-relief f — It is sculpture raised in relief to a moderate degree on a flat surface ; when the sculpture is raised so as to project boldly it is called alto-re lievo (Italian for "high-relief"). Sculpture in alto-relievo was brought to perfection by Phidias. Portion of Elgin Marbles. 67. What are the Elgin Marbles?— They are a collection of ancient sculptures, chiefly from the Acropolis at Athens, where, about 1801, they were obtained at great cost and trouble by Thomas, seventh Earl of Elgin, and transferred to England. They were purchased by government in 1816, and are now in the British Museum. 68. Describe the Elgin marbles. — Those most appreciated are slabs of marble with figures in relief, which constituted the frieze of the cella of the Parthenon, and fifteen of the me- topes representing the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithae. The figures, mostly equestrian, represent a grand festive pro- cession in honor of Minerva, which took place once in five years. The series of sculptures were executed by Phidias, The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. Oi THE FINE ARTS. jgi and by others under his direction. Casts of the marbles are well known to students of art. 69. What is the Apollo Belvidere? — It is a celebrated Greek statue of Apollo, which, after being lost for ages, was dis- covered in 1503 ; it takes its present name from being placed in the Belvidere Gallery of the Vatican. The figure, upwards of 7 feet in height, is regarded as embodying the highest ideal of manly beauty. 70. What is the Venus de' Medici?— It is a statue of Venus, executed by an unknown Greek sculptor, which was found in the ruins of Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, and after being placed in the gardens of the Medici at Rome, was transferred to a collection of sculpture at Florence, 1695. The figure is small —only about 4 feet 1 1 inches high ; but it is greatly prized as an ideal of female beauty. 71. Mention other two celebrated Greek sculptures. — The Lao- coon, in the Vati can, and the Dying Gladiator, in the museum of the capitol at Rome. 72. Who was Praxiteles? — He was an eminent Greek sculp- tor, who flourished about 360 b. C. Under him and his con- temporary, Lysippus, sculpture was in its highest perfection in point of execution, but their conceptions were less chaste and noble than those of Phidias. 73. What was the character of Roman sculpture? — It was much inferior to that of Greece; but it was cultivated to some extent under Augustus and immediately succeeding em- perors. Many of the finest sculptures of Greece were brought to Rome, where a number have been excavated from ruins. 74. When did sculpture revive in Italy ?—\X experienced a revival at the beginning of the 15th century, when a number of artists arose. One of these was Lorenzo Ghiberti, a Flor- entine, who flourished between 1420 and 1450. 75. Mention a great work of Ghiberti. — Two of the large bronze doors of the Baptistery in the cathedral at Florence. Each door is in two leaves — the whole divided into square panels, embellished with scriptural subjects in relief. The exe- cution of the firsc "^oor occupied twenty-three years. Casts 8a The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 182 THE FINE ARTS. of these " Ghiberti gates," as they are called, are in the Crys- tal Palace at Sydenham. 76. Who was Benvenuto Cellmz ? — He was an eminent Ita- lian sculptor, born at Florence 1500; he was particularly cele- brated for his skill in embossing shields with classic figures, — Died 1570. jy. Who was Canovaf — Antonio Canova v is a recent Ita- lian sculptor, born 1757, and noted for his njiiny fine figures in the ancient Greek style. He practised his art at Rome.— Died 1822. 78. Who was Flax7nan ?—]6hn Flaxman was an English sculptor of eminence, born at York 17 SS- He pursued hin profession in London, where, as Professor of Sculpture to the Royal Academy, he delivered a series of valuable lectures on art.— Died 1826. 79. Who was Thorwaldsenf—'QerieX (or Albert) Thorwaldsen was an eminent Danish sculptor, born at Copenhagen, 1770, His principal works were executed in Rome. The best known of his productions is a magnificent frieze of great length, rep- resenting the Triumphant Entry of Alexander into Babylon, Portion of Triumphant Entry of Alexander into Babylon. executed to the order of Napoleon, 18 12, as a decoration foi an imperial residence at Rome.— Died 1843. 80. What is the Cera?nic art? — It is the department of the plastic arts which is concerned with fashioning objects in clay — the art of the potter ; the term ceramic is from the Greek work keramos, " potter's clay." The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. THE FINE ARTS. m 183 Si. B_y whom was the ccra?m'c art highly cultivated in anciettt times ? — The art was brought to great perfection by the Etrus- cans or Tusci an ingenious people who inhabited Etruria, or the part of Italy now called Tuscany. The Etruscans were at the hight of artistic glory about 700 B. c, when the Roman nation was only beginning. 82. What is Majolica? — It is a term applied to a certain kind of pottery, coarse, but highly colored and glazed, which was introduced into Italy from Majorca about the 12th cen- tury, and was the manufacture of the Moors. 83. When was the ceramic art revived in Italy? — It was revived from about 1520 to 1560, chiefly by adopting the classical figures of Raphael, Julio Romano, and other emi- nent artists. Italian pottery of this period is now highly valued, 84. Who was Palissy ? — Bernard Palissy was a French potter, born about 15 10, who became famous for his glass paintings and beautifully-figured pottery. For a time, he carried on his art under royal protection at the Tuileries, where some of his furnaces have lately been discovered. — Died 1590, 85. What is the Portland vase? — It is an ancient cinerary urn, of transparent dark-blue glass, which was found near Rome about the middle of the i6th cen- tury ; it was at first deposited in the Barberini Palace, but vvv^s subsequently transferred to England in 1770, and was purchased by the Duchess of Portland for eighteen hundred guineas. Hence, it has been called the Portland vase. 86. Where is now the Portland vase?] — It was deposited in the British Mu- seum, 1810, where it remains, but is not now shown to the public, in conse- quence of a person having mischiev- ously broken it with a stone (1845). Portland Vase. The vase however, has been neatly repaired. Sj. Who was Josiah Wedgewood? — He was an eminent The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143- t 184 THE FINE ARTS. English potter, born 1730, who introduce^, a high style in the ceramic art in England, After an honorable and useful career, he died 1795. 88. What is engraving ? — There are several kinds of engrav- ing designed to represent pictures. Engraving on copper or steel plates consists in cutting lines on the metal — which lines being filled with ink (and the surface of the plate wiped clean), yield impressions on paper. This is called engraving in intaglio, an Italian term signifying " to cut or carve in." 89. What is etching? — It is a particular kind of engraving, in which an acid is employed to eat out or corrode lines in the metal plate. 90. What is wood-engraving? — It consists in cutting figures in relief on the surface of a smooth piece of boxwood, which figures, when inked (all the* other parts of the surface being cut away), produce impressions on paper in the manner of a type. 91. /y li'ood engraving of old date? — Yes; it began to be practised in Germany and other countries about 1400, or 30 to 40 years before the invention of printing. It was at first used for the purpose of stamping or printing playing-cards and figures illustrative of Scripture subjects. 92. When were playing-cards invented? — Cards are of ancient date in India and China, but differing from those now in use. The present kind of playing-cards became known in Italy in 1379, and soon afterwards spread over Europe. 93. What was the " Biblia Pauperu7n .?"— It was a species of Bible composed of pictures from wood-engravings, printed for the use of those who could not read. The name, Biblia Pauperum, signifies " Bible for the Poor." These picture- bibles were perhaps the \^xy first books that were printed. Some are still preserved as curiosities. 94. Who was Thomas Bewick? — He was a celebrated wood- engraver at Newcastle-on-Tyne, born 1753, who revived this ingenious art, and executed engravings of animals with won- derful fidelity. The books on natural history which he illus- trated are much prized. He died 1828. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. THE FINE ARTS. 185 95. Who was Sir Robert Strange? — He was an eminent copperplate engraver, born in Orkney 1721. In consequence of having engaged in the rebellion of 1745 in Scotland, he went to France, whore he acquired great fame for his fine pictorial engravings. Latterly, he returned to England, was knighted by George III., and died 1792. Strange's engravings of pictures by the great masters are now highly valued. A rchitecture. g6. What is Architecture ?—\t is the art of building, and is of various kinds — such as civil, military, and ecclesiastical. 97. Is architecture an ancient art? — Yes; it was practised by very ancient nations, as is seen by remarkable remains in Assyria, Egypt, and elsewhere. 98. What is meant by " Cyclopean" architecture ? — It is a name ordinarily applied to walls of great antiquity, built of huge blocks of stone without cement, from a notion that they were the work of fabled Cyclopes, or one-eyed giants, mentioned by Homer. Cy- clopean walls are found in various parts of the world, and antiquaries are at a loss to say by whom they were executed. They date at least 1,000 years B. c. 99. Fro7n whom did the Greeks acquire a knowledge of architecture? — From the As- syrians and Egyptians, on whose forms and styles they greatly improved. 100. Into how many styles is Grecian architecture divided? — Into three — theDoric,Ionic, and Cor nthian. Of these the Doric is the oldest and most simple, while the Corinthian is the most florid and ornamen- tal. 1 01 . To what was the cultivation of Greek architecture due .?- Doric Ionic Corinthian Styles of Architecture. o 1 ^ '2 O Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. 186 THE FINE ARTS. To the encouragement given to the building of temples f 01 the gods, for which this species of architecture was best suited ^being elegant, formal, massive, and producing a grand effect in white marble, of which the buildings were chiefly constructed. 102. When was Greek architecture in perfection ? — From about 650 to 300 B. c. The most noted of the Greek archi- tects was Phidias, in the age of Pericles ; and the most mag- nificent of his structures- was the Parthenon at Athens. 103. Were the Greeks acquainted with the principle of th& Arch ? — It is thought that they could not be ignorant of the arch, for it was employed by the Egyptians and Assyrians ; but they did not practically adopt it. In no Grecian building were there any arches. 104. What were Caryatides ? — They were figures of females which, in place of columns, supported entablatures or roofs of buildings. They take their name (according to Greek tradition) from the women of Caryae, who were made captives after the battle of Thermopylae, for having sided with the Persians ; the story being that figures resembling them in costume, styled Cary- atides, were, as an indignity, introduced as columns •^y Praxiteles and other Athenian artists. „„. 105. What was the character of Roman architecture? — That of Greek models, with Tuscan and Composite. It attained to great magnificence in the age of Augus- tus, but degenerated and decayed under the lower empire. Caryatides 106. Did the Romans adopt the arch itt architecture ? — Yes ; they employed it in their bridges, aqueducts and other struc- tures, and from them the knowledge of it was communicated to Western Europe. 107. Who was Vitruvius? — He was a celebrated Roman writer on architecture, and flourished about 30 B. c. He wrote an elaborate work on architecture — De Architecturd-— which remains an important authority on the subject. 108. What was a Basilica. — Basilica is the Latin form ot Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. THE GREAT CATHEDRAL BELL OF MOSCOW, RUSSIA, CATHEDRAL OF ST. BASIL, MOSCOW, RUSSIA. - 187. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859, — See page 133. THE FINE ARTS. 187 the Greek Basilike, " belonging to a king ;" the term was ori- ginally applied to the court where the king or chief-magis- trate administered justice. 109. Describe a Roman basilica. — It consisted of a long hall with side-aisles ; these side-aisles being separated from the central space by pillars supporting the roof. At the further end, opposite the entrance, was a raised platform, with seats for the judges, to accommodate which there was sometimes a rounded space projecting from the end, called the apse. 1 10. What did the Roman basilicas generally become ? — On the introduction of Christianity, they were generally trans- formed into churches. The apse became the choir or site of the altar, and the central open space forthe worshippers was called the nave, a term taken from navis, Latin for a ship. Thus, the rudimentary type of modern cathedrals was the Roman basilica, or court of justice. 111. What were the kinds of architecture which followed the Greek and Romati? — The Byzantine, Saracenic, Gothic, Ren- aissance, and other kinds, according to national tastes. 112. Me fit ion a characteristic of By zajitine art. — One of its main peculiarities was an adaptation to Christian, as opposed to heathen, wants ; for example, the Byzantine architects, about the commencement of the 6th century, began to con- struct churches expressly for Christian worship. These buildings are characterized by the use of the dome in their roofs, and by splendid mosaic work. 113. Mention a grand specimen of Byzantifie architecture. — The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, completed 537 A. D. St. Mark's at Venice, a creation of the middle ages, is also considered a pure specimen. 1 14. Mention a characteristic of Saracenic architecture. — A remarkable feature consists in arches resembling a horse- shoe, or wider above than below. The Saracenic st} le is in- variably used in Mohammedan mosques, and a beautiful ex- ample is found in the Alhambra, the palace-fortress of the Moors in Granada. 115. What is Gothic Architecture? — Under this title are com' Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist. — See page 65. n O 188 THE FINE ARTS. prised the various styles of architecture which prevailed in Western Europe during the middle ages till the revival of classic architecture in the i6th century. In the Gothic was perfected the structure of the cathedral, which was usually shaped like a cross. 116. Describe the parts in a Gothic cathedral. —The central part forming the limb of the| north cross, was the nave, the' projecting parts at the sides were the transepts, and the exten- sion of the nave beyond the transepts formed the choir or chancel. 117. What was the form of the arch in Gothic architecture? — Till about 11 50 the semicircular form (or Norman style) was used; thereafter the arch was pointed, but in different degrees. The early English Gothic is called the first pointed style, of which the most perfect example is Salisbury Cathedral, finished about 1260. Gothic Cathedral, Winchester. 118. Mention a characteristic feature of the Nor jn an variety of the Gothic. — The leading feature was the rounded arch. From a general misapprehension, this style has sometimes been called the Saxon. It is now known that such specimens as ex- isted among the Anglo-Saxons, previous to the Conquest, were copied from designs in Normandy. 119. What is Elizabethan architecture ? — It is a mixed style which sprung upon the decline of Gothic architecture. It is chiefly exemplified in mansions of the nobility erected in the reign of Elizabeth and James I., and is characterized by oriel windows, pointed gables, and fanciful spires. The Tudor style preceded the Elizabethan. 120. What was the Renaissance ? — The French term Renais- sance signifies a new birth or renewal, and is applied to the revival of art and literature in Italy and France in the i6th century. 121. What was characteristic of Renaissance architecture ? — A renewal of the Roman or classical style down to the minutest Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. THE FINE ARTS. 189 details. To the Renaissance may be ascribed the best of our modern street architecture ; for instance, that of Paris. 122. Who was Palladtof — He was an eminent Italian archi- tect (born 1 518, died in 1580), who after studying the works of Vitruvius, was largely employed in erecting palaces for the nobility at Vicenza, according to the style of the Renais- sance. What is now called the Italian style of architecture, adopted for handsome buildings in cities, is based on the finer compositions of Palladio, Alberti, and others. 123. What is the Scottish style of architecture .?— It is a fanci- ful style adapted for countr)^ mansions, and dates from the 1 5th and i6th centuries ; its characteristics are sharp roofs and gables with picturesque flanking turrets ; the style evidently marks a transition from the feudal castle to the modern fam- ily residence. 124. Who was Inigo Jones? — He was an eminent English architect, who was employed in various undertakings by James I. His best known work is the Banqueting House, Whitehall. Jones has been called the English Palladio ; he died at an advanced age, 1653. 125. Who was Sir Christopher Wren ? — He was the greatest of all the English architects, and was born in 1632. His grandest work was St. Paul's Cathedral, London, begun 1675. Wren was, besides, the architect of many of the fine churches in London. He died 1723 at the advanced age of 91, and was honored with a public funeral in St. Paul's. 1 26. What is the inscription on the tomb of Sir Christopher Wreii? — It is, Si Monufnentum quceris, circumspice — If you wish to see his monument, look around. 127. Who was Sir William Chambers? — He was an eminent English architect in the i8th century ; his best work is Somer- set House — a noble specimen of modern architecture ; he wrote a Treatise on Civil Architecture, which is a text-book on the subject. — Died 1796. 128. Who was John Rennie? — He was an eminent engineer; born, the son of a farmer at Phantassie, East Lothian, 1761. Rennie was particularly distinguished for his grand bridges, two of which across the Thames, were Waterloo Bridge, fin- The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 190 THE FINE ARTS. ished 1817, and London Bridge, opened in 1831. Canova con^ sidered Waterloo Bridge to be the finest in the world ; and M. Dupin calls it "a colossal monument worthy of Sesostris and the Caesars." Rennie died 1821. 129. What is a '' ground plan f — It is a horizontal section of a building as it is to be shaped on the ground. The " ele- vation" represents the exterior front of a building as it is to appear to the eye when completed. 130. Mention some of the parts of a building? — Rybats, the stones composing the sides of doors and windows ; plinth, the Pediment of the Temple of ^gina (restored). square base for a column or wall ; architrave, the fiat stretch of stone immediately over columns, and extending from one to another; Va^ frieze, the fiat stone over the architrave ; the entablature Qovcvi^xis^^ the architrave, frieze, and cornice ; pedi- ment, the triangular form over the entablature. The triangu- lar space within the pediment is the tympanum. In Greek buildings, the tympanum was usually enriched with sculp- tured figures. 131. Is Grecian architecture adapted for modern housebuild- ing? — No; it is too precise and formal, and cannot endure the slightest departure from classic models. Hence the in- troduction of more pliant styles in recent times. 132. Was music known to the ancients? — Yes ; the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans had each a kind of music, adapted for the voice, or for stringed and wind instruments. 133. What musical instruments had the Hebrews ? — We learn from the Scriptures that they had trumpets, shawms, harps, and cymbals; the shawm was a wind instrument resembling a modern clarionet. 134. What is the Gregorian Chant? — It is the name given to Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. tHE FINE ARTS. 191 certain choral melodies introduced into the service of the early Christian church by Pope Gregory the Great, who flourished towards the end of the 6th century. In this and other respects Gregory was the first great improver of church- music. 135. What zs the "Dies IrcB?" — It is a celebrated Latin hymn, sung in the services of the Roman Catholic Church, and is generally known by the first two words Dies IrcSy signifying " Day of wrath." It is of medieval composition, and its author is doubtful ; though Thomas of Celano (died 1255) has probably the best claim to the honor. 136. Describe the nattire of the "Dies Irce." — It is a hymn or poem on the Last Judgment ; and on account of the solemn grandeur of the ideas which it brings before the mind, and emotions it is fitted to excite, it is well adapted for the musical part of divine service. 137. What is the "Stabat Mater?" — It is a veiy sublime Latin hymn, which is sung in the services of the Roman Catholic Church in Holy- Week. The author is unknown, but many modern musical composers have employed their talents on this beautiful piece. 138. Why has the hymn " Stabat Mater" been so called?^ Because it begins with these two words — stabat, stood, and mater, mother. The following are the first three lines — " Stabat mater dolorosa, Juxta crucem lachrymosa, Dum pendebat films"— which may be translated, " The aflJlicted and weeping mother stood by the cross on which was hanging her son." 139. Who have been the great musical composers of modern times? — They have been principally Germans— Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, and others. Handel, born 1684, spent most of his life in England, and was perhaps the greatest of all musical composers ; his most famous com- positions are Israel in Egypt and the Messiah. — Died- 1759. 140. What is an Oratorio? — It is a composition of sacred music ; the term being from the Latin word oratorium, an oratory or cell for prayer — the place where such sacred corn- Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49 ^ Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821 — See page 411. 192 THE FINE ARTS. positions were originally performed. The music consists ol recitatives, airs, duets, trios, quartettes, and choruses, accom- panied with instruments. Handel's Israel and Messiah, Men- delssohn's Elijah and St. Paul, and Haydn's Creation are the grandest specimens of this species of composition. 141. What is an Italian " Opera?" — It is a musical drama —a play sung throughout by the actors ; the music in such compositions is designed to evoke emotions characteristic of the different parts — sorrow, joy, anger and other sentiments, expressed in musical sounds. 142. What cojnposers are at the head of the Italian opera? — Rossini (born 1792), who wrote Semir amide, Guillaume Tell, and II Barbiere di Seviglia ; Bellini (died 1835), the composer of Norma, I Puritani, and La Sonnambula ; and Donizetti and Verdi. 143. Who was Mendelssohn? — Felix Mendelssohn (born 1809, died 1847), was a young German musical composer of great eminence ; besides his splendid sonatas and concertos, he composed some fine tunes for lyrics — the best known of these being the air, O wert thou in the Cauld Blast, adapted to the words of Robert Burns. 144. Who was Meyerbeer ? — He was an eminent German mus- ical composer, born 1794. His best known operas are the Huguenots, Robert le Diable, the Prophete, and LAfricaine. — Died 1864. 145. What is a Pibroch ? — It is a piece played on the High- land bagpipe ; a pibroch illustrative of a battle is supposed to embrace the cries of defiance, the onset, the shouts of victory, and the wail for the dead and dying. 146. What is an ''Anthem?"— K species of composition peculiarly English, and introduced into the church after the Reformation. The words are taken from Scripture, and the music may be for solo, sol, or chorus, or a combination. The term anthem is sometimes loosely applied to the national hymn, God Save the Queen, 147. Who was the author of the English national anthein ? The author of the words of God Save the King (or Queen) was Dr. Henry Carey, born in London about 1696, and died Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. THE FINE ARTS. 193 1743. The composition was in honor of a birthday of George II. The words of the anthem have undergone some changes since. The music was by Dr. John Bull. 148. What is Rule Britannia ? — It is the name of a noble national hymn, the words of which first appeared (1740) in the masque of Alfred, the joint production of James Thom- son, author of The Seasons, and David Mallet. Whether Thomson or Mallet was the author, is not quite settled. The music is by Dr. Arne, an eminent English musical composer (died 1778). 149. What is Yankee Doodle ? — That is the name of an air, adopted as a national tune by the United States. The words are mere doggerel. Yankee Doodle was composed by Dr. Shackburg, a physician in the British army in America, about 1755, and palmed off by him as a celebrated air on a body of American militia. 150. What is the Marseillaise? — It is a French revolution- ary song or hymn, the words and music of which were com- posed by Rouget de Lisle, an officer of artillery at Stras- bourg, in 1792. In July that year it was introduced into Paris, when the young men of Marseilles, were summoned to the capital ; taking its name from them, it became exceed- ingly popular among all classes of revolutionists. 151. What is the Ranz des V aches? — It is the French name of a class of wild and simple airs, played on the kuh-horn, and sung by the herdsmen in the Alpine parts of Switzerland, in driving the cattle to pasture. 152. What is meant by " national mtisic?'' — It is that which grows up with certain national peculiarities of musical struc- ture ; thus the Italians, Germans, French, .'-ish, Scots, and Welsh, have each a distinct music. The English, however, scarcely possess a music distinguishable by peculiar national qualities. 153. What is the nature of Scottish music? — It is simple, partly plaintive, and partly lively, adapted for lyrical composi- tions, and characterized by the infrequent use of semitones. Many of the Scottish airs are several centuries old ; but few of their authors are known. With from time to time new 9 ■ o CO The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503.— See page 181. 194 BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. words, they form a rich national inheritance enjoyed freely by successive generations. THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION- PRUDENCE. -JURIS- 1 . What is the nature of the British government ? — It is a lim- ited monarchy, with a hereditary sovereign, who reigns ac- cording to certain restrictions prescribed by the constitu- tion. In its present form, the constitution dates from the Revolution Settlement, 1689. 2. What is the " Cabinet ?" — It consists of a number of min- isters, who are intrusted by the sovereign with the executive part of the government — the sovereign (whether king or queen) ruling only through them and by their advice. All executive acts proceed in the name of the sovereign. 3. What regulates the sovereign in the choice of ministers? — The sovereign selects or employs only such statesmen to act as ministers as possess the confidence of the two houses of parliament. Usually, the process of selection is left to one termed prime minister, and no one can long act as prime minister who cannot ensure majorities in parliament to carry government measures. 4. Does government, then, rest substantially with the Houses of Parliament?— Vi does; and chiefly with the House of Com- mons, which originates and finally determines all measures for granting supplies of money to carry on public affairs. 5. What ensue' when the prime minister fails to secure ma- jorities in voting money bills or other important measures ? — Either the ministry must be dismissed, and a new ministry appointed, or the sovereign must dissolve the House of Com- mons, and cause a new one to be elected. 6. What is the Privy Council? — It is an assembly of advisers Dn matters of state appointed by the sovereign, and is com- posed principally of the cabinet ministers, along with certain judges, members of the nobility, and commoners. Immedi- Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 195 ately on the decease of the sovereign, the Privy Council pro- claims the successor. 7. What are " orders in council?" — They are orders having the effect of law, which the Privy Council is authorized by statute to issue in cases of national emergency. 8. What is the Nobility f — The nobility and peerage are a body of individuals raised by rank, dignity, and title, above the mass of the people or commoners. 9. In whom lies the right of creating peers .?- -The right of creating peers is in the sovereign, who is " the fountain of honor" in the constitution ; but in this, as in other matters, the sovereign acts only by the advice of the ministry. 10. O71 what ground are persons raised to the peerage? — They are raised to the peerage for distinguished public services. The aristocracy, therefore, is constantly receiving accessions from the people, while the people are as constantly absorbing back into their ranks the junior branches of the nobility and their descendants. 11. How many ranks are there in the peerage? — Five ; namely, Baron, Viscount, Earl, Marquis, and Duke, which is the highest. Peers are raised from lower to higher ranks — still, however, retaining the lower titles and dignities. \2. Is the peerage hereditary ? — Yes; rank and title, along with family landed possessions, are inherited by the eldest surviving son according to the rule of primogeniture — a terra equivalent to " first born" — unless there be some special pro- vision to the contrary. 13. Mention an effect of primogeniture? — One of its effects is to give great stability to certain families of wealth and distinction, who from generation to generation impart the quality of steadiness and permanence to the national insti- tutions. 14. Do the younger children of a peer enjoy titles by inherit' ance ? — They do not ; in law, they are commoners ; but usuallv they enjoy certain titles by courtesy. Thus, the eld- est son of a duke is called by his father's second title, until Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242 0} 196 BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, he succeeds to the family honor, and the other sons are called Lords by courtesy. 1 5. What are the national distinctions in the peerage ? — There are English, Scotch, and Irish peers, also peers of Great Brit- ain, and peers of the United Kingdom. These distinctions arise out of historical circumstances, and have no relation to place of birth ; for example, an Englishman or Scotchman may be an Irish peer, and an Irishman may be a peer of Great Britain. 16. Have these various peers equal parliamentary privileges ? — No ; English peers, and peers of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom have a seat in the House of Lords. The Scotch peers elect sixteen of their number to the House of Lords ; and a new election of them takes place every parlia- ment. The Irish peers elect twenty-eight of their number to the House of Lords, and they sit for life. 17. Can peers be representatives in the House of Commons? — Only members of the peerage of Ireland can be so ; besides being represented in the Lords, they can be representatives for English boroughs or counties in the Commons. For ex- ample, Lord Palmerston, who belonged to the peerage of Ireland, sat in the Commons for an English borough. Sons of noblemen with courtesy titles are eligible as members of the House of Commons. 18. What is the number of members in the House of Commons? — The number is 658, who are partly elected by counties and partly by boroughs ; several are also elected by universities. No one can vote at elections unless his name has been pre- viously placed on a public register. 19. What is the duration of parliament ? — The existence of a parliament is limited to seven years ; but few parliaments last so long. A session of parliament is the period it sits annually, and ordinarily extends from February till July. 20. What is the number of members in the House of Lords ?—■ The number is at present 454, consisting of certain royal princes, peers who enjoy the right by heritage, the Scotch md Irish representative peers, and certain lords spiritual. The Bastile was a Prison in Paris; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. •& BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 1^7 21. Are there not several Scotch peers in the House of Lords, besides the sixteen representative peers f — Yes ; but only because they are at the same time peers of England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom. For exkmple, the Duke of Buccleuch sits in the Lords as Earl of Doncaster, in the peerage of England. 22. What are lords spiritual? — They are the archbishops and bishops of the Church of England and Ireland. These may be described as an elective nobility, though they are not absolutely peers. 23. What is the number of lords spiritual in the House of Lords? — The number is 30, consisting of 2 English arch-^ bishops, 24 English bishops, i representative Irish archbishop, and 3 representative Irish bishops. The Bishop of Sodor and Man has no seat in the House of Lords, not being reck- oned one of the English bishops. 24. Why is the Bishop of the Isle of Man called " Bishop of Sodor and Man?" — The term Sodor is an abbreviation of Soderenses, the Latinized form of Sudoreys, the bishopric of which was once associated with that of Man. These Sudor- eys were the Hebrides, or Southern Islands — so called to dis- tinguish them from the Orkney or Northern Islands. As the Hebrides are now included in the ecclesiastical system of Scotland, the term Sodor, as far as regards its original mean- ing, is merely titular. 25. Who act as chairmen in the Houses of Parliament ? — Th? Lord Chancellor (who by present usage must have been ? distinguished lawyer) presides in the House of Lords. The House of Commons elects one of its members to preside, and he is styled " the Speaker." 26. What is meant by the'* woolsack ?" — The woolsack is the seat of the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords ; it con- sists of a large bag of wool covered with red cloth, but though fashioned like a seat, is without back or arms. The woolsack is said to have had its origin in the circumstance of wool being anciently a staple article of produce in Eng- land. 27. How does a proposed measure become law? — The measure The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. Iq8 BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, is first in the form of a " bill," which must pass or be sanc- tioned by the two Houses of Parliament, and also receive the royal assent, before it becomes law. When so passed and assented to, the measure is called " an Act of Parliament," or statute. 28. What are the means provided by the constitution for a redress of grievances? — The constitution gives the right of petitioning parliament for the abolition or amendment of any objectionable law — which right includes the important privi- lege of assembling peacefully to consider and draw up the petition. This is deemed one of the great bulwarks of civil liberty in the British dominions. 29. Does government interfere in elections ? — No ; govern- ment, and all government officials whatsoever, usually abstain from interfering in elections, by which great liberty of action ensues. This is one of the most estimable points in the con- stitution. Government similarly abstains from attempts to regulate public opinion on matters of general policy — a cir- cumstance which contrasts favorably with the practices that prevail in some continental countries. 30. Is monarchy esteemed as a national institution ? — It is ex- ceedingly so, for several considerations — i. Its great anti- quity and identification with national traditions ; 2. A know- ledge of the disasters and contentions which ensued on its temporary overthrow in 1649 ; 3. A belief that, as now con- stitutionally established, it is best adapted to secure public liberty, along with exemption from the exasperations and conflicts of party; and, 4. A deep-seated sentiment of loyalty and affectionate regard fpr the sovereign who now occupies the throne. 31. What is a "Coronation?" — It is a ceremony in which the sovereign is solemnly invested with a crown, significant of royal dignity and authority. 32. How is the term, " the crown" figuratively employed? — • The term is often used to signify the royal authority. Thus, people speak of "crown lawyers" — meaning lawyers who act for the sovereign — and also of " appointments by the crown." 33. What is the scale of precedence? — It is a scale established The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 19^ by the statutes and ancient usage determining the social posi- tion of every individual from the sovereign downwards — an arrangement by which all contests as to precedence are avoided on the occasion of state or public ceremonials. The number of ranks in the scale of precedence is upwards of a hundred ; in this scale wealth is not reckoned. 34. Who are entitled to the distinction of Esquire ? — The sons of the nobility and their eldest sons, the eldest sons of knights and their eldest sons, judges, justices of peace, commissioned officers, barristers, persons so styled in writs of the crown, and some others. " Esquire" has lately been so much abused that it has lost its distinctive value. The term is from the French escuyer, a shield-bearer (Lat. scutum, a shield), and was applied to the armor-bearer of a knight. 35. What is the constitution of the Church of England?-^ It is a Protestant Episcopacy, comprehending three orders of clergy — bishops, priests, and deacons; the whole under the Queen as " head of the church." The Archbishop of Canterbury is styled Primate of all England, and has the privilege of placing the crown on the head of the sovereign at coronations. 36. How is the Church of England supported? — It is estab- lished by law as the religion of the state, and is supported by a variety of endowments, for the most part of old date. 37. What is a " cong^ d ^lire ?" — It is an old French phrase, signifying " leave or permission to elect." It is the name given in England to a warrant from the sovereign, permitting the dean and chapter of a cathedral to elect a bishop to a vacant see. The conge d'^lire, however, is accompanied with a missive, pointing out who should be elected, which it is illegal to disregard. 38. What is " Convocation" as applied to the Church of Eng- land? — Convocation is the name given to an assembly of the clergy, which occasionally meets to discuss ecclesiastical questions. This meeting, however, possesses no power of legislation ; for the Church is entirely regulated by parlia- ment, while its discipline belongs to a class of tribunals called the ecclesiastical courts. M The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 200 BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 39. What is meant by ''Holy Orders?" — It is a phrase in use among members of the Church of Rome and Church of Eng- land, and denotes entrance into the order of the priesthood. Holy orders are conferred by a solemn act of ordination b)/- bishops, and invest the recipient with a sacred character dis- tinctly apart from the laity. 40. Is the sacred character of Holy Orders indelible? — It is so in ordinary circumstances. In the Church of Rome, the pope has the power of removing the sacred character of a priest and restoring him to the laity ; in the Church of England, an act of parliament would be required to do so. Accordingly persons who have entered holy orders in England are in point of law ineligible for various civil offices, including that of a representative in the House of Commons. 41. What is meant by ''benefit of clergy ?" — It is an expres- sion referring to a former state of the law in England, when a clergyman had the benefit of being exempted from prosecu- tion for alleged crimes and offences before any-civil tribunal. In course of time, laymen who could read claimed and were allowed the like privilege. " Benefit of clergy" was finally abolished in the reign of George IV. 42. What is the constitution of the Church of Scotland? — It is a Protestant Presbyterianism, established in place of Epis- copacy in 1690; but with certain modifications, it was the form of Protestantism instituted at the Reformation in Scot- land. Its ministers are equal in rank, and are assisted in maintaining church-discipline by lay-elders. 43. How is the Church of Scotland supported? — It is, like the Church of England, maintained by endowments, mostly of old date — certain landowners in each parish being under a legal obligation to pay a specified stipend to the minister out of church-property in their possession. 44. What is the General Assembly?— Vi is the highest church- court in Scotland, composed of a certain number of repre- sentative ministers and elders, and meets once a year in Edin-. burgh. The crown appoints a president, called a Royal Com- missioner, but he takes no part in the proceedings ; the act- The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330 The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long.— See page 302. BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 20I ing president is one of the representative ministers, elected by votes of the members, and styled Moderator. 45. What are Dissenters? — They are bodies of Christians who dissent from the form of government and doctrines of an Established Church. All dissenters, of whatever denomi- nation, enjoy entire freedom of opinion, and conduct divine service according to the forms of which they approve. 46. What are Seceders? — They are certain religious bodies in Scotland who have seceded or separated from the Estab- lished Church, and are legally in the position of dissenters. The chief seceding body is the United Presbyterian, which has been formed by the amalgamation of different sects at different times. The Free Church, constituted in 1843, declines in theory to consider itself a " seceding" body — designating the event of 1843 not a secession but a disruption. 47. What is Erastianism ? — It is a term of reproach, signi- fying the condition of a church which is under the control of the state. It is derived from Thomas Erastus, a learned Swiss theologian (died 1583), whose writings on this subject, how- ever, have been greatly misapprehended. 48. What is international law ? — It is a generally understood body of principles which regulate the intercourse between different states, and have been expounded by various writers 49. Mention some authorities in international law. — Puffen- dorf, Grotius, and Vattel are the principal ; Vattel, a native of Neufchatel (died 1767), is the chief authority ; his famed work on the subject is his Droit des Gens (Law of Nations). 50. What is a ''casus belli?" — It is an act of hostility on the part of one nation against another, sufficient to give occasion for a proclamation of war. 51. What are belligerents ?—ThtY are states which are carrying on war against each other, according to the ordinary recognized principles of warfare ; the term is from the Latin belligero, I wage war. 52. What is the right of blockade .?— It is a right possessed by each belligerent to close the ports of the enemy against traffic with neutral powers : but to be effectual, the ports Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563.— See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. 202 BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, must be actually closed and guarded by war-vessels, not merely declared to be so. ' | '[ 53. What is " contraband of war f'—li consists of warlike materials supplied by neutrals to a belligerent contrary to the conditions which should regulate national intercourse in a time of war. 54. What are prisoners of war f— They are soldiers and others taken captive in war ; according to civilized usages the lives of prisoners of war are spared on surrendering' and the captives are restored to liberty on the occurrence of peace. 55. What is " martial law?"— It is the law of military force, which is brought into operation when, for some reason, the civil law is suspended. A town in such a state of riotous disorder as to be beyond the control of the civil authorities, may be legally placed for a time under martial law. 56. What was the Roman civil law? — It was a great body of Roman laws affecting rights and relationships amongindi- V^iduals, which was digested into a code by Justinian about the middle of 6th century. 57. In what language was the code of Justinian drawn up? The whole was written in Latin, and now forms a huge vol- ume, under the title Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil law). After being lost during the commotions of the middle ages, a solitary copy of this great digest was found at Amalfi, in Italy, 1137, and was forthwith studied by modern nations. 58. Did many modern nations embrace the Roman civil law?— Yes ; it became the basis of municipal law in most European countries— some adopting it more than others. 59. Have continental nations adhered to the Roman law ? — They have done so only to a limited extent. It has been generally superseded by an entirely new digest, called the Code Napoleon, framed by order of Napoleon Bonaparte, be- tween 1803 and 1808. A number of the provisions of the Code Napoleon, however, are drawn from the Roman law. 60. What was the" Canon Law?"— It v^2i^ a body of laws and regulations affecting the Roman Catholic Church, and Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 203 originated in ecclesiastical decrees from the beginning of the 4th to the end of the 12th century, 61. Of what did the canoti law treat? — It treated of bene- fices, the lives and conversation of clergymen, matrimony, divorces, and other matters falling within the scope of church- discipline. 62. Is the canon law still in operation ? — Yes ; in Roman Catholic countries, though modified by modern legislation, and by " concordats " or agreements with the pope. 63. What kind of law prevails in the United Kingdom ? — It is law of a very miscellaneous kind ; England and Ireland have nearly one species of law, and Scotland has another ; but a number of statutes apply to the three countries. 64. Explain the nature of the English law? — It consists mainly of statutes passed from time to time by the legisla- ture, and of what is called " common law" — that is, certain rules of old standing, as expounded by legal authorities. But to these two varieties is added a species of canon law, drawn from the ancient e cclesiastical law in use before the Reformation. 65. We hear of "law and equity /" what is meant by "equity ?" —By "equity" is signified those principles of justice which are not reached by any statute or rule of common law, and require to be dealt with separately. For this branch of jurisprudence there are special courts in England. 66. Mention two of the principal law-courts in England? — The Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Queens (or King's) Bench. 67. What are the Equity Courts in England.— The Lord Chancellor's Court, the Master of the Rolls' Court, and the Courts of the three Vice-Chancellors. 68. What is meant by " oyer and terminer? — Oyer and ter- miner are words from the French, signifying " to hear and determine ;" the phrase is usually applied to certain special courts held for the purpose of trying persons accused of sedi- tious and treasonable practises ; but all commissions from the crown to judges to hold courts of justice are, strictly speak- ing, of the nature of " oyer and terminer." Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. m o 204 BRITISH CONSTITUTION^yURISPRUDENCE. 69. Who was Sir Thomas Littleton? — He was one of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, 1466, and v/as cele- brated as the author of a work on Tenures, useful for lawyers. 70. Who was Sir Edward Coke f — He was an eminent law- yer in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., who filled the office of Chief-Justice of the court of King's Bench ; he is re- membered as the author of a minute and laborious Commen- tary on the work of Sir Thomas Littleton, usually styled Coke upon Littleton, which remains a leading authority on English law. 71. Who was Sir William Blackstone? — He was a learned judge in the Court of Common Pleas, who died 1780. Black- stone is best known for his Commentaries on the laws of Eng^ land, a work first published in 1765, which, from its tasteful and popular style, has been often reprinted. 72. What law prevails in the British colonies? — Where the colonies are of British origin, the law and legal usages of England prevail. Where the colonies or dependencies are of foreign origin, the law of the original settlers is, by stipula- tion, for the most part maintained. For example, in the Cape of Good Hope, which was originally a Dutch colony, the old Dutch (or Roman civil) law prevails. 73. What law prevails in India? — Several kinds of law are maintained in that great dependency, in order to suit the habits and usages of a mixed population. For the aboriginal Hindus there is the Hindu law; for the Mohammedans, the law of the Koran ; and for British settlers, the law of Eng- land. Judges are appointed to administer these diverse law. 74. What law prevails in Scotland? — The old Roman civil law, modified by modern statutes, and a common law of native growth. 75. Mention a work in which the law of Scotland is embodied, — The best known work on the subject is Erskine's Princi- ples of the Law of Scotland, published in 1754, which remains a valuable text-book. 76. What is the supreme civil court in Scotland? — It is the Court of Session, which comprehends jurisdiction in cases of equity as well as law. Julius Csesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE, 205 TJ. What is the supreme court of appeal in the United King- dom?— It is the House of Lords, to which cases may be ap- pealed for decision from the chief civil courts in England, Ireland, and Scotland. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council forms a court of appeal from the colonies and de- pendencies. 72>. Who appoints the judges in the different courts through- out the United Kingdom ? — Excepting as concerns certain "duchies palatine," all judges are appointed by the crown, and hold office for life. 79. What is a " duchy palatine ?" — It is a division of coun- try formerly under the distinct government of a duke or other powerful feudal lord. The duchy of Lancaster is an example. 80. When was the duchy of Cornwall created? — It was created in 1377, in favor of Edward the Black Prince, and by act of parliament, remains under the jurisdiction of the Prince of Wales, as hereditary Duke of Cornwall, who appoints the judges in the duchy, and draws from it certain revenues. 81. What is the legal position of the duchy of Lancaster ? — That duchy was forfeited to the crown in the reign of Ed- ward IV. The crown now appoints a chancellor to the duchy as a removable minister, by whom an attorney- general, and other functionaries are nominated, with equity jurisdiction. 82. What is " trial by jury ?" — It is the trial of alleged crim, inals by a jury or body of individuals impartially selected, according to prescribed forms, from the community. The duty of the jury consists in determining whether the facts charged against a prisoner are proved. 83. Is trial by jury of ancient origin? — Yes ; it is an Anglo- Saxon institution, and forms an important safeguard against arbitrary authority. 84. Is trial by jury conducted uniformly in the United King- dom ? — No ; in England and Ireland, a jury on a criminal Case consists of 12 individuals, who must be unanimous in their decisions. In Scotland, the jury consists of 15,3 ma- jority of whom decides. o a 3 u a CO (U a r- « The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. & 20G BRITISH CONSTITUTION— JURISPRUDENCE. 85. What is the *' grand jury?" — It is a body of individuali summoned by sheriffs in different localities to determine whether cases of alleged crime may be brought to trial. The institution of grand jury, however, does not exist in Scotland, where its duties as respects criminal charges are performed by a public prosecutor, styled Lord Advocate, who is assisted by various " Deputes." 86. Is trial by jury employed in civil cases f — Yes ; it is ap- plied in connection with the chief civil courts in the United Kingdom, principally in relation to questions of damage for alleged injuries. 87. What are " Procurators-Fiscal?" — They are public in- vestigators and prosecutors of crime m Scotland, connected with county and civic jurisdictions, and are subordinate to the Lord Advocate. The term "fiscal" is from the Latin fiscus, signifying the crown exchequer. 88. What is a diplomatist ? — The term signifies one who con- ducts negotiations between sovereigns ; this duty, formerly assigned to heralds, is now committed to ambassadors and special envoys. The term diplomatist is from diploma, which is derived from a Greek word signifying " double or twofold." Anciently, a folded-up letter was called a diploma, and hence diplomatist was applied to one who received a folded paper of instructions. 89. What are Mercantile Consuls? — They are officers subor- dinate to ambassadors, whom the state maintains in foreign countries for the protection of its trade and vindication of the rights of its merchants. A consul is expected to render friendly aid to every subject or citizen of the country for which he acts. A consul is not necessarily a native of the country from which he is deputed. 90. What is meant by the " exequatur of a consul?" — The i^xm exequatur {;;'\q\. him execute") is applied to a written recognition of a consul who has been deputed by a foreign country, and authorizes him to execute his assigned duties. This exequatur or recognition issues from the crown ; in the event of war with the country for which the consul acts> his exequatur is withdrawn. Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. '•'o!«:«.- GIGANTIC ASSYRIAN ARCHWAY; WITH HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIP- TIONS RECENTLY DISCOVERED. 207. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 207 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 1. What is Archceology? — It is the branch of knowledge embracing objects of ancient art, also ancient languages, man- ners, inscriptions, books, monuments, and institutions — all, indeed, that can throw light on the early history of the world. The term is from the Greek archaz'os, ancient; and logos, a discourse. 2. Is the study of archcEology of modern date ? — It always at- tracted more or less attention ; but it is only in recent times that men of learning have devoted themselves to studies of this kind in a scientific and critical way, either as regards the continents of Asia, Africa, America, and Europe, or the British islands. 3. What have been the grander objects of archcEological in- quiry in Northern Africa and Asia? — The pyramids of Egypt, and the gigantic stone figures of Assyria ; regarding these many interesting discoveries have been made in recent times by English and French archaeologists. 4. What is the " Rosetta stone?" — It is a celebrated slab of stone of a dark color found at Rosetta, in Egypt, bearing an inscription in three varieties of character— the ancient hie- roglyphic, the popular character of the country, and the Greek. 5. What has rendered this stone a subject of interest ? — Interest in the Rosetta stone is derived from the fact that its triple inscription afforded a key to hieroglyphics ; when the idea was arrived at, that the three inscriptions were repetitions of each other, it of course became easy, through our knowl- edge of the Greek, to interpret the other two. 6. Who made this discovery? — Champollion, an eminent French archaeologist ; the Rosetta stone is now in the British Museum, and casts from it are common. 7. What is meant by the " Stone, Bronze, andiron ages?" — Ac- cording to the theories of certain archaeologists, there was a period in which weapons were made of stone ; this was fol- lowed by a period in which weapons were made of copper; Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. S 208 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. and lastly, there was a period when weapons of iron came into use. 8. Where are stone and copper weapons to be seen .?— Thev may be seen in museums, and consist chiefly of arrow- heads and axes. They are supposed to be very ancient— prob- ably three to four thousand years old. 9. Mention some of the 7nore notable of the very ancient anti- quities in the British islands.— (Zxom\^c\i% barrows, cairns, Druidic temples, crannoges, and hill-forts— all dating from a period previous to the occupation of Britain by the Romans. 10. What is a cromlech?— It consists of several large stones set upright, with one or more stones laid across the top, forming a kind of table. Cromlechs are seen in France as well as England ; they are believed to be sepulchral mem^ orials or tombs. Stonehenge. 11. What are barrows ?—B?iYrov7S are heaped tumuli or mounds of earth, generally conical, and, in some instances, cover interior erections of stones resembling cromlechs. It is thought that open cromlechs had once been so covered up, and that the earth has been washed or worn away in the course of ages. 12. What are cairns f— They are large heaps of stones forming conical mounds, and were probably intended to be commemorative of some distinguished hero or remarkable event. 13. What is the form of Druidic temples f—Thty consist of circles of huge stones, with, in some instances, stones of equallv large dimensions laid from the top of one upright " Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 2O9 stone to the top of another. The grandest antiquity of this kind in England is that at Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, a few miles from Salisbury. 14. Why are these stone circles called Druidic temples? — Be- cause it has been thought they were used as temples in the pagan worship of the Druids— a priesthood among the early Britons and Gauls. But there is no absolute certainty on the subject. 15. What were crannoges ? — They were artificial islands, for- tified, in lakes, where families lived secure from attack. Re- mains of these very ancient and curious lake-dwellings are found in Ireland, Scotland, and Switzerland. 16. What were British hill-forts ?— They were circular or oval intrenchments of earth and stones, erected generally on the tops of hills of moderate elevation, and used as places of defence previous to and at the Roman invasion. 17. What is the shape of Roman camps .?— They are usually in the form of a square or parallelogram, with several raised mounds or intrenchments and intervening ditches, and they cover a considerable space of ground. They had four en- trances, one on each side. One of these entrances, called the Praetorian Gate, led to the tent of the commander, which was styled the Prcetoriwn. 18. What are ''Round Towers?" — They are tall, narrow towers of masonry several stories in height, found chiefly in Ireland. They are believed to date from the 5th to the 12th century, and to have been used as belfries to churches, as well as safe receptacles for the church vessels in times of civil disorder. Much has been written regarding them. 19. When were the old castles erected which are now seen in ruins? — The greater number in England and Scotland were not erected till after the Norman conquest ; the feudal keeps or peel-houses on the border were, for the greater part, erected from the 14th to the i6th century. 20. What is Heraldry? — It is the branch of knowledge connected with armorial bearings, with which heralds are presumed to be acquainted. Armorial bearings are of an- cient origin, but they acquired a systematized form in Eng- The Earth's Surface is aoo,ooo,ooo Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. V a o u 210 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. land only about the time of Henry III., or end of the i3tb century. 21. What are armorial bearings ? — They are figurative marks of distinction assigned to individuals by certain courts ap- pointed by the sovereign — the Heralds' College in England ; the College of Arms in Ireland ; and the Lyon court in Scotland. Armorial bearings are usually styled "coats of arms." 22. Of what does a coat of arms consist ? — In the highest class it consists of a shield with supporters, and a crest, along with a motto ; but only members of the peerage, or those particularly qualified, are entitled to use supporters. 23. What is the nature of the shield? — It is a triangular figure with the point downwards, and its tinctures and em- blematic devices are some way significant of the family his- tory of the individual bearing it. 24. What are the tinctures in heraldry ? — They are as fol- lows : gold, which is termed or ; silver, termed argent ; fur, termed vair ; and red, blue, black, green, and purple, known as gules, azure, sable, vert, and purpure. The surface of the shield is called " the field." 25. What were the supporters in the royal arms previous to the union of thecrowris? — They were for England two lions; and for Scotland two unicorns. 26. What were the supporters to the royal arms of Great Britain after the union of the crowns? — They consisted of a lion on one side, and a unicorn on the other. According to the present legalized usage, the lion occupies the right or dexter side ; sometimes, in Scotland, the unicorn is authori- zedly placed on the right side, as in judicial seals. 27. What was borne on the shield in the royal ar 7ns previous to the union of the crowns? — In England, the shield bore three Woxis, passant (walking), on a field or ; in Scotland, one lion, rampant (standing on its hind-legs),^2^/ V c« Q* V t) CO I a, O c( h) •a o 226 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y— THE HEBRE WS. 22. Who was Moses? — He was by birth an Israelite, being the son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi. Exposed as an infant in a basket among the rushes of the Nile, he was found by the daughter of the king, and was reared and educated by her in all the learning of the Egyptians. 23. Mention some circumstances in the life of Moses. — Having slain an Egyptian overseer for maltreating a Hebrew slave, he fled to the deserts of Midian, where he was hospitably treated by Jethro the priest, and married his daughter Zip- porah. After staying several years in Midian, he returned to Egypt to act as a deliverer of the Israelites, and lead them to the " Promised Land." 24. What was the "Promised Land?" — It was the land of Canaan, where the forefathers of the Israelites, Isaac and Jacob, had dwelt, and to which God had promised that they should return, and there found a great nation. 25. How was this promise fulfilled? — Vexed with the plagues brought on the land, the king, or Pharaoh, of Egypt allowed the Israelites to depart (1491 B. c.) towards the land of Canaan, under the guidance of Moses, who led them across the Red Sea, at a point supposed to be near the modern Suez — the place of this marvellous passage being still shown to travel- lers. 26. How long' were the Israelites on the journey to the Prom- ised Land? — They spent forty years in the wildernesses of Arabia, during which time many remarkable events occurred, particularly at Mount Sinai, where the ten commandments were delivered by God to Moses. 27. Did Moses reach the Promised Land? — No ; he lived only to see it from the Mount of Nebo, where he died. 28. What was the character of Moses ? — Besides being learned and sagacious, he possessed great calmness, disinter- estedness, patience, perseverance, and meekness, coupled with keen energy, rapidity of action, and unfailing courage. 29. What is the Pentateuch ? — Such is the name given to the first five books of the Old Testament ; the word signifying in Greek, ^z/^ books. 30. Who is reputed to have written the Pentateuch ? — The Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Ctuds See page 248. vo ho A NCI EN T HIS TOR V— THE HEBRE WS. 227 writing of the Pentateuch has been ascribed to Moses ; and the books of which it is composed are accordingly called " the Mosaic record." Whether or not Moses wrote the entire Pentateuch, it is certain that he was the organizer and law- giver of the Hebrew nation, and he must be ever regarded as one of the greatest men of ancient times. 31. Who was Aaron? — He was the elder brother of Moses, and the first high-priest of the Israelites. 32. What was a prophet? — A prophet was a man inspired by God, to utter predictions of future events, also to instruct and admonish in spiritual things. 33. Who were the Levz'tes ? — They were descendants of Levi, and formed a tribe, the members of which were set apart for service in the sanctuary; as such, they acted as teachers, and took charge of the sacred vessels and books. Their revenue consisted chiefly of an annual tithe contributed by the other tribes. 34. What is meant by " tithe?" — It signifies a tenth part of anything ; such as the tenth part of annual crops, and of the increase of flocks and herds. 35. Why was Canaan called Palestine? — It was so called from the Philistines, who possessed a portion of the country. 36. When did the name Judea originate ? — After the return of the inhabitants of the kingdom of Judah from the Baby- lonish captivity ; and at first it designated only that portion of Palestine peopled by them, but gradually, as they extended their settlements, the name was applied in a loose way to the whole country. Strictly, however, under the Romans, Judea designated the territory comprised under the ancient kingdom of Judah. 37. Who was Joshua? — He was the leader of the Israelites, whom he conducted into the Promised Land about 1430 b. c, which he conquered and portioned among the several tribes. 38. What was the original form of government among the Israelites? — Considered politically, it was a federal republic consisting of twelve tribes; but considered religiously, it was a theocracy, or government by Go(i— that is, the law^s o ^ olomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70.— See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. O 228 ANCIENT HISTOR V— THE HEBRE WS. were regarded as divinely enjoined, and the priesthood natur- ally became their interpreters and administrators. 39. Did the tribes remain united? — No; soon after the con-, quest and partition of Canaan, they seem to have lapsed into a kind of tribal self-dependence and anarchy, and were onl)) saved from ruin by rulers, called Judges. 40. Who were the Judges? — They were valiant men and women who liberated their country from their oppressors, and afterwards exercised rule for the general benefit; such as the prophetess Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson. 41. Who was Samuel? — He was the last of the Judges or chiefs of the Hebrew republic, and the greatest Hebrew since the days of Moses. Samuel marks a new era in the development of the religious life of the nation. 42. When did the Hebrew Monarchy begin ? — It succeeded the period of the Judges, and began with Saul, who was the first king (about 1080 B. C.) 43. Who was David? — He was the ninth and youngest son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah. Attaining distinction by slay- ing Goliath of Gath, a gigantic Philistine, he was appointed king, or successor of Saul, and ruled with great wisdom for a period of forty years (1055 to 1015 b. c). 44. Who was Solomon ? — He was the son and successor of David, and noted for his wisdom and taste for magnificent works of art ; he built the celebrated Temple of Jerusalem, and also the city of Tadmor, which became afterwards known as Palmyra — a name signifying the " city of palm-trees." This once splendid city is now in ruins. 45. When was the Hebrew monarchy divided ? — In the reign of Rehoboam, successor of Solomon, 975 B. c, when the country was divided into the kingdom of Judah, consisting of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and the kingdom of Israel, consisting of the other ten tribes. In this state the country continued until the termination of its independence. 46. When did the kijtgdom of Israel terminate ? — It was put an end to under Hoshea, 720 B. c, by the Assyrian monarch Salmanassar, who, after taking the capital Samaria, carried the principal inhabitants into captivity. The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ;. Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity,— See page 54. A NCI EN T HIS TOR V— THE HEBRE WS, 2 2Q 47. Did these captives ever return to their cwit country ? — No ; they in all probability mingled with the surrounding popula- tion in the regions where they were settled, but their fate is uncertain, and hence they are usually spoken of as "the lost ten tribes." 48. When did the kingdom of Judah terminate ?— Under the rule of King Zedekiah, when the Jews were conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who, with a powerful army, took Jerusalem, 588 B. c, and carried the principal part of the inhabitants to Babylon. 49. What is this event called in Jewish history? — It is called the "Babylonish captivity," and is pathetically lamented in the poetry of the Hebrews. 50. Who tuere Isaiah and Jeremiah? — They were two of the Hebrew prophets ; and the books which bear their names are among the grandest inspired writings. Along with these lofty prophetic books may be associated that of Ezekiel, a Hebrew prophet who lived among the Babylonian captives, and endeavored to inspire them with hopes of recovering their liberty, and of attaining prosperity under a promised Messiah. 51. What is mea7it by Messiah? — It is a Hebrew word sig- nifying Anointed (consecration by anointing being an ancient usage), and is applied in the Old Testament to the great De- liverer and Saviour whom the Jews expected to be sent by God. 52. Who was Daniel? — He was one of the Hebrew captives at Babylon, and, by his great wisdom, gained the favor of Cyrus, who at Daniel's intercession liberated his countrymen, and allowed them to depart. 53. Did all the Jewish captives at Babylon avail themselves oj the permission to depart? — No ; only about 40,000 persons re- turned to Palestine. 54. How long were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Judah in captivity ? — Reckoning from the capture of Jerusalem and the carrying off of Zedekiah, about 50 years ; but from a pre- vious invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (606 B. c), about 70 years. 10 A O The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 230 ANCIENT HISTOR V— THE HEBRE WS. 55. Did the Jews resume their mdepe7ide7ice as a nation on their return from captivity f—^o ; their country had been in- corporated with the Persian empire ; but they rebuilt the temple at Jerusalem, and exercised their religious worship. 56. What was the subsequent fate of the Jews ? — They were exposed to many vicissitudes in contending against Egypt- ians, Syrians, and others — their most heroic exertions being under the Maccabees. 57. Who were the Maccabees ?— They were leaders of the Jewish nation— the first of them was Judas Maccabeus, who led the national hosts to victory against the Syrians ; after his death, his brothers completed the deliverance of the people, 145 B. c. The heroism of the Maccabees is considered to be a grand feature in Jewish history. 58. When did the Jews submit to the Romans ? — In the year 63 B. C, when Jerusalem was captured by Pompey, and the country put under Roman governors ; the people, however, were still allowed to exercise their religious observances. 59. When was Jesus Christ born ? — Jesus was born at Beth- lehem in Judea, during the governorship of Herod in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus ; the exact period is believed to have been four years before what is usually called the Christian era. 60. What is the meaning of the word Christ? — It is from the Greek and signifies Anointed, and therefore corresponds with the Hebrew term Messiah. 61. Did the Jews remain satisfied under the Roman sway f— No ; they endeavored to recover their independence by means of an insurrection, in which they were unsuccessful, and Jerusalem was captured by Titus, a Roman general. 62. When was Jerusalem captured by Titus? — In the year 70 A. D„ when the Temple was utterly destroyed, the city laid in ruins, and the people scattered. 63. Were the Jews utterly dispersed at this time ? — No ; there remained a residue in the country until 135 a. d., when, in consequence of a fresh insurrection, they were finally dis- The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. CQ ANCIENT HISTORY— THE HEBREWS. --» ^ persed, and have ever since been exiles in all parts of the earth. 64. For what is the civilized world indebted to the Jews ? — For their religion, which is the basis of Christianity, and for their careful preservation of the books of the Old Testament. 65. What were the distinguishing features of the Jewish Re- ligion? — Along with certain ceremonial observances, and the expectation of a coming Messiah or Saviour, the Jewish faith consisted in a belief in one Supreme being, God, the creator and preserver, invisible, eternal, almighty, and of infinite wisdom. 66. What is Monotheism .?— It is the belief in one God, as professed by the Hebrews, and is so called from the Greek monos, one, and theos, god. 67. Were the Hebrews singular in their monotheistic belief f — Yes ; they seem to have been the first people who attained to a correct knowledge of God ; all the nations about them were polytheists and idolaters. 68. What is a Polytheist ? — A person who believes in many gods ; the term is from the Gx^^\i, polys, many, and theos, ^oA. 69. What is an idolater ? — A person who worships idols or representatives of some imaginary being. 70. Did the Hebrews adhere uniformly to monotheism ? — No ; we are told by the Scriptures that they had a constant ten- dency to lapse into idolatry, but were "turned again" unto God by the remonstrances of the prophets. 71. Who were the Pharisees? — They formed a sect of the Jews, and assumed that by a punctilious attention to cere- monies, they were more righteous than others; the term Pharisee is from the Yithx&vf parash, to separate. 72. Who were the Sadducees? — They were a certain class of believers among the Jews, who rejected the doctrine of future rewards and punishments, and whose tenets inculcated the strictest morals ; they derived their designation from Sadoc, a Jewish rabbi (200 b. c). 73. What is meant by " Gentiles .?" — It is the name given in 231 « i The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145 William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 232 A NCI EN T HIS TOR Y—BA B YL ON I A NS, E TC. the New Testament to heathen nations ; and is derived from the \.2iWxi,gens, a nation or race. 74. What is Revelation? — It is the reveahng or discovery of anything, but more especially signifies the revealing of spiritual truths by God to man, through the agency of in- spired prophets— the whole Bible being hence called Revel- ation, or the Revealed will of God. 75. Who was Flavins Josephus f — He was a learned Jew of the first century, who wrote a History of the Wars of the Jews, in which he gives an account of the siege and capture of Jerusalem ; he likewise composed a work on Jewish Anti- quities ; both works, written in Hebrew and Greek, have been translated into English. ANCIENT HISTORY— THE BABYLONIANS, AS- SYRIANS, EGYPTIANS, AND OTHERS. 1. Who were the Babylonians? — They were the inhabitants of Babylonia, a country taking its name from the city of Babel, or Babylon, built on the Euphrates by Nimrod. 2. Who were the Assyrians? — They were the inhabitants of the country north of Babylonia, called Assyria from Asshur, the son of Shem, who built the city of Nineveh, on the Tigris. 3. At what time were the Babylonian and Assyrian nations fotmded ?—Aho\\t 2500 B.C. The period of their greatest glory was about 1000 B. C, when their power was considera- bly extended over the East, and when Babylon and Nineveh were populous and splendid cities. 4. Where was Chaldea ? — It was a district near the head of the Persian Gulf, which became absorbed in Babylonia, but little is distinctly known about it. In ancient history, the name Chaldeans is given to a learned and priestly class of men among the Assyrians and Babylonians, who were skilled in astronomical knowledge. 5. Of what religion were the Assyrians and Babylonians ? — It was essentially a worship of the powers of nature, among The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long, — See page 302. ANCIENT HIS TOR Y—BA B YL ONI AN S, ETC. 233 which the sun held a prominent place. These powers were adored under a multitude of forms and emblems; the Assy- rians and Babylonians seem also to have worshipped idols representing Swiftness, Strength, Intelligence, and other qualities, as is shown by various ancient sculptures. 6. Mention some of the ancient sculptures of Assyria. — The figure of a lion with the head of a man, and great spread-out Winged Lion. wings, also the figure of a man with the head of an eagle — examples of which figures, brought from the ruins of Nin- eveh, are seen in various museums. 7. Who was Semiramisf — She is said to have been a power- ful female sovereign of Assyria, but the account of her is perhaps mythical. 8. Who was Sardanapalus ? — He was a luxurious sovereign of the Assyrian empire. He dwelt in Nineveh, where, being ^ attacked by Medes, Babylonians, and others, he died by setting fire to his palace, and burning all it contained, 783 b. c. 9. Who was Sennacherib ? — He was one of the successors of Sardanapalus as king of Assyria; he endeavored to ex- tend his conquests over Egypt and Judea, but both countries were delivered by the miraculous destruction of his host before the walls of Jerusalem (2 Kings, xix.) 10. Who were the Medes f — They were a powerful nation on the east of Assyria, and along with the Babylonians, they Q Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278 03 234 ANCIENT HISTOR Y—BAB YLONIANS, E TC, captured and destroyed Nineveh, about 625 b. c. The Medes had previously subdued the Persians; but these having re- volted under Cyrus, gained the ascendency, and commenced a series of extraordinary conquests. 11. Why are uncka?igeable laws said to resemble the laws oj the Medes and Persians? — Because in Daniel, chap. vi. 8, it is expressly stated that the " law of the Medes and Persians al- tereth not" — in other words, the Persian monarch was an- ciently thought to be infallible. 12. Who was Croesus? — He was the king of Lydia, a country of Asia Minor, and renowned for his prodigious wealth. Mis- led by evil counsel, he levied war against Cyrus, was de- feated, and his kingdom incorporated with Persia, 546 B.C. His wealth has given rise to the saying "as rich as Croesus." 13. Who was Belshazzar? — He was king of the united empire of Assyria and Babylonia, which was conquered by Cyrus 538 B. c, and added to the already vast Persian empire, which was now the greatest that had existed in the world. Cyrus died 529 B. c. 14. What was the ancient na7ne of Persia? — The greater part of Persia was included in a large region extending into the centre of Asia, and called Ariana, or Airyana, from which Iran, the modern native name of Persia, is derived. From this region it is believed that in very remote times successive swarms of colonists migrated and peopled the greater part of Europe, and also India. These peoples are therefore spoken of as the Aryan races, and their languages are found to have a family-likeness. 15. Who was Cambyses? — He was the son and successor of Cyrus ; maniacal and imperious, he conquered Egypt, and 3 after a reign of a few years, died 521 b. c. 16. Who was Darius I. ? — He was chosen successor to Cam- byses ; and under him the walls of Babylon were destroyed. 17. What was the extent of the Persian empire in the reign of Darius? — It stretched from Egypt to India, and com- prehended the whole of Palestine, Phoenicia, Lydia, Arabia, Media, Babylonia, and Assyria — ^all parts of this overgrown Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133. ANCIENT HISTOR Y—BAB YLONIANS, ETC. 235 empire being ruled with despotic violence, and subjected to excessive exactions. 18. Who was Zoroaster? — He was a sage who originated, or, more properly, remodelled, the religion professed in Iran, or Persia, and which is now known as the religion of the Parsees. 19. Describe the religion taught by Zoroaster. — It embraced a belief in two opposite principles, good and evil. The prin- ciple of good was personified as Ormuzd, and the principle of evil as Ahriman. The direct objects of worship were the sun, light, and fire, as manifestations of the good principle. 20. What is meant by "the god Baalf" — Baal, or Bel, was the name of a god who personified the sun or vivilier of nature, and was worshipped by various ancient nations. 21. What city was nained from Baal ? — Baalbek, a city in Syria, which was afterwards called by the Greeks Helio polls — from Helios, the sun, and polis, a city. Like many other cities in the East, Baalbek is now in ruins. 22. Who were the Magi? — They were priests of the Persian form of worship, and lighted fires in honor of Baal on the tops of mountains, as part of their religious observances. 23. When did Darius I., king of Persia, die? — He died 485, B. C, having five years previously been defeated at Marathon in an attempt to subdue Greece. 24. What was Persepolis ?—\X. was the chief city of Persia, and was adorned with many fine buildings, as is still seen by its magnificent ruins ; its site is a few miles north of Shiraz, east of the Persian Gulf. 25. Who was Xerxes?— He was one of the sons of Darius, and succeeded to his power; he also attempted the conquest of Greece, and was likewise defeated ; he died 464 B. c. 26. Who was Artaxerxes? — He was a son and successor of Xerxes, and is believed to be the "Ahasuerus" mentioned in Scripture. Under his descendant, Darius III., the Persian empire was conquered by Alexander the Great, who also made himself master of Parthia, Phoenicia, Egypt, Syria, and other countries, 332 to 330 B. c. Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle.— See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist. — See page 65. n 236 ANCIENT HISTOR Y—BAB YLONIANS, E TC. 27. In what year did Alexander the Great make his triu7nphal entrajtce into Babylon? — In the year 331 B. c; but Babylon was already almost in ruins, and has never recovered. 28. Who were the Parthians ? — They were a people of Asia, subdued by Alexander the Great, and who are renowned for their adroitness in shooting with bows and arrows on horse- back while retreating; weapons thus shot or thrown back- wards are spoken of as " Parthian darts." 29. Who were the Phceniciansf — They were the inhabitants of Phoenicia, a country on the Mediterranean, adjoining Pales tine ; and were noted for their mercantile pursuits. The) had several important seaports, including Tyre and Sidon, and are said to have visited the British Islands. 30. Where was the Tarshish of Scripture? — It is believed to have been a district and city in the south of Spain, facing the Atlantic, called Tartessus by the Greeks and Romans. Under tiie name Tarshish, this district formed the limit of the western world as known to the Hebrews. 31. Who were the Egyptians ? — They were the inhabitants of Egypt, called by the Hebrews Mizraim, which consisted chiefly of the valley of the Nile. They seem to have been allied to the Semitic races, on the one hand, and to the Ne- gro races on the other. 32. When does the history of Egypt commence — About the same time as that of Assyria, 2500 B. c. ; but some make it much earlier. 33. Who were the Pharaohs ? — The title Pharaoh was equiv- alent to king, and was given to a long series of sovereigns of different dynasties in Egypt. The Pharaoh in whose reign the Israelites departed from Egypt, is supposed to have been Thothmes III. 34. Who was Mefnnon? — He was a celebrated Egyptian, commemorated by a gigantic sitting figure in stone, which, by some internal peculiarity of construction, gave forth mysterious sounds ; the remains of this remarkable figure stilJ exist near Thebes. Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles.— See page 47. ANCIENT HI ST OR Y—BAB YLONIANS, E TC. ^Z1 35. WJio was Cheops? — He is said to have been the foundei of the first or Great Pyramid. 36. What are the Pyramids? — They are huge structures \j\. masonry, with a square basis, terminating in a point, and are believed to have been erected as monumental tombs o. vhe Pharaohs ; these wonderful buildings are believed to be Irom three thousand to lour thousand years old. The Pyramids. 37. What are hieroglyphics ? — A kind of writing in use among the ancient Egyptians, and found engraved on the oldest monuments ; the characters consist of figures of animals and other objects, and represent ideas ; a key to their meaning has been found in recent times. 38. Which were the chief cities of ancietit Egypt ? — Mo 6 0) > O The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 2 86 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y—ROME. Roman law and municipal institutions, which less or more retained after the dissolution of the empire. 148. Do the Ro7nans deserve praise for not interfering with the religious observances of the nations they conquered? — No ; in ancient times, the people of one country did not concern themselves about the religion of other countries, and the Romans were no exception to the rule. We can give them no credit for toleration, for it amounted, in some cases, to a perversion of justice. 149. Give an instance. — The Roman proconsul, Pilate, found no crime or political offence proved against Jesus, yet, at the instigation of a few Jewish priests and an ignorant rabble, he sanctioned his death by crucifixion — the Roman power thus disgracefully lending itself to an action, which it was its duty, as it ought to have been its proud privilege, peremptor- ily to avert. 1 50. If the Romans were so tolerant, why did they persecute the early Christians? — Because in preaching the Gospel, the apostolic missionaries necessarily exposed the superstitious errors of the Roman polytheism, which was identified with the authority of the state. 151. Was the Roman authority of no value as respects Chris- tianity? — It was of much value after the reign of Constan- tine, by securing protection to apostolic missionaries in dis- seminating a knowledge of the Gospel ; in point of fact, the rule and influence of the church, already established at the fall of the empire, saved Italy and the neighboring provinces from universal anarchy, and smoothed the way for new political systems. 152. In what way has modern society been benefitted by the ancient Romans? — It has derived benefit from Roman litera- ture, law, and arts; likewise from the Latin language, which, though now a dead tongue, continues to be studied for its elegance, and its connection with modern languages. We are likewise indebted to them for the letters known as Roman Capitals. 153. Mention soitte of the noted Roman writers. — Cicero, Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth.— See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 287 Livy, Sallust, Caesar, Tacitus, Seneca, Ovid, Horace, and Virgil. 154. Had the Ro7nans a knowledge of physical science?-^ Their knowledge of some departments of science was ex- ceedingly imperfect. They believed that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, planets, and stars revolved around it; all they knew of geography was confined to the countries stretching from India to Britain; of geology, chemistry, and some other sciences of recent growth, they were, of course, entirely ignorant; and the most learned Romans— as well as Greeks— clung to super- stitions connected with natural phenomena, that are now re- jected and laughed at by all but the most illiterate. 155. What was the practice of the Greeks and Romans as regards education f— It was to confine instruction to the higher classes. As to educating the humbler orders— the bulk of whom were held as slaves and treated little better than cattle— and thereby improving the general tone of society, the Greeks and Romans had not the most distant idea. There was thus nothing expansive in the ancient civilization ; it was a thing of classes and castes— a mere superficial gloss— and, unsupported, it sunk and perished MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 1. What is Medieval History /—It is the history of the in- terval between the fall of the Roman empire, 476, and the revival of learning about 1450. From being between the close of one species of civilization and the rise of another, this in- terval of nearly a thousand years is usually styled the "Middle Ages." 2. What is meant by the ''Dark Ages f— The " Dark Ages" were the early portion of the middle ages, when learning was nearly extinct, and the light of Christianity had not yet been generally diffused. 3. What was the Byzantine empire?— It was the eastern O ^ Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769 ; Died, 1821 — See page 411. i 288 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, division of the ancient Roman empire, called Byzantine, from Byzantium, the former name of Constantinople, and which dates from 395 a. d., when Theodosius the Great died, and left two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, the former of whom became Emperor of the West, and the latter the first distinc- tive Emperor of the East. 4. How long did the Byzantine empire continue to exist ? — It lasted under various changes of dynasty till 1453, and em- braced the reigns of about ninety emperors, few of whom were of any note. 5. What was the character of the Byzantine empire ? — It was, of a Greek and Asiatic character, and the Greek language was spoken. 6. Did the Byzantine empire offer a refuge for learning on the fall of the Western empire? — It did so to some extent, and at Constantinople the arts and literature were for a time culti- vated ; but during nearly its whole history this fragmentary portion of the old Roman empire was badly governed, and has left little that commands respect. 7. Who was Theodoric the Great? — He was a king of the Ostrogoths, who, actuated by ambition, invaded Italy, con- quered the Visigoths, and established a new kingdom, 493. Theodoric ruled with much wisdom, but at his death, 526, Italy lapsed into a state of anarchy, and an effort was made by Justinian to conquer it. 8. Who was Justinian? — He was one of the Byzantine em- perors who reigned at the middle of the sixth century, and is famed tor his sagacious policy, more particularly for his code of Roman law, which he caused to be digested in several books, known as the Pandects and Institutes of Jtistinian, By Justinian the church of St. Sophia was built at Constan- tinople, which he decorated with oriental magnificence, 537. 9. Whowas Belisar^us?—YiQ^ff^^i^ an eminent general em- ployed by Justinian in wars against the Vandals in Africa, and also against the Ostrogoths in Italy. Partly by the gen^ eralship of Belisarius Italy was attached to the empire of Justinian, but for want of reinforcements he gave up »his '• Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. W MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 289 command. Unjustly accused of conspiracy Belisarius was imprisoned, but was soon restored to liberty ; he died 564. 10. Was Belisarius deprived of sight f — Such cruelty is said by some writers to have been perpetrated, and it is added that Belisarius was so impoverished as to ask alms as a blind mendicant ; but these circumstances rest on no credible au- thority, and are believed to be the fictions of novelists. 11. Who was the Exarch of Ravenna? — While Italy re- mained a dependency of the Byzantine empire, it was gov- erned by a species of viceroy deputed from Constantinople, who resided at Ravenna, and was called an Exarch. 12. Who were the Lombards f — They were a German nation settled on the Danube, who invaded and took possession of the north of Italy, making Pavia their capital, 568. From them is derived the name Lombardy. The Lombard king- dom was originally composed of a number of dukedoms — the dukes paying sometimes area], and sometimes a nominal homage to " a king." 13. Who were the Franks? — They were a confederation of tribes in Northern Germany, who, in the course of the fifth century, invaded Gaul, and founded the kingdom which from their name became afterwards known as France. 14. What was the condition of Gaul at that time? — It was occupied by the Gauls, a Celtic race, whose habits had been considerably modified by long intercourse with the Romans. The country being overrun and subjugated by the Franks, there grew up a language composed of Celtic, German, and Latin elements, which constitutes the basis of the modern French. 15. Who was Clovis? — He was the first king of the Franks in Gaul ; at his death, his dominions were divided, but were reunited under Clotaire, 558, from which time the kingdom increased in dignity and importance. 16. What was the Merovingian dynasty? — It was the first race of Frankish kings, and was called Merovingian, from Merow'g, grandfather of Clovis. This dynasty ruled from 486 till 752. 17. Had Christianity spread ffver Gaul? — Yes ; the knowledge 13 The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. & B JO et O 2QO MEDIEVAL HISTORY. and practice of Christianity had spread over the greater part of Europe previous to the sixth century, everywhere expel- hng paganism, and greatly contributing to social melioration. 18. What at this time was the condition of the Church ? — The church had at this time grown to be a great spiritual hierarchy, which, through pious gifts, had been invested with lands and other kinds of endowment for its support. 19. What was the Latin Church ? — It was that branch of the church presided over by the bishop of Rome, which in its services employed the Latin language, and in this and some other respects differed from the Greek Church of Con- stantinople. 20. What was the bishop of Roine usually styled? — He was called the Pope, a term signifying Papa, or Father. When the Roman emperors dropped the title of Pontifex Maximus, the bishop of Rome assumed it as expressive of his claim to supreme ecclesiastical authority. 21. What were Councils of the Church? — They were assem- blies of clergy held from time to time to settle points of doctrine, to determine what scriptural books were canonical and trustworthy, and to organize and discipline various mat- ters of ecclesiastical government. 22. When and where did these Councils take place? — There were numerous councils, provincial and general, in the third, fourth, and fifth centuries. The most famous of the general councils was that convened by Constantine at Nicasa, in Asia Minor, 325. At this council, which was attended by 318 bishops, the Nicene Creed was authorized as a confession of faith. 23. What were Monasteries f— They were establishments for religious retirement. At first, the monks, or inmates of monasteries, were generally laymen, but in time they were § I admitted to priests' orders. They were governed by partic- S ular rules under a superior. ^ I 24. Who was St. Benedict ?—Y{q was an Italian of the sixth century, who organized the monastic system of the West. The monks of his order, or Benedictine monks, became noted for their prosecution of learning, and also for their great in' Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. " yiO/Pis>r.r'.s .isv CATHEDRAL OF THE ASSUMPTION, AT MOSCOW, RUSSIA. - 291. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 29I dustry in writing copies of books to be employed in the reli- gious services. 25. Who were the ''regular clergy f — They were the clergy who lived under reg- ular rules in monasteries, while bishops and parish priests were styled "secular clergy," from living in the world. 26. What were Abbeys ? — They were great monastic establishments, under the govern- ment of an abbot. 27. What were Cathedrals? — A cathedral was the chief church in the diocese of a bishop. The word cathedral is derived from cathedra,vf\{\z\i in Greek signifies a seat J^^^e^ictine Monk, or bench. The term had its origin in the practice of bishops occupying a higher seat in the assembly of clergy of their diocese. The building of cathedrals and abbeys was a work of piety and munificence in the middle ages, from about the sixth to the thirteenth century ; those of latest erection were structures of great architectural elegance. 28. What was the first great division in the Church ? — It was the separation of the Latin and Greek churches ; after vari- ous dissensions about points of doctrine and other matters, and after frequent attempts at reconciliation, extending over several centuries, a final rupture took place at the fall of the Byzantine empire, 1453. 29. Who were the patriarchs of Constantinople ? — They were the bishops who presided over the Eastern or Greek Church at Constantinople, under the protection of the Byzantine emperors. 30. Who were the Iconoclasts? — The Greek term Iconoclasts signifies Image-breakers, and was applied to a party of religi- ous enthusiasts, who at the instigation of the Byzantine em- peror, Leo Isaurus, 726, destroyed the images in the churches at Constantinople, from which the frenzy spread to Italy, Where, however, it was resisted by the Latin Church and the people generally. 31. How did the pope encounter the Greek Iconoclasts? — He Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. at The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 292 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. called in the aid of Astolphus, king of the Lombards, who expelled the Exarchs of Ravenna ; but as Astolphus tried to keep Central Italy, the pope invited the assistance of Pepin, king of the Franks. Pepin compelled the Lombards to cede the territory they had acquired, and then presented it to the pope as a temporal sovereignty, 756. 32. What very remarkable event occurred in the seventh cen- tury? — The origin and spread of Mohammedanism, or relig- ion of Mohammed ; this religion was properly called Islam, such being an Arabic word signifying "entire submission to the will of God." From Islam, likewise, comes Moslem and Mussulman, applied to the professors of the religion of Mohammed. 33. Who was Mohammed? — He was an Arabian, born at Mecca about 570. Able and ingenious, though not learned, he devised a religion of pure theism, or behef in one God, whose prophet he declared himself to be. Encountering persecution, he fled to Medina, i6th July, 622, and this date of his flight, called Hejira, has ever since been recognized as the commencement of the Mohammedan era. 34. Who were the Califs? — They were the successors of Mohammed, who, uniting religious zeal with temporal power as sovereigns in Arabia, extended Mohammedanism by a series of extraordinary conquests, beginning with Mes- opotamia and Syria, which were lost to the Byzantine empire. 35. Who was Omar ? — He was the second calif, who added Palestine, Egypt, and the whole north of Africa to the Mo- hammedan conquests. Receiving the submission of Jerusa- lem, 637, he caused a mosque, which bears his name, to be built on the site of the temple of Solomon. 36. When Egypt fell into the possession of Ojnar, did he des- troy the great library at Alexandria ? — No ; a story to that effect, long current, is found to be incorrect. The famous library of Alexandria had been previously destroyed, and as a seat of learning that city had declined by the rising impor- tance of Constantinople about the fourth century. 37. When did the Mohammedans establish themselves in Spain ? ^-In 711, a branch of the Arabs, under the name of Saracens The Bastilo was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 293 —a word signifying " eastern people" — conquered a portion of Spain, and there founded a power, known in history as the " kingdom of the Moors." 38. Who was Charles Martel? — He was chief officer in the household of the Prankish king, and virtually ruler of the Franks. He defeated the Saracens in a great battle, between Tours and Poictiers, 732, and arrested forever the progress of Mohammedanism in Western Europe. 39. Who were the Abba^ides ? — They were an Arabian dy- nasty, who ruled as califs of Bagdad, 749 — 1258; devoting themselves to the cultivation of learning and the arts, there ensued in the eighth century an extraordinary intellectual outburst among Arabians in Asia, and Moors in Spain, of which there survive various memorials. 40. Mention one or two things for which we are indebted to the Arabians. — Modern Europe is indebted to them for the common numerals or figures — hence called Arabic numerals— which have superseded the clumsy notation of the Romans, and greatly facilitated arithmetic ; to them is also due our knowledge of algebra, or the system of computation by sym- bolic letters and marks. 41. What was the Carlovingian dynasty ? — It was the race of kings in France commencing with Pepin, a son of Charles Martel ; and hence the dynasty was called Carlovingian ; it lasted from 752 till 986. 42. Who was Charlemagne ? — He was one of the sons of Pepin, king of the Franks, and ultimately inherited the whole of his dominions, which he vastly extended by conquests in Germany, Italy, and other countries. On account of his power, learning, and various high qualities, he is considered the most illustrious monarch of the middle ages. 43. What was Charleinagne styled f— He was at first styled king of the Franks, to which title was afterwards added em- peror of the Romans. 44. How did Charlemagne become Emperor of the Roma7ts ?— Having in the year 800 completed his conquests in Italy, he secured the popes m their possessions, and even added to them by new gifts of territory. Grateful for his services to The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C.— See page 273. 204 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. the church, Pope Leo III., amidst general acclamation, put a crown on the head of Charlemagne on Christmas-day, while the people were worshipping in St. Peter's and saluted him as " Carolus I., Caesar Augustus," or Emperor of the Romans. 45. Did this ceremony impart any power to Ckarie7nagne ? — No ; the title of Caesar or emperor only added lustre to his nam.e, as in a sense reviving the greatness of the ancient empire. Though but an empty name, the title of emperor or kaiser (German for Caesar), was borne by the sovereigns of the so-called " German Empire" until recent times ; till this day, the crown of Charlemagne is preserved at Vienna. 46. Who was Alcuin ? — He was a learned ecclesiastic, an Englishman by birth ; he resided at the court of Charlemagne, who from him acquired a knowledge of grammar, rhetoric, music, astronomy, and natural history, also the art of writ- ing. Alcuin is particularly noted for having written an entire copy of the Scriptures with the pen, a labor which occupied many years. This greatly-prized copy of the Bible is now in the British Museum. 47. When did Charlemagne die? — He died 814, and was en- tombed in a vault of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. His body, dressed in robes of state, was seated in a marble chair, with the sceptre in his hand, the gospel on his knee, a piece of the holy cross on his head, and a pilgrim's scrip attached to his girdle. After about 350 years, his bones were gath- ered up, and enshrined in a casket of gold and silver. 48. Who was Louis le DSonnairef — He was the son and successor of Charlemagne. Being unable to govern the vast empire, he partitioned it among his three sons, Lothaire, Louis, and Charles. This last, styled Charles the Bald, re- ceived the kingdom of the Franks, which now for the first time was called France, 843. 49. Did this division terminate the dismemberfnent of Charle- mag7ie' s great empire? — No ; dissensions broke out among lo- cal dukes and chieftains, and in a short time the greater part of the empire was shattered into independent fragments. To The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. 03 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 295 this disruption is chiefly to be traced the origin of many of the petty kingdoms and duchies in modern Germany. 50. What was the Capetian dynasty ? — It was the third dy- nasty of Prankish or French kings, and began in 987 with Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, one of the great territorial barons of the time. Capet's seizure of the crown, in preju- dice of Charles of Lorraine, the nearest heir of the Carlo- vingian dynasty, was in reality a usurpation. 51. What was the Feudal System? — It was a method by which sovereigns made gifts of lands to their leading captains {duces, " dukes") and other adherents, on condition that they and their heirs should render military service to the crown. It began about the ninth century, and spread over the greater part of Western Europe, including the British Islands. 52. What was a Fief? — It was a piece of land or domain held by feudal tenure, and those who held it were styled vassals. As regards the greater vassals, they exercised al- most independent authority within their fiefs, but rendered at least a nominal homage to the king as their suzerain, and were bound to attend state ceremonials. 53. Give some examples of large fief-holders. — France offers some remarkable examples. In the middle ages that country comprehended Provence, Navarre, Burgundy, Lorraine, and various other great fiefs, the rulers of which owed allegiance to the " king of France" as suzerain. The extinction of these fiefs, and the consolidation of France, are events of modern times. 54. Had the great fief-holders subordinate vassals? — Yes ; the system of holding lands on condition of rendering military service went down and down from one to another, till at length society consisted of a series of dependent vassals, all connected with each other, and holding from the crown as a central power. 55. How were wars conducted under the feudal- system ? — By the sovereign summoning his vassals, who were generally the chief nobles of the kingdom, to appear in the field at a cer- tain time, with a certain military retinue ; and these nobles calling in the same same way on the lesser proprietors, they The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 296 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. in turn summoned the farmers and laborers, by which means a great army was raised at scarcely any expense to the crown. 56. What were the disadvantages of the feudal system ? — It raised up a body of powerful feudal chiefs, who built fortified castles, and besides levying war against each other, and op- pressing their unfortunate dependents, often held the crown at defiance. 57. Why did the sovereigns not keep the feudal chiefs in proper subjection ? — They were not always able to do so ; they had no standing army, nor indeed any large revenue where- with to hire soldiers. Much of the history of the middle ages consists of unseemly contests between kings and their great vassals. 58. What were Free Cities ? — They were certain large towns in various countries in Europe which possessed the privilege of self-government and of regulating their own affairs, yield- ing allegiance only to the sovereign 59. Were these privileges of ancient date? — Yes; in some in- stances they dated from the time of the ancient Romans; but in the greater number of cases, the privileges were con- ferred by the emperors after the introduction of the feudal system, in order to rear up communities who would aid them against the encroachments of the greater vassals. 60. Mention some of the old and important free cities in Con- tifiental Europe.— Y^mce, Genoa, Florence, Frankfort, Co- logne, Nurnburg, Liege, Hamburg, and Lubeck. 61. What were Guilds f—They were corporations or com- munities of traders in the free cities and towns, membership in which took place by apprenticeship and otherwise. Each guild exercised a monopoly in its own particular craft, in return for which privilege the members usually rendered military service as freemen in defending the towns from at- tack. Free towns of this kind in England were called Bor- oughs. 62. Who was Gregory I. .?— He was pope at the end of the sixth century, and was designated "the Great" on account of his great ability and many estimable qualities. He re- formed and organized the ritual of the church, into which The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588.— See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. O MED IE VAL HIS TOR Y, 297 he introduced certain choral melodies known as the " Gre- gorian Chant ;" he also extirpated many ecclesiastical abuses ; and among his valuable services to religion was that of de- puting Augustine to bring Britain within the pale of Chris- tianity. 63. What was the influence of the church in the middle ages f — The church exercised great iniauence in assuaging discords among contending sovereigns and chiefs, and also compre- hended almost the whole learning of the period. 64. In what way was the church prevalent ? — It was a great confederation of ecclesiastics of every country, distributed over Europe, all engaged in the same intellectual and spir- itual labors, all using the Latin tongue for learned purposes, and everywhere spreading a knowledge of letters. 65. What were pilgrimages to the Holy Land? — In the mid- dle ages it was customary for pious persons to make pilgrim- ages to Jerusalem in order to worship at shrines near the spot where Christ had been crucified. Pilgrimages were of- ten undertaken as a kind of expiatory sacrifice for the com- mission of heinous crimes. 66. What was the costume of pilgrijns ? — They were dressed in a loose frock fastened by a girdle, from which was sus- pended a small bag or scrip for provisions ; they carried a staff, generally in the form of a cross, and on the front of their hat they bore a scallop shell as a token of their sanctity — the shell being perhaps symbolic of a maritime journey. 6j. Were Christian pilgrims tolerated at Jerusalem after the conquest of Palestine by the califs? — Yes ; they were allowed to come and go on paying a small tribute, until the country fell under the power of the Turks. 68. Who were the Turks ? — They were a Tartar people pro- fessing the Mohammedan faith, who seized Palestine and adjacent regions in the eleventh century, and from their intolerant religious notions rendered Christian -pilgrimages impracticable. 69. What were the Crusades ? — They were expeditions un- dertaken by several Christian powers in Europe to rescue Palestine from the Turks, and make pilgrimages to the Holy Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278. 04 298 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Places available. Each warrior wore a red cross on the shoulder ; hence the French term croisade, signifying crossed, and from croisade is derived the English word crusade. 70. Who was Peter the Hermit ? — He was a religious enthu- siast in France, who by his preaching stimulated the first crusade, which took place in 1096. 71. Who was Godfrey of Bouillon? — He was one of the leaders of the first crusade, which succeeded in rescuing Palestine from the Turks, when he was constituted king of Jerusalem. 72. Who were the Knights Templar? — They were a religious military order, instituted to defend the holy temple at Jeru- salem, and along with the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, rendered important services during the crusade 73. How many crusades were there altogether ? — There were S I seven, extending from 1096 till about 1290; but some of them were of a very imperfect kind, and the whole were at- tended with a great sacrifice of life. 74. Who was Saladin? — He was a young and able Saracen chief, who at the head of an army of Mohammedans, invaded Palestine, and compelled Jerusalem to surrender, 1187. The Christian powers never regained possession of the coun- try, and matters finally settled down on the old principle of allowing pilgrimages to the Holy Places — a privilege which subsists till the present day. 75. Were the crusades of any value to Europe ?— Though totally failing in their object, they did good service by stimu^ Knight Templar. lating inquiry, making people of one country acquainted with those of other countries, and intro- ducing a knowledge of arts formerly unknown. They also gave a stimulus to chivalry. 76. What was Cnivalry? — Chivalry is a term derived from the French chevalier, a knight— the original of the word being cheual, a horse, as knights fought on horseback. Chiv- alry or knighthood arose in feudal times, when it became a Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 299 mark of dignity to show valor and dexterity in arms ; a true knight was expected to be not only brave but gentle, and a ready means of succor to all in distress. ']']. What was the influence of chivalry on the condition of women? — The practice of high-toned chivalry greatly tended to give women that honorable status and claim on delicate and proper attention, which they enjoy in all modern nations professing Christianity. 78. What were Heralds? — They were state officials of great antiquity, for they can be traced in the early history of Greece and Rome. Throughout the middle ages, but more particularly in feudal times, they acted as diplomatists be- tween sovereigns in matters of peace and war, 79. What were Tournaments? — They were real or sham fights of knights on horseback, conducted under certain regu- lations, at which heralds attended to regulate distinctions in rank and proclaim the names of victors. These amusements, which were ingreatfavorin the twelfth and thirteenth centu- ries, were known ^s passages-at-arms. 80. What were the general manners and habits of thought in the latter part of the middle ages? — Though modified by chiv- alry and restrained by the church, the manners were rude ; there was little safety for life and property; scarcely any but ecclesiastics could read or write; serfdom prevailed; there was a universal belief in fairies, witchcraft, and demon- ology; famines and plagues were of frequent occurrence; and so feebly was justice administered, that in some con- tinental countries secret tribunals sprung up as a means of redressing private grievances. 81. Explain the nature of the Secret Tribunals. — They orig- inated in Germany about the twelfth century, and were there called Vehmgerichte, or excommunicatory courts. Posses- sing no legal authority, they assembled in secret places during the night, and thither persons were brought on whom it was wished to execute vengeance. These courts inspired great terror in the thirteenth and fourteenth, and were not entirely extinguished till the middle of the sixteenth century. 82. What was Scandinavia? — It was a northern region, Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. 1 300 MEDIE VAL HISTOR V, which now comprehends Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The Scandinavians were noted for their maritime skill, and under the designation of Vikings, long carried on piratical expeditions against the more southern nations of Western Europe. 83. What was the religion of the Scandinavians? — Until about the year 1000, when they embraced Christianity, the Scandinavians believed in a number of fabulous gods, the chief of whom was Odin or Woden. Heroes, at their death, were to be received into Valhalla, the mansion of the gods and the warlike paradise of their wild mythology. 84. Who were the Normans ? — Normans, or Norsemen, was a name ordinarily given to the Scandinavians ; under this appellation they made some formidable descents on France in the ninth and tenth centuries. On one occasion, in 912, they could only be pacified by Charles the Simple ceding to them a portion of his kingdom, which from them was after- wards called Normandy. 85. Who was Rollo? — He was the chief of the Normans at the time they settled in France. Embracing Christianity, he was baptized under the name of Robert, and received the daughter of the king in marriage ; subsequently he became the first Duke of Normandy, and, as such, a vassal of the French sovereign. 86. When was Paper invented? — It is said to have been in- vented about the year 1000, but came slowly into use. The Chinese are said to have been acquainted with the art of making paper in very remote times. 87. When was Gunpowder invented? — It is generally thought to have been invented by Roger Bacon, an English monk, about 1270; but of this fact there is no certainty. Gun- powder was first used by the English at the battle of Cressy in 1346. The introduction of artillery in time superseded the use of bows and arrows in warfare, and led also to the abandonment of plate armor. 88. Who was Marco Polo ? — He was a Venetian who trav- elled in the Far East, and invented or first made known in Europe, the mariners' compass in 1260. The use of this Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. ^01 instrument greatly faciitated maritime enterprise, for hitherto navigators dared scarcely to sail their ships out of sight of land. 89. Who were the Slavonians ? — They were the progenitors of the Russians, Poles, Bohemians, and some other peoples in the east and north of Europe, who differ in language from nations of the Teutonic or German type. Arising from dif- ferent historic circumstances, some nations of Slavonic origin belong to the Greek, while others are members of the Latin Church. 90. Who were the Troubadours? — They were poets and singers, who flourished from the tenth till the thirteenth century. They belonged chiefly to Provence, in the south of France. The term troubadour is derived from the French trouver, to find or invent. 91 . Who were the Minnesingers ? — They were poets and sing- ers in Germany in the twelfth century ; they were generally knights or men of noble descent, and, like the troubadours, sung ballads of their own composition about love, friendship, religion, chivalry, and the beauties of nature, at the courts of kings and feudal chiefs. The term minnesinger is from the old German word minne, denoting love. 92. Who were the Minstrels .?— They were singers and per- formers on instruments, who wandered about like the trou- badours and minnesingers, but were of an inferior social rank and usually sung the verses of others. The term minstrel, from the French menestrier, to amuse, was introduced by the Normans into England. 93. Who were the Scalds /—They were the minstrels and chroniclers of the Scandinavians, and sung heroic ballads concerning the deeds of heroes and the mythology of the north. 94. Who were the Bards ?— They were the poets of the Cel- tic tribes, who sang the exploits of heroes, and were the re- positories of popular traditions. The bards continued to flourish till comparatively recent times in Ireland, Wales, and the Highlands of Scotland. 95. How was the intelligence of events communicated in the 13 A The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors.— See page 243. -q2 medieval history. middle ages ?— Intelligence was communicated in a very tard^ manner, for there was no system of posts, no regular means of conveyance, and no newspapers, because printing was not invented. Sometimes years elapsed before the people of one country knew what had taken place in other countries. The disseminators of ordinary news were wandering min- strels, pilgrims, traders, and mendicants. 96. Who was Prester John? — In the middle ages, when many fanciful stories were told by pilgrims and travellers respecting distant countries, a belief was propagated that there was a Christian sovereign in some remote part of Asia called Prester John, a name signifying John the Priest. It is now known that there was no such personage. 97. When did the Popes reside at Avignon .?— They resided at Avignon, the capital of a district they had acquired, fiora 1305 till 1377. 98. Who was Rienzi? — He was a native of Rome, who, dur- ing the residence of the popes at Avignon, endeavored to re- store the ancient Roman republic ; as a popular demagogue, he excited great commotion, and attained to considerable authority ; he, however, lacked ability, and was, properly speaking, a political fanatic. Rienzi was killed in a tumult, 1354. 99. What is meant by " Jacquerie f — The Jacquerie were bands of revolted peasants in France, who, in 1358, headed by one Jacques Bonhomme, went about destroying property. When mobs of rural laborers commit acts of wanton mis- chief, this French phrase Jacquerie is sometimes applied to them. 100. What was the condition of China in the middle ages? — It was inhabited by an ingenious race of people, skilled in a variety of arts, who traced their history to a remote antiquity. They professed a religious system, founded on the teach- ing of a sage called Confucius, who lived about 550 b. c. loi . Who were the Mongols ? — They were a fierce and power- ful Asiatic people, who inhabited Mongolia — a region north of the Great Wall of China. 102. What was the Great Wall of China ? — It was a wall o( Crcesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. P^fvC'iihi'v'iiiiHii Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 303 great height and breadth, erected by the Chinese on the northern boundary of their country, to defend themselves against Calmucks, Mongols, and other races. This wall was long thought a wonder of the world ; it extended 1250 miles from east to west. 103. Who was Genghis Khan? — He was a Mongol chief, who made himself master of a great part of Tartary, in 121 1 ; g he passed the great wall, and carried his conquests into China. He died 1227, before the conquest of China was completed ; and from his ambition and recklessness, he is reputed to have been the means of slaying more than five millions of human beings. The term khan signifies chief. 104. Was China ftdly subdued by the Mongols? — Yes; its conquest was completed by the immediate successors of Genghis ; they established a Mongol, or West Tartar, dynasty, which reigned from 1279 to 1368, when they were expelled by the Chinese, and the Ming native dynasty succeeded ; but in 1644 the Mantchu or East Tartars conquered the country, and have ever since governed it. 105. What was the conditio7i of India in the 7niddle ages? — India or Hindustan, was divided into many petty states, and occupied by an ancient people, known as Hindus ; they were of simple, frugal, and industrious habits, and adhered to the Brahmanical religious system. 106. What is the Brahmanical religion? — It consists mainly in a belief of Brahma, a deity regarded as the creator of the universe, with whom is associated Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer. The religion includes many strange usages, and also the division of the people into castes. 107. Who was Timur the Tartar ?— He was an Asiatic con- queror, related to the family of Genghis Khan. To Timur was added the term Lenh, signiiying Lame ; the two words, Timur and Lenk, have been corrupted into Tamerlane, by which name Timur is best known. He subdued India in 1402, and, in 1526, his great-grandson, Baber, founded the Mongol dynasty, which lasted until recent times. I 108. Who was the great Mogul ? — That was an ordinary >» designation of the sovereigns of India of the Mongol dynasty Pu 0) A Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. S 304 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, They lived in a style of great magnificence at Delhi, which continued to be the capital of India, until the seat of royalty was transferred by Akbar to Agra. 109. What was the religion of the Mongols? — It was Mo- hammedanism, which by them was introduced into India, but never accepted by the native Flindus. 1 10. Who was Buddha ? — He was a meditative recluse in India, who lived about 600 years B. C, and became the founder of a religion known as Buddhism, which in time spread over Burmah and Ceylon, and was largely embraced in China. 111. What is the nature of Buddhism? — It is atheistic, and consists mainly of a rigorous system of morals. The aim of its professors is to reach such a degree of purity of life, as will entitle them to enter into Nirvana, by which is meant utter annihilation ; and, until this is reached, they believe they pass at death into various individuals and animals in succession — this process being what is called the " transmigra- tion of souls." Along with these extraordinary fancies. Bud- dhism has the merit of excluding the pernicious system of castes. 112. Who were the Gypsies? — They were a body of unsettled wanderers who arrived in Germany and Italy about 1414, and spread themselves over Europe. They were thought to come from Egypt, and were therefore in England called ^^Z- sies, and in Spain ^zM« U CO The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273 310 BRITISH HISTORY. had already become a place of considerable trade and im portance. 20. What is the meaning of the word Calais? — Calais is de- rived from a Celtic term signifying a strait, which term is radically the same as A^/^j, applied to various small straits in Scotland. 21. What is 7neant by " Watling Street?" — Such was the name given to the chief Roman road in Britain, which ex- tended from Kent to Cardigan Bay. It was constructed by order of the Roman general Vitellianus, whose name was corrupted by the natives into Watelain ; and hence Watling Street. 22. How long did the Romans occupy Britain?— ThQy re- mained between 300 and 400 years. About 420 A. D., their soldiers were wholly withdrawn in order to defend Italy against the attacks of the Goths, after which the stirring events in British history commence. 23. Of what does British history consist ? — It consists of two separate narratives, one concerning England, and the other Scotland, or the more northerly section of Britain ; and these narratives remain distinct until 1707, when the two nations were legislatively united on terms of equality. 24. Does each narrative embrace the account of a distinct series of sovereigns ? — Yes; England and Scotland had each its own series of kings, under whom the two nations were often at war ; and the interest of their history turns not a little on the intrepid manner in which Scotland, the poorer and less populous kingdom, was able for ages to preserve its ancient independence against the assaults of its more pow- erful neighbor. 25. What explanation is given of the long-continued indepen- dence of Scotland? — The proper explanation is, that Scotland became consolidated under one monarchy before the English were in a condition to attack it ; and further, that the Scots, with all their internal dissensions, ordinarily acted with res- olute patriotism when assailed from without. 26. Has Ireland a similarly separate history? — No; as that island was attached by conquest to the English monarchy The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815 — See page 368. W BRITISH HISTORY. 311 while it was under the rule of various petty kings or chiefs^ its history is usually merged in that of England. 27. What is known of the ancient state of Ireland? — The island was divided into the provinces of Ulster, Munster, Leinster, and Connaught, each having its own king ; there was also a king who ruled over the central district of Meath, to whom the others were in some degree subject. Of this early period, there are numerous interesting memorials which engage the attention of archaeologists. 28. What is Tara? — Tara, or Tarah, is a small conical hill in the county of Meath, where, it is said, there was a royal residence in very early times, and where assemblies, of the nature of a parliament, were held every three years. It is mentioned that St. Patrick attended and took part at these conventions. 29. Who was St. Patrick? — He was a monk deputed from Rome by Pope Celestine to preach in Ireland. He arrived in that country in 432, and his mission was so very success- ful that to him is assigned the honor of having Christianized the Irish people. It is said that St. Patrick settled at Armagh about 454, and that he died 460. He has ever since been venerated as the patron saint of Ireland. 30. Who were the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes? — They were warlike Teutonic tribes inhabiting that northwestern part of Germany near the shores of the, Baltic, which now compre- hends the duchies of Holstein, Jutland, and Schleswig. 31. Who was Vortigern? — He was elected king in South Britain on the withdrawal of the Romans, and invited the Saxons to aid him in defending the country against the in- cursions of the Caledonians. 32. What was the date of the arrival of the Saxons? — It was 449 A. D. ; there is reason, however, to believe that the Saxons had formed small colonies on the east coast of Britain, pre- vious to this event, and were already acquainted with the country. 33. Who were Hengist and Horsa ? — They are represented to have been leaders of the Saxons ; but historians now con* sider them to have been only mythical heroes. The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. V 1 312 BRITISH HISTORY. 34. Did the Saxons assist the British? — Yes; but having done so, they made themselves masters of the country. 35. When did the Angles arrive? — They came either along with the Saxons, or shortly afterwards; and from their in- termixture is derived the term Anglo-Saxon, applied to the mixed Teutonic races which settled in the southern part of Britain. 36. What is the origin of- the word England? — It is only an abbreviation of Angleland, or the land of Angles, by which the country became known. 36. What was the fate of the native British ? — The greater number submitted to the Saxons and Angles, and were accord- ingly blended in the general population ; but many sought refuge among the mountains of Wales and Cumberland, and others fled to that part of France, which from them has been called Brittany. 38. What did the Welsh call themselves ? — They called them- selves the Cymri, a term signifying countrymen, or those who were not foreigners. The modern word Cumberland is derived from the same root. 39. Who was King Arthur? — He was king of the Cymri or Welsh at the beginning of the sixth century, and made a resolute stand against the Anglo-Saxons. He was mortally wounded in battle, and died 542. Arthur and his heroic deeds have given rise to numerous fabulous legends. 40. Who were the Picts? — They were the more northern Caledonians, who had not submitted to the Romans, and were of the same Celtic race as the aboriginal British. 41. Who were the Scots? — They were tribes of Celts from Ireland who settled in the Western part of North Britain; having in time gained the ascendency over the Picts, the country was from them called Scotland. 42. Did the Saxons and Angles effect any settlement in North Britain?— Yes\ they established themselves in that part of the country situated between the Forth and the Tyne, and it is known that various Scandinavian colonies were also formed along the eastern shores of the country. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330 The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. BRITISH HIS TOR V. ^ j ^ 43. WAa^ was the Heptarchy ?—S\ich was the name given to seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, called Kent, East-Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, and Northumbria— this last including a portion of what is now Scotland. The term Heptarchy signifies seven governments. 44. When did the Heptarchy commence?— \\, is impossible to tell exactly, but Mercia, the latest of the seven Anglo-Saxon States, was founded in 585. Including the Welsh, Cumbrian, Pictish, Scottish, and other petty states, there were at least fourteen different governments at one time in Britain ; among which several languages, native and foreign, were in use. 45. When was Christianity introduced into Britain ? — It was made partially known during the Roman dominion, and was afterwards propagated by various missionaries from Rome and also from Ireland. 46. Mention the names of the more remarkable Missionaries to Britain. — St. Ninian, St. Columba, St. Kentigern or Mungo, and St. Augustine. By the three first mentioned, ■who are usually spoken of as Culdees, Christianity was made generally known in Scotland before St. Augustine ap- peared in England, 47. Who were the Culdees? — They were priests or monks in the early ages of Christianity in the British islands, and are known to have had several monastic establishments in Ireland and Scotland. The term Culdee is from the Celtic Irish language, and signifies an attendant on God. 48. Did the Culdees differ in doctrine or discipline fro7n the Church of Rome ? — Not materially ; it was long thought that the Culdees held some other form of Christianity than that of the Church of Rome, but late investigations show that they did not differ in any material point of faith, discipline, or ritual from the other Catholic clergy of the period ; ulti- mately, the Culdees, generally, became known as Canons Regular. 49. When did St. Columba begin his missionary labors ? — He came from Ireland in 563, and commenced establishing a religious settlement in the small island of I, now called lona 14 Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators— See page 278, 2 1 . BRITISH HIS TOR Y, whence the light of Christianity was diffused over the north- western Caledonian regions. 50. Who was St. Augustine f— He was a monk deputed from Rome by Gregory I. in the year 596, to convert the Anglo-Saxons, in which great work he was successful. He became first archbishop of Canterbury. By the labors of St. Augustine and others, Christianity was very generally dif- fused, and an ecclesiastical system established about the end of the sixth century. 51. How long did the Heptarchy endure .^— It lasted until 827, when Egbert, king of Wessex, gained an ascendency over the other states, and united the whole into one sover- eignty. This event marks the origin of the kingdom of England. 52. Who was Alfred f—AUred, usually styled Alfred the Great, was the grandson of Egbert, and as king of England was famed for his courage, sagacity, and amiable disposition. During his reign, which began in 871, England was in- vaded by the Danes, who for a time usurped the government ; but Alfred afterwards expelled them. He died 901. 53. Did the Danes again invade Eng- land? — Yes ; they came in great force in 1013, and having overthrown the Anglo-Saxons, they established a Dan- Alfred the Great, ish dynasty, 54. How many kings were there of the Danish dynasty? — Four — Sweyn, Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute ; of these the most noted was Canute, who ruled with great discretion. 55. What is the story about Canute and the sea ? — It is re- lated that his courtiers affected to think that all things would be obedient to his command. In order to reprove their adu- lation, he caused his chair to be placed on the sea-shore while the tide was coming in, and commanded the waves to retire. The sea. however, continued to advance, and at length surrounded his chair, whereupon Canute made same Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779 See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133. BRITISH HISTOR Y. 315 observations concerning the limited nature of all earthly power. 56. Did the Da7ies ravage Ireland? — Yes ; they made sev- eral descents on Ireland in the ninth and tenth centuries ; they also committed great havoc in various parts of that country, at the beginning of the eleventh century. 57. Who was Brian Boroihine ? — Brian Boroihme (pro- nounced Borou), was a king or chieftain of note in Ireland, who defeated the Danes at the battle of Clontarf, in 1014. 58. What was the nature of the Anglo-Saxon Institutions? — They were favorable to justice and liberty. To the Anglo- Saxons is traced that love of constitutional government, and also that sense of justice, which distinguish the character of the English. 59. Mention two i^nportant Anglo-Saxon institutions. — The Witenagemote, and trial by jury. 60. What was the WitenagejnSte ? — It was a species of par- liament called together by the king to decide on affairs of state ; the term literally signifies a meeting of wise men. 61. What was Trial by Ordeal? — It was an Anglo-Saxon method of determining facts in criminal cases, too intricate for ordinary judgment. Chance ruled the decision. The ac- cused was ordered to grasp red-hot iron, and if his hand showed marks of burning, he was held to be guilty ; if his hand was uninjure d, he was held to be innocent. Prayers accompanied this and other forms of trial by ordeal, which was meant as a direct appeal to the Deity. 62. Did differences of rank prevail in Anglo-Saxon times ? — Yes ; there was an aristocracy, or body of nobles who bore the title of eorls or earls, among whom was an officer called an ealdorman (meaning " older man" or " senator") — hence the modern term alderman. 63. What were the duties of the Eorl? — He was the princi- pal officer in a district, and had a deputy called scirger^fa — a term now modified into the word sheriff. Hence shires, or counties, as they were afterwards named, when presided over by Norman counts, were of Anglo-Saxon origin. Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to E xist.— See page 65 n 316 BRITISH HIS TOR V. 64. IV/iai were Thanes? — Thanes were landholders ol high rank ; proprietors of lesser distinction were called Franklins. 65. DLi Serfdom exist under the Anglo-Saxons ? — Yes ; the majority of the people were in a servile state, and the Nor- man barons only increased the rigor of the servitude in which the " thralls" were kept by the Saxon thanes. Many of the Franklins, it is believed, lost their lands and liberty at the Conquest. 66. Who was Edward the Confessor? — He was an Anglo- Saxon prince, who was chosen king on the death of Hardi- canute, 1042, by which means the old dynasty was restored. Edward was surnamed the Confessor on account of his piety. He died 1066. 67. Who was Harold? — He was son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, who, on the death of Edward the Confessor, usurped the crown, to the prejudice ot Prince Edgar Atheling, the nearest heir of the deceased king, and remained in power till deposed by William the Conqueror. 68. Who was William the Conqueror? — He was Duke of Normandy, a warlike and ambitious personage, who contested the right of Harold to the crown, and with a large force of Normans invaded England, 1066. 69. What was the battle of Hastings ? — It was a battle fought near Hastings, on the south coast of England, between Wil- liam of Normandy and Harold, October 14, 1066, in which Harold was defeated and slain. 70. What has this victory by William been usually called? — It has been styled the Norman Conquest, and forms a lead- ing event in English history, for it terminated the rule of the Anglo-Saxons, and introduced a Norman-French dynasty, along with the feudal system, and many new families of for- eign lineage. 71. What is Williatn styled an English history? — He is styled William I. or William the Conqueror. 72. Did William I. relinquish his Norman dukedom ? — No ; though settling as king in England, he retained his Norman Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47, BRITISH HISTOR Y. ^ 1 7 §> p< dukedom, a circumstance which long connected the English « kings with France, and from which till this day the English | hold possession of Guernsey, Jersey, and other Channel Q Islands. . i UNIYERSriY. ) Printing was Invented in i437> by Jo^" Guttenberg.— See page 305. BRITISH HISTOR Y. 3 j^ brief usurpations, by his eldest son, Edgar, who was suc- ceeded by his next brother, Alexander I. 87. Who was David I. f — He was the youngest son of Malcolm Canmore and Queen Margaret, and ultimately suc- ceeded to the throne in 1124. Like his mother, he was dis- tinguished for his piety, which led him to build many splendid abbeys and religious houses of lesser note. 88. For what was the reign of David remarkable ? — With this reign written charters to property in Scotland begin ; to it is also to be traced the settlement of Anglo-Norman chiefs, and the introduction of feudal tenure — by which, and previous advances, Scotland acquired a similarity of usages with England. David died 11 53, and was succeeded by his grandson, Malcolm IV., styled Malcolm the maiden. 89. When was the present border of England and Scotland settled? — With some minor exceptions, the present border dates from_ 11 57, in the reign of Malcolm IV., when Cumber- land was severed from Scotland and attached to England. 90. When did Malcolm IV. die? — He died 1165; his suc- cessors were William the Lion, Alexander II., and Alexander III. This last was killed by accident in 1285, and left only a grand-daughter, Margaret, known as the " Maiden of Nor- way," at whose death, 1290, there ensued a violent competi- tion for the throne, followed by a disastrous civil war. 91. Who succeeded William the Conqueror ? — His son, William II., slirnamed i??^/'//^, from the red color of his hair. 92. Mention some events in the reign of William Rufus. — The crusades were begun in Continental Europe, 1096, and Westminster Hall was built, 1097. 93. What was the fate of Rufus? — He was accidentally killed by an arrow, shot by Sir Walter Tyrrell, in the New Forest, in iioo, and was succeeded by his brother Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc, from being a fine scholar. 94. Who was '* Maud the Good?" — Maud was the daughter of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scots, and wife of Henry I. 95. What children had Henry and Maud? — They had a son who was lost at sea, and a daughter, Matilda or Maud, mar- Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821— See page 411. 2 20 BRITfSH HIS TOR Y. ried, while still a child, to the emperor of Germany ; thai person dying, she was married to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count Anjou, and had a son, Henry. 96. Who succeeded Henry I. ?— At h\s death, in 1 135, there was a contest for the crown. The proper heir was Henry Plantagenet, son of Matilda ; but a usurper appeared in the person of Stephen, Count of Blois, son of Adele, fifth daughter of William the Conqueror ; and he was allowed by a com- promise, after a bloody struggle, to be king, on condition of being succeeded by Henry. 97. Who built St. Stephens Chapel, adjoining Westminster Hall}— It was built by King Stephen, and dedicated to his namesake, St. Stephen, about 1135. Two centuries after- wards, St. Stephen's was appropriated to the use of parliament. 98. How did the Plantagenet dynasty originate? — It origin- ated by the accession of Henry Plantagenet to the throne as Henry H., on the decease of Stephen, in 11 54. 99. Who was Thomas h Becket? — He was archbishop of Can- terbury, and from his learning and wisdom, had been ap- pointed Lord Chancellor of England ; but incurring the dis- like of Henry U., by opposing Henry's schemes of church polity, that monarch instigated a band of nobles to kill him ; this foul murder took place in the cathedral of Canterbury, 1 1 70. 100. What were pilgrimages to Canterbury? — They were pious expeditions undertaken by great numbers of persons to worship at Canterbury at the shrine of Thomas a Becket, who was canonized as a saint ; these pilgrimages continued till the sixteenth century. 101. When was Ireland attached to the English monarchy ?~ In 1 1 55, Henry n. obtained a bull from Pope Adrian IV., authorizing him to take possession of the island, and he dici so about 1 171 ; but the English rule was not confirmed till the reign of King John, 1210. 102. When was the first London Bridge built? — The first stone bridge across the Thames at London was begun in the reign of Henry II., 1176, and finished in 1209. 103. Who was Richard Casur-de-Lion? — He was the eldest Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. BRITISH HISTORY. 32 1 surviving son of Henry II., and acceded to the throne on the death of his father, 1189. Richard gained celebrity as a crusader, and was surnamed Cceur-de-Lzoft, or Lion-hearted, on account of his bravery and magnanimity. 104. When did Richard Cceur-de-Lion die? — He died 11 99, by the wound of an arrow, shot from the castle of Chaluz, Limoges. He was buried at the abbey of Fontevrault, where his tomb is still shown. 105. Who was King John? — He was brother of Richard Coeur-de-Lion, whom he succeeded in 1199. 106. What was Magna Chart a ? — Magna Charta, or the Great Charter, was a deed subscribed by King John at Run- nymede, near Windsor, in 121 5, securing certain rights and privileges to the barons, clergy, and freemen. This charter, resting on certain Anglo-Saxon usages, and notions of com- mon-sense is reckoned the foundation of English liberty. 107. Define two or three of the leading provisions of Magna Charta. — No tax is to be imposed without the consent of the kingdom ; no freeman is to be imprisoned or punished with- out lawful trial by jury, and if the trial is delayed, the accused can apply to be tried or set at liberty. The charter, how- ever, took but little notice of serfs or villeins, and it was only in the progress of society that these humble classes at length participated in the privileges assured to the barons, clergy, and freemen. 108. Who succeeded Kin^ John?—liQ was succeeded by his eldest son, Henry III., 1216. 109. When was Westminster Abbey built f—ThQ greater part of the abbey as it now exists was built in the reign of Henry III., about 1220, but portions remain of a previous church erected by Edward the Confessor; and it is said that the first church on the spot was built by Sibert, king of Es- sex, about 610. 1 10. When was the Parliament of England first constituted f ^The first regularly constituted parliament, embracing knights, citizens, and burgesses, took place in the reign of Henry III., 1265. Previous parliaments had been of a less The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. 322 BRITISH HISTOR Y. perfect kind ; 1265 is therefore the date of a confirmed repre sentation of the people in a House of Commons. 111. Who succeeded Henry III. ? — He was succeeded in 1272 by his eldest son, Edward I., one of the^reatest sovereigns of England. 112. When did Edward I. conquer Wales? — He conquered it and added it to the English monarchy in 1282. His infant son Edward was created Prince of Wales soon after his birth, and ever since, this title has pertained to the eldest son of the sovereign of England. 113. Who was Queen Eleanor ? — She was the wife of Edward I., who held her in such high esteem, that at her death in 1290, he erected a number of crosses to her memory. These edifices, usually called Norman crosses, were placed on spots where the body of Queen Eleanor rested in its funeral pro- gress to Westminster. Among the number were the crosses at Northampton, St. Albans, Waltham, and village of Char- ing — hence the name Charing Cross. 114. What was the condition of the Jews in England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ? — They suffered great injustice and cruelty, were often subjected to grievous exactions, and always exposed to unmerited contumely. In 1290, upwards of 15,000 were banished from England. The maltreatment of the Jews rests as a stain on the memory of Edward I., and some other kings of the Plantagenet dynasty. 115. Who were John Baliol and Robert Bruce? — They were two Scottish nobles who competed for the throne of Scot- land, after the decease of Alexander HI. ; the dispute being referred to Edward I. as arbitrator, he decided in favor of Baliol, but soon stripped him of his sovereignty, and en deavored by force of arms to take the kingdom to himself. 116. What has Edward I. been called? — He has been styled the Hammer of the Scots, from the manner in which he forci- bly reduced the country to temporary subjection. 117. What was the " Stone of Scone?"— It was a stone on which the kings of Scotland had been crowned at Scone (pronounced Scoon), said to be of great antiquity. This stone, being taken to England, is now attached to a chair of state Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. Oi BRITISH HISTOR Y. 323 in Westminster Abbe3% on which the sovereigns are crowned. 118. Who was Wilh'am Wallace? — He was a celebrated Scottish patriot, younger son of a gentleman in Renfrew- shire, who endeavored with great gallantry to expel the Eng- lish from Scotland, but after various achievements, was by treachery delivered to Edward, and subjected to a cruel death in London, 1305. 1 19. Who was Robert I, ? — He was Robert Bruce, son of the Earl of Carrick, and grandson of the Robert Bruce who com- peted for the crown of Scotland with Baliol ; he finally es- tablished himself as king by the victory of Bannockburn, and assumed the designation of Robert I. 120. When was the Irish parliament instituted? — The first regular parliament, consisting of persons representing the English in Ireland, was summoned in 1295 by Sir John Wogan, chief governor under Edward I. 121. When did Edward L die? — He died in 1367, and was succeeded by his son, Edward H., by whom, as well as by his successor, Edward HI., the Scots continued to be troubled. 122. When was the battle of Ban7tockburn fought ? — It was fought in the reign of Edward II., on the 24th of June, 1314. 123. When did Robert I. die? — He died in 1329, and left an only son, a child by a second marriage, David II., during whose minority the government was administered by an em- inept regent, Randolph, Earl of Moray. By his first mar- riage, Robert I. left a daughter, Marjory. 1 24. Did David II. enjoy the throne peacefully ? — No ; he was involved in contests with the English, was taken pris- oner, and kept in captivity eleven years, but was at length re- leased by Edward III., on paying a heavy ransom, 1357. David II. died without issue, 1370. 125. When did the Stuart dynasty begin? — The Stuart or Stewart dynasty began with Robert 11. , nephew and succes- sor of David II. Robert was a son of Marjory Bruce, who had married Walter, Lord High Steward of Scotland, and hence his surname. 126. Who were the immediate successors of Robert II. f--* Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology. Numbered 12.— See page 242 2 24 BRITISH HIS TOR Y Robert III., James I., James II., James III., James IV., and James V. 127. What was the fate of James I.? — Though the most ac- complished prince of his time, he was barbarously murdered in 1437. 128. How did the Shetland and Orkney Islands become attached, to the Scottish 7nonarchy f — In 1468, James III. married a Dan- ish princess, whose dowry was 60,000 florins, for which these islands were given in pledge. As the dowry was never paid, the islands remained a possession of the Scots. 1 29. What claim did Edward III. inake to France ? — He pre- tended a right to the crown through his mother; and taking the title of king of France, 1340, he assumed for his motto, Dieu et mon Droit (" God and my right"), which has ever since been borne by the kings of England. After a long siege, Edward captured Calais, on which occasion he designed to hang six of the citizens; but their lives were spared at the intercession of Queen Philippa. 130. Who was Edward the Black Prince? — He was eldest son of Edward III., and was called the Black Prince from the color of his armor. He gained a victory over the French at the battle of Cressy, 1346 ; among the killed was the king of Bohemia, whose crest, consisting of three ostrich feathers with the motto Ich Dien (I serve), was adopted by Edward, and has ever since been borne by the Princes of Wales. 131. When was Calais captured by Edward III.? — It was taken in 1347, and remained for 211 years in possession of the English. 1 32. When was the battle of Poictiers fought ? — It was fought in 1356, when Edward the Black Prince gained a victory over the French. 1 33. What was the " Statute of Kilkenny f " — It was an act of the Irish parliament, which was passed in 1367, in the reign of Edward III., decree' g excommunication and heavy pen- alties against all who ollowed the customs of, or allied them- selves with, the native Irish. This famous act never had much efiicacy beyond the Pale. 1 34. What was the Pale ? — It was a district of country round The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. BRITISH HIS TOR Y. 325 the seat of government, over which the English rule was ac- knowledged and obeyed — all beyond the Pale being held by a very imperfect tenure. The extent of the Pale differed at different times, but in a general way may be said to have been a strip along the east side of the island, comprising the counties of Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kilkenny, and Louth. 135. V/hen did the Black Prince die? — He died in the life- time of his father, 1376. Edward IIL, who died next year, had six other sons, including Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, also five daughters. 136. Who succeeded Edward III.? — He was succeeded by his grandson Richard H., son of Edward the Black Prince. 137. Who was Wat Tyler? — He was a man of humble de- gree, who headed a popular tumult, 1381, arising from the imposition of a poll-tax and other grievances, in the reign of Richard H. Tyler was stabbed by Walworth, lord-mayor of London, from which event the figure of a dagger is still borne in the armorial bearings of the city of London. 138. Whowas Wickliffe? — John Wickliffe or Wycliffe was a learned English clergyman in the reign of Edward HL and Richard U. ; he became noted for preaching against the powers claimed by the pope, and for announcing certain re- formed doctrines. Wickliffe died in 1384, and has been styled the " Morning Star of the Reformation." 139. What was the fate of Richard II.? — He was deposed and murdered, 1399, and was succeeded by his cousin, Henry IV., eldest son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, in preju- dice of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, great-grandson of Lionel, third son of Edward HL 140. Who was Henry Hotspur? — He was a son of Percy, Earl of Northumberland, who, along with a valiant Welsh- man, Owen Glendower, raised a rebellion against Henry IV.; the rebel forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and Hotspur was killed, 1403. 141. Who was the immediate successor of Henry IV. and V.? — Henry VI., in whose reign an insurrection broke out under Jrick Cade, 1450 ; after attempting to sack London, Cade was killed, and the insurgents were dispersed. In this reign, 14 A % The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C.— See page 273. 326 BRITISH HISTORY. about 1453, the English lost all their possessions in Frances Henry VI. was deposed 1461, and was murdered by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, youngest son of Richard, Duke of York, 1471. He was succeeded by Edward IV. 142. When did Edward IV. die? — He died 1483; his son, Edward V., after a short reign, was deposed and murdered b}/ his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester (brother of Edward IV.), who usurped the throne as Richard III. 1483. 143. Who was William Caxton ? — He was a citizen of Lon- don, who introduced the art of printing into England ; he set up a press at Westminster about 1471. 144. What were the wars of the Roses f — They were civil wars between the rival houses of York and Lancaster; the badge of the York family was a white, and that of Lancaster a red, rose — hence the name of these fierce and desolating contests. 145. Which party was ultimately successful? — The house of Lancaster, which, in the person of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, overcame the House of York, represented by Richard III. at the battle of Bosworth, 1485, when Richard was killed, and Richmond ascended the throne as Henry VII. So ended the dynasty of the Plantagenets. 146. When did the Tudor dynasty begin ? — It began with Henry VII., the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who was the son of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman. The Tu- dors rose to distinction by Owen marrying Queen Catherine, widow of Henry V. Their son Edmund still further ad- vanced the interests of the family by marrying a great-grand- daughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and it was through this lady, his mother, that Henry laid claim to the throne. 147. By whom were affairs in Ireland administered? — They were administered at this period by an officer styled theZ^rJ Deputy, who was appointed by the English sovereign. 148. What was " Poyning's law?" — It was the celebrated statute of Drogheda, passed in 1495, during the administratioa of Lord Deputy Poyning. The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794, — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. BRITISH HISTOR Y. 327 149. What was the aim of Poy?izng's Law?— Its aim was to place the Irish parHament under the direct control of the English executive, so as to prevent the great Anglo-Irish families from uniting to resist the English government. 150. What did Poyning's Law specially enact? — It enacted that all statutes lately passed in England should be law in Ireland ; and in interpretation of this, the whole English statute law, prior to the eighteenth year of Henry VII., was transplanted to Ireland. 1 51. Who was Perkin War deck? — He was a pretender who affected to be Richard, Duke of York, the younger brother of EdwardV., and, as such, entitled to be king in preference to Henry VII. Perkin having raised a rebellion, was taken prisoner, and hanged at Tyburn, 1499. 1 52. What was the character of Henry VII. ? — He was avar- icious and cold-tempered ; but he ruled with much sagacity, and promoted a number of laws beneficial to the country. 153. How were the Houses of York and Lancaster united? — By Henry VII, marrying Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV. Henry died in 1509, leaving one son, Henry, and two daughters, Margaret and Mary. 154. Who was Henry VIII.? — He was the surviving son and successor of Henry VII., and ascended the English throne in, 1509. He was a learned and accomplished prince, but imperious and cruel. Henry vill. 155. How many wives had Henry VIII., and what was their fate?—Ue married six wives in succession. His frst wiie was Catharine of Aragon, widow of his deceased brother Prince Arthur, whom he divorced ; his second was Anne Boleyn, whom he caused to be beheaded ; his third wcls Lady Jane Seymour, who died in giving birth to a prince; his fourth was Anne of Cleves, whom he divorced ; his fifth was Catharine Howard, whom he caused to be beheaded ; and his sixth was Lady Catharine Parr, who had the good-fortune neither to be divorced nor beheaded by Henry, and survived him. m The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 1 328 BRITISH HISTORY, 156. What children had Henry VIII. ? — He had three chil. dren — Mary, a daughter of Catharine of Aragon ; EHzabeth, a daughter of Anne Boleyn ; and Edward, a son of Lady Jane Seymour. 157. What title was conferred on Henry VIII. by the pop e? — The title of " Defender of the Faith" was conferred on him by Pope Leo X., as a reward for writing against Martin Luther, 1521. 158. Who was Cardinal Wolsey ? — He was an eminent eccle- siastic and able statesman, who for a time possessed the confidence of Henry VHL; but refusing to sanction the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was degraded from office, and accused of treason ; in distress of mind Wolsey died, 1530. 159. What was the immediate cause of the Reformation in England? — It was a quarrel between Henry VHL and the pope. 160. Explain the cause of this moDtentous quarrel. — Henry, having divorced his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, and married Anne Boleyn, the pope declared this second mar- riage to be unlawful, and at length excommunicated Henry for contumacy ; thereupon Henry threw off the papal power, and with the assent of parliament became supreme head of the Church of England, 1534. 161. Who was Sir Thomas More? — He was an eminent law- yer, appointed Lord Chancellor of England on the fall of Wolsey. As he could not be prevailed upon by Henry VIH. to declare that his marriage with Anne Bolyen had been lawful, he was, by a flagrant act of injustice, arraigned, tried and condemned at Westminster, and was beheaded, 1535. 162. When were the monasteries abolished in England? — From 1535 to 1537; in this last year, the English translation of the Bible was ordered to be used in public worship. Henry had now assumed the supremacy of the church. 163. What have these events been designated? — They are called " the Reformation," which marked an important era in English history. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. BRITISH HISTOR Y. 329 164. What was a leading feature of the Reformation in Eng^ land? — It left the organization of the church much as it had been previously, and was mainly a change of certain doc- trines and usages, along with a repudiation of papal autho- rity. 165. When was the Reformation effected in Ireland? — It was effected in 1 535, when Henry VIII. caused the Irish parliament to pass an act establishing his supremacy, The people of Ireland, however, did not generally adopt the reformed doc- trines. 166. When was Ireland raised to the rank of a kingdom ? — It was raised to that dignity by Henry VIII. in 1540, when he adopted the title of King in place of Lord of Ireland, and conferred peerages on various native chiefs, who did homage as feudal vassals to the English crown. 167. What was the condition of England during the reign of Henry VIII . ? — There was much poverty, crime, and violence ; more particularly after the dissolution of the religious houses and the dispersal of their inmates. In the reign of Henry VIII., extending to 38 years, 73,000 criminals are said to have been executed in England. 168. When did Henry VIII. die? — He died in 1547, and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI. 169. Who compiled the Book of common Prayer of the Church of Engla7id? — It was compiled chiefly by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, Hugh Latimer, and other emin- ent ecclesiastics, in the reign of Edward VI. 170. Who was the Protector Somerset? — He was duke of Somerset, who acted as supreme ruler on account of the youth of Edward VI. 171. When did Edward VI. die? — He died in 1553, and was succeeded by his elder half-sister, Mary, under whom the papal authority was restored, and Latimer, Ridley, and Cran- mer were burned as heretics, the two former in iS55. and the latter in 1556. Mary died, 1558. 172. Who was Queen Elizabeth? — She was half-sister of Edward VI. and Mary, and ascended the throne in 1558. Elizabeth restored the Reformed Church of England, and Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. 330 BRITISH HISTOR Y. became its most zealous protector ; and under her the country made great advances in commerce, arts, and learning. Shakes- peare, the great English poet and dramatist, lived in her reign. Elizabeth was personally vain and capricious ; but she was high-spirited, sagacious, and more patriotic than any princess of her age. She lived unmarried. 173. Who was Lord Burleigh ? — William Cecil Lord Bur- leigh was minister of Queen Elizabeth, and the greatest statesman of his age. To him the glory of Elizabeth's reign was in a great measure due. 174. What maritime enterprises took place in the reign of Elizabeth? — Under Drake, Cavendish, Raleigh, and Frob- isher, various expeditions were conducted, and discoveries made. Now were commenced the English colonies in North America: one of these being called Virginia, in compliment to the queen. 175. When was Tobacco first brought to England? — It was brought by Sir John Hawkins in 1565, but for some years it was exported, and not used in the country; it was first intro- duced to use in England by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1586. 176. What was the Spanish Armada ? — It was a fleet of war- vessels sent by Spain to conquer England, and bring it back to the Roman Catholic faith. Partly by the gallantry of the English fleets, and partly by tempests, the Armada was destroyed and scattered, 1588. 177. When was the first Poor-law enacted in England? — In 1535, in the reign of Henry VIII. ; but the law was greatly amended in 1601, in the reign of Elizabeth, and this latter new enactment of 1601 is usually spoken of as the origin of the English poor-laws. 178. Did Elizabeth concern herself about affairs in Scotland? • — Yes ; she took a deep interest in the affairs of Scotland, from the circumstance that the sovereign of that country was the nearest heir to the English crown ; Elizabeth having been declared illegitimate by the pope, she entertained a jealousy of the claims of her relative Mary Queen of Scots. 179. I/07V did the relationship of the Scottish and English royal families originate?— \\. originated in Margaret Tudor, Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779.— See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133, BRITISH HI ST OR V. 331 eldest daughter of Henry VII. and sister of Henry VIII., marrying James IV., king of Scots. Their eldest son was James V., born in 1512. 180. Did this alliance of the English and Scottish royal families secure peace between the two countries? — No; James IV., a chivalrous but rash king, quarrelled with his brother- in-law, Henry VIII., and declaring war against him, marched with a great army to England, and fought the battle of Flodden. 181. When was the battle of Flodden fought ? — It was fought on the 9th of September, 15 13, when the English were victo- rious. James IV. was killed, and a vast number of his Scot- tish army were also slain. This disastrous event is the sub- ject of various mournful Scottish ballads. 1 82. How was thegovef nment of Scotland conducted during the minority of Jaines V. ?—\\, was conducted by various Regents, who were unable to prevent disorders, and the country was for years in a very disturbed state. 1 83. Whom did Margaret Tudor, widow of James I V., marry ? —She married, for second husband, Archibald Douglas, sixth Earl of Angus, by whom she had an only daughter, Margaret Douglas, who married Matthew Stuart, fourth Earl of Len- nox ; which Earl of Lennox had two sons, Henry Stuart Lord Darnley, and Charles Stuart, who became fifth Earl of Lennox, and was father of Lady Arabella Stuart. 184. Who was Mary Queen of Scots ? — She was daughter of James V., and was born in 1542, only seven days before the death of her father. 185. What was the project of the Protector So?)terset respect- ing the infant Mary Queen of 5<;^/j.^— -It was to marry her to Edward VI., and thereby effect a union of the English and Scottish crowns. 186. Did the Scots fall in with this project?— "^o; they rejected the alliance chiefly on the ground that the English had ceased to be a Roman Catholic nation ; whereupon, Somerset invaded Scotland with an army to compel the proposed union ; the result was the battle of Pinkie. 187. When was the battle of Pinkie fought? — It was fought Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. 332 BRITISH HISTORY. in 1547, when the Scots were vanquished; they, however, saved their young queen by sending her to France to be educated. 1 88. What was the connection between Scotland and France f — It was an old connection arising partly from intermar- riages between the royal families ; but was chiefly main- tained as a political alliance, offensive and defensive, against England. 189. How was the reformation effected in Scotland? — It was effected by a sudden public paroxysm, for which various causes conspired — certain scandalous abuses in the church, the preaching of John Knox and others, the satirical effusions of Sir David Lindsay, and the rapacious desire of the nobility or " Lords of the Congregation," to possess themselves of the church lands and endowments. 190. Who was John Knox? — He was a Scotchman, who was educated as a Roman Catholic priest ; but having em- braced the reformed doctrines, he became their able and in- trepid expounder among his countrymen. He closed life as one of the ministers of Edinburgh, 1572. \c)\. Who was Cardinal Beaton? — He was the Primate of Scotland at the outbreak of the Reformation ; under his authority many persons were imprisoned and executed for pro- pagating the Reformed doctrines — the most eminent of these sufferers being George Wishart, who was burned at St. An- drews. Beaton was assassinated, 1546. 192. When was the Reformation in Scotland affected? — It was effected in 1560, when the ancient ecclesiastical organization was abolished by an act of the Scots parliament. About the same time, irregular mobs destroyed the monasteries and ab- beys ; and deprived of means of support, the reformed church struggled at first under great difficulties. 193. Whom did Mary Queen of Scots marry? — She married, first, Francis II. of France, and after his decease, on her re- turn to Scotland, she married her second-cousin, Henry Stuart Lord Darnley. 194. Who was David Rizzio? — He was an accomplished foreigner, a favorite at the court of Mary Queen of Scots, Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. t BRITISH HIS TOR Y, 333 and was murdered in her presence by a band of conspirators at Holyrood, 1566, a few months before the birth of her son. 195. When was Mary s son born? — Her son, James Stuart, was born in the Castle of Edinburgh. June 19, 1566. 196. What was thefate of Dartiley ? — He was murdered and the house in which he was blown up by gunpowder, 1567. 197. Who was the third husba7id of Mary Queen of Scots f — James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, a worthless personage, who was believed to have been concerned in the murder of Darnley. This scandalous marriage produced a quarrel be- tween the queen and her subjects, 198. What was the fate of Mary Queen of ^'(r^/^ f- -Fleeing from her subjects, she sought refuge from her relative. Queen Elizabeth, who, after imprisoning her for a number of years, caused her to be beheaded on a charge of a treasonous con- spiracy, 1587. This cruel act remains a grievous blot on the memory of Elizabeth. 199. Who succeeded Mary as sovereign in Scotland? — Her son, who, while still a youth, ascended the throne as James VI. 200. Who was the Regent Murray ? — He was James Stuart, Earl of Murray, half-brother of Mary, who acted for a time as Regent during the minority of James VI. Murray was an able statesman, and took considerable part in promoting the Reformation in Scotland. He was assassinated in 1570. 201. What was the condition of Scotland during the early fart of James" s reign ? — It was a condition of constant dis- turbances, fights, and slaughters, the king being incapable of maintaining the authority of the law. 202. Whom did James VI. marry ? — The princess Anne of Denmark, by whom he had two sons, Henry and Charles, and a daughter, Elizabeth 203. When was New-year's Day changed in Scotland? — By an act of parliament, it was changed from the 25th of March to the ist of January; this change took place on the ist of January, 1600. For long afterwards, the 25th of March con- tinued to be the New-year's Day, legally, in England. The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 334 BRITISH HISTOR Y, 204. When did James VI. accede to the English throne? — On the death of EHzabeth, the last of the Tudors, in 1603, vvlieii he assumed the title of James I. of England, and left Scotland with his family to reside at Westminster. Thus the Stuart dynasty was begun in England. 205. What has the accession of Jatnes VI. to the English thront been usually called f — It is known in history as the Union of THE Crowns. BRITISH HISTORY, FROM 1603 UNTIL 1714. 1. When was the term " Great Britain" introduced? — It was introduced in 1604, when James I. was styled " King of Great Britain." 2. How was Scotland governed after the Union of the Crowns ? — It was governed by certain state-officers appointed by James I., along with the Scots parliament. 3. What was the nature of the Scots parliament ? — It com- prehended lords and commons (also ecclesiastical dignitaries before the Reformation, and during Episcopacy in Scotland) who* all sat and deliberated together ; its place of meeting was latterly a hall in Edinburgh, called the Parliament House. 4. What was the " Gunpowder Plot." — It was a conspirac)) to blow up the Houses of Parliament at Westminster by gun- powder, November 5, 1605. Guy Fawkes and other conspir- ators were seized, condemned and executed. 5. Who were the Puritans? — They were a religious party who came into notice in the reign of Elizabeth; rejecting ec- clesiastical traditions and the Book of Common Prayer, they professed to be guided alone by the Scriptures, and to main- tain great purity in life and doctrine — hence the name which was attached to them. The party rose to importance in the reign of James I. 6. Did the principles of the Puritans extend to Scotland?— Similar principles affected Scotland ; and there took a much more permanent hold than in England. n CrcEsus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great ^A/^ealth. — See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. BRITISH HISTORY. 335 7. What was the character of James IJ — It was that of a weak and vain man, and, above all, he possessed an inordin- ate idea of his royal prerogative or rights as a sovereign. 8. What were James s notions of church-polity? — He held firmly to the episcopal system of the Reformed Church of England, and endeavored to miroduce a similar organization into Scotland — an attempt which proved the forerunner of many troubles. 9. When was the Authorised Version of the Bible effected? — It was executed by a body of learned English divines, by order of James I., in 161 1. 10. Whom did the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of James /., marry? — Frederick, elector of the Pa/atinate, a small prm- cipalityon the Rhine, of which Heidelberg was the capital. This marriage took place in 1613, shortly after the death of Henry, the eldest son of James I. 1 1 . What was Elizabeth's history f — Her husband was elected king of Bohemia in 1619, but by a reverse of fortune he was driven from that country, and also lost the Palatinate ; Elizabeth, who was now styled " Queen of Bohemia," was reduced with her family to great indigence. 12. What children had Elizabeth? — She had a numerous family; her eldest son, Charles-Louis, lived to recover the Palatinate ; and another son, Rupert, distinguished himself as a soldier. Her youngest daughter, Sophia, married Ernest-Augustus, Elector of Hanover. 13. Who was Lady Arabella Stuart? — She was a daughter of the Earl of Lennox, and, as descended from Margaret Tu- dor, had a claim to the throne in default of James I. and his family. 14. How did James treat Arabella Stuart ? — Entertaining a mean jealousy of her natural rights, he subjected her to a series of unworthy persecutions. Because she -chose to marry contrary to his wish he confined her in the Tower, where she became mad, and died 161 5. 15. Did the English kings at this time venture to oppress sub' jects ? — They assumed the right to commit many arbitrary CO Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821.— See page 411. 336 BRITISH HI ST OR Y. acts, in virtue of their prerogative, contrary to the principles of Magna Charta. 16. What was the fate of Sir Walter Raleigh ? — He was ar-. raigned on a charge of treason, and was beheaded in 16 18. 17. Who was Lord Bacon? — He was an eminent statesman and philosophical writer in the reign of James I. ; but was found to be guilty of official corruption, and suffered a fine of ^40,000. 18. What was the ''Plantation of Ulster?" — It was a scheme of James I. for taking possession of the lands of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, in Ulster, the north of Ireland — ;hese lords having been defeated in a general rebellion, 1603. The " Plantation" consisted in parcelling out the lands among English and Scottish settlers, which project was carried out with military violence, 1608, and Ulster, with Belfast as Its capital, has ever since been noted for its Protestant community. 19. When were Baronets first created? — Baronets were finst created by James I. in 161 1, the distinction being offered as an inducement to render aid in the Plantation of Ulster; but practically, the distinction was purchased by persons in the rank of gentlemen for;^i,ooo. There was subsequently, 1625, a creation of Nova Scotia Baronets, on more moderate terms. In latter times, baronetcies have been granted only for important public services. 20. When did James I. die? — He died in 1625, and was suc- ceeded by his surviving son, Charles I., who, though possess- ing many excellent qualities, unfortunately entertained still higher notions of the royal prerogative than his father, which soon led to a collision between him and his English and Scottish subjects. 21. Who was Buckingham? — George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, was an unworthy favorite and parasite of James L, whom he in various ways deceived. Buckingham was assassinated by Felton, a retired subaltern officer, 1628. 22. How did Charles I. come into collision with parliament? —Charles having given deep offence by his arbitrary and illegal measures, parliament refused to vote supphes (money Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. BRITISH HISTORY, 23? to carr)'' on public affairs), whereupon the king proceeded to levy taxes at his own will. 23. What was shzp-jnoney ? — It was a tax arbitrarily imposed to support the navy by Charles I. in 1634. With some sim- ilar measures, it caused great public resentment, and placed the king in still greater antagonism to parliament. 24. Who were the Fifth Monarchy Men ? — They were a body of religious enthusiasts in England, who came prominently into notice in the reign of Charles I. Reckoning that there had been four great monarchies in the world — The Assyrian, Persian, Graeco-Macedonian, and Roman— they believed that there was to be a Fifth monarchy, in which Christ was to be king. This monarchy, which was to last a millennium, or a thousand years, was thought to be at hand in 1645. 25. Who were the Independents ? — They were a numerous re- ligious body in England, who came into existence in the reign of Elizabeth, and afterwards played a prominent part in the great Civil War. They derived their name from the principle which they advocated, that each congregation should regulate its own affairs, and be independent alike of bishops or presbyteries. 26. Who were the Presbyterians? — They were a religious ho^j, comprising nearly the whole Scottish nation and a sec- tion of the English, who held that all ministers or " preaching" elders should be of equal rank, and that the church ought tc be governed by these, assisted by a certain class of lay-elders. 27. What were the Nonconformists? — They were puritans of various sects— Independents, Presbyterians, and others — who would not conform to the Church of England, and were subjected to the operation of severe laws against Noncon- formity, in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 28. Who were the "Pilgrim Fathers?" — They were a body of English Nonconformists who had fled from persecution in the reign of James I. to Holland, and there, after some years, resolved to emigrate to an English settlement in North America. 29. State some facts concerning their emigration? — They came from Holland to England, and with some difficulty em' 15 The Earth's Surface is aoo,ooo,ooo Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered i503.~See page i8i. 338 BRI TISH HIS TOR Y. barked in a small vessel called the Mayflower, v/bich reached Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Having explored the neighbor- ing shores, the party, 102 in number, landed at a place after- wards named new Plj^mouth, December 11, 1620, and there they began their settlement. 30. What measures did Charles I. pursue respecting the church in Scotland? — Contrary to the feelings of the people, who preferred Presbyterianism, he intruded bishops on the church, and also a liturgy or service-book — his reason for doing so, being the fancy that episcopacy alone was compati- ble with a monarchical system of government. 31. How were these measures received ?- -The people broke out into a tumult in one of the churches of Edinburg, on Sunday, July 23, 1637, and the Service-book was withdrawn. 32. JVhat was the national Covenant? — It was a publicly- subscribed declaration, in which the Scots engaged to stand by each other, in opposition to the projects of Charles I. The date of this event was 1638, and the immediate result was the abolition of Episcopacy, and the re-establishment of Pres- byterianism in Scotland. 33. Who were the Covenanters? — This term was applied first to those who adhered to the National Covenant; but as there were subsequent Covenants, so w^ere there different bodies of Covenanters, extended over a period of fifty years. 34. Who were the Cavaliers? — The term Cavalier party was applied to those who adhered to the royal cause and usages of the Church of England, in opposition to the "Roundheads," consisting of Independents and others who adhered to the parliament. 35. Who was Strafford? — Sir Thomas Wentworth, created Earl of Strafford, was an able but haughty and imperious statesman, who, as minister to Charles L, counselled those strong and illegal measures which led to the king's ruin. Parliament having gained the ascendency, passed a bill of attainder against Strafford, who was beheaded 1641. 36. What was the Star-Chamber? — It was a court instituted by Henry VII., consisting of a committee of the king's privy- council, held in an apartment at Westminster ; it is ordinarily Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248. BRITISH HIS TOR Y, 3 ^9 said that the name was taken from stars in the roof of the chamber ; but the correctness of this supposition is doubtful. 37. How did the Court of Star-chamber act? — Holding itself to be unfettered by rules of law, and responding to the ex- treme principles of the royal prerogative, it acted in a most arbitrary and oppressive manner. Having been employed by James I. and Charles I. to stem the progress of civil and re- ligious liberty the Star-chamber was abolished as an intoler- able grievance in 1 641. 38. What was the court of high commission f — It was an ec- clesiastical court instituted by Queen Elizabeth, which was composed of forty-four commissioners, twelve of whom were clergymen; its jurisdiction extended over all England, and took cognizance of, and regulated all religious opinions, and latterly, by torture, fines, and imprisonment, endeavored to force uniformity to the Established Church; it was abolished in 1641. 39. When did the great Civil War break out? — It broke out in 1642 ; the opposing forces being the royal or cavalier troops under Charles I. and his nephew, Prince Rupert, and the parliamentary army, chiefly Independents and Presbyterians commanded at first by the Earl of Essex. 40. Who was Oliver Cromwell? — He was an English gentle- man of small fortune, who, by his sagacity and his abilities as a military disciplinarian rose to be commander of the par- liamentary forces, to whose affection he recommended him- self by his religious zeal as an Independent. 41. Who was John Hampden? — He was a patriotic English gentleman, who had been subjected to persecution for not paying ship-money. On the outbreak of hostilities, he took the side of the parliament, but he was wounded in an engage- ment with the royal troops, and died six days afterwards, 1643. To Hampden has been assigned the highest ranic among English patriots. 42. What was the assembly of Divines at Westminster ? — It was a meeting held under the authority of parliament in 1643, at which delegates from England and Scotland adopted Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 340 BRITISH HISTORY. the " Solemn League and Covenant," fixed on the establish* ment of Presbyterian church-government in the three king- doms, and drew up a general Confession of Faith, a " Direc- tory of Public Worship," also the well-known " Larger" and " Shorter Catechism." According to the Solemn League and Covenant, Episcopacy was to be extirpated, and for a time, accordingly, it was not even tolerated in subordination to the Presbyterian system. 43. Who was Laud? — William Laud was an ecclesiastic, who rose to be archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Charles L, in which position he aided the king in his attempt to force Episcopacy on Scotland. Laud's arbitrary, illegal, and cruel acts led to a bill of attainder being passed by parliament, de- claring him guilty of high treason, and he was beheaded, January, 1644 — 1645. 44. Who was the Marquis of Montrose? — James Graham, Marquis of Montrose, was an eminent Scottish general who adopted the royal cause and gained several victories over the Covenanters. At length, he was defeated at Philiphaugh, 1645, ^"d was ultimately captured and executed at Edin- burgh, 1650. 45. What were the chief battles in England during the Civil War? — The battle of Edge Hill in 1642, which was indeci- sive ; tne battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, gained by the par- liamentary forces ; and the battle of Naseby in 1645, ^^so gained by the parliamentary forces, by which the royal cause was irretrievably lost. 46. What was the fate of Charles I. ? — He sought the pro- tection of a Scots army, who gave him up to the English on paying a large sum of money (^400,000) claimed as arrears. The unfortunate king was some time in confinement at Caris- brook Castle, Isle of Wight ; at last he was tried and con- demned for levying war against the people, and was be- headed at Whitehall, January 30, 1648 — 1649. 47. Who were the surviving children of Charles I. ? — Charles, Prince of Wales ; James, Duke of York ; Henry, who died unmarried; Mary, who married William H., Prince of Orange, and whose son became William HL of England; The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. BRITISH HISTORY. 341 Elizabeth, who died of grief in prison ; and Henrietta^ Maria, who married Philip, Duke of Orleans. 48. What was the Com?nonwealth}~liv72iS the government established on the execution of Charles I. and abolition of monarchy, early in 1649. Nominally, it was a republic, at the head of which was Oliver Cromwell, assisted by a council. The Commonwealth, however, was in reality a military des- potism, with Cromwell as Dictator. 49. Did the Scots accept the Commonwealth? — No; they set up Charles Prince of Wales as Charles II. and took the field in the cause of monarchy, but were completely defeated by Cromwell at Dunbar, September 3, 1650. Exactly a year af- terwards, Charles II. was defeated at Worcester, and for safety retired to the Continent. 50. Did the Irish accept the Commonwealth ? — No ; but they were forced to submit to it by Cromwell, who in 1649 landed in Ireland with a large army, and by his severities struck ter- ror into the nation. Many of the fine monuments of antiquity in Ireland were at this time laid in ruin. 51. What was the long parliament ? — It was the parliament which began its sittings in 1640, and carried on the contest against Charles I. It continued to exist twelve years, and would have continued longer, but Cromwell, with a body of soldiers, abruptly turned out all the members, locked the' door, and put the key in his pocket, 20th April, 1653. The Council of State now appointed Cromwell Lord Protector. 52. What was the " Barebones Parliament f — It was a par- liament called together by Cromwell, composed partly of in- dividuals remarkable for ignorance and fanaticism ; gaining no public respect, it was soon dissolved. It was denomina- ted t\\Q Barebones Parliament from the name of one of the members, a leather-seller, who was named Praise-God Bare- bones. 53. Who were Van Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Wift ? — They were Dutch naval commanders, who, in 1652, in a war between Holland and Great Britain, committed great havoc on En- glish shipping. At length, some successes by Admiral Blake caused the Dutch to sue for peace. The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 342 BRITISH HISTGR V. 54. When was Jamaica acquired by Britain ? — It was cap* tured by a British fleet from the Spaniards during the Pro- tectorate of Cromwell, 1655, and was formally ceded 1670. 55. How long did Cromwell occupy the position of Protector f —About five years, until his death in 1658, during which time he with a strong hand maintained the honor of England, ex- tended commerce, and preserved internal peace. 56. Who succeeded Oliver Cromwell? — His son Richard; but he remained in power only a short period, and gladly re- tired to private life. 57. How was the government conducted after Richard Crom- vuell retired? — It was imperfectly carried on by a wretched remnant of parliament ; and the people found that all their efforts in the cause of liberty had ended in a government of unscrupulous adventurers, whose only ruling principle was violence. 58. WItat was the " Restoration ?" — It was the restoring 'of the monarchy, which was effected by the army under General Monk ; in the midst of universal rejoicing, Charles II. was proclaimed king at Westminster, May 8, 1660— a notable event in British history. 59. In restoring monarchy, did the nation exact any security (or their liberties froin Charles II. ? — No ; this they neglected to do, in their thankfulness to get back a settled and respect- able form of government. 60. When did Elizabeth Stuart, ex-Queen of Bohemia, die ? — She died October 13, 1662, in the hospitable mansion of Lord Craven, London, where she had lived for about a year on re- turning from the continent. The house in which she died had formerly belonged to Sir Robert Drury, and from it origi- nated the name " Drury Lane." 61. When was the great plague of London ? — In 1665, when large numbers — some say as many as 100,000 — died. 62. When was the Great Fire of London ? — September 2, 1666, when a large part of the city was destroyed, including St. Paul's. The present St. Paul's cathedral was soon after- wards built by Sir Christopher Wren. The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815 See page 368. c/3 BRITISH HISTORY, 343 63. Was th e Church of England reinstated at the Restoration ? —Yes; the religious paroxysm which broke out in a variety of sects was exhausted in England, and the transactions of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, which had met in 1643, were repudiated. 64. What was the state of affairs in Scotland after the Res- toration? — The people anticipated the full restoration of Presbyterianism ; but Charles II. caused an Episcopacy (without the liturgy) to be established in 1662 ; certain tests or oaths were also imposed ; whereupon there was a renewal of Covenants, and sundry insurrections. 65. What was the era of the "Persecution" in Scotland? — it extended from 1664 till about 1687, having exceeded the life of Charles II. 66. Who was Titus Oates? — He was a person of infamous character, who taking advantage of public credulity, began in 1678 to give information concerning a pretended Popish plot to destroy the king and Protestant religion; through his false accusations many innocent persons were imprisoned, and several executed. The treachery of Oates was afterwards discovered, and as a punishment, he was fined, whipped, and set in the pillory. 67. What was the "Habeas Co^^pus Act ?" — It was an act of the English parliament passed in 1679, limiting the time be- tween the apprehension of a supposed criminal and his trial ; in virtue of which act alleged criminals can apply by writ of Habeas Corpus to have it determined whether their commit- tal be just. The term Habeas Corpus signifies have the body (or person) of. 68. Was not the principle of the Habeas Corpus Act embodied in Magna Charta .?— It was ; the act of 1679, in the reign of Charles II., only ratified the procedure under the old law. 69. Does the Habeas Corpus Act extend to Scotland? — It does in principle, under a different name. Over the whole British dominions, the great principle of the Habeas Corpus Act ex- tends, and forms a shield against lengthened imprisonment before trial. 70. Who was the Duke of Monmouth ? — He was an illegiti- h L t The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. f 244 BRITISH HISTORY. mate son of Charles II., who was employed as a general o! the royal forces in Scotland to suppress the Covenanters, and commanded at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, 1679, when the insurgents were routed. 71. Who were the Cameronians? — They were a party oi Scottish Covenanters, and took their name from Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skir- mish in 1680. 72. Who was George Fox? — He was a person in humble life in England, who became affected with religious enthu- siasm during the civil wars, and originated the sect known as " Quakers," or, as they designate themselves, " Friends." 73. Were the Quakers persecuted? — Yes: they suffered much persecution, and many were ignominiously transported to Massachusetts, where they were treated with unjustifiable se- verity by the Pilgrim Fathers and other settlers. 74. Having fi^.d from persecutioit, did the Pilgrim Fathers theinselves persecute? — Yes ; in their settlement they insisted on conformity with their own forms of worship ; in which re- spect they exercised precisely the same species of oppression as that from which they had fled. They also condemned many persons for witchcraft, and burned them at the stake. 75. What was Witchcraft ? — It was alleged to be a power of committing various acts of a malignant nature through dia- bolical assistance ; those invested with this supernatural pow- er were styled witches. 76. Was witchcraft an ancient superstition? — Yes; but a belief in it rose to be a kind of frenzy in Europe in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries, and spread to the English colonies in America. In Great Britain, the belief in witch- craft was at its height from the reign of James I. to the reign of Charles II. ; and for this imaginary crime many thou- sands of unfortunate individuals were executed, chiefly by being burned at the stake. TJ. Who were " Witch-finders?" — Such was the name given to a set of wretches in England, headed by one Matthew Hop- kins, who, at the middle of the seventeenth century, moved The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. O BRITISH HISTORY, 345 from place to place to search for witches, and forced them to confess by various kinds of arbitrary tortures. In Scotland, the principal witch prosecutors were the parish ministers and kirk-sessions, of whose proceedings history offers some ex-« traordinary accounts. 78. What was Judicial Torture ? — It was severe bodily pain inflicted by a court of justice in order to compel accused per- sons to confess a knowledge of the crimes charged against them. Judicial torture was practised in England until 1558, but was continued as late as 1690 in Scotland, where squeezing the thumbs in a small vise, and crushing the legs in a case by means of wedges, were the more common kinds of inflic- tion. 79. Who was Roger Williams f — He was a young Welsh clergyman belonging to the Church of England, who, having emigrated to Massachusetts in 163 1, was persecuted and ban- ished by the Pilgrim Fathers for nonconformity. He after- wards founded the settlement called "Rhode Island," and the city of Providence, where all forms of religious wor- ship were freely allowed. 80. What honor has English history assigned to Roger Wit liamsf — The distinguished honor of being the first person iir authority who proclaimed and reduced to practice the prin- ciple of perfect religious equality and toleration. Williams who was a truly noble character, died at Providence, 1683. 81. Who was Willia7n Penn ? — He was a son of Admiral Sir William Penn, a gentleman of property in Wiltshire, and em- braced the tenets of the Quakers, which he fervently preached in the reign of Charles II. From this monarch he procured a patent in 1681, to found a settlement in North America, where the Society of Friends might live unmolested. 82. What was Penn's settlement called? — It was called Penn- sylvania, and in it Penn founded the city of Philadelphia (signi- fying Brotherly love) as its capital, 1682. The settlement, like that of Roger Williams, was organized on principles of per- fect toleration, and is noted for the honest manner in which the founder purchased lands from the natives, instead of, as ■yas customary, taking them by force. William Penn whrt O Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278, 346 BRITISH HISTORY. died in 1718, is one of the most estimable characters in Eng lish biography. 83. What was the Rye-House Plot? — It was said to be a con' spiracy to murder Charles II. and his brother, the Duke of York, and place the Duke of Monmouth on the throne, 1683. It took its name from the alleged place of meeting, the Rye House, in Hertfordshire. 84. Who was Lord Wz'llzajn Russell? — He was a son of the Earl of Bedford, who, professing opinions opposed to the arbitrary measures of the government, was charged with com- plicity in the Rye-House Plot ; he was tried and condemned, xnd beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields, July 21, 1683. 85. Who was Algernon Sydney? — Like Lord William Rus- sell, he was a distinguished patriot, who was tried and con- demned, and was beheaded on Tower Hill, December 8, 1683. 86. When did Charles II. die ? — He died February 6, 1685, and was succeeded by his brother James, Duke of York, as James 11. of England and James VII. of Scotland, in whose reign things came to a fresh crisis, for adversity had not taught the Stuarts moderation. 87. What was the chief fault found with James II. ? — It was that he seemed resolved to restore the papal power in England, and re-establish Roman Catholicism by an exercise of absolute authority. 88. What was "Passive Obedience?" — By "passive obedi- ence" was meant an entire submission to the will of the king, without regard to any existing laws. The university of Oxford having promulgated an elaborate declaration of passive obedi- ence to rulers, James II. was encouraged to pursue his un- happy career. 89. What was the fate of the Duke of Monmouth ? — He raised a rebellion against James II., in order, as he said, to secure the Protestant religion, and to deliver the country from the tyranny of James II. In this attempt he was de- feated and captured, and beheaded July 15, 1685. 90. What family had James II. ? — He was tWiC*e married ; by his first marriage he had two daughters, Mary and Anne; und by his second marriage a son, James, born June 10, 1688. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779 See page 365. 1 Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. BRITISH HISTOR V. 347 91. JVAo was the Prince of Orange? — William III., Prince o{ Orange, Stadtholder, or head of the States in Holland, was a son of Mary Stuart, daughter of Charles L, and had married his cousin Mary, daughter of James II. As a resolute states- man and Protestant, he was invited to come to England and conduct the government. 92. When did Jatnes II. quit E nglandf -^Fedirmg the fate of his father, he left England with his wife and infant son for France, December 23, 1688. 93. When did William, Prince of Orange, land in England? —He landed at Torbay, November 5, 1688, and arrived at St. James's on the same day that his father-in-law quitted Whitehall. 94. What parliamentary proceedings took place on this oc ca- tion? — The English parliament declared the throne vacant, o The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 250 BRITISH HIS TOR Y. it was a most atrocious and unjustifiable act, and as such, greatly damages the character of William ; the king, how^ ever, acted by the advice of his Scottish ministers of states particularly Sir John Dalrymple, Secretary of State for Scotland, who afterwards became Earl of Stair— and on him rests the chief disgrace of this transaction. 113. What was the Darien Expedition f — It was an attempt on the part of the Scots to found a colony for commercial purposes on the Isthmus of Darien, for which, by a great national effort, the sum of £^oo,qqo was subcribed, 1696. Through the jealousy of the Dutch, English, and Spaniards, md also some imperfect management, the scheme proved abortive, and led to much discontent. 114. When did Mary, consort of King William, die ? — She died 1694, after which event the king reigned alone as Wil- iiam III. until 1702, when he died. 115. When did the National Debt commence ? — It commenced m the reign of William III., as a consequence of his foreign wars. Regular banks, including the Bank of England and Bank of Scotland, were also established in his reign. 116. What was the character of the seventeenth century?— The seventeenth century was marked by turbulence and civil wars in England, Scotland, and Ireland ; which disorders arose from the contest of two principles — the principle of civil liberty, and the principle of absolute authority. The struggle between these two principles was provoked by the Stuarts, and ended in their ruin. 117. Did parliament under King William give perfect toler- ation to all religious sects? — No; the laws, though greatly modified, did not tolerate the Roman Catholic form of wor ship, nor did they tolerate in Scotland the forms of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church. As regards perfect religious lib- erty, there were still, therefore, various deficiencies, the cause of future trouble. 118. What were Nonjurors? — They were clergymen who declined to swear an oath of allegiance to William and Mary *— the term Nonjuror signifying Non-Swearer. The dis-es* Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth.— See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. BRITISH HISTOR Y 35t tablished Episcopal clergy in Scotland were for a time Non- jurors. 119. Who succeeded King William ? — Anne, daughter of the exiled James II., who had been reared in England as a Prot- estant. She succeeded in virtue of an act of parliament passed in 1689, excluding Roman Catholics from the throne, 120. What was the War of the Spanish Succession ? — It was a war which began in 1701, in the reign of King William ; its object was to prevent a grandson of Louis XIV. of France from inheriting the crown of Spain, as it was feared that if \ie did so, the power of the French would be too great in -Europe. 121. Who were the principal parties in this war ? — On one side were England, Germany, and Holland— these powers being called the Grand Alliance; on the other side were France and Spain. 122. Who was Marlborough f— John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, was the greatest general and statesman of his time ; he commanded in the wars of King William and Queen Anne, against the French, by whom he was popularly known as " Malbrook." Unfortunately for his memory, it has been discovered that while serving King William and Queen Anne, he was secretly in the pay of the exiled royal family — a species of dishon- esty very common among public men at this period. Queen Anne. 123. In what great battles was Marlborough victorious in the reign of Queen Anne? — Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. After the first victory, he was rewarded by par- liament with the estate called Woodstock, in England, and Queen Anne began to build for him the palace of Blen- heim. 124. When was Gibraltar taken by the English? — Gibraltar Was captured from the Spaniards in 1704, and though several times besieged, it has ever since remained a British posses- sion. w Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. 252 BRITISH HIS TOR Y. 125. Was Queen Anne married? — Yes; she had married George Prince of Denmark before she became queen ; and she had seventeen children, all of whom predeceased her. 126. What was the act of Settlement f — It was an act of par- liament passed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, set- tling the succession to the throne ; in the event of Anne dy- ing without issue, the succession was limited to the descend ants of Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I., being Prot- estants. As Sophia, wife of the Elector of Hanover, was the only surviving child of Elizabeth, who was a Protestant, all looked to her or her son as the successor of Queen Anne. 127. Who was the ''Pretender .?"— Such was the name given to James, son of James II., who, on the death of his father in 1701, was recognized by the Jacobites as rightful heir to the throne, under the title of James III. ; the designation Pr^- tender was given by the Whigs. The Pretender was also called the " Chevalier de St. George." 128. What was the Court of St. Germain ?—\\. was the court of the exiled royal family at St. Germain, in France, and was noted as a centre of projects to recover the throne. Per- sioned by France, James II., and afterwards his son, the Pretender, were able to give secret bribes to Marlborough and others to secure their assistance. 129. On what did the Jacobites found their hopes ?—Th^j thought that as there had been one Restoration, so might there be another ; and under this impression, they had long an expectation of seeing the Stuarts once more on the throne. 130. What effect had these hopes on the English Whigs ?~^ Fearing that the Stuarts might secure a footing in Scotland, they pressed forward the project of a thorough legislative union of the two kingdoms. 131. Was the proposal of Union readily accepted by the Scots f —No ; it was violently opposed, more particularly by Andrew Fletcher of Salton ; and the act authorizing the union, was carried in the Scots parliament only by the administration of money bribes to a number of the members. " Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. Ul O BRITISH HIS TOR V. 353 132. When did the Union of England and Scotland take place? — After much debate in both countries, a treaty of union was enacted, which came into operation on the istof May, 1707. On the 23d of October that year, the first united parHament of Great Britain met at Westminster. This event was the most important that took place in the reign of Queen Anne. 133. What were the 7nutual advantages of the Union? — The EngHsh secured a firm alliance with a nation that had been a trouble to them forages ; on the other hand, the Scots bene fited by having the whole English dominions open to their en terprise, while at the same time they preserved their peculiai iiational institutions. History presents no instance of a more equitable, and, as it proved, more successful union of two nations. 134. What was parliament called after the Union ? — It was called the British Parliament, and embraced representa- tives from England and Scotland — the parliament of Ireland being still left in that country. 135. What was the flag of England previous to the Union? — It was the cross of St. George. 136. What was the flag of Scotland previous to the Union ? — It was the cross of St. Andrew. 137. What was the flag of Great Britain after the Union ?~ It was the crosses of St, George and St. Andrew blended, constituting a flag known as the Union Jack. 138. Mention some noteworthy particulars concerning Eng- land at the Union. — The population of England and Wales was little more than 5,000,000 ; the value of the whole annual exports was about ^8,000,000 ; and the population of London and its suburbs was only about 500,000. 1 39. Mention some noteworthy particulars concerning Scotland at the Union. — The population was under 1,000,000, and com- prehended at least 100,000 beggars and vagrants ; the annual government revenue was no more than £1 10,000 ; the annual value of exports to England was but ^130,000 ; and the pop- ulation of Glasgow had not risen above 13,000. 140. What is learned from a cofisideration of these paritcw The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered i 503-"-See page i8i 354 BRITISH HISTORY. larsf—V^Q are made aware of the very backward condition of Great Britain, the prosperity of which had been greatly retarded by internal wars and other social disorders during the seventeenth century. 141. Did England and Scotland correspondingly advance after the Union? — No; as more favored by circumstances, Eng- land advanced the most rapidly ; besides having most to re- cover, Scotland was fated to endure the commotions of two rebellions, and hence its progress is of comparatively recent date. 142. What were the Sacheverell riots f — They were riots in London in 1710, fomented by a mischievous sermon preached Dr. Henry Sacheverell before the Lord Mayor, 5th November, 1709, denouncing the Revolution and the tolera- tion of Dissenters ; several chapels of Dissenters were burned on the occasion ; the tumults were at length sup- pressed by the military. Sacheverell was tried for his seditious harangue by the House of Lords, and suspended as a preacher for three years; but the clergy, the country gentry, and the mob, espoused his cause, and for a time he was a very popular person. 143. What was the Treaty of Utrecht ? — It was a treaty of peace between Great Britain and France, to which some other states acceded, 1713. It closed the Spanish War of Succession. By this Treaty, the French king recognized the Protestant succession of the house of Hanover, to the exclusion of the Stuarts, and conceded various commercial advantages ; Nova Scotia and some other colonial possess- ions were also given up to England. 144. When did Queen Anne die? — She died August r, 1714. and with her expired the last member of the House of Stuart on the throne of Great Britain. BRITISH HISTORY, FROM 1714 TILL THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. I. Who was George I. — He was George, Elector of Han- over, son of Sophia, youngest daughter of Elizabeth Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248. m BRITISH HISTOR Y. 355 Stuart, Queen ol Bohemia, who was daughter of James I. He succeeded to the throne on the demise of Queen Anne, August I, 1714. 2. Why did the succession devolve on Sophia and her descend- a?its? — Because all the other children of Elizabeth Stuart were either dead or had become Roman Catholics ; Sophia, as the only Protestant in the family, would, in terms of the Act of Settlement, have succeeded as queen, but she died a few months before Queen Anne. 3. What was the surname of the new dynasty ? — It was Guelph, but usually the dynasty is spoken of as the " House of Han- over," or" House of Brunswick"— George I. having inherited from his father the dukedom of Brunswick-Luneburg. 4. Did George retain Hanover on acceding to the throne? — Yes; he remained Elector of Hanover, and conducted the government of that country by deputy; Hanover, accord- ingly, continued for more than a century to be a continental principality of the British sovereigns. 5- Could George I. speak English ? — Yes ; but he spoke \\ very badly; and he brought with him a son, George, who also had neither the language nor the manners of a native-born Englishman — circumstances which tended to limit the popu- larity of the new dynasty. 6. Were any efforts made by the Jacobites to prevent the acces sion of the Hanover fa7nily ? — No ; the designs they entertained in favor of the Pretender were frustrated by the sudden de- mise of Queen Anne, and George I. was called to the throne without opposition. 7. Who was Bolingbroke ?—Y{enry St. John, Lord Bolingbroke, was a Tory statesman, minister of Queen Anne; having, like many of his party, intrigued with the Jacobites to bring in the Pretender, he fled to France at the accession of the Han- over family, but afterwards returned to England. He wrote some historical works, and speculative treatises. 8. What is the Riot Act ? — It is a statute, enacted in 17 15, in the reign of George I., which permits military force to be used in dispersing a riotous mob, after a certain space o^ Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. Ui SS^ BRITISH HIS TOR V. time has been allowed ; the principle of this celebrated act however, was not new to English law, for there was a statute passed in the reign of Edward VL, rendering it treason for a crowd not to disperse after proclamation. 9. Wkai was the rebellion of 1715.^ — It was a rebellion in Scotland and the north of England to re-establish the Stuart dynasty in the person of the Pretender, or, as he was styled, James III., who landed in Scotland to aid in the enterprise. 10. Who was the Earl of Mar ? — He was a Scottish noble- man, who raised the standard of rebellion in 17 15, but his forces were defeated at Sheriflfmuir, November 13; and on the same day the English rebels surrendered at Preston ; by which means this ill-advised insurrection was speedily ter- minated. 1 1 . Who was the Earl of Derwentwater f — He was an English nobleman who unhappily appeared in arms in the Rebellion in 1715, but was taken prisoner at Preston, and beheaded in February, 1716; Viscount Kenmureand about twenty inferior persons were also executed. The Earls of Mar and Nithsdale and the Pretender escaped to France. 12. Who was Sir Robert Walpole? — He was an eminent Whig statesman and prime-minister in the reigns of George I. and George II.; it was in a great degree to his prudence, vigilance, and good management that the plans of the Jacobites were frustrated, and the Hanover family fixed permanently on the throne. He was created Earl of Orford and died in 1745. 1 3. Was not Walpole accused of corrupt practices ? — He was, and with some truth. Living in an age in which there was little political honesty, he was in the habit of securing pub- lic men by bribes, and is reputed to have been the author of the memorable saying, that "All men have their price." 14. For what was General Wade noted? — He was noted for the military roads which he surveyed and constructed in the Highlands, under the authority of government, between 1725 and 1735 I besides opening up the country to travellers, these famed roads, along with certain forts, placed the Highlands under effectual military control. The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. BRITISH HIS TOR V. 357 15. What was the South-sea Bubble ? — It was a joint-stock commercial undertaking, called the South-sea company, which was invested with exclusive powers of trading to the South- sea, and also certain privileges connected with national fin- ance. Commencing in 1710, it speedily degenerated into a gambling speculation in shares. The whole affair was a mix- ture of delusion and imposture, and when the "bubble" burst in 1720, the chief culprits absconded, and great numbers were ruined. 16. When did the Methodists originate? — The sect of Methodists was founded by John Wesley, a person of great vigor of character and eminent for his piety, about 1729 — the name Methodists being given from the methodic strictness of the conduct of members of the sect. 17. Whe7i did George I. die? — He died, June 11, 1727, and was succeeded by his son George II., who had been a number of years married, and had two sons, Frederick, Prince of Wales, and William, Duke of Cumberland ; also several daughters. 1 8. What great navigator was there in the reign of George 11. ? — George Lord Anson, who made various voyages ex- ploratory of unknown parts of the globe, and added greatly to the maritime glory of England. He died 1760. 1 9. What was the battle of Dettingen ? — It was a battle which occurred in the Austrian War of Succession, and on the part of the English was professedly undertaken to protect the king's Hanoverian dominions. The battle, which took place June, 1743, ended favorably to the British and Hanoverian forces. George II. was present, and this was the last occa- sion of a king of Great Britain appearing on a field of battle. 20. What was the battle of Fontenoy ? — It was a battle in the Austrian War of Succession between the allies (English, Dutch and Germans) under the Duke of Cumberland, and the French under Marshal Saxe, May, 1745, i^^ which there was great slaughter. The allies were first successful, but were after- Wards beaten and forced to retreat. 21. What children had the Pretender, who assumed th^ tit It bo rt V u W I d n CO CO .2 'u G < a •o OS Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13, upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65. 364 BRITISH HISTORY. ists and the policy of Bonaparte, and led the nation into costly foreign wars. Fox was the great opponent of his for^ eign pohoy. 65. What was the scheme of the Sinking Fund? — It was g celebrated and fallacious scheme for paying off the National Debt, by setting aside any excess of revenue to accumulate at compound interest ; both Fox and Pitt favored this project, not perceiving that the shortest way of lessening debt is sim- ply to discharge it as fast as possible. It was not, however, until 1 81 3 that the fallacy of the Sinking Fund was discov- ered. 66. Who was Mr. Burke? — Edmund Burke was a philoso- pher and politician, who attained to great distinction as ^. parliamentary orator in the reign of George III. He began public life as a Whig, but concluded as an adherent of Pitt. His most celebrated speech was at the opening of the trial of Warren Hastings, 1788. 67. What were the Lord George Gordon Riots ? — They were dreadful riots in London in 1780, headed by Lord George Gordon (a son of the Duke of Gordon), in which great damage was done until they were suppressed by the military. 68. What was the cause of the Gordon riots? — It was the passing of a bill in parliament in 1778, relieving the Roman Catholics from some of the penal laws affecting them. The wish of the rioters was to recall this act of the legislature, and " No Popery" was their distinguishing cry. This intemperate outbreak was entirely unsuccessful ; and Lord George Gor- don, who is believed to have been of unsound mind, died in Newgate prison, 1793. 69. Who was Warren Hastings? — He was an Englishman who, by his great abilities, rose from a humble position in India to be governor-general of that country, 1773, under the East India Company, which thanked and rewarded him for his great services. 70. Of what was Warren Hastings accused? — He was im- peached at the bar of the House of Lords for using corrupt and unjustifiable means to increase the finances of the East India Company ; his accusers were Burke, Fox, Sheridan, Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. BRITISH HISTORY. 365 and other members of the Whig party. This memorable trial began in 1788, and did not end until 1795, when the House pronounced a verdict of acquittal. 71. What maritime discoveries were made in the early part of the reign of George III. .?— Important discov ries were made in the Pacific Ocean by Captain James O jk, an eminent navigator, who was killed at Hawaii, 1779. 72. What mechanical inventions were made in the early part of the reign of George III. .?— The steam-engine was perfected by James Watt; spinning machinery was invented by the successive efforts of James Hargreave, Richard Arkwright, and Samuel Crompton ; and, finally, the power-loom was invented by the Rev. D. E. Cartwright, 1785— by all which inventions the manufacturing prosperity of the country was prodigiously increased. 73. When were mail-coaches introduced ?— They were intro- duced by John Palmer of Bath in 1784 ; they became general in 1785, and formed a great improvement on the old meth- ods ot conveyance. 74. When did French Revolution break out f— It broke out in 1789; monarchy was abolished, and a republic instituted 1792 ; ani Louis XVI. was executed 1793. 75. When was war proclaimed by Great Britain against the French Republic? — War was proclaimed February i, I793» in order to check the progress of French revolutionary principles, and restrain French conquests. 76. Was the French war popular ? — Yes ; by all but a small party the war met with general approval, and was expe^ ted to end triumphantly for Great Britain in a very short /me. 'j'j. How long did the French war last ?— With a short in- terval of peace in 1802 — 1803, it lasted until 1814, or alto- gether about nineteen years; the hopeful anticipations of its early termination being entirely falsified. 78. Was the war from first to last against the French repub' lie ? — No ; during its progress, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France and against him — first as consul, and after* Wards as emperor — the war was carried on. The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors. — See page 243. 366 BRITISH HISTORY, 79. What was the Treaty of Amiens ? — It was a treaty at Amiens in March, 1802, establishing peace with the French, but this peac : endured only until May, 1803, when the war was resumed. 80. What gr xt naval commander arose during the early part of the French ■& ir? — Horatio Nelson ; who for his eminent services was ra«sed to the peerage as Lord Nelson, and after- wards elevated to a Viscountcy. Nelson was killed on board the Victory, at the battle of Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. His body was interred with public honors in St. Paul's Cathedral. 81. When was Malta captured? — It was captured by the British from the French in 1800, after a siege of two years. The French, who fiad taken the island from a military order styled the Knights of Malta, were expelled ; Malta remains a British possession. 82. Did the French threaten to invade Great Britain ? — Yes ; they threatened invasions of England from 1792 to 1797, and afterwards, under Bonaparte, from 1802 till 1804, but desisted from the attempt. They effected, however, an invasion of Ireland in 1798, in order to render aid to the Irish rebels, but were speedily made prisoners. 83. When did the Irish Rebellion take place ? — It broke out in 1798, just before the landing of the French, and was soon extinguished. 84. What was the cause of this rebellion f — It was hopeless- ness in procuring redress of a variety of serious national grievances by lawful and constitutional means. Though de- feat =id, the rebellion caused the government to turn atten- tion 'o Ireland, with a view to a union with Great Britain. 85. When did the Union with Ireland take place ? — It took place on the ist January, 1801 ; by this event the Irish parliament was abolished, and the Irish sent representatives to the parliament at Westminster, which was now called the Imperial Parliament. 86. Was the union popular in Ireland? — No ; it was almost universally opposed ; but the measure, as in the case of Scot- land, was carried by the liberal administration of bribes and government patronage among the native legislators. By Crcjesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great "Wealth.— See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, t>y John Guttenberg.— See page 305. BRITISH HISTORY, 367 this union, however, Ireland obtained many important com- mercial and social benefits. Zj. Was any change made on the British flag at the Uiiin with Ireland? — Yes ; certain white streaks were blended — in the language of Yi^x-dXdiXy, fimbriated — with the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. So altered, the Union Jack became as we now see it. 88. What were the Berlin and Milan decrees ? — They were decrees issued by Napoleon, the first in 1806, and the sec- ond in 1807, interdicting any commerce with England, and declariag the British Islands in a state of blockade — the ob- ject of the decrees being to damage the trade of Great Britain. 89. What were the " Orders in Council ?" — They were decrees or orders issued by the British Privy Council, in 1807, as re- prisals for Napoleon's Berlin and Milan decrees. By these " orders," all trade was interdicted with ports occupied by the French. 90. What was the "Right of Search f" — It was a right as- sumed by Great Britain to search the ships of the United States for sailors who were British subjects. The exercise of this right, along with other grounds of complaint, caused the United States to declare war against Great Britain, June, 1812. 91. How long did this American war last? — It lasted until December, 1814, and increased the troubles arising out of the war in the Peninsula. 92. What was the Peninsular war .?•— It was a part of the great French war carried on in Spain, with a view to drive the French out of that country; it began in 1808, and termi- nated at the general peace in 1814. 93. Who were the noted British commanders in the Penin^ sular War ? — Sir John Moore, and latterly Sir Arthur Welles- ley, who was raised to the peerage under the title of Lord Wellington. 94. What was the fate of Sir John Moore? — He was killed at the battle of Corunna, January 16, 1809, and buried on the Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. 368 BRITISH HISTORY. ramparts in his military cloak. He is chiefly memorable foi his masterly retreat before a superior force. 95. What was the career of Lord Wellington .?— He gained a succession of brilliant victories in the Peninsula, and for his signal services was created Duke of WeUington. The greatest of his battles was that of Waterloo. 96. When was the battle of Waterloo fought ? — It was fought on the j8th of June, 1815; and was a final struggle of the British and their alhes against Napoleon Bonaparte, Empe- ror of the French. The British forces under Wellington were completely victorious, and Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena, where he died, 5th May, 1821. 97. How long did the Duke of Wellington survive? — He lived a number of years after the restoration of peace, and was distinguished as a statesman ; he died 1852, and was honored with a public funeral, when his remains were de- posited in St. Paul's Cathedral. 98. What were the effects of the great French war on Eng- land? — Besides causing a great loss of life, embarrassing trade and commerce, and retarding social advancement, the war added six hundred millions to the national debt. 99. Did the useful arts advance during the war .?— Yes ; but very slowly, for the country was for years almost entirely occupied with military affairs. 100. Mention some of the mechanical and other itnprovements during the progress of the war. — The manufacture of paper by machinery was perfected in 1807; steam-navigation was introduced about 1812 ; printing machinery came into use in 1814; and in the same year lighting with gas was employed in the streets of London. loi. What family had George III.? — He had a large family of sons and daughters. His sons were, George Prince of Wales, Frederick Duke of York, William-Henry Duke of Clarence, Edward Duke of Kent, Ernest-Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, Augustus-Frederick Duke of Sussex, and Adol' phus-Frederick Duke of Cambridge- 102. What was the Regency? — It was the government under George Prince of Wales, who was appointed Prince Regent Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients.— See page ii8. CO BRITISH HIS TOR V. ;69 in 1811, in consequence of the aberration of intellect of the king. This regency lasted until the death of George III. 103. What was the state of the nation under the Regency f— After the conclusion of the war, there was great national de- pression, and various political disturbances. 104. Who was the Princess Charlotte ? — She was the daugh- ter and only child of George Prince Regent, and was married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg in 1816. To the inex- pressible grief of the nation, the princess died in November, 1817. 105. When did George III. die? — He died January 29, 1820, in his eighty>second year, after a long reign of nearly sixty years, and was succeeded by George Prince Regent under the title of George IV. 106. What legal meliorations took place in the reign of George IV.? — Certain harsh enactments, called the "Test and Cor- poration Acts," passed in 1673, excluding Dissenters and Roman Catholics from holding any civil or military offices. They were abolished in 1828, and the acts imposing various legal disabilities on Roman Catholics were repealed in 1829. 107. When did George IV. die? — He died 26th June, 1830, and was succeeded by his next surviving brother, the Duke of Clarence, who ascended the throne as William IV. 108. What were the Reform Bills ? — They were bills intro- duced into parliament between 1831 and 1832, for altering and extending the system of representation in parliament, by which large numbers of persons were to be admitted to the privilege of being electors. The first two bills were thrown out after great debating and partial success on the part of the Reformers, but the third passed in 1832. An ad- ditional bill was afterwards passed for reforming the muni- cipal corporations. 109. What was practically the effect of these Reforms? — The effect was a considerable change in the political constitution of the country, by which power was in a certain degree trans- ferred from the aristocracy to the middle classes. 1 10. When was slavery abolished throughout the British pos- « The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles— See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. S C4 a JO xi O ^ «Q BRITISH HIS TOR Y. sessions?— T\\Q'd.c\. for the abolition of slavery was passed 1833, when parliament voted the sum of ;^20,ooo.ooo as com- pensation to the owners of slaves ; all were m.ade free on the ist August, 1834, excepting those in the East Indies, who were freed in 1838— since which time there has not been a slave in any part of the British dominions. 111. When did railways commence ?— They began in the reign of George IV., but were not properly established until the reign of King William, or from 1830 till 1837. 112. When did King William die f— He died June 20, 1837, when he was succeeded by his niece, Victoria, daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent. 1 1 3. When did Hanover cease to belong to British sovereigns f —It was relinquished on the death of William IV., when, in irirtue of the Salic law, it passed by inheritance to Ernest, Duke of (Cumberland, who accordingly became king of Han- £)ver. Hanover, having taken up arms against Prussia during the Prusso- Austrian war of 1866, was incorporated with Prussia. 114. What is the Salic law?— It is a law adopted in certain continental nations, by which females are excluded from be- ing heirs to the throne. The term salic is of uncertain origin. 115. Whom did Queen Victoria marry ?— Hex Majesty mar- ried Prince Albert of Saxe-Cobourg, February 10, 1840; Prince Albert was afterwards styled the Prince Consort. 116. What were the Corn Laws .?— They were certain statutory enactments for restraining the importation of foreign corn ; these laws were of old date, but were confirmed and strength. ened by an act of parliament, 18 14. 117. What was the prof essed object of the Corn Laws ? -li was to encourage the growth of corn in the United Kingdom and to sustain the agriculture of the country. Other reasons were assigned, but the practical effect of all the laws on the subject was to raise the price of bread. 1 18. What was the Anti-corn-law League ? — It was an asso- ciation in England, founded in 1834, to agitate for a repeal of Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. BRITISH HISTOR Y. 371 the corn laws, on the ground that they were injurious to pub- lic and private interests. After much discuss'on, they were repealed by Sir Robert Peel, an eminent statesman, 1846. 119. Who was Richard Cobden ? — He was a leading member of the Anti-corn-law League, and member of parliament, who did signal service by promoting free-trade, and elTecting a beneficial treaty of commerce with France. He died in 1865. 120. What was the Crimean War? — It was a war by the British and French against Russia, in order to check the en- croachments of that power on Turkey. It was called Crimean, from being chiefly carried on in the Crimea, a peninsula north of the Black Sea. The war ended in 1856, by Russia agreeing to respect the independence of Turkey. 121. Under what form of government did British India rise /o importance? — Under the government of a great commer- cial association, called the East India Company, the admin- istration being conducted by directors in London. 122. When was the East India company constituted? — It was constituted by royal charter, 1600 ; but it had many subse- quent charters extending its powers, which embraced the ■employment of an army composed chiefly of Sepoys or natives of India. 123. How did the Company extend its dominion over India ? — From a small beginning at Calcutta, it extended its terri- tories by gifts from, and wars against, native princes ; in the course of which wars, several Englishmen greatly distin- guished themselves. 1 24. Mention some of the persons who rose to note by their ser^ vices in India. — Clive, Warren Hastings, Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Charles Napier, Sir Colin Campbell, and Sir Hugh Rose. 125. What was the Indian Revolt ? — It was a wide-spread re- bellion which broke out in India in 1857 against the British authority ; the rebels being chiefly Sepoys, or native soldiers in the pay of government. This revolt was suppressed by a strong military force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858. 1 26. When did the government of the East India Company terminate? — It came to a close November i, 1858, when the direct sovereignty of the Queen was substituted fc^x the ruler Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 372 BRITISH HISTORY. of the Company — this change having taken place partly on account of the revolt in India, 1857. 127. When did the Prince Consort die ? — He died, to the grief, of the whole nation, December 14, 1861. 128. Who is the Heir-apparent to the throne? — Albert- Edward, Prince of Wales, born 9th November 1841, who mar- ried the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, loth March, 1863. 1 29. What was the Abyssinian Expedition ? — It was an army, under the command of Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier), sent in 1867 to deliver certain British subjects, who had been kept in captivity by Theodore, king of Abyssinia. His stronghold, Magdala, was taken by storm on 13th April, 1868, the prisoners having previously been given up. After the siege, the dead body of Theodore was found on the field. 130. When was the Irish Church disestablished? — The Irish Church was disestablished on January i, 1871. 131. What zvas the Ashantee War? — It was a war against Coffee Calcalli, king of Ashantee, who had overrun the ter- ritories of our allies, the Fantees, and threatened the British settlement on the Gold Coast of Africa. After his capital, Coomassie, was burned, a treaty was concluded. 132. What is the annual income of the United Kingdom? — It is upwards of ;^7o,ooo,oco ; from which, after deducting payment of interest on the National debt, there is a balance of about ;^44,ooo,ooo, for all the expenses of government. 133. What is now the amount of the National Debt? — It amounts to about ;!^790,ooo,ooo, necessitating the payment of an annual interest of about £26,000,000. 134. Mention some particulars showing the progress of the nation since the Union of England and Scotland in 1 707 : 1. The population of England and Wales has risen from little more than 5,000,000 to nearly 23,000,000. 2. The population of Scotland has risen from under 1,000,- 000 to upwards of 3,000,000. 3. The population of London and its suburbs has risen from 500,000 to upwards of 3,000,000. 4. From being a poor country with little trade, Scotland The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity, — See page 54. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 373 has made immense advances in agriculture, trade, manufac- tures, and the arts generally; in particular, its revenue to government has risen from ;^i 10,000 to ;^8, 500,000, and the population of Glasgow has risen from 13,000 to nearly 500,000. 5. Commercial and manufacturing industries have made immense progress ; and exports from Great Britain and Ire- land have risen from an insignificant amount to be upwards of ;^3oo, 000,000 annually. 135. To what is the great prosperity of the United Kingdom owing? — Among other noted causes are : 1. A settled constitutional government, free of any conten- tions respecting the right to the crown, such as long dis- tracted the country. 2. Universal respect for the law, which is everywhere ad- ministered with good-temper and uprightness. 3. Numerous and most important mechanical improvements, particularly the introduction of steam as a means of moving machinery. 4. The freedom enjoyed by all in their daily pursuits — a degree of freedom which cannot possibly exist in countries where the people are disposed to conspire against public authority, or break into disorder. 5. The prevalence of religious instruction and general edu- cation ; also, the very general diffusion of literature and a taste for reading. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. France until 1560. 1. Whowas St. Louis f — He was Louis IX. of France, who was distinguished for his piety and heroism ; he perished in one of the Crusades, 1270, and was afterwards canonized by the pope — hence the designation St. Louis. 2. When were the States General first assembled in France ?— The States General {Etats G/n&aux) were first assembled in 16 A The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 374 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 1302 by Philippe IV., at which meeting the tiers etat, ol burgher class, appeared with the nobles and clergy. 3. Was the establishment of free cities successful in France^ No; the wealthy and free cities of France and the Nether- lands excited the alarm of the feudal nobility, who crushed them with overpowering forces in the 14th century. 4. When were the English expelled from France .?— They were expelled from all parts except Calais in 1453, in the reign of Henry VI. of England and Charles VII. of France, their ex« pulsion being mainly due to Joan of Arc. 5. Who was Joan of Arc F— She was an illiterate French -naiden of the village of Domremy, on the borders of Lor- raine, who, in a fit of devout enthusiasm, conceived the idea of freeing the country from the EngHsh. She is sometimes called the "Maid of Orleans." 6. What measures did Joan of Arc adopt?— Throw^h favor of Charles VII., whom she persuaded to enter into her de- signs, she so excited the French by her patriotic exhorta- tions, that they overcame the enemy in several encounters. 7. What was the fate of Joan of ArcfShe was captured by the English, and condemned to death as a sorceress ; this in- trepid young woman was cruelly burned at the stake, 1431. The English were forced to relinquish all their possessions, except Calais, within 20 years afterwards. 8. How was modern France consolidated ? — By the expulsion of the English, and the absorption of various provinces. which were once held as fiefs of the sovereign ; by which means a powerful kingdom or empire has been constructed out of many detached or ill-combined parts. 9. Who was Louis XI. f— He was son of Charles VII., and was noted for his craftiness and superstition, but also for effecting many useful improvements; he had some strange contentions with the famed Duke of Burgundy. 10. Who was the famed Duke of Burgundy ?— We was Charles, usually called Charles the Bold, who held his duke- dom as a fief of the French crown ; but in reality Charles acted very much as an independent sovereign, lived in great The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 375 state at Dijon, and on one occasion, when Louis XL visited Peronne, had the audacity to imprison him, 1468. A few years later, 1477, on the death of Charles, without male issue. Bur- gundy was incorporated with France. 1 1 . How did Louis XL acquire the mastery of his domin- io7is ? — By the aid of a regular standing army, which was be- gun to be formed in the reign of his father, Charles VIL — the first instance of a regular hired force in Europe. 12. What was Louis XL styled? — He was the first king of France who was styled " His most Christian Majesty." Louis XL died in 1483, and was succeeded by his son, Charles VHL 13. Who succeeded Charles VLLL.f — Louis XH., who was noted for his many excellent qualities, and gained the title of " father of his people." 14. Whom did Louis XIL. marry ? — He married, first, Anne of Brittany, by which event that duchy was united to the crown of France. By Anne, he had a daughter, who was married to Francis, Count of Angouleme, who ascended the throne as Francis L {Francois Premier). Second, Louis mar- ried Mary, daughter of Henry VH. of England. Louis XH. died 1515. 15. What was the character of Francis I. ? — He was one of the most eminent sovereigns of France, distinguished for his dashing bravery, his taste, and patronage of arts and literature ; but his cruelties have left a stain on his memory. He was contemporary with Henry VHL of England. 16. What was the ''Field of the Cloth of Gold T— That wa.s the name given to an open field near Calais, where, in 1520, Francis Land Henry VHL held an interview, which, with various sports, lasted eighteen days. The name was given on account of the splendor of the two courts on the occasion. 17. Who was the Chevalier Bayard? — He was a French knight, eminent for his bravery, love of justice, and general integrity of character. Bayard flourished in the reign of Francis L, and was slain by an arrow, 1524. In literature, he is called the knight " sans peur et sansreproche." 18. What was the battle of Pavia ? — It was a battle fought The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. ■William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. t 376 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. by the French under Francis I. at Pavia, in Lombardy, against the forces of the Emperor Charles V., 1525. In this battle the French were defeated, and their king taken pris- oner. On this occasion, in a letter to his mother, Francis wrote the often-quoted words: "All is lost but honor." 19. What was the subsequent career of Francis I. ? — He was set at liberty, resumed his government, and died 1547. 20. Who succeeded Francis IJ — His son Henry H., who was succeeded by his son, Francis \\., a youth who was mar- ried to Mary Queen of Scots, but died after a short reign of two years, 1 560. 21. Who were the Dukes of Guise? — They were a noted family in France during the 15th and i6th centuries, morf particularly in the reign of Francis H. One of them took Calais from the English. 22. WJten was Calais taken fro7n the English ? — It was cap- tured by Francis, second Duke of Guise, 1558. This duke was uncle of Mary Queen of Scots, and it was through his influence that she was married to the king of France. 23. How long was Calais in the hands of the English ? — From 1347 to 1558, or upwards of 200 years; the principal church survives as a relic of the English occupation. 24. Who succeeded Francis 11. ?—\{.\shxo\)[vQX,Q\i-aiX\^^ IX.; but being a minor, his government was administered by his mother, Catharine de' Medici, a woman of an imperious character. AustHa and Switzerland, 25. To what does Austria trace its national importance ?—To the consolidation of various provinces on the accession of the Hapsburg dynasty, towards the end of the 13th century. 26. What was the Hapsburg Dynasty ?—\t was a family of note which had long occupied the castle of Hapsburg, or Habsburg, near Brugg, on the left bank of the Aar, Switzer- land. One of the princes of this ancient house, Rudolph who was elected Emperor of Germany, acquired the duchy of Austria and other possessions, to which his son, Albrecht T, succeeded, 1291, with whom properly begins the history of Austria. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 377 27. Who were the Magyars ? — They were the early inhabit- ants of Hungary, and are beHeved to have been of Scythian origin ; the Hungarians still call themselves Magyars. 28. When did Hungary attain to the dignity of a kingdom f — ■ In the year 1000; the first king was Stephen I., who was crowned with a crown sent to him by Pope Sylvester II. 29. Were the Hungarians troubled with the Turks ? — Yes ; the Turks were for ages a trouble to Hungary, which, under the brave Magyars, with their splendid cavalry, served as a species of bulwark against the Turks — in this respect emu- lating the Poles. 30. Who was Matthias Corvinus? — He was king of Hun- gary at the middle of the 15th century, and eminent for his valor, love of justice, learning, and the various improve- ments he effected in the country ; in 1467, he founded the university of Presburg. 31. Who was Ferdinajtd I. of Austria ?— He was brother of the Emperor Charles V., and ultimately inherited from him his German possessions. 32. Whoin did Ferdinand I. marry ? — He married the daugh- ter of Louis II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, on whose death, 1526, he claimed these possessions, to which, after some national troubles, he succeeded. The connection of Austria with Hungary and Bohemia, therefore, dates from 1526. 33. How did Hungary happen to be attached to Bohemia? — Ladislaus, the father of Louis II., was king of Bohemia, and while retaining that dignity, was elected king of Hun- gary, to which country he removed. 34. Was Hungary thoroughly merged in the Archduchy of Austria f—'^o', the Austrian rulers enjoyed the Hungarian crown as a thing separate from Austria, and by various suc- cessors of Ferdinand I., including the famed Maria-Theresa, the people of Hungary were insured the continuance of their separate national institutions. 35. What was the condition of Switzerland in the middlt agesf—C^W^A Helvetia by the Romans, Switzerland, about Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278. 378 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 700 years ago, was possessed by various hereditary duke^ counts, and otiier nobles, from whom the people wrested their liberty, and were able to form free communities, called cantons. 36. How did Albrecht I. treat the Swiss? — As emperor of Germany, he abused his power over the Swiss, some of whose free towns he wished to incorporate with his family posses- sions. Resisting these efforts, the Swiss formed a confedera- tion of cantons, and commenced a memorable struggle for civil liberty. 37. Who was William Tell? — He was a young Swiss peas- ant of the Canton of Uri, who intrepidly resisted the oppres- sive measures of Gessler, an Austrian governor, whom Al- brecht had installed in the castle of Brunegg, to subdue the adjoining district. 38. What is the legend of Tell and the Apple? — It is said that Tell, having been taken prisoner by Gessler, was prom- ised his liberty if he could, with an arrow from a bow, hit an apple placed on the head of his son. This feat he accom- plished in the market-place of Altorf, 1307. Gessler, incensed, did not keep his promise ; but Tell afterwards escaped, and headed a formidable insurrection against the Austrian au- thority. The legend of Tell and the Apple rests on no good authority, but is generally related. 39. What was the battle of Morgarten ?— It was a victory gained by the confederate Swiss over the forces of Leopold of Austria (a successor of Albrecht), 131 5. 40. What was the battle of Sempach ? — The battle of Sem- pach was the second great victory gained by the Swiss over the Austrians, and was fought in 1336. 41. What is the legend concerning Arnold of Winkelried ?-~ Arnold, it is said, was a Swiss Knight of Unterwalden, who, by an extraordinary act of patriotism, at the sacrifice of his own life, secured the victory of Sempach to his country- men. 42. Relate this remarkable feat. — The Austrians, advancing in a close column, with their lances pointed, the Swiss seemed likely to be borne down, when Arnold, uttering the Z Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133. c c (4 c o o MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 379 cry : " Protect my wife and children, and I will open a path to freedom," rushed forward, and gathered several lances in his arms and bosom ; whereupon the Swiss took advantage of the gap, and broke the phalanx. 43. By what English poet has this noble act of devotion been commetnorated ? — Wordsworth has the following lines on the subject : " He of battle-martyrs chief ! Who, to recall his daunted peers, For victory shaped an open space, By gath'ring in a wide embrace, Into his single heart, a sheaf Of fatal Austrian spears." 44. What was the battle of Grandson f — It was a victory gained by the confederate Swiss over the forces of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, near Grandson, on the Lake of Neuf- chatel, 1476. 45. What was the battle of Moral f—ThQ battle of Morat (or Murten) was a second victory of the Swiss over the Bur gundians. It was fought near the town and lake of Mora) shortly after the victory of Grandson, 1476. The loss of the Burgundians was immense, and the bones of the slain lay in heaps on the ground for more than 300 years. 46. What English poet refers to these ghastly trophies?— Lord Byron, in Childe Harold, has the following lines on th* field of Morat : *' There is a spot should not be pass'd in vain — Morat ! the proud, the patriot field ! where man May gaze on ghastly trophies of the slain, Nor blush for those who conquered on that plain. Here Burgundy bequeathed his tombless host, A bony heap through ages to remain ; Themselves the monument." 47. When was Charles the Bold killed? — He was killed at the siege of Nancy, in Lorraine, 1477 ; from about which time the Swiss were long freed from foreign intrusion. 48. What children did Charles the Bold leave? — He left a daughter, Maria, who from him inherited the Netherlands. Maria married Maximilian I. of Austria, by which means the Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle, — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to Exist.— See page 65 i n o c o c 3 380 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. Netherlands became an Austrian possession, and was assigned to Philip, son of MaximiHan and Maria. 49. Whom did Philip marry .?— He married Joanna, daughtei of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and their son Charles in herited Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, and some other coun- tries ; to add to his power, he was elected Emperor of Ger- many, 1519. 50. By what title is Charles best known? — He is best known in history as the Emperor Charles V. ; under him the House of Hapsburg attained to a commanding influence in European affairs. Charles was the contemporary and rival of Henry Vni. of England and Francis I. of France. The Heforntation. 51. What was the Reformation? — It was a great change in religious doctrine and practice as maintained by the Church of Rome, and was in a great degree founded on an examina- tion of the Scriptures. 52. When did the Reformation take place ? — After various abortive efforts by the Waldenses, Albigenses, the Hussites, and others, the Reformation took place in Germany in the early part of the i6th century, whence with lessor more suc- cess it spread to certain countries on the Continent, also to England and Scotland. 53. What was thought of the Reformation by the pope and members of the Church of Rome ?—\\, was deemed a great schism or heresy, which it was proper to suppress by the arm of the civil power. The Albigenses and some others, who aimed at a Reformation, were effectually suppressed. 54. Who were the Waldenses? — They were a numerous sect in the south of France, taking their name from their founder, Peter Waldus, a citizen of Lyons, about 1170. The Waldenses underwent many persecutions, and were chased from coun- try to country ; finally they settled at Piedmont, where the sect still exists, and are generally known as "the Vaudois." 55. Who were the Albigenses ?~L\kQ the Waldenses, they were a numerous sect in the south of France, who, about 1250, dissented from the doctrines and usages of the Church Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C. — See page in. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 381 of Rome, and after a time were either extirpated or dispersed. The name Albigenses was taken from Albi, capital of Langue-^ doc, where the sect first came into notice. 56. Who was John Huss ? — He was a preacher at Prague, in Bohemia, who, becoming acquainted with the writings of Wickliffe, adopted his doctrines. On a charge of heresy, he was tried and condemned at Constance, and publicly burned at the stake, 141 5. 57. Who was Jerome of Prague ? — He was a companion of Huss, who, like him, adopted Wickliffe's doctrines, and in like manner was condemned and burned at the stake at Con- stance, 1 41 6. 58. Who were the" Huguenots ? — They were a numerous body in France, embracing many distinguished nobles, who pro- fessed Reformed doctrines. The origin of the term Hugue- not is unknown. 59. Were the Huguenots persecuted? — Yes ; many of them were condemned and burned at the stake in the reign of Francis L, and under his grandson, Charles IX., they were exposed to a series of cruel persecutions. 60. What was the Massacre of St. Bartholomew ? — It was a massacre of Huguenots in Paris on the night of St. Barthol- omew, between the 24th and 25th of August, 1572. The slaughter extended to the provinces, and it is reckoned that altogether 30,000 persons were murdered. This appalling event occurred during the minority of Charles IX., and on his mother, Catharine de' Medici, rests the stigma of ordering the massacre. 61. Who was Coligni? — Gaspard de' Coligni, Admiral of France, was head of the Huguenot party, and was basely murdered in the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew, on the 24th August, 1572. 62. Who was Martin Luther? — He was the great apostle of the Reforma- tion in Germany. ManirLuther. 63. Mention some facts concerning Luther. — He was a native The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors.— See page 243, 382 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. of Saxony, and began life as a priest in the church of Rome; but being shocked with the profligate sale of Indulgences by a monk named Tetzel, who acted under a commission from Pope Leo X., he at length threw off his allegiance to the church, and began to preach certain Reformed doctrines. 64. What prince was favorable to Luther? — Frederick, elec- tor of Saxony, under whose auspices he propagated his opin- ions and made converts, 1517 to 1521. 65. What was the Diet of Worms? — It was an assembly of princes, temporal and spiritual, of the German Empire, April 17, 1521, at Worms, a city on the Rhine, to which Luther was summoned to retract his errors. Luther attended, but would not retract, and having a safe-conduct, was suffered to de- part. The president of this famed assembly was the Emperor Charles V. 66. Who was Melancthon ? — He was a person of a gentle and amiable character, a professor of Greek in the univer- sity of Wittenberg; having adopted the opinions of Luther, he was serviceable in propagating them among his country- men. His real name was Schwarzerd — literally" Black Earth," which became J/^/^;z^/^^«, translated into Greek. It was at one time custorriary for scholars to translate their surnames into Greek or Latin. 67. How did the term Protestant originate ? — A diet of the German Empire convoked at Spires, 1529, issued a decree confirming an edict published at Worms against Luther, and prohibiting any further innovations in religion. Cer- tain princes of the empire having solemnly protested against this decree, received the name Protestants, and the appella- tion has since been given generally to all who dissent from the Church of Rome. 68. What was the Confession of Augsburg ? — It was a sys- tem of Protestant opinions composed by Melancthon, and presented to a diet of the German empire at Augsburg, 1 530. This confession of Augsburg continues to be the creed of the Lutheran church in Germany. 69. What was the ultimate career of Luther? — He threw off his monastic dress, 1524, and married, 1525. Under the pro' Croesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth.— See page 234. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg. — See page 305. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR V, 3S3 tection of several German princes, he continued to preach the Reformed doctrines, until his death, 1546. Luther was a person of vigorous mind, fearless in asserting what he be lieved to be the truth, and genial in his social relations. 70. IV/io was Zwingli f — Zwingli or Zuinglius, was a priest of the canton of Glarus, in Switzerland, who, without any knowledge of Luther, preached, like him, against the sale of Indulgences, 1517 — 1518, and finally headed a church-reform among the Swiss. '& 71. In what did the Lutheran differ from the Zwinglian Re^ for?nationf — While Luther retained some of the usages of the Church of Rome, including that of an episcopal hierarchy, Zwingli carried his views much further, and originated a church of a democratic or Presbyterian character. 72. Who was Calvin ? — John Calvin, or Cauvin, was a Frenchman, born in Picardy, 1509; in the course of his stu- dies, he embraced the principles of the Reformation, which he began to preach. In 1535, Calvin issued his famous Insti- tutes of the Christian Religion. After a troublous career as a preacher and spiritual and civil director at Geneva, he died 1564. Calvin adhered to the Zwinglian form of the Reforma- tion, which, under some modification, was followed by Knox, and has been embraced in Scotland. 73. Did the early Reformers inculcate toleration ? — No ; as al- ready explained, freedom of opinion was not allowed even by those who had themselves been the victims of persecution. Calvin, for example, persecuted Servetus. 74. Who was Servetus ? — He was a person who wrote some speculative treatises that were considered heretical. On a charge of this kind, he was tried at Geneva, and condemned to be burned at the stake, 1553 — a sentence which was put in execution ; the death was approved of by Calvin, and Calvin's conduct on the occasion was justified by Melancthon. The crime remains a mournful and scandalous blot on the history of the Reformation. 75. Who was Beza .?— He was, next to Calvin, the most ener- getic and influential of the Genevese reformers. He often Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second.— See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Bom in Corsica, 1769 ; Died, 1821.— See page 411. 384 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. preached in France, and presided over the synods of French reformers. He died in 1605. 'jd. Mention a remarkable fact concerning the Reformation.-^- The most noticeable fact is, that the Reformation spread to, and took root in, only certain countries, to which it has ever since been mainly confined. Quenched in France, Spain, Italy, and several of the German States, no fresh outburst of zeal has caused its revival on a scale of national importance. That the Reformation should have been confined chiefly to the early part of the i6th century, is thought to be a cu- rious historical phenomenon. 'j'j. How was the Reformation quenched in certain countries f — By persecution and military outrage ; it was seriously re- tarded by the " Thirty Years' War." 78. What was the " Thirty Years' War ?" — It was a war in Continental Europe, extending from 1618 till 1648, and though not nominally so, was in effect a war between Roman Catho^ lie and Protestant powers. The chief brunt of this frightful war fell on various German states, particularly Bohemia, Saxony, and the Palatinate. 79. What was the Palatinate f — It was a small principality on the Rhine, of which Heidelberg was the capital. Its prince, or elector-palatine, Frederick, who married Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England, was, as a Protestant, elected king of Bohemia, 1619. 80. Who were the contending parties in the Thirty Years' War? — The elector-palatine, supported by the Bohemians, by a large section of the Protestants of Germany, and by British and Dutch auxiliaries — all in the Protestant interest. Their antagonists were the Emperor of Germany, and the German Roman Catholic princes. 81 . What was the battle of Prague ? — It was a victory gained by the Roman Catholic forces over the Protestants at Pra- gue, 1620; the result being the expulsion of Frederick and Elizabeth from Bohemia. 82. Who were Tilly and Wallenstein ?— Count Tilly and the still more famousWallenstein, Duke of Friedland, were gene* Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 385 rals in the Roman Catholic interest in the Thirty Years' War. 83. Who was Gustavus Adolphus ? — He was king of Sweden, and known as the " Lion of the North." He undertook the championship of German Protestantism, 1630 ; and thousands from England, Scotland, and the Netherlands, joined his s'landard. Under him, the Protestants gained many triumphs, and Tilly was slain in battle. Gustavus was killed at the battle of Lutzen, 1632, which was a great blow to the Protest- ant cause. 84. How did the Thirty Years' War terminate? — It subsided into a struggle between the emperor of Germany and the king of France, and was specially noted by the brilliant victories, but also frightful cruelties, of Marshal Turenne, the French general. 85. What was the ''Peace of Westphalia f" — It was the treaty of peace signed at Munster, in Westphaha, 1648, putting an end to the Thirty Years' War. France JBesumed. 86. Who succeeded Charles IX. ? — He was succeeded by his brother Henry III., at whose decease, 1574, the House of Valois became extinct in the male line. 87. Who was Henry IV.? — Henry IV. (Henri Quatre) was the son of Antoine de Bourbon, and a daughter of the king of Navarre. Henry inherited the kingdom of Navarre from his mother, and married Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. ; as nearest male heir, he was raised to the throne of France, and became the first monarch of the House of Bourbon. 88. How was Henry IV. educated? — He was reared as a Pro- testant by his mother, but afterwards, as a measure of na- tional pacification, he professed himself a Roman Catholic. 89. Who was Sully? — De Rosny, afterwards Duke of Sully, was minister to Henry IV., and a man eminent for his states- manship and literary tastes. Under his administration great 17 The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503.-866 page 181. O 386 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. public improvements were effected throughout France; Sully has left agreeable memoirs of his time. 90. What was the Edict of Nantes /—It was a decree of Henry IV., published at Nantes, 1598, which secured free- dom of religion to the Protestant portion of his subjects. By this famous edict, the Huguenots were allowed to cele- brate worship wherever Protestant communities existed, to build churches (except in Paris), and to maintain colleges of learning. In virtue of these arrangements, the Hugue- nots for a time enjoyed a legal status in France, and had numerous churches. 91. What was the great stronghold of the Huguenots? — Rochelle, a fortified city on the sea-shore, about 100 miles northwest of Bordeaux. 92. Was Henry IV. popular? — Exceedingly so; by the nation generally he was much esteemed, and is renowned in French history as " Henry the Great." — He however, incurred the enmity of the Jesuits and others for his liberal dealings with the Huguenots, and was assassinated by a wretched fanatic named Ravaillac, 1610. 93. Who succeeded Henry IV.? — He was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII., whose sister, Henrietta, was married to Charles I. of England. 94. Who was Rzchelzeu ?— Richelieu, a man of noble birth, was a priest and cardinal, and one of the most noted states- men of France. Rising by his great abilities to be minister of Louis XIII., he vastly added to the imposing lustre of the crown, but inflicted correspond- k\g damage on the state. 95. Briefly explain Richelieu's policy, gj —It was his primary aim to overthrow the privileges and civil importance of the nobles. This he effected not only by his public measures but by the in- sidious plan of attracting all aris- Cardinal Richelieu, tocratic families to Paris, in order to ruin them by extrav- agance, and deprive the rural districts of their presence. Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods — See page 248. m 3 cr t: o MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 1^7 96. How did Richelieu treat the Htiguenots? — Perceiving in them a power dangerous to the despotic character of the mon- archy, he assailed their privileges, and laid siege to their stronghold of Rochelle. 97. How did the siege of Rochelle terminate? — Altera siege of two years, during which the garrison was assisted by Eng- land, Rochelle was forced to capitulate, through famine, 1629. 98. In what sense was Richelieu opposed to Protestantism? — He opposed it mainly because it was antagonistic, as he thought, to the unity, and therefore the grandeur of the French monarchy, which he seemed almost to worship ; in Germany and in Great Britain, he secretly helped the Pro- testant cause, when by doing so he in any way weakened the opponents of France. 99. Was Richelieu friendly to the arts? — Yes; he was a great patron of learning and the arts, so far as they could exalt the glory of France. Two of his memorable acts con- sisted in the establishment of the Jardin des Plantes, and the French Academy, 1635, a society which remains one of the most select and learned bodies in Europe. 100. When did Richelieu die ?- -He died 1642. A street in Paris, in which was his palace, is called, from him, the Rue Richelieu. 10 1. When did Louis XIII. die? — He died in 1643, ^ ^^w months after his great minister Richelieu (whom he never liked, but could not do without). He left two sons, Louis and Philippe. 102. Who was Louis XIV.— He was the eldest son of Louis XIIL, and was born 1638. His brother, Philippe, born in 1640, was created Duke of Orleans, and from him the present Orleans family is descended. 103. Who was Masarin? — He was a priest and cardinal, who rose into note on the death of Richelieu, and acted as minister during the minority of Louis XIV. He continued Richelieu's policy, and is scarcely less renowned as a states- man. 104. What was the*' Parliament of Paris?" — It was an an- Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. 388 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. cient institution, with civil and criminal jurisdiction, re- sembling a court of law, and was composed of secular and spiritual members. Its authority extended over the half of France. 105. What special privilege had the Parliament of Paris ? — Its most valued privilege was that of considering and regis- tering edicts of the sovereign, which, when registered, had the efficacy of legislative measures. 106. Were there other parliainents ? — Yes ; there were several provincial parliaments possessing a jurisdiction similar to that of Paris. 107. How did Mazarin come into collision with the Parlia- ment of Paris ? — He tried to make it register all royal edicts irrespective of their oppressive character, whereupon the members resisted, and a strong party of nobles and others broke into rebellion. 108. What were the Wars of the Fronde? — They were civil wars in France during the minority of Louis XIV., caused by the oppressive measures of Cardinal Mazarin. The first out- break took place in 1648. 109. What is the origin of the term Fronde? — In French, Fronde signifies a sling, and Frondeur, a slinger. Frondeur, however, is popularly applied to any one who rails at, or throws out imputations on government. According to these latter significations, the wars of the Fronde or Frondeurs meant the " Wars of the Railers." no. Who were the leading members of the Fronde ? — Marshal Turenne, the Prince of Conde, and Cardinal de Retz, also many ladies of distinction ; all professed loyalty to the crown, but a determination to overthrow Mazarin. 111. Who was the Prince of Conde? — He was an eminent member of the House of Bourbon, who distinguished him- self as a military commander in the reign of Louis XIV., and is known in history as the " Great Conde ;" he died 1686. The " Great Conde" was great-grandson of Conde, a noted leader of the Huguenots. 112. When did the Wars of the Fronde terminate? — After about five years of civil war, the contending parties came to The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. or THE ^ or K Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity. — See page 54. bo c MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 389 a pacification in 1653. Mazarin was driven from power, but resumed his ministry, and died in 1661, from which time Louis XIV. exercised the government principally himself. 113. What was the character of Louis XIV. .?— He was the most powerful of all the French monarchs, magnificent in his personal appearance, and had the address to render himself popular, while he assumed an authority beyond all law or precedent. 114. What was a memorable phrase of Louis XI V. f — In al lu- sion to his exercise of absolute authority, he said : "L'^tat, c'est moi" (" I am the state"). 115. How did Louis XIV. deal with the Parliament of Paris ? — The parliament, shaken in its power by Mazarin, was now forced to register the decrees of the court, and, like every other body, obeyed the king without reservation. 116. Did Louis XIV. rule with discretion? — He had able ministers, who in general managed his affairs with much skill, but his wars exhausted the nation, which he helped to demoralize by his profligacy. 1 1 7. What were " Lettres de Cachet ?" — Lettres de Cachet, or Sealed Letters, were decrees making known the royal will and pleasure, and were employed as warrants for secretly arresting individuals, and confining them in the Bastile, a fortified prison in Paris. Nine thousand lettres de cachet were issued during the reign of Louis XIV. 118. What was the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes f — It was a decree of Louis XIV., issued in 1685, revoking the celebrated Edict of Nantes of Henry IV., which gave protec- tion to the Protestants in France. 119. What ensued from the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes ? — There ensued a bloody persecution of the Protestants in France, many of whom fled to other countries, which they enriched by their industry and skill in the arts. 120. Did any of these French families settle in the British islands ? — Yes ; many settled in England, Scotland, and Ire- land, where they were hospitably received, and where their descendants are now mixed with the general population. § I The arts of silk-weaving and dyeing in England were especi' The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 390 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, ally advanced by the immigration of these French Protes. tants. 121. Who were the Camisards ? — They were Protestants who inhabited the Cevennes, a mountainous district in the south of France, and were exposed to persecution by the Revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes. Driven to desperation, they broke into a general insurrection, which was at length sup- pressed by military force. 122. What was the origin of the term Camisard? — It is thought to be derived from camise, a species of blouse or shirt which the insurgents wore over their dress. 1 23. Who were the contemporaries in England of Louis XI V. f — In consequence of his long reign, he had for contemporaries Charles I., Cromwell, Charles II., James II., William III., Queen Anne, and for a short time George I. 124. What were the relations of Louis to these English con- temporaries? — With some he was friendly, but in the main and in the latter part of his reign, the English made strenu- ous efforts to restrain him from extending his continental dominions. His great military antagonists were William III. and Marlborough. 125. How did Louis XIV. treat Charles II.? — He reduced Charles II., who was his cousin, to a political subserviency by money bribes; in accepting which gifts, Charles showed the utter meanness and baseness of his character. 126. What was the transaction between Louis XIV. and Charles II. as respects Dunkirk? — Dunkirk, a fortified town on the coast of French Flanders, which had been taken by Oliver Cromwell in 1658, was sold by Charles II. for a sum of money in 1662. 127. What was the price paid for Dunkirk? — It is said to have been ;^5oo,ooo; to the disgust of the people of England, Charles applied the money to his own private purposes. 128. Who were the Port-Royalists? — They were a body of learned men, theologians, connected with the convent of Port- royal des Champs, near Versailles, who composed some Valued educational treatises, and played an important part The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to . 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 301 in the Jansenist controversy. The most noted of the Port Royalists was Blaise Pascal. 129. What was the Jansenist Controversy ? — It was a long- continued controversy in the Roman Catholic church, chiefly respecting the doctrine of " free grace." Jansen, or Jansen- ius, a learned professor of theology at Louvain (about 1630), propagated views on the subject contrary to those of the Jesuits, and hence the controversy, known by his name, which caused much excitement in France and some other continental countries. 130. Who were the Jesuits? — They were a religious order in the Church of Rome, constituting the " Society of Jesus," which was originated by Ignatius of Loyola, a Spaniard, and established by him in 1540. The society was learned, devout, and full of zeal for the church, but interfered so much in civil politics that it was at various times expelled from dif- ferent countries as dangerous to the public interests. 131. When were the Port-Royalists suppressed? — Their es- tablishment was suppressed in 1709, in the reign of Louis XIV., this measure being instigated by Madame de Mainte- non, a favorer of the Jesuits, whom the king had privately married. 132. What was the last great war in which Louis XIV. was concerned — It was the famous War of the " Spanish Succes- sion." in which he secured Spain for his grandson, Philip V., the first of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Louis concluded peace by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 133. When did Louis XIV. die ?—Ue died on the ist of September, 171 5, after a long reign of 72 years. 134. What is the name assigned to Louis in French annals ? — He is referred to as Louis Quatorze, le Grand M on argue. From the superb style of art during his long and brilliant reign, articles of taste fabricated during his era are said to be of the " Louis-Quatorze style." 135. Was the reign of Louis XI V. favor a ble to the rise of men 9f cotnmanding abilities ? — Yes ; his reign was the Augustan age of French literature, and, encouraged by him, several men rose to great distinction. The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619. — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 392 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 1 36. Repeat the glowing description of the reign of Louis XIV, ^iven by an eminent wt iter. — " Turenne and Luxembourg were his generals ; Colbert, Louvois, Torcy, his statesmen ; Vauban was his engineer; Perault constructed his palaces, which were adorned by Poussin and Lebrun ; Le Notre laid out his gar- dens ; Corneille and Racine wrote his tragedies, Moliere his comedies ; Boileau was his poet ; Bossuet, Fenelon, Bourda- loue, and Massillon were his preachers. It is in this august assembly of men, whose fame can never die, that this monarch whom they acknowledged as their patron and protector pre- sents himself to the admiration of posterity." 137. What was " the Dauphin?" — It was the title of the eld- est son or heir-apparent of the throne of France. 138. How did the title " Dauphijt" originate? — It was for- merly the title of the lords of the provinces of Dauphine. The last of these dying childless, 1349, bequeathed his pos- sessions to Charles, grandson of Philippe VI. of France on condition that the heir-apparent to the throne should bear the honorary title of Dauphin ; which continued the practice until the title was abolished, 1830. 139. Did the Dauphin survive Louis XIV.? — No; both the Dauphin and the eldest son of the Dauphin died, 171 1, and the succession devolved on the great-grandson of the deceased monarch, who, as Louis XV., ascended the throne at five years of age, 171 5. 140. Who was the Regent Orleans ? — He was Philippe, Duke of Orleans, who, as a relative of the royal family and first peer of France, conducted the government as regent during the minority of Louis XV. 141. Who was "Law of Lauriston ?" — He was John Law, son of a goldsmith in Edinburgh and proprietor of Lauriston, an estate situated a few miles from that city ; by his financial projects, he greatly injured France during the regency of Orleans. 142. What was the ''Mississippi Scheme?"' — It was a joint- stock concern devised by the Scotch adventurer. Law of Lauriston ; it included plans for developing the resources of Louisiana a French colony on the Mississippi ; also for trad- The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long.— See page 302. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 3^3 ing with China and the East Indies, and therefore bore a re- semblance to the famous *' South-sea Bubble," about the same time in England. 143. When was the Mississippi Scheme started?— Yt was started in 1717, and, favored by the Regent Orleans, it led to a ruinous speculation in shares, and creation of paper money. The scheme collapsed in 1720, and fearing the public indig- nation, Law made his escape from France. He died in poor circumstances at Venice, 1729. 144. What was the character of Louis XV, ? — Without the ability of his great-grandfather, he was more profligate and wasteful ; his life presented a spectacle of the utmost sensu- ality, selfishness, and baseness. For a considerable time, he was under the influence of Madame de Pompadour. 145. Who was Damiens? — He was a person who attempted to assassinate Louis XV. by stabbing him, 1757. He was seized, and punished with the mn^t horrible tortures ; his hand was burned off; his body dragged about by horses; and into his numerous wounds were poured molten lead, resin, oil, and sealing-wax till he died — a cruelty reflecting discredit on the administration of justice at the period. 146. When did France capture Corsica? — In 1768, when the Corsicans, who had been endeavoring to make themselves independent of Genoa, were forced to surrender to the French. 147. Who was General Paoli? — He was a distinguished Corsican officer, who unsuccessfully tried to prevent the French from taking possession of Corsica, 1768. He died in London, 1807. 148. What valuable colony remained to France, after England had taken her principal American and East Indian possessions? — The island of St. Domingo, in the West Indies, which pro- duced great quantities of sugar, and gave extensive employ- ment to shipping. 149. When were the Jesuits suppressed in France? — They were suppressed by Louis XV., 1764, in order to please Madame de Pompadour, who had involved herself in a con' test with the society. Michael Angelo, Great Painter a^ ' Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278 394 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 150. When did Louis XV. die? — He died in 1774, and was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., on whose head burst the cloud of misfortune that had for centuries been accumulating over France. The Netherlands, 151. What was the early history of the Netherlands? — The country was occupied by the Batavi, Belgae, Frisians, and other tribes, who were subdued by the Romans. In the middle ages, the Netherlands, like most parts of the Contin- ent, belonged to feudal chiefs, from whom the people gradu- ally wrested their freedom. 152. How were the Dukes of Burgundy connected with thQ Netherlands ? — One of them acquired the county of Flanders by marriage, 1384. 153. How was the Emperor Charles V. connected with Flan- ders? — He inherited it from his grandmother, a daughter of the Duke of Burgundy. With this district as a beginning, Charles V. extended his dominions by conquest, and under him the Netherlands were consolidated and improved. 1 54. What was the conclusion of the career of Charles V. ? — In 1555, he relinquished the government of the greater part of his vast dominions to his son, Philip II., and retiring into a convent in Spain, lived there until his death, 1558. 155. What sort of a personage was Philip II.? — He was a man of cold and proud manners, who was very generally disliked. He married Mary I., daughter of Henry VIII. of England, but he soon left the country, and was ever after en- gaged in continental affairs. During the reign of Elizabeth he fitted out the famous Armada against Great Britain, which entirely failed to effect the purpose for which it was sent. 156. What was the Inquisition? — The Inquisition or " Holy Office," was a tribunal in the Roman Catholic church institu- ted in 1248, for the discovery, repression, and punishment of heresy, unbelief, and other offences against religion. It was established in various countries, but nowhere did it proceed with such rigor as in Italy and Spain. 157. What was an ''Auto da F^f — It was a general burn-- Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, v* . Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859. — See page 133. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 395 ing at the stake of obdurate heretics by order of the Inquisi- tion. "Auto da Fe," are the Spanish words for an "Act oi Faith." 158. Was Philip II. a patron of the Inquisition? — Yes; he took pleasure in its operations, and reverentially attended the burning of his subjects in Spain. 159. Who was the Duke of Alva ? — He was a military com- mander employed by Philip II. to execute vengeance on the people of the Netherlands for having revolted under his cruel sway. With a large Spanish army, and possessing unlimited power, Alva inflicted the most appalling severities. 160. Who were conspicuous in resisting the tyranny of Philip II. ? — The Counts Egmont and Horn, two patriotic noblemen, who were condemned to death, and beheaded at Brussels, 1568 ; also the Prince of Orange, who was more fortunate in living to oppose Philip by force of arms. 161. Who was the Prince of Orange ? — He was William I. of Nassau, heir of the principality of Orange, in the South of France, and of large possessions in Germany and the Neth- erlands. 162. How was William I. Pri7ice of Orange designated? — He was usually called William the Silent, from his sparing use of speech. 163. Was William a Protestant ? — Not originally ; but he became a Protestant from conviction, and willingly took part with the Protestants of the Netherlands. 164. Who succeeded Alva as Spanish governor of the Nether- lands ? — General Requesens, a man of calm and moderate temperament, but resolute in subduing the revolted Nether- lands under the authority of Philip. 165. What was the siege of Ley den ? — It was an exceedingly protracted siege by the Spaniards of the city of Leyden, during which there were great sufferings from famine. The siege, which took place in 1574, was raised by the Prince of Orange, who broke down the dikes and flooded the country. By this extraordinary expedient the Spaniards were forced to retire, and the inhabitants were supplied with food. Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to E xist.— See page 65 n O 306 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR V. 166. IV/taf was the reward of the citizens of Ley den for theif unparalleled sufferings ? — The Prince of Orange offered them a choice of exemption from taxation, or to have a university estabhshed in their city. They nobly preferred to have g university, which was inaugurated in 1575. 167. Did the whole of the Netherlands i^tcline to the Protestant interest ? — No ; only the more northern provinces, including Holland and Zeeland, wei-e Protestant, while the southern provinces remained Catholic. 168. What were the United Provinces? — They were the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands, united by William Prince of Orange ; their independence was acknowl- edged by Spain in 1609; and their inhabitants are popularly known as the Dutch. 169. What was the fate of the Prince of Orange? — While holding the office of Stadtholder, or President of the United Provinces, he fell by the hand of an assassin at Delft, 1584. His great-grandson was William III., who married his cousin Mary, daughter of James H., and with her ascended the throne of Great Britain and Ireland at the Revolution of 1688. 170. What was the history of the Southern Provinces of the Netherlands ?— They were for a time placed under the govern- ment of the Count of Anjou, a French nobleman ; afterwards they passed by marriage into the possession of Albert, Arch- duke of Austria, and Isabella, daughter of Philip II., and were known as the Austrian and the Spanish Netherlands, until the whole country was overrun by the French republican forces. 171. Do the modern Netherlands show any trace of their past history? — Yes; while the people of the northern pro- vinces remain Protestant, and speak the Dutch language, those of the southern provinces retain traces of the Spanish con- nection, speak French, and are generally Roman Catholics. Mussia, Sweden, Poland, Denmarh. 172. When does the history of Russia assume a regular char* acter? — In the reign of Ivan I., from 1462 to 1505, when the Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 397 country was freed from the Tartars, and the civilized usages of modern Europe introduced 173. What is the meamng of the term Czar ? — It is one of the titles of the Russian sovereigns. The word is supposed to be a corruption of Ccesar, the title of the Roman emperors. The wife of the czar is styled Czarina, and the elder son of the sovereign Czarovitch. 174. What is rejnarkable in the succession to the throne of Russia ? — It is, that the reigning sovereign appoints his suc- cessor. The history of Russia is disfigured by assassinations and other violent measures to open the way to the throne. 175. Who was Peter the Great — He was Peter the I., born in 1672, who was surnamed " Great," in consequence of his distinguished abilities and the vast improvements which he effected during his reign. 176. How did Peter the Great acquire a knowledge of the arts ? --By laying aside his dignity as czar, and working as an artisan in foreign countries. Setting out from his domin- ions in 1697, and assuming the name Peter Michaeloif, he wrought for some time as a ship-carpenter near Amsterdam, and afterwards near London. He returned to Moscow in 1698. 177. Whom did Peter appoint to office ? — He employed nu- merous skilled foreigners — Scots, English, French, Germans, and others — to superintend various departments of affairs, to organize his army, and instruct his people ; by which means he greatly extended the reputation and power of Russia. 178. WJto was Giistavtis Vasa f — He was Gustavus I., king of Sweden, which under him was freed from the Danes, and attained to matioaal importance, 1525. 179. How many other kings of Sweden were named Gustavus f — Three — Gustavus II., III., and IV. ; the most noted of whom was Gustavus II., generally known as Gustavus Adol- phus, the "Lioa of the North, and Bulwark of the 'Protest- ant Faith," who was killed at the battle of Lutzen^ 1632. 180. Who was Charles XI I. f — He was king of Sweden, bom 1682, and succeeded his father, Charles XI., 1697, at which iime Sweden was the most powerful nation in the north of 17 A The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female Warriors.— See page 243. 398 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR Y. Europe. Charles XII. was an extraordinary military genius, and, as some think, a kind of madman. His great opponent was Peter the Great, who decisively defeated him at Pultova, 1709. 181. What was the fate of Charles XII. .?— He was killed at the siege of Friedrickshall, November 30, 1718, and by his death Sweden, exhausted by his wars, ceased to be numbered among the great powers of Europe. 182. When was St. Petersburg founded? — It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great, who personally superintended the construction of the city, which became henceforth the capital of Russia. 183. Who were the Strelitzes? — They were the life-guards of the czars, amounting sometimes to 40,000 men ; as trouble- some and dangerous to the state, the corps was dissolved by Peter the Great, and entirely dispersed, 1705. 184. When did Peter the Great assume the title of Emperor? — On the successful conclusion of his war with Sweden, 1721, when the territories of the empire were considerably extended. 185. When did Peter the Great die? — He died in 1725 ; at St. Petersburg there is a celebrated equestrian monument of Peter, erected in 1782. 186. Who succeeded Peter the Great ? — His wife, Catharine I., who reigned two years, immediately after whom there were several successors of no note. 187. Who was Catharine II. ? — She was the greatest of the Russian sovereigns after Peter I. ; she ascended the throne on the murder of her husband, Peter HI., to which she was ac- cessory, 1762. 188. What was the character of Catharine II? — Catharine was a woman of a comprehensive mind, but was unscrupu- lous in the means she employed to effect her designs, and possessed degrading tastes, that have left a stain on her memory. Like Peter the Great, Catharine encouraged the settlement of men skilled in the arts and sciences from for- eign countries. Crcesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT AT ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA. ERECTED IN 1 782. — 398. 'stKkTY THt Of Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 39^ 189. What was Catharine II. called by her contemporaries f^ She was called the " Semiramis of the North" — her vices, taste for magnificence, and warlike character having sug- gested a resemblance to Semiramis, the semi-fabulous queen of Assyria. 190. Who was Potemkinf— Prince Potemkin was for many years the favorite and trusted minister of Catharine, and by his daring spirit carried on various aggressive wars for the purpose of extending the dominions of Russia. military commander, who in the reign of Catharine IL, execu- ted the ruthless purposes of Potemkin against Turkey and Poland. 192. What was the stor?ning of Ismaelf — It was the capture of Ismael, a fortified city of the Turks, in Bessarabia, on the north side of the Danube, December 22, 1790. It was taken and sacked by Suwaroff, who, to other atrocities on the occa- sion, caused a massacre of 40,000 of its inhabitants — men, women, and children indiscrimately. 193. What was the laconic despatch sent by Suwaroff announ- cing this bloody triumph /—It was " Glory to God and the Empress! Ismael is ours." 194. What were the results of the Rtissian successes over Tur-> <^^j>/?— The acquisition of teritory, and a peace with Tur.ve}^ which left Catharine leisure to perfect her ambitious plans relative to Poland. 195. What was the form of government in Poland?— \\. was nominally a kingdom, but in reality it was an oligarchy, with an elective chief styled king. The nation consisted chiefly of but two classes, nobles and serfs ; it was the asserr. bly of nobles which elected the king. 196. What was the^Liberum Veto?" — It was a rule estab- lished by law in Poland during the reign of John Casimir, 1649, by which the vote of a single member of the diet or assembly could negative the votes of all the others. This " liberum veto '—about the worst law ever devised— in itself insured the ruin of Polish nationality. 197. Who was John Sobieski ?—\ie w^as a distinguished [91. Who was SuwaroJ"?— Count Suwaroff was a Russian j « ^ Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Bom in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821.— See page 411. 400 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, Polish general, who was elected king of Poland, 1674, and rendered important services to Christendom by checking the encroachments of the Turks. 198. When did the Turks besiege Vienna? — Under the Grand Vizier, Kara Mustapha, a powerful army of Turks laid siege to Vienna in 1683, when the city was rescued by John Sobi- eski and his Polish cavalry. This splendid act of heroism has shed a lustre over the memory of Sobieski. 199. When did John Sobieski die ? — He died 1696, when, by the flagitious body of nobles who overruled public affairs, the throne of Poland was sold to the highest bidder. 200. When did the First Partitio7t of Pola7id take place? — It took place in 1772; the parties to this infamous act were Russia, Prussia, and Austria; but the government of Poland confirmed the treaty of partition. Of 82,000 square miles given away, Russia obtained one-half. 201 . When did the second Partition of Poland take place ? — It took place in 1793, when Russia received 96,000 square miles, and Prussia rather more than a fourth of that extent. What remained of Poland was put under the protection of Russia. 202. Who was Kosciusko? — Thaddeus Kosciusko was a dis- tinguished Polish patriot, who endeavored to relieve his country from Russian oppression. After a noble but un- availing struggle against superior numbers, the Poles were overcome in an engagement, October 10, 1794, when Kosci- usko was struck down, covered with wounds. 203. What was the exclamation of Kosciusko in falling ? — It was "Finis Polo?tioe" (It is the end of Poland). 204. What British poet refers to the fall of Kosciusko? — Thomas Campbell, in his Pleasures of Hope, has the lines : " Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell. And Freedom shrieked— as Kosciusko fell !" 205. Did Kosciusko die on this occasion? — No; he was taken prisoner, and afterwards liberated. He died in Switzerland in 1817. 206. When was the Third and Final Partition of Poland ?— It was in 1795, when the whole that remained of it was di- Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ir8. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 401 vided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The part taken by Russia embraced Warsaw, in which there have lat- terly been various ineffectual struggles for the recovery of Polish nationality. 207. When did Catharine II. die? — She died suddenly in 1796, and was succeeded by her son, Paul I., whom she had kept under restraint for 40 years. 208. What was the fate of Paid I. ? — ^Deranged in intellect by misusage, he gave offence by his extravagant conduct, and was assassinated by a body of conspirators, 1801. 209. Who succeeded the Emperor Paul? — He was succeeded by his son Alexander I., brother of Nicholas, and uncle to the present emperor, in all of whose reigns Russia has made very important advances — the latest of its social improve- ments being the abolition of serfdom. 210. When was Finland acquired by Russia ? — A portion of Finland was ceded to Russia by Sweden in 1721 ; the rest in 1809. 211. What is the early history of Denmark ? — It forms a por- tion of the history of the Scandinavians, a people who were once a formidable maritime power in Europe. The Danes made various descents on the British islands during the middle ages. 212. Who was ''Hamlet, Prince of Denmark ?" — There is a legend concerning Hamlet, or Amleth, a prince of Denmark, who is said to have existed in exceedingly early times ; on which legend Shakspeare has founded his tragedy of Haitilet, Authentic history has no account of any such personage. 213. When does the histoi j of Denmark begin to have any in- terest? — About the middle of the i6th century, when the states of Holstein and Schleswig elected the king of Den- mark as their hereditary Duke. 214. Mention an estifnable and eminent king of Denmark. — ■ Christian IV., who succeeded to the throne and duchies, 1588. His reign was signalized by great improvements in the arts, also by the extension of commerce and maritime power. Ha died in 1648. The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503.— See page i 81. V *-• V a a a O 402 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 215. Mentio7i a despicable king of Den7nark. — Christian VII, who succeeded his father, 1766, and was noted for his dissix pations and his imbecility of character. He was almost en- tirely under the guidance of his mother, a weak and evil-dis-» posed woman. 216. Whom did Christian VII, 7narry ? — He married Caro- line-Matilda, sister of George III. of England, whom he treated in the most barbarous manner. 217. Who was Struensee? — He was a prime-minister of Den- mark in the reign of Christian VII. to which position he ha< risen by his abilities in affairs of state ; he had originally been a young physician at Altona. 218. What was the Struensee affair? — In consequence of certain scandals concerning the Queen Caroline-Matilda, in which Struensee was alleged to be implicated, he was arrested, brought to trial, and beheaded, 1772. 2 1 9. Was Caroline-Matilda really guilty of the scandalous con- duct of which she was accused? — No; recent investigations show that she was a victim to the enmity of the queen*dow- ager. An interesting memoir of the much-wronged Caro- line-Matilda has been published in England, explaining the whole circumstances of the Struensee affair. 220. What was the fate of Caroline-Matilda ? — She was con- fined as a prisoner in the fortress of Elsinore, until, by the interference of England, she was removed to the castle of Zell, in Hanover, where she died broken-hearted at the age of 23 years, 1775. Prussia, and Austria resumed, 221. What was the Duchy of Brandenburg .?— The Duchy or Mark of Brandenburg was a German province which formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Prussia. 222. When did Brandenburg become a kingdom? — In, 1701 when the ruling elector placed a crown on his head and styled himself king of Prussia, under the title of Frederick I. 223. How has the originally stnall kingdom been extended in dimensions f~By successive acts of aggression on neighbor* Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the Gods. — See page 248. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 403 ing countries, particularly Poland; such acts being sustained by a large and generally well-disciplined army. 224. Who succeeded Frederick I.? — He was succeeded by his son, Frederick-William 1., who was remarkable for his mili- tary organization, and desire to form regiments of tall soldiers— a fancy which induced him to connive at the most flagrant outrages for kidnapping tall men and forcing them into his service. 225. Who was ''Frederick the Great?" — He was Frederick n., son of Frederick-William I. and Sophia-Dorothea, sister of George H. of England. Frederick ascended the throne on the death of his father, 1740, and his talents and ability as a ruler gained him the title of " Great." 226. What was the character of Frederick III— He was one of the greatest military commanders of his age, fertile in re- source, economical, of indomitable resolution, and fond of literature and the arts. He disliked the German language, spoke and wrote French, and was a patron of Voltaire, the eminent French writer. 227. What were the territorial acquisitions of Frederick II. f —By his warlike operations and skilful diplomacy, he gained Silesia and a large portion of Poland ; at his death, he left Prussia one-half larger than it had been at his accession, also a full treasury, and an army of 200,000 men. 228. What did Frederick II. die? — He died 1786, and was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick-William H., in whose reign Prussia participated in the final division of Poland. 229. When did the male line of the House of Hapsburg expire ? —It expired by the death of Charles VI., emperor of Germany, 1740. 230. Who was Maria-Theresa? — She was daughter of Charles VI., emperor of Germany, whose archdukedoiti of Austria, sovereignty of Hungary, and other dignities she in- herited, in virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction. 231. What is 7neant by "Pragmatic Sanction?'' — The term strictly signifies "a business arrangement which is generally acknowledged ;" but in history, it is variously applied to Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70, — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242 ^04 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. decrees and settlements affecting national liberties or the succession to the throne. 232. What was the Pragmatic Sanction as regards Maria- Theresa? — Charles VI., emperor of Germany, having lost his son, named his daughter, Maria-Theresa, as his heir, and the decree or instrument making this appointment, which was out of the usual routine, was known as the Pragmatic Sanction. 233. What was the War of the Austrian Succession ? — It was a war which sprung out of the irregular succession of Maria- Theresa to the archdukedom of Austria and sovereignty of Hungary, to which several princes objected. In this war, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Naples, and Sardinia, stirred up by France, were opposed to Maria-Theresa, who, however, was finally victorious. 234. Who were the three great continental sovereigns in the second half of the \%th century? — Catharine the Great oi Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and the Empress Maria-Theresa of Austria, who was a woman of singular energy and ability, and of a greatly more estimable character than Catharine. 235. Whom did Maria-Theresa marry? — She married Francis-Stephen, Grand-duke of Tuscany, and had three sons and six daughters; at her decease, 1780, she was succeeded by her eldest son, Joseph I. Her youngest daughter was Marie Antoinette, born November 2, 1755. France concluded. 236. Who was Louis XVI.? — He was grandson of Louis XV., who, by the death of his father, became Dauphin, and succeeded to the throne, 1774 Louis XVI. had two younger brothers, the Count de Provence, and the Count d'Artois; also a sister, the Princess Elizabeth. 237. Whom did Louis XVI. marry? — While Dauphin he was married to Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, and noted as one of the most 'beautiful women of her time. An interesting account of her marriage, and of the court of France, is given in the Memoirs of Madami Catnpan. The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789.— See page 407. Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR V. 405 238. What was the character of Louis XIV. f — He was a good-natured and well-meaning man, who had not the ability to confront and overcome the dangers which menaced the monarchy. 239. Who was Turgot? — He was one of the ministers em- ployed by Louis XVL — a man with enlarged views concern- ing commerce ; but by attempting to control the nobility they united against him, and he was dismissed ; he died 1781. 240. Who was Necker? — He was an able finance minister who succeeded Turgot ; he materially improved the finances, but having proposed to tax the nobility and clergy, he like- wise was driven from power ; he was, however, recalled, and shared in the troubles which soon after broke out ; he died at Geneva, 1804. 241. What promoted a derangement in the finances of France? — The outlays incurred in assisting the British-American colonists to secure their independence, which led to a costly war with England, from 1774 till the peace of Paris, 1782. 242. What was the French Revolution ? — It was a great po- litical and social convulsion, in which the monarchy and all the institutions of the country were overthrown ; the era of the revolution was 1789 to 1794, but it began to threaten as early as 1787. 243. Give a summary of the chief causes which led to the French Revolution — 1. The concentration of all power in the sovereign, which had been promoted by Richelieu and perfected by Louis XIV. 2. The withdrawal of the landed aristocracy from the rural districts, and their continued residence at Paris, which ac- quired a dangerously-preponderating-influence. 3. The neglect of the peasantry, who were oppressed by taxes and compelled to work on the roads and render labor otherwise, without compensation. 4. The odious privileges of the nobility, who, while servile to the court, were arrogant 'n demeanor to the common people, none of whom could hope by talent or industry to rise in the social scale. The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles.— See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C.— See page 273 406 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 5. The vices of the higher clergy, and general profligacy ot manners. 6. The writings of Rousseau, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Helve- tius, Diderot, and others, who held up religion to ridicule and reprobation. 7. The generally perverted administration of justice, and the liability to being committed to the Bastile, and kept for years in confinement without trial. 8. The seeming impracticability of a constitutional reform of abuses ; for the States-General had not met since 1614, and the art of holding deliberative assemblies was lost. 9. The naturally high spirit of the French people, who, galled to the limits of endurance, were ready for any out- break. 10. The increase of a wealthy class of traders, or burgher class, who, by law and usage, were shut out from offices of honor or trust, which were reserved alone for the nobility. 11. The fantastic notions of Liberty, Equality, and Frater- nity excited by the successful revolt of the North-American colonies, which revolt had been assisted by France. 12. Financial disorder, which was past remedy on account of the nobility and clergy resisting all attempts to be taxed. 244. Was the Parliament of Paris concerned in bringing on tht Revolution ? — The parliament was to some extent blamable ; for having recovered its independence, it refused to register the absolutely necessary decrees of the king as regards loans and taxes. 245. What was a "Bed of Justice?" — A bed of justice {lit de Justice) consisted in the sovereign personally appearing before the Parliament of Paris, and forcing the court to re- gister his decrees, which he was entitled to do ; but this was an extreme measure rarely resorted to. 246. What was the first step in the Revolution f — The con- voking of the States-General. 247. When did the States-General meet? — The States-General met at Versailles, May 5, 1789; but great dissensions ensued, and the meetings were abortive, until the three orders- The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. The Battle of ^A^ate^loo was Fought June i8, 1815. — See page 368. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 407 commons, clergy, and nobles — united under the title of the National Assembly. Other assemblies of different kinda followed in the progress of the Revolution. 248. What men were raised to notoriety by the Revolution f — Mirabeau, Lafayette, Barnave, Talleyrand, Roland, Brissot, Dumouriez, Marat, Danton, Philip Duke of Orleans, who styled himself Philip Egalite, Robespierre, and many others. 249. When was the Bastile destroyed ? — It was attacked by the infuriated populace, July 14 and 15, 1789, when it was cap- tured and destroyed, and its governor and other officers killed. 250. When was the "tri-color" flag adopted? — The French " tri-color" flag was adopted by the revolutionists in 1789; it consists of three vertical stripes — blue, white, and red — the blue next the staff. 251. When was France divided into Departments? — In November, 1789, when the old divisions in provinces were abolished. 252. Who were the French emigrants ? — The French emi- grants {emigr^es) were vast numbers of the nobility and clergy who fled from France at the outbreak of the Revolution — a fatal and cowardly step, which greatly facilitated the progress of disorder. 253. Did the royal family attempt flight f-^QS ; but were brought back, June, 1791. 254. What was the "Jacobin Club ?"—ltv^2i^2i political so- ciety with extreme republican views ; its members were termed Jacobins, from their place of meeting in Paris being an old Jacobin convent. 255. Who were the Girondists ?— They were the moderate republican party, and were so named from their leaders, Vergniaud and others, representatives from the department of the Gironde. 256. What was a Cap of Liberty ?— It wdiS a red woollen night-cap worn by the more ferocious of the French revolu- tionists. On the occasion of an attack on the Tuileries, The First English Newspaper was Printed in i6ig, — See page 145. William Shakspeare was Born 1564; Died 1616. — See page 143. 408 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. June 20, 1792, Louis XVI., as an attempt to conciliate the mob, placed a cap of that kind on his head. 257. What was the massacre of the loth of August ? — It was the massacre of the Swiss guards and others at the palace of the Tuileries, by a savage mob of revolutionists, on the loth of August, 1792, when 5,000 persons were slaughtered. 258. What were ''Trees of Liberty?" — They were trees planted along the public thoroughfares in French cities com- memorative of the so-called liberty gained by the Revolution. Planted hastily, few of these trees grew, and many were cut down or removed. Sometimes a pole was set up bearing a cap of liberty, and such pole was called a " tree of liberty." 259. When was monarchy abolished and a republic established? — September 22, 1792, from which date a new calendar was subsequently instituted — the year i of the French republic beginning with that date. 260. When did the French declare their fraternity with alt nations desirous of being free, and offer to help them ? — On the 19th November, 1792, the revolutionary convention made this extraordinary declaration, which was everywhere viewed as an encouragement to rebellion, and created great alarm throughout Europe. 261. When was Louis XVI. beheaded? — He was beheaded January 21, 1793; and Marie Antoinette, his queen, was be- headed on the i6th of October following. 262. What was the memorable saying uttered by Burke when speaking of the misfortunes and unfriended condition of Marie Antoinette? — It was : " The age of chivalry is gone" — a saying often since quoted. 263. What caused the outbreak of the great French War? — The horror entertained in England and some other countries regarding the cruel treatment of the royal family, but more particularly the alarm caused by the declaration of the Con- vention, which induced threats of foreign interference with the domestic affairs of France ; these threats stimulated the military and patriotic ardor of the French to an extrava- gant pitch — hence the long and desperate war that ensued; hence, also, the Reign of Terror. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330. SB a> ">» tn XI h o •S U > (0 The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. .on o 409 264. What was the ''Reign of Terror f"— It wdiS a time ot general terror, extending from the autumn of 1793 till the middle of 1794, when great numbers of persons in all parts of France were put to death by the guillotine and other- wise. 265. Mention three conspicuous promoters of the Reign of Terror.— M3.ra.t, Danton, and Robespierre. 266. What was the fate of Marat f—Yi^ was assassinated, July 13, 1793, by Charlotte Corday, a young woman who took this bad method of avenging some family wrongs. 267. What was the fate of Danton /—Like many others, including the Duke of Orleans, he fell a victim to the re^ volutionary tribunal which he had helped to establish, and was beheaded, April 5, 1794. 268. What was the character of Robespierre?— Yi^ is said to have had some good qualities— was unselfish, honest, and simple in his habits—but he was a political fanatic and ty- rant of the worst description ; his governing notion was that society could only be rectified by the extirpation of all who were in the least favorable to monarchy or aristocracy. 269. What was the fate of Robespierre .?— The surviving mem- bers of the moderate party, gathering courage to resist the Terrorists, caused Robespierre to be seized, and he was be- headed, July 28, 1794, when the Reign of Terror closed. 270. What was the number usually beheaded daily i7t Paris during the Reign of Terror f—Hh^ number usually varied from about 30 to 50; but sometimes there were many more; along with Robespierre there were 27 others beheaded, and next day, as a finish of his party, 73 were guillotined. 271. What were "Fusillades?"— Th^y were shootings of crowds of victims by cannon ; this method of execution was adopted at Lyons, where the progress of the revolution had been resisted. 272. What were " Noyades ?"— They were drownings of great numbers, who were crowded into vessels for the pur- pose ; the vessels were sunk, until all they contained were 18 Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators.— See page 278 410 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. drowned. In this manner Carrier, a monster of cruelty, drowned 10,000 victims at Nantes. 273. How many perished altogether during the Revolution?-^ Upwards of a million, or about a twentieth part of the popu- lation ; but in this number are included those who were killed in the war in La Vendee. 274. What was the War in La Vendue? — It was a civil wal in La Vendee, in the west of France, where a bold but un- availing effort was made to uphold the monarchy; the war, which lasted three years, was suppressed by the republican forces in 1796. 275. What was the fate of the Church in France at the Revo- lution? — The church was abolished, and its whole possessions appropriated by the state ; Christianity itself was proscribed ; many of the ecclesiastical edifices were used as warehouses and stables ; and for a season there was a hideous saturnalia of irreligion, along with an affected worship of Reason, repre- sented by a female, styled " the goddess of Reason." 276. What were "Assignats ?" — They were assignments to portions of land which had been in possession of the church; such lands being called National Domains {Domaines Na- tionaux). These assignats were profusely issued as paper- money, and varied in expressed value ; the first issue w^as in 1790. 277. What was the fate of the assignats ? — Being issued in immense quantities by the government, they speedily sunk in value, till at last they were worthless, and nobody would take them in exchange for articles. The assignats were with- drawn, 1796, after causing great confusion. 278. Who was Dumouriez? — He was the first great Repub- lican general. In the campaign of 1792, he repeatedly beat the Prussians and Austrians on the north and northeast frontier; but becoming disgusted with the anarchy and cru- elty of the Jacobins at Paris, he entered into negotiations to restore the Bourbons, which being discovered, he had to fly from his own troops ; he retired to England, where he died, 1823. 279. Who was the Duke de Chartres ? — He was the eldest son Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. Humboldt, the Naturalist and Geographer, Died 1859.— See page 133 & MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR Y. 411 of Philippe, Duke of Orleans, and accompanied Dumouriea in his flight; after various vicissitudes, he also found refuge in England. 280. Who was Louis X VII. f — He was a child of Louis XVI., who died from cruel treatment, 1795 5 his title was merely nominal, for the country was governed as a republic. 281. What was the Directory? — It was a body of five indi- viduals, who, in 1795, were empowered by the " Council ot Five Hundred" to conduct the administration of public af- fairs. The Directory was in power about four years. 282. Who was Carnot? — He was a skilled military officer, who had the merit of organizing the French republican army, the successes of which were greatly owing to his well- conceived plans. 283. Who was Pichegru? — He was a military commander, who conducted a French republican army into the Nether- lands, 1794; there drove the combined English and Dutch forces before him ; crossed the Waal and the Meuse on the ice, January, 1795, ^i^^ made the French masters of Holland and Flanders. 284. What was the later career of Pichegru ? — It was one of a very unhappy kind ; having intrigued for the restoration of the Bourbons, and the overthrow of the government under Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, he was thrown into prison, where he died by his own hands, 1804. 285. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? — He was a native of Corsica, where he was born August 15, 1769. Receiving a military education, he entered the French Republican armv, and came favorably into notice by his dashing campaign and conquests in Italy, 1796. 286. What were the peculiar tactics of Napoleon? — Far- sighted ingenuity of plan, celerity of movement, and audacity of assault by concentrated and overpowering masses ; Napo- leon, besides, possessed great firmness and resolution, and was unscrupulous in the means he employed. 287. Who was Josephine? — She was a native of Martinique, and widow of the Viscount de Beauharnois, who lived in Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle.— See page 13. Upwards of 120,000 Different Plants are Known to E xist.— See page 65 4 1 2 MODERN CONTINENTAL HIS TOR Y Paris, with a son and daughter, Eugene and Hortens-e, m 1796, when she was married to Napoleon. 288. When did the French invade Egypt? — The French, under the command of Napoleon, invaded Egypt, 1798, and were successful in wresting that country from the Turks. 289. What was the battle of the Nile ? — It was a victory gained by the British fleet, under Nelson, over the French fleet, at the mouth of the Nile, August i, 1798; by this and subse- quent disasters, the French had to quit Egypt, and relinquish their projects in the East. 290. What is a coup d' Stat ? — A coup d' Stat is an abrupt and unexpected overturn of the form of government. 291. What was the nature of the coup d Stat of the iZth Brumaire ? — It was the overthrow of the Council of five Hundred and Directory by Napoleon, who employed armed force for the purpose. The i8th Brumaire corresponds with the loth November, 1799. 292. What incident was parallel to this in the history of Eng- land? — The expulsion of the Long Parliament by Oliver Cromwell, 1653. Napoleon was to the French revolution what Cromwell had been to the great English civil war. 293. What position did Napoleon hold after the coup d'etat of the \%th Brumaire? — He became a species of Dictator, with the title of First Consul — a step to still higher power. 294. What was the battle of Marengo ? — It was a victory of the French army over the Austrians, June 14, 1800 — this and other victories greatly increasing the popularity and power of Napoleon. 295. When was the ''Decimal system'* legalized in France? — The decimal system of weights and measures, which had been in preparation since 1790, was legalized in 1801. 296. When was the Church re-established in France ? — Napo- leon re-established the church along with the papal author- ity in France, 1801, but subject to the provisions of a con- cordat. icyj. What is a Concordat? — It is a treaty of agreement between the ruling civil power of a country and the pope, in Julius Caesar, a Roman Statesman; Died, 44 B.C.— See page iii. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. MODERN CON TIN EN TAL HIS TOR V. 413 which mutual rights as regards control over certain church affairs are stipulated for. There have been various concordats between the rulers of France and the papacy ; that which now exists is favorable to the rights of the state. 298. When was the Legion of Honor instituted? — It was in- stituted as an order of merit by Napoleon, when First Con- sul under the Republic, 1802. 299. Who was Toussaint-Louverture? — He was a distinguished negro mili- tary commander in the island of St. Do- mingo, after that island had been revo- lutionized in 1791 by the example of France, to which country it belonged. 300. What was the fate of Toussaint- Louverture? — He was induced to comeV to France, relying on assurances of safety, but was cruelly put in prison, where he languished and died, April, 1803. 301. Who was the Duke d' Eiighien? — He was the only son of Prince Henri, Duke de Bourbon, and last descendant of the " Great Conde." He commanded a part of the army which attempted, from the side of Germany, to suppress the republic, but was living retiredly in the duchy of Baden when he was unlawfully seized by order of Napoleon on the night of March 4, 1804. 302. What was the fate of the Duke d' Enghien ? — On a pre- tended accusation of being concerned in a plot to assassinate Bonaparte, he was condemned and shotwithin the fortress of Vincennes, March 20, 1804 — an act which has fixed a lasting stigma on the character of Napoleon. 303. When was Napoleon created Emperor? — France was constituted an empire, of which Napoleon was created em- peror, with the title of Napoleon I., May 18, 1804. 304. What was the battle of Austerlitz ? — It was a cele- crated victory gained by the French over the Austrians and Russians, December 2, 1805 ; this victory led to the subjuga- tion of Germany, and, with some other victories, gave a par-* amount power to Napoleon in continental Europe The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728.— See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female ^A^arriors.— See page 243. 414 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY, 305. When was the French republican calendar abolished?--' It was abolished by Napoleon, and the ordinary calendar re« sumed, January i, 1806. 306. What is the " Code Napoleon ?" — It is a great body of law, civil, criminal, and commercial, executed by order of Napoleon, between 1803 and 1808 ; this comprehensive code superseded all the old laws of France, which were of a very confused nature, and remains the legal code till this day. The" Code Napoleon" has been adopted in the Netherlands and some other countries. 307. When did the Holy Roman Empire cease ? — The Holy Roman Empire, of which Charlemagne was created the first emperor, 800 a. d., and which latterly had been called the " German Empire," was broken up by the conquests of Na- poleon. In 1806, the emperor of Germany renounced that title, and assumed the title of emperor of Austria. 308. Who were the ''Electors of Germany?" — They were cer- tain princes and primates, eight in number, who enjoyed the privilege of electing the emperor of Germany; by the disso- lution of the German empire by Napoleon, the title of elector ceased, and is now used only in an honorary way by the " Elector of Hesse-Cassel." 309. What changes were made by Napoleon on continental states?— He transformed Wurtemberg and Saxony into king- doms, and absorbed various adjoining territories into France. Hanover was created a kingdom by George III., 1814. 310. What was the battle of Jena? — It was a severe and humiliating defeat of the Prussians by the French, October 14, 1806. 311. What was the battle of Wagram? — It was a victory gained by the French over the Austrians at Wagram, on the Danube, July 5 and 6, 1809; by this defeat, the Austrians could make no further head against Napoleon. 312. When did Napoleon divorce Josephine? — She was di- vorced by him i6th December, 1809 ; and shortly afterwards, Napoleon married Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria, by »hom he had a son. Crcesus, a King in Asia, renowned for Great Wealth. — See page 234. LUXEMBOURG PALACE, PARIS. CITY RESIDENCE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. FONTAINEBLEAU (GARDEN AND PALACe), NEAR PARIS. COUNTRY RESIDENCE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. — 414. Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 41 c 313. What was the Russian campaign ? — It was the invasion of Russia by the French under Napoleon, 1812 ; owing to the burning of Moscow by the Russians and the severity of winter, the campaign proved fatal, the " grand army" was destroyed, and Napoleon suffered his first great reverse of fortune. 314. Why did Napoleon invade Russia ? — His chief reason was to force the Emperor Alexander to adopt the French com- mercial policy against England, as laid down in the famed Berlin decree of 1806 in short, because Alexander would not help to ruin England, Napoleon went to war against him, and met with a just retribution. 315. What was the effect of the great reverse suffered by Napo- leonf—lt destroyed the idea of Napoleon's infallibility, and stimulated the Germanic people, especially the Prussians, to rise en masse against their French oppressors. 316. What followedf—ln 1813— 1814, the famous War of Liberation, in which the Germans, assisted by the Russians, achieved prodigies of valor, and in spite of the magnificent strategy of Napoleon, drove the French in disorder across the Rhine. 317. What was the battle of Leipsic ? — It was the greatest battle fought in the " War of Liberation," and has been called the "battle of nations ;" it was fought on a field near Leipsic, October 16 — 19, 1813, when the French were routed with great slaughter. 318. What other reverses was Napoleon stfferi^tg ?— Wis ar- mies, which had overrun the Peninsula, suffered many de- feats from the British under the Duke of Wellington ; and these, added to his reverses in Germany, brought on a col- lapse of the gigantic power which had for twelve years been the terror of Europe. 319. When did Napoleon abdicate? — Pressed on by the allies ^Prussians, Austrians, Russians, and British — Napoleon ab- dicated, April 5, 1814, when the French war closed.' Shortly afterwards Napoleon was exiled to Elba, which he quitted, March, 181 5, and the war was for a short time resumed. 320. What was the reign of the *' Hundred days f — It was the period during which Napoleon resumed his power in Paris, Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1821. — See page 411. 416 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. from the beginning of March till the 12th of June, 1815, when he proceeded to join his army in order to encounter the al- lies in the Netherlands. 321. What was the battle of Waterloo ? — It was a final strug- gle of the British and their allies, under the Duke of Wel- lington, against Napoleon Bonaparte, June 18, 181 5, when he was thoroughly vanquished. 322. When were the Bourbons restored to the throne of France f —The Count de Provence, brother of Louis XVI., was placed on the throne as Louis XVIIL, 1814, and after the battle of Waterloo he reigned till his death, 1824. 323. What became of Napoleon?- -Yi^ endeavored to escape, but failing in the attempt he surrendered, and was sent by the British government to the island of St. Helena, where he died May 5, 1821. 324. What was the Congress of Vienna ?—Vi was a meeting of representatives of the allied powers of Europe, which was held at Vienna from November,i8i4, to June, 181 5, where num- erous national interests were adjusted. The settlement on mis occasion is often referred to as the "Treaty of Vienna." 325. What was the Holy Alliance?— It was a league formed by the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and Austria in Septem- ber, 181 5, ostensibly for the purpose of regulating the mutual relations of the states of Europe on Christian principles. Other powers, including England, acceded to the league, which had practically the effect of securing to each ruler the right to tyrannize over his subjects without control or remon- strance. 326. What was the fate of the Holy Alliance .?— France and England seceded from it ; and becoming ridiculous, it sunk out of notice. 327. Who was Napoleon II. .?~He was the infant son of Napoleon I., who abdicated in his favor, 181 5 ; but the ar- rangement was of no practical avail. This son of Napoleon, best known as the Duke of Reichstadt, died while young at Vienna, 1832. 328. Who was Charles X.?—Uq was the Count d'Artois, Order of the Garter " was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTOR V. 417 brother of Louis XVIIL, whom he succeeded as king of France, 1824. 329. JVas the Restoration of the Bourbons in 18 14 acceptable to the French? — No; the restoration of the Bourbons being effected by the alHed powers, their rule was odious to their subjects, and their unwise pohcy confirmed the popular dislike. 330. What was the famous saying of Talleyrand respecting the restored Bourbons f — He said that "they had forgot nothing and learned nothing" — meaning the^t their errors, like those of the Stuarts, were incorrigible, even by the gravest mis- fortunes. 331. What was the Revolution of July?— It was a violent outbreak in Paris in July, 1830, caused by the unwise and despotic measures of Charles X., and terminated in his deposition and flight. 332. Who was the Duke de Berry? — He was second son of Charles X., and was assassinated February 14, 1820; his son is Henri, Duke de Bordeaux, sometimes styled Count de Chambord, who, by the death of the Duke d'Angouleme, his father's elder brother, remains the representative of the elder branch of the House of Bourbon. 333- Who was Louis Philippe? — He was the Duke of Orleans — formerly Duke de Chartres — eldest son of Philippe Duke of Orleans, who conspicuously figured and perished in the great revolution of 1789. Louis Philippe was placed on the throne as "King of the French," August 9, 1830. 334. What was the Revolution of 1848 ? — It was a popular in- surrection arising out of the misgovernment of Louis Philippe and his minister, Guizot. Louis Philippe fled to England, where he died, 1850. 335. Who was Ferdinand Duke of Orleans ? — He was the eldest son of Louis Philippe, and lost his life by accident, July 13, 1842; leaving two sons, the elder of whom, styled Count de Paris, is the representative of the younger or Orleans Branch of the house of Bourbon. 336. What did the French do on the flight of Louis Philippe f The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. N V to a Q> 9i o CO I ii a (0 ja O « < 418 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. —They once more tried a republic, at first under a Provis. ional Government ; for a time there was a resumption of " Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity," as a popular dogma, and "trees of liberty" were planted. 337. Who were the "Red Republicans .?"— They were a party who held extreme views at the Revolution of 1848, and seemed inclined to make a general partition of property, and reorganize a Reign of Terror; they were, however, re- strained by the eloquent and temperate addresses of Lam- artine. 338. Who was Lamartine /—He was a literary man of fine taste and susceptibilities, who, as a temporary chief at the revolution of 1848 performed invaluable service. Lamartine retired from public life in 1852, and died in 1869. 339. What other men became conspicuous at the Revolution oj 1848/— Louis Blanc, Albert, Ledru Rollin, Arago, Thiers, Prudhon, and Cavaignac. 340. What was the ''Organization of Labor?" — It was a pro- ject of certain Socialist clubs, to the effect that government should in some way employ everybody, and pay them wages. 341. What were ''Ateliers Nationaux .?"— They were national workshops established as part of the organization of labor, in order to give universal employment at the cost of the public finances. They were promoted chiefly by Louis Blanc, Albert, and one or two other Socialists ; but all the members of the Provisional Government consented to their institution. 342. What was the fate of the Ateliers Nationaux f—Th^y were soon given up as ruinous. 343. What ensued on the dissolution of the Ateliers Nation- aux ?—K terrible outbreak, and the erection of barricades in the streets of Paris, June, 1848; the insurrection was sup- pressed by General Cavaignac, but only after 6,000 persons ViQxe killed. 344. What has been thought of the French project of "organ- izing labor r— The universal opinion is, that it showed a pitiable ignorance of the first principles of social economy, not only in the people, but those who aspired to lead them. o I ! h Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. The Great Wall of China was 1,250 Miles Long. — See page 302. MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. 419 345. What succeeded the Provisional Government f — A regular republic, with an Assembly and President. 346. Who was Louts Napoleon Bonaparte ? — He was son of Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; his mother was Hor- tense, daughter of Josephine; he was born 1808. Louis Napoleon was declared President of the new French repub- lic by a popular vote, December 20, 1848. 347. Was the Assembly of \Z\% in able legislative body? — No; as regards legislative capacity, it proved a complete failure ; and this circumstance, joined to a dread of the Red Republicans, disposed the nation for a new coup d'etat ; an overthrow of this kind, on the plea of national necessity, took place under direction of Louis Napoleon, December 2, 1851. 348. When did Louis Napoleon become emperor f — By a pop- ular vote, he became Emperor of the French under the title of Napoleon III., December 2, 1852 — republicanism having thus a second time sunk under a Dictator. 349. What are Prefects? — A prefect {pr^fet) is an officer appointed by government to administer public affairs in a Department ; there is one for each of the Departments in France, all taking their orders from the Minister of the In- terior in Paris. 350. Why is the form of govern7nent of France so easily changed by a coup d'etat or revolution .?— Because, whatever may be the professed character of the government, it really consists of a single central authority situated in the capital, whence its orders are issued to the prefects. 351. What facilities does this centralized system offer for rei'O- lution? — An insurrectionary mob has only to crush the central power in Paris by military violence, and, seizing the telegraph at the Ministry of the Interior, issue commands to the prefects all over France ; by which means a new order of things may be at once established. 352. Explain how the goi'ernment of Great Britain differs from that of France?— T\vQ British executive government does not interfere— nor has it the power to interfere— with the ad- ministration of local affairs ; these affairs are in the hands oi Michael Angelo, Great Painter and Sculptor, Died, 1563. — See page 172. The Coliseum at Rome Seated 87,000 Spectators. — See page 278. 420 MODERN CONTINENTAL HISTORY. the civic and county magistracy, who act independently ac^ cording to the provisions of acts of parliament. Conse- sequently, any dislocation of the executive at Westminster would have little effect in disturbing the usual routine of affairs throughout the country. 353. Define more briefly the difference of gov ern7nent in France and England. — France is governed by an arbitrary authority, be it called a monarchy or a republic ; England is governed by law, under a constitution. 354. When the republicans were in power in France, did they -ittempi to substitute a system of independent local adtninistration for central authority f — No ; they ruled precisely in the ^ame manner as an emperor or Jctator; and it does not appear that the people understand or are prepared for anything else. 355. What was the policy of Napoleon III.?— It was a policy favorable to the material prosperity of France, which under him made great advances. Towns and cities have been much im- proved; Paris, in particular, has been Napoleon III. almost rebuilt, and rendered the most beautiful city in the world ; and manufacturing and commercial industry have been prodigiously extended. 356. What was the Franco-Prussian War? — It was a wax declared by France against Prussia, in July, 1870, on the ground that the king of Prussia refused to prohibit the can- didature of his relative, Prince Leopold, for the vacant throne of Spain. The French armies were vanquished ; the Emperor Napoleon III. was deposed by a Parisian mob ; the 3 German forces gained possession of a large part of France, and imposed a heavy pecuniary fine on the country. France is now a republic. 357. What was the fate of Napoleon III. .?— After six months' stay as a prisoner of war at Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, Napoleon retired to Chiselhurst, in Kent, where he died, Jan. 9, 1873. Captain Cook, the Great Navigator, was Killed in 1779. — See page 365. The Battle of Waterloo was Fought June i8, 1815.— See page 368. CONCL UDING HIS TORICAL Q UESTIONS. 42 1 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 1. What was the origin of Venice? — Venice originated in the settlement of the poorer inhabitants of Northern Italy, taking refuge on islands in the Adriatic from the attacks of the Huns under Attila, about 452. 2. How did Venice become a great commercial city? — By be- coming an ejttrepdt of commerce with the East, previous to the discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 3. How were the tvealth and importance of Venice demon- strated? — By the building of grand palaces by the merchant- princes along the chief watery thoroughfares. These palaces still exist as a melancholy memorial of decayed grandeur. 4. What was the nature of fhe Venetian government until nodern ti7nes? — It consisted of an aristocratic republic or oligarchy, with a senate and doge. 5. What was the doge of Venice? — He was the elective president of the republic of Venice, and ruled with the power of a sovereign. The term doge, like the title duke, is from the Latin duco, to lead. 6. When did the Venetian Republic terminate? — It came abruptly to an end by the invasion of the French, 1797- in 1814, Venice, with its territory, passed into the possession of Austria. 7. Who was Charles of Anjou ? — He was brother of Louis IX. (Saint Louis), and received from Pope Urban IV. a grant of the kingdom of Sicily and Naples, 1254, to the exclusion of the rightful heir. 8. What were the ''Sicilian Vespers?'' — That was the name given to a massacre of the French in Sicily, consequent on their taking possession of the country; the massacre began at Palermo on Easter Monday, 1282, and 8,000 French were slaughtered. The kingdom subsided into a possession of Spain. 9. Who was CcEsar Borgia? — He was a dissolute and rapa- cious military commander in Italy son of Pope Alexander VI., who, aiming at becoming king of Romagna, perpetrated i8 A The First English Newspaper was Printed in 1619.— See page I45- William Shakspeare was Born 1564 ; Died 1616. — See page 143. 422 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. numerous atrocities. He was at last captured and taken to Spain, where he was killed, 1507. The cruelties of Caesar Borgia, and the vices of his sister Luc rezia, have condemned the name to infamy. 10. What E7iglish poet refers to Bo7'gza ? — Pope, in his Essay on Man, has the lines : " If plagues or earthquakes break not Heaven's design, Why then a Borgia, or a Catiline ?" 11. What was the Florentine Republic? — It was one of sev- eral eminent, though small aristocratic republics in Italy, from the 12th to the i6th century. Its capital was Florence, which became enriched with treasures of art. 12. Who was Savonarola? — He was a learned and eloquent Italian monk, who, about 1490, caused a great excitement in Florence by preaching against the observances of the church of Rome, and also preaching a reform in the aristocratic con- stitution of the republic ; in the heat of his enthusiasm, Savonarola declared that he possessed supernatural authority. 13. What was the fate of Savonarola? — He was excom- municated as a heretic, and being brought to trial, was first put to the rack to confess his errors, and then strangled and burned, 1498. There are differences of opinion regarding Savonarola's conduct as an ecclesiastical and political re- former, but all lament his cruel fate. 14. Who was Machiavelli? — He was a statesman in the Florentine republic, in the early part of the i6th century, noted for his sagacity and literary abilities. He suffered from the oppressive proceedings of the Medici family, and died in 1527, leaving some historical and other treatises. 1 5. What is meant by ''Machiavellism ?" — Such is the name ordinarily given to any system of policy which supports law and authority, however unscrupulous in the use of means. The term is derived from Machiavelli, who, in one of his speculative treatises, vindicates the use of treachery and other odious artifices in order, if need be, to secure the author- ity of a ruler. Some have thought that Machiavelli wrote only ironically on this subject. The Famous Spanish Armada was Destroyed in 1588. — See page 330 Aurora Borealis Consists of Light Streaks of Electricity.— See page 54. CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 423 16. Who was Masaniello? — Masaniello, or properly Tom- maso Aniello, was a fisherman of Naples, who led a revolt in that city against the Spanish viceroy, whose oppressions had ex- sperated the people, 1647 Masaniello became frenzied by success, and was killed by his own associates. 17. What was the French kmgdom of Italy? — It was a king- dom created out of the French conquests in Italy, of which Napoleon was constituted king, 1805 — an arrangement which lasted till 1814. 18. What was the kingdom of the two Sicilies? — It consisted of the island of Sicily and the mainland of Italy adjoining Naples. 19. Who was Murat? — He was one of the generals of Napoleon, who assigned to him the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 1808. Murat lost this possession at the peace of 1814, and was shot as a criminal, after making a vain attempt to recover the kingdom, 1815. 20. Who was Bemadottef — He was originally a sergeant in the French army, who, by good-conduct and military skill, rose to be a commander; he greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Austerlitz, and by Napoleon was created Prince of Ponte-Corvo. Bernadotte was elected king of Sweden, 1 810, and the throne of that country is now occupied by his descendant. Of all Bonaparte's generals, Bernadotte was the most worthy and respected. 21. What was the Treaty of Vienna? — The best known Treaty of Vienna is that between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 181 5, settling the re-arrangement of European countries, as they now generally appear. A sup- plementary treaty defined the kingdom of the Netherlands. 22. How was the kingdom of the Netherlands defined by the Treaty of Vienna ? — The whole Netherlands were constituted a kingdom vested in the House of Orange. 23. When was the kingdom of the Netherlands broken up into two parts? — It was broken up by a revolution in 1830; in 1831, the Northern or Dutch provinces were constituted the kingdom of the Netherlands, and the Southern were con- stituted the separate kingdom of Belgium. The Earth's Distance from the Sun is 92,000,000 Miles. — See page 15. Cleopatra was an Egyptian Princess, who Died 30 B.C. — See page 273. 424 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 24. Who was created king of Belgium f—VrmcQ Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg, whose first wife was the Princess Charlotte of Wales. In 1832, Leopold married the Princess Louise, daugh- ter of Louis Philippe, king of the French, and in their family is vested the succession to the crown of Belgium. 25. When did Greece become a possession of the Turks ? — After 1453, when the Mohammedans captured Constantinople. 26. When did the people of Greece rebel against the Turkish dominion? — In 1820, when the Greeks, favored by the good wishes of all Christendom, made a strenuous effort to shake off the Turkish power, in which they were aided by the celebrated Lord Byron, 1823. 27. When did the Greeks achieve their independence? — In 1829, since which Greece has been a distinct, but far from well-governed kingdom. 28. Who were the Knights of Malta? — The Knights of Malta, or more correctly, the Knights of St. John of Jeru- salem, were a celebrated military and religious order of the middle ages, to whom was finally assigned the island of Malta, which they retained under the chief or Grand-Master, until 1798, when the island was surrendered to the French, and the order dissolved. 29. When was Malta captured by the British ? — It was cap- tured from the French, 1800 ; and by treaty, remains a British possession. 30. Who were the Mamelukes? — They were a military body in Egypt, consisting of highly-trained slaves, gener- ally white, from the Caucasus. Nominally, they were a force at command of the Pasha or Turkish viceroy, but in reality the Pasha was controlled by them. Mohammed Ali, Pasha, by a stratagem, caused a large number of the Mamelukes to be massacred, 181 1, and the remainder were exterminated, 1820. 31. Who were the Janizaries? — They were a body of Tur- kish troops, formed originally about 1330, of the children of Christians who had been conquered, and were reared as Mohammedans. Latterly, the Janizaries acted as the body The Reign of Terror Extended from 1793 to 1794. — See page 409. Ambrosia, in Mythology, was the Food of the G^-»ds. — See page 248. (» CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 425 guard of the sultan at Constantinople, but on the ground of being turbulent and dangerous to the state, the force was dissolved, 1826, when 15,000 were executed, and more than 20,000 banished. 32. What was the Helvetian Republic .?— The French, in their resistless progress, having subjugated Switzerland, 1797, formed it into the Helvetian Republic, 1798. The country is now a federation of cantons, and its independence is secured by the Treaty of Vienna, 181 5. 33. What was the Dey of Algiers ? — He was the Turkish chief of a body of Janizaries who long ruled Algiers and its neighborhood, and carried on a system of piracy against the Christian maritime powers of Europe. 34. When did the British fleet bombard Algiers ? — A British fleet, under Admiral Lord Exmouth, bombarded Algiers, August 16, 1816, when the dey was humbled, and Christian slavery abolished. 35. When did the French take possession of Algiers ? — The French subdued and took possession of Algiers, 1830, since which time Algeria has been a possession of France. 36. What effect had the French revolution of 1848 on Conti- nental Europe ? — The revolutionary spirit spread to various countries, and to conciliate their subjects, several sovereigns promised to give constitutions to their subjects; a reaction, however, took place in 1849 — 1850. 37. Who was Pius IX.? — Pius IX. {Pio Nono), late pope of Rome, was elected 1846, and began by pursuing a liberal policy ; but his subjects acquired extreme views, consequent on the Revolution in France, and his minister, Rossi, was assassinated, November I5,.i848, whereupon Pius IX. quitted Rome, and remained absent till affairs were tranquillized by the pfesence of a French army, 1850. In 1861, the Papal States, with the exception of Rome, were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy; and in 1870, Rome also was incorporated with it. 38. Who is Garibaldi? — He is a native of Nice, where he was born 1807; bred to the sea, and of a generous and in- trepid character, he distinguished himself in defence of Rom© Solomon's Temple was Destroyed in the Year 70. — See page 230. The Labors of Hercules, in, Mythology, Numbered 12.— See page 242. « 426 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. when it was taken by the French, 1849. The most celebra- ted act of Garibaldi was the expulsion of the Spanish Bour- bon dynasty from the Two Sicilies, July, 1859. 39. Who was Victor Emmanuel ?—Yxoxn being king of Sar- dinia he became king of Italy — a position which he gained partly by the assistance of Napoleon III. in the Franco- Italian war of 1859, when the Austrians were expelled from Lombardy, and several petty principalities subdued ; also partly by the services of Garibaldi in securing the Two Si- cilies as an addition to the new Italian kingdom. 40. Of what is the modern kingdom of Italy composed? — It comprehends the whole of Italy and the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, with the city of Rome as capital. 41. Which are the ''five great powers of Europe f" — Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and Great Britain. 42. Is not Spain reckoned among the " great powers f" — It is not; Spain, which was once a "great power," has declined into a second or third rate power. 43. When did Spain decline in power and importance ? — It declined in the reign of Philip II., son of the Emperor Charles V., in cqnsequence of a long course of oppression and religious intolerance ; but to this cause has been added general misgovernment, by which Spain lost its principal colonial possessions. 44. When did Portugal emancipate itself from the do7nifiion of Spain .?— Portugal, which had been wrongfully taken pos- session of by Spain, secured its independence under the House of Braganza, 1640. 45. What was the ''Methuen Treaty f— It was a comm^ercial treaty between England and Portugal, concluded by Paul Methuen, of Corsham, the English ambassador, 1703. In virtue of this treaty, the relations between England and Por- tugal have been of a friendly character. 46. When did the great Earthquake at Lisbon take place ?—li took place November i, 1755, when most of the city was destroyed, and within eight minutes upwards of 50,000 inhab- itants were swallowed up. 47. What extensive state in South America has sprung from The Bastile was a Prison in Paris ; Destroyed, 1789. — See page 407 The Occult Arts were Secret Arts of the Ancients. — See page ii8. CONCL UDING HIS TORICAL Q UESTIONS. 427 Portugal? — The empire of Brazil, which dates from about 1821, and has an emperor connected with the royal family of Portugal. 48. What were the Haiise towns? — They were certain free cities of Germany which, in the 13th century, formed a league or union for the purpose of common defence against pirates, baronial oppressors, and others. The term Hanse is from Hansa, which, in the old Teutonic dialect, signifies an associ- ation for mutual defence. 49. What was the number of Hanse towns?— kX. one time there were as many as 85, chiefly on the Rhine, the Elbe, and shores of the Baltic. Bremen, Liibeck, and Hamburg were the principal citiss in the Hanseatic union, which has disap- peared in the progress of social improvement. 50. What was the Zollverein? — It was a commercial union of nearly all the German states, according to which customs- duties were levied only on the frontiers of the union, for the common behoof. The Zollverein (customs union) began in 1818, and was merged m the German Empire in 1871. 51. What was the Danish and German War? — It was a war waged by Prussia, Austria and other German powers against Denmark, chiefly on account of the inheritance to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, 1863 — 1864. The result was fatal to Denmark, which, after suffering great losses, had to re- linquish these duchies, and the war closed by a treaty of peace, November, 1864. 52. What was the Prusso-Austrian war of 1 866 ? — It was a war which originated indifferences between Prussia and Austria regarding the occupation and disposal of the territory taken from Denmark, but was really due to the rivalry between the two states for the leadership of Germany. The war ended in the total defeat of Austria, the annexation to Prussia of the kingdom of Hanover and other German states which had supported Austria, and the formation of a North German Confederation, consisting of the states north of the Main. During the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, the South German states joined the Northern Confederation, and the king 01 Prussia was elected emperor of Germany. The Earth's Surface is 200,000,000 Square Miles. — See page 23. The Greek Statue, Apollo Belvidere, was Discovered 1503. — See page 181. M < 6 428 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 53. What important nation has sprung from Great Britainf —The United States of America, which were for the mosx part originally British colonies, and declared their indepen- dence, 1776, which was acknowledged by George III., 1783. 54. What was the flag adopted by the United States .?-*-Tt was a flag consisting of stars and stripes. The stars white on a blue ground, and the stripes red and white alternately. 55. What form of government did the United States adopt .?— ■ They adopted a republic, with an elective president, whose term of office is four years. 56. Mention the names of those who became conspicuous in se- curing independence to the United States ? — George Washing- ton, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Patrick Henry, John Jay, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and Josiah Quincy, also several others. All were men of cultivated minds and firm resolution ; but to Washington's military genius belongs the chief merit "in this great and successful struggle. 57. What was the position and character of Washington?— He was a Virginian gentleman of good education, polished manners, and of English descent. His character is con- sidered to have been one ot the most estimable in history; entertaining no selfish views, he placidly retired into private life on the conclusion of the war, 1783. 58. Who was the first President of the United States?— George Washington, who reluctantly quitted private life, and accepted office, 1789. He served a second time as presi- dent, and to the grief of the nation, died December 14, 1799. 59. Who was the first ambassador to France from the United 5/a/^j?— Benjamin Franklin, who was ambassador to the court of Louis XVI. from 1776 to 1785, and was concerned m promoting a treaty of alliance between the United States and France. 60 Mention some circumstances in the career of Franklin.— He was born at Boston, Massachusetts, 1706: spent the greater part of his life as a printer at Philadelphia; and rose to distinction by his prudence and diligence, also by hi« scientific discoveries. Initials S. P. Q. R. Signify the Roman Senate and People.— See page 276. \ (UNIVERSITY Printing was Invented in 1437, by John Guttenberg.— See page 305. (» CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. 429 61. What was Franklin s great electrical discovery? — By means of a paper kite he brought down Hghtning from the douds, and identified it with electric manifestations ; this discovery led to the protection of tall buildings from light- ning by means of iron rods as conductors. 62. When did Franklin die? — He died April 17, 1790; his autobiography is prized as an interesting account of a man who rose from poverty and obscurity to fortune and fame, by diligence in his calling and other good qualities. Frank- hn was one of the most remarkable men of the i8th century. 63. What was the last part of the North Afnerican continent relinquished by France .?— Louisiana, which was sold by Napo- leon I. to the United States, 1812 ; many of the inhabitants of Louisiana being of French descent, they continue to speak the French language. 64. What is meant by the " Monroe Doctrine ?" — It signifies a policy inculcated by James Monroe, president from 1816 to 1824, to the effect that the United States should neither in- terfere in European affairs, nor allow any further extension of European powers in North America. 65/ What were the ''Confederate States?" — They were certain southern states which seceded from the Union, formed a separate confederation, and on a claim of independence broke into rebellion, 1861. 66. What was the issue of the Confederate rebellion? — After four years of a bloody and costly civil war, the rebellion was suppressed, 1865. 6^. Who was Abraham Lincoln ? — He was president of the United States during the whole period of the Confederate rebellion, and much esteemed for his simple and honest character, as well as for his administrative capacity at a time of great national trouble. 68. What was the fate of President Lincoln ? — He was, to the horror and indignation of the whole civilized world, assassinated by the pistol-shot of a political fanatic, April, 14, 1865. 69. Mention some parallel cases of assassination which an recorded in history, — The assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 Sound Travels at the Rate of 1,125 Feet per Second. — See page 49. Napoleon Bonaparte, Born in Corsica, 1769; Died, 1 821 — See page 411 . 430 CONCLUDING HISTORICAL QUESTIONS. B. C; James I. of Scotland, 1437; William I., Prince of Orange, 1584; and Henry IV. of France. 1610. 70. IVkat was the effect on Germany of the war with France in 1870-71 ? — Besides re-uniting Alsace and Lorraine to Ger- many, and securing the enormous sum of ;^2oo,ooo,ooa as war indemnity, the German peoples, hitherto much divided in sympathy, were drawn closer together; so that at the end of the war, the twenty-five sovereign states of Germany united under a restored empire, King William of Prussia being chosen as Emperor. 71. When did the former German Empire cease to exist as such? — When the power of Napoleon I. was predominant on the continent, and when in 1806 the head of the house of Hapsburg took the title of Emperor of Austria. 72. Is Austria now accounted part of Germa7ty? — No. Al- though the most important part of its population is German, Austria has not been regarded as a German state since the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, and has no kind of connection with the new German Empire. 73. Who is Bisi7iarck? — Count Bismarck, born in 1813, be- came early in life a notable Prussian statesman, and was for many years the guiding spirit of Prussian policy. After the great war of 1870 he was made a prince of the Empire he had helped to create, and became the most prominent, perhaps the most powerful, man in Europe. 74. What has been the course of recent events in Spain ? — In 1868, Queen Isabella was driven from the throne by a gen- eral revolt, and in 1870, Amadeo, son of the king of Italy, was chosen king. Finding the task of governing constitu- tionally hopeless, Amadeo resigned in 1873. For two years Spain was the scene of bloodshed and anarchy ; but at the end of 1874 order was restored, and Alfonso, son of the ex- quecn Isabella, was declared king. 75. What was the origin of the war between Russia and Tur- key in 1877-78? — the misgovernment of the Christian prov- inces of Turkey, leading to insurrection of the Slavonic subjects of the Sultan. As their champion, Russia declared Hrar against Turkey. Order of the Garter" was a Knighthood, Instituted 1344. — See page 122. The Atmosphere Reaches to the Height of 45 Miles. — See page 47. CONCL UDING HISTORICAL Q UESTIONS. 43 1 'j6. What was the issue of the w<3:r f— The Turks, entirely defeated by the Russians, had to accept peace on unfavor- able terms from the latter. ^T. What was the Congress of Berlin ? — An assembly of rep- resentatives of the European powers at Berlin in 1878 in or- der to revise the treaty made by Russia and Turkey, and to settle permanently the political relations of Turkey. 78. What wet e the principal political changes sanctioned by the Berlin Congress? — Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro were recognized as independent states, and the latter two re- ceived additional territory. Bulgaria was made into an au- tonomous principality, and the province of Eastern Roumelia, also mainly Bulgarian in population, received administrative autonomy. Roumanian Bessarabia was given to Russia ; it was arranged that Austria should occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it was recommended that por- tions of Thessaly and Epirus should be transferred to Greece ; and Turkey, besides pledging itself to introduce numerous reforms, ceded to Russia a portion of its territories in Ar- menia. 79. Of what 7tature was the " Conditional Convention" con- cluded between England and Turkey in 1878? — The English Government engaged to defend, especially against Russia, the Asiatic territories of the Sultan ; and in return, secured the right to occupy and administer the island of Cyprus so long as Russia retains the recently ceded parts of Armenia. ^ Of THE VHIVERSITY The First English Encyclopaedia was Published in 1728. — See page 154. The Amazons were a Nation of Female ^A^a^^io^s. — See page 243. £ 514 CARLETON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, Carleton's Condensed Encyclopedia contains over Six Thousand References to the most Important Matters of Interest in the World. Including the 66 pages of Index (which is by far the most valuable Reference Index ever compiled), the volume contains 514 pages. Instead of being alphabetically arranged, as most Encyclo- paedias are, the Information is Arranged in Subjects, embracing everything in the most abbreviated form possible, which renders the subject Comprehensible, thoroughly understood, and easii>y memorized. It is impossible for any intelligent person to open the book, on any page, without becoming interested. From beginning to end it is one Condensed Mass of Know- ledge, useful, instructive, and entertaining. The following table of Contents exhibits the number of paragraphs contained upon each subject: There are 238 Paragraphs in Astronomy and Geography. Geology and Minerology. Chemistry, Heat, and Atmosphere. Light, Electricity, and Magnetism. Matter and Motion. Vegetable and Animal Creation. Ethnology and Chronology. Language, Literature, etc. Greek and Roman Philosophy. Medieval Learning and Arts. Literature, France, Germany, Spain, Italy. English Literature and the Fine Arts. British Constitution and Jurisprudence. Historical Explanations. Ancient and Hebrew History. History of Babylonians, and Assyrians. Greece and Mythology. Ancient Greege, Credible History. " Roman History, Medieval History. British and French History. Covering almost the entire field of Learning, and render- ing it the most useful single Volume ever published. G. W. CARLETON & CO., Publishers, Madison Square, New York. (( 85 << 118 (( 54 (( 79 << 165 (( 95 83,i73 North Carolina 1,400,000 Ohio 3, 197,794 Oregon 1 74,767 Pennsylvania 4,282,738 Rhode Island 276,528 South Carolina 995,706 Tennessee 1,542,463 Texas i,597,509 Utah 143,907 Vermont ... 332.286 Virginia 1,512,203 Washington 75,120 West Virginia 618, 193 Wisconsin , 1,315,386 Wyoming 20, 788 50,152.559 Population of cities and towns having thirty thousand inhabitants and upwards : New York, N. Y 1,206,590 Brooklyn. N. Y 566,689 Boston, Mass 362,535 Baltimore, M. D 332,190 San Francisco, Cal 233,956 Cleveland, O 160,142 Buffalo, N. Y 155,137 Newark, N.J 136,4^0 Philadelphia, Pa 846,984 Chicago, III . 503, 304 St. Louis, Mo 350,522 Cincinnati, O 255,708 New Orleans, La 216,140 Pittsburg, Pa 156,381 Washin2;ton, D. C 147,307 Louisville, Ky 123,645 Detroit, Mich 116,342 Providence, R. 1 104,850 Rochester, N. Y 89,363 Indianapolis, Ind 75,o74 New Haven, Conn 62,88!s Worcester, Mass 58,295 Kansas City, Mo 55.813 Syracuse, N. Y 51,791 Paterson, N. J 50,887 Charleston, S. C 49-999 Minneapolis, Minn 46.887 Nashville, Tenn 4^,461 Hartiord, Conn 42,553 Camden, N.J 41,658 Lawrence, Mass 39, 178 Lynn, Mass 38,284 Oakland, Cal 34,556 Utica. N. Y 33.913 Memphis, Tenn 33.593 Manchester, N. H 32,630 Grand Rapids, Mich 32,015 Mobile, Ala 31,205 Harrisburg, Pa 30,702 Omaha, Neb 30,518 Jersey City, N. J 120,728 Milwaukee, Wis 115,578 Albany, N. Y 90.903 Allegheny, Pa 78,681 Richmond, Va 63,803 Lowell, Mass 59.485 Troy, N.Y 56,747 Cambridge, Mass 52,740 Columbus, Ohio 51,665 Toledo, Ohio :. 50,143 Fall River, Mass 49.006 Scranton, Pa 45,850 Reading, Pa 43,280 Wilmington, Del 42,499 St. Paul, Minn 41,498 Dayton, Ohio 38,677 Denver, Col ^ 53,630 Atlanta, Ga 34,398 Portland, Me 33,8io Soringfield, Mass. 33,34° St. Joseph, Mo 32,484 Wheeling, W. Va 31.266 Hoboken, N. J 30.999 Savannah, Ga 30,681 Planets Shine with a Steady Lustre, but Stars Twinkle. — See page 13, '^A WONDEBFUL WOJRKJ^ WOMAN'S LOvTaND LIFE. A BOOK FOR WOMEN AND FOR MEN. Giving, in the most delicate and chaste manner, the story, COMPLETE, OF WOMAN'S LOVE AND LIFE. From the French of M. JULES MICHELET. Translated from the Fifty-first Paris Edition^ By J. W. PALMER, M.D. " Fall of good feeling and substantial purity ; and yet, as M. Michelet says, it la advisable that the young man who is to read it should take it home, and read it quietly by himself. No one can mistake the spirit of poetry and purity that breathes througli the volume." — London Saturday Review. "To young lovers, or rather young husbands, we especially recommend it." — Newark. Daily Advertiser. " No one can fail to profit by the thoughts of tenderness it contains, and the disci- pline of an undying affection it suggests." — Christian Examiner. " Its great lessons are on the side of humanity, and justice to women, founded on a study of her organic and spiritual limitations." — Atlantic Monthly. " A very bold book, and its boldness is its beauty, for it is the boldness of chasity of a lofty and tender morality. In Paris it sells like bread, and is in the hands ot everybody."— iVezo York Home Journal. " We have rarely known such great anxiety evidenced by the public to see a forth coming volume as has been manifested for a perusal of tM'&:''— Baltimore American. " Its subjects must make it attractive to all woman-kind."— Ciwciwnafi Enquirer " Those who read it will find in it a treasury of thoughts, elevated and profound.** -JV«M> York Times. *' Twenty to thirty thousand copies have been sold in a few weeks." — New Yorr Observer. "Michelet's book was translated., stereotyped, printtd., bound, and nearly twenty thousand, copies of it sold, in a little more than two weeks. The success it meets certainly warrants this rapid work— nothing like the feat ever has been performed in the history of bookmaking."— ^«ifl York Evening Post. Thia wonderful book has already met an unprecedented sale, and stands pre- eminent in this class of literature. It is a work that kveey man and evebt WOMAN should possess and read. Published in one octavo volume, exquisitely illustrated and elegantly bound. SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. AGENTS WANTED EVERYWHERE. Liberal commissions and special Terri- tory for Agency will be given . For full particulars, descriptive circulars, and confidential terms, address the Pablifihers, '■HrS BOOK IS i„;eTn Book. .„. «rAMl>ED BEL^^«^ ^ATE --'Wv^j ism ^4Jan'50J)S DEC 61980 «BC. C/ft. K vn I ! ^^L