UC-NRLF 
 
 SB 301 3DM 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received / / L/t h . , 189L? 
 Accessions No^fZ-J^. Class No. 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 BY 
 
 AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc. 
 
 Late Assistant Mistress at tJie Ladies' College, Cheltenham ; Lecturer at the 
 Cambridge Training College for Women Teachers 
 
 AND 
 
 H. MILLICENT HUGHES 
 
 Lecturer on Education and Head of Training Department, University College 
 South Wales and Monmouthshire 
 
 ILontion 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO 
 
 NEW YORK : MACMILLAN & CO 
 
 1894 
 

 syp ff 
 
 Butler & Tanner, 
 
 The Selwood Printing Works, 
 
 Fkome, and London. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In view of the growing interest in secondary 
 education in England, and the important educa- 
 tional problems demanding solution, the Gil- 
 christ Trustees decided, in the early part of 
 1893, to send five women teachers to America 
 for the purpose of studying and reporting 
 upon Secondary Schools for Girls and Training 
 Colleges for Women in different parts of the 
 States. The Trustees made their intention 
 widely known, and invited the governing bodies 
 of the various women's colleges and associa- 
 tions of teachers to submit to them names of 
 persons specially qualified. Out of the list 
 of able and experienced women teachers thus 
 furnished to them, the Trustees, after careful 
 consideration of the qualifications of the 
 numerous candidates, selected the following 
 five : Miss Bramwell, B.Sc, Lecturer at the 
 Cambridge Training College; Miss Burstall, 
 B.A., Mistress at the North London Collegiate 
 School for Girls; Miss Hughes, Lecturer on 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 Education at University College, Cardiff ; Miss 
 Page, Head Mistress of the Skinners' Com- 
 pany's School for Girls, Stamford Hill, N. ; and 
 Miss Zimmern, Mistress at the High School for 
 Girls, Tunbridge Wells. They were awarded 
 travelling scholarships of one hundred pounds 
 each to enable them to spend two months in 
 the United States in prosecuting their en- 
 quiries. The five scholars visited America in the 
 summer of 1893, and submitted to the Trustees 
 carefully prepared Reports, two of which — viz., 
 those by Miss Bramwell and Miss Hughes — 
 are presented to the public in this volume. 
 The Trustees have aided in the publication 
 of these Reports because they believe that a 
 knowledge of the educational systems and 
 experiments which have been tried in America 
 cannot fail to be of interest and value to those 
 engaged in teaching in the United Kingdom. 
 
 R. D. ROBERTS, 
 
 Secretary to the Gilchrist Trustees. 
 
 Gilchrist Educational Trust, 
 
 17, Victoria Street, London, S.W. 
 1894. 
 
NOTE BY THE AUTHORS 
 
 In publishing the following reports, which we are 
 enabled to do through the courtesy and generosity 
 of the Gilchrist Trustees, it may not be altogether 
 out of place to submit a few prefatory remarks. 
 When the five Scholars were appointed to visit 
 American Schools and Colleges in the summer of 
 1893, it was found advisable, in view of the magni- 
 tude of the task, to somewhat divide the responsi- 
 bility. Three of the number undertook to visit 
 and report upon institutions offering the means of 
 general education, while we desired to especially 
 investigate the provision made in the United States 
 for the Training of Teachers. 
 
 As our interests thus lay in one direction, the 
 Trustees further approved of our suggestion that we 
 should travel and work together, and this plan we 
 found most helpful and satisfactory. It will be seen 
 that we have covered exactly the same field, but we 
 have thought it desirable to write separate reports, 
 without mutual consultation, rather than to embody 
 the results of our work in a joint account. 
 
 AMY B. BRAMWELL. 
 H. MILLICENT HUGHES. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 New York 
 
 Educational Institutions 1 
 
 Press Fair 2 
 
 Poughkeepsie 
 
 Vassar College 2-3 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Schools and Institutes ........ 3-4 
 
 Bryn Mawr 4 
 
 West Chester and Millersville 5 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New Haven, New Britain, Willimantic .... 6 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Springfield 6 
 
 Boston- 
 Perkins Institute for the Blind 7 
 
 Harvard 9 
 
 Women's Annex (Fay House) 10 
 
 Institute of Technology 11 
 
 Wellesley 11 
 
 Quincy 11 
 
 Milton (co-education) 12 
 
 Concord 14 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 University 14 
 
 Ann Arbor 
 
 Michigan State University 14 
 
 Commencement 15 
 
 Benton Harbour 16 
 
 Chicago 
 
 University 16 
 
 World's Fair 17 
 
 Educational Congresses 18 
 
 University settlement 19 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PA.GE 
 
 Chautauqua 19 
 
 Cornell 
 
 Ithaca 19 
 
 REPORT 1. 
 I. STATE NOBMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Organization 23 
 
 Advantages offered to Students 23 
 
 Co-education. Relative numbers of men and women Students 24 
 
 Early Normal Schools 25 
 
 The early character still maintained 26 
 
 Academic character illustrated by the courses of study — 
 
 (a) In Massachusetts 26 
 
 (6) In New York 27 
 
 Arguments given for retaining their academic character . 28 
 
 A. Academic Studies 
 
 Importance given to Science Teaching . . . .30 
 Laboratories and Museums — 
 
 (a) At Bridgewater, Mass 31 
 
 (b) At Willimantic, Conn 32 
 
 Manual Training 32 
 
 Libraries and Apparatus at Willimantic, Conn. . . 33 
 
 Plant Study at Worcester, Mass 34 
 
 The " Eecitation " Method 34 
 
 Importance given to illustration by means of concrete 
 
 objects 36 
 
 Study of many Sciences by concentrative methods . . 37 
 
 B. Professional Work 
 
 Pedagogical subjects studied late in the Course . . 39 
 Psychology and History of Education in the schools of 
 
 Connecticut 40 
 
 Psychology and Child Study at Worcester, Mass. . . 41 
 
 " Methods " as a subject of study 42 
 
 " Methods " in the Model Schools 44 
 
 Unification of study 45 
 
 C. Practice in 1'eaching 
 
 General plan of Practice Work — 
 
 (a) In Pennsylvania . 48 
 
 (6) In New York 49 
 
 (c) In Connecticut 50 
 
 Importance attached to Model Schools . . . .51 
 
 Special plan of Practice Work at Worcester, Mass. . . 51 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 PAG* 
 
 D. Examinations 
 
 State Examination and " Graduation " . . .52 
 
 E. Supply of Teachers 
 
 Number of Normal School Students teaching in the 
 
 Common Schools .53 
 
 Small number of Normal School Students who become 
 
 Secondary Teachers 54 
 
 II. CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS. 
 Effects of local management 56 
 
 A. City Normal Schools 
 
 Conditions of admission 57 
 
 Functions of Normal and High School combined . . 58 
 
 Examinations 60 
 
 B. City Training Schools 
 
 Emphasis of the practical side 61 
 
 Substitute Service 62 
 
 Boston Normal School . . . . . . . .62 
 
 Courses in Massachusetts 64 
 
 Courses at New Haven, Conn 65 
 
 Psychological Experiments at New Haven . . .65 
 
 Criticism lessons at New Haven 66 
 
 Reports of work of Students at New Haven . . .69 
 
 C. City Training Classes 
 
 The teaching of reading at Quincy, Mass. . . .70 
 
 Courses in New York State 72 
 
 Inadequacy of Training Class Courses for qualifying for 
 
 responsible work 73 
 
 Practice of allowing beginners to teach in the lowest 
 
 grades 74 
 
 Importance attached to "Methods" of the Primary 
 
 School 75 
 
 III. UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY. 
 A. Departments of State Universities 
 
 Importance to the State of the Professional preparation 
 
 of Teachers 78 
 
 Courses in Pedagogy proper, and " Teachers' Courses " . 78 
 
 University of Michigan 79 
 
 University of Illinois 80 
 
 University of Missouri 81 
 
 General Features of State Universities . . . 83 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 B. Departments of Universities in the Eastern States page 
 
 Teachers' College, New York City 86 
 
 (a) Courses of Work 87 
 
 (6) Teacher's Diploma. 88 
 
 (c) Purely professional character of work. . . 89 
 
 (d) Psychology . . .90 
 
 (e) History of Education 91 
 
 (/) Methods of Science 92 
 
 (g) Practice department 93 
 
 School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New 
 York— 
 
 (a) Pedagogical Degrees 97 
 
 (b) Courses of Study 97 
 
 Cornell University 99 
 
 Syracuse University 99 
 
 Harvard University — 
 
 (a) Students' Inspection of Schools .... 100 
 (6) Teachers' Courses 101 
 
 (c) Connection with Secondary Schools . . . 101 
 Clark University — 
 
 (a) Character of work 102 
 
 (6) Courses of work 102 
 
 (c) Psychological Research 103 
 
 IV. SUMMER SCHOOLS. 
 
 Benton Harbour, Mich 105 
 
 Englewood, Chicago 108 
 
 (a) Science 108 
 
 (b) Blackboard Drawing 110 
 
 Chautauqua _ . Ill 
 
 Cornell University, Summer School Ill 
 
 REPORT II. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The problem of " Training " in England and America . 116 
 
 Representative States 117 
 
 State Systems of Education 118 
 
 Bureau of Education 118 
 
 East and West 118 
 
 Institutions for the Training of Teachers .... 120 
 
 Normal Schools 
 
 State, City, and Private Normal Schools .... 120 
 
 Academic versus Professional Studies 121 
 
 Comparison with English Elementary Training Colleges 122 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lack of uniformity in standard of admission and length 
 
 of course 123 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Pennsylvania 124 
 
 Courses laid down by the School Law .... 124 
 
 Final examinations and graduation 126 
 
 State Certificates for untrained teachers .... 127 
 Grants to Normal students and graduates . . . 128 
 
 Millersville Normal School 129 
 
 West Chester Normal School 130 
 
 Connecticut 131 
 
 Conditions of admission 132 
 
 Provision for Theoretical and Practical Work . . 132 
 
 Final examinations and graduation 133 
 
 New Britain 133 
 
 The Printing Press in the School 133 
 
 Practice School at South Manchester .... 134 
 Willimantic 134 
 
 New York State 
 
 Statistics of State Normal Schools 135 
 
 Conditions of admission 136-138 
 
 Courses and diplomas 139 
 
 Albany 139 
 
 Oswego 140 
 
 Special Training Course 142 
 
 Laboratory method of teaching History .... 143 
 
 Massachusetts * 144 
 
 The founding of State Normal Schools .... 145 
 
 Design of Schools 145 
 
 Courses 146 
 
 Statistics of Normal Schools 147 
 
 Framingham 148 
 
 Westfield 149 
 
 "Topics" 149 
 
 Sand-moulding 150 
 
 Bridgewater 150 
 
 Worcester 150 
 
 Child-study 151 
 
 Apprenticeship 152 
 
 Platform exercises 153 
 
 Children's Class 153 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Training the " time sense " 154 
 
 Normal Art School 154 
 
 Michigan 155 
 
 Ypsilante Normal School 155 
 
 Courses of study 155 
 
 Pedagogic degrees 156 
 
 Illinois 156 
 
 State Normal Universities 157 
 
 Cook County Normal School 157 
 
 Conditions of admission 158 
 
 Graduation and post-graduate courses .... 159 
 The Practice School and its use .... 160-161 
 Theory of concentration 162-165 
 
 CITY NOEMAL SCHOOLS. 
 Organization 165 
 
 Philadelphia 165 
 
 Girls' Normal School Course 166 
 
 School of Pedagogy 166 
 
 New York 168 
 
 Normal School 168 
 
 Boston 168 
 
 Normal School 168 
 
 Substitute service 168 
 
 Course of study 169-170 
 
 CITY TEAINING SCHOOLS. 
 Organization 171 
 
 New Haven 171 
 
 Welch Training School 171 
 
 Notes of Lessons 171 
 
 Springfield 172 
 
 Training School 172 
 
 Leading features of Training School 173 
 
 List of Training Schools in Massachusetts . . . 174 
 
 TEAINING CLASSES . . . .174 
 Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts .... 175 
 
 PEDAGOGICAL DEPAETMENTS IN UNIYEESITIES. 
 Theoretical side of training emphasized .... 176 
 
 Harvard 177 
 
 Lectures on Education 177 
 
 Inspection and supervision of Schools .... 178 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cornell 178 
 
 Elective courses in Philosophy course .... 178 
 Seminaries 179 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Professional Training for Teachers 179 
 
 Reasons for providing the same (extract from Calen- 
 dar) 179-180 
 
 Teacher's diploma and certificate 181 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Course in Pedagogy counting towards a degree . . 182 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Courses in Department of Pedagogics .... 183 
 
 University of City of New York 183 
 
 Regular Students and Auditors 183 
 
 Courses of Study 183 
 
 Requirements for the Doctorate in Pedagogy . . . 184 
 
 University of Iowa 185 
 
 Teachers'' Training College, affiliated with Columbia College . 185 
 Course of study leading to degree of Bachelor of 
 
 Pedagogy 186 
 
 Certificates 187 
 
 School of Observation and Practice 188 
 
 Extension and publishing work 188 
 
 Clark University at Worcester 189 
 
 Research work .... .... 189 
 
 Educational Department 190 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary 192 
 
 Twofold aim of Educational Department .... 192 
 
 TEACHER'S INSTITUTES. 
 
 Character of Work . . . . ' . . . . .194 
 Various kinds of Institutes . 195 
 
 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES. 
 
 Benton Harbour 196 
 
 Chautauqua 196 
 
 Summer course at Cornell . . - 196 
 
 Summer Course at Clark University 197 
 
 The Prang System 198 
 
'4^ OF THg ■ 
 
 :ujtiver;it7: 
 
 Emtetr Slates 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE AMERICAN 
 TOUR 
 
 OUR educational quest began in the city of New 
 York, on May 29th, 1893. 
 Having interviewed the City Superintendent, Mr. 
 J. Jasper, who gave valuable information as to what 
 was most worth seeing in connection with the 
 educational life of the city, we proceeded to the 
 Normal College of the city of New York. The 
 session was just closing, but we were able to see 
 some classes in physical training and cookery, and 
 to gain some insight into the methods employed in 
 other subjects. Two or three days were most 
 profitably spent at the Teachers' Training College, 
 a sketch of the work of which is given elsewhere. 
 A hasty visit to Columbia College, with its annex 
 for women, — Barnard College, — a still more cursory 
 glance at the University of the city of New York 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 (our information concerning which we were fortu- 
 nately able to supplement at Chicago), with an 
 afternoon spent at the Press Fair, was all we were 
 able to accomplish at New York. The Press Fair 
 proved to be a most interesting exhibit of specimens 
 of the work in the public schools of New York. 
 The methods of teaching various subjects were set 
 forth, and we were especially struck, as again later 
 at the education exhibit of the World's Fair, by 
 the apparatus and illustrations made by the chil- 
 dren themselves. 
 
 The power of " making" whether of maps (drawn, 
 painted, modelled), models (in clay, putty, paper, 
 wood), pictorial illustrations of lessons (history, 
 geography, literature, natural science, and even 
 mathematics) appears to be much more encouraged 
 in America than in England. We made friends with 
 several of the school children at the Press Fair, who 
 proved most eager and interesting guides, naturally 
 anxious to fully explain what had been sent from 
 their own special schools. 
 
 Decoration Day (May 30th\, on which New York 
 had a holiday, we determined to spend at Vassar 
 College. A pleasant railway journey up the banks 
 of the Hudson River brought us to the little town 
 of Poughkeepsie, two miles to the east of which is 
 Vassar College. Here we were most cordially 
 received, and spent the day in seeing over the 
 various buildings connected with it, and hearing 
 lectures. This college was founded in 1861 by 
 Mr. Matthew Vassar, who provided the grounds and 
 buildings, together with a sustentation fund of about 
 
PHILADELPHIA 3 
 
 £50,000. He desired, to use his own words, " to 
 found and perpetuate an institution which should 
 accomplish for young women what our colleges are 
 accomplishing for young men." 
 
 It led the way in opening the advantages of 
 a liberal education to women, and holds a place in 
 the first rank of women's colleges in America. It 
 is undenominational, but, according to the wish of 
 its founder, daily prayers are held in the chapel, 
 and all classes meet on Sunday for the study of the 
 Scriptures. In order to emphasize the dignity of 
 manual labour, each student is expected to under- 
 take a small share in the household work of the 
 College, at least, at some period of her college 
 career. The ordinary course is for four years lead- 
 ing to the degree of A.B. These four years are 
 known respectively as Freshman, Sophomore, 
 Junior, and Senior. A further course of two years 
 leads to the degree of A.M., and special courses 
 are also provided. There are, moreover, in connec- 
 tion with the college, schools of music and painting, 
 the latter possessing a very fine collection of casts. 
 There is a uniform annual fee of £80 (400 dollars) 
 for board and tuition. The students' rooms are 
 usually arranged in groups of three sleeping rooms 
 opening on to a common study. Just before our 
 visit the students had given a most successful per- 
 formance of the " Antigone." 
 
 From New York we went to Philadelphia, where 
 the city superintendent, Dr. Edward Brooks, kindly 
 explained the city system of education. He is 
 keenly alive to the importance of the training of 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 teachers, and ample provision for the same is made 
 in the city. For the training of men teachers, a 
 School of Pedagogy (the scheme for which was 
 drawn up by Dr. Brooks) has lately been opened in 
 connection with the Boys' Central High School. 
 The Girls' Normal School has had to serve the 
 double purpose of high school and place of training 
 for women teachers, but Dr. Brooks has long urged 
 the necessity of separating the two, and at this time 
 the new building for the Girls' High School is being 
 erected. Kindergarten training is also not neg- 
 lected, and on our first evening in Philadelphia we 
 attended the commencement exercises of Mrs. van 
 Kirk's Kindergarten Training School, at which the 
 graduates read essays on various educational topics, 
 sang songs and acted a little scene, in which the 
 virtues of the Kindergarten were set forth. The 
 next day we were able to visit the school itself, and 
 we found that, not content with providing the or- 
 dinary graduating course, Mrs. van Kirk has 
 arranged for one that is post-graduate. 
 
 A delightful visit to the Drexel Institute, which 
 provides for the technical instruction of the city, a 
 glance at one of the largest Friends' Schools, and an 
 unavailing attempt to see over the James Forten 
 Manual Training School, was all we had time for in 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Ten miles from Philadelphia, on the Pennsyl- 
 vania railroad, one reaches the Old Welsh settlement 
 of Bryn Mawr, with its college for women, which 
 bears the same name. Several halls and laboratory 
 buildings, standing in fifty acres of ground, make 
 
WEST CHESTER AND MILLERSVILLE 5 
 
 an imposing show. Of all the colleges that we 
 visited, Bryn Mawr appeared the most English, 
 and it needed the sight of a preserved specimen 
 of a wicked-looking snake, which had been killed 
 in the grounds, to convince us that we were really 
 on American soil. 
 
 Perhaps the fact that the Professor of Mathe- 
 matics, Miss Scott, and three of the Fellows have 
 come there from Grirton helped to build up the 
 illusion. 
 
 It is a college without rules ; even attendance at 
 lectures is not compulsory, but as failure to pass at 
 the yearly examinations brings with it a request to 
 withdraw from the college, there is every induce- 
 ment to attend regularly. The same freedom is 
 extended to the choice of studies. Instead of the 
 four years' course with the more or less definitely 
 prescribed work for each class which we found at 
 Vassar, Bryn Mawr has adopted the newer plan of 
 the group system, which allows more opportunity 
 for specialization. A distinctive feature of the 
 college is the attention paid to post-graduate work, 
 original research being especially encouraged. The 
 students have adopted caps and gowns, which, how- 
 ever, are only worn within college precincts. 
 
 Acting on the suggestion of Dr. Brooks, we deter- 
 mined to visit the two chief normal schools of the 
 state of Pennsylvania — West Chester and Millers- 
 ville. The little tree-shaded town of West Chester 
 was a pleasant change from the heat of Philadelphia. 
 It is a most distinctively Quaker settlement ; even 
 the landlord of the little inn at which we stayed 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 was a Friend, and wished to know if "thee was 
 travelling all by theeself." The normal school is a 
 little way out, but easily reached by means of the 
 electric cars, which are to be found in even the 
 smallest American towns. 
 
 It was interesting to us as the first co-educational 
 normal school that we had seen. The dining and 
 lecture rooms are used in common, but the dormi- 
 tory accommodation is in two separate wings. 
 
 From West Chester we went to the normal school 
 at Millersville, near Lancaster. Eeturning north 
 through New York, we first stopped at New Haven, 
 Connecticut, a most picturesque place, famous as 
 being the location of Yale College. 
 
 Superintendent Curtis most kindly supplied us 
 with information about the State of Connecticut 
 and its normal schools. He also took us to see the 
 Welch Training School in New Haven, which, how- 
 ever, is elsewhere described. 
 
 From New Haven we went to Hartford (visiting 
 the normal school of New Britain on the way), 
 and from thence to Willimantic, South Manchester, 
 and Springfield, Massachusetts. At Springfield the 
 Training School, and an interview with Superinten- 
 dent Balliet, gave ample material for thought. The 
 work carried on by Mr. Balliet in the city strikingly 
 exemplifies what a superintendent may do for the 
 cause of education. Not only does he give weekly 
 lectures on applied psychology and kindred subjects, 
 but he has paid special attention to the elaborating 
 of methods of teaching such subjects as arithmetic 
 and geometry, geography, English language, etc., on 
 
THE PERKINS INSTITUTE 
 
 which he has published pamphlets, setting forth the 
 results of his thought and experience. It should be 
 noted that, as in America schools when inspected 
 are not judged by results, but by the methods 
 used, and the general teaching efficiency, it comes 
 about that the question of methods holds a more 
 important place in educational thought than in 
 England. More time, therefore, is devoted to their 
 study in normal and training schools, and a 
 superintendent has a wide field of influence in 
 the matter of methods in the city or district over 
 which he presides. 
 
 From Springfield the normal school at Westfield 
 was visited, and from thence we went on to Albany 
 to see the State Normal College and City Training 
 School. 
 
 Boston offered a wide choice in matters of educa- 
 tional interest. 
 
 The Perkins Institute and Kindergarten for 
 the blind well repaid a visit. The former, associated 
 with the name of Laura Bridgman, has now in 
 Helen Keller and Annie Thomas two wonderful 
 examples of what education may do even for those 
 who lack what at first may seem the necessary basis 
 for all instruction — the senses of sight and hearing. 
 Helen Keller was not there at the time of our visit, 
 but we just saw her later at Chicago. "When she 
 entered the Institute she, being blind, deaf, and con- 
 sequently speechless, lived in a state of almost 
 complete isolation, but now, through the careful 
 training of her marvellously acute sense of touch, 
 she can take a very full share in the life of the 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 world. She moves about quite fearlessly, recog- 
 nising people by a touch of the hand, speaking 
 easily (even sometimes in public), although, of 
 course, those speaking to her must use the hand- 
 language, 1 or let her put her fingers on their lips. 
 She is acquainted with a good deal of the best in 
 literature, and writes most poetically. Indeed, from 
 her letters it is difficult to suppose that she has 
 never seen or heard anything. Her life seems a 
 very happy one in spite of all, and she makes 
 friends everywhere. Annie Thomas was at the 
 Institute, however, at the time of our visit. She, 
 like Helen Keller, has only the sense of touch by 
 means of which to gain knowledge of the world, but 
 she too has learned to talk, write, sew, etc. She 
 acted as guide to us over the building, leading us 
 from room to room, and drawing our attention to 
 various things, including specimens of her own 
 work. Younger than Helen Keller, she is very fond 
 of dressing dolls, and felt our dresses all over, to try 
 to get new ideas in dressmaking. She appears to 
 have a good memory, and can recognise people after 
 a long lapse of time by just touching their hands. 
 We asked her through her teacher if she remem- 
 bered the visit of an Englishman, who some years 
 before had been there and had given her a little 
 ring; she remembered at once, and talked about 
 
 1 This is, of course, not the ordinary deaf-and-dumb lan- 
 guage, — for which sight would be required, — but a special 
 variety in which the thoughts of the speaker are conveyed 
 by means of varying pressure on different parts of the hand 
 of the one spoken to. 
 
HARVARD 
 
 him. In the Kindergarten we saw two other such 
 children — Willie Robin and Tommy Stringer. The 
 first, a little girl, is a pretty child, and seemingly 
 very intelligent. It was wonderful to see all the 
 little blind children playing Kindergarten games, 
 but when this child came forward and joined in 
 playing cat and mouse, with an evident keen sense 
 of the fun, and even sang the songs with the others, 
 finding out what was being sung by touching the 
 throat of the child next to her, we realized what 
 education had done for her. The little boy, Tommy 
 Stringer (who was admitted mainly through the 
 efforts of Helen Keller, who, having heard of him, 
 did not rest until she had secured his admission), is 
 only at the beginning of his training, and cannot 
 yet do much. Of course the first work of establish- 
 ing a system of communication with these children 
 is the most arduous, and patient indeed must be the 
 teachers who devote themselves to it. 
 
 Several times we crossed the river Charles to 
 Cambridge, for no visit to America would have been 
 complete without some time spent in seeing the lead- 
 ing University of the country. It seemed curious 
 to find that women were still excluded from the 
 lectures, although in the Women's Annex they are 
 allowed to work as if for a degree. It seemed strange 
 that such a state of things could exist in a land 
 which boasts itself of freedom and of the position 
 given to women. Indeed, it really appears that the 
 eastern States of America are behind England in 
 the matter of offering equal educational advantages 
 to men and women. There are, of course, the great 
 
io THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Women's Colleges of Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, Vassar 
 and Smith, which offer splendid opportunities for 
 work, but their courses lead to degrees which are for 
 women only, and which will, for that reason alone, 
 never be considered as of such importance as those 
 which are also granted to men. 
 
 The Harvard Annex for Women has been opened 
 at Fay House, Cambridge. Professors and lecturers 
 from the University give their lectures over again at 
 the Annex for the benefit of the women students, who 
 can thus go through the course for a degree, which, 
 however, they may not receive, having to be content 
 with a certificate. We were able to be there on 
 Class Day, on which the students invite their friends 
 to an " at home " in honour of the women graduates. 
 At first all assembled in the library to listen to 
 appropriate speeches, then they dispersed into the 
 lecture-rooms to talk to their friends, an arrange- 
 ment which gave the English visitors opportunity 
 to meet the various professors and lecturers. The 
 women's Class Day, however, fades into insignifi- 
 cance by the side of the men's, which is the gala 
 day of Cambridge. The morning is devoted to 
 speeches by the students and professors, and in the 
 afternoon and evening the seniors (those who gradu- 
 ate) have the opportunity of giving teas and 
 11 spreads," to which they invite their friends. On 
 the Tree of Liberty is hung the famous wreath, the 
 flowers of which are scrambled for at a given signal, 
 and dancing and other entertainments bring the day 
 to a close. Commencement Day, at which the actual 
 degrees are conferred, is held some days later. 
 
QUINCY ii 
 
 From Boston we visited another famous college for 
 women — Wellesley, which takes rank and is con- 
 ducted on similar lines to those of Vassar and Bryn 
 Mawr. It is quite out in the country, and has 
 beautiful buildings and grounds of its own. 
 
 The Institute of Technology well repaid a visit. 
 It is a most imposing institution, every opportunity 
 being afforded in it for work of all kinds, chiefly, 
 it is true, for scientific work (the laboratories 
 and various departments being most splendidly 
 equipped with apparatus), but almost any subject can 
 be studied there. There are special courses arranged 
 for those who are actually engaged in teaching. We 
 also visited the Boston Normal and Rice Training 
 School, Normal Art School, and the Latin High 
 School. From Boston, we went to see the State 
 Normal Schools at Framingham, Bridge water^ 
 Providence (Rhode Island), and the other Training 
 Schools at Fall River and Pawtucket. 
 
 The fame of the Quincy Schools, near Boston, 
 attracted us thither, and we spent a delightful morn- 
 ing listening to lessons in the primary and grammar 
 grades of one of the best. It was of course a mixed 
 school, and every class had a large room to itself 
 with a continuous blackboard, all round the walls, of 
 which constant use was made either by teacher or 
 scholars. These blackboards are an essential part 
 of schoolroom furniture in America, and without 
 them a great deal of the teaching could not be car- 
 ried on. The teacher begins at one end of the 
 board facing the class, and can work right along the 
 
12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 side of the room, thus being able to leave all her 
 drawings, etc., unerased during the lesson. She can 
 also send any or all of the children to the blackboard 
 at once to work sums, write or draw. It was at 
 Quincy that Colonel Parker (now at Cook County 
 Normal School) began his work as school superinten- 
 dent, and through him the Quincy methods of teach- 
 ing attained an almost world-wide fame. 
 
 The little town of Milton, a few miles out of 
 Boston, among the Blue Mountains, was also a place 
 of interest. We there visited the Milton Academy, 
 an endowed school, chartered as far back as 1798, 
 and opened in 1807. It is a school for boys and 
 girls, although there is only a boarding-house for 
 boys. The Academy much resembles an English 
 High School, in that it provides education for chil- 
 dren between the ages of eight and eighteen, and 
 has an upper and lower school. It is really a pre- 
 paratory school for Harvard, the courses in the 
 upper school being determined by the requirements 
 for the Harvard entrance examination. 
 
 We asked the head-master as to the practical 
 working of co-education in a school of that kind. 
 He appeared to believe in it, and gave us an ex- 
 cellent opportunity of learning how the boys and 
 girls themselves regarded it. The upper school had 
 to write for ten minutes on some given subject, and on 
 this morning the one announced was " co-education." 
 We were afterwards allowed to look at the papers, 
 and were very much interested by them. About 
 half the pupils expressed no definite opinion at all — 
 many saying that as they had never been to a school 
 
CO-EDUCATION 
 
 on any other plan, they could not judge of the rela- 
 tive merits of mixed or separate schools. The rest, 
 however, had fully made up their minds, some for 
 and some against. Those who defended the system 
 did so on the grounds of the higher standard of 
 work resulting from the rivalry between the boys 
 and girls, and of the good influence each had on the 
 other — the girls making the boys gentler, while the 
 boys' admiration of courage tended to render the girls 
 braver. The objections brought against it were, 
 however, almost more interesting. Several boys ob- 
 jected, because they said they had to work harder 
 than in schools for boys only, while some of the girls 
 who did not want to take the Harvard entrance 
 examination disliked the course of study rendered 
 necessary by it, and would have preferred to take 
 other subjects. According to one boy, "girls have so 
 much more time than boys (not playing so many 
 games), and therefore can easily get their lessons 
 perfect" ; and another bewailed the fact that when 
 optional extra work was given out by the teacher, 
 " the girls always did it, and so got more marks." 
 A more valid objection, perhaps, was that the school 
 had no reputation for athletics, or outdoor games, as 
 the girls took no interest in them. How far this 
 was really true in this particular case, we could not 
 judge ; but wherever we went, we were struck with 
 the fact that American girls do not play or get 
 enough exercise in the open air. This dislike to out- 
 door exercise and fondness for hot rooms (their 
 rooms are kept ten to fifteen degrees higher in tem- 
 perature than we consider healthy in England) are 
 
14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 probably the chief causes of the delicacy and excita- 
 bility of American women. 
 
 One day was spent at Concord, so long the home 
 of Emerson, Hawthorne and Thoreau, where one rea- 
 lized as never before what their lives and writings 
 have meant as educating influences in America. 
 The life of Concord seems to be in the past, and it 
 appears as if quietly awaiting the return of those 
 great presences which made it famous. The house 
 once occupied by the Alcotts is now in the possession 
 of Commissioner Harris, of Washington (Head of 
 the Bureau of Education), who spends a part of each 
 year there. The Concord schools are good, and a 
 new scheme, by which all children within a radius 
 of ten miles are collected in conveyances and brought 
 in to school, has just been adopted. This plan does 
 away with the necessity for district schools, which 
 are rarely efficient. 
 
 From Boston we started westward, and first 
 stopped at Syracuse. This is the seat of a Co-educa- 
 tional University, placed on the top of the highest 
 hill, the view from which is very fine. Besides the 
 ordinary departments, it has one for music and one 
 for painting, which have both been carefully organ- 
 ized. There is also an observatory. 
 
 By way of Oswego, Niagara and Detroit, we 
 reached Ann Arbor, the seat of the Michigan 
 State University, which is the centre of the 
 life of the town. It is co-educational and non- 
 residential, the students boarding with the people 
 of the place. It appeared that nearly every house 
 took in students, usually only to lodge, but other 
 
ANN ARBOR 15 
 
 houses opened their doors at meal times, and it 
 was a curious sight to see students and others wend- 
 ing their ways three times a day to certain houses 
 where they had arranged for meals. 
 
 The University has many departments, including 
 those of law, medicine and dentistry. Two gradu- 
 ates of the last were Englishwomen, who are now 
 practising in Chicago. 
 
 We were fortunate enough to arrive there in 
 time for Commencement Day, when we saw several 
 hundred students receive degrees. They went up 
 on to the platform in batches of twenty or thirty 
 at a time, and were then handed their diplomas. 
 Neither the graduates nor the professors wore any 
 academic dress. Just below the platform, tables 
 were arranged which were covered with bunches 
 and baskets of flowers and presents. These were 
 placed there by the friends of the students, and 
 each bore the name of the one for whom it was 
 intended. At one point in the ceremony these were 
 handed round. An address is usually given by 
 some well-known speaker — this year by Dr. Charles 
 Warner. 
 
 This University is the crown of the Michigan 
 State system of education, and its advantages are 
 equally open to men and to women. All con- 
 nected with it seemed to approve of its being co- 
 educational. Great freedom is allowed to all 
 students, but he or she who will not work, and wastes 
 time and opportunities, has to leave. Graduation 
 time is also that chosen for the meeting together 
 of old students of the University. The students who 
 
1 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 graduate together are known as the " class " of the 
 year in which they take their degrees — such as the 
 " class of 1870," or of " 1890." The members of the 
 various classes try to keep in touch with each other 
 all their lives, and like to meet at the University 
 at Commencement time. Several classes, in some 
 of which the members were all grey-headed, had 
 thus met together to talk over old times. 
 
 From Ann Arbor we went to see a Summer 
 School, at Benton Harbour, a watering-place on 
 Lake Michigan. The school was mostly attended 
 by teachers from the country, who wished to use 
 part of their holidays in preparing for one of the 
 Teachers' State Examinations. 
 
 Here we spent the " glorious fourth," being 
 roused by fireworks at three in the morning, and 
 obliged to tread the streets most carefully by day 
 to avoid stepping on the fire-crackers which lay 
 about everywhere. 
 
 Crossing the lake by steamer (a three or four 
 hours' passage, in which we were quite out of sight 
 of land), we reached Chicago. There we stayed at 
 the new University, which, of course, was not then 
 in session. The dormitories were let out to those 
 who came for the Educational Congresses. Our 
 first sight of it was not inspiriting, for we arrived 
 at night, and the half-finished buildings, placed at 
 intervals on what must at no distant date have been 
 a swamp, looked cheerless and forlorn. Things 
 looked better in the morning sunshine ; and we 
 then found that there was every promise of its being 
 a large and handsome University. It is co-educa- 
 
EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS 
 
 tional, like Michigan, and has, moreover, three 
 women on the staff — one as Dean, one as Assistant- 
 Professor of English, and one as Lecturer in Spanish. 
 It is residential, some of the dormitories being built 
 for women and some for men. 
 
 The World's Fair was held in the parks adjoining 
 the University. It would take too long to describe, 
 but one building must be mentioned — that of the 
 Liberal Arts, the top floor of which was entirely 
 given up to educational exhibits. Nearly every 
 country was represented, from Japan — which really 
 appears to be far advanced in the making of teach- 
 ing apparatus — to the exhibit of our own London 
 School Board, which was exceedingly well arranged, 
 and attracted much attention. The United States 
 had naturally the lion's share of the space — each 
 State having a section allotted to it. In each section 
 places were given to the Universities, Normal Schools, 
 Public and Private Schools, and other Institutions. 
 Specimens of work, exercise books, apparatus, were 
 all shown. Several States had taken great pains 
 to make the exhibit complete. Some had collected 
 valuable statistics and placed them on revolving 
 screens, some had published pamphlets describing 
 certain 'branches of educational work in the State ; 
 and some greatly heightened the value of the ex- 
 hibits by placing some one in charge who was 
 competent to explain them. Some exhibits were, of 
 course, much more valuable than others — the States 
 of Indiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota and New York 
 appeared perhaps the most complete. 
 
 From these exhibits, and especially from those in 
 
 c 
 
1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 charge of them, we learned much, and were able to 
 supplement the knowledge we had gained by visiting 
 the various schools. 
 
 Two Educational Congresses were held, the first 
 under the Women's Branch of the World Congress 
 Auxiliary, began on July 17th, and the other, held 
 under the charge of the National Educational 
 Association, began on July 23rd. 
 
 Under each there were many sections, those for 
 the first being Higher Education, University Ex- 
 tension, College and University Students, College 
 Fraternities, Kindergarten Manual and Art Educa- 
 tion, Social Settlements, Chautauquean Education, 
 Stenography, Teaching of the Deaf and of the 
 Blind. 
 
 For the second : Higher, Secondary, Elementary 
 and Kindergarten Education, School Supervision, 
 Training of Teachers' Art, Vocal Music, Techno- 
 logical, Industrial and Manual Business and Physical 
 Education, Rational Psychology and Experimental 
 Psychology in Education. On the whole the Con- 
 gresses were disappointing, with perhaps the ex- 
 ception of that on Experimental Psychology ; but 
 the people we met there were so interesting as to 
 quite make up for any loss in the Congresses them- 
 selves. 
 
 All our spare time we spent at the Cook County 
 Normal Summer School, Colonel Parker having 
 given us free passes to all lectures. There we met 
 teachers from all parts of the States and from 
 Canada. 
 
CHAUTAUQUA 19 
 
 We also visited the University Settlement in one 
 of the poorest parts of Chicago. It is known as 
 Hull House, and is conducted on much the same 
 lines as Toynbee Hall. 
 
 From Chicago we went to Chautauqua, the huge 
 encampment by the side of Lake Chautauqua, in 
 New York State. Here for several months in the 
 year people gather (no longer in log huts, but in 
 hotels and boarding-houses erected for the purpose) 
 to attend the summer school, or the religious meet- 
 ings, or simply to enjoy the social life and popular 
 lectures, concerts, etc., which make the time pass 
 quickly for them. Not only, however, in the 
 summer does Chautauqua exercise its influence. An 
 elaborate system of reading circles and education 
 by correspondence has been established, and connects 
 one summer meeting with another. It does educa- 
 tional work among those who are reached in no 
 other way, and its influence is felt not only through- 
 out the States and America generally, but even in 
 Europe and far Japan. 
 
 "We returned to New York through Ithaca, where 
 we stopped to see Cornell University. A Uni- 
 versity Summer School was being held, and we 
 were able to attend some lectures, and interviewed 
 one or two professors. 
 
 A breakdown of the train by which we were to 
 leave Ithaca delayed our journey, so we arrived in 
 New York too late to see any more institutions, 
 and sailed from thence feeling sad at the thought 
 that such a delightful tour was ended ; but glad, 
 
20 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 too, at the remembrance of the many friends we had 
 made, and feeling that America would be no more 
 to us a land of strangers. 
 
 Millicent Hughes. 
 
REPORT I 
 By Amy Blanche Bramwell, B.Sc. 
 
 IN making my report of observations in one de- 
 partment of the Educational System of the 
 United States, I am anxious to point out, at the 
 very outset, that the nature of that System (its 
 complexity, its many modifications, and the vast 
 extent it covers) renders the work of drawing 
 general conclusions from the data supplied by the 
 observations of one person a task of extreme diffi- 
 culty. The difficulty is further increased by the 
 fact that my personal observations were limited to 
 the North-Eastern States of Massachusetts, Con- 
 necticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Michigan, and Illinois. These States, although 
 covering only a small portion of the whole field 
 of observation, differ so greatly as regards conditions 
 and organization that they exhibit results widely 
 opposed, and furnish facts from which it is not easy 
 to generalize. 
 
 I had, however, many and valuable opportunities 
 of supplementing personal observations by a further 
 study of educational matters in the exhibit of the 
 Educational Department of the "World's Fair, and 
 
 21 
 
22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 by attending the Educational Congresses held in 
 Chicago in July, 1893. The meetings held during 
 the Educational Congress were, in themselves, dis- 
 appointing. Nevertheless they enabled me to meet 
 educationalists and teachers of all kinds from all 
 parts of the United States, and to learn, by personal 
 interviews, facts which it would have been im- 
 possible to gain by merely visiting educational 
 institutions. I found throughout my visit that 
 personal interviews were an important means of 
 supplementing the observation of work actually 
 done in the schools. In some departments, the 
 most valuable information I gained was acquired 
 in this way, this being especially true in connection 
 with the Training of Secondary Teachers in the 
 Eastern States, where the subject, although widely 
 discussed, is only just beginning to have any practi- 
 cal outcome. 
 
 In reporting on the Training of Teachers in the 
 United States, I have chiefly confined myself to the 
 work done in : — 
 
 i. State Normal Schools, 
 ii. City Normal and Training Schools, 
 iii. Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and 
 Colleges. 
 
 It will be seen that I make constant references to 
 methods of Science taught in the training schools, 
 and adopted in their connected model schools. This 
 is due to the fact that my observations were made 
 with especial regard to that branch of training. I 
 have not reported on the training of Kindergarten 
 
CO-EDUCATION 23 
 
 teachers, for although, the question of Kindergarten 
 instruction is one of great interest and importance 
 at present in America, I had little opportunity of 
 seeing and judging the methods employed in the 
 preparation of teachers in that department. 
 
 I wish to record my grateful thanks to those who 
 so readily helped me in my work ; and to express 
 my appreciation of the great kindness and hospi- 
 tality shown everywhere throughout my visit. I 
 should also like to take this opportunity of thanking 
 the Gilchrist Trustees, through whose liberality I 
 have been enabled to gain much that will be very 
 valuable to myself, and possibly something t] 
 be of interest or help to other teachers. ^f^S^^^ 
 
 y*S OF TH : 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS? 
 
 The State Normal Schools are schools supports 
 wholly by a particular State, to provide trained 
 teachers for the public schools of that State. They 
 are under the management of State Boards of 
 Education, which determine the length of the 
 Normal School Course, and arrange the studies. 
 Much discretionary power is, however, given to the 
 principals or presidents of the respective schools. 
 Instruction is usually free to those who pledge them- 
 selves to teach in the State, and, as a further in- 
 ducement, students attending non-resident schools 
 are allowed to come in by train at reduced fares, or 
 lodge and board in houses near the school at a very 
 low rate. Students of resident schools have rooms 
 
24 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 and board in the school building, or in separate 
 smaller halls, or " dormitories," at a rate of 150-180 
 dollars a year. To very needy students the State 
 makes extra grants. Most of the Normal Schools 
 are co- educational institutions; but a few admit 
 only women. In the co-educational schools, the 
 men and women have classes and meals in common, 
 and reside in different parts of one building, or in 
 adjacent buildings. It is a noticeable fact, however, 
 that in most of the co-educational Normal Schools 
 the women students outnumber the men. In the 
 two Pennsylvanian Schools I visited — those at 
 Westchester and Millersville — the discrepancy be- 
 tween the numbers of men and women students was 
 not so great as in the Normal Schools of Massa- 
 chusetts, Connecticut, and New York, which devote 
 themselves more strictly to professional training, 
 i.e. to pedagogical instruction and teaching practice. 
 Having enquired as to the cause of the greater 
 number of women students, I was told it was due 
 to the fact that teaching, as a profession, offers few 
 attractions to men in the United States, and that 
 in those few Normal Schools where the attendance 
 of men and women students is almost equal the 
 courses are such as to allow of their being used by 
 the men as preparatory courses for college. Such 
 an explanation seems to be corroborated by the 
 relative numbers of men and women teachers in 
 many of the States. In Massachusetts, the number 
 of teachers is 10,965, and of these only 992 are men. 
 In Illinois, there are 23,033 teachers in the Common 
 Schools, and among them only 7,091 men. In 
 
EARLY CHARACTER MAINTAINED 25 
 
 New York, of the 32,161 teachers in the State 
 schools, 26,869 are women. 
 
 The first Normal Schools were established in 
 Massachusetts in 1839. The particular needs which 
 these early schools were intended to satisfy, and 
 their early aims, have influenced the courses of in- 
 struction and lines of work of most of the Normal 
 Schools since established, whether in Massachusetts, 
 or in other States. The purpose of the early schools 
 at Lexington and Barre was to provide more com- 
 petent teachers for the lower grades of schools, and 
 their course of training embraced : — 
 
 i. The subjects of an ordinary school curriculum, known 
 as " academic studies," as distinguished from 
 pedagogical or " professional studies." 
 
 ii. Instruction in the Art of Teaching and Governing. 
 
 iii. Practice in Teaching in the Common Schools. 
 
 The standard of admission to these early Normal 
 Schools was low, and at that time, opportunities for 
 any thorough study outside universities were few, 
 especially in the case of women. Accordingly their 
 theory of training gave the greatest importance to 
 "a careful review of the branches of knowledge 
 required to be taught in schools." The first business 
 of a Normal School was said, by Horace Mann, to 
 consist " in reviewing, and thoroughly and critically 
 mastering the rudiments of elementary branches 
 of knowledge." And although conditions have 
 changed much since 1839, most of the Normal 
 Schools of the United States still pursue the lines 
 of work adopted by Massachusetts. Standards of 
 
26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 admission have been raised, courses of study have 
 been correspondingly extended, but the Normal 
 Schools, with a few exceptions, still remain more 
 or less efficient schools for the teaching of ordinary 
 subjects, and devote half the course, and in many 
 cases even more, to academic work. It is thus a 
 distinctive feature of Normal School work to pursue 
 school-subjects side by side with professional, or 
 pedagogical subjects. But there seems a general 
 tendency to emphasize the academic part, at the 
 expense of the professional. Examples of the courses 
 of study for Massachusetts and New York, two of 
 the foremost of the Eastern States in educational 
 matters, will indicate this. 
 
 Normal Schools of Massachusetts. 
 
 Two Years' Course: 
 
 Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry. 
 Book-keeping. 
 
 Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry. 
 Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Geology. 
 Mineralogy, Geography. 
 Language, Reading, Orthography. 
 Etymology, Grammar, Rhetoric. 
 Literature, Composition. 
 Penmanship, Drawing, Vocal Music. 
 Gymnastics. 
 
 Psychology, Science of Education, Art of Teaching. 
 School Organization, History of Education. 
 Civil Polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, 
 History and School Laws of Massachusetts. 
 
 Four Years 1 Course : 
 
 Subjects required in the Two Years' Course, with the 
 addition of : — 
 
ACADEMIC CHARACTER ILLUSTRATED 27 
 
 Advanced Algebra and Geometry, Trigonometry, Sur- 
 veying. 
 Advanced Chemistry, Physics and Botany. 
 Drawing, English Literature, General History. 
 Latin, French, German or Greek. 
 
 The order of studies, and the relative lengths of 
 time spent on academic and professional studies, is 
 determined by the president of the school. In the 
 Bridgewater School, pedagogical subjects are not 
 studied systematically until the fourth term or 
 semester, for those who take the Two Years' Course, 
 and the seventh semester, for those who take the 
 Four Years' Course. Thus with the exception of 
 a single semester, and a few hours of the first 
 semester given to an introduction of psychology, the 
 whole of the two years or four years is devoted to 
 school subjects. In the Westfield School, the last 
 half-year of the Two Years' Course is devoted to 
 pedagogical subjects, and the additional work of the 
 Four Years' Course is entirely academic. 
 
 The studies prescribed for the Normal Schools of 
 New York State are in three courses : 
 
 i. The English Course, comprising the usual English 
 subjects, Mathematics and Science. This occupies 
 three years. 
 
 ii. The Classical Course, comprising more advanced English 
 subjects, Mathematics and Science, with Latin and 
 Greek, or German and French. This occupies four 
 years. 
 
 iii. The Scientific Course, including all subjects of the 
 English Course, with two years' study of two of 
 the languages, Latin and Greek, French, German. 
 
 The order of subjects, and relative times devoted 
 
28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 to academic and professional studies, is approxi- 
 mately the same for all the Normal Schools of New 
 York State. Taking the schools of Oswego and 
 Oneonta as examples, we find : — 
 
 Three Years' Course: Psychology, philosophy, 
 history of education and methods of teaching various 
 subjects, taken up for the first half of the third year, 
 and sometimes made to extend into the second half 
 of the same year. 
 
 Four Years' Course : The same work, chiefly done 
 in the first half of the fourth year. 
 
 It is maintained by some, that all the Normal 
 School work is professional, in that throughout the 
 curriculum the aim is to present the subject matter 
 of instruction in the way that the teacher should 
 present it to his or her class of children, and so to 
 make the lessons model lessons. I was present at 
 some excellent lessons of this kind: a geography 
 lesson and a history lesson in the Bridgewater 
 Normal School. But for the most part the needs 
 of the Normal School pupils themselves, and not 
 the needs of imaginary future school children, have 
 to be considered, and the Normal School lessons 
 or " recitations " resolve themselves into ordinary 
 school lessons. Even if we assume, however, that 
 this is not the case, and that great skill is shown 
 on the part of the Normal School teacher, may not 
 such a plan of teaching " Methods " be dangerous, 
 in that it encourages imitation and rigidity. Such 
 appears to me to be the tendency of the generally 
 adopted plan, of giving professional training in 
 " Methods," by actual lessons in the various subjects 
 
ACADEMIC CHARACTER 29 
 
 given by the Normal School teacher; and the 
 danger of encouraging cut and dried methods is 
 intensified where it is the custom for a Normal 
 School student to give a lesson to children, or her 
 fellow-students in that subject and section of a 
 subject which has just been presented to her by 
 the Normal School teacher. It is maintained by 
 others that apart from any advantage which may 
 accrue to the students from hearing good lessons in 
 the various subjects they will have to teach, it is 
 absolutely necessary that each student should change 
 her standpoint, and review the various branches of 
 knowledge as a teacher, rather than as a pupil. 
 This, it is argued, is secured by such a plan of 
 teaching " Methods." As a third motive, it is held 
 that direct teaching of ordinary school subjects is 
 necessary before beginning pedagogical instruction, 
 on account of the inadequate and unequal prepara- 
 tion which the future teachers bring to their work. 
 It seems to me that both these necessities might be 
 obviated by more rigid requirements for admission 
 to Normal Schools. The well-equipped High Schools 
 can do the academic work of the Normal Schools 
 with less effort than can the Normal Schools them- 
 selves ; and were the standards of admission such as 
 to necessitate a thoroughly sound preliminary know- 
 ledge in common school subjects, might not the 
 Normal School students be found more capable of 
 themselves reviewing old facts from a new stand- 
 point, and the schools have more time and oppor- 
 tunity to carry out other means of training ? 
 
30 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Academic Studies. 
 
 It is a marked feature in the academic work of 
 Normal Schools that great importance is given to 
 the teaching of science. Here, as in American 
 Schools in general, a large place in the curriculum 
 is given to what is known as " nature study." Ex- 
 tensive laboratories, for the different branches of 
 science, are fitted up in most of the schools ; books, 
 microscopes, physical, chemical and biological ap- 
 paratus, specimens for observation and dissection, 
 are supplied free to students ; outdoor work is 
 organized, weather-charts are kept daily, and 
 students are encouraged to use the school workshops 
 for making simple physical apparatus for their own 
 use. In all the schools great stress is laid upon 
 practical work by each individual student. The 
 following list shows the number of lesson-hours 
 given to science at the Normal School, Bridgewater, 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Two Years 1 Course: 
 
 | 1st term 
 (2nd „ 
 j 1st term 
 (2nd „ 
 
 1st year. 
 2nd year, 
 
 Four Years 1 Course 
 
 « . f 1st term 
 
 1st year. 
 
 2nd year. 
 
 3rd year. 
 
 4th year. 
 
 2nd „ 
 j 1st term 
 (2nd „ 
 { 1st term 
 *2nd „ 
 ("1st term 
 (2nd „ 
 
 12 hours 
 
 per 
 
 week. 
 
 7 
 
 jj 
 
 
 m 
 
 6 
 
 ?> 
 
 
 N 
 
 5 
 
 j> 
 
 
 !» 
 
 2 
 
 » 
 
 
 M 
 
 10 
 
 i> 
 
 
 » 
 
 7 
 
 »» 
 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 » 
 
 
 )» 
 
 4 
 
 it 
 
 
 » 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 j* 
 
 
 M 
 
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 31 
 
 The school, which numbers 274 pupils, has five 
 laboratories — viz., chemical, physical, physiological 
 and zoological, geological and industrial, and the 
 equipment of these, and the care with which students 
 kept daily records of laboratory work, were its 
 special features. The chemical laboratory is in two 
 sections : one for elementary, and one for advanced 
 students, and between these is a teachers' laboratory. 
 The students' daily records of work are carefully 
 examined by the teacher, and much use is made, by 
 both teachers and students, of the continuous wall- 
 slate round the class-rooms and laboratories. Phy- 
 siology is taught by aid of the skeleton and life-size 
 models, also by the dissection of lower animals, and 
 microscopical examination of tissues. The methods 
 and means adopted for geology and geography 
 teaching at Bridgewater seemed to be particularly 
 good. In the school museum were duplicate col- 
 lections of rocks and minerals, classified on various 
 bases ; and in addition to these, the school possessed 
 two sets of trays of working specimens, one set 
 containing labelled typical class specimens, and the 
 other containing unlabelled specimens for identifica- 
 tion by students. Books, giving printed directions 
 for work, interleaved with blank sheets for observa- 
 tions, notes and drawings, were provided for all 
 students. I heard two excellent lessons in geo- 
 graphy at this school. One on the Slopes of the 
 United States was well worked out with the 
 students in sand, great care being taken by the 
 teacher to state and compare actual distances, so 
 that the relief-map should not convey an impression 
 
32 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 of false proportion. The other was a lesson in map- 
 drawing from memory. All students had places at 
 the slate round the room, and two minutes were 
 given to draw the outline of a map previously 
 prepared. Then one minute was given for the 
 drawing of a particularly difficult isolated part of 
 the outline. "When this was done, a correct map 
 was uncovered, and students were required to 
 correct their own drawings. After the drawings 
 had been individually criticised by the teacher, 
 faults were generalized, and help was given. 
 
 The special features of the science work at the 
 Normal School, Willi mantic, Connecticut, is the 
 emphasis placed on manual training, and its prac- 
 tical connection with all science teaching. All 
 students, men and women, are required to invent, 
 or make with their own hands, simple apparatus 
 for teaching the elementary facts of physics. 1 
 saw students in the workshops, making relief-maps 
 and models for their lessons. One was constructing 
 a very simple model of a water-wheel, to illustrate 
 lessons on the conservation of energy ; another was 
 making a relief-map of paper pulp, on a ground of 
 blue-painted wood. 
 
 In this school the students do not, as a rule, 
 follow stated text-books in science. Wide reading 
 is encouraged, and there is an excellent library of 
 standard text-books and works of reference. There 
 is also a model library of children's literature for the 
 students' use, and an exhibition of the latest devices 
 for " busy-work." " Busy-work" is the work done 
 alone by one section of a class, while the other is 
 
LIBRARIES AND APPARATUS 
 
 33 
 
 being directly taught by the teacher. All sorts of 
 occupations are devised by the clever teacher for 
 impressing facts already learnt, and the " busy- 
 work " hour is frequently employed in cutting out 
 outline maps, sorting beads, counting beans, etc. 
 The object of the exhibition of " busy- work " at 
 Willimantic is to encourage examination and criti- 
 cism of such devices with regard to their education- 
 al value. The figures representing the amount 
 granted to this Normal School last year, for " busy- 
 work " exhibits, library books, text-books, periodicals, 
 etc., were kindly given to me by the Principal, and 
 I note them here, as an illustration of the readiness 
 of New England States to furnish school supplies 
 and apparatus. A few details of expenditure for 
 the past year, which was by no means an exceptional 
 year, are : 
 
 Text-books and School Supplies for Nor- \ 1 *.™ i n 
 mal and Model School . . . ) ' 
 
 Library 500 „ 
 
 Periodicals 60 
 
 Total amount, 2,060 
 
 Thus more than £450 was spent in one year for 
 library materials, in a school numbering less than 
 150. The abundant supply of apparatus and books 
 for the teaching of science, and the importance 
 given to practical work, are a marked feature in aJl 
 the schools. At the Albany Normal School for 
 teachers in higher grades and colleges, the students 
 spend most of their free afternoons in making phy- 
 sical apparatus for their own future use. The 
 
34 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 laboratory here is well equipped, and the work is 
 done with great care, accuracy and finish. I saw 
 a home-made tangent galvanometer, and a Wheat- 
 stone's bridge in constant use for somewhat fine 
 measurements. 
 
 At the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts, 
 plant study receives special attention. This is not 
 technical botany as usually understood, but is 
 rather a daily observation and record of plant sur- 
 roundings, the practical study of all stages of 
 plant-life. A feature of the study is the daily 
 exhibit, made by the pupils in turn, of some plant 
 in bud, leaf, flower or fruit, with its common and 
 scientific name, and the place where it was gathered. 
 Directories furnishing information respecting the 
 localities of trees and plants in the neighbourhood 
 are made in the school, and dates of their times of 
 blossoming are noted from year to year on special 
 blank sheets provided for the purpose. Moreover, 
 collections of the woods of different trees, and of 
 leaves of trees growing within the county are made. 
 Work of this kind is usually done in the free hours 
 for independent study, which each student has 
 several times during the day. Practical gardening 
 is also systematically done in free time. 
 
 The lessons in science, unless actual laboratory 
 lessons, are usually given in the form of " recitations." 
 A " recitation " is a lesson in which certain parts 
 of a subject, specially prepared beforehand, are con- 
 tributed by the pupils. The teacher asks questions 
 and explains difficulties, and generally connects the 
 facts brought forward ; but the material of the 
 
" RECITATIONS" IN SCIENCE 35 
 
 lesson is wholly supplied by the pupils. This 
 way of working out a subject has at least two 
 distinct advantages over our own method of lesson- 
 giving, in which the chief work devolves upon the 
 teacher. By the recitation method the pupils are 
 taught how to use books, how to gather from many 
 sources material for their recitation. They also 
 learn to rely on their own efforts in class-time, and 
 to be alert in thought and speech. The disadvan- 
 tages of the plan, however, seem even more apparent. 
 Where one text-book is chiefly used in a subject, or 
 even where several books are referred to, there is a 
 distinct tendency to " recite " in the words of the 
 book. Several times I heard lessons in which such 
 " recitations " were accepted by the teacher. This 
 method, moreover, seems likely to lead to too great 
 a dependence on text-books, and too constant a 
 reference to books, on points where thought and 
 reflection might be better guides. It also encourages 
 digression in class, and a resulting slowness in get- 
 ting through the subject-matter, unless the teacher 
 be very skilful in conducting the " recitation." The 
 constant raising of points by the students, at all 
 parts of the discussion, leads sometimes to waste of 
 time b}' debating on questions of merely individual 
 opinion. Such results point to the difficulty of 
 conducting an ordinary recitation. Great skill and 
 much experience are needed, before such a lesson 
 can be made completely satisfactory, and many are 
 the teachers' temptations to omit careful preparation. 
 As a method to be used constantly, and in all sub- 
 jects, it seems open to many objections, and to show 
 
36 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 but few advantages. As resorted to occasionally, 
 and by skilful teachers, and as particularly adapted 
 to subjects such as geography or history, the 
 "recitation" may be made a valuable means of 
 training. 
 
 The tendency to bookishriess and slavery to word- 
 forms, which may seem to be encouraged by the 
 recitation method of teaching science in the Normal 
 Schools, is opposed by a greater tendency to em- 
 phasize the concrete, to refer in all science teaching 
 directly to the objects themselves, to use laboratory 
 methods wherever possible. Observation and ex- 
 periment are essentially the methods of many of the 
 American science teachers, and no pains are spared 
 to illustrate all facts and principles by an appeal to 
 the senses. As a result, much of the science teach- 
 ing is excellent. On the other hand, there seems a 
 possible danger of pursuing these excellent methods 
 too far, of appealing to the senses alone, at stages 
 of development in the child when reason and re- 
 flection might be appealed to and trusted, and of 
 generally emphasizing the value of observation at 
 the expense of neglecting the reflective faculties. 
 In the excellent Outlines of Laboratory Work, used 
 by some of the Normal Schools, the danger is to 
 some degree recognised by Questions for Thought and 
 Reference being placed at the end of each lesson- 
 scheme. Assuming, however, that the questions are 
 followed out carefully by the students, it may still 
 be doubted whether this is the best method of 
 arousing thought. 
 
 Another feature of the science teaching in the 
 
CONCENTRATIVE METHODS 37 
 
 Normal Schools is the taking up of many branches N 
 of science. Chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology, 
 mineralogy, zoology, botany, physiology, are studied 
 by all. In order that students may be able to take 
 up all these, the plan usually adopted is to concen- 
 trate attention on one science for a short time, and 
 then to pass on to other sciences, until five or six 
 have been taken. It is seldom that even one 
 branch of science is allowed to run through a whole 
 course of two years. The division of science studies 
 for the Normal School at New Britain, Connecticut, 
 where the science work is most carefully done, will 
 illustrate this point. 
 
 First Year: 
 
 Chemistry 5 recitations a week for 13 weeks. 
 
 Physiology 5 „ „ „ 13 „ 
 
 Physics 4 „ ., „ 40 „ 
 
 Physical \ , . 
 
 Geography! " " " * " 
 
 Second Year : 
 
 Physics 4 recitations a week for 13 weeks. 
 
 Botany 5 „ „ ,, 10 „ 
 
 Geology 4 „ „ „ 5 „ 
 
 Biology & ) 4 10 
 
 Zoology J 4 " " iU " 
 
 When it is remembered that no preliminary 
 
 science is required for admission to the Normal 
 
 Schools, and that many of the entering students 
 
 have not done any work in the subject at all, it 
 
 seems impossible that any very thorough knowledge 
 
 can be secured in a course of five, ten, or even 
 
 thirteen weeks. It may be possible for the 
 
 student to obtain and verify a few scientific facts 
 
38 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 during a short course such as this ; but there is no 
 time or opportunity to realize the extent or bearing 
 of the subject in hand, or to study it adequately in 
 a scientific way. To allow a beginner to feel he 
 has completed a course in geology, botany, or any 
 other science in thirteen weeks is to encourage 
 superficiality, to arouse in him a feeling of satis- 
 faction and attainment, and surely nothing can be 
 more opposed to the true spirit of science. In the 
 New Britain School, physics is carried through fifty- 
 three of the eighty weeks in the Two Years' Course ; 
 and this seems a good plan, even if, during some 
 part of the time, only two or three hours a week 
 can be given to it. When one science, or possibly 
 two, are chiefly taken up, and others considered 
 merely accessory to the main subject of study, 
 a more adequate knowledge of science and scientific 
 method can be gained, especially if the sciences 
 taken up are such as botany, and physics, which 
 illustrate respectively different methods of scien- 
 tific research. 
 
 It may be maintained that the Normal School 
 students must be prepared for their future work in 
 the Primary and Grammar Schools, in most of 
 which the elements of several sciences are taught. 
 This, of course, must be remembered. Nevertheless, 
 the attitude of mind developed by the thorough 
 study of one science is the best possible preparation 
 for the safe study of the elements of others, while 
 a superficial study of the elements of many sciences 
 is fatal to the proper estimation of facts in any one 
 of them. 
 
PEDAGOGICAL S UBJE C TS\C> ? 39 
 
 Professional Work. %1> 
 
 The purely professional work of the Normal R^fes &lLt^ 
 Schools consists of: 
 
 (a) Instruction in the theory of education and its appli- 
 cation. 
 
 (6) Actual practice in teaching, under the guidance of ex- 
 perienced teachers. 
 
 (c) Theory of education. 
 
 It is usual for the Normal Schools of the Eastern 
 States to postpone the study of strictly pedagogical 
 subjects until half or more of the course has been 
 completed. School methods are sometimes taught 
 in connection with academic subjects in the early 
 part of the course ; but such instruction, coming, as 
 it does, before any principles of the science of edu- 
 cation have been considered, or any practical ex- 
 perience has been gained, must be purely empirical. 
 At the Normal School, Millersvilie, Pennsylvania, 
 school management is taken during the first year, 
 and applied psychology (as distinguished from em- 
 pirical methods), history of education, and school 
 teaching, are required during the second year. If 
 the student takes up a further scientific or post- 
 graduate course, additional professional studies are 
 required — viz., psychology and the philosophy of 
 education, ethics, logic, and professional reading. In 
 the Westchester Normal School, Pennsylvania, no 
 professional work is taken up until the second year. 
 Then psychology is studied, and history of education ; 
 and methods and school practice are taken. The ad- 
 ditional pedagogical studies for the advanced courses 
 are the same as at Millersvilie. At the Normal 
 
40 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 School, Bridgewater, Massachusetts, the students, 
 after having studied the elements of psychology, 
 during their first semester, leave all technical studies 
 until the fourth semester, when they take up simul- 
 taneously, study of the body, study of the mind, 
 principles of education and methods, school organi- 
 zation, school government, history of school laws of 
 Massachusetts. A fifth semester, when it can be 
 given, is devoted entirely to professional work and 
 actual teaching. At the Normal School, New 
 Britain, Connecticut, psychology is given four times 
 a week during most of the two years' course. Text- 
 books are not used except for reference. No pure 
 psychology is studied, but school subjects are taken 
 up one by one, and their facts and methods of treat- 
 ment are used to illustrate psychological principles. 
 The history of education is studied side by side with 
 this applied psychology ; but not much time is given 
 to this subject in class. The lives and works of the 
 chief educators only are taken, and private reading 
 is much encouraged as accessory to the class-work. 
 At the Normal School, Willimantic, Connecticut, 
 psychology is studied one hour a day throughout 
 the last year, and is treated almost entirely from 
 the physiological standpoint. No special text-book 
 is used, but Spencer and Darwin are recommended 
 for reference. The history of education is not taken 
 up systematically in class, but the work and in- 
 fluence of modern educators, such as Arnold, Thring, 
 and Horace Mann, are thoroughly discussed. At 
 the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts, class 
 work in psychology is taken almost daily through- 
 
PSYCHOLOGY AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION 41 
 
 out the whole course. The value attributed to the 
 subject, and the unique way in which it is studied, 
 together with other points distinctive of the pro- 
 fessional work, give to the Worcester School a fore- 
 most place among New England Normal Schools. 
 The method adopted for its study is one which 
 entirely leaves the beaten track of ordinary text- 
 books. It does not, in the earlier stages, trouble the 
 student with the divisions and generalities of pure 
 psychology, but rather fixes his attention solely on 
 the child, and seeks to gain from actual observation 
 and individual and combined experience laws which 
 shall be valuable aids in teaching. " The principal 
 requests the students to observe the conduct of chil- 
 dren in all circumstances — at home, at school, in 
 the street, at work, at play, in conversation with one 
 another and with adults, and record what they see 
 and hear as soon as circumstances will permit." 
 The work thus suggested has been organized as a 
 definite part of the school course, and although 
 optional, is usually taken up by all students. It is 
 intended, not to supplant, but to supplement later 
 systematic instruction in psychology, and is taken 
 up, not for the sake of the facts gained, which may 
 or may not be of intrinsic worth, but for the value 
 of the process of such observation to the teacher. 
 In order to help forward the systematic study of 
 children, a scheme of work is drawn up. Records 
 are to be made whenever convenient, and for these 
 records blank sheets of six different colours are pro- 
 vided. The colours are a means of roughly classi- 
 fying the records into six groups, thus : 
 
42 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 (i.) Facts of personal observation. 
 
 (ii.) Facts related by others, together with names of re- 
 corder and observer. 
 
 (iii.) Personal reminiscences of childhood. 
 
 (iv.) Facts gained from books. 
 
 (v.) Observations on exceptional or defective children. 
 
 (vi.) Continuous observations. 
 
 Each record must contain the date of the obser- 
 vation, the observer's name, age, and post-office 
 address, as well as the name or initials of the child 
 observed, its age, sex, nationality. There must be 
 also a statement of the length of time which has 
 elapsed between the observation and the record. 
 These records are preserved and catalogued under 
 such heads as knowledge, imagination, feeling. 
 Special attention is being directed to the subject of 
 child language, and pupils and old students are 
 supplied with small indexed books for records in 
 this particular department. Further opportunities 
 for daily observation and experiment in certain 
 lines of child-study and in teaching are offered in 
 a newly organized children's class or kindergarten. 
 The students merely watch the class, the teaching 
 being entirely in the hands of two experienced 
 kindergartners. As the class exists for the acknow- 
 ledged purpose of experiment, tuition is free, and 
 the teachers in charge have full liberty to follow 
 any course they wish. When I saw the school, a 
 long series of daily experiments were being made, 
 with a view to finding out whether, when left per- 
 fectly free, the boys secured places next to girls by 
 preference. 
 
 Much time is given to " Methods " in all the 
 
ALBANY 43 
 
 Normal Schools. Besides the so-called " Methods " 
 taught by means of academic studies, the subject 
 is usually taken up again in connection with applied 
 psychology. The school subjects, treated one by one 
 in detail, are used to illustrate principles of educa- 
 tion, while much reference is made at every stage 
 to the personal experience of teacher and students. 
 Many different plans are adopted in teaching 
 "Methods." At the Normal School, Westchester, 
 I heard a lesson which was in the form of a modified 
 " recitation." A certain point had been chosen for 
 discussion. The students had prepared the subject 
 beforehand, and some had written short essays, 
 which they read in turn. Afterwards the whole 
 class was questioned by the teacher. As new ideas 
 were brought forward, they were noted on the 
 blackboard by the students who supplied them, 
 until a complete sketch was made. A discussion 
 on " Noise in Class " was carried on somewhat in 
 the same way. At Westfield, Massachusetts, the 
 lessons on " Didactics " are carried out on a similar 
 plan, the students being called upon in turn to 
 furnish certain parts of the subject, and to build up 
 a sketch on the blackboard. 
 
 At the Normal School, Albany, methods are 
 taught thus : — With each of three terms of psycho- 
 logy, certain subjects are chosen for consideration. 
 A syllabus of work in a certain subject is given 
 in by each student. It is carefully discussed in 
 class. Then parts of the detailed syllabus are taken 
 in order, methods of dealing with any particular 
 part discussed, and one method decided upon as best. 
 
44 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 For the next day, all the students prepare a lesson 
 on the part selected, and any one of them may be 
 called upon to give it to his or her fellow-students. 
 Then follows criticism by teacher and students. 
 The plan of requiring all students to consider de- 
 tailed methods in all subjects seems not to be 
 altogether a good one. It assumes a knowledge of 
 all the subjects of study on the part of all students, 
 a condition only attainable at the price of super- 
 ficiality. Even where a general knowledge of sub- 
 jects can be relied upon, details in method cannot 
 do other than encourage empiricism, in cases where 
 the knowledge of the subject matter is not thorough 
 and complete. It would seem better, especially in 
 the case of training institutions like that at Albany, 
 designed to give purely professional training to 
 teachers of higher grades, to encourage more 
 specialization, and to allow all students some choice 
 of method subjects, so that dead forms of method 
 might be made as few as possible. The system of 
 giving detailed methods to all stimulates, too, a 
 tendency to rigid forms of lesson-giving, and some- 
 what encourages the idea that there is only one 
 good arrangement of subject matter for a particular 
 lesson, and one good way of giving it. This is, I 
 think, a danger of all method-teaching ; but it is 
 much intensified where methods are discussed in 
 great detail. 
 
 The actual methods taught in the Normal Schools, 
 and followed out in the connected Model Schools, 
 vary so much as regards both principles and details, 
 that it is almost impossible to report on them as a 
 
READING THROUGH "NATURE STUDY" 45 
 
 whole. It is a feature of many of the Normal 
 Schools to cling to old methods, and lines of 
 work of twenty, thirty or forty years ago ; while, on 
 the other hand, a few of the Normal Schools I saw 
 — those of Connecticut, the Oswego Normal School, 
 and Colonel Parker's School, at Englewood, Chicago — 
 seem to be leaders in a campaign which is beginning 
 to revolutionize " Methods " in America. 
 
 The educational principle which is effecting this 
 reform is the connection or correlation of studies, a 
 theory the most fully expressed and applied at the 
 Cook County Normal School, Illinois. As a result 
 of this theory, the hard and fast lines between the 
 so-called subjects of study are being broken down. 
 Reading is taught in all the grades through nature 
 study, history and literature ; e.g., natural objects 
 studied by the children in different grades, or poems 
 in the selected literature for the year, serve as 
 subjects for reading lessons. The children are en- 
 couraged to express their ideas orally on these 
 subjects, and the teacher writes their statements 
 on the blackboard, and takes care that the statement 
 is really the expression of an idea in the child's 
 mind. When various sentences, given by the chil- 
 dren, have been connected and arranged, the class 
 reads from the board, and afterwards from printed 
 or type-written copies of what has been written. 
 Thus the children make their own reading books, 
 and need no ordinary reading primers. This 
 method, as adapted to the earliest stages of reading, 
 necessarily implies the learning of script before 
 printed characters, also the learning of words and 
 
46 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 sentences as wholes, and their necessary association 
 with the thought which they express. So, too, 
 writing and drawing, as modes of expressing 
 thought, are taught in close connection with all 
 other subjects. At New Britain, the teacher of draw- 
 ing in the Model School is present at all literature 
 lessons, and children are encouraged to illustrate 
 their literature by drawings or paintings. In papers 
 on the " Spontaneous Drawings of Children," 
 read at the Chicago Educational Conference by 
 Professor Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford Uni- 
 versity, California, he showed how much of this 
 illustrative work of children was being used by 
 himself and others in the cause of experimental 
 psychology. 
 
 At the Model School connected with the Oswego 
 Normal School, natural history is made the central 
 subject, and reading, writing, and drawing are made 
 to bear upon it. The natural history course, in- 
 cluding both plants and animals, is most carefully 
 planned to suit the seasons of the year. As each 
 plant or animal is studied, it is drawn by the 
 children, stories are told about it, the children write 
 about it, read about it, and make it a general object 
 of study for some time. The work is carefully 
 graded for different ages, but the subject or topic 
 of study is the same throughout the school at the 
 same time. 
 
 At the Cook County Normal School, Illinois, all 
 the teaching is made to group itself round three 
 subjects — science, geography, history ; and these 
 subjects are made to include everything forming 
 
SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 47 
 
 the environment of the child. The study of form 
 and number, instead of being followed as separate 
 subjects in themselves, are considered merely as 
 means of studying these three comprehensive sub- 
 jects — as modes of thinking in fact. Hearing, ob- 
 serving, and reading are regarded as different ways 
 of gaining ideas, and as such, silent reading is 
 encouraged, and many devices are used for helping 
 the child to get quickly and clearly the ideas from 
 the printed or written page. Writing, music, 
 modelling, painting, drawing, speaking, are con- 
 sidered as means of expressing ideas about objects 
 studied — the act of expression making the ideas 
 clearer. Thus, number or arithmetic is taught, not, 
 as is usual, by means of problems specially made 
 and arranged in books of arithmetical examples ; 
 but in close connection with any class subject. I 
 heard part of a course of excellent laboratory lessons 
 in Science, given to Summer School Students at 
 this school, and as the methods employed were those 
 of the ordinary Normal School Course, I may 
 mention them here. At the end of each lesson 
 the teacher used the numerical results obtained by 
 individual students, and worked them into arith- 
 metical problems. For example, the subjects used 
 for successive number lessons were as follows : 
 
 Conductivity of heat in metals. 
 
 Expansion of metals by heat. 
 
 Determination of boiling-point of fresh and salt 
 water. 
 
 Such a treatment of subjects is a strong protest 
 against routine work and rigid method. It allows 
 
48 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 great scope to the teacher by concentrating atten- 
 tion on the child and its needs, rather than on the 
 artificial divisions into so-called subjects, and their 
 methods. On the other hand, it puts great respon- 
 sibility upon the teacher, and taxes his skill to the 
 utmost. There are many difficulties in adopting 
 the plan, one of the chief being the construction of 
 the school time-table. In any case, the practical 
 application of such a system can only be partial, 
 until all teachers are enthusiasts and experts ; but 
 the lines of work seem to be true lines, and may be 
 suggestive of much that shall reform some of our 
 own old methods. 
 
 Practice in Teaching. 
 
 It is usual for each Normal School to have at- 
 tached to it a Model School, which serves the double 
 purpose of model and practising school for students. 
 The head of the Model School and her assistants 
 are experienced teachers, known as the critic 
 teachers, and to the care and supervision of these 
 the students are submitted during their training in 
 practical teaching. All the Normal Schools I saw 
 had such a Model School except the one at Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island. 
 
 The amount of time actually devoted to teaching 
 by each student is different in different States, and 
 the plans by which the required amount is secured 
 for all vary in the different schools. 
 
 The State of Pennsylvania requires of its Normal 
 School students actual practice in teaching for one 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 49 
 
 hour a day during three-fourths of the last year of 
 the Course ; but students generally do more than 
 this. At Westchester, Pennsylvania, the students 
 go into the Model School in sections of six each 
 morning after 10.30. A new section is chiefly en- 
 gaged in observing the children, and hearing lessons 
 given by the critic teachers or other students. 
 Later, the students teach, but always under super- 
 vision. The subject matter of their lessons is 
 definitely mapped out for them by the critic 
 teacher, and they discuss with her the best ways 
 of treating it. There are no written notes of lessons, 
 and no public criticism of lessons, either by teachers 
 or students. Each week, meetings of teachers and 
 students are held, for the purpose of taking up any 
 points noted during the students' work of the week. 
 These are really talks supplementary to the ordinary 
 method lectures. At Millersville, Pennsylvania, each 
 student gives two or three lessons every day for a 
 year. She teaches in different grades, and takes 
 lessons in different subjects, and has also practice 
 in managing simultaneously several divisions of one 
 class. 
 
 At the Oswego Normal School, under the regula- 
 tions of the New York State, the student is in the 
 schools only twenty weeks, but during this time she 
 has much responsibility. She spends ten weeks in 
 a primary or elementary grade, and ten weeks in a 
 more advanced grade, and during the whole time is 
 practically responsible for her class. Each after- 
 noon, after the school is dismissed, the teaching 
 
50 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 class remains for an hour to discuss any points of 
 difficulty with the Head of the Model School. 
 
 At Willimantic, Connecticut, the teaching class 
 spends its first four weeks in general observation of 
 children, and hearing lessons. Then each student 
 is placed under the supervision of one special critic 
 teacher, and she continues some of the courses of 
 work already begun by the critic teacher. At least 
 four weeks are spent by each student in every grade 
 in the school, first in observing, then in teaching 
 under the criticism of the class teacher. 
 
 The Model School at New Britain, Connecticut, is 
 preserved strictly as a Model School. After observ- 
 ing teacher and class for some time, the student 
 usually gives one trial lesson in the school, but there 
 is no systematic teaching by the student. For the 
 actual independent practice, the student must go to 
 a practising school outside New Britain, and be 
 entirely responsible for a class for four months. At 
 the large practising school in connection with the 
 New Britain Normal School, at South Manchester, I 
 saw students dealing with the actual difficulties of 
 discipline and class-management. Each student 
 was in charge of a large class with different divi- 
 sions or grades. There were four responsible, 
 experienced teachers for reference in cases of emer- 
 gency, and for criticism ; but each student had 
 her own class, and the school of 700 children 
 was practically managed by students. Such is 
 the general plan of practice- work in the Normal 
 Schools. 
 
 Much care is given to the Model Schools. The 
 
SPECIAL PLAN OF PRACTICE WORK 51 
 
 class-rooms are supplied with all necessary appara- 
 tus, and they are bright and airy, and well supplied 
 with flowers and children's books. It is quite 
 customary in some of the schools to give short 
 periods in school hours for private reading, or to 
 allow one child to read to the other children while 
 they are doing some kind of mechanical work. 
 Much importance is laid upon the observation of the 
 teaching in Model Schools. It is possible, however, 
 that this is insisted on too early in the course; in- 
 deed, the hearing of lessons is usually the students' 
 first work in the school. It would be much more 
 profitable, and there would be less danger of blind 
 imitation, if the student had herself previously 
 gained experience in teaching. As it is, the danger 
 of imitation, and one-sided and narrow lines of 
 teaching is increased by the fact that one student is 
 chiefly under the supervision of one teacher. 
 
 At the Worcester Normal School there is no Model 
 or practising School, but the students teach in the 
 public schools of the city. For the first six months 
 of her last year at the Normal School, the student 
 acts as an apprentice or pupil-teacher, serving in at 
 least three grades during this time. Each teacher 
 has the direction of only one student, who may be 
 left in sole charge of the class for hours or days. 
 One day in the week the apprentice-student attends 
 the Normal School, where she shows her class diary 
 for the week, and discusses any difficulties that may 
 have arisen. On that day, too, she takes part in the 
 " Platform Exercises " of the Normal School — viz., 
 exercises in which students speak, read or draw, on 
 
52 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 the platform, in presence of the whole school. The 
 apprentice-students usually give an account to their 
 fellow students of anything interesting or helpful 
 in their practical work of the past week. 
 
 Examinations. 
 
 At the end of the Normal School Course, State 
 examinations are held in most of the States. In 
 Pennsylvania each school examines its own students, 
 who, when they have satisfactorily completed the 
 required course of study, and passed the final exam- 
 ination, receive a certificate, and are said M to 
 graduate." After graduation, they are recommended 
 to the State Examiner, who awards a State-Teaching 
 Certificate valid for two years. At the end of this 
 period, the teacher is required to present to the State 
 Board a certificate of good work from the county 
 Superintendent under whom he or she has taught, 
 and also a certificate from his own school board. He- 
 is then entitled to teach in his own State for life. 
 The Normal School students of Connecticut are sub- 
 mitted to State Examination, but in Massachusetts 
 no outside examination is required. Students who 
 work satisfactorily through the course, and pass the" 
 final examination, "graduate" at the discretion of 
 the President, or according to results of an examina- 
 tion set by the School Board of the city. The 
 State examination of teachers and most of the final- 
 examinations of the Normal Schools are usually in 
 academic subjects only. It is not attempted to test I 
 by actual examination the degree of skill in teach- 
 ing or governing. 
 
NUMBER OF NORMAL SCHOOL STUDENTS 53 
 
 Supply of Teachers. 
 
 As regards the number of teachers who have been 
 trained in Normal Schools relatively to the number 
 who teach in the Common Schools of the State with- 
 out previous training, statistics are apt to be mis- 
 leading, because, in many cases, Normal Students 
 do not take the entire course or "graduate." Out 
 of 372 students enrolled at New Britain in 1889- 
 
 1890, only 77 completed the entire course ; in 1890- 
 
 1891, only 61 out of 401 graduated ; and in 1891- 
 
 1892, out of 444 students, only 91 were graduates. 
 For 1888-1889 Framingham shows 30 graduates out 
 of 205 present in the school ; Salem shows 129 out 
 of 292 ; and Bridgewater, 69 out of 232. In all 
 these schools the courses are two, three or four 
 years, and if all the students completed the course, 
 the number of graduates each year would be J, J, or 
 \ respectively of the number of students enrolled. 
 The Report of School Commissioners for 1888-1889 
 shows that among 75,529 teachers in the Common 
 Schools of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut 
 New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, there 
 were only 1,461 students who completed the Normal 
 School Course in these States. In all the States, 
 arrangements are made for teachers who do not go 
 through the Normal Schools. Certificates of license 
 to teach in the State for a shorter or longer time 
 are granted according to results of the State Certifi- 
 cate Examination. A third-grade certificate, entit- 
 ling its owner to teach for a short time, may be ex- 
 changed for a second-grade certificate, when further 
 
54 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 proficiency is shown by re-examination. So a 
 second-grade certificate may be exchanged for a 
 life-certificate in many of the States. It should be 
 borne in mind that these examinations are only in 
 school subjects. 
 
 The fact that in a State such as Massachusetts 
 the qualifications of teachers in the High and Latin 
 Schools of Boston is stated merely as " Education 
 at some respectable college of good standing," shows 
 that the necessity for the professional training of 
 teachers for higher or secondary schools is not at 
 present fully recognised. Until the last few years, 
 no Institution especially devoted to the training of 
 secondary teachers existed in the eastern States, 
 and those who wished to prepare themselves for the 
 teaching of the higher branches of subjects had no 
 other means of training than that offered in the 
 Normal Schools. At Worcester and Bridgewater, 
 College and University graduates may take the 
 pedagogical course as special students, and so pre- 
 pare for teaching in the higher schools. At the In- 
 diana and Illinois Normal Schools, and in other 
 places, there are courses of study chiefly or entirely 
 professional, for college or university graduates, if 
 such present themselves. At Albany, too, where the 
 standard of admission is high, many of the students 
 prepare for work in the secondary schools. On the 
 whole, however, the number of special students pre- 
 paring for higher work in the Normal Schools is 
 very small. In 1891-1892, the Southern Illinois 
 Normal University had only six special students, the 
 Terre-Haute Normal School, Indiana, only four ; and 
 
NATURE OF NORMAL SCHOOL ITSELF 55 
 
 we find in the eastern States generally that the 
 Normal Schools take very little part in the training 
 of secondary teachers. For the most part Normal 
 School students are found only in the lower grades 
 of public schools ; and college graduates, even though 
 untrained, are preferred as teachers in High Schools, 
 good private schools and academies. 
 
 The reason for this is probably to be found in the 
 nature of the Normal School itself. It, perhaps more 
 than any other educational institution in America, 
 has adhered to its old traditions. It was designed 
 to train teachers for the lower grades of Elementary 
 Schools, and in the early days was prepared to 
 accept the only material at hand — would - be 
 teachers, many of whom possessed few intellectual 
 qualifications, and almost all were inadequately pre- 
 pared for training. But with rising standards of 
 work, and increased facilities for good preliminary 
 preparation, the Normal School has not yet closed 
 its doors to students whose general attainments do 
 not qualify them to profit by courses in the Science 
 and Art of Teaching. In one or two cases only is 
 the standard of college graduation insisted upon, and 
 in many cases the admission standard is lower than 
 that required to complete the course in a city High 
 School. Hence it results that most of the teaching 
 in High Schools and academies is given into the 
 hands of professionally untrained teachers — college 
 graduates, whose scholarship can be relied upon, but 
 who have no previous technical training, rather than 
 to trained teachers, whose knowledge of the actual 
 subject-matter of studies may or may not be 
 
56 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 thorough. The choice, open to heads of Secondary 
 Schools when appointing assistants, is, moreover, 
 not between good scholarship and good training. 
 "Without adequate preparation the training must 
 be inadequate, and in many cases cramping and 
 injurious. On the other hand, it is only after the 
 preliminary preparation has been sound and com- 
 plete that the work of training can . be carried out 
 in the best possible way. 
 
 CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS. 
 
 The existence of State Normal Schools and City 
 Training Schools side by side suggests at once a 
 fact which has an important bearing on educational 
 questions in the United States — viz., the absolute dis- 
 tinction, as regards jurisdiction, between schools 
 outside the limits of a town or city, under the 
 supervision of a State Board and State Superinten- 
 dent, and schools within the city radius, and under 
 the supervision of a Town or City Superintendent. 
 In educational matters, the city areas are completely 
 exempt from State control. Their schools and 
 training schools are managed by local authorities, 
 and supplied for the most part by local funds. 
 Hence it follows that City Normal and Training 
 Schools show even greater diversity of methods 
 and arrangement than is found in State Normal 
 Schools, for their lines of work and efficiency are 
 entirely dependent upon the respective City Boards 
 of Education. One effect of local school administra- 
 tion is distinctly undesirable. The appointment of 
 
CONDITION OF ADMISSION 57 
 
 the principal of the school by the Educational 
 Board, and the election of that Board by local vote, 
 produces, in many cities, a tendency to display, in 
 order to cull popular favour. The " graduation 
 exercises," yearly public ceremonies, held in con- 
 nection with almost all American schools and 
 colleges, consist, in the case of training schools, of 
 various kinds of students' and children's exercises, 
 to which the public are invited. Much valuable 
 time is taken by the students in preparing essays to 
 be read and lessons to be given in public ; and in 
 some cases the student or teacher conducts an 
 examination of her class in the presence of parents 
 and friends. Several such public exercises I heard, 
 but in all cases it was evident that true results of 
 training, or honest results of teaching, were not 
 demonstrated. The endeavour to impress the audi- 
 ence, besides involving great waste of time, seems 
 likely to create an unconscious dishonesty on the 
 part of teachers, students, and children. 
 
 City Normal Schools. 
 
 The City Normal Schools are the local training 
 schools, maintained by the larger cities for the pre- 
 paration of their own teachers. 
 
 They require as conditions of admission : — 
 
 i. Kesidence in the city, 
 ii. Satisfactory completion of the high schools course of 
 
 the city, 
 iii. Statement of intention to teach in the schools of the 
 city. 
 
 To all those who satisfy these conditions, and are 
 
58 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 eighteen years of age or more, instruction is free, 
 and completion of the professional course entitles 
 the student to become a teacher in any of the Com- 
 mon Schools of the city. 
 
 The City Normal Schools of New York and Phila- 
 delphia combine the functions of Normal and High 
 Schools, admitting students who do not intend to 
 become teachers to their academic studies, without- 
 requiring of them any professional study or practice 
 in teaching. The necessity of extending the func- 
 tion of a Normal School in this way has arisen from 
 the fact that there are no public High Schools for 
 girls in these cities. 
 
 At the Normal College of the city of New York 
 there are two separate courses of work : — 
 
 i. An academic or classical course of five years, 
 ii. A normal or training course of four years, with an 
 
 optional extra year for specializing in anj* branch 
 
 of manual training. 
 
 In the normal course, two full years are given to 
 the study of school subjects only. In the third year 
 two hours a week, in the first half of the fourth 
 year six hours a week, and in the last half of the 
 fourth year three hours a week, are given to the 
 study of pedagogy. At the beginning of the fourth 
 year, the Normal students enter the training or 
 practice department connected with the school, and 
 every third week hear and give lessons, and take 
 part in criticisms and discussions on teaching. At 
 the same time, they attend lectures and recitations 
 in English, Latin, modern languages, natural science, 
 
PHILADELPHIA 59 
 
 drawing and music, chiefly with a view to gaining 
 an insight into the methods of those subjects. The 
 college had in December, 1892, 1,868 students, of 
 whom 460 had belonged to the training department 
 during the year — i.e., had observed and actually 
 taught in the training or practising school. As 
 large numbers are engaged in observing and teach- 
 ing in one practising school, much individual 
 practice in the actual work of teaching is im- 
 possible ; for although the students are divided 
 into groups for the school work, the groups are 
 necessarily large. It has been found necessary for 
 ninety-two students to be in the practising school 
 at one time, a number too large to allow of much 
 actual teaching being done by any individual 
 student. Only a small part of the twelve hours 
 spent weekly by each student in the practising 
 school is given to teaching. The remaining time 
 is given to hearing lessons and observing children. 
 
 I noticed a similar need for more practical work 
 in the Philadelphia Normal School. Here, as in the 
 New York Normal College, much purely academic 
 work is done, and very little importance is given to 
 actual school-room practice. Students are divided 
 into six sections, each group containing about fifty. 
 A whole division goes into the practising school at 
 one time, and stays there for two weeks only. The 
 remaining thirty-eight weeks of the last school year 
 are entirely devoted to the study of pedagogical 
 subjects, psychological methods and drawing. 
 Kindergarten work is compulsory to all during the 
 last year. The two weeks which each student 
 
60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 spends in the schools are chiefly employed in hearing 
 lessons, and observing children and teachers. Only 
 two days in the whole course are spent in actual 
 teaching. This arrangement of work and distribu- 
 tion of time in the Philadelphia Normal School is 
 seen by the city school authorities to be far from 
 satisfactory, and a scheme has been made out for a 
 thorough revision of the course. The present school, 
 which is inadequate for purposes of training, is to 
 be made into a public High School for girls, and a 
 new Normal School is to be built, in which three 
 years are to be devoted to academic, and two years 
 to professional work ; but the two parts are to be 
 kept entirely distinct. The training course is to 
 consist of elementary and advanced sections, and 
 much more time is to be given to actual teaching. 
 
 The examinations of the City Normal Schools are 
 usually conducted by the faculties of the schools, 
 under the supervision of sub-committees of the 
 Board of Public Education of the city. In the 
 Philadelphia School, a certificate is awarded by a 
 " Committee on the Qualification of Teachers " for 
 a general average of 85 per cent, on two examina- 
 tions. 
 
 i. In academical subjects, at end of three years, 
 ii. In professional subjects, at the end of four years. 
 
 An average of 85 per cent, on the teaching in the 
 school of practice is also required. Two certificates 
 are awarded for lower averages of marks on work 
 of the course, viz. : 
 
IMPORTANCE ATTACHED TO ACTUAL TEACHING 61 
 
 An " Assistant's Certificate " for average of 70 
 per cent., and a " Trial Certificate " for less 
 than an average of 70 per cent, on work in 
 the school of practice. Such a " Trial Certifi- 
 cate " is for one year only. If, at the end of 
 that time, the teaching shall be reported as 
 satisfactory by the Superintendent of the 
 Schools,, the " Trial Certificate " may be ex- 
 changed for an " Assistant's Certificate." 
 
 City Training Schools. 
 
 The City Training Schools are purely professional 
 institutions. They admit only graduates of High 
 Schools of the city, and give them a course of one 
 or two years in theory and practice of teaching. 
 The amount of time given to theory varies a good 
 deal in the different cities. Practice in teaching is 
 usually gained in a practising school well equipped 
 with good teachers, who help and guide the students 
 in their work. In some instances, however, students 
 gain their experience by teaching under supervision, 
 in the schools of the city. 
 
 Emphasis of the practical side of the teacher's 
 work seems to be a good feature of the training 
 schools generally. In all the City Training Schools 
 which I visited much opportunity was given for 
 actual teaching, and for practically dealing with the 
 problems of discipline and organization in the 
 schoolroom. Such opportunities are multiplied by 
 the system of substitute service, which seems to be 
 organized in most of the cities of the United States. 
 
62 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Students of the training schools, during the latter 
 part of their course, are registered on a substitute 
 list, and may be called to supply the place of 
 teachers temporarily absent from the Common 
 Schools. Responsibility taken for a week, or even 
 a day, is excellent training for future teachers, and 
 in cases where permanent vacancies occur the 
 student who has shown herself capable in such an 
 emergency is often appointed to the post. 
 
 Among the largest and most successful of the 
 City Training Schools is the Boston Normal and 
 Rice Training School. This, although a City 
 Normal School by name, differs in many respects 
 from the City Normal Schools of New York and 
 Philadelphia. Its work is strictly professional, and 
 seems to correspond rather with the Training 
 Schools of other cities than with those known as 
 Normal Schools. The Rice Training School offers 
 an ordinary course of two years, and an advanced 
 course for further professional work. The practising 
 school in the same building gives the opportunity to 
 the students of teaching and observing children, and 
 beyond this the " Supervisors of Public Instruction " 
 in the city have made arrangements for allowing 
 the students to watch and teach in some of the best 
 Primary and Grammar Schools of Boston. Comple- 
 tion of the Boston High School course, or college 
 graduation, exempts from the entrance examination 
 of the school. 
 
 Theoretical instruction in pedagogical subjects is 
 given in the morning, teaching in the practising 
 school occupies the afternoon hours. Psychology is 
 
METHODS" 63 
 
 taken almost every day throughout the course. 
 Theory of the kindergarten is studied in the second 
 term, and logic in the third. The history of educa- 
 tion is also taken in outline. 
 
 "Methods" of subjects are taught in great detail, 
 and on the same lines as in the State Normal Schools — 
 viz., by means of lessons in the various subjects given 
 to the students themselves. I heard a very interest- 
 ing lesson in methods of arithmetic. A class of 
 twenty girls were, by very skilful questioning, made 
 to thoroughly discuss the process of simple addition, 
 and also the methods of teaching children to realize 
 numbers greater than ten. I heard, too, very 
 skilful teaching in methods of English — viz., a 
 literature lesson, and a first lesson in English com- 
 position. In the literature lesson, the teacher first 
 reminded her pupils of the various poems and prose 
 selections studied during the term. After having 
 given short explanations, she read selections from 
 other authors. Then the students were asked if 
 these new selections reminded them of any parts in 
 the poems already studied, and when the suggested 
 parts had been quoted, the class was set to discover 
 whether the similarity was in the subject-matter, 
 the underlying thought or the mode of expression. 
 Many suggestions were given by the class, and much 
 interest was aroused. The lesson was a most help- 
 ful illustration of how a teacher should stimulate 
 her class, and how she should use her materials for 
 the purpose of training. The study of methods of 
 training occupies a prominent place in the curri- 
 culum of the school, and includes special work in 
 
64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 illustrative drawing on the blackboard in connection 
 with the teaching of geography, and the drawing of 
 plants and animals. As part of the course on gym- 
 nastics, each student, besides studying the theory 
 and doing daily drill, must act for one term as 
 leader and teacher of drill, and must criticise drill 
 lessons. 
 
 Practical work in the schools is arranged for each 
 term. In the first half-year, the students' work in 
 the training school consists chiefly in observing 
 methods of teaching, and hearing lessons, under the 
 guidance of the critic teacher. She does not begin 
 to teach in the school until the second term, two 
 weeks of which she spends in a primary grade, and 
 two weeks in a higher or grammar grade. In the 
 third term she spends eight weeks in the schools, 
 and in the fourth term four weeks. It is usual for 
 each student, while in the schools, to give two or 
 three lessons every day, under the supervision of 
 the class teacher with whom she is placed. The 
 teacher criticises and suggests in all cases. In the 
 advanced course, students take up a further study 
 of the principles of education. They also study the 
 history of education, give more time to actual 
 teaching in the schools, and act as substitutes in the 
 city schools. 
 
 In addition to the Boston Training School, there 
 are fourteen city training schools in the State of 
 Massachusetts. In all these the time of training is 
 fixed from one to two years ; admission is by the 
 High School graduation certificate, or an equivalent 
 entrance examination, and is only at fixed annual 
 
NEWHAVEN, CONNECTICUT 65 
 
 times ; a school is attached for practice, and the 
 teacher at its head conducts the training class. 
 
 At the Springfield Training School the course may 
 be extended to two years. A little academic work 
 is done in science during the first term. Methods 
 are treated of by means of lectures and discussions, 
 and these, with organized observation of children 
 and a few criticism lessons, constitute the practical 
 work from September until Christmas. At Christ- 
 mas, systematic psychology begins, and also teaching 
 in the schools for one hour a day. The subjects of 
 the lessons are chosen by the critic teacher, and the 
 teaching is in all cases under supervision. At 
 Easter the student begins to teach three hours a 
 day, and occasionally has to give lessons in public. 
 These, however, are not considered as test-lessons. 
 Certificates to teach in the schools of the city are 
 granted on the results of an examination, held by 
 the City Board of Education each year. 
 
 At Newhaven, Connecticut, the City Training 
 School has more than thirty students. The course 
 is a year in length, the first half of which is devoted 
 entirely to theoretical subjects, and the last half to 
 teaching. Here, as at the Worcester Normal 
 School, I found students being introduced to 
 methods of psychological experimentation, more 
 especially in the senses of sight and hearing. It is 
 interesting to notice that these are special lines of 
 research in the psychological laboratory of Yale 
 University. I saw the records of several students 
 who had been finding the average voice pitch of 
 thirty children. The tendency in all the psycho- 
 
66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 logical teaching here was to make the subject really, 
 experimental, and the results those of actual obser- 
 vation. The history of education is not taught by 
 means of set lectures, but topics are announced from 
 time to time, with references for the students' read- 
 ing. After the class has collected facts on a certain 
 subject, the teacher supplements the facts already 
 given by selections from other books, and references 
 to other parts of the subject. In treating the 
 history of education in each country, general 
 chronological order is followed, and the facts of 
 each period are studied under four heads : 
 
 Religion, social and political movements ; extent 
 of education; character of education; methods 
 of education. 
 
 The school has a good library for the students' 
 use, and also one for the children of the practising 
 school. Students give one criticism lesson during 
 the first half-year, and for this they write elaborate 
 notes under fixed headings prepared by the head of 
 the department, and the other students hand in, after 
 the lesson, elaborate criticisms done in a similar way. 
 Blank schedules with printed headings, such as the 
 following, are given to students to fill up before 
 giving the lesson : 
 
CRITICISM LESSONS 
 
 (>7 
 
 I. SUBJE( 
 II. PURPO 
 
 III. Matte 
 
 IV. Plan. 
 
 :t. 
 
 SE. 
 R. 
 
 Review Work 
 Advance "Work 
 Drill 
 
 What, 
 a 
 b 
 c 
 
 a 
 b 
 c 
 
 a 
 b 
 
 Hoiv. 
 
 Illustrations. 
 
 V. Methc 
 
 VI. Mecha 
 
 Arr 
 
 Dist 
 
 D. 
 
 nical Details. 
 angement of CI 
 ribution of Mat 
 
 c 
 
 ass. 
 erials, e 
 
 tc. 
 
 
 I noticed in schedules which had been thus filled 
 up by students that the notes supplied under the 
 heading of " Method " consisted entirely of proposed 
 questions of the teacher, and assumed answers by 
 the children. Such an item in the prepared plan 
 of a lesson seemed to me unadvisable, and in many 
 cases useless. Even if the prepared questions were 
 asked by the teacher, the answers would not always 
 be the ones assumed, and the lesson would be stiff, 
 unnatural, and wanting in spontaneity. Broad lines 
 of questioning might be indicated in the schedule, 
 rather than the actual questions to be given. This 
 would result in much more natural methods of ques- 
 tioning. The outline for criticism given to other 
 students is according to the following plan : 
 
6$ 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Purpose 
 
 Matter 
 
 % 
 
 Plan . 
 
 i4 
 
 Method 
 
 
 ^Language . 
 jj 
 
 Ji 
 
 Illustrations 
 Manner 
 Voice . 
 
 
 Mechanical details 
 
 
 Control 
 
 
 Results 
 
 What. Whether accomplished. 
 Why. Cause of failure or 
 success. 
 
 Amount — accuracy. Adaptation 
 to purpose and to class. 
 Order of presentation. 
 
 Completeness. Order of parts. 
 Manner of presentation. 
 
 Questions — number — order — 
 kind. 
 
 Relative amounts used by teachers 
 and pupils. Correctness. Ac- 
 curacy. Clearness. Complete- 
 ness. Adaptation. 
 
 What amount. Adaptation. Use. 
 
 Of teacher and pupils. 
 Directions for work, 
 tion of material. 
 
 Distribu- 
 
 Training in mental power ; accu- 
 racy; neatness; promptitude; 
 expression. Moral Training. 
 
 Knowledge gained. 
 
 The suggestion of these points for criticism indi- 
 cates a very complete and thorough analysis of a 
 lesson. Such an elaborate form of criticism, if em- 
 ployed occasionally, seems to me good in encouraging 
 a habit of mental analysis in those who hear the 
 lesson. It may be useful, too, as a guide to those 
 unaccustomed to criticising exercises, and may be 
 helpful in impressing the fact that a lesson is a 
 very complex thing, difficult to give, and far reach- 
 ing in its results. The constant use of rigid forms, 
 however, either for preparation of lessons, or for 
 
REPORTS OF WORK 69 
 
 their criticism, is to be deprecated as stultifying, 
 and as not adapted to all lessons and all occasions. 
 It is probable that in many cases valuable criticisms 
 might be given which would not come under any 
 of the formal headings, even though the schedule 
 were as complete as possible. For the last five 
 months the students work entirely under the direc- 
 tion of teachers of the practising school. Plans of 
 work and lesson-subjects are discussed with the 
 teacher, and when the lessons are over, private 
 criticisms only are given. Each student learns to 
 make her own maps, charts and pictures, which she 
 takes with her when she leaves the school. 
 
 At the end of the course of training, an elaborate 
 report of the student's work and standing is issued 
 as regards her standards ; enthusiasm ; force ; man- 
 ner ; language ; writing ; questioning ; power of 
 illustration ; originality ; interest ; thoroughness ; 
 control. 
 
 A certificate qualifying to teach in the schools of 
 the city is given to those who complete the training 
 course satisfactorily, and who gain an average of 70 
 per cent, on examinations at the end of the year. 
 
 At Pawtucket, I saw a training school of from 
 seven to nine students, with an excellent model and 
 practising school attached. The course lasts for one 
 and a half years. For a whole year, the class has 
 instruction in theoretical subjects in the mornings, 
 with observation of children and some lesson-giving 
 in the afternoon. The last six months are spent by 
 the students in the actual charge of children. Each 
 student works under a Model School teacher, and for 
 
70 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 one week during the half year has sole charge and 
 responsibility of the class. 
 
 City Training Classes. 
 
 Closely allied to the work of the Training Schools 
 is that done by City Training Classes. These are 
 usually found in the smaller towns or cities of the 
 various States. The general features of the Train- 
 ing Classes are the same as those of the City 
 Training Schools. The differences are mainly : 
 
 (1) No special model or practising school is attached, but 
 the students gain their experience by teaching classes in city 
 or town schools. 
 
 (2) The work of training is carried out, not by a specially 
 appointed person, as in the Training Schools, but by the 
 Superintendent of Schools of the district, who holds classes 
 in professional subjects, and arranges and criticises the work 
 of the students. 
 
 The members of the Training Classes, while 
 under the general guidance of the heads of the 
 schools, where they act as assistants, are helped and 
 instructed in methods of teaching various subjects 
 by the Town Supervisors of Instruction, appointed 
 for those special subjects. The appointment of 
 supervisors in drawing, singing, reading, etc., whose 
 sole work is to visit the schools and conduct and 
 examine classes, gives unity to the methods in 
 the various schools of a town, and affords much 
 practical help to the student- teachers in the various 
 schools. 
 
 At Quincy, Massachusetts, there is a training 
 
QUINCY, MASSACHUSETTS 71 
 
 class of thirty students. The pupil teachers act as 
 assistants in the schools, receiving no compensation, 
 except the guidance of experienced teachers, and 
 theoretical instruction from the superintendent. 
 They usually teach in several grades during the 
 year, but those who show special aptitude or wish 
 to teach in any particular grade are allowed an 
 alternative of remaining in that grade. At the 
 Codding ton school, one of the training schools for 
 the Quincy Training Classes, I heard very good 
 lessons given in reading, phonics, number, English 
 and geography. A reading lesson, given to ten or 
 twelve children about seven years old, was to teach 
 one new word, " Flag." The class stood around the 
 teacher at one part of the wall slate. After care- 
 fully revising many of the words learnt in previous 
 lessons, the teacher drew a flag on the board. Then 
 she wrote the word as a whole, underneath the 
 drawing. Then she told a short story about a flag, 
 wrote the word in different coloured chalks, wrote 
 sentences involving only known words and the new 
 word " flag." When the children could read these 
 sentences easily, they were made to pick out the 
 word " flag." Some were allowed to erase the word, 
 some to write it again. Every possible device was 
 used in the lesson to associate the complete written 
 expression with the spoken word and the idea. At 
 the end of twenty minutes, when the association 
 was complete, the new word " flag " was written 
 among the list of known words, kept constantly on 
 the board, and the children were sent to their seats. 
 I noticed in all the reading lessons in which words 
 
72 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 and sentences were taught as wholes, that clever 
 teachers constantly used the device of erasing the 
 word or sentence to be taught. This, when skil- 
 fully done, secures concentration of attention on 
 each word, by allowing the children only a limited 
 time to note its general shape, before being required 
 to represent it on the board or slate. The constant 
 erasure and repeated re-writing of a word ensure 
 repeated short acts of intense attention on the part 
 of the children, and so help greatly in the learning 
 of the new word. A lesson in " number " or arith- 
 metic, given to the same class, was devoted to 
 problems in addition, subtraction, multiplication 
 and division of numbers below ten. Many devices 
 were used for interesting the class. The children 
 were sent to work at different parts of the wall 
 slate, and were encouraged to contribute problems 
 for the class. The general use of the wall slate is 
 seen to be of great advantage, especially in such 
 lessons as these. By means of it, supervision of 
 individual work is very easy, and corrections can be 
 made valuable to the whole class. 
 
 The Training Classes of the State of New York 
 show more uniformity of courses and methods than 
 those of many of the other States. This is due to 
 their organization by the State Superintendent, who 
 issues regulations and a definite course of study. 
 The course is a short one, from ten to thirteen weeks. 
 Two hours each day is given to instruction. 
 Methods in reading, spelling, number, language and 
 primary geography are studied, and observation and 
 criticism of lessons is a definite part of the work. 
 
COURSES INADEQUATE FOR QUALIFYING 73 
 
 Actual teaching is done wherever possible ; but this 
 is not a requisite. The time given to each subject 
 is apportioned somewhat on the same principles as 
 in the Normal Schools — viz., one subject is followed 
 up for a very short time, another is taken up in the 
 same way, and then another. On this plan, only a 
 few days can be given to some subjects. The sylla- 
 bus of work for 1889 gives four days to laws of 
 mental development, seventeen days to school 
 economy, ten days to the history of education, and 
 four days to school law. Other set times are given 
 to Methods. Such a course, lasting for a very short 
 time, and including so many subjects, cannot but be 
 inadequate and superficial when used as the only 
 means of training. The experience gained in such 
 a way is not sufficient in itself to qualify for re- 
 sponsible work in a town school. This is shown by 
 the fact that those who have taken a course in the 
 training class of a city are often expected to gain 
 experience elsewhere, before taking responsible work 
 in that city. In many instances, students are urged 
 to take Normal School courses as well. 
 
 It may indeed be stated generally, that the work 
 of Training Classes is to supplement a longer and 
 more thorough course in training, rather than to 
 train. Training Classes, for the most part, provide 
 practice under supervision for those who have al- 
 ready gained some insight into the science of edu- 
 cation and methods of teaching, but the small 
 amount of time given to other sides of training 
 prevents their work being at all adequate as the 
 sole preparation for teachers. Training Classes 
 
74 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 exist, and will exist, to meet the needs of those 
 would-be teachers who, in small towns, where there 
 is neither Normal nor Training School, cannot afford 
 to leave their homes to prepare for their work. The 
 urgent demand for trained teachers for all the Com- 
 mon Schools has resulted in the establishment of 
 many institutions, which, while fulfilling a present 
 need, are existing under conditions which must pro- 
 hibit work of the best kind. Among such institu- 
 tions we must enrol the City Training Classes. 
 
 It is a noticeable fact, that in both Training Schools 
 and Training Classes, the beginners usually practise 
 first in the lowest grades. It is considered easier 
 to teach little children than older ones, and less 
 dangerous to the pupils. Indeed, the heads of many 
 schools, far from adopting the theory that the pri- 
 mary teaching should be in the hands of the most 
 skilled and efficient teachers, give their youngest 
 classes into the care of those disqualified to teach 
 in higher grades, on account of lack of knowledge, 
 or want of skill. It may be urged in support of 
 the plan of allowing teachers unqualified for other 
 grades of teaching to become teachers in the pri- 
 mary schools, that the knowledge actually used in 
 the teaching of little children is much less than that 
 needed for work with elder children, and that cer- 
 tain devices for keeping children quiet, and for 
 interesting them, can be followed empirically by the 
 unskilful teacher. But this argument, instead of 
 sanctioning the practice so commonly adopted, 
 would serve to show that it is in the lower grades 
 that bad teaching can remain undetected, and re- 
 
METHODS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS 75 
 
 suits, rather than means, made criteria of success. 
 Much of the growth of the child-mind, in its early 
 stages, depends on the teacher's width of interest, a 
 width only secured by a thorough knowledge of the 
 subjects taught, and a broad range of subjects. 
 This breadth of interest not only influences the 
 class, but reacts on the teacher ; for teachers of 
 young children, having little necessity to make con- 
 stant intellectual efforts, stand in great danger of 
 becoming intellectually narrowed. 
 
 Partly as a result of the fact that most of the 
 students in Normal and City Training Schools are 
 prepared for work as primary teachers, and that 
 others who hope eventually to teach in higher 
 grades must first gain their experience in primary 
 grades, we find that much more attention is given 
 to primary methods than to methods of the Gram- 
 mar School. This is true not only in Practising 
 Schools and Model Schools, but elsewhere. 
 
 Therefore, the most rapid progress in American 
 Education has been connected with elementary 
 teaching. The present movement to reform the 
 curriculum and methods of the Grammar School is 
 only of recent development. 
 
 UNIVEItSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY. 
 
 The pedagogical courses connected with the 
 Universities of the United States differ so much in 
 organization and scope, and in the nature of their 
 connection with the University, that it is impossible 
 to consider them under one comprehensive title, 
 
76 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 unless the exact meaning of the term " University 
 Department " be denned. In the present case, the 
 title " University Department of Pedagogy " is used 
 to include all higher courses of study in philosophy, 
 psychology, history, science or art of education 
 established by Universities or Colleges of high 
 standing, in definite recognition of the fact that the 
 work of secondary teaching requires distinct and 
 special professional or technical preparation, beyond 
 a sound general education. Such instruction may 
 be given in connection with Chairs of Pedagogy by 
 series of lectures on science and art of teaching, 
 theory and practice of teaching, etc., or it may be 
 so complete as to constitute a school of pedagogy in 
 itself, thoroughly organized and equipped to carry 
 out professional training in all its branches. Peda- 
 gogical study may be a so-called " elective " — viz., 
 one of the subjects chosen by the student to count 
 towards his degree, or it may be a course for post- 
 graduates only. It may consist merely of courses 
 in special pedagogy or " methods," by the various 
 professors of different subjects in a University, or it 
 may be chiefly the study of education from a 
 scientific standpoint, as in Clark University, Mas- 
 sachusetts, where experimental and physiological 
 psychology is pursued, not with the view of meeting 
 the needs of intending teachers, but of offering op- 
 portunities of thorough study to scientific experts, 
 whose results may be of great value to education in 
 general. The number of Universities or Colleges in 
 the United States which report pedagogical courses 
 of some kind is 114. In many of these, however, the 
 
PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 77 
 
 work is mostly of the Normal School type, with a 
 view to prepare for teaching in the Grammar Schools 
 of the State, and the certificate of proficiency given 
 on completion of the course is not such as to entitle 
 the work to be called " Higher Instruction in the 
 Theory and Art of Teaching." Leaving such de- 
 partments out of consideration, as not belonging to 
 the field of higher education, the departments of 
 pedagogy in connection with Universities may, for 
 convenience, be considered under two heads : 
 
 1. Those in connection with State Universities. 
 
 2. Those connected with other endowed Uni- 
 versities or Colleges of high standing. 
 
 Departments of State Universities. 
 
 State Universities, founded in accordance with 
 the resolution, " Schools and the means of education 
 shall for ever be encouraged," have naturally been 
 looked up to as the institutions more fitted than any 
 other to supply higher instruction in the science 
 and art of teaching. The first was established as 
 the result of the Ordinance of 1787, by which two 
 townships of land were appropriated from the 
 North- West Territory for the support of a State 
 University. Since then, twenty-eight States of the 
 Union have set apart funds, derived from the sale 
 of State lands, for the founding and endowing of 
 institutions for higher education. These universities, 
 gradually increasing in number and influence, and 
 spreading from their origin in Ohio both west and 
 east, are dependent for the most part for their 
 students upon the city High Schools and other 
 
78 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 secondary schools ; and the efficiency of their work 
 depends greatly upon the efficiency of the prepara- 
 tory work done in these schools. It is, therefore, to 
 the interest of the State Universities to secure that 
 the secondary schools are well equipped and well 
 taught, and from this point of view one of the 
 distinctive lines of work of a State University should 
 be the professional preparation of secondary teachers. 
 The University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, was the 
 first State University to recognise the necessity of 
 this work. In 1879 it established a Chair to give in- 
 struction in science and art of teaching, and since 
 then, Training and Normal departments, or courses 
 in pedagogy, have been established in the State 
 Universities of Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, 
 Nevada, N. Dakota, Ohio, Washington and others. 
 
 In some Universities the work of training is en- 
 tirely given over to the pedagogical department and 
 the professor of pedagogy. In some, there are no 
 purely professional departments, but " Teachers' 
 Courses " are organized in various subjects of the 
 college curriculum. These courses are given by 
 college professors of the various subjects, and deal 
 with the different methods of treating the subject. 
 In some State Universities, however, training is 
 provided both in pedagogical departments and 
 " Teachers' Courses " ; and good work in both is 
 required before a student can gain a M Teacher's 
 Diploma." Where the two parts of the work are 
 maintained harmoniously together, they must 
 greatly strengthen each other, and advantages 
 must accrue both to the students and to the work 
 
COURSES OF WORK 79 
 
 of training generally. In such a case the scientific, 
 but more or less theoretical instruction of the pro- 
 fessedly pedagogical department of the University 
 is supplemented by the practical instruction, which 
 is the result of the experience of experts in the 
 respective subjects. The discussion of " methods " 
 in any subject, with a specialist, who is constantly 
 teaching that subject, must be most valuable to the 
 future teacher, and especially so when the specialist 
 can illustrate his methods by actual class work, and 
 the learner is himself somewhat of a specialist. The 
 existence of these double lines of work is also im- 
 portant, where it occurs, as illustrating unity of 
 opinion among the presidents and professors of 
 colleges as regards the needs and means of training 
 of secondary teachers. Thus it will help on the 
 cause of secondary training generally. 
 
 One of those State Universities which recognise 
 these two distinctive branches of professional train- 
 ing is the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor. 
 Work in both departments has been required in 
 order to gain a " Teacher's Diploma," ever since 
 the pedagogical course was arranged in 1879. The 
 student must have completed three courses offered 
 by the professor of pedagogy — one a practical course 
 in the art of teaching and governing, school hygiene, 
 school law, etc. ; one a theoretical and critical course 
 on the principles of teaching or applied psychology ; 
 and one other course which may be either : 
 
 History of education, ancient and mediaeval. 
 
 History of education, modern, or, 
 
 School Management. 
 
So THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 connection with one of the subjects in the college 
 curriculum — work which implies not only extra 
 professional instruction in methods by the college 
 professor, but also a special examination in the 
 subject matter of study. Beyond the courses of 
 study already enumerated as belonging to the De- 
 partment of Science and Art of Teaching in the 
 Michigan University, there is one on the comparative 
 study of educational systems, and a section for 
 seminary work. This seminary work, taken up in 
 pedagogy, as in other subjects, only towards the 
 completion of the course, is very much on the lines 
 of the German "Seminar." It is work of research 
 and discussion, done with the help of the educational 
 library. Special points are taken up by the students 
 and worked out. The teacher guides the work and 
 reading, and generally conducts the Seminary. As 
 regards the time devoted to different parts of the 
 pedagogical curriculum, four hours a week are 
 given to each of the courses on the art of teaching 
 and the principles of teaching, three hours a week 
 to each of the history courses and those on school 
 supervision, and two hours a week to the other 
 optional subjects. The required course may be 
 taken among the graduate or post-graduate studies. 
 14 Teachers' Diplomas " are presented on graduation, 
 provided the prescribed course has been taken. A 
 "Teachers' Certificate" given by the Faculty, on 
 the gaining of degree and diploma, qualifies to teach 
 in any school of the State. 
 
 At the State University, Illinois, the course in 
 
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI 
 
 pedagogy is work which counts towards a degree. 
 It is placed among one of the major or principal 
 subjects of the "restricted electives," that is, one of 
 six subjects, each occupying six terms, two subjects 
 of which must be chosen by the student for gradua- 
 tion work. Pedagogy is suggested as part of the 
 work of the third and fourth year in the classical 
 course, and when taken up for a third and fourth 
 year, after any ordinary " Two Years' Course," it 
 constitutes a course in philosophy and pedagogy. 
 The different branches of pedagogy taken up in this 
 way are : 
 
 Educational psychology, hygiene, philosophy of 
 education, history of education, school supervision. 
 
 The " Pedagogical Seminary " is open only to 
 students who have taken two other pedagogical 
 courses. Psychology, school hygiene, and school 
 supervision, constitute full courses for a term — the 
 rest are half courses. In connection with the Philo- 
 sophical Department is a course of lectures and 
 laboratory work in experimental psychology. Ap- 
 paratus has been purchased and considerably used 
 in making psychological experiments. 
 
 In the University of Missouri there are two 
 distinct courses, elementary and advanced. The 
 elementary course corresponds very much to a 
 Normal School course. The subjects for the first 
 year's study are chiefly English, algebra, physiology, 
 zoolog3 r , botany, physical geography, rhetoric. In 
 the second year, pedagogics, including applied 
 psychology, history and school organization, are 
 taken up with history, literature, physics, chemistry 
 
82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 and civil government. Drawing and elocution are 
 required subjects during all but one term of the 
 course. The certificate at the end of the elementary 
 course qualifies the holder to teach for two years in 
 any public school of the State. The advanced 
 course leads on to the degree of bachelor of peda- 
 gogics. The required work in this department may 
 be taken by students who are preparing for degrees 
 in other courses, or by those who have already a 
 degree conferred by this or any approved University. 
 The graduate students may, by selecting four of 
 the offered subjects, and devoting five hours a week 
 to the pedagogical work, complete the course in one 
 year. Others, take certain prescribed courses, and 
 certain optional courses in pedagogics, during the 
 third and fourth years of their ordinary graduate 
 work. The degree entitles to a life certificate to 
 teach in any of the public schools of the State. It 
 is noticeable, in connection with the prescribed 
 courses in this University, that the study of educa- 
 tion, historically, comes before the consideration of 
 theory or philosophy of education and its applica- 
 tion in school work. The elective or optional studies 
 are four — viz., school systems of Europe; school 
 systems of the cities and States of the United 
 States ; the educational theories of Herbert Spencer ; 
 the philosophy of Froebel. 
 
 Of the other State Universities, some make peda- 
 gogics a complete course for graduates or under- 
 graduates, while some, as at Missouri, make it an 
 elective study during the third and fourth years 
 of an ordinary graduate course. Where two com- 
 
GENERAL FEATURES OF UNIVERSITIES 83 
 
 plete courses exist — an elementary and an advanced 
 — in the same department, the distinction is based 
 chiefly on the difference of qualification needed for 
 admission. Students qualified to enter the Uni- 
 versity may pursue the elementary course; only 
 those of the third year or fourth year, or graduates, 
 may take up the advanced course. As a rule, the 
 students of the elementary course teach in the 
 Primary or Grammar Schools, those of the advanced 
 courses become teachers of secondary schools and 
 colleges. 
 
 The State Universities of America, as a whole, 
 follow, more or less strictly, the lines of German 
 Universities. This is not only so as regards organiza- 
 tion merely, but as regards methods of study, and 
 lines of thought. In no department is the German 
 influence more seen than in that of pedagogics, 
 where methods of the German " Seminar " are in- 
 creasingly used and valued by professors and ad- 
 vanced students. Few State Universities having 
 pedagogical departments would be found which had 
 not begun to use Seminar methods. In many 
 Universities, a " Seminar room," in which is a 
 pedagogical reference library, is set apart especially 
 for research and conference in matters educational. 
 A natural accompaniment of these methods is much 
 study of German pedagogical theory, and a constant 
 tendency to emphasize and elaborate German lines 
 of thought. The two great Schools in American 
 psychology to-day, both of which are making rapid 
 strides in progress, and influencing the whole of 
 American education to an important extent, are 
 
84 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 the Herbartians and the Experimental Psychologists. 
 Both had their beginnings in German Universities. 
 
 The most modern feature of German University 
 Departments of Pedagogy is, however, one which 
 has not yet been adopted by American State Uni- 
 versities. A means of connection between the 
 theoretical and practical sides of training, by the 
 establishment of a practising school attached to the 
 University, has been made at Jena for some time. 
 Such a connection would be of the greatest value 
 to American State University Departments, but 
 until now actual practical departments have not 
 existed. The instruction in university departments 
 of pedagogy, although such as to be of the greatest 
 possible value and stimulation as a theoretical basis 
 for teaching and organizing in secondary schools, 
 is however incomplete unless opportunities are also 
 supplied of gaining actual experience in teaching. 
 A practising school, organized as a part of the 
 University, and having as its principal one of the 
 University Faculty, might, besides affording such 
 a practising ground for secondary teachers, be the 
 means of supplying tested facts to the teaching 
 world in general, and would greatly help the Uni- 
 versity Department to fulfil its true function — that 
 of stimulating teachers and unifying education in 
 the State. 
 
NO PRACTISING SCHOOLS 85 
 
 University Departments of Pedagogy in the 
 Eastern States. 
 
 The study of pedagogy in connection with the 
 universities and colleges of the Eastern States is a 
 department of work of comparatively recent origin. 
 The conservative attitude of the older Universities, 
 such as Harvard and Yale, with regard to the 
 recognition of the claims of pedagogy to be a 
 science, and the needs of distinctly professional in- 
 struction for those who intend to become teachers 
 in higher schools and colleges, has resulted in the 
 fact that the training of secondary teachers has, 
 until a few years ago, been almost entirely restricted 
 to the Western State Universities. It is remark- 
 able, however, that since the older educational 
 institutions of the Eastern States have recognised 
 education as a science, rapid progress has been 
 made, and one finds on surveying the work of 
 university departments of pedagogy as a whole 
 certain features which, when further developed, 
 will possibly cause university instruction to be the 
 most valuable means of training secondary teachers. 
 Among such lines of work, already begun in these 
 pedagogical departments, are : 
 
 i. Supervision of secondary school work. 
 
 ii. Stimulation of all teachers by research work in educa- 
 tional matters. 
 
 iii. The acknowledgment by scientific workers in the 
 field of pedagogy and psychology of the results of 
 teachers' observations of children in the school- 
 room, as helpful to the scientific researches of the 
 laboratory. 
 
 iv. Preparation and stimulation of professors of pedagogy, 
 and of teachers for higher schools and colleges. 
 
86 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 A very early attempt was made in Brown Uni- 
 versity, Providence, Rhode Island, to arrange courses 
 in theory and methods of teaching, but the move- 
 ment was not successful. Little actual work in the 
 training of secondary teachers was done in the 
 Eastern States, until the Industrial Education Asso- 
 ciation of New York City, feeling the demand for 
 skilful teachers in manual training, began to organ- 
 ize plans for preparing them for their work, and 
 sending them out daily to teach in the schools. At 
 the beginning of 1889, the work had developed so 
 much, not only in connection with one branch of 
 training, but many, that the institution gained a 
 provisional charter from the Board of Regents of 
 the University of the State of New York, under 
 the name of the New York College for the Training 
 of Teachers. 
 
 In 1892 the charter of the New York College for 
 the Training of Teachers was made absolute, and 
 the name changed to Teachers' College. An agree- 
 ment was also made, whereby certain pedagogical 
 courses in the Teachers' College are considered as 
 courses in the Faculty of Philosophy at Columbia 
 University, New York, and count towards a Colum- 
 bia University degree. By the same agreement, 
 qualified students of the Teachers' College are 
 admitted to the courses in philosophy and pedagogy 
 at Columbia University. In this way we may re- 
 gard the Teachers' College as the newest of Uni- 
 versity departments, although, on the other hand, 
 it has developed and become a most important and 
 successful means of secondary training, quite apart 
 
COURSES OF WORK 87 
 
 from any connection with a college or university. 
 The courses in pedagogy given at Columbia Uni- 
 versity, and open to students of the Teachers' 
 College, are : 
 
 The History of Educational Theories and Institutions — a 
 
 course given each alternate year. 
 Systematic Pedagogics ; the Psychology of Childhood ; 
 
 Principles of Teaching; (given also every alternate 
 
 year). 
 A Pedagogical Seminar (one hour a week for advanced 
 
 students). 
 
 The lectures in philosophy and experimental psy- 
 chology are also open under the same conditions. 
 Among them are the following courses : 
 
 (a) Logic and Psychology; (b) Ethics; (c) Introductory 
 course in Physiological Psychology (lectures and labo- 
 ratory work); (d) Advanced course in Physiological 
 Psychology (experiment work in the laboratory) ; 
 (e) Introductory course in Experimental Psychology 
 (lectures, themes and laboratory work) ; (/) Vision 
 (lectures, reports and advanced laboratory work); 
 (g) Advanced work in Experimental Psychology and 
 Eesearch (individual instruction daily). 
 
 The courses at the Teachers' College, open to all 
 Columbia University Students, are : 
 
 i. Educational Psychology ; Study of Children. 
 ii. Science and Art of Teaching, with illustrations from 
 the Kindergarten and Elementary Schools. Obser- 
 vation, 
 iii. Introductory course on the History of Education, 
 iv. Institutes of Education, by Laurie. Eosenkranz's 
 Philosophy of Education and Herbart's Science of 
 Education. 
 v. Methods of teaching History in secondary schools. 
 
88 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The following can be taken only by advanced 
 students : 
 
 i. Methods of teaching Science in elementary and second- 
 ary schools. 
 
 ii. Methods of teaching Manual Training in elementary 
 and secondary schools. 
 
 iii. Methods of teaching Latin, Greek, French and German. 
 
 iv. Eeading and discussion of German and French peda- 
 gogical works in the original, 
 v. Methods of teaching Educational Psychology. Observa- 
 tion and Practice. 
 
 vi. Practice in teaching and supervision. Criticism, School 
 Management, Discipline. 
 
 Candidates for the A.B. degree of Columbia Uni- 
 versity may specialize for the last year in the 
 department of pedagogy. They are required to 
 take two subjects, one as major or principal subject, 
 one as minor subject. A third optional subject may 
 be taken. 
 
 To gain a Diploma of the Teachers' College, a 
 two years' course of study is required. This 
 includes : 
 
 i. Elements of Psychology — " a course to give skill in 
 
 description and explanation of mental phenomena 
 
 and insight into the observing and training of 
 
 children." 
 
 ii. Educational Theories since the Renaissance, with a 
 
 general survey of earlier theories, 
 iii. A course in Psychology, History of Education, or in 
 Principles of Logic and Psychology as applied to 
 Science and Manual Training, 
 iv. Study of range of child's mental activities as the basis 
 of primary instruction: the vocabulary as a basis 
 of language teaching; the child's power and skill 
 of hand as the basis of manual expression ; Methods 
 of Teaching : Observation lessons ; Language, in- 
 cluding Reading; Number; Manual Exercises. 
 
CHARACTER OF WORK 89 
 
 v. Principles of Teaching, with special reference to appli- 
 cation of Psychology to the cultivation of intel- 
 lectual powers, the feeling, the will. The applica- 
 tion of the principles of education to classification, 
 organization, and school discipline, 
 vi. Observation and practice teaching, under supervision, 
 
 and independently. 
 vii. Physical training, 
 viii. Special methods of one subject of study. 
 
 The college is distinctly and solely a professional 
 school. There is no direct instruction in the subject 
 matter of study, the admission qualification being 
 such as to exclude all persons who have not had 
 a satisfactory secondary education. Each college 
 department provides training in the principles and 
 practice of teaching the subjects which more especi- 
 ally belong to it ; but all instruction is entirely 
 from the standpoint of the teacher. It is particu- 
 larly stated in connection with this teaching, that 
 no student is admitted to a course in the methods 
 of any particular subject unless he can show him- 
 self to be proficient in the subject matter of that 
 branch of instruction. For those not qualified, 
 by training or academic standing, to pursue the 
 ordinary work of the college, it has been found 
 advisable to arrange an introductory course to 
 occupy one, year. The preparatory course includes 
 the study of English, an introduction to science, 
 either drawing, domestic science, or wood-carving, 
 and either constructive geometry, with the solution 
 of original problems, or one branch of science with 
 laboratory work. I spent several days in this 
 college and heard some of the teaching in psycho- 
 
90 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 logy, and in science. The psychology and history 
 of education are both two years' courses. In psy- 
 chology the students begin by learning to make 
 records of their individual observation of children. 
 The chief use of psychology to the teacher is re- 
 garded as the making him conscious of processes 
 of thought, which before might have been accurate, 
 but were not known. As the end of education is 
 
 I assumed to be a moral end, in so far as it has to 
 do with character and conduct, the will is made the 
 basis of educational psychology and is treated first 
 in order. One advantage of such an order of treat- 
 ment is that the practical value of the study of 
 psychology to education can be early shown. As 
 the whole question of education is a question of the 
 guiding and controlling of action, great importance 
 is given to the practical study of action in its three 
 phases of instinct, will and habit. Each of these is 
 followed out as far as possible by means of the 
 observation of children at play, or by the study of 
 the student's own willed movements. All questions 
 of physiological psychology are avoided as much as 
 possible in the study of psychology for educational 
 purposes, the two reasons given being : 
 
 i. That most students have not a sufficient knowledge of 
 
 physiology to take up physiological psychology, 
 ii. That those who have a sufficient knowledge of physio- 
 logy find the correlation difficult. In beginning 
 to study psychology, the two aspects of one set of 
 facts and their bearings upon each other cannot be 
 easily seen. Much work in both sciences is needed 
 before good work can be done in physiological 
 psychology. 
 
HISTORY OF EDUCATION 91 
 
 The students use Sully, James, and Hoffding as 
 text-books. The lines of work, however, are not 
 those of any particular writer or school. The 
 students have ample opportunities of wide reading 
 and research, not only in psychology, but in all 
 branches of pedagogy. These are afforded by the 
 Bryson Pedagogical Library in the college build- 
 ing. This library, founded in connection with the 
 Teachers' College, for the purpose of affording op- 
 portunities of research to students of the college, 
 is open to all teachers of the city and to the public 
 generally. It contains 5,000 volumes, including 
 books on pedagogy and connected subjects, text- 
 books of all kinds, and the current literary, scien- 
 tific and educational periodicals published in America 
 and Europe. 
 
 In the study of the history of education, the plan 
 adopted is a thorough and exhaustive treatment of 
 one or two great educational reformers, with mere 
 outline sketches of others. The reformers specially 
 considered are regarded, not only as educators, but 
 in all other possible aspects. Their lives and works, 
 their ideas, the contemporary history of their own 
 and other countries, are fully discussed. When this 
 has been done, all other facts of educational history 
 are as far as possible compared with, and illustrated 
 by, the facts connected with the reformer who has 
 been specially considered. Such a method seems 
 very stimulating and interesting to the student, and 
 much more satisfactory, than a general treatment of 
 the whole, suggested by many text-books on the 
 history of education. 
 
92 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Methods of chemistry, physics, physiology- 
 botany, geology, are taught by means of actual les- 
 sons in the various subjects, given by the heads of 
 departments and their assistants, to children in the 
 practising school. Students are required to observe 
 the teaching, to attend lectures and discussions upon 
 the methods pursued, to learn the art of experiment- 
 ing, and to prepare themselves for directing labora- 
 tories. They are also guided 'and helped in making 
 a careful inspection of the science teaching in the 
 public schools of the city. In addition to this, they 
 are introduced to some of the practical problems of 
 science teaching in the schoolroom, such as the 
 difficulties of teaching science without a laboratory, 
 or without fixed times for experimenting. All 
 students who take science as their major or principal 
 subject are required also to take courses in: — (i.) 
 The use of tools for constructing home-made appa- 
 ratus ; (ii.) fundamental principles of drawing and 
 their applications for students who take special work 
 in other departments ; (iii.) the specified courses in 
 psychology, history of education, and science and 
 art of teaching ; (iv.) outlines of the lives and work 
 of eminent scientists, as illustrating methods of 
 scientific research. A Time Table for the Two 
 Years' Course in Science is as follows : — 
 
PRACTICE DEPARTMENT 
 
 93 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Tima. 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Physics for High 
 
 Schools ... 9.20-10.15. 
 Psychology... 10.50-11.30. 
 Lecture and La- 
 boratory ... 12.55-2.15. 
 Tuesday. 
 Botany for High 
 
 Schools ... 9.20-10.15. 
 Wednesday. 
 Physics for High 
 
 Schools ... 9.20-10.15. 
 
 Psychology ... 10.50-11.30. 
 
 Methods ... 11.15-12.15. 
 
 Lab. Practice 12.55-2.15. 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 Geology for High 
 
 Schools ... 9.20-10.15. 
 History of Edu- 
 cation 10.50-11.30. 
 
 Friday. 
 
 Use of tools... 9.20-10.15. 
 
 Psychology ... 10.50-11.30. 
 
 Methods 11.15-12.15. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Psychology ... 10.50-12.15. 
 Lect. and Lab. 
 
 Instruction 12.55-2.15. 
 
 Observ. and 
 
 Practice ... 9.20-10.45. 
 Drawing ... 10.50-12.15. 
 Chemistry for 
 
 High Schools 12.55-2.15. 
 
 Observ. and 
 
 Practice ... 9.20-10.45. 
 Lab. Practice 12.55-2.15. 
 
 Observ. and 
 
 Practice ... 9.20-10.45. 
 Drawing ... 10.50-12.15. 
 Chemistry for 
 
 High Schools 12.55-2.15. 
 
 Observ. and 
 
 Practice ... 9.20-10.45. 
 
 The practice department of the Teachers' College 
 is one of its most important features, for a funda- 
 mental assumption is that practice is the key-note of 
 all training, that no one can consider himself trained 
 who has not taught, and that the future teacher 
 must observe good teaching, and must teach under 
 normal conditions. The Horace Mann School for 
 the observation and practice of the students of 
 the Teachers' College comprises kindergarten, pri- 
 
94 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 mary, grammar and high school grades. The heads 
 of departments arrange the teaching of the students, 
 and great care is exercised in keeping the school 
 efficient, as the observation of good teaching is 
 considered only second in importance to actual prac- 
 tice. 
 
 I heard a botany lesson in the practising school, 
 given by the instructor in methods of botany. The 
 class, numbering about twelve children, of about ten 
 years of age, was furnished with lenses, and needles, 
 and a plentiful supply of flowers. Each child was 
 required to see and examine all the flowers that 
 were given to him, to describe carefully and exactly 
 what he had observed, and to take nothing for 
 granted. The methods adopted were such as to 
 make the children original investigators, and the 
 attitude of the teacher towards her subject was such 
 as to develop a spirit of reverence in the children, 
 and to arouse an interest aesthetic as well as scien- 
 tific. No technical terms were used in descriptions. 
 The botany lessons are adapted to the different sea- 
 sons of the year. For example, the scheme of work 
 for the Autumn term is : — 
 
 Autumn Flowers. 
 
 How differing from Spring flowers in 
 Colour. 
 
 Size. 
 Growth. 
 
 Autumn Fruits. 
 
 Their growth. 
 „ parts. 
 
 use to animals. 
 
PRACTICE DEPARTMENT 95 
 
 Study of Seeds. 
 
 Growth. 
 
 Methods of Distribution. 
 
 ( Food. 
 Uses for < Oil. 
 
 ' Medicine. 
 Grain and harvesting. 
 
 Observation of Trees. 
 
 Falling of leaves. 
 
 Colours „ „ jpr 
 
 Leaf-buds. ffrjb + 
 
 Deciduous trees.B **J'£* >T^ 
 Evergreen trees.Vk^* r *fo $4 < 
 
 Preparation for winter by plants. \!rv^> ^ ^/. 
 
 Seeds. ^Cr^ tor / 
 
 Buds. : iA 
 
 Leaves 
 
 The herbarium is not much used, but in autumn 
 each child and student brings a specimen of one tree 
 or plant. All the specimens are kept and are used 
 for the study of seeds during the winter. Twigs 
 are brought into the schoolroom and made to grow 
 in water, seeds are grown in shavings, and plants of 
 all kinds are watched during the year. 
 
 The work in geology is a special feature of the 
 practising school. Courses of work have been 
 adapted by the head of department to the lowest 
 grades of the grammar school — viz., to children about 
 nine years old. The work is closely connected with 
 the geography teaching, and children are encouraged 
 to collect specimens of different kinds of building 
 stone they see, or to bring any other specimens of 
 
96 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 rock or minerals. Trays of quartz, felspar and mica 
 are provided for each child, for beginning practical 
 work in geology. After examination of these min- 
 erals, granite is studied, and afterwards gneiss, as 
 leading the way to the general history of rocks. 
 Slag structures are given for examination, as speci- 
 mens to illustrate the effects of heat. Artificial 
 geodes and lavas are also studied, when connecting 
 the history of rocks with their structure. Students 
 who are preparing to become specialist teachers in 
 geology have special work with the children. They 
 prepare lessons under the guidance of the teacher — 
 submitting written notes of the subject matter, but 
 talking over with their head of department the pro- 
 posed methods of dealing with the facts. They 
 have also special laboratory work, in constructing 
 simple apparatus, and making maps, charts and 
 drawings. 
 
 The physiology lesson I heard was given to a high 
 school class, by the director of the department of 
 physiology. It was a revision lesson, conducted 
 with the special object of making the class discover 
 the general position of Man in the Animal Kingdom. 
 The particular features I noticed about the lesson 
 were : — 
 
 (i.) No technical terms were used in description, if the 
 required meaning could be expressed in ordinary language. 
 
 (ii.) Any difficulty as regards animal structure which 
 arose during the process of classification was settled by 
 actual reference to the museum specimen at hand. The doubt 
 as to whether a fish might be said to have a brain was 
 settled by inspection of a haddock's brain, brought from the 
 museum. 
 
PRACTICE DEPARTMENT 97 
 
 (iii.) Great care was exercised by the teacher in order to 
 prevent hasty or incorrect inferences being drawn. 
 
 (iv.) There was constant reference to text-books. The 
 pupils had been taught to use a reference library. 
 
 It is evident to those who have watched the 
 movement of the training of secondary teachers in 
 the Eastern States that the Teachers' College of 
 New York has done a work peculiarly its own. It 
 was organized on the present lines, to combat the 
 idea, even still existent to some extent, that college 
 graduation equips for successful teaching. It has 
 done this, not by emphasizing the value of profes- 
 sional training in itself, apart from its connection 
 with scholastic equipment, but by insisting that the 
 secondary teacher can only be fully prepared for his 
 work when careful scholastic preparation is supple- 
 mented by a consideration of principles and methods 
 of teaching, and by actual class work. Much of the 
 successful work of the Teachers' College is probably 
 due to the thorough preparation required before be- 
 ginning work, and to the maturity of the students 
 who take the courses. "With such material, and 
 under such conditions, it is possible to make training 
 thorough and very valuable. This is especially so 
 in an institution, such as this, which can extend 
 its interests, and broaden its outlook, by alliance 
 with a University like Columbia, securing by this 
 means the philosophical as well as the practical 
 standpoint. 
 
 The School of Pedagogy of the University of the 
 City of New York, established to give opportunities 
 of higher training to graduates of colleges or of 
 
98 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Normal Schools, differs fundamentally from other 
 departments of Universities already considered, in 
 only offering its pedagogical degrees to those persons 
 who can show evidence of three or four years' suc- 
 cessful teaching experience. This is a necessary 
 qualification for admittance to the junior or senior 
 pedagogical course of the University. A student who 
 has a college degree, and who is credited with a suffi- 
 cient number of attendances during iwo years' 
 membership of the senior class, becomes " Doctor of 
 Pedagogy," after passing an examination on five 
 prescribed courses of work, and presenting a satis- 
 factory thesis on some educational subject. Students 
 of the junior class are required to pass an examination 
 in four subjects, and to attend the required number of 
 lectures during one year, in order to obtain the 
 degree of " Master of Pedagogy." The courses 
 studied are : — 
 
 (i.) History of Education from Socrates to the present 
 time (lectures and Seminar). 
 
 (ii.) Psychology and Ethics, special attention being paid 
 to the Physiological Psychology and the Psychology of Ex- 
 periment. 
 
 (iii.) Institutes of Education, including — 
 
 Educational values ; incentives ; co-ordination of 
 studies ; school hygiene ; school organization ; 
 child study ; methods, 
 (iv.) Educational classics and aesthetics, 
 (v.) Systems of Education : — European, American, 
 National, State, County, City, District. 
 
 Opportunities are^ given for visiting schools in the 
 
 city, and observing teachers and children, but no. 
 
 practice department is connected with the University. 
 
 At Cornell University, at Ithaca, New York, sys- 
 
COURSES STUDIED 99 
 
 tematic instruction in pedagogy is given as a part 
 of the Department of Philosophy. There is a 
 professor of pedagogy, who gives courses of lectures 
 on : — Institutes of Education ; School Systems and 
 Organization ; Logic and Methodology ; History 
 of Education. Simple problems for experimental 
 investigation in the psychological laboratory are 
 discussed. Pedagogical conferences, somewhat on 
 the lines of the German " Conferenz," are arranged, 
 for criticism of school reports and plans of teaching 
 various subjects ; and seminaries of pedagogy and 
 psychology have been instituted for laboratory work 
 and original research. Beyond these strictly profes- 
 sional courses, there are courses in English, mathe- 
 matics, Latin, etc., with direct reference to those 
 who wish to become teachers in these subjects. 
 Attendances at such courses counts towards a 
 "Teachers' Certificate." The "Teachers' Certifi- 
 cate " is given to graduates of Cornell University, 
 who have successfully pursued the first course on the 
 Science and Art of Teaching, or that portion of it 
 which relates to the general theory of education ; 
 and have also attained marked proficiency in a course 
 of five hours' advanced work per week, for two years, 
 in each subject for which the " Teachers' Certificate " 
 is given. 
 
 At Syracuse University, New York, pedagogy is 
 an elective subject during the third terms of the 
 third and fourth university year, for those who take 
 the philosophical course. There are also Normal 
 Courses given by the university professors in their 
 various subjects. 
 
ioo THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The introduction of pedagogy as a definite branch 
 of the philosophical department at Harvard Univer- 
 sity, is perhaps one of the most important movements 
 in the progress and development of the Science of 
 Teaching in America. In establishing its course, 
 " adapted to the purpose of teachers and persons 
 intending to become teachers," Harvard has made 
 recognition of the fact that something more than 
 pure scholarship is needed to produce the successful 
 teacher or professor. Accordingly, it has established 
 two departments of training : — 
 
 i. Strictly professional courses in educational theory, his- 
 tory of educational theories and practice, lectures 
 on the management of public schools and academies, 
 and on the curriculum of the public schools ; and a 
 seminary course for advanced students. 
 
 ii. Other courses in methods, in connection with actual 
 university instruction in the different parts of the 
 curriculum. 
 
 Connected with the lectures on methods, and the 
 organization and management of public schools, is 
 the systematic inspection of designated schools by 
 students, and a detailed report on some phase of 
 school life observed there. Each student is required 
 to make a comparative study of the teaching of a 
 chosen subject, in all the grades of at least two 
 schools ; or he may make a study of supervision and 
 discipline in two schools. Students must also make 
 a comparative study of not less than three city 
 school systems, of three State school systems, and 
 of the school system of England, France, and Ger- 
 many. This work of inspecting and reporting is 
 
CONNECTION WITH SECONDARY SCHOOLS 101 
 
 considered a very important part of the pedagogical 
 course. 
 
 The courses in methods, given by the professors 
 of different college departments, are conducted by 
 means of lectures and conferences in connection with 
 Greek, Latin, English, Grerman, French, history, 
 mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, 
 geology and geography. Most of these " Teachers' 
 Courses " require attendance at some other college 
 course in the same subject, where the professor illus- 
 trates his own method. In a few cases, attendance 
 at lessons in the specified subjects, in schools near 
 the University, is required. 
 
 The courses in pedagogy have, until the present 
 year, been closed to all but graduates. Lately, 
 however, the regulations have been changed, and 
 pedagogical work may now count towards a degree. 
 
 There is no opportunity given to the Harvard 
 pedagogical students for actual teaching; but the 
 connection brought about between the college de- 
 partment and the secondary schools, by the constant 
 attendance of students in the schoolrooms of the 
 neighbourhood, may possibly develop into a system 
 wherein trained students may act as substitutes in 
 these schools. Quite apart, however, from this 
 possible future connection, there is even now an 
 important practical relationship between Harvard 
 University and some of the secondary schools — viz., 
 that of supervision. In establishing a system of 
 examination of the teaching in such schools as make 
 application, Harvard has acknowledged the impor- 
 tant principle that chief among the functions of an 
 
102 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 university is that of directing and stimulating 
 secondary education. 
 
 The Department of Education at Clark Univer- 
 sity, "Worcester, Massachusetts, is a branch of the 
 Department of Psychology. While doing much to 
 advance the cause of the professional training of 
 teachers, it does not strictly adapt its courses to the 
 wants of the future secondary teacher. The fact 
 that Clark University, unlike any other University 
 in the United States, exists solely for the purpose 
 of research, and admits only graduates as its 
 students, determines that the pedagogical work 
 shall also have a special character, well marked off 
 from that of any other university. The department 
 is purely one of higher pedagogy. Its aim is stated 
 to be twofold : — 
 
 i. To give instruction and training to those who are pre- 
 paring to be professors of pedagogy, superintendents, 
 or teachers in higher institutions, 
 ii. To make scientific contributions to education. 
 
 The work pursued is in six courses, with an addi- 
 tional seminary course. These are : — 
 
 i. Present status and problems of higher education in 
 
 America and Europe, 
 ii. Outline of systematic psychology, 
 iii. Organization of schools in Europe. Typical schools 
 
 and typical foundations, 
 iv. School hygiene. 
 v. Educational reforms. 
 
 vi. Motor education of children, involving the study of 
 writing and drawing, manual training, play, and 
 gymnastics. 
 
 The Pedagogical Seminary, an educational maga- 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 103 
 
 zine edited by Dr. Stanley Hall, the President of 
 Clark University, exists chiefly for the purpose of 
 publishing results of work in this department. 
 There is a special pedagogical library for research, 
 and a complete collection of the current educational 
 literature of America and Europe. 
 
 Among the other departments of psychology, 
 there are many of great interest to the student of 
 higher pedagogy. 
 
 Some of these are : — 
 
 i. History of psychology, 
 ii. Experimental psychology. 
 
 iii. Anthropology (the investigation of myth, custom, be- 
 lief), 
 iv. Ethics (the investigation of criminals, paupers, defec- 
 tive classes). 
 v. Feeling (investigations of conditions of the agreeable 
 and disagreeable, abnormal states, the hypnotic, the 
 insane), 
 vi. Neurology (researches on brain fatigue, etc.). 
 
 For investigation in these departments, there are 
 four psychological laboratories, a neurological labora- 
 tory, and an anthropological laboratory. Oppor- 
 tunities are also given to students to observe 
 patients in State and city lunatic hospitals, and in 
 institutions for the defective and criminal classes. 
 The departments of research, most closely bearing 
 upon the teacher's work, are perhaps those of 
 experimental psychology and neurology. Investi- 
 gations on muscle and brain fatigue, the diurnal 
 variations of mental vigour, the memory of children, 
 etc., bring results important to the teacher, and 
 especially so when carried out as at Clark Univer- 
 
104 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 sity, by experts in scientific experiment. The 
 American Journal of Psychology, edited by Dr. 
 Stanley Hall, and published quarterly, contains the 
 results of many of the researches in the psycho- 
 logical laboratories of Clark University. 
 
 It is to the contribution of new scientific facts to 
 the educational world that Clark University chiefly 
 devotes itself, and in doing this valuable work it 
 has shown itself quite willing to acknowledge the 
 results of observation and experiment of a very 
 different kind from its own — viz., that of parents and 
 teachers in the home and school. The records of 
 the observation of children made by the students of 
 the Worcester Normal School are given to Dr. 
 Stanley Hall to be used in any way that may help 
 true scientific research on the subject. It is evident 
 that results gain by approaching the same problems 
 from the practical and scientific standpoints, will be 
 much more secure than they could be otherwise, and 
 will supply valuable contributions to the educational 
 world. 
 
 SUMMER SCHOOLS AS ACCESSORY TO THE WORK 
 OF TRAINING. 
 
 Among the most distinctively American educa- 
 tional institutions are Summer Schools for Teachers. 
 They are meetings organized during the long 
 summer vacations by private individuals, or in 
 connection with some University Normal or Train- 
 ing School, for the help and stimulation of teachers 
 who have otherwise no opportunity for training. 
 
BENTON HARBOUR, MICHIGAN 105 
 
 The exact character of the work of a school is 
 dependent entirely upon the educational aims and 
 methods of the principal of the school, and the 
 purpose for which teachers give up three or four 
 weeks of their holiday to attend a Summer School 
 may be different in different cases. The teachers of 
 country schools, inadequately prepared for their 
 work of teaching, often attend the Summer School in 
 their county, in order to gain a State training certi- 
 ficate of a higher grade than that which they already 
 possess ; while teachers in city schools, most of 
 whom have been trained in Normal Schools, attend 
 a Summer School like that of Colonel Parker, at 
 Englewood, to get stimulation for future work, and 
 to pursue, in addition, a systematic study of peda- 
 gogy. Graduates, who are teaching in schools and 
 academies during the year, often attend a Summer 
 School in connection with an University, in order to 
 pursue further study in various branches. The 
 Summer Schools I visited at Benton Harbour, 
 Englewood, Chautauqua, and the Summer School of 
 Cornell University, illustrate the different lines of 
 work mentioned. 
 
 At Benton Harbour, a small town on the shores 
 of Lake Michigan, a Summer School was held for 
 four weeks, and was attended by about fifty teachers 
 of the rural districts of Michigan, who came to 
 prepare for a third grade Teachers' Certificate of the 
 State of Michigan. Lessons were given in ordinary 
 school subjects, pedagogy and drill from half-past 
 seven in the morning until three or four o'clock in 
 the afternoon. I spent three or four days at this 
 
106 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 school, heard daily lessons in psychology, physical 
 culture, civil government, English, elocution, and 
 other subjects, and saw the working of the school 
 generally. The teaching in all subjects was very 
 elementary, as little previous knowledge could be 
 assumed. 
 
 Daily work began with exercises in which the 
 whole school took part. The singing of a hymn 
 afforded an opportunity for a singing lesson being 
 given to the whole school, the principal acting as 
 instructor. Then came the reading of Holy Scrip- 
 ture, or of selections from literature, and a short 
 discourse by the principal, after which students 
 were called upon to give quotations from the works 
 of famous men and women, or to recite short poems 
 which had been previously prepared. At the end of 
 these public exercises, the students were required to 
 dismiss according to word of command, to turn, 
 march to music, and to drill as a class of children 
 would have been required to do. This was intended 
 to teach the students how to dismiss and drill a 
 school or class. 
 
 Lessons in psychology were given by the prin- 
 cipal. The treatment of the subject was necessarily 
 very elementary, and, indeed, superficial. I noticed 
 that the teacher constantly digressed on practical 
 points, and seemed to know exactly when digression 
 would be of advantage to his pupils. 
 
 Daily lessons on M Experiments " were also given. 
 These were talks on some of the most elementary 
 principles of science, and easy experiments showing 
 how such principles might be illustrated in class. 
 
ENGLEWOOD, CHICAGO 107 
 
 Capillary attraction was illustrated in a lesson I 
 heard, and its bearing on everyday life was shown. 
 Pupils were required to come out of their seats, and 
 to arrange simple apparatus before the class. As 
 they were quite unaccustomed to manipulate even 
 the simplest materials, they seemed to find consider- 
 able difficulty even in drawing out glass tubing and 
 clamping together glass plates. 
 
 The feature of the school, perhaps, the most inter- 
 esting, was the anxiety shown by these rural teachers 
 to lose no opportunity for improvement, and the 
 keenness with which they followed their daily 
 lessons. Some of them were so untrained as to find 
 great difficulty in following the word of command 
 during drill, but these,who were painfully conscious 
 of their defects, made rapid progress even in a 
 week's time. Summer Schools like that of Benton 
 Harbour may give real help to the ill-prepared and 
 untrained country teachers, in increasing their 
 knowledge, and widening their interests. They 
 offer advantages to those who have no opportunity 
 for training, but their conditions are such as to 
 prevent their becoming an adequate substitute for 
 it. Indeed, their very existence acknowledges the 
 fact that country teachers have no opportunities for 
 preparation, and in itself sanctions a certain amount 
 of superficiality. 
 
 The principal object of Colonel Parker's Summer 
 School, held in previous years at Chautauqua, New 
 York, but this year at Englewood, Chicago, is to 
 stimulate teachers of all kinds, and to suggest lines 
 of work to be developed by them during the year. 
 
108 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Attracted by the name and work of Colonel Parker, 
 more than 200 teachers, superintendents of schools, 
 and persons interested in education, came from 
 nearly all the States of the Union to attend the 
 Summer School at Englewood. Most of the ordinary 
 school staff of the Cook County Normal School at 
 Englewood acted as teachers in the Summer School, 
 and Colonel Parker himself gave daily lectures in 
 psychology. Daily lessons were also given in the 
 teaching of science, language, and reading, " num- 
 ber " or arithmetic, music, drawing, and also in 
 voice culture, Sloyd, physical culture, blackboard 
 drawing, and other subjects advantageous to the 
 teacher. The methods of teaching taught in the 
 Normal School at Englewood were explained and 
 exemplified in the Summer School, and Kindergarten 
 and primary classes attached to the Normal School 
 were taught during the weeks in which the Summer 
 School was held, in order to show the practical 
 application of the methods discussed. The students 
 selected their courses of study. All, however, were 
 expected to attend the psychology lectures. The 
 classes in methods of teaching science, methods of 
 laboratory work, methods of teaching language and 
 reading, and methods of teaching " number " or 
 arithmetic, were the most largely attended. Very 
 keen interest was also taken in the blackboard 
 drawing. 
 
 The work in methods of science was carried on 
 by lectures, laboratory work by students, and field 
 work. An important feature of the science lectures 
 was the attention paid to methods of meteorological 
 
SCIENCE 109 
 
 observation. Blank charts, to show the dail} r range 
 and variation of temperature and air-pressure, were 
 filled in by the students ; United States Weather 
 Bureau maps were studied ; the origin and course 
 of storms in the United States were followed. The 
 relation of science to other subjects, number, read- 
 ing, modelling, painting, drawing, writing, language, 
 was brought out in the lectures, all the instruction 
 being such as to suggest methods of actually dealing 
 with the subjects before a class of children. The 
 laboratory work was especially suggestive. The 
 Summer School pupils did individual experimental 
 work, and had the same instruction and treatment 
 as a class of children would have had. The practi- 
 cal science course for the Summer School was : 
 
 (i.) Making a magnetic needle, 
 
 (ii.) Heat. Conductivity of Metals, 
 (iii.) „ Expansion of Metals. 
 
 (iv.) „ Determination of boiling-point of fresh and 
 salt-water, 
 (v.) „ Expansion of liquids and air. 
 (vi.) ,, Chemical change, 
 
 (vii.) Pressure of air. Pump and syphon, 
 
 (viii.) Mechanical constituents of soil (1). 
 (ix.) „ „ „ (2). 
 
 (x.) Physical properties of soils (1). 
 (xi.) „ „ „ (2). 
 
 (xii.) Mineral constituents of soils (1). 
 
 (xiii.) „ m „ „ (2). 
 
 (xiv.) Transpiration of plants. 
 
 (xv.) Specific gravity of minerals. 
 
 Field excursions were made weekly, and methods of 
 conducting children's field excursions were sugges- 
 ted and discussed. 
 
no THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The instruction in blackboard drawing, as illus- 
 trating geographical forms, was excellent. In all 
 cases, the students worked on paper with charcoal, at 
 the same time as the teacher drew on the wall slate. 
 After making a sketch, the teacher erased her work 
 at once, in order to secure rapidity in those who 
 were copying. The members of the class then dis- 
 tributed themselves round the room at various parts 
 of the wall slate, and were required to reproduce 
 on the wall slate the drawing they had just made, 
 the teacher meanwhile giving individual help and 
 criticising. The subjects for blackboard drawing for 
 the fifteen lessons of the course were : 
 
 (a) Illustrations to show how Blackboard Drawing can be 
 used. 
 
 (b) Hills, valleys, mountains, plateaus. 
 
 (c) River-basins, waterfalls, lakes, deltas. 
 
 (d) Erosion, cliffs, canons, terraces, gorges. 
 
 (e) Mountains ranges, parallel, etc. 
 
 (J) Continent of N. America. Esquimaux huts ; Indian 
 wigwams ; logging camps. 
 
 (g) United States. Cotton fields, rice swamps, sand bars. 
 
 (h) Mexico. Central America. Cacti ; ruins. 
 
 (i) S. America. Fiord coasts, volcanoes ; tropical forests. 
 
 (J) Africa. Deserts, sand-dunes, oases, canals. 
 
 (k) Abyssinian Highlands : Nile Basin, pyramids, palms. 
 
 (Z) Australia Islands, coral, volcanoes. 
 
 (m) Eurasia ; plateaus of Thibet and Gobi. 
 
 (ri) India ; Spain ; Italy ; banyan trees. 
 
 (o) Norway and Sweden; glaciers, icebergs. 
 
 Through the kind permission of Colonel Parker, I 
 was able to hear all lessons and to see the entire 
 working of the school. Daily visits for nearly a 
 fortnight served to show, that much educational 
 
CORNELL UNLVERSITY 
 
 life was centered there, and that teachers^^gjgypJJ^ 
 occupied responsible positions in all parts of the 
 States were receiving new light and stimulation for 
 the working out of their own particular problems. 
 
 At the college of the well-known summer assem- 
 bly at Chautauqua, New York, there was no pro- 
 fessional instruction for teachers this year. I heard 
 some excellent teaching in physics, German and 
 French ; but beyond the fact that many of the 
 Chautauqua college students were teachers taking 
 holiday courses of study to equip themselves better 
 for future teaching, the work that I saw here had no 
 direct bearing upon the training of teachers. 
 
 At Cornell University, courses in pedagogy are 
 usually given in connection with the summer course 
 in philosophy. These are for graduate students 
 only. Psychology lectures, with experimental de- 
 monstrations, are given every day in the week ; 
 lectures on psychological and psychophysical 
 method, with demonstrations and laboratory practice, 
 are delivered three times a week ; pedagogy and the 
 history of education are studied by means of 
 lectures and conferences ; methods of teaching the 
 special subject of study are discussed in connection 
 with the other summer courses for graduates at 
 Cornell University. I was present at a very inter- 
 esting meeting of teachers who were attending a 
 summer course in English. Individual members of 
 the class gave their own experience as regards the 
 teaching of English and literature in the schools. 
 The students were mostly specialists in English, and 
 teachers in private academies, or High Schools, and 
 
U2 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 an informal discussion of special difficulties and 
 methods which had been actually tried was very 
 interesting and helpful to the class as a whole. 
 
 A general survey of Summer Schools of all kinds 
 seems to show that their work cannot be regarded 
 as that of " Training," but rather as accessory to it. 
 "Where the principal or conductor of the Summer 
 School is a man of enthusiasm and enlightenment, 
 teachers can be refreshed and stimulated in many 
 ways, by a summer course of work ; but to regard a 
 course as training which supplies no practice work, 
 and exists under highly artificial conditions, for a 
 few weeks only, is to overlook some of the most 
 important features of training. 
 
 As a general summary of the work of Training, 
 seen in Normal Schools, City Training Schools and 
 University Departments, it may be stated : 
 
 fi.) That the State Normal Schools, adhering to 
 old traditions, and failing to insist on adequate and 
 thorough scholarship as an entrance qualification, 
 have been obliged to devote themselves, either to 
 securing that scholarship, or to the pursuance of so- 
 called training under conditions the most conducive 
 to mechanical lines of work, and dead forms of 
 method. 
 
 (ii.) That the City Training Schools, being en- 
 tirely local institutions, supported by local funds, 
 and only supplying teachers to the schools of the 
 vicinity, are in danger of being cramped in their 
 methods by seeking to win public favour. 
 
 (iii.) That the University Departments of Peda- 
 gogy, especially those belonging to State Univer- 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 sities, are capable of affording the widest and best 
 opportunities for the thorough training of primary 
 and secondary teachers, and in supplying these 
 opportunities, they will not only help forward the 
 cause in which they are immediately engaged, but 
 afford a valuable means of unifying and stimulating 
 education generally. 
 
 The existence of the good and the bad side by 
 side is as marked a feature in training institutions 
 as in any other department of American education, 
 and suggests great rapidity of progress in some 
 directions. Where the training is bad, old methods 
 have been retained under new conditions ; and where 
 good results have been obtained, they are due to the 
 readiness to try new methods, and to keep in touch 
 with the educational progress of the day. The 
 stimulus to much that is good in the present train- 
 ing of teachers in America is the psychological 
 study of children, which now is being systematic- 
 ally organized in a " National Association for the 
 Study of Children." Not only scientific workers, 
 but teachers and parents throughout the country, 
 are beginning to realize the important bearing of 
 child study upon all educational questions, and no- 
 where is their enthusiasm for matters educational 
 more shown than in their united devotion to the 
 solution of this new problem. 
 
 Amy Blanche Bramwell. 
 
PAET II. 
 
 By Millicent Hughes. 
 
 "T~N America, as in Europe, it is becoming in- 
 JL creasingly recognised, that the fact of having 
 received a good education, even if that education 
 have included a University course, is no guarantee 
 of fitness for the teaching profession. That some 
 special professional preparation is also necessary be- 
 fore a teacher can be safely entrusted with teaching 
 responsibility can hardly be said to be any longer a 
 matter of debate among those who have devoted 
 time and thought to educational questions. There 
 may be much difference of opinion as to the best way 
 of giving that preparation, but that it should be given 
 is becoming more and more a foregone conclusion. 
 There seems at last some chance that a well-earned 
 rest may be allowed to the well-worn comparison 
 made between the doctor's and teacher's professions, 
 with its obvious moral — that just as no right- 
 thinking parent would allow an unqualified prac- 
 titioner to prescribe for his child's body, so it should 
 be impossible for that far less understood and 
 delicate something, which we call the mind, to be 
 
 115 
 
n6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 entrusted to the care of one whose only qualification 
 for the post is the possession of a certain amount of 
 useful information. There are many battles yet to 
 be fought, many experiments yet to be tried, many 
 failures yet to be faced, ere all shall be agreed on 
 the best kind of professional training that can be 
 given to teachers ; yet I have returned from 
 America encouraged in the belief that the decisive 
 battle in favour of training has been fought and 
 won on both sides of the Atlantic, and that the 
 old world and the new may with advantage to both 
 join hands in the endeavour to discover the best 
 ways and means of such training. 
 
 And it would seem especially fitting that Eng- 
 land and America should thus join hands, for, after all, 
 few things about the Americans impressed me more 
 than the fact that they are really English, and that 
 the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United 
 States really form part of one great English-speak- 
 ing nation, with the heritage of a noble language 
 and literature, and a common life of thought and 
 feeling. In matters educational, the truth of this 
 oneness impressed me vividly. Allowing for such 
 differences as must exist between an old and a new 
 country, it is nevertheless true that most of the 
 problems in education which they are trying to 
 solve are those which perplex us also, and of these 
 the problem of the Training of Teachers holds a 
 place in the front rank. But it is a curious and 
 interesting fact, that the solution should be at- 
 tempted in both countries, and yet that so little 
 attention should be paid in each to what is being 
 
REPRESENTATIVE STATES 117 
 
 done in the other. The ignorance that prevails 
 among American teachers as to what is being 
 attempted in England is, I fear, only equalled by 
 our own ignorance of American educational life. 
 This ignorance is largely the result of the difficulty 
 that both American and English teachers experience, 
 in obtaining definite information on educational 
 matters in connection with either country. This 
 fact made it very difficult for me even to map out 
 my tour, so as to include as far as possible what 
 was typical of American Training in the short time 
 at my disposal, and had it not been for the unvary- 
 ing kindness and courtesy shown me by American 
 teachers, in directing my notice to what was best 
 worth seeing, my task would have presented almost 
 insuperable difficulties. As it is, I have, of course, 
 been unable to cover the whole ground, and indeed 
 have been able to personally examine into the oppor- 
 tunities for training in a very few States. These, 
 however, I believe to be representative States, from 
 a study of the means of training in which it is 
 possible to arrive at a very fair conclusion of its 
 condition in the States as a whole. They include 
 the following : Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode 
 Island, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and 
 Illinois. I was, however, fortunate in being able 
 to supplement the information thus obtained by a 
 careful study of the many excellent State exhibits 
 in the Educational Department of the Liberal Arts 
 Building, at the World's Fair, and to further correct 
 and intensify the impressions I had received by 
 many conversations with educationists from all 
 
n8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 parts of the United States, whom it was my good 
 fortune to meet at the Educational Congresses, held 
 at Chicago in July. 
 
 In considering any American educational question, 
 there are one or two points which must never be 
 lost sight of, and perhaps it will be well to indicate 
 them here. In the first place, it must be remembered 
 that there is not one American educational system, 
 but many. Each State has complete control of its 
 own educational matters, has its own School Law, 
 sets aside common lands, or levies taxes for the 
 support of its own schools, and is responsible to no 
 higher authority. The only part taken by the 
 Central Government of the United States in con- 
 nection with education has been in the establishment 
 of a Bureau of Education, the chief functions of 
 which have been (1) the collecting of statistics and 
 general information respecting education in all the 
 various States, which are embodied in an annual 
 report made by the Commissioner of Education, 
 (2) the publishing of monographs and circulars of 
 information on topics of educational interest, such 
 as Co-education, Teaching of History, etc., and (3) 
 the maintaining of a valuable Pedagogical Reference 
 Library at Washington. 
 
 Secondly, a distinction must be made between 
 the Western States, of which Michigan might 
 be taken as representative, and the Eastern, of 
 which Massachusetts might be considered typical. 
 In the former we find a most complete system of 
 State education, leading from the Primary School 
 right up to the great co-educational University of 
 
EAST AND WEST 119 
 
 Michigan. The State Schools there have few- 
 private rivals, and the University none. In the 
 State of Massachusetts, on the contrary, although 
 Primary, Grammar and High Schools are maintained 
 at the public expense, yet the children of a large 
 proportion of the inhabitants attend private schools 
 and academies, which undertake to prepare them 
 for Harvard or the "Women's Colleges, such as 
 Wellesley. In fact, few of those who enter upon a 
 University career do so straight from the common 
 school, as is the case in the Western States. It 
 follows from this that there are two classes of 
 teachers to ^e considered in the Eastern States — 
 (1) those w}0 teach in the common schools (Prim- 
 ary, Grammar and High), and (2) those who teach 
 in private schools and in the academies. Those of 
 the second class are largely recruited from the 
 ranks of College graduates, who rely upon their 
 University course as preparation for the profession 
 of teaching, and amongst whom the idea of a special 
 training for their work has only here and there been 
 awakened. It is mainly in connection with State 
 education that the idea of the training of teachers 
 has been developed, although the fact that several 
 of the older Universities, including Harvard, are 
 providing courses of lectures on the Science and 
 Art of Teaching may be taken as a hopeful sign of 
 the gradual growth of the idea among all classes of 
 teachers. 
 
 It will be perhaps well to enumerate the various 
 means available for the Training of Teachers in the 
 United States, and then to describe more particu- 
 
120 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 larly the special features of the training to be 
 obtained in each kind of institution. 
 Training may be obtained at : 
 
 f Public or State. 
 
 i. Normal Schools^ City. 
 
 { Private. 
 
 —, m . . f Schools. 
 n. Cty Trauung) Clasges 
 
 iii. Pedagogical Departments in Universities, 
 iv. Teachers' Institutes. 
 v. Summer Schools. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 There are three kinds of Normal Schools to be 
 considered— State, Cit}' and Private. It was my 
 privilege to visit a good number belonging to the 
 first two classes, but I was not fortunate enough to 
 be able to inspect any of the Private Normal 
 Schools. These latter are, of course, chiefly to be 
 found in those States which have few or no State 
 or City Normal Schools. 
 
 The difference between State and City Normal 
 Schools is mainly one of control. The State Normal 
 School forms part of the State Common School 
 system, and is under the direct supervision of the 
 State Superintendent and Board of Education, while 
 the City Normal School belongs to the City School 
 system, and is under the jurisdiction of the City 
 Superintendent. The State Normal School is in- 
 tended to provide teachers for the schools in any 
 part of the State, while the City Normal School has 
 
ACADEMIC VERSUS PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 121 
 
 for its object the preparation of teachers for the 
 City schools alone. 
 
 At present one of the most hotly debated questions 
 in connection with Normal Schools relates to the 
 subjects to be included in the curriculum. Shall 
 the Normal School give professional training alone, 
 or shall it also provide instruction in Academic 
 subjects? There is at present much divergence of 
 opinion on the subject, and some schools are 
 organized on the one principle, and some on the 
 other. 
 
 At present some of the Normal Schools have a 
 double function to perform, that of serving as High 
 Schools, and at the same time as professional Train- 
 ing Colleges. There is, however, a growing feeling 
 against this plan, and a tendency, wherever possible, 
 to separate those who intend to become teachers 
 from those who do not. But many Normal Schools, 
 while claiming to be only professional, yet include 
 Academic subjects in their curricula. Two reasons 
 for this are commonly urged. In the first place, it 
 is said that it is impossible to get a large enough 
 supply of candidates for training who are sufficiently 
 well equipped for their profession from the point of 
 view of mere information ; and secondly, that even 
 those who have the necessary information have 
 acquired it in such a way that it is almost useless 
 for teaching purposes. For such, a complete re- 
 vision of the various subjects, taken in conjunction 
 with a consideration of the best methods of teaching 
 the same, is regarded as necessary ; it being main- 
 tained by those in favour of this plan that it is 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 almost impossible to get instruction in the various 
 subjects that will be of any value to them as 
 teachers, outside a Normal School. 
 
 On the other hand, there are some who maintain 
 that the Normal School should be strictly profes- 
 sional, admitting none to its courses but those who 
 can give evidence of having had ample academic 
 preparation. Many, however, who believe that the 
 courses in academic studies are at present necessary 
 yet look forward to the time when they will be no 
 longer required. 
 
 There appears to be a growing feeling in the 
 States in favour of the complete separation of the 
 professional from the academic course, and it is 
 interesting to note that the question is agitating 
 the minds of those who have to do with the training 
 of teachers in America, at the same time that it 
 has become a burning question in England in 
 connection with the training of our Element- 
 ary Teachers. The Normal Schools correspond 
 more or less closely with our English Elementary 
 Training Colleges, and an examination of their 
 points of likeness and difference may not prove 
 unprofitable. 
 
 In the first place, it should be noted, that the 
 absence of any uniform standard of attainment, 
 such as is more or less secured in England by the 
 fact that there is one government examination for 
 all Colleges, makes it possible for there to be a 
 great difference in the rank held by different Nor- 
 mal Schools. As each school fixes its own standard 
 of graduation, and the conditions for admission, 
 
ACADEMIC VERSUS PROFESSIONAL TRAINING 123 
 
 length of course and final tests vary with each in- 
 stitution, it comes about that much depends upon 
 the Normal School, of which a given teacher is a 
 graduate. 
 
 Some Normal Schools, for instance, have a course 
 extending over four years, in others it only lasts 
 from one to two years, while some offer a choice of 
 courses of varying length. In England, on the 
 contrary, the Elementary Training course is uni- 
 formly two years in all Colleges, the length being 
 only occasionally varied in the cases of individuals, 
 as when, on special recommendation, a third year is 
 allowed, or a candidate who has already obtained a 
 certificate is admitted to a Training College for one 
 year's training. 
 
 This lack of uniformity in the length of course in 
 American Normal Schools is largely the result of 
 the absence of any one standard of admission. 
 While in England there is one examination, the 
 Queen's Scholarship, which must be passed by all, 
 except University graduates who desire to enter 
 an Elementary College, in America the conditions 
 vary with each individual Normal School. Some 
 require at least a certificate of graduation from a 
 High School, some have an entrance examination 
 of their own, which none may be excused, while 
 others offer one to those who have no certificates to 
 show. 
 
 Some Normal Schools are regarded as affording 
 suitable preparation for the Universities, and are 
 attended by those who hope to take up a University 
 course later on, while others grant degrees of their 
 
124 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 own, or arrange special courses for those who have 
 taken degrees elsewhere. 
 
 The fact that there are so many differences in 
 respect of length of course and choice of subjects, 
 between the Normal Schools of various States and 
 Cities, makes it exceedingly difficult to form any 
 accurate generalizations. It will probably, therefore, 
 be wiser at this point to give a more detailed 
 account of the Normal Schools which I had an 
 opportunity of studying in the above-mentioned 
 States. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Pennsylvania has eleven State Normal Schools, 
 the two most important of which I was able to visit. 
 The Normal School Law for this State provides for 
 two courses of study ; the Elementary Course and 
 the Scientific Course. The first of these leads to 
 the certificate Bachelor of the Element (B.E.), while 
 the diploma of the second constitutes its holder 
 Bachelor of the Sciences (B.S.). 
 
 The outlines of these courses are laid down by the 
 State as follows, but each Normal School can adapt 
 them as seems best. Most Normal Schools also 
 arrange for a Preparatory Course. 
 
 Elementary Course.— Junior Year. 
 
 Pedagogics. — Elements of School Management and Methods. 
 
 Language. — Orthography and Reading ; English Grammar, 
 including Composition ; Latin, sufficient for the introduction 
 of Csesar. 
 
 Mathematics. — Arithmetic ; Elementary Algebra. 
 
 Natural Sciences.— Physiology and Hygiene. 
 
COURSES 125 
 
 Historical Sciences. — Geography — Physical, Mathematical, 
 and Political ; History of the United States ; Civil Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The Arts. — Penmanship, sufficient to be able to explain 
 some approved system — writing to be submitted to Board of 
 Examiners ; Drawing, a daily exercise for at least twenty- 
 eight weeks — work to be submitted to the Board of Ex- 
 aminers ; Book-keeping, single entry, seven weeks ; Vocal 
 music, elementary principles, and attendance upon daily 
 exercises for at least one-third of a year. 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Elementary Course.— Second Year. 
 
 Pedagogics. — Psychology, embracing the intellect, sensi- 
 bilities, and will ; Methods ; History of Education ; Model 
 School Work — at least twenty-one weeks of actual teaching 
 daily during one period of not less than forty-five minutes; a 
 Thesis on a professional Subject. 
 
 Language. — The outlines of Ehetoric, together with at least 
 a fourteen weeks' course in English literature, including the 
 thorough study of one selection from each of four English 
 classics ; Latin— Csesar. 
 
 Mathematics. — Arithmetic ; Mensuration ; Plane Geo- 
 metry. 
 
 Natural Sciences. — Elementary Natural Philosophy ; 
 Botany. 
 
 Historical Sciences. — Eeading of General History in con- 
 nection with the History of Education. 
 
 The Arts. — Elocutionary Exercises in connection with the 
 study of English literature. 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Scientific Course. — Two Years. 
 
 Pedagogics. — Moral Philosophy ; Logic ; Philosophy of 
 Education ; Course of Professional Eeading, with abstracts, 
 notes, criticisms, to be submitted to Board of Examiners ; a 
 Thesis on a professional subject. 
 
 Language. — Latin, six books of Virgil, four orations of 
 Cicero, the Germania of Tacitus, or a full equivalent ; an 
 
126 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 equivalent of Greek, French, or German will be accepted for 
 Spherical Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, Calculus, 
 Mathematical Natural Philosophy, and Mathematical As- 
 tronomy ; Literature. 
 
 Mathematics. — Higher Algebra ; Solid Geometry ; Plane 
 and Spherical Trigonometry and Surveying, with use of in- 
 struments; Analytical Geometry; Differential and Integral 
 Calculus. 
 
 Natural Science. — Natural Philosophy, as much as in 
 Snell's Olmsted ; Anatomy, Descriptive and Mathematical ; 
 Chemistry ; Geology or Mineralogy ; Zoology ; Astronomy. 
 
 History. — General History. 
 
 To graduate at a Pennsylvanian State Normal 
 School, students must attend at least twenty-one 
 weeks. The Faculty first examines the candidates 
 in all the branches of study; if they find them quali- 
 fied they recommend them to the State Board of 
 Examiners, and certify that they have completed 
 the course of study as required by law, and have 
 taught the required time in the Model School. 
 
 The final examinations are conducted by a State 
 Board of Examiners, who are appointed by the State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, from the 
 following classes : — the State Superintendent or 
 Deputy Superintendent, who is President of the 
 Board, the Principal of another Normal School, two 
 County or Borough Superintendents from the First 
 District, and the Principal of this Normal School. 
 Each student must receive four votes out of the five 
 in order to pass the examination, and to graduate. 
 
 The final examination occurs about two weeks 
 before Commencement, 1 the date being fixed by the 
 
 1 The term u Commencement " is always used in America 
 
STATE CERTIFICATES 127 
 
 State Superintendent. The examination is almost 
 wholly in writing, and lasts two or three days. 
 
 Regular graduates who have continued their 
 studies for two years (i.e. have completed either the 
 Elementary or Scientific Course), and have practised 
 their profession for two years in the Common Schools 
 of the State, and who have presented to the Faculty 
 and Board of Examiners a certificate of good moral 
 character and skill in the Art of Teaching from the 
 Board or Boards of Directors by whom they were 
 employed, countersigned by the proper County 
 Superintendent, receive further diplomas, constitu- 
 ting them Masters in the Course in which they 
 graduated, and conferring upon them one of the 
 following degrees : Master of the Elements (M.E.) ; 
 Master of the Sciences (M.S.). 
 
 These diplomas confer upon their holders the right 
 to teach the subjects therein named, in the public 
 schools of Pennsylvania, without further examina- 
 tion. 
 
 It is also the duty of the Pennsylvania Normal 
 Schools to grant State certificates to such teachers 
 in the Common Schools of the State who make 
 application for the same, and who fulfil the following 
 conditions : 
 
 i. Each applicant must be twenty-one years of 
 age, and must have taught in the Common 
 
 to indicate the ceremony which takes place at the end of a 
 School or College course. The idea appears to be that the 
 close of the College career really marks the beginning of life 
 in the world. 
 
128 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Schools of the State during three succes- 
 sive years, 
 ii. Each must present certificates of moral char- 
 acter, and skill in practical teaching. 
 
 iii. The examination must be either in the sub- 
 jects of the Elementary or Scientific 
 Course, and must be taken at the time of 
 the Annual Examination of the Normal 
 School at which application is made. 
 
 iv. Each applicant is required to present an 
 original Thesis on some educational sub- 
 ject. 
 
 The School year is usually forty-two weeks, and 
 is divided into two sessions — a winter session of 
 about twenty-eight weeks from August to March, 
 and a summer of fourteen weeks, beginning with the 
 end of March. 
 
 The usual charge for the Winter Session is $140 
 (about £28), and for the Summer Session $70 (about 
 £14). 
 
 By a recent Act of the Legislature the following 
 appropriations are made by the State to Normal 
 students and graduates. 
 
 i. Each student over seventeen years of age who 
 shall sign a paper declaring his intention 
 to teach in the Common Schools of the 
 State shall receive the sum of fifty cents 
 (about 2,9.) per week toward defraying the 
 expenses of tuition and boarding, 
 ii. Each student who upon graduating shall sign 
 an agreement to teach in the Common 
 
MILLERS VILLE 1 29 
 
 Schools of the State two full school years 
 shall receive the sum of fifty dollars (about 
 £10). 
 iii. Any student desiring to secure the benefits 
 must attend the School at least twelve 
 consecutive weeks, and must join a class 
 in Methods of Instruction or School Man- 
 agement. These benefits will be deducted 
 from the regular expenses of board and 
 tuition. 
 
 About four miles from Lancaster, and connected 
 with it by an electric railway, is the little village 
 of Millersville, where is located the oldest Normal 
 School of the State. It was established in 1855, and 
 recognised as the First State Normal School in Penn- 
 sylvania in 1859. It is a co-educational school with 
 accommodation for about 500 students, although per- 
 mission is also sometimes given to students to board 
 out. The buildings are typical of this kind of Normal 
 School. There is a central building containing the 
 Chapel, recitation 1 and dining-rooms, etc., while on 
 either side are two dormitories, one for the men- 
 students, and one for the women. There is also a 
 gymnasium; and two handsome buildings — a Library, 
 and a Science building with lecture-rooms and labora- 
 
 1 The word " recitation " is always used in the United 
 States to signify lesson, class or lecture. Its use in this ex- 
 tended sense may be explained by the fact that in early days 
 of American education (and the practice still survives to a 
 greater extent than is desirable) teaching a class/merely 
 implied the hearing of lessons learnt by heart from a text- 
 book. 
 
 K 
 
130 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 tories — are in process of erection. There are more 
 women-students than men, and fewer of the latter 
 intend to become teachers in the State ; often they 
 only use the Normal School as a stepping-stone to 
 the University. 
 
 An excellent Model School, comprising a Kinder- 
 garten and eight grades, is attached to the Institu- 
 tion, in which the students observe the methods used 
 by the critic teachers in various subjects, and also 
 teach under supervision. I heard one of the critic 
 teachers give a model lesson on a brook basin, and 
 afterwards deliver a lecture to the students on the 
 teaching of Geography, in which the special points 
 of teaching method in connection with the brook 
 basin, school district and township were dwelt upon 
 and discussed. I had, moreover, the opportunity of 
 hearing one of the students teach, and was also for- 
 tunate enough to be able to listen to a reading lesson 
 given by the head of the Model School on the sen- 
 tence method. 
 
 I next visited the Normal School at West Chester, 
 which was started in 1871. Its buildings are on much 
 the same plan as those at Millersville, with the two 
 wings for men and women students, and the dining 
 and recitation rooms in the centre. The Principal, 
 with pardonable pride, drew my special attention to 
 the gymnasium building, which, with the single ex- 
 ception of the new Yale Gymnasium, is believed to 
 be the most complete connected with any school or 
 college in the States. It contains a full supply of 
 the best apparatus, running tracks, bath-rooms, large 
 swimming-pool, bowling alleys, ball cage, etc. A 
 
WEST CHESTER 
 
 thoroughly trained physician 1 and his wife are in 
 charge of the gymnasium, and all exercise is taken 
 under their supervision. I was able to attend several 
 of the classes — one on School Method, which took 
 the form of a discussion of such points as the follow- 
 ing : " What degree of quiet is necessary in a 
 school?" "On what does ability to govern de- 
 pend ? *' " Can ability to govern be acquired ? " I 
 was much struck here, as in other American schools 
 and colleges, with the ease in speaking, and the 
 keen interest shown by the students in taking part 
 in the discussion. A lesson in Arithmetic, in which 
 the students made excellent use of that distinctive 
 feature of an American recitation room — the con- 
 tinuous blackboard, one on United States history, and 
 a lesson on physiology given in the Model School, 
 helped to fill up a most interesting morning. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 There are two State Normal Schools in the State 
 of Connecticut — one at New Britain, started in 1850, 
 and the other at Willimantic, opened in 1889. These 
 schools have for their object the definite preparation 
 of teachers for work in the State schools, and no 
 encouragement is given to other students to enter. 
 They thus differ from the Pennsylvania Normal 
 Schools, which are often attended by those who do 
 not intend to become teachers. This difference 
 appears to produce one curious and instructive re- 
 sult — namely, that while a large number of men 
 
 1 i.e., specialist in the subject of physical exercise. 
 
132 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 students are to be found in the Pennsylvania Normal 
 Schools, they are conspicuous by their absence from 
 those in Connecticut. This is easily understood when 
 one remembers that an overwhelming majority of 
 the teachers in the Common Schools are women, 
 and that as few men intend to take up teaching as 
 a permanent profession, they are not likely to be 
 found in those Normal Schools, the courses of which 
 will not serve as stepping-stones to a future college 
 or other career. 
 
 Neither of these two Schools are residential, but 
 the Principals undertake to assist students in find- 
 ing comfortable accommodation. Board and lodging 
 can usually be obtained from $3 to $4 (14s. to 17 s.) 
 per week. 
 
 Candidates for admission must either (1) pass an 
 entrance examination held at certain centres in the 
 State, or (2) present a certificate of graduation from 
 a High School or State Teachers' Certificate, or (3) 
 have taught successfully for three years. 
 
 The course is arranged for two years, but no 
 student can graduate from the schools unless con- 
 sidered fit to teach by the Faculty. They may 
 either remain longer as students, or if thought to be 
 hopeless may be requested to withdraw. 
 
 At both schools there are at least two parts to the 
 course : (1) that done in the Normal School, in- 
 cluding the Theory of Education, and special work 
 in science and other subjects ; and (2) that done in 
 the Model or Training Schools. Each School has also 
 a Kindergarten, and at New Britain there is a special 
 course for the training of Kindergarten teachers. 
 
NEW BRITAIN 133 
 
 Students who attain the required standard of 
 scholarship in every prescribed subject, and exhibit 
 a fair degree of skill in teaching and governing 
 children, and pass the State Examination for 
 Teachers, receive a Diploma of Graduation. 
 
 The fitness of any teacher for her profession is 
 thus determined partly by the authorities of the 
 Normal School, and partly by the State. 
 
 All necessary text-books are free, but students are 
 encouraged to purchase a few books of reference. 
 
 The aim of this school is entirely professional, but 
 it is found so difficult to obtain a supply of suffi- 
 ciently prepared students that some academic work, 
 especially in science, is found to be necessary, and 
 each student is expected to learn to make certain 
 sets of apparatus, which will be afterwards helpful 
 in the teaching of science in the schools. The 
 Principal informed me that he considered that the 
 school was stronger on the practical than on the 
 theoretical side. Most certainly the practical train- 
 ing of teachers is most thoroughly arranged for. A 
 Model School of 500 children is attached to the 
 school, the classes in which are in the hands of 
 trained and enthusiastic teachers, who are constantly 
 endeavouring to improve existing and devise new 
 methods of teaching. In reading, for instance, the 
 children make their own reading-lesson, the subjects 
 being taken from lessons on elementary science, litera- 
 ture, etc., which they have had. With the help of 
 the blackboard, simple sentences, giving an account of 
 the lesson or its story, are collected, and then printed 
 by the school printing press, which proves an in- 
 
134 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 valuable addition to the school apparatus. Draw- 
 ing is also taught almost entirely in connection with 
 other school subjects, the illustrating of Science, 
 History and Geography lessons being thus utilized. 
 
 During the training course, the students give a 
 few lessons in the Model School, and spend a good 
 deal of time in observation. But a comparatively 
 new and important feature in connection with the 
 practical training is the six months which students 
 are encouraged to spend after graduation at a Prac- 
 tice School which has been opened at South Man- 
 chester. Here the graduates teach under supervision, 
 and obtain that amount of practice under favourable 
 circumstances which is so necessary to the perfecting 
 of the teacher. 
 
 At "Willimantic, as at New Britain, especial stress is 
 laid on preparing the teacher for the practical part 
 of the profession. The child, however, is the unit of 
 the school, and on the right understanding of the 
 child depends the teacher's success in teaching. The 
 child has both a body and a mind to be trained, and 
 the two cannot be separated. It is therefore neces- 
 sary that a teacher should know something about 
 each, and students are therefore expected to devote 
 a good deal of time to the study of Physiology in 
 the Junior year, and to the study of Psychology in 
 the Senior. 
 
 The Model Schools 1 are most carefully staffed, 
 and the students spend as much time as possible in 
 observing work done in these schools. 
 
 1 The Connecticut School Law provides for the establishment 
 and maintenance of such schools for the benefit of the students. 
 
LENGTH OF COURSE 
 
 135 
 
 During the last term of the course, each student 
 serves as an assistant in the various grades of the 
 Model Schools, thus having experience in teaching 
 under the guidance and criticism of an expert in 
 each grade. 
 
 The course is for two years, but the Principal is 
 anxious to have the time extended. 
 
 NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 The first Normal School for the State of New 
 York was opened at Albany in 184.4. There are 
 now eleven such schools in the State, two of which 
 — Albany and Oswego — are entirely professional, 
 while the others provide also for academic work. 
 
 Statistics of New York State Normal 
 Schools. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Normal. 
 
 Academic. 
 
 No. 
 
 Registered. 
 Last Year. 
 
 Average 
 Attendance. 
 Last Year. 
 
 No. 
 Registered. 
 Last Year. 
 
 Average 
 Attendance. 
 Last Year. 
 
 Albany . . 
 Oswego . . 
 Brockport * 
 Cortland 
 Potsdam 
 Fredonia . 
 Buffalo . . 
 Geneseo . . 
 New Paltz . 
 Oneonta . . 
 Plattsburgh 
 
 375 
 382 
 370 
 384 
 490 
 253 
 357 
 535 
 227 
 365 
 142 
 
 305 
 323 
 283 
 312 
 395 
 196 
 295 
 391 
 170 
 304 
 106 
 
 108 
 35 
 
 182 
 67 
 12 
 78 
 26 
 23 
 ... 
 
 61 
 
 25 
 
 134 
 
 49 
 7 
 
 65 
 13 
 15 
 
136 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The following extracts from the circular issued 
 by the Superintendent of Public Instruction give 
 the principal features common to all the Normal 
 Schools of the State of New York. 
 
 " Students will be appointed to the Normal Schools 
 by the Superintendent, upon the recommendation of 
 superintendents and school commissioners. These 
 officers will be relied upon to properly represent to 
 possible candidates the needs of the public schools 
 for well-qualified teachers, and the necessity of pro- 
 fessional and technical training on the part of all 
 who intend to teach. No students can be admitted 
 who have not already acquired a substantial elemen- 
 tary education. This can be gained in all of the 
 ordinary schools, and the professional training 
 schools cannot be properly taxed with work which 
 the common schools can perform as well. Through 
 the quality of the work performed, through the 
 attainments and the professional spirit and purpose 
 of graduates, rather than through mere multiplicity 
 of numbers, can the Normal Schools best promote 
 the educational interests of the State. There is room 
 and welcome in the Normal Schools for the graduates 
 of the elementary and secondary schools, and even 
 for those who have made substantial advancement 
 in the elementary course without technical gradua- 
 tion, provided that they give promise of becoming 
 successful teachers, and possess the desire to become 
 such ; but there is no room for students who have 
 laid no real foundation for professional training, and 
 who have no well-determined purpose about the 
 matter and no fair conception of the responsibilities 
 and obligations of a teacher's occupation. 
 
CERTIFICATES OF PROFICIENCY 137 
 
 "Appointments will ordinarily follow recommenda- 
 tions, but students will be admitted or retained in 
 Normal Schools only when they show scholarship 
 and other qualities in justification of the appointment. 
 
 " The following form of recommendation will be 
 used, and will be supplied from the department or 
 from any of the schools upon application. When 
 filled out it should be mailed to the Superintendent, 
 and when approved it will be by him sent direct to 
 the school. No student can be appointed who is not 
 fully sixteen years of age. 
 
 To the Superintendent of Public Instruction : — 
 
 I hereby recommend of in the County 
 
 of aged years, as possessing the health, scholarship, 
 
 mental ability and moral character requisite for an appoint- 
 ment to the State Normal and Training School at 
 
 School Com7nissionei^^ yX.^Q J£? 
 District of the County of fff¥ ftp OP ^ 
 Or, Superintendent City of 
 Dated. Y 
 
 " Students duly appointed, and present!^ ihe 
 diplomas of colleges, universities, high schdote^^- 
 academies or academic departments of union schools, 
 State Certificates or Commissioner's Certificates, 
 granted under the uniform examination system, 
 and still in force, showing a standing of seventy-five 
 per cent, in arithmetic, grammar and geography, 
 may be admitted at any time and without examina- 
 tion. 
 
 " Students duly appointed, but unable to present 
 either of the above-named evidences of proficiency, 
 may be admitted at the opening of each term upon 
 
138 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 duly passing an entrance examination to be held at 
 the school. 
 
 " Non-residents of the State are not to be solicited 
 or encouraged to enter our Normal Schools, but such 
 persons as specially desire to do so, and who comply 
 with the requirements as to admission, may be ad- 
 mitted upon paying to the treasurer of the Local 
 Board a tuition fee of twenty dollars per term of 
 twenty weeks in advance. No mileage fees 1 will be 
 paid to non-residents. 
 
 " No student will be received into the academic 
 department connected with any State Normal 
 School who is not a bona fide resident of the territory 
 whose people have heretofore given Normal School 
 property to the State, and for whose benefit the 
 State has pledged itself to maintain an academic 
 department. 
 
 u Tuition and the use of all text-books are free. 
 Students will be held responsible, however, for any 
 injury or loss of books. They are advised to bring 
 with them, for reference, any suitable books they 
 may have. The amount of fare necessarily paid on 
 public conveyances in coming to the school will be 
 refunded to those who remain a full term. 
 
 " A year is divided into two terms of twenty weeks 
 each. The Autumn term commences on the first 
 Wednesday in September, and the Spring term on 
 the second Wednesday in February. There will be 
 an intermission for a week during the holidays." 
 
 There are three courses of study which can be 
 followed : an English course arranged for three 
 
 1 i.e., allowance to cover railway or other fares. 
 
AIM OF SCHOOL COURSES 139 
 
 years, a Classical arid a Scientific arranged for four 
 years. (Albany and Oswego have specially arranged 
 courses.) 
 
 Students who satisfactorily complete any one of 
 the above courses receive diplomas, which serve as 
 licenses to teach in the public schools of the State. 
 
 The first Normal School of the State was located 
 at Albany. Until 1890 it had, like most of the other 
 schools, academic as well as professional work, but 
 it was then reorganized on a new plan, under the 
 title of "New York State Normal College." This 
 College now devotes itself entirely to the giving of 
 instruction in the Science and Art of Teaching. 
 
 The courses of study are as follows : — 
 
 1. English Course, which extends over two years, 
 and embraces Psychology, History and Philosophy 
 of Education, Methods of teaching all ordinary school 
 subjects, School Economy and School Law, Kinder- 
 garten methods and practice in teaching under 
 criticism. Graduates from this course receive a life 
 diploma or license to teach. 
 
 2. Classical Course. This is also a two years' 
 course on much the same lines as the English, but 
 with the addition of Methods of teaching Latin and 
 Greek, or German, or French. A much severer 
 entrance examination must, however, be passed to 
 gain admission to this course than is required for 
 the English. A life diploma and the degree of 
 Bachelor of Pedagogy are conferred on graduates 
 from this course. 
 
 3. Supplementary Course. This takes one year, 
 which is devoted to the reading of leading educa- 
 
140 THE TRAILING OF TEACHERS 
 
 tional authors, the discussion of educational subjects, 
 and the preparation of an original thesis. Those who 
 take this course in addition to the English receive 
 the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, and those who 
 take it in addition to the Classical receive that of 
 Master of Pedagogy. 
 
 4. One year Course for graduates from Colleges and 
 Universities in which they are allowed to select a 
 course (approved by the Faculty) for one year, and 
 can receive a life diploma and the degree of Bachelor 
 of Pedagogy. 
 
 5. Kinder gartner's Course. 
 
 I unfortunately reached Albany too late to see the 
 
 school in working order, but from what its Principal, 
 
 Dr. Milne, told me, it appears to possess the most 
 
 purely professional course of any Normal School in 
 
 the States. 
 
 Oswego. 
 
 The Oswego School was first organized as a City 
 Training School in 1861, but was adopted as a State 
 School in 1863. The history of this school is the 
 history of its Principal, Dr. Sheldon. When quite 
 young, he became interested in the question of the 
 education of the poor of his native city, Oswego. 
 With the help of friends the first free school was 
 started, but as no teacher could be found, he had to 
 teach himself. He was able, in 1853, to organize a 
 city system of schools, and became superintendent. 
 Dissatisfaction with the teaching results of his schools 
 led him to consider the question of methods. On a 
 visit to Toronto, he saw in the National Museum a 
 collection of educational appliances used abroad, and 
 
ELEMENTARY SPECIAL COURSES 141 
 
 especially at the Home and Colonial Training School 
 in London. He brought back all the apparatus that 
 he could, but both he and his teachers realized the 
 need of training, and finally some of them resigned 
 half their salaries for one year, in order that a train- 
 ing teacher might be brought over from the Home 
 and Colonial Training College. Miss M. E. M. Jones, 
 an ardent disciple of Pestalozzi, came in response to 
 their request, and day by day, after school hours, 
 she met this enthusiastic little band of teachers, 
 which was the first Training Class. After she left, 
 those she had taught were able to carry it on, and 
 the training of teachers was an established fact in 
 Oswego. The course was at first only for one year, 
 but was later extended to three and four when the 
 school was taken over by the State. 
 
 With the consent of the State Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction, the classical department has 
 been dropped out of the Oswego School, and more 
 extended lines of English work have been taken up 
 as elective courses. The regular English course is 
 taken for three years, and one of these for the fourth. 
 
 This course includes advanced work in science, 
 history, higher English, psychology, pedagogy, 
 drawing, and teaching under criticism, and occu- 
 pies two terms of twenty weeks each. 
 
 Those who show marked talent for primary and 
 kindergarten work may, after graduation, be in- 
 vited by a vote of the Faculty to take an additional 
 year in special training for kindergarten and 
 primary teachers. At the end of this course dip- 
 lomas are granted, indicating fitness to take charge 
 
142 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 of kindergartens ; and in addition, certificates of 
 special qualifications for primary work are given, 
 signed by all the members of the Faculty. 
 
 In order to meet the increasing demand for 
 teachers who can undertake training work in Nor- 
 mal Schools, a special course has been started, which 
 lasts for five months, and includes lectures in psy- 
 chology, pedagogy, kindergarten principles and 
 methods ; observation of the work in the kinder- 
 garten ; attendance upon the criticisms of the 
 critics in all the departments of the training work ; 
 making out criticisms on the work in the different 
 departments of the school of practice and actual 
 teaching under criticism ; making out time-tables 
 for the different grades of schools ; observation of 
 work in the school of practice as done by practice 
 teachers, to gain an idea of arrangement, distribu- 
 tion and grading of subject matter ; observation of 
 special lessons, followed by criticisms of same. A 
 course of professional reading is prescribed, as well 
 as the preparation of papers on various topics con- 
 nected with method and criticism. Occasional 
 opportunities are provided, to put into practice 
 ideal and experimental lines of work, by teaching 
 classes ; and instruction is given in making apparatus, 
 charts, etc., to illustrate the subjects taught in the 
 common schools. 
 
 Teachers for this course are also selected by the 
 Faculty, on the ground of their superior moral, 
 intellectual, physical and professional qualifications, 
 and of special fitness for the work ; and on the 
 satisfactory completion of the same, receive cer- 
 
HISTORY i 4: 
 
 tificates, signed by all the members of the Faculty, 
 indicating their fitness to act as critics and teachers 
 of methods in Normal and Training Schools. 
 
 Experience in teaching in the various grades of 
 the public schools is considered important before 
 entering upon this work. 
 
 It is not in a strict sense a residential college, but 
 students from a distance are expected to live in a 
 boarding-house attached to the school. 
 
 Great stress is laid upon the elaboration of 
 methods of teaching of various subjects, and from 
 the Oswego School have come many improvements 
 in ways of teaching. Perhaps the chief contribution 
 to methodology is that known as the " laboratory " 
 method of teaching history, which is said to have 
 revolutionized the teaching of history in American 
 Schools. It is an adaptation of the seminary 
 method introduced by the German historian Ranke. 
 In order to make this method possible in the schools, 
 specially prepared text-books were needed, and 
 these Dr. Sheldon's daughter undertook to write. 
 Two text-books have been published : Studies in 
 General History, and Studies in American History, 
 both of which have been extensively adopted in 
 American Schools. In these books there is pre- 
 sented to the pupil a carefully chosen body of 
 original historical material — typical extracts from 
 the laws, constitution, creeds and other records of 
 the past — pictures of monuments, temples, statues 
 and relics, together with questions upon this 
 material that test and train the pupil's powers of 
 judgment and reason. In connection also with the 
 
144 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 teaching of history the plan is advocated, and 
 carried out in connection with the Model School, of 
 allowing the children to compile the history of their 
 own town, collecting the information for themselves, 
 and recording it in a manuscript book kept for the 
 purpose, which they can also illustrate by original 
 drawings of their own. I saw a delightful history 
 of Oswego compiled in this way, and in several 
 other towns I found that school children were 
 undertaking similar work. 
 
 Most of the method teaching is carried on by 
 means of discussions on topics given. I was able 
 to attend one of these, and also to see some of the 
 teaching in the Practice School. 
 
 Perhaps what impressed me most about the 
 school was the large amount of liberty allowed to 
 the students, and the absence of rules. Dr. Sheldon 
 told me that the experience of his lifetime had only 
 confirmed him in the belief, that the fullest freedom 
 is necessary for the right development of character, 
 and that year by year he had given his students an 
 ever-increasing amount of liberty. The idea of 
 self-government and responsibility is inculcated, 
 and rare are the cases in which this freedom is 
 abused. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 To Massachusetts belongs the honour of having 
 led the way in the establishment of Normal Schools. 
 The Massachusetts Board of Education, established 
 in 1838, at once took up the question of the training 
 of teachers for the public schools. A member of the 
 
MASSACHUSETTS 145 
 
 Board, the Hon. Edmund Dwight, of Boston, offered 
 $10,000 on condition that the Legislature would 
 appropriate an equal amount towards providing for 
 such training. His offer was accepted, and three 
 Normal Schools were opened, each of which was 
 to continue for three years as an experiment. The 
 experiments proved completely successful. There 
 are now six State Normal Schools, which are under 
 the direct control of the Board of Education, and 
 supported entirely by the State. Tuition is free to 
 all who undertake to teach in the State Schools. 
 The arrangements for boarding vary with each 
 school. 
 
 The State appropriates $4,000 per annum to be 
 divided among those students of Normal Schools 
 who stand in need of such aid. 
 
 Text-books and reference books are free. 
 
 1 " The design of the State Normal Schools is 
 strictly professional ; that is, to prepare in the best 
 possible manner the pupils for the work of organizing, 
 governing and teaching the public schools of the 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 " To this end there must be the most thorough 
 knowledge ; first, of the branches of learning required 
 to be taught in the schools ; second, of the best 
 methods of teaching those branches ; and third, of 
 right mental training. 
 
 " The time of one course extends through a period 
 
 1 It should be noted that although the design of these 
 schools is professional, yet in all of them academic studies 
 are pursued. 
 
 L 
 
146 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 of two years ; of the other, through a period of four 
 years, and is divided into terms of twenty weeks 
 each, with daily sessions of not less than five hours, 
 five days each week." 
 
 Studies. 
 Two Years 1 Course : 
 
 Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping. 
 
 Physics, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany, zoology, 
 mineralogy, geology, geography. 
 
 Language, reading, orthography, etymology, grammar, 
 rhetoric, literature, composition. 
 
 Penmanship, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics. 
 
 Psychology, science and art of education, school organiza- 
 tion and history of education. 
 
 Civil polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, 
 history, school laws of Massachusetts. 
 
 In accordance with a vote of the Board of Educa- 
 tion, pupils are encouraged to add a half year to 
 this course of study, provided six months of their 
 entire time be spent mainly in additional practice 
 and observation. 
 
 Four Years 1 Course : 
 
 In addition to the studies named above, the four years' 
 course includes advanced algebra and geometry, trigonometry 
 and surveying. 
 
 Advanced chemistry, physics and botany. 
 
 Drawing, English literature, general history. 
 
 Latin and French required ; German and Greek as the 
 principal, and visitors shall decide. 
 
 This course is intended to give pupils that broad 
 culture indispensable to the highest success in 
 schools of any grade, but especially to fit them for 
 
STUDIES 
 
 H7 
 
 service as teachers in high schools. The studies are 
 so arranged that graduates from the shorter course 
 may complete the four years' course in two additional 
 years. 
 
 The following statistics and extract are from the 
 Public Document of the Board of Education for 
 1893. 
 
 Normal Schools. 
 
 
 Statistics tor the Year 1891-92. 
 
 Number 
 of Students. 
 
 Number 
 of Graduates. 
 
 Bridgewater 
 
 Framingham . 
 
 Salem .... 
 
 Westfield .... 
 Worcester . . 
 Normal Art School . 
 
 262 
 159 
 260 
 147 
 181 
 215 
 
 67 
 50 
 77 
 33 
 36 
 24 
 
 1,224 
 
 287 
 
 " There are now in the Commonwealth six State 
 Normal Schools, established for the purpose of train- 
 ing teachers to teach in the public schools. The 
 Normal Schools are now well provided with the 
 means of communicating professional instruction. 
 
 " As a knowledge of the principles and method of 
 teaching seems to be one thing, and skill in the 
 application of principles quite another, it is necessary 
 that ample opportunity be given in the training 
 schools connected with the Normal Schools for 
 practice in teaching by the normal students as they 
 study the principles. Such practice, if systematic- 
 
148 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 ally and intelligently conducted during the course 
 of instruction, will prepare the normal graduate 
 to enter upon the practice of his profession with the 
 advantages of experience. 
 
 u If the standard for admission to the Normal 
 Schools be raised, as the Board of Education now 
 contemplates, they will be relieved of a large amount 
 of academical work now required, and of many 
 candidates whose limited knowledge and capacity 
 for acquiring it make them improper subjects for 
 professional training. 
 
 " The time has come when a professional training 
 should be considered a requisite for teaching in the 
 public schools of the Commonwealth." 
 
 Framingham, the first State Normal School in the 
 United States, was first located at Lexington, where 
 it was opened July 3rd, 1839, with three students. 
 In 1852 the school was removed to Framingham. 
 It admits women students only, who reside in the 
 boarding halls attached to the school. 
 
 " The design of the school is to give : 
 
 1. "A review of the studies taught in the public 
 schools. 
 
 2. "A careful study of the history of education 
 and the school law of Massachusetts. 
 
 3. U A study of Psychology, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining true principles and good methods. 
 
 4. u A practical application of these principles and 
 methods in teaching. 
 
 5. " A high estimate of the importance and re- 
 sponsibility of the teacher's work, and an enthusiasm 
 for it." 
 
TOPICAL METHOD 149 
 
 Wbstfield. 
 
 Another school was opened at Barre, September 
 4th, 1839, but was moved to Westfield in 1844. It 
 is intended for both men and women students, but 
 out of 147 students in 1892 only 7 were men. 
 
 There is a Normal Hall of Residence, erected and 
 furnished by the State, at which either men or 
 women students can live. 
 
 The subjects taken are the same as those in the 
 other Normal Schools of the State, for the two or 
 four years' course. All studies are pursued on the 
 topical plan, and with special reference to the best 
 ways of teaching them. Every student frequently 
 takes charge of a class, and teaches topics, so that 
 throughout the course he is under actual training 
 as teacher. 
 
 I had the opportunity of hearing a class in 
 Didactics, conducted by Principal Grreenough on the 
 topical method. I found that " topics " simply 
 meant the heads or divisions of subjects. The 
 students had been previously given topics to pre- 
 pare, and they were called on two at a time to go 
 to the blackboard and write up and explain to the 
 class alternately the various points to be considered 
 under each head. These points were one by one 
 discussed with the Principal and other students. 
 This topical method is adopted at many other 
 schools and colleges. It often happens that one or 
 two students only are entrusted with topics to pre- 
 pare, which they are expected to be ready to explain 
 to the rest of the class, subject of course to the 
 
150 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 criticism of the teacher and discussion by the 
 class. 
 
 The students obtain the necessary practice in 
 teaching, partly in the above way by teaching each 
 other, and partly by giving lessons in the Model 
 School under the critic teachers. Each student is also 
 required to teach for four weeks continuously, and 
 to spend a good deal of time in observing children, 
 and the work of the teachers in the Model School. 
 
 The school is very well provided with apparatus. 
 Almost every subject taught has its special room 
 with appropriate appliances for teaching. I was 
 especially struck by the apparatus for teaching geo- 
 graphy. Large wooden trays lined with zinc, and 
 placed on supports so as to resemble low tables, 
 were used for modelling in wet sand. Special 
 classes were held to instruct the students in the art 
 of sand-moulding. 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 Bridgewater Normal School was opened in 1840. 
 It receives both men and women students, the 
 number for this year being 272, of which 58 are 
 men, and 214 women. 
 
 There are two Halls of Residence, at which 
 students may reside. 
 
 Four courses are possible : 1. Two years' course. 
 2. Three years' or intermediate course. 3. Four 
 years' course, and 4. Post-graduate course for 
 college graduates. 
 
 There appears to be especially good provision for 
 
CHILD-STUDY 151 
 
 the teaching of science, the new buildings having 
 ample laboratory accommodation. 
 
 Worcester is the youngest of the Normal Schools, 
 having been opened in 1874. It is open to both men 
 and women, but the latter largely preponderate. 
 
 In addition to the ordinary two and four year 
 courses, college graduates are allowed to take up 
 a special elective course. 
 
 This school has certain special features which 
 distinguish it and require note. 
 
 The study of psychology is pursued in part by the 
 original observation of children. The students are 
 asked to observe the conduct of children in all cir- 
 cumstances, and to record what they see and hear 
 as soon as possible, in a simple and concise manner, 
 without any comment by the writer. They are 
 advised to note the usual rather than the unusual 
 conduct of the children observed. For convenience 
 of classification, blanks of five colours are used : 
 white for observations made by the students them- 
 selves ; red for those reported by others ; yellow for 
 reminiscences of the student's own childhood ; green 
 for records made from books, and chocolate for a 
 continued series of observations made on the same 
 child. The date, name of observer and post-office 
 address ; the name, sex, nationality and age of child 
 observed ; and also the length of time elapsing 
 between the making and recording of the observa- 
 tion, are all set forth on these papers. 
 
 The making of these observations is quite volun- 
 tary, but the students become so interested in the 
 work that an ever-increasing number of reports are 
 
152 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 sent in. Some 16,000 have already been collected. 
 These are placed at the disposal of the Clark Uni- 
 versity, which has from time to time made use of 
 the material thus brought together. These records 
 are valuable in themselves, but still more valuable 
 is the training in observation of children afforded to 
 the students in making them. 
 
 The students in this school have the opportunity 
 before graduating of serving an apprenticeship as 
 teachers in the public schools of Worcester. 
 
 The " apprentice " acts as assistant to the teacher 
 of the city school; takes part in the instruction, 
 management and general care of the pupils under 
 the direction of the teacher ; and is sometimes 
 entrusted with the sole charge of the school during 
 the teacher's absence for an hour, a half day or a 
 day. One student only at a time is assigned to 
 any teacher, but each apprentice serves in at least 
 three grades of schools. 
 
 The time taken for the apprenticeship comes just 
 before the final term in the Normal School, and 
 amounts to half a school year. But the apprentices 
 spend one day of each week (Wednesday) at the 
 Normal School, where they are occupied in the 
 following manner : 
 
 They consult with the teacher, and with one 
 another, and make use of books. 
 
 They make informal statements to the school of 
 such facts of their experience as it may profit the 
 other pupils to know, — concerning ways of teaching, 
 cases of discipline and the like, — keeping in mind 
 always the private character of the daily life of the 
 
CHILDREN'S CLASS 153 
 
 schoolroom, and under special warning against 
 revelations that might seem objectionable. 
 
 Each apprentice keeps a diary of the occupation 
 and experience of every day, and this record is 
 inspected by the Faculty of the Normal School. 
 
 The Faculty of the Normal School have the right 
 of visiting the apprentices while at work, and of 
 giving advice and suggestion. When the six 
 months are over, the teacher of the school makes 
 a report on the work of the student. The School 
 Board approves the system, as those students who 
 have been apprentices are found afterwards to be 
 the most capable teachers in the Worcester public 
 schools. Students are not forced to undergo appren- 
 ticeship, but most choose to do so. After it is over, 
 they return to the Normal School for six months, 
 before graduating. 
 
 Forty minutes each day are assigned to " Platform 
 Exercises," which consist in reading, speaking, draw- 
 ing on the blackboard, etc., before the assembled 
 school. They are found to be very useful in help- 
 ing the students to overcome nervousness. Each 
 student can choose her own time and subject, but 
 at least nine must be ready to take part each day. 
 No exercise is to be prepared for more than four 
 minutes, but as questions may be asked by the 
 teachers or other students, and criticism is some- 
 times offered, they often take longer. 
 
 A new and interesting feature of the school is 
 the children's class which has just been started. 
 Between twenty and thirty children between three 
 and five have been admitted. No charge is made 
 
154 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 for tuition, and it is understood that the class can 
 be taught in any way thought good by the Prin- 
 cipal. This class affords a good field for child study 
 and experiment in methods of elementary teaching. 
 It is in charge of an experienced kindergartner. 
 
 I was attentively listening to a lecture on Psy- 
 chology, given by Principal Russell, when suddenly, 
 to my amazement, the whole class rose and left the 
 room while he was still speaking. To my surprise, 
 he did not seem at all disturbed, and he then pro- 
 ceeded to explain, that finding that most students 
 were deficient in "time sense," such a necessary 
 possession for a teacher, he had adopted the plan of 
 making the students keep their own time at lectures. 
 
 The Normal Art School, Boston, aims at training 
 art teachers and supervisors for the State. Two 
 courses are offered — one of four years' training in 
 the scientific and artistic branches and their prac- 
 tical application to industry, and one of two years' 
 training for the work of teaching or supervising Art 
 in the public schools. 
 
 The following is a comprehensive plan of the 
 work of this second course : 
 
 First Year : 
 
 1. Elements of psychology. 
 
 2. Outline course of drawing for Primary and Grammar 
 Schools. 
 
 3. Practice teaching. 
 
 Second Year: 
 
 1. History of education. 
 
 2. Principles and methods of teaching. 
 
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF PEDAGOGICS 155 
 
 3. Outline course of drawing for High and Evening Schools. 
 
 4. Practice teaching. 
 
 5. Practical details of supervisor's work. 
 
 6. Presentation of the subject of drawing by each pupil 
 before a body of assumed teachers. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 The State of Michigan maintains only one Nor- 
 mal School, but, as we shall see later, this State has 
 other means of providing for the training of its 
 teachers. 
 
 This school is located at Ypsilante, and is not resi- 
 dential. It is open to men and women, and tuition 
 is free to those who undertake to teach in the State 
 Schools. Graduates from recognised High Schools, 
 approved by the Board of Education upon recom- 
 mendation of the Faculty, are admitted without 
 examination, and are credited with advanced work 
 already done. Other candidates must pass an 
 entrance examination. 
 
 The school offers three classes of courses : 
 
 1. Those covering three years of instruction 
 leading to a certificate, which is a license to teach 
 in the schools of Michigan for a period of five years ; 
 of these there are two, one especially for kinder- 
 gartners, and the other to prepare teachers for the 
 rural schools and for the lower High School grades. 
 
 2. Courses covering four years, leading to a 
 diploma and a life certificate. Of these there are 
 many to choose from, but all are more or less dis- 
 tinctly literary, scientific or classical. 
 
 3. Advanced courses, leading to the degree of 
 
156 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Bachelor of Pedagogics and a life certificate. One 
 for graduates of any of the four year courses, and 
 can be completed in two years. 
 
 Any one holding an academic degree from the 
 University of Michigan, or from an incorporated 
 college, may receive the degree of B.Pd. by spending 
 one half-year at the school, and attending profes- 
 sional instruction for 250 hours, and teaching under 
 supervision for 100 hours. 
 
 Any person holding the degree of Bachelor of 
 Pedagogics of the Michigan State Normal School 
 may, upon application, receive the degree of Master 
 of Pedagogics upon the following conditions : 
 
 (a) He shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the 
 Faculty that he has been engaged in teaching or in 
 school supervision continuously, and with pronounced 
 success, for five years since receiving the Bachelor's 
 degree. 
 
 (&) He shall prepare and present a thesis accept- 
 able to the said Faculty, upon some subject con- 
 nected with the history, science, or art of educa- 
 tion, the Faculty reserving the right to assign the 
 subject of such thesis. 
 
 The design of the School is professional — i.e., only 
 those students are admitted who intend to teach, but 
 a large portion of the various courses is devoted to 
 academic work. The school is directly under the 
 control of the State Board of Education, which 
 grants all certificates, diplomas and degrees upon 
 recommendation of the Faculty. 
 
COOK COUNTY NORMAL SCHOOM {/&> k *9* TS$ 
 
 ILLINOIS. \v<>hT 
 
 \- ^ * - 
 This State, which, like that of Michigan, is fr 
 
 of the West, has provided two Normal Schools^ 
 known under the somewhat imposing names of 
 the "Illinois State Normal University," and the 
 " Southern Illinois State Normal University." 
 Neither of these, however, are purely professional 
 schools. The first of them has three departments — 
 Normal, Training and High School, while the second 
 has also three — Normal, High School and Prepara- 
 tory. 
 
 Tuition is free in the Normal Department of both 
 schools, to those who intend to teach in the State. 
 
 The courses in the Normal Departments are 
 usually for three years, but may be extended to four, 
 and at the completion of any course a diploma is 
 granted. 
 
 The work is very largely academic, and in the 
 first year hardly any really professional work is 
 done. 
 
 One of the Counties of Illinois — Cook — possesses 
 a Normal School which, although not technically a 
 State School, yet is so in reality, or indeed some- 
 thing wider, for it attracts to itself students from all 
 parts of the States. This is known as the Cook 
 County School, or perhaps quite as often as Colonel 
 Parker's School. 
 
 It is situated at Englewood, a suburb of Chicago, 
 and has a student's hall attached to the school, where 
 students may obtain board and lodging. 
 
 As a school it is probably unique, and as such ex- 
 
158 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 ceedingly difficult to estimate. When visiting it, 
 the charm of the School falls upon one, the enthu- 
 siasm of Colonel Parker and his band of teachers 
 creates an atmosphere of inspiration which disarms 
 criticism, and few would come away without feeling 
 that the world was better than they thought, and a 
 little child the most beautiful thing to be found on 
 the earth. I think that it is in this genuine love 
 and care for children that the real strength of the 
 School lies, and that if it can continue to send out 
 teachers who really love and understand children, it 
 need fear no outside criticism. A chance remark of 
 Colonel Parker's seemed to me typical of the spirit 
 of the School : " I do not want any of the children 
 to know that I am not one of them." 
 
 The following extracts from his report to the Cook 
 County Board explain the distinguishing features of 
 the School : 
 
 1. Any graduate (four years' course) of an 
 accredited High School, or a graduate of a college 
 or university, will be admitted to the Professional 
 Training Class, on presentation of diploma. 
 
 2. A teacher of three years' successful experi- 
 ence in a Graded School, and holding a first-class 
 certificate, will be admitted on presentation of said 
 certificate, and certificates of success as a teacher. 
 
 Candidates with the above credentials will be 
 admitted to the Professional Training Class at any 
 time. 
 
 . 1. Students must be members of the Profes- 
 sional Training Class at least one year of forty 
 weeks before they are eligible for graduation. 
 
PRACTICE SCHOOL 159 
 
 2. Whenever, after one year, the members of 
 the Faculty are convinced that a student has the 
 necessary knowledge, skill and governing power to 
 teach and manage a school satisfactorily, the said 
 candidate is recommended for graduation to the 
 Board of Education. 
 
 The County Superintendent of Schools grants to 
 each graduate a certificate to teach in Cook County, 
 outside of Chicago, first or second grade, upon his 
 own examination and the recommendation of the 
 Principal. 
 
 First-grade certificates are given to those gradu- 
 ates who have manifested during their course marked 
 ability in study and teaching. 
 
 Elective courses are allowed to those students only 
 who have received diplomas of graduation. 
 
 Graduates of the Professional Training Class may 
 elect for a one or two years' course any one of the 
 following post-graduate courses : 
 
 1. Kindergarten Training Class, physical training, elocu- 
 tion. 
 
 2. History, geography and literature. 
 8. Science, art and manual training. 
 
 4. Mathematics and manual training. 
 
 5. Modelling, painting, drawing and manual training. 
 
 6. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of 
 expression, music, anatomy, physiology and hygiene. 
 
 7. Advanced course in psychology, pedagogics and 
 methods. 
 
 In all elective courses psychology, pedagogics and 
 methods are included. 
 
 The Practice School consists of eight grades (nine 
 
160 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 rooms) and the kindergarten. There are two first 
 primary rooms (A and B). 
 
 Each room in the Practice School is under the 
 immediate charge of a critic teacher, who teaches 
 the pupils in her room, and supervises the practice 
 teaching in her grade. 
 
 The Practice School, with the exception of the 
 kindergarten, is a public school of the city of 
 Chicago. 
 
 The Practice School is an essential feature in the 
 training of teachers. The entire professional work 
 of the school is concentrated upon the teaching and 
 training in this department. 
 
 One hour each day is devoted to teaching in the 
 Practice School by members of the Professional 
 Training Class. 
 
 The Practice School is divided, for the purpose 
 of practice teaching, into forty or more groups, each 
 group consisting of from six to ten pupils. Two 
 groups are united, forming one section ; two sections 
 are united to form a division. 
 
 Pupil teachers are very carefully selected for merit, 
 as (1) heads of groups ; (2) leaders of sections ; (3) 
 teachers of divisions; (4) special assistants. Pupil 
 teachers not thus chosen are assistants to group 
 leaders. 
 
 The purpose of these divisions into groups, etc., 
 is to give each pupil teacher as much practice as 
 possible. The teacher begins with a small number 
 of pupils, and advances, as teaching power increases, 
 to the leadership of a section, a division, and at last 
 to a special assistant's position. The latter position 
 
TRANSFERENCE AND PROMOTION 161 
 
 requires the ability to teach and govern an entire 
 grade or room. 
 
 The entire work of the Professional Training Class 
 is, in reality, preparation for practice teaching, — 
 preparation in knowledge, theory and methods. 
 
 The course of work for the Training Class includes 
 the following subjects : 
 
 1. Psychology, pedagogics, the history of education and 
 methods of teaching. 
 
 2. Science in primary and grammar schools. 
 
 3. Geography with modelling, painting, drawing and 
 chalk modelling as means of geographical study. 
 
 4. History and literature. 
 
 5. Mathematics ; number, arithmetic, form and geometry. 
 
 6. Art, including modelling, painting and drawing. 
 
 7. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of ex- 
 pression and vocal music. 
 
 8. Manual training, paste-board and wood sloyd and con- 
 struction of apparatus for science teaching. 
 
 The special teacher at the head of each depart- 
 ment presents the conditions for the knowledge 
 needed for teaching his or her subject, and decides 
 whether the pupil-teacher has the requisite know- 
 ledge and skill to prepare a plan for teaching. 
 
 The special teacher also teaches the principles and 
 methods of his subject, and supervises the practice 
 work in his department throughout all the grades. 
 
 The practice teaching is divided into ten periods 
 for one year, one period continuing for one month. 
 
 Each pupil- teacher is required to prepare one plan 
 for teaching, each month, upon a subject selected by 
 the critic teacher, under whose direct supervision the 
 pupil-teacher is to work. This plan must be approved 
 
 M 
 
162 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 by the critic teacher, and also by the special teacher 
 in charge of the subject taught, before the one who 
 prepares the plan is permitted to teach. 
 
 Each month, certain group, section and division 
 leaders are transferred from grade to grade in order 
 that every pupil who has requisite ability and skill 
 may teach in the eight grades during the course. 
 
 Whenever a pupil-teacher has reached the rank 
 of special assistant, he or she is sent out to the 
 county schools to act as substitute 1 upon the order 
 of the County Superintendent. 
 
 The course of study followed in the school is the 
 application of a doctrine or theory of education, 
 called the Theory of Concentration. Upon this 
 theory it was my privilege to hear Colonel Parker 
 lecture from time to time, and the following is a short 
 synopsis of his lectures as drawn up by himself. 
 
 " In this theory, the subjects of thought and study 
 are the natural sciences, geography and history. 
 The unity of these subjects is found in the study of 
 life — the laws of life — and the laws which support 
 life. 
 
 " The laws of life enter into the child through edu- 
 cation, and become the essentials in his intellectual 
 and moral character. 
 
 " Form, geometry, number and arithmetic are the 
 
 1 The idea of making special provision for a supply of 
 teachers to act as substitutes in case of emergency is almost 
 universal in the States. In many cities a certain number 
 of teachers receiving regular salary are set apart for this 
 work alone, while in some places students in a Normal 
 School or Training Classes undertake such work by special 
 arrangement. 
 
STANDPOINT OF KNOWLEDGE 163 
 
 indispensable means for the study and investigation 
 of the laws of the universe acting through matter ; 
 therefore form and number must be studied in order 
 to understand any and all subjects of thought. 
 
 ''Attention is the one mode of study. Attention 
 may be divided into three modes of thinking : (1) 
 observation, (2) hearing language, (3) reading or 
 book study. The subjects or objects of attention are 
 the natural sciences, geography and history — there- 
 fore observation, hearing language, and reading are 
 the means of knowing and thinking. The subjects 
 of knowing and thinking should be immediately 
 educative. Therefore, all acts of attention, observa- 
 tion, hearing language and reading should be 
 concentrated upon these subjects, and objects of in- 
 trinsic thought. For example : all reading should 
 be the most educative thinking, and therefore should 
 consist of the purest and most thoughtful literature. 
 Every word and sentence learned by the pupil should 
 be learned under the immediate impulse of intrinsic 
 thought. 
 
 " Under the theory of concentration, the modes of 
 expression — gesture, music, modelling, painting, 
 drawing, speech and writing, are used as the direct 
 and immediate means of intensifying intrinsic 
 thought, and under these impulses and stimuli the 
 technical forms of expression in each mode are ade- 
 quately acquired. 
 
 " The central and sole design of concentration is the 
 harmonious development of individual character — 
 knowledge, skill, are means, not ends — the eternal is 
 the end. It goes without saying that the appli- 
 
1 64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 cation of this doctrine of concentration requires the 
 highest grade of knowledge, skill, art and devotion 
 to human development. 
 
 " Considering this course of study from the stand- 
 point of " knowledge for the sake of knowledge," 
 taking the subjects presented in the light of u going 
 over," " going through," " being marked upon," 
 "final tests by written examinations," there must 
 be a hopeless confusion ; the burden would be greater 
 than any corps of teachers could possibly bear. 
 
 " A course of study is a means to an end, and that 
 end the full development of all the possibilities for 
 good and growth in a human being. It should con- 
 sist of all the subjects of thought, the germs of which 
 a child spontaneously assimilates and enjoys before 
 he enters school. A course of study should be very 
 carefully arranged and adapted to the successive 
 stages or steps of development. 
 
 " Its application, however, depends wholly upon the 
 knowledge and skill of the teacher, the teacher who 
 watches closely and sympathetically every move- 
 ment of her pupil's mind ; the teacher who looks 
 upon a course of study as a rich storehouse of mental 
 food, to be presented as the mind needs it, or rejected 
 when the conditions are not favourable to growth. 
 
 " Following or " going over " a course of study be- 
 longs to the trade of school keeping, and not to the 
 art of teaching. 
 
 u This course of study cannot be understood by 
 studying the work of one grade alone — it must be 
 studied as a whole and applied with the comprehen- 
 sive knowledge of the whole. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 165 
 
 " The final decision as to what should be applied 
 to each individual pupil must be left to the teacher 
 of that pupil. 
 
 " No authority outside of the teacher of a pupil 
 can possibly determine what that pupil needs at 
 any given moment. 
 
 " Grading and promotion, properly understood, 
 are economical means of knowing and helping each 
 individual pupil. 
 
 " The course of study in its best form and last 
 analysis is the best means of helping each child, and 
 of helping each child to be of immediate and essen- 
 tial aid to all his mates." 
 
 CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Very similar to the State Normal Schools in organi- 
 zation and curriculum are those maintained by 
 certain cities. Of these the Philadelphia, New 
 York and Boston schools may be taken as represen- 
 tatives. Such schools belong to the City School 
 systems, and are under the supervision of the City 
 Superintendent. Graduates from these schools are 
 supposed to teach in the public schools of the city. 
 
 At Philadelphia the Normal School is in a transi- 
 tion state. Hitherto the Girls' Normal School has 
 at the same time been the Girls' High School, and 
 it was only possible to make a distinction in length 
 of course between those who were going to teach and 
 those who were not — the fourth year being especially 
 devoted to professional work. The tendency in such a 
 school would be, of course, to emphasize the academic 
 
166 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 work at the expense of the professional. Accord- 
 ing to the new scheme, the High School and Normal 
 School will be separated, and the latter be purely- 
 professional. Admission to the Normal School will 
 only be granted after a three years' course at the 
 High School, and the former will have a course of 
 its own for two years. The present course of study 
 and the future scheme are subjoined. 
 
 Subjects to be studied in the two years' course at 
 the new Girls' Normal School, Philadelphia: 
 
 1. Educational Psychology. 
 
 2. Methods of Teaching. 
 
 3. School Economy. 
 
 4. The History of Education. 
 
 5. The Philosophy of Education. 
 
 6. Methods in Mathematics. 
 
 7. Methods in Language and Literature. 
 
 8. Methods in History, Sociology, and Civics. 
 
 9. Methods in Natural History. 
 
 10. Methods in Physics and Chemistry. 
 
 11. Methods in Elocution. 
 
 12. Methods in Vocal Music. 
 
 13. Methods in Modelling and Drawing. 
 
 14. Methods in Kindergarten. 
 
 15. Methods in Gymnastics and Physical Training. 
 
 16. Methods in Sewing and Fitting. 
 
 17. Methods in Wood- work, etc. 
 
 18. Observation in Model School. 
 
 19. Practice in Model School. 
 
 20. Discussion of Observation and Practice. 
 
 21. Educational Reading and Original Investigation. 
 
 Mention must also be made of the provision made 
 for the training of men teachers in the new School 
 of Pedagogy which has been opened in connection 
 

 
 a 
 
 ^5 go 
 
 S 03 O h 
 
 Sim 
 
 2£ 
 
 <D O 
 GQO 
 
 13 W 
 
 rrj © . 
 
 d,d fl 
 
 .2 3.5 
 
 & 3 . 
 § &§ 
 
 ."3 -d » 
 
 11*82 
 
 js* to » « 
 
 bcbcg 
 
 OO 3 
 
 o s cs 
 
 O o3 
 
 8 8-5 
 
 ° <o u 
 
 1*1 
 
 *8.1d 
 
 d 
 « 
 o 
 
 Is 
 
 .S3 
 
 w 
 
 O 33 OM 
 
 as s 
 
 .6 Pm "S £p ►» 
 .3>.S £>«!.* g 
 
 «5 
 
 sill 
 
 2 ^ 5 » 
 C5 C5<! 
 
 liil & 
 
 
 05 CSW 
 
 
 XI o 
 Ph« 
 
 * 2 
 
 P = 
 
 cot3 d'd 
 
 2^°' 
 
 
 P o P 
 
 5 -*> 
 
 
 :k 
 
 |P= to 
 
 ill 
 
 ^HP3 
 
 ^*lfi« 
 
 tfHM 
 
 . 8 J a • o 
 
 . 0„. «H o 1 " 
 
 SOB P3 
 
 xi 
 
 PQ 
 
 5 
 
 Q iS 
 
1 68 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 with the Central High School for boys. The 
 students must be graduates of the latter, or of 
 similar institutions. The course is for one year, and 
 includes professional subjects only. 
 
 The New York Normal College is conducted in 
 the same way as the present one at Philadelphia, 
 it being at once a High and Normal School. 
 
 BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 The Boston Normal School is of the professional 
 type, with an ordinary course of a year and a half, al- 
 though many students stay for a post-graduate course. 
 
 The course of study in this school is pursued with 
 special reference to teaching, and is as follows : 
 
 1. Psj'chology and Logic. 
 
 2. Principles of Education. 
 
 3. Methods of Instruction and Discipline. 
 
 4. Physiology and Hygiene. 
 
 5. The Studies of the Primary and Grammar Schools. 
 
 6. Observation and Practice in the Training School. 
 
 7. Observation and Practice in the other Public Schools. 
 
 8. Science of Language. 
 
 9. Phonetics. 
 
 10. Gymnastics. 
 
 11. Vocal Music. 
 
 12. Drawing and Blackboard Illustration. 
 
 13. Special study of the Theory and Practice of the Kin- 
 dergarten, for those members of the post-graduate class who 
 desire to qualify themselves for teaching in that department. 
 
 The students practise and observe in the Bice 
 Training Schools, and in the post-graduate class 
 substitute service begins — t.e., any city school having 
 a teacher absent may apply for a student to take 
 her place. 
 
BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL.— COURSE OF STUDY. 
 First Term. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Psychology 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Language — 
 
 Oral Expression and Composition 
 
 Penmanship .... 
 
 Grammar ..... 
 
 Geography 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Vocal Music ..... 
 Gymnastics — 
 
 Theory 
 
 Practice 
 
 Hours per 
 week. 
 
 20 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 8 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 12 minutes daily. 
 
 No. of 
 weeks. 
 
 Second Term 
 
 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Hours per 
 week. 
 
 No. of 
 weeks. 
 
 Principles of Education 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 Language — 
 
 Reading, including Phonics 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Literature 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 Grammar 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 Elementary Science — 
 Minerals . . . 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Plants 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Form 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 Gymnastics — 
 
 Theory 
 
 Practice 
 
 Observation and Practice in the 
 
 1 
 12 minute. 
 
 16 
 3 daily. 
 
 Public Schools .... 
 
 all day, 4 weeks. 
 
170 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Third Term. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Principles of Education 
 
 Logic 
 
 Language — 
 
 Oral Expression and Composition 
 
 Science of Language . 
 
 History 
 
 Arithmetic . 
 Elementary Science — 
 
 Plants 
 
 Animals 
 
 Colour 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 Gymnastics — 
 
 Theory 
 
 Practice 
 
 Observation and Practice in Pub- 
 lic Schools .... 
 
 Hours per 
 week. 
 
 No. of 
 weeks. 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 minutes daily, 
 all day, 10 weeks. 
 
 Post-Graduate Course. 
 
 The work of the post-graduate class includes : 
 
 1. A further study of the principles of education, with 
 
 special reference to their application in teaching 
 the different subjects of the regular course, and in 
 school discipline; 
 
 2. The history of education. 
 
WELCH SCHOOL, NEW HAVEN 
 
 CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS. 
 
 In several cities an ordinary school is set 
 the special training of teachers, and is presided cr 
 by a head-mistress capable of giving instruction in 
 the theory of education. In such a school the 
 ordinary teaching of the children is largely carried 
 on by the students, who at certain hours receive 
 instruction in Methods, etc. These students often 
 receive a small sum in return for their services. 
 
 I was able to visit several of these Training 
 Schools, including those at New Haven (Connecti- 
 cut), Fall River (Ehode Island), Paw tucket (Rhode 
 Island), Springfield (Massachusetts), and Albany 
 (New York). 
 
 At New Haven a most interesting Training School 
 is carried on in connection with the Welch School. 
 There are about thirty students in training for one 
 year. The various classes of the school are in 
 charge of regular teachers, who teach almost entirely 
 during the first half of the year, for the students 
 devote five or six months to the study of theory 
 alone, only giving a few criticism lessons during 
 that time. For the second half of the year the 
 students teach more in the schools, and are super- 
 vised both by the critic teacher and the regular 
 teacher of the class. Notes of lessons are prepared 
 in various ways — sometimes the students are re- 
 quired simply to put the matter of their lessons into 
 a series of logical statements, sometimes the matter 
 and illustrations alone are given, and sometimes the 
 
172 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 lesson is written out as it is to be given in the order 
 of statements and questions. 
 
 On the completion of the year's training the 
 students are usually appointed as substitute teachers 
 to the districts, at a small fixed salary, and obtain 
 permanent posts as vacancies occur. 
 
 At the Springfield Training School from ten to 
 sixteen students take the course, which is usually 
 for one year, but can be taken in two. Tuition is 
 free to those living in the city, a charge of about 
 £10 being made to those from a distance. 
 
 Students enter in the autumn, and devote the 
 first term to theoretical work, only giving a few 
 criticism lessons, and spending some time in ob- 
 serving the work of the school, and carefully record- 
 ing observations. 
 
 The work in psychology is partly based on the 
 observation of individual children, and partly carried 
 on by discussion classes. The students also attend 
 lectures given by Superintendent Balliet to all the 
 teachers of the city. At the end of the year they 
 take the city examination in order to graduate. In 
 January they begin to teach for an hour a day in 
 the school, and in the summer term this is increased 
 to three hours a day. At the end of the course 
 they give lessons in public, but they are not counted 
 as necessary for graduation. 
 
 Some of the leading features of the Training 
 School are the following : — 
 
FEATURES OF TRAINING SCHOOL 173 
 
 1. It is incorporated with a city or town Graded 
 School covering from four to eight years' work. 
 This school is used as a place for observation and 
 practice. 
 
 2. The Practice School, or school of observation, 
 employs one or more regular teachers, who conduct 
 the training class. In most Training Schools, 
 " trainers " are relied upon for much of the teaching. 
 
 3. The course in the Training School includes a 
 study of the principles of teaching and the history 
 of education, with practice in the art. 
 
 4. The length of the term of study and practice is 
 fixed, extending from one to two years in the greater 
 number of schools. 
 
 5. A new class is admitted at a fixed time ; the 
 admissions are annual or semi-annual. 
 
 6. The maximum number of trainers is prescribed. 
 
 7. Admissions are made by a course of studies 
 previously pursued, or by examination. Most re- 
 quire the equivalent of a four years' course in a High 
 School. 
 
 8. All provide for dropping unpromising students 
 from the roll. 
 
 9. Most allow some compensation to trainers after 
 the first term. 
 
174 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 A list of Training Schools in Massachusetts is 
 appended. It is taken from a useful little pamphlet 
 drawn up for the information of visitors to the 
 World's Fair Educational Exhibit. 
 
 Table of Training Schools Reported, 1891-92. 
 
 
 Graduates. 
 
 Period 
 
 
 Regular 
 Teachers. 
 
 
 Annual 
 Average. 
 
 of 
 Training. 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Adams . 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fall River 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Haverhill 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Holyoke 
 
 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 
 12 
 
 u 
 
 I.-VI. 
 
 2 
 
 Lowell . 
 
 
 82 
 
 11 
 
 I.-IX. 
 
 6 
 
 Lynn 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 
 14 
 
 u 
 
 
 2 
 
 Newburyport 
 
 4 
 
 1* 
 
 
 1 
 
 North Adams 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsfield 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Springfield . 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 I.-VII. 
 
 7 
 
 Taunton 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 TRAINING CLASSES. 
 
 In many cities training classes are held for one 
 year. The students are distributed amongst the 
 best schools of the city or town, and the instruction 
 and criticism is given by the Superintendent and 
 the highest teachers. 
 
TRAINING CLASSES 
 
 75 
 
 Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts. 
 
 
 Gra- 
 
 
 
 
 duates. 
 Average 
 
 Time 
 of 
 
 Remarks 
 
 
 Number 
 per 
 
 Training. 
 
 from Superintendents. 
 
 
 Annum. 
 
 
 
 Chelsea 
 
 17 
 
 1 year. 
 
 Practice limited to 
 four city schools, nor- 
 mal graduates preferred. 
 
 Clinton 
 
 5 
 
 » 
 
 Not equal to normal 
 graduates. 
 
 Concord 
 
 6 
 
 » 
 
 All urged to attend 
 normal schools. 
 
 Dedham . 
 
 6 
 
 m 
 
 
 Hingham . 
 
 8 
 
 »i 
 
 Not given school in 
 town until experience is 
 gained elsewhere. 
 
 Leominster 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 Maiden 
 
 
 15 
 
 No teacher employed 
 not a normal graduate 
 or person of experience. 
 
 Quincy 
 
 BO 
 
 55 
 
 
 Watertown 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 Graduates expected to 
 teach out of town be- 
 fore being employed at 
 home. 
 
 Weymouth 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 
 Woburn . 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 It has been seen that a certain number of college 
 graduates enter the Normal Schools for a course of 
 training, but most of the leading Universities of 
 America are now providing courses in the Science 
 
176 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 and Art of Education for those who desire to prepare 
 for the teaching profession. I was able to visit a 
 good many of these pedagogical departments, and 
 was much interested in the work I saw. This work, 
 however, differs so widely in the various institutions 
 in which it is carried on that it is hardly possible to 
 make any very general statements concerning it. 
 In some universities the only provision made for the 
 special preparation of teachers is in connection with 
 special classes held by the professor or lecturer on 
 any subject, for those who wish to discuss with him 
 the teaching of it. However insufficient for training 
 purposes this plan may be, it yet has, I believe, very 
 special advantages to recommend it, not the least 
 being the influence that may be thus exerted by the 
 University through those who are about to become 
 teachers on the Schools. In addition to these dis- 
 cussions, some provide for a few lectures on Peda- 
 gogy, and in others, again, Pedagogy may be taken 
 as an elective subject, and count towards an ordi- 
 nary degree. The Universities of Harvard, Cornell, 
 Michigan, Illinois, Syracuse and others have adopted 
 one or other of these plans. 
 
 The University of New York grants degrees in 
 pedagogy, while at the Clark University, to which 
 only graduates are admitted, education may be taken 
 as part of the Ph.D. work. It should be noted, 
 however, that the courses of training provided at 
 these Universities is almost entirely theoretical, 
 little or no attempt being made to arrange for prac- 
 tical work. In so far as this is not arranged for, the 
 training seems to fall short of the ideal, it being 
 
HARVARD 177 
 
 surely nearly as bad to attempt to train teachers 
 without providing for practical work as to teach 
 chemistry without giving any time to the laboratory, 
 or to train a doctor without arranging for hospital 
 work. Probably the fact that a course on peda- 
 gogics is usually taken at the same time as other 
 subjects, and also that those who take such courses 
 very often do not intend to teach in the schools, but 
 rather to take posts as lecturers, superintendents, 
 etc., has caused this side of training to be neglected, 
 and a still stronger reason is to be found in the 
 location of so many of the Universities at a distance 
 from the schools. In many places, however, I found 
 that the question was being faced, and schemes con- 
 sidered for the introducing of practical work. 
 
 Harvard has begun to realize its responsibility 
 with respect to the training of teachers, and a sub- 
 division of the department of Philosophy is devoted 
 to Education, the following courses being arranged 
 for: 
 
 1. Course of twelve lectures on Topics in Psycho- 
 logy of interest to teachers. 
 
 2. Course for Graduates and Undergraduates : 
 
 The History of Educational Theories and 
 Practices. 
 
 3. Course primarily for graduates : 
 
 (a) Organization of Public Schools and Acad- 
 emies. 
 (&) The Theory of Teaching. 
 
 These courses are, however, but short, and in- 
 tended to be taken at the same time as other sub- 
 
178 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 jects. There is as yet no attempt to arrange for 
 a complete course of training, but every prospect 
 that from the beginning already made there may 
 develop a graduate school for the training of teachers. 
 
 Harvard has already realized its responsibility in 
 respect to the inspection and supervision of schools, 
 for which I was given to understand very special 
 arrangements are being made, and it will be but a 
 step further for it to provide such training for the 
 teachers it sends out to these schools as shall fit 
 them duly for their work. 
 
 There are certain elective courses allowed in the 
 philosophy course, at the University of Cornell, 
 which really constitute a pedagogical department. 
 They include the following : 
 
 1. Institutes of Education (Lectures). 
 
 2. School Systems and Organizations (Lectures). 
 
 3. Pedagogic Conference, Discussions and Essaj's 
 on Educational topics, and reports on visits to 
 schools. 
 
 4. History of Education (Lectures). 
 
 5. Pedagogical Seminary. 
 
 It is understood that none must take these courses 
 unless they also know something of physiology, 
 psychology and logic. These courses may either be 
 attended so as to count towards a degree or may be 
 taken as graduate work. 
 
 The only arrangement for practical work is in 
 connection with the visits to schools for purposes of 
 observation. The location of the University on the 
 top of a hill overlooking Ithaca, although most 
 advantageous in many other respects, would make 
 
MICHIGAN 179 
 
 the arranging for work in the schools or the estab- 
 lishment of a University School of Observation a 
 matter of serious difficulty. 
 
 Seminaries are held in most subjects, at which the 
 teaching methods are discussed, and thus oppor- 
 tunity is afforded to those students who are special- 
 izing in any subject with the intention of afterwards 
 teaching it, to study it from the point of view of 
 the teacher as well as of the learner. 
 
 To Michigan belongs the honour of having been 
 the first University to undertake to provide profes- 
 sional training for teachers. Professor W. H. Payne 
 was made the first professor of the Science and Art 
 of Teaching in 1879, and on his leaving the Univer- 
 sity Professor Hinsdale carried on the work. 1 The 
 following extract from the Calendar of the Michigan 
 University explains the views held by its faculty as 
 to the importance of the training of teachers : 
 
 " The aims of the University in providing instruc- 
 tion in the Science and the Art of Teaching are : 
 
 " 1. To fit University students for the higher posi* 
 tions in the public school service. 
 
 "It is a natural function of the University, as the 
 head of our system of public instruction, to supply 
 the demand made upon it for furnishing the larger 
 public schools with superintendents, principals, and 
 assistants. Year by year these important positions 
 
 1 The University of Iowa had, however, in 1873 made 
 pedagogics a sub-department of general philosophy. As 
 early as 1880 a course of lectures on ,the Science and Art of 
 Teaching had been given by the State Superintendent, Dr. 
 Gregory, in the University of Michigan. 
 
i8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 are falling more and more into the hands of men 
 that have received their education in the University. 
 Till recently the training given to our graduates 
 has been almost purely literary ; it has lacked the 
 professional character that alone gives special fitness 
 for the successful management of schools and school 
 systems. Now, however, the University offers 
 students that wish to become teachers ample facili- 
 ties for professional study. 
 
 " 2. To promote the study of educational science. 
 
 11 The establishment of a chair of teaching is a 
 recognition of the truth that the art of education 
 has its correlative science ; and that the processes of 
 the schoolroom can become rational only by de- 
 veloping and teaching the principles that underlie 
 these processes. Systems of public instruction are 
 everywhere on trial, and the final criteria by which 
 they are to stand or fall must be found in a philo- 
 sophical study of the educating art. 
 
 " 3. To teach the history of education, and of 
 educational systems and doctrines. 
 
 " The supreme right of the school is to grow ; and 
 much hurtful interference might be avoided by 
 ascertaining the direction of educational progress 
 and the history of educational thought. 
 
 " 4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives, 
 and advantages of a profession. 
 
 "5. To give a more perfect unity to our State edu- 
 cational system by bringing the secondary schools 
 into closer relations with the University." 
 
 The Teacher's diploma is given to a student at 
 the time of receiving a Bachelor's degree, provided 
 
TEACHER'S CERTIFICATE 181 
 
 he has completed three Courses of study offered by 
 the professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, 
 viz., Courses 1 and 2, and one of Courses 3, 5, 4, 6, 
 or 7, and, also, at least one of the Teachers' Courses 
 offered by other professors, and by special examina- 
 tion has shown such marked proficiency in the Course 
 chosen as qualifies him to give instruction in the 
 same. The diploma is also given to a graduate 
 student at the time of receiving a Master's or a 
 Doctor's degree, provided he has pursued teaching 
 as a major or a minor study, and has also taken a 
 Teacher's Course in some other department. 
 
 By authority of an Act of the State legislature, 
 passed in 1891, the Faculty of this Department give 
 a Teacher's Certificate to any person who takes a 
 Bachelor's, Master's, or Doctor's degree, and also 
 receives a Teacher's diploma as provided above. 
 By the terms of the Act, the certificate given by the 
 Faculty " shall serve as a legal certificate of qualifi- 
 cation to teach in any of the schools of this State, 
 when a copy thereof shall have been filed or recorded 
 in the office of the legal examining officer or officers 
 of the county township, city, or district." 
 
 To meet these special requirements the following 
 courses have been arranged : — 
 
 First Course: 
 
 1. Practical : the arts of teaching and governing ; methods 
 of instruction and general school-room practice; school 
 hygiene : school law. Recitations and lectures. 
 
 3. History of education : ancient and mediaeval. Recita- 
 tions and lectures. Text-book : Compayre's History of 
 Pedagogy. 
 
 5. School supervision ; embracing general school manage- 
 
1 82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 ment, the art of grading and arranging courses of study, the 
 conduct of institutes, etc. Eecitations and lectures. Text- 
 book ; Payne's chapters on School Supervision. 
 
 Second Course : 
 
 2. Theoretical and critical ; the principles underlying the 
 arts of teaching and governing. Lectures. 
 
 4. History of education ; modern. Eecitations and lec- 
 tures. Text-book ; Compayre's History of Pedagogy. 
 
 6. The comparative study of educational systems, domestic 
 and foreign. Lectures. 
 
 7. Seminary. Study and discussion of special topics in the 
 History and Philosophy of Education. 
 
 Special Teachers' Courses are also arranged for in most 
 subjects, and attendance at one at least of these is necessary 
 in order to obtain the Teacher's diploma. 
 
 The University of Illinois has a course in Pedagogy 
 which may count towards a degree. It may count 
 towards most of the degrees granted, but for the de- 
 gree in philosophy and pedagogy, and which implies 
 a four years' course, the arrangement is as follows : — 
 
 The first and second years of this course may be 
 those of any course in the College of Literature. 
 Third Year. 
 
 1. Psychology ; Chemistry or History ; Latin, German or 
 French. 
 
 2. Logic ; Zoology, or History, Latin, German, or French. 
 
 3. Philosophy of Education ; Geology, or History; Latin, 
 German or French. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 1. History of Education ; Educational Psychology ; His- 
 tory of Civilization ; English (half course) ; Elocution. 
 
 2. School hygiene ; Constitutional History (England) ; 
 English, (half course) ; Elocution. 
 
 3. School Supervision ; Pedagogical Seminary ; Political 
 Economy, or Constitutional History (U.S.); English, (half 
 course) ; Elocution. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CITY OF NEW YORK 183 
 
 The University of Indiana possesses a department 
 of pedagogics the courses of which count towards 
 a degree. There are three courses. 
 
 I. 
 
 (a) Educational Psychology (a knowledge of Psychology 
 being presupposed). 
 
 (6) The School as an Institution. 
 
 (c) The General History of Education. 
 
 II. 
 
 (a) The Science of Education. 
 
 (b) Didactics. 
 
 (c) City School Systems. 
 
 (d) School Supervision. 
 
 III. 
 
 (a) Contemporary Education. 
 
 (b) School System of Indiana. 
 
 (c) Philosophy of Education. 
 
 Special Teachers' Courses in certain subjects are 
 also given. 
 
 The School of Pedagogy in connection with the 
 University of the City of New York, is based upon 
 the idea that a degree should follow successful 
 teaching. It has three professors and a lecturer. 
 Only those are admitted as regular students who 
 are graduates of Colleges, or of the New York State 
 Normal Schools, but others may, at the discretion of 
 the Faculty, be admitted as auditors. It was es- 
 tablished in 1890 and has had 134 students. 
 
 The courses of study are as follows : — 
 
 1. History of Education. 
 
 2. Psychology and Ethics. 
 
 3. Institutes of Education. 
 
 4. Educational Classics and ^Esthetics. 
 
 5. Systems of Education. 
 
184 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 For the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy a thesis to 
 be known as the " Thesis for the Doctorate in Peda- 
 gogy r ' has to be submitted for approval to the 
 Faculty. This thesis must discuss a subject belong- 
 ing to the field of one of the courses of study, and 
 must show original treatment, or give evidence of 
 independent research. 
 
 Each student who has been a member of the 
 Senior Class for two or more years will be entitled 
 to the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy upon the follow- 
 ing conditions : — 
 
 1. He must have been credited with attendance 
 upon the required lectures. 
 
 2. He must have been credited with attendance 
 upon the required seminaria. 
 
 3. He must have passed an examination upon each 
 of the five courses. 
 
 4. He must have presented the prescribed final 
 thesis, and have received approval of the same. 
 
 5. He must have presented upon entering the 
 School of Pedagogy a certain certificate showing four 
 years' successful experience in schoolroom work. 
 
 Each student of the School who has been a mem- 
 ber of the Junior Class for one or more years, and a 
 resident student at least one year, will be entitled to 
 the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon the follow- 
 ing conditions : — 
 
 1. He must have been credited with attendance 
 upon the required lectures. 
 
 2. He must have passed the examination upon 
 each of the four courses first named. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY AT TEACHERS' COLLEGE 185 
 
 3. He must present a certificate showing three 
 years' successful experience in school-room work. 
 
 The Iowa University was the first to allow peda- 
 gogics to count towards a degree. Graduates of the 
 University who have included in their course the 
 year's course of pedagogy may, after two years of 
 successful teaching, be granted the degree of 
 Bachelor of Didactics. 
 
 There is at New York an Institution which 
 appeared to me to be unique in America, but of 
 which the work more nearly resembled the best 
 Secondary Training as carried on in Great Britain 
 than any other which I had the opportunity of study- 
 ing. It is known as the New York College for the 
 Training of Teachers. It received its charter from 
 the Board of Regents of the University of the State 
 of New York in 1889, constituting it a Training 
 College with the power of granting professional de- 
 grees. This year, however, it enters on a new phase 
 of its life, having been affiliated with the Columbia 
 College at New York. 
 
 Columbia College had already made provision for 
 lectures on the Science and Art of Education, but 
 its connection with the Teachers' College, will enable 
 it to offer in addition the advantages of training in 
 the practical art of teaching to its students. On 
 the other hand, it is felt to be an advantage to the 
 Teachers' College to be allied with a College of 
 University rank — Columbia College — which will 
 thus show by example that it is possible to combine 
 both theoretical and practical training in a Univer- 
 sity Course. 
 
1 86 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The full course of study leading to the degree 
 of Bachelor of Pedagogy _ occupies two years. All 
 candidates for admission must pass an entrance ex- 
 amination unless they are graduates from Colleges 
 or other specified Institutions. 
 
 The ordinary course of study includes the follow- 
 ing subjects : — 
 
 1. Psychology (pure and applied). 
 
 2. History and Principles of Education. 
 
 3. Methods of Teaching. 
 
 4. Observation and Practice in the School of Observation 
 and Practice. 
 
 5. School Organization and Administration in the United 
 States, England, France and Germany. 
 
 6. Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten. 
 
 7. Teaching of Natural Science and construction of simple 
 illustrative Apparatus. 
 
 8. Manual Training (this includes Form Study, Drawing, 
 Domestic Economy, Mechanical Drawing and "Wood Work- 
 ing). 
 
 All are recommended to take the general Course 
 by special opportunities offered to those who wish to 
 become specialists. 
 
 Any teacher of high scholarship and experience 
 may come to the College for one year and take up 
 an advanced elective course. 
 
 1. The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy and the 
 College diploma, repectively, are conferred, upon 
 recommendation of the Faculty, upon such students, 
 being duly qualified candidates for the same, as have 
 completed a course of study covering two years, as 
 follows : — 
 
DEGREES AND CERTIFICATES 187 
 
 Required work in the following Departments : 
 
 Department of History and Institutes of Education. 
 Department of Science and Art of Teaching. 
 Department of Kindergarten, Course I. 
 Department of Form Study and Drawing, Course I. 
 Department of Physical Training. 
 
 Elective : 
 
 A major course or minor courses. 
 
 II. The College Certificate is conferred,- upon re- 
 commendation of the President, the Dean, and the 
 Professor in charge of any department, upon such 
 qualified candidates as have completed a course of 
 study covering one year, as follows : — 
 
 Required : 
 
 Department of History and Institutes of Education, 
 Department of Science and Art of Teaching. 
 Department of Physical Culture. 
 
 Elective : 
 
 In any department, a major course, together with such 
 other minor courses as will suffice to make up the required 
 amount of work. 
 
 III. The Departmental Certificate, Major or Minor, 
 is conferred, upon recommendation of the professors 
 in charge of the departments in which studies 
 leading to this certificate are pursued, upon such 
 qualified candidates as have completed a course of 
 study as follows : — 
 
 Department of History and Institutes of Educa- 
 tion, Course I. 
 
 In any department or departments, either Major 
 or Minor courses. 
 
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 There is also a two years' course for the training 
 of Kindergartners, on the completion of which a 
 certificate is granted, and a post-graduate course for 
 those who desire it. 
 
 One hundred and twenty-six students were in 
 training when I visited it, and of these only three 
 or four were men. 
 
 The whole course of training centres round the 
 School of Observation and Practice. The lecturers on 
 method also teach in the school, and are responsible 
 there for the teaching of their own special subjects 
 They give lessons on these, which are listened to 
 by the students, and they also criticise lessons given 
 by the latter. A good deal of the time devoted to 
 the study of methods is employed in the learning 
 how to make simple apparatus and illustrations. 
 
 Classes are held on Saturdays for those who are 
 engaged in teaching during the rest of the week. 
 
 The college has also undertaken the publication 
 of a series of pamphlets on educational subjects. 
 
 The whole work of this college impressed me as 
 being of a very high character, and there was such 
 an atmosphere of life and enthusiasm that it would 
 seem that teachers must go forth from thence in- 
 spired with a love for their work and a determination 
 to advance it by every means in their power. It is 
 just this rousing to enthusiasm which seems to lie 
 at the root of training, and the surest means of 
 bringing this about is for those who undertake it to 
 be enthusiastic themselves. I had the opportunity 
 of talking to most of the lecturers, and shall not 
 readily forget the keen interest and pleasure they 
 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER 
 
 all seemed to take in their special departments, the 
 readiness, nay eagerness, with which they appeared 
 to welcome new ideas and work them out, and the 
 willingness with which they shared with others the 
 results of their own experience and research. 
 
 One of the most interesting of the many insti- 
 tutions which I visited was the Clark University 
 at Worcester. It is entirely devoted to Graduate 
 work, and consists of a group of five departments : 1. 
 Mathematics ; 2. Physics ; 3. Chemistry ; 4. Biology ; 
 5. Psychology (with sub-department of Education). 
 
 Two or three years' work at the University and 
 an original thesis are the requirements for the 
 degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 There is no very clearly marked line between pro- 
 fessors and students. Students are often specialists, 
 and as such asked to give short courses in their 
 special subjects, and professors and lecturers attend 
 each other's courses. 
 
 Docents, or those who, having fulfilled certain 
 conditions, desire to undertake research work, are 
 provided with rooms and appartus for their work. 
 
 The President, Dr. Stanley Hall, is especially 
 interested in the department of Education. The 
 following outline of the course is from the Univer- 
 sity Calendar : — 
 
 " Education. — This has been made a sub-depart- 
 ment of the department of Psychology, and now 
 offers a course which can be taken as a Minor for 
 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its work is in 
 the closest connection with the work in psychology 
 
190 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 and anthropology, and in part based on these. The 
 work in this department is intended to meet the 
 needs of the following classes of men : 
 
 " First, — Those intending to teach some other 
 speciality, but who wish a general survey of the 
 history, present state, methods, and recent advances 
 in the field of university, professional, and technical 
 education. 
 
 " Second. — Those who desire to become professors 
 of pedagogy, or heads or instructors in normal 
 schools, superintendents, or otherwise to become 
 experts in the work of education." 
 
 The programme of the Educational Department 
 includes courses upon the following subjects : 
 
 I. (a) Child Study. (&) Educational Psychology, (c) 
 School Hygiene. 
 
 II. (a) Principles of Education, (b) History of Education 
 and Reforms, (c) Methods, Devices, Apparatus, etc. 
 
 III. (a) Organization of Schools in different countries. (6) 
 Typical Schools and Special Foundations, (c) Motor Educa- 
 tion, including manual training, physical education, etc. 
 (cl) Moral Education, (e) Ideals. 
 
 IV. Higher Education, including university work, tech- 
 nical education ; training in law, medicine, and theology ; 
 recent progress, present state and prospects of the most 
 advanced education in different countries, including our own. 
 
 The courses in education for 1893-94 are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Dr. G. Stanley HalVs Courses : 
 
 {A) Present status and problems of Higher Education in 
 this country and Europe. One hour weekly, half a year. 
 
 (B) Outline of Systematic Pedagogy. One hour weekly, 
 half a year. 
 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER 191 
 
 Dr. Burnham's Courses : 
 
 (C) Organization of schools in Europe, especially the 
 schools of France, Germany, Sweden, and England. Typical 
 schools described, and educational principles illustrated by 
 them, expounded and discussed. References made to impor- 
 tant literature, and the work may serve as an outline for 
 further study. One hour a week, half a year. 
 
 (D) School Hygiene, following and supplementing his 
 " Outlines of School Hygiene," and considering special topics. 
 One hour a week, half a year. 
 
 (E) Educational reforms, involving the discussion of a few 
 fundamental educational principles and the presentation of 
 chapters in the history of education. One hour a week, half 
 a year. 
 
 (F) Motor Education of children. This course will en- 
 deavour to elucidate the principles that should govern this 
 side of education, and will involve the study of writing, 
 drawing, manual training, and of play and gymnastics as 
 means of motor education. The course may include also the 
 study of motor training and muscular development in rela- 
 tion to intellectual ability and moral character. One hour a 
 week, half a year. 
 
 (G) The work of the Seminary, once a week throughout 
 the year, will be, for the most part, adapted to individual 
 students. It is hoped that each student will select, after 
 conference with President Hall and Dr. Burnham, a topic 
 for special investigation. The results of such study may be 
 published. 
 
 The courses as announced above may be modified 
 somewhat as the needs of the students or other 
 circumstances may require. 
 
 The library of the department is especially rich 
 in foreign educational literature, and a considerable 
 amount of illustrative apparatus has been collected. 
 The Worcester Public Library and the library of 
 the American Antiquarian Society are also acces- 
 sible to students. 
 
192 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The Pedagogical Seminary is published by this 
 department, and offers facilities for printing digests, 
 reviews, and more valuable papers prepared by the 
 members of the department. 
 
 This department has the twofold aim of (1) pre- 
 paring professors, superintendents and teachers for 
 their future work, and (2) making contributions to 
 the Science of Education. The second of these aims 
 is being vigorously taken up, research of some kind 
 being expected from every one. The fact that there 
 is no school of observation in connection with the 
 University is of course a drawback to the complete 
 carrying out of both of the above aims. Visits, for 
 purposes of observation, are however made to schools 
 in the neighbourhood,- the records now numbering 
 some fifteen thousand made by the students of the 
 Worcester Normal School, in connection with the 
 study of children, are available for reference, and 
 a scheme for establishing a University School is 
 even now under consideration. Should this scheme 
 become a reality, we might look forward hopefully 
 to getting fresh light on many school problems. 
 One especially, to which Dr. Hall drew my attention, 
 might well have its solution attempted in such a 
 school. It concerns the duty of teachers toward 
 the bright, quick-working children in a school. In 
 every class some will be found who work quicker 
 and have more intellectual power than the others, 
 and at the same time some who are dull and slow- 
 witted. Now the power of detecting and directing 
 one's teaching to the latter is often made the test 
 of a good teacher, and in a very true sense it may 
 
OTHER UNIVERSITIES 193 
 
 be said to be so. But there is another side to the 
 question, and those of us who have taught cannot 
 fail to have often been conscious that while the 
 needed attention and explanations are being given 
 to the dull ones, the time of the quick-working 
 children is being practically wasted. As Dr. Hall 
 points out, we have perhaps not yet realized how 
 much power is lost to the world in consequence. 
 It would be an interesting experiment to select such 
 bright, quick-witted children, and putting them into 
 a class by themselves, in charge of an able teacher, 
 to note the results of thus allowing them to work at 
 their own rate. 
 
 The Clark University is unfortunately not open 
 to women, if the summer school (to which they are 
 admitted) be not considered. 
 
 Students are expected to possess a reading know- 
 ledge of the French and German languages, and a 
 knowledge of Elementary Psychology is also con- 
 sidered desirable. 
 
 There are many other Universities which have 
 opened more or less complete pedagogical depart- 
 ments ; but these which have been described will 
 suffice to give a general idea of the courses offered 
 in them. On the whole it appeared to me that 
 while in America excellent provision is made in 
 many of the States for the training of teachers for 
 the Primary Schools on the one hand, and for the 
 positions of professors, lecturers, superintendents on 
 the other, far too little attention is given to the 
 training of teachers for the High, Collegiate and 
 Private Schools. High School teachers are mainly 
 
194 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 those who have worked their way up through the 
 grades (salaries tend to increase with the grade, 
 which brings about that inexperienced teachers are 
 too often put to the lower classes), while the teachers 
 in Collegiate and Private Schools have usually taken 
 up the work straight from college without any 
 special preparation at all. England and Wales have, 
 I think, made much better provision for the training 
 of such teachers, but I think we have a good deal 
 to learn from America in providing for the training 
 of lecturers, school inspectors, etc., etc., and perhaps 
 also in the matter of setting the seal of University 
 approval upon training, by the bestowal of educa- 
 tional degrees. 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes form an integral part of most 
 state and city systems of education. They have 
 been denned as " normal schools with a very short 
 course," and this definition is substantially correct. 
 The work done by them is of much the same charac- 
 ter as that done in the Normal Schools, and they 
 have the same end in view — that of making teachers 
 more fit for their profession. They, however, vary 
 somewhat in character, and it will be perhaps well 
 to distinguish between — 
 
 1. Those which are held on Saturdays for teachers 
 in the city or district, and which are usually con- 
 ducted by the superintendent, who gives lectures on 
 the Science and Art of Teaching, discusses educa- 
 
TEACHER'S INSTITUTES 195 
 
 tional problems and methods, or follows out with 
 them a course of reading. Attendance at these 
 institutes is often made compulsory, and loss of 
 part of salary is sometimes made the penalty for 
 non-attendance. By the statistics returned from 
 ninety-six cities holding institutes, it appears that 
 forty-four thus enforce attendance. 
 
 2. Those lasting for about six to ten days, having 
 short courses in certain subjects, and especially on 
 the theory of teaching. These are usually those 
 organized by the State Superintendent, who has 
 however the power of delegating the conduct of 
 these institutes to other persons whom he may deem 
 qualified. Again, attendance at many of these is 
 made compulsory. 
 
 3. Such institutes as are held at some country or 
 sea-side place for a length of time, varying from a 
 fortnight to six weeks. These, however, are mostly 
 started by private agencies, and have little besides 
 the name to distinguish them from Summer Schools. 
 The summer meeting of teachers at Martha's Vine- 
 yard is known as an Institute, and is of this class. 
 The Teachers' Institutes do not aim at supplying 
 a complete course of Training, but rather at sup- 
 plementing the work of the Normal Schools and 
 Colleges. 
 
 v pr*s 
 
 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COUESh& ^, 
 
 A Summer School seems to differ from an Tn^ft^t^p 1 
 mainly in relation to the amount of professional 
 
196 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 work undertaken. It is usually open for from four 
 to six weeks, and has a great variety of courses. I 
 was able to attend several of these, and was kindly 
 allowed to hear some of the lectures given and to 
 observe the work. 
 
 One of these held at Benton Harbour, Michigan, 
 was chiefly attended by those district teachers who 
 wished to prepare for the teachers' examinations. 
 It was really a private Normal School, which used 
 its buildings in July for a Summer School. The 
 subjects given were mainly those necessary for the 
 teachers' certificates, with some classes on Methods, 
 and School Management and Drill and Elocution. 
 
 Of quite a different kind was that held at the 
 Cook County Normal School. This was almost 
 entirely professional, and held on much the same 
 lines as the ordinary work of the school. 
 
 The Summer Assembly at Chautauqua includes a 
 Summer School, which again may be said to include 
 a special course for teachers, called the Teachers' 
 Retreat. 
 
 In addition to the Summer Schools, there are 
 summer courses provided for teachers at many 
 universities. Cornell University makes special pro- 
 vision for such a course, of which the following is 
 an announcement. 
 
 "In the summer of 1892, courses of instruction were 
 offered by professors and instructors of this Univer- 
 sity in Botany, Chemistry, Mathematics, Philosophy, 
 Physics, English, French, German, Drawing, and 
 Physical Training. The Summer School has now 
 been made an integral part of the University, and 
 
CORNELL 
 
 97 
 
 for the summer of 1893, courses are offered in the 
 following subjects : 
 
 Greek, 
 
 Philosophy, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Pedagogy, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 German, 
 
 History, 
 
 Botany, 
 
 French, 
 
 Political and Social 
 
 Drawing and Art, 
 
 English, 
 
 Science, 
 
 Mechanical Drawing, 
 
 Elocution, 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Physical Training. 
 
 "Without excluding others qualified to take up 
 the work, these courses are offered for the special 
 benefit of teachers. They afford a practical scheme 
 of university extension, by which the teachers 
 themselves are taught under university instructors, 
 by university methods, and with access to university 
 libraries, museums, and laboratories. 
 
 The courses are open to women as well as to men, 
 and the same facilities for work are extended to 
 these students as to the regular students of the 
 university. The amount of work implied in these 
 courses is so great that students are advised to con- 
 fine their attention to one or two subjects. Every 
 opportunity will be given for original research under 
 the guidance and with the assistance of members of 
 the instructing corps." 
 
 In 1892 a summer course in Psychology and 
 Pedagogy was held for two weeks at the Clark 
 University. All the resources of the University — 
 books, apparatus, etc. — were placed at the disposal 
 of the students. About seventy men and women 
 attended. Other universities arrange for similar 
 
198 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 courses, but these two suffice to indicate the lines 
 of work. 
 
 The Prang system, which aims at the complete 
 organization of Form Study, Drawing and Colour 
 teaching in the schools, demands also the training 
 of its teachers. The system is being introduced 
 into an ever-increasing number of schools, and 
 necessitates some preparation on the part of the 
 teacher in order that its principles shall be rightly 
 understood and effectively carried out. This pre- 
 paration is being carried on by correspondence. The 
 courses of study are definitely arranged, and the 
 student chooses the one she desires. The text-books 
 and materials are sent to her ; she works lessons at 
 home, and forwards to the instructors the results of 
 such work — clay modelling, paper-folding, drawing, 
 etc., written observation exercises describing the 
 appearance of models placed in prescribed positions, 
 written outlines for various class exercises, together 
 with any questions she desires to ask. This work 
 is examined and returned to the student with full 
 criticisms. At the end of the course a certificate is 
 awarded to those who have successfully completed 
 it. This plan of training appears to answer well, 
 and will ensure the success of the system. 
 
 Millicent Hughes. 
 
 Eutler & Tanner, The Bel wood Printing Work*, Froine, and London. 
 
 4* 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OP 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILMOc- """ 1B 
 
 Hoy 
 6 
 
 tt-^-^-Mji MOV 2 1965 3 6 
 
 NOV 6 19^]'' ^^ 
 
 ~IN SHACKS 
 
 A«LJL3_1942_ 
 
 \V 
 
 Jjtf 
 
 5ff 
 
 ,JWI2 
 
 4sse^^ 
 
 ^-:_T 
 
 — ^^-^^itr- 
 
 w^^~~ 
 
 MOV-frW* 
 
 2^ 
 
 fcfil^L 
 
 REC'D I. r 
 
 
 LD 21-95m-7,'37 
 

 C0bl31° 0bb 
 
 *' V» ■•*?