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GIFT OF
HORACE W. CARPENTER
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CHINA
THE ENGLISH,
CHINA
THE ENGLISH:
CHARACTER AND MANNERS OF THE CHINESE.
AS ILLUSTRATED
IN THE HISTORY OF THEIR INTERCOURSE
WITH FOREIGNERS.
WRITTEN FOR ABBOTT'S (fFIRESIDE SERIES,
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY LEA VITT; LORD, & CO.
182 Broadway.
BOSTON: CROCKER &. BREWSTER.
1835.
Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1834^
By Leavitt, Lord, & Co.
In the Clerk's OflSce of the District Court of the Southern District
of New York.
D. Fanshaw Printer.
r. J-
NOTICE BY THE EDITOR.
The work which we give our readers as
Volume Third of this series, requires little
prefatory notice. It is designed to furnish to
the families to which it may be admitted, an
entertaining volume for the winter evening
fireside, and at the same time to communicate
such information, in respect to the extraordi-
nary country to which it relates, as may ena-
ble its readers to be more deeply interested
in, and to understand better, the accounts of
the progress of Christianity there, which are
now attracting much of the attention of the
Christian public. i
dOQ77l
C NOTICE EY THE EDITOR.
''*rhe' authorities: froni which the facts stated
in the work have been chiefly derived, are
Marshman, Morrison, Staunton, Barrow, Au-
ber, Milne, and others. Some views in respect
to the nature of the language are taken from
an article inserted in the Religious Magazine,
though originally prepared for this work.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Marco Polo.
The expedition of the two brothers. They meet an
ambassador from the East. Their arrival in China.
Tlieir reception and return. Second expedition. The
legate. Passage through Armenia. The proposal.
Journey through the continent. Arrival and reception.
The emperor's opinion of Christianity. The palace of
Pekin. Paper m.oney. Story of Achmac. Rebellions.
Summary justice. The besieging engine. The travel-
lers' reasons for wishing to return. Difficulties. The
Persian prince, and his embassy to China. The re-
ception of the ambassadors. The bride. First attempt
to return. Failure. Second attempt. Passage through
Persia. Arrival at home Page 13
CHAPTER n.
Canton.
The Portuguese at Canton. First interview with the
natives. Efforts to establish a regular trade. Journal of
the American traveller. Arrival at Macao. The fast-
10 CONTENTS.
boat. Lintin. The Bogue. Custom-house officers.
Whampoa. Junks. Pagodas. Hongs. Amusing scene
at Conton Hong merchants. Old China street. The
city of Canton. The Fahteen Gardens. A visit to the
Monastery , . . • , 59
CHAPTER ni.
Difficulties.
First commercial arrangements with the Portuguese
and East India Companies. Manner in which the trade
was carried on. Licensed pilots. Hong merchant and
the interpreters. Hoppoo. Duties. Policy of the Chi-
nese in cases of misunderstanding with foreigners. Ex*
amples. Chinese killed by firing a salute. Difficulty
arising. Supracargo apprehended. Measures of retali-
ation. The gunner given up. His execution.
Affiiir of the ship Neptune. The mob. Negotiations.
The trial. Edward Sheen surrendered.
Difficulty in 1808. Landing of British troops at Macao.
Remonstrance of the Chinese.
Affair of the Topaze. Fruitless Negotiations. The
viceroy's firmness. His edict. Attempts at compromise.
Recorded opinions of the supracargoes. Ultimate settle-
ment. Success of the Chinese policy. Its unreason-
ableness 95
CHAPTER IV.
The English Embassy.
Object of the chapter. Design of the English embassy.
Lord Macartney. His train. Difficulties about an inter-
CONTENTS. 11
preter. The presents. Communication sent to China.
Embarkation of the embassy. Design in not landing at
Canton. Wish of the Chinese authorities. Chusan.
Effect produced by the arrival of the ships. Chinese
junks. Chinese navigation. Arrival of the brig at Shu-
san. Audience with the mandarin. Attempts to obtain a
pilot. Pressing.
Entrance into the Yellow Sea. The ambassador's di-
rections to the passengers and crew. Mode of sailing
towards the shore. Termination of the voyage. The
Jackal. Her return with the Chinese. The mandarins.
Their impressions on seeing the ship. Mode of taking
them on board. Communication to the mandarins. De-
scription of the presents. The planetarium. The tele-
scope. Globes. Chronometers. Mechanical powers.
Pieces of ordnance. Other presents.
Tne ambassador's instructions to the squadron. The
parting. A man-of-war's farewell. Entering the river.
The boatmen's song. Reception of the whole party as
guests. Chinese salutes. Scenes on the banks of the
river. Illuminations at night. Tien-sing. The embassy
received by the legate. Pekin. Passage through the
city. The yellow wall. Streets ; crowds 134
CHAPTER V.
The English Embassy — continued.
Arrival at Yuen-min-yuen. Difficulties. Journey to
Gehol. The English carriages. The Chinese wall.
Arrival. Negotiations about ceremonies. The audience.
Visit to the emperor's gardens. Return to Pekin.
Meeting the emperor on his return. The farewell visits.
Journey through the country 193
13 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
IkTRODUCTJON nF TH*" BlBLE.
Dr. Morrison. Preparations. Embarkation. Visit at
Philadelphia. Mr. Madison. Arrival at Canton. The
beginning. Mr. Morrison's dress. The go-down. Mr.
Morrison's appointment. The Chinese language. Na-
ture of its signs. The character. The idiom. Dialogue
between a traveller and a Canton merchant. Progress
of the translation. Arrival of Milne. Aid from Catholic
labors. Conclusion 233
CHINA
CHAPTER I.
MARCO POLO.
About five hundred years ago, when the com-
merce between Europe and the East was carried
on through the great commercial cities of the
Mediterranean, two brothers, by the names of
Nicolo aird Matteo* Polo, set off together fro.m
Venice, their home, ta seek .their fpjrtunes as
t'ravielling «>erchantS' jtp. Asia. ^ They went first
to Constantinople', taktng with theni sucli mer*-
chan^ise as jewelry, and other articles of great
value, compaiTSd' With their weight and size; for
the modes of transportation were difficult and
precarious. They passed on from Constanti-
nople to the Black Sea, stopping to trade at its
more important ports, and then pursued their
journey northward and eastward, until they
reached the court of a powerful Tartar prince,
2
14 MARCO POLO.
whose domain extended over that part of the
world.
This journey took place not long after the time
of the celebrated Tartar conqueror, Ghengis
Khan, who overran all Asia from the River
Volga to the China Sea. His dominions were
now, however, divided among his descendants :
one, by the name of Kublai Khan, whose seat
of government was on the confines of China,
being considered as holding the highest power,
was called the grand khan, the latter word,
in their language, signifying chief. The mer-
chants remained for some time in the vicinity of
the Caspian, but, unfortunately, or, rather, very
fortunately, as appeared in the result, it hap-
pened that a war broke out between the subor-
dinate Tartar princes, which rendered their
return unsafe. They moved, therefore, slowly
on, endeavoring to take, a large circuit around
the disturbed countries, and thus get back to
Constantinople. While * on their way, in the
attempt to execute this plan, they were met, at
the city of Bokhara,^ by an envoy or ambassador,
who was going from on.e of the western khans
to the grand khan, Kublai, in the East. The
envoy invited our Italian merchants to accom-
pany him. He seemed to be gratified at meet-
ing them and conversing with thern ; for they
MARCO POLO.
15
had by this time learned the Tartar language.
He assured them, also, that, if they would accom-
pany him across the continent to the court of the
emperor, they would be honorably received, and
would be recompensed by valuable presents.
The travellers seem to have hesitated about
embarking on so distant an expedition ; but the
way for return to their homes appeared to be cut
off, and they at length determined to accede to
the ambassador's proposal. They accordingly
set out with him, attended by a considerable
train of servants and companions, and directed
their course into the heart of the continent.
They passed rivers and mountains, and almost
boundless wastes; and, after a year of fatigue
and hardship, they reached the residence of the
emperor.
The envoy was not mistaken in regard to the
manner in which the monarch would receive
his guests. They were the first Italians who ^^^*
had ever made their way into his country; and
Italy, from various causes, was at this time one
of the most important countries in Europe. The
emperor had many interviews with them, making
inquiries about their parts of the world, the
various Christian princes, their relative conse-
quence, the extent of their dominions, the
manner in which justice was administered in
16 MARCO POLO.
their several kingdoms, how they conducted them-
selves in warfare ; and, above all, he questioned
them particularly respecting the pope, the affairs
of the church, and the nature of the Christian
religion, the doctrines, the duties, and the modes
of worship, which it prescribes.
After remaining a considerable time with the
Tartar or Chinese emperor, — for his empire in-
cluded China, — they began to think of their return.
The emperor determined to send one of his offi-
cers with them, as an ambassador to the pope, to
request, as the travellers say, " that his holiness
would send him one hundred men of learning,
thoroughly acquainted with the principles of the
Christian religion, as well as with the seven
sciences, and qualified to prove to the learned
of his dominions, by just and fair argument, that
the faith professed by the Christians is supe-
rior to, and founded upon more evidence than,
any other." He gave them some other commis-
sions, such as that they should bring him some
of the holy oil with which the lamp was kept
constantly burning before the sepulchre of the
Saviour at Jerusalem, of whose wonderful virtues
the Italians had probably informed him. He
gave them letters to the pope, written in the
Tartarian language, and furnished them also
with " a golden tablet, displaying the imperial
MARCO POLO. 17
cipher, according to the usage established by his
majesty, in virtue of which, the person bearing it,
together with his whole company, are safely con-
veyed and escorted from station to station, by the
govfirnors of all the places within the imperial
dominions."
These arrangements being made, the travellers
set out on their return. In a few days, however,
the officer who had been commissioned to accom-
pany them, fell sick ; and it was found necessary,
as they say, to leave him behind. The travellers
themselves, with their own company, came on.
Their golden tablet secured them a passage,
provisions, escorts, every thing that was necessary;
and so slow and tedious was their travelling, that
for three years they turned their route towards the
west, before they reached the European waters.
At length, however, they arrived at a port upon
the Black Sea, whence they went by water to
Acre, an important town upon the eastern coast
of the Mediterranean, where they found them-
selves once more in Christendom. They learned
here that the pope was dead, which, of course,
made it necessary to suspend the execution of
their commission from the Chinese emperor until
a successor should be appointed ; and, in the mean
time, they set sail, as soon as possible, for their
home. Nearly twenty years had elapsed sinca
2*
18 MARCO POLO.
their departure : of course they must nave ex-
pected some changes. The principal one of
importance to our future narrative, was, that
Nicholas, one of the brothers, instead of being
welcomed by the wife whom he had left, was
received by a son nineteen years of age, whom
he had never before seen. The former had died,
and the latter been born, a few months after the
commencement of the husband's wanderings.
The young man's name was Marco Polo, or, as
we should say in English, Mark Paul ; and it is
his name which we have placed at the head of
this chapter ; for it is chiefly his adventures which
it is the object of the chapter to describe.
•.
The two brothers, after remaining a short time
at Venice, determined on returning to the East,
as they had promised to the grand khan. They
were, however, delayed by an unexpected obsta-
cle. They were commissioned, it will be recol-
lected, as an embassy to the pope, from the
Eastern emperor; but they found, on their return,
as has been already intimated, that the individual
whom they had left in the pontifical chair was
dead, and the functionaries upon whom the elec-
tion of a successor devolved, could not agree
upon a choice. The travellers were unwilling to
return until they could carry back an official
MARCO POLO. 19
reply to the emperor's communication, and yet
they were uneasy at the delay. Two years
elapsed before they decided what to do.
Now, it happened, that, on their return from
Asia, they had found at Acre, that the Roman
legate there, a man of high rank and influence
in the Catholic church, took a very active in-
terest in their expedition, and in the commission
which had been intrusted to them. They con-
cluded, therefore, since there seemed to be little
immediate probability that the chair at P^ome
would soon be filled, to set sail from Venice for
Acre, and to lay more fully before this legate
their communications for the pope, and to re-
quest him to prepare and forward the replies.
They took with them Marco Polo, the son ; and
from Acre they turned aside from their route, to
go to Jerusalem to obtain some of the holy oil
which the Chinese emperor had particularly re-
quested. From Jerusalem they returned to Acre,
and then, having received communications for
the emperor from the legate, and minute instruc-
tions themselves, they sailed to the northward
along the coast of the Mediterranean, until they
came to a port at the north-east corner of that
sea, near Tarsus, where they landed, and, leaving
the coast, commenced their journey into the
interior.
29 MARCO POLO.
They had scarcely crossed the country of Ar-
menia, before they were overtaken by a messenger
from the king, informing them that the very legate
at Acre, who had given them their credentials
and instructions, had himself been elected pope,
and that he had sent after them to wish them to
return, in order that he might now, by means of
the new authority with which he was clothed,
provide in a more formal and effectual manner,
for a suitable reply to the communications from
the Eastern monarch. They accordingly return-
ed, as lapidly as possible, in a galley provided
for them by the king of Armenia, accompanied
by an ambassador from him to the new pontiff.
How different their circumstances, now, from those
under which they commenced their first journey
thirty years before ! Then, they were solitary and
unknown adventurers, working their way, with
great fatigue and danger, through the various
provinces in their route ; now, objects of interest
to the highest powers — conveyed at the expense
and under the protection of monarchy, and about
to be the bearers of despatches from the great
potentate of the Western world, to the mightiest
monarch of the Eastern.
They were received in the most distinguished
manner by the new pope ; and new arrangements
were made for their journey. Regular letters
MARCO POLO. 2^
papal were prepared for them. Two ecclesiastics
were appointed to accompany them, — Father
Nicholas and Father William, — who were said
to be men of great attainments in literature,
science and theology. They received ample
powers to found churches, ordain priests, con-
secrate bishops, and grant absolution for sins.
They were intrusted, also, with many valuable
presents for the grand khan.
The whole party, including attendants and
servants, set out again for the north-eastern port
of the Mediterranean, where they landed, and
began once more their long journey across the
continent. But the course of their affairs was
not yet destined to run smooth. The preachers
commissioned to accompany them soon found
their courage and resolution unequal to the labors
and dangers of the almost Herculean task before
them. The wars and rumors of wars, and the
commotions from which the political sky in those
countries and ages was scarcely ever free, terri-
fied them. The immense distance of their almost
trackless way, and the sufferings and fatigues
which they did not perhaps appreciate, until, by a
little trial, they began to feel them, damped their
ardor, and they concluded, very wisely, perhaps,
to leave to the two brothers and the son, all the
danger and all the glory of the enterprise. They
X» MARCO POLO.
delivered over to the merchants, therefore, the
letters and presents which the pope had intrusted
to them, and, putting themselves under the pro-
tection of a military escort. Father Nicholas and
Father William made the best of their way home.
Whatever curiosity the reader may feel in regard
to the reception which they met with from the
disappointed pontiff, must, however, remain un-
gratified, as tho original narrative is silent.
The Polo family went on. They soon crossed
the frontiers of Armenia, and pressed on into the
heart of the continent. Month after month they
continued their journey, through deserts, across
rivers, and over mountains. Winter set in, and
blocked up their way with ice and snow, or
impeded their progress by storms. When Sum-
mer returned, they resumed their course again ;
and thus, after three years and a half, they began
to draw near to the residence of the emperor.
Hearing of their approach, he sent out messengers,
forty days' journey, to meet them : these mes-
sengers brought with them every supply for their
wants, and ample means of comfort and protec-
tion. " By these means, and through the blessing
of God," as Marco Polo devoutly expresses it,
" they at length arrived in safety at the royal
court."
They were " honorably and graciously received/
MARCO POLO,
<JS
as Marco goes on to say, " by the grand khan,
in a full assembly of his principal officers. When
they drew nigh to his person, they paid their
respects by prostrating themselves upon the floor.
He immediately commanded them to rise, and to
relate to him the circumstances of their travels,
with all that had taken place in their negotiation
with his holiness the pope. To their narrative,
which they gave in the regular order of events,
and delivered in perspicuous language, he listened
with attentive silence. The letters and presents
from the pope were then laid before him, and,
upon hearing the former read, he bestowed much
commendation on the fidelity, the zeal, and the
diligence of his ambassadors ; and, receiving with
due reverence the oil from the holy sepulchre,
gave directions that it should be preserved with
religious care.''
The third individual of the party, young Marco,
now about twenty-two years of age, would, of
course, soon attract the attention of his maje^ny.
The emperor seemed to look upon him with
peculiar favor ; and it is remarkable, that the
interview, in this respect, as narrated by the trav-
ellers, corresponds almost precisely with a similar
occurrence which took place five hundred years
after, when an English ambassador and his sec-
retary appeared in the presence of the Chinese
24 MARCO POLO.
emperor, with a young son of the secretary in
their train. In both cases, the youth attracted
the special attention of the monarch. Marco
Polo was received at once into his service ; and
as, according to his own statement, he entered
with great ardor into the duties of his new station,
he soon acquired, in a very great degree, the
confidence and affection of his sovereign. His
youth gave him a great advantage over his father
and uncle. He could more easily learn the
languages and adopt the customs which prevailed
around him ; and his European attainments fitted
him to be, in many respects, highly useful.
Seventeen years the travellers continued in this
country, in the service of the monarch. They
had various adventures, travelling over all parts
of the empire, and were intrusted, from time to
time, with the management of important affairs.
Marco himself was often despatched to remote
portions of the country, and was frequently in-
trusted with civil and military power. He used
often, too, to travel on his own private account,
and thus had the opportunity of acquiring very
extensive information in regard to the manners
and customs, the government, institutions and
laws of the Eastern world.
It is not our intention to give to our readers
any very minute account of our traveller's observa-
MARCO POLO. T9P
tions. It is the general history of this extraor-
dinary expedition, only, that we wish to bring to
view. He describes the condition of the country,
and the customs of the people in the various
provinces and cities, in a manner corresponding
very nearly with the facts as since ascertained.
These narratives and descriptions are mingled,
it is true, with many fabulous accounts, which,
however, in most instances, he gives as informa-
tion obtained from others, not as observed by
himself. Some things, however, are stated, which
bear pretty strong internal evidence of having
originated chiefly in his own brain. He was
strongly tempted to exaggerate, for instance, every
thing which tended to show the emperor's interest
in Christianity ; as the honor of having made any
impression upon so remote and powerful a govern-
ment in favor of the Catholic religion, would be
very highly valued in those days. Such a story
as the following may have originated in this way.
The Emperor's Opinion of Christianity,
The emperor, it seems, after some signal victory
over his enemies, came in triumph to Kambalu
(Pekin, probably), and there, while rejoicing and
festivity w^ere the order of the day, the time of
Easter approached. " Being aware," says Marco
3
96 MARCO POLO.
Polo, in his narrative, ** that this was one of our
principal solemnities, he commanded all the
Christians to attend him, and to bring with them
their book, which contains the four Gospels of the
evangelists. After causing it to be repeatedly
perfumed with incense, in a ceremonious manner,
he devoutly kissed it, and directed that the same
should be done by all his nobles who were present.
This was his usual practice upon each of the
principal Christian festivals, such as Easter and
Christmas ; and he observed the same at the
festivals of the Saracens, Jews and idolaters.
Upon being asked his motive for this conduct, he
said, * There are four great prophets who are
reverenced and worshipped by the different classes
of mankind. The Christians regard Jesus Christ
as their divinity ; the Saracens, Mahomet ; the
Jews, Moses ; and the idolaters, Sogomombar-
KaUy the most eminent among their idols. I do
honor and show respect to all the four, and invoke
to my aid whichever amongst them is, in truth, su-
preme in heaven.' But from the manner in which
his majesty acted towards them, it is evident that
he regarded the faith of the Christians as the
truest and the best ; nothing, as he observed,
being enjoined to its professors that was not
replete with virtue and holiness. By no means,
however, would he permit them to bear the crosi
MARCO POLO. 27
before them in their processions, because upon
it so exalted a personage as Christ had been
scourged and ignominiously put to death. It may,
pfrhaps, be asked by some, why, if he showed
such a pref«^rence to the faith of Christ, he did
not conform to it, and become a Christian. His
reason for not so doing he assigned to Nicolo
and Maffio Polo, when, upon the occasion of his
sending them as his ambassadors to the pope,
they ventured to address a few words to him on
the subject of Christianity. * Wherefore,' he said,
'should I become a Christian ? You yourselves
must perceive that the Christians of these
countries are ignorant, inefficient persons, who
do not possess the faculty of performing any thing
miraculous, whereas you see that the idolaters
can do whatever they will. When I sit at table,
the cups that were in the middle of the hall come
to me filled with wine and other beverage, spon-
taneously, and without being touched by human
hand ; and I drink from them. They have the
power of controlling bad weather, and obliging it
to retire to any quarter of the heavens ; with
many other wonderful gifts of nature. You are
witnesses that thejr idols have the faculty of
speech, and predict to them whatever is required.
Should I become a convert to the faith of Christ,
and profess myself a Christian, the nobles of my
28 MARCO POLO.
court, and other persons who do not incline to that
religion, will ask what sufficient motives have
caused me to receive baptism and to embrace
Christianity. * What extraordinary powers,' they
will say, * what miracles, have been displayed by
its ministers 1 Whereas the idolaters declare that
what they exhibit is performed through their own
sanctity and the influence of their idols.' To
this I shall not know what answer to make ; and
I shall be considered by them as laboring under
a grievous error ; whilst the idolaters, who, by
means of their profound art, can effect such
wonders, may without difficulty compass my death.
But return you to your pontiff, and request of
him, in my name, to send hither persons well
skilled in your law, who, being confronted with
the idolaters, shall have power to coerce them,
and, showing that they themselves are endowed
with similar art, but which they refrain from
exercising, because it is derived from the agency
of evil spirits, shall compel them to desist from
practices of such a nature, in their presence.
When I am witness of this, I shall place them
and their religion under an interdict, and shall
allow myself to be baptized. . Following my ex-
ample, all my nobility will then, in like manner,
receive baptism ; and this will be imitated by my
subjects in general ; so that the Christians of
MARCO POLO. 29
these parts will exceed in number those who
inhabit your own country.' From this discourse
it must be evident that, if the pope had sent out
persons duly qualified to preach the gospel, the
grand khan would have embraced Christianity,
for which, it is certainly known, he had a strong
predilection."
Though there are some stories of this kind, in
which we are, at least, compelled to make great
allowance for exaggeration, there are many other
accounts which correspond very strikingly with
what travellers have since observed. Among them
is the account of the palace at Pekin, which, as
the reader will see in a subsequent chapter, is
very similar to more modern descriptions. The
reader is requested to recall it to mind when read-
ing, in another part of this volume, the account
of the English ambassador's approach to this city.
The Palace at Pekin,
" The grand khan usually resides, during three
months of the year, — namely, December, January,
and February, — in the great city of Kambalu,
situated towards the north-eastern extremity of
the province of Kataia ; and here, on the southern
side of the new city, is the site of his vast palace,
3*
30 MARCO POLO.
the form and dimensions of which are as follows : —
In the first place is a square, enclosed with a wall
and deep ditch ; each side of the square being eight
miles in length, and having, at an equal distance
from each extremity, an entrance gate, for the con-
course of people resorting thither from all quarters.
Within this enclosure there is, on the four sides, an
open space, one mile in breadth, where the troops
are stationed ; and this is bounded by a second
wall, enclosing a square of six miles, having three
gates on the south side, and three on the north, the
middle of each being larger than the other two,
and always kept shut, excepting on the occasions
of the emperor's entrance or departure. Those
on each side always remain open for the use of
common passengers. In the middle of each di-
vision of these walls is a handsome and spacious
building ; and, consequently, within the enclosure
there are eight such buildings, in which are de-
posited the royal military stores ; one building
being appropriated to the reception of each class
of stores ; thus, for instance, the bridles, saddles,
stirrups, and other furniture, serving for the equip-
ment of cavalry, occupying one store-house ; the
bows, strings, quivers, arrows, and other articles
belonging to archery, occupying another ; the
cuirasses, corselets, and other armor formed of
leather, a third store-house ; and so of the rest.
MARCO POLO. 31
Within this wailed enclosure, there is still another,
of great thickness ; and its height is full twenty-
five feet. The battlements, or cuneated parapets,
are all white. This also forms a square, four
miles in extent, each side being one mile ; and it
has six gates, disposed like those of the former
enclosure. It contains, in like manner, eight
large buildings, similarly arranged, which are
appropriated to the wardrobe of the emperor.
The spaces between the one wall and the other
are ornamented with many handsome trees, and
contain meadows in which are kept various kinds
of beasts, such as stags, the animals that yield
the musk, roe-bucks, fallow-deer, and others of
the same class. Every interval between the walls,
not occupied by buildings, is stocked in this man-
ner. The pastures have abundant herbage. The
roads across them being raised three feet above
their level, and paved, no mud collects upon them,
nor rain-water settles, but, on the contrary, runs
off, and contributes to improve the vegetation.
Within these walls, which constitute the boundary
of four miles, stands the palace of the grand
khan, the most extensive which has ever yet been
known. It reaches from the northern to the
southern wall, leaving only a vacant space, or
court, where persons of rank, and the military
guards, pass and repass. It has no upper floor
32 MARCO POLO.
(i. e. second story), but the roof is very lofty.
The paved foundation, or platform on which it
stands, is raised ten spans above the level of the
ground, and a wall of marble, two paces wide,
is built on all sides, to the level of this pavement.
Within the line of this the palace is erected ; so
that the wall, extending beyond the ground plan
of the building, and encompassing the whole,
serves as a terrace, where those who walk on it
are visible from without. Along the exterior
edge of the wall is a handsome balustrade, with
pillars, which the people are allowed to approach.
The sides of the great halls and the apartments
are ornamented with dragons in carved work
and gilt, figures of warriors, of birds, and of
beasts, with representations of battles. The in-
side of the roof is contrived in such a manner
that nothing besides gilding and painting presents
itself to the eye. On each of the four sides of
the palace there is a grand flight of marble steps,
by which you ascend from the level of the ground
to the wall of marble which surrounds the build-
ing, and which constitutes the approach to the
palace itself. The grand hall is extremely long
and wide, and admits of dinners being there served
to great multitudes of people. The palace con-
tains a number of separate chambers, all highly
beautiful, and so admirably disposed, that it seems
^ MARCO POLO. 33
impossible to suggest any improvement to the
system of their arrangement. The exterior of
the roof is adorned with a variety of colors — red,
green, azure and violet, — and the sort of covering
is so strong as to last for many years: The
glazing of the windows is so well wrought, and so
delicate, as to have the transparency of crystal.
In the rear of the body of the palace, there are
large buildings containing several apartments,
where is deposited the private property of the
monarch, or his treasure in gold and silver bullion,
precious stones, and pearls, and also his vessels
of gold and silver plate. Here are likewise the
apartments of his wives and concubines ; and in
this retired situation he despatches business with
convenience, being free from every kind of in-
terruption.
" On the other side of the grand palace, and
opposite to that in which the emperor resides,
is another palace, in every respect similar, ap-
propriated to the residence of Chingis, his eldest
son, at whose court are observed all the ceremo-
nials belonging to that of his father, as the prince
who is to succeed to the government of the
empire. Not far from the palace, on the northern
side, and about a bow-shot distance from the
surrounding wall, is an artificial mound of earth,
the height of which is full an hundred paces, and
34 MARCO POLO. ,
the circuit, at the base, about a mile. It is
clothed with the most beautiful evergreen trees ;
for whenever his majesty receives information of
a handsome tree growing in any place, he causes
it to be dug up, with all its roots, and the earth
about them ; and, however large and heavy it may
be, he has it transported, by means of elephants,
to this mount, and adds it to the verdant collec-
tion. From this perpetual verdure it has acquired
the appellation of the Green Mount. On its
summit is erected an ornamental pavilion, which
is likewise entirely green. The view of this
altogether, the mount itself, the trees, and the
building, form a delightful, and, at the same time,
a wonderful scene. In the northern quarter, also,
and equally within the precincts of the city, there
is a large and deep excavation, judiciously formed,
the earth from which supplied the material for
raising the mount. It is furnished with water by a
small rivulet, and the stream, passing from thence
along an aqueduct at the foot of the Green Mount,
proceeds to fill another great and very deep exca-
vation, formed between the private palace of the
emperor and that of his son, Chingis ; the earth
from which, equally served to increase the eleva-
tion of the mount. In this latter basin, there is a
great store and variety of fish, from which the table
of his majesty is supplied with any quantity that
MARCO POLO. 95
may be wanted. The stream discharges itself at
the opposite extremity of the piece of water, and
precautions are taken to prevent the escape of the
fish, by placing gratings of copper or iron at the
places of its entrance and exit. It is stocked,
also, with swans and other aquatic birds. From
the palace there is a communication by means
of a bridge thrown across the water."
The following description of the emperor's plan
for raising funds may amuse the reader. Whether
it comes within the power of even Eastern des-
potism to sustain the credit of such a currency
in a community, and keep it in circulation, the
political economist must judge. The same ex-
periment has since been tried repeatedly by
European governments ; but they have all failed
in sustaining the credit of any currency not
based directly on specie.
Paper Money,
" In this city of Kambalu is the mint of the
grand khan, who may truly be said to possess
the secret of the alchymists, as he has the art of
producing money by the following process. He
causes the bark to be stripped from those mul-
berry-trees, the leaves of which are used for
36 MARCO POLO.
feeding silk-worms, and takes from it that thm
inner rind which lies between the coarser bark
and the wood of the tree. This, being steeped,
and afterwards pounded in a mortar, until re-
duced to a pulp, is made into paper, resembling
(in substance) that which is manufactured from
cotton, but quite black. When ready for use, he
has it cut into pieces of money of different sizes,
nearly square, but somewhat longer than they are
wide. The coinage of this paper money is
authenticated with as much form and ceremony
as if it were actually of pure gold or silver ; for
to each note a number of officers, specially
appointed, not only subscribe their names, but
affix their signets also; and when this has been
regularly done by the whole of them, the princi-
pal officer, deputed by his majesty, having dip-
ped into vermilion the royal seal committed to
his custody, stamps with it the piece of paper, so
that the form of the seal, tinged with the ver-
milion, remains impressed upon it; by which it
receives full athenticity as current money; and
the act of counterfeiting it is punished as a
capital offence. When thus coined in large
quantities, this paper currency is circulated in
every part of his majesty's dominions ; nor dares
any person, at the peril of his life, refuse to
accept it in payment. All his subjects receive it
MARCO POLO. 37
without hesitation, because, wherever their busi-
ness may call them, they can dispose of it again
in the purchase of merchandise ; such as pearls,
jewels, gold, or silver. With it, in short, every
article may be procured.
" Several times, in the course of the year, large
caravans of merchants arrive with such articles
as have just been mentioned, together with gold
tissues, which they lay before his majesty. He
therefore calls together twelve experienced and
skilful persons, selected for this purpose, whom
he commands to examine the articles with great
care, and fix the value at which they should be
purchased. Upon the sum at which they have
been thus conscientiously appraised, he allows a
reasonable profit, and immediately pays for them
with this paper ; to which the owners can have
no objection, because, as has been observed, it
answers the purpose of their own disbursements.
Should they be inhabitants of a country where
this kind of money is not current, they could
invest the amount in other articles of mer-
chandise suited to their own markets. When
any persons happen to be possessed of paper
money, which, from long use, has become
damaged, they carry it to the mint, where, upon
payment of only three per cent., they may receive
fresh notes in exchange. Should any be desi-
4
38 MARCO POLO.
reus of procuring gold or silver for the purposes
of manufacture, such as of drinking cups,
girdles, or other articles wrought of these metals,
they, in like manner, apply at the mint, and, for
their paper, obtain the bullion they require. All
his majesty's armies are paid with this currency,
which is to them of the same value as if it were
gold or silver. Upon these grounds it may cer-
tainly be affirmed, that the grand khan has a more
extensive command of treasure than any other
sovereign in the universe."
The following description of a tyrannical
mandarin, as the Portuguese have since called
the subordinate officers of the empire, and of the
summary modes of procedure in quelling the
insurrection which his cruelties occasioned,
corresponds very fully with more modern accounts
of similar transactions in that country.
Story of Achmac.
** Amongst the officers in the court of the
grand khan, was a Saracen named Achmac, a
crafty and bold man, whose influence with his
sovereign surpassed that of all other members.
To such a degree was his master infatuated with
him, that )ie indulged him in every liberty. It
MARCO POLO. 39
was discovered, indeed, after his death, that he
had, by means of spells, so fascinated his majesty
as to oblige him to give ear and credit to what-
ever he represented, and, by these means, was ena-
bled to act in all matters according to his own
arbitrary will. He gave away all the govern-
ments and public offices, pronounced judgment
upon all offenders, and when he was disposed to
sacrifice any man to whom he bore ill will, he
had only to go to the emperor, and say to him,
* Such a person has committed an offence
against your majesty, and is deserving of death ;'
when the emperor was accustomed to reply, * Do
as you judge best ; ' upon which he caused him
to be immediately executed. So evident were
the proofs of the authority he possessed, and of
his majesty's implicit faith in his representations,
that none had the hardiness to contradict him in
any matter ; nor was there a person, however
high in rank or office, who did not stand in awe
of him. If any one was accused by him of a
capital crime, however anxious he might be to
exculpate himself, he had not the means of
refuting the charge, because he could not
procure an advocate ; none daring to oppose the
will of Achmac. By these means, he occasioned
many to die unjustly. When he obtained
information of any man having a beautiful
40 MARCO POLO.
daughter, he despatched his emissaries to the
father of the girl, with instructions to say to him —
' What are your views with regard to this
handsome daughter of yours? You cannot do
better than give her in marriage to the lord
deputy or vicegerent,' that is, to himself, for so
they termed him, as implying that he was his
majesty's representative. ' We shall prevail upon
him to appoint you to such a government, or such
an office, for three years.' Thus tempted, he is
prevailed upon to part with his child ; and, the
matter being so far arranged, Achmac repairs
to the emperor, and informs his majesty that a
certain government is vacant, or that the period
for which it is held /Vill expire on such a day,
and recommends the father as a person well
qualified to perform the duties. To this his
majesty gives his consent, and the appointment is
immediately carried into effect. By such means
as these, either from the ambition of holding
high offices, or the apprehension of his power, he
obtained the sacrifice of all the most beautiful
young women, either under the denomination of
wives, or the slaves of his pleasure. His sons
and his relatives were appointed to the highest
offices of the state ; and some of them, availing
themselves of the authority of their father,
committed many unlawful and atrocious acts.
MARCO POLO. 41
Achmac had likewise aiCcumulated great wealth ;
for every person who obtained an appointment
found it necessary to make him a considerable
present.
" During a period of twenty-two years, he exer-
cised an uncontrolled sway. At length, the na-
tives of his part of the country, no longer able to
endure his multiplied acts of injustice or flagrant
wickedness committetkagainst their families, held
meetings in order to devise means of putting him
to death, and raising a rebellion against the
government. Amongst the^ persons principally
concerned in .this"' plot, ♦\Yas a Kateian, named
Chen-ku, a chief of six^ thousand men, who,
burning with respntmen^ oV accoiipt of the deep
injuries whic^h himself and his fiimily had received,
proposed ^he m^*sure to.#ne qf his countrymen,
named Van-ku, ^ho was at the head of ten
thousand men, and recommended its being carried
into execution at the time when the grand khan,
having completed his three months' residence in
Kambalu, had departed for his palace of Shan-du,
and when his son Chin-gis, also, had retired to
the place he was accustomed to visit at that
season ; because the charge of the city was then
intrusted to Achmac, who communicated to his
master whatever occurred during his absence,
and received, in return, the signification of his
4*
42 MARCO POLO. ^
pleasure. Van-ku and Cl^n-ku, having held this
consultation together, imparted their designs to
some of the leading Kataians, and through them,
to their friend's in many other cities.. It was
accordingly determined amongst them', that, on a
certain day, upon their perceiving the signal of a
fire, they should rise and put to death all those
who wore beards, and should extend the signal
to other places, in order that the same might be
carried into effect throughout the country. The
meaning of the distinction, with regard to beards,
was this ; that whereas the Kataians themselves
• are naturally.J)eardless, ihe Tartars,* the Sara-
cens, and thfe Christians^ wear beards. It should
be understood that thf grand khan, not having
obtained ^the sovereignty of Kataia by any legal
^ right, but only by forqe of arms, had no con-
fidence in tTO "inhabitants, and tjjierefore bestowed
all the provincial governments and magistracies
upon Tartars, Saracens, Christians, and other
foreigners, who belonged J;o*his household, and in
whom he coilld trust. In consequence of this,
his government was universally hated by the
* It will be recollected that China is governed by a
race of Tartar sovereigns, from the north, who had at this
time hardly come Into secure possession of the southern
portion of the empire. The distinction an^ 'the jealousy
between the two ra5es still remain^ *
MARCO POLO. 43
natives, who found themselves treated as slaves
by these Tartars, and still worse by the Saracens.
•^ Their plans being thus arranged, Van-ku and
Chen-ku contrived to enter the palace at night,
where the former, taking his place on one of the
royal seats, caused the apartment to be lighted up,
and sent a messenger to Achmac, who resided in
the old city, requiring his immediate attendance
upon Chin-gis, the emperor's son, who, as he pre-
tended, had arrived that night. Achmac was much
astonished at the intelligence, but, being greatly
in awe of the prince, instantly obeyed. Upon
passing the gate of the city, he met a Tartar
officer, named Kogatai, the commandant of the
guard of twelve thousand men, who asked him
whither he was going at that late hour. He
replied that he was proceeding to wait upon Chin-
gis, of whose arrival he had just heard. ' How
is it possible,' said the officer, * that he can have
arrived in so secret a manner, that I should not
have been aware of his approach in time to have
ordered a party of guards to attend him 1 ' In
the meanwhile, the two Kataians felt assured that,
if they should succeed in despatching Achmac,
they had nothing further to apprehend. Upon
his entering the palace, and seeing so many lights
burning, he made his prostrations before Van-ku,
supposing him to be the prince ; when Chen-ku,
44 MARCO POLO.
who stood there provided with a sword, severed his
head from his body. Kogatai had stopped at the
door, but, upon observing what had taken place,
exclaimed that there was treason going forward,
and instantly let fly an arrow at Van-ku, as he
sat upon the throne, which slew him. He then
called to his men, who seized Chen-ku, and
despatched an order into the city, that every
person found out of doors should be put to death.
The Kataians, perceiving, however, that the Tar-
tars had made discovery, and being deprived of
their leaders, one of whom was killed , and the
other a prisoner, kept within their houses, and
were unable to make the signals to the other towns,
as had been concerted. Kogatai immediately
sent messengers to the grand khan, with a circum-
stantial relation of all that had passed, who, in
return, directed him to make a diligent investiga-
tion of the treason, and to punish, according to
the degree of their guilt, those whom he should
find to have been concerned. On the following
day, Kogatai examined all the Kataians, and upon
such as were principals in the conspiracy he
inflicted capital punishment. The same was
done with respect to the other cities that were
known to have participated in the guilt.
** When his majesty returned to Kambalu, he
was desirous of knowing the causes of what had
MARCO POLO. 45
happened, and then learnt that the infamous
Achmac and seven of his sons had commifted
those enormities which have been described. He
gave orders for removing the treasure that had
been accumulated by the deceased, to an incredi-
ble amount, from the place of his residence in
the old city, to the new ; where it was deposited
in his own treasury. He likewise directed that
his body should be taken from the tomb, and
thrown into the street, to be torn in pieces by the
dogs. The sons, who had followed the steps of
their father in his iniquities, he caused to be put
to death by torture. Reflecting, also, upon the
principles of the accursed sect of the Saracens,
which indulge them in every crime, and allow
them to murder those who differ from them on
points of faith, so that even the nefarious Achmac
and his sons might have supposed themselves
guiltless, he held them in contempt and abomina-
tion. Summoning, therefore, these people to his
presence, he forbade them to continue many
practices enjoined on them by their law, com-
manding that, in future, their marriages should
be regulated by the custom of the Tartars."
At the time these events took place, Marco
Polo was on the spot. We have, perhaps, given
the reader specimens enough of Marco Polo's style
46
MARCO POLO.
and manner. These specimens are more favorable
in point of interest than would have been selected
if the design had simply been to give the reader
an idea of the book. Many of the details are
tedious, and much of his information is such as he
must have obtained from report, and which, of
course, cannot be relied upon. We will make one
more extract, which, whether fully credited or not
by the reader, will, at any rate, be admitted to be a
good traveller's story.
The Besieging Engines,
** Sa-yar-fu is a considerable city of the province
Manji, having under its jurisdiction twelve wealthy
and large towns. It is a place of great com-
merce and extensive manufactures. The in-
habitants burn the bodies of their dead, and are
idolaters. They are the subjects of his majesty,
and use his paper currency. Raw silk is there
produced in great quantity, and the finest silks,
intermixed with gold, are woven. Game of all
kinds abounds. The place is amply furnished
with every thing that belongs to a great city ; and,
by its uncommon strength, it was enabled to stand
a siege of three years, refusing to surrender to
the grand khan, even after he had obtained pos-
session of the rest of the province. The difficul-
ties experienced in the reduction of it were
MARCO POLO. 47
chiefly occasioned by the army's not being able
to approach it, excepting on the northern side ;
the others being surrounded with water, by mean?;
of which the place continually received supplies,
which it was not in the power of the besiegers to
prevent. When the operations were reported to
his majesty, he felt extremely hurt that this place
alone should obstinately resist, after all the rest
of the country had been reduced to obedience.
The circumstance having come to the knowledge
of the brothers Nicolo and Maffio, who were then
resident at the imperial court, they immediately
presented themselves to the grand khan, and pro-
posed to him that they should be allowed to con-
struct machines, such as were made use of in the
West, capable of throwing stones of three hundred
pounds' weight, by which the buildings of the city
might be destroyed and the inhabitants killed.
Their memorial was attended to by his majesty ;
and, warmly approving of their scheme, he gave
orders that the ablest smiths and carpenters should
be placed under their direction : amongst them
were some Nestorian* Christians, who proved to
* The Nestorians were a sect of Christians who spread
into Asia in very early times, and exerted not a little in-
fluence in Tartary and China some centuries before Marco
Polo's day. He frequently alludes to them in his narra
tives.
48 MARCO POLO.
be the most able mechanics. In a few days,
they completed three engines, according to -the
instructions furnished by the two brothers ; and, a
trial being made of them in the presence of the
grand khan and of his whole court, an opportu;iity
was afforded of seeing them cast stoqes, ea^h of
which weighed three hundred pounds. ■'* They
were then put on board of vessels, andjfonveyed
to the army. When set up in front^ar the city,
the first stone projected by one of tJiCTn, fell with
such weight and violence upon a building, that
a great part of it was crushed, and fell to ^he
ground. So terrified were the inhabitants by this
mischief, which to them seemed to be the effect
of a thunder-bolt from heaven, that they imme-
diately deliberated upon the expediency of sur-
rendering. Persons authorized to treat were
accordingly sent from the place, and their sub-
mission was accepted upon the same terms as
had been granted to the rest of the province.
This prompt result of their ingenuity increased
the reputation and credit of these two Venetian
brothers, in the opinion of his majesty and of all
his courtiers."
In such scenes, and engaged in such employ-
ment, our travellers remained for many years ;
but they did not forget their native city. In the
49
midst of all the puhj^ business which was in-
trusted to them, they did not neglect the great
design with which their travels had originated,
viz. the acquisition of a fortune by commercial
speculations. Their situation gave them great fa-
cilities for doing this; and, during the long period
of their residence in China, they seem to have
kept it constantly in view, and at length to have
acquired an immense property, consisting chiefly
of gold and jewels. As they advanced in life,
their desire to return tiotoe increased. Besides,
they began to fear that, by remaining too long,
they might find some difficulties in the way of
their return. The grand khan was growing very
old ; and they could not foresee what would be
the character of his successor, and especially his
disposition towards them. He might decline
rendering them that ^Id without which their re-
turn through his dominions might be impracti-
cable, or he might even throw obstacles in their
way. They had some fear, too, lest the then
reigning monarch might not readily accede to their
request. They determined to make the effort,
and Nicolo, the father of Marco, agreed to em-
brace the first favorable opportunity for laying
the« subject before the emperor. This was ac-
cordingly done ; but *' the emperor," as Marco
relates, " instead of showing himself disposed to
5
50 MARCO POLO.
comply with the request, appeared hurt at the
application, and asked what motive they could
have for wishing to expose themselves to all the
inconveniences and hazards of a journey in which
they might probably lose their lives. If gain was
their object, he said he was willing to give them
the double of whatever they possessed, and to
gratify them with honors to the extent of their
desires ; but that, from the regard he bore to them,
he must positively refuse their petition."
In what way the travellers could have extri-
cated themselves from the dilemma in which they
were thus placed, if they had been left to their
own resources, it is difficult to say ; they were
saved the necessity of attempting it, by an occur-
rence, which, with the transactions that arose
out of it, illustrates so strikingly some remarkable
traits of Eastern manners, that we cannot avoid
narrating it in detail. It is a romantic story ; but
modern commentators, in their researches into
Eastern history, find presumptions favoring rather
than opposing its truth.
A prince, reigning over a country in Persia or
India, or perhaps partly in both, was allied to the
grand khan ; and his queen, on her death-bed,
charged her husband not to admit any one tether '
place on the throne with him, but a member of
the same family from which they had themselves
MARCO POLO. 51
sprung, and which was, at this time, near the
court of the Chinese emperor. " Desirous of
complying with this solemn entreaty, the Persian
prince despatched three of his nobles as ambas-
sadors, attended by a numerous retinue, to the
grand khan, with a request that he might receive,
through him, a maiden from among the relatives
of the deceased queen." The transaction strongly
reminds us of Abraham's dying request in respect
to a wife for his son, and the expedition by which
it was fulfilled.
The emperor recei^d the ambassadors very
favorably, and promised to do all in his power to
promote their object. A young lady was selected,
seventeen years of age, and extremely handsome
and accomplished. Her name was Kogatin.
The ambassadors highly approved the choice ;
and, when every thing was arranged for their
journey, they set out, with a numerous suite of
attendants, and with great pomp and ceremony,
on their return. Their route was across the
country ; and, after going in safety for eight months,
they found their further progress dangerous, and
at length impracticable, on account of the wars
which broke out among the Tartar princes. They
were consequently obliged to return, whether to
the disappointment or to the joy of the young
bride, the narrative does not say.
52 MARCO PULO.
About the time of their arrival, Marco Polo
happened to return from a voyage he had made,
with a few vessels under his orders, to some parts
of the East Indies ; and he reported to the grand
khan the intelligence he brought respecting the
countries which he had visited, and stated also
that navigation in those seas, which, the reader
will remember, are directly in the route by water
to Persia, was perfectly safe. This intelligence
reached the ambassadors ; and, as it opened to
them a new gleam of hope in respect to their
return, they sought an inttiview with Marco, and
learned that he, and his father and uncle, were
desirous of returning to their home. It was soon
agreed to unite their plans; and it was settled
between them, that the ambassadors, accompanied
by the young queen, should obtain an audience
of the emperor, and propose to him that they
should return by sea. If he seemed to listen
favorably to such a plan, they were then to sug-
gest the expediency of allowing the three Vene-
tians to accompany them, as they were well skilled
in navigation, and especially as Marco had just
returned from an expedition into those very
seas.
The emperor liked the first part of the plan,-
but was evidently very reluctant to adopt the
latter. Still, from political reasons, he felt bound
MARCO POLO.
53
to do every thing in his power to promote the
safe' return of the ambassadors, and with much
hesitation, he at length gave his consent. He
sent for the Venetians, and gave them his permis-
sion to go, accompanied with many assurances
of his regard, and making them promise that, after
having visited their friends in Europe, they would
return again to his dominions — a promise which
they seemed to be very ready to make, though how
far they had any serious intention of keeping it,
it is, perhaps, more than doubtful. The emperor
gave them the golden tablet, to serve as a pass-
port, and to procure protection and supplies every
where throughout his dominions. He also gave
them commissions to act as ambassadors to the
pope, and other European potentates.
Fourteen ships were equipped ; and those not
of very small size, if Marco's account of them be
true. They had four masts and nine sails each,
and the crews of several of them consisted of two
or three hundred men. The fleet was provided
with stores and provisions for two years. When
all things were ready, the ambassadors and the
Venetians were dismissed with all due ceremony,
and many valuable presents; and the young bride,
too, once more bade farewell to her native la^id.
The fleet worked its way slowly along the
coasts of the Indian seas. On account of the
5*
54 MARCO POLO.
crowded state of the ships, the unhealthiness of
the climate, and want of comforts and conveni-
ences, especially incident, in those early days, to a
sea-faring life, they lost about six hundred of the
sailors on the passage. Two of the three Persian
ambassadors also died. At length, however, with-
out any other disasters, the fleet arrived safely at
its destined port in Persia.
The feelings of curiosity and interest Which
Kogatin must have felt on her arrival, in respect
to her future husband, were annihilated at a single
blow, by the intelligence of his death ; and the
poor girl found herself thousands of miles from
her native land, with all her hopes and prospects
blighted and destroyed. The politicians imme-
diately took her case into consideration, and
decided that she should be presented to the son
of the deceased l^ing, who was then the reigning
monarch. He was at this time in the northern
part of the empire, superintending some military
preparations. Some time was occupied in con-
veying the young bride thither ; and then, after
spending several months in resting from the
fatigues of their travels, the Venetians began to
think of going on. They were provided with
every thing necessary for their journey ; and new
tablets from the government of that country were
given them, to secure the safe prosecution of the
MARCO POLO. 55
remainder of their route. By the assistance of
the supplies and escorts which were thus provided
for them, they slowly made their way towards the
north-west, till they reached Constantinople, where
they set sail, and reached Venice, in safety, in
1295. " On this occasion," — for in these words
•the writer concludes his narrative, — " they offered
up their thanks to God, who had now been pleased
to relieve them from such great fatigues, after
having preserved them from innumerable perils."
Such is, substantially, the story of the first
recorded visit from the Western to the Eastern
World, in modern times. How far the account
is true, and how far fabulous, each reader will
of course judge for himself That three travellers
did appear in Venice about 1295, coming from
the East, loaded with wealth, and exciting uni-
versal interest in Venice, by these and similar
narrations, there is no doubt. The stories were
received with much ridicule and incredulity,
though the narrators persisted in asserting their
truth. At first, they were given only verbally ;
but, after a few years, in a war between Venice
and Genoa, Marco was taken prisoner ; and in his
jail, at Genoa, with the assistance of a friend, he
wrote out his narrative. Copies and translations
56 MARCO POLO.
were made, and circulated in manuscript (for the
art of printing had not then been discovered) ; and
from these manuscripts, found in various libraries
in the Mediterranean cities, our printed editions
of his work have since been taken. The story
was almost universally disbelieved, until, in later
times, the visits of travellers who have penetrated '
to China by the new maritime route round the
Cape of Good Hope, and through the Indian
Ocean, have verified the substantial parts of the
narration.
Still there are some circumstances a little sus-
picious. The cultivation of tea, and the fashion
of compressing the female foot, must have pre-
vailed from remote antiquity ; and one would have
supposed that they would have arrested the atten-
tion of the traveller. He, however, makes no
mention of them.
It is a very remarkable circumstance, too, that
he says nothing of the Chinese wall, which, there
is abundant evidence to believe, existed long
before the time of his journey. Various com-
ments have been made upon this omission. Some
consider it evidence that his narrative is fictitious ;
others suppose that he entered China south of the
wall, and did not cross it, or that, if he did cross
it, he might not be aware of its immense extent,
MARCO POLO. 57
and, therefore, might not have considered it as
worthy of more notice than any other extensive
fortification ; others suppose that the part of his
manuscript containing a description of it, may
have been lost, or omitted as incredible, in the
early copies. It may also be said, both in respect
to this point and to those mentioned above, that
the manner in which the work was written, would
expose the writer very much to the danger of
omitting important particulars. The account was
not reduced to writing until some years after the
return of the travellers, and then chiefly in the
form of detached descriptions of particular places
and scenes, as they occurred to the writer's mind,
rather than in the form of a connected personal
narrative. A brief account only of the journey
itself precedes these descriptions, by way of in-
troduction.
On the whole, it may, perhaps, be considered as
morally certain that three Venetian travellers did
actually traverse the Asiatic continent in the thir-
teenth century, and find a home for many years in
China; and, on the other hand, considering the
mental habits of that age, and the circumstances of
their expedition, it would have been a case almost
miraculous, if they had not exaggerated their
exploits, and the wonders which they had seen
t58 MARCO POLO.
on their return. At any rate, their cotemporanes
thought them exaggerated ; for, on account of the
very liberal use he made of high numbers, in
describing the wealth, and the resources, and the
extent of the countries he had visited, our hero,
on his return, used to go very often by the name
of Mr. Mark Million. •
CAirrONKIVEK
CHAPTER 11.
CANTON.
It is not our intention, in this volume, to pursue,
in regular chronological order, the history of the
Chinese empire, or even of European intercourse
with it. Y/e are compelled, in order to do justice
to such topics as seem to us more important and
mteresting to the reader, to pass over, somewhat
briefly, many details which it might otherwise be
desirable to give.
After the journey of Marco Polo, who, as was
narrated in the last Chapter, made his way to
China, by land, across the continent of Asia,
European navigators found a more easy access,
by water, around the Cape of Good Hope, and
.through the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese
were the pioneers in this business ; and we must
dwell for a moment upon the circumstances of
their first connection with China, for the sake
of throwing the odium of the system of non-
intercourse, now pursued by the government,
where it properly belongs. The reader will
recollect in what a friendly spirit the emperor
60 CANTOX.
received the Venetian travellers, and how desirous
he was to secure their return. The Europeans
who came a few hundred years afterwards by
water, were welcomed in the same manner.
Alphonso Alberquerque, who was, about 1518,
the distinguished Portuguese viceroy in the East
Indies (for, in those days, the Portuguese were
foremost in enterprises of maritime discovery and
conquest), obtained some definite information
about China, which he sent home to Lisbon. The
government determined to send an ambassador
there, for the purpose of opening a negotiation
with the Chinese, and making arrangements for
a regular commercial intercourse between the two
nations. A squadron accordingly sailed, in 1518,
from Lisbon, with an ambassador on board.
The commander of this squadron was a man
exactly suited to be intrusted with the business.
When he arrived at Canton, in the southern part
of China, — the nearest port, — the native boats
and vessels crowded around his ships, to gratify
their curiosity with the strange sight. He re-
ceived them in a friendly manner, betrayed no
fear of them, allowed them free access to the
decks of his vessels ; and any apprehensions which
they might have felt were allayed by perceiving
that their visitors were off their guard them-
selves.
CANTON. 61
The ambassador was received, on his landing
at Canton, in the most friendly manner, and con-
ducted by the authorities there through the
country to Pekin, where the emperor resided.
He found the emperor disposed to favor his
plans in respect to a commercial intercourse
with the Portuguese nation. The commander
of the squadron, in the mean time, cruised along
the coast, visiting the ports, and trading with the
natives, making every where a favorable impres-
sion. The affairs of the embassy were going on
thus prosperously, and an arrangement was on
the point of being concluded, when another Por-
tuguese squadron, which had been sailing around
those seas, began at once those same rude and
oppressive practices, so often, in those days, re-
sorted to by the unprincipled adventurers who were
exploring foreign shores. Its commander landed
without permission, and built a fort. He pillaged
ships, or extorted money from them, as they passed
to and from the ports of China. He seized the
natives, and treated them, in many cases, with
cruelty and oppression ; and his sailors and soldiers
followed his example. This conduct, of course,
soon produced a rupture. The Chinese armed
themselves in self-defence : they imprisoned the
ambassador, and the ships, with great difficulty,
escaped. The affair put an end to all hopes of
6
62 CANTON.
commercial arrangements between China and
Portugal for some years.*
After this, the efforts which were made, by the
various nations of Europe, to obtain permission
to establish a regular trade with China, met with
very little success. Tliere was, however, a trade
commenced, and carried on for about fifty years,
when an event occurred, which gave Europeans
their first, and, thus far, their only, permanent pos-
session in the Chinese empire. By referring to
any map of China, the reader will perceive that
Canton is situated towards the southern part of
the country, near the mouth of a river, whichy
below the city, widens into a broad bay. This
bay is filled with islands ; and the shores around
it are indented with deep creeks, and these
waters were, at this time, infested with pirates,
in great numbers, who increased so much in
numbers and strength, as to bid defiance to all
the efforts of the government to subdue them.
Near the southern part of this bay is an island
called Macao, which, at this time, was in the
possession of a noted leader of these pirates. He
was a terror to all the surrounding coasts, and
even laid siege to Canton itself. The Portuguese
came to the assistance of the government : the
*• Auber, p. 81.
pirate was driven away to his fastness in Macao,
where he was so closely pressed by his allied foes,
that he killed himself; and the Chinese, in grati-
tude, granted the island to the Portuguese, as a
perpetual possession ; and they have held it to
this day.
It is almost exclusively through this island, and
the bay connected with it, leading to the city of
Canton, that European nations have been permit-
ted to hold commercial intercourse with China for
the two or three last centuries. So that China,
so far as it has been accessible to Europeans or
Americans, means Canton and its vicinity. A few
Catholic missionaries, and an occasional ambas-
sador from some foreign power, have been toler-
ated at Pekin ; and some of the latter have made
journeys through the country from Canton to
Pekin : these cases have, however, been com-
paratively few.
From these circumstances, therefore, it happens
that Canton and its vicinity deserves a far more
particular attention than its geographical impor-
tance, estimated by the figure it makes upon the
map, would seem to justify. It is there that the
European ships collect from every nation, to
receive their cargoes. It is there that the prod-
ucts of the country are brought — teas, and silks,
and nankeens — to be sold to the English and
64 CANTOxN.
American supercargoes, by about twelve Chinese
merchants, appointed to be the channels of the
trade. Canton has been the scene of the various
petty collisions which have been continually occur-
ring between the local authorities and the foreign
residents. Canton has been the point to which
the attention of Protestant missionaries has been
turned. Here, or in its vicinity, Morrison has
lived ; the Bible has been translated, and printed,
and distributed ; in a word. Canton, in respect
to connection with foreign nations, is China.
In attempting to make our readers acquainted
with this spot, we shall first introduce them to it
under the guidance of an American, who visited it
very recently in the course of business. We take
his account, furnished us for this purpose, thinking
that the actual description of an eye-witness will
be more agreeable to the reader than any general
description collated from several accounts. For
the more distinct illustration of it, we have inserted,
at the commencement of the Chapter, a map of
the harbor, which will also be of service to the
reader, to be referred to hereafter, in reading oth-
er accounts relating to European visits to China.
" The latter part of our passage up the China
Sea was rather rough, which was no more than
we expected at this season. On Thursday even-
CANTON. 65
ing of the 2d of September, we lay to off the
land in a gale of wind from the southward ; the
next morning, made sail again, and, at eight
o'clock, came in sight of the land, and, at two
o'clock in the afternoon, after a passage from
Boston of one hundred and two days, having
sailed, by our log, the distance of fifteen thousand
seven hundred and fifty miles, we came to
anchor in Cap Sing Moon, a roadstead on the
northern coast of the Island of Santoa, the usual
place of rendezvous for ships, at this season of
the year. We found here several American, and
a still larger number of English ships. Imme-
diately upon anchoring, we were boarded by
Chinese fast-boats^ belonging to men who wait
upon ships lying here, supplying them with pro-
visions, &/C. They seemed very much pleased to
see the captain of our ship, whom they had seen
before, and were as full of news and palaver as
they could possibly be.
" Ships lying at Sintin and Cap Sing Moon,
although within the waters of China, are not
recognized by the government, and, of course, are
subject to no charges or interruptions from them.
" These anchorages are the stations of the opi-
um store ships, which lie there throughout the
year, for the purpose of delivering opium to the
Chinese smugglers. The ostensible laws of the
66 CANTON.
emperor of China prohibit, under the most
severe penalties, the importation of opium into
the country, in any shape. Still, however, the
trade is carried on, to an immense extent ; and
the * smug-boats,^ as they are called, which are
pulled by forty or fifty oars, and as many despe-
rate fellows, armed to the teeth, and in boats
which they will pull at the rate of twelve or
fourteen miles an hour, go up and down the river
in open day, in defiance of the mandarin and
man-of-war boats, which are constantly out in
search for them.
*' We learned here, that the season had been
uncommonly boisterous, ' and that tifoongs, a
sort of hurricane (so called from the Chinese
words ti, heavy, and foong, wind), had been
frequent. One occurred on the third of August
last, which made terrible and afflictive devasta-
tion of lives and property. An immense number
of Chinese fishermen,- who were out in their boats
at the time the storm commenced, were de-
stroyed, being either driven upon the rocks and
islands, or foundered in the fury of the gale.
" The tifoongs in the China Sea are peculiarly
dreaded by all mariners; and they are among the
greatest of the calamities that befall the Chi-
nese. They come on very suddenly, with little
warning, and blow with the utmost fury and
CANTON. 6T
violence, the wind shifting from point to point, as
in a hurricane, and tossing the sea into such
irregular waves and violent commotion, as to
render it peculiarly dangerous for the largest and
strongest ships. Instances have occurred of East
India Company ships, which are as strong,
perhaps, as any in the world, foundering, with
their whole crews. These hurricanes occur in
the months of August, September, and October.
**0n Saturday, at five in the afternoon, our
captain started, in a fast-boat, for Canton, distant
seventy miles. I, in another, left at the same
time for Macao, distant about twenty-two miles.
We had a fair wind, and were only three hours
in reaching Macao. My boat was manned with
five Chinese. These fast-boats, from their pe-
culiar model, are admirably adapted for sailing.
They are generally about thirty feet long, slightly
constructed of some light and buoyant wood, the
after part of the hull being full, and of oval shape,
* running away ' forward, very sharp, and narrow.
They are covered with a deck, rendered water
tight, and have three masts, which may be ship-
ped and unshipped at pleasure, and mat sails.
Though of so frail a fabric, they are capital sea-
boats, and so light and buoyant as to weather
with safety a heavy sea and wind. I was much
struck with the apparent cheerfulness and con-
68 CANTON.
tentment of the boatmen, and the good will and
harmony which seemed to prevail among them.
They smoked from the same pipe, alternately,
and chewed their beetel-nut out of the same dish,
from the captain to the boy. Soon after we left
the ship, they began to prepare their dinner,
which was of boiled rice, and meat cut up in
bits, and simmered over the fire, with a goodly
preparation of pepper and other stimulants. The
flavor recommended it : but, though I was invited
to partake of their repast, I declined.
*'Each l)oat has its deity or idol, which is left
in the hold, in the safest part of the boat. It is
generally a small image of the goddess of the sea,
made of wax, and is considered the guardian of
their boat. It is kept in a sitting posture, fan-
tastically dressed in silks of the gaudiest colors,
and placed in a shrine lined with tinsel. Two
lights are kept burning before her ; and twice a
day they present her with cups of tea, sweet-
meats, fruit, &/C. ; but, as she never deigns to
accept of them, the boatmen themselves, after
waiting a due time, are obliged to swallow their
offerings for her. I observed that, at sunset, they
light five matches (* Josh sticks'), which were
stuck up in different parts of the boat. Upon my
asking the boatman why he did so, he replied,
that it was * Chin Chin Josh,' meaning that it was
an offering to the god of the sea, for the con-
tinuation of a good breeze. Upon my trying
to persuade him that such idolatry was all folly,
he replied, ^That have old custom,'' That it is
an old custom, is evidence enough to any Chinese,
that whatever he may be doing, is right; and
foreign innovations or improvements, in any case,
are repelled with scorn, xhe fast-boat men are
generally a pretty faithful and industrious class,
and live better than the generality of the laboring
Chinese.
" I arrived at Macao about eight in the evening,
and was pulled ashore in a littLe^pckle-sheJLpf a
shore boatj^ by .a couple of Chinese ladies, quite
active, brisk-looking girls. On my landing, how-
ever, they were loud in their demands for * cum-
shard, cumshard ' (a present) ; and a dollar would
hardly satisfy them for pulling me twenty yards.
I wa^s next obliged to. pay the mandarin a dollar
for the privilege of landing, and was then allowed
to go into the hotel, which seemed quite a respect-
able establishment, and was kept by a Chinese.
Upon my arrival there, a book was brought to me
requiring the name and cargo of the ship, the
number of our guns, and other particulars. My
principal object, in coming here, was to procure
a pilot, to conduct our ship up to Canton; and
arrangements to this effect were soon made.
70 CANTON.
The pilot, however, needed a little time to prepare
for his departure, particularly to obtain from the
authorities the proper documents authorizing the
ship to proceed ; and I embraced the opportunity
thus afforded for obtaining some little knowledge
of Macao. It is situated in the depth of a small
bay, on the extreme end of an island, separated
from the continent by the river Tigris, and is
the only spot, within the dominions of thfe emperor
of China, where foreigners are allowed to have
their families. The foreign residents at Macao,
probably, do not exceed in number, three thousand,
including Portuguese, English and Americans ;
and their limits, as to territory, are within the
space of three miles one way, and one mile the
other, beyond which bounds, they cannot pass.
There are a great many Chinese living at Macao ;
and the government, though nominally in the
hands of the Portuguese, is administered, in fact,
by Chinese mandarins. The Portuguese, how-
ever, have their own governor, and were allowed
to build a fort at each end of the town, where
their flags are kept hoisted. They have one or
two churches, and a monastery and nunnery.
The number of padres and friars, even in that
confined community, is not small ; and you meet
them at every turn in the street. There are quite
ft number of handsome buildings, particularlj
CANTON- 71
those belonging to the honoraDle East India
Company ; and some of the streets are clean and
well paved. Macao, from the bay, presents a
very pretty appearance, the principal buildings
facing the water ; and throughout the year, it is
said to be a healthy residence.
" At four o'clock of the afternoon of the next
day, I started iraiQ_Ma^o mXh my pilot^ and
reached the ship at Lintin at twelve o'clock the
same night.
** At this stormy season of the year, ships do
not lie at Lintin. It is a small, barren island,
inhabited only by a few fishermen. The next
evening, we got under way for Whampoa, and
arrived that night at Chumpee, just outside of the
Bocca Tigris, or mouth of the Tigris. It is
called by the English and Americans Bogus.
It is not more than a quarter of a mile wide, and
ships are not allowed to pass through it in the
night. It is defended, on each side, by two or
three forts, considered, no doubt, by the Chinese,
as impregnable, but which are, in fact, rather
ludicrous specimens of fortification. Each fort
is surrounded by a stone wall, which, the sailors
say, is for the purpose of preventing the soldiers
from running away. Upon the ship's arrival at
the Bogue (i. e. the entrance of the river), the
pil^tJsjjbJiged tngo^ \u his boat, to each fort, anJ
72 CANTON.
prese nt his chop, or passpor t, from the head man-
darin, for the passage of the ship. Upon passing
within the Bogue, you are considered as within
the jurisdiction of the laws of China ; and a petJX,
mandarin is sent to remain by the ship, during
the time she is in the river, to prevent smuggling.
" The river within the Bogue is of irregular
width, and the channel for ships is narrow. The
banks of the river are low, and sometimes over-
flowed : they are extremely fertile and highly
cultivated. The population of the country is so
very great, that every patch of ground that is
capable of vegetation, is improved. The number
of junks and uoats of all sizes and shapes, that
are constantly passing up and down the river, in
all directions, is immense ; and not unfrequently
you may see the poor fisherman cruising about
from place lo place, in search of something to
prolong a miserable existence, his boat containing
his home, his family, and the amount of his
worldly possessions, A stranger, at least, cannot
view with indifference such a scene, so entirely
dissimilar to any thing he may meet with else-
where.
'* The strength of the tide in the river is such,
that it is impossible to make any progress, until its
turn is in your favor ; and it was not until the
Jthird_d§jr^fter leaving Lintin, that we arrived at
CANTON. ^
Whampoa. The river is so narrow as only to
admit of two ships lying abreast ; and the reach
or anchorage extends three or four miles up and
down the river. Immediately on our arrival at
this anchorage, we were surrounded by thirty or
forty different boats. First came ihsLQQIUJ^^ctdorf
ojiJBostpii Jack, as he is called, a stout, portly
China-man, who supplies most of the American
ships lying here, with whatever they require.
Then came the boatmen, each one anxious and
begging to obtain the employment of waiting upon
the ship during her stay here. Then came the
washer-women, some twenty or thirty, of all ages,
each one clamorous for the privilege of washing
the clothes for the men. All this constituted a
bustling scene.
" Whampoa is the great anchorage ground for
European ships; and, in the business season of
the year, there will be found here the richest
and finest fleet of merchant vessels in the world.
There were sixty here when we arrived.
"On the left side of the anchorage, going up,
is a fertile island, called Dane's Island, covered
with fields of paddy and sugar-cane. It is so
named from the privilege formerly allowed the
Danes of going ashore for their amusement, at
any time, and for the purpose of burying their
dead there. French Island, just above it, is so
7
/
74 CANTON.
called from the same circumstances. The Chinese
prefer that foreigners, when ashore, should be
kepi separate, in consequence of their liability to
quarrel. French Island is covered with trees,
and has on it a considerable village. There are
thousands of Chinese, who are born, live and die
in their boats on the river, and who obtain an
uncertain subsistence by fishing, begging and
thieving. They are so numerous, that it is
almost unaccountable how they make out to
, subsist, even by such means.
"The name Whampoa designates a village, as
well as an anchorage, which is situated on an
\ island of the same name, in the middle of the
I river, leaving a passage to Canton on each side.
^It is almost exclusively inhabited by persons
employed as government officers, H oppoo men,
or custom-house officers, and persons employed
in waiting upon and working for the foreign
ships lying in the river. No foreigner is allowed
to enter the village, unless accompanied by the
comprador, who waits upon the ship to which
they belong. He conducts them only to his own
house, and is himself held strictly accountable
for their good conduct when with him. From
the glimpse I once got of the streets, when pass-
ing pretty near, I should not consider the tempta-
tion to enter it very strong.
CANTON. 75
*' A little way above Whampoa -village, and the
most conspicuous object around, is a Chinese
pagoda, said to be one of the highest in the
province. It is situated on a little mound, which
you pass very near, in going up the river. It is
nine stories in height, surrounded by a sort of
balcony or lookout, which may be two hundred
feet from the ground. It is built entirely of a
grey colored stone, of a circular form, each story
surrounded with a gallery, and regularly decreas-
ing in circumference as they rise from the lower
one, which may be forty feet through. It bears
marks of being of very ancient date, the stone
being of a sort of dirty buff color, similar to old
marble. Trees and shrubs are growing out from
the nooks and crevices, that abound all over the
building; and from the top of the pagoda there
are two or three pretty large trees growing out.
From the bottom of the building, inside, you
can look to the top, there being no stairway, and
the only way of ascending it being by means of
a small ladder, which you may drag up with you
from story to story. The walls inside are covered
with a sort of porcelain, painted rudely in figures
of flying dragons and other fantastical and ludi-
crous Chinese devices. It has a magnificent,
and, at the same time, a desolate and melancholy
appearance, built, as it must have been, at an
76 <?AMTO.\,
immense expenditure of time and labor, and for
some idolatrous purpose, rearing its lofty height
far above every thing around it — a monument of
wasted labor and misdirected skill, and strangely
contrasting with the thousand scenes of misery
and wretched suffering within view of it. Its
base is surrounded with some few miserable
hovels, the abode of twenty or thirty hali-starved
wretches, in rags and filth, and all the horrors
of squalid penury.
** Half way from Whampoa to Canton is another
pagoda, on the bank of the river, and exactly
similar to that at Whampoa. Near it, on a point
at the bend of the river, is a large fort belonging
to the Chinese government, and erected there at
the expense of a great Hong merchant, and called
by his name.
'* Canton is fourteen miles by water from Wham-
poa, and, on each side of the river, the land is
low and marshy, and converted into paddy fields
very richly cultivated. Until within three or four
miles of the city, you see but very few buildings
on shore, and nothing but the cultivation of the
soil to assure you that you are in an extremely
populous country. As you approach Canton,
however, the scene alters entirely : each side of
the river is lined with vast numbers of boats of
various sizes, and the shore covered with chop
CANTON. 77
houses, Chinese junks, of the most grotesque
models, and of all sizes, from fifty to a hundred
tons ; junks, too, from Siam, Cochin-Chin a,
Hainan and Japan, each distinguished by its
own peculiarities of form. They are all appropri-
ately called jw/iA.s", being flat-bottomed, wall-sided,
with a high, square, open stern, far too large in
proportion to the other part of the hulk, the
bluff bows turning in, after the shape of a fiddle
head. On each bow is painted a monstrous eye,
that the junk, as the Chinese say, may be enabled
to see her way through the loater in the night.
They appeared to me an awkward and unman-
ageable kind of craft.
" When within about two miles of the foreign
factories, in the suburbs of Canton, it is a difficult
matter even for a small boat to get along without
molestation, the river being narrow, and choked
with vast numbers of canal boats, chop boats, &c.,
and thousands of passage boats, driving about in
every direction, each one looking out for himself
alone, and the tide running either up or down,
with great force and rapidity. Notwithstanding
these difficulties, however, we at last reached the
city ; but, as no one in the boat with me had ever
been up the river before, it was some time before
I could find the place where foreigners were
allowed to land. I had got too far up ; and twice,
7*
78 CANTON,
in attempting to put ashore, I was received with
such scowling looks and threatening gestures,
as to show that I was approaching forbidden
ground. After cruising up and down some time,
I at last found an opening in front of the factories,
and determined to land, right or wrong, and
accordingly pushed in through a score of boats,
and got ashore in the midst of no inconsiderable
uproar, which was raised against me. Here, how-
ever, I met with a gentleman who had seen the
difficulty in which I had been involved, and who
came down to direct me which way to go. I had
not come far from the mark, and only had to
send the boat a little farther down. At any rate,
I found myself on terra firma, on the soil of the
far-famed celestial empire, the eart'hly paradise ;
and I said to myself, as I looked around me, * If
this be a fair sample of its beauties, it is no
paradise for me.'
** The space allowed for the residences of the
foreigners at Canton is on the north bank of the
river, and runs east and west about one quarter
of a mile, and north and south the length of the
Hongs, or ranges of factories. This includes the
whole space in China where foreigners are priv"
ileged to reside. There are twelve Hongs be-
longing to the residents, the ends of which face
the river, and run back, in a straight line, three
CANTON. '/9
or four hundred feet, each Hong being divided
into five, and some of them into six factories or
tenements. Each Hong is designated by its own
name. They are substantially built of brick or
stone, and form very comfortable residences. The
front factories are ten stories in height, and most
of the inner ones three. A passage vi^ay or court,
of sufficient width, runs through the middle of
each Hong, from one end to the other. The
buildings belong to the foreign merchants, and
the ground on which they stand, to the Hong mer-
chants, who are Chinese ; and they are responsible
for the good conduct of all the foreigners whom
they deal with. The ground rent of the factories
is very exorbitant. The Hong belonging to the
honorable East India Company is by far the most
splendid of the group, having a spacious and
elegant verandah projecting in front of it, where
the officers of the company generally dine in
summer ; and in front of that, a walled garden,
extending to the river. The Dutch have a Hong
pretty much on the same plan ; but it will not
compare with it in magnificence.
'* Foreigners are allowed to go to any part of the
suburbs of the city, which are very extensive,
but on no account whatever are they to be ad-
mitted within the walls of the city. The only
place where the residents can walk for recrea-
tion, is the little square in front of the factories;
and there the greater part of the whole com-
munity of them may be seen walking to and fro.
It may be called their fashionable place of resort.
The ' Point,' which projects a little into the river,
and which is the spot where foreigners are allowed
to land in their boats, is a narrow space, perhaps
sixty feet wide, a dirty, muddy spot, swarming
with children from the boats that throng the
banks. From this point, a stranger may, for a
long time, contemplate with interest the scene
before him. It is the station of two or three
petty mandarins, whose duty is to see that nothing
is smuggled on or from shore, in the foreigners'
boats. It is said, however, that a dollar or two
will seldom fail of making them completely blind,
when it is the will of the giver that it should be so.
It is the starting place, also, of hundreds of passage
boats, constantly plying with their passengers,
to and from Honam, on the opposite side of the
river. A greater part of these boats are propelled
by females, who, in appearance, are hardly distin-
guished from the men, being extremely rough and
masculine in their manners and habits. It is
really amusing to stand and view the singular
habits and the variety of characters of the multi-
tudes that may always be seen at the point.
Here may be seen a cluster of stupid, thick-
CANTON. 81
headed China-men, looking with affected scorn
and contempt ; the staid and sedate Parsees or
Persians ; the supercargoes and other officers of
the English and American ships; and other foreign
residents. Jack Tar also helps to vary the scene,
loaded with his traps and knick-knacks, waiting
for the turn of tide, or reeling about in a state of
inebriety. The Lascars, or Malays, on furlough,
are there, too, cooking their rice and curry in
the open air, growling and quarrelling with every
one who approaches too near them. The shore,
too, is lined with hundreds of boats, lying in tiers
of three or four deep, the habitations of thousands
of Chinese, whose means of subsistence are a
mystery. The square in front of the factories,
during tlie day, is usually occupied by a host of
barbers, quack doctors, smugglers, fortune-tellers,
thieves, &.C., who can pick pockets with great
dexterity, and who frequently exercise their art
upon their own countrymen from the mountains,
when gazing, with eyes and mouth wide open, in
stupid wonder, at the novel scene.
** There are ten Hong merchants at Canton
specially appointed by government to transact thf
foreign trade, and who have particular privileges,
which are not allowed to the 'outside men,' ai.
all the other traders are called. Through thei?
hands the entire crop of tea is sold and shipped
82 CANTON.
from their several Hongs. Their Hongs, as has
been before remarked, are immense store-houses,
substantially built of brick or stone, running in a
lateral direction from the bank of the river to the
depth of four or six hundred feet. The quantity
of merchandise constantly passing in and out
of them is immense. There is a heavy duty
levied by government on all imports and exports,
upon the receipt and delivery of which the Hop-
poo men, and custom-house officers are constantly
on hand. The Hong merchants, individually and
as a body, are held responsible, by government,
for the good conduct and quiet demeanor of all
foreigners residing at Canton, and through them,
only, can any application be made to government
for the redress of grievances. In fact, the man-
darins, with regard to any circumstances con-
nected with trade, recognize only the Hong mer-
chants. Every ship, on her arrival at Whampoa,
must, before she can proceed to business, be
* secured ' by a Hong merchant, who is obliged to
give heavy bonds that the whole business of the
ship shall be conducted exactly according to law,
that no smuggling whatever shall be allowed, and
that the officers and crew of the ship behave
themselves correctly.
** An instance occurred, while we were there,
of an officer of one of the ^ country ships ' smug-
CANTON. 83'
gling on board two small cases of silk, his own
adventure. On its being discovered, the manda-
rins demanded from the Hong merchant and con-
signee thirty thousand dollars ; and, after being
detained for three weeks, the ship was released
by the payment of ten thousand dollars. The
Chinese, in such cases, would be unable to prevent
a ship's getting under way, and going to sea.
But the ship would have to go without her ' grand
chop,' as it is called, or permission to pass the
forts, which can never be obtained so long as.
there be any suspicion that all is not right. The
result would be, that the trade with that nation to
which the ship belonged would be stopped, and
to renew it, would be utterly impossible until the
full fine was paid.
"Between the American and Monquas Hongs,
runs Old China street, well known to all who have
visited Canton. The entrance to it is through a
strong gate, which can be closed at any time.
The street is perfectly straight, and is well paved
with broad flag-stones. The shops are of two
Tories, built of stone and brick, and are very
uniform in appearance. On each shop door is a
sign, in English, showing the name and profession
of the occupant. Most of the silk-merchants
reside here, with whom the contracts for silk
are generally made, who keep in their shops only
84 CANTON.
samples of the different kinds. Here, also, are
the shops of the * chow-chow men.' ChoW'chow
means any article of merchandise excepting teas
and silks. These shops abound with curiosities
and valuables of almost every kind, and a stranger
may quickly expend a large amount ere he be
aware of it. Ivory, pearl, and tortoise-shell, are
famous articles of manufacture ; and it is surpris-
ing how cheap they can be afforded. Paintings
on rice paper and glass, lackered ware, China
ware, &c. &lc., can be furnished in any quantity,
and at the shortest notice.
" Many of these * outside men ' are considered
honest in their dealings, particularly those who
think they have obtained a 'good face,' which
they are anxious to preserve unspotted. Still a
transient dealer must be on his guard, as they
have usually a variety of prices for their goods,
which they demand according to the quality and
appearance of the buyer. They all speak a sort of
Anglo-Chinese dialect, which, at first, it is rather
difficult to understand. They are indefatigable
in pursuit of * pidgeon,' or trade, and will con-
tract to furnish almost anything with the prospect
of making any thing by it. Contracts with them
are, of course, always verbal, and punctually ex-
ecuted by those who do not wish to * lose face.'
Immediately upon a stranger's arrival at Canton,
CANTON. 85
he may rely upon being visited by the whole host
of these dealers in China street, who, full of their
compliments, demand his name, his business, &/C.
Each presents his card, and says, * My like very
much do litty pidgeon long you.'
*' New China street, which runs between the
Danish and French Hongs, is c^the same extent,
and similar to Old China street. They are both
occupied exclusively by men engaged in trade
with the foreigners.
" The other streets in the suburbs of Canton,
are very numerous, and are so narrow and irregu-
larly laid out, as to form a complete labyrinth,
from which a stranger, without a guide, can extri-
cate himself only by his good luck. He may,
unfortunately, stroll into some quarter unfrequent-
ed by foreigners, — and such instances are not
uncommon, — when he will be hooted at, and beset,
and perhaps robbed, by a mob of mischievous
boys, old and young. The shops are innumerable,
most of them large, and abundantly furnished with
almost every imaginable variety of articles, and
far surpassing in richness every thing I have ever
before seen. The shops are entirely open in
front, and are generally painted with various
colors, over which scarlet and vermilion pre-
dominate. There are numerous signs, hung per-
pendicularly, covered with gilt Chinese charac-
8
86 CANTON.
ters. In these shops you seldom meet with any
one who understands English. Whatever you
may wish for will be obtained by the dealers in
China street.
" Physic street is the name of one of the hand-
somest of these streets — entirely occupied by
apothecaries. Trtie shops are kept very clean,
and apparently well furnished. Picture street is
one of the most interesting, containing whole
shops of paintings on glass — an art in which the
Chinese much excel. The best of these pictures
frequently represent the emperor, or some of his
family. Such pictures are interdicted exportation,
under a severe penalty. Carpenters' square is a
considerable cluster of buildings, occupied en-
tirely by carpenters employed almost exclusively
by the foreigners. The Chinese are very expert
and neat in making furniture and trunks ; and
labor is so very cheap, that such articles can be
obtained upon very moderate terms.
" ' Hog lane,' contiguous to the English Com-
pany's Hong, and running parallel with it, is the
place where sailors usually make their purchases.
[t is a narrow, dirty street, formerly named, by
the residents, * Hong lane,' as it led from the
square into the suburbs, but is corrupted by the
sailors into ' Hog lane,' which is quite as appro-
priate. It is occupied entirely by petty trades-
CANTON. 87
men, who have assumed English names, such as
* Jemmy/ * Good Tom,' &/C., and who generally
succeed in drawing from Jack all his hard-earned
money, ere he leaves them. Each one has two
or three signs up before his door, calculated to
catch the eye of a sailor, representing flags, ships,
&c., and frequently very odd and ludicrous de-
vices in English. The moment a boat's crew get
ashore, a half a dozen of these Hog lane men
surround them, entice them into their shops, and,
with the aid of spirituous liquors, seldom fail of
obtaining all their cash.
" The city of Canton itself is surrounded by a
wall of irregular height, from thirty to forty feet.
One of the principal gates is within a half a mile
of the factories. The thickness of the wall here
may be twenty feet ; the gate perhaps as many
wide. It is guarded by two or three soldiers,
dressed in the uniform of the emperor, of a tawdry
yellow color. An uninterrupted crowd of people
are constantly flowing in and out of it ; but among
that crowd you never see a * Fanquai.'* I at-
tempted twice to pass within the walls, first by
flattery and gentle means, and again, by a sudden
push ; but to no effect. These watchful servants
of his celestial majesty were too much on the
* A European.
88 CANTON.
alert : they seemed, however, rather amused than
provoked, at ray attempts to pass them. I was
allowed to go far enough to look inside, and to
inhale a draught of the forbidden air, and to see
that there was but little difference between the
confined and crowded street within, and that
without. It is said, however, that the streets
within are generally wider and cleaner, and the
buildings generally more neat and comfortable.
From a view of the city from the top of the fac-
tory, there appeared to be but a few buildings
beyond the ordinary size, and but few spires of
any height. It is said that there are some very
fine and extensive gardens within the city. The
houses are generally built of wood and covered
with tiles. Fires, of course, are common, and
often cause much destruction and misery. Sha-
meen, a portion of the suburbs just above the
factories, and separated from them only by a small
creek, was burnt down while we were there. In
the short space of four hours, three or four hun-
dred houses were completely destroyed, and forty
or fifty of the miserable occupants perished in
the flames. In the year 1822, all the foreign
factories were destroyed by a fire, which first
originated near the walls of the city.
** About two miles above Canton, on the banks
of the river, are the Fahteen Gardens, where the
CANTON. 80
residents frequently resort, in the summer season,
for the purpose of recreation, and the enjoyment
of a purer and renovating air. Fahteen consists
of a cluster of gardens, regularly arranged on
the banks of the river, expressly intended as a
fashionable place of concourse for the Chinese
gentry, although foreigners are readily admitted,
upon the payment of a trifling sum. Each
garden is enclosed, and covers a space of five or
six acres, in front of which is a store or public
house, where the proprietor of the garden lives,
who furnishes visitors with whatever refreshments
they may require, and keeps bouquets and pots
of flowers. In the rear of the building, hid
among the trees on each side of the garden, are
the ranges of rooms for the separate accommoda-
tion of different parties, finished very much after
the style of the fashionable coffee-houses ai^a
restaurateurs in Europe. In fact, so far as
convenience, neatness, and beauty of workman-
ship, are regarded, these rooms display nothing
of barbarism, or w^ant of taste ; and they can be
speedily furnished with the means of comfort and
luxury. In the centre of the garden is an
exuberant collection of beautiful flowers, of a
great variety of species, most of them of the
richest fragrance and beauty, neatly arranged in
rows. Fruit-trees are abundant.
90 CANTON.
*' Many of the plants are in large earthen jars,
and are daily watered and nurtured by men in
constant attendance. In the middle of the
garden is a pond, of a circular form, artificially
excavated, its depths abounding with fish of
various kinds, and its surface with * mandarin
ducks' — birds of a most splendid plumage. At
its sides are little buildings, containing all the
apparatus and appurtenances necessary for bath-
ing. In the rear of all is a thick grove of shady
trees, intersected with graveled walks, and
abounding with arbors, which form a gratifying
and delightful retreat from the bustling hum of
the confined and noisome air of Canton.
*' A favorite amusement of some of the resi-
dents is that of pulling and sailing up the river in
boats. They sometimes land on the banks, and
take a walk ; but they dare not go back far, as
they would be likely to be waylaid, robbed and
beaten by the Chinese. The prospect up the
river is beautiful. Islands are numerous, cov-
ered with trees, or highly cultivated, and often
adorned with pagodas and * Josh houses.' The
country is, apparently, very fertile, and every foot
of it under the hand of the agriculturalist. The
surface of the river is covered with ten thousand
junks, and boats of different sizes. Huge canal-
boats, which, in size and shape, perhaps, furnish
CANTON. 91
not a bad illustration of Noah's ark, laden either
with country produce or foreign merchandise,
are seen passing up or down the river, which, by
means of canals, is navigable for hundreds of
miles into the interior.
" Honam is a considerable island, opposite the
' city of Canton, and divides the stream of the
river in two parts, one of which flows through the
Bogue, and the other forms the back passage to
Macao, and separates it from the continent.
Honam is thickly inhabited, is very fertile, and
many of the Chinese gentlemen have their
<iwellings and families there, retiring there them-
selves after the business of the day. On the
island is a cultivated and extensive Budhist
monastery, said by Mr. Bridgeman, with whom I
visited it, to be the largest and richest in the
empire, excepting one at Pekin. The buildings
and grounds immediately occupied for the use of
the monastery, are surrounded by a stone wall,
which encloses the space of several acres. The
entrance into this large establishment is from a
narrow, dirty street, crowded with fishermen and
beggars, through a small wicket gate, just large
enough to admit a single person, into a spacious
and magnificent court-yard, covered with verdure,
and adorned with rows of beautiful trees, a
species of bannian. Through the centre of the
92 CANTON.
yard is a fine pavement, of broad, flat stones,
leading towards the different temples. To see
the buildings to advantage, it was. necessary to
apply to the piior for some one to attend us, and
to whom we were obliged to pay three dollars.
In the first temple are two gigantic idols, placed
in a sitting posture, and each one surrounded by
a railing. They are made of clay, and may be
twenty feet high, with proportional and portly
dimensions. They are frightfully painted, with
huge glaring eyes, and a countenance intended to
be as terrific as possible. The principal temple,
and the one in which the monks hold their daily
exercises, is in the centre of the others, the floor
of which may measure sixty feet by eighty. It
contains three huge idols, placed side by side in
the centre of the building, and entirely covered
with heavy gilding. On each side of the temple
are ranges of lesser idols, covered with gilding,
representing the persons of the different saints.
Vases of incense and candles are kept burning
before the principal idols, on an altar, not very
dissimilar in form to that used by Roman
Catholics. The ceiling is painted with the usual
grotesque designs of the Chinese, and the walls
are hung with tablets and crimson tapestry. The
floor is tiled, and covered with painted cloth.
We happened to be there at the time of service,
93
which, as far as I could discover, seemed To
consist wholly of a nasal drawling, or clianting,
in which they all join, occasionally walking in
single file around the temple. The only instru-
mental music accompanying these discordant
sounds, is the jingling of a small bell, and the
drumming, with a piece of bamboo, upon a hollow
block of wood. The roof of the temple is not
high, and its angles are beautified with scaly
snakes and flying dragons. At a little distance
from this temple is another, of the same descrip-
tion, intended exclusively for the females, who
perform their daily exercises there ; there are a
number of other temples in the range, contain-
ing idols that are worshipped and consulted as
occasion may require. The cells for the monks
are long ranges of low buildings, extending on
each side of the temples, each monk having his
own apartment to himself Here are kept some
half a dozen pigs, which are set apart as sacred
(for what particular purpose, we could not
ascertain), and are allowed to live in inglorious
ease and plenty, to the extent of time allowed
them by nature. They are not of very large
frames, but excessively corpulent. Two or three
of them are greatly advanced in years, and so
much encumbered with flesh and somnolency as
hardly to possess the power of motion.
94
CANTON.
" In the rear of the buildings are paddy fields,
lined with fruit-trees, and extensive gardens, well
filled with vegetables and esculent roots, which
form, or should form, the principal food of the
members of the monastery. Farther back, in a
grove of trees, is the cemetery of the establish-
ment, of singular form and structure, in which
only the ashes of the deceased are deposited in
vases, a furnace being near, where the bodies are
consumed."
CHAPTER III.
DIFFICULTIES. f
We cannot, by any general descriptions, give
our readers so definite ideas of the commercial
habits of the Chinese, and of some traits of the
national character, as by narrating some anec-
dotes illustrative of the nature of the difficulties
which have arisen between them and the for-
eigners who have resorted to Canton for the
purpose of trade. In order that these cases may
be the better understood, we must preface the
chapter with a little information in respect to the
manner in which the trade has been, and still is,
conducted, some of which information has, how-
ever, been already anticipated.
The Portuguese, as has been already stated,
we believe, were the first to get possession of the
* privilege of trading with China. By dint of much
manoeuvring, and after many unsuccessful efforts,
the English East India Company obtained permis-
sion to send their ships there, at certain seasons
of the year, though they were allowed, at first, to
buy and sell only through a single individual,
yO DIFFICULTIES.
appointed by the emperor. He was called the
" emperor's merchant ; '' and he paid government
a considerable sum of money for the privilege of
the exclusive trade with the Europeans. Of
course, he could regulate prices at his will, as the
ships \^uld be compelled to come to his terms,
or to jeturn with their cargoes. This system
was soon abandoned.
It was not until towards the middle of the last
century, that the trade with Canton assumed a
regular shape. The ships were then despatched
to Canton at certain seasons of the year, supra-
cargoes being appointed for each ship, whose
business it was to sell the outward cargoes, and
to purchase the teas, silks, &/C., for lading the
ships on their return. These supracargoes were
subjected to many restrictions during their stay.
They were required to lodge in one house, to
keep but one table; and a portion of them, called
the Select Committee, constituted a sort of board
of consultation, and were accustomed to meet
frequently, to take into consideration such sub-
jects as were of common interest. They kept
full journals of these deliberations, which will
be alluded to more particularly in what follows.
The manner in which the trade was carried
on, so far as the arrival and departure of the
vessels is concerned, was thus : " As soon as a
DIFFICULTIES. 97
ship appeared among the islands which front the
entrance to the Canton river, she was generally
boarded by a pilot, who conducted her to the
place of anchorage, near Macao. The entrance,
however, was so safe, that ships often pushed on
without waiting for the pilot, who in bad weather
was sometimes long in coming on board. The
pilots' names were registered at an office near
Macao ; and all who were licensed paid the sum
of six hundred dollars. The person who took
out the license sometimes knew nothing about
ships or the river ; but in such cases he employed
fishermen to do the duty. On the ship's arrival
at Macao, the pilot went on shore to report her
to the custom-house officer, who, after a few
inquiries, gave a permit for her to pass through
the mouth of the river, or Bogue, as it is called,
and ordered a river pilot on board. When he
arrived, which seldom happened before a day had
passed, the vessel proceeded through the Bogue,
and up the Canton river, to Whampoa.
" Every ship that entered the port was required
to have a Hong merchant as security for the
duties, and a linguist and comprador, before she
could commence unloading. She was also re-
quired to give a written declaration, solemnly
affirming that she had brought no opium ; for the
importation of that article was forbidden. The
9
98 DIFFICULTIES.
ships of the East India Company, however, were
excused from this declaration.
" The Hong or security merchants were the
only individuals who were legally permitted to
trade with foreigners. To obtain this privilege,
they were obliged to pay largely ; and when once
they became merchants, they were rarely allowed
to retire, and were at all times subject to severe
exactions from the local government. The lin-
guists were custom-house interpreters, who pro-
cured permits for delivering'and taking in cargoes,
transacted all the custom-house business, and
kept account of the duties. Also all the minor
charges of the government were paid by them,
in consideration of which they received a fee of
about one hundred and seventy-three dollars,
previous to the vessel's departure.
" When a vessel wished to discharge or receive
goods, the linguist was informed a day or two pre-
viously of the fact, and also of the kind of goods,
and of the quantities : he then applied for a
permit, which being issued, the lighters or chop-
boats, by which the goods were conveyed to and
from Canton, proceeded from Canton down the
river toWhampoa. For a single boat the linguist
received a fee of twenty-three dollars ; but if he
employed from two to six boats, the fee was only
fifteen and a half dollars for each.
DIFFICULTIES.
99
" When the goods were ready to be landed
from, or sent to the ship, the Hoppoo, whose duty
it was to oversee foreign commerce, sent a do-
mestic, a writer, and a police runner ; the Hong
merchant who secured the ship sent a domestic ;
and the linguist sent an accountant and inter-
preter, to attend at the examination of the goods.
The Hong merchants were always held responsi-
ble by the government for paying all the duties,
whether on imports or exports, in foreign vessels ;
and, therefore, when goods were purchased, it was
customary for the parties, before fixing the price,
to arrange between themselves who was actually
to pay the duties. The Hong merchants were
required to consider the duties to be paid to gov-
ernment as the most important part of their
affairs. In default of payment on the part of any
one of them, his property was seized by govern-
ment, and sold to pay the amount ; and if all
that he possessed was inadequate, he was sent
from prison into banishment at Ele, in Western
Tartary, which the Chinese called the ' cold
country,' and the body of Hong merchants were
commanded to pay in his stead."
In case of any difficulty with any persons con-
nected with the foreign ships, the policy of the
Chinese has always been, not to resort to any
violent measures for redress, nor to attempt to
160 DIFFICULTIES.
investigate the affair themselves, but to require
the foreigners themselves to do it, and to give up
the guilty individual or to pay a very heavy fine
for damages ; and if the foreigners objected to
doing vthis, or declared themselves unable to do
it, the government would stop the trade. The
Chinese authorities seem to have learned how
valuable to their customers the trade had become,
and how necessary the chief article of it — tea —
had become to the English people. They were
under the necessity, therefore, of doing nothing
but simply suspending all commercial intercourse
until indemnification for any injury was made.
An example illustrating this occurred in 1784.
An English ship was firing a salute, and, by
accident, as the English witnesses say, a Chinese
was killed. The authorities of Canton, accom-
panied by the Hong merchants, in a most formal
and solemn manner, waited upon the president
of the council of supracargoes, and demanded
the man who had caused the death. They were
informed that it could not be ascertained who he
was ; that in all probability he had absconded ;
and that the ship, being what they call a " country
ship," ihat is, one trading from some of the
neighboring British possessions to Canton, and
not from England, was one which the council
bad no control over. This excuse, or rather these
Dll'FlcpLTiES. ,101
excuses, — for they showed, by their number and
their inconsistency, that they were none of them
genuine, — were not satisfactory to the Chinese
authorities, and the difficulties seemed to increase.
Under these circumstances, the supracargo of the
ship whose salute had originated the trouble,
concluded to go to the city to explain the affair.
Upon his landing, he was taken before the author-
ities, and examined, and then, under a military
guard, was carried into the heart of the city a
close prisoner.
Such a proceeding alarmed not only the other
English supracargoes, but also all the European
residents ; for they perceived at once that any
one of them would be equally liable to be im-
prisoned in case of an accident occurring through
the carelessness of any one in their employ.
They sent orders to the foreign ships then lying,
as usual, at Whampoa, to man and arm their boats,
and send them forthwith to Canton, as well to
show the Chinese authorities that they were pre-
pared for the most decisive measures, as actually
to defend the council from hostile measures, if
any should be resorted to against them. The
menacing attitude thus assumed by the Europeans
was met by similar manifestations on the part of
the Chinese. They resolutely refused to give up
the supracargo, unless the unfortunate gunner
9*
Ip2 Dl^FlJJUifJES.
shoul(i be surrendered to the punishment which
their laws assigned.
The Europeans, finding that the authorities
were inflexible, that all trade was suspended, and
that their friend, the supracargo, could not be
restored to them but by giving up the gunner,
who was, all this time, notwithstanding the story
of his having absconded, safe on board his own
ship, reluctantly concluded to surrender him. He
was accordingly conducted to the pagoda, and
** recommended to the protection of the Chinese ! "
An hour after, the supracargo, who had been
imprisoned, returned, saying that he had been
treated in the most civil manner, while he had
been detained, many of the mandarins having
called upon him and sent him presents.
The poor gunner was detained in custody until
a message could be sent to Pekin for orders from
the emperor. In about two months an answer
was returned, requiring him to be strangled.
After the sentence was executed, the gentlemen
of the several European nations were summoned
to attend the mandarins, and were told that the
emperor was greatly displeased with them for hav-
ing so long delayed giving the man up ; that the
law was extremely moderate in requiring the sacri-
fice of only one life, for two that had been taken
(one having been lost on a former occasion) ; and
DIFFICULTIES 108
''that the government expected, in case a similar
circumstance should happen again, that the Euro-
peans would pay a more ready obedience to the
commands of the mandarins, or that they must
abide the consequences of a refusal."
The firing of salutes at the port of Canton was
prohibited from this time. Difficulties somewhat
similar to this continued to occur from time to
time : the one, however, which we shall next de-
scribe, took place in 1807. It was in the month
of March. The ship Neptune, belonging to the
East India Company, was in port ; and a disturb-
ance arose between some of her crew, who were
on shore near the factory, and some Chinese.
The officers of the ship immediately quelled it,
by securing their men within the factory ; but the
Chinese followed them in great numbers, and
continued through the day to throw stones at the
factory, and at every European passing. There
were several mandarins and merchants present,
who did all in their power to restrain and dis-
perse the mob, but in vain. While things were
in this state, the sailors suddenly forced their
way out of the factory, and made a furious attack
upon their besiegers. They were almost imme-
diately brought back by their officers, but not
until one of the Chinese had been killed.
The committee of supracargoes, on hearing
104 DIPFICUtTIES.
of the affair, immediately felt the most serious
apprehensions for the consequences. They did
all they could to prevent its coming before the
mandarins, but did not succeed. They held a
sort of court of inquiry on board the Neptune,
but could not fix the guilt of the murder upon
any individual. The Hong merchant who was
responsible for this ship, — for, as has before been
stated, one of them must be responsible for every
ship, while she remains in harbor, — was involved
in the most serious difficulties, and offered $20,000
for the discovery of the perpetrator ; but he was
not to be found. The Chinese authorities, in the
mean tim€, forbid the Neptune to receive her
cargo, and gave orders that no ship should sail
until the criminal was given up.
This state of things continued for some time.
The Chinese abstained from all acts of violence,
and made no attempts at seizure of any persons
among tlie Europeans, as they had done on the
former occasion, but firmly persisted in prohibiting
the sailing of the ships. It was at length agreed
that an examination of fifty-two men belonging
to the Neptune should take place at the factory.
The Chinese had at first insisted that the court
should be held at the city ; but this they at length
waived. They had also demanded that the men
should be examined by torture, which, of course,
DIFFICULTIES. 105
was not allowed. The forms and solemnities of a
Chinese court of justice were observed at this
singular trial, though seats were expressly provided
for some of the most distinguished of the English
officers then in port, and some English soldiers,
with fixed bayonets, were stationed at the door.
The Chinese produced no evidence ; but the
English officers selected eleven men, who had
been most violent, in hopes that some punishment
inflicted upon them would satisfy the Chinese,
without the necessity of putting any to death.
This, however, would not do. It was on record
that a man had been killed, and by the laws of
China, which make magistrates themselves per-
sonally responsible for the preservation of order,
some punishment or degradation awaited every
officer connected with the administration of jus-
tice, which could only be averted by making
some one individual responsible for the offence.
They could not, however, fix upon any one;
that is, they had no evidence against any one ;
but it was at last ** arranged, that one of the eleven,
considered by the mandarins as the most guilty,
should be named." Were it not that, probably,
every one of these sailors was guilty, if not in a
technical, at least in a moral point of view, we
might regret that they should have been willing
to deliver up one, from considerations of policy,
106 DIFFICULTIES.
when there was no positive evidence against him.
Edward Sheen was the name of the one sur-
rendered. The other ten were sent back to their
ship, subject to the disposal of their commander,
Sheen being left at Canton, in the hands of the
committee. He was kept in custody until the
emperor's decision was received, which was, that
he might redeem himself from the punishment
of death, by the payment of a fine to the relations
of the deceased, " for defraying the expense of
burial," as the emperor's edict expressed it ; and
then that he might be dismissed '' to be orderly
governed in his own country."
In 1808, a somewhat serious difficulty occurred
on account of a British admiral's having landed
some troops at Macao to aid the Portuguese in
defending the place against an expected attack
from the French. The Portuguese had pledged
themselves to the Chinese government not to
admit the troops of any nation at Macao without
their consent ; but it was thought, on this occasion,
that the Chinese were more likely to refuse con-
sent if it were asked, than to make any difficulty
if the troops were landed without it ; and, conse-
quently, the step was taken without any previous
notice. This was done with an understanding
with the select committee at Canton, who had
charge of the commercial interests of the company
DIFFICULTIES. 107
there. The Portuguese governor, however, at
Macao, remonstrated against it.
There came immediately a letter from the
*' Hoppoo," the officer appointed to superintend
the foreign commerce at Canton, protesting
strongly against this step. The British admiral
then sent a letter to the viceroy, explaining the
motives for landing the troops, and defending the
measure. The viceroy replied, remonstrating
strongly against it, and threatening to report the
case to the emperor. The local authorities made
various other threats, such as that they would
send an armed force to compel them to evacuate
Macao, that they would burn the ships at Wham-
poa, or imprison the English, and put them to
death.
This state of mutual hostility and menaces
continued for many weeks, the English persisting
in retaining the position of the troops, and the
Chinese firmly resisting all efforts to renew the
trade, or to open any negotiations whatever. The
only reply made to all attempts at intercourse of
every kind, was that '* the troops must be re-
moved, their remaining on shore being contrary
to a law of the empire." This the British admiral
would not do ; and the excitement and hostility
daily increased. The English authorities talked
of ordering all British subjects off in forty-eight
108 DIFFICULTIES.
hours, and of bringing the ships of war up the
river, to assume a menacing attitude towards the
city itself; and the Chinese government replied
that they were ready for war, though they should
not commence it, and began to concentrate troops
upon the important points along the banks of the
river, and some shots were actually exchanged.
At length, the English, finding that the Chinese
authorities were not to be shaken, gave up the
point : the troops were reembarked and conveyed
away, when the government of Canton allowed
the trade to be resumed.
We give one more case, relating it somewhat
more in detail than the others, and giving the
narrative chiefly in the words of Auber.
The difliculty commenced near the close of
the year 1822, arising out of the death of two
Chinese, occasioned by firing from a British ship
of war, the Topaze, then lying at Lintin. The
reader must bear in mind the distinction between
a ship of war, under the command of oflicers
of the royal government, and the merchant ships,
controlled by the East India Company, as this
distinction, and the entire independence of a
king's ship of all control on the part of the supra-
cargoes, are often alluded to in the narrative.
The barge of the frigate had been despatched
to the island of Lintin to obtain water, and also
DIFFICULTIES. 109
to enable the seamen to wash their clothes. Whilst
engaged on shore for these purposes, they were
attacked by a large body of Chinese, armed with
clubs and bamboo poles, with spears at the end,
wounding six men severely, and bruising eight
more. In order to effect the reembarkation of
the seamen, the officer in command of the frigate
fired some round shot, by which the two Chinese
were killed : they also sent the two other boats,
manned and armed with marines,* from the ship
to protect the barge.
Captain Richardson reported this event to the
select committee, and, having written a letter to
the viceroy representing the circumstances, and
calling upon him to punish the Chinese who had
been guilty of making the disturbance, requested
the committee to allow Dr. Morrison, the English
missionary, who was then at Canton, to translate
it into Chinese. This was done, and the letter
was ultimately presented at the city gates.
On the following day, the Ilong merchants
waited on the committee with the letter unopened,
to ascertain whether it was really from Captain
Richardson. On receiving an assurance to that
effect, they took it to the viceroy, by whom it was
received, and who intimated his intention to de-
pute a person to Lintin to investigate the affair.
* Soldiers employed on board ships.
I
110 DIFFICULTIES.
The merchants proposed to Captain Richard-
son to send the wounded seamen on shore to be
examined. This, however, he declined doing ;
and, though he had no objection to a mandarin
going on board the frigate, he would not suffer
any official examination to be had there.
On the 22d, Captain Richardson left Canton
for Lintin. On that day, the committee were
informed that the Whampoa magistrate would
not proceed to Lintin to examine into the affair,
and that, if the men from the Topaze were not
sent on shore, and if Captain Richardson departed
before the affair was settled, he should hold the
" chief of the nation," that is, the chairman of
the select committee, responsible. The commit-
tee, having been solicited by the Hong merchants
to allow the viceroy's answer to Captain Rich-
ardson to be sent through them, declared it to be
inadmissible ; for it was a great point with them to
maintain that they had nothing to do with a
king's ship, — that such a vessel was totally dis-
connected with trade. The viceroy stopped the
trade, and twp edicts were issued, adverting to
the death of the Chinese, in one of which was
the following passages : —
'* Now, the men-of-war of the said nation are
originally established to protect and convey mer-
chandise. If it be not on account of trade, why
DIFFICULTIES. 1] 1
do the said nation's ships of war come here with-
out any cause 1 The said chief, in making the
men-of-war and the trade two concerns, talks
very absurdly."
*' The foreigners of the said nation have here-
tofore had occasional affairs with the natives, and
the usage has always been, to command the Hong
merchants to order the chief* what to do. In the
thirteenth year of Kea-king, the said nation's
men-of-war made a pretext of protecting the
Portuguese, and came to Macao. That affair,
more than the present, had nothing to do with the
commerce ; yet, then, the orders were issued to
the cJiief, requiring him to enforce their departut^.
As the said chief remains at Canton to manage
the affairs of the said country, there is no affair
that he should not manage. How can he, in
consequence of the man-of-war having killed a
native, make up pretext, and push the affair from
him ? It is very highly improper."
" Heretofore, the governors have never had
official correspondence with the naval officer of
said nation. On this occasion, as his representa-
tion said, natives had wounded fourteen English-
men. I therefore deputed an officer to take with
* That is, the president of the select committee, the
chief commercial officer on the part of the English, in
the port of Canton.
112 DIFFICULTIES.
him the Hong merchants and the linguist, and
go to Lintin, and take an inquest of foreigners
who were wounded, and M^osecute. If the said
men-of-war really had any men who had received
wounds, it was incumbent on him to obey my
orders, and deliver them up, and wait till an in-
quest was taken; and, proof being obtained, the
matter might be examined into, and justly prose-
cuted ; but abruptly to request the said deputed
officers to go on board to hold an inquest, was
not only a violation of the forms of government,
but a thing impossible to be done ; and then to
irake this a cause of obstinate resistance, excites
a Suspicion, that the tale of fourteen men being
wounded, was, for the most part, not true."
After publishing this shrewd exposition of his
view of the affair, the viceroy gave orders to
prevent the Topaze from advancing higher up
the river; and an edict was issued, declaring
that, if she went away before the affair was set-
tled, the nation's chief and the Hong merchants
should certainly be held responsible.
One of the Hong merchants, Chunqua, in an
interview with the president, suggested that if the
officer were allowed to go on board the Topaze,
and examine the wounded men, the difficulties
would soon be got over. This was made known
to Captain Richardson, who consented to receive
DIFFICULTIES. 113
any person on board with civility, but would not
allow of any judicial examination.
An attempt was afterwards made by the Hong
merchants, under the declared order of the vice-
roy, to distribute a copy of the edict amongst the
commanders of the several ships, in order to
separate them from the committee. The com-
manders returned the edict to the merchants with
a declaration, '' that they were entirely under the
orders of the select committee of the honorable
company's affairs, and that, consequently, they
were not authorized in holding any correspond-
ence with, or receiving communications of any
kind, from the Chinese government."
The select committee, in consequence of the
stoppage of the trade, caused the company's
treasure to be removed from Canton to Whampoa.
The Topaze was then moved from Lintin to
Macao, and an edict was issued by the viceroy,
declaring that he held the chief responsible. The
committee stated that they had no control over
ships of war, and requested the viceroy to order
some able officer to proceed to Captain Rich-
ardson.
Thus the contention went on, the Chinese
authorities demanding an investigation of the
affair, and the punishment of the individuals who
had caused the death of the Chinese ; the East
10*
114 DIFFICULTIES.
India Company s officers maintaining that they
had no authority in the case ; and the commander
of the ship of war refusing to admit of any
Chinese jurisdiction over his majesty's ship, or
any of its crew. Each party was firm. In view
of the affair at the present stage of it, the select
committee entered the following record in the
journal which they were required to keep of all
their proceedings, and which was forwarded to
the company in London : —
" Thus we see ourselves clearly made responsi-
ble for the acts of between two and three thousand
individuals who are daily coming in contact with
the lowest of the Chinese, and exposed to assaults
so wanton, and often so barbarous, as well as to
robberies so extensive, that self-defence imposes
upon them the necessity of attacking their assail-
ants in a manner from whence death must often
ehsue. A great and important commerce is in-
stantly suspended, whole fleets at times detained,
ourselves liable to seizure, and to be the medium
of surrendering a man to death, whose crime is
only self-defence or obedience to orders, or else
to lend ourselves to the most detestable falsehoods,
in order to support a fabricated statement which
may save the credit of the officers of the Chinese
government.
DIFFICULTIES. 115
" Can the honorable company wish their ser-
vants and their trade to remain in this degraded,
this dangerous situation ? Will the British govern-
ment expect that the captain of his majesty's
ship is, upon this occasion, to sacrifice every feel-
ing of honor and humanity ?
** The captain of his majesty's ship has, in the
most decided terms, stated that he never v^^ill
surrender any of his people to the justice of the
Chinese ; and, as there is no precedent on record
of an honorable adjustment of a case of homi-
cide, we have no ground upon which to remon-
strate with his majesty's officers upon the present
occasion.
" We shall briefly recapitulate the cases of
homicide noted in our records.
' " In 1780, a French sailor, who killed a Por-
tuguese in self-defence, was strangled without any
form of trial.
" In 1784, the gunner, who, in obedience to
orders, fired a gun on the occasion of a ship
saluting, was put to death.
*^In 1800, the sentinel on the forecastle of his
majesty's schooner Providence was charged with
the intended murder of a Chinese, whom, in
obedience to orders, he fired upon, whilst attempt-
ing to cut the schooner's cable. The most serious
negotiations ensued, which were terminated by the
116 DIFFICULTIES.
wounded man surviving for a period of more
than forty days, although he died shortly after-
wards.
" In 1806, Edward Sheen, against whom not
the shadow of proof existed, was saved by the
Chinese officers inventing a most flagrant false-
hood as to the manner in which the deceased
person came to his death. The form of public
trial was, however, gone through ; and it must not
be forgotten that a most treacherous attempt was
made to seize Sheen's person, in violation of the
most positive stipulations in writing to the con-
trary.
**In 1810, an accusation was brought against
the English for the murder of a Chinese in the
street adjoining our factory. Chinese witnesses
attempted to prove the identity of the men, and
failed. The form of trial was gone through.
A written assurance was given, that, if the men
could be found, they should be punished ; which
assurance caused a renewal of the discussions at
the close of the year 1811. In both the foregoing
instances, whole fleets were detained when on the
point of sailing.
" In 1820, the fifth mate of the Winchelsea
having absconded, the charge was got rid of by
a most unworthy subterfuge, to which, for the
sake of the trade, we were induced to lend our-
DIFFICULTIES. 117
selves. The Chinese laws will not admit the
possibility of a Chinese magistrate suffering a
criminal to escape ; and hence, if the identical
culprit is not forthcoming, the danger that results
to those whom the Chinese, in order to screen
themselves, hold as responsible.
." In 1821, an unfortunate occurrence, from
which the death of a woman was likely to
have ensued, in which the ship Lady Melville
was implicated, was settled, as innumerable others
have been, by pecuniary inducements to the
relatives of the deceased not to lodge complaints
with the officers of government.
*^ A few months ago, Terranovia, a Sicilian
belonging to an American ship, charged with
throwing a jar at a woman, which is said to have
struck her on the head, and to have caused her
to fall overboard from her boat, was strangled.
He was first exanjined on board ship, not allowed
to call any witnesses, again tried at a commercial
hall in the suburbs of Canton, the doors being
closed, and not a foreigner of any country allowed
to enter. His execution took place within forty-
eight hours. It was conducted with illegal se-
crecy. The report to the emperor falsified the
material facts, both of proof and mode of con-
iiucting the trial.
*' The frequent recurrence of our present dif-
118 DIFFICULTIES.
ficulties must be expected, until some change
takes place in the footing upon which our inter-
course with the Chinese is carried on. The con-
tempt of foreigners, engendered and fostered by
the abusive terms in which they are spoken of by
the officers of government, the want of police
regulation, and the defenceless state in which we
are placed by the difficulty of access to the magis-
trates, leave us exposed to assaults of all descrip-
tions ; and, if self-defence is not received as a plea
in cases of homicide, no individual can for one
instant be considered safe.
"Whatever may be the distinctions in the
Chinese written laws, we see that, in the practice,
as far as respects Europeans, no discrimination is
shown ; and, on the present occasion, we see that
the plea of self-defence is decidedly rejected.
" The great facility which foreigners have of
escaping in ships, and the liability of the whole
trade to suspension therefrom, is a consideration
of such momentous weight, that we trust that the
honorable court will use every effort, by negotia-
tion with the Chinese, and by laws enacted at
home, to put the cases of homicide on such a
footing as shall prevent embarrassment to the
trade."
We give this extract from the committee's
DIFFICULTIES. 119
journal, because it explains, somewhat fully, the
views which led to the repeated attempts at nego-
tiation by embassies, which will be more particu-
larly described in the next Chapter. — But to re-
turn to the story.
Many attempts at negotiation were made in
vain. The commander of the king's ship would
address a letter to the viceroy, but he would not
receive it unless it came through the company's
select committee, as the Chinese government re-
fused to recognise any other English authority
than that. But the select committee would not
be the channel of communication ; for the point
they were endeavoring to maintain was, that a
king's ship was entirely independent of them,
and that they had no control over it, or connection
with it, whatever. Whenever any communica-
tions directly from the committee were made,
urging that they ought not to be held responsible,
and demanding the opening of the trade, the
simple reply always was, that they loere held re-
sponsible, and that they should not be permitted
to ship *' so much as a thread of silk or the down
of a plant," until they had delivered up the
foreign murderers.
The company's committee then concluded to
try the plan of threatening to abandon the country
altogether. They supposed that the Chinese
12D DIFFICUIxTIES.
valued their trade, and would regret a final rup-
ture, and expected that they would yield the point
rather than lose altogether their profitable cus-
tomers. They, accordingly, made preparations fox
departure, and sent to the viceroy for permission
to pass down the riven He returned them answer
that he was ready to restore the trade at any time,
if they would simply comply with the requisition
of the law, to deliver up the foreign murderers ;
but that, if they wished to renounce their com-
merce, he would not by force detain them. It
was perfectly optional with them to go out of the
river : he had given orders that they should not
be fired upon.
The Hong merchants were of course strongly
desirous that the affair should be settled, as they
were the most deeply interested of all the Chinese
in the continuance of the trade. At this crisis,
therefore, they and the company's committee
thought of one more experiment to make. They
sent down to the captain of the Topaze, propos-
ing to him to make a communication to the vice-
roy to the following effect, viz. that the affair
which had caused the difficulty was a very serious
one, and demanded investigation, but that he
could not decide what ought to be done, but that,
on his return to his own country, he would report
it to his sovereign, that the persons accused might
DIFFICULTIES. 121
be brought to trial, according to the laws of
the land.
The captain acceded to this proposal, and
drew up such a communication, and sent it up
to the committee ; but then arose the difficulty
that the viceroy could not receive it, unless, in
some way or other, it should come from the com-
mittee. They were unwilling to make any com-
munication from the captain of a king's ship their
own, on account of the steadiness with which
they had insisted that they had no official con-
nection with such a ship, or control over it ; and
unless they should make it theirs, their friends, the
flong merchants, knew very well it could not be
received. They proposed, in order to avoid the
dilemma, that the company's committee should
simply add to the communication these words,
addressed to the Hong merchants : — " We will
trouble you to take this, and communicate the
ideas in a statement to the viceroy." This pro-
posal divided the committee. The president saw
no objection, but two members opposed it on the
ground mentioned above. This project was there-
fore abandoned.
Another plan was proposed — that the committee
should themselves originate a communication to
the viceroy, wording it very cautiously, to avoid
all appearance of official connection. It was as
11
122 DIFFICULTIES.
follows. The reader will perceive that it was, in
fact, the adoption of the communication, which it
was before proposed should come from the captain
of the Topaze.
*' Although this affair ought not to pass through
the chief and committee, we have obeyed your
commands, and have asked the naVal captain
how those men-of-war's men, who, at Lintin,
caused the death of persons, will be treated.
" The captain said that the affair at Lintin
was, indeed, one of importance ; and ' in de-
ciding on it, I cannot be master, but, on my
return to my own country, it will be reported to
my sovereign, that the parties concerned may be
prosecuted according to law.' "
To this the same inflexible reply was made
which had been returned to all preceding com-
munications — that the merchants might resume
the trade at any time, provided that the foreign
murderers were given up.
At first the committee thought that no alter-
native was left but for them to abandon the
country. On mature reflection, however, the
president came to the conclusion that they ought
not to take that step ; and things remained as
they were, until, at length, the frigate sailed,
DIFFICULTIES. 123
with all those who had been concerned in
the act of violence on board. When she had
actually gone, the committee made another com-
munication to the viceroy, acquainting him with
the fact, and calling his attention to the impossi-
bility of their delivering up the murderers, and
stating, also, that the captain was fully determined
to bring them to trial on their arrival in their own
country. The viceroy professed himself satisfied
with this, and issued an edict for again opening
the trade.
In consequence of this affair, the British gov-
ernment ordained that thenceforth no ship of war
should enter any port in China during peace,
unless on a requisition from the governor-general
of India, or the select committee itself. But this
affair was not forgotten by the Chinese govern-
ment for many years. They repeatedly called
for a report in regard to the manner in which it
was settled in England ; which demands the com-
mittee had some trouble in evading. In fact,
all which was done, — and it was probably as
much as ought to have been done, — was, that, on
the arrival of the English ship at home, one of
the officers was tried, probably for form's sake,
and honorably acquitted.
Such are the difficulties which have been almost
continually occurring between the Chinese gov-
124 DIFFICULTIES.
ernment and their European customers. These
difficulties arise in some degree from the peculiar
spirit of the Chinese character and the Chinese
law, but more especially from the absence of all
settled arrangement and understanding between
the government of China and those of the na-
tions whose merchants trade with them. For the
information of our younger readers, it may be
well to state here, that it is the almost universal
practice of the governments of Europe to admit
within their own territories the ministers of other
governments, as the acknowledged, accredited
representatives of a foreign power. At Paris^
for instance, there reside ministers from almost
all the other European powers, the acknowledged
organs of those powers, so that, within the French
territories, the existence and the independence
of other sovereignties is officially acknowledged.
These accredited agents are of various ranks, ac-
cording to the purposes for which they are several-
ly appointed. They enjoy, however, in all cases,
peculiar privileges and powers. The person of a
foreign minister is sacred and inviolable : he is held
amenable to the laws of his own country alone ;
his property is not liable to taxation ; — in a word^
the minister himself, his family, his attaches^ his
attendants, his property, is considered as part and
parcel still of the country whence he came ; the
DIFFICULTIES. 125
whole plan having for its object simply to bring his
own government, and that of the country to which
he is sent, into juxtaposition, in reference to such
subjects as may, from time to time, arise, requir-
ing free communication between the two powers.
The innumerable advantages of the plan are
obvious. If an American and a French ship,
casually together in some remote port, meet with
any misunderstanding, and consequently, through
accidental circumstances, or the inconsiderate-
ness of the commanders, come into collision,
€ach side is not left to make its own representa-
tions to its own government, colored, as they would
be, by their respective feelings. There is a
French advocate at Washington, and an American
advocate at Paris ; and friendly negotiation settles,
at once, what might, without such an arrangement,
lead to a general and fatal collision. In fact, so
numerous are the cases requiring this diplomatic
discussion, which arise from the extended com-
mercial intercourse, and the complicated relations
of the nations of Europe, that it would be thought
almost impossible, at the present day, to dispense
with the system. It has grown up gradually ; but
it has, at length, become a universally under-
stood and acknowledged system, among almost
all the civilized nations of the world ; and the
principles which regulate it are among the best
11*
126 DIFFICULTIES.
settled, and most sacredly observed, of the prin-
ciples of international law. Now, it was in a
great measure owing to the want of any arrange-
ment of this kind, that the difficulties which have
been detailed in this Chapter were so troublesome.
There was no regular channel of communication.
The power to decide rested with the emperor at
Pekin ; but he knew nothing of the case except
through the local authorities at Canton. They
would receive no information except through the
Hong merchants, and from the supracargoes ;
and they, or their ** chief," as the Chinese called
the president, was held responsible for every dif-
ficulty. The reason why they were so desirous
of fixing all responsibility upon the merchants'
ships, was, that, by stopping the trade, they could
punish the owners ; whereas against a man-of-war
they could have no remedy. She might sail away
at any moment, and soon be beyond the reach
of Chinese power. An English minister resident
at Pekin, and an established system for the trial
of all criminals, and the settlement of disputes,
agreed upon by the two powers, would have
remedied the difficulty ; but his majesty, the
mighty monarch of the celestial empire, is far
above thus acknowledging, within his domains,
the independent sovereignty of other powers. The
theory at Pekin has always been, that China is
DIFFICULTIES.
1^7
the central portion of the earth, the nation, the
empire ; and that though, beyond its boundaries,
far over the seas, there may be indeed a few in-
dependent nations of semi-barbarians, in the re-
mote corners of the earth, still, such governments
are never to be acknowledged within the limits
of the empire of heaven. If a Portuguese or
English ship comes to Canton, it comes, according
to the theory of the Chinese, to receive something
from their profusion, to carry back to their own
comparatively destitute people. The court of
Pekin, therefore, has always considered, or pre-
tended to consider, the advantages of trade as
altogether on the side of their commercial visitors.
They have considered the permission given them
as of the nature of a boon, granted by the munifi-
cence of the emperor, and, of course, to be regu-
lated entirely by his will, and to continue only
during his pleasure. He has, accordingly, refused
to regulate the commerce with his subjects by
any treaty, or to admit within his territories any
accredited resident agent of foreign powers. He
goes even farther than this. The reader will see,
by looking upon the map, that Pekin, the resi-
dence of the royal government, is in the northern
part of China Proper, and that Canton is in the
south-western part, on a river, which, as repre-
sented in the sketch we gave at the commence-
128 DIFFICULTIES.
ment of the last Chapter, expands, at its mouth,
into a wide bay, which is spotted with islands.
If he could look down upon the real scene, from
some position among the clouds, he would see the
whole coast from Canton to Pekin indented with
bays and harbors, and the neighboring seas teem-
ing with the boats and junks of the natives. He
would see the most spacious cities scattered along
this coast, and the banks of the great rivers, and
rich, fertile provinces in the interior, and especial-
ly on the coast, midway between Canton and
Pekin, covered with the tea plantations, and the
mulberry tree ; teas and silks being the great
articles which the European nations wish to
procure.
Now, as we have already observed, the Euro-
pean ships are not allowed to visit this coast, to
purchase green teas in Kiagnan, and black teas
in Fokien, and silk at Chchiang, and China
ware at Kiansy, where these articles are respec-
tively produced. The whole coast is forbidden
ground. There is one point, only, which they may
approach, — Canton, — two thousand miles from
the seat of government, and one thousand from
the province of Kiagnan, the chief seat of popu-
lation and of wealth. The foreign ships may
come here to receive, in a certain prescribed way,
tlie produce of the country, sent there for expor-
DIFFICULTIES. 1/^9
tation, and this under limits and restrictions of
the most rigorous character.
At Macao, a small island seventy miles from
Canton, the merchants must leave their families;
no European female being allowed to set her foot
upon the real Chinese territory. The ships, with
their regular officers, may proceed up the river to
Canton, where, at one particular landing-place,
and at no other, they may step upon terra firma.
A definite and very circumscribed portion of the
suburb of the city is assigned for their ware-
houses; and ten or twelve Chinese merchants,
only, are legally authorized to trade with them,
for the great staples of the country. They are
on no account permitted to enter within the walls
of the city ; they cannot walk, without difficulty
or danger, far out of their own limited portion
of the suburbs, and they must receive all their
supplies, and effect all their purchases and sales,
through these Hong merchants, thus commis-
sioned by government to act as the commercial
representatives of the empire.*
It is a principle of the Chinese government
to carry the personal responsibility of subordinate
officers to a most rigorous extreme. Whether
* The spacious warehouses in which the business is
transacted are called Hangs.
130
DIFFICULTIES.
himself to blame or not, a superior must suffer for
the guilt or defalcation of those committed to him,
unless he can bring the real offender to justice.
The governor of a province must not merely do
his best to quell an insurrection ; he must quell
it, or suffer punishment himself. Each Hong
merchant is responsible for all the rest, and for
every foreign captain and crew which does busi-
ness with him. This principle, which seems to
look more towards the efficiency than to the
justice of government, is extended to foreigners.
The captain of a ship is responsible for any
injury, accidental or otherwise, done by any of
his crew ; and, if the ship in question escapes,
the responsibility is thrown upon the other ships
of the same nation, and satisfaction is demanded;
that is, the surrender of the individual, or the pay-
ment of the heavy fine imposed ; or a suspension
of the whole trade with that nation is, as we have
seen, sure to ensue. The plan is certainly in-
genious, and admirably adapted to produce its
effect, in preventing acts of wanton injury, and
in making the commanders of foreign ships
vigilant in detecting the authors, when such
injuries are done. But, ingenious and efficacious
as it is in theory, it has often proved, in practice,
grossly unjust and oppressive.
Such is substantially the svstem which the
DIFFICULTIES. 131
Chinese government has adopted, to regulate
their trade with foreigners, so as effectually to
prevent all mingling with their own people, and
all interference with their internal policy. The
course which they have thus pursued has been
pronounced, by different observers, the height of
wisdom, and the most egregious folly. It is
natural that they who suffer by it, should condemn
it : on the other hand, we are reluctant to approve
of any obstructions in the way to free inter-
national intercourse, or any walls of permanent
separation between the different portions of the
great empire of the human mind. In fact, it has
been asked, what right one single individual can
possibly have to shut out one third of the human
family from all intercourse and acquaintance with
the rest — a question which it would be difficult to
answer. Still, however, we cannot help reflect-
ing, in justification of the reigning family at
Pekin, how unfortunate have been the specimens
of Christianity which the Oriental nations have
generally seen. Christians, according to the
ideas which barbarous and semi-barbarous nations
must necessarily form, are unprincipled money-
getters, roaming about the world to procure the
riches of others by violence or fraud ; ambitious
of empire ; inflexibly tenacious of every advantage
132 DIFFICULTIES.
they acquire ; scattering every where the awful
desolations of gunpowder and rum. It is cer-
tainly not surprising that China has preferred that
its millions should be left to themselves.
Whether this course, however, has been wise
or unwise, European governments, as might natu-
rally have been expected, have never been satis-
fied with it. The inconveniences and difficulties
arising from it are of a very serious character.
It must be remembered, that the emperor, who is
the soul fountain of all authority, has, on this
system, no intercourse with foreign powers. For-
eigners have no direct access to the government
at all. If they have any ground of complaint,
or have any request to make, the Hong merchants
are the only accessible points of the great Chi-
nese community. Every communication must go
through them. Sometimes they are unwilling to
present a communication, thinking it will be un-
popular with the government; and the government,
in accordance with a principle which has already
been alluded to, holds the bearer of a message in
a great degree responsible for its contents. At
other times, the subject of a communication may
be a question in which the Hong merchants are
themselves concerned ; and then their own repre-
sentations go to the government, and no possible
DIFFICULTIES. 133
means are within the reach of the foreign resi-
dents, by which they can secure the opportunity
of pleading their own cause.
It is not surprising that the governments of
Europe, especially those whose subjects were
carrying on an extensive trade with China, should
desire to have things on a different footing. A
great many attempts, by the different European
powers, have been made, one of which, as a
specimen of others, we shall describe in the two
following Chapters.
12
CHAPTER IV
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
Instead of giving our readers a condensed
view of the many attempts which have been made
to open a regular diplomatic intercourse between
China and the European powers, we shall take
one of them as a specimen, and go into it some-
what in detail. We do this the more readily,
because there is no more effectual mode of be-
coming acquainted with the most important par-
ticulars relating to the geography of the country,
and the manners and customs of the people, than
to follow minutely the history of one of these
expeditions. This Chapter, therefore, might, per-
haps, as well be entitled " The Interior," as to be
named as it is. Its object is mainly to introduce
the reader into the heart of the country.
Not far from fifty years ago, the British govern-
ment determined to see what effect would be pro-
duced by a formal and imposing embassage, di-
rectly from the king of England, to the emperor
of China. A very great degree of importance
was attached to the enterprise, and much time
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 135
and attention were devoted to maturing the details
of the plan. After much deliberation, Lord Ma-
cartney was appointed ambassador. His rank
and his reputation were of the highest order;
and he had enjoyed the most favorable opportu-
nities for acquiring experience in diplomatic
duties, and had been extensively acquainted with
foreign nations, in various quarters of the globe.
Sir George Staunton was appointed his majesty's
secretary of the legation, by whom a full account
of the whole expedition was published on their
return. A ship of war, accompanied with other
vessels, was to carry out the ambassador and his
suite. Sir Erasmus Gower was appointed to the
command of the squadron, and many young
gentlemen of high rank and fortune applied for
permission to accompany the expedition.
The ambassador's train alone amounted to
about one hundred persons. There was the
body-guard of the ambassador, under command of
Major Benson ; there were the physician, and the
botanist, and the draughtsman, and the painter,
and the astronomer, and botanic gardeners. Every
thing was done which could be done, both to give
to the embassy an imposing appearance in the
Byes of the emperor when it should arrive, and
also to facilitate the collecting of information of
every kind, to gratify the curiosity of the British
136 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
nation, on their return. In fact, all Europe
looked with interest for the results of the ex-
periment.
A serious difficulty occurred, in respect to an
interpreter. Of course they must have an inter-
preter. On account of the peculiar difficulties
of the language, and the very little intercourse
allowed with the natives of Canton, scarcely an
Englishman could be found who was in any
tolerable degree acquainted with the Chinese
tongue.
Now, the Catholics, in order to prepare the
missionaries, whom they had long been accus-
tomed to send to China, for their work there, had
founded, in France and Italy, seminaries for teach-
ing the Chinese language ; and Staunton, the
secretary of the embassy, was sent off to visit these
seminaries, to find, if possible, some one sufficiently
acquainted with the language to answer their pur-
pose. After several disappointments, he at length
found, in a Chinese college at Naples, two natives
of China, well acquainted, both with their own
tongue and with the Italian and Latin, which
languages Lord Macartney understood. These,
after some difficulty, were induced to go back,
with the secretary, to London, there to embark
with the expedition.
The next subject which required the attention
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 137
of the expedition, was the selection of presents.
These were provided in great numbers, and at
great expense. Utility, rather than show, how-
ever, was chiefly consulted in the selection of
them. The latest and most approved astronomical
instruments, a splendid planetarium, specimens
of the best British manufactures of every variety,
and '* all the late inventions for adding to the
comforts and conveniences of social life," were
procured. One of the largest ships of the East
India Company was laden with the presents thus
provided.
Thus far, we presume, the sympathies of the
reader have been enlisted in favor of the enter-
prise ; and his feelings have harmonized with
those of the conductors of it in the arrangements
they have made. We are sorry to say, that there
must be now a little jar, if, as we hope is the
case, the reader is controlled by Christian prin-
ciple. In order to prepare the emperor of China
for their approach, it was concluded to send on an
announcement of the enterprise to him. This
must, of course, be done through the Hong mer-
chants, and the local authorities at Canton. The
communication was intrusted to the highest of-
ficers of the East India Company then at Canton ;
and they were instructed to present it in so
public a manner as to prevent the possibility of
12*
laS THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
its being kept from the knowledge of the emperor,
even if the viceroy should be inclined to suppress
it, as he had, in some former instances, done.
By examining a copy of the communication sent,
the reader will perceive that it was not honest.
The real object was, to establish a regular and
permanent diplomatic intercourse with a country
of silks and teas. They feared, however, that
the open announcement of this wish would have
alarmed the emperor, and thus have defeated their
object : so they seem to have concluded to send
this embassy on false pretences, such, however,
as would be gratifying to the emperor's pride, in
the hope that, if this should be successful, another
and another might succeed, and the desired
system grow up imperceptibly. Perhaps Christian
honesty did not require them to state fully all
that they hoped would grow out of such an enter-
prise; but, though they were not required to tell
all that was true, they were certainly not justified
in saying or pretending what was false, viz. that
the great object of the expedition was to do suit-
able honors to the emperor's birthday. Their
real object, too, in going round through the Yellow
Sea to Pekin, instead of landing at Canton, and
passing across the country, was to avoid entirely
the old channel of communication through the
Hong merchants, and the viceroy of Canton, and
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 139
also to lead the emperor to view the enterprise as
a delegation from a government, and not to asso-
ciate it with trading operations. These, their
motives, they might not, perhaps, have been
bound to reveal ; but they might have been silent.
They ought not to have pretended that the design
of the long and hazardous voyage was the safe
conveyance of the emperor's presents. In fact,
there is such an air of waggery about the whole
communication, that we can hardly believe but
that, on finishing the composition, the noble
ambassador and his honorable secretary must
have exchanged a smile at their ingenious plan
for practising upon the supposed simplicity of the
emperor. The event showed, however, that they
mistook their man. This case, as will appear in
the sequel, seems to indicate that honesty is the
best policy, even in diplomatic intercourse, though
such a sentiment, we believe, is contrary to the
general sense of those who ought to be able to
judge. •
The communication from Canton to the empe-
ror was sent in the name of a high officer of the
East India Company ; and in it the writer stated,
*' that his most gracious sovereign, having heard
that it had been expected that his subjects, settled
at Canton, should have sent a deputation to the
court of Pekin, in order to congratulate the emperor
uo
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
on his entering into the eightieth year of his age,
but that such deputation had not been immedi-
ately despatched, expressed great displeasure
thereat ; and, being desirous to cultivate the
friendship of the emperor of China, and of im-
proving the connection, intercourse, and good cor-
respondence, between the courts of London and
Pekin, and of increasing and extending the com-
merce between their respective subjects, had re-
solved to send his well-beloved cousin and coun-
sellor, Lord Macartney, a nobleman of great
virtue, wisdom, and ability, as his ambassador
extraordinary and plenipotentiary, to the emperor
of China, to represent his person, and to express,
in the strongest terms, the satisfaction he should
feel, if this mark of his attention and rsgard
should serve as a foundation to establish a per-
petual harmony and alliance between them ; and
that the ambassador, with his attendants, should
soon set out upon the voyage ; and having several
presents for the emperor, from his^ Britannic
majesty, which, from their size, and nicety of
mechanism, could not be conveyed through the
interior of China, to so great a distance as from
Canton to Pekin, without the risk of damage, he
should proceed, directly, in one of his majesty's
ships, properly accompanied, to the port of Tien
Sing, approaching, in the first instance, as near
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. I4l
as possible to the residence of the emperor of
China." The document concluded by " request-
ing the information thus given to be conveyed to
the court of Pekin, trusting that the imperial
orders would be issued for the proper reception
of the king of Great Britain's ships, with his
ambassador and suite, as soon as they should
appear at Tien-Sing or the neighboring coasts."
At length all things were in readiness, and
the ambassador and his train went across from
London to Portsmouth, where the ships were
lying, and set sail, early in the autumn of 1792.
As the wind slowly wafted them down the British
Channel, they felt that they were bidding farewell
for a very long time, and some of them probably
forever, to all which they had known and loved,
in search of a region, which, though it was upon
the same planet, was in almost every respect a
new world.
After touching at several places on the way,
and meeting with the usual variety of incidents
and adventures, to which so large a company, on
so long a voyage, must be liable, the squadron
came to anchor at a small island off the coast of
China, in order to have the opportunity of send-
ing in to Canton. It has already been remarked
that it was not their intention to stop at Canton
142
f:
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
itself, because they wished to have the whole
expedition kept as free as possible from any
apparent connection with the trading establish-
ments there, and also because they knew that the
Chinese authorities there would probably be sus-
picious and jealous of the enterprise ; and they
wished, as much as possible, to keep out of their
reach. The viceroy of Canton, the chief collector
of the revenue there, and the Hong merchants
themselves, had two reasons for not wishing well
to any plans for a more direct and friendly inter-
course between the English and Chinese govern-
ments. In the first place, it might be the means
of opening new channels of trade in other parts
of the empire, by which their lucrative monopoly
would be destroyed ; and, in the next place, in
collecting the revenue, and in their other transac-
tions with the English, they had gradually fallen
into some oppressive practices, which they were
naturally unwilling to have exposed. Hitherto,
they had been themselves the only channel of
intercourse with the emperor ; and, consequently,
they could always tell their own story, without
fear of contradiction.
The ambassador, therefore, wished to have as
little as possible to do with Canton ; and yet, on
several accounts, it was necessary to send there.
They had one or two Chinese, who bad com©
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 143
with them as passengers, and who wished to be
landed there. One of the two interpreters, too,
who had been engaged in Europe, found his
courage failing him, now he was approaching the
dominions of the emperor. He reflected that,
if he should continue with the ambassador, and
be discovered to be a Chinese, he would be liable
to punishment, both for having left his native
country without permission, and for having gone
into the service of a foreigner. The other, how-
ever, though in exactly the same danger, con-
cluded to run the hazard. " He considered him-
self," says Staunton, " as having entered into an
engagement to accompany the embassy through-
out, and was not to be deterred from what he
once had undertaken by subsequent reflections
upon the danger that might attend it. There
was reason, indeed, to hope that the ambassador
would be able to protect him, should it even be
discovered that he had been born within the con-
fines of the Chinese territory. He was a native
of a part of Tartary annexed to China, and had
not those features which denote a perfect Chinese
origin ; but his name having a signification in
the language of that country, he changed it for
one that bore the same meaning in English. He
put on an English military uniform, and wore a
sword and a cockade. He thought it right ta
144 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
take those precautions for his safety ; but he was
prepared for any event that might take place,
without being in the least disturbed about what
it might be."
Another object in sending to Canton, was that
the embassy might learn how the emperor had
received the announcement of their intended
visit, and what arrangements, if any, had been
made for their reception. They found abundant
evidence that the emperor was gratified with their
design, and that he had done every thing to facili-
tate the execution of it. He had made arrange-
ments for giving the embassy a reception in every
way suitable to its dignity. He had sent repeated
instructions on the subject to the local authorities
all along the coast, and given orders for manda-
rins* to await the ambassador's arrival, and for
pilots to be stationed at proper places, to take
charge of the ships, and to conduct them, in
safety, to the great seaport nearest to Pekin,
where they were to land.
It was curious to observe the eager interest
with which the Chinese authorities at Canton
endeavored to pry into the plans of the embassy,
and to have something to do with carrying it
* The Portuguese gave this name to Chinese officers,
from ^'maiyiarj" to command.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 145
forward ; and, as their assistance and confidence
were exactly what the embassy did not want, they
were often not a little embarrassed in declining,
with proper civility, their offered assistance. The
governor of Canton was satisfied that there must
have been some private design in the enterprise,
and was very eager to learn what it was. He
solemnly assured them, that, '* if they would
let him know what it was, he would confine the
matter within his own breast, and that of the
emperor." This proposal was, of course, not com-
plied with. The commissioners, to whom the
governor made this application (for the ambassa-
dor himself had remained with the ships off the
coast while they sent up to Canton), very politely,
though how honestly we cannot tell, replied that
" they were ignorant of any views besides those
which they had avowed, of paying a just com-
pliment to his imperial majesty, and of cultivating
his friendship ; but that, if there were any other,
they were undoubtedly confided to the ambassa-
dor alone."
The commissioners, too, were repeatedly urged,
by these officers, to write to the ambassador to
come to Canton himself^ and land there, where
all foreign vessels were accustomed to land, in-
stead of sailing on, one or two thousand miles, to
Pekin. They even proposed sending out a vessel
13
146 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
expressly for the purpose of finding the ambas-
sador, and urging this point. They were told,
however, that it would be utterly unavailing.
The viceroy of Capton applied also for a list
of the presents which were coming for the em-
peror, lie said he wanted to send the list to
Pekin ; and he even, at first, refused to send the
letter announcing the ambassador's approach,
unless he could also transmit all the particulars.
The English, however, on this point, as on all
the others, gave him but little satisfaction.
One more plan was attempted. The governor
apjwinted two Chinese merchants of Canton to
go out and join the embassy, and to go with them
to act as interpreters, &/C. This, too, was aid
which the embassy preferred to dispense with,
as they had no desire to have all their intercourse
with the emperor under the supervision of agents
of the Canton authorities.
These various proposals were, however, at
length overruled, and the brigs which had been
sent to Canton, returned to the ambassador ; and
the whole expedition then sailed towards the
north. By looking upon the map of China, the
reader will find, near the coast, about midway
between Canton and Pekin, a small island, whose
Chinese name is variously represented in English
by Tchoo san, Shusan, Chusan, &/C. Up to the
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 147
time of this expedition, this island had almost
been the northern limit of European navigation in
this part of the world ; and here it consequently
became necessary to put in, in order to procure
pilots, who might be able to conduct the squadron
through the Yellow Sea.
Shusan is in the # midst of an archipelago of
little islands, among which, through the narrow
channels which separated them, the vessels of the
squadron had to thread their way. They soon
came to anchor, not, however, before their arrival
had attracted great attention, and drawn together
great multitudes of gazers. It was here, it must
be remembered, that the squadron first entered
upon the Chinese territories. " At the sight of
the large ships," says one of the historians of the
voyage, " a vast number of boats, issuing from
every creek and cove, presently crowded together,
in such a manner, and with so little management,
as to render it difficult to pass through without
danger of oversetting or sinking some of them —
a danger, however, to which they seemed quite
insensible. Vessels of a larger description, and
various in the shape of their hulls and rio-crinor,
from twenty tons burden, and upwards, to about
two hundred tons, were observed in considerable
numbers, sailing along the coast of the continent,
laden generally with small timber, which was
148 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
piled to such a height upon their decks, that no
extraordinary force of wind would seem to be
required to overturn them. Beams of wood, and
other pieces that were too long to be received
upon the deck of a single ship, were laid across
the decks of two vessels, lashed together. We
saw, at least, a hundred couple thus laden, in one
fleet, keeping close in with the coast, in order to
be ready, in case of bad weather, to put into the
nearest port, being ill calculated to resist a storm
at sea. The ships, indeed, that are destined for
longer voyages, appear, from their singular con-
struction, to be very unfit to contend with the
tempestuous seas, of China. The general form
of the hull, or body of the ship, above water, is
that of the moon, when about four days old. The
bow, or forepart, is not rounded, as in ships of
Europe, but is a square, flat surface, the same as
the stern, without any projecting piece of wood
usually known by the name of cuUwater, and
without any keel. On each side of the bow, ^
large circular eye is painted, in imitation, I sup-
pose, of that of a fish. The two ends of the ship
rise to a prodigious height above the deck. Some
carry two, some three, and others four masts.
Each of these consists of a single piece of wood,
and are, consequently, not capable of being occa-
sionally reduced in length, as those of European
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 149
ships. The diameter of the mainmast of one of
the larger kind of Chinese vessels, such as trade
at Batavia, is not less than that of an English
man-of-war of sixty-four guns ; and it is fixed in
a bed of massive timber, laid across the deck.
On each mast is a single sail of matting, made
from the fibres of the bamboo, and stretched, by
means of poles of that reed, running across, at
the distance of about two feet from each other.
These sails are frequently made to furl and unfurl,
like a fan. When well hoisted up, and braced
almost fore and aft, or parallel with the sidesg)f
the ship, a Chinese vessel will sail within three
and a half or four points of the wind ; but they
lose all this advantage over ships of Europe by
their drifting to leeward, in consequence of the
round and clumsy shape of the bottom, and their
want of keel. The rudder is so placed, in a
large opening of the stern, that it can occasionally
be taken up, which is generally done in approach-
ing sands and shallows.
'' The Chinese, in fact, are equally unskilled in
naval architecture as in the art of navigation.
They keep no reckoning at sea, nor possess the
least, idea of drawing imaginary lines upon the
surface of the globe, by the help of which the
position of any particular spot may be assigned :
in other words, they have no means, whatsoever,
13*
150 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
of ascertaining the latitude or the longitude of
any place, either by estimation from the distance
sailed, or by observation of the heavenly bodies,
with instruments for the purpose. Yet they pre-
tend to say, that many of their early navigators
made long voyages, in which they were guided
by charts of the route, sometimes drawn on paper,
and sometimes on the convex surface of large
gourds, or pumpkins. From this circumstance,
some of the Jesuits have inferred that such charts
must have been more correct than those on flat
surfaces. If, indeed, the portion of the convex
surface, employed for the purpose, was the seg-
ment of a sphere, and occupied a space having
a comparative relation to that part of the surface
of the earth sailed over, the inference might be
allowable ; but this would be to suppose a degree
of knowledge, to which it does not appear the
Chinese had at any time attained, it being among
them, in every period of their history, an univer-
sally-received opinion, that the earth is a square,
and that the kingdom of China is placed in the
very centre of its flat surface."
At length, it was found desirable for the squad-
ron to stop, and to send forward one brig only —
the Clarence — to the island of Shusan, to procure
the pilots. This brig, on her arrival before the
town, anchored in a spacious basin, formed by
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 151
several islands ; and some mandarins came on
board. They said that the governor was absent,
but that he would return in the course of the day,
and would be happy to receive them on the follow-
ing morning.
" Accordingly," says Mr. Barrow, *' at an early
hour in the morning, the gentlemen of the em-
bassy, who had been sent on this business, went
on shore, and were received by the governor, with
great politeness and abundant ceremony, in his
hall of public audience, which, as a building,
had little to'attract our notice. The usual minute
inquiries being gone through, — which, it seems,
Chinese good-breeding cannot dispense with, such
as the health of his visitors, of their parents and
relations, and particularly the name and age of
each person, — the object of our visit was explained
to him, and, at the same time, a hope expressed
that there would be no delay in getting the pilots
on board. The old gentleman appeared to be
much surprised at such violent haste, and talked
of plays, feasts, and entertainments, that he meant
to give us. Pilots, however, he said, were ready
to take charge of the ships, and to carry them
along the coast to the next province, where others
would be found to conduct them still farther.
On being told that such a mode of navigation
was utterly impracticable for the large English
152 THE ENGLISH E^LBASSY.
ships, and that such pilots would be of no use to
us, he begged to be allowed the remainder of the
day to inquire for others. We little expected to
have met with any difficulties, with regard to
pilots, in one of the best and most frequented
ports of China, where, at that time, several hun-
dred vessels were lying at anchor. The remain-
der of the day was spent in a visit to the city of
Ting-hai ; but the crowd became so numerous,
and the day was so excessively hot, that, before
we had passed the length of a street, we were
glad to take refuge in a temple, where the priests
very civilly entertained us with tea, fruit, and
cakes. The officer who attended us advised us
to return in sedan chairs — an offer which we
accepted ; but the bearers were stopped every
moment by the crowd, in order that every one
might satisfy his curiosity, by thrusting his head
in at the window, and exclaiming, with a grin,
Hung-mau ! {Englishman, or, literally, Red-
pate !) Rather disappointed than gratified, we
were glad, after a fatiguing day, to throw our-
selves into our cots, on board the Clarence.
*• When we went on shore the following morn-
ing, we found the military governor, attended by
a civil magistrate, by whom, after the usual com-
pliments, we were addressed in a long oration,
delivered, apparently, with a great deal of solem-
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 153
nity, the intention of which was, to convince us,
that, as it had been the practice of the Chinese,
for time immemorial, to navigate from port to
port, experience had taught them it was the best.
Finding, however, that his eloquence could not
prevail on his hearers to relinquish their own
opinions on the subject, the governor and he con-
sulted together for some time, and at length re-
solved that a general muster should be made
of all the persons in that place, who had at any
time visited by sea Tien-sing, the port of des-
tination.
'* A number of soldiers were accordingly de-
spatched, and soon returned with a set of the most
miserable-looking wretches I ever beheld, who
were thrust into the hall, and, dropping on their
knees, were examined, in that attitude, as to their
qualifications. Some, it appeared, had been at
the port, but were no seamen ; others followed
the profession, but had never been at the port ;
and several were hauled in, who had never set a
foot on board a vessel of any description whatso-
ever. In short, the greater part of the day was
consumed to no purpose ; and we were about to
conclude that we had a great chance of leaving
this central and much-frequented harbor without
being able to procure a single pilot, when two
men were brought in, who seemed to answer
154 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
the purpose better than any who had yet been
examined. It appeared, however, that they had
quitted the sea for many years, and, being com-
fortably settled in trade, had no desire to engage
in the present service ; on the contrary, they beg-
ged, on their knees, that they might be excused
from such an undertaking. Their supplications
were of no avail. The emperor's orders must be
obeyed. In vain did they plead the ruin of their
business by their absence, and the distress it
would occasion to their wives, their children, and
their families. The governor was inexorable ;
and they were ordered to be ready to embark in
the course of an hour."
The poor pilots, thus forced to a service which
they had no desire to enter, seem to have per-
formed their duties according to the best of their
abilities, though, on their arrival on board the
ships, they were too much awed by the novelty
of the strange scene to which they were ushered,
to take any very decided part in the guidance
of the squadron. One of them brought with him
his little mariner's compass, made after the Chi-
nese fashion, which was very different from the
European : the other had forgotten his. The
ambassador was, however, under the necessity
of making the best of his facilities, such as they
were, for finding a safe way through these un-
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 155
known seas; and, accordingly, under the guidance
of a singular mixture of Chinese and European
navigation, the squadron worked its way to the
northward, and then to the westward, among the
low islands and the muddy shoals of the Yel-
low Sea.
As they were now rapidly approaching the
termination of their voyage, as might have been
supposed, the ambassador began to turn his atten-
tion to the scenes which were before them on the
shore. He was, of course, very anxious to guard
against every danger which might threaten to in-
terfere with the success of the enterprise ; and,
among his other precautions, a short time before
they arrived at the place of their destination, he
sent a communication to every ship, to be read
to the passengers and crew ; the object of which
was, to urge upon them the importance of guard-
ing, with the greatest care, their own deportment,
when they should reach the shore, and to make
known to them certain regulations, to which they
were expected to conform, while the expedition
should remain in the Chinese territory. They
were required to observe the greatest caution and
mildness in the treatment of every individual in
the country, with whom they should have any
intercourse. He said he should faithfully report
at home the good or ill conduct of the members
156 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
of the expedition, and should punish with severity
any cases of irregularity which might occur ; or,
if any offence should be committed, which should
render the guilty person amenable to the severity
of the Chinese law, he should not feel under any
obligation to interfere, in any way, to arrest the
consequences. He required that the military guard
should be kept constantly together, and be regu-
larly exercised ; and none were to be absent from
the ship, or from their quarters on shore, without
permission. The same regulation Was adopted
with reference to the crews ; and even the gentle-
men connected with the expedition were re-
quired to submit to the same restraint, though
the ambassador's commands to them were signi-
fied in a little less authoritative manner. " His
excellency expects," said the document, *'that
the gentlemen in his train will show the example
of subordination, by communicating their wishes
to him before they go from the ship, or their
usual habitation ashore."
Every person connected with the embassy was
strictly forbidden " to offer for sale, or to propose
to purchase, the smallest article of merchandise,
of any kind, under any pretence whatever." So
anxious were they to avoid all appearance of a
trading or trafficking spirit, which might alarm
the Chinese.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 157
It began to be evident, from the increasing
shallowness and muddiness of the water, the
farther they advanced, that it would be necessary
'fot the squadron to come to anchor before entering
the river Peiho, on one of the branches of which
the city of Pekin was situated. The Lion, the
man-of-war which conveyed the ambassador, was
the principal ship of the squadron, and required
much more water than they were likely to find
in approaching the shore. They sent on a small
vessel, the Jackal, when they were some hundreds
of miles from the mouth of the river, to explore
the entrance, and to bring back a report ; and the
remaining vessels of the squadron followed cau-
tiously on, heaving the lead continually, the
smaller ones keeping carefully in advance of the
rest. These advance vessels often made the
signal 6f danger as they approached some muddy
shoal, or low island, when the Lion would change
her course, in search of deeper water. They
worked on, in this way, several days, till, at last,
the water became so shoal, that they did not dare
to proceed any farther ; and, on the twenty-fifth
of July, about midnight, the command was given
to let go the anchor ; and the majestic ship swung
round to her place, at the termination of her
voyage. Nearly a year had elapsed since they
left the harbor in England.
14
158 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
The next morning, they looked eagerly for land ;
but, though they were only twelve or fifteen miles
from the shore, the land was so low, that it was
not visible from the deck of the ship, though they
could plainly discern the tops of trees and build-
ings. Here they were to wait for the return of
the Jackal, which had been sent on, a few days
before, to explore the entrance to the river. The
next day, she appeared returning from the west-
ward, surrounded by an immense number of Chi-
nese vessels, flocking after her from every direc-
tion. This vessel reported that the mud and
sand brought down by this river was deposited in
great shoals at its mouth, over which the water
was not more than ten feet deep at high tide.
They had ascertained, too, that the city Tien-sing,
the port of Pekin, and, in fact, the great naval
emporium of this part of the Chinese empire,
the city where they were finally to land, was
sixty miles in the interior, following the circui-
tous course of the stream. The Jackal had
spent a night in the river, and, by announcing
the approach of the embassy, had awakened
universal interest and curiosity throughout all
the region.
The most interesting circumstance connected
with the return of the Jackal was, that there
accompanied her, among the multitudes of Chi-
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 159
nese, whose junks flocked around her, two officers
I of high rank, one civil, the other military, who
had been stationed on the coast, to await the
arrival of the ambassador, and to take the charge
of conveying him and his retinue to the presence
of the emperor. They were accompanied by a
large train of attendants, who seemed to look up
to them with the most profound respect. When
they approached the ship, — one of a size and a
martial appearance which they had never seen
before, — they seemed not a little impressed by it.
They shrunk from climbing up her lofty sides,
from their boat, in the ordinary way ; and, to re-
lieve them of the embarrassment, chairs were let
down, by means of a tackle, and they were drawn
up to the deck, and thence ushered into the
ambassador's splendid cabin.
The interpreter, brought from Naples, and dis-
guised as we have before shown, was the medium
of communication between the ambassador and
his guests, or, perhaps, we might say, between the
officers and their guest ; for Lord Macartney was,
perhaps, from this time, rather to be considered
as enjoying the hospitality of the emperor.*
* It may be interesting to persons who may feel any
curiosity in respect to the Chinese language, to state, that
two individuals connected with the expedition had en
160
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
These Chinese officers told the ambassador
*^ that they were appointed to attend him to the
imperial court, and they were disposed to do all
in their power, in obedience to the commands of
their sovereign, to render the journey safe and
pleasant to him." These professions were made
with the appearance of honesty ; and the subse-
quent conduct of these mandarins showed that
they were sincere.
These mandarins, however, like those at Can-
ton, found it difficult to control their curiosity
to learn all the details respecting the embassy,
and especially to know something about the
presents. They insisted on a catalogue of them ;
deavored to learn the language on their passage, by means
of the instructions of the Chinese passengers. One was
a youth, the other of mature age. When they came to
hear the language spoken, the latter found it was almost
entirely unintelligible, while the former succeeded very
well, both in understanding and speaking it, so as to
make quite a good interpreter. Whether this difference
was owing to any superiority of the quickness of youth
over the steady perseverance of age, or to other accidentid.
causes, we cannot say. It is, at all events, some encou r-
agement to the traveller, to know that it is possible, iin
any case, to acquire such a knowledge of the languag e,
as to speak and understand it, after a year's study, with a
single teacher. The voyage occupied rather less tha n
a year. .
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 161
and, though such applications had been made
before, by every mandarin with whom they had
had any communication, and always declined,
they concluded to yield in this case ; and they
gave them a sort of description of the collection
of presents, with a specification of some of the
more important ones.
The object of the whole expedition being to
open an intercourse with China, it became very
important to have every thing connected with it
bear on this point ; and all the arrangements were
made with reference to impressing the Chinese
government with a sense of the greatness of the
British empire, and the high degree of advance-
ment which civilization, and refinement, and the
arts, had, in that country, attained. One of the
greatest obstacles to such a commercial connection
as was desired, was the vanity of the Chinese,
who considered their own country as the world,
and looked upon all foreigners as the scattered
inhabitants of remote and semibarbarous lands.
The celestial empire could not come down near
enough to a level with France and England to
make a commercial treaty with them. One great
object of this embassy, then, was, to convince the
Chinese, if possible, that it would not be so great
a descent, after all ; and we may very safely con-
clude, that the selection of presents was regulated
14*
162 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
quite as much by a wish, on the part of the
donors, to elevate themselves in the estimation of
their new friends, as to be useful to them. But
we will let them tell their own story : —
'* The king of Great Britain," said the docu-
ment, written in the Chinese character, and hand-
ed to the two mandarins on board the ambassa-
doi's ship, " willing to manifest his high esteem
and veneration for his imperial majesty of China,
by sending an embassy to him, at such a distance,
and by choosing an ambassador among the most
distinguished characters of the British dominions,
wished, also, that whatever presents he should
send might be worthy of such a wise and dis-
cerning monarch. Neither their quality nor their
cost could be of any consideration before the
imperial throne, abounding with wealth and
treasures of every kind. Nor would it be be-
coming to offer trifles of momentary curiosity,
but little use. His Britannic majesty had been,
therefore, careful to select only such articles as
might denote the progress of science and of the
arts in Europe, and which might convey some
kind of information to the exalted mind of his
imperial majesty, or such other articles as might
be practically used. The intent and spirit ac-
companying presents, not the presents themselves,
are chiefly of value between sovereigns."
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 163
Some of the articles were described in the fol-
lowing manner : —
" The first and principal consists of many parts,
which may be used distinctly, or be connected
together, and represents the universe, of which
the eatth is but a small portion. This work is
the utmost effort of astronomical science and
mechanic art, combined together, that was ever
made in Europe. It shows and imitates, with
^reat clearness and mathematical exactness, the
several motions of the earth, according to the
system of European astronomers ; likewise the
eccentric or irregular motions of the moon
around it ; and of the sun, with the planets
which surround it, as well as the particular system
of the planet, called by Europeans Jupiter, which
has four moons constantly moving about it, as
well as belts upon its surface ; and also of the
planet Saturn, with its ring and moons, together
with the eclipses, conjunctions, and oppositions,
of the heavenly bodies. Another part indicates
the month, the week, the day, the hour, and
minute, at the time of inspection. The machine
is as simple in its construction as it is complicated
and wonderful in its effects ; nor does any so
perfect remain behind in Europe. It is calculated
for above a thousand years, and will be long a
164 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
monument of the respect in which the virtues
of his imperial majesty are held in some of the
remotest parts of the world.
" With this machine is immediately connected
another, of a curious and useful construction, for
observing, farther and better than had formerly
been done, distant and minute bodies in the
heavens, as they really move in the great expanse ;
the result of such observations demonstrating the
exactness with which those motions are imitated
in the machine already described. These obser-
vations are made, not by looking directly at the
object, as in common telescopes, in which the
powers of sight are more limited, but by perceiv-
ing sideways the reflection of such objects upon
mirrors, according to a method invented by a
great philosopher called Newton, and improved
by an excellent astronomer, called Herschel ;
and who both have made such discoveries in
science as to deserve that their names should
reach to his imperial majesty of China. The
powers of vision, in particular, have been extend-
ed, by their means, beyond all former hopes and
calculations.
" As astronomy is not only essentially useful
towards the perfection of geography and naviga-
tion, but, from the greatness of its objects, elevates
THR ENGLISH EMBASSY. 165
the mind, and thus is worthy the contemplations
of sovereigns, and has, accordingly, attracted
the notice of his imperial majesty, who has en-
couraged the cultivation of that science, — an use-
ful instrument is added for that purpose, as it may
serve to explain and reconcile the real motion
of the earth with the apparent motion of the
sun and other celestial bodies.
** Another article consists of a globe, repre-
senting the heavenly firmament, the ground, or
general color, being azure, imitative of the sky ;
on which ground all the fixed stars are placed in
their precise relative positions. The stars are
made of gold and silver, in different tints, and
of different magnitudes, according to the propor-
tional size of which they appear as viewed from
the eajth ; together with silver lines for the dif-
ferent divisions which distinguish the different
parts of the firmament.
" Corresponding with this celestial globe is
one representing the different continents of the ,
earth, with its seas and islands ; distinguishing
the possessions of the different sovereigns, capital
cities, and great chains of mountains. It is ex-
ecuted with peculiar care, and comprehends all
the discoveries in the different parts of the world,
made in the voyages undertaken for that purpose
by order of his Britannic majesty, together with
166 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
the routes of the different ships sent on those
expeditions.
" Several packages contain instruments for
ascertaining time, with all the improvements and
elegance of modern inventions. One of these
points out the periods of the new and full, and
other phases or changes of the moon. The other
indicates the state of the air, and foretells the
impending changes of the atmosphere. A machine
is added for removing air, in order to make, in
the vacant space, several curious and extraordi-
nary experiments, which prove the importance
of the atmosphere to animal life, and its effects
on the motion of inanimate substances.
** Likewise a machine, pointing out the dif-
ferent means, or methods, called by Europeans
the mechanical powers, which assist the natural
strength of man or beast ; with contrivances for
the exemplification of those powers, applied to the
assistance and comforts of infirmity or age.
" The next articles consist of several pieces
of brass ordnance, used in battles, and howitzer
mortars, which are instruments of annoyance,
from whence combustible matter is thrown into
the towns or fortresses of an enemy. Such instru-
ments were thought likely to be interesting to so
great a warrior and conqueror as his imperial
majesty. To these are added other military
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 167
weapons, such as muskets, pistols, and sword-
blades, for cutting through iron without losing
their edge.
'^ His Britannic majesty, who is acknowledged
by the rest of Europe to be the first maritime
power, and is truly sovereign of the seas, wished,
as a particular mark of his attention to his impe-
rial majesty, to send some of his larger ships with
the present embassy. He was, however, obliged
to fix on vessels of less considerable size, on
account of the shallows and sands of the Yellow
Sea, little known to European navigators ; but
he has sent a complete model of the largest
British ship of war, mounting one hundred and
ten cannon, of considerable caliber. This model
shows even the minutest part of such a stupen-
dous structure.
** Specimens are sent, likewise, of the modes
in which the best British artists work, and render
valuable, the clayey and stony substances found
in their own country. Among those specimens
are useful and ornamental vases ; some imitative
of antiquities, and some in the best modern taste.
*' Several of these articles owe much of their
hardness and beauty to the operation of common
or terrestrial fire ; but a degree of heat, vastly
more intense, as well as more sudden and aston-
ishing in its effects, is collected immediately from
168 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
the sun, by means of an instrument which next
follows among the presents. It consisis chiefly
of two transparent bodies of glass, one of a pro-
digious size for such a material, and wrought by
nice and persevering art into such a form, and so
placed and directed, as not only to kindle into
flame matters easily combustible, when exposed at
a particular distance before it, but also to soften
or reduce at once into a powder, or a fluid, the
hardest stones, or most refractory metals, gold,
silver, copper, iron, or even the new-discovered
substance, called platina, or white gold ; which
platina is more diflicult of fusion in a common
fire, or furnace, than any of the metals formerly
known in nature. The principal parts of this
machine, being as brittle, in their composition, as
it is powerful, violent, and instantaneous, in its
operations, are so difficult to be procured without
defect, and so liable to be broken during the
attempts of the artist to bring them to perfection,
that they are very rarely obtained of a considerable
size ; and one of the masses of glass now pre-
sented is much the largest and most complete
that was ever made in Europe.
" In separate cases are packed up the different
parts of two magnificent lustres, or frames of
glass, with gold, for containing lights to illuminate
the great apartments of a palace ; such lustres
IHE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 169
varying in their form and effect, according to the
disposition of the innumerable pieces which com-
pose them. In these are placed circular lamps,
which diffuse, by a method lately discovered, a
much grander and more vivid light than art had
been enabled to produce before.
'' Several other packages are added, consisting
of a great number of the productions and manu-
factures of Great Britain, particularly in wool and
cotton, as well as in steel and other metals. In
such a variety, there is a chance that some may be
found acceptable for their use, their curiosity, or
as objects of comparison with a few of the great
manufactures of his imperial majesty's donfinions.
" To the specimens of such articles as were
capable of transportation, are added several rep-
resentations, taken from nature, of cities, towns,
churches, seats, gardens, castles, bridges, lakes,
volcanoes, and antiquities ; likewise of battles by
sea and land, dock-yards, or places for building
ships, horse-races, bull-fighting, and of most other
objects curious or remarkable in the dominions
of his Britannic majesty, and other parts of
Europe ; also of several of the most eminent
persons, including the royal family of Great Brit-
ain ; the representations themselves being monu-
ments of the arts by which they are made, in
their present advanced state.'*
15
l70 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
The British government undoubtedly supposed
that these things would tend, of course, to humble
the Chinese a little, by forcing upon them a com-
parison of the highest efforts of science and art
in their own country. But vanity and self-con-
ceit, — how hard it is to cure them ! The chief
impression which seemed to be made was, a sense
of their own transcendent glory and excellence^
the fame of which could spread so far, and a pride
in having such a nation as the English among
their remote inferiors and tributaries !
As the ambassador and his train were now to
leave the squadron, to be some time, probably
some iftonths, upon the shore, he drew up written
instructions to the commander of it, to improve
the time during his absence in visiting several
important places in those seas, with the design of
opening, if possible, commercial negotiations with
them. He gave directions in respect to the man-
ner in which he should conduct his negotiations,
and gave him letters to the chiefs of the places
specified. The ships were to perform these
voyages, and then repair to Canton in the follow-
ing May, the ambassador and his train expecting
to go across the country by land.
All things were now ready for the ambassador
to leave the ship ; and there must have been an
intense interest excited by the circumstances of
the parting scene. The ambassador and his
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 171
train had taken their places in large and hand-
some junks : the baggage and the presents, too,
had been transferred to the Chinese vessels, thirty
or forty in number, which had been prepared for
them. The sea was covered with boats and
vessels of every size, filled with interested spec-
tators, and in the centre towered the majestic
frigate, with her tiers of guns, one above another,
projecting from the dark port-holes, in readiness
for the parting salute. The word of command
is given to man the yards, when hundreds and
hundreds of sailors, in a neat white dress, run
up the shrouds, and fill the tops, and stretch out
upon the yards, until the towering mass of spars
and rigging teems with life and activity. 'Tis but
a moment, however, and then all is still. Every
voice is hushed, and every motion ceases ; and
there is a pause, during which a deep and solemn
silence reigns, far and wide, on every crowded
deck, and top, and shroud, which fill the view.
'Tis but a moment, when the bright flashes burst
forth, one after another, from the sides of the
frigate, followed by the thunder of the cannon,
which rolls over the water, and comes back to
the ear in a loud and long-continued roar ; and
then the hundreds of sailors, extending in long
rows upon the lofty yards, fill the air with their
cheers, waving their hats, and shouting, with
measured regularity, their three times three. It
172
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
was a man-of-war's farewell ; and, when the sounds
died away upon the ear, the fleet of native vessels
were slowly wafted towards the shore.
As they entered the mouth of the river, they
found it filled with boats and junks in immense
numbers, which were waiting their arrival. The
land on each side was low and level,* but richly
cultivated ; and here and there, villages were
scattered, giving life and interest to the scene.
The sea-boats which had brought them from the
anchoring-place of the Lion, were not suitable
for going up the river; and the whole party were
transferred to a fleet of river craft, — yachts, —
resembling in general form, the canal-boats used
in our country.*
* The following is the air sung by the boatmen on the
river r —
AIR.
Solo by
the
Master.
Chorus
by the
Crew.
11
:!&&
ES^
Hai-yo hal-yao
):#iiz--rt— tar;
hai-yo liai-yau
S
t.-r '^ — ^ :a-Ta — ^
Hai - yo hai-yau
liai-yo
EsSfj
m
hai-vvha de
hai-yau hai-yau
Egg^JEg^^gfa- JESEEJi
hai-vau
hai-yo hai-5'au.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 173
But we will give the description of their pas-
sage up the river in their own words : —
''No slight magnificence was displayed, and
no expense seemed to be spared, in the treatment
of the embassy, either as to the number of man-
darins who were appointed to accompany it, and
whose salaries were increased upon this particular
service ; the crowd of inferior Chinese, who were
engaged to attend upon the occasion ; the many
vessels employed in conveying the whole ; the
parade of reception wherever the yachts stopped ;
and the occasional shows and decorations as they
passed along, the cost of all which, together with
that of the supplies of every kind which could be
wanted, the emperor chose, should be entirely
borne by himself; upon this great idea, that the
whole empire was as his private property and
dwelling, in which it would be a failure of hos-
pitality to suffer a visitor — for as such an ambas-
sador is always considered by the Chinese — to be
at the least charge for himself, or for his train,
while he continued there. His imperial majesty's
orders, on this subject, were very strictly obeyed.
A gentleman who accompanied the ambassador,
and who wished to purchase some trifling articles
of dress, was immediately supplied ; but the man-
darin who had been employed to buy them, de-
clared he dared not accept the price from him for
15*
174 THi: ENGLISH EMBASSY.
whose use they were destined, but charged the
same to the emperor's account. The imperial
mandates, on all occasions, seem to be received
with a degree of awe, and to be executed with a
punctuality, which imply that they are seldom
known to be infringed without a punishment
adequate to the offence. The authority of govern-
ment is delegated, on particular occasions, to
superior mandarins ; an instance of which occur-
red in the dismissal of a subordinate officer, at-
tending upon the embassy, by the chief conduct-
ors of it, for no very violent transgression.
** Every arrangement being completed for the
embassy's proceeding up the river, and his excel-
lency's orders having been taken upon the sub-
ject, the signal was made for sailing on the morn-
mg of the ninth of August. To the vessels already
mentioned were added such others as were to
carry the mandarins of various ranks, and other
Chinese, appointed to attend the embassy, in
number, at least, equal to that of the Europeans
who composed it. No guns are fired in China,
by way of signal ; but circular rimmed plates
of copper, condensed by much hammering, and
mixed with tin or zinc, to render it more sonorous,
are struck with wooden mallets, and emit a noise
almost deafening to those who are near it, and
which is* heard to a considerable distance. The
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 175
instrument, which the Chinese call loo, and the
Europeans, in China, gong, from the name it
bears in other parts of the East, is generally used
upon the water. In like manner, two pieces of
wood struck against each other, and producing a
sound like that of a great rattle, serve, ashore,
to give notice from authority, on most occasions,
especially among the troops. Drums do not seem
to be used in the army ; but they form a part of
religious music in the temples.
" Almost every vessel connected with the em-
bassy had on board both Europeans and Chinese.
From a mixture of people, whose habits, wants,
and language, were so new to each other, much
confusion might be expected to arise. It was
avoided by caution and method. The mandarins
were, on every occasion, attentive to the accom-
modation of the passengers. Even the Chinese
soldiers and sailors displayed a gentleness of de-
portment, and a willingness to oblige, distinguish-
able from the mere execution of a duty, and
which showed that the present soldiers, at least,
were not unwelcome. These strangers were,
indeed, announced as coming from afar, to pay a
compliment to their sovereign ; and the lowest of
the Chinese were not so depressed as to be in-
senswbte of some national gratification on that
account.
176 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
" The approach of the embassy was an event
of which the report spread rapidly among the
neighboring towns and villages. Several of these
were visible from the barges upon the river.
Crowds of men were assembled on the banks,
some of whom waited a considerable time to see
the procession pass, while the females, as shy as
they were curious, looked through gates, or peeped
over walls, to enjoy the sight. A few, indeed,
of the ancient dames almost dipped their little
feet into the river, in order to get a nearer peep ;
but the younger part of the sex generally kept in
the back-ground. The strangers, on their part,
were continually amused and gratified with a
succession of new objects. The face of the
country, the appearance of the people, presented,
in almost every instance, something different from
what offers to the view elsewhere ; and a general
sentiment prevailed among the strangers, that it
was well worth while to have travelled to such a
distance to behold a country which promised to
be interesting in every respect.
" The direct progress of the embassy upon
the river was very slow, its course being remark-
ably serpentine. The route was therefore con-
siderably lengthened ; and the wind, which upon
one stretch was favorable, became adverse upon
the other. The banks of the river were higher
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 17T
than the adjacent plains. Those plains extended
as far as the eye could reach ; and the windings
of the river through them made the masts of the
vessels sailing on it appear, throughout the
country, as if moving over the fields in every
direction, while the water lay concealed.
" The fields exhibited a high state of cultiva-
tion, and were generally covered with the holcus
sorghum, or tallest of the vegetables producing
esculent grain, commonly called, in English,
Barbadoes millet. It grows to ten or twelve feet
high ; and the lowest calculation of its increase
was a hundred fold.
" As soon as night came on, the banks were
illuminated with variegated lights, from lanterns,
whose transparent sides were made of different
colored paper, some white, some stained with blue,
and others red. The different numbers of lan-
terns hoisted on the masts' heads of the various
vessels in the river, denoted the rank of the pas-
sengers they held ; all which, together with the
lights from the cebins of the junks, reflecting
from the water, produced a moving and parti-
colored illumination — a species of magnificence
much affected by the Chinese.
" In the course of travelling, the next day, a
considerable enclosure was, for the first time,
perceived, resembling a gentleman's park in
178 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
England. It was the residence of the Ta-whang^
or chief of the district. His dwelling was dis-
tinguished by treble gates, and by two poles
erected near them, each forty feet high, destined
to bear ensigns of dignity, and, in the night, to
carry lanterns for use and .ornament. Within
the enclosures were seen several buildings, a
variety of trees, and several sheep and horses.
Hitherto, very ie\w cattle, of any kind, had been
any where observed. Though the lands lay low,
and fit to be converted into meadows, scarcely
any were found in that state, or any lying fallow.
" On one side of the river was a large grove
of high and wide-spreading pines, near and
amongst which were discovered several monu-
ments of stone, erected to the memory of persons
buried underneath. No temple was in the neigh-
borhood of this cemetery. However a view of
the repositories of the dead may increase the dis-
position to seriousness and piety in buildings
consecrated to public worship, considerations of
health towards the living may have been thought
sufficient, in China, to keep those places entirely
separate.
*^At length they came in sight of Tien-sing,
the literal signification of which Chinese name is
heavenly spot — an appellation which it claims
as situate in a genial climate, a fertile soil, a dry
THE ENGLISH EMBASSV. 179
air, and a serene sky. It is the general emporium
for the northern provinces of China, and is built
at the confluence of two rivers, from which it rises
in a gentle slope. The palace of the governor
stands on a projecting point, from whence it com-
mands the prospect of a broad basin, or expanse
of water, produced by the union of the rivers,
and which is almost covered with vessels of dif-
ferent sizes. Many of them never cross the
shallow bar at the Pei-ho, but are employed in
the internal trade, carried on by means of canals,
as well as great rivers, throughout the empire.
" Across the rivers, where united at Tien*sing,
was a bridge of boats, for the convenience of the
people, but which occasionally separated, to let
vessels pass betvveen them. Along the quay
were some temples and other handsome edifices ;
but the rest consisted chiefly of shops for the
retail of goods, and also warehouses, together
with yards and magazines for maritime stores.
The private houses presented little more than
dead walls in front, the light only coming to them
from interior courts. The spectators were mostly
in the streets, and upon the vessels literally cover-
ing the water opposite the city. Few females
were mixed with those spectators. The crowds,
however, were immense, not only from the highest
ground to the water's edge, but hundreds were
180 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY
actually standing in the water, in order to ap-
proach nearer to the spectacle of the vessels
which conveyed the strangers. As these could
not be incommoded by the crowd, nothing like
soldiers or constables interfered with the move-
ments of the people. Yet, in all the ardor of
curiosity, the people themselves preserved a great
degree of decency and regularity in their de-
meanor. Not the least dispute seemed to take
place a'mong them ; and, from a sense of mutual
accommodation, none of the common Chinese,
who usually wear straw hats, kept on theirs, while
the procession of the embassy was passing, lest
they should obstruct the view of the persons be-
hind them, though their bare heads were thus
exposed to a scorching sun. The gradual rise,
on every side, from the water to the farthest ex-
tremity of the city, rendered tlie whole one great
amphitheatre. It was literally lined with heads,
one behind and a little above the other. Every
face was seen ; and the number appeared to sur-
pass any former multitude observed in the
country."
At length the embassy landed, and were re-
ceived with much parade by a new officer, who
is called in their narratives the legate. He was
the mandarin specially appointed by the emperor,
to receive the ambassador and his train at the
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 181
time •of their landing in his dominions, and to
conduct them to his presence. Of course, the
duties of the two viceroys, who had been thus
far in charge, now ceased. The ambassador
and his train seem not to have liked the change ;
for the legate, as they call him, seems to have
been a far more unmanageable guide than his
predecessors. In fact, the emperor seems to
have made his appointments with a great degree
of wisdom, intending, as he did, to make the
journey of his guests as agreeable as possible,
without relaxing, in any degree, from that strict
system which it had always been his policy to
adopt. The legate treated his charge with great
civility, but with the most scrupulous watchful-
ness ; and, after various attempts to see how far
they could go, they found that they must yield to
the necessity of the case, and, while travelling in
Chinese territories, comply with Chinese wishes.
Yet they had a pleasant sail up the river, beyond
this point ; for, although they landed here for a
short time, their route still lay along the river.
They still sailed in their beautiful yachts ; they
still found the banks richly cultivated, and villages
and landings every where crowded with curious
spectators. Now and then, too, some of the party
could ramble a little on the shore, though they
soon found that this was not agreeable ; and they
16
I8S THE ENGLISH EMBA9ST.
confined themselves to their boats. These hoaits
were moved generally by the wind ; but, when the
wind failed, they were drawn, each by a set of
about fifteen men, who walked upon the shore ;
and so long was the train of yachts, that it re-
quired about a thousand men, half drawing at a
time, to accompany the expedition for this pur-
pose. These men were provided by the emperor,
and under the command of the legate. The
scene must have been a singular one. A train
of thirty or forty of these gayly-painted and gayly-
decorated vessels, drawn by five hundred Chinese
boatmen, in their gaudy dresses, and accompanied
by as many more ; the legate and his train, carried
in their sedans along the shore ; and the countless
multitudes which poured out every where from the
beautiful villages, and over the richly-cultivated
fields, to gaze on the passing pageant, — must have
presented to the European eyes the appearance
of a gay and splendid vision.
The ambassador learned from the legate that
the emperor was at Gehol. If the reader will
look at any common map of China, he will see
laid down upon it the famous wall, passing a little
north of Pekin, from east to west. It is a vast
structure, erected many centuries since, to defend
China from her northern neighbors. It is, how-
ever, useless now ; for Tartary and China form
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 183
one empire, and a Tartar dynasty is upon the
throne. The wall is, accordingly, no longer a
boundary, and the residences of the emperor are
upon both sides. Gehol is a summer residence
of the emperor beyond the wall, a few hundred
miles north-east of Pekin.
The Europeans were pleased to hear that their
journey was to be continued ; for it would afford
them an opportunity of seeing the wall — a structure
which has been considered so great a curiosity,
that Dr. Johnson said it would have been an
honor to a man for his grandfather to have seen
it. The arrangement was made as follows : — The
whole party were to land finally at Tong-choo-foo,
a city at the head of navigation, towards Pekin ;
thence they were to proceed, by land, through
the great capital, to a famous summer residence
of the emperor's, a few miles beyond the city —
the Versailles of the celestial empire. Yuen-min-
yuen was its name. Here a part of the company
were to remain, while the ambassador and a small
number of his attendants, taking with them a
selection of the presents, were to proceed beyond
the wall, to Ghehol, or Zhehol, or Gehol, as the
name is variously written ; for, in attempting to
fix the sounds of Chinese words by the Euro-
pean alphabetic character, there are no fixed
Ib4 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
principles to guide us ; and every traveller and
geographer suits himself.
This arrangement was, accordingly, carried into
effect. On their landing at Tong-choo-foo, where
their conveyance by water ceased, the means of
transportation by land were provided by the man-
darins under the direction of the legate. So
large was the company, and so great the quantity
of baggage, including the presents, that ninety
small wagons, forty hand-carts or barrows, two
hundred horses, and about three thousand men,
were employed. The ambassador himself, and
three gentlemen of his suite, travelled in sedan
chairs, borne on the shoulders of four natives
each. The other gentlemen were on horseback.
A detachment of soldiers preceded the train, and
cleared the vvay, which was thronged with eager
spectators. The largest and heaviest boxes were
carried by men, who attached bamboos to the
sides; and to the ends of these, other shorter
bamboos were fastened, in such a way that the
strength of eight, or sixteen, or even a greater
number of men, could be applied, as the weight
might require. The long train was at length in
readiness, and it slowly moved on over the broad
and well-paved road which forms the great south-
ern approach to Pekin. This magnificent avenue
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY- 185
conducted them, through a spacious suburb, to
the gates of the city.
The city they found to be enclosed by a high
wall, with towers at convenient intervals. It was,
in form, an oblong square, and covered about
twelve square miles, being at least four times as
large in extent, within the walls, as the present
city of New York : its suburbs, too, were very
extensive. The following brief description, if
attentively considered, will enable the reader to
understand better the narrative of our travellers'
passage through it.
It is surrounded by walls, with large square
buildings at the corners, and towers at equal
distances along the sides. On each side of the
city are two great gateways, with large and lofty
edifices erected over them for their defence. Four
wide and straight streets lead from these gate-
ways through the city. The train entered at the
most southerly of the two eastern gates ; and one
of the travellers gives the following description
of the scene which presented itself to their view,
when they were fairly within the walls : —
" We had no sooner passed the gate, and opened
out the broad street, than a very singular and
novel appearance was exhibited. We saw before
us a line of buildings, on each side of a wide
street, consisting entirely of shops and warehouses,
16*
180 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
the particular goods of which were brought out
and displayed in groups in front of the houses.
Before these were generally erected large wooden
pillars, whose tops were much higher than the
eves of the houses, bearing inscriptions in gilt
characters, setting forth the nature of the wares
to be sold, and the honest reputation of the seller ;
and, to attract the more notice, they were gener-
ally hung with various colored flags, and streamers,
and ribands, from top to bottom, exhibiting the
appearance of a line of shipping, dressed, as we
sometimes see it, in the colors of all the different
nations in Europe. The sides of the houses were
not less brilliant in the several colors with which
they were painted, consisting generally of sky-
blue, or green, mixed with gold ; and, what ap-
peared to us singular enough, the articles for sale
that made the greatest show, were coffins for the
dead. The most splendid of our coffin furniture
would make but a poor figure if placed beside
that intended for a wealthy Chinese. Next to
those, our notice was attracted by the brilliant
appearance of the funeral biers and the marriage
cars, both covered with ornamental canopies.
" At the four points where the great streets
intersect one another, were erected those singular
buildings, sometimes of stone, but generally of
wood, which have been called triumphal arches^
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 187
but which, in fact, are monuments to the memory
of those who had deserved well of the community,
or who had attained an unusual longevity. They
consist, invariably, of a large central gateway,
with a smaller one on eacK side, all covered with
narrow roofs, and, like the houses, painted, var-
nished, and gilt, in the most splendid manner.
" The multitude of movable workshops of
tinkers and barbers, cobblers and blacksmiths ; the
tents and booths, where tea, and fruit, rice, and
other eatables, were exposed for sale, with the
wares and merchandise exposed before the doors,
— had contracted the spacious street to a narrow
road in the middle, just wide enough for two of
our little vehicles to pass each other. The caval-
cade of officers and soldiers that preceded the
embassy ; the processions of men in office, attended
by their numerous retinues, bearing umbrellas and
flags, painted lanterns, and a variety of strange
insignia of their rank and station ; different
trains, that were accompanying, with lamentable
cries, corpses to their graves, and, with discordant
music, brides to their husbands ; the troops of
dromedaries, laden with coal from Tartary ; the
wheel-barrows and hand-carts, studded with veg-
etables, — occupied nearly the whole of this middle
space, in one continued line, leaving very little
joom for the cavalcade of the embassy to pass.
188
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
All was in motion. The sides of the street were
filled with an immense concourse of people, buy-
ing, and selling, and bartering their different com-
modities. The confused noises of this mixed
multitude, proceeding from the loud bawling of
those who were crying their wares ; the wrangling
of others, with, every now and then, a strange
twanging noise, like the jarring of a cracked
Jew's-harp, which was the barber's signal, made
by his tweezers ; the mirth and the laughter that
prevailed in every group, — could scarcely be ex-
ceeded by the brokers in the Bank rotunda, or
by the Jews and old women in Rosemary-lane.
Pedlers, with their packs, and jugglers, and con-
jurers, and fortune-tellers, mountebanks and
quack-doctors, comedians and musicians, left no
space unoccupied. The Tartar soldiers, with
their whips, kept with difficulty a clear passage
for the embassy to move slowly forwards.''
The street on which the embassy were advan-
cing, which, the reader will recollect, was the
southernmost of the great streets leading from east
to west, did not pass directly through the city, but
was interrupted, near the middle, by a large en-
closure, extending up from the southern wall.
This enclosure contained the palaces and grounds
of the emperor, and was surrounded by a wall
of bright, polished bricks, covered with a roof of
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 189
yellow tiles. The broad street, through which
they were pacing, came up to the wall, and then
it turned to the right, and passed round on the
northern side of the enclosure. In this direction
they went round, escaping from the bustle and
confusion through which, for a mile and a half,
they had been passing ; for the buildings in this
part of the street were, as we might expect from
their being in such immediate vicinity to the
royal residence, dwelling-houses only, and those
of men of rank and wealth. When they reached
the middle of the enclosure, on the northern side,
they stopped to look, through a great gateway
there, into the magnificent interior.
The scene which was presented was gay and
splendid beyond description. The space enclosed
was about ten times as large as Boston common.
The surface was diversified by hills and valleys,
and the whole area was covered with gardens,
palaces, temples, groves, lakes, and islands, and
every species of artificial construction which
could contribute to the beauty of the scene. The
place was the residence of the court. Here were
the palace of the emperor, all the tribunals and
public offices of government, the mansions of the
ministers and high officers of state. The artifi-
cers and trademen belonging to the court had
also their dwellings here. There were high
190
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
eminences, on the summits of which were erected
summer-houses, sheltered by lofty trees ; and there
were streams of water, and lakes, artificially con-
structed, with deeply-indented shores, and spotted
with verdant islands, on which fantastic edifices
were erected. The whole scene displayed the
gay and brilliant coloring which Chinese taste
always delights to present to the eye. It looked
like enchantment.
But the legate seemed to have had no inclina-
tion to invite them to enter ; and, after pausing
some time to gaze at the scene, the train moved
on. They crossed the second great street leading
from north to south through the city, and at length
reached the western gate, by which they were
to make their exit from the city, two hours after
having entered on the opposite side.
From the suburb around the gate, the long
procession emerged into the open country beyond ;
and, after continuing their journey for several
miles, they at last arrived at the villa or palace
prepared for their reception. A royal residence,
in China, is a garden, however, rather than a
palace, containing many buildings of various forms
and sizes; so that the whole attracts the eye
rather as a gay and varied landscape, than as a
front of imposing architecture. The grounds in
this consisted of an enclosure of at least twelve
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 191
acres. It contained a garden laid out in ser-
pentine walks, a rivulet winding round an island,
groves of trees interspersed with grassy lawns,
and diversified with artificial hills, valleys, and
rocks. The buildings consisted of several sepa-
rate pavilions, containing handsome apartments,
the whole arranged with much taste, and pro-
ducing a very pleasant effect.
This residence had been constructed expressly
for the use of foreign embassies, during their
stay ; for the presence of such embassies from
the neighboring provinces, sent to bring tribute,
or to do homage, was very common. This
palace had been appropriated to their use ; and
here, in a spacious hall, which formed a part of a
cluster of buildings, decorated with all the gay
embellishments so characteristic of Chinese archi-
tecture, was to be performed the ceremony of the
reception. The approach was through three
courts, surrounded with buildings ; and the build-
ing was itself erected upon a platform of granite,
raised about four feet above the level of the
ground. The roof projected, after the Chinese
fashion, and was supported by rows of columns
painted red, and varnished, and the capitals orna-
mented with various devices, in vivid coloring.
A net of gilt wire, so fine as scarcely to be per-
ceived, was spread over the whole entablature
192 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
of the building, to prevent birds from resting
upon it. The interior was spacious and splendid ;
and on one side, the space between the pillars
was constructed of panels which could be removed
at pleasure, so as to throw the whole interior
open, on that side, to the light and the air. The
floor was paved with gray marble flag-stones, laid
chequer-wise ; and the ceiling was highly orna-
mented with various figures, in geometrical forms^
and painted with gay colors. This splendid
apartment was intended as the place of audience,
where the emperor received in state the various
foreign embassies which appeared at his court.
Of course, it contained a throne. This throne was
approached by flights of steps in front and at the
sides. It was made of a beautiful species of wood,
richly carved. It was from this seat that his
majesty was to view his presents, when they should
be arranged around the hall.
CHAPTER V.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY— CONTINUED.
The reader will probably, by this time, begin
to look for some indications, in respect to the
probable success of this enterprise ; for it is plain
that we are now drawing towards the time when
some such indications must appear. In fact,
they did appear before this time. Evidences
that the whole embassy was looked upon with
some jealousy, by the Chinese authorities, had
been observed pretty early, and were rather in-
creasing. These officers could not believe that
the real object of this expensive visit was the
pretended one, viz. simply to do honor to the
emperor on his birth-day. They could not sup-
pose that any mere mercantile objects were in
contemplation ; for the embassy, in the first place,
had studiously endeavored to keep all mercantile
interests entirely out of view, as we have already
seen ; and, besides, in the opinion of the Chinese,
any advantages of trade were not of sufficient
value or importance to afford an inducement for
undertaking so grand an enterprise. They were
17
194 THf;
ENGLISH EMBASSY.
afraid of something, they knew not exactly what —
some political interference with the country, per-
haps, or even military conquest. Their fears were
increased — unfortunately for the embassy — by the
tidings which reached them, about this time, of
the principles and effects of the French revolu-
tion, than which nothing could be more abhorrent
to the ideas of such a government as that of
China. Some vague reports, too, of the operations
of the English armies in India, especially upon
the eastern frontier, where the dominions of the
English and the Chinese monarchs approached
very near to one another, excited still more the
alarms and jealousies of the mandarins ; and thus,
while the ambassador and his suite were fondly
hoping, upon their approach to the emperor's pres-
ence, that they were about to bring their embassy
to a successful issue, the government itself was
secretly resolving to receive them with perfect
civility, but to resist all attempts at entering into
any negotiations whatever, and to insist firmly on
their immediate return.
Thus far, however, there had been no actual
difficulty between the ambassador and the govern-
ment ; but, on their arrival at Yuen-min-yuen,
the palace and gardens above described, a some-
what serious one arose. The ambassador was in-
formed that he would be expected to prostrate
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 195
himself, in the hall of audience, before the empty
throne, as an act of homage to the absent emperor.
The ambassador did not object particularly to the
nature of the ceremony, but he was entirely un-
willing to do any thing which would favor the
idea which the Chinese seemed quite inclined to
adopt, that the English were an inferior nation,
coming, by this embassy, to do homage and pay
tribute to the emperor. He proposed, therefore^
not to comply with this custom, except on the
condition that a Chinese mandarin, of rank equal
to his own, should perform the same ceremony
before a pictw^e of the king of Great Britain^
which he had with him. This proposal it was
necessary to make in writing ; but great difficulty
and delay were experienced, in finding a person
willing to translate it into the Chinese, for fear
of the displeasure of the government. Their
own interpreter, though acquainted with the com-
mon colloquial language of China, could not, by
any means, put such a state document into the
proper form. After various efforts to surmount
the difficulty, they at last accomplished their ob-
ject in the following manner, which we detail
particularly, that the reader may have some idea
of the difficulties and embarrassments which ob-
structed the intercourse between the ambassador
and the authorities to which he was sent.
196 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
1. The ambassador wrote his document in
English.
2. This English copy was translated into
Latin, so as to bring it within the reach of their
interpreter, who had been brought from Italy,
and did not understand English.
3. The interpreter translated it, verbally, into
colloquial Chinese.
4. A Chinese writer was with great difficulty
procured to write it in the Chinese character, on
condition that it should be afterwards copied, and
his handwriting not seen by the government.
5. A page, attached to the embassy, who had,
on the voyage, learned to imitate the character,
transcribed the written copy, which transcript was
forwarded to the minister.
We have already said, that the emperor himself
was at Gehol, a royal residence in Tartary, on
the northern side of the Chinese wall ; and to
this place the ambassador was to proceed. His
journey was commenced before he received any
answer to his proposal in respect to the prostra-
tions. A part of his train remained behind, for
the purpose of superintending the unpacking and
arranging of the presents. They resided, how-
ever, while the ambassador was gone, at Pekin,
in a palace prepared for them there. The grounds
about this palace were surrounded by a wall ; and
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 197
within this enclosure, they were, in fact, prisoners.
Their motions were all watched ; they could have
no free intercourse with the natives ; and though
they could go in and out with some freedom, yet
they felt themselves almost as much under re-
straint as if they were prisoners of war.
Here, however, and at Yuen-min-yuen, they
remained, while the ambassador, followed by a
large train of Chinese attendants, and by most
of his European suite, set out on his northern
journey. The ambassador travelled in his car-
riage, which had been brought out with him in
one of the ships. *'It was probably the first
time," says Staunton, *'that an English post-
xihaise rolled upon the route to Tartary. The
road stretched to the northward, across the ex-
tensive plain on which Pekin is built, and was
shaded by vast willow-trees, planted along its
sides. Thecountry was highly cultivated. Some*
times the ambassador would take some of the
mandarins into the carriage with him, their usual
mode of travelling being in sedan chairs, carried
by the natives. At first, they were somewhat
startled, lest the carriage, which was hung high,
and seemed to totter, should overturn ; but, being
assured of its perfect safety, they became inex-
pressibly delighted with its easiness, lightness, and
rapidity, the ingenuity of the springs, and the
17*
198 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
various contrivances for raising and lowering the
glasses and curtains, and for increasing or dimin-
ishing, at pleasure, the opening of the Venetian
blinds."
After travelling onwards about twenty miles,
the land began to rise, and gradually grew more
and more hilly ; and at length mountains began
to appear. On the fourth day, they saw, at a dis-
tance before them, what appeared to be a dark
line extending across the country, and continuing
over the summits of the mountains. It was the
famous Chinese wall. When they reached it,
they stopped to examine it minutely. We cannot,
however, stop to give the minute and particular
description of it, which they entered upon their
journals.
On passing beyond the wall, they found them-
selves in a new country, and among a new people ;
for, although under one government, the people,
the climate, the country, the customs, on the oppo-
site sides of this wall, are all distinct. They were
in the Switzerland of Asia. The autumnal air
was cool. The roads were rugged ; and oaks,
elms, and stunted pines, clothed the sides of the
mountains. At length they approached the city
of their destination, where they were received by
bodies of troops and vast crowds of spectators,
and were conducted to a group of buildings,
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 199
pleasantly situated south of the city, which had
been prepared for their reception. They looked
down upon the crowded city which was spread
out before them ; and beyond it, covering all the
hills and valleys for many miles, were the groves^
and lawns, and palaces, of the emperor's summer
retreat.
As might naturally have been expected, the
;an)bassador felt a little solicitude to know what
answer would be returned to his proposal, in
respect to the prostration ; for, until his arrival at
Gehol, he had received no reply to the communi-
cation which had been prepared with so much
care. Very soon after his arrival, however, the
legate called upon him, and returned the com-
munication, giving him to understand that he had
not presented it to the emperor, such a proposal
being so plainly inadmissible that its presentation
could do no good. He wished to have the am-
bassador present himself, too, as soon as possible,
not to the emperor, — for one of the arts of the
Chinese government consists in keeping the em-
peror at as great a distance, and in as inaccessi-
ble a position as possible, — but to the grand vizier,
who wished to know, particularly, what were the
contents of the English monarch's letter. The
ambassador supposed their plan was, to urge him
on, through the ceremonies of an audience, so as
200 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
to obtain the prostration without replying to his
proposal. He accordingly determined to take no
further steps himself until this question should
be distinctly settled. Under the plea of indispo*
sition, — which, if it was real, was a very fortunate
circumstance for his excellency,— he declined the
visit to the vizier, and sent his secretary, with a
copy of the English king's letter, and also the
old memorial on the subject of the prostration,
which the legate had returned.
We cannot stop to detail the negotiations which
followed. It was not for some time, nor until
rumors of the difficulty had spread among all the
people around, producing not a little excitement,
that the business was finally settled. It was
agreed that the ambassador should be required
only to perform, before the emperor, the same
ceremony of respect which he was accustomed
to render when he approached his own sovereign,
viz. bending upon one knee.
This momentous affair being settled, the ap
proaching audience of the emperor attracted uni-
versal interest and attention. In the mean time,
— as several days intervened, and the ambassador
found that any such access to the emperor as
should enable him to produce personally any im-
pression upon his mind in respect to a change
of policy in his regulations of foreign intercourse.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 201
was out of the question, — he endeavored to culti-
vate a good understanding with the vizier, in
hopes of being able to influence the measures
of the government through him. He did not,
however, succeed. The great statesman could
not see how any more extended a commerce would
benefit the Chinese. The introduction of Euro-
pean goods would be of no advantage : the Chi-
nese had always done very well without them,
and did not feel the need of them now. "Cotton
and rice might be brought from India," said the
ambassador. — " But we have extensive districts
in our own country adapted to the cultivation
of those very articles," replied the vizier. — ** We
might pay for the articles we purchase, in silver."
— *' But we have silver enough now ; an increase
will only raise the prices of the articles in our
own markets." — *' We can help you subdue the
pirates on your coasts," said the Englishman. —
** It is not necessary, I thank you," replied the
Tartar ; ** for, when the pirates trouble us, we can
confine our commerce to our rivers and canals."
The reader need not be told that we do not give
the language of the dialogue, but only its substan-
tial results. The conversations were managed
with great delicacy and politeness on both sides,
and never assumed the form of debate. The am-
bassador was satisfied, however, that a Chinese
202 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
Statesman could not be led to see, by any rhet-
oric which he could bring to bear upon the sub-
ject, that the central empire could stand in need
of any thing which foreigners could supply. A
limited and closely-watched commercial inter-
course, as a mere matter of favor towards remote
and dependent nations, would be allowed, as it
was plain that other nations could not do without
China ; but any thing further than this, it was
plainly his intention, firmly, though most politely,
to decline.
These fruitless negotiations being ended, the
ambassador seems to have made up his mind that
nothing remained for him but to go properly
through the great ceremonies of state which were
connected with his interviews with the emperor,
and then to return to England and report the
failure of the design.
He was not yet, however, absolutely without
hope; and he, of course, looked forward with
much interest to the approaching interview with
the aged monarch. The morning at length ar-
rived ; — ^the morning, for it is not one of the effects
of advanced civilization and refinement, in China,
to turn the night into day. They do, indeed, on
these great occasions, as will be seen presently, ,
encroach a little upon the hours of darkness; but
it is from the other side, beginning early, not
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 203
continuing late. But let us present an account
of the audience given to the embassy. It took
place in the midst of the splendid landscape
scenery of the emperor's pleasure-grounds, which
we shall, hereafter, more particularly describe.
" On that morning, the ambassador and gentle-
men of the embassy went, before daylight, as was
announced to be proper, to the garden of the
palace of Zhe-hol. In the middle of the garden
was a spacious and magnificent tent, supported
by gilded or painted and varnished pillars. The
canvass of which it was composed did not follow
the obliquity of the cords, along their whole length,
to the pegs fastened in the ground, but, about
midway, was suffered to hang perpendicularly
down, while the upper part of the canvass con-
stituted the roof Towards one extremity of the
tent was placed a throne, with windows in the
sides of the tent, to throw light particularly upon
that part of it. Opposite to the throne was a
wide opening, from whence a yellow fly-tent pro-
jected to a considerable distance. The furniture
of the tent was elegant, without glitter or affected
embellishments. Several small, round tents were
pitched in front, and one, of an oblong form, im-
mediately behind. The latter was intended for
the emperor, in case he should choose to retire
to it from his throne. It had a sofa or bed at
204 THE ExNGLISH EMBASSY.
one extremity. The remainder was adorned with
a variety of muskets and sabres, European and
Asiatic. ' Of the small tents in front, one was
for the use of the embassy, while it was in wait-
ing for the arrival of the emperor. Some of the
others were destined, in the same manner, for the
several tributary princes of Tartary, and delegates
from other tributary states, who were assembled
in Zhe-hol on the occasion of the emperor's
birth-day, and who attended, on this day, to grace
the reception of the English ambassador. Some
tents, also, were intended for the male branches
of the emperor's family, and the principal officers
of state. In the great tent, his imperial majesty
was to receive, seated on his throne, as a partic-
ular distinction, the delegate from the king of
Great Britain.
*' It was not merely for the convenience of a
great space, to contain the concourse of persons
meeting on this occasion, that a tent was prefer-
red to a large apartment in the palace. The
Tartar dynasty, in conforming, in most instances,
to the customs of a much more numerous and
more civilized, though vanquished nation, retained
still a predilection for its own ancient manners,
in which, occasionally, and upon Tartar ground,
it took a pleasure in indulging. The movable
dwelling of a tent was, more than a permanent
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 205
palace of stone and timber, the favorite residence
of a Tartar sovereign.
" The tributary princes, those of the imperial
family, and the great mandarins of the court,
formed together no inconsiderable group, while
they were in waiting, in front of the great tent.
Each was decorated with distinctive marks of the
rank bestowed upon him by the emperor.
" Several of the courtiers were partly dressed
in English cloth, instead of silk or furs, in which
only it had hitherto been allowed to appear before
his imperial majesty.
** Those personages had each, in his own dis-
trict, a circle of courtiers dependent on him, and
was abundantly impressed with ideas of his own
importance ; but all were, in this place, con-
founded in the crowd, and their grandeur lost in
the contemplation of that of his imperial majesty.
It was the etiquette of respect towards him to be
in waiting for him a considerable time. Some
remained part of the night in the garden for this
purpose. The emperor was, indeed, expected not
long after the dawn of day. This hour of meet-
ing, so different from that of nations which had
passed through the various stages of civilization,
to the period of indolence and luxury, brought
back to recollection the usual hunting occupa-
tions of this people, whose daily chase began as
18
206 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
soon as the rising sun enabled them to perceive
and pursue their prey.
** Before the emperor's arrival, the ambassador's
small tent was filled with a succession of persons,
whom curiosity excited, or civility induced, to visit
him. Among them were a brother of the emperor,
a plain, unaffected man, somewhat above the mid-
dle size, and past the middle age ; two of the
emperor's sons, and as many grandsons ; the
former well-looking men, courteous and inquisi-
tive ; the latter, young, tall, and remarkably hand-
some. Among the tributaries was one who lived
in the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea, and
spoke the Arabic language. Knowing, probably,
somewhat more of Europe than the rest, he seemed
* to take a greater interest in what related to the
embassy ; but the ambassador's avowed and par-
ticular friend was the respectable viceroy of Pe-
che-lee, who testified such pleasure in renewing
his acquaintance with him, and spoke of him in
terms of so much esteem to the surrounding circle,
that the persons who composed it became strong-
ly prepossessed in his excellency's favor. The
whole embassy seemed to feel more confidence in
this viceroy's presence,
*' Soon after daylight, the sound of several in-
struments, and the confused voices of men at a
distance, announced the emperor's approach. He
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 207
soon appeared from behind a high and perpen
dicular mountain, skirted with trees, as if from a
sacred grove, preceded by a number of persons,
busied in proclaiming aloud his virtues and his
power. He was seated in a sort of open chair,
or triumphal car, borne by sixteen men, and was
accompanied and followed by guards, officers of
the household, high flag and umbrella bearers,
and music. He was clad in plain, dark silk, with
a velvet bonnet, in form not much different from
the bonnet of Scotch Highlanders : on the front
of it was placed a large pearl, which was the
only jewel or ornament he appeared to have
about him.
"On his entrance into the tent, he mounted
immediately the throne, by the front steps, con-
secrated to his use alone. Ho-choong-taung, and
two of the principal persons of his household,
were close to him, and always spoke to him upon
their knees. The princes of his family, the
tributaries and great officers of state, being already
arranged in their respective places in the tent,
the president of the tribunal of rites conducted
the ambassador, who was attended by his page
and Chinese interpreter, and accompanied by the
minister plenipotentiary, near to the foot of the
throne, on the left hand side, which, according to
the usages of China, — so often the reverse of thoae
208 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
of Europe, — is accounted the place of honor. The
other gentlemen of the embassy, together with a
great number of mandarins and officers of inferior
dignity, stood at the great opening of the tent,
from whence most of the ceremonies that passed
within it could be observed.
" His excellency was habited in a richly em-
broidered suit of velvet, adorned with a diamond
badge and star of the order of the Bath. Over
the suit he wore a long mantle of the same order,
sufficiently ample to cover the limbs of the wearer.
An attention to Chinese ideas and manners ren-
dered the choice in dress of some importance,
and accounts for this mention of it. The par-
ticular regard, in every instance, paid by that
nation to exterior appearances, affects even the
system of their apparel, which is calculated to
inspire gravity and reserve. For this purpose,
they use forms the most distant from those which
discover the naked figure.
" The broad mantle, which, as a knight of the
order of the Bath, the ambassador was entitled to
wear, was somewhat upon the plan of the dress
most pleasing to the Chinese. Upon the same
principles, the minister plenipotentiary, being an
honorary doctor of laws of the university of
Oxford, wore the scarlet gown of that degree,
which happened also to be suitable in a govern-
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 209
ment where degrees in learning lead to every
kind of political situation. The ambassador, in-
structed by the president of the tribunal of rites,
held the large and magnificent square box of gold,
adorned with jewels, in which was enclosed his
majesty's letter to the emperor, between both
hands lifted above his head, and, in that manner,
ascending the few steps that led to the throne,
and bending on one knee, presented the box,
with a short address to his imperial majesty, who,
graciously receiving the same with his own hands,
placed it by his side, and expressed the satisfac-
tion he felt at the testimony which his Britannic
majesty gave to him of his esteem and good-will,
in sending him an embassy, with a letter and rare
presents ; that he, on his part, entertained senti-
ments of the same kind towards the sovereign
of Great Britain, and hoped that harmony should
always be maintained among their respective
subjects.
" This mode of reception of the representative
of the king of Great Britain was considered, by
the Chinese court, as particularly honorable and
distinguished ; ambassadors being seldom received
by the emperor on his throne, or their credentials
delivered by them into his own hands, but gener-
ally into that of some of his courtiers.
*' During the ceremonies, his imperial majesty
18*
210 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
appeared perfectly unreserved, cheerful, and unaf-
fected. Far from being of a dark and gloomy
aspect, as he has been sometimes represented,
his eyes were full and clear, and his countenance
open. Such, at least, it appeared during the
whole time of his interview with the ambassador,
which was lengthened by the necessity of inter-
preting whatever v/as said by either party ; which
rendered the communication extremely tedious.
" His imperial majesty, adverting to the incon
venience arising from such a circumstance, in-
quired from Ho-choong-taung whether any person
of the embassy understood the Chinese language;
and, being informed that the ambassador's page —
a boy then in his thirteenth year — had alone made
some proficiency in it, the emperor had the curi-
osity to have the youth brought up to the throne,
and desired him to speak Chinese. Either what
he said, or his modest countenance, or manner,
was so pleasing to his imperial majesty, that he
took from his girdle a purse, hanging from it,
for holding areca nuts, and presented it to him.
** Purses are the ribands of the Chinese monarch,
which he distributes as rewards of merit among
his subjects ; but his own purse was deemed a
mark of personal favor, according to the ideas
of Eastern nations, among whom any thing worn
by the person of the sovereign is prized beyond
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 211
all other gifts. It procured for the young favorite
the notice and caresses of many of the mandarins,
while others, perhaps, envied his good fortune.
This imperial purse is not at all magnificent, be-
ing of yellow silk, with blue embroidery, and some
Tartar characters worked into it.
*' The English ambassador, and the three per-
sons who accompanied him, were then conducted
to cushions, on which they sat, to the left of his
imperial majesty. The princes of the imperial
family, the chief Tartar tributaries, and highest
mandarins of the court, were seated, according to
their rank, nearer to or farther from the throne
His excellency was placed about midway between
it and the opposite extremity of the tent. A
table was laid for every two guests. As soon
as all were seated, the tables were uncovered,
and exhibited a sumptuous banquet. The tables
were small ; but on each was a pyramid of dishes
or bowls, piled upon each other, containing viands
and fruits in vast variety. A table was placed
likewise for his imperial majesty before the throne;
and he seemed to partake heartily of the fare
that was set before him. Tea was also served.
The dishes and cups were carried to him with
hands uplifted over the head, in the same man-
ner as the gold box had been borne by the
ambassador.
212 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
" An attentive consideration of those ceremo-
nies which have thus the appearance of being
meant only to mark the prodigious distance be-
tween the sovereign and his subjects in a mon-
archy ahogether absolute, has sometimes led to a
conjecture, that they were not originally devised,
nor have since continued to be exacted, for the
sole purpose of gratification. It is obvious, that,
during the performance of them, they effect a
physical, as well as imply a moral, inequality be-
tween the party requiring and him who pays such
homage. The former — the superior in respect to
all open force — may yet be conscious of being lia-
ble to private treachery ; and the suspicious mind,
which frequently accompanies unbounded power,
may have suggested such precautions against the
latent and desperate designs of individuals admit-
ted to approach the person who possesses it. The
prostrations, the kneeling, both hands engaged and
uplifted above the head, certainly render attacks
less practicable from people in those postures.
"A circumstance not less remarkable than
those ceremonies was the solemnity and silence,
approaching to religious awe, with which the
whole business was conducted. No conversation
was held among the guests ; no bustle was per-
ceptible among the attendants. The command-
ing feature of the scene was the calm dignity and
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 213
sober pomp of Asiatic grandeur, which European
refinements have not yet attained.
" Throughout the day, the emperor's attention
to his European guests did not abate. During
the repast, he sent them several dishes from his
own table ; and, when it was over, he sent for
them, and presented, with his own hands, to them,
a goblet of warm Chinese wine, not unlike Ma-
deira of an inferior quality. He asked the am-
bassador the age of his own sovereign ; of which
being informed, he immediately replied that he
heartily wished him to equal himself in years, —
which, with him, had already amounted to eighty-
three, — and with as perfect health. He had
governed the empire fifty-seven years ; and yet
he scarcely appeared to be as old as fifty-seven.
** When the festival was entirely over, and he
descended from his throne, he marched firm and
erect, and without the least symptom of infirmity,
to the open chair that was waiting for him."
The emperor's birth-day was celebrated a few
days after this ; and the time which intervened
was spent in various festivities. Excursions over
the extensive * and richly-cultivated pleasure-
grounds, imposing processions, fire-works, theat-
rical exhibitions, and sports and amusements of
every kind, filled each succeeding day. But
amid all this gay festivity, the great business of
214 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
the embassy went forward but slowly. The great
personage to whom they were sent, could be but
seldom seen. His age and alleged infirmities,
the cares of state, the pressure of business, occa-
sioned by the multitude of embassies from various
nations, which were present at this time, were
the reasons assigned, on his part, for committing
his distinguished guests to the care chiefly of his
high officers of state. These officers treated
,them with the greatest attention, and with the
most perfect propriety. Excursions were planned
for them, expensive exhibitions and amusements
prepared, and presents were continually sent to
them. Their intercourse was, however, confined,
almost exclusively, to these scenes of pomp and
parade, in which all confidential communication
was embarrassed by publicity, and all freedom
was restrained by the laws of a most rigid eti-
quette. Some occasions, however, occurred, on
which the ambassador endeavored to open a com-
munication with influential officers which might
be favorable to his objects ; but he always failed.
The door was, invariably, with the utmost polite-
ness, but, at the same time, with evident decision,
closed against him.
It may be interesting to the reader, before we
return with the embassy to Pekin, to give an
account of a ride which the whole party took one
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 215
day through the emperor's gardens, — which term
was applied to his grounds, though, as they were
several miles in extent, and contained every variety
of hill and dale, and lake and stream, and wild
forest, and cultivated glade, the term garden con-
veys to the American reader but an imperfect
idea. We will give the narrative in the words of
one of the party.
** The emperor, having been informed that, in
the course of our travels in China, we had shown
a strong desire of seeing every thing curious and
interesting, was pleased to give directions to the
first minister, to show us his park or garden at
Gehol. It is called, in Chinese, Vanslioo-yuen^
or ' Paradise of ten thousand trees.' In order to
have this gratification (which is considered as an
instance of uncommon favor), we rose, this morn-
ing, at three o'clock, and went to the palace,
where we waited, in company with all the great
officers of state, for three hours (such is the
etiquette of the place), till the emperor's appear-
ance. At last he came forth, borne in the usual
manner, by sixteen persons, on a high, open palan-
quin, attended by guards, music, standards, and
umbrellas, without number ; and observing us, as
we stood in the front line, he graciously beckoned
us to approach. Having ordered his people to
stop, he entered into conversation with us ; and.
216 THE ENGLISH EMBASST.
with great affability of manner, told us that he
was on his way to the pagoda, where he usu-
ally paid his morning devotions ; that, as we
professed a different religion from his, he would
not ask us to accompany him, but that he had
ordered his first minister and chief *bolaos' to
conduct us through his garden, and to show us
whatever we were desirous of seeing there.
•* Having expressed my sense of this mark of
his condescension in the proper manner, and my
increasing admiration of every thing I had yet
observed at Gehol, I retired, and, whilst he pro-
ceeded to his adorations at the pagoda, 1 accom-
panied the ministers, and other great officers of
the court, to a pavilion prepared for us, from
whence, after a short collation, we set out on
horseback to view this wonderful garden. We
rode about three miles, through a very beautiful
park, kept in the highest order, and much re-
sembling some of the fine scenery in England ;
the grounds gently undulated, and chequered with
various groups of well-contrasted trees in the
distance. As we moved onward, an extensive
lake appeared before us, the extremities of which
seemed to lose themselves in distance and ob-
scurity. Here was a large and magnificent yacht
ready to receive us, and a number of smaller ones
for the attendants, elegantly fitted up, and adorned
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 217
with numberless vanes, pendants and streamers.
The shores of the lake have all the varieties of
shape which the fancy of a painter can delineate,
and are so indented with bays, or broken with
projections, that almost every stroke of the oar
brought a new and unexpected object to our
view.* Nor are islands wanting ; but they are
situated only where they should be, each in its
proper place, and having its proper character ;
one marked by a pagoda, or other building ; one
quite destitute of ornament ; some smooth and
level ; some steep and uneven ; and others frown-
ing with wood, or smiling with culture. Where
any things particularly interesting were to be
seen, we disembarked, from time to time, to visit
them ; and I dare say that, in the course of our
voyage, we stopped at forty or fifty palaces or
pavilions. These are all furnished in the richest
manner, with pictures of the emperor's huntings
and progresses, with stupendous vases of jasper
and agate, with the finest porcelain and Japan,
and with every kind of European toys and sing-
songs ; with spheres, orreries, clocks, and musical
automata of such exquisite workmanship, and
in such profusion, that our presents must shrink
from the comparison, and ' hide their diminished
* See Frontispiece.
19
218 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
heads ; ' and yet I am told, that the same things
we have seen are far exceeded by others of the
same kind in the apartments of the ladies, and
in the European repository at Yuen-min-yuen.
In every one of the pavilions was a throne, rich-
. ly ornamented, and an Eu-joUy or symbol of peace
and prosperity, placed at one side of it, resembling
that which the emperor delivered me yesterday,
for the king.
" It would be an endless task, were I to attempt
a detail of all the wonders of this charming place.
There is no beauty of distribution, no feature of
amenity, no reach of fancy, which embellishes
our pleasure-grounds in England, that is not to
be found here. Had China been accessible to
Mr. Browne or Mr. Hamilton, I should have
sworn ihey had drawn their happiest ideas from
the rich sources which I have tasted this day ;
for, in the course of a few hours, I have enjoyed
such vicissitudes of rural delight as I did not
conceive could be felt out of England, being at
different moments enchanted by scenes perfectly
similar to those I had known there, uniting the
magnificence of Stowe with the softer beauties
of Wooburn, and the fairy land of Paine's Hill.
" One thing I was particularly struck with ;
I mean the happy choice of situations for orna-
mental buildings. From attention to this circum-
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 219
stance, they have not the air of being crowded
and disproportioned ; they never intrude upon
the eye, but, wherever they appear, always show
themselves to advantage, and aid to improve and
enliven the prospect.
" In many places, the lake is overspread with
the nenuphar or lotus (nelumbium), resembling
our broad-leaved water-lily. This is an accompa-
niment which, though the Chinese are passionately
fond of cultivating it in all their pieces of water,
I confess I do not much admire. Artificial rocks
and ponds, with gold and silver fish, are, perhaps,
too often introduced ; and the monstrous porcelain
figures of lions and tigers, usually placed before
the pavilions, are displeasing to an European eye.
But these are trifles of no great moment ; and
I am astonished that now, after six hours' critical
survey of these gardens, I can scarcely recollect
any thing besides to find fault with.
** At our taking leave of the minister, he told
us that we had only seen the eastern side of the
gardens, but that the western side, which was
the largest part, still remained for him to show
us, and that he should have that pleasure anoth-
er day.
*' Accordingly, on the day of the emperor's
anniversary festival, after the ceremony was ended,
the first or great colao, and the great men who
220 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
attended us two days since, in our visit to the
eastern garden, now proposed to accompany us
to the western, which forms a strong contrast
with the other, and exhibits all the sublimer
beauties of nature in as high a degree as the
part we saw before possesses the attractions of
softness and amenity. It is one of the finest
forest scenes in the world — wild, woody, moun-
tainous and rocky, abounding with stags and deer
of different species, and most of the other beasts
of the chase, not dangerous to man.
" In many places, immense woods, chiefly oaks,
pines and chestnuts, grow upon almost perpendic-
ular steeps, and force their sturdy roots through
every resistance of surface and of soil, where
vegetation would seem almost impossible. These
woods often clamber over the loftiest pinnacles
of the stony hills, or, gathering on the skirts of
them, descend with a rapid sweep, and bury them-
selves in the deepest valleys. There, at proper
distances, you find palaces, banqueting-houses,
and monasteries, adapted to the situation and
peculiar circumstances of the place, — sometimes
with a rivulet on one hand, gently stealing through
the glade ; at others with a cataract tumbling
from above, raging with foam, and rebounding,
with a thousand echoes from below, or silently
ingulfed in a gloomy pool or yawning chasm.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 221
" The roads by which we approached these
romantic scenes, are often hewn out of the living
rock, and conducted round the hills, in a kind
of rugged stair-case ; and yet no accident occurred
in our progress, nor a false step disturbed the
regularity of our cavalcade, though the horses
are spirited, and all of them unshod. From the
great irregularity of the ground, and the various
heights to which we ascended, we had opportuni-
ties of catching many magnificent points of view,
by detached glances; but, after wandering for
several hours, and yet never wearied with wan-
dering, we at last reached a covered pavilion,
open on all sides, and situated on a summit so
elevated, as perfectly to command the whole sur-
rounding country, to a vast extent. The radius
of the horizon I should suppose to be, at least,
twenty miles from the central spot where we
stood ; and certainly so rich, so various, so beauti-
ful, so sublime a prospect, my eyes had never be-
held. I saw every thing before me as on an illu-
minated map — palaces, pagodas, towns, villages,
farm-houses, plains, and valleys, watered by innu-
merable streams, hills waving with woods, and
meadows covered with cattle of the most beautiful
marks and colors. All seemed to be nearly at
my feet, and that a step would convey me within
reach of them."
19*
222 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
Such is the travellers' account. In the midst
of these scenes, some days were spent; but
at last, the festivities were closed ; the various
embassies began to make preparations to return
to their respective homes, and the English party,
together with other deputations, whose route lay
in the same direction, commenced their return
to Pekin. During the day, they travelled rapidly,
and at night they stopped at the various imperial
palaces, which were scattered along the road.
They saw, every where, the indications of the
exalted rank which the emperor, and all which
pertained to him, held in the estimation of the
people, and the artful plans contrived to keep up
this feeling.* The emperor himself did not ac-
company the ambassador on his return, but fol-
lowed him after a short interval.
It will be recollected that a part of the ambas-
sador's train had been left at Yuen-min-yuen,
* The road was double, one broad track being for the
emperor ; and anotlier, running parallel with it, was for the
people. One of the ambassador's attendants died at one
of the palaces where they stopped for the night. Chinese
etiquette, however, does not allow of the idea of death
taking place in a palace of the emperor's. The body was
put into a palanquin the next day, as if still living, and
carried as a sick man. After going on some miles, it was
announced that he was dead !
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 223
and at Pekin, to superintend the unpacking and
arranging of the presents, where the emperor was
to see them ; and it had been the plan of the
English government to make, by their presents,
and by the imposing character of the embassy, a
favorable impression upon the Chinese, and to
protract their stay, in hopes of gradually gaining
upon the acquaintance and good will of the gov-
ernment, so as to obtain, by degrees, what they
could not expect to accomplish very suddenly.
This was now his excellency's only hope, since
all his plans for direct negotiation had wholly
failed. As he was returning to Pekin, however,
it was very plain that the great mandarins who
accompanied him, distinctly understood that the
time of his stay in the country was drawing
towards a close, — in short, that all which re-
mained was to wait a few days for the arrival
of the emperor, that he might formally receive
the presents and deliver them his answer to the
English king, and then to set out on their return.
The ambassador did all he could to establish a
different understanding ; and there was a little
discussion sometimes on the subject. The vizier,
however, with a dexterity characteristic of his
nation, contrived to insist positively upon their
immediate return, without the least breach of
politeness. He considered their wish to remain
224 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
as a personal inconvenience to them, which they
were willing to submit to out of respect to the
emperor, or from some similar motive ; and he
assured them that the inconveniences which he
foresaw they would meet with, on account of the
approaching Avinter, and the lowness of the
streams, and the other obstructions to travelling
peculiar to that season, were so great that he must
positively insist upon their not protracting their
stay.
There was another circumstance which opera-
ted not a little in compelling the ambassador to
shorten his stay. The whole expense of the
embassy, which, on account of the number of per-
sons connected with it, and the splendid reception
given to it by the Chinese, was very considerable,
was borne wholly by the emperor* He always
considered all foreign ambassadors as his guests,
and would not allow them to incur the slightest
expense of any kind while in the country. It
was suspected that one motive for this was to
enable the government to cut off all communica-
tion between their foreign visitors and the Chinese
people. The English would have been very glad
to have had some intercourse of this kind ; but,
though the English themselves were ostensibly
left at liberty in this respect, the Chinese were
forbidden to have any communication with them.
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 225
If the English attempted to buy any thing pri^
vately of the natives, the police would discover
the transaction, punish the seller, return the
money to the ambassador, saying they could not
permit any of their people to take money of their
guests, and that, if they would at any time make
known to the proper authorities what they might
want, they should immediately be supplied. A
scheme more admirably adapted to cut off all
possible intercourse, and to shorten the stay of
their guests, while at the same time it was per-
fectly consistent with all the forms of politeness,
could scarcely be conceived.
On account of these and other considerations,
Lord Macartney and his suite entered Pekin
on their return, with the expectation of bringing
their visit to a speedy close. As they preceded
the emperor on the return to Pekin, it would be
necessary for them to wait until his arrival ; and
it was only a short time after their own return,
that the approach of the emperor was announced,
'^ with an intimation to his excellency, that it
would be expected, as the usual etiquette, that he
should go some miles upon the road to meet his
imperial majesty. The ambassador was at this
time considerably indisposed with the rheumatism,
which, indeed, had frequently tormented him since
his arrival in China. The mandarins, who per-
226 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
ceived how much his excellency suffered at the
time, and how little qualified he was to make any
unusual exertion, proposed to him, in order to
divide the fatigue of the journey, to set out the
evening previous to the emperor's expected arri-
val, and to sleep that night in his old villa near
Yuen-min-yuen, from whence he would have but
a little way to go next morning. This plan
rendered it practicable for the ambassador to pay
the intended compliment. He accordingly, with
his whole suite, of English and Chinese, slept
at the villa the following night. The next morn-
ing, all were in motion before the rising of the
sun. The two roads were both illuminated with
variegated lanterns, each suspended by the junc-
tion of three poles fixed triangularly into the
ground. The party arrived, within two hours, at
the place of general rendezvous. They were con-
ducted into a spacious saloon, where refreshments
were provided ; after partaking of which they
proceeded to the spot where the emperor was to
pass. Their station was upon a green bank to the
left of the road. On each side of them were a
multitude of mandarins, guards, and standard-
bearers : many of the latter had their standards
furled and laid across the emperor's road, while
waiting for his approach, as if to prevent any
others from attempting to pass upon it. The way
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 227
was lined with troops for several miles, as far as
the eye could reach. Close to the road, a tent
was prepared for the ambassador, on account of
his indisposition, that he might feel no incon-
venience while waiting for his imperial majesty.
Various squadrons of horse, with bowmen with
their bows and quivers, preceded the emperor's
approach. Soon afterwards a palanquin, or sedan
chair, appeared, covered with a bright yellow
cloth, and adorned with windows of plate glass.
It was carried by eight bearers, while eight
others walked close to them, in readiness to re-
lieve the former. The chair was attended by a
troop of horse in yellow uniforms, also by pike-
men, standard and shield bearers. In it was the
emperor. As soon as he perceived the ambas-
sador, he slopped to deliver a gracious message
of civility to his excellency ; adding, that he
desired him to retire without delay from the cold
and damp of the morning, so unfavorable to the
complaint with which he heard of his being af-
fected.
** Behind the chair followed a two-wheeled,
clumsy carriage, without springs, not differing in
canstruction from the common vehicles of the
country, but covered with yellow cloth, and empty,
as if intended to be used occasionally by the
emperor. This carriage was immediately followed
228 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
by a chair containing the great colao, or prime
minister, vizier Ho-choong-taung. While his
imperial majesty was engaged in sending his mes-
sage across to the ambassador, several mandarins
threw themselves upon their knees to pay their
obeisance to the prime minister. It was remarked
that no other minister, nor any one of the em-
peror's family, was in his immediate train, or
even within sight. The distinction was no doubt
the greater for him who was ; or, perhaps, some
circumstance of convenience then required, or
accident occasioned, this separation of his impe-
rial majesty from his other courtiers. The am-
bassador returned without delay to Pekin ; while
the emperor pursued his route to Yuen-min-
yuen."
Nothing now remained but for the emperor
to receive his presents, and deliver to the ambas-
sador his answer to the letter of the English
king. He seemed much interested in the articles
brought out for him, when he came to view them,
though, from the account of the immense number
of wonderful and costly works of art with which
his palaces were filled, both at Gehol and Pekin,
they could not have been any great addition to
his treasures. He, however, appeared to take
a considerable interest in examining them, and
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 229
asked some questions in respect to some which
were new to him ; but the tedious and difficult
mode of communication through interpreters pre-
vented much conversation.
Early one morning, soon after this, the officer
who had charge of the embassy, waited on his
excellency to acquaint him that the colao wished
to see him at the great hall of audience in the
palace of Pekin as soon as he could get ready.
This summons was of course obeyed : the ambas-
sador set out in a short time, properly attended,
and passed in a ceremonious procession through
the streets of Pekin, until he came to the great
gate leading to the palace, which attracted so
much of our travellers' interest on their first
entrance into the city. "The palace," says one
of the narrators, ** is encompassed by a high
wall, within which the ambassador was conducted
through spacious courts, along canals filled with
water, and over bridges of granite, with balus-
trades of marble, to the foot of the hall, where
he found the emperor's answer to the king of
England, contained in a large roll covered with
yellow silk, and placed in a chair of state, hung
with curtains of the same color. It was after-
wards carried in form up the middle of three
flights of stairs, while the colao and others, who
had hitherto stood by it, and the ambassador and
20
230 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
his suite, went up the side steps to the hall. This
edifice was a splendid structure, surrounded by
manyothers, itself of great size and magnificence,
built of wood on a foundation of granite, and
decorated, withinside and without, with gilding,
and in the happiest disposition of the most pleas-
ing and vivid colors. The answer was placed in
the midst of the hall, from which it was after-
wards to be sent to his excellency's hotel. It
arrived the same evening. It was brought in state,
and at the same time were sent several chests
of presents from the emperor to his majesty, con-
taining specimens, no doubt, of the best kind,
of the different articles of the produce and manu-
factures of the empire. Other presents came
also for the ambassador and all the persons of his
suite ; and the attention of his imperial majesty,
in giving some small token of his beneficence to
the meanest servant who was present, was ex-
tended, likewise, to persons then absent, in the
instance of all the common men as well as officers
of the ships which had brought the embassy to
China." The arrival of these presents was,
according to Chinese etiquette, the emperor's
farewell.
The time for their departure had evidently
now arrived ; and the whole party embarked on
board the barges provided for them, and sailed
THE ENGLISH EMBASSY. 231
down the river to Tong-choc-foo. Their ships
had sailed round to Canton ; and they passed by
land, or by internal navigation, through the whole
extent of the country, until they reached that
city. Their route led them through scenery of
the most varied and delightful character ; and
they were every where struck with admiration
at the magnitude of the public works, the rich-
ness of the soil, the high cultivation, and the
number and populousness of the cities and towns.
On their arrival at Canton, they set sail, and, at
length, safely landed in England,* and delivered
the answer to the king. The substance of it was
found to be, that the proposals of the ambassador
went to change the whole system of European
commerce, so long established at Canton, which
could not be allowed ; and that the emperor's con-
sent could by no means be given that the English
should resort to any other ports, nor could he
allow of an English resident at Pekin : neither
could he consent to any other place of residence
for Europeans, near Canton, but Macao. In
* The whole expense of the embassy to the Chinese
government, was, as estimated by Barrow, from data fur-
nished by the Chinese officers, not far from eight hundred
thousand dollars! They insisted, as has been already
remarked, on paying all the expenses incurred within
the Chinnse territories.
233 THE ENGLISH EMBASSY.
conclusion, he says, " As the requests made by
your ambassador militate against the laws and
usages of this our empire, and are, at the same
time, wholly useless to the end proposed, I cannot
acquiesce in them. I again admonish you, O
king, to act conformably to my intentions, that
we may preserve peace and amity on each side,
and thereby contribute to our reciprocal happiness.
After this, my solemn warning, should your ma-
jesty, in pursuance of your ambassador's demands,
fit out ships in order to attempt to trade either at
Ning Po, Tchoo San, Tien Sing, or other places,
as our laws are exceedingly severe, in such case,
I shall be under the necessity of directing my man-
darins to force your ships to quit these ports : thus
the increased trouble and exertions of your mer-
chants would at once be frustrated. You will not,
then, however, be able to complain that I had not
clearly forewarned you. Let us therefore live in
peace and friendship, and do not make light of
my words. For this reason I have so repeatedly
and earnestly written to you on this subject."
Thus terminated the embassy. It has been
justly observed, that the ambassador " was re-
ceived with the utmost politeness, treated with
the utmost hospitality, watched with the utmost
vigilance, answered with the utmost firmness, and
dismissed with the utmost civility."
CHAPTER VI.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
As we intend this work to be complete in it-
self, we shall not attempt to bring down to the
present moment a history of the efforts which
English and American Christians have made to
introduce the true religion to the Chinese empire.
It has been a prominent object, in the preparation
of this work, to communicate such information,
in respect to the character and history of this
singular people, as should tend to interest its
various readers in the efforts now in progress
for sending the gospel to them, though the fact
that these efforts have only been commenced^ pre-
vents our attempting an account of them gener-
ally. There is one part of the work, however,
which is distinct in itself, and which has been
brought already to a successful termination : we
mean, the translation of the Bible into the Chinese
language, and its introduction to the empire : an
account of this transaction is therefore ready to
be placed upon record. To this subject we call
20*
234 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
the reader's attention in the few pages of this
volume which now remain.
It is now nearly thirty years since a society in
London conceived the design of sending out
Christian scholars to Canton, to learn the Chinese
language there, and to make a translation of the
Scriptures into it. They selected Mr. Morrison,
then a young theological student. His most in-
timate friend and associate says that his talents
were rather of a solid than of a showy kind,
rather adapted to accomplish im(X)rtant objects
by a course of persevering labor, than to astonish
by any sudden bursts of genius. The directors
of the society wished to have sent out with him
some associates at first ; but they could not make*
arrangements to do this, and the young Christian
adventurer was compelled to go alone.
We cannot but pause a moment here, to reflect
on the great differences between this embassy
and the one which we described in the last Chap^
ter — that, grand and imposing in its beginnings,
and in all the external circumstances attending
it, but comparatively insignificant in its objects,
and useless in its results ; this, on the other hand,
commenced noiselessly and unostentatiously by a
few private individuals, without notice or regard,
but sublime in its aims, and grand in its results.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 235
The government of one of the wealthiest nations
upon the earth drew largely upon its resources to
fit out the ambassador, with presents and attend-
ants, and all the insignia of wealth and power ; —
the missionary simply stored his mind with the
knowledge he might want to use, and esteemed,
as the greatest treasure he could carry, a Latin-
Chinese dictionary, which he borrowed. A fleet
bore away Macartney and his suite, in the pres-
ence of thousands ; Morrison took his single pas-
isa^e in a merchant's ship. But the political
enibassy, after being a nine days' wonder to the
two distant nations, ended in nothing, and lives
now only in story ; while the religious enterprise
has gone on widening and deepening in its influ-
ence, its interest, and its results, to the present
day, and must go on so for ages and ages to
come.
Morrison obtained, before he sailed, two Chinese
works, a dictionary and some partial translations
of the Scriptures, which had been prepared by
Catholic missionaries, who had attempted, some
years before, to establish Christianity at Pekin.
He also endeavored, as intimated in the last
paragraph, to acquire such a knowledge of natural
science as might be of use to him among the
people, and then, about the middle of the winter
of 1807, he set sail. Two other missionaries,
236 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
bound to India, sailed with him in the same ship,
which was to go by way of America. The ship
touched at Philadelphia, and Mr. Morrison spent
about twenty days in the United States. Many
persons here became much interested in his plans;
and President Madison, then secretary of state,
gave him a letter of introduction to the American
consul at Canton, requesting him to do what
might be in his power to promote the success
of his designs.
Our adventurer at length sailed from Philaoel-
phia, and in the following autumn safely arrived
off Macao, and made his first landing upon pagan
shores, with the mate of the ship, who went on
shore in a boat for a pilot. He was soon known
to be a Protestant missionary ; and he excited the
jealousy of the Portuguese Catholics resident at
Macao. He did not, however, remain here long,
but went up to Canton, and put himself under
the instruction of a native, an ignorant man, but
the best teacher he could get, and commenced
his toilsome and discouraging task of learning
the thirty thousand complicated characters of the
Chinese language.
He lived in what is called a go-down ^ a sort
of a cellar, which served him, at once, for study,
parlor, and bed-room ; and here, surrounded with
foreigners, with whom he could hold very little
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 237
intercourse, or with fellow-coiintrymen, who had
no sympathies in common with him, he spent the
first months of his weary toil. He adopted for
some time the Chinese customs. He ate with
the person who taught him the language, adopting
the Chinese fashion at his meals. His mode of
living was in every respect plain and economical.
" A lamp made of earthen ware supplied him with
light, and a folio volume of Henry's Commentary,
which he had brought out with him from England,
set up on its edge, protected it from the wind.
His nails were allowed to grow, that they might
become like those of a Chinese. He had a tail,
— a tress of hair, a sort of queue of some length,
— and he learned to use the chop-sticks, instead
of knife and fork, at dinner, with as much dex-
terity as a native. He walked about the Hong
with a Chinese frock on, and with thick Chinese
shoes."
After giving this plan a fair trial, Mr. Morrison
found he gained nothing by it, and he according-
ly gave it up ; he pared his nails, cut off his hair,
gave away his Chinese dress, and threw by his
chop-sticks. He returned to the garb and to the
habits of an Englishman. He hired a building
more convenient than his wretched apartment in
the go-down. Here he went on with his labors
until the occurrence of some difficulty, similar to
238 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
those described in the last Chapter, drove off all
foreigners, for a time, to Macao. He repaired
thither with the rest, and continued, with patient
perseverance, his labors upon the language, keep-
ing, all the time, his design of translating the
Scriptures a profound secret.
The Chinese language has been long celebrateil
for some characteristics which make it totall/
different from any other language upon earth;
and, in order that the reader may the better under-
stand the nature of Mr. Morrison's difficulties,
we shall turn aside a little to describe it. Its
most striking peculiarity is, that the character ii
symbolic, and not alphabetical ; that is, each
character is the representation of an idea, and
not of the sound of the word by which that idea
is expressed. The distinction may be easily
illustrated. To a well-known substance we give
the written name stone. These characters, how-
ever, represent the sound of the spoken name ;
the first crooked character standing for the hissing
sound with which the spoken name commences ;
the crossed character, which follows, represents
the next sound in the spoken word. In another
language, the written name would be lapis, the
characters of which it is composed being ar-
ranged on the same principle of representing
the sounds of the spoken name in that language,
INTRODUCTION OP THE BIBLE. 239
— the crooked character here coming last, as it
did first before, because the hissing sound comes
last in the spoken name. A Chinese writer, how-
ever, would, for the same object, write
;5
He would call the object by a name which we
should represent by sliih ; but there is no corre-
spondence between the elements of the sound of
that word, and the character as above written,
by which he would express the thing. There is
a hissing sound in his spoken name, but nothing
which stands for the hissing sound in his charac-
ter. The character stands in other words for the
stone itself, and not for shihj his spoken name
for it.
Now, the point of view in which this subject is
mainly interesting, is this ; that these characters,
standing not for words, but directly for ideas and
objects, are common to many nations whose spoken
languages are very different. The possibility of
this it seems strange that any reflecting person
should doubt. It is not in principle any more
singular, than that the comma, period, marks of
quotation, the asterisk, &/C., should be understood
by the various nations of Europe, while each call
them by spoken icords, which the others do not
240 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
understand. And yet it has often been doubted
whether it is really the fact that the Chinese
character is understood by neighboring nations
whose spoken language is different. The slightest
reflection will give any intelligent man examples
which will remove all doubt of the possibility.
The characters V 64i=i(l-{-2) 2—1 contain
an assertion, which, thus expressed, is intelligible
to every mathematician in Europe, each, how-
ever, reading it in his own tongue. A French
and an English mathematician, unacquainted with
one another's language, could reason together with
perfect fluency and freedom, by mathematical
symbols on a black board. The reason is, that
the signs stand not for words, but for ideas. The
character = does not denote strictly the sounds
is equal, nor est egal. It denotes the idea of
equality, which idea both Frenchman and English-
man take from it ; and then each expresses the
idea, in sounds, according to his own language.
In the same manner, the character
kx:;
throughout the whole Chinese empire, stands for
the hearty — not for any of the various names for
the heart which are found in the various dialects,
but for the heart itself; and each of the five
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 241
nations which that empire comprises, understand
the sign, and call it by the name appropriated to
it by their own language. Consequently, a living
preacher, who learns only the spoken language
at Canton, can speak to but a small part of the
millions in the empire ; but one tract written in
the Chinese character, and one translation of the
Bible, will answer for all ; and this was one great
reason why Morrison turned his attention, at
first, much more to the written than to the spoken
language.
Notwithstanding the obvious difference be-
tween the Chinese character and an alphabetic
language, as above explained, it has often been
maintained that the characters are really, like
those of any other language, signs of words, not
things. Now, it is undoubtedly true, that each
character has a word corresponding to it ; that is,
each idea has a character to represent it on
paper, and a word to represent it in sound ; and
these being often used together, as in reading,
they become strongly associated in the mind, and
the one always recalls the other ; just as the
character = is almost always read is equal to, but
still it does not, strictly speaking, stand for those
words, because there is nothing in it in the least
degree corresponding to the hissing and liquid
sounds which those words contain. It is some-
21
242 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
times read equals, and sometimes equal, and are
equal to, and in other languages by other sounds
still. And the equal has come, in process of time,
to be very strongly associated with it, so as seldom
or never to give way to any other very different
word ; for instance, a mathematician would read
the following phrase 2 -J- 2=: 4 thus, two plus
two is equal to four, and not two and two are four.
It seems to be very much so with the Chinese
language. The characters are, strictly speaking,
signs of things ; but each one has become so
associated with a particular word, that that word
is almost invariably used to express it vocally, sa
that different readers would read the same passage
in the same manner ; and poetry can be written
in rhyme, just as a sort of rhyme might be made
out of statements of mathematical equations, if
the signs were read in the usual manner.
The number of Chinese characters is variously
estimated — from thirty to eighty thousand. The
imperial dictionary, compiled under the direction,
and at the expense of the government, about i
century ago, by the joint labors of nearly one
hundred learned men, from numerous dictionaries
before existing, makes about 43,000, in all. This
number, however, contains about twelve or thir-
teen thousand which are obsolete or unmeaning,
leaving but about thirty thousand which are to be
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 243
considered as actually constituting the language.
But even this number, we might suppose, would
lead our Chinese student, when commencing his
studies, to shrink back from the labors before
him in utter despair.
The difficulty, however, to the student, is much
less than would be at first imagined ; for, although
there are thirty thousand or more complicated
characters, each of which is different from the
rest, still they are all composed of the same ele-
ments^ differently arranged and combined. These
elements are only two hundred and fourteen in
number ; and the first, second and third duty,
urged incessantly, by every motive, upon every
school-boy in his imperial majesty's jdominions,
is to make the countenances of these two hundred
and fourteen hieroglyphics most perfectly familiar.
This once done, the path is afterwards compara-
tively easy ; for every new character beyond those
presents itself to his eye, not as a shapeless draw-
ing of unmeaning intricacy, but only as a new
combincition or arrangement of what he has sepa-
rately, or in other combinations, been familiar
with before. The effect of this in relieving the
otherwise impracticable task with which the mem-
ory would have to cope, is far greater than would
at first be imagined.
There is something analogous to this in the
244 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
manner in which elementary syllables are used in
our language, in forming an immense variety of
words by an alteration of the mode in which they
are combined. The words o-men, men-tal^ al-
i-menty furnish examples of the repeated use of
the same elementary syllables to form words of
very different significations ; and this use of similar
or analogous elementary syllables prevails very
extensively in the formation of the words of every
language, and very much facilitates the acquisi-
tion of the many thousand words which every
language contains. Thus, if a child hears a story
of a Mr. Smith-ton, who lived in John-ville, both
names would be easily remembered, while it would
be much more difficult for him to remember, if
the man's name was Keang Yang, and his resi-
dence Hongchoofoo. Hence arises the difficulty
of remembering foreign names. Their elementary
syllables are not familiar to us. They are con-
structed of different kinds of combinations of
letters.
But to return to the Chinese. If each new
character was entirely distinct from the rest, it
would, perhaps, require the labor of a life to learn
them all. But it is not so. The pupil, when he
has learned thoroughly his two hundred and four-
teen elements, or kei/s, as they are called in the
Chinese dictionaries, may feel that, in one sense.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 245
lie has got through. He has, strictly speaking,
no new characters to learn. The elements will
be variously combined, but the several features
of each new character will be well known and
familiar : it is only the manner of their juxtaposi-
tion which he has to notice and remember.
These two hundred and fourteen elements are
generally somewhat simple in their forms ; and
each has a meaning, which, as would naturally
be supposed, is generally some common, sensible
object or quality. It is often said, in popular
works on China, that these elements were intended
originally to be a rude representation of the thing
signified ; but, after a careful examination of them
all, we cannot see any foundation for such an
idea. The numerals, one, two, three, &/C., are
represented by one, two and three horizontal
marks ; but, with this exception, we do not see
that there are any more resemblances between the
elementary characters and the objects they repre-
sent, than chance will account for. Our fount
of Chinese type is not quite extensive enough to
allow us to give all these elements ; but the reader
can judge on this subject for himself, by examin-
ing, for this purpose, the more simple ones, and
those which stand for such sensible objects as
would have been most likely to have been imitated
in shape.
21*
246 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
The first on the list, as arranged in the native
dictionaries, is
which means straight. Here we see a resem-
blance : and
L
means crooked. The last character is indeed
crooked, but it is not such a character as would
probably have been made to denote crookedness.
Besides, it means interrupted also, whereas, as a
stroke upon the paper, it is perfectly continuous.
With these two cases of similarity, however, and
perhaps a very slight appropriateness in the
characters for oblique and hooked, the resem-
blance between the signs and things signified in
the whole list seems entirely to end. Take the
following, for instance, which are signs for com-
mon and well-known sensible objects : —
A' 7/^ P^ P' ^=
Among these is the character for mouth. Who
could determine from the shape which it is ?
Another is the character for mariy another for how^
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 247
and another for box,* To the two following
characters who could assign any meaning ? and
when told that one means great^ and the other
little, who could determine — to use the common
phrase — which was which, from any indications to
be seen in the forms of the characters 1
-h ifi
After knowing the idea attached to a character,
we can, in many instances, fancy some sort of
resemblance sufficient to base an association upon,
for the aid of the memory ; as, for example, in the
case of
P
mouthy which we may fancy to bear some rude
resemblance to the organ, but which has quite
too many corners ever to have been drawn with
reference to such resemblance. The elements,
and all the characters formed by the combination
of them, are unquestionably arbitrary.
The form of these elementary characters is
undoubtedly much influenced by the manner of
making them. They use a brush, not a pen,
* 1. Man ; 2. Knife ; 3. Box j 4 Mouth j 5. Bow.
248 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
resembling, probably, in size and form, the small
hair pencils, in use, in this country, for painting in
water colors. The most simple of the elements
are simple strokes with such a brush ; others are
more complicated, with additional strokes added,
not with the design of imitating the object, but
of making a figure on the paper distinguishable
from those made before.*
It is plain, from the doctrine. of permutation
and combination, that, by means of these two
hundred and fourteen elements, an almost incon-
* In respect to the origin and history of these charac-
ters, there is httle light to be procured. The Chinese
themselves, in " The Annals of China," as quoted by
Marshman, in his Chinese Grammar, say that they were
invented in very ancient times by Ts 'hang-kih. He re-
sided near a mountain, where " he one day met with a
tortoise, and, observing that its shell was beautifully spot-
ted, he took it home, and thence formed the idea of repre-
senting things around him. Looking upward, he care-
fully observed the figures presented by the stars and the
heavenly bodies : he then attentively considered the
beautifully variegated shell of the tortoise, the wings of
birds, the form of mountains, rivers, &C., and at length
formed the written characters." "When the invention
was finished," adds the narrative, "the heavens poured
down food in abundance, and the evil spirits filled the
night with bowlings." The latter part of the story will
teach us how much confidence we can place in the
former.
INTRODUCTION OP THE BIBLE. 249
ceivable number of groups may be formed, if, as
is the case, the compounds may have four, five,
or six elements united in them. By putting them
together two and two, we should have more than
forty-five thousand ; and by grouping them in
threes, fours, &c., a number of possible combina-
tions would be obtained altogether beyond the
boundaries of ordinary human calculations. Into
this almost boundless field, the language does not
roam at random. There are about one thousand
seven hundred compound characters formed ; and
then these are used, in connection with about
one hundred and fifty of the elements, to form
the great mass of the language. There are
several of these common compounds which form
a part of sixty or seventy w^ords. These com-
mon forms soon become familiar to the student's
eye, and, being used again and again in differ-
ent combinations, the difficulty of remembering
the characters is very much diminished.
The characters are altered in form when in
composition, so as to bring them into as close
connection as possible ; and they are arranged in
a compact manner, so as to occupy a square
space. Take, for instance, the character
250 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
consisting of six elements, each having its own
meaning. The upper one is elongated, and the
others arranged compactly under it in the manner
described. In many instances, the fancy of the
student can trace some analogy betweep the mean-
ing of the whole compound and that which would
naturally be indicated by the component parts.
Generally, however, this meaning seems arbitrary.
In this last case, for instance, the upper character
means a net^ and the four below it, when without
the upper one, mean ability. The whole means
to stop. Each of the four lower elements has its
signification. The two on the right constitute
the character for spoon ; the two on the left,
when together, mean to shake^ and when separate,
one means fleshy and the other low. All attempts
to trace any connection between such primitives
and derivatives must fail. In the same manner,
the following character.
^
though composed of elements which have been
already given, has a signification totally diverse
from them. The character on the left means
wood. The upper one on the right is man, with
a mark, which, when alone, means one, in the
centre of it. The lower one on the right is mouthy
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 251
AH these have before been given. The meaning
of the compound is sword-sheath. So two moons ^
side by side, mean friend, and these under moun-
tain, mean falling.
In other cases, it is different, however. Two
characters for mouth, united, mean noise. Tree,
with mouth, mouth, over it, means birds singing.
Mouth and arrow, together, mean knowledge.
Such connections between the meaning of par-
ticular compounds, and the elements which form
them, are in many cases very obvious. In other
cases, it is probably as real, though less apparent,
as a character may have received a form deter-
mined by its signification, and yet the connection
be entirely lost to the superficial observer. Take,
for an example, the two following characters :
^ :^
The difference consists merely in this : the small
stroke which is across the lower part in one, is
across the upper part in the other : one signifies
the interior of a thing, and the other the exterior.
The reader would perhaps be puzzled to tell how
to appropriate the respective significations. The
characters seem perfectly arbitrary, considered
with reference to those meanings. It appears,
however, on further inquiry, that the character
252 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
which is the basis of both of them, means a tree,
and drawing the additional stroke across the
upper part, as in the first of the characters above,
represents the branches, and across the lower
part, as in the second, represents the root. We
have thus a literal meaning of the characters,
which has some analogy or foundation in their
form ; and from the literal sense of branches and
root, to the metaphorical ones exterior and interior ,
the transition is easy.
This example, and a great many similar ones
which might have b n selected, will show that a
character may have originated in a rude attempt
at representation, and yet the evidence of it be
so concealed among the successive steps and
changes which the character has undergone, as
to escape even a careful notice. In fact, our
well-known character &, as ordinarily written,
would hardly suggest to any one the letters et,
from which it was formed ; and if a character,
originally meant to represent a word, may lose all
apparent resemblance to its origin, why not one
which at first was made as a rude resemblance
of a thing, either by combination or shape ? There
can, however, be no question that, generally, in
the formation of the compound characters, the
meaning of the elements was not the guide.
We might suppose that the mind, in attending
INTRODUCTION OP THE BIBLE. 253
to a compound character, would be perplexed
and confused by the meanings of its elements,
and especially that, if the meaning of the whole
was known, the ideas suggested by the component
parts would, at the same time, arise to the mind,
producing oftentimes the most incongruous im-
ages. But the Chinese reader is in no more
danger from this source, than an English reader
is of thinking of a doll, when he hears the word
dollar.
There are several interesting peculiarities in
this language, arising from ^% general principles
on which it is founded.
1. The lorittcn language can be learned, with-
out understanding any thing of the spoken lan-
guage. They are entirely distinct. We have
given many of the signs, without, however, except
in a single instance, mentioning a Chinese word.
We might have gone on and given more, and
explained complete sentences, and given the prin-
ciples of the construction of the language, with-
out introducing another Chinese word. Many
of the neighboring nations do thus understand
and use the Chinese character.
2. The construction of the dictionaries is pe-
culiar. A French and English dictionary must
be twofold ; that is, there must be a list of
22
254 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
French words with English meanings, and then
a list of English words with French meanings, so
as to enable the pupil to go from either language
to the other. But, on the principles we have ex-
plained, an English and Chinese dictionary must
be threefold. First, there must be a list of English
words, with the characters, and also the Chinese
spoken words (spelled in English letters), which
correspond to them. Then there must be a cata-
logue o^ characters arranged according to the ele-
ments, with the spoken words (spelled in letters),
and the English meanings. Lastly, there must be
a catalogue of the Chinese spoken words, begin-
ning with fa, which is the first, with the charac-
ter, and the English meaning belonging to each.
Dictionaries are thus arranged.
3. The language, being thus addressed to the
eye, is said by travellers to convey its meaning
more readily and vividly than other written lan-
guages, because, where an alphabetic character is
used, we have to think first of the sound of the
word, and then of the idea; whereas, in an ideo-
graphic character, we get the idea more directly.
This may be well illustrated by comparing the
following two modes of expressing the same idea,
the latter of which, to the practised eye, will
convey a much more immediate impression than
the former :
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 255
Two hundred and fifty, minus twenty-five, is
equal to two hundred and twenty-five.
250 — 25 r= 225.
How much more readily the character *, on
the page, refers us to the margin, than the words
see note would do! So with the hand, (U^, call-
ing our attention to what follows ; and two or
three notes of exclamation at the end of an ex-
traordinary statement, speak much more readily,
and with a more striking significancy, than any
adverbs or adjectives of astonishment incorporated
into the sentence.
4. The last peculiarity of the language which
we shall mention, respects the printing. The
two hundred and fourteen elements being altered
in shape when they are combined to form the
compound characters, it is not possible to set up
these compounds from types of the elements. Our
letters are not thus altered when incorporated into
words, so that the one type for the letter .s will
answer for every word in the language which
contains that letter. But the character for man,
in Chinese, which forms a part of a vast number
of other characters, is so altered in shape and
position in its various combinations, that one kind
of type will not answer the purpose. This renders
it necessary, if types are used at all in printing,
to have one for every character, simple and com-
^
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
pound ; that is, 30,000, instead of the twenty-six
of an European printing-office. On account of
the expense of manufacturing such a fount, and
the great labor necessary in using it, the Chinese
have always printed from engraved wooden blocks,
in a manner which we shall presently describe.
The reader may find a little amusement in
looking a moment into the idiom of the language,
ip respect to the structure of sentences, and the
9.r,rangement of words. For this purpose we give
a literal translation of a Chinese dialogue. We
extract it from a book prepared by Mr. Morrison,
at the time of which we have been speaking,
i^hen he ^a^ engaged in his early studies. The
dialogue is supposed to be between a citizen of
Canton and a tea merchant arriving there from
the interior of the country. The words and
characters are placed apart, so that the reader
may see liow much is represented by each Chi-
nese character. We place a free translation in
the opposite column.
A. Venerable
father
well ?
B. You well
> I
want to see you,
wish
to do business.
A. You what
time
come to Canton ?
B. I arrived
have
half more moon.
How do you do, sir ?
I hope you are well.
I wish to see you about
business.
When did you come to
Canton .?
I arrived about a fort-
night ago.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
257
A. Indeed is so ? I
this day only heard
say you had arrived. If
I before know, early
before visit you gone.
B. I much thank
you very.
A. The road pleasant ?
B. Not pleasant; road
upon difficult travel.
A. I thought sir
the road all was sit
boat come.
B. Indeed is ; but
this year because hot
very, therefore river
road all dried.
^. Though thus, yet
I see your honor's
countenance has a, little
color. You what time
return Nan king go ?
B. New year 's be-
fore 1 not can raise
body.
Indeed I heard but to-
day that you had come.
If I had known sooner, I
would have gone to see
you.
I am much obliged to
you
Had you a pleasant jour-
ney ?
Not pleasant. It was
difficult travelling.
I thought, sir, you came
in a boat all the way.
Indeed yes ; but this
year the water is all dried
up in consequence of the
drought.
Though it v/as so, I yet
perceive you look very
well. When do you return
to Nankin .''
I cannot go before next
year.
The words which, in the specimen given above,
in conformity with the English custom, are ar-
ranged in lines, are, in Chinese books, written in
columns, which are read from the top to the bottom
of the page. It is curious to observe how complete-
ly all our arrangements in respect to writing are
reversed in a Chinese book. The figure denoting
the page is with us generally in the corner ; with
them it is in the middle : with us it is on the top ;
with them upon the side : with us each page is
numbered ; with them the leaves ; our lines run
258 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
across the page ; theirs up and down : we begin at
the left hand of the book, and read to the right ;
they at the right, and go backwards, as we should
call it, to the left : their leaves are double,
the paper being very thin, and printed only on
one side ; our leaves are single, made of thick
paper, and printed on both sides : their title-.
page is at what we call the end of the book, and
is generally a single column of characters, read,
like the other lines, from top to bottom ; and the
running titles on the successive pages of the work,
which Europeans place horizontally upon the top,
the Chinese place perpendicularly upon the side.
While pursuing his solitary studies in books
which were thus in every respect so new, Mr.
Morrison found his situation often trying in the
extreme. He was obliged to pass from Canton
to Macao, and from one dwelling to another, con-
fined to his dull and wearisome task, and exposed
to so much opposition and ridicule, that he was
kept almost constantly a close prisoner. Some
persons treated him in a kind and friendly man-
ner ; but, in general, he was alone, not only in his
great enterprise, but in his feelings, his hopes,
in all his enjoyments, and all his sufferings. Still
he went on, month after month, with patient,
persevering effort, looking forward to a brighter
day to come.
The day, in fact, began to brighten soon. He
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 259
found a wife in the daughter of an* English resi-
dent at Macao; and, after he had made some
progress in the language, he received an ap-
pointment in the English factory which materi-
ally improved his condition, while the duties of
his office were just such as were best calculated
to carry him forward in his knowledge of the
language. He began, too, to be able to have some
religious services on the Sabbath, in connection
with the persons whom he employed as his
teachers. He was able to collect a few boys as
his pupils, endeavoring, while he instructed them
in their own written language, and in such studies
as were of obvious value to them, to make them
acquainted with the principles of the Christian
religion.
It was about six years after Morrison com-
menced his labors at Canton, that Mr. William
Milne, his first colleague, arrived at Macao. He
was a young man, who had given himself to the
service of the missionary society, and had been
appointed by them to this station. About two or
three days after his arrival, he received a peremp-
tory order from the Portuguese governor, com-
manding him to leave the place immediately.
Remonstrances were vain, as they always are
where Roman Catholic jealousy is awakened
against Protestant plans, where the priests have
the power. Fortunately, however, Mr. Milne
260 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
could go to Canton, and there, joined a short
time after by Morrison, he commenced his labors
upon the language.
Though they were thus, in this case, impeded
ill their labors by Roman Catholic influence, it
must be admitted, to do justice to the mother
church, that they derived great aid from it in
another way ; for Morrison, in his efforts at transla-
tion, was very much aided by some Chinese ver-
sions of parts of the Scriptures, which the Catholic
missionaries at Pekin had made ; so that, notwith-
standing the hostility to ^the circulation of the
Scriptures with which the Catholics are so often
charged, the honor of translating them to a lan-
guage used by one third of all the inhabitants
of the globe, must be shared with them. It was
about the time that Milne arrived, that the second
volume of the New Testament was ready for pub-
lication, the Acts of the Apostles and the Gospels
having been printed a year or two before.
The mode of printing is as follows : — Thin
boards are prepared, of a hard, oily, shining wood.
Each is twice the size of a page of the book ;
and a sufficient number of them is prepared, to
allow one for every tvvo leaves which the proposed
work is to. contain. They are made about half
an inch thick, and are planed perfectly smooth
on both sides.
The surface is then rubbed with a sort of paste,
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 261
made of rice or some similar substance, which
smooths and polishes, and at the same time softens
a little the surface of the board. Upon one of
these boards, thus prepared, the exact size of the
two pages is marked (for each side contains two
pages), and the space thus enclosed is divided
into squares by horizontal and perpendicular lines;
and then the wood within the squares is cut out,
leaving the lines prominent. Red ink is now
applied to these lines, and paper then laid upon
the board and pressed down ; by which means
there is transferred to the paper an impression
of the lines. This is repeated until sheets are
struck off in sufficient number to contain the
whole work to be printed.
The author's manuscript, irregular, hastily writ-
ten, and defaced with erasures and corrections,
is then, hj a workman called a transcriber, care-
fully copied upon these sheets, each letter occu-
pying a square. It thus assumes a regular and
beautiful appearance.
These sheets are carried to the block-cutter,
who, having smeared his boards, or blocks, as they
are generally called, with the paste already de-
scribed, lays down one of the sheets of the trans-
cribed work upon each, and transfers the charac-
ters to the wood, exactly as pictures are transferred
to scrap-boxes in this country. He then cuts
262 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
away the wood every where except where it is
covered by the ink which was transferred, and
thus leaves the character in relief. The blocks,
having all undergone this process, are ready for
use in the printing.
Thoy are inked by a brush, and then the sheets
of paper, which is like the thin paper that comes
in tea-chests to this country, are applied, and
pressed down by a dry brush upon the back of
the paper, by wiiich means the impression is easily
taken. Each sheet thus contains two pages,
though they are both on one side of it ; they are
folded together so as to bring the blank side of
the paper within ; and the leaves thus formed are
then ready to be stitched together.
It was in this way that the Scriptures were first
printed at Canton. While the work was going
on, Morrison was employed also in preparing a
dictionary and a grammar, and several tracts and
translations of English works of small size. After
a considerable quantity of these had been pre-
pared, the missionaries conceived the design of
sending off Mr. Milne on an excursion into the
neighboring seas, to the ports most frequented by
the Chinese, for the purpose of distribution. The
events and incidents of this tour we have not .
now time to describe : he was, however, success-
ful in his efforts, finding a much stronger desire
on the part of the Chinese, whom he visited, to
INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE. 263
receive the books and tracts which he offered,
than he had expected to see. While he was gone,
Morrison went on with his labors. He completed
his dictionary ; and the English East India Com-
pany, aware that its publication must tend to the
increase of commercial intercourse with China,
by opening the way to the more easy acquisition
of the language, published it at a great expense,
being obliged to send out a press and to manu-
facture types expressly for the purpose. In the
mean time, Mr. Morrison, having finished the New
Testament, began upon the Old, and, with patient
perseverance, worked his way through Genesis,
Exodus, and the succeeding books, printing his
work as fast as he proceeded with the translation.
The expense of the enterprise was borne by
English Christians at home, through several or-
ganizations into which they had united themselves
for the purpose of spreading the gospel. The
British and Foreign Bible Society and the Lon-
don Missionary Society took the lead. Year
after year the work went on. Morrison, protected
by his office, was enabled to remain at his post ;
but Milne found it difficult to remain long at
Canton or Macao. Missionary stations were, ac-
cordingly, established at Penang, at Java, at Sin-
capore, and especially at Malacca, where their
printing-presses were set up, and a Chinese school
established, and where an establishment was
264 INTRODUCTION OF THE BIBLE.
gradually formed, which was, in many respects,
for a long time, the head-quarters of what they
called the Ultra-Ganges mission. These various
labors occupied the time of the missionaries, and
of others who had been sent out from time to
time to join. them. In the mean time, however,
Morrison continued his work, until, on the 25th
of November, 1819, he brought it to a successful
termination.
This conclusion of his labors in translating the
Scriptures is the point which we had designated
as the termination of this work. We might find
a deep interest and great pleasure in folljwing
the history of English and American missions up
to the present time ; but we must refer our readers,
for this information, to the periodicals of the day,
and especially to the publications of the Rev.
Charles Gutslaff, who is now most effectually
securing the advantages of Morrison's labors, by
bringing the Bible and other Christian books in
great numbers before the Chinese people. The
patient translator now sees the commencement
of the great results of the discouraging and weary
toil, borne in obscurity and suffering for twenty
years.
THE END.
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