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 ^fA^^Y^
 
 GOVERNMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ^V O R L D : 
 
 THEIR 
 
 HISTORY AND STEUCTURE. 
 
 BY 
 
 A.J. H. DUGANNE. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "man AND HIS MONEY-MEANS," " USES AND USUFRUCTS," 
 "statics and dynamics OF POLITICAL ECONOMY," ETC., ETC. 
 
 -NEW YORK: 
 JAMES S. BURNTON, 
 
 147 GRAND STREET. 
 
 lasz.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, 
 
 By a. J. H. DUGANNE, 
 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, 
 
 The concluding chapters of this work, relating to Covermnental 
 structures, are not accompanied by marginal questions; but the sections 
 0/ paragraphs are nu7nbered, in order that teachers may review the 
 subjects by question and answer, if it be deemed proper.
 
 / 
 
 t>n 
 
 i ^ 
 
 PKEFACE. 
 
 V The title and table of contents of this book sufficiently indi- 
 cate its subject and scope. Simplicity of style and accuracy in 
 
 *^ facts Lave been main considerations with the author. 
 
 '^ All doctrinal views of political, social, or religious questions, 
 
 ^ have been carefully avoided. 
 
 Since 1860, several European governments, and the United 
 States government, have undergone changes, following the 
 arbitrations of war ; and such transitions are herein considered 
 to the present year* 
 
 The " History of Governments" is now as complete as au- 
 thentic data could render it ; and is commended, as a Book or 
 Shi Reference, as well as a School Book, by many distinguished 
 statesmen and scholars ; from whose numerous letters the fol- 
 ^ lowing NOTICES of the work are presented. 
 
 y FROM HON. BDWARDS P.BRBEPONT, ATTORNEY GENERAL, V. 8. 
 
 • k] It is a work of great condensation and industry; and contains an immense amonnl 
 
 i! Of most valunble information within a small comparative space. As a booli of relei- 
 ^ euce and instruction, it is of exceeding value. 
 
 ^v ^ HON. GEO. W. CLINTON, BUFF AID, N. T. 
 
 •^ I regard it as an admirable book of reference and instruction. 
 
 ^ HON. MATTHEW HALE, M. C. 
 
 rji Remarkable for the amotint of information it contains within a email compasi. 
 
 y^ EviTy le<,'islator, and, indeed, every intelligent voter, would liiid it a most eouveuieiit 
 ^V) and valuable book of reference. 
 
 r^ JUDGE «. GRAVES, STATE PRISON INSPECTOR. 
 
 It has no equal as a book of historical information for schools. It is so arranged 
 and systematized that its contents may be more easily impressed upon the mind than 
 any work of equal information I am acquainted with. 
 
 HON. HENRY D. BARTO, MEMBER CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 
 
 Being a complete analysis of every form of government, stated in the plainest and 
 simplest way, it is an invaluable addition to the list of school books, and stould be in 
 tile hands of every pupil in the land. 
 
 HON. GIDEON WALKS, MEMBER OP CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. 
 
 Mr. Du^anne's "History of Governments" contains a vast amount of information 
 in a small compass. There is not an unnecessary word in the book. 
 
 456578
 
 II Opinions. 
 
 HON. E. 8. FROSSEB, H. 0. 
 
 As a book of reference and instruction, I know of none equal to it ; and I shall b« 
 gratified to aid its circulation tiirougliout our country. 
 
 HON. S. D. HAND, MEM. CONSTITUTIONAL CON. 
 
 Containing a vast amount of important information, in a condensed and available 
 form, it mui't be of the greatest value to every American citizen, as well as a text book 
 in our institutions of learning. 
 
 HON. B. E. PERRY, MEM, CONSTITUTIONAI, CON. 
 
 It is a work of rare merit, pspecially adapted to meet the wants of our commoD 
 schools, and need only be understood to be favorably appreciated. 
 
 HON. A. J. AXLEN, M. C. 
 
 It supplies a deficiency long felt by our schools. It should be introduced into every 
 school disuict, as I doubt not it will be. 
 
 GEN. WM. H. MORRIS. 
 
 I consider it the best vrork of the kind I have yet seen. It would be invaluable to 
 schools. 
 
 HON. AMASA J. PARKER, JUDGE OP SUPREME COURT. 
 
 I think it cannot fail to be highly prized as the most valuable historical compendium 
 for the use of schools. As a book of reference it deserves a place in every library. 
 
 HON. C. V. R. LUDDINGTON, MEM. CONSTITUTIONAL CON. 
 
 I have given the "History of Governments" a careful examination, and regard it as 
 a great accession to my library. It is a perspicuous and sententious compendium of 
 the most important facts and events in the political history of mankind, which juetly 
 commends itself to every student. 
 
 HON. ISRAEL T. HATCH, M. C. 
 
 Its usefulness must be generally recognized. It is rarely we find so mncb historical 
 information condensed in so small a space. 
 
 JUDGE LEANDER S. KETCHUM 
 
 I am particularly pleased with it. An experience of eight years in teaching con- 
 vinced me of the great importance of a general knewledge of the ancient organization 
 of governments. This is the first thing! have seen calculated to assist a desirable 
 study. 
 
 HON. MARTIN I. TOWNSBND, M. C. 
 
 It is very rare that any work conveys such an amount of instruction in so concise 
 and reliable a form. 
 
 HON. NATHANIEL JARVIS, N. Y. CITY. 
 
 A most thorough and instructive assistant: combining brevity and accuracy of de- 
 tail with simplicity and succinctness of style; and so well adapted to teacher and schol- 
 ar that I hope it may be found in our schools. 
 
 A. D. GILLETTE, D. D. 
 
 I consider the issue of such a work most timely— we need just the information this 
 book gives, its compactness and comprehensiveness are amazing. 
 
 DIST. ATTORNEY A. OAKEY HALL. 
 
 Its Statements of familiar propositions, and its illustrations of political history 
 make this professedly "pupil" book a means of interest to the professional teacher. 
 It should belong to the common school department of every state, and be introduced 
 by legislative sanction. ' 
 
 UON. J. W. EDMONDS, JUDGE OP SUPREME COURT. 
 
 I have examined this work with care, and am struck with the plain and simple man- 
 ner in which are treated the essential elements of bistory, as connected with all gov- 
 ernments, it must be an excellent school book. It will be more than that tome; for it 
 is already for me a "ready reference" to the more important parts of history. 
 
 HON. WM. CURTIS NOYES, L. L. D. 
 
 Hike the book on governments exceedingly. It is full to overflowing of what is 
 most valuable and what all young persons ought to know. The author^s power of 
 compressing, as well as of expression, is remarkable.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Natural Laws of Nations, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Combination of Individuals, . 
 
 CHAPTER III., 
 Progress of Society, .... 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Patriarchal System, .... 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Emigration from the Family, . 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Nomadic, or Wandering Life, . 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Settled Tribe-life, 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 Natural Equality, 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Early Democracy, . . . • • 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Partier. in a Democracy, .... 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 A Commonwealth or Republic, 
 
 II 
 
 »7 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 36 
 38 
 40 
 44
 
 iv Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. PAGi 
 
 Indepenaence of a State, ...«••• 45 
 
 CHAPTER Xlil 
 
 Increase of Wealth, .....••• 49 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Growth of Classes, 54 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Representation, . . . . . . . . -57 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Early Aristocracy, ......... ti2 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Monarchy, or Kingly Government, ...... 66 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Early Language of Mankind, . . . . . . -7' 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Early Rehgion of Mankind, . . . . . . '75 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 The Origin of Nations, 8 1 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Hierarchal Authority, 83 
 
 HIERARCHAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Theocracy of the Hebrews, 85 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 The Ethiopian Hierarchy, 95 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 The Egyptian Hierarchy, . -99 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Hindu Hierarchy, 107 
 
 * CHAPTER V. 
 The Theocracy of ThJbet, 115 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Roman Hierarchal Monarchy, . , . , • 117
 
 Contents. 
 
 ANCIENl REPUBLICAN SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics, . 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Canaanite Republican Tribes, . 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Phcenician Confederacy, . 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Carthaginian Commercial States, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Grecian Tribes, .... 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Repubhc of Athens, 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 The Lacedemonian Republic, . 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Other Grecian States, .... 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Roman Commonwealth, . 
 
 . I 20 
 
 126 
 161 
 
 ANCIENT MONARCHICAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNJIENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The Assyrian Despotic Monarchy, 183 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Medean Despotism, 187 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Persian Despotism, . .190 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Macedonian MiUtary Monarchy, 19 "J 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Roman Empire, 197
 
 vi Contents. 
 
 EARLY LIMITED MONARCHIES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PA3B 
 
 The Gothic Nations, 203 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Normans and Saxons, .......> 206 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Frankish or French Monarchy, ...... 208 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Visigoth and Moorish Monarchies, 214 
 
 GOVERNMENTS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The Holy Roman Empire of Germany, 217 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Feudal System and Chivalry, 220 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Origin of Slavery, 228 
 
 MODERN MONARCHIES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Persian and Turkish Despotisms, 234 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Cliinese Patriarchal Despotisms, ... , . 238 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Japanese Military Despotism, 248 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Russian Feudal Despotism, 252 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Prussian Military Despotism, 259 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Austrian Absolute Monarchy, 266
 
 Contents. 
 
 Vll 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Brunswick — Saxony — Wartemberg, . 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 The Danish Kingdom, .... 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Norway and Sweden, .... 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Government of Great Britain, . 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 The Spanish Monarchy, 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Portuguese Monarchy, 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 The Brazilian Empire, . . . 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Government of the French, 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Constitutional Kingdoih of Belgium, . 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands, . 
 
 CONFEDERATIONS AND REPUBLICS OF EUROPE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The German Confederation, 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 The Swiss Confederation, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Italian Republics, 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Hanseatic League of Free Cities, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Modern Free Cities, ... • . 
 
 269 
 272 
 274 
 277 
 288 
 289 
 291 
 292 
 297 
 
 300 
 302 
 
 305 
 318 
 
 320
 
 viii Contents. 
 
 A3IERICAN REPUBLICAN STATES. 
 
 PAG8 
 
 Republican States of North and South America, . . . 326 
 
 GOVERNJIENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The President, the Congress, the Judiciary, and the Cabinet, . 331 
 In addition to the historical chapters, on governmental structures, an 
 
 Appendix comprises chapters as follows: 
 
 POPULAR GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Chapter I Charter Grants , , 347 
 
 II Nationalities . . 351 
 
 III. Villages and Towns 352 
 
 IV .-County Government .^ 354 
 
 V Legislatures 356 
 
 VI Municipal Government 359 
 
 VII- -State Government ..^ 361 
 
 COLONIZATION AND COMBINATION. 
 
 Chapter I Migrations -_. 364 
 
 " II Conquest - « 366 
 
 " III Annexation-- ..^ 368 
 
 " IV Autonomy of States ^ 370 
 
 COMITY OF NATIONS. 
 
 Chapter I Treaties - 373 
 
 " II Comity and Autonomy .- 375
 
 HISTORY OF GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE NATURAL LAWS OF NATIONS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The progress of every nation resembles the growth of a 
 single human being. (2.) It is also marked by epochs or seasons, 
 like the natural year that divides time. (3.) The first epoch of a 
 nation is its Infancy, or Spring-time, which is the season when im- 
 pressions are made upon it. (4.) The second epoch is its Youth, or 
 Summer-time, which is the season of active labor. (5.) The third 
 epoch is its Prime, or Autumn, which is the season of skill and 
 strength. (6.) The fourth epoch is its Maturity, or Winter, which 
 is the season of steadiness and repose. 
 
 II. — (1.) In the first epoch the heart of a nation receives impret* 
 sions. (2.) This is because human affections are called into action. 
 (3.) Individuals depend upon each other for assistance and defence. 
 (4.) They help one another to obtain food, and to overcome natural 
 obstacles and dangers. (5.) This mutual assistance forms a bond 
 
 I. — (1.) What does the progress of a nation resemble? (2.) How is it 
 otherwise marked? (3.) What is said of the first epoch of a nation? (4.) Of 
 the second? (5.) Of the third? (6.) Of the fourth ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What takes place in the first epoch? (2.) Why is this? (3.) What 
 is said of individuals? (4.) What do they do? (5.) What is the eflfect of 
 this mutual assistance? (6.) Of what is mutual assistance the beginning? 
 
 11
 
 12 History of Governments. 
 
 to unite one person with another. (6.) It is the beginning of a 
 connection between human beings, which is called Society. 
 
 III. — (1.) In the second epoch the limbs of a nation grow strong 
 and active. (2.) This is because every individual seeks to improve 
 his condition, and help others to improve theirs. (3.) One man 
 assists another to hunt, or fish, or build a house. (4.) One person 
 teaches to his fellows whatever he learns himself. (5.) In this 
 way all the individuals act together, like limbs of one body, 
 (o.) They combine their labor and skill, in order that each may be 
 benefited. 
 
 IV. — (1.) During the second epoch people learn by experience 
 and by observation. (2.) Experience means whatever a person 
 suffers, or undergoes, or enjoys. (3.) When he suffers cold, or 
 undergoes hardship, or enjoys food or drink, he experiences those 
 things. (4.) Observation is the memory of experience, by which it 
 may be known another time. (5.) When a person closes his eyes, 
 he experiences darkness. (6.) When he remembers the darkness he 
 experienced, he may be said to have observed it. 
 
 v.— ^(I.) When a person closes his eyes at one time, and opens 
 them at another, he finds the effects different, through observation. 
 (2.) He compares one effect with the other, and learns that shutting 
 his eyes causes darkness, and opening them reveals light. (3.) In 
 this way he explains effects and causes by experience and obser- 
 vation. (4.) This method of explanation becomes constant and 
 familiar. (5.) The individual applies it to everything that occurs 
 in his daily life. 
 
 m. — (1.) What occurs during the second epoch? (2.) Why is this? 
 (3.) How is this done ? (4.) In what other manner? (5.) What is the effect? 
 (6.) What do they do? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What else takes place during the second epoch? (2.) What ifl 
 raediathy Experiertce? (3.) Give an example of experience ? (4.) What is 
 Observation? (5.) What is said about experience? (6.) What about 
 observation ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is discovered through observation? (2.) What is learned by 
 these operations ? (3.) What is explained ? (4.) What is said of this explana- 
 tion? (5.) How does an individ.al apply it?
 
 The Natural Laws of Nations. 13 
 
 VI — (1.) The result of experience and observation is known br 
 the name of Education. (2.) The terra comes from a Latin word, 
 tduco, signifying "to lead or draw out." (3.) Experience leads 
 or draws out memory and comparison. (4.) Observation draws 
 out a person's thoughts, causing intelligei;ce. (5.) When education 
 is sound and active, the intelligence of an individual or a nation 
 expands as it proceeds. 
 
 VII. — (1.) In the third epoch, the body-politic of a nation is 
 formed. (2.) The body-politic means a union of education and 
 activity in the mind and limbs of a community. (3.) This uuion is 
 known as political life, and causes government or organized power. 
 (4.) Government signifies the power of regulating the actions of a 
 number of individuals, according to the desire of one, or several, 
 or all. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In the fourth epoch, a nation ought to be peaceful 
 and strong. (2.) All persons in a community ought to be alike to 
 one another, as members of the body-politic. (3.) One should be 
 assisted in obtaining happiness in the same way that another is 
 assisted. (4.) The life of one person should be safe just as the 
 life of another is safe. (5.) Accordingly as the mind and heart of 
 a nation have been educated, this will be the case or not. (6.) If 
 they have been guided properly in the three former epochs, the 
 fourth epoch will be quiet and secure. (1.) If they have beea 
 misdirected in those seasons, the fourth will be marked with trouble 
 and suffering. 
 
 IX. (I.) The same laws of health and happiness that apply to a 
 
 VI. — (1.) How is the result of these operations iinown? (2.) From wha-t 
 does the term proceed? (3.) What does experience draw out? (4.) What 
 does observation draw out ? (5.) What is said of education ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What takes phice at the third epoch? (2.) What is meant by 
 the body-politic? (3.) What about this union? (4.) What does government 
 eignifv ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What ought to be the character of the fourth epoch? 
 (2.) What is said of persons in a community? (3.) What should be done? 
 (4.) What should be secured? (5.) On what does this depend? (6.) What 
 if they have been propeily guided ? (T.) What if they have been misdirected f 
 
 EK. — (1.) What is remarked concerning the laws of health and happiness?
 
 14 History of Governments. 
 
 haman individual apply also to a community. (2,) A community 
 or nation signifies a number of persons combined. (3.) It is a col- 
 lection or multiplication of individuals. (4.) The proper education 
 of a nation begins with the proper teaching of one person as a 
 member of the collection. 
 
 X. — (1.) A collection of several individuals is called society. 
 (2.) When they are combined to help each other, they become or- 
 ganized, and form a state or nation. (3.) When they make regula- 
 tions to guide one another, they create a government, and their 
 regulations are known as laws 
 
 XI. — (1.) An organized collection of individuals is the body- 
 politic. (2.) If an individual is in health he stands erect, and is 
 able to move and act as a human being. (3.) His blood flows in 
 regular currents, and every limb or organ performs its functions in 
 harmony with other limbs and organs. (4.) A state is in health 
 when the rights and duties of every member are distinctly defined 
 and clearly understood. (5.) When the interests of citizens do not 
 conflict, a community or body-politic is said to enjoy political and 
 social health. 
 
 XII. — (1.) No human body enjoys unvarying health, with entire 
 freedom from pain or liability to contract disease. (2.) In every 
 stage of life, the liuman body is susceptible to injury from many 
 causes. (3.) Changes of climate and temperature, and other agen- 
 cies, interrupt the continuance of bodily health. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) In like manner, no community or body-politic has 
 
 (2.) What does a community signify? (3.) Of what is it a collection? 
 (4.) How does its proper education begin? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is the collection of individuals called? (2.) How do they 
 become organized, and what do they then form? (3.) What takes place when 
 they make regulations ? 
 
 XL— (1.) Explain the body-politic. (2.) What is said of an individual in 
 liealth? (3.) How is his health manifested ? (4.) When is a body-politic or 
 state in health ? (5.) How is the health of a community known ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is said about a human body? (2.) To what is the bodj 
 susceptible ? (3.) What interrupt its health ? 
 
 XUL — (1.) ■^Vhat is remarked in regard to the community or body-politif ?
 
 The Natural Laws of Nations. 13 
 
 beea known to endure, for any long period, without abuses of its 
 political well-being. (2.) Derangements take place, because social 
 life is subject to change and injury, just as individual life is liable to 
 the same. (3.) It is to preserye the individual bodily health that 
 the skill of physicians and aid of medicine are found necessary. 
 (4.) In the same way, laws and regulations of government are re- 
 quisite to maintain social and political health. (5.) These laws 
 must correct all, deviations from just principles, and secure to every 
 element of society its proper place and action. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) A wise physician knows that entire physical health 
 is not compatible with mortal life. (2.) He applies his knowledge 
 and skill to the discovery of causes and cures of disease. (3.) In 
 like manner, a good statesman or citizen does not look for perfection 
 in the operations of any political system. (4.) He seeks, through 
 experience and observation, to discover what form and spirit of 
 laws are best fitted to meet the wants of combined individuals or 
 society. (5.) He endeavors to harmonize, as far as possible, all 
 the elements of a community. (6.) He tries to equalize their po- 
 litical and social rights, privileges, burdens, and benefits. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Every human body is liable to be attacked by outward 
 elements dangerous to its health. (2.) Too much heat or cold, 
 water, fire, wind, and other forces, threaten it always. (3.) Every 
 human body is subject to abuse, derangement, and decay, from 
 neglect or injury. (4.) Every body-politic or commuuity is also 
 opposed by foreign elements, or enemies. (5.) It is liable to inter- 
 nal disorders, growing out of a disregard of rights and duties. 
 (6.) Political and social health sufi'er more or less from these 
 causes. 
 
 (2.) Why do derangements take place? (3.) What are necessary to preserve 
 bodily health in an individual? (4.) What are requisite for social and political 
 health? (5.) What must these laws effect? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What is said of a wise physician? (2.) How does he apply his 
 knowledge and skill? (2.) What about a good citizen? (4.) What does he 
 seek? (5.) What is his endeavor? (6.) IIow does he effect this ? 
 
 XV — (1.) To what is the human body liable? (2.) What threaten it? 
 (3.) To what is it subject? (4.) How does the body-politic resemble the 
 human body? (5.) To what is the body-politic liable? (6.) Wha', result 
 takes place ?
 
 1 6 History of Governments. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Danger threatens a state on account of the neigh- 
 borhood of ambitious or unruly states foreign to itself. (2.) Dan- 
 ger threatens it from the attacks of wandering people who come 
 out of other parts of the earth in quest of subsistence. (3.) Dis- 
 order may arise in a community by reason of its containing bad 
 men, who contrive to usurp power. (4.) Its members may be de- 
 prived of rights, or have unjust burdens imposed upon them. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) When a human body possesses robust, natural 
 health, it is in a condition to endure or resist outward attacks. 
 (2.) If it loses some vitality, the loss is soon repaired, because its 
 life-currents are not obstructed. (3.) All its natural forces act in 
 harmony with each other. (4.) The possession of a sound bodily 
 system renders an individual less liable to injuries from without. 
 (6.) He is not in danger of disease so long as he keeps his system 
 properly nourished and protected. (6.) Some portion of his body 
 must be weakened before disease can attack him. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) A body-politic is influenced by similar causes, and 
 undergoes like operations. (2.) Its health and life are governed by 
 laws, and subject to agencies of injury, corresponding to those which 
 atfect an individual. (3.) As " the child" is said to be " father of 
 the man," so an individual serves as a type or pattern of the state. 
 
 XVI. — (!•) How may dangers threaten a state? (2.) To what other danger 
 is it liable? »(3.) What else may arise? (4.) What may result from this? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) What is said of a healthy human body? (2.) What if it loses 
 some vitality ? (3.) How do its natural forces act? (4.) How is an individual 
 benefited by a sound bodily system ? (5.) What advantage does he possess? 
 (o.) What must take place to cause disease? 
 
 XVm.— (1.) What is said of a body-politic? (2.) How are its health and lila 
 goveroed? (3.) What renr^rk is made concerning an individnalP
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COMBINATION OF INDIVIDUALS. 
 
 1.— (1.) The spring-time, or infancy, of a community is its seasoQ 
 of natural health. (2.) This is more or less robust according to the 
 harmony that exists between the individuals combined together. 
 (3.) In a combination of individuals, each person may be independ- 
 ent of every other person. (4.) He may, on the other hand, relin- 
 quish a portion of his independence and submit to be ruled by one 
 or more of his fellows. 
 
 II. — (1.) In the infancy of every community, each individual mem- 
 ber of it acted more or less independently of all other members. 
 (2.) The body-politic was developed and strengthened in proportion 
 to the development and growth of the individuals combined. 
 (3.) The experience of one man guided others, and his observations 
 assisted all to whom he made them known. (4.) The experience 
 and observations of each formed a stock of knowledge for the com- 
 munity. 
 
 III. — (1.) Every individual was master of his own actions, but 
 all were mutally dependent. (2.) This was because they exchanged 
 one another's experiences and discoveries. (3.) Mutual dependence 
 was the link of human intercourse, and organized society proceeded 
 out of it by degrees. 
 
 rV. — (1.) A solitary human being might be able to tame wild 
 
 L — (1.) What is the spring-time of a community? (2.) What about its 
 health? (3 ) What may be the character of a combination? (4.) What may 
 each individual relinquish ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What about the infancy of every community ? (2.) How was the 
 body-politic developed ? (3.) What took place in such a community ? (4.) What 
 was formed ? 
 
 m — (1.) What is said of every individual? (2.) Why was this? (3.) What 
 is said concerning; mutual dependence? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What individual power might a solitary human being possess? 
 
 IT
 
 i8 History of Governments. 
 
 animals and make them his companions and servants. (2.) He 
 could teach the dog to guard bis hut, and the horse to bear his 
 burden. (3.) But his combination with dogs and horses could not 
 form a state. (4.) This is because the bond of a state, or com- 
 munity, consists of mutual sympathy and understanding, expressed 
 by Imman language and affections. (5.) Such a bond could not ex- 
 ist between man and the brute creation. 
 
 V. — (1.) A state, or human society, must be founded in relations 
 of sympathy, affection, and interest. (2.) Accordingly as these re- 
 lations harmonize or conflict, so the community is healthy or other- 
 wise. (3.) Common interests and objects of society are founded 
 upon privileges and rights of individuals. (4.) The first right of 
 an individual man is his right to live, the second is his right to be 
 free, and the third is his right to seek happiness. 
 
 VI. — (1 J If two human individuals dwell together, in a place 
 otherwise uninhabited by man, their intercourse is known as society. 
 (2.) Their combination, for mutual assistance and defence, consti- 
 tutes the simplest form of a community. (3.) Such combination 
 may be called a state in its infancy. (4.) If one of the two indi- 
 viduals snares game in the forest, and the other takes fish in the 
 river, and they divide these spoils, they establish a community of 
 food or subsistence. (5.) If one keeps watch while the other sleeps, 
 to guard against dangerous animals, they form a community of de- 
 fence. (6.) If they sympathize with each other in tastes and hab- 
 its, they constitute a community of friendship or affection. (7.) Com- 
 bined in this manner they are a healthy society, or state. 
 
 VII. — (1.) If a third individual be added to the community of 
 
 (2.) What could he do ? (3.) What could he not accomplish? (4.) What waa 
 the reason? (5.) Where could not such a bond exist? 
 
 v.— (1.) On what must a state be founded? (2.) What is said regarding 
 these relations? (3.) On what are common interests and objects foflnded? 
 (4.) What are the rights of every individual? 
 
 VI. — ^1.) Explain what is meant by societv? (2.) What is a simple commu- 
 nity ? (3.) What may it be called ? (4.) What is a community of subsistence? 
 (5.) Describe a community of defence? (6.) What is a community of friend- 
 ship? (9.) What does this constitute ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What may cause a separation of interests in a simple community?
 
 Combination of Individuals. 19 
 
 two, a separation of interests may take place. (2.) The tliird per- 
 son may possess greater physical strength, or be more crafty than the 
 others, and so claim a superiority or authority. (3.) He may be 
 a,ble to unite one of the original companions to himself, and then 
 make the third a servant, through fear. (4.) Should such a sepa- 
 ration of interests take place, the society would no longer consti- 
 tute a healthy community. (5.) The authority of one individual 
 over his companions, maintained by his superior strength or cunning, 
 and because of their weakness, would be disease. (6.) It would 
 disturb the relations that before existed, and endanger the individ- 
 ual rights of life, of liljerty, and of happiness. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The forced inferiority of a portion of the small 
 community to another portion would allow unequal burdens to be 
 Imposed upon the weakest. (2.) The rights and interests of the 
 latter would then be destroyed. (3.) This would cause disorder in 
 the entire body-politic. (4 ) Such disorder, and conflict of individ- 
 ual interests, would soon endanger the community's existence. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The injured or oppressed persons might manifest their 
 sufferings by outward speech or action. (2.) Such manifestations 
 in a community are termed divisions, conspiracies, rebellions and 
 revolutions. (3.) Sometimes they act like spasms of pain in a hu- 
 man body. (4.) They are always an evidence that disease or 
 derangement exists, and that the community seeks relief from its 
 aflQictions. 
 
 X. — (1.) Every human body containing life must possess some 
 power to manifest that life. (2.) A diseased body-politic, or nation, 
 
 (2.) What may the third person possess and claim ? (3.) What may be be able 
 to do? (4.) What would be the effect ? (5.) What would the third person's 
 authority be? (6.) Wliy would it be disease? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What would forced inferiority of a portion allow? (2.) Wiiat 
 would be destroyed? {:].) What would this cuu:se? (4.) What would it en- 
 danger ? 
 
 IX. (1.) How would the disorder be shown? (2.) What are such manifes- 
 tations called? (3.) Uow do tlioy sonieiinies act? (4.) Of what are they an 
 evidence ? 
 
 "X. — (1.) What about every human body? (2.) What of a diseased nation ?
 
 20 History of Governments. 
 
 may have healthy citizens who kaow when the state is disordered. 
 (3.) The healthy citizens use their faculties to show others where 
 disease exists. (4.) This sometimes occasions a movement of all, 
 and changes the whole state. (5.) Such a change is known as 
 revolution. 
 
 XI. — (1.) If three persons in a community of five submit to obey a 
 single person as their ruler, they surrender their right to be inde- 
 pendent. (2.) The agreement of three out of five to obey, gives 
 one the privilege to command. (3.) The state then becomes a 
 monarchy, and the one who commands is king. (4.) If four obey 
 one in everything, his authority is absolute. (5.) The state is then 
 a despotism. (6.) If four obey one only at certain times, and for 
 certain purposes, and are independent otherwise, the ruler's authority 
 is restricted. (7.) The state is then a limited monarchy. 
 
 XII. — (1.) If five persons forming a community agree that three 
 may make all regulations, and that one shall see those regulations 
 observed, the state becomes republican. (2.) The three persons who 
 make regulations are the legislature, or law-making power. (3.) 
 The one who takes care of their observance is the magistrate, or 
 executive power. (4.) This is the form of government called a 
 popular republic. (5.) It is popular because the larger number of 
 all the people agree in organizing the state. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) If three persons of the five choose a fourth to 
 make the laws, telling him what kind of laws they wisli made, the 
 single person represents all. (2.) The state tlien becomes a repre- 
 sentative popular republic. (3.) If the three choose another to be 
 
 (3.) What do healthy citizens do? (4.) What does this occasion? (5.) What 
 is the change called ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What is said of a community of five? (2.) What follows this ? 
 (3.) What takes place in the state? (4.) What makes absolute authority? 
 (5.) What is the state then called? (6.) What makes restricted authority? 
 (7.) What does the state then become ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) How is a republic formed? (2.) What is the Legislature? 
 (3.) What is the Executive power? (4.) What is such form of government 
 called ? (6.) Why is it popular ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) How may one person represent all? (2.) What is such a form 
 of government called? (3.) How is a representative monarchy formed?
 
 Combination of Individuals. 21 
 
 kiug, according to the laws they have made, they organize a repre- 
 sentative monarchy. (4.) If they allow a sou or daughter of the 
 king to succeed the father without their interference, the state 
 becomes a hereditary mouarchy. (5.) Three out of five have , 
 always a right to change or modify any form of government. 
 (6.) This is because three form the larger number, or majority, of 
 five. (7.) Whenever they surrender this right entirely, the state 
 becomes diseased. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) In studying the history of mankind we meet with 
 various forms of government. (2.) Many of these forms have been 
 the cause of disorder in the state. (3.) History tells us how the 
 people of states have tried to escape disorder by changes of gov- 
 ernment. (4.) The history of every nation is an account of individuals 
 endeavoring to combine their several interests. (5.) Those interests 
 have always been comprised in the right of each person to live, to 
 be free, and to seek for happiness. 
 
 XV. — (1.) When any government is capable of securing every 
 individual the enjoyment of his rights, the nation in which that 
 individual lives may be called healthy. (2.) All persons have an 
 equal interest in maintaining such a state or nation, as an entire 
 body-politic. (3.) It is only by good government that individual 
 rights can be protected. (4.) It is the duty of every person in a 
 community to assist in making good government. 
 
 (4.) What makes a hereditary monarchy? (5.) What is said of three persons 
 out of five? (6.) Why is this? (7.) What occurs when this right is sur- 
 rendered ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What do we meet with, in studying history? (2.) What have 
 many of these forms cftused ? (3.) What are we told by history ? (4.) What 
 is the history of every nation? (5.) In what are those interests comprised? 
 
 XV. — (1.) When is a nation healthy? (2.) In what have all persons an in- 
 terest? (3.) IIow are individual rights protected? (4.) What is every per. 
 bod's duty ?
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Creator of all things saw fit, in his wisdom, to leave 
 the first parents of our race to the guidance of their own instincts. 
 (2.) The development of their capacities was to proceed out of the 
 experience of each individual. (3.) This experience was to be 
 gained in combination with other individuals. 
 
 II, — (1.) Divine foresight had measured the difficulties through 
 which mankind was to work out its destiny. (2.) God gave to 
 each object that he created certain capacities. (3.) He placed all 
 the stores and forces of nature at the disposal of human beings 
 alone 
 
 III. — (1.) Mankind was to become powerful and enlightened by 
 a simple and natural progression. (2.) Daily experience, and cer- 
 tain laws of growth and expansion, were to direct and govern 
 every person. (3.) The same laws were applicable, in a more 
 limited degree, to the vegetable and geological world. 
 
 IV. — (1.) An oak-tree could not spring at once to luxuriant 
 maturity, but must grow gradually. (2.) Its growth is assisted by 
 various natural forces. (3.) These forces work in harmonious 
 combination. 
 
 v.— (1.) Heat, light, and moisture, contribute their assistance 
 
 L— (1.) What ia said of the Creator? (2.) How was the development to 
 proceed ? (3.) How was each per.«on's experience to be gained ? 
 
 II._(1.) What had Divine foresight done ? (2 ) What did God give to each 
 creature ? (3.) How did He distinguish human beings ? 
 
 TTT. — (1) How was man to be developed ? (2.) What were to direct every 
 person? (3.) To what were the same laws applicable? 
 
 IV.— (1 ) What is said of an oak tree? (2.) How is its growth assisted? 
 (3.) How do these forces work? 
 
 V. (1.) What three elements of nature contribute their assistance?
 
 Progress of Society. 23 
 
 to the life of every tree. (2 ) From a small acoru hidden in the 
 earth, a tender sprout springs upward. (3.) The sprout grows, 
 and becomes clothed with bark, branches, and leaves. 
 
 VI. — (1.) In like gradual process, the sun's heat draws mist 
 from the earth. (2.) Clouds gather in the air, and rain descends 
 from them. (3.) Firstly a small mountain stream is formed. (4.) 
 This stream widens into a river, and broadens into a lake. 
 
 VII. — (1.) In course of time trees wither, and molder back 
 into earth. (2.) They then undergo new influences of nature. (3.) 
 They become hardened into foundations for new forests. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Thus the laws of growth, development, and change, 
 govern physical nature. (2.) The same laws, overwatched by an 
 all-wise Creator, regulate mankind in its progression. (3.) Indivi- 
 duals and nations are alike governed by them. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Mankind is first observed as a pair. (2.) This is the 
 relation or community of husband and wife. #(3.) The intelligence 
 of this community was first measured by the extent of its expe- 
 rience and observation. (4.) Its desires were limited by the instincts 
 of human nature. 
 
 X. — (I.) Experience showed the convenience of personal cover- 
 ing, as protection against heat or cold. (2.) Observation taught 
 the utility of precaution and defence. (3.) Weapons were invented 
 and used against wild animals. (4.) The first rude attempt at 
 building was made by arranging some bower or hut for shelter. 
 
 (2.) How does growth proceed? (3.) What progressive changes take place? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What does the sun's heat do? (2.) What happens then? (3. 
 What is first formed from the falling rain ? (4.) What then follows ? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What takes place in course of time? (2.) What do they 
 undergo? (,3) What do they become? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) W:at is said concerning certain laws? (2 ) What further is 
 ririiavked? (3.) How do these laws operate? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How is mankind first observed ? (2.) What relation is this? (3.) 
 How was the intelligence of this community measured? (4.) How were its 
 desires limited ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What did experience show to this first community? (2.) What 
 did observation teach? (3.) What about weapons? (4.) What abOOt 
 building ?
 
 24 History of Governments. 
 
 XI. — (1.) By experience the changes of temperalare and alter- 
 nation of seasons became known. (2.) Observation revealed the 
 growth of vegetation. (3.) The community learned the time of 
 seed and of harvest, of winter and summer. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The stores and forces of nature opened to mankind a 
 source of unfailing subsistence. (2.) It became known that exer- 
 tion was necessary on the part of each individual. (3.) The 
 community learned to provide simple stores of clothing and food for 
 its wants. (4.) These stores accumulated, and were kept for 
 future use. (5.) They thus became separated from the general 
 stores of nature, common to wild and domestic animals. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The collection of such simple articles of use, for 
 tlieir reservation by the community, was the beginning of owner- 
 ship. (2.) The articles kept became frojierty. (3.) The idea of 
 property, or ownership, thus grew out of prudence in reserving stores 
 for the future. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The 'community was to grow larger, and a new 
 bond of interest was to be added to the household. (2.) The 
 family of two, or husband and wife, was to become a family, or 
 community, of three — husband, wife, and child. 
 
 XI. — (1.) What became known by experience? (2.) What did observation 
 reveal ? (3.) What did the community learn ? 
 
 XH. — (1.) What was now opened to mankind? (2.) What was also shown 
 to be necessary? (3.) What did the community learn ? (4.) What of these 
 stores ? (5.) From what were these stores separated? 
 
 XIII. — (1 ) What was the beginning of ownership? (2.) What did the 
 artii-lfs become? (3.) From what did the idea of property grow? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What was to take place in the community? (2.) What WM 
 *"ve family of husband and wife to become ?
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM. 
 
 I. — (1.) The commuuity of husband, wife, and child, was tlie first 
 form of famihsm, or domestic societ}-. (2.) As time passed, the 
 members of this community grew numerous. (3.) It became neces- 
 sary to distinguish one individual from another, by more particular 
 designations than the terms, parents, brethren, and children. 
 (4.) Male and female names were bestowed or adopted. (5.) The 
 division and classiGcation of descendants then began. 
 
 II. — (1.) The first-born son and his children were supposed to 
 represent a direct succession. (2.) They were held distinct from 
 the descendants of the second-born son. (3.) This separation of 
 children was made for the convenience of the household or family 
 society. (4.) It was the first step toward wider social, and future 
 political, divisions. 
 
 III. — (1.) The distinction enjoyed by a first-born son and hia 
 descendants constituted what was called their birthright. (2.) They 
 claimed a sort of authority over their other brethren, from genera- 
 tion to generation. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The first father was considered during his life to be 
 bead of the household. (2.) He exercised the highest influence iu 
 deciding differences. (3.) He dispensed such lessons of knowledge 
 3,3 his more extensive experience and observation had accumulated. 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of the community of husband, wife, and child? 
 2.) What took place as time passed? (3.) What became necessary? 
 4.) What was then done? (6.) What was begun ? 
 
 n.— (1.)— What were the first-born supposed to represent? (2.) How 
 rere their descendants held ? (3.) Why was this separation made? (4.) To 
 /rbat did it lead ? 
 
 m.— (1.) What constituted birthright? (2.) What claim did this birth- 
 .-ight allow ? 
 
 IV.— {\ How was the first father regarded ? (2.) What did he exercise? 
 
 f3.) What did he dispense ? 
 
 2 **
 
 26 History of Governments. 
 
 V. — (1.) In this relation the first-born was venerated and 
 obeyed by his children and their offspring. (2.) He occupied the 
 position of father or patriarch. (3.) His authority constituted that 
 form of domestic control which is called, in history, the patriarchal 
 government. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The Bible gives an account of patriarchal authority, 
 as it existed in the family of our first parents. (2.) This form of 
 authority continued through the families of Noah, and later still, 
 through the households of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Such authority was the first kind of human regulation 
 recognized by man in his infant state. (2.) It was founded upon 
 affection and reverence for the head of the family. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) At this period of history the term of mortal life was 
 a long one. (2.) The authority of a patriarch was extended over 
 several generations of his descendants. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Children, as they grew up, were taught their relations 
 toward the head of the family. (2.) They learned to heed hia 
 counsels and submit to his authority. 
 
 X. — (1.) The patriarchal regulation was a very necessary and 
 natural one in the household. (2.) This was because the heart; or 
 affections, are impressed during a nation's infancy. (3.) The child- 
 ren revered the father, and trusted in his superior knowledge and 
 prior experience. (4.) The father ruled the children through love 
 and respect which they bore to him. 
 
 v. — (1.) What was the effect of this relation ? (2.) What was the position 
 of the first-born ? (3.) What did his authority constitute? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What book gives an account concerning patriarchal authority? 
 2.) What is said of this form ? 
 
 VIL— (1.) What was this authority ? (2.) On what was it founded? 
 
 VIIL — (1.) What is said of mortal life at this period? (2.) How did this 
 influence the patriarchal au hority ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What were children taught? (2.) What did they learn? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is said regarding the patriarchal regulation? (2.) Why was 
 this? (3.) How did children regard the lather? (4.) How did the father 
 rule the children ?
 
 The Patriarchal System. 27 
 
 XI. — (1.) A patriarch occupied the first place at all times;.for him 
 the children gathered fruits and flowers, and to him the youths ap- 
 plied for counsel. (2^) The wife, or partner, shared his love, and 
 looked up to him with affectionate confidence. \ 
 
 XII. — (l.j The Patriarchal System is noticed in all the earliest 
 records of our race. (2.) It is practised, with slight modifications, 
 at the present time, in many parts of the earth. (3.) Rude com- 
 munities, not yet expanded into the relations of organized govern- 
 ment, usually dwell under a patriarch. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) In portions of Asia and Africa, numerous communi- 
 ties or families are regulated by patriarchal systems. (2.) House- 
 holds and clans of Arabian and Tartar races are each governed 
 by a central Sheikh or Father. (3.) Their mode of government is 
 the same as was practised in the earliest times under Abraham. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The word Patriarch signifies Father. (2.) It de- 
 notes the relationship of head, or- chief, of a family. (3.) The 
 Greek word from which it is derived, wa;; Patriarches (Trarpiapx'rjc) . 
 (4.) This signifies head, or principal, of the pntria (Trarpia), or fam- 
 ily. (5.) It was formed of two Greek words, pater (naTep), father, 
 and arc/ios (apxog), a chief. (6.)i_In later times, the title patridus, 
 the Latin word for father, was bestowed on nobles and senators in 
 Rome. (7.) The Roman higher class was called the patrician class. 
 
 /V 
 
 XI. — (1.) What distinctions did the patriarch enjoy? (2.) What rehitiou 
 did his wife or partner bear to the patriarch? 
 
 Xn — (1.) Where is the Patriarclial System noticed? (2.) Does it still con- 
 tinue? (3.) What .sort of communities are usually under a patriarch? 
 
 Xin. — (1.) Where do numerous communities of this kind now exist? 
 (2.) What is said of Arabian and Tartar races? (8.) What of their mode of 
 government? 
 
 XrV.— (1.) What docs the word patriarch signify ? (2) What does it denote 1 
 (3.) From what is the term derived? (4.) What does that signify? (5.) Uow 
 was the Greek word formed? (6.) What is said about the word patrlciiig f 
 (7.) What wag the patric' in class of Rome ?
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 EMIGRATION FROM THE FAMILY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The patriarchal system was dependent upon bonds 
 of kindred and domestic relations. (2.) Its sphere was the house- 
 hold, or united family. (3.) It was influential in proportion to the 
 respect that all the members of a domestic community accorded to 
 the chief father. 
 
 II. — (1.) As time passed and families multiplied, the central 
 control began to lose force. (2.) The patriarch increased in years, 
 and his age caused a loss of bodily and mental vigor. (3.) Younger 
 m.embers of the family expanded in capacity and knowledge. 
 (4.) New wants and separate interests grew up by degrees. 
 
 III. — (1.) The superiority claimed by descendants of the first- 
 born son, began to create discontent. (2.) Those who were de- 
 scended from the second, third, and other sons of the first father, 
 grew dissatisfied. (3.) This caused rivalry between various lines or 
 branches of descent. (4.) As the right of ownership in property 
 became defined, the various branches began to compete with each 
 other in accumulating goods. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The effect of such rivalry was to make a separation 
 of household interests. (2.) It led to the occupation, by different 
 branches, of separate fields and dwelling-places. (3.) One brother 
 and his descendants lived apart from another brother and his descend- 
 ants. 
 
 I. — (1.) On what was the patriarchal system dependent? (2.) What was its 
 sphere? (3.) How was it influential? 
 
 n. — (1.) What took place as time passed ? (2.) What is said of the patri- 
 \rch ? (3.) What concerning other members of the family? (4.) What 
 grew np by degrees? 
 
 m.— (1.) What created discontent? (2.) Who grew dissatisfied? (3.) What 
 did this cause ? (4.) What then occurred? 
 
 rv.— (1.) What effect had such rivalry? (2.) To what did it lead? (3.) What 
 was the result? 
 28
 
 Emigration from the Family. 29 
 
 v.— (1.) It soon came to pass that one of the branches grew 
 tired of patriarchal authority and desired to separate altogether 
 from the rest. (2.) The head of such a branch then collected his 
 wealth, consisting of arms, clothing, and simple implements of in- 
 dustry. (3.) He gathered his wife, children, and dependents, to 
 journey with him from the place where they dwelt. (4.) He bade 
 farewell to his brethren an"d'tlTe-patriarch,-and set forth with his 
 followers, to wander in search of some other plain or valley. (5.) He 
 sought to be independent of control, and to find better fields or 
 more abundant game. 
 
 VI. (1.) This was the first emigration, or passage from one 
 
 locality of dwelling to another that promised superior benefits. 
 (2.) Experience had satisfied man that the patriarchal system was 
 not suited to his wants. (3.) He wandered away, to better his con- 
 dition. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The first emigrants abandoned the general family, to 
 seek their fortune in untried wild<. (2.) They unconsciously 
 became the pioneers of national life. (3.) Their progress was to 
 be the measure of mankind's march toward future civilization. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Emigration usually results from a desire to escape 
 restrictions, hardships, or privations. (2.) Human beings change 
 their homes, to find other localities where human wishes may be 
 satisfied and human conditious bettered. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Just such human desires and efforts influenced the first 
 wanderers from a household. (2.) They sought out other dwelling- 
 
 V. — (1.) What soon came to pass? (2.) How did the head of such a branch 
 proceed? (3.) What else did he do? (4.) To what did he bid farewell? 
 (5.) What did he seek? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What was this movement? (2.) What had experience done? 
 (3.) What was the object of man's wandering. 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What did the first emigrants do? (2.) What did they uncon- 
 sciously become? (3.) What was their progress to be? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) From what does emigration result? (2.") Why do humau 
 beiugs change tlu'ir homes? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What influenced the first wanderers ? (2.) What did they seeii
 
 ^O History of Governments. 
 
 places, in order to form communities. (3.) Similar motives impel 
 savage tribes and families at tbe present day, in some parts of the 
 earth. (4.) Thev pass their original limits, and locate in other 
 territories, and sometimes among other peoples. 
 
 X.— (1.) The first emigrants wandered to a sheltered valley, by 
 tlie borders of a river, or to the sea shore. (2.) There they pitched 
 tents or built rude huts. (3.) There they began anew the system 
 of family government, or else combined themselves in a tribe or clan. 
 
 XI. — (1.) In combining as a tribe, thie community became known 
 under the name or title borne by its leader or head. (2.) Such 
 name was likewise used to distinguish the district or area of country 
 where the tribe located its dwellings. 
 
 XII. — (1.) We read in the Bible that Canaan, a grandson of 
 Noah, gave his name to his followers and kindred who dwelt with 
 him. (2.) They became known as the tribe or people of Canaan, 
 and were called Canaanites. (3.) The territory which they occu- 
 pied, with their habitations, was known as the land of Canaan or 
 the land of the Canaanites. 
 
 (3.) What is said of the same motives now ? (4.) What do these tribes do ? 
 
 X. — (1.) Whither did the first emigrants wander? (2.) What did they do? 
 (3.) What did they begin ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) How did the comraunity become known? (2.) What did the 
 name also distinguish ? 
 
 XEL— (1.) What do we read iii the Bible? (2.) What were they called? 
 (?,) How W&9 their territory known f
 
 CHAPTER VT 
 
 NOMADIC, OR WANDERING LIFE. 
 
 I. — (1.) A RUDE family of men, women, and children, in the wil- 
 derness, could only depend upon their skill and courage to procure 
 the necessaries of life. (2.) They travelled from one forest or plain 
 to another, seeking good hunting-grounds, where they might snare 
 or kill game. 
 
 II. — (1.) This wandering kind of existence was called by the 
 Greeks nomadic life. (2.) Nomadic comes from a Greek word 
 nomadikos (vouadtKog). (3.) It signifies waitdering or living by 
 grazing. (4.) Most of the early nomads travelled with asses or 
 camels, and stopped at places where grass was plenty. 
 
 III. — (1.) Some tribes were destitute of beasts of burden. 
 (2.) These depended on their own limbs and weapons for security 
 and subsistence. (3.) They hunted and killed wild animals to ob- 
 tain food and clotliing. 
 
 IV. — (1.) At the present day, there are tribes that wander, 
 hunt, and fish, just as there were in the earliest ages of the world. 
 (2.) Arabs and Tartars generally live by pasturing flocks in the wil- 
 dernesses of Asia. (3.) The red tribes of America subsist on game 
 and fruits. (4.) Both races dwell in tents or huts, and move from 
 place to place in the manner of ancient tribes. 
 
 I. — (1.) On what could a wandering family depend? (2.) What did 
 its members' do ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What was this mode of existence called ? (2.) From what does the 
 word "nomadic" come? (3.) W^hat does this word signify? (4.) How did 
 most early nomads travel ? 
 
 TTT— (1 ) What is said of some tribes? (2.) On what did these depend?" 
 (3.) What did they do? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What are there at the present day? (2.) How do Arabs and 
 
 Tartars hve? (3.) How do the red American tribes subsist? (4.) In what 
 
 respects do these races resemble each other ? 
 
 81
 
 '.:^2 History of Governments. 
 
 V. — (1.) Jealousy of restraint and dislike to obey fellow indi- 
 viduals, caused the first emigrants to prefer a wandering life. 
 (2.) In a wilderness they could select their own abodes and hunting- 
 fields, and be independent of other men. (3.) Freedom of choice 
 and desire of change became constant motives of action. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The property possessed by each individual, in a tribe 
 that wandered in search of game, was of little value. (2.) It was 
 usually confined to clothing, arms, and other necessaries. (3.) No 
 individual could boast of superiority on account of what he owned. 
 (4.) He could only claim to be stronger, braver, or more skillful 
 than another. (5.) The property most valued by the tribe was a 
 good hunting-ground, where all could find game. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When a hunting community became at variance with 
 another tribe, the cause of quarrel was generally a dispute concern- 
 ing the possession of some hunting-ground. (2.) Sometimes the 
 difficulty arose from a grievance inflicted by an individual of one 
 tribe on an individual of another. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In a war between two hunting tribes, each sought 
 to kill as many individuals as possible. (2.) If prisoners were taken 
 they were either tortured to death or adopted as members of the 
 tribe capturing them. (3.) Captives were seldom or never made to 
 serve as slaves. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Slaves were of no use among a tribe of hunters, be- 
 cause there was no labor for them to perform. (2.) The males of 
 such a tribe killed their own game, and their food and clothing 
 
 V. — (1). What caused the first emigrants to prefer a wandering life? 
 (2.) What advantage had they in a wilderness ? (3.) What were their motives 
 of action ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is said concerning property in a hunting tribe? (2.) To 
 what articles was it usually confined? (3.) Of what could no individual 
 boast? (4.) What alone could he claim? (5.) What property was most valued ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was generally a cause of quarrel between hunting tribes? 
 (2.) What other cause sometimes occurred? 
 
 Vin. — (1.) What was sought in the warfare of such tribes ? (2.) What 
 was done with pr'soners ? (3.) What is said of captives? 
 
 IX. — (1.) Whj were slaves not made by a hunting tribe? (2.) What is
 
 Nomadic, or Wandering Life. 33 
 
 were prepared by the females. (3.) Slaves could not be profitable 
 to a community that existed only by the chase. 
 
 X. (1.^ When a wandering tribe became stationary in some 
 
 district of country, the condition of nomadism was changed to that 
 of settlement, or village life. (2.) Settlement consisted in establish- 
 ing a locality, or permanent dwelling-place, and there making habi- 
 tations for all the families of the tribe, 
 
 XI. — (1.) Settlement was the beginning of social and political 
 growth. (2.) A settled or located tribe was a nation in its infancy, 
 (3.) Here commenced the regular tillage of ground, and the culti- 
 vation of corn and fruits. (4.) Here man ceased to depend 
 altogether upon the chase for his livelihood. (5.) He looked to 
 seed-time and harvest as means of supplying his wants. 
 
 XII. — (1.) We must trace the progress of such a settled 
 community through changing forms of growth, organization, and 
 regulation, (2.) By this means we may understand what is meant 
 by government. (3.) We shall learn in what respects one kind 
 of government may differ from another. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) We recollect, in this connection, that every commun- 
 ity, or body-politic, is like a single human being. (2.) It is subject 
 to injury and disease, as well as to laws of health and growth. 
 (3.) We shall find that each community has suffered or enjoyed, ac- 
 cording as it departed from, or adhered to, the rules of health and 
 prudence. (4.) It has possessed real power in proportion as its 
 members were individually free and useful, (5.) It has decayed and 
 perished, because its citizens were personally neglected or abused. 
 
 said regarding such a tribe? (3.) What is said about the profit of slaves? 
 
 X. — (1.) What took place when a tribe became stationary? (2.) In what 
 did settlement consist ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) Of what was settlement the beginning? (2.) What was a settled 
 tribe? (3.) What here commenced? (4.) What did man here cease to 
 depend upon? (5.) To what did he look? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What must we now do? (2.) What shall we understand by this 
 means ? (3.) What e-se shall we learn ? 
 
 Xin.— (1.) What do we recollect? (2.) To what is it subject? (3.) What 
 shall we find? (4.) How has a community possessed real power ? (5.) Why 
 
 bas it decayed and perished? 
 
 2*
 
 CHxiPTER VII. 
 
 SETTLED TRIBE-LIFE. 
 
 I. — (1.) In the earliest settled life of a tribe it enjoyed robust 
 health and rude iudepeudence. (2.) Individuals were combined only 
 through kindred and friendship. (3.) Each savage individual went 
 hither or thither as he liked. (4.) He was responsible for his 
 actions only to himself. 
 
 II. — (1.) In the beginning of tribe-life, property consisted of the 
 individual's cabin, or tent, his arms, net, and clothing. (2.) To 
 these were added, rude house implements and ornaments for his wife 
 and children. 
 
 III. — (1.) The male members of the tribe went in companies to 
 hunt or fish. (2.) All provision obtained was either consumed 
 immediately, or kept in a common store for future use. 
 
 IV.— (1.) This combination of individuals was the simplest 
 form of tribe-life. (2.) Individuals did not collect personal wealth, 
 or property, in the form of cattle and land. (3.) The desire to 
 accumulate did cot cause rivalry between different individuals. 
 
 V. (1.) The community depended for subsistence upon tilling 
 
 the soil more than upon hunting and fishing. (2.) A division of 
 responsibility here took place. (3.) The men went out in com- 
 
 L (1.) What did a tribe enjoy in its earliest settled life ? (2.) How were 
 
 individuals combined? (3.) What did each savage do? (4.) To whom was 
 ;« responsible ? 
 
 n.— (1.) Of what did property consist? (2.) What were added? 
 
 m.— (1.) What is said of the male members of a tribe ? (2.) What was 
 done with provision ? 
 
 IV. (1.) What was this combination ? (2.) What is said about property ? 
 
 (3.) What was the effect of this ? 
 
 v.— (1.) On what did the community mostly depend for subsistence? (2.) 
 What took place? (3.) What did the men of such a community do* 
 84
 
 Settled Tribe-life. 35 
 
 panics to hunt or fight. (4.) The women prepared grouud for seed 
 and gathered iu the harvest. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When the products of the chase and of the soil were 
 collected, they were placed in store for future use. (2.) At stated 
 seasons shares were distributed among all the different families of 
 the community. 
 
 VII. — (1.) We find this form of tribe-life among savages of 
 North and South America at the present day. (2.) They dwell in 
 villages of huts, or tents, cultivate the soil, and hunt wild animals 
 for food. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In earliest tribe-life, all idea of ownership in property 
 was confined to the bow and spear, clothing or armor of skins, and 
 the hut or tent used for habitation. (2.) These articles of property 
 were distinguished by some mark chosen by the owner. (3.) This 
 mark might be the figure of a turtle, a snake, a tree, a bird, fish, 
 or beast. (4.) By its use, on his clothing or person, one savag'^ 
 became known from another. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The dwelling of every savage was left in charge ot 
 the women. (2.) The women had care of children and domestic 
 animals. (3.) Every man, in his own dwelling, was sovereign, and 
 independent of all other men. (4.) Each savage exercised undis- 
 puted authority over his own family and dependents. 
 
 X. — (1.) All females occupied inferior or subject positions. (2.) 
 They performed the hand-labor and domestic service. (3.) They 
 
 (4.) How did the women of such a community occupy themselves ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What was done with products of the chase and the soil? (2 
 How were they afterward disposed ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What do we discover at the present day? (2.) Wliat is their 
 mode of life ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) To what was all idea of property confined? (2.) How were 
 these articles distinguished? (3.) What uiight this mark be? (4.) Of what 
 importance was such a mark ? 
 
 IX. — (I.) Who had charge of every dwelling? (2.) Who took care of chil- 
 dren and animals ? (.3.) What was every savage in his own dwelling ? (4.) 
 What did each exercise ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What position did females occupy ? (2.) What did they perform * 
 (.8.) What else ie said concerning the labor of females, and their conditiORf
 
 36 History of Govtrnments. 
 
 cultivated the ground, prepared food, and were the slaves cf their 
 male superiors. (4.) Their condition was rendered easier by the 
 relations which they held as wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The combination of a tribe, in this manner, secured 
 almost entire independence to every individual. (2.) The right 
 of each man to personal life and liberty was recognized. (3.) 
 Every savage pursued his own happiness in the manner he deemed 
 best. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 NATURAL EQUALITY. 
 
 I. — (1.) Permanent inferiority of one man to another was not 
 known in earliest tribe-life. (2.) Rank or grade was not claimed 
 except as it arose naturally from an individual's strength or talent. 
 
 II. — (1.) The most skillful hunter was a leader of the chase. 
 (2.) The most valorous warrior was chief of a hostile expedition 
 against a rival tribe. (3.) When hunting was over, or war ended, 
 a leader or chief went back to his place among the rest. 
 
 III. — (1.) A savage community, existing in this form of siraplcj 
 independence and equality, was a healthy state. (2.) Independence 
 and equality are natural elements of human society. (3.) Natural 
 
 (4.) By what relations was the condition of females rendered easier ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What did such a combination as this secure? (2.) What was 
 recognized? (3.) What did every savage do? 
 
 I. — (1.) What was not known in earliest tribe-life? (2.) What was not 
 claimed ? 
 
 n. — (1.) Who was a leader of the chase? (2.) Who was chief in a war 
 party? (3.) What became of him afterward ? 
 
 m. — (1.) What was a savage community in this form ? (2.) What are 
 natural elements of human society ? (3.) On what is natural independence
 
 Natural Equality. 37 
 
 independence is founded on an individual's consciousness of man- 
 hood. (4.) Natural equality is asserted by the natural dislike of 
 one human being to be controlled by another human being. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Every individual in simple tribe-life was equal to 
 another. (2.) No person claimed or exercised more authority than 
 the whole community, or the people, might be willing to al!ow him. 
 
 ■y. — (1.) In such a simple tribe we find the earliest form of 
 popular government or sovereignty of the peo})le. (2.) All 
 authority, wielded at certain times by a leader, was simply an 
 authority allowed by consent of the whole tribe. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When a tribe deliberated, individuals came together 
 as individuals. (2.) Speech or action was more or less independent, 
 according to the personal character of a speaker or actor. 
 
 VII. — (1.) AH the savages seated themselves on the ground, 
 And entered into discussion according to ability. (2.) Wisdom, 
 experience, eloquence, craft, or boldness, were thus developed. 
 (3.) The influence of each man was ^measured by the power or 
 attraction of his personal character. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) This popular combination, in a rude, savage tribe, 
 was its mode of government. (2.) Independence of each men.ber, 
 and equality of one with another, were the features of such a govern- 
 ment. (3.) The authority or power of the whole tribe, or people, 
 was exercised by all together, or through persons selected by all. 
 
 IX. — (1.) A popular combination of this kind is known a" 
 
 founded ? (4.) In what manner is natural equality said to be asserted ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What was every individual in simple tribe life? (2.) What was 
 the limit of personal authority ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What do we find in such a tribe? (2.) What was the character of 
 all individual authority ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) How did the tribe meet to deliberate? (2.) What was the charac- 
 ter of speech or action? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What did all the savages do? (2.) What were thus developed? 
 (3.) How was each man's influence measured? 
 
 VIII.— (1.) What was the popular combination in a tribe ? (3.) What were 
 its features ? (3.) IIow was autliority exercised ? 
 
 DC. — (1.) By what distinguishing name is such a popular combination known ' 

 
 38 History of Governments. 
 
 democracy. (2.) Democracy means the people's power, or popular 
 sovereignty. (3.) The word "democracy" is derived from two 
 Greek words, (demos) drjfiog i. e. " the people," and kratos (KQarog), 
 power, or krateo (aparew), to govern. (4.) They signify, t\iQ power 
 or authority of the people. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 EARLY DEMOCRACY. 
 
 I. — (1.) Simple democracy could be made practical only in a 
 small tribe, or community. (2.) Its foundation was an agreement 
 or consent of all the people to any course of ection. 
 
 II. — (1.) It was not necessary that every individual member of 
 the tribe should express his consent. (2.) The will, or voice of the 
 larger number, or majority, and the consent or submission of the 
 smaller number, or minority, was an agreement of the whole jjeople. 
 
 III. — (1.) The democratic principle rested on a sovereignty of 
 numbers, or majorities. (2.) It provided that a few should yield 
 or agree to the expressed desire of many. (3.) It allowed every 
 individual to be heard, for or against any measure or purpose, 
 before it was decided. 
 
 IV. — (1.) In a council, or public meeting, every male member 
 of a savage democracy claimed the right to take part. (2.) His 
 
 (2.) What is meant by Democracy? (3.) How is the word derived? 
 (4.) What do these words signify ? 
 
 I. — (1.) Where was simple democracy practical ? (2.') What was its 
 foundation ? 
 
 n.— (1.) What was not necessary? (2.) What constituted a democratic 
 agreement ? 
 
 m. — (1.) On what did the democratic principle rest? (2.) What did it 
 provide ? (3.) What did it allow ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What did every male savage claim ? (2.) What was his in- 
 fluence '
 
 Early Democracy. 39 
 
 voice, or opinion, possessed influence just in pfoportion to his per- 
 sonal ability, or his popularity with others. 
 
 v. — (1.) Each individual savage submitted to the expressed will 
 of the greatest number. (2.) This principle governs every democratic 
 body, whether it meet in a savage village, or in a civilized city. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The origin of all assemblies of the people, as they now 
 exist iu communities, may be traced to savage tribe-life. (2.) All 
 the warriors and hunters associated in council. (3.) They con- 
 stituted, when together, a popular, law-making body. (4.) The 
 old men of the tribe formed a smaller body. (5.) They represented 
 the reflection and prudence of the whole community. (6.) They 
 were called the Elders, or wise "men, and exercised influence by 
 reason of their experience. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The meeting of all the male members of the rude 
 community was the basis of democracy, or popular rule. (2.) The 
 more limited council of elders gave advice when necessary. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Out of the two bodies a number of old men were 
 selected, as agents. (2.) These agents carried measures into 
 action, when agreed upon. (3.) The persons selected became tem- 
 porary magistrates, or leaders. (4.) They performed only what 
 was directed by the whole tribe. (5.) They administered the 
 authority of the tribe. (6.) They constituted the first delegated 
 government, or executive power. 
 
 IX. — (1.) All popular governments resemble this simple organiza- 
 
 V. — (1.) How did each iadividual act? (2.) What is said of this principl 
 of submission? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is said about assemblies of tiie people? (2.) What did all 
 the warriors and hunters do? (3.) What did they constitute when together? 
 (4.) What did the old men form? (5.) What did they represent? (6.) What 
 were they called ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was the basis of democracy? (2.) What was the council 
 of Elders ? 
 
 Vni — (1.) What were selected? (2.) What did these agents do? 
 (3.) What were they ? (4 ) What did they perform ? (5.) What did they 
 administer ? (6.) What did they constitute ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What is here remarked concerning all popular governitenta ?
 
 40 History of Governments. 
 
 tion of a savage, democratic tribe. (2.) The Roman popular meet* 
 ings, or assemblies of the people, decided all measures of importance. 
 (3.) They elected delegates or agents to administer their will. 
 (4.) The Roman Senate was a body of elder citizens, selected on 
 account of superior judgment, virtue, and experience. (5.) This 
 body prepared regulations, and suggested measures, which the 
 people adopted in their Assembly. (6.) The Roman tribunes, or 
 consuls, were agents chosen to administer law and preserve order in 
 the state. 
 
 X. — (1.) The earliest history of savage tribes shows that com- 
 bined human individuals naturally establish popular or democratic 
 bodies, to make and carry out their own regulations. (2) This 
 indicates the natural and best form of government in larger states 
 and nations. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PARTIES IX A DEMOCRACY. 
 
 I. — (1.) We perceive that in early tribe-life each individual held 
 himself the equal of another. (2.) We also see that all met in 
 council, for exchange of independent opinions. 
 
 II. — (1.) When a tribe met to deliberate in the council, its mem- 
 bers learned to understand one anothei-'s wishes and opinions. 
 (2.) When they afterward mingled in war or hunting, the bonds 
 of intimacy between individuals and families grew stronger. 
 
 (2.) What did the Roman assemblies decide? (3.) What did they elect? 
 (4.) What was the Roman Senate? (5.) What did the Senate do? (6 ) Who 
 were the Roman Tribunes, and what were their duties? 
 
 X.— (1.) What is shown by the earliest history of tribes? (2.) What does 
 this indicate ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What do we see in early tribe-life ? (2.) What else do we see? 
 
 n. — (1.) What did men learn in council? (2.) What afterward took 
 place ?
 
 Parties in a Democracy. 41 
 
 III._(1,) A feeling of friendship between man and man was 
 fostered. (2.) They associated in danger and hardship, and expe- 
 rienced grief or joy in companionship. (3.) They learned to know 
 and esteem each other in greater or less degrees. 
 
 IV. — (1.) In rude communities, this feeling of friendship was 
 greatly stimulated. (2.) The brotherly intimacy of two or more 
 individuals furnishes many interesting episodes of history. (3.) The 
 friendship that existed between Jonathan and David is recorded in 
 the Bible. (4.) This was no uncommon kind of association in early 
 times. (5.) We read that pairs of GalUc youths bound their left 
 wrists together with a chain, so that in battle, or even death, they 
 might not be separated. 
 
 V".— (1.) A sentiment of friendship marked the intercourse, 
 more or less, of all members of a savage tribe. (2.) They were 
 accustomed to regard each other, and their own community, as 
 superior to all stranger iudividuals or tribes. 
 
 VI. — (1.) This feeling of exclusive regard extended to the 
 locality where a tribe dwelt. (2.) The people learned to love their 
 habitations, fields and hunting-grounds. (3.) Here was founded the 
 sentiment of patriotism. (4.) Patriotism means the affection that a 
 person feels for his native country. 
 
 VII. — (1.) It was natural that certain individuals of a tribe 
 should possess skill, bravery, generosity, and other attractive quali- 
 ties,in a larger share than others. (2.) Such individuals grew to be 
 highly esteemed by their associates. (3.) They gained the favor 
 and confidence of their whole tribe. 
 
 ni. (1.) What was fostered? (2.) What did they do? (3.) What dia 
 
 they learn ? 
 
 rv. — (1.) Where was this feeling stimulated? (2.) What is said about 
 brotherly intercourse ? (3.) What is recorded in the Bible? (4.) What is 
 said respecting this? (5.) What do we read concerning Gallic youths ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What was a feature of savage tribes? (2.) To what were their 
 members accustomed ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) Where did this feeling extend? (2 ) What did the people learn? 
 (3.) What was here founded? (4.) What does patriotism mean? 
 
 Vn,— (1.) What was natural ? (2.) What was the eflfect of this ? (3.) What 
 did they often gain ?
 
 42 History of Governments. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) When the council of a tribe decided on any course 
 of action, it became necessary to have agents to carry the decision 
 into effect. (2.) The favorites of a tribe were selected as these 
 agents. (3.) They became, for a time, leaders or captains of the 
 tribe, to conduct any necessary action. (4.) They were assisted by 
 as many hunters or warriors as the business required. 
 
 IX. — (1.) If a warlike expedition ended prosperously, its leaders 
 become greater favorites than before. (2.) A habit of conndencS 
 in their abilities and respect for their opinions grew up among their 
 companions. 
 
 X. — (1.) Favorite men in this way became leaders on various 
 occasions. (2.) They could always count on devoted adherents. 
 (3.) The independence of individuals was endangered through the 
 personal respect inspired by such a leader. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The custom of deference and respect to a favorite led 
 to, a habit of obedience. (2.) Some were ready to support his 
 authority as a superior, or chief. (3.) But a meeting of the people 
 was still the foundation of all combined power. (4.) A leading 
 savage was only looked upon as an equal among equals, in assem- 
 blies of the tribe. 
 
 XII. — (1.) A single man's popularity was not pleasing to all. (2.) 
 Otlier able and ambitious men became more or less jealous of his 
 influence over the tribe. (3.) These jealous individuals had their own 
 admirers and adherents among members of the body-politic. 
 (4.) One demagogue, or popular leader, became a check upon 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What became necessary? (2.) Who were chosen as agents? 
 (3.) What did they become? (4.) How were they assisted? 
 
 IX.— {!.) What occurred after a prosperous expedition? (2.) What grew 
 up? 
 
 X. — (1.) What did favorites become? (2.) On what could they always 
 count? (3.) What was endangered? 
 
 XI. — (1.) To what did the custom of respect lead? (2.) What were some 
 ready to do? (3.) What was the meeting of the people? (4.) How was a 
 leading savage looked upon ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What is said of his popularity? (2.) Who were jealous of his 
 influence ? (3.) What is said of these other men ? (4.) How did they operate ?
 
 Parties in a Democracy. 43 
 
 another. (5.) The followers of one arrayed themselves in the 
 council against the followers of another. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) This was the origin of parties, or factions, in a com- 
 munity. (2.) So long as their leaders contended only for the pub- 
 lic good, no ill effects followed. (3.) When they were nearly equal 
 in numbers, the power of one was a balance to the power of 
 another. 
 
 -XIV. — (1.) Free individuals, with independent judgment and 
 opinions, always take sides on questions of policy. (2.) Every 
 democratic or representative organization is distinguished by parties 
 in opposition. (3.) Each party becomes watchful of the other. 
 (4.) They help to maintain the balance of power that is necessary 
 to public security. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Whenever one party, or faction, in a state, first 
 sought to establish power by force, it became dangerous. (2.) When 
 it succeeded in suppressing the independent action of any other 
 party, the individuals lost their freedom. (3.) The state fell a prey^ 
 to disease in the shape of absolute power or misrule. 
 
 (5.) What did the followers of various leaders in a democracy do ? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) Of what was this the origin? (2.) Were these parties good or 
 bad? (3.) How did they operate when nearly equal in numbers ? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What is said of free individuals ? (2.) How are democratic organi- 
 zations distinguished? (3.) What does each party become? (4.) How do they 
 operate ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) When did a party become dangerous? (2.) When did the indi* 
 viinnln 1q«9 their freedom ? (3.) To vhat did the state fall a prey?
 
 :)HAPTER XL 
 
 A OMMONWEALTH OR REPUBLIC. 
 
 I. — (1.) Every individual in a popular or democratic tribe, felfc 
 an interest in the peril or welfare of every other individual member. 
 (2.) A sentiment of common dependence and sympathy was recon- 
 ciled with personal independence and freedom, 
 
 II. — (1.) A savage who injured another was held responsible by 
 his tribe to the family of the aggrieved man. (2.) If the ofifence 
 were one for which apology or amends could be made, the whole 
 tribe tried to make peace. (3.) When compensation or punishment 
 was demanded, the entire community enforced the claim. 
 
 III. — (1.) The matter was settled without written laws, and 
 only by the popular expression of individual judgment. (2.) A savage 
 body-politic was the guardian and guaranty of all its members. 
 (3.) All persons were bound to preserve to each the right of life, 
 liberty and happiness. 
 
 rV. — (1.) The interest that one individual shares with another 
 in any community, is an interest in the commonwealth. (2.) The 
 commonwealth means all that is required to give every man his 
 natural rights as a member of the community. 
 
 V. — (1.) A commonwealth is otherwise known as a republic. 
 (2.) All states governed more or less by the people themselves, are 
 
 I. — (1.) What did every individual in a popular tribe feel? (2.) What were 
 reconciled ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of a savage who injured another? (2.) What was 
 then done? (.3.) What did the community enforce? 
 
 m. — (1.) How was the matter settled? (2.) What was a savage body- 
 politic ? (3 ) What were all bound to do ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of mutual interests? (2.) What is meant by the 
 commonwealth ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How is a commonwealth otherwise known? (2.) What are com 
 monwealths or republics? (3.) What is a democratic republic? (4.) What 
 44
 
 Independence of a State. 45 
 
 commonwealths or republics. (3.) A State in which authority 
 comes directly from all the people, is a democratic commonwealth 
 or republic. (4.) Every human individual is naturally a democrat 
 and a republican. 
 
 VI. — (.1.) As an individual, he is jealous of any assumption o*" 
 authority on the part of another individual. (2.) As a democrat, he 
 respects any power that is based upon mutual agreement of all the 
 people. 
 
 VII. — (1.) As a republican, he feels an interest in the liberty 
 and prosperity of his fellow-individuals. (2.) He recognizes the com 
 bined body-politic to be the guaranty of his own personal security 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The term republic is derived from a Latin word, 
 respublica. (2.) It means common or general, things or interests, 
 i. e., commonwealth. (3.) The original Greek derivative is ta koina 
 {ra Koiva), signifying things or affairs of a community. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE OF A STATE. 
 
 I. — (1.) A SAVAGE democracy was an independent body-politic, 
 sovereign in itself. ''2.') It refused allegiance or respect to any 
 other body-politic. 
 
 II. — (1.) It was liable to be attacked by the people of another 
 tribe, stronger in arms or numbers. (2.) It might thus be reduced 
 to enforced dependence or servitude. 
 
 is every human individual naturally ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How does man act, as aa individual? (2.) What does he respect, 
 as a democrat ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) How does he feel, as a republican ? (2.) What does he recognize ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) From what is the word republic derived? (2.) What does it 
 mean ? (3.) What does the original Greek word signify ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What was a savage democracy ? (2.) What did it refuse ? 
 
 n. — (1.) To what was such a democracy liable ? (2.) What might liappen 
 to it?
 
 ^6 History of Governments. 
 
 III. — ■ 1.) Muny savage communities have been destroyed in this 
 manner, while in a democratic stage of progression. (2.) They 
 perished in infancy, as a human individual is cut off when a child. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Other bodies politic survived and continued the deve- 
 lopment of social human existence. (2.) In following the progress 
 of a single community, without regard to other combinations, we 
 trace the course of civil society. 
 
 V. — (l.J We see the sentiment of friendship strengthened in a 
 tribe by intimacy of association, under mutual trials and experiences. 
 (2.) We find it ripened into a love of locality and birth-place, 
 which is called patriotism. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The sentiments of friendship and patriotism related to 
 fellow-members of the tribe and to the community itself. (2.) Op- 
 posite feelings were encouraged toward other men and communities. 
 
 VII. — (1.) A feeling of dislike or suspicion was felt toward 
 individuals not belonging to the tribe. (2.) A contempt of the 
 land occupied by obnoxious strangers was generally encouraged. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) A savage individual was inspired by kindly senti- 
 ments in his intercourse with savages of his own tribe. (2.) He 
 formed ties of sympathy with them that could only be broken by 
 death. (3.) On the other hand, he distrusted strangers ; he 
 regarded strange individuals and tribes as natural foes of himself 
 and race. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The natural jealousy that every individual felt, regard- 
 ing another's authority, protected his own independence. (2.) His 
 
 m. — (1.) What is said of many savage communities? (2.) When did they 
 perish ? 
 
 rV.^l.) What survived? (2.) How shall we trace the progress of society? 
 
 v.— (1.) What do we see ? (2.) What else do we find? 
 
 VI. — (1.) To what did the sentiments of friendship and patriotism relate? 
 (2.) What is said of opposite feelings ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What was felt regarding foreigners ? (2.) What other sentimen 
 was encouraged ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What is said of the intercourse of savages in their own tribe? 
 (2.) What ties did each savage fjrm ? (3.) How did he look upon strangers? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How was the independence of ar individual protected within hia 
 own tribe? (2.) How was his liberty secured ?
 
 Independence of a State. 47 
 
 claim to be aa equal of any other man, secured bis own personal 
 liberty. 
 
 X. — (1.) The jealousy that one tribe felt toward another, main- 
 tained its own independence as a tribe. (2.) The pride of one 
 tribe, in its own power or spirit, was a safeguard to its rude freedom, 
 
 XI. — (1.) The dislike or jealousy entertained by one savage 
 tribe toward another tribe, caused a close combination of all the 
 members of each community. (2.) This combination insured an 
 independent separation of one tribe from another. (3.) By this 
 means every independent community grew to be self-reliant and sov- 
 ereign by itself. 
 
 XII. — (1.) When war arose, all the members of a tribe com- 
 bined, as one man, to resist any hostile assault. (2.) Their union in 
 this way gave them strength to withstand the attacks of a larger 
 power. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) War was often the means of uniting the members 
 of a tribe more closely in defence of each other. (2.) This pre- 
 vented the destruction or dispersion of their community. (3.) War 
 also caused one tribe to compete with another in gaining strength, 
 skill, and wealth. 
 
 XIV.— (1.) The meeting of individuals with each other, in the 
 popular councils of a tribe, was the means of strengthening their 
 acquaintanceship and social relations. (2.) When they gathered: 
 for mutual defence against foreign force, their friendship for each 
 other became enlarged into love of country. 
 
 X. — (1.) How wag the independence of a tribe maintained? (2.) What Li. 
 said of the pride of a savage tribe ? 
 
 XI — (1-) What did the dislil<e or jealousy of a tribe cause? (2.) What did 
 tlie combination insure? (3.) What was the effect ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What effect had war on the members of an independent tribe ? 
 (2. ) What was the effect of this union ? 
 
 Xin — (1-) Of what was war the means? (2.) What did this prevent ? 
 (3.) What did it also cause ? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What is said of popular meetinga ? (2.) What did their friend- 
 ship afterward become ?
 
 48 History of Governments. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The existence of one tribe separate from anoiner, 
 caused trade and other intercourse between them, as between indi- 
 viduals (2.) The separation often occasioned events that distinguished 
 one community from another. (3.) These events were remembered 
 and recorded as history. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The rivalship of separate communities produced 
 the same result as the competition of individuals. (2.) It preserved 
 the independence of tribes, and occasioned incidents, to be recorded 
 for the example of mankind. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Individuals of a tribe were to learn by experience 
 and observation, whatever was necessary for their ultimate welfare. 
 (2.) Communities, or nations, were to profit by the experience and 
 trials of other distinct communities, as recorded in history. 
 
 XVIIL — (1.) Diflferent tribes were permitted by the Creator to 
 grow up and become hostile to each other. (2.) The experiment 
 of each one's life as a body-politic was thus tried independently, 
 with its own raea-aers. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Diiferent forms of government were allowed to 
 be instituted. (2.) They were to be proved good or bad by the 
 experience of the people who established them. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The record of all governments and their effects upon 
 public affairs, is before our own consideration, as students. (2.) W 
 can examine them through the light of history, and thus learn to 
 appreciate the best form of government. 
 
 XV. — (1.) What was caused by separate existence of tribes? (2.) What 
 did this separation often occasion. (3.) What is said concerning history ? 
 XVI. — (1.) What is said of the rivalship of separate communities? 
 (2.) What was the consequence? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What were individ^ials of a tribe destined to learn? (2.) How 
 did communities resemble individuals in this particular ? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) How did the Creator permit communities to grow up? 
 (2 ) What was the design of God in permitting this ? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What were allowed to be instituted? (2 ) What was to result 
 from this independent action ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What is now before our consideration as students? (2.) How 
 ehftll we examine this important matter ?
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 INCREASE OF WEALTH. 
 
 I. — (1.) An early savage democracy exhibited individualism, or 
 personal independence, in agreement with combination. (2.) There 
 was no positive regulation existing between members of the tribe, 
 except a respect for natural rights. 
 
 II. — (1.) Personal bravery was relied upon as protection of per- 
 sonal security, (2.) When injuries were suffered, retaliation was 
 allowed to the degree or amount of wrong inflicted. 
 
 ni. — (1.) Property in a tribe accumulated by degrees through 
 various means. (2.) It increased according to the activity cf com- 
 petition between individuals. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The common store, by which a combined tribe made 
 provision for the wants of all its members, was a prudent measure 
 while *,he community was small, like a single family. (2.) When 
 numbers increased, each individual sought to provide for his own 
 household. 
 
 V. — (1.) Competition then commenced between one man and 
 another. (2.) Each tried to obtain, and to appropriate to his own 
 use, whatever was regarded as wealth or property. 
 
 VI. — (I.) Corn and fruits were collected, cattle were raised, 
 and clothing, arms and ornaments were accumulated. (2.) Each 
 
 I. — (1.) What was exhibited in an early savage democracy? (2.) Did any 
 compact exist between members of a tribe ? 
 
 II. — (1.) What was the protection for personal security? (2.) What is said 
 of retaliation? 
 
 in. — (1.) How did property accumulate? (2.) How did it increase ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said regarding the common store? (2.) What took place 
 afterward ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What did each individual seek ? (2.) What did each try to do? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What was the result of this competition? (2.) How was pro- 
 perty distinguished? 
 
 S *
 
 ^o History of Governments. 
 
 collection was kept iu the separate field or dwelling-place of the 
 individual who collected it. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Every cabin became a store-house for the man and the 
 
 family who occupied it. (2.) This or that ox, sheep, ass, weapon, 
 or armor, was identified as the property of this or that individual 
 (3.) It was guarded by his personal care from being appropriated 
 hy any other member of the tribe. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The collection of articles for his own use by one 
 savage excited the emulation of others. (2.) The desire to amass 
 grew stronger as the practice of collecting continued. 
 
 IX. — (1.) One individual, by superior skill, or better fortune, 
 was able to accumulate faster than another. (2.) He became the 
 possessor of large numbers of cattle and quantities of goods. 
 
 X. — (1.) When individuals went out to war they often came 
 back with spoils wrested from their defeated enemies. (2.) The 
 victors were accustomed to divide their spoils among themselves. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Such spoils usually consisted of cattle, goods, and 
 arms. (2.) Sometimes they comprised captives, taken in battle, or 
 dragged from their homes. (3.) The captives were regarded as 
 property, like cattle and armor, and were divided with other 
 plunder. 
 
 XII.— (1.) The possession of slaves thus grew out of the settled 
 life of a community. (2.) Enemies who would have been slain out- 
 right, or reserved for torture, by a tribe of hunters, were captured 
 by a settled tribe, in order that they might be made servants. 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What did every cabin become? (2.) What is said of property 1 
 
 (3.) How was it guarded? 
 
 VIII.— (1.) What i3 said of the collection of property ? (2.) What of the 
 desire to amass ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What followed the pursuit of wealth ? (2.) What was the eflfect? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was the result of a warlike expedition ? (2.) How were spoils 
 divided '.' 
 
 XL— (1.) Of what did these spoils usually consist? (2.) What else did they 
 comprise ? (3.) How were these regarded ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is said about the possession of slaves? (2.) What about 
 enemies ?
 
 Increase of Wealth. 5"! 
 
 XIII. — (I.) Each ca[)tive became a meau.s of iucreasiug the 
 profit of a settled savage, (2.) He relieved his master of labor 
 ill the field and habitation. 
 
 XrV. — (1.) A soldier who returned with a captive either made 
 him his own slave, or transferred him to anotlier member of the 
 tribe as a gift, or for a price. (2.) It soon grew customary to 
 expose and sell prisoners in the streets or markets. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The dangerous influence of increasing wealth now 
 began to be felt. (2.) It caused a disturbance of that equality 
 which had previously existed between all members of the com- 
 mnnity. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When plunder was divided among families whose 
 males had taken part in a war expedition, the leader's share was 
 usually larger than that of others. (2.) He thus had favors at his 
 disposal to a greater extent than his fellows. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Sometimes such a leader distributed his share 
 among those whom he desired to attach to his interest. (2.) The 
 recipients often became his personal adherents. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) In this way wealth accumulated in the hands of a 
 portion of the community who were more fortunate or more skillful 
 than others. (2.) Plunder in war, increase of flocks, products of 
 the soil, and captives, were continual sources of wealth to some 
 individuals. 
 
 Xm — (1.) Of what was erery captive made a means? (2.) What did 
 he do? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) How did traffic in slaves originate ? (2.) What afterward became 
 customary ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What was now felt in the savage community ? (2.) Wliat did it 
 cause ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What is said about a division of the plunder taken ? (2.) What, 
 advantage would a leader thus have? 
 
 XVn.— (1.) What did a leader sometimes do? (2.) What was the effect? 
 
 XVin.— (1.) What is said regarding wealth ? (2.) What were the sourceii 
 of weali,h ?
 
 ^2 History of Governments. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) There were other members of the commuaity who 
 lacked energy aud skill, or were less fortunate than their fellows. 
 (2.) These failed to gather so much property. (3.) They lived in 
 the households of richer friends or relatives. (4.) They assisted 
 the latter in cultivating the soil, manufacturing arms and clothing, 
 watching herds, or building dwellings. 
 
 XX. — (1.) When captives were made slaves, the poor members 
 of a savage democracy found themselves unnecessary to their richer 
 fellow-citizens. (2.) This was because the labors of field and 
 household were transferred to the slaves. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Poor citizens were obliged to occupy, with theii 
 families, a position much like that of the slaves. (2.) The wealthy 
 could remain idle, letting servants do all the work necessary for 
 their support. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Wealth in the hands of a few individuals was de- 
 structive of independent character in many who remained poor. 
 (2.) Democratic sentiment, through which the people ordered all 
 public affairs, began to decline. (3 ) The power of riches possessed 
 by ambitious men began to undermine popular power. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The combined strength of tlie community ap- 
 peared to be greater, but only because its numbers were greater. 
 (2.) Sympathy between individuals was weakened because rich and 
 poor no longer counted on mutual friendship. (3.) Slaves multi- 
 plied, but were allowed no rights. (4.) Poor meu multiplied, but 
 their interests in the commonwealth decreased. 
 
 XIX.— (1.) Were all the members of a tribe thus wealtliy ? (2.) What is 
 said of these ? (3.) How did these subsist ? (4.) How did the poorer class 
 occupy themselves to procure a livelihood ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What was the effect of slavery on this poorer class of the com- 
 munity ? (2.) Why was this? 
 
 XXI. — (1 .) What position did the poorer citizens occupy ? (2.) What could 
 the wealthy do? 
 
 XXn.— (1.) What evils were now felt? (2.) What began to decline? 
 (a.) What was undermined ? 
 
 XXin. — (1.) Was the combined community stronger at this period? 
 (2.) How was the state injured ? (3.) What is said of slaves? (4.) What of 
 poor men ?
 
 Increase of Wealth. 53 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The forced relation of master and slave placed 
 one peii^on entirely at the disposal of another. (2.) This contra- 
 dicted the principle of equality formerly recognized between man 
 and man. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) The labor of slaves, in household, and field, and 
 marker, was injurious to their owners. (2.) It allowed the latter to 
 live in idleness, and to pursue only their own pleasures. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) Owners of goods, houses, cattle, and slaves, were 
 able to command labor and service from their destitute and depend- 
 ent fellow-citizt-us. (2.) Unthrifty, or unforrunate men, were obliged 
 to live precariously, without store for future necessities. 
 
 XXVII. — (I.) The body-politic no longer possessed a simple 
 democratic character. (2.) Its members were divided into classes. 
 (3.) There were ricli citizens, poor citizens, and slaves. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) The independence of every single man had been 
 the basis of democracy in the tribe. (2.) Democracy itself was the 
 exercise of power by all the individuals of a tribe combined as 
 equals. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The popular assembly or council of the commu- 
 nity had been common ground for all. (2.) Each man there claimed 
 bis right to speak and have his opinions considered by his fellow- 
 men. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) In war, or in the chase, every man of the tribe had 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) What was the effect of the relation of master and slave? 
 (2.) What did tliis contradict? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What is said concerning the labor of slaves? (2.) Wiiat did 
 it allow ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What were owners of property ah'e to do? (2.) What is said 
 about other people ? 
 
 XXVII.— (l.j What was the condition of the tribe at this stage? (2.) Uow 
 were its members divided? (8 ) What were these classes ? 
 
 XXVin. — (I.) What had been the basis of democracy ? (2.) What was 
 democracy ? 
 
 XluIZ. — (1.) What had been the character of the popular assembly? 
 (2.) What did each man claim in the popular meeting? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) What other rights did the members of a tribe exercise?
 
 ^4 History of Governments. 
 
 participated, carrying into execution whatsoever the combined people 
 resolved upou, (2.) The shares of honor and profit were equally 
 distributed. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) Now individual independence became outweighed 
 by influence of wealth. (2.) In the popular assembly those who 
 were dependent dared not assert equality with the rich. (3.) They 
 either preserved silence, or echoed the voices of their patrons. 
 (4.) In warlike expeditions, those only who could provide arms 
 and support themselves, were allowed to share in the spoils of 
 battle. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 GROWTH OF CLASSES 
 
 I. — (1.) The democratic principle was based on a desire of each 
 individual to be personally independeut of others. (2.) This individ- 
 ual desire became now merged in a jealousy of class regarding class. 
 
 II. — (1.) The poorer citizens continued to maintain that equality 
 was a just principle. (2.) They complained of their own poverty 
 and of the possessions of their fellow democrats. 
 
 III. — (1.) The distinctions founded on possession of property in 
 land now began to be recognized. (2.) Ownership of cattle and 
 slaves became the measure of occupancy or apportionment of 
 land. 
 
 (2) What shares were equally distributed among the members? 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) What change now took place? (2.) How were the poorer 
 people affected in the popular assembly ? (3.) What did they do ? (4.) What 
 i3 said concerning warlike expeditions ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of the democratic principle ? (2.) What about different 
 classes ".' 
 
 11.- z'l.) What did the poorer people do? (2.) Of what did they complain? 
 
 m. — (1.) What distinctions now began to be recognized? (2.) What va 
 said about laud occupancy ?
 
 Growth of Classes. ^5 
 
 IV". — (I.) In the earlier democracy every man who raised 
 flocks acu herds, permitted them to graze wherever good pasture 
 was to be found. (2.) Cattle roamed here and there, under the 
 care of sons, daughters or dependents. 
 
 V. — (1.) When planting and cultivating land became known, 
 each individual, or a household, selected as much land as could be 
 used by the force at command. (2.) Whatever crops were raised 
 belonged to the cultivator or household. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When a household increased in numbers, its members 
 occupied more land. (2.) When they added slaves, as laborers, they 
 demanded still more for use. (3.) A small household, without 
 slaves, was restricted in its usp or possession of land, because unable 
 to work it. 
 
 VII. — (1.) A family of increased numbers, comprising children, 
 domestics and slaves, required still more land. (2.) Its members 
 were powerful enough to occupy and keep for their own use a large 
 proportion of the best grazing and planting laud. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Connection by marriage began to take place between 
 families who owned the largest flocks and used the most land. (2.) 
 This was done, in order that the wealth of each might be increased, 
 
 IX. — {!.) The members of a small household, or sons and 
 daughters of domestics and other dependents, could only choose 
 their marriage partners from families of their own condition. 
 (2.) Such persons, therefore, did not increase their store of flocks 
 or use of laud by marriage. 
 
 IV.— (1 ) How did flocks and herds subsist in earlier times? (2.) Where 
 did they graze ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How was land occupied for agricultural purposes ? (2.) What be- 
 came of crops? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How did the occupation of land increase? (2.) How was it re 
 stricted ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) How did land possession increase in some fomilies? (2.) WhaV 
 were its members able to do ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) How did wealthy families combine with each other? (2) What 
 was the reason of this ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How did the small and weak families choose their partners in 
 marrage .' (2.) Wliat was the codsequence ?
 
 56 History of Governments. 
 
 X.— (1.) A few families, increasiug iu number and power, were 
 able to obtain possession, by constant use, of all the best land. 
 (2.) This confined weaker families to that land only which remained. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The poorer people were compelled to labor on limited 
 spaces of soil in order to support a few animals, or raise grain to 
 sustain their own lives. (2.) When their families increased in num- 
 bers the land became insufficient for their support. (3.) They were 
 obliged to give up what they worked for thera.-elves, and to become 
 dependents upon larger landholders. (4.) They then employed 
 themselves in hand-labor, making clothing, arms, ornaments, and 
 utensils, which they gave to the rich in exchange for provisions. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The poorer people thus became artisans, manufactu- 
 rers, and laborers, in a tribe. (2.) Children of these persons were 
 taught to follow the business of their parents. (3.) Poor families 
 became connected by marriage and soon formed a separate class. 
 (4.) Members of this class were only distinguished from the slaves 
 oy having a right to mingle in the popular meeting. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) In this meeting the voice of an artisan, shepherd, 
 or domestic was still regarded to be of like weight with that of a 
 man who held flocks and herds, and occupied large tracts of land. 
 (2.) Large landholders, however, increased in power and influence. 
 (3.) They claimed a social superiority over their fellow-democrats, 
 founded on the possession of the best fields and chief wealth of 
 their tribe. (5.) They left the cultivation of laud to servants and 
 slaves, and devoted their own days to sports, idleness, or other 
 methods of dissipating time. 
 
 X. — (1.) What followed from thia distinction ? (2.) How were other fami- 
 lies affected ? 
 
 XL — (1.) What was the condition of the poorer people? (2.) What fol- 
 lowed? (3.) What were they then obliged to do? (4.) How did they then 
 employ themselves ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What did the poorer people become ? (2.) What is said of their 
 ehiidren? (3.) How did they become connected, and what was formed there- 
 by? (4.) How was this class distinguished from the slaves ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) What privilege did a poor freeman still retain? (2.) What is 
 said of large landholders ? (3.) What did they claim ? ^4.) How did they 
 conduct themselves ?
 
 Representation. ^y 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Possessiou of land and the relations of raasteisbip 
 and servitude encroached upon individual independence. (2 ) Tlie 
 body-politic had grown healthy through the independence of each 
 member. (3.) It became diseased by the idle luxury of the rich 
 and unprofitable toil of the poor. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Political equality and a true commonwealth of the 
 people cannot exist with a separation of interests. (2.) Individual 
 independence cannot continue where one class is held in contempt or 
 regarded as inferior by another. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 REPRESENTATION. 
 
 I. — (1.) At this period of a commonwealth, personal ambition 
 began to display itself. (2.) More than one individual aspired to 
 control, for selfish purposes, the power exercised by all the people. 
 
 II. — (1.) Sometimes one man, and sometimes another, through 
 influence of gifts, or by attractive manners, succeeded in influenc 
 ing his fellow-democrats. (2.) He gained followers who sustained 
 his opinions in the meetings of the tribe. 
 
 III. — (1.) A popular man of this sort often induced the tribe to 
 declare hostilities against other tribes. (2.) He was then selected, 
 through the influence of his friends, to be a leader or chief in the 
 expedition. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) How was the body politic affected thereby? (2.) How had it 
 grown healthy ? (3.) How did it become diseased ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What is said regarding political equality and a true common 
 wealth? (2.) What concerning individual independence? 
 
 I.— (1.) What began to display itself at this period? (2.) What is said of 
 individuals ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What was the result of this ? (2.) What did such a man gain ? 
 
 m. — (1.) What could a popular man do? (2.) How did he profit by thia? 
 
 2*
 
 58 History of Governments. 
 
 IV.~ -i, 1 ) Tliit, sometimes awakened the jealousy of some other 
 ambitioiiB mau, whose influence controlled another party. (2.) The 
 tvvo leaders then disputed for the ascendency. 
 
 v.— (1 ) Each leader became the head of a faction of the com- 
 munity. (2.) The people, in supporting one or the other, forgot 
 that neitlier of them possessed any real claim to authority. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Sometimes one of these ambitious leaders succeeded 
 in gaining the support of the priests. (2.) He combined with them 
 to control the whole community. 
 
 VII. — (1.) In such case the priests declared a man whom they 
 supported to be appointed by the gods as a leader or chief of the 
 tribe. (2.) They called upon all the people to follow his direc- 
 tions. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) If the people submitted quietly to this decision, the 
 fortunate leader became chief, or governor of the tribe. (2.) He 
 exercised powers, more or less arbitrary, over his fellows. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Sometimes an ambitious leader called upon the poorer 
 class to sustain him against the rich. (2.) He promised the former 
 a share in the lands and wealth of the latter, in return for obe- 
 dience to himself. 
 
 X. — (1.) Leadership and chiefdom arose through various means, 
 more or less violent. (2 ) It always grew out of a division of 
 interests between individuals and classes. (3.) It was based on 
 the decline of personal independence and political equality. 
 
 IV. — (1.) What followed such a course ? (2.) What did the two leaders do? 
 
 V. — (1 ) What was each leader? (2.) What was the position of the com- 
 munity toward those men ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What sometimes happened ? (2.) What was the result? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What WAS the course of the priests? (2.) What did they call 
 upon tlie people to do ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What occurred if the people submitted? (2.) What powers 
 had he ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) In what other way did an ambitious man operate? (2.) What 
 did he promise ? 
 
 X. — (1.) How was leadership gained ? (2.) What did it grow from ? (3) 
 On what was it based ?
 
 Representation. 59 
 
 XL— (1.) The people were not always ready to yield themselves 
 quietly to the guidance of a leader. (2.) They often resisted the 
 projects of wealthy or ambitious men. 
 
 XII. — (1.) In such cases poorer citizens sustained each other in 
 the popular meeting. (2.) They demanded that their numbers 
 should be respected, and their rights acknowledged. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) When such a movement took place, class was 
 arrayed openly against class. (2.) The wiser persons of the tribe 
 saw a necessity of explaiuiag* the relations between citizens, whe- 
 ther poor or rich. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The result was an agreement or compact made by 
 all the tribe, assembled in public council. (2.) A method, or regu- 
 lation, of power was adopted, with the consent of all. 
 
 XV.— (1.) By the agreement a limited number of individuals 
 was selected from all the members of a tribe. (2.) These indivi- 
 duals became established, as a body, by themselves. 
 
 XVI. — (1-) Each party or class selected one or more from its 
 number, to represent the wishes or claims of all. (2.) The persons 
 selected were authorized to consult upon matters of interest to the 
 whole tribe. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The selected persons had power to decide what 
 public action was necessary in regard to all classes. (2 ) When a 
 decision was made, the whole tribe assembled in popular meeting, to 
 accept or to reject it by their voices. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Were the people always ready to submit? (2.) What did they 
 often do ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) What combination was then formed? (2) What did they 
 demand ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) What did such a movement occasion? (2.) What was founo 
 necessary ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What was the consequence? (2.) What was adopted ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What did this agreement effect? (2.) What became established? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) How was this body constituted ? (2.) What authority was given 
 lo it? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What power had this representative council? (2.) What after 
 ward took place ?
 
 6o History of Governments. 
 
 XVm. — (1.) This was the beginning of delegated authority, 
 or popular representation. (2.) Each individual iu the tribe 
 gave up his personal right to state his own grievance, or to originate 
 any action iu the assembly. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The people were, at first, tenacious of individual 
 sovereignty, and only delegated a limited power to propose measures 
 or regulations. (2.) They reserved to themselves the right to reject 
 vr accept all measures after they should be proposed. 
 
 XX. — (1.) This early method of representation was an effort of 
 natural equality to assert itself. (2.) The people, as individuals, 
 desired relief from injurious oppression. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The body-politic became aware that disease was 
 encroaching upon its life. (2.) It sought a remedy, by instituting a 
 new action in the system. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) In choosing representatives, each class selected 
 persons who were esteemed for wisdom and virtue. (2.) The first 
 representative body chosen in a tribe comprised the bravest warriors 
 and wisest old men. (3.) Such a body became justly honored for 
 the ability and honesty of its members. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) When the earliest democratic representation was 
 formed in Greece, its members were distinguished by the title aruios, 
 or the best. (2.) Their authority was termed aristocracy, from firi-tos 
 [aptcrrof] , the best, or wisest, and krateo [/fpa-?/w], to govern, or 
 
 XVm. — (1.) Of what was this the l»€ginning? (2.) What did each indivi- 
 dual yield ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How was the representative body restricted? (2.) What power 
 was reserved to the people ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What is said concerning this first method of representation? 
 (2.) What did the people desire ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Of what did the body pohtic become aware? (2.) What did it 
 eeek ? 
 
 X^TT (1.) What was regarded most in choosing delegates ? (2.) What 
 
 iid the first representative body comprise? (3.) What was the result of 
 this? 
 
 XXm. — (1.) What is said about the earliest democratic representation in 
 Greece ? (2.) What was their authority termed ?
 
 Representation. 6i 
 
 kratos [fcparo^], power. (3.) The whole signified the power, or 
 authority of the wisest or best citizens. 
 
 XXrV". — (1.) The aristocratic form of government was, at first, 
 purely representative. (2.) It was delegated by the people, and 
 was limited in its powers. (3.) The first aristocrats were repre- 
 sentatives of all free individuals and of each class of the community. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) One or more of the old men represented the 
 opinions and interests of all the elders dwelling in the tribe. (2.) 
 One or more of the warriors represented the effective war-power of 
 the community. (3 ) One or more of the landholders represented 
 the property-possessors of the tribe. (4.) One or more of the 
 rustic or dependent class, represented the mass of the people not 
 possessed of herds, slaves, or lands. (5.) One or more of the 
 priests, represented the religious character of the community, or 
 the interests of their gods. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) The original savage democracy became first modi- 
 fied by the formation of such a limited deliberative body. (2.) 
 Each interest, or division of the people, possessed its own exponents 
 in the body of select or best men. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) This original representative body, of the best and 
 wisest, became afterward corrupted. (2.) It then gave place to 
 an overbearing class of pretentiers who called themselves aristo- 
 crats, or nobles. 
 
 (S.) What did the combination of words signify? 
 
 XXTV. — (1.) What was the original character of aristocratic government? 
 (2.) How was it formed? (3.) What were the first aristocrats? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What did the old men represent? (2.) What did warriors 
 represent ? (3.) What did landholders represent ? (4.) What did rustics 
 represent? (5.) What did priests represent? 
 
 XXVL — (1.) What was modified? (2 ) What did each interest possess? 
 
 XXVn.— (1.) What happened to this body of wise men? (2.) To what 
 did it give place ?
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 EARLY ARISTOCRACY. 
 
 I. — (].) Representation of classes secured a consideration of va- 
 rious interests in the body of select wise men. (2.) It did not re- 
 press the ambition of popular leaders, or their influence over the 
 people. 
 
 II. — (1.) All questions, after being aofreed upon by the wise men, 
 were submitted to the people's meeting for final determination. 
 (2.) In the people's meeting, an ambitious man could oppose the 
 wisest measures. (3.) If he were cunning and influential, he was 
 able to cause tiieir rejection by the people. 
 
 III. — (1.) This caused disagreement between the people and th^ir 
 representatives, and the latter were constantly changed. (2.) Wise 
 men often gave place to ignorant and dishonest delegates, who 
 cared more for personal than for public interests. 
 
 rV". — (1.) The wisest or best men of the community became out- 
 numbered by the election of delegates of inferior character. (2.) 
 The representative body grew corrupt and unscrupulous. 
 
 V. — (1.) A few cunning men exercised all power in the state. 
 (2.) They were able to propose measures in the representative body. 
 (3.) They could afterward influence a large party in the popular 
 meetinsrs. 
 
 I. — (1.) What did representation secure? (2.) What did it not do? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of public questions? (2.) What could an ambitioua 
 man do? (3.) What was he able to cause? 
 
 rH. — (1.) What effect did such a course have? (2.) What resuk followed ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) How did the wise representatives become outnumbered? (2.) What 
 then took place ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What did a few men then do? (2.* What were they able to pro- 
 pose ? (3.) What further power had they ? 
 63
 
 Early Aristocracy. 63 
 
 VI. — (1.) These meu iucreased their power bj combiaing the 
 priestly iuterest with that of the wealthy class. (2.) They com- 
 bined these classes with that of the warriors, who defended the com- 
 munity against other tribes. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The community became thus divided into two princi- 
 pal orders. (2.) The first order comprised priests, landhold- 
 ers, and soldiers. (3.) The second was composed of all persons 
 who did not possess property, but were obliged to labor. (4.) These 
 two divisions formed the body-politic or freemen. (5.) The rest of 
 the population were slaves without rights or privileges. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The wealthy division possessing lands and slaves 
 was independent of the other. (2.) The poorer division, composed 
 of individuals more or less jealous of each other, occupied a depend- 
 ent position, (3.) Many of the latter were ready to follow any 
 leader, in the public meeting, who promised them favors. (4.) Am- 
 bitious leaders flattered their vanity, by calling them equal to the 
 wealthier people. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The voices of this class were sometimes raised in sup- 
 port of a good man or measure. (2.) Again they were lifted in 
 favor of a bad man or measure. (3 ) The people were usually igno- 
 rant, and influenced by orators in tlie public meeting. 
 
 X. — (1.) The orators were men who could talk in an artful and 
 popular style. (2.) The people listened to them and followed their 
 advice. 
 
 XI. — (1.) When republics existed in Greece, such talking men 
 were often found in the meetings of the peopje. (2.) These were 
 
 VI. — (1.) How did they increase their power? (2.) What else did they do t 
 
 Vn.— (1.) How did the community become divided? (2.) What did the 
 first order comprise ? (3.) Who composed the second? (4.) What did the 
 two divisions form? (5.) What is said of the remaining population ? 
 
 Vni. — (1.) What is said of the wealthy division? (2.) What of the poorer? 
 (3.) What were many of the latter ready to do? (4.) IIow were they influ- 
 enced ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) IIow were their voices raised at times ? (2.) IIow at other times: 
 (3.) What id said of the character of these persons ? 
 
 X. — (1.) Who were the orators? (2.) IIow did the people regard them? 
 
 XL — (.1,; What were found in Grecian republics? (2.) What were such
 
 64 History of Governments. 
 
 called demagogues, — from two Greek words defiot;, the people, and 
 aywyb^, a leader. (3.) The whole signified leaders of ihe people. 
 
 XII. — (1.) When the people of a coramnnity became divided 
 into two classes, the power soon passed into the hands of a few cnn- 
 nnig men. (2.) These few proposed measnrcs, and the represen- 
 tative body followed their directions. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) They took care to favor only those who were will- 
 ing to obey them. (2.) When a captain was to be chosen for the 
 soldiers, they proposed a man of their own party, devoted to their 
 interest. (3.) Tliey induced the people to choose such a captain. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) When such a leader returned from war, bringing 
 captives and spoils, the soldiers, priests and rich men, were often 
 disposed to make him chief, or ruler, of the tribe. (2.) This was 
 because they knew he would be influenced by them. 
 
 XV. — (1.) They took advantage of his popularity with the peo- 
 ple, because of his triumph over enemies. (2.) They proposed to 
 the public assembly that he should be called their head man, judge, 
 or king. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The usual way in which a king was elected, was by 
 the voices of all the people. (2.) In return, a chief was willing to 
 give a share in the government to those who had proposed his election. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) He selected different men from the soldiers, the 
 priests, and the land holders, and made them his assistants. (2.) 
 
 talking men called in Greece? (3.) What does this signify ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What followed the division of a community into classes? (2.) 
 What did the few propose ? 
 
 Xni. — (1.) What did the few influential men take care to do? (2.) What 
 sort of captains did they propose for the soldiers ? (3.) What did they then 
 do? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What were the combined classes often disposed to do,? (2.) 
 Why was this ? 
 
 XV-— (1-) Of what did they take advantage ? (2.) What did they propose ? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) How was a king elected? (2.) What was the chief willing to 
 do in return ? 
 
 XVn.— (1.) What did the chief select? (2.) What did he call these assist- 
 ants?
 
 Early Aristocracy. 65 
 
 Some of them he called heads of his household, others captains of 
 tens and captains of hundreds, others judges, and others keepers 
 of his lands or flocks. 
 
 XV 111. — (1.) The chief, likewise, provided for sons, brothers, 
 and other kindred, of his first favorites. (2.) He bestowed upon 
 them gifts and employment. (3.) Their interests became united 
 with his. 
 
 XIX. — (1 ) The people learned to regard their chief as the 
 source of honors and dignities in the commonwealth. (2.) An indi- 
 vidual was considered to be more or less fortunate according as he 
 was in favor with the king. 
 
 XX. — (1.) This was the beginning of the distinctions of rank 
 or honor. (2.) Such distinctions afterward caused certain men to 
 be called noble, and their class to be considered superior. (3.) The 
 first persons of notability were those alone who represented the 
 people. (4.) These persons afterward became powerful enough to 
 set themselves above the people. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The community no longer thought of delegating its 
 own power. (2.) All classes desired to represent the power and 
 favor of the king. (3.) Those nearest to him were considered the 
 highest or best men. (4.) Every member of the community tried 
 to win his approbation. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The most numerous division of the people remained 
 poor, and were obliged to labor for their daily bread. (2.) They 
 continued to marry only among themselves, and brought up their 
 children to their own condition. 
 
 XVin.— {].) What else did the chief do? (2 ) How did he do this ? (3., 
 What is said of these persons? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What did the people learn? (2 ) How was an individual consi- 
 dered ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) Of what was this the beginning? (2.) What did they cause? 
 (3.) What were die first nobles? (4.) What did these afterward become ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Of what did the community no longer think? (2.) What did 
 all classes desire ? (3.) Who were considered as the best men? (4.) For 
 what did each individual try ? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) What is said of the most numerous class? 2.) What did they 
 continue to do ?
 
 66 History of Governments. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Sons of the king's favorites, or supporters, usa- 
 ally married daughters of their owu class and associates. (2.) The 
 distinctions between rich and poor grew wider with each generation. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Individuals who owned land, or served tJie king, 
 or the altars of gods, constituted higher or ruling ranks. (2.) Peo- 
 ple who possessed nothing and lived by labor, sank into the lower or 
 submissive population. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) One by one the rights of individuals were ne- 
 glected and became forgotten, (2.) The people at large were no 
 longer considered to have any interest in government. (3.) They 
 were ranged under officers set over them by the higher classes. (4.) 
 Laws were framed to protect the interests of the landholders and 
 followers of the king. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MONARCHY, OR KINGLY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I. — (1.) When a leader of soldiers was chosen king over hi3 
 tribe, he relied naturally on the support of those who had been his 
 comrades in battle. (2.) He increased the number of his military 
 followers. (3.) Sometimes he hired the poorer individuals of his 
 tribe to become soldiers. 
 
 II. — (1.) Wealthy members of the community provided arms, 
 clothing, and food for the king's military followers. (2.) Persons 
 who could only live by labor, were glad to become soldiers. (3.) 
 They were then supported by the king with the money of rich men. 
 
 XXin. — (1.) Who did the sons of favorites marry? (2.) What was the 
 effect ? 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Who became the higher ranks? (2.) Who the lower? 
 
 XXV (1.) What is said of individual rights ? (2 ) What of the people at 
 
 large ? (3.) How were they ranged .' (4.) What laws were framed ? 
 
 I.— (1.) On whom did a king rely? (2.) What did he do? (3.) Who were 
 hired to be soldiers? 
 
 II. — (1.) V.'ho supported the soldiers? (2.) Who vere glad to become 
 Boldiers ? (3.) How were they then supported ?
 
 Monarchy, or Kingly Government. 67 
 
 m. — (1.) When an army was collected, the king appointed its 
 commanders. (2.) He selected these from bis older soldiers, or 
 from the sons and relations of wealthy people who paid the 
 soldiers. 
 
 IV". — (1.) P'avorites and friends of the king were thus placed in 
 power over the people. (2.) These officials were answeral)le only 
 to the king himself. 
 
 V. — (1.) When the army was led out to war, and other tribes 
 were conquered, all lands and wealth taken from defeated com- 
 munities, become property of the victors. (2.) They were divided 
 among tiiose persons whose money supported the king and soldiers. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Many captains and soldiers were also enriched with 
 the wealth gained by warring in the service of their king. (2.) 
 Some of these returned to their own community with slaves and 
 treasures, and became landholders themselves. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When a hostile tribe was subdued, the victorious king 
 added its soil, or country, to that of his own tribe. (2.) He 
 obliged its members to send him certain gifts, in slaves and cattle, 
 every year, in token of their subjection. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The king appointed one of his friends, or captains, 
 to rule over the subject tribe, as his lieutenant or representative 
 (2.) This individual became governor of the new community, and 
 was answerable for his conduct only to the king who appointed him. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Every subject tribe was placed in charge of some 
 friend of the king. (2.) Its members were obliged to obey the 
 
 ni.— (l.) Who did the king appoint? (2.) How did he select them? 
 
 IV.— (1.) Who were thus placed over the people? (2.) To whom were they 
 answerable ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of .'spoils taken in war? (2.) How were they 
 divided ? 
 
 VL— (1.) Who were enriched by war? (2.) What did some of these do? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was done with the country ot another tribe? (2.) W'liat 
 were the conquered people obliged to pay ? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What 'appointment was made? (2.) To whom was such a 
 governor answerable? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said of subject tribes? (2.) What of its members'
 
 68 History of Governments. 
 
 commands imposed upon them by their conquerors. (3.) Manv 
 were reduced to the condition of household slaves. 
 
 X. — (1.) By additions of subject tribes, a great nation was 
 formed, under dominion of the single king. (2.) He governed the 
 whole through inferior rulers, assisted by soldiers and priests. (3.) 
 Sometimes one of the subject communities grew restless. (4.) Its 
 members tried to shake off the oppressive rule of strangers. (5.) 
 The king then collected an army fiom other tribes, and marched 
 against the troublesome, or rebellious, tribe. 
 
 XI.— (1.) The authority of the king soon came to be regarded 
 as the only real power in the state. (2.) His commands were 
 received and obeyed on all occasions. (3 ) He was considered to be 
 the commander of the army and the head of religion. (4.) He took 
 care not to offend the priests or rich men, for fear of losing their 
 support. 
 
 XII.— (1.) The king's authority being respected, his body was 
 considered sacred. (2.) A feeling of veneration was manifested 
 in connection with the obedience rendered by his followers. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) This veneration was stimulated and encouraged by 
 the priests. (2.) They were the king's chief supporters and the 
 instructors of the people. (3.) They taught the community that its 
 chief was under constant protection of their gods. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The king was usually admitted to the priesthood 
 (2.) He then exercised the functions of chief priest, as well as 
 
 (;!.) What did some of these become ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was formed by adding subject tribes to the first community? 
 (2.) How was such a nation governed? (3.) What sometimes occurred? (4.) 
 What did its members do ? (5.) What did the king do then ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) How did the king's authority come to be regarded? (2.) How 
 were his commands received? (3) What was he considered to be? (4.) 
 What care did he take ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) How was the king's body considered ? (2.) What feehng was 
 stiowu ? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) What is said of this feeling? (2.) What position did the 
 priests hold? (3.) What did they teach the community ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) To what was the king usually admitted? (2.) What did be
 
 Monarchy, or Kingly Government. 69 
 
 chief ruler. (3.) He was looked upon by all ranks as the principal 
 representative of the gods. 
 
 XV. (1.) A feeling of patriotism, or a love of country, had been 
 
 cherished by members of the democratic community. (2.) That 
 feeling was now replaced by the sentiment of devotion to a king. 
 (3.) The new feeling became known as loyalty. 
 
 XVI.— (1.) Soldiers and others were encouraged by their 
 oflBcers, and by the priests, to be loyal or true to their king. (2.) 
 They were taught to regard it an honor to die in his service. 
 
 XVII.— (1.) The sentiment of loyalty for the king himself was 
 afterward made to include all members of his family. (2.) The 
 bodies of all the king's relatives were held to be sacred and worthy 
 of respect. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The people became accustomed to believe that 
 the king's power represented the power of their gods. (2.) They 
 were commanded to receive all his words as laws, and to regard his 
 officers as representatives of supreme authority. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The king's eldest sou was held to be next in honor 
 after his father. (2) Many persons regarded him as the rightful 
 successor of his father, in governing the nation. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The ceremony of choosing a king by the people, or 
 by governors of tribes, or captains of the army, was sometimes con- 
 tinued after the death of the lirst ruler. (2.) The choice usually 
 
 then exercise? (3.) How was he looked upon? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What is said about patriot.s7u ? (2.) How was this feeling 
 changed? (3.) How did the new feeling become known ? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What were soldiers encouraged to be? (2.) What were 
 they taught? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) How was the sentiment of loyalty extended? (2 ) What ia 
 said of the king's relatives? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What did the people become accustomed to believe? (2.) 
 What were tliey commanded ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Who was held next in honor after the king? (2.) What did 
 many persons regard him to be? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What ceremony was sometimes continued? (2.) On whom did 
 the choice usually fall ?
 
 'JO History of Governments. 
 
 fell upon the deceased monarch's eldest son, or some favorite mem- 
 ber of the royal family, 
 
 XXI. — (1.) When the oflBce of king descended from father to 
 son, without election, the royal authority was hereditary. (2.) It 
 passed to the heirs of a family, in the manner that land or other 
 property passes from one relative to another. (3.) The succession 
 of a family was termed a dynasty. (4.) The period during which a 
 king occupied his throne was called his reign. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The name of king was given as a title of honor to 
 the chief. (2.) Titles of honor were also bestowed upon the king's 
 favorites and officers. (3.) These titles at first served to distinguish 
 and compliment their possessors. (4.) They afterward came to be 
 regarded as family distinctions. (5.) They were made hereditary, 
 and descended from fathers to sons. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Equality of persons was no longer known in the 
 community. (2.) Individual independence was replaced by univer- 
 sal veneration for one man. (8.) The common people of the nation 
 were oppressed by a multitude of inferior officers. (4.) These 
 officers derived their whole power, through various grades, from the 
 king's will alone. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) This was the political character of the most 
 numerous and powerful nations of early history. (2.) The form of 
 government was called a monarchy. (3.) Monarchy means the 
 authority of a single ruler exercised in a greater or less degree 
 
 XXI. — (1 ) When was the royal authority hereditary? (2.) How did it 
 pass ? (3.) What was tiie succession of a family called ? (4.) What was the 
 period of a single king's government called? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Why was the name of king given to a chief? (2.) How were 
 titles otherwise bestowed ? (3.) What was the first design of these titles? 
 ;4.) How did they come to be regarded ? (5.) What more is said about 
 titles ? 
 
 XXm (1.) What was no longer known? (2.) AVhat is said of individual 
 
 independence ? (3.) What of the common people ? (4.) Whence did the ofSeerd 
 derive their whole power? 
 
 XXrV.— (1.) Of what was tliis the political character? (2.) What was this 
 form of government called? (3.) What is understood by monarchy?
 
 Early Language of Mankind. 7I 
 
 ^4.) Many great nations are governed in this way at the present 
 day. 
 
 XXV.— (1.) All political governments may be comprehended 
 under three heads. (2.) The first is democracy, the power of the 
 people. (3 J The second is aristocracy, tlie power of classes of the 
 people. (4* The third is monarchy, the power of one person over 
 the people. 
 
 XXVI.— (1.) These three kinds of political government are 
 subdivided into several varieties. (2.) The difference between 
 them consists in the number of rulers, and the amount or character 
 of the power which is exercised. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 EARLY LANGUAGE OF MANKIND. 
 
 I. — (1.) The earliest society of individuals were assisted by ex- 
 perience and observation. (2.) The moral education of each pro- 
 ceeded from feeling and reasoning. 
 
 II. — (1.) Sensations of the body were cau,sed by impressions 
 upon the nerves. (2.) Mental emotions were distinct from l)odily 
 sensations. 
 
 III. — (1.) An individual either reposed in solitude, or mingled 
 with his kind in quest of pleasure or subsistence. (2.) He becani 
 
 (4.) What is said of monarchy in relation to the present day ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) How may all political governments be comprehended? (2.) 
 What is the fir.st? (3.) What is the second? (4.) AVhat is the third ? 
 
 XXVI.— (1 ) W]\at is said of these three kinds of political government? 
 (2.) Wliat constitutes tlie dift'crence between such varieties. 
 
 I. — (1.) By what was the earliest society of mankind assisted ? (2.) From 
 what did moral education proceed? 
 
 II. — (1.) How were bodily sensations caused? (2.) What were distinct from 
 these ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What is said, of an inlividual? (2.) Of what did he becora* 
 aware ?
 
 72 History of Governments. 
 
 aware of internal impressions, dififerent from the effects of sight; 
 hearing, touch, taste, or smell. 
 
 IV. — (1.) He grew conscious of certain natural operations in 
 his mind. (2.) He experienced the emotions of wondering, of imagin- 
 ing, of hoping and of fearing. (3.) He began to reOtct concern- 
 ing uncertain objects and beings. 
 
 v. — (1.) The habit of memory collected a variety of single 
 images in each individual's mind. (2.) The image of a tree, a river, 
 a star, became familiar. (3.) He grew accustomed to compare the 
 relations and associations of one with another. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Every sensation conveyed through a nerve was recog- 
 nized, or perceived, by a mental faculty. (2.) It then became an 
 idea, such as the idea of light or sound. (3.) The idea of light was 
 perceived through the visual newe, from a person's eye. (4.) The 
 idea of sound was recognized through the aural nerve, from the ears. 
 (5.) The idea of heat or cold was perceived through the nerves of 
 sense or toiu^h, from any part of the body. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When a sensation was ^grceii-e/i, it became a perception, 
 or a simple idea. (2.) When ic was reflected upon, it became a 
 fixed image in the mind. (3.) It was then called a fixed or complex 
 idea. (4.) The fixed perceptions of pleasure, of pain, of honor, 
 and of existence were all complex ideas. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) By degrees every human individual became possessed 
 of all the ideas that naturally arose out of sensation and perception. 
 
 rv. — (1.) Of what did he grow conscious ? (2.) What did he experience? 
 (3.) What did he begin to do ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of memory? (2.) What became familiar? (3.) To 
 what did he grow accustomed ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is said of every sensation ? (2.) What did it then become ? 
 (3.) How was the idea of light perceived? (4.) How was the idea of sound 
 recognized ? (5 ) How was the idea of heat or cold perceived ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What made a simple idea? (2.) What took place when a simple 
 idea was reflected upon? (3.) What was it then called? (-1.) Give examples 
 of complex ideas ? 
 
 Vin.— (1.) Of what did every human individual become possessed?
 
 Early Language of Mankind. 7 ^^ 
 
 (2.) These related generally to objects about bim and experiences 
 of his actual daily life. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The voice or tongue of an individual at this period 
 was used to express simple ideas in relation to objects around 
 hira. (2.) Speech, or conversation, was an effort to exchange re- 
 flections, between individuals. (3.) They compared ideas concerning 
 what they observed and experienced. 
 
 X. — (1.) Human speech, at first, consisted of such vocal sounds 
 as were required to distinguish one object from another. (2.) One 
 sound of the human voice was employed to signify a man ; another 
 to denote animals, and a third to distinguish a tree. (3.) Members 
 of the first family received the names or sounds which signified ideas 
 from their patriarch. (4.) The words of all individuals, thus 
 living together, formed a common stock understood by every 
 person. 
 
 XI. — (1.) When emigrants separated from the family, one indi- 
 vidual sometimes went westward, and another eastward. (2.) Each 
 of these emigrants met new objects and experienced new sensations. 
 (3.) Each emigrant gave different names to his new ideas. (4.) The 
 two individuals were no longer able to compare their ideas because 
 thry were separated. 
 
 XII. — (1.) If a hundred families dispersed in various direc- 
 tions, and each family met with some new animal, each adopted a 
 peculiar sound, or word to denote such animal. (2.) In this man- 
 ner one hundred different words were invented to distinguish the 
 
 {^.) To what did these generally relate ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) For what was the voice or tongue used? (2.) What is said of 
 speech or conversation? (3.) What did individuals do? 
 
 X.— (1) Of what did human speech at first consist? (2.) What is said con- 
 cerning vocal sounds? '3.) How were names first received ? (4.) What did 
 these form ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What occurred when emigrants separated? (2.) What did each 
 meet and experience ? (3.) What did each do ? (4.) What were the two un- 
 able to do ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is said of a hundred families? (2.) What would be the 
 efifect of this? 
 
 4
 
 74 History of Governments. 
 
 same object. (3.) If the hundred families had remained together, 
 one word would have explained the object to all of them. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The early separation of families was always the 
 cause of ditfereut languages. (2.) Every family, in wandering to 
 new localities, was sure to meet with strange objects and experience 
 new sensations. (3.) It became necessary to invent new sounds or 
 words to express them all. 
 
 XIV.— ( 1.) Vocal sounds were invented to denote lions, serpents, 
 swords, and the like. (2.) Other vocal sounds were adopted to ex- 
 press emotions of love, of hate, of admiration, of fear. (3.) In 
 this way, every object met, or emotion experienced, by any human in- 
 dividual, received a name to distinguish it. 
 
 XV". — (1.) Families often separated and grew up into different 
 tribes, and then came together once more. (2.) When this took 
 place the various words in use by the scattered tribes became united 
 in a common stock, for the new nation. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The Arabian nation of the present day consists of 
 many hundred Wiindering tribes, or families, who mingled and ex- 
 changed the original stocks of words. (2.) In the Arabic language 
 there are more than five hundred words to signify a lion, two hun- 
 dred to denote a serpent^ and a thousand expressions, or names, for a 
 sword. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) American savage tribes, living apart from each 
 other, used many hundred different languages. (2.) If the tribes 
 had come together in one nation, they would have had as many dif- 
 ferent names for an arrow as the Arabs have for a sword. 
 
 (3.) How would it have been if the hundred families had not separated? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) What caused different languages? (2.) With what did every 
 family meet? (3.) What became necessary ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What were invented? (2.) What else were adopted? (3.) What 
 took place ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What often occurred ? (2.) What then took place ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What is said of the Arabian nation? (2.) What words are in 
 the Arabic language ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Wha' -'s said of American tribes? (2.) What is said regarding 
 these tribes ?
 
 Early Religion of Mankind. 75 
 
 XVIII. — tl.) The earliest individuals and communities learned 
 to explain by vocal language whatever they thought about things 
 seen and unseen. (2.) They invented expressions to describe love, 
 hatred, cold, sleep, and death, and other images of the mind. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) They became accustomed to express the sentiment 
 of veneration or worship. (2.) They used a word given by the 
 first father to denote an Invisible Being who had created the world. 
 (^3.) They described the powers and qualities of this Being by other 
 vocal sounds, signifying Highest, Holy, Lord, Master, and God. 
 
 XX. — (1.) All human language had its origin in the first sounds 
 made by the human tongue. (2.) During the emigrations, wander- 
 ings, and settlements of our race, words and forms of speech con- 
 tinually multiplied. (3.) Their modifications and changes now 
 express all shades of thought and capacities of feeling. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 EARLY RELIGION OF MANKIND. 
 
 I. — (1.) Under the instruction of patriarchal Misdom, the 
 earliest human language was used tc express each individual's 
 devotion to his Creator, through praise and prayer. (2.) The 
 direct continuation of the patriarchal system preserved in a single 
 line of families the knowledge and adoration of One Supreme 
 God. 
 
 II. — (1.) After the first emigrations from a patriarchal coniiuu- 
 
 XVin. — (1.) What did the earliest individuals learn to explain ? (2.) Wliat 
 did they invent '? 
 
 XIX {!.) What did they become accustomed to express? (2.) What 
 
 word did they use ? (3.) What else did they describe? 
 
 XX. — (1.) In what did human language have its origin? (2,) How did it 
 grow? (3.) What is said regarding words and forms of speech? 
 
 I.— (1.) For what was huir.iu language at first used? (2.) What did the 
 patriarchal system preserve ? 
 
 II. — (1.) What occuried after the arst emigrations of mankind ?
 
 j6 History of Governments. 
 
 nity, mankind soon dispersed in various climes, and wandered under 
 different leaders. (2.) The early knowledge of unseen truths was 
 lost by most of the nomadic tribes. (3.) The greater portion of 
 all human individuals forgot the origin of their race. 
 
 in, — (1.) The vocal words, or sounds, adopted to signify a 
 Supreme Being, remained still in use among different tribes. (2.) 
 They became mingled with other expressions that obscured or 
 contradicted their meaning. 
 
 IV. — (1.) These other expressions were first used by their 
 framers to explain the powers and excellences of God. (2.) In 
 •course of time, their real meaning was covered over with human 
 notions and fancies. 
 
 V. — (1.) The earliest individuals had given a name to the sun, 
 to denote its cheering light and warmth. (2.) They had given 
 other names to the moon and stars, to signify their beauty and use- 
 fulness in the night. (3.) They had bestowed another name on the 
 earth, to describe its fruitful ness. 
 
 VI. — (l.j After the dispersion of mankind, in their wanderings, 
 different families adopted different names to denote influences and 
 appearances of sun, moon, and stars. (2.) Those names were 
 afterward confused with each other. (3.) They also became con- 
 founded with words that described the Supreme Being. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When expressions grew thus confused, men endea- 
 vored to explain their meaning in various ways. (2.) Some persons 
 said that many superior beings were described by words which, in 
 realitv, only alluded to qualities or influences of one Supreme 
 
 Being. 
 
 (2.) What early knowledge was lost? (3.) What was forgotten ? 
 
 m.— (1.) What remained in use ? (2.) What is said of these ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) For what had these expressions been originally used? (2.) What 
 took place in course of time ' 
 
 v.— (1.) What had the earliest individuals done ? (2.) What else had they 
 done? (3 ) What else? 
 
 VI. (1.) What occurred after the dispersion of families? (2.) What 
 
 happened to those names? (3 ) How were they otherwise confounded ? 
 
 VIL— (1.) What WHS then sought' (2 ) What did some say ?
 
 Early Religion of Mankind. 77 
 
 VIII. — (1.) These persons tried to account for the heavenly 
 bodies, by imagining that they were under the care of angels or 
 inferior gods. (2.) They said that one Supreme Being had 
 appointed several watchers or guardians of the world. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Ignorant individuals and families were induced to pay 
 veneration to the spirits or gods of the sun, moon, and stars. (2) 
 They prayed to them to obtain blessings for mankind from the 
 Sujjreme Ruler. (3.) They carved images of the sun, moon, and 
 stars on stones to remind each other of the gods that were said to 
 live in those heavenly bodies. 
 
 X.— (1.) As time passed, persons began to think of other infla- 
 ences of the planets. (2.) They then fancied new spirits or 
 invisible gods having charge of those influences. 
 
 XI.— (1.) When the sun parched the earth with its beams, 
 or lightning consumed animals and trees, some persons said that 
 the god of heat was angry. (2.) They pretended to regard 
 fire, lightning, and thunder as so many gods, with power to harm 
 them. 
 
 XII. — (1.) There were always such individuals, continually 
 trying to account for everything they could not understand by 
 fancying some s[)irit or god to be concealed behind it. (2.) Those 
 individuals were looked upon by ignorant people as wiser than the 
 rest. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) They tried to explain the wind to be under charge 
 of an invisible god. (2.) They said that water was governed by 
 another unseen deity. (3 ) They declared that woods were filled 
 
 VIII. — (1.) How did tliey try to account for Iieaveiily bodie;*? (2.) What 
 did they say ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What were ignorant people led to do ? (2.) For what did they 
 pray ? (3.) What else did they do ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What occurred as time passed? (2.) What did they then fancy ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What did some persons say V (2.) What did these persons pre- 
 tend to do? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What is said concerning such individuals? (2.) How were 
 those individuals regarded ? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) What did they try to explain? (2.) What did they say about 
 water ? (3.) What about woods ?
 
 78 History of Governments. 
 
 with spirits. (4.) They gave names to hundreds of imaginarj 
 beiog-5, and taught that all were to be revered as gods. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The separation of fanjiiies helped to multiply ideas 
 about these- false gods in the same way that names of visible objects 
 were multiplied. (2.) Every tribe contained persons who tried to 
 explain unknown things by their own fancies. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Another early practice assisted to spread false reli- 
 gion. (2.) This practice was the use of symbols, or written 
 language. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When human individuals lived together, they made 
 themselves mutually understood by their vocal sounds, or speech. 
 (2.) When they separated, and still wished to communicate with 
 each other, they were obliged to invent a new method. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) This method was at first rude and simple, to carry 
 out the purpose of its users. (2.) A person communicated the idea 
 of a tree, by carving or marking the^^w-re of a tree. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) If a tree was to be cut down, the figures of a tree 
 and an axe were marked. (2.) When hunting was to be described, 
 a bow and arrov.s and some animal were marked, and fishing was 
 expressed by a net and fishes. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) When powers or qualities of the Supreme Being 
 were to be denoted, the figures, or symbols, were various. (2.) The 
 superintendence of God was described by the picture of a star, or 
 a dog, because the stars shine at night, and the dog is a watchful 
 animal. (3.) To denote the superiority of God, a lion was painted, 
 
 (4.) "Wliat else did they do ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What is said of the separation of families? (2.) What did 
 everv tribe contain ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What is said of another early practice? (2.) What was this? 
 
 XVI (1.) What would be done by farailies living together? (2.) What 
 
 was necessary when they separated? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) What is said of this method? (2.) What did a person do? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What denoted cutting down a tree? (2.) How were hunting 
 and fishing described? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What is said concerning the Supreme Being? (2.) What 
 described the superintendence of God ' (3.) What denoted His superiority?
 
 Early Religion of Mankind. ^9 
 
 because a lion is the most powerful of beasts. (4.) To deuoie the 
 control of God over waters, a fish and star were pictured. (5.) To 
 denote Divine wisdom, a serpent was marked. (6.) Those figures were 
 all marked with another figure that expressed the name of a Supreme 
 Being ; this was generally a circle, because a circle has no begin- 
 ning or end. 
 
 XX. — (1.) These symbols were carved or marked on wood and 
 stones, with representations of sun, moon, lightning, fire, and what- 
 ever other objects the people chose to make. (2.) All such 
 objects were intended to signify powers and qualities of a Supreme 
 Euler. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) In course of time, the figures of images, marked on 
 stones or altars, were confounded with foolish ideas of gods and 
 spirits. (2.) Ignorant people forgot that those figures only 
 signified powers and qualities of One God. (3.) They began to 
 regard each figure, as the picture, or likeness, of some good or evil 
 spirit. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Another form of idolatry grew up from the re- 
 spect which men felt for brave hunters, warriors, or patriarchs. 
 (2.) Many persons said that when such distinguished men died, 
 they were placed in the stars, and made assistants of the gods. 
 (3.) Some were supposed to have charge of tribes and villages of 
 people. (4.) The ignorant raised altars to those departed heroes. 
 (5.) Skillful carvers made images of them, and the people oflfered 
 up prayers to such images. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Figures of dogs, oxen, lizards, snakes, monkeys, 
 
 (4.) How was His control over waters described? (5.) What described Diviue 
 wisdom? (6.) What usually described the Supreme Being's name? 
 
 VY. — (1.) What is said of these symbols ? (2.) What were they all intended 
 to signify ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What occurred in course of time ? (2.) W^hat was forgotten? 
 (3.) How was every figure regarded? 
 
 XXII.— (1.) From what did ano-,her form of idolatry grow up? (2.) What 
 was said of these? (3.) W^hat was supposed regarding some? (4.) What 
 did the ignorant people do ? (5.) What else was done ? 
 
 XXin. — (1.) How did various figures come at length to be considered?
 
 So History of Governments, 
 
 and other animals, and al?o images of human beings, came to be reve- 
 renced as likenesses of gods. (2.) They were placed upon altars 
 to receive sacrifices from the people. (3.) In this manner, some 
 form of idolatry, or the worship of false gods, grew to be the reli- 
 gion of nearly every tribe. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Wheresoever any tribe wandered, individual 
 members of it carried the images of their false gods, and set u\) 
 altars for worship. (2 ) Every sort of foolish and wicked idolatry 
 was thus increased, till all but one nation abandoned the true wor- 
 ship of One God. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) This single nation consisted of patriarchal families-, 
 whose history is recorded in the Bible. (2.) Idolatry became the 
 custom of all other communities, whether democratic, patriarchal, 
 nomadic, or settled. (3.) Idols were attended, and false doctrines 
 taught to the people, by numbers of individuals called wise men, or 
 priests. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) These priests, in the first place, were persons desu 
 ous of devoting themselves to objects of reverence. (2.) For this 
 purpose, they made their dwelling-places near the altars or images 
 of stone and wood. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) The common people gathered around such per- 
 sons, for instruction and counsel. (2.) People learned to look upou 
 them as teachers and ministers of religion. (3.) They were allowed 
 to set themselves apart from all other men, and were considered to 
 be chosen ministers of the god whose image they attended. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) Many priests were willing to take advantage 
 of respect paid them by the people. (2.) Some claimed venera- 
 
 i2.) What was done with them ? (3.) What was the result of all this ? 
 
 XXTV. — (1.) What is said of tribes? (2.) What was the consequence? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What single nation remained constant to the true religion? 
 (2.) What is said of idolatry ? (3.) How were these idols attended? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What were these priests at first ? (2.) What did ilicy do? 
 
 XXVn. — (1.) What did the connnon people do? (2.) How diu people learn 
 to regard them ? (3.) What were they allowed to do? 
 
 XXVUI.— (1.) What werf many priests ready to do? (2.) What did some
 
 The Origin of Nations. 8l 
 
 tion on account of superior goodness and power. (.3.) Othersdeclared 
 themselves specially appointed to explain the will of their gods. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) Priests pretended to hold communication with 
 invisible powers, and to speak for them to the people. (2.) They 
 regulated the manner in which images should be worshipped, and 
 the kind of offering recpiired. (3.) Offerings of fruits, bread, meat 
 and wine were brought to the priests, for sacrifice. (4.) Gifts of 
 gold, jewels, and costly goods, were made to every altar or image. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) The priists were thus supported by the people, 
 and looked upon as friends and confidants of the gods. (2.) A 
 class of men so set apart, and favored, increased constantly in num- 
 bers, and acquired a great influence in every community. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The earliest record of human history is preserved in the 
 book called Genesis, in the Holy Bible. (2.) By this we learn that 
 the first dwellers on earth were drowned by a great flood, in punish- 
 ment of their wickedness. 
 
 II. — (1.) One family only was saved from the general destructioD. 
 (2.) This was the family of Noah, who escaped in an ark, or ship 
 that he had built by command of God. 
 
 III. — (1.) Noah had three sons, whose names were Shem, Ham, 
 
 claim ? (3.) What did others declare themselves appointed to do? 
 
 XXTX — (.1.) To what did these pretend? (2.) What did they regulate ? 
 (3.) What were brought to the priests? (4.) What gifts were made? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) How were priests supported and regarded? (2.) What is said 
 concerning the class of priests? 
 
 L — (1.) Where is the earliest record of human history? (i.) ^Tiat do we 
 learn by this ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What was saved? (2.) Whose family was thia? 
 
 m. — (1.) What were the names of tho patriarch IToah's eons? 
 
 4*
 
 82 History of Governments. 
 
 and Japhet. (2.) From tbe5;e three, the nations of ancient times 
 descended. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Several sons and grandsons of Japhet, the eldest of 
 Noah's sons, became leaders of their families in various emigrations. 
 (2.) These families increased into many tribes, and founded differ 
 ent nations in Europe. 
 
 V. — (1.) One of Shem's sons was named Ashur, who became 
 leader of an emigration which settled the plains of Soutnern Asia. 
 (2.) He is supposed to have founded the nation called Assyrians. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The sons of Ham dispersed to different parts of the 
 earth, and founded many nations of Asia and Africa, (2.) One of 
 these sous was Mizraira, who settled Egypt, and another was Canaan, 
 who settled the land of Canaan. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Abram, the father of two great nations, was de- 
 scended from Shem. (2.) He was a believer in the true God, whilst 
 other families and tribes in his time were idolaters. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Abram's first son was called Ishmael, who founded 
 the Ishmaelitish tribe. (2.) This tribe branched out into many 
 nomadic nations, afterward known as the Arabians. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Abram's second sou was called Isaac, the father of 
 Jacob the Patriarch. (2.) Jacob emigrated into Egypt with twelve 
 sons, and founded the Hebrew people. 
 
 (2.) Who are descendants of these three sons of Noah ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of Japhet's sons and grandsons? (2.) What is said 
 of their famihes? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of Ashur? (2.) What nation is he supposed to have 
 founded ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did the sous of Ham do? (2.) What two sons of Ham are 
 mentioned? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What descendant of Shem is here noticed? (2.) What was 
 Abram's religion ? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) Who was Aoram's first son ? (2.) What is said of Ishmacl's 
 tribe ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) Who was Abram's second son? (2.) Where di J Jacob go?
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 HIERARCHAL AUTHORITY, 
 
 I. — (1.) When a number of human individuals, or tribes, con- 
 tinued in settled life, their priests or religious teachers often became 
 a ruling class, (2.) When this was the case, they made regulations 
 to govern the people. 
 
 II. — (1.) Sometimes they selected one of their own number to be 
 chief ruler, uuderthe name of king or high-priest. (2.) At other times 
 they appointed some distinguished soldier of the nation as chief, 
 and made laws to regulate his conduct. 
 
 III. — (I.) Many powerful nations in ancient times were governed 
 in this manner, by a priestly class. (2.) The members of such a 
 class filled all the offices of state. (3.) They made laws, and were 
 the king's counsellorg. (4.) They were judges and teachers of the 
 whole community. 
 
 rV. — (1.) When a priesthood appointed the king, and made 
 laws, the form of government was known as a hierurchy. (2.) A 
 hierarchy means a body or band of religious chiefs. (3.) They 
 could exercise their influence either through monarchies or aristo- 
 cracies. 
 
 V. — (1.) A hierarchy represented the supreme power of one or 
 more gods. (2.) the form of hierarchy which governed the 
 Hebrews, as recorded in the Bible, was called a theocracy. (3.) The 
 Hebrew priesthood represented the commands of one Supreme God. 
 
 1.^1.) What did priests often become? (2.) What then occurred ? 
 
 n.— (1.) What did they soiiiL"tiiiii.s do? (2.) What did they do at otlier 
 iimes? 
 
 in. — (1.) What is said about a priestly class? (2.) What did itd membera 
 do? (3.) What else? (4.) What were they, in the community ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What was the form of government called ? (2 ) What is meant by 
 a hierarchy? (3.) What could they do? 
 
 V. — (1.^ What did a hierarchy represent ? (2.) What form of hierarchy 
 governed the Hebrews? (.3.) What did the Hebrew prieethood represent? 
 
 S3
 
 84 History of Governments. 
 
 VI. — (1). When the first parent exercised patriarchal authority 
 over his descendants, he was also reverenced as their religious 
 instructor or priest. (2.) He taught the members of his household 
 that they were protected by one God v/ho had created their father 
 and mother after his own image. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The patriarch summoned his family at morning and 
 evening, to impress upon them their duties toward the Supreme 
 Being. (2.) He prayed aloud, and oflfered sacrifices in their pre- 
 sence. (3.) He implored the blessing of God upon each and all iu 
 proper undertakings, 
 
 VIII. — (1.) A patriarch was the mouthpiece of communication 
 between his family and their creator. (2.) He held the relation of 
 priest, or interpreter of religious knowledge to his children. 
 
 IX. — (1.) When the patriarch Noah was saved with his family 
 from the Flood, that had drowned all other persons, he continued to 
 esercisie the patriarchal authority, and the duties of a priest. 
 (2.) Afterward, the same authority was possessed by Abraham, 
 Isaac and Jacob. (3.) The true religion, or worship of one God, 
 was thus preserved in a line of families governed by the patriarchal 
 system. 
 
 X. — (1.) Each successive head of the family was chief priest of 
 all his descendants. (2.) This form of patriarchal government con- 
 stituted a hierarchal monarchy. (3 ) It continued till the descend- 
 ants of Abraham were combined as the Hebrew nation. 
 
 VI. — (1-) How wa.s the first parent reverenced ? (2.) What did he teach ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What did the patriarch do? (2.) What further did he do? 
 (3.) What did he implore? 
 
 VUL — (1.) What position did a patriarch occupy ? (2.) What rehition did 
 he hold ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said of the patriarch Noah? (2.) By whom vrns this 
 authority afterward possessed ? (3.) What was thus preserved ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was each head of the family? (2.) What did this form ol 
 government constitute? (3.) How long did it continue ? .
 
 HIERARCHAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THEOCRACY OF THE HEBREWS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Hebrew community began in the household, or par 
 triarchal body-politic, of which Abraham was the head. (2.) 
 While Ishmael, the patriarch's first son, became a chief of the wan- 
 dering tribe of the Arabians or IshmaeUtes, the second sou, Isaac, 
 settled as a herdsman and agricnlturist, 
 
 II. — (1.) Isaac's son, Jacob, left the land of the Canaanites, 
 where Abraham had lived, and went down with his family of seventy 
 persons, into Egypt. (2.) They made a settlement, and each of 
 Jacob's twelve suns founded a distinct line of descendants. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Hebrews suffered much oppressive treatment from 
 the Egyptians during several hundred years. (2.) They were after- 
 ward led out of Egypt by Moses, one of their chief men, under 
 the direction of God himself. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Tlie wliole number of persons in the nation when they 
 left Egypt, was si.x hundred thousand men with their families. (2.) 
 Moses divided them into twelve tribes, eacii comprising the descend- 
 ants of one of Jacob's sons. 
 
 I. — (1.) Where did the Hebrew community begin? (2.) What is said of 
 Abraham's sons ? 
 
 IL — (1.) Where did Isaac's son Jacob go ? (2.) What was done there ? 
 
 Xn,— (1.) What did the IleVn-ows suffer? (2.) What became of tliom ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) How many individuals were led out of Egypt? (2.) How were 
 they divided?
 
 86 History of Governments, 
 
 y. — (1.) After leaving Egypt, the Hebrews lived a nomadic life, 
 wandering from place to place, with their cattle and tents, for forty 
 years. (2.) Each tribe had its camp, and a chief or headman. 
 (3.) Moses was general of the nation, and chief judge, deciding dis- 
 putes between individuals, or between different tribes. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Moses subdivided each tribe of the Hebrews int4 
 thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens. (2.) Each thousand men se- 
 lected their headman, or judge. (3.) Under the thousands, 
 were chosen rulers of hundreds ; lower still, rulers of fifties, and 
 lowest, rulers of tens. 
 
 VII. — (1.) A ruler of ten heard simple complaints, where judg 
 ment was not too difficult. (2.) More serious matters were passed 
 upon by higher rulers. (3.) Moses was respected as chief judge, 
 and was considered to stand between the nation and God himself. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) When the Hebrews went out to battle, a military 
 leader was appointed, to command the fighting men of each tribe. 
 (2.) Moses selected a chief captain over the whole army. (3.) God 
 himself was always thought to be the real leader of the Hebrews, 
 and their general was supposed to be directed by heaven. 
 
 IX. — (1.) This mode of government continued while the Hebrew 
 tribes journeyed through wildernesses in a nomadic state. (2.) 
 The fighting men of the nation made war on other nations which 
 they encountered. (3.) They conquered and took possession of a 
 great part of the country occupied by Canaanites. 
 
 X. — (1.) They divided this country among the tribes, each tak- 
 
 V. — (1.) What then occurred to them? (2.) What did each tribe have? 
 (3.) What was the position of Moses? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How did Moses subdivide the tribes? (2.) What did each thou- 
 sand do ? (3.) What were then chosen ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What is said of a ruler often? (2.) How were more serious 
 matters determined? (3.) What is said of Moses? 
 
 Vin — (1.) What took place when the Hebrews went to battle ? (2.) What 
 did Moses do ? (3.) Who was thought to be the real leader of the Hebrews? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How long did this mode of government last? (2.) What did the 
 fighting men do? (3.) Of what did they take possession? 
 
 X. — (1.) How did they divide the ooutitry of the Caiiaanite people?
 
 Theocracy of the Hebrews. 87 
 
 ing a larger or a smaller portion, according to the number of Its 
 families. (2.) Every tribe then allotted its particular laud among 
 its own families. 
 
 XI. — (1.) There were about 600,000 families in the nation, and 
 the land was divided so as to secure a farm of about twenty-five 
 acres to each family. (2.) The owner of such a farm was allowed 
 to lease, but forbidden to sell, his land. 
 
 XII. — (1.) While the Hebrews resided in Egypt, every father, or 
 other head of a family, acted as the priest of his household. (2.) 
 He offered up such prayers and sacrifices as he considered accept- 
 able to God. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) After the tribes departed from Egypt, God com- 
 manded Moses, their leader, to appoint one high-priest for the whole 
 nation. (2.) The first priest appointed was a brother of Moses, 
 named Aaron. 
 
 XIV. — The office and authority of the high-priest were made 
 hereditary, or descending from father to son. (2.) It was ordained 
 that no one should succeed Aaron, as high-priest, unless he belonged 
 to Aaron's family. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Forty-eight cities were allotted to the twelve tribes 
 in the country of Canaan. (2.) Each tribe was represented in the 
 nation by an elder, or chief man. (3.) The people in every city 
 selected seven magistrates, to decide their differences. 
 
 XVI. — {I.) The family of the high-priest belonged to a small 
 
 (2.) What was done by each tribe with the land allotted to it? 
 
 XI. — (.1.) What is said of the division of land? (2.) What was the owner 
 permitted and forbidden ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) Who acted as priests among the Hebrews in Egypt ? (2.) What 
 did he do ? 
 
 XIII. — (1 ) What was afterward commanded? (2.) Who was first ap- 
 pointed ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What is said of the office of high-priest? (2.) What was or- 
 dained ? ♦ 
 
 XV.— (1.) What is said about cities? (2.) How was each tribe represented 
 in the nation? (3.) What did tlie people of each city select? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) To what chosen tribe was the high-priest oblieed to belonff?
 
 68 History of Governments. 
 
 tribe, descended from Levi, called Levites. (2.) The Levites wert 
 set apart as a holy, or sacerdotal tribe, to furnish the high-priesta 
 with assistants, in the service of God, and to supply teachers for 
 the people. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Levites were not allowed to live in cities apart 
 from other Hebrews, but were scattered through all the cities and 
 districts of the commonwealth. (2.) Every magistrate was re- 
 quired to associate with himself two Levites, called scribes. (3.) 
 These scribes acted as councillors, and explained the lav/s that gov- 
 erned the nation. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Those laws were considered to have come directly 
 from God, through Moses, the first chief of the nation. (2.) They 
 could only be administered by the high-priest, and his subordinates, 
 the Levites. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) During its earliest settlement in the country of Canaan, 
 the Hebrew nation was a theocratic aristocracy. (2.) The high- 
 priest was its head, as a representative of God's government. 
 (3.) The tribes selected their own headmen, and appointed their 
 own local magistrates. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The high-priest resided in the chief city of the com- 
 monwealth. (2.) The tribes sent their elders to that city, to act 
 in connection with a number of Levites selected by the high-priest, 
 as a national senate. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The high-priest and senate composed a chief gov- 
 erning body. (2.) This body decided disputes that could not be 
 settled in the tribes and cities. (3.) It had power to make peace 
 or call the tribes to war on permission of the high-priest. 
 
 (2.) What is said concerning this particular tribe of Levites ? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) Where did the Levites live? (2.) What was every magistrate 
 required to do? (3.) How did the scribes act? 
 
 XVin.— (1 ) What is said of those laws? (2.) Who administered the 
 
 laws? * 
 
 XIX.— (1.) When was the Hebrew nation an aristocracy ? (2 ) Who was a1 
 its bead ? (,3.) What part did the tribes have%i the government ? 
 
 XX.— (1.) Where did the high-priest reside ? (2 ) What did the tribes do ? 
 
 XXI.— (1.) How was the chief governing body composed ? (,2.) What ju 
 risdiction did it possess ? (3.) What pow )r did it have ?
 
 Theocracy of the Hebrews. 89 
 
 XXII. — (1.) God was always reverenced as the supreme poli- 
 ical head of the nation. (2.) The senate was considered to speak 
 the will of heaven, made known through the high-priest. (3.) All 
 political and civil regulations were made in agreement with Leviti- 
 cal or sacred law. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The Levitical law directed the Hebrew people to 
 vi.sit tlieir chief city three times a year. (2.) Once in seven years 
 there waa a great festival held there, called the Feast of Taberna- 
 cles. (3.) When assembled at this feast, the Hebrews lived in 
 tabernacles, or tents, 
 
 XXrV. — (1.) The sacred laws were read and explained to the 
 Hebrews, by their high-priest, at the Feast of Tents. (2.) Men, 
 women and servants were commanded to remember these laws and 
 obey them strictly. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) The Levitical laws were also taught by appointed 
 persons, in every city, to all the children. (2.) They were thought 
 to be the first and best knowledge for youth to possess. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) 0)1 one day in seven, Levitical teachers called the 
 Hebrews together in cities, towns, and other communities. (2.) This 
 day was devoted to prayers and public insiruclion, and became 
 known as the Sabbath day. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) All sacred festivals were required to be held in 
 the chief city. (2.) It was forbidden to offer sacrifice to God in 
 any place except the temple in tlie cliief city. (3.) The whole peo- 
 
 XXn. — (1.) How was God regarded by tlie Hebrew nation ? (2 ) How wa« 
 the senate considered? (o.) What is said of all regulations'? 
 
 XXIII.— (1.) What was directed by this law? (2.) What occur'-od once 
 in seven years? (:3.) What did the people live in, during this Feast ? 
 
 XXIV. — (.1.) How were the Hebrew laws explained? (2 ) What was om- 
 mauded ? 
 
 XXV. — (.1.) How were the laws taught? (2.) What were they thought 
 to be? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What is said of one day in seven? (2.) To what was this daj 
 devoted, and what was it called? 
 
 XXVn.— (1.) Where were sacred festivals held? (2.) What was for 
 bidden? (o.) What national characteristics did the people possess?
 
 90 History of Governments. 
 
 pie possessed one central city, or capital, one high-priest, and one 
 temple. (4.) The twelve independent tribes were held thus together, 
 as one nation. (5.) Religious laws and a common worship of God 
 constituted their bond of union. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) The Hebrew theocracy, at this period, combined 
 two forms of government. (2.) These were the hkrarchal, or priestly^ 
 authority, and an aristocratic form of popular power. (3.) The 
 twelve tribes constituted a confederacy, under one military leader and 
 one religious head. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The united tribes continued to choose a chief, or 
 general, in time of war. (2.) In peace, they were governed by 
 their high-priest and senate. (3.) The generals were sometimes 
 made chief judges, or principal magistrates, on account of their 
 services to the nation. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) Judges continued to be chosen till the time of 
 Samuel. (2. ) Samuel desired to make the oflSce hereditary, like that 
 of the high-priest. (3.) He divided the commonwealth into two 
 districts, each to bo governed by one of his sous. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The sons of Samuel were corrupt in ofifice, and 
 sold their judgments for bribes. (2.) The tribes became dissatisfied, 
 and demanded a king to rule over the nation. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) Samuel was not in favor of monarchical govern- 
 ment for the Hebrews. (2.) He thought the commonwealth would 
 be stronger and healthier as a theocratic aristocracy. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1 ) Samuel asked advice of God, and was com- 
 
 (4.) How were the twelve tribes united? (5.) What was the uniting 
 bond? 
 
 XSVm.— (1.) What is said of the theocracy at this period? (2.) What 
 were those forms? (3.) What did the twelve tribes constitute? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What did the tribes continue to do? (2.) How were they 
 governed in time of peace ? (.3.) What were the generals sometimes made ? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) How long did judges continue to be chosen? (2.) What did 
 Samuel desire ? (3.) What divisions did he make ? 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) What is said of Samuel's sons? (2) What was the conse- 
 quence ? 
 
 XXXn.— (1.) Of what was Samuel not in favor? (2.) What did he think ♦ 
 
 XXX III. — (1.) What course did Samuel pursue, and what followed?
 
 Theocracy of the Hebrews. 91 
 
 manded to tell his countrymea that they would suflfer greatly under 
 kings. (2.) He was directed, at the same time, to comply with the 
 wish of the tribes. 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) He called a meeting of seventy elders of the 
 people, and introduced to them a young Hebrew named Saul. 
 (2.) This young man belonged to a poor family of the tribe of 
 Benjamin. 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) Samuel directed the twelve tribes to cast lots, to 
 decide from which tribe the ruler should be chosen. (2.) The lots 
 were drawn, and the tribe of Benjamin gained the choice. (3.) Al! 
 the families belonging to the tribe of Benjamin then cast lots, to 
 decide from which family the king must be taken. (4.) The lot fell 
 upon a family called the Matri family. (5.) All the male members 
 of this Matri family then cast lots, to decide which of them should 
 be king of Israel. (6 ) The lot fell upon tjie young Hebrew Saul, 
 who had previously been named by Samuel, under direction of 
 God. 
 
 XXXVI.— (1 •) Samuel gave up his own authority, as judge, 
 into the hands of Saul. (2.) The high-priest and senate acknow- 
 ledged Saul as military chief of the people. (3.) Saul became the 
 first king of the Hebrews, and ruled as judge and commander till 
 he was killed in battle. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) At SauFs death, another Hebrew chief named 
 David, belonging to the tribe of Jesse, was set up by that tribe, as 
 king. (2.) Saul's son was afterward killed, and all the tribes ac- 
 knowledg-ed David as monarch. 
 
 (2.) What further direction did this prophet receive from God? 
 
 XXXrV.— (1.) What did Samuel then do? ('2.) What is said of this young 
 man? 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) What did Samuel direct the tribes to do? (i.) What tribe 
 gained the choice ? (3.) What was tlien done? (4.) What i'amily was suc- 
 cessful? (5.) Who ne.xt cast lots? (tJ.) On whom did the lot fall? 
 
 XXXVI.— (1.) What did Samuel then do? (2.) What was done by the 
 high-priest and senate ? (3.) What did Saul become ? 
 
 XXXVn.— ;1.) What took place at Saul's death? (2.) What was the cou- 
 sequence ?
 
 c>2 History of Governments. 
 
 XXXVIIL— (1.) David made Jerusalem his chief city, and 
 called it the city of David. (2.) The high-priest resided in that 
 city, and the national senate met there on important occasions. 
 
 XXXIX. (I.) King David caused the Hebrew people to be 
 
 numbered and divided into three classes. (2.) The first class com- 
 prised Levites, the second citizens, the third strangers. (3.) From 
 the class of strangers, servants and laborers were taken to perform 
 work tor tiie Hebrews. 
 
 XL. — (1.) Six thousand Levites were selected to be judges and 
 scribes. (2.) The remaining members of the Levitical tribe were 
 appointed to act as assistants of the high-priest, and teachers of the 
 people. 
 
 XLI. — (1.) The army of the tribes was organized in twelve 
 divisions, and a captain was set over each. (2.) The principal men 
 of the Hebrews were selected to be rulers over cities and villages, 
 collectors of revenue, and other officers. 
 
 XLII. — (1.) Solomon, the son of David, made alliances with 
 many powerful kingdoms. (2.) David and Solomon extended their 
 ov»u territories by making war on neighboring nations. (3.) The 
 simplicity of the commonwealth gave way to luxury and pride. 
 (4.) Captives taken in war were reduced to servitude. (5,; Subject 
 nations were made to pay tribute, or were cruelly treated. 
 
 XIjIII. — (1 ) When Solomon died, a civil war broke out, and 
 the nation was split into two kingdoms. (2.) Two tribes continued 
 
 XXXVm.— (1.) What did David do? (2.) Wliat is said of that city? 
 
 ygVTy . — (1.) What was done with the Hebrew people ? (2.) What did 
 each of the three classes comprise? (3 ) What were taken from the class of 
 strangers ? 
 
 XIj. — (1.) Who were made judges and scribes? (2.) What became of the 
 remaining Levites? 
 
 XLI.— (1.) How was the army organized? (2.) What is said of principal 
 3ien? 
 
 XLIL— (1.) What did Solomon do? (2.) How were the Hebrew territoriea 
 3xtended? (3.) What was the consequence ? (4.) What was done with cap- 
 tives? (5.) How were subject nations treated? 
 
 V T.TTT — (1 ) What took place when Solomon died? (2.) What is said of 
 :,wo tribes ?
 
 Theocracy of the Hebrews. 
 
 93 
 
 to be governed l)y Solomon's descendants. (S.) The other ten 
 tribes chose another king. (4.) The Hebrew people tlien formed 
 two separate theocratic states. (5.) The two tribes became known 
 as the kingdom of Judah, and the ten tribes composed the king- 
 dom of Israel. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) The kingdom of Israel continued to exist as a 
 theocratic monarchy under the reigns of nineteen monarchs. (2.) It 
 was at iast conquered by the Assyrians, and its ten tribes were 
 carried as captives beyond the borders of Syria. (3.) The kingdom 
 of Judah remained a theocracy under the rule of twenty monarchs. 
 (4 ) It was at last overwhelmed by enemies, and its two tribes car- 
 ried into captivity by the Assyrians. 
 
 XLV. — (1.) A Hebrew theocracy existed, whenever the people, 
 as a nation, obeyed the Levitical or sacred law. (2.) Under thi.s 
 law, the high-priest and senate directed either the kingly or aristo- 
 cratic government. (3.) When wicked kings were allowed to usurp 
 power, the sacred laws and commands of God were disregarded. 
 (4.) God then permitted the nation to become weak and distracted 
 through foreign wars and domestic disorder. 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) AVhen the kingdom of Judah was overthrown by 
 the Assyrians, the principal Hebrews were carried away captive 
 to Babylon, with their families. (2.) There they remained scat- 
 tered, during seventy years. (3.) They were then released, and 
 allowed to rebuild their city atid temple. 
 
 XIjVII. — (1.) After the captivity, public affairs were conducted 
 
 (3.) What of the other ten ? (4.) What did the Hebrews then form ? (.5.) How 
 were the separate states known ? 
 
 XLiTV — (1.) How long did the theocratic monarchy of I.srael iast? (2.) 
 What tooif place at last? (3.) How long did the theocracy of Judah exist? 
 (4.) How was it ended ? 
 
 XLV. — (1.) What is said of Hebrew theocracy ? {•!.) What body directed 
 government under this law? (3.) What took place under wicked kings? 
 (4.) What did God then permit? 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) What occurred when the kingdom of Judah was overthrown ? 
 (2.) How long did these families remain in captivity ? (3.) What then became 
 of them ? 
 
 XLVn.— (1.) How were the Hebrews governed after their return from
 
 94 History ot Goverhments. 
 
 by a succession of high-priests, assisted by military governors, nntil 
 the death of Hyrcanus, the last of tlie priestliood. (2.) The real 
 theocracy ended with Hyrcanus, and all power fell into the hands 
 of rival chiefs, who contended against each other. (3.) Some of 
 these styled themselves kings, and others priests, but most of them 
 were oppressors of the nation. (4.) At last all political power 
 passed away from the Hebrews, and their country became a pro- 
 vince of the Roman empire. 
 
 XLiVIII. — (1.) The Hebrews were driven away by foreigners 
 from their own territory. (2.) They became a scattered people, 
 and so remain at the present day. (3.) They still regard the 
 Levitical laws as their rehgious rule, but submit to the civil govern- 
 ment and laws of any country in which they live. 
 
 XIjIX. — (1.) The history of Hebrew theocracy shows how a 
 nation prospered when obedient to the laws of God. (2.) The 
 troubles and final dispersion of the nation resulted from the wicked- 
 ness of rulers and strifes among the people. 
 
 captivity? (2.) When did the real theocracy end, and what government 
 succeeded? (3.) What is said of these rulers? (4.) What was the fate of 
 Judah ? 
 
 XLVm — (1.) What became of the Hebrews? (2.) What befell their? 
 (3.) How are they now governed ? 
 
 XLIX. — (1.) What does Hebrew history show? (2.) What is remarked 
 concerning the nation ?
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ETHIOPIAN HIERARCHY. 
 
 I, — (1.) The ancient people known as Ethiopians, inhabited 
 plains and mountains of Africa, above the land of Egypt. (2.) 
 They were divided into fighting tribes, pastoral tribes, hunting tribes, 
 and people dwelling in towns. 
 
 II. — (1.) The nation of Nubians lived nearest to the Egyptians, 
 and possessed a religion resembling theirs. (2.) They were a 
 settled people under dominion of the Egyptians. (3.) The civilized 
 Ethiopians dwelt above the Nubians, on banks and islands of the 
 Nile. (4.) They inhabited cities and towns, and were governed by 
 a king and queen. (5.) They were divided into priests, merchants, 
 farmers, artisans, and slaves. 
 
 III. — (1.) The civilized Ethiopians were known as the people 
 of Meroe. (2.) Their chief city was the head-quarters of traffic 
 with Arabians and wild tribes of Africa. (3.) Their merchants 
 travelled into the deserts and mountains to trade with savage 
 nations. (4.) Caravans of Arabs and other roving people visited 
 the markets of Meroe to sell their goods, animals, and slaves. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The government of Meroe was hierarchal. (2.) 
 The priesthood formed a ruling tribe, and selected from their own 
 members the king. (3.) They pretended to do this under direction 
 
 I.— (1.) Where did the ancient Ethiopians live? (2.) How were they 
 divided? 
 
 II.— (1.) What is said of the Nubians? (2.) Under what government did 
 they hve y (3.) Who dwelt above the Nubians ? (4.) What is said of them ? 
 (5.) How were they divided? 
 
 m.— (1.) How were the civiUzed Ethiopians known? (2.) What was their 
 chief city? (3.) What did their merchants do ? (4.) What strangers visited 
 Meroe ? 
 
 IV — (1.) What form of government had Meroe? (2.) What did the priest 
 hood form' (3.) What did they pretend regarding the choice of king? 
 
 05
 
 96 History of Governments. 
 
 of their chief god. (4.) They asserted that the monarch stood in 
 place of a god over the people. 
 
 V. — (1.) The king was highly venerated, but his power waa 
 regulated by ancient laws made by the priests. (2.) He was not 
 allowed to reward or punish any subject without consulting the 
 chief priests. (3.) When any criminal was judged deserving of 
 death, an officer of the priests was sent to him with a command to 
 kill himself. (4.) It was considered disgraceful to disobey such a 
 command. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When the priests thought that a king had reigned 
 long enough, they sent a messenger with an order for him to die, by 
 direction of the gods. (2.) It was then the king's duty to put 
 himself to death with his own hands. 
 
 VII.— (1.) The Ethiopian state of Meroe contained a military 
 force of two hundred and fifty thousand soldiers. (2.) Its populn- 
 tion comprised a half million of merchants and artisans. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The hierarchy of Meroe extended its dominion over 
 many tribes and small nations beyond its settled limits. (2.) The 
 bonds connecting these different people were those of religion and 
 traffic. (3.) Members of different tribes came from distant places 
 to worship in the temples of Meroe. (4.) They brought productions 
 of their countries to sell in the market of the city. (5.) These tribes 
 were composed of independent families, like African tribes of the 
 present day. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Savage tribes living near the sea-shore were fisher- 
 men. (2.) Those who inhabited grassy valleys and plains were 
 
 (4.) What did the Ethiopian priests teach ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What is said of the king? (2.) What was he not allowed to do? 
 (8.) What is said of criminals ? (4.) What was considered disgraceful ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How was a king removed? (2.) What was then the king's duty? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) How largj an army had Meroe? (2.) What did its population 
 comprise ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) How was the priestly dominion extended? (2.) What bonds 
 connected all these people ? (3.) For what did members of tribes come 
 to Meroe? (4.) For what other purpose? (5.) How were those tribes 
 composed ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What were tribes near the sea-shore ? (2.) What were those on
 
 The Ethiopian Hierarchy. f^ 
 
 herdsmen. (3.) Those who roamed in the forests were hunters. 
 (4.) Those who lived near the rivers were more settled, and culti- 
 vated the earth. 
 
 X. — (1.) The military ranks of Meroe were originally Egyptian 
 soldiers. (2.) They emigrated in a large array from their own 
 country, and obtained a grant of land from the Ethiopian priest- 
 hood. (3.) They elected their own generals, but were subordinate 
 to the hierarchy of Meroe. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The priests of Meroe exercised great influence by 
 pretending that they heard the voices of their gods in the temples. 
 (2.) These pretended voices were called oracles. (3.) Colonies of 
 priests were often sent out to make settlements among distant tribes. 
 (4.) Wherever they settled they set up altars and were supported 
 by the people. 
 
 Xn.— (1.) The Ethiopian priests were at first worshippers of 
 the sun, moon and stars. (2.) They represented a star by the pic- 
 ture of a dog, to denote its watchfulness over the world. (3.) The 
 sun and moon were represented by other figures or emblems. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The first priests came from mountainous regions, 
 and were of light color. (2.) They descended to the plains and 
 valleys, where dark-complexioned tribes roved, and taught them 
 religion and trade. 
 
 XrV.— (1.) They first set up stones or altars, to denote that the 
 gods lived in high places. (2.) Superstitious people, of various 
 
 the plains? (a.) What were the forest tribes? (4.) What tribes formed 
 settled communities ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What were the soldiers of Meroe? (2.) What is said of them? 
 (3.) What did they elect? 
 
 XL— (1.) How did the priests exercise inf uence ? (2.) What were these 
 pretended voices called ? (3.) What other means did the hierarchy adopt, to 
 extend their power ? (4.) What is said of these colonies ? 
 
 xn.— (1.) What did the Ethiopian priests first worship ? (2.) How did they 
 represent a star? (S.'l How did they represent the sun and moon? 
 
 Xm.— (1.) What is said concerning the first priests? (2.) What did they 
 
 do? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What did they first set up? (2.) What did the people do? 
 
 6
 
 98 History of Governments. 
 
 tribes, came from different parts, to bring gifts to the priests. {S.) 
 Members of distant tribes grew acquainted with each other, and ex- 
 changed their presents. (4.) This was a beginning of trade or 
 commerce. (5.) As it extended, the priestly settlements grew more 
 numerous, and a town was built. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Persons who resembled the priests in color were 
 made their assistants and first favorites. (2.) Those of darker com- 
 plexion came to be regarded as inferior. (3.) Tribes of different 
 complexions were afterward placed in distinct classes. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The priests extended their authority, and combined 
 several tribes into a nation. (2.) They were able to establish hier- 
 arehal government in Meroe, Egypt and other countries. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) At the present day there exist remains of the 
 ancient hierarchy, as established in Meroe. (2.) A modern African 
 state occupies the site of the ancient one, and is governed by a high 
 pontiff, or prince-priest. (3.) Under this monarch the priests act as 
 teachers and magistrates. (4.) The tribe is engaged in commerce, 
 and its merchants travel in caravans to Arabia and through the 
 African desert. (5.) Priests travel with the caravans, and are 
 venerated by all the rude tribes. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Priests were the civilizers of many early nations. 
 (2 ) They planted colonies, which grew up to be flourishing states. 
 f3.) Meroe and Ammoneuni in Ethiopia, and Memphis, Thebes and 
 Heliopolis, in Egypt, arose from the erection of a single altar. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) In such states the greater numbers were usually 
 
 (3.) What followed this? (4.) Of what was this a beginning? (5.) What 
 
 was the effect? 
 
 XV. — (1.) Who were made the first favorites? (2.) Who were regarded as 
 inferior ? (Z.) What was the consequence of this distinction ? 
 
 XVI. — (1) What did the priests accomplish? (2.) What were they able 
 to do? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What exist at the present day ? (2.) What is said of a modern 
 state? (3.) How do the priests act in this hierarchy? (4.) How is the tribe 
 engaged ? (.5.) Who accompany the caravans ? 
 
 XVin. — (1.) What is remarked concerning priests? (2.) What did they 
 do? (3.) What flourishing cities were founded by colonies of priests? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What if said of S'loh states as are here mentioned?
 
 The Egyptian Hierarchy. 99 
 
 oppressed by the smaller class. (2.) False relig-ion made the people 
 superstitious (3.) The ruliug classes of priests and soldiers reduced 
 all working people to the condition of slaves. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE EGYPTIAN HIERARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Egypt were descendants of 
 Mizraim, one of the grandsons of Noah. (2.) They lived in huts 
 made of reeds, and were clothed with garments woven from grasses 
 of the Nile. (3.) They subsisted on fish, and fruits that grew from 
 the soil without culture. 
 
 II. — (1.) Improvement in the condition of these savage people 
 was brought about by degrees, (2.) The priests who had taught 
 the worship of planets in Ethiopia, descended to the land of Egypt. 
 (3.) They planted colonies among the people, and taught them tc 
 raise altars and dwell in villages. 
 
 III. — (1.) The different tribes of Egypt learned to till the ground, 
 to make canals, and to build houses and walls. (2.) The priests 
 divided them into classes, and gave them various occupations. (3.) 
 These occupations were such as could be followed best in the places 
 which they inhabited. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The priests, and those who came with them inU. 
 
 (2.) What was the effect of false religion? (3.) What did the ruling classes 
 do? 
 
 L — (1.) Who were tlie earliest inhabitants of Egypt? (2.) What was their 
 mode of life ? (3.) On what did they subsist? 
 
 n. — (1.) How were improvements brought about? (2.) Who came ia 
 Egypt? (3.) What did these priests do? 
 
 nL — (1.) What did the tribes learn? (2.) How were they divided by ti:e 
 priests? (8.) What were their occupations? 
 
 TV. — fl.) What did the priests and their adherents now form?
 
 lOO History of Go sernments. 
 
 Egypt, continued to form an exclusive tribe, or class, called a caste. 
 (2.) They selected the most intelligent and courageous Egyptian 
 tribes to be next to them in rank. (3.) They raised from these tribes 
 a class, or caste, of soldiers, and made them defenders of the rest. 
 
 v. — (1.) The priests and soldiers became tlie superior classes. 
 (2.) All otlier tribes were made working people. (3.) These last 
 were subdivided into cultivators, fishermen, merchants, artisans, 
 laborers and herdsmen. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When the priests became powerful, they divided the 
 whole land of Egypt into districts. (2.) They settled a cclony of 
 priests in every district, to oversee and instruct the native people, 
 (3.) Each of these priestly colonies established a temple, and made 
 the superstitious people worshippers of their gods. (4.) They pre- 
 tended that those gods were dwellers in the planets. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The original rude tribes of Egypt grew accus^tomed 
 to look upon the priests and their teachings as sacred. (2.) By 
 this means a union was brought about among tribes that were pre- 
 viously at war with each other. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) A combination, which afterward expanded into a 
 great nation, was thus made by the priesthood. (2.) Several cities 
 were built, and a numerous population settled around each of them. 
 (3.) A majority of the nation labored with their hands, whilst the 
 soldier tribe defended their cities against neighboring savages. 
 
 IX. (1.) Many savage tribes roamed in the wildernesses around 
 
 Egypt, and years elapsed before they were subdued. (2.) At length 
 
 (2.) What selection did they make? (3.) What did they raise? 
 
 v.— (1.) Who became the superior classes? (2.) What were all other 
 classes? (3.) How were the last subdivided? 
 
 VI.— (1.) How did the priests divide Egypt? (2 ) What did they settle ia 
 each district? (8.) What is said of these colonies? (4.) What did they pro- 
 tend concerning the gods ? 
 
 Vn. U-) What is said of the original tribes? (2.) What was the result 
 
 of this? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What combination was made? (2.) What followed? fS.) What 
 was the condition of the people ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What is said of savage tribes? (2.) What took place at length?
 
 The Egyptian Hierarchy. loi 
 
 the states of Egypt became strongly established, and were cousoli- 
 dated as a nation under the hierarchy. 
 
 X. — (1.) The priestly caste chose a king from the soldier tribe, 
 and placed him at the head of the nation. (2.) They associated 
 with him a high-priest, whose sons were made his attendants and 
 counsellors. (3.) The power of the king was restricted by the 
 influence of his associate priests. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The native people of Egypt at first*owiied the land 
 which they cultivated. (2.) Afterward the priests and kings ob- 
 tained possession of it by purchase. (3.) They rented it out to 
 farmers, and received an annual portion of the produce. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The priestly caste used their oracles, or divine voices, 
 as means of governing the people. (2.) They pretended that these 
 voices delivered laws from the gods. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Wherever a settlement of priests was made, a por- 
 tion of the laud was set apart as their property. (2.) They rented 
 this laud to farmers, and obtained their living from its proceeds. (3.) 
 Priests were judges, physicians, lecturers, architects, and practi- 
 tioners of all arts and sciences then known, 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Every district had its principal temple, and the 
 idols there kept were considered gods of the district. (2.) The 
 Egyptian people and strangers from abroad brought oflerings of 
 various kinds to these temples, to obtain the favor of the priest- 
 hood. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The priesthood became the highest and wealthiest 
 
 X.— (1.) What chief ruler was constituted V (2.) Who was associated with 
 the king? (3.) How was his power restricted? 
 
 XL— (1.) What is said of the land in Egypt? (2.) What afterward occurred? 
 (3.) What did the priests do with the land? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is said of the oracles? (2.) What did the priests pretend ? 
 
 XnL— (1.) What was done iu every colony of priests? (2.) What was done 
 with such land? (3.) What were the occupations of priests ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What did each district po.ssess? (2.) What were brou<;ht tc 
 these temples ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What did the priesthood of the Egyptian nation become ?
 
 102 History of Governments. 
 
 caste of the Egyptian nation. (2.) Its members filled civil offices 
 and carried on the most lucrative branches of business. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The warriors, or soldier caste of Egypt, were next ia 
 dignity. (2.) This caste was divided in two classes, under the 
 names of Hermotyhi and Calasari. (3.) The first class numbered 
 100,000, and the second 250,000 men. 
 
 XVII, — (1.) The monarchs of Egypt were always appointed 
 from the soldier.caste. (2.) The king was commander-in-chief of 
 Egyptian warriors. (3.) His power in time of peace was restricted 
 by the religions law taught by the priesthood. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The soldier caste was wealthy, owning large 
 
 landed estates, like the priestly caste. (2.) Every soldier possessed 
 twelve acres of land, which he rented to cultivators. (3.) One 
 thousand warriors from the Hermotybi, and one thousand from the 
 Calasari, were appointed every year, to be the king's bodyguard. 
 (4.; They were allowed regular rations of bread, meat and drink. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The soldier caste was not scattered through the 
 different districts of Egypt, like the priestly caste. (2.) Its mem- 
 bers lived in villages throughout a particular district, where land 
 was divided for them. (3.) They left this district of their residence 
 only in seasons of service, 
 
 XX. — (1.) The most considerable of the inferior Egyptian castes 
 was that of the trading citizens. (2.) It comprised merchants, 
 
 (2.) What is said of the members of this priesthood ? 
 
 XVL — (1.) What caste was second in Egypt? (2.) How was it divided? 
 (3.) What were its numbers? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) From what caste were Egyptian monarchs always appointed? 
 (2.) What military ranii did the king hold? (3) How was his civil power 
 restricted ? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What is said concerning the soldier caste? (2.) What did 
 each soldier possess ? (3) What constituted the king's guard? (4.) What 
 were allowed to these ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) In what respect did the priestly and warrior castes d'ifer ? 
 (?,.) Where did members of the latter reside ? (3.) When did they leave this 
 district? 
 
 XX.— n.^ What was the most respectable of the =nferior castes ? (2.) What
 
 The Eg}'ptiaa Hierarchy. 103 
 
 artists, mechanics and farmers. (3.) The sons of each individaal 
 were usually instructed to follow the occupation of thtir father. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Another Egyptian caste was composed of persons 
 known as Navigators. (2.) These were persons who dwelt on or 
 near the river Nile and the various canals intt rsecting the country. 
 (3.) They comprised the boatmen, fishermen, dyke builders, and 
 ditchers of the land. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Another caste of the Egyptians was known as that 
 of Interpreters or Brokers. (2.) These were strangers, who inter- 
 married with the natives. (8.) They instructed their children to 
 speak Egyptian and foreign tongues. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The caste of herdsmen comprehended the 
 native pastoral tribes who had charge of cattle and flocks. (2.) 
 Some of these kept their herds in fields and pastures. (3.) Others 
 were nomads, who wandered through the wilderness that bordered 
 Egypt. (4.) The swineherds were the lowest inhabitants of 
 Egypt, and consisted of a native tribe not allowed to enter towns 
 or temples. 
 
 XXIV. (1.) The priests possessed all sacred and historical 
 
 writings of the Egyptians. (2.) They explained the laws and 
 ordained religious ceremonies. (3.) Their laws imposed strict rules 
 of life upon the kings. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) The king's daily duties of all kinds were fixed 
 by law. (2.) Certain hours were specified for his sacrifices, his 
 meals, his amusements, his studies, and his sleep. (3.) He was 
 
 did this caste comprise ? (3.) What is said of the sons of individuals ? 
 
 XXI.— (1.) What composed another caste? (2.) Who were these? (3., 
 What did they comprise? 
 
 XXn. (1.) How was another caste known? (2.) Who composed this class ? 
 
 (.3.) How did they instruct their children ? 
 
 XXm.— (1.) What did the caste of herdsmen comprehend? (2.) How did 
 some of these tribes keep their herds? (3.) Wliat were others? (4.) What 
 were the swineherds ? 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) What did the priests possess? (2.) What did they do? 
 3.) What did these hiws impose ? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) What were fixed by law? (2.) What were specified? (8.) 
 What was the kinj? forbidden?
 
 104 History of Governments. 
 
 forbidden to order puuishments except in accordance with prescribed 
 customs. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) The priests understood astronomy, and pre- 
 tended to interpret dreams, or foretell future events, by reading the 
 stars. (2.) They exercised great influence, in this way, over a 
 superstitious multitude. (3.) The king was not permitted to com- 
 mence any undertaking without the sanction of oracles in the 
 temples. (4.) The lowest Egyptians were accustomed to ask 
 advice from their nearest priest on every important occasion. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) All civil officers employed to keep records, 
 collect revenues, or expend moneys, were required to be priests. (2.) 
 The judges and pleaders before tribunals, were appointed from the 
 sacerdotal caste. (3.) Magistrates in every city and village were 
 selected from the priesthood. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) A national council, composed of thirty judges, 
 had authority over all inferior officers.' (2.) These constituted a 
 high court of the nation. (3.) Ten of these judges were from the 
 city of Memphis, ten from the city of Thebes, and ten from the 
 city of Heliopolis. (4.) They were all sworn to be honest, and to 
 deal justly. (5.) Their decisions were supreme and final, and 
 became laws of the nation. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The Egyptian kings continued to succeed from 
 the soldier class until a priest named Sethos seized the throne. 
 (2.) This caused the soldier class to revolt, and Sethos took away 
 their lands, which he distributed among the other castes that sup- 
 ported him. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What did the priests understand and pretend? (2.) What 
 influence did they exercise ? (3.) What was not permitted to the king ? 
 (4 ) To wliat were the lowest Egyptians accustomed ? 
 
 XXVIL— (1.) What was required of civil officers? (2.) What other officers 
 were priests? (3.) Who were magistrates ? 
 
 XXVIII.— (1.) What body had supreme authority? (2.) What did the 
 thirty judges constitute? (3.) From what cities did the judges come? (4.) 
 How were they sworn? (5.) What is said concerning their decisions? 
 
 XXIX.— (1 ) What is said of a priest named Sethos? (2.) What followed 
 this ?
 
 The Egyptian Hierarchy. I05 
 
 XXX. — (1.) When Setlios died, twelve chiefs of tlie soldier 
 and merchant castes took possession of all authority, and formed 
 a government, in connection with the priests. (2.) One of these 
 chiefs hired foreign soldiers and overthrew the eleven others. (3.) 
 He soon established a military despotism supported by foreign 
 troops. (4.) The offended native soldier caste then emigrated 
 from the country, and settled in Ethiopia. (5.) Civil war fol- 
 lowed, and a king was elected by the foreign soldiers. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The priestly ca' te continued to be more or less 
 powerful, but the throne was sustained by foreign mercenaries. 
 (2.) The kings sent out armies, overran Syria, and held possession 
 of the land of the Hebrews for a short period. (3.) Afterward 
 Egypt was invaded by enemies, and the great city Thebes was cap- 
 tured by a Carthaginian army. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The land was afterward conquered by Cambyscs, 
 king of Persia. (2.) It was made subject to that despot, as a pro- 
 vince, and governed by a ruler called a satrap. (3.) When the Ma- 
 cedonian conqueror, Alexander, became monarch of the Persian 
 empire, he built a new Egyptian city, and called it Alexandria. 
 (4.) This city grew to be the capital of Egypt, but the ancient city 
 of Memphis was still venerated as the seat of the priesthood. 
 
 XXXIII.— (1.) The hierarchal monarchy of Egypt had then 
 lasted thousands of years. (2.) When Alexandria became the 
 chief city, its inhabitants were divided into three classes. (3 ) Tliose 
 in the first class were called Alexandrines, and comprised foreigners 
 from all countries, but principally Grecians and Hebrews. (4.) Tlie 
 second were Egyptians, consisting of the priests and lower orders of 
 
 XXX.— (1.) What took place when Sethos died? (2.) What did one of 
 these chiefs do? (3.) What was then established? (4.) What then took 
 place? (5.) What follows? 
 
 XXXI.— (1.) What is said of the hierarchy ? (2.) What did the kings do ? 
 (3.) What afterward occurred? 
 
 XXXII.— (1.) By whom was Egypt conquered ? (2.) How was it governed? 
 (3.) What did Alexander of Macedon do? (4.) What did this city become ? 
 
 XYVTTT. — (1.) How long had the hierarchal government lasted ? (2.) How 
 were the inhabitants of Alexandria divided ? (3.) What is said of the first 
 class? (4.) What of the second? 
 
 5*
 
 lo6 History of Governments. 
 
 native citizens. (5.) The third class comprised all foreign soldiers 
 in the service of the government. (6.) Persons outside of these 
 were looked upon as shives. 
 
 XXXrV. — (1.) The Grecians and Macedonians were numbered 
 as citizens, and dwelt in all the wards of the city. (2.) The dis- 
 tricts of Egypt were placed under separate governors, selected from 
 the foreign citizens. 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) There were five magistrates in Alexandria — a 
 Governor, a Chief Judge, a Register, and a Chief of Police. 
 (2.) The priesthood, as a body, were deprived of all political 
 power. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) After the death of Alexander, his military 
 empire fell to pieces again. (2.) A Macedonian general, who was 
 governor of Egypt, made himself an independent monarch of the 
 country. (3.) His successors governed Egypt during three centu- 
 ries. (4.) It was finally conquered by the Romans, and became a 
 province of the Roman empire. 
 
 XXXVII. — ^(1.) We have seen how the great Ethiopian and 
 Egyptian hierarchies arose, flourished, and fell. (2.) The original 
 inhabitants lived in small tribes, under patriarchal chiefs. (3.) They 
 were brought together by the influence of religious teachers. 
 (4.) From a community of rude barbarians, the Egyptian state 
 grew to be a flourishing empire. (5.) But the people were kept in 
 subjection to a higher class, and they became superstitious and servile. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) There was no commonwealth in Egypt, and 
 
 (5.) What of the third class? (6.) What were all other persons considered ? 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) How were Grecians and Macedonians numbered ? (2.) How 
 were the districts of Egypt governed? 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) What magistrates were in Alexandria? (2.) What befell the 
 priesthood ? 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) What occurred after Alexander's death? (2.) Who made him- 
 self a monarch ? (3.) What of his successors ? (4.) What was the fate of Egypt ? 
 
 XXXVn. — (1.) What have we seen? (2.) How did the original inhabi- 
 tants live ? (3.) How were they combined as a people ? (4.) What is said of 
 tlie Egyptian state ? (5.) What is said of the people ? 
 
 XXXVm, — (1.) What is remarked concerning Egypt ?
 
 The Hindu Hierarchy. 107 
 
 no intelligent love of country. (2.) Priests and native soldiers 
 first oppressed the lower classes, and, afterward, despots and merce- 
 naries took their place. (3.) The consequence was, that the Egyp- 
 tian community became divided in itself, and military conquerors 
 were able to overthrow the government. (4.) This has always been 
 the fate of nations, where one class of the people claimed to be 
 better than another class. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) We learn from the history of Egyptian govern- 
 ment, that a hierarchal despotism, where the priests are supported by 
 soldiers, must fall whenever the soldiers revolt. (2.) We also learn 
 that when foreign armies are depended on, to support a government, 
 the nation must soon sink under their power. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE HINDU HIERARCHY 
 
 I. — (1.) The first inhabitants of India lived in scattered families 
 and small communities. (2.) The origin of the nation known as 
 Hindus, was like that of the Ethiopians and Egyptians. (3.) 
 Several barbarous tribes were combined under the influence of a 
 more intelligent tribe. 
 
 II. — (1.) Members of the leading tribe became teachers and 
 priests of the others, who formed the people. (2.) The bravest and 
 strongest persons, in all the tribes, were set apart as soldiers and 
 defenders of the rest. 
 
 (2.) Who oppressed the lower classes ? (3.) What was the consequence ? 
 (4.) What is here remarked ? 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) What do we learn from the history of Egyptian govern- 
 ineiits? {•!.) What further do we learn? 
 
 I. — (1.) What was the earliest mode of life in India? (2.) What is said of 
 the origin of Hindus? (3.) What were combined? 
 
 II. — (1.) Who became teachers and priests? (2.) Who were set apart as 
 soldiers?
 
 io8 History of Governments. 
 
 III. — (1.) In this way, two divisions or classes of the nation 
 were made superior to the remainder of the combined individuals. 
 (2.) New divisions afterward arose out of difference in occupatioa 
 
 IV. (I.) The divisions became known as castes, like the classes 
 
 of Egypt. (2.) The leading division was called the caste of Brah- 
 mins, or sacred class. (3.) All priests, teachers, lawyers, men of 
 science, and officers of law, were taken from this caste. (4.) Its 
 members were required by their religion to be virtuous, and to lead 
 peaceable lives. 
 
 v.— (1.) The second class comprised the warriors, and was 
 called the Kyetra caste. (2.) Kings, generals, and military gover- 
 nors, were taken from this caste. 
 
 VI. (IJ The third class of Hindus was composed of farmers 
 
 and traders, and was called the Vaisu caste. (2.) Members of the 
 Vaisu caste could not be priests, but were allowed to read the 
 religious books. 
 
 VII. (1.) The fourth class of Hindus contained people en- 
 gaged in various mechanical handicrafts. (2.) They lived with the 
 higher classes, as their servants. (3.) This class was known as the 
 Soodra caste. 
 
 Vm. — (1.) The lowest division of the Hindus comprised slaves 
 and degraded persons, and was called the Pariah caste. (2.) Mem- 
 bers of this caste were deprived of all privileges. (3.) They were 
 forced to follow the meanest employments. 
 
 TTT. — (1.) What did this occasion ? (2.) What afterward arose ? 
 
 rv. (1.) What name was given to these divisions? (2.) What was the 
 
 leading division called? (3.) Who were taken from this caste? (i.) What 
 was required of its members? 
 
 v.— (1.) What is said of the second class? (2.) Who were taken from thia 
 zaste ? 
 
 VI. (1.) W'hat of the third class of Hindus? (2.) What was forbidden to 
 
 members of the third class, and what were they allowed ? 
 
 VIL fl.) What was the occupation of persons in the fourth class? (2.; 
 
 What e.se did they do? (3.) What was this class called ? 
 
 vm.— (1.) What is said of the lowest division? (2.) Of what were ita 
 members deprived? (3.) What were they forced to do?
 
 The Hindu Hierarchy. IC9 
 
 IX. — (1.) Mercantile and mechanical pursuits generally descended 
 from family to family. (2.) A son succeeded to the business or 
 handicraft of his father. 
 
 X. — (1.) Members of the Soodra caste vrere forbidden to marry 
 out of their own caste. (2.) They were not allowed to read or to 
 be tauglit anything, except to obey the upper classes as servants. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Foreigners and persons whose parents had unlawfully 
 married out of their own castes, belonged to the Pariah caste. (2.) 
 Persons degraded from other castes, on account of crime, were con- 
 sidered to be Pariahs. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The soldiers, or Kyeira caste, lived in communities 
 on the borders of India. (2.) It was their duty to defend the 
 country from invaders, and assist the priesthood, kings and generals. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The Brahmin caste, or priesthood, extended through- 
 out all India. (2.) Its members possessed lands wherever they 
 resided. (3.) Brahmins were allowed to bear arms, like soldiers, 
 and to engage in mercantile transactions of some kinds. (4.) They 
 were strict in religious duties, and kept apart from all inferior 
 Hindus. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The monarch of the Hindu nation was called a 
 Rajah. (2.) He was selected from the soldier caste, by direction 
 of the Brahmins. (3.) He was chief of the array, and could make 
 war, after consulting with the Brahmins of his council. (4.) His 
 
 IX. (1.) What is said of certain pursuits? (2.) To what did a son 
 
 fjucoeed ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What were members of the Soodra caste forbidden? (2.) How- 
 were they otherwise restricted ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What persons belonjijed to the Pariah caste ? (2.) What other 
 persons were considered Pariahs ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) Where did the soldiers reside ? (2.) What was their duty? 
 
 VTTT. — (1.) What is said of the Brahmin caste? (2.) What did its members 
 possess? (3.) What privileges had the Brahmins? (4.) What was their 
 character ? 
 
 XIV.— (1) What was a Hindu monarch called? (2.) How was he ap- 
 poicted? (,3.) What was his authority ? (4.) Ii what was he restricted ?
 
 110 History of Governments. 
 
 civil authority was restricted by the power of the priests, who filled 
 all other offices of government. 
 
 XV. —(1.) The rajah's daily life was regulated by sacred laws 
 written in the Brahrainical books. (2.) He was obliged to reside 
 in a retired palace or castle, with a wife selected from his own 
 caste 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The rajah was assisted by a chief counsellor, whc 
 was usually a head Brahmin or high-priest. (2.) He also appointed 
 a council of eight persons, with a director of foreign affairs, and a 
 superintendent of internal affairs. (3.) All were taken from the 
 caste of Brahmins. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The director of foreign affairs took charge of am 
 bassadors from other nations, and appointed agents and messengers 
 to visit foreign lands. (2.) The director of internal affairs adminis- 
 tered the revenues, and appointed collectors and other officers 
 (3.) Both these officers were under direction of the rajah and 
 jouucil of Brahmins. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The director of internal affairs named the head- 
 men of villages or townships, and appointed commissioners to visit 
 every district of the country. (2.) These commissioners examined 
 into the way local magistrates performed their duty. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The whole country was divided, for government 
 purposes, into townships. (2.) Each township included a village 
 and the farms around it. (3.) A headman was set over every 
 township. (4.) Over ten towns a higher headman was placed ; 
 
 XV. — (1.) How was the rajah's life regulated? (2.) What was he obligeil 
 to do? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) By whom was the rajah assisted? (2.) What other officers had 
 he ? (3.) From what were they all taken ? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) What did the director of foreign affairs do? (2.) What did the 
 director ol'internal affairs do ? (3.) Under whose direction did these ministers 
 act? 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) What were other powers of the director of internal affaira? 
 (2.) What is said of the commissioners ? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) How was the country divided? (2.) What was included in a 
 township? {'6.) Who was set over each ? (4) What other rulers are m«u-
 
 The Hindu Hierarchy. in 
 
 over .wenty, a superior ; and over a hundred, a still higher ruler. 
 (5.) The highest headman was one appointed over a thousand 
 townships. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The headman of a township reported to the headman 
 of ten townships. (2.) The ruler of ten or twenty was responsible 
 to the chief of a hundred. (3.) The chief of a hundred made his 
 returns to the governor of a thonsand. 
 
 XXI.^ — (1.) The headman of a single township was supported 
 by the contributions of its inhabitants. (2.) These contributions 
 consisted of food, drinii, fuel and personal service. (3.) A headman 
 of ten townships received for his share the produce of two acres of 
 land (4.) The ruler of twenty townships enjoyed the fruits of five 
 acres. (5.) The chief of a hundred townships was entitled to the 
 revenue of one small township, and the governor of a thousand 
 towns received the revenue of a large township. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) A Hindu township was a small state in itselC 
 (2.) The members of such a community were composed of farmers 
 and traders. (3.) They had twelve officers and functionaries. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The first of the twelve was the headman or magis- 
 trate ; the second, town clerk ; and the third, town watch or con- 
 stable. (2.) The fourth was a man to distribute water from the 
 river, or public reservoir, to irrigate the fields. (3.) The fifth was 
 an astronomer or calculator, who advisftd the people what days 
 were lucky or unlucky. 
 
 tioned? (5.) Over how many townships did the highest rule? 
 
 XX. — (1.) To wiiom did a township headman report? (2.) To whom was a 
 ruler of ten responsible? (8.) To whom did the chief of a hundred towns 
 make return ? ^ 
 
 XXI. — (1.) By whom was the headman of a single township supported? 
 (2.) Wluit were these contributions? (3.) What did the liendman of ten town- 
 ships receive? (4 ) What did the ruler of twenty get? (5.) To what were the 
 chiefs of a hundr.ed and a thousand townships entitled? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) What was each Hindu township? (2.) Of what were its mem- 
 bers composed? (3.) What officei's had they ? 
 
 XXni. — (1.) What were the first three functionaries? (2.) What was the 
 fourth ? (3.) What was the fifth ?
 
 112 History of Governments. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The sixth town functionary was a cartwright, to 
 make and repair the rude vehicles used. (2.) The seventh was a 
 potter, who manufactured and mended earthen utensils. (3.) The 
 eighth was a washerman, who cleaned the cotton garments of 
 families. (4.) The ninth was a goldsmith, who made ornaments 
 and offerings for the priests. (5.) The tenth was a barber, the 
 eleventh a musician, and the twelfth was both schoolmaster and 
 poet. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) These twelve functionaries subsisted on contribu- 
 tions made by the farmers and traffickers — the headman directing 
 all. (2.) This simple division of labor and management was com- 
 mon to all the townships. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) In the chief city of the Hindus, there were high 
 officers corresponding to the inferior functionaries of townships. 
 (2.) The rajah's chief minister was headman of the nation, under 
 monarch and chief brahmins. (3.) There were a chief of punishment, 
 or high-sheriff, and a chief gate-keeper, or warden of the kingdom. 
 (4.) There were a chief advocate, or attorney-general, and a super- 
 intendent of instruction. (5.) There were a chief of police, a chief 
 of agriculture, and a head chamberlain, or master of the horse. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) The proprietors of land paid their taxes by giv- 
 ing an eighth part of their crops. (2.) The lands of the rajah and 
 Brahmins were cultivated by servants taken from lower castes, or 
 foreign-born slaves. 
 
 XXVIII. — (I) Taxes were imposed on merchandise carried 
 
 XXrV. — (1 ) What was the sixth town functionary? (2.) What was the 
 seventh? (3.) What was the eighth? (4.) What was the ninth ? (5.) What 
 were the remaining three? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) How were these functionaries supported? (2.) What i? said of 
 this regulation ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What is said of higher officers? (2.) What was the rajah's 
 minister? (3.) W'hat chiefs are mentioned? (4.) Name others. (5.) What 
 other officers are mentioned ? 
 
 XXVn.— (1.) How did the landholders pay their taxes? (2.) Who culti 
 vated the lands of the rajah and Brahmins ? 
 
 XXVin. — (.1.) On what were taxes imposed by the Hindu government?
 
 The Hindu Hierarchy. I13 
 
 over public roads or rivers, and on manufactures sold in the public 
 markets. (2.) The industrial classes generally paid their taxes in 
 labor for the Brahmins. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The hierarchy issued laws, from time to time, to 
 regulate trade in goods. (2.) These laws fixed the prices of all 
 merchandise, and ordered five per cent, of the profits to be paid to 
 government. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) The smaller communities of India were republican 
 in eifect, but all authority was fixed by custom and the laws of 
 caste. (2.) The rajah was limited in his power by the same 
 religious influence that regulated the headmen of towns in their 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The Hindus occupied a region of country that 
 was separated from the rest of Asia by a great chain of mountains. 
 (2.) The ocean bounded all other sides, but was not much used by 
 thj inhabitants for navigation. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) Being separated from other nations, the Hindus 
 lived quietly and prospered under their hierarchal form of govern- 
 ment. (2.) The division of castes was taught by their religion, and 
 members of lower orders submitted without complaint to political 
 inferiority. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The frame of government of the Hindu nation 
 was very much like that of the Egyptian hierarchy. (2.) The sacer- 
 dotal, or priest cast€, was the superior class, and religious laws regu- 
 lated all powers of the king. (3.) Priests had charge over all 
 legislation, appointments, and matters of learning and science. 
 
 (2.) How did the industrial classes pay their taxes? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What laws did the hierarchy issue? (2.) What did these laws 
 ordain ? 
 
 XXX.— (1.) What is said of Hindu communities? (2.) What of the rajah? 
 
 XXXL — (1.) What is said of the Hindu country? (2.) How was it 
 bounded ? 
 
 XXXn. — (1.) What was the consequence of this separation of the land? 
 (2.) What is said of the population? 
 
 YgyTTT . — (1.) What did the Hindu frame of government resemble? (2.) 
 What is remarked of its rehgion? (3.) What authority had the priesthood?
 
 1 14 History of Governments. 
 
 (4.) lu both nations the soldier caste \yas next to that of the 
 priests. 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) The Hindus remained a peculiar nation while 
 their hierarchal government continued. (2.) The three higher 
 classes maintained their character as citizens, and the lower orders 
 were always slaves. (3.) The country was invaded by Alexander 
 the Great, and its northern inhabitants were forced to pay tribute, 
 (4.) India was afterward conquered by different military monarcha 
 and warlike tribes. 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) The Hindu state was not powerful enough to 
 make long resistance against invaders. (2.) The lower classes 
 possessed no rights to lose, and submitted to one master as readily 
 as to another. (3.) Arabs and Tartars overthrew the hierarchic 
 governments and established military monarchies. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) The Hindu hierarchal system was followed by a 
 succession of despotic rajahs, who ruled the people with great 
 severity. (2.) Finally, the country was conquered by the English, 
 and it is now governed as a province of the British empire. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) The government of all hierarchal states 
 was based upon inequality of condition between different classes. 
 (2.) It was opposed to personal independence and the rights of 
 individuals. (3.) It was a system of government which could not 
 be permanent, or able to resist foreign enemies. 
 
 (4.) In what other respect were the two hierarchies similar? 
 
 XXXIV.— (1.) How did the Hindus remain? (2.) What is said of the 
 ca?tes? (y.) What took place? (4.) What afterward occurred? 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) What is said of tlie Hindu state? (2.) What of the lower 
 classes? (3.) What was the consequence ? 
 
 XXXVI.— (1.) What followed the hierarchy? (2.) What finally occurred? 
 
 XXXVn. — (1.) What is said of Hindu government? (2.) To what was it 
 opposed? (3.) What is remarkeii of the hierarchal system?
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE THEOCRACY OF THIBET. 
 
 I. — (1.) The extensive country of Thibet, between China and 
 India, is governed as a theocratic hierarchy. (2.) Its ruler is 
 called the Grand Lama. (3.) He is supposed to be Boodh, the 
 national god, in a human form. 
 
 II. — (1.) The worship of Boodh first flourished among the people 
 of Thibet. (2.) It is now common among most of the nations 
 dwelling in China, Tartary, and India. 
 
 III. — (1.) The followers of Boodh, in Thibet, believe that a being 
 who once lived under tliat name became afier death their chief god. 
 (2.) He then returned to the earth in the body of a young child, 
 and grew up to be the first Grand Lama of Thibet. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The Grand Lama is held to be supreme ruler of Thibet, 
 bat the country is under military protection of the Emperors of 
 China. (2.) Under the Grand Lama are spiritnal governors of 
 provinces, who are called hoo-took-toos. (3.) The Grand Lama is 
 supposed to be continually at prayer, and an officer called a rujmekhan 
 is chosen to perform the duties of chief ruler, 
 
 V. — (1.) Thiliet is divided into two provinces, with a Chinese 
 military governor over each. (2.) The two provinces are s'lU 
 divided into cantons, with a hoo-took-too over every canton. 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of Thibet? (2.) What is the name of its ruUr j 
 (:i.) What is he supposed to be ? 
 
 n. — (1.) Where did the worship of Boodh first flourish? (2.) What is ssuu 
 of this worship? 
 
 in.— (I.) What do the followers of Boodh in Tliibet beheve ? (2.) Wbat 
 else do they believe ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What authority exists ill Thil)et ? (2.) What officers are subordi- 
 nate to the Grand Lama? (3.) V/hat is .said of the nomekhan ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How is Thibet i'vided ? (2.) How are the provinces sub-divided? 
 
 15
 
 lib History of Governments. 
 
 VI. (1.) The aomekhan and the hoo-took-toos are selected from 
 
 the sacerdotal tribe of lamas, or priests. (2.) This priesthood 
 is very numerous, and is the ruling class. (3.) All teachers, magis- 
 trates, and rulers, are taken from the class of lamas. (4.) Most of 
 the lamas reside in large religious houses. (5.) One of those 
 houses sometimes contains fifteen thousand lamas in a community. 
 
 VII.— (1.) Lamas are arranged in different ranks, according to 
 the studies they have gone through, (2.) The principal lamas are 
 heads of religious houses, and chief officers of government. 
 (3.) They are, supposed to be filled with divinity, like the Grand 
 Lama himself. 
 
 VIII.— (1.) When a Grand Lama dies, the god Boodh is sup- 
 posed to go into the body of another infant. (2.) The hoo-took- 
 toos assemble in the principal city, with solemn ceremonies. 
 (3.) The highest lama families then send in the names of their new- 
 born infants. (4.) The assembly of hoo-took-toos choose three out 
 3f the number to be brought to the capital. (5.) They put slips, 
 containing the names of the three babes, in an urn, and draw one 
 out. (6.) The child having its name drawn, is declared to be the 
 Grand Lama, and immediately worshipped as head of the nation. 
 
 IX. (1.) The Chinese governors who reside in the provinces of 
 
 Thibet are changed once in three years. (2.) All their subordi- 
 nates and soldiers go back to China with them. (3) The Emperor 
 of China is a believer in the religion of Boodh, and protects the 
 worship of the Grand Lama. 
 
 VI. (1.) II- <v are the nomekhan and hoo-took-toos selected? (2.) What 
 
 is said of the priesthood, or lamas? (3.) What are taken from this class? 
 (4.) Where do most of the lamas reside? (5.) What is said of those houses? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) How are lamas arranged? (2.) What are the principal priests? 
 (3.) What is thought of them ? 
 
 Vni. — (1.) What is supposed when a Grand Lama dies? (2.) What do the 
 hoo-took-toos do? (3.) What is done by the highest lama families? 
 (4.) What is done by the assembly of hoo-took-toos? (5.) How is this choice 
 proceeded with? (6.) What is the result? 
 
 IX. (1.) What is said of the Chinese governors? (2.) Who return wiiii 
 
 them to China ? (3.) What is said of the Emperor of China ?
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE ROMAN HIERARCHAL MONARCHY. 
 
 I.-. J • After the establishment of Christianity, members of 
 Christian communities formed combinations called churches. (2.) 
 Churches were divided into smaller assemblies, with a priest or 
 deacon over each. (3.) Over the priests there was chosen a higher 
 priest, called the bishop. (4.) A certain number of bishops were 
 placed under the direction of a still superior priest, who was called 
 the archbishop. 
 
 II._(1.) The bishop, who lived at Rome, received the name of 
 Pope, which means father. (2.) Another bishop, who lived at Con- 
 stantinople, was called the patriarch. (3.) Afterward the believers 
 of the Christian religion became separated into two opposite 
 churches. (4.) The Christians whose head, or father, resided at 
 Constantinople, have been since known as the Greek church. 
 (5.) The Russian people all belong to this Greek church. 
 
 III. — (1.) The followers of Christianity whose bishop, or father, 
 resided at Rome, have been always known as the Roman church. 
 (2.) Nearly all civilized people were followers of the Roman church 
 during the middle ages. (3.) The popes and chief bishops of this 
 church constitute the Roman hierarchy. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Tlie earliest Christian bishops did not exercise author- 
 ity over government affairs, but were religious fathers or chief 
 
 I._(l.) What was done by members of Christian communities? (2.) How 
 were churches divided ? (3.) Who was chosen to preside over the priests and 
 deacons? (4.) Who were the bishops phiced under? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of a bishop who Hves at Rome? (2.) What of 
 another bishop? (3.) Wiiat afterward occurred? (4.) What is said of a por- 
 tion of these? (5.) What people belong to the Greek church ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What is said of another body of Christians? (2.) What people 
 followed the Roman church ? (3.) Who constitute the Roman hierarchy ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said concerning the earliest known Christian bishops? 
 
 117
 
 ll8 History of Governments. 
 
 priests of the churches. (2.) The Emperor Charlemagne gave the 
 city of Rome and otlier territories to a bishop named Leon, to gov- 
 ern them as bis liingdom. (3.) Leon and his successors paid an 
 annual tribute to the emperor, in return for their possessions. 
 (4.) Afterward, the popes became independent temporal sovereigns. 
 
 V. — (1.) The territories now governed by the Roman hierarchy 
 consist of several Italian provinces called the Papal States. 
 (2.) These are divided, politically, into twenty districts. (3.) The 
 city of Rome is the capital, and has a governor who acts under the 
 hierarchy. (4.) There are seven provincial governments called de- 
 legations, with a ruler over each, who is appointed by the pope, as 
 his delegate. (5.) The remaining twelve provincial governments 
 are called legations, and each has a ruler appointed by the pope, 
 called a legate. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The hierarchy is constituted from an aristocracy of 
 chief priests called cardinals. (2.) The cardinals are associated in 
 a religious senate called the Sacred College. (3.j The number of 
 cardinals is limited to seventy, and all vacancies are filled by ap- 
 pointment of the pope. (4.) A president of the Sacred College of 
 Cardinals is chosen for life, and is called the Cardinal-Chancellor. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The pope is elected for life, and when he dies, the 
 Cardinal-Chancellor occupies his place, and summons the College of 
 Cardinals to assemble at Rome. (2.) The Sacred College meet to 
 choose a successor on the tenth day, from one of their own number. 
 (3.) A majority of two-thirds of the seventy is required to agree 
 upon the choice. 
 
 (2.) What did the Emperor Charlemagne do ? (3.) What followed ? (4.) What 
 afterward took place ? 
 
 V. — (1.) Of what do the Roman hierarchy's territories con.sist ? (2.) How 
 are they politically divided? (3.) What is said of tlie city of Rome? 
 (4.) What of the governments called delegations? (5 ) Wiiat is said of 'he 
 remaining twelve? 
 
 VI. — (1) From what is the hierarchy constituted ? (2.) How are the car- 
 dinals associated? (3.) What is the number of cardinals? (4.) What is said 
 of the Cardinal-Chancellor ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What is said regardii.g the pope? (2.) What does the Sacred 
 College do? (3) What is required?
 
 The Roman Hierarchal Monarchy 119 
 
 VIII.— (1.) The pope is assisted in his government by a Cardi- 
 nal-Secretary of State, who is chief minister. (2.) A board of 
 cardinals is appointed to preside over each department of public 
 affairs. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Every provincial government is administered by a de- 
 legate or legate, and a council. (2.) The council consists of an 
 oflBcer called a gonfalonier and four counsellors. (3.) The gonfalo- 
 nier is chosen by the people of his district, and the four counsellors 
 are named by the pope, to serve five years. 
 
 X. — (1.) The provinces are sub-divided into districts, over each 
 of which a sub-governor is appointed. (2.) These sub-governors 
 are judges of all civil cases affecting property under a certain 
 amount. (3.) They determine minor criminal causes, subject to ex- 
 amination bv a higher tribunal called the Collegiate Court. (4.) 
 Tlie Collegiate Court is composed of the pope's delegate and a board 
 of officers. 
 
 XI. — (1.) There are three courts superior to the Collegiate 
 Courts of provinces. (2.) These three courts sit at three principal 
 cities, and examine the decisions of inferior tribunals. (3.) Tlieie 
 is also a Supreme Court of Cardinals at Rome. (4.) All judges 
 and other civil officers are required to be priests. (5.) The army 
 and navy comprise about twenty thousand men. 
 
 Vm. — (1.) How is the pope assisted in government? (2.) What body pre- 
 sides over each department of public business? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How is every provincial government administered ? (2.) Ofwl'.at 
 does this council consist ? (3.) How are these appointed? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is said of the provinces ? (2.) What authority have the sub- 
 governors? (3.) What is further said of them ? (4.) How is the Collegiate 
 Court formed ? 
 
 XI.— (1.) What higher courts are mentioned? (2.) What is said of these ? 
 (3.) What of a still higher court? (4.) What is required of all civil officers! 
 (5.) How large are the army and navy of the Papal States?
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 REPUBLICAN SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SYRIAN AND ARABIAN RELIGIOUS REPUBLICS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The ancient people called Syrians were descended frooi 
 one of the sous of Shem. (2.) They were divided into several 
 tribes, settled in cities and villages, under direction of their patri- 
 archs and elders. 
 
 II. — (1.) The Syrian tribes were independent of each other, and 
 formed popular governments. (2.) Each comniuoity conducted its 
 affairs in public assemblies. 
 
 III. — (1.) Leading families grew up into an aristocratic branch 
 of each tribe. (2.) The patriarchal authority gave place to that of 
 a chief, at first elected, but afterward hereditary. 
 
 IV. — (1.) When a tribe increased in numbers and strength, it 
 was able to control smaller tribes. (2.) These grew up into a 
 kingdom, more or less despotic, according to the talents and charac- 
 ter of the chief. 
 
 L— (1.) From whom were the Syrians descended? (2.) What was their 
 manner of life ? 
 
 II.— (1.) What government had these tribes ? (2.) How did each community 
 conduct its public business ? 
 
 III. — (1.) What is said of leading families ? (2 ) To what did the patriarchal 
 authority give place? 
 
 IV.— (1.; What was a tribe able to do? (2.) To what did these grow? 
 120
 
 Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics. 121 
 
 V. — (1.) There was a priesthood among the Syrians, which 
 exercised great influence. (2.) It was composed of several 
 classes, each having distinct duties to perform in the worship of 
 idols. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Some of these priests killed animals offered in sacri- 
 fice, others attended the altars, and others were musicians and 
 singers. (2.) There were also priestesses, who often pretended to be 
 crazy, (3.) The high-priest was chosen every year by the others, 
 and wore a purple dress, with a golden mitre. 
 
 VII.— (1.) The Syrians had a city which they called holy, 
 where was situated a temple. (2.) Multitudes of people assembled 
 in the holy city, to offer sacrifices. (3.) The priests were supported 
 by offerings brought by pilgrims. (4.) The Syrians at first existed 
 as small independent nations, till the weaker ones were subdued by 
 a powerful tribe called the Syrians of Damascus. 
 
 VIII. (1 ) The Arabians were descendants of Shem, and dwelt 
 
 in the wilderness, as nomadic tribes. (2.) Ishmael, the second son 
 of Abram, became a ruler and high-priest of the Arabians. 
 
 IX. (1.) The posterity of Ishmael, in later times, exercised 
 
 power as kings of the principal tribe of Arabians. (2.) Most of 
 the Arabian tribes continued to lead a nomadic life. (3.) A few 
 settled in towns, and occupied themselves with agricultural and 
 commercial business. 
 
 X. (1.) The wandering tribes drove their flocks from place to 
 
 place, and used camels as beasts of burden or for domestic service. 
 
 v.— (1.) What exercised great influence among the Syrians ? (2.) How was 
 it composed ? 
 
 VI. [1.) What were duties of tliese priests? (2.) What else were there? 
 
 (3.) What is said of a high-priest? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What city had the Syrians? (2.) Who assembled there ? (3.) 
 How were the priests supported? (4.) What is said of independent Syrian 
 tribes? 
 
 Vin.— (1.) Who wen«. th6 Arabians ' (2", What aid Ishmael become ? 
 
 IX.— {1.) What is said of Ishmael's posterity ? (2.) Wliat did most of the 
 tribes continue to do? (3.) What is said of a few? 
 
 X. (\.) What customs of the wandering tribes are mentioned ? 
 
 6
 
 1 22 History of Governments. 
 
 (2.) Xornad \val)ians regarded the settled tribes as degraded by 
 their labor and peaceful mode of life. (3.) The former preferred 
 to remain in freedom and poverty, while town-dwelling Arabs grew 
 rich by traffic and industry. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Arabians who settled in towns and villages made 
 divisions of the soil, and carried on husbandry, with many other 
 lucrative kinds of labor. (2.) They became travelling merchants, 
 journeying in large companies, called caravans, across the desert, 
 from country to country. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Arabian tribes were controlled, in a great measure, 
 by their magicians and priests. (2.) They maintained their cus- 
 toms and wild independence during all the wars of Asia. (3.) Their 
 latest descendants wander as nomads in the same wilderness whereiu 
 AbVam journeyed and Ishmael was born. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Each early tribe of Arabians was an independent 
 community, under patriarchal government. (2.) When a few tribes 
 settled together, they became known in history as some nation under 
 kiutrly or aristocratic government. (3.) The authority of their moa- 
 arclis was always balanced by that of head families or aristocracy. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Arabian tribes claimed rank according to their des- 
 cent from the different sons of their first patriarch. (2.) There was 
 one tribe, called the Koreish, regarded as superior to the rest. (3.) 
 This tribe occupied a fertile portion of Arabia, and possessed a holy 
 city named Mecca. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The Midianites were a tribe of Arabians. (2.) They 
 were governed by an aristocracy of several chiefs, with one at their 
 
 (2.) How did the nomads regard settlers'? (3.) What did the former prefer? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What d.d settled Arabians do? (2.) What did they become? 
 
 XII.- (1.) How were Arabian tribes controlled? (2.) What did they maiit- 
 tain ? (3.) What is said of their descendants ? 
 
 Xm. — (1 ) What was every early Arabian tribe? (2.) What took place 
 when a few tribes setiled together? (3.) By what was their monarch's author- 
 ity balanced ? 
 
 XIV. — (1 ) What is said regarding the rank of Arabian tribes? (2 ) What 
 was the highest tribe? (3.) What is said of this tribe? 
 
 ZV. — (1.) What were the Midianite" ? (2.) How were they governed?
 
 Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics. 123 
 
 head acting as juige and priest. (3.) They were classified as shep- 
 herds and traders. 
 
 XVI.— •(!.) The shepherds dwelt in tents, keeping herds and 
 flocks, and forming a military branch of the tribe. '2.) The mer- 
 chants travelled in caravans, with camels and servants, 'Vera place 
 to place through Arabia and Syria. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Moses, the Hebrew leader, resided among those 
 Midianites during forty years, while he was banished from Egypt by 
 Pharaoh. (2.) He married a daughter of Raguel, a priest-chief, 
 who afterward joined the Hebrew nation. 
 
 XVIII. — (1 ) Another Arabian tribe is mentioned in the Bible, 
 under the name of Ammonites. (2.) They were descended from 
 Amnion, tiie son of Lot, who was brother of the patriarch Abraham. ^ 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The Ammonites were ruled by a principal chief, iu 
 connection with a priesthood. (2.) The priests erected a hollow 
 image, as an idol for the nation to worship. (3.) It had seven 
 mouths, in which the people placed offerings ; and these offerings 
 served to support the priests. 
 
 XX. — (1.) Another Arabian tribe was known as Moabites, de- 
 scended, like ilie Ammonites, from Lot. (2.) They dwelt in vil- • 
 lages, under a king, and raised herds of cattle. (3.) They had an 
 aristocracy of principal families, and were allies of the Midianites 
 and Ammonites. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Arabian nomads wbo pitched their tents near the 
 
 ''^.) IIow were they classified by occupations? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What was the shepherds' mode of life? (2.) What was that of 
 the merchants ? 
 
 XVIL— (1.) What is said of the Hebrew Moses? (2.) Who did Moses 
 marry ? 
 
 XVni. — (1.) What other Arabian tribe is mentioned in tLe Bible? (2.) 
 What is said about them ? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) How were the Ammonites ruled? (2.) What did the priests 
 erect? (3.) What is said of this image? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What was another Arabian tribe ? (2.) What life did they lead? 
 (3.) What government had they? 
 
 XXI. — (l.t What did certain tribes of Arabian nomads often become?
 
 124 History of Governinents. 
 
 sea-coast often became pirates and plunderers of shipwrecked Tes- 
 sels. (2.) Wild Arabian tribes who roved the desert were likewise 
 predatory or plundering tribes. (3.) The settled Arabians devoted 
 themselves to manufactures and agriculture, and formed a class of 
 travellinsr merchants in the most ancient times. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 CANAANITE EEPDBLICAN TRlBfiS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Canaanites were descendants of Canaan, son of 
 Ham, and grandson of Noah. (2 ) They formed separate -com- 
 munities under various names, and occupied a large portion of the 
 country between Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 11. — (1.) Some of the Canaanites lived in cities and villages, and 
 others roved over plains and hills as shepherds. (2.) Settled tribes 
 carried on agriculture and commerce, and engaged their wilder 
 countrymen as soldiers. 
 
 III._(1.) The Canaanites were ruled by chiefs called kings, 
 whose office in some tribes was hereditary, and in others elective. 
 (2.) All public business was discussed and decided upon in assem- 
 blies of the people. (3.) Magistrates were chosen from the chief 
 families. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Rude tribes, who dwelt in tents, often made war 
 against the settled Canaanites, and obliged them to pay tribute. 
 
 (2.) What were other wandering tribes? (3.) To what did the settled people 
 devote themselves '' 
 
 I._(l.) What were the Canaanites? (2.) What is said of them ? 
 
 n.— (1.) Where did the Canaanites reside? (2.) What did the settled 
 tribes do? 
 
 m.— (1.) How were the Canaanites ruled? (2.) Where was public business 
 decided on? (3.) What is said of magistrates? 
 
 IV. (1.) What is said concerning the impositions of rude tribes?
 
 Canaanite Republican Tribes. 125 
 
 (2.) A nomad tribe of Canaanites called Elamites is mentioned in 
 the Bible as conquering several other tribes. 
 
 v.— (1 ) Abraham, the patriarch, lived with the Elamites for 
 several years, and assisted tiieir king, Chedorlaomer, in bis wars 
 against other tribes. (2.) Abraham was also an ally of Melchize- 
 dek, king-priest of Salem, a city of the Canaanites. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Abraham was originally a nomadic chief, and emigrated 
 from the plains of Ship.ar, where the Assyrians dwelt. (2.) He 
 wandered with his family and servants from place to place, during 
 many years. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Another tribe of Canaanites, called the Hittites, lived 
 near the borders of Egypt. (2.) Abraham and his household visited 
 the Hittites, and bought of them a burial-place, called the Cave of 
 Machpelah. 
 
 Vin. — (1.) Wlien the Hebrews came out of Egypt, under their 
 leader Moses, they made war on all the Canaanite tribes, and took 
 possession of their country. (2.) The defeated nations were either 
 reduced to servitude or driven from their ancient territory. 
 
 (2 ) What conquering tribe is mentioned in the Bible ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of Abraham ? (2.) Of whom was Abraham an ally ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What was Abraham originally? (2.) What did he do ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What other tribe of Canaanites is mentioned? (2 ) Who visited 
 this tribe, and what did he do ? 
 
 ViU. — (1.) W lat is said of the Hebrews under Moses? (2.) What became 
 of the defeated nations i
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IHK PHCENICIAN CONFEDERACY. 
 
 I. — (1.) One tribe of the Canaanites, inhabiting the sea-toast of 
 Syria, succeeded in preserving its independence against the Hebrew 
 invaders. (2.) This tribe possessed territory upon the headlands 
 and islands of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 II. — (1.) The first large city founded by this tribe of Canaanites 
 was named Sidon, and its inhabitants became known in history as 
 Phoenicians. (2.) The next city built was Tyre, which afterward 
 obtained celebrity as a chief city of the Phoenicians. 
 
 III. — (1.) Several other cities were built by the Phoenicians upon 
 the coast and islands. (2.) Each city was independent of the 
 others, and governed by its own laws. (3.) In some cities kings 
 were elected, in others they were hereditary, and in others there 
 were no kings. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The government of every Phoenician city was more or 
 less aristocratic in form. (2.) The magistrates always belonged to 
 a few wealthy families. (3.) The assemblies consisted of chief 
 citizens, who chose a senate from their own ranks. (4.) The 
 power of the king, or chief magistrate, was limited by the principal 
 families. 
 
 V. — (1.) The various Phoenician cities were connected with each 
 other by alliances. (2.) At certain periods, a general congress or 
 
 I._(l.) What is said of one tribe of Canaanites ? (2.) Where did this tribe 
 make settlements ? 
 
 II.— (1.) What is said of a city of this tribe ? (2.) What of another city ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What is said of other cities V (2.) What of each city ? (3.) What 
 about kings'? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What was the government of each city ? (2.) What is said of the 
 magistrates? (3.) How were tlie assemblies composed? (4.) What was the 
 chief's power ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What connected the various cities? (2.) What took place at cei> 
 126
 
 The Phoeaiclan Confederacy. 127 
 
 meeting of the chief men of all the cities, was held in one of the 
 cities, to deliberate on matters of importance. (3.) The cities 
 thus formed a confederation, under separate chiefs. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Next to the king, or other chief, in a Phoenician city, 
 was a magistrate, who shared the power with him. (2.) This officer 
 was responsible to the chief families who elected him. 
 
 VII. — (1.) In each city there were several orders of priests, who 
 exercised much influence. (2.) The king's counsellors were taken 
 from the priesthood. (3.) The priests were considered next in 
 dignity to the king. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Phcenicians grew wealthy by traffic with other 
 countries. (2.) They built many ships, and navigated all the seas 
 then known. (3.) They dispatched caravans to trade with Syria 
 and more distant countries of Asia and Africa. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Merchants in every Phoenician commuaity, constituted 
 the most powerful and important class of citizens. (2.) The soldiers 
 employed in foreign wars were usually foreigners, hired and paid by 
 each city. 
 
 X. — (1.) It was the policy of every Phoenician community to 
 guard against over-population. (2.) They did not wish their cities 
 to become crowded with idle or other useless inhabitants. 
 
 XI. — (1) They sent out companies of emigrants, from time to 
 time, to settle in other places. (2.) Those emigrants planted colo- 
 nies, which afterward grew to be flourishing couunuiiities. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Whenever a Phoenician settlement was made, the 
 
 tain periods ? (3.) What did the Phoenician cities form ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What ollicer was next to the chief of a Phoenician community?' 
 (2 ) To whom was he responsible? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What were there in each city? (2.) What officers were selected 
 from tliose orders? (3.) How were the priests regarded? 
 
 Vni. — (1.) How did the Phoenicians prosper? (2.) What did they do? 
 (3.) What IS said of their trade ? 
 
 ES. — (1.) What did merchants constitute? (2.) Who were the military? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was the Phoenician policy? (2.) What did they not wish? 
 
 XI (1.1 What did they send out? (2.) What did these emigrants do? 
 
 XII. —(1.) What was done when a Phoenician settlement was made?
 
 128 History of Governments. 
 
 colonists built a town and began to trade with the people near 
 them, and the cities from which they iiad emigrated. 
 
 XIII. (1.) One of these companies of Phoenician emigrants 
 
 planted the colony of Carthage, which afterward became a powerful 
 and famous city. (2.) Phoenician merchants sailed in their ships to 
 all parts of the known world, and traded with every country. 
 
 XIV.— (1.) The most notable feature of Phoenician communities 
 was their mercantile enterprise. (2.) Another feature was their 
 organization into independent states, each wiih its city and district 
 government. (3.) A third, was their practice of sending out colonies, 
 to make new settlements, wherever an opportunity was afforded for 
 trade. 
 
 XV.— (1.) The history of the Phoenicians furnishes an example 
 of divine wisdom, in directing human affairs. (2.) The Hebrews 
 were permitted to take possession of the land of the Canaanites, in 
 order to bring about the future civilization of distant countries. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Some Canaanitish tribes were dispersed throughout 
 Syria, and became merchants, travelling in great caravans. (2.) 
 These caravans were the means of making remote countries known to 
 each other, through traffic and intercourse. (3.) Other Canaanitish 
 tribes were driven to the sea-coast, and there formed communities 
 of sailors and merchants. (4.) These latter built ships, and sent out 
 colonies to all parts of the world, civilizing savage tribes wherever 
 they settled. 
 
 XVII.— (1.) We read in the Bible that in King Solomon's time 
 the Phcenicians were allies of the Hebrews, and traded with them. 
 
 XTTT . — (1.) What did one of these companies do ? (2.) What did Phoenician 
 merchants do ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What was the most notable feature of Phcenician communities? 
 (2.) What was another? (3.) What was a third? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What does Phoenician history furnish ? (2.) For what purpose 
 were the Hebrews permitted to take possession of Canaan ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What resulted to some of the Canaanitish tribes ? (2.) Of what 
 were these caravans the means ? (3.) Where were other Canaanitish tribes 
 driven? (4.) What was the consequence? 
 
 XVTL — (1.) What do we read in the Bible concerning the Phoenicians?
 
 The Phoenician Confederacy. 129 
 
 (2.) Hiram, king of Tyre, assisted in building the temple at Jeru- 
 salem. (3.) Solomon and Hiram joined in sending colonies into 
 Syria, where they planted settlements which afterward became pros- 
 perous cities. 
 
 XVIII. — (l.j The Phoenician states were destined to experience 
 the fate of all luxurious and arrogant communities. (2.) The 
 wealthy city of Tyre became the most powerful of the confederacy, 
 and often assumed control over the rest. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The aristocracy oppressed the poorer people, and 
 bought slaves, to perform every kind of labor. (2.) They hired 
 mercenary soldiers, to spread their dominion over weaker nations. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The increase of luxury was fatal to the peace and 
 existence of the state. (2.) The riches of Phoenician merchants, 
 and splendor of their cities, excited the envy of more powerful states. 
 (3.) Tyre, the capital, was at last captured and plundered by the 
 conqueror Alexander. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The merchants of Phoenicia succeeded in building 
 up a wealthy confederacy, and spread their name and power to all 
 parts of the world, as navigators and merchants. (2.) They erred 
 in trusting all labor to slaves, and hiring strangers to defend their 
 cities. (3.) They had no free and independent citizens to support 
 the commonwealth. 
 
 XXII.^(1.) Phoenician arts and enterprise were of great im- 
 portance in civilizing distant countries. (2.) Many colonies of 
 Tyre continued to flourish long after the great city itself had fallen 
 to decay. 
 
 (2.) What did Hiram, king of Tyre, do? (3.) What is said of Solomou anj 
 Hiram ? 
 
 XVIII.— (1.) To what were the Phoenician states destined? (2.) What did 
 the city of Tyre become ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What did the aristocracy do? (2.) What did they hire? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What is said about luxury? (-2.) What results took place? 
 (3.) What was the fate of Tyre ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What did the merchants of Phoenicia succeed in doing? 
 (2.) What error did they commit? (3.) What was tlie result? 
 
 XXn.— (1.) What is said of Phoenician arts and enterprise? (2.) What 
 is remarked of colonies ? 
 
 6*
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCIAL STATES. 
 
 I. — (1.) Carthage was planted on the northern coast of Africa, 
 where Tunis now stands in the Mediterranean Sea. (2.) Its found- 
 ers were a colony of Ptioeuicians, who emigrated from Tyre, (3.) 
 The settlers were principally merchants, with their families and 
 slaves. (4.) They hired land from native savages, who claimed its 
 possession. (5.) These savages lived in tribes, some being nomadic, 
 and others settled in villages. 
 
 II.- -(1.) The savages who lived in villages were afterward made 
 subject to the colonists, when the latter increased in power. 
 (2.) The wild tribes would not submit, but retreated into the wil- 
 derDe3^, with their flocks and herds. 
 
 III. — (1.) As the settlement of Carthage began to prosper, many 
 emigrants came from Tyre, and other Phoenician cities, to join the 
 first colonists. (2,) The mercantile class continued to be the 
 wealthiest and most influential part of the community. (3.) Mem- 
 bers of this class owned large tracts of land, which they let, for cul- 
 tivation in farms, (4.) The rest of the community was composed 
 of professional persons, manufacturers, laborers, hired soldiers and 
 uiariners. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The Carthaginians copied, in some respects, the politi- 
 cal institutions of older Phrenician cities. (2.) They formed a 
 mixed republican government, partly democratic and partly aristo- 
 cr.itic. 
 
 I._(l.) Where was Carthage planted? (2.) Who were its founders? 
 (3.) What were these settlers? (4.) What did they do? "iA What of the 
 native savages ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What occurred to the village savages? (2.) What did the wild 
 trilies do ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What took place after the settlement began to prosper? (2.) What 
 did the mercantile class continue to be? (3.) What did its members own? 
 (4.) How was the rest of the community composed? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What did the Carthaginians copy? (2.) What did they form? 
 130
 
 The Carthaginian Commercial States. 131 
 
 V. — (1.) They chose two chief magistrates or judges, called 
 suffetes, who presided over the state, with limited powers. (2.) They 
 also organized a senate, selected from leading families of wealth and 
 merit. 
 
 VI. — (1.) This senate consisted of several liundred persons 
 (2.) Out of the senate was afterward chosen a smaller body, to 
 serve as a select council. (3.) The two suffetes were chosen for 
 life, but were subject in many respects to the council and senate. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When the senate was elected by the assembled people, 
 it appointed from its own body a number of committees, to which 
 was intrusted the charge of all public business. (2.) These com- 
 mittees consisted each of five senators, and from them were chosen 
 a select body or council, called the gerusia. (3.) Members of the 
 gerusia held office for life. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Tlie select council first prepared all business^ to be 
 deliberated upon in the senate. (2.) In connection with the senate, 
 it made appointments to office, and controlled the aff"airs of state iu 
 peace and war. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Nest to the office of suffete was that of general. 
 (2.) This officer was nominated by the select council, and elected 
 by the senate and assembly of the people. (3.) Commissioners 
 were appointed to attend the generals, as advisers and paymasters. 
 
 X. — (1.) The settlement of disputes between citizens was intrusted 
 to magistrates elected by the people. (2.) There was a principal 
 tribunal, composed of wealthy citizens who had previously held 
 offices of trust in tlie government, (3.) The members of this su- 
 
 V.— (1.) What did they choose ? (2.) What did they constitute ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) Of whom did the senate consist? {'1.) What was afterward 
 chosen? (.3.) What is said of the suffetes f 
 
 VII.— (1.) What did liie senate do ? (2.) What is said of these committees' 
 (8.) How long did members of the gerusia hold office? 
 
 Vin. — (1.) What did the select council do? (2.) What else? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What was next to the office of suffete? (2.) How was this officer 
 appointed? (3.) Who attended the generals? , 
 
 X.— (1.) Who were judges in Carthage? (2.) What principal tribunal was 
 there ? (3.) What is said of the members ?
 
 1^2 History of Governments. 
 
 preme court were at first chosen for life, but became dangerous to 
 the state as an oligarchy. (4.) Their term of office was afterward 
 limited to one year. 
 
 XI. — (1.) When Carthage was established, its citizens imitated 
 their Phoeniciai. ancestors, by sending out colonists to make new 
 fiettlements and build towns. (2.) These colonies depended at first 
 on Carthage, but soon afterward became independent allies. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The Carthaginians made war by means of merce- 
 naries, against the neighboring nomadic tribes, under patriarchal 
 chiefs. (2.) Many of these tribes were reduced to servitude, or 
 made to pay tribute to Carthage. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Colonies planted by the Carthaginians became 
 more or less noted for their own importance. (2.) They were 
 always confederated with the principal city, and ready to assist her. 
 (3.) Some of them were governed by officers appointed by the 
 senate of Carthage, but most of them were separate republics. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The Carthaginian government constructed large 
 fleets, and employed pov/erful armies, for purposes of defence and to 
 extend their territory. (2.) Soldiers were enlisted from other 
 nations, or wild tribes, and paid by the state. (3.) Captives taken 
 in battle, and slaves bought in the market, comprised most of the 
 common laborers. (4.) These persons were employed to make roads 
 and other public works, and to row the war-ships. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The Carthaginians forced all subject nations to pay 
 tribute in slaves, cattle, corn, or other products. (2.) The govern- 
 
 (4.) How was their terra of office limited ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) How did the Carthaginians imitate the Phoenicians ? (2.) What 
 about these colonies ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is said of their making war? (2) What was the result ? 
 
 XIIL— (1.) For what did Carthaginian colonies become noted? (2.) What 
 lelation did they bear to Carthage ? (3.) How were they governed? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What did the Carthaginian government do? (2.) How were the 
 forces organized ? (3.) Who comprised the laborers? (4.) How were they 
 employed ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What did the Carthaginians do to subject nations? (2.) What 
 did the government own?
 
 The Carthaginian Commercial States. 133 
 
 meat owned mines in Spain, which were worked by slaves, under 
 overseers. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The commerce of Carthage was carried on by sea 
 and laud. (2.) The merchants hired Arabian and African wild 
 vribes, as guards of their caravans. (3.) The government grew 
 enormously rich ; but tlie people were heavily taxed, and often 
 severely oppressed by oligarchies. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Oligarchies differ from aristocracies mainly in the 
 number of persons exercising power. (2.) An aristocratic state is 
 one where a class of the people have exclusive power to elect 
 governors and make laws. (3.) An oligarchal state is one where 
 a few families, or a few individuals, of a class, possess this exclusive 
 power. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The Phoenician and Carthaginian states often 
 became oligarchal, from a small number of influential men usurping 
 authority. (2.) Such usurpation generally resulted in open war 
 between different classes and parties. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The Carthaginian state experienced domestic trou- 
 bles during its greatest commercial prosperity. (2.) Its citizens 
 quarrelled among themselves, and the state fell a prey to disorder. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The Carthaginians became involved in three succes- 
 •sive wars against the Romans. (2.) The public treasures failed, 
 and the government at length yielded to foreign conquerors. (3.) 
 Carthage fell from the position of a flourishing commercial state, 
 and became a city of ruins and poverty. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Thus, a small colony, of emigrant traders, grew 
 
 XVI. — (1.) How was Carthaginian commerce carried on? (2.) What did 
 tlie mercliants do? (3.) Wiiat was the condition of tlie state ? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) How do oligarchies differ from aristocracies ? (2.) What is au 
 aristocratic state? (3.) What is an oligarchal state ? 
 
 XVni.— (1.) What is said of Phoenician and Carthaginian states? (2.) In 
 what did .such usurpation usually result? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What did the state experience ? (2.) What took place? 
 
 XX. — (1.) In what did the Carthaginians become involved? (2.) What r« 
 suited? (3.) What was the fate of Carthage? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What is said concerning the small colony of emigrant traders?
 
 134 History of Governments. 
 
 up into a great commonwealth, controlling rich cities and subject 
 provinces. (2.) It became unjust to other nations, oppressed the 
 weak, and reduced tribes and communities of freemen to slavery. 
 (3.) The consequence was, that disease and disunion undermined 
 its power, and its merchants and nobles passed away, with their 
 possessions. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE GRECIAN TRIBES. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Grecians are known in history as communities of 
 men who occupied cities and small territories. (2.) They were 
 originally savage tribes, wandering as nomads over the country 
 which afterward became divided among civilized states. 
 
 II. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Greece subsisted on fruits 
 and roots. (2.) Their clothing was formed of bark, grass, or the 
 skins of animals. (3.) The most intelligent of the wild nations 
 thus existing was called the Hellenes. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Hellones consisted of four tribes or branches. 
 (2.) These four were called lonians, Dorians, JEolians and Achae- 
 ans. (3.) From these descended the Grecian people, afterward 
 variously divided. 
 
 IV". — (1.) The two first-mentioned tribes, lonians and Dorians, 
 were able to absorb the others. (2.) The Grecian people became 
 classed, in later times, as Doric and Ionic. (3.) The Dorian Greeks 
 
 (2.) What did it become ? (3.) What was the consequence? 
 
 I. — (1.) How are the Grecians known in liistory ? (2.) What was their ori- 
 ginal condition? 
 
 II.--(1.) On what did the earliest Grecians suVjsist ? (2.) What was their 
 clothing? (a.) W^iat was the most intelligent tribe called? 
 
 m. — (1.) Of what did the Hellenes consist? (2.) What were these tribes 
 called? (3.) Who were their descendants? 
 
 IV. — (I.) What is said of the first-mentitned tribes? (2.) How were the 
 Grecians afterward classed ? (3.1 What is said of the Dorian Greeks ?
 
 The Grecian Tribes. 135 
 
 were more simple in manners iind partial to old customs. (4.) The 
 Ionic were given to change and excitement. 
 
 V. — (I.) The different dispositions of these two leading tribes 
 influenced the political partitions of the people. (2.) Communities 
 settled as civilized dwellers in cities, were each regulated by laws 
 adapted to its members. 
 
 VI. — (1.) All the Grecian states or communities possessed free 
 constitutions. (2.) By free constitutions the people were able, in a 
 greater or less -degree, to call their rulers to account. (3.) They 
 were always republican in spirit, though sometimes democratic, 
 sometimes aristocratic, and sometimes monarchal. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The Grecian constitutions, or laws regulating their 
 government, differed according to the wants and numbers of every 
 state. (2.) They acknowledged all supreme power to be in the 
 citizens, or members of a community. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In some of the Grecian states all the citizens were 
 allowed to have a voice in public affairs. (2.) States of this kind 
 were denominated democracies, or republics where the whole people 
 exercised power. 
 
 IX. — (1.) In other states, the laws were made, and government 
 administered, by members of certain families, or by certain classes of 
 the people. (2.) These bodies-politic were called aristocracies. 
 
 X. — (1.) In a Grecian democracy, all the people met and parti- 
 cipated in the popular assemblies. (2.) Every citizen, whether 
 
 (4.) What was the character of Ionian Greeks ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What did the different dispositions influence ? (2.) How were set- 
 tled communities reguUited ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is said of all Grecian communities? (2.) What were the 
 people able to do ? (3.) What were they in spirit ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) How did Grecian constitutions differ? (2.) What did they all 
 acknowledge? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What was allowed in some states? (2.) What were such 
 states ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said of othei states? (2.) What were such called ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is said of a Grecian democracy? (2.) What privilege had
 
 136 History of Governments. 
 
 poor or rich, could vote in these assemblies. (3.) The magistrates 
 of a true democracy were taken from all classes of citizens, without 
 distinction. 
 
 XI. — (1.) In a Grecian aristocracy, the wealthier classes pos- 
 sessed exclusive or superior privileges and authority. (2.) In some 
 aristocracies, the highest dignities of the state were continued from 
 father to son, in a few leading families. 
 
 XII. — (1.) In an aristocracy, the higher, or ruling class, con- 
 sisted of citizens who were owners of landed estates, or else of those 
 who claimed descent from leading warriors or persons of dignity in 
 ancient times. (2.) Sometimes the possession of wealth, in money 
 or land, and likewise superiority of birth, were necessary to consti- 
 tute an aristocratic family. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Such families could raise horses and maintain sol- 
 diers for the state service. (2.) They often managed to keep the 
 magistracies and offices of justice in their own hands. (3.) When 
 this was the case, the republic became a real aristocracy. 
 
 XrV. — (1 ) The possession of wealth by a few families gave them 
 the power to buy lands. (2.) The soil thus fell into the hands of a 
 limited number of owners. (3.) The poorer classes were only able 
 to occupy lands by permission of owners, and by paying a yearly 
 
 sum as rent. 
 
 XV. — (1.) Mechanical trades and other occupations, more or 
 less laborious, were at first carried on by slaves. (2.) Citizens 
 who possessed no land were obliged to become mechanics, like 
 
 eterv citizen? (3.) Whence were magistrates taken? 
 
 XI. (1.) What is said of a Grecian aristocracy? (2.) What was the cha- 
 racter of some aristocracies? 
 
 XII.— (1.) Who were the ruling class in an aristocracy? (2.) What was, 
 sometimes requisite ? 
 
 Xin. (1.) What could such families do? (2.) How did they often man- 
 age ? (3 ) What was the consequence ? 
 
 XrV. (].) What power did wealth give? (2.) Into what hands did the 
 
 soil Jail? (3.) How were the poorer classes affected by this ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) Who first carried on mechanical trades? (2.) What were land 
 less citizens obliged to do?
 
 The Grecian Tribes. 137 
 
 slaves, or to serve the higher class and the state, as laborers and 
 soldiers, 
 
 XVI. — (IJ AH inhabitants of a Grecian state or city were not 
 considered to be citizens. (2.) The right of citizenship was claimed 
 on certain grounds, defined by law and castom. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) In some communities, the right to be called a 
 citizen, and to enjoy a citizen's privileges, belonged to a Greek 
 whose parents had both been citizens. (2.) In others, it was neces- 
 sary that a person's ancestors, three generations back, should have 
 been citizens. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) In some states, citizenship was allowed to any 
 man whose mother was born on the soil and whose parents were 
 free. (2.) Other states admitted foreigners to the rights of citizens 
 by special laws or by vote of the people. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) In some Grecian states, the inhabitants of a chief 
 town or city were allowed the privileges of citizenship, and the resi- 
 dents of villages and the surrounding country were deprived of them. 
 (2.) In others, there was no distinction made between the people 
 of a town and the rural population. 
 
 XX. — (1.) Citizens constituted that portion of the free people 
 who could take part in popular meetings. (2.) They might speak 
 and vote fur officers of government, and on public affairs brought 
 before them for deliberation. (3.) Citizens of towns were separated 
 into dwelling districts, or wards. (4.) Rural citizens were separated 
 into cantons, or neighborhoods. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What is said concerning citizens? (2.) What of the right of 
 cilizcnship t 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What constitutes citizenship in soii.e communities? (2.) What 
 in others? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What is said of citizenship in some states? (2.) How did 
 otlier stales admit ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What is said of distinctions, as to chief cities? (2.) What of 
 other states without such distinctions ? 
 
 Tnr — (1.) What did citizens constitute? (2.) What were their privileges' 
 (8.) How were cit'zens of towns separated? (4.) How w^re rural eitizea« 
 separated ?
 
 1^8 History of Governments. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The name of every iitizen was registered with that 
 of the ward or caaton in which Le resided. (2.) The wealthier 
 citizens usually lived in wards or quarters by themselves. (3.) Each 
 citizen was taxed for the support of government according to the 
 amount of fortune which he possessed. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Expenses of the state were principally borne by 
 owners of large property in lands, houses, slaves and money. (2.) 
 The whole body of c'tizens constituted a militia, or arSaed force of 
 the state. (3.) Each was obliged to contribute a certain amount 
 ana kind of service during war. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Popular assemblies among the Greeks were com- 
 posed of all citizens who chose to attend them. (2.) In early times 
 these meetings were called by the king, chief, or other leader of a 
 tribe. (3.) At a later day, the power to call them was given to 
 some special magistrate. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Before voting on important matters, and for offi- 
 cers, the citizens were sometimes numbered. (2.) Absence from the 
 place of voting was often made a punishable offence. (3 ) It was 
 regarded as a particular duty of every citizen to attend the public 
 meeting and exercise his rights. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) In some Grecian cities the assemblies were regular 
 mid held on fixed days. (2.) Extraordinary and special meetings 
 were called when necessary. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) The business brought before popular assemblies in 
 Grecian states was of three kinds. (2.) The first kind embraced 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What is said of citizens' names? (2.) Where did wealthier citi- 
 zens live? (3.) How were citizens taxed ? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) How were state expenses borne? (2.) What constituted a 
 militia? (3.) What was each obliged to contribute ? 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) How were popular assemblies composed? (2.) How were 
 these first convened ? (3.) How in later times? 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) What is said of numbering the citizens ? (2.) What was an 
 offence ? (3.) What was regarded to be a duty ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) When were assemblies held? (2.) What is said of other 
 meetings ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) How many different kinds of business came before the popular 
 assemblies? (2.) What did the first kind of business embrace ?
 
 The Grecian Tribes. 139 
 
 legislation, or passing of laws. (3.) The second related to the 
 choice of magistrates. (4.) The third class of business was that 
 of deciding questions of justice and right between citizens. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) In some democratic republics of Greece the 
 poor citizens were often possessed of dangerous power. (2.) They 
 received pay for attending assemblies, and sold their votes to 
 wealthy candidates for election to office. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) In s-^me cities, the popular assembly was very 
 seldom called together ; or if a meeting was convened, it consisted 
 of select persons. (2.) In this manner, a mixture of aristocratic and 
 democratic government was formed. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) In most Grecian cities, there was a smaller body 
 selected from members of the popular assembly. (2.) This smaller 
 body prepared business to be acted upon in the democratic meeting. 
 (3.) It was called a council, and its members were chosen from 
 leading persons in each profession or division of the people. (4.) 
 This council was chosen to act during one year. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) In many communities there was a permanent body 
 of citizens formed, instead of a yearly council. (2.) This was a 
 senate, or body of elders, who were obliged to be of a certain age. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) Sometimes a senate was composed of the most 
 capable and honest elders, chosen to serve during life. (2.) Gene- 
 rally the term of office was limited to one or more years. 
 
 (3.) To what did the second relate? (4.) The third? 
 
 XXVII.— (1.) Wliat was often the case iu democratic republics? (2.) What 
 did they receive and do ? 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) What is said of the assembly in some cities? (2.) What 
 was formed by this ? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What was selected iu most Grecian cities? (2.) What did this 
 body prepare? (3.) What was this body called ? (4.) For how long time was 
 it chosen ? 
 
 XXX. — (1 ) What was done in many communities ? (2.) What was this 
 body? 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) What was the character of the senate? (2.) What was gene- 
 rally its term of authority ?
 
 140 History of Governments. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The assembly, or popular gathering of every 
 Grecian cotriraunity was like a modern town meeting. '^2.) The 
 council of leading citizens, or senate, was like a board of aldermen, 
 or legislature, at the present day. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) Every Grecian city had a certain number of 
 magistrates, (2.) These officers exercised various powers, and per- 
 formed different duties. (3.) They were kept distinct from priests, 
 teacliers, or ambassadors. (4. J Grecian magistrates were usually 
 answerable to the people for their conduct while in office. (5.) In 
 some states they were called to account by the council or senate. 
 
 XXXIV. — (I.) In most of the Grecian republics all magistrates 
 were chosen by the people. (2.) In a few it was customary to se- 
 lect these officers from one or more leading families, in hereditary 
 succession. (3.) The general principle was election by the people, 
 from the most popular or leading men. 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) In many communities the magistrates were elected 
 by casting lots, so that chance decided among a number. (2.) The 
 lot was usually employed for a selection of two out of a number of 
 candidates. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) In a Grecian democracy, members of every class 
 of ciiizens, whether rich or poor, claimed equal votes. (2.) Wheu 
 an aristocratic party arose, its first effort was to limit the number 
 and classes of citizens who might be entitled to vote. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) Grecian magistrates did not receive fixed sala- 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) What modern institutions did a Grecian assembly resemble ? 
 (2.) What did a Grecian council or senate resemble? 
 
 XXXm.— (1.) What did every city have? (2.) What authority did they 
 possess? (.S.) From whom were they distinct? (4.) To whom were they an- 
 swerable ? (5.) Who called them to account in some states? 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) How were magistrates generally appointed? (2.) How were 
 they selected in a few states? (S.) What was the general principle of their 
 choice ? 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) What is said of magistrates in many communities? (2.) For 
 what was the lot usually employed? 
 
 XXXVL— (1.) What did citizens claim in a democracy ? (2.) What was the 
 first effort of an aristocracy ? 
 
 XXXVn. — (1.) What is said concerning the pay of Grecian magistrates?-
 
 The Grecian Tribes. 141 
 
 ries for the labors they performed. (2.) The honor of being 
 elected was considered to be of more importance than gain. (3.) 
 Members of the poorer classes were seldom able or willing to hold 
 office. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) When a few families gained control of all the 
 assemblies, they were able to have the magistrates chosen always 
 from their own members. (2.) The state then became an oligarchy, 
 as before explained. (3.) The difference between an oligarchic and 
 an aristocratic state consisted in the first being governed by a few 
 privileged families, and the second oy a class of privileged citizens. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) Magistrates were usually chosen for a limited 
 terra, such as one year, and in some cases for only half a year. 
 (2.) When a magist -ate usurped powers not belonging to his office, 
 or refused to render an account to the people, he was called a 
 tyrant, 
 
 XL. — (1.) The distinguishing institutions of all Grecian repub- 
 lics were three in number. (2.) The first was an assembly of the 
 people ; the second, a smaller council, or senate ; the third, an 
 election of magistrates. (3.) Accordingly as the popular assembly 
 possessed more or less power, and the magistrates were cboseu by 
 a greater or less number of citizens, the state became a democraty, 
 an arist(tcracy, or an oligarchy, 
 
 XLiI. — (1-) Laws enacted in popular assemblies, or by senates, 
 were committed to writing, and intrusted to the keeping of officers 
 (2.) Popular assemblies acted as courts of justice in certain cases 
 
 (2.) What was the honor of election considered ? {."J.) Who seldom held 
 office? 
 
 XXXVm.— (1.) What is said of a few leading fumilies? (2.) What did 
 the state then become? ('!.) What is the difference between an oHgarclnj and 
 an aristocracy ? 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) For how long a time were magistrates chosen? (2.) What 
 was a magistrate called who assumed too much power ? 
 
 XL.— (1.) What is said of distinguishing institutions? (2.) What were thej ? 
 (3.) What did their modifications productJ ? 
 
 XLI.— (1.) What is said of Grecian hrvs? (2.) What of popular asseij 
 blies ?
 
 142 History of Governments. 
 
 (3.) They gave decisious ia accordance with the laws, and by a 
 majority of votes. 
 
 XIjII. — (1.) The popular assemblies, acting as courts, decided 
 questions and punished offences which affected the community as a 
 body politic or social. (2.) Disputes between individuals, or other 
 private grievances, were passed upon by smaller courts, consisting 
 of a number of citizens. 
 
 XIjIII. — (1.) Members of the smaller courts were selected by 
 lot, from the popular assembly. (2.) They were required to be 
 thirty years of age, of good reputation, and not indebted for taxes 
 to the state. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) The larger courts were sometimes composed of 
 many hundreds of citizens. (2.) They listened to the accusers and 
 defendants, to the counsel, styled orators, and to the witnesses, and 
 then made decision. (3.) Courts of this kind among the Greeks 
 were like juries in modern times, except that they were more 
 numerous. 
 
 XLV. — •(!.) There were other inferior tribunals connected with 
 public matters. (2.) These made preliminary examinations in mat- 
 ters of dispute or offence, and disposed finally of simple cases. 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) Every Grecian commonwealth was an independent 
 republic, having its own constitution, magistrates and laws. (2.) 
 The principal states entered into alliance and formed a confederacy. 
 (3.) The confederation was often interrupted by wars between two 
 or more states. 
 
 (3.) How did these assemblies give decisions ? 
 
 XIjII. — (1.) Wliat did these popular assemblies do? (2.) How were disputes 
 between citizens passed upon ? 
 
 XlilU. — (1.) How were smaller courts formed ? (2.) What were members 
 required to be? 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) What is said of the larger courts? (2.) What was their 
 method of proceeding? (3.) What modern body did the Grecian popular 
 courts resemble ? 
 
 XLV. — (1.) What is said of other tr-bunals ? (2.) What was their business? 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) What is said of every Grecian commonwealth? (2.) What 
 was done by the principal states? (3.) How was the confederation often 
 interrupted ?
 
 The Republic of Athens. 143 
 
 XLVII. — (1.) The confederacy of Grecian republics was known 
 as the Amphictyonic League. (2.) It was represented in a gene- 
 ral convention, composed of delegates chosen by the leading states. 
 (3.) These delegates met in council twice every year, at Thermopylae 
 and Delphi, two of the Grecian cities. 
 
 XL VIII. — (1.) The Amphictyonic Council comprised the repre- 
 sentatives of twelve principal Grecian cities. (2.) Each city sent 
 ten chosen citizens to the meetings. (3.) This council decided im- 
 portant questions between different states. (4.) It had charge of 
 the Temple of Delphi, which was the chief religious shrine of 
 Greece. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The state of Athens originated in a colony of Egyptians, 
 under Cecrops, their leader. (2.) This colony united with savage 
 inhabitants of the country and captives taken in battle. (3.) It 
 existed as a republic, under mixed forms of government, during 
 seventeen hundred years. 
 
 11. — (I.) Cecrops, the founder, exercised authority as the head, 
 or king of the state. (2.) He was succeeded by hereditary kings, 
 limited in their jurisdiction. 
 
 XLVII — (1.) What was the Grecian confederacy called ? (2.) How was it 
 represented ? (3.) Where did the delegates meet ? 
 
 XLVm — (1.) What did the Amphictyonic Council comprise? (2.) How 
 many delegates did eacli city send? (3.) What was the business of the coun^ 
 oil ? (4.) Of what had it charge ? 
 
 I.— (1.) What was the origin of Athens? (2.) With whom did this colony 
 unite? (3.) How long was it a republic? 
 
 II.— (1.) What was the authority of Cecrops? (2.) By whom was he .sue 
 ceeded ?
 
 144 History of Governments. 
 
 III. —(1.) Cecrcps divided tlw population into classes of citizens 
 and slaves. (2.) A third class was afterward formed, consisting of 
 foreigners who arrived at Athens after the settlement. (3.) The 
 names of all the people were registered, under the heads of citizens, 
 strangers, or slaves. 
 
 rV. — (1.) At the death of a popular king, called Codrus, the 
 people of Athens altered and limited the powers of their chief 
 magistrate. (2.) They deputed a wise citizen, named Solon, to 
 prepare for them a constitution, or frame of government. 
 
 V. — (1.) Solon separated the class of citizens into four sub- 
 divisions. (2.) These persons, with their descendants, he denomi- 
 nated /ree?we?i o/ ^l^^ens. (3.) They were privileged to assemble in 
 town meeting, to make laws and choose magistrates. (4.) Each 
 freeman was obliged to pay a tax to the state, in proportion to the 
 value of his property. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The class of strangers in Athens comprised all foreign- 
 ers, and those born in Athens who were neither citizens nor slaves. 
 (2.) These strangers were required to wear certain badges, to dis- 
 tinguish them from the citizens. (3.) Every stranger was per- 
 mitted to select some citizen as a protector, who was called hig 
 patron. 
 
 VII, — (1.) It was the duty of a patron to guard the stranger 
 who selected him from all oppression or illegal practices. (2.) A 
 stranger was obliged to pay the same tax as a citizen. (3.) An 
 extra sum was required from the whole body of strangers, toward 
 the support of government. 
 
 III. — (1.) What division did Cecrops make? (2.) What class was afterward 
 formed? (3.) What is said of citizens' names ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What did the people do at the death of Codrus? (2.) Who was 
 deputed as a law-maker ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What divisions did Solon make? (2.) What were these persons 
 denominated? (3.) How were they privileged ? (4.) What was each obliged 
 to do? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did the class of strangers comprise in Athens? (2.) What 
 was required of them ? (3.) What was every stranger permitted ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was a patron's duty? (2.) What was a stranger obligH 
 to pay? (3.) What extra demand was made upon strangers?
 
 The Republic of Athens. 1 45 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The slaves, who constituted the third class of the 
 Athenian population, were not obliged to pay a tax, and were not 
 considered to have any rights. (2.) They were allowed to earn 
 money for themselves, with permission of their masters or owners. 
 (3.) They were permitted to buy their freedom, if able at any 
 time. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Slaves consisted of captives taken in battle, or bought 
 from traders. (2.) They were natives of various countries then 
 known, and of all complexions, (3.) They were occupied in culti- 
 vating land, building, quarrying, carrying burdens, and all other 
 laborious occupations. (4.) They were also employed as domestic 
 servants of citizens and strangers. 
 
 X. — (1.) When population grew more numerous, the four sub- 
 divisions of citizens were partitioned again. (2.) In later days, the 
 voting people of Athens comprised ten tribes. (3.) Each of these 
 ten tribes was entitled to select, from its members, certain oflScers of 
 the state. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Every tribe chose fifty of its members as representa- 
 tives in a state council. (2.) The state council, or senate, consisted 
 of five hundred citizens. (3.) Senators were chosen either by lot 
 or by vote of their fellows in every tribe. 
 
 XII. — (1) When senators were to be chosen by lot, the names 
 of all freemen in a tribe were engraved on small brass plates and 
 placed in an urn. (2.) Into another urn wore dropped the same 
 number of beans, all of which were black except fifty. (3.) Then 
 
 Vm.— (!•) What is said of slaves in Athens? (2.) What were they al- 
 lowed? (3.) What else were they permitted? 
 
 IX. — (1.) Of what persons did slaves consist? (2.) Of what nation and 
 color were they? (3.) How were they occupied? (4.) How were they other- 
 wise employed ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What took place when population increased? (2.) How many 
 tribes or wards of voters did the citizens afterward comprise ? (3.) To what 
 was each tribe entitled ? 
 
 XI. — (].) What did every tribe choose ? (2.) How many members had the 
 senate? (3.) How were senators chosen ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What was done when senators were to be chosen by lot ? (2.) 
 What were dropped into another urn ? (3.) What was furthermore done ? 
 
 7
 
 146 History of Governments, 
 
 one name and one bean were taken oat at the same time, till all 
 were drawn. (4.) Every citizen whose name came out with a whita 
 bean was then declared a senator. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Important matters relating to war and peace, were 
 first brought for discussion before the senate. (2.) Senators were 
 usually paid a certain sum for every day of service. 
 
 XrV. — (1.) For purposes of war and taxation, the Athenian 
 citizens were divided into four classes, according to their income. 
 (2.) Every member of either of the two wealthier classes was re- 
 quired to keep and provide a horse and soldier. (3.) Citizens of 
 the third class were obliged to serve as heavy armed, and citizens of 
 the fourth class as light armed soldiers, or as mariners and oarsmen 
 of the fleet. 
 
 XV. — (1.) A chief magistrate, called an Archon, was elected by 
 the citizens, to serve during life. (2.) The ofiBce was at first made 
 hereditary in the family of Codrus, the last king, (3,) Archons 
 were accountable to the people for their conduct. 
 
 XVI. — (1,) The archon's term of office was afterward reduced 
 to ten years. (2.) At a later period, the government of a single 
 chief ruler was changed for that of a board, or council of nine 
 magistrates, each elected for a single year. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The first of the nine magistrates was still called 
 the archon. (2.) He presided over the board, and the year in 
 which he served was called by his name. (3.) The second magis- 
 trate had the title of king, or Basileus. (4.) He presided over 
 
 (4.) What was the result of the drawing? 
 
 Xin. — (1.) What matters did the senate first discuss? (2.) What did sena- 
 tors usually receive ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) How were Athenian citizens divided? (2.) What was every 
 member of the wealthier classes required to do? (3.) What were citizens of 
 the third and fourth classes obliged to do ? 
 
 XV,— (1.) What was an Archon? (2.) What was the office at first ? (3.) 
 To whom were archons accountable ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) To how many years was the archon's term reduced ? (2.) What 
 was done at a later period ? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What was the first of these magistrates called? (2.) What is 
 said of him ? (3) What title had the second archon ? (4.) What was his
 
 The Republic of Athens. 147 
 
 religrons matters in the state. (5.) The tliird magistrate was 
 called the Pokmarch. (6.) He superintended tiie military affairs 
 of the republic. 
 
 XVIIL— (1.) The remaining head magistrates, six in number, 
 presided as judges over courts of the people. (2.) The body, or 
 board of nine, formed a supreme council of state. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) These magistrates, and all other elected officers, 
 were chosen by citizens iu their assemblies. (2.) The candidates 
 for office were almost always taken from the two wealthy classes, or 
 the middling rank of citizens. (3.) The fourth class shared in the 
 rights of assembling and voting, but were too poor to hold offices 
 without pay. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The public assembly framed the laws, elected magis- 
 trates, and had a voice in all matters concerning the republic. (2.) 
 In this assembly, or popular meeting, every citizen fifty years old 
 might address the people. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) When Athens became a powerful state, the popular 
 assembly numbered twenty-one thousand persons. (2.) This assem- 
 bly of the people was called the Ecclesia. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) After the senate was formed, from delegates chosen 
 by tribes, all public matters were first prepared in its meetings. 
 (2.) After having been sufficiently debated in the senate, these mat- 
 ters were submitted to popular vote in the Ecclesia. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The highest court of justice in Athens was called 
 the Areopagus. (2 ) Its members were chosen out of the wisest 
 
 duty ? (5.) What was the third archoii called? (6.) What was his V)usines9.* 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) What did the remaining archoiis do ? (2.) What did the whole 
 body form ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How were tlie magistrates chosen? (2.) From what classes 
 vrere candidates generally taken? (3.) What did the fourth class share? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What is said of the public assembly? (2.) Who might address 
 the people ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) How many persons were in the popular assembly? (2.) What 
 was this meeting called? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) What took place after the senate was formed? (2.) 'WTiat 
 ROur.se did these matters take? 
 
 XXni.— (1.) What was the Arcoparjtis ? (2.) Of whom was it composed?
 
 148 History of Governments. 
 
 and best citizens who had held the dignity of an archon, or chief 
 magistrate. (3.) The meetings of this court were held in the open 
 air. (4.) It deliberated on all causes in the night time, 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The areopagus had charge of the public treasury, 
 and guardianship of all the laws. (2.) It exercised supervision 
 over the education of youth, and appointed teachers for them. 
 (3.) It had authority to inquire into the morals and habits of the 
 people, to punish disorderly persons, and to reward sober and useful 
 citizens. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) All religious ceremonies were regulated by the 
 areopagus, (2.) It possessed authority to call any citizen to ac- 
 count, and make him declare how he obtained his living and spent 
 his time. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) Judges of the areopagus were required to be of the 
 strictest integrity and morals, (2.) It was considered to be a high 
 offence for one of them to be seen in a tavern, and they were ex- 
 pected to maintain 'at all times a grave and reserved demeanor. 
 (3.) A judge who became iutoxicated was punished sometimes with 
 death. 
 
 XXVII. — (I.) The inferior courts of the people were com- 
 posed of a greater or less number of citizens, chosen by lot. (2.) 
 Decisions of cases were generally made in the same manner, by 
 drawing black and white beans. (3.) A member of one of the 
 courts received three oholi, or five pence, for hearing a case. (4.) 
 These Athenian courts were like modern juries, but more numerous. 
 (5.) The larger ones comprised several hundred members each. 
 
 (3.) Where were its meetings lield ? (4.) Wiien did it deliberate ? 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) Ofwiiat liad this court cliarge? (2.) Wiiat did it exercise! 
 (3.) Whiat authority had the areopagus? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What is said of religious ceremonies ? (2.) What power did 
 the areopagus have over every citizen ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What were members of this court required to be? (2.) What 
 is said concerning them? (3.) What is said of intoxication in an areopagite 
 judge ? 
 
 XXVn,— (1.) How were the inferior courts composed? (2.) How were 
 decisions made? (3.) What did the members of popular courts receive? 
 (4,) What were Athenian courts like ? (5.) What is said of the larger ones ?
 
 The Republic of Athens. 149 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) A number of persons were authorized to attend 
 every court, to argue the suits on either side. (2.) These officials 
 were called orators, and were lilie pleaders of law in modern courts 
 of justice. (3.) Appeals to the whole people could be made from a 
 decision of any court except the supreme tribunal of the Areopagus. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) Athens continued to be governed by archons, 
 senate, and popular assemblies, till a citizen named Pisistratua 
 usurped supreme power. (2.) His sway was followed by a period 
 of oligarchic government, in which thirty self-appointed magistrates 
 held all the chief offices. (3.) The period of their control was called 
 the reign of the thirty tyrants. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) After the thirty tyrants fell, Athenian citizens re- 
 covered their sway in assemblies of the people. (2.) The power 
 of the populace became greater, and the citizens were divided into 
 disorderly factions. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) At this period, the republic of Athens was 
 considered to be a complete democracy. (2.) The number of 
 freemen, or citizens entitled to vote, was comparatively small. 
 (3.) These citizens seldom, if ever, exceeded twenty-five thousand, 
 whilst there were four hundred thousand slaves, who had no rights 
 at all. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The Athenian people, in their freest days, formed 
 an aristocratic despotism. (2.) The free citizens, who were twenty- 
 five thousand in number, possessed unlimited authority over half a 
 million of slaves and foreigners. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The state carried in itself the disease which 
 
 XXVm. — (1.) Who were authorized to attend courts? (2.) What were 
 these officials called, and what were tliey like? (3.) What is said of 
 appeals ? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What is said of Athenian government? (2.) What followed 
 the sway of Pisistratus? (3.) What was this period called? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) Wliat followed the oligarchy? (2.) What then took place? 
 
 XXXL — (1.) What was Athens considered to be? (2.) What is said of the 
 citizens? (3.) How did they compare in number with the slaves? 
 
 XXXn. — (1.) What did the Athenian people form ? (2.) How was ihia 
 despotism manifested ? 
 
 XXXm. — (1.) What is here remarked concerning the Athenian state?
 
 l^o History of Governments. 
 
 was to destroy it. (2.) The Athenian people became tyrannical 
 and arrogant. (3.) The voting classes were divided into parties, 
 and the rich employed their wealth to oppress the poor, or purchase 
 their support in tae assemblies. 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) At length, Athens became involved in war with 
 other republics of Greece, and her citizens were deprived of their 
 rights and privileges, (2.) The commonwealth fell a prey to dema- 
 gogues at home, and at last sank under the military despotism of 
 Alexander the Conqueror. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE LACEDEMONIAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Lacedemonian or Spartan republic owed its politi- 
 cal organization to the labors of a law-giver named Lycurgus. 
 (2.) It originated, like other Grecian states, in a consolidation of 
 two or more tribes of savage people. 
 
 II. — (1.) The chief persons of the commonwealth were two ma- 
 gistrates, with the title of kings. (2.) They were generals of the 
 republic, in time of war, and chief priests of the nation. (3.) Their 
 authority was hereditary in two braiiches of an ancient family. 
 (4.) It was restricted by laws and by the power of the people. 
 
 III. — (1.) A law-making body, called the senate, constituted a 
 national council. (2.) Its members were elected by the Spartan 
 
 (2.) What did the people become? (8.) What divisions followed, and what 
 effects? 
 
 XXXrV. — (1.) What was the result of this condition of affairs? (2.) What 
 was the fate of Athens ? 
 
 L — (1.) What is said of the Spartan republic ? (2.) How did it originate ? 
 
 n. — (1.) Who were chief in the commonwealth? (2.) What authority had 
 they ? (3.) W^hat was its duration ? 4.) How was it restricted ? 
 
 TTT — (1.) What constituted the national council? (2.) What is said of its
 
 The Lacedemonian Republic. 151 
 
 people, and were twenty-eight in number. (3.) All public matters 
 were first discussed in this senate. 
 
 IV. — (1.) An assembly of the people acted upon laws and regu- 
 lations submitted to their discussion. (2.) Only such matters came 
 before the assembly of the people as had been considered by the 
 senate. (3.) Action of the senate was not legal unless it received 
 the sanction of the citizens afterward. 
 
 V._(l.) The laws of Sparta were not allowed to be written, as 
 in other Grecian states. (2.) They were taught to children by 
 their parents and masters. (3.) All citizens were required to have 
 the laws fixed in their memory. 
 
 VI. — (1.) There was a high court or council of five magistrates, 
 called Epkori. (2.) The Ephori had jurisdiction over morals, took 
 charge of the treasury, and had authority to call kings and senators 
 to account at any time. 
 
 VII.— (1.) The Ephori, in connection with the senate, held the 
 power of life and death over kings and citizens accused of offence 
 against the state. (2.) They decided disputes between individuals, 
 and could impeach senators and officers. (2.) Two of the Ephori 
 accompanied the kings in military expeditions. (4.) They were 
 elected yearly from citizens who had been senators. 
 
 VIII.— (1.) The Ephori presided over the education of Spartan 
 children, and called the people to meet in their assemblies. (2.) They 
 had power to levy troops, and send them to war, and gave orders to 
 the kings, when the latter acted as generals. 
 
 'O'^I 
 
 members? (3.) What about public matters ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What is said of a popular assembly ? (2.) What matters came 
 before it? (3.) What is said of the senate's action ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What about SparUn laws? (2.) To whom were they taught? 
 (3.) What was required of citizens? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What high court was there in Sparta? (2.) What authority had 
 these, magistrates ? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What penal power did the Ephori hold? (2.) What did they 
 do? (3.) What did two of them do? (4.) How were the Ephori appointed? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What other authority was exercised by these magistrates? 
 (2.) What military power had they ?
 
 1 52 History of Governments. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The twenty-eight senators were chosen for life, by the 
 citizens, in popular assembly, (2.) They were selected from the 
 eldest and most respectable citizens. (3.) In connection with the 
 Ephori, they directed all public measures, in peace or war. (4.) They 
 were judges of the people in questions that concerned property and 
 life, 
 
 X. — (1.) The assemblies of the people were composed of all citi- 
 zens over thirty years of age. (2.) No Spartan citizen was per- 
 mitted to engage in mechanical or menial pursuits. (3.) All Spar- 
 tan youths were educated to be soldiers, and remained at home to 
 defend the state till they became entitled to the name of Spartan 
 citizens. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Land, in the Lacedemonian territory, was divided 
 equally among the citizens. (2.) There were thirty-nine thousand 
 allotments of laud in this manner. (3.) The proprietors of these 
 shares were not allowed to sell them. 
 
 XII. — (L) The Lacedemonian people were of two classes — na- 
 tive born and freedmen. (2.) Those born of Spartan parents, and 
 brought up under the state regulations, were eligible to civil and 
 military offices. (3.) The other class of citizens consisted of persons 
 whose parents were not native, or who were not educated according 
 to law. (4.) Members of the latter class were permitted to vote, but 
 could not h(jld office. (5.) Strangers and released captives belonged 
 to the second class. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The electors of the chief Lacedemonian city, called 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said of the senate? (2.) How were senators selected? 
 (3.) What were the senators' powers? (4.) What judicial authority had 
 they? 
 
 X. — (1.) Who composed the popular assemblies ? (2.) How were Spartan 
 citizens restricted ? (3.) What is said of Spartan youth ? 
 
 XL — (1.) How was land divided in Lacedemonia? (2.) How many allot- 
 ments of the soil were there ? (3). What was not allowed to landholders? 
 
 XII. — (1.) How were the Lacedemonian people classed? (2.) Who were 
 eligible to hold office? (3.) Who constituted the second class?- (4.) How 
 were members of the second class restricted? (5.) What persons belonged 
 to the second class ? 
 
 XIII — (1.) When and where did the Lacedemonian electors meet ?
 
 The Lacedemonian Republic. 153 
 
 Sparta, met in their assemblies twice a year, or oftener, when con- 
 vened by the Ephori. (2.) Free citizens of other towns, in the re- 
 public, sent delegates of committees of their number, to meet with 
 the assembly of Sparta, 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The Lacedemonian senate was presided over by the 
 two kings. (2.) Each of the kings possessed a vote, like any other 
 citizen, but no power over the meeting except what was required to 
 enforce order. 
 
 XV". — (1.) Besides native citizens, and freedmen entitled to attend 
 the assemblies, there were two other classes of inhabitants in Lace- 
 demonian territory. (2.) The first of these, consisting of descend- 
 ants of a former Grecian tribe, were called helots. (3.) These helots 
 were deprived of all power in the republic, and considered to be 
 slaves of Spartan citizens. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Helots cultivated the lands owned by Spartan citi- 
 zens, paying a fixed rent for them yearly. (2.) They carried on 
 mechanical trades, and followed the Spartan soldiers to war as ser- 
 vants. (B.) Sometimes helots were permitted to acquire wealth, 
 and occasionally they were admitted to citizenship, as a reward of 
 meritorious actions. (4.) They were usually treated with great 
 cruelty by their masters. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The lowest class of the population was made up of 
 slaves, of various nationalities and colors. (2.) These persons per- 
 formed rough labors and menial services, required in public and 
 domestic ofiSces. 
 
 (2) How were free citizens of other towns represented? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Who presided over the senate? (2.) What influence had the 
 kings over this body ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What other classes made up tlie Lacedemonian community? 
 (2.) Of what did the first of these cksses consist? (3.) What is said of these 
 helots ? 
 
 XVI.— (1 ) What labors did the helots perform ? (2) What other occupa 
 tions had they ? (3.) What privileges did they sometimes have? (4.) How 
 were tney usually treated ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) What made up the lowest class of Lacedemonian population? 
 '2.) What labors did they perform ?
 
 154 History of Governments. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The Lacedemonian republic became famous among 
 
 Grecian states, on account of the bravery and hardihood of its citi- 
 zens, who were all soldiers. (2.; The state of Sparta was often 
 engaged in wars with Athens and other Grecian cities, (3.) It 
 become powerful and feared, but at length suffered the fate of all 
 ambitious states. (4.) It fell a prey to inward disorder and violence 
 from without. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The Spartan government was founded on principles 
 of great value. (2.) Its laws were opposed to luxury, and pro- 
 vided for the education of every citizen from his childhood. (3.) 
 But the privileges and rights of citizenship were confined to a 
 limited class. (4.) Members of this class were allowed to tyrannize 
 over other classes of their fellow-men. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The servile population of Sparta became more nume- 
 rous than the free citizens. (2.) They had no share in the com- 
 monwealth, and no interest in the soil. (3.) Their education was 
 not cared for, in youth, and they were allowed no position when 
 they grew up to manhood. 
 
 XXI.— (1.) The consequences attending such inequality of 
 classes were felt when the state grew rich and powerful. (2.) The 
 free citizens tyrannized over other classes, and demagogues divided 
 the population. (3.) At last a foreign enemy was able to conquer 
 the republic without difiBculty. 
 
 XVm. — (1.) For what did the Lacedemonian republic become famous? 
 (2) In what was Sparta often engaged? (3.) What is said of it ? (4.) What 
 was its fate ? 
 
 XrX.— (1.) What is said of Spartan government? (2.) What of its laws? 
 (3.) How were popular rights restricted? (4.) What was permitted to this 
 class? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What did the servile population become ? (2.) In what had they 
 no share or interest ' (3.) What was their social condition ? 
 
 yvT- — (1.) What is said of the consequences attending such inequality ! 
 (2.) Wh»t results followed? (3.^ What was the end of these troubles?
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OTHER GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 I. — (1.) Besides the republics of Attica, or Athens, and Lace- 
 demon, or Sparta, many other small Greek states grew up with 
 popular iustitutions. (2.) The earliest government of each was 
 hereditary chieftainship. (3.) Every tribe was a clan, led in its 
 wanderings by a headman. (4.) In this respect, the early Grecian 
 communities were like all other savage tribes before settlement and 
 cultivation of land. 
 
 II. — (1.) A nationality of the separate savage tribes of Greece 
 was brought about through their common religion. (2.) All of them 
 worshipped the same set of gods, and attended one principal temple, 
 situated in a place called Delphi. (3.) Members of different tribes 
 met at this temple, and formed a body of their headmen, to consult 
 about sacrifices and festivals. (4.) This was the origin of the Am- 
 phictyonic Council, afterward composed of delegates from each Gre- 
 cian state. 
 
 III. — (1.) Athens and Sparta grew to be the leading states of 
 Greece. (2.) Athens was chief among the communities descended 
 from Ionian tribes. (3.) Sparta was principal of the communities 
 descended from Dorian tribes. 
 
 IV. — (I.) Arcadia was an independent district of Greece, con- 
 taining several cities. (2.) In each city were wardens, or chief 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of other Greek states ? (2.) Wliat was the first govern- 
 ment of each? (:5.) What was every tribe ? (4.) What did Grecian communi- 
 ties resemble, in this respect ? 
 
 II. — (1.) How was Grecian nationality brought about? (2.) What did they 
 all do? (:s.) What did n>embers of ditferent tribes form? (4.) Of wliat was 
 this tlie origin ? 
 
 III. — (1.) What two grew to be leading states? (2) Among what commu- 
 nities was Athens chief? (3.) Of what other communities was Sparta the 
 principal "/ 
 
 IV. — (1 ) What was the Grecian state of Arcadia? (2) What were in 
 
 155
 
 156 History of Governments. 
 
 magistrates of the people, and a senate, elected by the popular 
 assembly. (3.) In time of war, a leader, or king, was chosen by 
 all the cities ; but they were usually independent of each other. 
 
 V. — (1.) The Argive republic was a Dorian state, governed by 
 a senate, and a body of citizens chosen from the wealthiest persons 
 of the community. (2.) It was thus based on an aristocratic con- 
 stitution, with magistrates chosen from a ruling class. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The AcHAiAN republics consisted of twelve cities, each 
 with seven or eight districts, or cantons. (2.) Each of the twelve 
 was an independent state, with a democratic constitution. (3.) They 
 were combined by a league, or compact, which made them a con- 
 federated nation. (4.) The Achaian states, thus confederated, 
 were able to defend themselves from other nations, and live in peace 
 and happiness. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The republic of Corinth was governed by its citizens, 
 in general assembly, and a senate. (2.) The chief inhabitants were 
 merchants, forming a wealthy class. (3.) From this class the 
 magistrates and senate were usually selected, making it an aristo- 
 cratic state. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The aristocratic republic of Elis consisted of several 
 districts, each choosing a magistrate from the tribe occupying it. 
 (2.) A senate, of ninety members, met at the capital, and held office 
 during life. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The B(E0TiAN republic embraced a number of small 
 states, each possessing a chief city and several villages. (2.) They 
 were combined as a nation by a league, with the state of Thebes at 
 
 each city? (3.) What was done in time of war? 
 
 V. — (1.) What was the Argive republic? (2.) What was its basis? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What were the Achaian republics ? (2.) What was each distnct? 
 (3.) How were the twelve combined ? (4.) What is said of this league of 
 republics ? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What about the republic of Corinth? (2.) Who composed its 
 chief inhabitants? (S.) How were magistrates and senates appointed? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What is said of the republic of Elis? (2.) What about Hs 
 senate ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What did the Boeotian republic embrace ? (2.) What united 
 them ?
 
 Other Grecian States. 157 
 
 its head. (3.) Boeotia was divided into four districts, each having 
 an assembly of citizens. (4.) These assemblies chose eleven officers, 
 called Boeotarchs, who governed the confederacy as civil magistrates 
 and military commanders. (5.) Each Boeotian city was ruled by a 
 small body of men, elected by law from a few leading families. 
 (6.) It thus constituted an oligarchic state. 
 
 X. — (1.) The republic of Megaris was governed by magistrates 
 chosen for short terms by the people. (2.) All power was in the 
 hands of the citizens at large who were not slaves so that the con- 
 stitution was democratic. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The island republic of Crete was made up of a num- 
 ber of cities, sometimes united and sometimes at war with each 
 other. (2.) Every city had its own constitution, with a senate 
 elected from the citizens. (3.) The magistrates of each city were 
 ten in number, always taken from certain privileged families. (4.) 
 These officers, called cosmi, were supreme, >^ ;.» governed as an oli- 
 garchic body. 
 
 XII. — (1.) AH Grecian states were in the practice of sending 
 out companies of their citizens, to settle on islands and in districts 
 of other countries. (2.) In this way, many Grecian colonies grew 
 up, and became flourishing states. (3.) These colonies were usually 
 governed as republics, with democratic, aristocratic, or oligarchic 
 constitutions. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Syracuse was the most powerful of all Grecian colo 
 nies. (2.) It was planted in the island of Sicily, and grew up under 
 an aristocratic form of goverument. (3.) The chief power was, at 
 
 (3.) How was Boeotia divided? (4.) What did the Boeotian assemblies 
 choose ? (5.) How was each city ruled? (6.) What did it thus constitute ? 
 
 X.— (1.) How was the republic of Megaris governed ? (2 ) In whose hands 
 was the power? 
 
 XI.— (1.) What is said of Crete? (2.) Wliat did every city have ? (3.) 
 What is .said of magistrates? (4.) What governmeirt did these officers 
 constitute? 
 
 Xn (1.) What was tlie practice of Grecian states? (2.) What resulted ? 
 
 (8.) How were such colonies governed ? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) What was the most powerful of Grecian colonies? (2.) What 
 is said of it ? (3.) It what class was chief power lodged ?
 
 1^8 History of Governments. 
 
 first, lodged in the hands of the richest class. (4.) A democratic 
 party afterward arose, and, by the help of the slaves, who rose 
 against their masters, drove the aristocratic leaders away. (5.) 
 The aristocrats called foreigners to their assistance, and regained 
 power by establishing a foreigner as king. (6.) Syracuse continued 
 a monarchy till another revolution of the people restored republican- 
 ism, under the democratic form. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Under a democratic constitution, magistrates and 
 other officers were elected by lot. (2.) Parties and factions then 
 grew up, and a general named Dionysius made himself king, and 
 was succeeded by a line of absolute monarchs. (3.) The republic 
 was restored by a patriot named Timoleon, but after his death the 
 supreme power fell into the hands of different tyrants. (4.) The 
 political history of Syracuse teaches the evils of civil war and social 
 divisions among the people of a state. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The republic of Massilia arose from a Grecian colony 
 planted on the coast of ancient Gallia. (2.) Its government was 
 aristocratic, of a liberal form. (3.) The chief power was exercised 
 by a body of six hundred citizens, called timuchi. (4.) They were 
 chosen for life, and were obliged to be married men with families. 
 (5.) None but those whose grandfathers and fathers were citizens, 
 as well as themselves, could belong to this body. (6.) At the 
 head of the council of six hundred were fifteen principal men. (*I.) 
 Three of these were the chief magistrates of the state. (8.) The 
 Massilian republic was prosperous, and became the seat of learning 
 and philosophy. 
 
 ^4.) What afterward occurred? (5.) What did the aristocrats do? (6.) What 
 was the consequence? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) How were magistrates elected by th.T Syracusan democracy? 
 (2.) What grew up, and what followed? (3.) What afterward took place? 
 (4 ) W^hat does the political history of Syracuse teach? 
 
 XV. — (1.) From what did the republic of Massilia arise ? (2.) What was its 
 form of government? (3.) By whom was chief power exercised? (4.) What 
 is said of the tlmiichi? (5.) Who only could belong to this body ? (6.) Who 
 were at the head of the council? (7.) What did three of these constitute? 
 (8.) What was the condition of the Massilian republic?
 
 Other Grecian States. 159 
 
 XVI.— (1.) The republic of Tarentum grew from a settlement 
 of Dorian Greeks in Italy. (2.) It became rich and prosperous 
 through trafiSc, but lost its power by the increase of luxury among 
 its citizens. (3.) The government was, at first, a liberal aristocracy, 
 magistrates being selected half by lot and half by a majority of 
 votes in public meeting. (4.) The senate had the power of making 
 war. (5.) When its free institutions became corrupted, Tarentum 
 sunk into a province of Rome. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The republic of Croton rose from a colony of 
 Aciiaian Greeks. (2.) Its institutions were democratic, re-organ- 
 ized by the philosopher Pythagoras. (3.) Pythagoras formed a 
 secret association of citizens to improve the government, by educat- 
 ing young native citizens, of capacity, to fill all offices of state. 
 (4.) Members of this secret society were called Pythagoreans, and 
 they spread throughout many cities of Italy. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The republic of Sybaris was a Greek settlement, 
 founded, as Croton was, by Achaians, incorporated with the native 
 tribes. (2.) It increased to twenty-five cities, and became noted 
 for wealth and luxury. (3.) All foreigners were admitted to citi- 
 zenship, so that the republic grew excessively populous. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The Sybarites remained democratic till a foreigner 
 named Telys was elected chief magistrate. (2.) Telys usurped su- 
 preme power, and expelled five hundred of tlie principal native citi- 
 zens, (3.) The banished citizens fled to the republic of Croton, 
 which espoused their cause. (4.) A war followed, and the Sybarite 
 state was destroyed by tlie Grotonians. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) From what did the republic of Tarentum grow? (2.) What is 
 said of the state? (3.) What was its govenimeut? (4.) What power had the 
 Tarentine senate? (5.) What befell Tarentum ? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) From what did the republic of Croton rise? (2.) What were 
 its institutions? (3.) What did Pythagoras form? (4.) What is said of this 
 Bocioty ? 
 
 XVni.— (1.) What was the republic of Sybaris ? (2.) How did this colony 
 flourish? (3.) Who were its citizens? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What is said of the Sybarite government? (2.) What did this 
 foreigner do? (3.) What became of the bari^hed citizens? (4.) What fol- 
 lowed this ?
 
 i6o History of Governments. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The republic of Thurii was founded by Athenian 
 colonists, near the site of Sybaris. (2.) Many Sybarite families 
 joined the Thurians, and, by means of their wealth, bought all the 
 best lands, and created an oligarchy. (3.) The poorer classes ei.- 
 pelled them, and adopted a democratic form of government. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The Grecian republic of Locri, in Italy, was founded 
 by bands of colonists from all parts of Greece. (2.) Tliese people 
 adopted an aristocratic form of government, placing power in the 
 hands of a hundred select families. (3.) The citizens met in public 
 assembly, and elected a magistrate called a cosmopolis, from one of 
 the select families. (4.) They also chose from their own numbers a 
 general senate, of a thousand members, to make the laws. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The republic of Rhegium arose from a colony of 
 peninsular Greeks. (2.) The government was aristocratic, all power 
 being placed in the hands of a thousand men selected only from 
 Messenian families. (3.) These families grew to be an oligarchy, 
 and afterward a member of one of them found himself able to 
 usurp supreme power. (4.) The state then fell a prey to parties, 
 and sunk at last into a Roman province. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Most of the Grecian colonies in Europe grew up 
 to be free states, smaller or larger. (2.) They were principally 
 planted on that portion of Gallia now known as Lower Italy. 
 (3.) The principles of republicanism were in this manner spread 
 from Greece to different countries. (4.) The free Grecian cities of 
 Italy formed the pattern for free Italian states in after ages. 
 
 XX.— (1.) Who founded the republic of Thurii ? (2.) What families joined 
 the Thurians? (3.) What did the poorer classes do? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) How did the republic of Locri originate? (2.) What form of 
 government was adopted ? (3.) What chief magistrate was elected ? (4.) What 
 body was chosen ? 
 
 XXn.— (1.) From what did the republic of Rhegium rise ? (2.) What form 
 of government was adopted? (.3.) To what did these families grow? (4.) What 
 was the consequence ? 
 
 XXm.— (1.) What is said of Grecian colonies in Europe? (2.) Where were 
 they principally planted? (3.) What resulted from Grecian colonization? 
 (4. What did the free Grecian cities of Italy form ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth- 161 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) Whenever moderate democratic itistitntions of the 
 Grecians were allowed fair trial, they were found to insure pros- 
 perity in a state- (2.) When corrupted by wealth and ambition, in 
 particular classes or individuals, they became feeble, and dangerous 
 to the people. (3.) The evils of Grecian republics consisted in the 
 luxury of the rich, the dependent condition of poorer citizens, and 
 the practice of holding great numbers of slaves. 
 
 XXV.— (1.) The rich obtained possession of all the land. 
 (2.) They were often able to buy the votes of the poor, and could 
 maintain possession of offices and make the laws. (3.) Slaves 
 were depended upon to perform all labors for the rich, and the poor 
 could not command employment. (4.) Poor citizens, who possessed 
 votes, were used as instruments by ambitious men, and often sup- 
 ported by them. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 I. M.) The state of Rome grew from a combination of settiers 
 
 belonging to several agricultural tribes. (2.) They formed a com- 
 munity on the shores of the Tiber, a river of Italy, and there built 
 a town. 
 
 II. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Rome adopted a form of 
 government resembling that of Grecian republics. (2.) They es- 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) What is said of moderate democratic institutions? (2.) What 
 took place when such institutions became corrupted ? (3.) In what did the 
 evils of Grecian republics consist? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) What principal cause operated against democracy ? (2.) What 
 were the wealthy able to do? (3.) What persons were depended upon as 
 laborers? (4 ) What is said of poor citizens ? 
 
 I. — (1,) From what did Rome grow ? (2.) What did the tribes do? 
 
 If- — (1.) What form of government was adopted? (2.) What did the 
 people do ?
 
 l62 Histor}'^ of Governments. 
 
 tablished a body called the senate, and elected a chief, or king, by 
 Totes of the people in general assembly. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Roman commonwealth was organized with much 
 system, even in its infant years. (2.) Many of its institutions con- 
 tinued to grow stronger as the state advanced in power and popu- 
 lation. 
 
 IV. — (1.) It was an object with the early settlers of Rome to 
 increase their numbers. (2.) They agreed that all free-born strangers 
 who joined the colony, should enjoy the privileges of citizens. 
 
 V. — (1.) At that time the territory occupied by the Romans 
 amounted to about fifty square miles. (2.) The citizens divided 
 this quantity of land, in order to sustain individuals and meet the 
 expenses of a body-politic. 
 
 VI. — (1.) They first separated the districts suitable for cultiva- 
 tion, into three unequal proportions. (2.) The smallest portion was 
 reserved for religious purposes. (3.) Temples of the gods, and 
 fields to secure rents and products for support of a priesthood, were 
 included in this reservation. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The land comprised in the second part was called the 
 king's land, and devoted to the raising of funds to meet the ex- 
 pense of government. (2.) The third division of soil was considered 
 to belong to the people. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Roman people were at first separated into three 
 tribes. (2.) Each of these three tribes represented one of the nations 
 that inhabited the country when Rome was founded. (3.) The 
 
 m. — (1.) What is said of the Roman commonwealth ? (2.) What of its in- 
 stitutions ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What was an object, with early settlers? (2.) What did they 
 agree ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What territory did the Roman settlers occupy? (2.) What did the 
 citizens do with this territory ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What divisions did they first make? (2.) For what was the 
 emalle.st portion reserved? (3.) What were included in the reservation? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was the second portion of land? (-2.) To whom was the 
 third division considered to belong ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) How were the Romans at first separated? (2.") What did each 
 tribe represent ? (3.) What were the names of the three ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. 163 
 
 first were Sabiiies, the second Albanes, and the third was composed 
 of all strangers, of various nations. 
 
 IX. — (1.) In later times, the tribes of Rome were increased to 
 four, and each took its name from that part of the city where its 
 members lived. (2.) As Rome grew more populous, new sulxlivi- 
 sions were made, till the number of tribes at last reached to thirtj- 
 five. 
 
 X. — (1.) Every tribe was politically divided into ten parishes, 
 each called a curia. (2.) The Roman people were afterward sepa- 
 rated into classes of society, to distinguish the higher and lower 
 citizens. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The first class was composed of the elder and wealthier 
 citizens of Rome, who were called patricians. (2.) The word patri- 
 cian is derived from pater or patricius, a father. (3.) Citizens who 
 had the most numerous families, and means to support them all, 
 were distinguished in early days of the republic as most honorable. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The first Roman council or senate was selected from 
 the fathers of families. (2.) The word senator has the same mean- 
 ing as elder. (3.) The first senators, and other officers of the com- 
 monwealth, were allowed to call their families patrician families. 
 (4.) The senate consisted, at first, of one hundred, next of two 
 hundred, and afterward of three hundred. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Families whose fathers served in early days as sena- 
 tors, were afterward called patridi, and became the aristocratic or 
 higher class of Roman citizens? (2.) Tlie great body of citizens 
 Femained plebeii, or plebeians, signifying common people. / 
 
 IX. — (1.) What took place in later times ? (2.) Wiiat was done as Rome 
 grew populous? 
 
 X, — (1.) How was each tribe politically divided? {-!.) How were the people 
 afterward separated? 
 
 XI, — {!.) Of wliat was the first class composed? (2.) From what is the 
 word patrician derived? (3.) Who were first distinguished as honorable? 
 
 XII. —(1.) From what portion of the community was the first council se- 
 lected? (2.) What is the meaning of the word senator? (3.) What were the 
 first senators allowed to do? (4.) What number composed the senate? 
 
 Xm.— (1.) How did patrician families originate ? ('2.) What did other citi- 
 zens remain?
 
 it)4 History of Governments. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Patricians, ia early times, were called patrous, 
 because they patronized or protected the poorer sort of people. 
 (2.) The latter, iu return for protection, were glad to pay respect 
 to the former, and follow them as clansmen. (3.) A patron was 
 generally the head of a large number of these followers, who were 
 called his clients. (4.) They were usually remote relations, stran- 
 gers, persons engaged in industrial trades, and sellers of merchandise. 
 
 XV. — (1.) After a patrician class was established, magistrates 
 and officers of the army were mostly chosen from its members, 
 (2.) Certain warriors were selected to defend the city, and each 
 of these was furnished with a horse by the commonwealth. (3.) 
 The horsemen were called the equestrian ordi r, or class of gentle- 
 men. (4.) They were allowed to wear a gold ring, to distinguish 
 them from the common people, who were forbidden to wear such an 
 ornament. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Equestrians were considered next in rank to the 
 senators. (2.) Senators wore a robe marked with large spots of 
 purple silk, and called the laticiavium. (3.) Equestrians wore a robe, 
 with smaller spots of purple, called an augustidaviuvt. (4.) A sena- 
 tor was generally required to be worth about thirty thousand dol- 
 lars, in land and slaves. (5.) The property of an equestrian, or 
 gentleman, was expected to be in value about half that sum. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The divisions of aristocracy, iu Rome, proceeded 
 from complimentary distinctions originally allowed by the people to 
 certain families. (2.) The founders of such families served the 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What other name had patricians? (2.) What ia said of poorer 
 citizens? (3.) What was the position of a patron? (4.) What were these 
 clients ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What took place after a patrician class was established? {2) 
 What body was created? (3.) What were these horsemen called ? (4.) What 
 Tere they allowed ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What was the rank of equestrians? (2.) What did senators 
 wear? (3.) What did equestrians wear? (4.) What was a senator required to 
 be worth in property ? (5.) What was expected to be the wealth of an 
 equestrian ? 
 
 XVII. — (,1.) From what did the two aristocratic divisions proceed? 
 (2.) What is said regarding the founders of such aristocralic families?
 
 The Romar Commonwealth. 165 
 
 state in various capacities, aud were honored, as good citizens and 
 protectors of the community. (3.) Their descendants insisted on 
 maintaining the distinction, and set themselves up as claimants to 
 the principal ofiBces. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The history of the Roman commonwealth pre- 
 sents a constant struggle between the democracy, or plebeians, and 
 the aristocracy, or patrician orders. (2.) All who boasted descent 
 from the first senators, and first horse-soldiers, of the republic, con- 
 sidered themselves patricians. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Plebeians of Rome were generally comprised under 
 the name populus, or the people. (2.) They carried on all occupa- 
 tions and ways of livelihood, that are usual to poorer citizens. 
 (3.) The most respectable of these were traders, manufacturers, ar- 
 tisans, farmers, and herdsmen. (4.) The lower sort were idlers, 
 vagrants, aud persons following disreputable courses to gain a sub- 
 sistence. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The privileges, or freedom, of a Roman citizen, could 
 be obtained in three ways. (2.) The first way was by hirthight, 
 from one or both of the person's parents, and himself also, having 
 been free-born in Rome. (3.) This class of citizens became known 
 as original citizens. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The second way of obtaining citizenship, was by 
 receiving it as a gift, in consideration of services rendered, or as a 
 mark of honor conferred. (2.) A foreigner could in this manner 
 be adopted to citizenship. (3.) In latter days of the commonwealth, 
 
 (3.) On what did their descendants insist? 
 
 XVlU. — (1.) What does Roman history present? (2.) Who claimed to be 
 patricians ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Under what name were plebeians comprised? (2.) What were 
 their occupations? (3.) How were the most respectable employed ? (4.) What 
 persons comprised the lower sort? 
 
 XX. — (1.) IIow could privileges or freedom be obtained ? (2.) What was 
 the first? (3.) What were such citizens called? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What was the second way of obtaining citizen.-^liip? (2 ) Who 
 could in this manner become a ciii/en? {'A.) What took place in latter 
 daye ?
 
 i66 History of Governments. 
 
 whole nations were sometimes admitted to citizenship by a decree 
 of the senate. 
 
 XXII.^ — (1.) The third method of making a freeman, was by 
 manumission, as when a master resigned control over a slave, and 
 gave him a cap, in token of liberty. (2.) A servant obtained his 
 freedom either by serving out his term of indenture, or paying 
 money to his master, or else by gift of his owner. (3.) A manu- 
 mitted servant was called a freedman. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The lowest descriptions of Roman population were 
 the bondmen and slaves. (2.) The former comprised individuals 
 bound by indentures or sentence of the courts. (3.) The latter were 
 persons in slavery, and subject to the will of their owners. (4.) The 
 first embraced apprentices, gladiators, and debtors serving for the 
 benefit of creditors. (5.) The latter comprised captives taken in 
 war, or persons bought in the market-place, as property. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The class of slaves and their descendants became 
 very numerous in Rome. (2.) Slaves had no rights, and could not 
 be witnesses, and their masters had unlimited power over their 
 persons. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) When the Roman people were separated into three 
 tribes, the soil settled upon by titizens was divided accordingly. 
 (2.) Each tribe had ten parishes, and the land was allotted in 
 thirty portions, for thirty parishes. (3.) The individuals of each 
 parish then agreed regarding the distribution of the land among 
 themselves. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) The chief of the state was commander of all the 
 
 XXn.- (1.) AVhak was the third way of making a freeman? (2.) In what 
 manner did a servant obtain his freedom ? (3.) What was a manumitted ser- 
 vant called ? 
 
 XXni. — (1 ) What persons composed the lowest descriptions of population ? 
 (2.) What were the former ? (3.) What were the latter ? (4.) What did the 
 first comprise? (5.) What did the latter comprise? 
 
 XXrV. — (1.) What class became numerous? (2.) W'hat is said of sla>es? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What is said of the division of soil ? (2.) In what proportion 
 was the land allotted? (3.) What did the individuals do? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What is said coucerning the chief of the Roman state?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. 16/ 
 
 militia, or citizeas capable of bearing arms. (2.) The chief could 
 not make war without consultation with thef elders of the people. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) The chief was head of the priesthood, and 
 directed all services and sacrifices in Roman temples. (2.) Other 
 priests were appointed, to attend the altars of different gods wor- 
 shipped by the people. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) Priests and judges of the Romans, at first, con- 
 sisted of old and respectable members of each tribe. (2.) They 
 were called fathers of the people, and were held in respect by all 
 members of the early community. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The people who founded Rome embraced per- 
 sons employed in cultivating land, others v/ho raised flocks, and 
 others engaged in handicraft. (2.) Higher and lower classes grew 
 up, by degrees, out of this common society. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) Roman citizens met in general assembly, to cast 
 their votes for senators and other ofiBcers, and to approve or reject 
 laws. (2.) In the first years of the state, this assembly was sum- 
 moned to meet by the king and elders. (3.) Afterward the people 
 fixed certain periods of holding sessions. 
 
 XXXI.— (1.) The office of king was abolished at an early date, 
 and two chief magistrates, called consuls, were chosen instead. 
 (2.) The senate possessed the power of framing laws, and grew in 
 authority as the commonwealth increased in importance. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The custom of distinguishing families of senators 
 and knights as honorable, was the only foundation to the claim of 
 
 (2.) How was the chief restricted ? 
 
 XXVn. — (1.) Wliat peculiar position had the chief? (2.) For what were 
 othiT priests appointed ? 
 
 XXVin. — (1.) Who comprised tlie first judges and priests ? (2.) What were 
 they called ? 
 
 XXIX.— {!.) What class of persons founded Rome? (2.) What is remarked 
 concerning other classes '? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) For what did Roman citizens assemble? (2.) How was the 
 assembly summoned at first? (3.) What was afterward done ? 
 
 XXXI.— (1.) What is said of the kingly office? (2.) What of the Roman 
 senate ? 
 
 XXXII. — (:.) What was the only real claim of patricians to superiority?
 
 i68 History of Governments. 
 
 those orders to superiority. (2.) By admitting this daim, the 
 people suffered them to encroach upou democratic power aud obtaia 
 most of the offices. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) Patricians and knights grew rich, tiirough 
 large grants of lauds, taken from ueighboring nations subdued by 
 the Romans. (2.) The plebeians possessed very little laud, though 
 their class was the most numerous, (3.) The patricians divided 
 nearly all the soil, aud bought slaves to cultivate it for their own 
 profit exclusively. 
 
 XXXIV.^(1.) The plebeians endeavored to check such increas- 
 ing power of the patricians, by making a law in relation to holding- 
 lands. (2.) This law provided that no person should own more 
 tliau five hundred acres of land, nor any child more than half that 
 quantity. 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) The senate, being composed principally of large 
 landowners, took care that this law should not be enforced strictly. 
 (2.) It fell into disuse, and the nobles became more oppressive 
 toward the people thau before. 
 
 SXXVI. — (1.) The people elected officers, called tribunes, to 
 seive for one year, as their representatives in the government. 
 (2.) These officers were deputed to check the power of the nobles 
 and protect popular interests. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) A struggle commenced between the plebeian 
 people, wiiu were poor and landless, aud the privileged classes, who 
 ow'.ied all the wealth, in money, slaves, and productive estates. 
 (2.) This struggle continued during all the time that the republic 
 endured. 
 
 (2.) What did the people suffer them to do ? 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) How did the higher orders become rich ? (2.) What is said 
 of the plebeians? (3.) Wliat did the patricians do with the soil? 
 
 XXXIV.— (1.) What did the plebeians endeavor to do ? (2.) What did ihis 
 law provide? 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) What did the senate do regarding this law? (2.) What was 
 the consequence ? 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) What officers did the people elect? (2) What were the 
 tribunes deputed to do ? 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) What commenced in the commonwealth ? (2.) How long did 
 this strug-grle last?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. i6g 
 
 XXXVin. — (1.) At an early day of the commonwealth, all 
 
 customs and usages of the people were collected into a system of 
 regulations, called the Laws of the Twelve Tables. (2.) The Laws 
 of the Twelve Tables were compiled by three magistrates appointed 
 for the purpose. (3.) They were ratified by the people in public 
 assembly. (4.) The condition of the popular classes was not much 
 bettered by their operation. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) One of the laws prohibited marriage relations 
 between patrician and plebeian families. (2.) Another decreed that 
 none but patricians should be chosen consuls. (3.) These two laws 
 were opposed by the plebeians for nearly a liundred years before 
 they could secure their repeal. 
 
 XXj. — (1.) The reason that patricians had power to prevent the 
 more numerous class of plebeians from changing oppressive laws, 
 was a simple one. (2.) It was because the privileged orders were 
 united as a body, and possessed all the wealth. (3.) They grew 
 able to influence leaders of tlie people, or to buy a sufficient number 
 of popular votes to carry out their own views, without regarding 
 the interests of plebeians. (4.) The result was, that Roman sena- 
 tors became the instruments or supporters of an exclusive and 
 privileged aristocracy. 
 
 XXjI. — (1.) While two parties of patricians and plebeians were 
 struggling in the commonwealth, the Roman republic engaged in 
 wars against neighboring states. (2.) Those states were subdued, 
 one by one, until Rome stood first of all the Italian comnmnities^ 
 (3.) Many captives, taken in these wars, were allowed to become 
 citizens of the republic, 
 
 XXXVni. — (1.) What was done at an early day? (2.) How were these 
 laws prepared ? (3.) How were they ratified ? (4.) What effect did these laws 
 have on the coininonwealn*-'? 
 
 XXXIX.— (1.) What did one of the laws prohibit? (2.) What did another 
 decree? (3.) What was the result of these two laws? 
 
 XL. — (1.) What is said concerning the power of patricians? (2.) What 
 was this reason? (3.) What were they able to do? (4.) What was the 
 result ? 
 
 XLI. — (1.) What foreign matters occupied the Roman republic? (2.) What 
 followed these wars? (3.) What was allowed to many captives? 
 
 ft
 
 lyo History of Governments. 
 
 XXjII. — (1.) The plebeians grew powerful enough to pass a 
 law that one of the two chief magistrates, called consuls, should be 
 elected from their class. (2.) They succeeded in electing other 
 magistrates, at different periods, whenever they united as a body 
 of citizens, (3.) They increased the senate to one thousand, instead 
 of one hundred members, and elected plebeians, as well as knights 
 and patricians, to that body. 
 
 XIjIII. — (1.) Roman magistrates consisted of all officers who 
 exercised civil, religious, or military authority. (2.) The powers 
 of magistrates were not strictly specified or limited by law. (3.) 
 A senator could be deputed to command a military force, and 
 judges, or financial officers, might belong to the priesthood. (4.) 
 Whenever democracy triumphed in the state, plebeians were chosen 
 to all offices, and sometimes made priests. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) There were two distinct descriptions of magis- 
 trates in the Roman commonwealth. (2.) The first were enume- 
 rated as consuls, tribunes of the people, censors, aediles, praetors and 
 quffistors. (3.) These were chosen at regular intervals, and were 
 common under the republican form of government. (4.) They were 
 termed ordinary magistrates. 
 
 XLV. — (1.) The other description of magistrates comprised 
 dictators, decemviri, military tribunes, and an officer called the 
 interrex. (2.) These functionaries were chosen only in emergencies, 
 and were called tvtraordinary magistrates. 
 
 XIjVI. — (1.) Roman magistrates were chosen either from the 
 
 XLIL— (1.) What law did the plebeians pass? (2.) What did they succeed 
 m doing when united as a body '.' (3.) How did they modify the senate ? 
 
 XLIII. — (1.) Of whom did Roman magistrates consist? (2.) What author- 
 ity had magistrates ? (3.) What is said of senators, judges, and other officers ? 
 (4.) What occurred when democracy triumphed? 
 
 XLIV — (1.) How many descriptions of magistrates were there ? (2.) How 
 were the first enumerated? (3.) What is said of these ? (4.) What were they 
 termed ? 
 
 XLV.— (1.) What did the other descriptions comprise? (2.) What is said 
 01 these ? 
 
 XLVL — (1.) From what classes or persoud were Roman magistrates chosen ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. 171 
 
 noble classes, or from the people at large. (2.) Those elected from 
 the former were called patrician magistrates ; those from the latter, 
 plebeian magistrates. 
 
 XL VII. (1-) Patrician magistrates could claim to be priests. 
 
 (2.) They possessed power, as such, to dissolve an assembly of the 
 people, if they considered the day of meeting, or other circumstances, 
 to be unlucky. 
 
 XLVIII. (1.) The magistrates called consuls were elected 
 
 annually, after the last king had been expelled. (2.) Authority 
 was exercised by two alternately— that is, one governed the first 
 mouth, another the second mouth. (3 ) No citizen was considered 
 eligible to be consul till he was forty-two years old. 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) A consul was attended by twelve officers, called 
 lidors, or sergeants. (2.) Each carried a bundle of birch rods, with 
 an axe in the middle of them. (3 ) The rods signified authority to 
 punish small offenders, and the axe denoted power to deal with 
 great criminals. 
 
 L, (1.) The governing consul sat in a chair of state, made of 
 
 ivory, called the Curule Chair. (2.) He wore a purple gown, 
 
 richly embroidered, to distinguish him from otlier magistrates. 
 
 (3.) The year in which consuls held authority was called by their 
 
 names. 
 
 Li._(l.) After the creation of consuls, two other officers were 
 
 appointed by the senate, and called censors. (2.) Censors made a 
 
 registration of the people,*and placed every citizen in the hundred, 
 
 (2.) How were they distinguished ? 
 
 XLVn.— (1.) What could patrician magistrates claim to be ? (2,) Wiiat 
 power did they possess when priests? 
 
 XLVIII. (1.) When were the consuls elected? (2.) How was au- 
 thority exercised by them? (;5.) When was a citizen not eligible to be 
 
 consul ? 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) How was a consul attended? (2.) What did each iictor carry? 
 (3.) What did these emblems signify? 
 
 L. -(1.) How was the governing consul distinguished? (2.) What did he 
 wear? (.^.) What is said of the year during wliich consuls held office ? 
 
 T,T. a.) What other oflicers were appointed by the senate? (2.^ What
 
 \J2 History of Governments. 
 
 or parish, where he belonged. (3.) They valued each man's pro- 
 perty, and had power to inquire into his manner of life. (4.) If a 
 citizen were a bad father or husband, an idler, or loose in his habits, 
 the censors took notice, and could punish him for his faults. 
 
 lill. — (1.) Censors remained in office during one lustrum, which 
 consisted of five years. (2.) It was their duty to divide and estab- 
 lish tributes, taxes, imposts, and tolls, and make reports at the end 
 of their term. (3.) They were required to be men of the best repu- 
 tation for virtue. 
 
 LIII. — (1.) Two other officers were appointed for the assistance 
 of consuls in government. (2.) These were called Prcetors, and 
 exercised authority in matters of justice. (3.) One of them 
 judged controversies between citizen and citizen. (4.) The other 
 examined matters of dispute between citizens and foreigners. 
 (5.) The number of praetors was increased with the growth of the 
 commonwealth. 
 
 LiIV. — (1.) Another Roman magistrate was called the City 
 Prefect. (2.) He had authority to decide matters between masters 
 and servants, or orphans and guardians, and buyers and sellers. 
 (3.) This officer, in later times, wielded great powers, and acted as 
 chief magistrate in the absence of the regular head of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 LV. — (1.) Consuls were at first chosen from the nobility, and 
 none but a noble was considered worthy of the office. (2.) This 
 occasioned violent disputes, until an arrangement was made between 
 the patricians and plebeians. 
 
 was the business of censors? (3.) What did they do, and what power had 
 they? (4.) What authority had they over bad citizens? 
 
 LII (1.) What was a censor's term of office ? (2.) What was it their duty 
 
 to do? (3.) What were they required to be ? 
 
 TJTT. — (1.) Who assisted the -consuls ? (2.) What is said of these officers? 
 (3.) What did one of them do? (4.) What did the other do? (5.) How was 
 the number of prsetors increased ? 
 
 LIV. — (1.) What was another magistrate called? (2.) What was his author- 
 ity ? (?,) What waa the position of this officer in later times ? 
 
 LV, — (1 ) What is said concerning consuls at first ? (2.) What di3 this 
 occasion ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. ' 173 
 
 IjVI. — (1.) By agreement, the consuls were discontinued, and 
 two chief magistrates were chosen, called Tribunes, or protectors of 
 the people. (2.) They were elected by the assembly of the people. 
 
 LVII. — (1.) Tribunes possessed power to stop any proceedings 
 of the senate wliich they deemed injurious to the people. (2.) They 
 were not allowed a voice in the senate, but sat outside the hall of 
 meeting. (3.) When a law was passed by the senators, it was sub- 
 mitted to the tribunes. (4.) If they did not consider it just, they 
 returned it, and if they approved it, they subscribed the letter T. 
 
 LVIII. — (1.) Tribunes kept their houses open by night and dj,y, 
 and were obliged to remain in the city every day in the yci;r. 
 (2.) Citizens who were oppressed or injured could claim protection 
 and shelter in the house of a tribune. 
 
 LIX. — (1.) The ^diles were another class of Roman magis- 
 trates. (2.) The first sediles were chosen from the senators. 
 (3.) To these were afterward added plebeian gediles, elected by the 
 people. (4.) Senatorial sediles possessed authority one year, and 
 l)lebeian aediles the ne.^t year. 
 
 LiX. — (1.) .^diles had charge of repairing public buildings, and 
 supervising the location of private ones, (2.) They inspected 
 weights and measures, and examined frauds and adulterations in 
 provisions and other wares. (3.) They took care of aqueducts and 
 other water- works, and made arrangements for festivals, o-ames, and 
 public ceremonies. 
 
 IjXI. — (1.) There was another class of ajdiles, acting as super- 
 
 LVI. — (1.) What was effected by agreement? (2.) How were tribunes 
 elected ? 
 
 IjVII.~(1.) What power had the tribunes? (2.) What were they not 
 allowed? {?,.) What part did they take regarding laws? (4.) Wiiat did 
 they do? 
 
 LVin. — (1.) What was the custom of tribunes? (2.) What could be claimed 
 of them? 
 
 LIX. — (1.) What were the ^diles f (2.) How were the first asdiles chosen ? 
 (3.) What were afterward added V (4.) What authority was possessed by each ? 
 
 LX. — (1.) Of what had aediles charge? (2.) What else did they do? 
 (3.) What other duties were performed by aediles ? 
 
 IJCL— (1.) What is said regarding another class of these Roman aFidUcsT
 
 174 History of Governments. 
 
 intendents of markets, overseeing corn aud meats. (2.) They pro* 
 vided for seasons of scarcity, by storing up grains for public benefit 
 liXII. — (1.) The Triumviri, or Triumvirs, were different ma- 
 gisterial bodies, or commissions, of three men each. (2.) One of 
 these committees of three comprised the three high-sheriffs, who 
 took charge of prisons and the punishment of malefactors. (3.) 
 Another commission of three acted as bankers, and had authority 
 to pay poor men's debts out of the public treasury. (4.) Another 
 body of three enlisted soldiers for the army, and another made ar- 
 rangements for Roman citizens who wished to go out as colonists. 
 
 LiXIII. — (1.) The first officers sent to govern provinces and 
 colonies received their commissions from the senate. (2.) They 
 were called consuls and prsetors, the first being military, and the 
 last civil, heads of provinces. (3.) The consul was commander-in- 
 chief of the soldiers, the praetor chief judge of the people. (4.) 
 Afterward these officers were called Proconsuls and Proprcetors 
 (5.) There were other provincial officers called quaestors, or trea- 
 surers, besides military tribunes, centurions, prefects, and other 
 assistants. 
 
 JjXIV, — (1.) Roman magistrates, called quaestors, were public 
 treasurers and collectors of revenue. (2.) The tributes, duties, 
 taxes, and all money due from districts, corporations, or individuals, 
 were collected by these officers. (3.) They were called city quaest- 
 ors, to distinguish them from provincial quaestors. (4.) Plunder 
 taken in w^ar was given in charge to the city quaestors. 
 
 liXV. — (1.) A body oi extraordinary magistrates, called Decem- 
 
 (2.) What did they provide for? 
 
 LXII. — (1.) What were the triumviri, or triumvirs? (2.) What did one of 
 these committees of three comprise? (-3.) What was another? (4.) What 
 were other triumviri ? 
 
 LiXm. — (1.) How were provincial governors commissioned? (2.) What 
 were they called ? (3.) What were their distinct positions? (4.) What were 
 these officers afterward named ? (5.) What other provincial officers ? 
 
 liXIV. — (1.) What were the quaestors? (2.) What is said of public moneys? 
 (3.) By what name were they distinguished ? (4) What is said concerning 
 plunder? 
 
 LXV. — (1.) What is said concerning the Decemviri, cr body of Ten Men?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. . 175 
 
 mi, or Tea Men, was established by the Romans between the time 
 of consuls and period of tribunes. (2.) Under the Decemviri, the 
 laws of the Twelve Tables were adopted, and written on twelve 
 tablets of brass. (3.) The power of these magistrates was the same 
 that had been exercised by consuls. (4.) One of the ten acted as 
 chief magistrate the first month, another the second, and so on. 
 (5.) These Decemviri became oppressive, and their office was abol- 
 ished in the third year of its existence. 
 
 LXVI. — (1.) Another extraordinary magistrate was taken by 
 lot, in times of need, from the senate, to supply a vacancy that 
 might occur in the chief magistracy. (2.) This magistrate was 
 called an Inierrex, and his authority, while it continued, was the 
 same as the officer whose place he filled. 
 
 LXVII. — (1.) The Dictator was a chief magistrate chosen in 
 time of sudden war, or when dangers menaced the commonwealth. 
 (2.) The Dictator was supreme ruler of the state, and called Fopuli 
 Magister, meaning master of the people. (3.) He was elected 
 for six months, and if necessity continued, could be reelected. (4.) 
 He appointed a lieutenant, called master of the horse, to govern in 
 his absence from the city. (5.) There was no appeal to the people 
 from the acts of a Dictator. 
 
 LXVIII. — (1.) There were military tribunes holding command 
 in the army, who were generally chosen by the people in their as- 
 semblies. (2.) Sometimes they were elected by the soldiers them- 
 selves. (3.) They exercised the authority that is in modern times 
 held by marshals, or colonels. (4.) Each military tribune com- 
 manded a thousand foot soldiers. 
 
 (2.) What laws were adopted under them ? (3.) What was the authority of 
 the Decemviri ? (4.) How did the ten magistrates exercise power ? (5 ) What 
 became of the body of officers ? 
 
 LXVI. — (1.) What magistrate was chosen by lot? (2.) What is said of this 
 magistrate ? 
 
 liXVn.— (I.) What was a dictator? (2.) What was his power? (.3.) What 
 was his term of office ? (4.) What did he appoint? (5.) What is said regard- 
 ing his acts ? 
 
 LXVIII.— (1.) What is said of military tribunes? (2.) How were they 
 sometimes chosen ? (3.) What authority did they exercise ? (4.) How many 
 men did a military tribune command ?
 
 176 • History of Governments. 
 
 LXIX. — (1.) The creation of extraordinary officers, such as 
 dictators and other absolute rulers, occasioned the ruin of the 
 Roman republic. (2.) Unscrupulous men became possessed of un- 
 limited power over the revenues and armies "of the state, and used 
 both for their personal aggrandizement. 
 
 XiXX. — (1.) When Sylla, a Roman general, was made dictator 
 for life, he ruled the state despotically, and established his authority 
 by murdering thousands of his fellow-citizens. (2.) He was the 
 chief of an aristocratic party, overthrowing Marius, a leader of the 
 democracy. 
 
 IjXXI. — (1.) Julius Csesar, another Roman general, overcame 
 Porapey, his rival, after a civil war, and was made dictator for life. 
 (2.) He received the title of Imperator, or Emperor, as a mark of 
 honor. (3.) Imperator was a military title, bestowed on a general 
 who had slain a thousand men in battle. 
 
 LXXII. — (1.) After Julius Ca3sar's death, a triiimvirate of 
 magistrates had chief pov/er given to them in the commonwealth 
 for five years. (2.) When five years expired, the triumvirate refused 
 to resign their authority. (3.) They possessed power to make 
 new laws, or change old ones, without consulting either senate or 
 people. (4.) They could judge and condemn any Roman at their 
 pleasure. 
 
 XjXXIII. — (1.) One of this triumvirate succeeded in usurping 
 entire authority, and made himself Imperator. (2.) The Roman 
 citizens then lost all voice in choosing their magistrates, and the 
 republic was changed into a monarchy, supported by military 
 force. 
 
 LXIX. — (1.) What is said of the extraordinary officers'? (2.) Who became 
 thereby possessed of power ? 
 
 LXX.— (1.) What is said of Sylla? (2.) What position did he hold? 
 
 LXXL— (1.) What is said of Julius Cajsar? (2.) What title was given to 
 him ? (3 ) What is said of this title ? 
 
 IjXXII. — (1.) What took place after Julius Ca;sar's death? (2.) What waa 
 the result? (3.) What power did this triumvirate possess ? (4.) What could 
 they do ? 
 
 LXXm. — (1.) What did oue of the triumvirs succeed in doing ? (2.) What 
 followed the usurpation ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. ^177 
 
 LXXrV. — (1.) The history of the Roinau commonwealth shows 
 what evils arise from the influence of privileged classes. (2.) The 
 distinction yielded to older and wealthier families, and to those who 
 held office, led the descendants of such persons to consider them- 
 selves better than the children of poorer people, who had not held 
 office. (3.) This occasioned separation into higher and lower ranki 
 of citizens. 
 
 LXXV. — (1.) The next disorder that afflicted the community 
 was the inequality of condition occasioned by luxurious habits of 
 the higher classes. (2.) These habits induced them to buy large 
 estates, and hundreds of slaves to perform all labor for them. (3.) 
 This deprived the poorer citizens of employment, a^ means of sup- 
 port, and made them dependent on the rich. 
 
 liXXVI. — (1.) By degrees, the poorer classes lost their influ- 
 ence, and were stripped of political privileges and rights, one by 
 one. (2.) A nobility obtained control of all offices, and the repub- 
 lic fell into the hands of ambitious soldiers. (3.) At last, it was 
 overturned, to make room for a despotism. 
 
 LXXVII. — (1.) When the Roman community was small, every 
 individual claimed a share in government, (2.) Roman citizens met 
 together in the market-place of their city, and gave their votes in a 
 loud voice. (3.) In those meetings, all males over seventeen years 
 old, and under sixty, were allowed to have a voice. 
 
 LiXXVIII. — (1.) Afterward, the people elected their magis- 
 trates by ballot, in a simple way. (2.) The name of every candi- 
 
 LXXrV. — (1.) What does the history of the Roman commonwealth show? 
 (2.) What remark is made regarding different families ? (3.) What did this 
 occasion ? 
 
 LXXV.— (1.) What disorder next afflicted the community ? (2.) What did 
 these habits induce ? (3.) What was the effect of this ? 
 
 LXXVI. — (1.) What is said of the poorer classes? (2.) What followed ? 
 (3.) What was the last consequence? 
 
 LXXVII. — (1.) What was the position of an individual when the communitv 
 was small? (2.) What did Roman citizens do? (3.) Who were allowed a 
 f oice ? 
 
 liXXVin.— (1.) What afterward took place? (2.) What is said of can.U- 
 
 8*
 
 lyS History of Governments. 
 
 date for office was written on a small tablet, and each Toter re^ 
 ceived all the names. (3.) The people then went up to the place 
 of voting by hundreds, each company under leadership of its oldest 
 citizen. (4.) Every voter then cast whatever tablet he liked into 
 a chest as he passed. (5.) The names on all the tablets were after- 
 ward examined by appointed tellers, or counters, called scrutators. 
 (6.) The citizen whose name was on the greatest number of tablets 
 was declared elected. 
 
 LXXIX.— (1.) When a law was proposed to be passed upon 
 by the people, it was written on a large tablet and hong up in the 
 market-place. (2.) There it remained during three market-days, 
 80 that all the people might read and think about it. (3.) The 
 citizens were then called together, and each received a small tablet 
 with the letter A. on it, and another with the two letters V. R. on 
 it, (4.) "A." was a vote against the law, and "V. R." a vote in 
 favor of it. (5.) The citizens then marched by the chests and 
 threw in whatever tablets they liked best, each individual for him- 
 self. (6.) When the tablets were examined, it became known 
 whether the la\j was passed or not. 
 
 LXXX. (1.) Every Roman citizen did not have the right of 
 
 first proposing a law. (2.) Only certain of the principal magis- 
 trates enjoyed that privilege. (3.) These principal magistrates bad 
 power, likewise, according to their rank, to call meetings of the 
 people, or to adjourn them, if they considered the time unfavorable. 
 (4.) They belonged to the priesthood, and were called Awgwi^. 
 
 LXXXI.— (1.) The privilege of adjourning public assemones 
 was given to priestly magistrates, because of the superstition of the 
 
 dates? (3.) What did the people do? (4.) What did each voter then do? 
 (5.) What was afterward done ? (6.) What was the result ? 
 
 LXXIX.— (1.) What is said about a proposed law ? (2.) How long did it 
 hang there? (3.) What was then done? (4.) What was signified by those 
 letters? (5.) What did the citizens do with their tablets? (6.) What was 
 the result? 
 
 LXXX.— (1.) What is said about proposing a law? (2.) Who enjoyed the 
 privilege? (3.) What other power had they? (4.) What were these magis- 
 
 trates? 
 
 LXXXI.— (1.) Why was the privilege of adjourning public meetings given
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. 179 
 
 people. (2.) It was thought that these officers knew what days 
 were unlucky, and the citizens yielded to them the authority to 
 convene or dismiss. (3.) This authority was afterward used to 
 favor the higher classes and oppress the plebeians. 
 
 LXXXII. — (1.) There were three kinds of public assemblies 
 among the Romans. (2.) The first were meetings of citizens in 
 their parishes, or curioe, of which there were thirty. (3.) The 
 second were meetings in hundreds, or centuries. (4.) The third were 
 asseml)lies of wards, or tribes. 
 
 IjXXXIII. — (1.) The earliest Roman political meetings, for 
 choice of officers, or legislation, were assemblies of all the people. 
 (2.) The citizens of each parish followed their principal man to the 
 market-place, and every citizen cast his own vote. (3.) This was 
 a democratic form of exercising the right, and insured popular 
 government. 
 
 IjXXXIV. — (1.) An alteration of this simple democratic form 
 was made in the time of TuUus Hostilius, third king of Rome. (2.) 
 The people were numbered and divided into hundred-^, or centuries, 
 and citizens voted by centuries, instead of by each man's ballot. 
 
 XjXXXV. — (1.) Under Servius Tullius, si.vth king, a second 
 encroachment on the people's power was brought about. (2 ) The 
 value of every man's property was ascertained, and tiie whole popu- 
 lation was divided, according to property, into six classes. 
 
 LXXXVI. — (1.) The first class consisted of citizens who pos- 
 
 to priestly magistrates ? (2.) What was thought? (.S.) In whose favor wa 
 this autiiority exercised ? 
 
 LXXXII. — (1.) Wliat is said of popular assemblies? (2.) What were the 
 first? (3.) Wiiat were the second? (4.) What were the third? 
 
 LXXXm. — (1.) What were the earliest political meetings? (2.) What did 
 the citizens of each parish do ? (3.) What is remarked concerning this 
 practice ? 
 
 IjXXXIV. — (1.) When was this simple form changed? (2.) How were the 
 people arranged to vote? 
 
 LXXXV.— (1.) What occurred under the sixth Roman king ? (2.) What 
 arrangement was made affecting the people ? 
 
 TiXXXVI. — (1.) Of what did the first class of Roman citizena consist f
 
 i8o History of Governments. 
 
 sessed a thousand dollars' worth of property. (2 ) There were nine 
 thousand eight hundred citizens in this class. (3.) They were ar- 
 ranged into eighty bands, containing a hundred footraen each, and 
 eighteen bands containing' a hundred horsemen each. (4.) This 
 formed ninety-eight centuries of citizens, every citizen worth a 
 thousand dollars. (5.) Members of this division were called classi- 
 cal citizens, to distinguish them from all other persons. 
 
 IjXXXVII. — (1.) The next class, or division, comprised all 
 Roman citizens whose property was valued at seven hundred dollars. 
 (2.) This class contained two thousand two hundred citizens, ar- 
 ranged in twenty centuries of footmen, and two centuries of ar- 
 morers and other artists. 
 
 IjXXXVIII. — (1.) The third class consisted of citizens worth 
 five hundred dollars each. (2.) Of these there were twenty cen- 
 turies of footraen. (3.) Members of the fourth class were required 
 to be worth two hundred dollars each ; this class contained twenty 
 centuries of footmen, and two centuries of musicians, such as trum- 
 peters, drummers, and the like. 
 
 XjXXXIX. — (1.) The fifth class was composed of citizens who 
 had not less than one hundred dollars in property, and it contained 
 thirty centuries of footmen. (2.) The sixth, or lowest class, con- 
 sisted of thriftless poor men, who owned nothing, of whom there 
 was about one century. 
 
 XC — (1.) All these classes together composed the army, or 
 militia, of the republic. (2.) Half the centuries in each class were 
 made up of young men, who could go out to war, and the other half 
 
 (2.) How many were there? (3.) How were they arranged ? (4.) What did 
 this form ? (5.) What were these citizens called? 
 
 IjXXXVn. — (1.) What did the next class comprise ? (2.) How many citi- 
 zens were there in this class? 
 
 LiXXXVm. — (1.) Of what did the third class consist? (2.) How many 
 centuries were in it ? (3.) What is said of the fourth class? 
 
 LXXXrX.— (1.) Who comprised the fifth class ? (2.) What was the cha- 
 racier of the sixth class ? 
 
 XC. — (1.) What did all these classes together compose? (2.) How were 
 the centuries classified, as regarded the old men and the young iuen ?
 
 The Roman Commonwealth. i8l 
 
 of old men, who could defend Uie city at home. (3.) The comman- 
 der of each hundred was called a centurion, 
 
 XCI. — (1.) In casting ballots, a vote was first taken among all 
 the members of a century. (2.) If a majority of all voted for a 
 particular person, or law, this was considered the choice of the 
 entire hundred. (3.) Each century then cast its united vote ac- 
 cording as the decision had been. (4.) The wealthiest class of 
 citizens, containing ninety-eight centuries, had ninety-eight votes, 
 when the ballot was taken by hundreds. (5.) It possessed the privi- 
 lege, or prerogative, of casting its votes before the other five classes. 
 
 XCII. — (1.) The other five classes, altogether, contained only 
 uinety-three centuries, and could cast but ninety-three votes. (2.) 
 If the centuries of the first class agreed for or against a candidate 
 or a law, they could outvote all the rest of the people. (3.) If cen- 
 turies of the first class voted similarly, the other classes were not 
 called to vote at all. 
 
 XOIII. — (1.) When the people became more numerous, they 
 ordained that the right of prerogative, or voting first, should be 
 determined by casting lots. (2.) A century which drew the first 
 lot gained the privilege of voting first, and the wealthier centuries 
 followed. (3.) The rich classes were usually combined, and able to 
 carry elections against the poorer people, even when the latter com- 
 prised a larger number of citizens. 
 
 XCIV. — (1.) Tlie freedom and independence of a Roman citizen 
 depended upon his being allowed to vote and speak as an individual 
 in the popular assembly. (2.) Privileges and rights consisted in 
 
 (3.) What was the captain of feach hundred called ? 
 
 XOL— (1.) What i3 said about casting ballots? (2.) What is said of a 
 majority of the century? (3) What did each century then do ? (4.) How- 
 many votes had the first class of citizens ? (5.) What peculiar privilege did it 
 possess ? 
 
 XCIL— (1.) What is said of the other five classes? (2.) What was the 
 consequence ? {'4.) What if centuries of the first class all voted alike ? 
 
 XCIII. — (1.) What took place when the people became more numerous? 
 (2.) How did this result? (H.) What is said of the wealthier classes? 
 
 XCIV. — (1.) On what did a Roman's freedom and independence depend? 
 (2.) What constituted his privileges and rights as an original citizen?
 
 i82 History of Governments. 
 
 his admissiou to ofiBce and equality before the laws. (3.) All these 
 blessings were lost to the Roman people because they became indif- 
 ferent to their value. (4.) They permitted the power to pass from 
 their hands whilst they quarrelled among themselves. (5.) They 
 allowed classes to grow up with distinct interests, dividing one from 
 another. (6.) Consequently, when a dictator, or other despot, 
 oppressed them, they were destitute of the combination necessary 
 to overthrow his power. 
 
 (3.) What occasioned the loss of these blessings ? (4.) What did the Roman 
 people permit ? (6.) What did they allow? (6.) What was the consequence 
 of this ?
 
 ANCIENT 
 MONARCHICAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ASSYRIAN DESPOTIC MONARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) AsHUR, the SOU of Shem, settled on a. plain called 
 Shiuar, with his family and descendants, and their flocks. (2.) Nim- 
 rod, the grandson of Ham, wandered through the wilderness, living as 
 a hunter, (3.) After Ashur and his people had cultivated the land 
 in which they dwelt, aud were living a peaceful life, Nimrod came 
 upon them, with his wild followers, and took possession of the 
 country. 
 
 II. — (1.) The nation of Assyrians was founded by the children 
 of Shem, and afterward the descendants of Ham came from the 
 wilderness and shared the land with them. (2.) Several cities 
 were erected upon the plain of Shinar. (3.) Babylon was the 
 principal of these cities, and became the capital of the Assyrian 
 empire. (4.) It was built by Nimrod, who made himself master 
 of the territory. 
 
 III. — (1.) Ashur emigrated from Babylon, with his family and 
 many followers. (2.) He settled another part of the country, and 
 founded the city of Nineveh. (3.) The future Assyrian nation thus 
 
 t— (1.) What is said of Ashur ? (2.) Of Nimrod ? (3.) What did Nimrod 
 do to Ashur? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of the Assyrians? (2.) What were erected? (3.) 
 What was the principal city ? (4.) Who built it ? 
 
 m.-(l.) What did Ashur do? (2.) What city did he found? (8.) What 
 
 188
 
 184 History of Governments. 
 
 sprang from two families that had increased to tribes. (4.) One of 
 these tribes was composed of people who tilled the ground, and 
 raised flocks and herds. (5.) The other tribe was a nomadic, or 
 wandering tribe, subsisting by the chase. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The settled tribe became farmers, laborers, and shep 
 herds, building towns, and houses, and cultivating the soil. (_2.) 
 The hunter-meu were soldiers, or defenders of the settlers, and 
 grew to be most powerful. (3.) Nimrod, patriarch of the hunters, 
 was probably the bravest and strongest man of all his people. 
 (4.) Tiiey were, therefore, willing to obey him as a chief, as well as 
 a father of the tribe. 
 
 V. — (1.) When Nimrod became chief, or king of the two tribes, 
 he chose his ofiBcers from the tribe of hunters, who were his own 
 descendants. (2.) These he set over the settled tribe as governors 
 of tens, hundreds, and thousands. (3.) When Nimrod died, he left 
 his eldest son to be chief ruler or king, in his place. (4.) Thus the 
 government was continued as a hereditary monarchy, passing from 
 father to son. 
 
 VI. — (1.) In the course of time, the Assyrian kingdom aug- 
 mented in the number of its people, and became a very powerful 
 state. (2.) It was joined also by a small nomadic tribe called 
 Chaldeans, descendants of Arphaxad, one of the sous of Shem. 
 (3.) These Chaldeans were more intelligent than the two original 
 Assyrian tribes. (4.) They were a shepherd people, who came from 
 the mountainous regions, and pretended to be descended from the 
 gods. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The Chaldeans taught the people of Assyria that the 
 
 is said of the future Assyrian nation ? (4.) Of wliat was one tribe composed ? 
 (5.) What was the other ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of the settled tribe? (2) Of the hunter tribe? 
 (3.) What was Nimrod? (4.) What were his people willing to do? 
 
 V. — (1.) Who were Nimrod's oflScers? (2.) How did lie arrange them? 
 (3.) What did Nimrod leave? (4.) What did the government become? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did the kingdom become? (2.) By whom was it joined? 
 (3.) What is said of the Chaldeans? (4.) 'Whence did they come ? 
 
 VIL — (1.) What did the Chaldeans teach to the people of Assyria?
 
 The Assyrian Despotic Monarchy. 185" 
 
 moon and stars were abodes of superior beings, who liad charge of 
 tlie world. (2.) They said that the souls of kings and heroes would 
 go to those heavenly bodies after death, and become gods of the 
 Assyrians. (3.) They taught also that a principal god, and a mul- 
 titude of inferior gods, dwelt in the planets. (4.) Tliey declared 
 it right to worship them all, and to build altars for the offering of 
 sacrifice. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Assyrian kings and warriors believed what the 
 strangers taught, and made inferior people erect altars and build 
 houses near them for the Chaldeans to live in. (2.) The Chaldeans 
 became a priestly family, or sacerdotal tribe of the Assyrians. 
 (3.) The houses built for their residence near the altars were called 
 temples of the gods, and the priests were regarded as special ser- 
 vants of those deities. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The Chaldean priests were supported by offerings 
 which the people brought to their temples. (2.) They instructed 
 the children of the king and chief warriors, and were selected by 
 the monarch as his coun.sellors and keepers of records. (3.) They 
 carefully kept apart from all other people, and devoted themselves 
 to study. (4.) They examined into all the ancient customs of 
 the nation, and collected them together in sacred books. (5.) The 
 Chaldeans thus became depositories and interpreters of law, and 
 gained great influence with both rulers and people. 
 
 X. — (1.) When the Assyrian nation grew powerful, the kings 
 were accustomed to lead out large armies against neighboring tribes. 
 (2.) In this way they extended the empire, by adding conquered 
 countries to their own. (3.) The king of Assyria dwelt in one of 
 
 (2.) What did they say concerning souls of kings and heroes ? (3.) What did 
 tliey teach concerning gods ? (4.) What did they dechire to be right ? 
 
 Vni.— (1.) What did the Assyrians do? (2.) What did the Chaldcnns 
 become ? (3.) What were their dwellings called, and how were they regarded 
 themselves ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) How were the Chaldean priests supported? (2.) What stations 
 did they hold ? (3.) How were tlie Chaldean priests distinguished ? (4.) What 
 did they do regarding laws? (5.) What did they thus become ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was the custom of Assyrian kings? (2.) What did they 
 accomplish ? (3.) What is remarked concerning the mode of life pursued bj
 
 i86 History of Governments. 
 
 his great cities, surrounded by chief officers, priests, and warriors. 
 (4.) He appointed or removed these officers at will, and was vene- 
 rated as representative of the nation's gods. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The king set princes of his own family, or chief favor- 
 ites, over all subject countries. (2.) He appointed governors of 
 provinces from principal Assyrian families, or from his personal ser- 
 vants. (3.) Generals of his army were chosen from the most faith- 
 ful soldiers. (4.) Over cities were set rulers, who appointed infe- 
 rior officers, as judges and sheriffs. 
 
 XII. — (1.) A royal treasurer was placed in every subject coun- 
 try or province, with officers to collect tribute, or taxes, of the 
 people. (2.) Every provincial ruler was assisted and watched by 
 one or more counsellors appointed by the king. (3.) Chaldeans 
 tilled many offices, and devoted themselves to the study of astronomy 
 and other sciences, interpretation of dreams, and prophesying. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Next to the king himself was a prime minister, or 
 chief ruler, who was responsible with his life for fidelity to the 
 monarch. (2.) Under this chief ruler there were three presidents, 
 or princes, who had charge of three great departments of the 
 empire. (3.) Under the presidents were princes of provinces and 
 governors. 
 
 XIV". — (1.) Me.nbers of the priesthood were subject to the king, 
 as well as the princes and people. (2.) The monarch possessed 
 power of life and death over every inhabitant of his empire. 
 
 XV. — (1.) During the reigns of Assyrian kings, they subjected 
 a great number of countries to their swaV. (2.) Sometimes they 
 
 the king? (4.) What is said of the monarch's power and position ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What chief rulers did the king appoint? (2) What other gov- 
 ernors? (3.) Who were his generals? (4.) How were cities governed ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) What was placed in every subject country? (2.) How were 
 provincial rulers assisted ? (3.) What is said of the Chaldeans? 
 
 XIIJ. — (1.) Who was next to the king? (2.) Who were under this cliief 
 ruler ? (3.) Who were under the presidents ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What is said of the priesthood? (2) What power did the 
 monarch possess? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What did the Assyrian kings do? (2.) What did they sometimes
 
 The Medean Despotism. 187 
 
 made all the iuhabitauts of such couutries their captives, and brouglit 
 them from their own homes to labor as servants in tlie land of 
 Assyria. (3.) Usually, however, the conquered people were allowed 
 to remain as before, provided they paid tribute to rulers set over 
 them. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The ancient Assyrian empire was overthrown in the 
 time of Daniel, the Hebrew prophet, as we learn from Scripture. 
 (2.) In its earliest condition, the Assyrian nation was innocent and 
 simple, but the greater part of its population ignorant and feeble. 
 (3.) They became an easy prey to an invading horde of roving 
 soldiers. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The laboring and agricultural tribes sank to in- 
 feriority, while the hunter tribe formed a class above them, headed 
 by a despotic chief. (2.) The seeds of decay were planted in the 
 Assyrian nation in its earliest infancy. (3.) The disease of despot- 
 ism fastened upon the people, and grew stronger as the empire 
 increased, by means of conquest and extension of territory. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE MEDEAN DESPOTISM. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Medean nation wa* descended from one of the 
 descendants of Ja[)het, the eldest son of Noah. (2.) The original 
 family was nomadic, and branched off into six tribes, which roved 
 between the Caspian Sea and Mt. Taurus. 
 
 II. — (1.) Each Medean tribe was governed by a patriarch or 
 
 do to the inhabitants? (3 ) What was their usual practice ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Wheu was the Assyrian empire overthrown ? (2.) What is 
 said of tlie Assyrian nation? (3.) What did the people become? 
 
 XVn. — ,1.) What distinctions were made between tribes ? (2.) Wheu did 
 decay attaclv the nation? (3.) What is said of despotism ? 
 
 I. — (1.) From whom was the Medean nation descended? (•!.) What was the 
 original family? 
 
 n. — ^1.) Uow was each tribe of the Medean family, or nation, governed?
 
 i88 History of Governments. 
 
 chief elected by the people. (2.) He was the leader in war, and 
 judge in time of peace. (3.) During the reigns of Assyrian kings, 
 the Medes were obliged to pay tribute to those despots. 
 
 III. — (1.) The tribes settled, at length, in villages, and devoted 
 themselves to cultivating the earth and raising flocks. (2.) Diifer- 
 ent communities were not always governed well by their judges, 
 some being unjust and others tyrannical. 
 
 rV. — (1.) The judge of one of the tribes was Dejoces, who was 
 a wise and politic man. (2.) His judgments were so excellent, that 
 he reconciled all the people of his tribe, and made the village in 
 which he lived a model of order. 
 
 V. — (1.) The reputation of Dejoces spread through all the tribes, 
 and people came from every village to bring their disputes to be 
 decided by his wisdom. (2.) In this way, he became the most 
 respected man among all the Medean people. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When Dejoces found himself so much sought, and 
 that his countrymen thought him the wisest of men, he suddenly 
 resigned his position as judge. (2.) He declared that the duties 
 were too hard to perform, and interfered with his domestic in- 
 terest. 
 
 VII. — (1.) He advised the tribes to meet together in council, 
 and consult for themselves concerning the best way of deciding dis- 
 putes and adjusting differences. (2.) A great meeting was there- 
 fore called, composed of all the Medes, 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Dejoces did not go to the council, but took care to 
 have his friends there. (2.) These friends proposed that the tribes 
 
 (2.) What authority had the chief? (3.) What were the Medes obliged to do? 
 
 m. — (1.) What did the tribes do? (2.) What is said of diflFerent com- 
 munities ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) Who was Dejoces? (2.) What is said of his judgments? 
 
 V. — (1.) What was the consequence of the judge's wisdom ? (2.) What did 
 Dejoces become? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What did Dejoces then do? (2 ) What did he declare ?. 
 
 Vil. — (1.) What advice did Dejoces give the tribes? (2.) What was 
 called ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What course did Dejoces pursue ? (2.) What did his friends
 
 The Medean Despotism. 189 
 
 should continue in one nation, and choose Dejoces to be its king. 
 (3.) The Medes agreed to this, and elected Dejoces, who thereupon 
 became monarch. 
 
 IX. — (1.) When Dejoces became king, he called upon his coun- 
 trymen to build him a palace, strongly fortified. (2.) He sur- 
 rounded himself with a strong guard, of his own relatives and 
 personal friends, to secure his authority. 
 
 X. — (1.) From the interior of his palace, Dejoces sent out his 
 commands, to be obeyed as laws. (2.) He fixed certain days on 
 which to hear causes, and never appeared before the people except 
 with great ceremony. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Dejoces built great cities and temples, and consoli- 
 dated the six tribes. (2.) His successors led the people to war, 
 and became despotic rulers, subjugating other countries, and ex- 
 tending the Medean territory. (3.) The Modes became masters of 
 the Assyrian empire, but were afterward deprived of their own 
 independence. (4.) Their country sank, at last, into a province of 
 the Persian empire, established by Cyrus the Great. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The Medes, in infancy, were a peaceful, wandering 
 people, but afterward became warlike and predatory. (2.) Each 
 individual preserved a rude freedom, until the cunning of one of 
 their rulers secured the supreme power. (3.) The tribes then 
 became divided into clans, and were no longer a united people of 
 free individuals. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) When the Medean tribes submitted to a single king, 
 
 propose? (3.) What was agreed upon ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What did their new king ask the Medes to do? (2.) Kow did he 
 strengthen his power? 
 
 X. — (1.) What did Dejoces then do? (2.) How did he conduct himself 
 toward the nation ? 
 
 XI. — (1.') What did Dejoces accomplish ? (2.) What was done by his suc- 
 cessors? {?,.) What occurred to the Medes? (4.) What was the fate ol' their 
 country ? 
 
 XII.— (1.) What is said concerning the Medes? (2.) What of each indi- 
 vidual? (3.) What did the tribes then become? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) What followed the choice of a king over the Medean tribes?
 
 Kjo History of Governments. 
 
 they became a nation of conquerors, oppressing weaker states. 
 (2.) The effect of this was to make them luxurious tyrants, who 
 forced their captive enemies to perform all labor for their support. 
 
 XrV. — (1.) Medean history shows how independent and hardy 
 tribes were brought under national government and made powerful. 
 (2.) It also shows how such a nation was corrupted by success in 
 war, until it became feeble, and yielded its own independence with- 
 out a straggle. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TffE PERSIAN DESPOTISM. 
 
 I.--(l.) The Persians were a nomadic people, occupying moun- 
 tainous regions of Central Asia, and divided into ten clans. (2.) 
 Three clans composed the fighting men, three were tillers of the 
 earth, and four were keepers of sheep. (3.) The earliest govern- 
 ment of each clan or tribe was patriarchal. 
 
 II. — (1.) The three soldier tribes were distinguished from each 
 other by being more or less intelligent. (2.) They were united 
 under a single chief, in time of war, and were always superiors of 
 the other seven tribes. 
 
 III. — (1.) Cyras, elected chief of the principal tribe, was the 
 first who led the whole nation on a great expedition. (2.) Under 
 this chief, the ten tribes revolted against Medean government, and 
 overthrew the Assyrian empire. 
 
 (2.) What was the eifect of this? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What does Medean history show? (2.) What else does it 
 show ? 
 
 I. — (1.) Who were the Persians? (2.) How were the ten clans divided? 
 (8.) What was the government of each ? 
 
 n. — (1.) How were the soldier-tribes distinguished from each other? 
 (2.) How were they united in time of war, and what was their condition? 
 
 m.— (1.) Who was Cyrus? (2.) What did the Persians do under Cyrus?
 
 The Persian Despotism. 191 
 
 rV. — (1.) Cyrus took the title of kiug of the Persians, and 
 established a great military monarchy. (2.) He placed his coun- 
 trymen in all positions of authority. (3.) He distributed Persiaa 
 generals and officers througliout the whole empire, (4.) He formed 
 large armies of Assyrians, Medes, and other subject people. 
 
 V. — (1.) Under Cambyses and Darius, the Persiau state became 
 a despotism, and was divided into extensive districts. (2.) These 
 districts were called satrapies, each governed by a royal officer 
 called a satrap. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The king of Persia claimed unlimited authority over 
 all his subjects, high and low. (2.) He issued edicts, which at 
 once became laws, for his officers to execute, and his subjects to 
 obey. (3.) He was supreme judge in all concerns of government 
 and people. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The despot of Persia was called the, Great King. 
 (2.) His person was held sacred as a divinity, and was approached 
 by all with adoring respect. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Persians venerated a body of priesthood called 
 Magians, or wise men. (2.) These wise men were teachers of the 
 people, as the Chaldeans had been, amon'g Assyrians and Medes. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The Magians kept the sacred books of Persian reli- 
 gion and laws. (2.) They always remained a distinct tribe, not 
 mingling with other tribes or people. 
 
 X. — (1.) The king selected counsellors, and appointed judges, 
 from the Magian priesthood. (2.) Local judges held tribunals in 
 
 IV (1 ) What is said of Cyrus ? {'1.) What did he do ? (3.) What did he 
 
 distribute ? (4.) What did he form ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What took place under Cambyses aud Darius ? (2.) What were 
 these districts called, and how governed? 
 
 VL — (1.) What did the king of Persia claim? (2.) What were his edicts? 
 (3 ) What was his authority ? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was the Persian despot's title? (2.) How was his person 
 regarded ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) Who were the Magians? (2.) What were these wise men ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What did the Magians keep? (2.) WHiat did they always remain » 
 
 X. — (1.) Who were the king's counselK^rs and judges? (2.) What is said of 
 judges ?
 
 tg2 History of Governments. 
 
 every city and district, and higher judges made regular journeys 
 through provinces, to hear and determine difficult causes. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The Great King was always surrounded by ministers, 
 favorites and flatterers. (2.) A rigid system of ceremony was 
 maintained, to which all submitted who approached the royal pre- 
 sence. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Courtiers, masters of ceremony, guards and slaves, 
 crowded all che passages of the king's palace. (2.) It was through 
 their influence only that a stranger could approach their master. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Rulers were placed over cities, towns, and parts of 
 towns. (2.) These were appointed by the satrap who governed the 
 province over them, and were accountable to him. 
 
 XrV. — (1-) Messengers constantly travelled throughout the em- 
 pire, to discover new delicacies for the king's table, furniture for his 
 palace, and garments or ornaments for his wear. (2.) The choice of 
 everything produced in any province belonged to the king. (3.) It 
 was secured for him by the satraps and rulers, without regard to 
 expense of treasure or life. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The court and palace of every satrap-were modelled 
 after that of the Great King. (2.) Governors and rulers under a 
 satrap were required to pay him almost royal honors. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Inhabitants of nations under Persian rule were 
 obliged to pay a tax for the support of the king, and to maintain 
 his governors and rulers. (2.) The Persian tribes alone were free 
 from tax, being masters of the rest. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) When the Great King wished to distinguish or re- 
 XL— (i.; Who surrounded the Great King? (2.) What system was main- 
 tained ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) Who crowded the royal palace? (2.'l What is said of these? 
 XTTT. — (1.) Where were rulers placed ? (2.) By whom were they appointed ? 
 XIV. — (1.) For what did messengers traverse the empire? (2.) What be- 
 longed to the king? (3.) How was it secured ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What is said of a satrap's court? (2.) What of his subordinates ? 
 XVI.— (1.) What were subjects obliged to do? (2.) Who were exempt 
 from this tax ? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) How were favorites of the Persian Great King regarded?
 
 The Persian Despotism. 193 
 
 ward a favorite, he sent him to govern a rich province, as satrap. 
 (2.) The satrap was receiver of taxes, paymaster of the troops, 
 and representative of his master over the people. » 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) A military oflBcer was appointed by the king, as 
 general over the army of every satrapy. (2.) This officer was ac- 
 countable to the monarch, for security and order in the province 
 where he held command. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Scribes, or secretaries, were sent by the king, to re- 
 side in the palace of every satrap. (2.) These scribes acted as 
 spies and agents of the monarch, and communicated his commands 
 to the satrap. (3 ) The satrap was obliged to obey those com- 
 mands, whatever they might be, or else suffer death. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The Great KiLg sent out military commissioners, every 
 year, to travel through all the empire, with an army of faithful sol- 
 diers. (2.) These commissioners possessed authority to inquire 
 into the management of provinces, and to punish or commend the 
 satraps, according to their deserts. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Sometimes a satrap became popular and powerful 
 enough to revolt against the Great King, and set up an independent 
 despotism over his own province. (2.) When such a revolt took 
 place, the king marched with a large army, from other satrapies, to 
 punish the rebellious ones. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Common people of the Persian empire were num- 
 bered by tens, each ten having a captain. (2.) Over these were 
 captains of hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands. (3.) The 
 generals appointed the commanders of ten thousands and thousands. 
 
 (2.) What position did a satrap occupy ? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What was appointed in every satrapy? (2.) How was this 
 oflScer accountable ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Who resided in every satrap's palace? (2.) What was their 
 conduct? (3.) What is said of the royal commands? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What did the king send out yearly? (2.) What autliority had 
 these ? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What did a satrap sometimes become? (2.) What did the 
 king do ? 
 
 XXH. — (1.) How were Persian subjects numbered ? (2.) Who were E*t CTer 
 these? (3.) What commanders did the Persian generals appoint to office? 
 
 9
 
 IQ^ History of Governments. 
 
 (4.) The commanders of ten thousands appointed the captains of 
 hundreds and tens. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Being thus disciplined, the Persian armies could 
 be mustered for war very quickly. (2.) Military officers were 
 always Persians, other nations being regarded as bondsmen to the 
 ruling tribes. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The great Persian despotism was controlled by 
 one leading people. (2.) The original Persians, being a brave and 
 vigorous race of men, maintained mastery over less warlike nations. 
 
 XXV. (1.) The Persian empire was an extensive military des- 
 potism, established by conquest, and sustained by force. (2.) Un- 
 limited sovereignty in the king, and unmurmuring obedience by the 
 people, were its characteristics. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) The Persian tribes, before the time of Cyrus, 
 were a rude and barbarous people, dwelling among rocks and bar- 
 ren hills. (2.) Their clothing was skins, their food wild fruits, their 
 drink water. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) In the course of a few reigns of Persian kings 
 over rich countries, the nation lost its simple habits, and became 
 corrupted by luxury and power. (2.) The ruling tribes grew to 
 be haughty tyrants over inferiors, and servile followers of their des- 
 potic monarch. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) On this account, the Persian state became dis- 
 eased, and ready to decay. (2.) It was destroyed, in its tu;-:., as 
 
 (4.) Who did the commanders of ten thousand appoint ? 
 
 XXni.— (1.) What was the consequence of this discipline ? (2.) What were 
 the officers? 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) What is said of the Persian despotism ? (2.) Who were the 
 masters ? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) What was the Persian empire? (2.) What were its character- 
 istics ? 
 
 XXVI.— (1.) What were the Persian tribes before Cyrus? (2.) What was 
 their condition ? 
 
 XXVn.— (1.) What toolf place afterward ? (2.) What did the ruling tribes 
 become ? 
 
 XXVm.— (1 ) What was the consequence ? (2.) What befell the empire f
 
 Macedonian Military Monarchy. 195 
 
 h ha.l overthrown the Medean empire. (3.) Alexander the Great 
 made Persia a province of his Macedonuxn empire. (4.) After 
 Alexander's death, it fell under various masters, till the Mohammedan 
 nations at last subdued it. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MACEDONIAN MILITARY MONARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The military empire of Alexander the Great arose from 
 a small sovereignty called Macedon. (2.) Macedon was originally 
 a colony of Grecians from Argos, who settled among the native 
 barbarous tribes, and became ruling families, or nobility, of the 
 communities which they founded. 
 
 II. — (1.) The district of country occupied by Macedonians formed 
 a boundary line of Europe and Asia. (2.) They were often obliged 
 to pay tribute to the despots of Assyria, and afterward of Persia. 
 
 III. — (1.) The government of Macedon was oligai'chical. (2.) 
 A few families of the nobility held all chief offices, and rognrded 
 their king as only first among themselves. (3.) The authority of 
 the king was merely that of a military leader, but it descended from 
 father to son. 
 
 IV. — (1.) When Philip succeeded to the throne of Macedon, 
 the state was divided by factions, and threatened by foreign war. 
 (2.) Philip created a new military force, called the Macedonian 
 
 (3.) What was the fate of Persia? (4.) What became of the country after 
 Alexander? 
 
 I. — (1.) From what did Alexander's empire arise? (2.) What was Macedon? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of the Macedonian territory? (2.) What were the 
 Macedonians often obliged to do ? 
 
 in.— (1.) What form of government had Macedon? (2.) Who controlled 
 it? (3.) What was the king's authority? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What was the condition of Macedon when Philip became kinp? 
 (2.) What did Philip do ?
 
 10 History of Governments. 
 
 phalanx, and obliged herdsmen and farmers of his country io 
 become soldiers. 
 
 v. — (1.) When he grew strong enough, Philip declared war 
 against several neighboring cities, and made them tributary to 
 Macedon. (2.) He then contrived to have Macedon acknowledged 
 by Athens, Sparta, and other Grecian republics, as a member of the 
 Amphictyonic League, or Confederacy of Grecian States. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Philip became noted as an able military commander, 
 and was chosen chief of all armies raised by confederated Greek 
 republics, to defend their territories against the Persians. (2.) In 
 this manner the Macedonian king was able to exert a commanding 
 influence in Grecian affairs. 
 
 VII. — (1.) He estabhshed a body-guard, composed of members 
 of tiie Macedonian nobility, and organized a squadron of horse sol- 
 diers, from warriors of Thrace, a conquered country. (2.) After 
 his death, the government of Macedon descended to his son, Alex- 
 ander, afterward called " the Great." 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Alexander consolidated all the states under his con- 
 trol into a mihtary monarchy. (2.) He placed Macedonian nobles 
 in chief places of trust and authority. (3.) He collected a numer- 
 ous and well-disciplined army, and prepared to make war against 
 other countries. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Alexander subjected Greece to his authority, and de- 
 stroyed the Phoenician city of Tyre. (2.) He conquered the 
 Egyptians and Persians, and led a powerful army against Northern 
 India. (3.) Wherever he carried his arms, he was victorious, and 
 placed Macedonian governors to rule over subject countries. 
 
 V. — (1.) What did Philip accomplish? (2.) What else did he achieve ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) To what station was Philip chosen by the Grecian states? (2.) 
 What was the consequence ? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What new forces did Philip organize? (2.) Who succeeded 
 Philip as king of Macedon ? 
 
 VIIL— (1.) What did Alexander do? (2.) How did he govern them? 
 (3.) What did he collect? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What were Alexander's first conquests? (2.) What next did he 
 do ? (3.) Whai was his success ?
 
 The Roman Empire. 197 
 
 X. — (1.) Alexander established his seat of empire at Babylon, 
 and adopted the ancient costume and luxurious habits of Assyrian 
 kings. (2.) He died at the height of power, and Macedonian des- 
 potism became broken int@ fragments. (3.) Governors and gene- 
 rals of the Conqueror divided the different provinces among them- 
 selves. 
 
 XI. — (1.) In the space of a single lifetime, the Macedonian state 
 arose from a small union of pastoral tribes, to be a great despotic 
 power. (2.) It controlled mighty armies, and overthrew ancient 
 dynasties. (3.) In the lapse of another generation, all its posses- 
 sions were lost, (4.) Thirty years after Alexander's death, not cue 
 of his kindred or family remained upon the earth. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Macedon remained chief among Grecian states, and 
 sought to deprive various republics of the remnant of freedom 
 which they retained. (2.) This brought the Macedonians into con- 
 flict with a superior power, and their state was soon after made 
 a Roman province. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 
 
 I. — (1.) The appointment of Octavius Caesar as first magistrate 
 of the Roman state, during life, ended the republican form of 
 government in Rome. (2.) Supreme power was yielded by senate 
 and people into the hands of a single individual. 
 
 X. — (1.) Where did Alexander e.itahlish his seat ol' goveriuiieiit? {'>.) What 
 took place ? (3.) How was the Macedonian empire divided ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What is said of the Macedonian state? (2.) What did it accom- 
 plish as such? (3.) What speedily followed? (4.) What is said of Alexan- 
 der's family ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What did Macedon remain, and what attempt ? (2.) What was 
 he result of tiie attempt? 
 
 I — (1.) How was the Roman republic ended? (2.) What was done by this 
 appointment ?
 
 198 History of Governments. 
 
 II. — (1.) Octavius was declared consul forever, and, by decree of 
 the senate, his person was rendered sacred from approach. (2.) The 
 titles of Imperator and Augustus were conferred on hira, and he was 
 made pontifex maximus, or high -priest. (3.) He was granted the 
 authority of censor, and clothed with dictatorial privileges and 
 power. 
 
 III. — (1.) Octavius endeavored to avoid the appearance of 
 wielding usurped power, by accepting his offices and titles for a 
 terra of years, renewed constantly. (2.) At his death, the imperial 
 power passed quietly to his son. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The senate remained a permanent body in the state, 
 but its influence departed with the popular independence, from 
 which it was originally created. (2.) A secret council of favorites, 
 selected by the emperor, determined all principal matters of public 
 importance. 
 
 V. — (1.) The office of City Frcefed, or lieutenant of the city, 
 was placed under control of the emperor. (2.) Another office was 
 made permanent, having charge of provisions in the city. (3.) Many 
 new places were created by the emperor, to reward his friends and 
 dependents. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The militia of the Roman commonwealth gave place 
 to standing armies, composed of foreigners, hired to fight the 
 emperor's battles. (2.) All military officers were appointed by 
 the emperor. (3.) Tlje soil formerly owned by the state, and all 
 new territories seized from subject nations, were declared crown- 
 lands. 
 
 Et. — (1.) What is said of Octavius? (2.) What titles and office were given 
 to him? (3.) What authority was yielded to him ? 
 
 ni. — (1.) What did Octavius endeavor to avoid? (2.) What took place at 
 his death ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What became of the Roman senate? (2.) What other body was 
 created ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What office was placed under the emperor's control? (2.) What 
 other office was made permanent? (3.) What is said of more offices ? 
 
 VI. — (1 ) To what did the Roman militia give place ? (2 ) Who appointed 
 military officers ? (3.) What is said concerning the soil?
 
 The Roman Empire. igg 
 
 VII. — (1.) Taxes and revenues from the provinces, and spoils 
 of war, were paid into the imperial treasury. (2.) The emperor 
 controlled finances, armies, and most of the civil offices of state. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Assemblies of the people continued to be held, but 
 their ancient power was wholly transferred to the senate. (2.) The 
 senate remained the highest tribunal of state, but was always under 
 control of the emperor. (3.) It became the instrument of tyranny 
 whenever a despotic sovereign was at the head of government. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The history of Rome, after the fall of her republican 
 system, is a history of arbitrary rule, exercised by magistrates, and 
 abject submission on the part of the people. (2.) The ancient 
 authority of a senate dwindled to mere ceremony. (3.) The eiL- 
 perors relied on mercenary armies to support their tyranny. (4.) 
 The soldiery of Rome grew powerful enough to raise their generals 
 to the throne or depose them, whenever they pleased. 
 
 X. — (1.) The Roman state became a military despotism, and the 
 seat of government was removed from Italy to Byzantium, on the 
 Black Sea. (2.) A new division of the empire was made, with four 
 prefectures. (3.) Each prefecture was separated into dioceses, and 
 the dioceses subdivided into provinces. 
 
 XI. — (1.) An officer called a praetorian prefect was appointed over 
 each prefecture. (2.) Under this officer were placed pro-consuls 
 and presidents, over dioceses and provinces. (3.) These various 
 governors were responsible to the emperor only. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The emperor constantly created new offices, to favor 
 his high servants or court. (2.) A grand-chamberlain was chief of 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What became of revenues ? (2 ) What did the emperor control? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What is said of assemblies of the people? (2.) What did the 
 senate remain ? (3.) What did it become? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What is the history of imperial Rome? (2.) What became of the 
 senate's authority ? (3.) On what did the emperors rely? (4) What is said 
 of the soldiery ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What afterward took place? (2.) What new division was made? 
 (3.) IIow were the prefectures divided? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What was placed over each prefecture? (2.) Who were his 
 subordinates ? (3.) To whom were these responsible ? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What did the enperor constantly do? (2.) What is sa\d o' i
 
 200 History of Governments. 
 
 the sovei sign's household officers. (3.) A chancellor, or minister 
 of the interior, had charge of tribunals and civil offices within the 
 empire. (4.) A grand-treasurer, or minister of finance, was in- 
 trusted with the collection and custody of public revenues. (5.) A 
 qujBstor, or advocate^eneral, was the emperor's minister of justice 
 and secretary. (6.) A privy-treasnrer was an officer who provided 
 for the sovereign's personal expenses, (t.) Two commanders had 
 charge of the emperor's guards ; and several other military cliiefs 
 were known as masters of the infantry, masters of the horse, comites, 
 or counts, and duces, or dukes. (8.) At the head of the army was 
 a general, responsible to the emperor. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) All inhabited provinces, under imperial dominion, 
 were subject to severe taxation. (2.) Taxes were levied on all 
 wlio owned land or property in cities, and on articles of commerce, 
 public highways, water-works, and every kind of improvement. 
 
 XIV. — (1 ) Roman government became corrupted in all de- 
 partments of its administration. (2.) The mass of the people sank 
 into ignorance and hopeless servitude. (3.) Ambitious military 
 leaders arose everywhere, and foreign invaders swarmed upon the 
 rich provinces of Italy, Spain, and the East. (4.) At length, the 
 empire fell asunder, and two absolute sovereigns directed its sway, 
 (5.) One of these reigned at Rome, the other at Constantinople. 
 (6.) The first, or western empire, was soon overrun by the Ostro- 
 gotlis, and became the empire of Charlemagne. 
 
 XV". — (1.) The decline of the Roman empire was a natural con- 
 sequence of despotic authority usurped by government, and slavish 
 
 grand chamberlain? (3.) What of a chancellor? (4.) What of a grand 
 treasurer? (5.) What of a quaestor ? (6.) Wliat of a privy-treasurer? (7.) 
 What of two commanders? (8.) Who was at the head of the army ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) To what were provinces subject? (2.) What taxes were 
 levied ? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What is said of Roman government? (2.) What of the people? 
 (3.) What of ambitious leaders ? (4.) What took place at length ? (5.) Where 
 did the two emperors fix their courts ? (6.) What befell the first, or western 
 empire? 
 
 XV. — (1.) Of what was the decline of the Roman empire the consequence?
 
 The Roman Empire. 20l 
 
 submission to it by the people. (2.) Tiie city of Rome became 
 crowded by an impoverished population, dependent upon the pos- 
 sessors of wealth. (3.) Such a population was ready to follow any 
 ambitious leader who flattered and fed its needy members. (4.) It 
 furnished tlie tools and assistants of the first Caesars, in their at- 
 tempts to overthrow liberty. (5.) The lower classes became sol- 
 diers and guards of royalty, until the employment of foreign mer- 
 cenaries reduced them to military slavery. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) A proud and luxurious aristocracy, an ignorant and 
 superstitious class of voters, and the jealousies of rival families, 
 were the first disorders of the Roman state. (2.) These were suc- 
 ceeded by treacherous combinations of magistrates and senators, 
 the quarrels of victorious generals, and seizure of all power by a 
 few ambitious chiefs. (3.) The senate became an instrument of 
 tyranny, standing armies were hired to support government, and 
 the people were looked upon as only a little higher than the slaves, 
 who swarmed everywhere. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The Roman state rose and flourished under free 
 institutions and by the temperance of its people. (2.) It tyrannized 
 over the world, and afterward fell into ruins, by reason of despotic 
 government and extremes of wealth and poverty in the com- 
 munity. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The name of a Roman empire continued to exist 
 in the East during several centuries after the overthrow of Rome 
 herself (2.) The government then became a half civilized despotism, 
 with an irresponsible head. (3.) So wicked grew the tyrants, that 
 »ne, it is said, ordered a plate of human noses to be brought to his 
 
 (2.) What is said of the city of Rome ? (3.) What was such a population 
 ready to do ? (4.) What did it I'urnish ? (5.) What became of the lower 
 classes? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What were the first disorders of the Roman state? (2.) By 
 what were they succeeded? (3.) What was the consequence ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) How did the Roman state flourish ? (2.) What was its subse- 
 quent career ? 
 
 XVin.— (1.) What continued to exist? (2.) What did the government then 
 ))ecome ? (3.) What is related of its tyrants ? 
 
 9*
 
 202 History of Governments. 
 
 table, and another tortured his officers, by suspending them, heads 
 downward, over slow fires. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The show of au imperial system was kept up by 
 eastern emperors till the descendants of Arabian races succeeded in 
 overrunning all the ancient countries of Syria, Phoenicia, Chaldea, 
 Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia and Greece. (2.) From that period to the 
 present, all those countries have been governed by Mohammedan 
 monarchical systems. (3.) Most of the territory successively ruled 
 by Assyrian, Medean, Persian, Macedonian and Roman despotism, 
 is now possessed by semi-barbarous nations and wild tribes. 
 
 XIX.— (1.) To what period was the show of empire kept up? (2.) What 
 has since been the government of those countries? (3.) What is said of the 
 seats of ancient despotisms ?
 
 E-A.RLY 
 
 LIMITED xVLONAIlCHIES, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE GOTHIC NATIONS. 
 
 I. — (1.) While the communities of Greece and Rome were grow- 
 ing from small settlements of families to be powerful states, thou- 
 sands of nomad tribes wandered through northern countries of 
 Europe and Asia. (2.) They subsisted in the usual manner of rude 
 people, by the chase, by fishing, or precarious tillage of laud. 
 
 II. — (1.) These wild tribes increased and multiplied by degrees 
 into great armies of people. (2.) The countries which they inhabited 
 Avere crowded with their numbers. (3.) It became necessary that 
 new abodes should be found, and many thousands, in families and 
 tribes, began to migrate southwardly. 
 
 III. — (1.) From northern Asia multitudes of nomads descended, 
 as emigrants, toward Europe. (2.) They resembled the Tartar tribes 
 that now rove in that region. (3.) Tbese people passed into Europe 
 over chains of mountains and desert plains. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Many multitudes wandered in communities, like Arabs, 
 with herds of cattle. (2.) Others emigrated in rude wagons, and 
 
 I. — (1) What is said concerning different communities? (2.) How did these 
 wandering people subsist? 
 
 n.— (1.) What was the progress of these tribes? (2.) What i.<** said of theii 
 dwelling-places? (2.) What became necessary ? 
 
 in. — (1.) What emigrations took place? (2.) What did these people re- 
 >iemble? (3.) Where did they go? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of some multitudes? (2.) What concerning others 
 
 208
 
 204 History of Governments. 
 
 settled wherever they found good lands for pasture or cultivatior. 
 (3.) These wandering nations were courageous in spirit, and accus- 
 tomed to hardships and dangers. 
 
 V. — (1.) The cause of emigration from northern countries was a 
 desire to better their condition. (2.) They expected to find a more 
 temperate climate, abundance of fruits, and room for all their num- 
 bers, without one tribe or individual interfering with another. 
 (3.) They journeyed under their headmen, as they had been accus- 
 tomed to wander, in their nomadic way of life, during ages. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The emigrant nations who first approached civilized 
 southern countries, were generally called barbarians. (2.) They 
 were considered to l>e collections of all Asiatic tribes. (3.) At 
 later periods they were distinguished as Germans and Gauls, and as 
 Ostro-Goths and Visi-Goths. (4.) The last two names signified 
 Goths from the east and Goths from the west. (5.) Still later emi- 
 grants became known as Huns, Scandinavians, and Northmen. 
 
 VII. — (1.) These various wandering nations moved onward, till 
 they overran all the territories governed by Roman power. (2.) 
 They found it easy to conquer luxurious cities and towns of Greece 
 and Italy. (3.) After the fall of Rome, they established themselves 
 in the countries now known as Spain, France, and Germany. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) These barbarian immigrations comprised hundreds 
 of tribes distinguished by different names. (2.) Among them were 
 Franks, Burgundians, and Lombards, who afterward settled in 
 France and Italy. (3.) Others, called Angles and Saxons, passed 
 
 (3.) What was the character of these wandering nations ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What was the cause of emigration? (2.) What did the emigrants 
 expect? (3.) Under whose direction did they proceed? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What were the emigrant nations called? (2.) What were they 
 considered to be? (3.) How were they distinguished at later periods? 
 (4.) What 4id the last two names signify? (5). How were later barbarians 
 called? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What did the wandering nations do ? (2.) What did they find 
 easy ? (3.) Where did they establish themselves ? 
 
 Vm.— (1.) What did the immigrations comprise? (2.) What were some of 
 these? (.3.) What is said of others?
 
 The Gothic Nations. 205 
 
 over to Britain, and the Huns, Pannonians, AUemanni, and Sarnaa- 
 tiaiis, fonnded different states of Germany. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The mode of government most common, among the 
 nations called Ostro-Goths, was that of an elective monarchy. 
 (2.) The chiefs or headmen of various tribes constituted au aris- 
 tocracy. (3.) When the tribes were united under one leader, for a 
 war, or for an eraigi-ation, this aristocracy elected a king. 
 
 X. — (1.) An Ostro-Gothic army, composed of numerous tribes, 
 and their headmen, under a common sovereign, formed a federal 
 combination. (2.) When such an army made a permanent settle- 
 ment, its leading tribe usually gave name to the entire nation. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The chief men, or leaders of tribes, became lords or 
 landholders of any country that was conquered and settled by an 
 emigrant army. (2.) They selected a king from the chief family 
 of a leading tribe. 
 
 XII. — (1.) When a sovereign desired to name his successor, it 
 could only be with consent of the leaders of tribes. (2.) When he 
 died without indicating a preference, some member of his family was 
 chosen, or, if there were none left, a king was taken from another 
 head family. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) After a Gothic nation settled in new possessions, the 
 king ajipointed headmen of tribes to be officers of government, with 
 the title of dukes and counts. (2.) Dukes were highest military 
 commanders, and counts were the principal civil dignitaries. (3.) A 
 duke was general of a province in which he was placed, and exer- 
 
 IX.— (1.) What mode of government had the Gothic tribes? (2.) What 
 constituted an aristocracy ? (3.) Wliat did this aristocracy do on certain 
 occasions ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What did an Ostro-Gothic army form ? (2.) What is said of its 
 settlement ? 
 
 XI. — (1.) Who became lords of a conquered country ? (2.) From what class 
 was the king selected ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) How could a king appoint his successor? (2.) What occurred 
 when he did not appoint ? 
 
 Xin. — (1.) What took place when a Gothic army settled ? (2.) What were 
 dukes and counts? (3.) What power was exercised by the Gothic duke?
 
 2o6 History of Governments. 
 
 cised supreme power, under the orders of his sovereign. (4.) A 
 count was chief judge, with power to appoint and suspend inferior 
 iud"-es and review all decisions made by them. 
 
 XIV.— (1.) Counts named subordinate officers, or lieutenants, to 
 preside in their absence over a town or province, with limited 
 powers. (2.) A count could call out the militia or citizens of his 
 district on occasions of importance. 
 
 XV.— (1.) Ostro-Gothic monarchs exercised absolute sovereignty 
 over their subjects, though their proceedings were influenced by na- 
 tional usages. (2.) The whole body of dukes and counts was 
 sometimes called together, to represent their tribes in council. (3.) 
 All inferior officers were appointed by the sovereign, through his 
 dukes and counts. (4.) The king issued orders to the army, and 
 imposed taxes at his pleasure. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NORMANS AND SAXONS. 
 
 I. — (1.) Inhabitants of northern Europe, who emigrated toward 
 civilized countries after the destruction of Roman empire, were 
 known as Scandinavians, or Northmen. (2.) They originally wan- 
 dered among Gothic hordes, in those great wildernesses that now 
 compose parts of the Russian empire. 
 
 II. — (1.) Scandinavian invaders began to be powerful in Europe 
 while the Franks were organizing kingdoms in Gaul and Germany. 
 
 (4.) What authority had a count ? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What subordinate officers were named? (2) What could a 
 count do ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What authority had Ostro-Gothic iviugs? (2.) What great coun- 
 cil was sometimes called? (3.) How were inferior officers appointed? (4.) 
 What did the king do? 
 
 I. — (1.) What were emigrants from northern Europe called? (2.) Where 
 did they originally wander ? 
 
 IL — (1.) At what period did Scandinavian immigrants become powerful?
 
 Normans and Saxons. 207 
 
 (2.) These invaders came iu ships, which they had navigated through 
 northern seas. (3.) They ravaged coasts and plundered cities 
 wherever they landed. 
 
 Ill, — (1.) The Normans, as those who came in ships were called, 
 took possession of a large portion of Frankish territory. (2.) Their 
 leader became a duke of the conquered district, and it was after- 
 ward called Normandy. (3.) Like other princes of France, the 
 dukes of Normandy acknowledged the kings of France as sovereigns, 
 but governed their own territories in what manner they pleased. 
 
 IV". — (1.) Another Scandinavian nation settled near the bordeis 
 of France, in the German country. (2.) This nation was known 
 under the name of Saxons, and consisted of several combined tribes, 
 each governed by its chief. (3.) From these chiefs, or headmen, 
 the people elected their king, in the manner of other Gothic 
 nations. 
 
 V. — (1.) Saxon kings were considered only as first magistrates, 
 whose authority depended upon their personal ability to control 
 other chiefs. (2.) Saxon laws were made in an assembly of the 
 elders, or wise men, of each tribe. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The common people of Saxon tribes did not possess 
 the law-making power. (2.) The headmen formed an aristocracy, 
 for purposes of government. (3.) All officials were appointed by 
 the king from this aristocracy. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Saxons were divided into three ranks, like other 
 Germanic nations. (2.) The first rank was composed of nobles, 
 who were proprietors of nearly all the lands. (3.) The second class 
 
 (2.) How did these invaders come? (3.) What did they do? 
 
 ni. — (1.) What did the Normans do? (2.) What did tlieir leader become? 
 (3.) What is said concerning dukes of Normandy? 
 
 IV. — (1.) Where did another Scandinavian nation settle ? (2.) What is sait 
 of this nation? (3.) IIow was a Saxon Iving chosen? 
 
 V. — (1.) How were Saxon liings regarded? (2.) How were Saxon lawj 
 made? 
 
 VI. — (1.) Who did not possess legislative power? (2.) Who formed an 
 aristocracy ? (3.) What is said of officials ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How were Saxons divided? (2.) Of whom was the first rank 
 composed? ^3.) Of what did the second class of Saxon people consist?
 
 2o8 History ol Governments. 
 
 consisted oi freemen, comprising soldiers, sailors, merchants, and the 
 professions. (4.) The rest of the people were classed as slaves. 
 (5.) The second rank could be admitted among the first iu certain 
 cases. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Slaves were deprived of all political or socia. rights. 
 (2.) They were separated into household servants and bond-slaves, 
 or serfs. (3.) Some orders of population in Russia, at the pres- 
 ent day, occupy a similar position to tiiat of the ancient Saxon 
 serfs. 
 
 IX. — (1.) There were several courts of justice and degrees of 
 magistracy known among the Saxons. (2.) Judges were always 
 selected from the proprietors of land. 
 
 X. — (i.) Saxons migrated from their settlements in Germany, 
 and took possession of the British Islands. (2.) There they mingled 
 with tribes who were known as Britons and Angles, and established 
 a number of small separate kingdoms. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE FRAXKISH OR FRENCH MOXARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) When later barbarian immigrations pressed down toward 
 Italy and Greece, they invaded tribes and communities that were 
 settled in the path of their migration. (2.) Many of these tribes 
 joined their numbers, under the name of Franks, or freemm, and 
 marched upon the Roman provinces in Gaul. 
 
 (4.) How were the remainder classed? (5.) What is said of the second rank ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What was the condition of slaves? (2.) How were they sepa- 
 rated? (3.) What persons at the present day resemble ancient Saxon slaves 
 in condition ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said concerning courts of justice? (2.) What class 
 furnished magistrates ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What new possessions did Saxons gain? (2.) What did they do in 
 the British Islands ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of later barbarian invasions? (2.) What did maaj ti 
 these tribes do ?
 
 The Fraiikish or French Monarchy. 209 
 
 II. (1.) The Fra!)kish tribes were democratic in their separate 
 
 organization. (2.) Tliey elected their kings by votes of all the 
 people, given through their headmen. (3.) When they took pos- 
 session of Gaul, the headmen received grants of land from the mon- 
 arch, and were made liis chief officers and councillors. 
 
 III.— (1.) Frankish kings acknowledged the right of their 
 great officers to a voice in all matters of war and government. 
 (2.) The great officers met with their people iu the camp, or public 
 assembly, and deliberated on public business. 
 
 rv. — (1.) Prankish kings had no power to make laws, and could 
 only be judges in certain cases. (2.) The people, in general assem- 
 bly, once a year, passed laws to govern the nation and individuals. 
 (3.) In these meetings, the king could cast but a single vote, like 
 a common soldier. (4.) In time of actual war, the king was abso- 
 lute, as general, but possessed only limited civil authority. 
 
 V. — (1.) The emigrating Franks were governed by military dis- 
 cipline, but each individual felt himself equal to another in rank. 
 (2.) After their settlement in Gaul, each tribe retained its peculiar 
 laws and customs. (3.) The privilege of meeting in public assem- 
 blies was generally extended to the conquered native inhabitants. 
 (4.) Thus, the founders of the French nation constituted a simple 
 democratic state 
 
 VI.— (1.) When leaders, and other officers of Frankish tribes, 
 fixed themselves in Gaul, they drove out or destroyed many Gallic 
 
 n. — (1.) What political character had the Frankish tribes ? (2.) How did 
 they elect their kings? (3.) What occurred when they took possession of 
 Gaul? 
 
 HE. — (1.) What did Frankish kings acknowledge? (2.) What did the great 
 officers do ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of the kingly power? (2.) How were laws made? 
 (3.) What privilege had the king iu those assembUcs ? (4.) When was the 
 king most powerful ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How were the emigrating Franks governed? (2.) What took place 
 after their settlement? (3.) What privilege was extended to others* (4.) 
 What is remarked concerning the Franks ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did the Frankish leaders do, after permaneut settlement?
 
 210 History of Governments. 
 
 chiefs who resisted their arms. (2.) Non-resisting possessors of 
 land were left iu occupation, on condition of submitting to the 
 invaders. 
 
 VII.— (1.) In tliis way the soil of Gaul remained parcelled out 
 in large tracts among Frankish and Gallic principal men. (2.) Each 
 of these chiefs supported a number of followers on his domain. 
 (3.) Smaller estates were possessed by inferior persons. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The insecurity of life which arose from constant 
 warfare caused owners of smaller estates to place themselves under 
 protection of larger proprietors. (2.) A chief so selected, as pro- 
 tector, was obliged to keep a large force of soldiers under his orders. 
 (3.) The expense of this force was defrayed by contributions of 
 money and provisions, made by the smaller landlords. 
 
 IX. — (1.) While high officials, such as dukes and counts, were 
 generals and chief judges, the larger landholders acted as inferior 
 judges and subordinate commanders. (2.) In time of danger, the 
 dukes summoned all landed proprietors to assemble their soldiers 
 and servants. (3.) In seasons of quiet, large land proprietors exer- 
 cised the duties of magistrates, each one settling the disputes of his 
 tenants and retainers. 
 
 X. — (1.) Large landholders became known as seigneurs, or lords, 
 gentlemen, and esquires. (2.) Seigneurs were highest, under the 
 dukes, counts, and royal family. (3.) Some of them held their lands 
 by grant from the king, and some by favor of the dukes and counts. 
 (4.) Large landholders, or seigneurs, often made small grants of 
 soil to gentlemen and esquires, on certain conditions of service. 
 (5.) The rest of the people cultivated land as tenants or vassals, 
 
 (2.) How were non-resistants treated ? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What is said of the soil of Gaul ? (2.) What did each chief do ? 
 (3.) Who possessed smaller estates? 
 
 Vni. — (1.) What did insecurity of life cause? (2.) What was a protecting 
 chief obliged to do ? (3.) How was the expense defrayed ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) Who were magistrates and judges? (2.) What was done iu tinze 
 of danger ? (3.) What is said about seasons of quiet ? 
 
 X. — (1.) How did larger landholders become known? (2.) Who were the 
 highest? (3.) How did they hold their lands? (4.) What did seigneurs often 
 do? (5.) What is said of the rest of the population?
 
 The Frankish or French Monarchy. 211 
 
 and were obliged to follow their superiors to war, in consideration 
 of their protection. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The first regular organization of government and laws 
 among the Franks, was made by their monarch Charlemagne, or 
 Charles the Great. (2.) This king became very powerful, and ex- 
 tended the Frankish dominions throughout Gaul, Italy and the 
 German territory. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Charlemagne established a general assembly, or coun- 
 cil, to meet twice in every year. (2.) This council was called a 
 parliament, and comprised, firstly, the principal nobles and land- 
 holders of the kingdom ; secondly, the highest order of priests, 
 called bishops and alibots ; and thirdly, twelve representatives of 
 the pe(jple at large, from each district governed by a count. (3.) 
 The three classes were divided into three bodies, or chambers, at 
 their place of meeting. (4.) Large land proprietors constituted a 
 Chamber of Nobles ; religious lords were called the Chamber of 
 Bishops ; delegates of the people formed a Third Estate, or Chamber 
 of the People. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Charlemagne provided for civil government in his 
 provinces, in addition to the military command exercised by dukes 
 or c-enerals. (2.) He appointed a number of commissioners, or 
 royal judges, whose duty it was to visit every province once in four 
 months, and, at each visit, hold a court of justice. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The commissioners, or I'oyal judges, were commanded 
 to hear the causes of the poor first. (2.) Next, they were to decide 
 in matters concerning the king. (3.) Thirdly, they were to settle 
 questions relating to the clergy. (4.) Fourthly, they were to listen 
 to complaints of the people at large. 
 
 XL— (1.) When were the Franks first regularly organized ? (i.) What is 
 said of Charlemagne ? 
 
 XII.— (1.) What did Charlemagne establish? (2.) What is said of this 
 council? (:5.) How were the delegates of these three classes divided? (4.) 
 What did each class constitute ? 
 
 XIIL— (1.) For what did Charlemagne provide? (2.) What did he ap- 
 point ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What was the first duty of royal commissioners ? (2.) What the 
 second? (8 ) Wiiat the third? (4 ) What the fourth ?
 
 212 History of Governments. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The commissioners summoned a meeting once in every 
 year, of all the bishops, abbots, nobles and deputies of every pro- 
 vince governed by a count. (2.) At these meetings they examined, 
 as chief judges, into all the aifairs of a province, and inquired into 
 the conduct of the count and his subordinate magistrates. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When the general assembly, or parliament, met twice 
 a year, the royal judges made their report to the king and the three 
 chambers, or estates. (2.) The condition of the whole kingdom 
 was thus made known, and public affairs were kept in constant view 
 of the people. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The dukes of Charlemagne's dominions held the 
 largest landed estates, and each duke was a military chief over the 
 province wherein his lands were situated. (2.) When the monarch 
 summoned his dukes to war, they were obliged to call out all the 
 strength of their provinces to perform military duty. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) New territories conquered by the Franks were 
 divided into districts, provinces and townships. (2.) They were 
 generally distributed by the king among his followers, who had 
 done good service. (3.) The original inhabitants were not driven 
 out, but remained in occupation of the soil on certain terms, after- 
 ward known as feudal laws. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The democratic character of the Frankish people 
 made them, in a great measure, independent of the king. (2.) They 
 banded in communities of towns and villages, each with its leading 
 men or nobles. (3.) The nobles protected the people in occupation 
 of their lands, and the people, in return, supported the nobles. 
 
 XV. — (1.) What did the commissioners summon? (2.) What did they do 
 
 at the meetings ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When was a report made to government? (2.) What was the 
 consequence of this ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) What is said of Charlemagne's dukes? (2.) What was the 
 miUtary duty of dukes ? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) How were conquered territories divided ? (2.) How were they 
 distributed? (3.) What became of the original inhabitants? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What is said of the democratic character? (2.) How did they 
 combine? (3.) What relations existed between nobles and the people ?
 
 The Frankish or French Monarchy. 213 
 
 XX. — (1.) In districts of couatry where traffic was profitable, 
 merchants established towns and surrounded them with walls. (2.) 
 Some neighboring chief, either a duke, count, or influential noble, 
 was chosen by the citizens as protector, or lord of the town. (3.) 
 The inhabitants paid an annual tax to him for his protection, and 
 he agreed to defend them from aggressions by the king or other 
 chiefs. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The citizens of a town conducted their own local 
 affairs. (2.) They chose magistrates from their principal men, and 
 met in public assemblies. (3.) Sometimes a bishop or abbot was 
 seigneur of a city, and taxes or tribute was paid to him, ou the same 
 conditions as to a seigneur. 
 
 XXII. — ^1.) The duke of a province was sovereign over all the 
 counts and seigneurs who held lands, or were lords of towns and 
 villages, in his territory. (2.) When he went to war, these seigneurs 
 attended, each bringing men according to his means, beneath his 
 own banner or pennon. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Under early Frankish kings, dukes often warred 
 among themselves, and seized the laud of inferior lords from one 
 another. (2.) Afterward, some dukes became nearly as strong as 
 the king himself, in followers, lauds and treasures. (3.) Of ihese 
 were the Dukes of Normandy, Burgundy, Brittany, and other dis- 
 tricts of country, sometimes embracing several provinces in one 
 dukedom. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Dukes, counts, and other officers, were called by 
 such names, at first, only as officers of the king. (2.) Afterward, 
 the titles were allowed to descend from fathers to sons, as marks 
 
 XX. — (1.) What did luercliauts do ? (2.) Who was chosen as their protec- 
 tor? (3.) How did the town people engage with this protector? 
 
 XXI — (1.) How were town affairs conducted? (2.) What did they choose? 
 (3.) What is said of a bishop or abbot ? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) What was a dulse's authority? (2.) Who followed him to 
 war ? 
 
 XXIIL— (1.) What did dukes often do? (2.) Wliat did some dukes become? 
 (S.) What powerful dukes are mentioned? 
 
 XXIV. — {!.'' How did the titles dukes and counts originate ? (2.) What did
 
 214 History of Governments. 
 
 of family distinction. (3.) Under these high nobles, there grew np 
 an aristocracy of landholding chiefs, who, when united, could com- 
 pel the king to do whatever they desired. 
 
 XXV. — (l.) The Frankish nation, after Charlemagne's time, 
 became classified in three divisions, or conditions, of the people. 
 (2.) The first embraced religious and military nobles, called dukes, 
 counts, seigneurs, bishops and abbots. (3.) The second contained 
 merchants, small landholders, and inferior clergy, or persons follow- 
 ing trades and professions. (4.) The lowest division comprised all 
 persons called serfs, ovvilains. (5.) These last were laborers, bound 
 to the soil, and inferior servants, without rights or privileges. 
 
 XXVI, — (1.) Out of these separations of the people, in the em- 
 pire established by Charlemagne, arose two other modes of political 
 combination. (2.) The first of these became famous a* the Feudal 
 System. (3.) The second was afterward knowu as the League 
 of Free Cities. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE VISIGOTH AND MOORISH MONARCHIES 
 
 I. — (1.) That branch of the barbarian nations called Visi- 
 goths conquered the Roman districts of Spain, and established a 
 kingdom. (2.) Their kings were elected by the chiefs, or headmen 
 of tribes. (3.) These chiefs formed an aristocracy, which kept the 
 royal authority in check. 
 
 they afterward become ? (3.) V/hat grew up under the Frankish dukes and 
 counts ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) How did the nation become classified? (2.) Who comprised 
 the first divi.sion ? (3.) Who composed the second ? (4.) What did the third 
 comprehend? (5.) What was the social and political condition of the last 
 division ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What arose out of these separations of the people? (2.) What 
 was the first of these ? (3.) What was the second ? 
 
 L— (1.) What is said of the Visigoths ? (2.) What of the kiags ? (3.) What 
 did the chiefs form ?
 
 The Visigoth and Moorish Monarchies. 215 
 
 II. — (1.) The Visigoths, after settlement, adopted and imitated 
 the Roman laws and customs, (2.) They collected Roman laws ia 
 a code, and prepared commentaries or notes to explain them. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Visigoths were oppressors of the native inhabi- 
 tants. (2.) They seized two-thirds of their pi'operty, and claimed 
 sole ownership of the soil. (3.) The Visigcthic possessions in 
 Spain were afterward invaded by the Saracens, or Mohammedan 
 Arabs, called Moors. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The Moors overran the greater part of Spain, and 
 established a Mohammedan empire, (2.) The Gothic Christians were 
 driven to the mountains, where they formed a small monarchy. 
 (3.) The provinces and cities of Spain, under the Moors, were gov- 
 erned by nobles called Emirs, responsible to a sovereign known as a 
 Khalif. (4.) At a later period the Khalifs were replaced by nine 
 independent princes, governing as many provinces. 
 
 V. — (1.) The remnant of Goths that survived the Moorish con- 
 quest grew up into several nationalities of Spaniards, (2.) They 
 struggled against the Moorish princes during several centuries, and 
 at length expelled them from the country. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The Spanish descendants of Goths received many 
 chartered privileges from their monarchs. (2.) The people of char- 
 tered towns associated as vecinas, or neiglibors, under a written 
 charter called a fuero. (3.) The Spanish chartered towns, chose 
 their own magistrates, under the name of alcades. 
 
 VII. — (1.) During the middle ages, Spanish laws and customs 
 were modified by feudal usages. (2.) An aristocracy was estab- 
 
 11 — (1.) What did the Visigoths adopt? (2.) What did they collect? 
 
 ni. — (1.) What is remarked of the Visigoths ? (2.) What did they do 5" 
 (3.) What befell them? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What is said of the Moors? (2.) What became of the Goths ? 
 (3.) How was Spain governed by the Moors? (4.) What took place at a later 
 period ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What is said of the Goths? (2.) What did they do ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did the Spanish people receive? (2.) How did they asso- 
 KJite? (3 ) What privileges had the chartered towns? 
 
 VH. — (1.) What occurred during the middle ages? (2.) What was estab^
 
 2i6 History of Governments. 
 
 lished, consisting of two ranks. (3.) The wealthy laud-possessors 
 were called ricos hombres, or rich men. (4.) The military nobles 
 were known as hidalgos. (5.) Another class was composed of 
 town magistrates and other elected officers. (6.) People who 
 worked the soil, or labored in handicrafts, were considered to be in- 
 ferior, and possessed no voice in local government. 
 
 lished? (3.) What were wealthy landowners called? (4.) Who were thr 
 hidalgos? (5.) What other class was there? (6.) What is said of other 
 
 TH>J^O.VJ'?
 
 GOVERNMENTS 
 DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Gerraaus, in earliest periods of history, were known 
 by the general name of barbarian tribes. (2.) They belonged 
 to numerous savage families that dwelt or roved in the wilder- 
 nesses bordering on Europe and Asia. (3.) From one great stock 
 they branched in several directions, under various leaders and 
 national names. 
 
 II. — (1.) Each Germanic nation was composed of as many tribes 
 as chose to associate together for war or emigration. (2.) The 
 earliest appearance of Germans in history is under the name of 
 Gauls. (3.) They made settlements on the continent of Europe and 
 the northern islands. 
 
 III. — (1.) In later times other Asiatic families pressed south- 
 ward upon the first emigrants. (2.) Old and new barbarians be- 
 came mixed, and formed new nationalities and divisions. (3.) They 
 appeared in history as Gauls, Germans, and eastern and western 
 Goths. (4.) From these branched out Franks, Lombards, Saxons, 
 
 L — (1.) How were Germans originally known? (2.) To what did they 
 belong? (.3.) What did they do? 
 
 n. — (1.) How was a Germanic nation composed? (2.) Under what name 
 did they first appear in Europe? (3.) Where did they settle? 
 
 m.— (1.) What toolc place afterward? (2.) What then occurred > (S.) 
 Dnder what names did they appear? (4.) What branches are mentioned? 
 
 10 21T
 
 2i8 History of Governments. 
 
 Normans, Angles, and other nations, which have since given their 
 names to European countries. (5.) The Gauls originally gave 
 name to the country now called France, but were displaced in pos- 
 session and name by the Franks. 
 
 rV. — (1.) Government, among German clans, was usually in the 
 hands of a military aristocracy, composed of chiefs or headmen of 
 tribes. (2.) These chose a king, as head of a combination of 
 tribes, and shared authority as his counsellors and governors. 
 
 V. — (1.) Two general forms of government were in use among 
 German nations. (2.) One of these is represented in the limited 
 monarchy adopted by the Franks. (3.) The other was a more ab- 
 solute monarchy, as observed in the Gothic systems. 
 
 VI. — (1.) After the subjugation of Rome by Goths, the terri- 
 •tory of Germany remained in possession of many rude tribes, under 
 distinct names. (2.) Among them were Huns, Paunonians, Sarma- 
 tians, Sclav es, Avarians, and Helvetians. (3.) From these tribes 
 descended Hungarians, Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Austrians, and 
 Swiss. 
 
 VII. — (1) The various tribes were conquered by generals of 
 Charlemagne. (2.) Districts in which they dwelt were joined to 
 the Prankish or French empire. (3.) After the death of Charle- 
 magne they revolted, under their chiefs, and elected a monarch of 
 their own. (4.) This revolt was the origin of the German empire. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The German empire was, at first, a combination of 
 independent nations, each with its sovereign. (2.) They united only 
 
 (a.) What is said of the Gauls? 
 
 IV.— (1.) How were German tribes governed ? (2.) What did the chiefs do ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How many general form.* of government are mentioned? (2.) 
 What did one form represent? (S.) What was the other form? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of Germany? (2.) Name some of these tiibes * 
 ■,3.) What nations have descended from these tribes? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) Who conquered the various tribes? (2.) What became of their 
 territories? (3.) What occurred at Charlemagne's death ? (4.) Of what was 
 this the origin ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What was the German empire at first? (2.) What was the ob-
 
 The Holy Ron.an Empire of Germany. 219 
 
 for purposes of war, and to extend their dominion. (3.) The Ger- 
 man emperors succeeded in obtaining sovereignty over portions of 
 France* and Italy. (4.) The German Confederacy protected the 
 authority of Roman Popes, and took the name of Holy Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The emperors were chosen by votes of the minor 
 raonarchs, in a council called the National Did. (2.) The name of 
 vector became a title to designate one of the chiefs, or sovereigns, 
 who was* entitled to vote for an emperor. 
 
 X.— (I.) The confederation of electoral states continued to be 
 -called the Holy Roman Empire of Germany during several centu- 
 ries. (2.) Its separate princes remained independent of each other, 
 and were sometimes at war on opposite sides. (3.) The principal 
 governments afterward became consolidated under jurisdiction of 
 the Emperor of Austria. 
 
 XI.— 1. At the death of Charlemagne, most of the nations of 
 France, Italy, Germany, and the English islands, were divided into 
 higher and lower orders of people. (2.) The feudal system began 
 at that period, and continued through several centuries known as 
 the dark asres. 
 
 ject of their union? (?>.1 What was the result? (4.) ^^ hat did the German 
 Confederacy do ? 
 
 IX.— (1.) How were emperors chosen ? ('2.) What did the name of elector 
 become ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What is said of the Confederation? (2,) What of its princes? 
 (5.) How were the principal governments consolidated? 
 
 XL — (1.) What divisions took place at the death of Charlemagne ? (2.) 
 What system t^ien begau ?
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM AXD CHIVALRY 
 
 I. — (1.'^ When uncivilized nations became masters of Europe, 
 nearly all the laws of Greece and Rome were replaced by regula- 
 tions founded on barbarian customs. (2.) The conversion of the 
 invading people to Christianity softened their rude manners, but did 
 uot teach them the lost knowledge of ancient times. 
 
 II. — (1.) In many respects, the administration of political affairs 
 among barbarian nations v>'as based on justice. (2.) The custom 
 of meeting in assemblies, of electing chiefs and kings, and transact- 
 ing other public business in common, as among the Franks, was 
 founded on principles of liberty and popular independence. 
 
 Ill, — (1.) When conquering tribes established themselves in 
 rich countries, their kings and chiefs became ambitious to retain 
 authority over the people during peace, as they had exercised it in 
 war. (2.) To effect this, the new monarchs appointed their chief 
 followers to govern, under the names of dukes, counts, and mar- 
 graves, or marquises. 
 
 IV. — (1) Dnkes, as before mentioned, were made military com- 
 manders over provinces, and were next to the kings in authority. 
 (2.) Sometimes a duke bore the title of viceroy, meaning that he 
 stood in place of the monarch. (3.) Counts were next highest iu 
 jurisdiction. (4.) They had authority as magistrates, in peace :^d 
 were summoned as subordinate leaders, in time of war. 
 
 I, — (1.) What is said of Grecian and Roman laws? (2.) What was eflPected 
 by Cliristianity ? 
 
 n. — (1 ) What is said of barbarian governments ? (2.) What customs are 
 remarked upon ? 
 
 TTT - — (1.) What occurred when barbarous tribes settled ? (2.) What did the 
 new monarchs do ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What is remarked concerning dukes? (2.) What title did a duke 
 sometimes bear ? {?>.) What were counts? (4) What was their authority ?
 
 The Feudal System and Chivalry. 221 
 
 V. — (1.) Marquises, or marchers, were officers who exercised the 
 authority of duices and counts on the borders, or marches, of the 
 country. (2.) Tiiey were representatives of the dukes and the 
 king, in defending the frontiers of a kingdom. (3.) Marquises oc- 
 cupied forts, called castles, generally built by the king and placed 
 in their charge. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Sometimes an officer of the king received a grant of 
 land on which to build a castle, with the provision that he should 
 keep off all enemies from that part of the frontier. (2.) He thus 
 became a marquis, or lord of the border. (3.) Sometimes a large 
 landholder erected a castle at his own expense. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Wherever a castle was held, it was necessary for its 
 lord to keep in pay a requisite number of soldiers to defend it. 
 (2.) People who tilled the soil, or worked at handicraft, settled 
 around each stronghold, for personal security. (3.) The lord of a 
 castle permitted them to establish a village on his lands and to 
 plant in the soil. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In return for a noble's protection, as well as the use 
 of his land for dwelling and tillage, those who settled obligated 
 themselves to certain conditions. (2.) They promised to devote a 
 part of their time to cultivating the landlord's fields, and waiting 
 on him in other domestic service. (3.) They agreed to follow him 
 in time of war, and to bring their disputes to him for settlement. 
 
 IX. — (1.) In course of time, castles were built whenever a pro- 
 prietor of land could control the means and establish a claim to 
 nobility. (2.) In many cases, they were erected by unprincipled 
 
 v.— (1.) What were the marquises? (2.) Who did they represent? (3.) 
 What did they occupy ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What did an officer sometimes receive ? (2.) What did he become ? 
 (8.) What did a large landholder sometimes do? 
 
 VII. — (1.) What was necessary when a castle was built? (2.) 'Wlio settled 
 near it? (3.; What did the lord permit them to do ? 
 
 Vin. — (1 ) How did the people obligate themselves? (2.) What did they 
 promise? (3.) To what did they agree? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What took place in course of time ? (2.) What occurred in many 
 cases ?
 
 222 History of Governments. 
 
 adventurers upon rocky emiuences, and used as mere deus of 
 robbers. 
 
 X.— (1.) Sometimes an unscrupulous soldier raised a band of 
 daring comrades and took possession of a castle, driving out its 
 owner. (2.) EstabliJJiiiig himself with his ruffians, he tyrannized 
 over inhabitants of the neighboring villages, and tillers of the 
 soil. 
 
 XI. — ■(!.) The owner of one castle often made war on the pos- 
 sessor of another, and forced him to yield up his stronghold and 
 village. (2.) The heir of one castle's lord often married the heiress 
 of another castle, and the two properties became united. 
 
 XII. — (1.) In this manner, and by gifts of the monarch or dukes, 
 the lower classes of nobles grew to be more powerful. (2.) The 
 dukes and counts, and other holders of large territories, continued 
 to augment their possessions and privileges by similar means. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The members and families of nobility became a 
 great aristocracy of landholders. (2.) They took care of their own 
 advantage, as individuals or a class, without regard to any interests 
 of the community at large. (3.) On occasions, they found them- 
 selves powerful enough to combine against the king, and force him 
 to yield to their pleasure. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The landed nobility became the ruling class in a 
 nation, because monarchs depended on them for the defence of royal 
 authority. (2.) During feudal ages, there was generally one or 
 another noble at war with a neighbor, or in rebellion against the 
 monarch, his master. (3.) The king was often forced to call upon 
 friends among the nobles, in order to protect his throne from at- 
 tacks of another portion of the nobility in open arms against him. 
 
 X. — (1.) What was sometimes done? (2.) How did he conduct himself? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What did the owner of a castle often do? (2.) What else took 
 place ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) What was the result of these things? (2.) What is said of large 
 landholders ? 
 
 Xin.— (1.) What did the nobility become ? (2.) How did they act? (3.) 
 What did they find themselves ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What is said of the landed nobility ? (2.) What is said of theii 
 conflicts? (3.) What was the king often obliged to do?
 
 The Feudal System and Chivalry. 223 
 
 XV. — (1.) The nobility exercised authority over all inferior peo- 
 ple, according to their rank and power. (2.) A second or third 
 class noble could be a tyrant within the limits of his own domain, 
 unless some one equal or superior to himself interfered to oppose 
 him. (3.) This was in accordance with the whole Feudal System. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) By this system, the king was placed at the head of 
 the powerful nobility merely as a sign that they belonged to one 
 nation, and as a leader in warfare. (2.) Whatever power he 
 enjoyed proceeded from the possession of great and commanding 
 personal qualities. (3.) When he could control the nobility by his 
 will, he was an absolute monarch. (4.) Accordingly as nobles were 
 combined against him or in his favor, so far was his authority des- 
 potic or limited. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Similar restrictions governed the power of nobles. 
 (2.) They all pretended to regard the monarch as owner of their 
 lands, and acknowledged themselves bound to his service, in con- 
 sideration thereof. (3.) Every heiress of a noble, who became an 
 orphan, was considered to be under guardianship of the monarch. 
 (4.) He claimed the right to take charge of her income and dispose 
 of her in marriage. ' 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) A monarch assumed authority to summon every 
 noble of his kingdom, high or low, to answer for any ofifence, to take 
 oath of allegiance, perform stipulated service, or pay customary 
 tribute. (2.) A monarch possessed the right to propose laws for 
 the raising of revenue, by tax or otherwise, and to assemble the par- 
 liament to have them acted upon. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Superior nobles, such as dukes and other great 
 
 XV (1.) What authority did nobles wield? (2.) What is said of in*'e'--oi 
 
 nobles? (3.) With what was this in accordance ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What was the Icing's position? (2.) Vhi^t power could he exer 
 else ? (o.) When was he absolute ? (4.) IIow was his authority influenced? 
 
 XVn.— (1.) What is said of the power of nobles? (2.) What did they 
 all pretend? (3.) What is said of an heiress? (4.) What did the monarch 
 claim ? 
 
 XVin. — (1.) What authority did a monarch assume? (2.) What right did 
 he possess ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Wliat were superior nobles called during feudal ages?
 
 224 History of Governments. 
 
 landholdtTs, were called crown-vassals and barons of the kingdom 
 (2.) The king usually selected his counsellors from among these. 
 (3.) Crown-princes, or brothers and sons of the monarch, were the 
 highest among them. (4.) They usually possessed large estates, 
 sometimes entire provinces, which were called appanages of the 
 crown. (5.) Some crown-princes governed principalities or duke- 
 doms, in their right, as vassals of the monarch, and were independ- 
 ent rulers over their own domains. 
 
 XX. — (1.) Besides dukes, counts, marquises, and other high 
 nolijes, there were others, called viscounts, earls, barons, knights 
 and baronets. (2.) There were church dignitaries, or ecclesiastical 
 lords, who held possessions in lands, castles, and even towns. 
 (3.) These were cardinals and bishops of the Roman church, and 
 heads of convents and other religious houses, styled abbots and 
 priors. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The people of a town, village, or district, could 
 acknowledge a bishop, or other church dignitary, to be their liege 
 lord, and obligate themselves to do service, to him for use of his 
 lands, or for his proteq^on. (2.) The bishop, on his part, was 
 expected to maintain armed men to defend the people. (3.) He 
 was also expected to secure a proper administration of justice, as a 
 magistrate. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Laws ordained by parliament, or otherwise estab- 
 lished, were seldom observed as rules by nobles on their own 
 domains. (2.) Each seigneur, according to his degree, his position, 
 or the extent of his lands, claimed to be a sovereign over the classes 
 beneath him. (3.) Powerful barons made their own pleasure and 
 will the only laws of their action toward inferiors. 
 
 (2.) What did the king select from these ? (3.) Who wore the highest nobles ? 
 (4.) What did they usually possess? (5.) What is said of some crown-princes? 
 
 XX. — (1 ) What nobles are enumerated by their titles? (2.) What is said 
 of church dignitaries? (3.) Who were these dignitaries? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What could the people of a town do ? (2.) What was expected 
 of the bishop? (3.) For what else was he looked to? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) How were parliamentary laws regarded? (2.) What did each 
 seigneur claim ? (3.) What did powerful barons do ?
 
 The Feuda! System and Chivalry. 225 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) A monarch claimed the exclusive privilege of 
 making war and peace, coining money, and exercising other sover- 
 eWn authority. (2.) Powerful nobles often assumed such privileges 
 themselves, and raised forces or issued money from their own 
 territories. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The nobility defied their superiors, the kings, at 
 ev.ery opportunity. (2.) They oppressed their vassals and robbed 
 the industrious chisses. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) The masses of the people, under feudal usages, were 
 divided into trading and laboring classes. (2.) Merchants were 
 able, in some countries, to combine and build wailed cities. (3.) 
 Several of these cities united in a league of commerce and mutual 
 defence. (4.) They thus became formidable to the nobles, and often 
 assisted the king in his struggles against rebellious vassals. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) Agriculturists and mechanics were in general little 
 better than slaves. (2.) Laborers who lived on the estates of 
 nobles, as tenants, or vassals, were considered to belong to the laud 
 which they cultivated. (3.) A baron was permitted, by feudal law, 
 to condemn one of these vassals to any punishment whatever. (4.) 
 He exercised supreme authority over the persons of his serfs and 
 their families. (5.) He could sell them, with his lands, and they 
 were forbidden to escape from bondage. 
 
 XXVII. — (I.) Under the feudal system, there was no guaranty, by 
 law, for an individual's life or property. (2.) The weak were always 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) What did a monarch claim ? (2.) What did powerful nobles 
 often assume ? 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) What was done by the nobility ? (2.) Wliat wrong did they 
 commit? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) How were the people divided? (2.) What were niercliants able 
 to do? (3.) What is said of such cities? (4.) What was the eft'ect of their 
 combination ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What was the condition of farmers and mechanics ? (2.) What 
 is said of tenants or vassals ? (3.) What power had a baron over vassals ? 
 (4.) What authori.,y did he wield ? (6.) What was the relation between lords 
 and serfs ? 
 
 XXVn. — (1.) What security was tiiere for individuals under feudal law f 
 (2.) What was the rule of authority under custom of feudalism ?
 
 226 History of Governments. 
 
 subject, more or less, tc the attacks of the strong. (3.) As an ar- 
 bitrary remedy for this condition of insecurity, the institution of 
 Chivah'y arose. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) Chivalry was the title bestowed upon a practice 
 which came into vogue during the feudal ages. (2.) This consisted 
 in the establishment of bodies of men under the name of Orders of 
 Knighthood. (3.) Those who devoted themselves to a life of chi- 
 valry were called knights. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) Knights were bound by oath to be virtuous, 
 brave, and patient, under hardships. (2.) They were sworn to pro- 
 tect the innocent, redress injuries, and defend the weak, more par- 
 ticularly defenceless women. (3.) Many knights were accustomed 
 to wander from land to land, and were known as knights-errants. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) Admission to knighthood was esteemed to be a great 
 honor. (2.) There were religious orders of knights, bound very 
 strictly by their vows. (3.) The institution of knighthood was of 
 great use in softening the ferocity of war, and preserving respect 
 for the female sex. (4. ) It did not effect much for the oppressed 
 people, but was usually manifested in romantic devotion to honor 
 between noble or " high-born " individuals. (6.) It became cor- 
 rupted afterward to a mere distinction of rank. 
 
 XXXI.— (1.) Monarchs, in feudal times, discovered their dignity 
 to be decreasing, as the higher class became stronger. (2.) They 
 endeavored to check the power of nobles by encouraging the third 
 estate, or class of the people. (3.) They granted merchants and 
 other citizens the privilege to choose their own magistrates in cities 
 which they occupied. (4.) They established laws, ordaining that 
 
 (3.) What arbitrary remedy arose from this state of things? 
 
 XXVm.— (1.) What IS said of chivalry ? (2.) Of what did this practice, 
 consist ? (3.) What were members of such bodies called ? 
 
 XXIX.— (1.) What is said of knights? (2.) To what were they sworn? 
 (3.) Who were the knights-errant ? 
 
 XXX.— (1.) How was knighthood regarded ? (2.) What is said of religious 
 knights? (3.) What is said of knighthood ? (4.) What did it not effect? 
 (5.^ What was the end of knighthood? 
 
 XXXI.— (1.) What did monarchs discover? (2.) What did they endeavoi 
 to do? [Z.) How did they proceed to do this ? (4.) What laws did they sane-
 
 The Feudal System and Chivalry. 227 
 
 serfs wlio might escape from the estates of theii- lords, and live in 
 one of the free cities for a year, should become freemen, and be no 
 longer liable to service. (5.) Courts of law on estates were also 
 abolished, by degrees, and king's or parliament's decrees were de- 
 clared laws of the land. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The most serious check given to the feudal sys 
 tem was by the establishment of armies under control of the sove 
 reign. (2.) With soldiers to execute their authority, the monarchs 
 were able to punish their rebellious barons. (3.) The money neces- 
 sary to support armies was contributed by merchants and working 
 classes, in taxes paid* to the royal officers. (4.) Armies were re- 
 cruited from the people at large, and officered by the king. (5.) 
 The industry and commercial wealth of the people were thus made 
 to balance the landed property of the nobility. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The increase of wealth and general prosperity 
 of communities, protected in trade and labor, enabled them to assist 
 the monarchs who encouraged them. (2.) The union of citizens iu 
 free towns, and tlie foundation of commercial or industrial leagues, 
 enabled the middle classes to exert their first influence on govern- 
 ment. 
 
 tion ? (5.) What otlier changes were effected V 
 
 XXXn. — (1.) What was the most serious check given to feudal customs? 
 (2.) What were iiioiiarehs able to do with such armies? (3.) Who furnished 
 means to support the king's soldiers? (4.) How were the armies formed? 
 (5.) What balance of interests was thus brought about ? 
 
 XXXm. — (1.) What was the consequence of commercial prosperity 
 ('i.) What did ccmbiuations enable citizens tc do ?
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ORIGIN OF SLAVERY. 
 
 I. — (1.) Tee custom of enslaving individuals originated in two 
 motives. (2.) The first was a merciful desire to save life ; the 
 second, to obtain victims for sacrificial purposes. (3.) Love of 
 gain afterward modified the practice, and rendered it common among 
 ancient nations. 
 
 II. — (1.) The earliest conflicts between savage tribes were cruel 
 and sanguinary. (2.) When numbers constituted the main strength 
 of a war party, it was the object of combatants to kill as many foes 
 as they could. (3.) In this way, a whole tribe was often extermi- 
 nated by enemies. 
 
 III. — (1.) A community that depended on the products of hunt- 
 ing, for subsistence, could not support captives in a condition of 
 servitude. (2.) They made prisoners in battle only for the pur- 
 pose of inflicting tortures upon them, or devoting them as sacrifices 
 to the gods of their worship. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Some ferocious or needy tribes were cannibals, and 
 preserved their prisoners for food. (2.) Others permitted a cap- 
 tive to join their ranks, when some family of their number desired 
 to adopt the stranger, with his own consent, as a member. 
 
 V, — (1.) When mankind became numerous in nations, the prac- 
 tice of killing enemies after a battle, was generally abandoned, 
 except in cases of revenge or punishment. (2.) Prisoners were 
 
 L — (1.) How did slavery originate? (2.) What were these motives? (3.) 
 How was the practice modified ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of savage war? (2.) What was an object with com- 
 batants? (3.) What was often the consequence? 
 
 m. — (1.) What is said concerning a community of hunters? (2.) Why did 
 they make prisoners ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is remarked of some tribes? (2.) What of others? 
 
 V. — (1.) When was the practice of killing enemies abandoned? (2.) What 
 223
 
 Origin of Slavery. 229 
 
 spared aud held for ransom by their captors. (3.) By rausoiii 
 was meant the privilege of redeeming a captive for a certain 
 price in weapons, cattle, or other valuables, paid by his countrymen 
 or kindred. 
 
 VI. — (I.) The equivalent demanded for liberating a captive was 
 more or less, according to the person's rank or importance among 
 his countrymen. (2.) This equivalent was generally required to 
 be paid within a stated time. p 
 
 VII. — (1.) If a prisoner's tribe or f;i rally did not pay ransom, 
 the captive was transferred for the price to any other person who 
 required service done, either among the captors or strangers. (2.) 
 Unransomed captives became subject to tlie pleasure of purchasers, 
 and slavery was thus established among early nations. (3.) The 
 practice extended in proportion as their hunting life was exchanged 
 for agricultural or pastoral pursuits, because the labor of servants 
 grew valuable in the same degree. 
 
 VIII. (1.) When communities were formed, dwellings built, and 
 
 fields cultivated, settlers began to exchange the products of agricul- 
 ture for other commodities possessed by wandering tribes. (2.) 
 They sold corn, wine, oil, weapons and ornaments, and received in 
 return the skins of beasts, ivory and ornaments. (3.) When wan- 
 dering traders saw that servants were in demand, they bought 
 prisoners taken in battle, and bartered them for whatever goods 
 the settlers had to sell. 
 
 IX. (1.) Traffic in slaves thus became a. regular brancli of 
 
 commerce. (2.) Some of the wandering x\rabian tribes devoted 
 themselves entirely to the business of buying and selling men, women 
 and children. (3.) The Midianite merchants who purchased Joseph, 
 
 other course was adopted ? (3.) What was understood by ransom ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What was the amount required for ransom? (2.) When was it 
 paid ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What was done when ransom was not paid '.' ('2.i What was the 
 result of this? (3.) How did tlio practice e.xtend ? 
 
 Vni.— (1.) How did tradlc or commerce begin to grow? (2.) What ex- 
 changes were made ? (3.) What is said of servants ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What (lid traffic in slaves become? (2) What is said of some 
 Arabian tribes? (3.) What Scripture incident of slavery is mentioned?
 
 230 History of Governments. 
 
 as related in Scripture, belonged to oue of these roving communities. 
 (4.) Slave-making and slave-trading were considered proper to com 
 raercial intercourse between both barbarous and civilized nations. 
 
 X. — (1.) The hardships and sufferings of slavery in old times 
 were greater or less according to the disposition of masters, or the 
 regulations of society and government concerning slave-holding. 
 (2.) Among Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians and other nations, slaves 
 were deprived of all rights and privilegeSj and made entirely subject 
 to those who owned them. (3.) Among Hebrews, the condition of 
 slaves was improved by law, and they were restored to liberty at 
 certain festival seasons. 
 
 XI. — (1.) During the first wars of the Roman commonwealth. 
 it was usual to make captive all the inhabitants of a captured city, 
 and sell them like cattle, at public auction. (2.) In aftfer years, 
 w'hen Roman armies conquered whole nations, the prisoners taken 
 in battle were usually enslaved, and the rest allowed to escape. 
 (3.) Sometimes thousands were reserved to fight one another, as 
 gladiators, in the Roman theatres. (4.) Gladiators were generally 
 taken from among Thracians, Dacians and other rude tribes. 
 (5.) They were trained in schools, to fight with different weapons, 
 for public amusement on holidays. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Military conquerors, in early times, were accustomed 
 to reduce entire nations to slavery. (2.) Kings of Syria, Persia 
 and Egypt carried the Hebrew nation into foreign captivity on 
 several occasions. (3.) Titus, who destroyed Jerusalem with a 
 Roman army, made slaves of one hundred thousand of the inhabi- 
 tants. (4.) In the wars of Julius Cassar, a million captives were 
 taken from their homes and sold into slavery. 
 
 (4.) How were slave-making and slave-dealing regarded ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is remarked of ancient slavery? (2.) What nations oppressed 
 slaves most? (3.) What nation had laws to improve their condition? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What was the custom of early Romans ? (•>.) What was their 
 practice afterward? (3.) What is said of gladiators ? '(4.) From what nations 
 were gladiators usually taken? (5.) How were they trained? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) What were military conquerors accustomed to do? (2.) What 'did 
 early kings do ? (3.) What was doce by Titus ? (4.) What is said of Caesar's 
 wars ? •
 
 Origin of Slavery. 231 
 
 XIII.— (1." Diiriug the feudal ages, captives taken in war were 
 usually permitted to redeem themselves by paying ransom. (2.) Cap- 
 tains and soldiers who made prisoners in battle were allowed to 
 claim them as prizes, to be redeemed for stipulated sums. (3.) 
 Kings, nobles, knights, and other captives taken, were held at a 
 price according to personal rank or wealth. 
 
 XIV. (1.) During modern centuries, barbarous nations, dwell- 
 ing on the coast of Africa, engaged in the business of making pri- 
 soners for the purpose of selling them into slavery. (2.) They built 
 cities on the Mediterranean, and sailed out in ships, under the name 
 of Tunisians, Tripolitans and Algerines, or Barbary pirates. (3.) 
 They were Mohammedans, and captured merchant ships, or made 
 descents on settlements, for the purpose of enslaving Christian crews 
 and inhabitants. (4.) Their prisoners, when not ransomed by 
 friends, were sold to perpetual slavery. (5.) This piratical slave 
 trade continued to be common during several centuries, and has 
 been but lately abandoned by Barbary nations. 
 
 XV.— (1.) Savage tribes and individual natives of Africa were 
 enslaved by ancient nations as far back as human record extends. 
 (2.) Egyptian and Ethiopian ruling classes made slaves of inferior 
 tribes, whether white or black. (3.) Black slaves were usually de- 
 voted to household service. 
 
 XVI.— (1.) When Spanish conquerors gained possession of 
 Mexico, Peru, and other American countries, they forced the aborigi- 
 nal inhabitants to work mines, build houses, make roads, and perform 
 all hard labor and menial service. (2.) They treated these native in- 
 
 VTTT— (1.) How were captives treated during feudal ages? (2.) How were 
 they claimed ? (3.) What is said of their ransoms? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What has taken place during modern centuries? (2.) What did 
 the Barbary pirates do ? (3) What purpose had they? (4.) What became of 
 such prisoners ? (5.) What is remarked about this trade? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What is said of African slaves? (2.) What was the castom 
 among Egyptians and Ethiopians ? (3.) To what service were black slaves 
 devoted ? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What is said of Spanish conquerors? (2.) How did they treat 
 the natives ?
 
 232 History of Governments. 
 
 habitants with such great cruelty, that sympathy became en- 
 listed in their behalf. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) It was feared that the Indians could not be 
 civilized or taught Christianity, unless they received better 
 treatment from the Spaniards. (2.) The government of Spain 
 encouraged its subjeets to transport black slaves from Africa 
 to America, in order to better the condition of native Indians. 
 (3.) It was argued that both blacts and Indians would receive 
 benefit, the first in being relieved from slavery, and the second 
 by receiving instruction in the C/hristian religion from their 
 Spanish masters. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The African slave trade of modern times 
 was thus established by law, and continued to flourish for a 
 long while. (2.) Thousands of vessels were sent to the borders 
 of Africa, to obtain cargoes of slaves. (3.) Black tribes of that 
 country made war ujjon each other, for the sole purpose of tak- 
 ing prisoners, to sell to white traders. (4.) The greater 
 number of slaves made so, were brought to America, and sold 
 to the settlers. 
 
 3CIX. — (1.)— During the present century, laws have been 
 passed to abolish the traffic in slaves, among civilized nations. 
 (2.) Black slavery has been abolished in all Republics of the 
 American continent. (3.) In the empire of Brazil, and some 
 Spanish islands, blacks and their descendants are kept as slaves 
 to perform agricultural and other labors. (4.) In the United 
 States, slavery has been abolished, and negroes are admitted to 
 citizenship. 
 
 XX. — (1.) In African and Asiatic countries, at the present 
 time, many old customs of slaveholding and slave traffic are in 
 
 XVII.— (1) What was feared? (2.) What did the Government of Spain do? (S.) 
 What was an argument for the enslaving of Africans? 
 
 XVIII.— (1) What Is said of the African slave trade? (2.) What was the conse- 
 quence? (3.) What did black tribes do? (4.) What became of the purchased 
 slaves? 
 
 XIX. — (1-) What changes have taken place during the present century? (2.) 
 Where are black held as slaves? (3.) What is said of Brazil? (1.) Of the United 
 States? 
 
 XX.— (!•) In What otiier countries do slavery and the slave trade exist?
 
 Origin of Slavery. 233 
 
 force. (2.) Wliite and black slaves are still bought and sold in 
 market places of Turkey, Persia and Africa. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) During the feudal ages, slavery in Europe was 
 kuown as serfdom, which was the condition of the poorer class- 
 es. (2.) These people were regarded as belonging to the lands 
 they cultivated, in the same way as cattle or other stock be- 
 long to farms. (3.) They were transferred from master to 
 master, as the ownership of soil passed from lord to lord. (4.) 
 They were called serfs, vassals, and thralls, or villeins, in dif- 
 ferent countries. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The practice of holding poorer classes of 
 laboring peojjle in this condition exists at the present day iu 
 several countries of Europe. (2.) Until recently, serfs formed 
 the agricultural and laboring population of tlie Russian em- 
 pire. (3.) Some estates of Russian lords contained thousands 
 of serfs. (4,) The emperor's serfs were counted by millions 
 (5.) The empex'or of Russia liberated these multitudes from 
 serfdom, allowing them to become free owners of small farms. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) In Mexico, and other South American 
 states, a form of slavery subsists called peonaye. (2.) It is a 
 species of serfdom to which persons are reduced by law, when 
 unable to satisfy the demands of creditors. (3.) Condemned 
 debtors are forced to labor, as peons, for their creditor's benefit. 
 (4.) They must satisfy his claims for the original debt, and 
 for the expense of their subsistence while laboring. (5.) Their 
 families and children are also held, to satisfy claims for ex- 
 pense in their support. 
 
 (2.) What Is said of white and black slaves t 
 
 XXI.— (1.) What is said of serfdom 1 (2.) How were feuilal slaves regarded t 
 (3.) How were they transferred ? (4 ) Under what names were fchey known ? 
 
 XXII.— (1.) What Is said of serfdom In modern days ? (.'.) What of serfs la 
 Ku^sia ? (3.) What did some largo estates contain ? (i.) What is said of the Em- 
 peiur'b serfs ? (5.) What was done in llussia ? 
 
 XXIII.— What Is said ot peonage ■? (2.) What is this form of slavery ? (3. ) What 
 are .viexicau debtors obligo.l to do ? (4.) What uiuai they satisfy? (5.) What ia 
 Bald coucoruiug their faiuiiiea }
 
 MODERN MONARCHIES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PERSIAN AXD TURKISH DESPOTISMS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The ancient Persian despotism is now represented 
 by an absolute monarch, called a Shah. (2.) He is assisted by a 
 lieutenant, or grand vizier, and a chief treasurer, with subordinate 
 governors and other oE&cials. 
 
 II. — (1.) The grand vizier is general of the Persian army and 
 minister of foreign affairs. (2.) The chief treasurer administers 
 internal affairs of the kingdom, collecting revenue and selecting 
 civil officers. (3.) Both ministers are appointed by the shah, and 
 may be taken from the lowest class of people. (4.) They are 
 slaves to the will of their master, and tyrants over all others. 
 
 III. — (1 ) Under the chief ministers are the sardars, or gover- 
 nors of provinces. (2.) These are usually members of the shah's 
 family, or liigh nobles. (3.) Each appoints a lieutenant, or hakim, 
 and other inferior officers. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Tiiere are two kinds of tribunals known in the Persian 
 
 I. — (1.) How is ancient Persian despotism now represented ? (2.) How is 
 the shah assisted? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is the grand vizier? (2.) What does the chief treasurer do? 
 (3.) What is said of these ministers ' (4.) What is their position? 
 
 m. — (1.) What officers are under the ministers? (2.) What are the sar* 
 
 diir^? (3.) What does each appoint? 
 
 IV. — ;l ) What is said of Persian tribunals? 
 234
 
 . Persian and Turkish Despotisms. 2'p,^ 
 
 judiciary. (2.) One of these decides all questions, according to the 
 Koran, or Mohammedan scriptures. (3.) In the other, judgments 
 are governed by the ancient Persian laws and traditional customs 
 (4.) The population of Persia is made up of various races, compris 
 ing numerous wandering tribes, who pay annual tribute. 
 
 V. (1.) The people of Persia are divided into military tribes 
 
 and dwellers in cities. (2.) The former are under chiefs, whose 
 Bons are often kept in the capital as hostages for the fidelity of their 
 fathers. (3.) These tribes mainly continue to dwell in tents, in 
 the manner of ancient Persian clans. (4.) The inhabitants of 
 towns are more or less in a servile condition, according to their 
 subordination under the royal princes. 
 
 VI. (1.) The ancient patriarchal communities of Arabians were 
 
 combined, as a powerful nation, under Mahomet and his successors. 
 (2.) Mahomet founded a monarchy called the Caliphate, guided by 
 the precepts of the Koran, or religious revelation, which he com- 
 municated. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The mouarchs, called Caliphs, who succeeded Mahomet, 
 ruled as hereditary despots, restrained only by regulations of the 
 Koran. (2.) They conquered Persia, Syria, and several other 
 countries, and their armies became famous, under the name of Sara- 
 cens. (3.) At the time when Charlemagne reigned over France, 
 the Saracens were very powerful, under a caliph named Haroun 
 Alraschid. 
 
 Vni. — (1.) Saracen armies carried the religion of Mahomet 
 wheresoever they conquered. (2.) They invaded Spain, under the 
 name of Moors, and held possession of a great portion of that coun- 
 
 (2.) How are decisions made by one? (3.) How by the other? (4.) What \b 
 the character of the Persian population ? 
 
 v.— (1.) How are the Tersian people divided? (2.) What is said of the 
 former? (3.) What is their mode of life? (4.) What is said of the inhabi- 
 tants of towns? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of Arabian communities? (2.) What did Mahomet 
 fou)id ? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What power had tliccaHphs? (2.) What is said of their con- 
 quests? (3.) At what period were Saracens very powerful? 
 
 Vni.— (1.) What dii Saracen armies do? (2.) What country did they ia-
 
 236 History of Governments. 
 
 try till near the sixteeuth century. (3.) They also subjugated the 
 people of ludia and other ancient nations. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Under the system of caliphs, Saracens were ruled 
 despotically by one sovereign and the Mohammedan law. (2.) After- 
 ward, generals of armies and governors of conquered provinces set 
 np as independent rulers. (3.) Mohammedan monarchies were thus 
 organised in Egypt, in Spain, and on the coast of Africa. 
 
 X. — (1.) When the Saracen empire became divided, it was in- 
 vaded by several barbarous tribes called Turkomans, or Turks, from 
 the deserts of northern Asia. (2.) The Turks were under leader- 
 ship of a chief named Othman. (3.) This chief united the tribes in 
 a nation, adoi:)ted the Mohammedan religion, and took the name of 
 Sultan. (4.) After his death, the nation, composed of Arabians, 
 Saracens and Turkomans, came to be known as Ottomans, or Turks. 
 (5.) They extended their power on every side, and took possession 
 of Constantinople, overthrowif>g the Roman empire of the East. 
 
 XI. — (1 ) The Turkish government is administered now, as 
 formerly, under the guidance of the religious code given by Ma- 
 homet in his Koran. (2.) It extends over countries once occupied 
 by Carthaginians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, 
 Arabians, and Syrians. 
 
 XII. — (I.) The Sultan of Turkey possesses unlimited authority 
 over the persons and i)roperty of his subjects. (2.) He is regarded 
 as head of the national religion, and his government is known as 
 the Sublime Porte. (3.) He is assisted in the administration of 
 public affairs by the chief Mufti, or high-priest, and the Grand Vizier, 
 or lieutenant of the empire, with a council of ministers. 
 
 vade ? (3.) What nations did they subjugate ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) How were Saracens ruled? (2.) What afterward took place? 
 (3.) What were organized ? 
 
 X. — (1.) By what tribes were the Saracens overrun ? (2.) Who was leader 
 of the Turks? (3.) What did this chief do? (4.) What occurred after his 
 death? (5.) Where was Turkish dominion extended? 
 
 XI. — (1.) How is the Turkish government administered? (2.) Over what 
 countries does it extend? 
 
 XII. — (1.) What authority has the sultan? (2.) How is he regarded? 
 (3.) By what officer? is he assisted?
 
 Persian and Turkish Despotisms. 237 
 
 XIII.— (1.) The chief ranfti is styled Sheik-ul-Islam, cr Priest 
 of Mohammedanism. (2.) He is head of the supreme court of the 
 empire, and chief of magistrates. (3.) The judicial officers, or 
 magistrates, are persons learned in laws of the Koran, which direct 
 botli religious and social matters. (4.) These magistrates are 
 called mollahs, cadis, iraauras and uleraas. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The grand vizier is chief of administrative affairs, 
 whether foreign or domestic. (2.) Under him are his deputies and 
 ministers of foreign affairs, of trade, of police, of agriculture, of 
 religious institutions, of the home department, of the revenue, and 
 of public works. (3.) Each of these ministers is appointed by the 
 sultan, and responsible with his life for faithfulness. (4.) Other 
 subordinates of the grand vizier take charge of special matters of 
 administration. 
 
 XV". — (1.) A chief of military affairs, acting under the sultan, 
 through the grand vizier, is called the Seraskier, or minister of 
 war. (2.) He has authority over armies and their officers, and is 
 responsible for tiieir conduct. (3.) A minister of marine, called 
 the Capudan-Pacha, or higli admiral, superintends the naval forces. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) All ministers of departments unite with the vizier aud 
 
 Shiek-ul-Islam to form the sultan's council. (2.) This council is 
 called the Divan, or ministry of state, but its members are controlled 
 by the sultan, as they, in turn, control their subordinates. 
 
 XVII.— (1.) Some large provinces of Turkey are under govern- 
 ment of officers appointed directly by the sultan. (2.) Others 
 preserve their own laws aud chiefs, by paying an annual tribute to 
 
 Xni.— (1.) Wliat is the chief mufti styled? (2.) What is his position? 
 (3.) Who are judicial officers? (4.) What are they called ? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What is the {^rand vizier ? ('2.) What officers are under him? 
 (3 ) What is said of these ministers? (4.) What do other subordinates do ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) What is the seraskier? (2.) What is his authority? (3.) What is 
 the Capudan-Pacha ? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) How is the sultan's council composed? (2.) What is said of this 
 council ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) How are large Turkish provinces governed ? (2.) What do
 
 238 Histcr) of Go\ ernments. 
 
 the Sublime Porte. (3.) Others are possessed by wild tribes, umler 
 military chiefs, who assist the Turkish government iu time of war. 
 (4.) Others are inhabited by pastoral communities, with patriarchal 
 forms of authority. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHINESE PATRIARCHAL DESPOTISM. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Chinese nation comprises an immense collection of 
 families and tribes blended together as a people. (2.) The two na- 
 tional classes are the original Chinese inhabitants, and their later 
 conquerors, the Tartars. (3.) The sovereigns proceed, by hereditary 
 succession, from the chief Tartar family. 
 
 II. — (1.) The patriarchal system of government, as practised in 
 wandering savage tribes, expanded, in China, with the growth of 
 population. (2.) Authority is measured throughout all the empire 
 by regular steps, descending from the sovereign downward. 
 
 III. — (1.) There is no hereditary aristocracy in China, except the 
 family of the sovereign. (2.) Whatever officers are appointed from 
 time to time, to administer the laws, constitute an aristocracy while 
 they hold their offices. (3.) These officers are taken, according to 
 personal merit, from the people at large. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The most respectable people in China are those who 
 have studied and become educated in all matters known among 
 them. (2.) Accordingly as a youth or man gives evidence of 
 
 others preserve? (-3.) How are other provinces possessed? (4.) How are 
 others inhabited ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What does the Chinese nation comprise? (2.) What are the na- 
 tional classes? (3.) What family furnishes the sovereigns? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is said of the patriarchal sjstem ? (2.) How is authority 
 arranged ? 
 
 m.— (1.) What is said regarding aristocracy? (2.; Who constitute a tem 
 porary aristocracy? (3.) Whence are these officers taken? 
 
 IV. — (1) Who are the most respectable Chinese ? (2.) How is an indivi 
 dual regarded in China?
 
 Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 239 
 
 talent and learning, he is looked upon as worthy of advancement 
 and consideration. 
 
 v. — (1.) The lowest class of Chinese population are the slaves, who 
 have no rights or privileges. (2.) Slaves are persons who have beea 
 condemned to servitude during life, for ofiFeuces, and captives or 
 rebels, bought and sold. (3.) The poorest and uneducated people 
 of the empire, who pay their taxes by public service, are in the con- 
 dition of slaves. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The domestic servants of Chinese families are gene- 
 rally slaves. (2.) Masters are permitted to have absolute power 
 over them. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The Chinese nation is divided socially into four ranks 
 or orders. (2.) In the first place is the learned, or literary class ; 
 next, the cultivators, or agricultural population ; thirdly, the arti- 
 ficers, or manufacturing class ; and fourthly, the merchants. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The only marked superiority is that held by the 
 learned order, from whose members ofiQcers of government and ma- 
 gistrates are usually appointed. (2.) There is an exclusive class of 
 courtiers, who claim hereditary distinction, and are called " the 
 ancient tribe." (3.) They have no authority except in matters of 
 ceremonial about the royal palaces. 
 
 IX. — (1.) AH appointments to oflBce in China emanate from the 
 supreme government. (2.) Office-holders comprise governors, ma- 
 gistrates, and all other officials. (3.) They are selected on account 
 of superior learning or talent, without regard to birth or property. 
 
 X. — (1.) The supreme head of the Chinese state is the emperor, 
 
 V. — (1.) Who constitute the lowest class of Chinese ? (2.) What are the' 
 slaves? (3.) What is said of the poorest people? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What are Cliinese servants? (2.) What power have masters? 
 
 VII. — (1.) How is the Chinese nation socially divided? (2.) What arc 
 these ranks? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) Which is the superior order? (2.) What exclusive class is men- 
 tioned ? (3.) What authority have they? 
 
 IX. — (1.) Whence do all appoiutments emanate? (2.) What do office-hold- 
 ers comprise ? (3.) On what considerations are they selected ? 
 
 X. — (1.) Who is supreme head or patriarch of the Chinese state?
 
 240 History of Governments. 
 
 or patriarchal despot. (2.) He is worshipped with divine honors, 
 and considered to be present at the same time in every part of his 
 dominions. (3.) The number of his subjects is estimated to be 
 more than three hundred millions of souls. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The emperor is supposed to worship heaven, and the 
 people pay worship to the emperor, as high-priest of their nation. 
 (2.) No person whatever can pass the gate of a royal palace ou 
 horseback, or in a vehicle. (3.) Even the vacant throne, or a 
 screen before it, is regarded as an object of worship. (4.) The par- 
 ticular walks used by the sovereign, in his palace grounds, must not 
 be trodden over by any other foot. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The emperor possesses power to name his successor 
 in government. (2.) His seal on all documents makes them sacred, 
 and bis dispatches are received by the most distant governors with 
 incense and prostration of the body. 
 
 Xm. — (1.) AH proclamations, orders, and laws, after being 
 issued by t le emperor, are published in an official paper, called the 
 " Pekin Gazette." (2.) The sovereign's letters, and all reports 
 from subordinate officials, appear in this gazette. 
 
 XIV". — (?.) As high-priest of the nation, the emperor and those 
 appointed by him for the purpose, perform all religious rites of 
 prayer and sacrifice. (2.) This is a distinguishing feature of the 
 patriarcha' mode of government from earliest times. (3.) All 
 religious temples and priests in China are supported by the inhabit- 
 ants of districts to which they belong. 
 
 (2.) What is his station? (3.) What is the number of his subjects? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What is said of the emperor's sacred character? (2.) What pecu- 
 liar respect is paid to liim? (3.) What other marks of veneration are men- 
 tioned? (4.) What is said of his garden walks? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) How is the succession of emperors regulated? (2.) What is said 
 of the emperor's seal and writings? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) How are laws made known in China? (2.) What other docu- 
 ments appear in this gazette? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Who perform religious ceremonies in China? (2.) What is re- 
 marked concerning this practice ? (3.) How are temples and priests sustained 
 in China ?
 
 Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 241 
 
 . XV. — (1.) The emperor appoints, as assistants, a ministry, called 
 the Interior Council Chamber. (2.) His chief counsellors are four 
 in number — two Tartars and two Chinese. (3.) The Tartars are 
 superior, because the emperor himself belongs to a Tartar family or 
 dynasty. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Below the ministers area number of assessors, or 
 treasurers of the empire, who constitute with them a council of 
 state. (2.) Principal ministers are selected by the emperor, from a 
 great national institution of learning, called the Imperial College of 
 the Han-lin. 
 
 XVII, — (1.) The emperor has a secret council, formed of special 
 ministers, selected on important occasions. (2.) From this body he 
 appoints commissioners and envoys, to settle difficulties in the empire, 
 or with other nations. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Under the ministers are boards, or departments, 
 having care of various details of pu!)lic business. (2.) These boards 
 are known as the Loo-poo, or Six Boards. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The Loo-poo comprise, first, a Board of Appoint- 
 ments, which oversees th(! conduct of all civil offices ; secondly, a 
 Board of Revenue, regulating all money matters ; third, a Board of 
 Rites and Ceremonies ; fourth, a Military Boai 1 ; fiftn, a Supreme 
 Court of Police matters ; sixth, a Board of Pub Jc Works. 
 
 XX. (1.) Another department of government is called the 
 
 office for foreign affairs. (2.) The heads of this department are 
 always Tartars. (3.) It takes charge of treaties ?ud government 
 business with other nations. 
 
 XV.— (1.) Who are assistants of the emperor in government? (? '^^Kat 
 is said of ilia chief counsellors ? (8.) Who are superior ? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What subordinates arc mentioned ? (2.) Whence are pnncipal 
 ministers taken ? 
 
 XVIL (1.) What other assistants has the emperor? (2.) What does he 
 
 appoint from the secret council? 
 
 XVin. (1.) What bodies are under the ministers? (2.) What are these 
 
 boards called ? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What are the different boards comprised in the Loo-poo ? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What is another department called? (2.) What are the head* ««r 
 this department? (3.) Of what has this department charge ? 
 
 II
 
 242 Histor}' of Governments. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) There is a department or ofSce called the Board of 
 Censors or Examiners. (2.) About fifty principal officers compose 
 this board. (3.) These censors are sent to diflferent parts of the 
 empire, to examine into the way public business is conducted, in- 
 spect the people, and make reports to the emperor concerning all 
 they ascertain. (4.) They are privileged to present any advice or 
 remonstrance to the emperor, without danger of losing their lives. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) Chinese provinces are under charge of special rulers, 
 
 appointed by the imperial government. (2 ) The head officer of a 
 single province is called a governor. (3.) That of two or more 
 provinces is known as a general-governor, or viceroy. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) In each provincial government, there is a chief 
 judge, who has special charge of criminal matters. (2.) There is 
 also a treasurer, who examines into civil suits, and takes charge of 
 royal revenues in his province. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Separate cities and districts of every province are 
 under supervision of respective magistrates, who rank according to 
 the places they govern. (2.) The total number of civil magistrates 
 in China is estimated to be fourteen thousand. 
 
 XXV". — (1.) There is an official list called the Red Book, printed 
 quarterly, by authority. (2.) It contains the name, birthplace, and 
 particulars relating to every office-holder in the empire. (3.) All 
 changes made in office are regulated by this list. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) No person is allowed to act as magistrate in the 
 province where he was born or belongs. (2.) Every public officer 
 
 XXI. — (1.) What other department is mentioued ? (2.) Pow many officers 
 compose it? (3.) What is the business of these censors ? (4.) What privilege 
 iiave they ? 
 
 XXU. — (1.) What are provinces under? (2.) What is a chief provincial 
 officer called ? (3.) What title has a ruler of two or more provinces ? 
 
 XXm. — (1) What other magistrate is placed in each province ? (2.) What 
 imperial officer is there stationed ? 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) How are separate cities and districts governed? (2.) How 
 many civil magistrates are there in China ? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) What is said of an official list? (2.) What does the Red Book 
 f.-'.^t.ain? (3.) What are regulated by this list? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) What restriction regulates magistrates? (2.) What changes
 
 Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 243 
 
 is clianged periodically, so as to prevent his permanent connection 
 with any inhabitants of the district, (3.) A son, brother, or other 
 near relation, is not allowed to hold office under a corresponding 
 connection. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) Once in three years, the viceroy or governor of 
 every province makes a special report to the Board of iVppoint- 
 ments at Pekin. (2.) In this report he mentions every officer 
 under his jurisdiction by name, with remarks on character and con- 
 duct, as furnished by the immediate superior of each man. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) Accordingly as an official is mentioned favor- 
 ably or otherwise, in the governor's report, he may be expected to 
 rise or be degraded so many degrees. (2.) Every magistrate is 
 obliged to state publicly how many steps he has been raised or de- 
 graded while holding office. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) Chinese officials are provided with a regular code 
 of laws for their guidance. (2.) This code is divided into six clas- 
 sifications, corresponding to th^ six boards, or central departments 
 of government, called Loo-poo. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) The first classification relates to the administration 
 of civil offices. (2.) It is comj)rised iu two books, one treating of 
 the system of government, another of the conduct of officers. 
 
 XXXI. — (I.) The second division of Chinese laws relates to 
 statistics and money matters, and contains seven books. (2.) The 
 first discourses of tlie enrollment of the people ; the second, of lands 
 and tenements ; the third, of marriage statistics ; the fourth, of 
 
 are regularly made ? (3.) What persons are not allowed to hold office under 
 each other ? 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) Whiit is done once in three years? (2.) What does the gov- 
 ernor mention in his report? 
 
 XXVm. — (1.) What is the result of mentioning an official in his superior's 
 report? (2.) What is every magistrate obliged to state ? 
 
 XXIX. — (I.) With what are Chinese officials provided? (2.) How is this 
 code classified? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) To what does the first classification relate ? (2.) What is said 
 of its books ? 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) To what does the second division relate? (2.) Of wha/ do it« 
 ^ooks treat ?
 
 244 History of GovernmenLS 
 
 public property: the fifth, of duties and customs ; the sixth, of pri- 
 vate property; the seventh, of sales and markets. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The third division of the code is in two books. 
 (2.) The first regards sacred rites ; the second concerns miscella- 
 neous observances. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The fourth classification of laws relates to mili- 
 tary matters, in five books. (2.) First, the protection of the em- 
 peror's palace ; second, army regulations ; third, protection of the 
 frontiers ; fourth, horses and cattle of the army ; fifth, public posts 
 and expresses. 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) The fifth division of the code occupies eleven 
 books, and is devoted to criminal laws. (2.) It specifies all offences, 
 as treason, robbery, theft, murder, homicide, sacrilege, quarrelling, 
 incendiarism, and other breaches of the law. 
 
 XXXV. (1.) The sixth and last classification treats of public 
 
 works, under supervision of the boarc^ at Pekin. (2.) Its two books 
 regulate all matters concerning public buildings, and public roacjs. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) Patriarchal, or parental, authority is recognized 
 through all ranks of the people. (2.) Fathers have, to some de- 
 gree, the power of life and death over their children. (3.) If they 
 kill them designedly, they are punished by only a year's imprison- 
 ment. (4.) If they kill them after having received a blow from 
 their hands, the law considers it justifiable. 
 
 XXXVII. (1.) Chinese modes of punishment for capital crimes 
 
 XXXn.— (1.) How many books has the third division? (2.) Of what do 
 they treat? 
 
 XXXIII.— (1.) To what does the fourth classification relate ? (2.) What are 
 
 its five subjects ? 
 XXXIV.— (1.) What is said of the fifth division? (2.) What does it 
 
 specify '■ 
 
 XXXV.— (1 ) Of what does the sixth classification treat? (2.) What do its 
 
 books regulate ? 
 
 XXXVI.— (1.) What authority is universally recognized ? (2.) What power 
 iave fathers? (3.) What is the penalty for killing children? (4.) What ia 
 said of killing children as punishment for abusing parents? 
 
 XXXVn.— (.1.) What is said of capital punishments in the Chinese empire »
 
 Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 245 
 
 are very severe. (2.) Beating with the bamboo is the most common 
 penalty for all offences not worthy of death. (3.) The penalty of 
 striking, or even cursing, a parent, is death. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) The vital principle of Chinese government is 
 submission to parental authority and to the written code. (2.) The 
 laws are taught to every child in school and at home. 
 
 XXXIX.— (1.) The sacred books of China teacli, tiiat from tiie 
 knowledge of oneself must proceed the proper family government, 
 and from the government of a family must proceed that of a pro- 
 vince or kingdom. 
 
 XL. — (1.) The emperor is called father of his empire ; a gover- 
 nor is called father of his province ; a mandarin, or city magistrate, 
 is considered father of the city over which he presides. (2.) The 
 father of every family is held to be the responsible ruler of his own 
 household. 
 
 XIjI. — (1.) In this manner, the principle of obedience to supe- 
 riors is recognized through all grades of the people. (2.) Children 
 obey and reverence their parents ; the young respect the aged ; 
 the uneducated pay deference to the educated. (3.) All ranks 
 unite in looking up to rulers set over them, and to the emperor as 
 head and father of all. 
 
 XLII. — (1.) The people of Chinese communities sometimes hold 
 public u}eeting's for the purpose of addressing their magistrates. 
 (2.) Honors are shown to worthy officials by a public presenta- 
 tion of some testimonial when he retires from office. 
 
 (2.) What of minor punishments ? (3.) What i8 the legal penalty for abusing 
 a parent ? 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) What is the vital principle of Chinese government. (2.) 
 What is said of the laws ? 
 
 XXXIX.— (1.) What do Chinese sacred books teach ? 
 
 XL. — (1.) What is said concerning the title of father? (2.) What is each 
 family father held to be ? 
 
 Xlil. — (1.) What principle rs in this manner recognized? (2.) Wliat i.s 
 said regarding the practice of such obedience ? (3.) In wliat do all ranks 
 unite ? 
 
 Xlill.— (1.) What popular privileges have the Chinese? (2.) How do thej 
 bonor worthy magistrates ?
 
 246 History of Governments. 
 
 XLIII. — (1.) Education is strictly enjoined upon all cbildreu 
 and youth, and incentives are offered for its acquisition. (2.) A 
 book, called the Book of Sacred Instructions, is read in public by 
 magistrates, upon days corresponding to the new and full moon. 
 (3.) It contains sixteen discourses, teaching the duties of children 
 to parents, juniors to elders, and the people to their governors. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) The penal laws of China are all printed in cheap 
 form, for general circulation. (2.) Every person is expected to 
 become familiar with their operation, and act accordingly. 
 
 XLV. — (1.) Parents of children who offend against the laws 
 are liable to be held responsible and punished. (2.) They are per- 
 mitted to share in any honors conferred on their sons for the per- 
 formance of meritorious actions. 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) Every town and village in China has a place of 
 public instruction, and wealthy families employ private teachers for 
 their children. (2.) The chief ground of selection to office, and 
 promotion in rank, is the possession of cultivated talent. 
 
 XLVII. — (1.) In every city and district there are periodical 
 examinations of students belonging to all classes of society. (2.) 
 The poorest persons, as well as the wealthiest, may present claims 
 for government employment. (3.) This makes every Chinese youth 
 honorably ambitious to distinguish himself by study. 
 
 XLVIII. — (1.) At the public examinations, students are allowed 
 to display their capacity and attainments. (2.) If government 
 cannot appoint all to official places, it distributes honors, and 
 
 XT.TTT (1 ) What is said of education in Cliiaa » (2.) What book is read 
 
 in public ? (3.) What does this book contain? 
 
 XLIV.— (1.) What laws are generally circulated? (2.) What is expected 
 from every person ? 
 
 XLV.— (1.) What responsibility have parents ? (2.) What distinctions are 
 awarded them ? 
 
 XLVL— (1.) What is said of Chinese schools? (2.) What is the chief 
 ground for selection to otiice ? 
 
 XLVII.— (1.) What examinations are made? (2.) Who may claim to bo 
 candidates' for official appointments? (3.) What is the efifect of this? 
 
 XLVIII. (1.) What are students allowed? (2.) What does t'le g0 7eru- 
 
 meut do lor worthy students?
 
 Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 247 
 
 promises future employment to the meritorious candidates eligible 
 to preferment, either civil or military. 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) Civil officers in China are treated with greater 
 consideration than military ones. (2.) At public festivals, the 
 former precede the latter. 
 
 L._(l.) AH the military of the Chinese empire are under super- 
 vision of the military board at Pekin. (2.) This board musters the 
 forces, whilst a board of revenue furnishes funds, and a board of 
 public works provides supplies. 
 
 Li._(l.) The emperor's guard is composed of Tartars, in eight 
 divisions, of ten thousand soldiers each. (2.) The rest of the army 
 is made up of Chinese regulars and the militia of provinces, amount- 
 ing in all to about three-quarters of a million of men. (3.) The 
 militia are engaged in other occupations, but receive a small sum 
 per month for their service under arms. 
 
 Lil. (1.) The highest military rank in China is that of a 
 
 Tartar general. (2.) Subordinate officers receive promotion ac- 
 cording to desert, from the lowest grade. (3.) Officers and privates 
 are alike subject to punishment with the bamboo by those sec over 
 them, for oifences against regulations. 
 
 LIII._(1.) Tlie theory of Chinese government is despotic, 
 through every grade, from the emperor down to the lowest officer. 
 (2.) The people have a saying, that " the emperor is a charioteer— 
 the royal ministers are his hands, officers below them are his reins, 
 laws are the bits, and punishment the lash." (3.) The whole 
 people are in this manner kept in harness and driven by higher 
 authority. 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) How are civil officers treated ? (2.) Uow is this shown? 
 
 L._{1.) What is said of Chinese miUtary? (2.) What authorities provide 
 for mustering and support of soldiers '! 
 
 LI.— (1.) Of what material ia the emperor's guard composed? (2.) Wha^ 
 makes up the rest of the army ? (3.) What is said of the militia ? 
 
 LU.— (1.) What is the highest military rank in China ? (2.) What is said of 
 subordinate officers ? (3.) To what are all subordinates subject ? 
 
 Lin.— (1.) What is the theory of Chinese government? (2.) What is a 
 popular saying ? (3.) What is remarked concerning this?
 
 CHAPTER CI. 
 
 JAPANESE MILITARY DESPOTISM. 
 
 L — (1.) The governmeut of Japan k a despotism, hereditary io 
 the families of two sovereigns. (2.) One of the sovereigns is spirit- 
 Qal, and the other military, head of the empire. 
 
 II. — (1.) The spiritual sovereign is called a Mikado, and resides 
 in a sacred city from which be never removes. (2.) He is wor- 
 shipped with divine honors, as one of the forms of the god Boodh. 
 (3.) His council and officers superintend religion and education. 
 
 III. — (1.) The temporal and military sovereign is called the 
 Siogun. (2.) He commands the armies, appoints subordinate rulers, 
 and resides at the capital city, Jeddo. (3.) The empire under him 
 is divided into eight circles, or governmenis. (4.) These are sub- 
 divided into provinces and districts, ruled through officers appointed 
 by the siogun. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Every province, or large district, has two governors, 
 each ruling six months of the year. (2.) Whilst one governor is 
 at his post, the other remains in Jeddo, and receives regular reports 
 from his colleague. (3.) Each governor has two secretaries, who 
 control, by turns of six months, the subordinate affairs of a province. 
 (4.) Wiien a governor and his secretaries go to their posts, they 
 are obliged to leave their families behind, in Jeddo, as hostages for 
 their fidelity. 
 
 I. — (1.) What is the government of Japan? (2.) What is the distiuctioa 
 between the two sovereigns? 
 
 11. — (1.) What is said of the spiritual sovereign ? (2.) What is his sacred 
 characier ? (3.) What do his officers superintend ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What is the siogun ? (2.) What is said of the sovereign? (3.) 
 How is the empire divided under him? (-t.) What subdivisions are men- 
 tioned ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) How is every province ruled? (2.) What is said of the governors? 
 (3.) What of the secretaries ? (4.) What are tlie governors obliged to do ?
 
 Japanese Military Despotism. 249 
 
 V. — (1.) The princes of the empire are the highest officers uuder 
 the siogun. (2.) Each is compelled to spend half the time in his 
 circle of government, and half the time in Jeddo. (3) He is ob- 
 liged to leave his family as security, whenever he is absent from the 
 capital . 
 
 VI. — (1.) Governors are controlled by fixed orders, regulating 
 their hours of sleeping, exercise and aranseraeut. (2.) Their actions 
 are strictly watched by spies placed near them by the government. 
 (3.) The royal princes are watched in tiie same nnanner when on 
 their rural domains. (4.) If two princes own neighboring estates, 
 they are forbidden to reside on them at the same time, lest they 
 may conspire together. 
 
 VIL — (1.) Princes are compelled to furnish money from their 
 domains, to pay all expenses of the Japanese army. (2.) This 
 drains their resources, and keeps them without the means of becom- 
 ing dangerous to government. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Next in authority to the princes, are lords who 
 govern smaller domains, and are controlled in the same manner as 
 their superiors. (2.) Under the lords are hereditary burgesses, 
 who preside in the form of councils, over cities and large towns. 
 (3.) Under these rulers are ottonas, who have charge of a ward or 
 street of the city. (4.) A street of any city in Japan is a certain 
 number of yards in length, shut by gates at both ends, and contains 
 about a hundred houses. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Under the ottonas, or street governors, are overseers 
 called kasiras, who have each charge of five houses and their resi- 
 
 V. — (1.) Who are highest officers under the siogun? (2.) What is each 
 compelled to do? (3.) What security must be given? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How are governors controlled? (2.) How are their actions ob- 
 served ? (3.) What is said of royal princes ? (4.) What are princes for- 
 bidden? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What aro princes compelled to furnish ? (2.) What effect does 
 this have ? 
 
 Vin. — (1.) WHio are next in authority to the princes? (2.) Who are under 
 the lords? (3.) Who are next in authority? (4.) What is said of a Japanese 
 street ? 
 
 DC. — (1.) Who are <inder the ottonas? 
 
 11*
 
 250 History of Governments. 
 
 dents, (2.) In time of clanger every house is required to furni>h 
 one man as a soldier. (3.) Five men form a troop, under command 
 of the kasira ; twenty troops march under the ottona. (4.) This 
 constitutes a militia, ready at any emergency. 
 
 X. — (1.) Every head of a family is responsible for his neighbors 
 and associates ; and each of five adjoining householders is holden for 
 another, and must report his conduct to the kasira. (2.) If he fails 
 to do this, he becomes liable to punishment, by fine, stripes, or im- 
 prisonment in his own house. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Imprisonment of this kind is effected by boarding up 
 doors and windows for a hundred days, more or less. (2.) While 
 imprisoned, the householder is ■ not allowed to shave, work at his 
 trade, or receive pay for any office he holds. 
 
 XII. — (1.) No Japanese householder of the common people is 
 permitted to remove from one house or street to another, without 
 a certificate of good conduct from his neighbors. (2.) He must like- 
 wise obtain permission to dwell among other neighbors. 
 
 XIII.— (1.) Japanese population is divided into several castes, 
 or classes. (2.) It is considered the duty of every man to remain 
 in the class wherein he was born. 
 
 XrV.— (1.) The highest class is that of the princes. (2.) The 
 second is that of noblemen, who hold lands by performing military 
 service for a prince, or for the siogun himself. (3.) They do this 
 by furuishing a certain number of soldiers, according to the value 
 of the estates they hold. (4.) The third class is the priesthood, 
 
 (2.) What is required in time of danger? (3.) What is said of five nieu, 
 and of twenty troops? (4.) What does this constitute? 
 
 X.— (1.) What is said regarding responsioility ? (2.) What is the penalty 
 for offending against this rule ? 
 
 XL— (1.) How is such imprisonment effected? (2.) How is a prisoner 
 otherwise restrained ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is a Japanese householder not permitted to do? (2.) What 
 must he obtain? 
 
 Xm.— (1.) How is Japanese population divided? (2.) What is considered 
 
 a dutv ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What is the highest class in Japan ? (2.) What is the second ? 
 (3.) How is this service performed ? (4.) What is the third class of Japanese ?
 
 Japanese Military Despotism. 251 
 
 whose wives are priestesses. (5.) Tliese families live in religious 
 houses near the temples of Boodh. (6.) The priests administer 
 religious rites, grant absolution for sins, and are supported by con- 
 tributions from pilgrims and other worshippers. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The fourth class comprises the military, and is com- 
 posed of the vassals belonging to estates, equipped and provided by 
 tlie lords and princes. (2.) The siogun has 100,000 foot, and 
 20,000 horse soldiers in his private service. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The first four classes of Japanese are regarded as 
 of higher rank than the second four. (2.) Of the latter, the first 
 comprises the most respectable citizens, such as inferior officials, 
 physicians, and scientific men. (3.) The next is composed of mer- 
 chants and wealthy shopkeepers, who are restricted by law from 
 buying luxuries, even with their own money, and prohibited from 
 showing any ostentation of manners. (4.) The seventh class con- 
 sists of small tradesmen, mechanics, artists, and all manufacturers, 
 except leather-dressers. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Tije eighth numbers all day laborers and peasants, 
 the latter being serfs belonging to estates, and is much degraded. 
 (2.) A ninth class is sometimes reckoned, comprising tanners, cur- 
 riers, and all connected with the leather trade, which is considered 
 to be an unclean business. (3.) Tiiese are outcasts from society, 
 not being permitted to enter the houses of other men, and only 
 allowed to act in cities .as executioners and jailers. 
 
 XVIIL— (1.) The mikado, or spiritual sovereign, is a type of 
 divine power, dwelling in his sacred city. (2.) He is allowed twelve 
 wives, and hundreds of servants. (3.) Every article he uses is de- 
 
 (5.) Where do the priest-families reside ? (6.) What is said of the priests ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What do the fourth cluss in Japan comprise? (2.) What does 
 the sioguii's military force number V 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What is said of the fir.«t four Japanese classes? (2.) What 
 does the first of the lower division comprise ? (8.) IIow is the next composed ? 
 (4.) Of what does the next, or seventh class consist? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) What does the eighth class number? (2.) What is said of a 
 ninth class ? (3.) What is the social character of these persons? 
 
 XVin.— (I.) What is said of the mikado? (2.) What is he allowed ? ^3.) 
 W' bat is done w ilh articles used bv hini ?
 
 252 History of Governments. 
 
 stroyed when once used, as sacred to hira only. (4.) The raikadc 
 enjoys no liberty, revenues, nor power, and is surrounded by spies of 
 the siogun. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The siogun lives in a palace at Jeddo, and seldom 
 is seen abroad, except when he goes to visit the mikado at seasons 
 of festival. (2.) The business of the government is confided to a 
 council of state, composed of thirteen high dignitaries. (3.) This 
 council decides upon all measures, and appoints or removes ofiBcers. 
 (4.) It carries on correspondence with the different provinces and 
 rulers. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 RUSSIAN FEUDAL DESPOTISM. 
 
 I, — (1.) The Russian empire has arisen out of the extending do- 
 minion of a northern nation called Muscovites. (2.) The predeces- 
 sors of the present people comprised Scythian, Hungarian, Sarraa- 
 tian, and other tribes, of ancient northern barbarians. (3.) The 
 country now known as Russia was formerly governed by chiefs of 
 independent clans. 
 
 II. — (1.) The Muscovite people remained in a state of barbarism 
 till the reign of one of their monarchs, Peter the Great. (2.) 
 Peter flourished about the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 (3.) He gave to his subjects laws and institutions, which have been 
 modified and improved by later monarchs. 
 
 (4.) How is the mikado restricted? 
 
 XIX. — (1 ) What is said of the siogun? (2 ) Who carries on the business 
 of his government? (3.) What is the authority of this body ? (4.) Of what 
 correspondence has it charge? 
 
 I. — (1.) From what has the Russian empire arisen? (2.) What were the 
 predecessors of Russians? (3.) How were the Muscovites governed ? 
 
 n. — 1.) What is said of the Muscovite people? (2) When did Peter the 
 Great flourish ? (3.) What is said of Peter ?
 
 Russian Feudal Despotism. 253 
 
 III. — (1.) The ffoveriiincnt of Russia is an iinliruited mnnarclr; 
 or despotism, (2.) The emperor is called Czar, and Autocrat of all 
 the Eussias. (3.) The title Czar is « qnivaleiit to the German Kaiser, 
 or that of Csesar, held by ancient Roman emperors. (4.) It is 
 thought the Russian emperors sig'uify by it their pretensions to 
 sovereignty over C()nstantim>ple and the eastern Roman empire, now 
 controlled by the Turks. 
 
 rV. — (1.) The Autocrat of Russia Is a hereditary ruler, and is 
 obliged to profess the Greek or eastern Christian creed. (2.) He 
 is assisted in the administration of government by four principal 
 councils. 
 
 V. — (1.) The first of the four bodies is called the imperial coun- 
 cil. (2.) Its members are selected from the higher nobility, or 
 boyards of the empire. (3.) The boyards were, in early times, 
 chiefs of tribes or communities. (4.) They are now the principal 
 landholders of the country. (5.) The imperial council is presided 
 over by the emperor himself, or his representative. 
 
 VI, — (1.) The imperial council is divided into five committees or 
 boards, having each charge of a distinct department of administra- 
 tion. (2.) One of these boards supervises military matters ; another 
 civil and religious ; a third, statistics and finance ; a fourth, laws 
 and ordinances ; and a fifth, the affairs of provinces, including 
 Poland and Finland (3.) A secretary of state is placed at the head 
 of each department. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The imperial council deliberates as a body, in as- 
 semblies of all its members, or through the members of committees, 
 
 HI. — (1.) What is the form of Russian government? (2.) What are the 
 emperor's titles? (3.) What is said of the tiile of Czar? (4.) Wliat of its 
 siftnificatiou ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of the Autocrat of Russia? (2.) How is he assisted 
 in government ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is the first body called? (2.) How are its memhtrs ap- 
 pointed? (3.) What were the boyards formerly ? (4.) What are they now ? 
 (5.) Who presides over the imperial council? 
 
 VI. — (1 ) How is the council divided? (2.) What do the boards supervise? 
 (3.) What is placed at the head of each ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) How does the council deliberate?
 
 254 History of Governments, 
 
 each Toting on its ovm affairs. (2.) A majority of votes in the as- 
 sembly, or in a committee, decides for or against any measure. (3.) 
 The emperor is not bound by any decision, but accepts or rejects, as 
 lie considers best, being supreme ruler. 
 
 VIIL— (1.) There is a legislative body in Russia called a senate, 
 presided over by the Czar or his representative. (2.) This body 
 issues laws, and is the highest court of justice in the empire. (3.) 
 The emperor reserves the right of reversing its decisions or annul- 
 ling its laws, by edicts or proclamations, regarded as the highest ■ 
 authority, 
 
 IX. — (I.) The Russian senate is divided into eight judicial bodies, 
 or departments. (2.) Each constitutes a court having chief juris- 
 diction over particular provinces and districts, (3.) The senators 
 comprising each high court make their decisions by a majority of 
 voices. (4.) Two-thirds of the votes of a court are necessary to a 
 decision. (5.) If two-thirds of a single court, or judicial depart- 
 ment, cannot be obtained, all the members of the senate assemble 
 as a judicial body. 
 
 X. — (1.) A code of laws is used in Russia for the guidance of 
 high and low tribunals. (2.) It consists of a digest or selection of 
 the laws and edicts issued by different emperors during two centuries. 
 
 XI. — (1.) A principal branch of Russian government is the 
 Synod of bishops and other ecclesiastics. (2.) The established reli- 
 gion of Russia is that known as Greek or eastern Christianity, 
 (3.) The head of the church, called the Patriarch, resides at Con- 
 
 (2.) What decides upon measures? (3.) How is the emperor affected by deci- 
 sions of the council ? 
 
 Vin.— (1.) What is said of a senate? (2.) What is its authority? (3.) 
 What power has the emperor over it? 
 
 IX.— (1.) How is the Russian senate divided? (2.) What does each con- 
 stitute? (3.) How are judicial decisions made? (4.) What proportion of 
 votes decide!" (5.) What is done if two-thirds of a single court cannot 
 agree ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What is said of laws? (2.) Of what does the code consist? 
 
 XI. — (1.) What is a principal branch of government? (2.) Wbit is the r&- 
 ligiou of Russia? (3.) What is said of the patriarch ?
 
 Russian Feudal Despotism. 255 
 
 stantinople. (4.) He is regarded to be chief bishop, as the Pope 
 of Rome is considered chief bishop of the Romish church. (5.) 
 The synod of bishops in Russia has charge of all matters relating 
 to religion in the empire. 
 
 XII.— (1.) The College of Ministers is the name given to a body 
 of officers appointed by the emperor, as heads of departments or 
 bureaus. (2.) These ministers are thirteen in number, and superin- 
 tend as many departments of the administration. (3.) They have 
 direction of the army and navy, courts of justice, educational mat- 
 ters, and financial affairs. 
 
 XIII.— (1.) The ministers have a seat and voice in the imperial 
 council, and also in the senate. (2.) Under the ministry are civil 
 and military governors of districts and provinces. (3.) There are 
 fifty-one inferior governments or districts. (4.) Forty are situated 
 in Europe, and the rest in Asia and America. 
 
 XIV.— (1.) The civil affairs of every inferior district are con- 
 ducted by a civil governor, and military matters by a commander. 
 (2.) Several provinces combined are intrusted to a governor-gene- 
 ral, with civil and military powers. (3.) This officer is responsible 
 for the conduct of governors immediately under his direction. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The people of Russia are divided politically into four 
 classes. (2.) First, are the clergy; next, the nobility; thirdly, 
 merchants and burghers, or freemen ; and fourthly, the serfs. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The clergy are of two grades, regular and secular. 
 (2.) The regular clergy are those belonging to special orders of the 
 
 (4.) How is he looked upon ? (5.) Of what has the synod charge ? 
 
 XII.— (1.) What is the College of Ministers? (2.) What is said of these 
 ministers ? (3.) What authority have they ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Where do the ministers have a seat? (2.) What are under the 
 ministry ? (3.) How many inferior governments are there in Russia ? (4.| 
 Wlicre are they established? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) How are provincial districts governed ? (i.) What is said of a 
 governor-general ? {'.i.) For what is a governor-general responsible ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) How are the Russian people politically divided? (2) What are 
 the distinctions ? 
 
 X.VI.— (1.) How are the clergy divided ? (2.) What are the regular clergy?
 
 256 History of Governments. 
 
 priesthood. (3.) They constitute the higher church officials and 
 dignitaries. (4.) The secular clergy are parish ministers, who are 
 obliged to be married. (5.) They are poorly supported, and gene- 
 rally very ignorant. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The nobles are of two grades, those claiming by 
 birth, and those becoming such by service of the emperor. (2.) 
 All officers of the army and navy, and all state functionaries, belong 
 to some grade of nobiliiy. (3.) There are fourteen of these grades, 
 the lowest being a military ensign, or a college registrar. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Officials who attain by services to the eighth 
 grade, gain hereditary nobility. (2.) The rank of all below that 
 grade dies with its possessors. (3.) An army major, a navy cap- 
 tain, or a college assessor, may transmit his nobility to descendants. 
 (4.) By these regulations the nobility of Russia is continually 
 increasing in number. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Merchants and burghers, called the free class, form 
 six grades, not including the nobles or clergy. (2.) The six grades 
 always comprise the three guilds of capitalists inhabiting towns, the 
 trades, the professions, and the colonists. 
 
 XX.— (1.) Merchants of the first guild pay an annual sum of 
 five hundred dollars for license to trade, and are unrestricted in 
 commerce. (2.) Those of the second guild pay two hundred dol- 
 lars annually, and are forbidden to make contracts exceeding 
 $10,000, or to open banking or insurance offices. (3.) Those of the 
 third guild pay fifty dollars annually, and are allowed to carry on 
 
 (B.) What do tbey constitute? (4.) What are the secular clergy? (5.) What 
 is said of the secular clertry ? 
 
 XVIL— (1.) What are the grades of nobility. (2.) What is said of officials? 
 (3.) How many grades of nobility are there ? 
 
 XVIII.— (1.) What persons gain hereditary nobility? (2.) What is sai J _ 
 of ranks below the eighth ? (3.) What persons are mentioned as hereditary 
 nobles ? (4.) What is the consequence of these regulations ? 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What do merchants and burghers form? (2.) What do these 
 grades comprise ? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What do merchants of the fi.st guild pay ? (2.) What do those 
 of the second guild pay ? (3.) What do those of the third guild pay ?
 
 Russian Feudal Despotism. a?57 
 
 retail trades or manufactures, but not to employ more than 
 thirty -two workmen. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Burghers who pay from five to fifteen dollars 
 annually, are restricted as to the trades they shall follow and 
 the number of workmen they may employ. (2.) Those who 
 take out no license, are confined to certain limits, wherein to 
 carry on their trades. (3.) All burghers are obliged to pay an 
 annual head-tax. (4.) All are liable to be called upon to serve 
 in the army. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The fourth division of Russian population 
 composed the masses of the nation. (2.) They constituted the 
 class of peasantry or serfs, the lowest division of population. 
 (3.) They were serfs belonging to the estates or lands whereon 
 they were born. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The time and labor of serfs were claimed by 
 the owner of the estate to which they pertained. (2.) A lord 
 was permitted by law to inflict any punishment on his serfs 
 that did not cause death within twenty-four hours afterward. 
 (3.) The servants of an estate passed with the land which they 
 occupied. 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) Of late years the condition of Russian peas- 
 ants has been improved by humane laws and edicts of the em- 
 peror. (2.) Many millions of serf s who formerly belonged to 
 the crown estates, have received their freedom. (3.) The great 
 land proprietors of Russia have consented to the policy of 
 making their serfs free, and allowing them small farms to cul- 
 tivate for themselves. 
 
 XXV.— (1.) It is estimated that there were forty millions 
 of serfs in Russia out of a population of sixty millions. (2.) The 
 
 XXI.— (1-) What 13 restricted la trade? (a.) How are unlicensed burghers r©- 
 strictcd? (3.) What are all burghers obliged to pay? (1.) To what are all liable? 
 
 XXII.— (!•) What does the fourth class of population comprise? (i.) What did it 
 constitute? (3.) What was its condition? 
 
 XXIII.— <!•) Towhomdid the time and lnbor of serfs belong? (2.) Whataulhort- 
 ty was claimed by a master? (3.) How were tenants vsoldv 
 
 XXIV.— (1-) What has been done of late years? (2) How have serfs been benefit- 
 ed? (4.) What are landholders now doing? 
 
 XXV.— (1.) How many sorte existed in Uussla? (2.) How many noblea
 
 258 History of Governmenis. 
 
 noble ranks do not number a million persons. (3.) The remainder 
 of the emperor's subjects, besides the burghers, include nine races 
 of men, comprising eighty different tribes. (4.) Millions of these 
 wander in nomadic communities, under chiefs, in the rudest state of 
 barbarism. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) For educational purposes, the government of 
 Russia divides the country into university districts. (2.) In many 
 of these districts chief colleges are now established. (3.) Each 
 university district comprises several civil and military governments 
 in its extent. (4.) The system of instruction embraces academies, 
 or military schools, high schools, district schools, and parish schools. 
 (5.) They are all superintended by the university officers, under 
 direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction. 
 
 are there? (3.) What do the rest of Russian subjects include? (4.) What 
 is said concerning these ? 
 
 XXVI.— (1.) How is Russia divided for educational purposes? (2.) What 
 are established ? (3.) What does each district comprise ? (4.) What 
 does the system cf instruction include? (6.) What is the superintending 
 authority ?
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN MILITARY DESPOTISM, 
 
 I. — (1.) The Prussian natioa is composed of descendants of a 
 Scythian tribe named Borussians, who colonized a district of Ger- 
 many. (2.) The government of Prussia at present is constituted on 
 the system of a hereditary absolute monarchy, with a mixture of 
 the representative principle in minor affairs. (3.) The king is mili- 
 tary commander, and an irresponsible ruler of his subjects, all of 
 whom are trained to bear arms. 
 
 II. — (1.) The king selects a cabinet of ministers, to assist him in 
 the government, and appoints all judges and executive officers. 
 (2.) He revises, changes, or makes laws, with the assistance of a 
 council of state, constituted under bis direction. 
 
 III. — (1.) The council of state is composed of all princes of the 
 royal family, who are eighteen years old, together with the princi- 
 pal officers of departments. (2.) The council of state meets regu- 
 larly on stated days, during nine months of the year. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Six committees are selected from members of the 
 council at every annual session. (2.) The duties of these commit- 
 tees embrace the consideration of public policy. (3.) They 
 have charge of business relating to foreign, military, financial, judi- 
 cial, domestic, and educational branches of administration and law- 
 making. 
 
 I. — (1.) What was the origin of the Prussian nation? (2.) How is the 
 Prussian government constituted ? (3.) What authority has the sovereign ? 
 
 n. — (1.) How does the Iting organize his administration ? (2.) What legis- 
 lative power does he possess ? 
 
 m. — (1.) How is the council of state composed? (2.) When does it meet? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What are selected ? (2.) What are the duties of these commit 
 tees? (3.; Of what business have they charge?
 
 26o History of Governments. 
 
 V. — (1.) Each state couucil comuiittee consists of five members, 
 not connected with that branch of government with whose policy 
 they liave to do. (2.) They possess authority to summon officials 
 and other citizens to attend their sittings, as witnesses and advisers. 
 (3.) The minister, as head of the department that is connected with 
 a committee's labors, is required to be present when necessary, but 
 speaks only by permission of the committee. 
 
 VI. — (1.) When a law or course of policy is discussed by a 
 committee, the five members vote upon its adoption, and three voices 
 decide in its favor. (2.) A report is then laid before the king, who 
 may approve, reject, or change the proposition, according to his 
 will. (3.) No law goes into operation without the king's permission 
 and signature. 
 
 VII. — (1.) A secretary of state, appointed by the king, takes 
 charge of laws, and causes them to be promulgated, after adoption. 
 (2.) Every committee maintains a body of clerks for its business. 
 (3.) The state council furnishes books containing all the laws of the 
 kingdom, for official use and distribution. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The administration of general authority is placed in 
 charge of superintendents or ministers. (2.) One minister oversees 
 the national accounts and debts. (3.) Another minister is at the 
 head of spiritual or religious affairs. (4.) A third takes cognizance 
 of matters connected with medical professions. (5.) A fourth su- 
 perintends the education of the people, which is strictly enforced by 
 law. (6.) The minister of each department exercises control over 
 the publication of newspapers or books relating to the matters 
 under his care. 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of eacli committee? (2.) What authority do they 
 possess? (3.) Who is required to be present at a committee's meetings? 
 
 VI. — (1.) How is a law acted upon in a committee? (2.) What action is 
 then taken? (3.) What is necessarv to a law? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What is done by a seci-etary of state? (2.) What does every 
 committee maintain ? (3.) What assistance is provided by the state council? 
 
 VIII.— (1.) What is said of administration? (2.) What does one minister 
 do? (3) What is another minister's position? (4.) Of what does a third 
 take cognizance? (5.) What does a fourth minister superintend? (6.) What 
 control is exercised bv the ministers ?
 
 The Prussian Military Despotism. 261 
 
 IX. — (1.) Tbe kiugdom is divided into eight provinces, politically 
 arranged in larger districts called governments and circles, and 
 smaller ones called commonalties. (2.) At the head of every pro- 
 vince is a governor, known as the High President. (3.) He, by 
 right of position, is a member of the council of state, in Berlin, the 
 Prussian capital. 
 
 X. — (1.) A high president of a province is assisted in his ad- 
 ministration by a provincial council, a secretary, and subordinate 
 oEBcials. (2.) He is responsible for all departments of civil autho- 
 rity, and acts in connection with the military commander, or gene- 
 ral, of the province. (3.) Tlie tax collectors and other provincial 
 ofiBcers of the royal government are under his direction. 
 
 XI. — (1.) An aristocratic assembly, or body of landholders, 
 meets annually, in every province of Prussia. (2.) This body is 
 composed, firstly, of nobles, who appear as representatives of the 
 largest land proprietors, and secondly, of delegates chosen from 
 towns and rural districts, by wealthy possessors of the soil. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The provincial assembly members consider matters 
 of interest to various districts, and prepare such measures of re- 
 form as they deem proper. (2.) These measures are sent to the 
 king, through his ministers of state. (3.) The king may reject or 
 approve them at his pleasure. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Each Prussian province is politically sub-divided 
 into lower administrations called governments. (2.) Each of these 
 is conducted by a president and his assistants, called counsellors, 
 responsible to the high president of the province. (3.) One coun- 
 
 IX.— (1.) How is the Prussian kingdom divided? (2.) Wiio is at the head 
 of every province? (3.) Of what is he a member? 
 
 X — (1.) How is a high president assisted? (2.) What responsibility has he? 
 (3.) What officials are under his direction? 
 
 XI.— (1.) What provincial assembly ineets annually? (2.) How is such a 
 provincial assembly composed ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) What action does the provincial assembly take? (2.) What be- 
 comes of measures adopted by an assembly? (3.) What power has the king 
 over them ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) How are Prussian provinces sub-divided? (2.) How is each 
 of these conducted ? (3.) What do counsellors do ?
 
 262 History of Goyernments. 
 
 seller oversees schools and churches ; another, the collectidn of 
 taxes ; a third, the public, or king's lands. (4.) Matters of im- 
 portance are deliberated upon in a meeting of all the counsellors of 
 a district. (5.) The counsellors are appointed by the ministers of 
 state. (6.) The inferior royal officers of a district are generally 
 appointed by the president, and the government treasurer, or other 
 responsible agent, is chosen by the body of counsellors. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Each government, so called, is separated into infe- 
 rior departments called cirdes. (2.) The public business of each 
 circle is conducted by a commissioner or counsellor, appointed by 
 the high president of the province, and a committee of burghers, 
 belonging to a local representative council called a Staande. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The Staande of a circle is an assembly composed of 
 the chief landholders and delegates chosen by towns and rural 
 neighborhoods, called commonalties. (2.) The members of a staande 
 in each circle are supposed to represent the inhabitants of cities, 
 and the peasantry at large. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) Commonalties, in Prussia, are towns or parishes, 
 whose minor local affairs are conducted on a somewhat democratic 
 principle. (2.) The officials of a commonalty are classed as repre- 
 sentatives and magistrates. (3.) The number of representatives in 
 a commonalty varies according to the population, from twenty to 
 over a hundred. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Every house proprietor, or inhabitant, whose an- 
 nual income is one liundred and fifty dollars, is entitled to cast a 
 ballot for the choice of representatives. (2.) The body of repre- 
 
 (4.) How are matters of importance acted upon ? (5.) Who appoint the 
 counsellors? ((>.) What is said of other officers? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) How are the governments sub-divided? (2.) How is public 
 business conducted in the circles ? 
 
 XV. — (1 ) What 's the staande of a circle? (2 ) What do members of a 
 staande represent : 
 
 XVI. — (1.) What are Prussian cw"»io)m^<i€.'; .^ ('2.) How are the officials of 
 a commonalty classed ? (3.) What is said of representatives ? 
 
 XVII. — (1.) What persons are entitled to vote for representatives in a com* 
 monalty? (2. What is done by the representatives?
 
 The Prussian Military Despotism. 263 
 
 sentiitives deliberate 011 pujlic business, and choose the magistracy 
 from their own members, to execute ordinances. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The magistracy of a commonalty are elected to 
 office for three years. (2.) One of their number is selected by royal 
 appointment to be tlie chief burgomaster, or mayor. (3.) The 
 autiiority of mayor may be extended to twelve years, or for life. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Commonalty representatives appoint committees of 
 their members, in imitation of the committees of the council of 
 srate at the capital. (2.) These committees take charge of different 
 local matters. (3.) Magistrates of a commonalty have no power 
 to impose local taxes, or incur expenses, without sanction of the 
 assembly of representatives. (4 ) Reports of commonalty business 
 are prepared by the representatives every year, and made public 
 to the citizens. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The assembly of representatives in the commonalty 
 of Berlin, capital of Prussia, consists of over a hundred meml)ers. 
 (2.) The magistracy selected from this body comprise the upper bur- 
 gomaster, a burgomaster, and the several judges and other officers 
 called syndics. (3.) Under control of the magistracy, are com- 
 mittees on building, on trade, on public schools of the commonalty, 
 ou finances, on the poor, and on the fire department. (4.) All 
 business connected with money is controlled by the assembly of 
 representatives. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Ttie framework of Prussian government, from the 
 council of state down to representatives of commonalties, is the 
 result of various regulations made from time to time by the king. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) What is the term of a magistrate's office? (2.) Wl;o becomes 
 chief burgomaster, or mayor ? (3.) How long may the chief burgomaster hold 
 office? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What do commonalty representatives appoint? (2.) What is 
 the business of committees so appointed? (3.) How is the power of magis- 
 trates restrained? (4.) What reports are made ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) How many representatives compose the commonalty of Berlin? 
 «2.) What officers do tlie Berlin magistracy comprise ? (3.) What are under 
 the control of this magistracy? (4.) What is said concerning money 
 matters ? 
 
 XXL— (1.) Of what is I'russian government the result?
 
 264 History of Governments 
 
 (2.) "Whatever freedom is possessed by a citizen of Prussia, is con 
 sidered as a privilege granted by the monarch to his subject. (3.) 
 It is liable to be again taken away or modified by the supreme head 
 of the State. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) In Prussia there is. no positive aristocracy, 
 claiming the privilege to hold offices in preference to other classes. 
 {2.) Proper education is considered the best claim of a citizen to 
 employment under government. (3.) Men of talent and merit, 
 rather than birth and rank, are selected by the king and his 
 ministers to fill places of trust and influence. 
 
 XXIII.— (1.) The nobility of Prussia hold no hereditary position 
 or power as a class, except as persons of wealth or large estates. 
 (2.) The influence of a public man under the Prussian government 
 depends upon his personal character and abilities. 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) The system of national education in Prussia is 
 
 very complete. (2.) The law prescribes that every individual shall 
 go through a regular course of study. (3.) Each district, town, or 
 parish, called a commonalty, is obliged to provide proper means of 
 instruction for its children. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) In each commonalty a school-tax is imposed on 
 every male inhabitant in proportion to his income. (2.) This 
 school-tax is used to pay salaries of teachers, build school-houses 
 and provide books. 
 
 XXVI. -(1.) The minister of public instruction at Berlin is 
 superintendent of school afi'airs throughout the kingdom. (2.) For 
 every circle, or county, there is an inspector appointed to supervise 
 the schools of his district, and report to the authorities above him, 
 
 (2.) What is said of Prussian freedom ? (3.) To what is it liable ? 
 
 XXn.— (1.) What is said of aristocracy? (2.) How is education regarded? 
 (3) What persons are preferred for office ? 
 
 XXm.— (1.) What power have the Prussian nobility? (2.) On what does 
 political influence depend ? 
 
 XXIV.— (1.) What is said of Prussian education? (2.) What is prescribed 
 by law ? (3.) What is each commonalty obliged to provide ? 
 
 2XV.— (1.) What personal tax is imposed ? (2.) How is this tax used ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) Who superintends educational matters? (2.) What is ap-
 
 The Prussian Military Despotism. 269 
 
 eencerning their couditioa (3.) The educational committees of 
 eyery district correspond regularly with the department of instruc- 
 tion at the capital. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) Every parish vschool in Prussia is under super- 
 vision of local authorises, all directly controlled by the minister of 
 instruction. (2.) The law requires every Prussian to send his 
 children and dependents to a public elementary school from the age 
 of seven to that of fourteen years. (3.) School hours are arranged 
 so as to allow the children of poor people a portion of each day 
 for employment in labor. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) Every child in Prussia is required to go through 
 a certain course of elementary studies. (2.) No private school is 
 allowed to be opened except by express permission of the authori- 
 ties of a town. (3.) Laws concerning attendance at school, are 
 carried out with the utmost strictness. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) Every Prussian youth, after receiving his educa- 
 tion, is obliged to bear arms as a soldier of the state. (2.) The 
 law decides that every citizen is a soldier, and every soldier a 
 citizen. (3.) All the male population able to serve are considered 
 to compose the Prussian army. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) Every male, on reaching his twentieth birthday, is 
 enrolled in the army, and obliged usually to serve five years. 
 (2.) At the end of this term he is entitled to a discharge, or he 
 may remain as a regular soldier in the Landwehr militia. (3.) The 
 first class of Landwehr is composed of persons from twenty-five to 
 thirty years of age, who are called out once a year in time of peace, 
 and in war are made part of the king's troops. 
 
 pointed for every circle ? (3.) What do educational committees do? 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) What avithority directs parish schools? (2.) What is required 
 by law? (,3.) How are school hours arranged ? 
 
 XXVm. — (1.) What is required of every Prussian child? (2.) What ia 
 said of private schools ? (3.) What of school laws? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What is every Prussian youth obliged to do? (2.) What does 
 the law decide? (3.) How is the Prussian army composed? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) What is said of every male ? (2.) What is provided at the end 
 of this term of service ? (3.) Of what is the first class of Landwehr com- 
 posed ? 
 
 12
 
 266 History of Governments. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) At the age of thirty, a Prussian who remains 
 in the service, passes into the second-class Landwehr, of which he 
 continues a member till he is thirty-nine years old. (2.) This 
 body of militia is called out only when the government is in great 
 need of soldieivs. (3.) The last military service of a Prussian is iu 
 the Landsturm, composed of persons between thirty-seven and fifty 
 years old. (4.) This body is called to active service only when the 
 district of its own residence is in danger. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The Prussian army, though under strict disci- 
 pline, is not aristocratic in its organization. (2.) All ranks and 
 promotions are open to those who possess merit and bravery. 
 (3.") The king is general-in-chief, and can call out the whole force 
 of Prussia to iia:ht in his wars. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE AUSTRIAN ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) When the French emperor, Charlemagne, subdued the 
 German settled nations, he established a subordinate government 
 called Oest-reich, or the East Kingdom. (2.) Over this he placed a 
 military governor, with a force to defend the province from bar- 
 barians. 
 
 II. — (1.) When the German or Holy Roman Empire separated 
 from that of France, the province of Oest-reich passed with it. (2.) 
 The German emperors then appointed governors, under the name 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) Where does a Prussian soldier go when thirty years old? 
 (2.) What is said of ttj second class Landwf\r 'f (3.) What is the last stage 
 of military service ? v4.) What is said of the Landsturm ? 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) What is the character of the Prussian army? (2.) What is 
 said of promotion ? (3.) What authority has the king over the army ? 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of Oest-reich? (2.) What did Charlemagne place 
 over this district? 
 
 n. — [\.) What became of Oest-reich? (2.) How was it then governed?
 
 The Austrian Absolute Monarchy. • * 267 
 
 • 
 of mark-grafs, or lords of the borders. (3.) The name of Oest- 
 reich was afterward changed to Austria, and the territory grew in 
 extent, and was governed by hereditary rulers under the title of 
 dukes. (4.) One of the dukes of Austria succeeded to the govern- 
 ment of the Holy Eoinan Empire, and the latter then became known 
 as the empire of Austria. 
 
 III. — (1.) The government of Austria is an absolute monarchy, 
 the king being hereditary and irresponsible head of the state. (2.) 
 The empire consists of a number of provinces, more or less inde- 
 pendent as regards local institutions. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The various provinces composing the empire have 
 each a ministry or department in the Austrian capital, which is 
 Vienna. (2.) The heads of these departments, or bureaus, are 
 assisted by subordinate officers. (3.) They are means of communi- 
 cation between the imperial government and the local councils of 
 various provinces. 
 
 V. — (1.) Hungary, Transylvania, and some Italian states retain 
 many of their own institutions and laws. (2.) Governors are ap- 
 pointed by the Emperor of Austria, to preside over local councils 
 chosen by the inhabitants. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The ancient kingdom of Hungary is an Austrian pro- 
 vince. (2.) Its population is divided into several distinct races, de- 
 scended from various Hunnish, Panuonian, and Sarmatian tribes. 
 (3.) Hungary was, during many centuries, an independent king- 
 dom, with mouarchs elected from a single family. 
 
 (3.) To what was its name changed? (4.) What was the beginning of the 
 Austrian empire? 
 
 m. — (1.) Wliat is the Austrian government? (2.) Of what does the empire 
 consist ? 
 
 rV.— (1.) What is said of Austrian provinces? (2.) How are the heads 
 of provincial bureaus at the capital assisted? (3.) Of what are they the 
 means ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of certain Austrian provinces? (2.) How are they 
 ruled under the imperial government? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of Hungary? (2.) How is its population divided ? 
 (3.) What was H nigary in ancient times?
 
 268 ' History of Governments. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The hereditary sovereign of Hungary was replaced 
 by an officer appointed b} the Austrian government, under the title 
 of Statthalter. (2.) The German language, as spoken in Vienna, is 
 made the language of all legal communication. (3.) Austrian offi- 
 cers fill most of the offices of state. (4.) A legislative council, 
 composed of nobility and landholders, meets in the chief city. 
 
 VIII. — (I.) Bohemia, another ancient kingdom, is also a pro- 
 vince of the Austrian empire. (2.) It was, in early times, possessed 
 by different barbarous tribes, called Marcomanni, Boii, and Czechs. 
 (3.) It is governed by Austrian officials, under direction of the 
 emperor. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Transylvania, a third province of the empire, is in- 
 habited by fourteen different tribes or races. (2 ) The lower classes 
 profess the Greek religion, and are without instruction or social con- 
 sideration. (3.) The Emperor of Austria appoints all crown offi- 
 cials, but the Transylvanians have their own legislative assembly 
 called a diet. (4.) The members of this body are selected from the 
 three principal classes of landholders in Transylvania. (5.) They 
 form two chambers, and make or change local laws. (6.) The 
 population is divided into three classes — nobles, burghers, and 
 peasantry. (7.) The last are mostly serfs, like the lower class of 
 Russian population. 
 
 X. — (1.) Moravia, a fourth Austrian province, was formerly au 
 independent kingdom, comprising Bohemia, Silesia, and parts of 
 northern Germany and Hungary. (2.) The government is now ad- 
 ministered by an officer appointed by the emperor, in connectiou 
 with a diet composed of clergy, nobility, and citizens. 
 
 VII. — (1.) How was the sovereign of Hungary replaced? (2.) What is 
 the official language of Hungary? (3.) What persons are appointed to office 
 in Hungary ? (4.) What is said of a legislative council? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What is Bohemia? (2.) Who were original inhabitants of Bo- 
 hemia ? (3.) How is Bohemia now governed? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is said of Transylvania? (2.) What is the character of its 
 lower classes ? (3.) VHiat is the government? (4.) What persons compose 
 the Transylvanian Diet? (5.) What is said of its members? (6.) How is the 
 Transylvanian population divided? (7.) Of what is the last mostly composed? 
 
 X.— (1.) What is said about Moravia? (2.) What is its government?
 
 Brunswick- -Saxony — Wurtemberg. 269 
 
 XI. — (1.) The Italian proviuces possessed by Austria comprised, 
 until 1859, the capitals of Milan, Venice, Verona, Mantua, Padua, 
 cities once belonging to the Roman empire. (2.) Austrian rale is 
 now exercised only over Venice, which is ruled by governors, under 
 the title of viceroys. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The Emperor of Austria is supreme sovereign of all 
 nationalities combined under his sway. (2.) He appoints and re- 
 moves officials, whether military or civil, except in a few cases pro- 
 vided for by recognized laws. (3.) The bureaus, or ministerial 
 bodies, representing different countries, receive orders from the em- 
 peror and council, and transmit them to districts under their super- 
 intendence. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) A ministry of justice, with two presidents, composes 
 the chief tribunal of Austria. (2.) Its members meet in two bodies 
 at different points of the empire. (3.) In the original territory of 
 Austria education is generally diffused. (4.) In remote provinces 
 the people are little better than savage boors. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 BRUNSWICK SAXOXY WURTEMBEKG. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Duchy of Brunswick is governed as a limited inde 
 pendent monarchy. (2.) The legislature is composed of the duke 
 and two chambers, an upper and a lower one. (3.) The upper 
 chamber consists of nobles entitled to seats by the possession of a 
 
 XI. — (1.) What Italian provinces were till recently under Austrian govern- 
 ment? (2.) Over what Italian province does Austria still rule ? 
 
 XH. — (1.) What is the emperor's authority? (2.) What does he do with offi- 
 cials? (.S.) What is said of bureaus or departments under government? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) What is the chief judicial body of Austria? (2.) Where do its 
 members meet? (,3) What is said of education? (4.) What is said of dis- 
 tant provinces possessed by Austria ? 
 
 L — (1.) How is the Duchy of Brunswick governed? (2.) Of what is the 
 legislature composed? (3) What persons compose the upper chamber?
 
 270 History of Governments. 
 
 certaiu rank and property, and of the six highest prelates in the 
 chiH-ch. (4.) The lower chamber is formed of six lower prelates, 
 nineteen deputies, chosen by towns, and nineteen delegates, elected 
 by landholders, to represent the rural districts. 
 
 II.— (1.) The legislature assembles once in three years, to regu- 
 late taxes and supervise laws. (2.) The duke is hereditary ruler, 
 and is assisted by three ministers of his own appointment. (3.) 
 For administrative purposes, the state is divided into six circles, or 
 provinces. (4.) Over each of these a board of officers is established, 
 to conduct the affairs of towns and villages. (5 ) The Duchy of 
 Brunswick has two votes in the plenum, or full assembly of the Ger- 
 man Confederation. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 
 
 III. — (1.) Descendants of ancient Saxons, whose soldiers once 
 invaded and conquered Britain, now occupy a part of German 
 territory possessed by their ancestors. (2.) They are governed 
 under the form of a limited hereditary monarchy called Saxony. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The king and a legislature of two chambers compose 
 the law-making power. (2.) The government is administered by 
 the monarch through officers of his own appointment. 
 
 v. — (1.) The higher legislative chamber is composed of princes 
 of the royal family, certain specified nobles and public officers, who 
 sit by privilege, twelve deputies chosen by the largest laud-proprie- 
 tors for life, and ten members nominated for life by the king. 
 
 (4.) How is the lower chamber formed? 
 
 II. — (1.) What does the legislature do? (2.) What is the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick? (3.) How is the state divided? (4.) What is placed over each circle? 
 (5.) What proportion of influence has Brunswick in the German Confede- 
 ration ? 
 
 III.— (1.) What is said of the Saxons? (2.) Under what form are they 
 governed ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What is the law-making power of Saxony? (2.) How is govern- 
 ment administered ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How is the higher chamber constituted?
 
 Brunswick — Saxony— W irtemburg, 271 
 
 (2.) The lower chamber consists of twenty delegates elected by 
 large landholders, twenty-five chosen by towns, twenty-five repre- 
 senting rural districts, and five chosen by traders and artisans. 
 (3.) A substitute is appointed for each member of the lower cham- 
 bers, to act in case of the death or disability of his principal, 
 
 VI. — (1.) Judicial affairs are conducted in Saxony by three 
 classes of courts, over which is a supreme court, held at Dresden, 
 the capital. (2.) Magistrates are generally selected from the pro- 
 prietors of land and nobility. 
 
 VII. — (1.) The kingdom of Saxony is one of the states of the 
 German Confederation. (2.) It casts four votes in the plenum, or 
 full council. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF WURTEMBURG. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The kingdom of Wurtemburg is another state of 
 the German Confederation, having four votes in the full council. 
 (2.) It is governed as a hereditary constitutional monarchy. 
 (3.) The king and a parliament" of two chambers constitute the 
 legislative power. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The upper chamber is composed of hereditary nobles 
 and land-proprietors, sitting for life. (2.) The lower chamber is 
 representative, having ninety-four delegates chosen by the large 
 towns and village districts. (3.) A supreme court forms the chief 
 tribunal of justice. (4.) There are courts in each of the Four circles 
 or departments of the kingdom. 
 
 (2.) Of what does the lower chamber consist? (3.) What is said of a substi- 
 tute ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is the Saxon judiciary? (2.) What persons are magis- 
 trates ? 
 
 VII — (1.) What is said of the kingdom of Sa.\ony ? (2.) What is its influ- 
 ence in that confederation ? 
 
 Vni — (1.) What is the kingdom of Wurtemburg? (2.) What is its form 
 government? (3.) What coustitite the legislative power? 
 
 IX. — (1.) Of what is the upper chamber composed? (2.) What is said of 
 the lower chamber? (3.) What is the chief judicial tribunal? (4.) What 
 minor courts are there ?
 
 272 History of Governments. 
 
 X. — (1.) The people of Wartemburg are descendanis of ancient 
 Frankish and other German tribes. (2.) Their territory formerly 
 belonged to the kingdom of France. 
 
 XL — (1.) Smaller kingdoms, duchies, and principalities, forming 
 the German Confederation, are governed more or less like those 
 here cited as examples. (2.) The usual apportionment of legislative 
 power is between hereditary land proprietors, or nobility and clergy, 
 on one side, and on the other, representatives of the towns and 
 peasantry. (3.) A few of the small states are still governed 
 according to feudal usages, and the common people possess no rights 
 whatever. (4.) The examples given suffice to explain various 
 descriptions of governments exercised in German states. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE DANISH KINGDOM. 
 
 I. (1.) The inhabitants of Denmark are descendants of the 
 
 people called Scandinavians. (2.) The Scandinavians belonged 
 to that great family of barbarians who conquered the Eoman 
 empire. (3.) They invaded England and France under the gene- 
 ral name of Northmen or Normans. 
 
 X.— (1.) What are the people of Wurtemburg? (2.) To what country did 
 their territory belong ? 
 
 XI.— (1.) What is said of other States of the German Confederation? 
 (2.) What is the usual apportionment of legislative power in each of them •; 
 (3.) How are a few small states governed ? (4.) What is said of the examples 
 
 given? 
 
 I_ (1.) From what race are the inhabitants of Denmark descended? 
 
 (2.) To what family did the Scandinavians belong ? (3.) What countries did 
 they invade ■"
 
 The Danish Kingdom 273 
 
 H. — (1.) These people were originally separated in small tribes 
 or clans, as were all Gothic races. (2.) They combined at diflfereut 
 periods to form the three nations of Danes, Norwegians, and 
 Swedes. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Danes established an independent kingdom, with 
 a sovereign elected by three divisions of the population. (2.) First 
 were nobles, second clergy, third the common people. (3.) This 
 elective form continued till 1660, when it was changed to an abso- 
 lute hereditary monarchy. (4.) It has since been modified, and 
 the king governs by a constitution. 
 
 rV. — (1.) The sovereign of Denmark must be a member of the 
 Lutheran church, which is the state religion. (2.) He is assisted 
 in legislation by a diet, or parliament, composed of two houses. 
 (3.) The upper bouse, or senate, is called the Landesthing, or 
 Landholder's Court. (4.) Any citizen who pays two hundred 
 rix-dollars per year in taxes, or has an income of twelve hundred 
 rix-doUars per annum, may be elected a senator, provided he is 
 forty-one years old. 
 
 V".~(l.) The lower body, or house of commons, is called the 
 VoUcsthi'ng, or People's Court. (2.) Any citizen who is entitled to 
 vote, and is twenty-five years old, may be chosen a member of the 
 Volksthing (3.) The right to vote is enjoyed by every house- 
 holder thirty years old, who is of sane mind and not indebted to the 
 government. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Members of the Landesthing are chosen for eigh^ 
 
 n. — (1.) How were the early Northmen originally separated ? (2.) What ia 
 said of their combinations ? 
 
 m. — (1.) What did the Danes establish? (2.) What were the divisions? 
 (3.) When was the elective form of monarchy changed? (4.) What has since 
 taken place ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) What is required of the Danish sovereign? (2.) How is he 
 assisted? (o.) What is said of the upper house? (4.) What persons may 
 become senators ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is the lower chamber of Danish legislators? (2.) WT».at 
 persons may become members of the Volksthing ? (3.) What persons have 
 the right to vote in Denmark ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is tlie term for which members of the Landesthing are 
 
 12*
 
 274 History of Governments. 
 
 years. ^^2.) Those of tlie Yolkestbing are chosen for three years 
 (3.) The Diet of Denmark holds annual sessions. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Several provinces annexed to the Danish government 
 retain their own institutions and laws. (2.) Among them are 
 Schleswig and Holstein, fornierly German states. 
 
 CHAPTER IS. 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 I. — (1.) Norway was formerly an independent hereditary king- 
 dom. (2.) It subsequently became a limited monarchy, with demo- 
 cratic institutions, and was finally united as a joint kingdom with 
 Sweden. (3.) The king of Sweden is also sovereign of Norway, 
 and each nation has its own parliament and constitution. 
 
 II. — (1.) The legislature of Norway is called the Storthing, or 
 Great Court. (2.) It is divided into two chambers, one comprising 
 one-fourth, and the other three-quarters of the members chosen 
 (3.) The smallest chamber is called the Lagthing, the largest is 
 called the Oddsthing. (4.) Each chooses its own president and 
 secretary, but all measures must be originated in the larger body. 
 
 III. — (1.) Laws and modifications may be presented to the 
 legislature either by its members or by the government. (2.) The 
 king possesses a veto power, but the votes of three successive 
 
 chosen? (2.) How long are members of the Volksthing elected to serve ? 
 (3.) When does the Diet meet ? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What is said of Danish provinces? (2.) What provinces are 
 mentioned ? 
 
 L — (1.) What was Norway formerly? (2.) What did it subsequently 
 become? (3.) Who is sovereign of Norway? 
 
 H. — (1.) What is the Norwegian legislature? (2.) How is the Storthing di- 
 vided? (3.) What are the two chambers called? (4.) What is said concern- 
 ing them ? 
 
 TTT- — (1.) How are laws proposed in Norway? (2.) What is said of ths
 
 Norway and Sweden. 275 
 
 Storthings overrule a veto. (3.) The storthing is elected for three 
 years. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The Lutheran religion is established in both Sweden 
 and Norway. (2.) The king must be a professor of it, and so must 
 all government officers. (3.) The right to vote is general under the 
 constitution of both kingdoms. 
 
 V. — (1.) The educational and religious laws of Norway are 
 strict and comprehensive. (2.) In Norway, every child is obliged 
 to be confirmed in the Lutlieran church between the ages of four- 
 teen and seventeen. (3.) Confirmation is only allowed to be given 
 to youths who can read. (4.) Persons are forbidden to marry 
 unless they have a certificate of contirmatioa, as members of the 
 Lutheran church. (5.) Every iudividual who reaches twenty years 
 of age without confirmation, is liable to be sent to a house of cor- 
 rection, till instructed and made eligible to receive the rite. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Schools are established in every parish of Nor- 
 way. (2.) Hospitals are erected iu all the principal towns, and 
 each community is obliged to support its local poor. (3.) Begging 
 is punished as an offence against the law. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Sweden is a hereditary monarchy, governed, like 
 Norway, under its own constitution. (2.) The parliament, or Diet, 
 of Sweden is composed of four chambers, meeting s(-parateiy. (3.) 
 Members of the highest chamber represent the hereditary nobility 
 of Sweden. (4.) They comprise the heads of all noble families iu 
 the kingdom, wlio sit by right of birth. 
 
 veto power? (3.) For what term is the Storthing elected? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What is said of religion? (2.) What is required of officials? 
 (3.) What is said of the right to vote ? 
 
 v.— (1 ) What laws are strict in Norway? (2.) What is enjoined upon 
 every child? (5.) To what youths is the rite of confirmation limited? (4.) 
 What is forbidden to persons not confirmed? (5.) What severe penalty ia 
 made regarding confirmation ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of Norwegian schools? (2.) What of hospit-..,? 
 (3.) How is begging treated ? 
 
 V'n.— (1.) What is said of Sweden ? (2.) What of the Swedish Diet ? (%.) 
 What do niembors of the highest chamber represent? (4.) What persons do 
 they comprise ?
 
 276 History of Governments. 
 
 VIII. -(1 ) The second chamber represents the clergy and church 
 interests. (2.) Its nr.euibers consist of the archbishop, twelve 
 bishops, and about sixty deputies from various dioceses. (3.) The 
 third chamber represents inhabitants of towns and cities, and num- 
 bers ninety-seven burghers or citizens, of whom the capital city, 
 Stockholm, sends ten. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The fourth chamber represents the rural districts of 
 Sweden. (2.) It numbers one hundred and forty-four deputies, 
 chosen by the landholdiug peasantry. 
 
 X. (1.) The votes of a majority of three houses out of the 
 
 four, with the king's consent, are sufficient to make laws. (2.) The 
 cunstiiution cannot be changed unless the four chambers agree to it. 
 (3.) The king of Sweden has an absolute veto un laws. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The king of Sweden is responsible only through his 
 ministers. (2.) He is assisted in the administration of government 
 by a council of state, of his own selection. (3.) This council con- 
 sists of two ministers of justice and foreign affairs, and eight coun- 
 sellors. (4.) Five of the eight counsellors are heads of as many 
 departments of public affairs. (5.) The other three are private 
 advisers of the monarch. 
 
 XII.— (1.) The state religion, like that of Norway, is Lutheran, 
 of which the king and priucipal officers must be professors. (2.) 
 The sovereign is head of the church, and appoints the higher clergy 
 to their offices. (3.) The lower clergy, or preachers and pastors, 
 are selected by the people. 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What does the second chamber represent? (2.) How is it com- 
 posed? (3.) What does the third chamber represent and number? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What does the fourth chamber represent? (2.) How many mem- 
 bers has it? 
 
 X.— (1.) What authority makes the laws? (2.) How is the constitution se- 
 cured from alteration ? (3.) What power does the king po.ssess ? 
 
 XL— (1.) What is the sovereign's responsibility? (2.^ By what body is he 
 assisted? (3.) How is the council of state composed? (4.) What are five of 
 the eight counsellors ? (,5.) What are the other three ? 
 
 XII.— (1.) What is said of liie state religion ? (2.) What relation does the 
 sovereign hold to it ? {S.) Who appoints the lower clergy?
 
 Government of Great Britain. 277 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The laws regarding education iu Sweden are very 
 strict. (2.) Every parent is obliged to send bis children to school, 
 or provide for their instruction at home. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) The civil divisions of Sweden and Xorway consist 
 of provinces, counties, and parishes. (2.) Governors and magis- 
 trates are appointed by the sovereign, to act as royal officials and 
 judges. (3.) There are three superior courts in Sweden, with sub- 
 ordinate tribunals for miuor causes. (4.) District tribunals, called 
 Harad-courts, are the lowest and most numerous. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 I. — (1.) When the Roman state extended its conquests to all 
 known lands, several generals invaded the islands now known as 
 Great Britain. (2.) These Romans found the country inhabited by 
 tribes of people whom they called Gauls. 
 
 II. — (1.) The natives were divided into many tribes, independent 
 of one another, and each governed by a headman, assisted by priests. 
 (2.) The priests, or druids, were judges of the people. (3.) They 
 exerted great religious influence over individuals and the tribes. 
 
 III. — (1 ) The Romans planted colonies, and established their 
 laws and magistrates over the Britons. (2.) They afterward re- 
 
 Xm. — (1.) What laws are strict? (2.) What is required of every parent? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) What are the civil divisions of Sweden and Norway? (2.) 
 What appointments are made by the liing? (3.) Wliat is said of the judi- 
 ciary ? (4.) What are the lowest courts? 
 
 I. — (1.) By whom were the British islands invaded? (2.) Who were their 
 uative inhabitants ? 
 
 n. — (1.) How were the natives divided? (2.) Who were judges of th* 
 people? (.3.) What was their authority ? 
 
 TTT- — (1.) What did the Rouiana do? (2.) What afterward took place?
 
 278 History of Governments. 
 
 linquished possession of the country, and the native tribes relapsed 
 into wars among themselves. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The islanders of England were distinct from those of 
 Ireland and Scotland. (2.) The former were descended of a Gothic 
 tribe called Angles, and the latter sprang from other barbarous in- 
 vaders of earlier ages. (3.) The inhabitants of the present Eng- 
 lish districts were called Britons ; the others were known as Picti>h 
 and Scottish tribes. 
 
 V. — (1.) After the Romans left them, the Britons were not able 
 to defend themselves against their wild neighbors. (2.) They ap- 
 pealed to the Saxons of Germany for help, and the latter nation 
 sent over an army under several chiefs. (3.) The Saxons defeated 
 the Scots and Picts, and subdued the British, as the Romans had 
 previously done. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The conquered country was divided, under Saxon 
 chiefs, into seven territories. (2.) Each chief took possession of his 
 share, and established an independent kingdom. (3.) The seven 
 kingdoms continued separate nearly four hundred years, after which 
 they were united in a single nation. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Under Alfred, a king of the combined Saxon nations, 
 the foundation of English, or Anglo-Saxon, monarchy was laid. 
 (2.) This monarch organized a plan of government, and established 
 many excellent laws, that are in operation even at the present 
 time. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Alfred divided all the English territory into dis- 
 tricts, called counties. (2.) These counties were again divided into 
 
 IV.— (1.) What distinctions were there between inhabitants of the British 
 islands? (2.) What is said concerning the different islanders? (3.) What 
 were the names of ancient island tribes? 
 
 V. (1.) What is said of the Britons? (2.) What took place? (3.) What 
 
 did the Saxons do? 
 
 VI. (1.) What was done with the conq-uered country? (2.) What did each 
 
 Saxon chief do? (3 ' What is said of the seven kingdoms? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) When was the foundation of Anglo-Saxon monarchy laid? (2.; 
 What did the monarch do ? 
 
 VIII. (1.) What territorial divisions did Alfred make? (2.) How were the
 
 Government of Great Britain. 279 
 
 portions termed hundreds. (3.) The hundreds were separated into 
 smaller parts, known as tithings, or fribourgs. 
 
 IX. — (1.) A tithing consisted of ten householders living in one 
 neighborhood. (2.) Over every tithing one man was appointed as 
 head, called a tithing-raan, or borgh-holder. (3.) The word horgh, 
 in Saxon, signified ''security,''^ and the borgh-holder was security for 
 the ten men of his tithing. (4.) Each householder of a tithing was 
 responsible for the conduct of his own family. 
 
 X. — (1.) Every inhabitant was obliged to register himself a.s 
 belonging to some tithing, or he was liable to punishment as au 
 outlaw. (2.) No householder was allowed to change his habitation 
 without permission of the tithing-man, or borgh-holder. 
 
 XI. — (1.) When any person was accused of offence against law, 
 the borgh-holder was first summoned to answer. (2.) If the borgh- 
 holder refused to become responsible, the offender was sent to prison 
 to be tried. (3.) If he effected his escape, his borgh-holder was 
 liable to punishment or penalty. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The borgh-holder was judge in all matters of differ- 
 ence between householders of his tithing. (2.) He usually called 
 the whole ten together and laid the matter of dispute before them 
 for decision. (3.) If tlie judgment were unsatisfactory, an ap[»cal 
 could be made from the tithing to the hundred. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The hundred, or wapentake, consisted of ten tithings, 
 or one hundred families of freemen. (2.) It had regular meetings 
 
 counties divided? (S.) How were the hundreds separated? 
 
 IX.— (1.) What was a tithing? (2.) What was a borgh-holder? (:i.) Whiu 
 is said concferning the word '■^ borc/hj" (4.) For what was a householder 
 responsible ? 
 
 X. — (1.) What was required of every inhabitant? (2.) Wliat restriction was 
 placed on householders ? 
 
 XL— (1.) What is said of the borgh holder ? (2.) What was done if the 
 borgh-holder would not be responsible ? (3.) To what was a horgh-holdei 
 liable ? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What authority had the borgh-holder? (2.) What did he usually 
 do? (3.) To what authority could an appeal be made ? 
 ' Xm. — (1.) Of what did a wapentike consist? (2.) What is said of it*
 
 28o History of Governments. 
 
 once a month, to hear and determine all causes. (3.) Twelve free- 
 holders were chosen out of the assembly, who were sworn to decide 
 impartially, and each cause was confided to their deliberation. 
 (4.) This was the origin of trial by jury in England. 
 
 XrV. — (1.) The next court above an assembly of the hundred 
 was called a County Court. (2.) This body convened twice in 
 t'very year, and was composed of ail the freeholders in a county. 
 (3.) The bishops and aldermen were presidents of the county ccjurts. 
 (4.) All appeals from the tithings and hundreds, and all disputes 
 between different hundreds, were passed upon in this assembly. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The alderman, or governor, of a county was usually 
 the chief noble and land proprietor. (2.) The bishop was head of 
 the priests, who officiated as teachers of the people. (3.) Another 
 officer, called a Shire-rieve, or sheriff, was appointed by the king to 
 collect taxes and fines, and represent the royal authority in the 
 assembly of the county. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) All questions not satisfactorily decided in the lower 
 courts, were reserved for the king's judgment. (2.) The county 
 courts, or assemblies, were termed Shire-motes. (3.) Freeholders 
 who composed them were each entitled to one vote in all matters 
 of business. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) When fines or penalties were imposed by a shire- 
 mote, one-third of the amount was received by the alderman or earl. 
 (2.) The remaining two-thirds were paid to the sheriff, to go into 
 the royal treasury. 
 
 meetings? (3.) What body of freeholders was chosen as a minor court? 
 ^4.) Of what, was this body the origin? 
 
 XTV. — (1.) What was the next court above an assembly of the Hundred? 
 ,2.) What is said of this body? (3.) Who presided over county courts? 
 (4.) A\ hat, business was transacted in these courts ? 
 
 XV.-(1.) What is said of the alderman? (2.) What of the bishop? (3.) 
 What other officer is mentioned ? 
 
 XVL— (1.) What was done with questions not terminated in lower courts? 
 (2.) What were county assemblies called? (3.) To what were their members 
 entitled ? 
 
 XVn.— (1.) What is said of fines or penalties? (2.) What amount was 
 paid to the sheriflf?
 
 Government of Great Britain. 28 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The aristocratic class of Saxons was composed of 
 two ranks, called Thanes, or nobles. (2.) Those of higher rank 
 were termed king's thanes, or nobles who received their laud by the 
 king's grant. (3.) The lower rank consisted of nobles who held 
 estates by paying rents or military service to the king's thanes. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) Any merchant who made three long sea voyages 
 on his own account, was entitled by one of tlie Saxon laws to be 
 called a thane. (2.) Another law provided that a farmer who 
 owned five hides of land, or a thousand acres, and possessed a chapel, 
 a kitchen, a ball and a bell, might claim to be a thane, or inferior 
 noble. 
 
 XX. — (1.) Farmers and freemen of the untitled classes were 
 called Ceoiks, or churls. (2.) They were tenants on the land owned 
 by thanes. (3.) All below the churls were considered to be slaves. 
 , (4.) Prisoners taken in war, among early Saxons, were made slaves, 
 and confined to the land as menials and laborers. (5.) Many of 
 the original Britons were made slaves by their Saxon conquerors. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The greater portion of soil under Anglo-Saxon 
 government was divided into crowivlauds, or estates belonging to 
 the king, lands of the church, and lands of the thanes. (2.) The 
 remainder was cultivated or occupied by small freeholders and in- 
 habitants of cities and villages. (3.) These lands were classed in 
 two kinds — Book-land, which was held by registry in a book, and 
 Folk-land, held by lease, from time to time. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The military force of Anglo-Saxons consisted of 
 militia, or citizen soldiers. (2.) Every thousand acres was obliged 
 
 XVin. — (1.) What constituted the Saxon aristocracy? (2.) What were 
 the king's thanes ? (3.) Of what nobles did the lower rank consist ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How could nobilitv be obtnined by other persons? (2.) What 
 Other law made provision for obtaining nobility V 
 
 XX.— (1.) What were freemen of the untitled classes called? (2.) What 
 was their position? (3.) How were persons below the churls regarded? 
 (4.) What persons were made slaves by early Saxons? (o.) What is said of 
 original Britons? 
 
 XXI. — (1.) How was the soil divided? (2.) How was the remainder used? 
 (3.) How were these lands classed ? 
 
 XXn.— (1.) Of what did the military force consist? (2.) How were ihi
 
 iSl History of Governments. 
 
 to furnish a man in time of war ; and in seasons of danger, every 
 freeman was summoned to bear arms. (3.) The general force of 
 the kingdom, under these regulations, comprised about fifty thousand 
 men. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The Anglo-Saxon frame of government continued 
 in England till the island was iuvaded and subdued by Normans 
 from France. (2.) William, the Norman conqueror, established his 
 power by making grants of territory in England to his principal 
 captains and nobles. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The government of England, under William's 
 successors, remained for many centuries a monarchy, more or less 
 absolute, according to the personal character of a king. (2.) The 
 administration of civil and military affairs was intrusted to persons 
 selected from the landed aristocracy. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) After the Normans settled on English lands, the 
 administration of law and justice was made to conform to the feudal 
 system. (2.) At times, as in France, thi re was a parliament assem- 
 bled. (3.) This was a national council, composed of the nobility, 
 or barons, of England. (4.), The affairs of counties and cities were 
 conducted under a mixed system of ancient Saxon customs and 
 feudal usages, by local magistrates and courts. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) A share in the legislative branch of the English 
 government was afterward extended from nobility or barons, to 
 other classes of the people. (2.) The frame of government changed 
 from an oligarchy, consisting of monarch and lords, to an aristo- 
 cracy, formed of king, nobility, and certain privileged classes. 
 
 forces raised ? (3.) What was the general strength of this militia ? 
 
 XXm. — (1 ) How long did Anglo-Saxon government last? (2.) What did 
 William the Norman do '? 
 
 XXTV. — (1.) What government was established by the Normans? ("2.) 
 What persons exercised authority ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) To what system was the administration made to conferm ? 
 (2.) What was assembled at times? (3.) Of what persons was the parliament 
 • composed? (4.) How were town and county aflfa.rs conducted ? 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) How was the legislative power extended? (2.) How did the 
 frame of government change ?
 
 Government of Great Britain. 283 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) At the present time, the constitutioual govern- 
 ment of great Britain rests upon a hierarchal aristocracy. (2.) It 
 is composed of three legislative departments, one of which is also 
 the executive, or administration. (3.) These three departments are 
 the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the queen, assisted 
 by her ministers, or Privy Council. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) The House of Commons is composed of six hun- 
 dred and fifty-eight members. (2.) Two hundred and fifty-three of 
 these are chosen from counties, three hundred and ninety-nine from 
 cities and towns, called boroughs, and six from the universities, or 
 colleges of Great Britain. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) No person is entitled to vote for members of 
 the House of Commons, unless he be possessed of a certain amount 
 of property, or pays a certain yearly rent. (2,) The privilege of 
 voting for a borough member is gained by any citizen who occupies 
 a house for which he pays fifty dollars yearly rent. (3.) The right 
 to vote for a county member of parliament is possessed by a citizen 
 who owns land or houses valued at fifty dollars a year, or pays a 
 yearly rent of two hundred and fifty dollars. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) A session of the House of Commons cannot extend 
 to more than seven years. (2.) Four hundred and seventy-one mem- 
 bers are elected from England, one hundred and five from Ireland, 
 fifty-three from Scotland, and twenty-nine from Wales. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The House of Lords is composed of persons 
 belonging to the titled aristocracy, or peerage of Great Britain. 
 
 XXVn. — (1.) On what does the government of Great Britain now rest? 
 (2.) How is it composed? (3.) What are the three departments? 
 
 XXVni. — (1.) Of what number of members is the House of Commona 
 composed? (,2.) How are these variously chosen? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) How is the privilege of voting restricted? (2.) How is the 
 privilege of voting for a Dorough member gained ? (:;.) How may a person 
 be privileged to vote lor a county member of parliament? 
 
 XXX. — ;1.) To what terra of years is a parliamentary session limited' 
 (2.) How ;ire England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales proportionately repre- 
 sented in parliament ? 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) Uou is t'-.v; "^-^use of Lords composed '
 
 284 History of Governments. 
 
 (2.) They are distinguished as lords temporal and lords spiritual. 
 (3.) The lords temporal occupy seats by right of birth, as repre- 
 sentatives of privileged families to which they belong. (4.) The 
 lords spiritual are bishops and archbishops of the English church, 
 established by law as the hierarchy of the country. 
 
 XXXII.— (1.) The House of Lords is classified according to 
 the rank of its members in the nobility. (2.) Princes of the royal 
 blood are highest, and the other lords consist of English-archbishops, 
 dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, English bishops, Irish prelates, 
 barons, representative peers of Scotland, and representative peers 
 of Ireland. (3.) The monarch has power to create new peers 
 from the untitled classes, when it is desirable to do so. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The two houses of lords and commons, and the 
 monarch, compose a legislature called the Imperial Parliament. 
 (2.) They are supposed to represent the three estates or conditions, 
 of sovereignty, nobility, and citizenship. 
 
 XXXIV. — (I.) The parliaments pass laws, impose taxes, 
 borrow money, and watch over the different branches of adminis- 
 tration. (2.) The assent of the sovereign is necessary before any 
 act of parliament becomes binding. (3.) All propositions for the 
 raising of money for government expenses must originate in the 
 House of Commons. (4.) This insures to the lower, or popular, 
 body, the power of checking any improper action of tlie aristocratic 
 branch of legislation. 
 
 XXXV. (1.) The House of Commons elects from its members 
 
 a presiding oflBcer called the Speaker. (2.) Communications between 
 
 (2.) How are the members distinguished ? (3.) What is said of the lords tem- 
 poral ? (4 ) What of the lords spiritual ? 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) How is the House of Lords classified? (2.) What are the 
 various ranks? (3.) What power has the monarch ? 
 
 XXXni. — (1.) What do the two houses compose ? (2.) What are they 
 supposed to represent? 
 
 XXXIV. — (1.) What authority is exercised by Parliament ? (2.) What is 
 necessary to make a law? (3.) Where must propositions to raise money origi- 
 na*^ ' (4.) What does this insure ? 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) What does the House of Commons elect? (2.) What is said 
 of the speaker 1
 
 Government of Great Britain. 285 
 
 the lower house .and the sovereign pass through this officer, and it 
 is his duty to preserve order during the deliberations of members. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) Propositions submitted for action in Parliament 
 pass through regular forms of discussion and examination. (2.) 
 They are presented in writing and referred to some committee. 
 (3.) They are then read and considered three times before being 
 finally passed upon. (4.) If not rejected before the final vote is 
 taken, a majority of all the members of parliament are required to 
 vote upon their fiual passage. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) A proposition of any measure is called a bill, 
 and after the passage of a bill, it is known as an act of parliament. 
 (2.) Every bill must go through the same process of consideration 
 and voting, in both houses of parliament, before it is presented to 
 the sovereign. (3.) When sanctioned and signed by the sovereign, 
 it becomes a law of the land. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) Either house may reject a bill passed by the 
 other, or return it with alterations or amendments. (2.) If that 
 branch of the legislature in which the bill originated agrees to the 
 alterations made, it becomes an act, but if otherwise, it is rejected. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) The sovereign of Great Britain is the execu- 
 tive power, or administration. (2.) The dignity of king or queen is 
 hereditary in the family of Brunswick. (3.) All government busi- 
 ness is supervised, treaties made, taxes called fur, war declared, and 
 the laws of the country enforced, through officials supervised by 
 monarch and council. 
 
 XL. — (I.) Agents acting under government are appointed by 
 
 XXXVI. — (1.) What is said of propositions in parliament? (2.) Wliat is 
 the first action taken on them? (!?.) How are they proceeded with? (4.) 
 What is requisite for tlieir determination ? 
 
 XXXVn. — (1.) What is said concerning a bill? (2.) Through what process 
 must every bill go ? (3.) When does a bill become a law ? 
 
 XXXVIII.— (1.) What may either house do to a bill? (2.) What is neces- 
 sary after alterations are made in a bill ? 
 
 XXXIS.— (1.) Wliat is the sovereign of Great Britain ? (2.) In what family 
 is the dignity hereditary ? (3.) What is said of public affairs ? 
 
 XL.— (1.) How are appointments made?
 
 286 History of Governments. 
 
 the sovereign, through the ministers. (2.) Judges, military and 
 civil ofiBcers, ambassadors, consuls, tax-collectors, and others 
 required for public service, receive their authority from the crown. 
 (3.) The sovereign controls the army and colonial governments, 
 through the great officers of state, who form the ministry. 
 
 XLI. — (1.) The British ministry, or cabinet, is selected by the 
 sovereign, and dismissed at pleasure. (2.) Each cabinet minister is 
 at the head of some important branch of the administration. (3.) 
 Cabinet ministers are generally appointed from the leading men of 
 the nation, and authorized to explain and defend the action of the 
 administration before parliament. 
 
 XLII. — (1.) The chief cabinet officer is the Premier, or prime 
 minister. (2.) He is called First Lord of the Treasury, and over- 
 sees the expenditures and receipts of public money. (3.) He is the 
 principal officer of state, under the sovereign. 
 
 XLiIII. — (1.) The next cabinet minister is called Lord High- 
 Chancellor. (2.) He is the chief judge of the kingdom, and pre- 
 sides in the House of Lords. (3.) He is the principal law adviser 
 of the sovereign and cabinet. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) Five secretaries of State come next in the royal 
 ministry. (2.) One has charge of affairs in the English kingdom, 
 and is called the Home Secretary. (3.) Another is Secretary of 
 Foreign Affairs. (4.) A third is the Colonial Secretary, having 
 superintendence of British colonies in all parts of the world. (5.) A 
 fourth is the Secretary of War ; and a fifth is Secretary of Ireland, 
 having care of that island. (6.) A Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 
 (2.) Whence does civil and militarv auUaority proceed? (3.) How are subor- 
 dinate departments controlled '■' 
 
 XLI. — (1.) How is the cabinet appointed? (2.) What is the position of a 
 cabinet minister ? (3.) What is said of cabinet ministers ? 
 
 XLII. — (1.) What is the Preinier? (2.) Wliat title and authority has he? 
 (3.) What is his position in the government? 
 
 XLm.— (1.) What is the next cabinet minister called ? (2.) What is his 
 position? (3.) What relation does he hold to tlie sovereign? 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) What officials come next in the ministry? (2.) What is one 
 of these secretaries? (3.) What is another? (4.) What is the third ? (5.) 
 What are the fourth and litth ? (6.) What other officers are there ?
 
 Government of Great Britain. 287 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty, aud oiber.high officers, make up the 
 number of twelve cabinet ministers. 
 
 XLiV. — (1.) The ministers are considered to be responsible for 
 all errors of government. (2.) They may be tried by parliament, 
 on impeachment, for any serious charge. (3.) The sovereign is 
 never supposed to be wrong, but all accountability for bad govern- 
 ment rests upon the ministry, or cabinet. 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) The sovereign may choose a private council for 
 advisers, besides the cabinet. (2.) The privy council have no 
 share in the government, unless appointed to act in some depart- 
 ment by the sovereign. (3.) When so appointed, they become 
 responsible for their own conduct of affairs. 
 
 XLVII. — (1.) The sovereign of Great Britain is regarded as 
 bead of the state religion, or Episcopal Church of England. (2.) He 
 or she nominates all the bishops belonging to that church, and 
 appoints many of the inferior clergy. 
 
 XL VIII. — (1.) The civil laws of England are classified under 
 two heads. (2.) All laws established by acts of parliament form 
 one class, called Written, or Statute Law. (8.) The other class 
 comprises ancient customs, or judicial decisions, and is known as 
 Common Law. 
 
 XLIX. — (L) Scotland and Ireland, now united with England 
 under government of one sovereign, were formerly separate states. 
 (2 ) The magistracy and common law of Scotland differ in some 
 
 XLV. — (1.) What responsibility have the ministers? (2.) How may they 
 be proceeded against? (3.) What responsibility has the sovereign ? 
 
 XLVI.— (1.) What other body of officials may be appointed by the sove- 
 reign ? (2.) Wliat is said of the privy council? (3.) When do they become 
 responsible ? 
 
 XLVII. — (1.) What religious, or hierarchal, position does the British sove- 
 reign hold ? (2.) What power has he in the hierarchy ? 
 
 XLVni. — (1.) How are civil laws classified? (2.) What laws form one 
 class ? (3.) Wha{ does the other class comprise ? 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) What is said of Scotland and Ireland? (2.) What laws and 
 magistrates differ?
 
 288 History of Governments. 
 
 respects from those of England. (3.) The three countries, and all 
 British possessions, are subject to parliamentary legislation and 
 authority of the crown, through its officers 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE SPAXISH MONARCHY. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Spanish people are descendants of several mixed 
 races, who possessed the territory in former times. (2.) They are 
 governed by hereditary monarclis, under a written constitution. 
 (3.) The supreme legislative body is called the Cortes. (4.) It 
 consists of two houses, higher and lower, called the Senate and 
 House of Deputies. 
 
 II. — (1.) The senate is an aristocratic council, consistinsr of 
 members appointed for life by the monarch. (2.) It is generally 
 composed of the hereditary nobility, or grandees, of the kingdom 
 (3.) The house of deputies is elective, the members being namea 
 by electoral colleges chosen from the people. (4.) One deputy is 
 allowed to fifty thousand inhabitants. 
 
 III. — (1.) Each deputy is chosen for a term of five years. (2.) 
 Tlie consent of the house of deputies, the monarch, and the senate, 
 is required for the passage of all laws. (3.) Measures for the rais- 
 ii:g of money must originate in the house of deputies. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The house of deputies may be dissolved at any time 
 by the monarch, provided another is called to assemble within three 
 
 (?,'.) What laws are common to the three countries? 
 
 L — (1.) What are the Spanish people? (2.) How are they governed ? (8.) 
 What is the Cortes? (4.) How is the body composed ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is the senate ? (2.) How is it composed ? (.3.) What is the 
 house of deputies ? (4.) What is the proportion of deputies ? 
 
 m. — (1.) How long is a deputy's term of oflice ? (2.) What is requisite f<?i 
 the passage of laws? (3.) What is said of niouey measures? 
 
 IV. — (1 ) What may be done by the monarch ?
 
 The Poituguese Monarchy. 28q 
 
 months afterward. (2.) The senate is not limited in number, but 
 comprises all grandees, who are members by right of birth, and all 
 persons named by the king. 
 
 V. — (1.) The sovereign of Spain is only responsible through the 
 council. (2.) The royal council is composed of six secretaries, pre- 
 siding over the several departments of state — of war, of finance, of 
 justice, of marine, and of subordinate governments. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The Spanish judiciary consists of a supreme court and 
 fifteen royal courts, in as many territorial departments. (2.) The 
 supreme court has a president and fifteen judges. (3.) These are 
 divided into three committees, or halls of justice, called first and 
 second courts, and court of the ladies. (4.) The last has jurisdic- 
 tion in colonial matters. (5.) Below these are the fifteen courts, 
 called Audiendas. (6.) The state religion is Roman Catholic, with 
 a hierarchy of tea archbishops and fifty-niae bishops.. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE PORTUGUERff MONARCHY. 
 
 L— »1.) The Portuguese are descended from tribes of Vandals 
 and (ioths, who successively invaded Europe, and settled at its south- 
 western extremity. (2.) During tlie middle ages, the people weri 
 ru'.'.'d by kings more or less despotic. 
 
 II. — (1.) Portugal is a hereditary monarchy, governed accord- 
 
 (2.) What does the senate comprise? 
 
 v.— (1.) What is the sovereign's responsibility? (2.) How is the roT&l 
 council composed ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) Of what does the Spanish judiciary consist? (2.) How is the 
 supreme court composed ? (3.) How are the judges divided? (4.) What is 
 said of the couit of the Indies? yb.) What are below the halls of justice? 
 (6.) What hierarchal organization is there in Spain? 
 
 I, — (1.) From what tribes are the Portuguese descended? (2.) How were 
 the people ruled during the middle ages? 
 
 XL — ,1.) ^Vhat is the government of Portugal? 
 
 13
 
 2go History of Governments. 
 
 ing to a written constitution. (2.) There is a legislature, composed 
 of an upper and lower house, the members being elected. (3.) They 
 have regular sessions, and constitute the supreme legislative power 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 III. — (1.) The Portuguese monarch is commander of the military 
 forces, appoints governors, and signs all laws. (2.) He has no veto 
 power to prevent the passage of legislative measures. (3.) The 
 state is divided politically into eight provinces, comprising seven- 
 teen districts. 
 
 IV. — (1.) In each district there is a judicial tribunal, acting as 
 the highest court. (2.) Under these tribunals a great number of 
 magistrates are appointed, as primary courts. (3.) A superior 
 court, with extensive jurisdiction, and a supreme national court, 
 constitute the chief judiciary. 
 
 V. — (1.) Education in Portugal is in a low condition, and mainly 
 controlled by the clergy. (2.^ The established religion is Roman 
 Catholic, with a hierarchal organization. (3.) A patriarch, two 
 archbishops, and fourteen bishops, exercise jurisdiction ovc eccle- 
 siastical concerns. 
 
 (2.) What is the legislature? (3.) What is said of these houses? 
 
 TTT. — (1.) What authority ha« the monarch ? (2.) How is his amno»^t^ 
 limited? (3.) What are political divisions of the state ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What is said of the judiciary ? (2.) What of magistrates? (S.. 
 What constitute the chief judiciary ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What is said of education in Portugal? (2.) What of reljgia*' 
 (S.) Hovr is the hierarchy orgaaixed ?
 
 CHAPTER Xlll. 
 
 THE BRAZILIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 I. (1.) The Brazilian empire is the only independent monarchy 
 
 on the American continent. (2.) The state was founded by Portu- 
 guese colonists, and was governed at first as a province of Portugal. 
 (3.) It was erected into a vice-kingdom, attached to the Portuguese 
 crown, and afterward became au independent state 
 
 II__(1.) The form of government in Brazil is that of a heredi- 
 tary monarchy. (2.) There is a written constitution and a repre- 
 sentative parliament consisting of a Senate and Chamber of Depu- 
 ties. (3.) Senators are appointed by the emperor, and deputies 
 elected by the people. 
 
 III. — (1.) There are nineteen provinces in the empire, each of 
 which has a legislative assembly, chosen by the people, once in two 
 years. (2.) These bodies possess the power of legislating for the 
 people of their respective provinces. (3.) They have the privilege 
 of establishing local measures, and appoiniiiig officers of a province 
 nominated by the king. (4.) The national legislature has authority 
 over all the others for purposes of peace and war. 
 
 IV". — (1.) Members of the Brazilian national senate hold office 
 for life. (2.) Members of the national chamber of deputies are 
 chosen to serve four years. (3.) The privilege of voting is allowed 
 to all free citizens, with certain restrictions in different provinces. 
 
 L— (1.) What is said of the Brazilian empire? (2.) How was the state 
 founded? (3.) What changes lias it undergone ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is the Brazilian form of government? (2.) How is the royal 
 authority limited ? (3.) How is the legislature formed ? 
 
 m. — (1.) How is the empire politically divided? (2.) What authority have 
 the provincial legislature ? (3.) What privileges do they possess ? (4.) What 
 jurisdiction has the national legislature? 
 
 IV. — (1.) How long do senators hold office ? (2.) How long is a deputy's 
 
 term? (3.) What persons have the privilege of voting? 
 
 291
 
 292 History of Governments. 
 
 (4.) The population is divided iato Europeans, white Braziliaus, 
 Indians, negroes, and mixed races. (5.) Slavery of colored persons 
 is recognized by law, but there are no distinctions between free 
 citizens on accoant of color. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE FRENCH. 
 
 I. — (1.) After the division of Charlemagne's Frankish empire, 
 the territory that remained under his successors was known as 
 France. (2.) The government remained an absolute monarchy, 
 modified only by parliaments called by the king on important 
 occasions. 
 
 II. — (1.) During the middle ages, the French government, like 
 all other administration of power in Europe, was influenced by the 
 feudal system. (2.) The king's authority was often contested by 
 combinations of his great vassals. 
 
 III. — (1.) When the commons, or body of the people, became 
 of importance, the king relied upon them to sustain his government. 
 (2.) The people were heavily taxed by princes and nobility, as well 
 as by the government. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The political organization of France was violently 
 changed about the close of the eighteenth century. (2.) The 
 people rose in revolution, and framed a democratic constitution. 
 
 (4.) How is the population divided? (5.) What is said of colored persons? 
 
 L — (1.) What is said of France? (2.) What of its gOTernment after Charle 
 magne ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What was French government during the middle ages? (2) How 
 was the king's authority contested? 
 
 TTT. — (1.) What is said of the commons? (2.) What grieyances did tht; 
 people suffer ? 
 
 rV. — (1.) When was French government violently changed? (2.) Wha^ 
 did the people do?
 
 The Government of the French. 293 
 
 (3.) This form of government was succeeded by the military 
 empire of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 v.— (1.) After tlie fall of Bonaparte, a member of the former * 
 royal family resumed the throne. (2.) An aristocratic assem- 
 bly, elected, by property holders, and a senate of nobility, ap- 
 pointed by the king, formed the legislative power. (3.) This 
 government was changed by another revolution, and a new 
 king was elected by the people. 
 
 VI. — (1.) In the year 1848, a tbird revolution toot place 
 in France, and the government was changed to a republican 
 form. (2.) A chief magistrate, named President, was chosen 
 for a term of four years. (3.) A legislative body, called the 
 National Assembly, was elected by votes of all the people of 
 France. 
 
 VII.— (2.) Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected Presi- 
 dent of the Republic, and, shortly afterward, made him- 
 self dictator by military force. (2.) He caused the republic to 
 be changed to a monarchy, and himself to be made hereditary 
 emperor. 
 
 VIII.— (1.) The political constitution of France was then 
 based on the military power and influence of Louis Napoleon. 
 (2.) The emperor appointed all ministers, members of the coun- 
 cil of state, and members of the senate. (3.) Legislative power 
 subsisted in the emperor, the senate, and a national assembly 
 chosen by the people. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Senators were named by the emperor, to serve 
 during life. (2.) He likewise had the power to grant to lhem 
 SG,000 a year, as compensation. (3.) Their number was tixcd 
 by the constitution at one hundred and fifty. 
 
 (3.) What succeeded the first democracy ? 
 
 Y_(>.) What took place after Bonaparte ? (2.) What then formed the legisla- 
 ture ? (3.) What occurred to this goveriimeut ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What took placoln the year 1818 ? ('2.) What ruler was clioson ? (3.1 
 How was the legislature appointed ? 
 
 VII.— (1.) What 13 said of Louis Napoleon ? ('2.) What course did he pursue ? 
 
 VIII.— On what was the government tht^n based ? (2.) What did the emperor 
 aiipolut? (3) Where was legislative I'ower placed ? 
 
 IX— (1) What Is said of senators ? (-2.) How wera thoy InllueucoJ bj the em- 
 peror ? (3.) State the number of senators.
 
 294 History of Governments. 
 
 Xi — (1.) The national legislature comprised a body of two 
 liundred and sixty-one members. (2.) Tlie members of this 
 body represented municipalities and rural districts tbrougliout 
 France. (3.) One representative was given to thirty-five thou- 
 sand voters. (4.) These representatives, entitled deputies, 
 were each chosen to serve six years. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The power to frame all laws and propose pub- 
 lic measures was reposed in the senate. (2.) The lower or rep- 
 resentative branch of the legislature, could only do business 
 previously sanctioned by the senate 
 
 XII. — (1.) The discussions of the senate were held with 
 closed doors. (2.) The meetings of the other legislative branch 
 were held in secret, whenever any five members desired them to 
 be so. 
 
 XIII.— (1.) The emperor kept officers to supervise all 
 
 newspapers and other publications. (2.) Nothing was allowed 
 to be printed unless sanctioned by the imperial government. 
 (3.) A rigid police system extended over all parts of France. 
 (4.) A large standing army was enlisted at the expense of the 
 tax payers, to support imperial government. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) French territory is comprised in {ycvernmental 
 departments. (2.) Departments are sub-divided into -arroudise- 
 ments, arrondisements into cantons, and cantons into com- 
 munes. 
 
 XV. — (1.) A department embraces one, or part of one, of 
 more ancient divisions called dukedoms and counties. (2.) An 
 
 X.—(l.) What was a national legislature ? (2.) What did its members repre- 
 sent? (3.) State the proportion of representatives to voters 7 (i.) V/hut Is said 
 of those representatives ? 
 
 XI,— (1.) What authority was enjoyed by the senate? (2.) How was tlio represen- 
 tative branch restricted ? 
 
 XII.— (1.) What is said of senatorial discussions ? (2,) Wliat of the meetings 
 of representatives ? 
 
 XIII.— Was freedom of th« press restricted in France ? What about matters tr> 
 be printed ? (3.) What is said of the police ? (i ) What of an army ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) How is France divided ? What subdivisions are made ? 
 
 XV.— (1-) Wliat doas a department embrace ? (2.) What Is an arroivllB*
 
 The Government of the French. 295 
 
 arroridissement is a district comprising several towns and villages. 
 (3.) A canton is a township, or city, with its neighborhoods. (4.) A 
 commune is a ward or parish, containing a certain nnmber of in- 
 haljiiaiits, more or less. 
 
 XVI. (1.) The lowest tribunals in France are the courts of 
 
 communes. (2.'', Each commune has a justice of the peace, who 
 acts as a referee, or umpire, between disputants. (3.) If a cause is 
 not settled before this tribunal, it may be carried to the arroudisse- 
 raeut court, to a commercial court, or to a court of referees. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) Over these inferior tribunals are twenty-seven im- 
 ]}fv\ii\ courts, each having jurisdiction over several departments. 
 (2.) These courts are ranged in three classes, two of them having 
 live chambers, nine having four chambers, and sixteen having three 
 chambers each. (3.) These imperial courts are held in a chief 
 rown of the district over which they claim jurisdiction. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The supreme judicial tribunal of France is called 
 the Court of Cassation, or repeal. (2.) The sessions of this court 
 are held at Paris, the imperial capital. (3.) It has power to re- 
 view and annul all decisions made by inferior courts. 
 
 XIX.— (1.) Educational matters in France are under supervision 
 of government. (2.) The emperor appoints a Minister of Public 
 Instruction, who has charge of educational and religious institutions. 
 (3.) Tlie educational institutions are ranged under three heads, 
 called academies, secondary schools, and primary schools. 
 
 XX. — (I.) The University of Paris stands at the head of the 
 academies. (2.) The minister of public instruction is its chief 
 
 nieiu? (3.) What is a Clinton? (4.) What is a commune? 
 
 XVI.— (1.) What are the lowest French tribunals? (2.) What does each 
 commune have? (3.) What may be done with causes not settled in commune 
 courts ? 
 
 XVn.— (1.) What are over the lower tribunals? {1.) How are these courts 
 ranged? (3.) Where are the imperial courts held ? 
 
 XVin.— (1.) What is the highest judicial tribunal? (2.) Where is it lo- 
 cated? (3.) What power has the Court of Cassation ' 
 
 XIX.— (1.) What is said of education in France? (2.) What chief educa- 
 tional officer t.^ appointed ? (3.) How are educational institutions ranged? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What is at the head of the academies? (2.) How is it directed?
 
 21)6 History of Governments. 
 
 functionary, assisted by a council of thirty persons. (3.) 
 Under the University are twenty-seven piincipal academies, in 
 as many educational districts. (4.) Under each academy, are 
 the secondary and primary schools of the district. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) After the second empire had lasted twenty 
 years, Louis Napoleon was dethroned. (2.) Foreign and civil war 
 was followed by another republican government. ( 3.) Trance 
 is now ruled by a president elected for life, a senate, and an as- 
 sombiy of elected delegates. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) The French people have sought, by several 
 revolutions, to establish a popular form of government. (2.) 
 They have encountered, in each attempt, the evil of ambition, in 
 unscrupulous leaders. (3.) The danger of a large army, con- 
 trolled by government, has been made manifest through all 
 French history. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) The French people are still maintaining 
 large armies to sustain government. (2.) A regular military 
 organization is supported by the republic, and is a means of 
 subsisting large bodies of men in idleness, and accustoming the 
 officers to exercise arbitrary authority, (3.) When paid sol- 
 diers are made dependent upon a central power, they stand ready 
 to strengthen it, for their own interest. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The only large military force not dangerous in 
 a republic is that of a militia of citizens. (2.) A well-organized 
 militia is as powerful to defend any country as a standing army 
 
 (3.) What are under the University? (4.) What are under the academies? 
 
 XXI.— (1.) What befell Louia Napoleon? (2.) What followed? (3.) What la the 
 government of France at present? 
 
 XXII— (1) What have the French people sought? (2.) Whyhave they failed? 
 (3.) What evil has been shown thereby? 
 
 XXIII.— (1-) How have the French people been kept in subjection? (2.) What is 
 tlio legular military organization? (3.) What is the effect of such an organization? 
 
 XXIV.— (1 ) What military force is not dangerous? (2.) What is the
 
 Constitutional Kingdom of Belgium. 297 
 
 would be. (3.) A militia is sustained by the patriotism of each 
 citizen, whilst a standing array is kept together only by wages and 
 discipline. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CONSTrrUTIONAL KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Belgians derive their origin from German and 
 French ancestors. (2.) Their country has formed, at different 
 periods, portions of France and of Germany. (3.) The state of 
 Belgium is now a constitutional monarchy, with republican legislative 
 assemblies. 
 
 II. — (1.) The office of king is hereditary through male branches 
 of the reigning family. (2.) The legislature is composed of a 
 senate and house of representatives, elected by registered voters of 
 all classes. 
 
 III. — (1.) Belgium is divided into nine provinces, each with a 
 governor and council, and superior court. (2.) The provinces are 
 subdivided into arrondissements, cantons, and communes, as in 
 France. (3.) Each arrondissement has an inferior court, and each 
 canton a tribunal of police. (4.) There are high courts of appeal 
 in the cities of Brussels, Ghent, f^nd Liege, but supreme judicial 
 power is vested in a court of cassation at the first-mentioned capital 
 city. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The educational institutions of Belgium consist of four 
 
 benefit of a good militia? (3.) What important diflerence is there between a 
 militia and a standing army. 
 
 I.— (1.) What is said of the Belgians ? (2.) What of their country ? (3.) 
 What is the state now ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What is the office of king? (2.) How is the legislature com- 
 posed ? 
 
 m. — (1.) How is Belgium politically divided? (2.) How are the provinces 
 subdivided? (3.) What has each arrondissement? (4.) What other judicial 
 organization is mentioned ? 
 
 IV. — (1 ) What is said of education in Belgium ? 
 
 13*
 
 298 History of Governments. 
 
 universities, high schools, called gymnasia, in most of the cities, and 
 primary schools in the communes. (2.) Clergy of all sects are 
 assisted by the state in their religious teachings. (3.) The govern- 
 ment of Belgium is tolerant, and the citizens are protected in their 
 rights. (4.) The state is prosperous, and its individuals generally 
 contented. 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 
 KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Dutch, or Holland nation, was originally comprised 
 in a barbarous people who lived on the borders of ancient Gaul. 
 (2.) They were known as Belgians, and their chief tribes were called 
 Batavians. (3.) They afterward became sul)jects of Charlemagne^ 
 and his successors, under governors called dukes and counts. 
 
 II._(1.) The Duke of Burgundy was ruler of Holland, Belgium, 
 and adjoining districts known as the Low Countries. (2.) These fell 
 under the dominion of Spain, and afterwards became an indepen- 
 dent republic under a chief magistrate called the stadtholder, and 
 an aristocratic council, or States-General. (3.) Holland is now 
 known as Netherlands, and forms a constitutional state, governed 
 by a hereditary king. 
 
 III. (1.) The legislature of the Netherlands consists of* the 
 
 king and two chambers, called States-General. (2.) The upper 
 chamber numbers twenty-three and the lower fifty-five mem- 
 
 (2.) What of the clergy? (3.) What of the government and citizens? (4.'> 
 What of the State ? 
 
 I._(l.) What were the original Dutch ? (2.) What is said of their names? 
 (3.) What did they subsequently become ? 
 
 n— (1.) What was the Duke of Burgundy? (2.) What afterward took 
 place? (3.) What is Holland now ? 
 
 in.— (1.) Of what does tlie Netherlands legislature consist? (2.) What d«
 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands. 299 
 
 bers. (3.) This body assembles at the royal capital, which is 
 called the Hague. 
 
 IV. (1.) Members of the upper chamber of the States-General 
 
 hold office for life, under appointment of the king. (2.) Members 
 of the lower chamber are elected by the states, or united provinces. 
 (3.) These united provinces are ten in number. 
 
 V. (1.) The kingdom of the Netherlands also comprises the 
 
 German provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg. (2.) Tliis allows it a 
 voice in the German Confederation. (3.) It also possesses many 
 colonies in Asia, Africa and America, governed by officers appointed 
 by the States-General. 
 
 VI. (1.) Education is universally diffused throughout the united 
 
 provinces of the Netherlands. (2.) The people are industrious, 
 frugal, and enterprising. (3.) Their rights are protected, and they 
 are generally prosperous and contented. 
 
 the chambers number respectively? (3.) Where do the States-General 
 assemble ? 
 
 IV.— (1.) What is said of the upper chamber? (2.J What of the lowei 
 chamber? (3.) How many provinces are there ? 
 
 v.— (1.) What German provinces does the kingdom comprise ? (2.) To 
 what does this entitle it? (3.) What other dependencies has the kingdom ? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of education in Holland? (2.) What of the people? 
 (8.) What is their condition f
 
 CONFEDERATED 
 
 STATES OF EUROPE, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 
 
 I. — (1.) The Holy Roman Empire of Germany continued, 
 during many centuries, to be governed by monarchs elected by 
 the chiefs of all G-erman states. (2.) About the close of the 
 eighteenth century the present empire of Austria took its place. 
 (3,) The territory now known as Germany was divided into 
 thirty-eight sovereignties, large and small. Austria and 
 Prussia were the leading German powers. 
 
 II. — (2.) Some of the German communities were constitu- 
 tional monarchies, and some absolute, others were more popular 
 in form. (2.) The heads or representatives of the various 
 states met, at stated periods, in a national council called the 
 German Diet. (3.) This combination, for political purposes, 
 was called the German Confederation. (4.) Its object was as- 
 sumed to be for a mutual defense of all the states, and the 
 maintenance of each in peace and independence, 
 
 I.— (1.) What Is said of the Holy Roman Empire ? (2.) What took Its place ? (3.) 
 How was German territory then divided? (4.) What was the leading German pow- 
 er ? 
 
 II.--(1.) What is said ot German monarchies ? (2) What of the representatives of 
 the different states ? (6.) What was the combination called? (4.) What were the as- 
 sumed objects or this oonlederatlou ?
 
 The German Confederation. 301 
 
 III. (i.) The Diet, or assembly of representatives from all the 
 
 states, meets, from time to time, at a city called Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine. (2.) The representative of Austria presides over the 
 sessions, because Austria is acknowledged to be the most powerful 
 German government. 
 
 IV.— (1) The German Diet acts as a general assembly, each 
 state having a certain number of votes on every question. (2.) The 
 larger powers have more votes or representatives tlian the smaller, 
 and there are sixty-nine votes in all. (3.) Most of the business of 
 the Didi||s transacted by a select committee, in which only seven- 
 teen votes are cast. (4.) In this committee the large states have 
 each one vote, and the smaller states have only one vote allowed to 
 several of them combined. (5.) Eleven large states cast one vote 
 each, and twenty-seven small ones divide the remaining six votes 
 between their delegations. 
 
 V. — (1.) The committee examine all matters before they are 
 submitted to the General Assembly, or Diet. (2.) The committee 
 propose such measures as they desire shall be acted upon, and a 
 vote of two-thirds of the General As.sembly decides for or. against 
 them. (3.) Questions involving war, or making peace, are acted 
 upon by the Diet. (4.) This prevents one German power from 
 levying war without consultation of otiiers. (5.) When money and 
 soldiers are to be raised, the Diet fixes the proportion that each 
 state must contribute. 
 
 VI. — (1.) In the German Diet, the representatives of Austria, 
 Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtemburg, have each 
 four votes. (2.) These six kingdoms together cast twenty-four 
 
 ni.— (1.) Where does the Diet meet ? (2.) What state presides ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) How docs the Diet act? (2.) How arc the votes of states divided? 
 (3.) What is said of a select committee? (4.) How are votes cast in this com- 
 mittee ? (5.) What proportion have the large states ? 
 
 V. — (1.) What is the business of the select committee? (2) How are 
 measures acted upon? (3.) What questions are acted upon by the Diet? 
 (4.) What does this prevent? (5.) What other matters does the Diet 
 arrange ? 
 
 VI. — ^1.) What German powers have four votes each in the Diet ? (2.) How
 
 002 History of Governments. 
 
 votes. (3.) The representatives of Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, Holstein and Lauenburg, and Luxemburg and Limburg, 
 each cast three votes, making fifteen votes. (4.) These fifteen, 
 with the twenty-four preceding, amount to thirty-nine, or more than 
 half the number of votes in the whole assembly. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Of the remaining votes, Brunswick, Mechlenburg- 
 Schwerin, and Nassau, have two each. (2.) The other small states, 
 twenty-four in number, have each a single vote. (3.) Four of them 
 are free cities, called Lubeck, Hamburg, Frankfort, and Bremen. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) In meetings of the minor Diet, or Select Committee, 
 the first eleven states have each one vote. (2.) The twelfth vote 
 is allowed to four small states, the thirteenth to two, the fourteenth 
 to two also, the fifteenth to seven, the sixteenth to eight, and the 
 seventeenth to the four free cities. 
 
 CHAPTER II. „ . 
 
 THE SWISS CONFEDERATION, 
 
 I. — (1.) The Alpine country, now known as Switzerland, was 
 anciently called Helvetia. (2.) It was inhabited successively by 
 Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, Alemanni, and other barbarous 
 tribes. (3.) It became a province of the Holy Roman Empire, 
 attached to the dominions of Oest-reich, or Austria. (4.) It was 
 then divided into a number of cantons, each containing many vil- 
 lages and small towns, generally ruled by bishops, abbots, or nobles. 
 
 many votes do these kingdoms cast ? (3.) What states have three votes each ? 
 (4.) What proportional votes are possessed by the eleven states mentioned ? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What states have two votes each in the Diet? (2.) What votes 
 have the remaining twenty-four states ? (3.) What are the names of the free 
 cities ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What is said of votes in the Select Committee? (2.) What is 
 the proportion allowed to other states ? 
 
 I. — (^1.) What was Switzerland anciently called? (2.) By whom was it 
 inhabited? (3.) What did it become? (4 ) How was it divided?
 
 The Swiss Confederation. 303 
 
 who lived in neighboriug convents and castles. (5.) Each commu- 
 nity possessed certain privileges guaranteed by the emperor as a 
 reward for their payment of taxes. 
 
 II. — (1.) The counts of Hapsburg, sovereigns of Austria, claimed 
 exclusive jurisdiction over Helvetic territory. (2.) They placed 
 oppressive governors over various districts, until tlie people revolted 
 and formed a confederation of three districts, called the cantons of 
 Schwitz, Uri, and Unterwalden. (3.) The name of the first canton 
 became afterward a designation for all the country of Helvetia. 
 
 III. — (1.) The three united cantons were afterward joined by 
 five more, called Lucerne, Zurich, Glaris, Zug, and Berne. (2.) 
 They formed the Swiss Confederation, which guaranteed to each 
 canton an independent local administration. (3.) The form of 
 government in some cantons was aristocratic, in others democratic. 
 (4.) At a later period, the Swiss Confederation composed thirteen 
 cantons. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The terms of confederation between Helvetic cantons 
 comprised an agreement to preserve peace and unanimity among 
 themselves, and a guaranty of perfect security to every individual. 
 (2.) They provided for protection of all traders, and for personal 
 service of every citizen in seasons of common danger. (3) Strict 
 regulations were made concerning the conduct of Switzsrs in 
 battle. (4.) No one was allowed to leave the field, or take any 
 spoil, without permission of his commander. (5.) All jjlunder was 
 placed in the commander's hands, to be distributed to cantons 
 according to the number of men furnished by each. (6.) Switzers 
 were forbidden to burn or rob churches, or molest women, except 
 uuder extraordinary circumstances. 
 
 (5.) What did each community possess? 
 
 n. — (1.) Who claimed jurisdiction over the country? (2.) What resulted 
 (3.) What canton gave name to the country? 
 
 m. — (1.) How was the first combination strengthened? (2.) Wliat did tie 
 union form ? (3.) What is said of different governments? (4.) How many 
 cantons were afterward combined ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What did the ternls of confederation comprise? (2.) For what 
 did they provide? (3.) What regulations were made? (4.) What was not 
 allowed? (5.) What was done with plunder? (6.) What was forbidden ?
 
 304 History of Governments. 
 
 V.-- (1.) The Swiss cantons are now twenty-two in number, con- 
 stituted as a federal republic. (2.) The national assembly consists 
 of two bodies, one called a National Council, and the other a Senate, 
 or Council of States. (3.) The national council is composed of per- 
 sons named by the people of cantons as their representatives, one 
 representative being allowed to each ten thousand inhabitants of a 
 canton. (4.) These representatives are chosen for a term of three 
 years each. (5.) The senate consists of forty-four members, two 
 f()r each canton. 
 
 VI.^(1.) The administration of national affairs is intrusted to a 
 body called the Federal Council, composed of seven members. (2.) 
 These are chosen by the national council from qualified Swiss citi- 
 zens, and their term of ofiBce is three years. (3.) The senate and 
 5iational council possess the riglit to make war or peace, and trans- 
 act business with foreign powers. 
 
 VII, — (1.) The Swiss judiciary consists of a court called the 
 Federal Tribunal, of eleven members and eleven substitutes. (2.) 
 it is named by the federal assembly for a term of three years, and 
 decides questions between different cantons, cantons and the confede- 
 ration, or cantons and individuals. (3.) It is divided into sections, 
 constituting a chamber of accusation, a jury, and a court of errors, 
 or appeals, 
 
 VIII. — (1.) Education is universal throughout Switzerland. 
 (2.) A system of primary schools is sustained, and three important 
 colleges are located at Basle, Berne, and Zurich. (3 ) The Swiss 
 population is organized for common defence, as a militia, and each 
 canton is bonijd to contribute a certain number of soldiers in time 
 of danger. 
 
 V. — (1.) How many cantons constitute the Swiss republic? (2.) Of what 
 does the national assembly consist ? (3.) How is the national council com- 
 posed? (4.) How long do representatives hold office? (5.) Of what does 
 the Swiss senate consist ? 
 
 VI.— (1 ) What is the administration? (2.) Who compose this council"; 
 (8.) What power is held by senate and national council ? 
 
 Vn.— (1.) What is the Swiss judiciary ? (2.) What is said of this court ? 
 (3.) How is it divided ? 
 
 Vm. — (1.) What is said concerning education? (2.) What institutions Are 
 there ? (3.) How is the Swiss population organized '
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 I. — (1.) After the downfall of Roman power in western Europe, 
 the territories of Italy were governed as a kingdom, by a barbarian 
 nation called Lombards. (2.) The Lombards were subjugated by 
 Charlemagne, and after his death the country was divided into seve- 
 ral districts, each governed by an independent military chief. 
 
 II. — (1.) During the middle ages, Italy comprised several small 
 states, some republican, despotic, and hierarchic in forms of gov- 
 ernment. (3.) Most of these states had been important cities of 
 the Roman commonwealth and empire. 
 
 III. — (L) Under Roman dominion, the Italian cities resembled 
 the capital, Rome, in many particulars. _ (2.) Their population was 
 divided into classes of nobles, artisans, merchants, freedmen, and 
 slaves. (3.) Their political organization was generally of a repub- 
 lican form, composed of a town senate, choson by the people, and 
 two annual n^agistrates, called consuls. (4.) They had ediles, 
 qusestors, and other officers, in imitation of the capital city. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The superior class in Italian cities consisted of persons 
 who owned neighboring lands, cultivated as farms and vineyards. 
 (2.) The lands were worked by slaves bought from barbarians, or 
 by tenants called colons, or peasants, who received a small share of 
 the harvest as wages. (3.) The actual cultivators of land had no 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of Italian territories? (2.) What afterward took 
 place ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What did Italy comprise during the middle ages? (2.) What ia 
 said of these? 
 
 m. — (1.) What did Italian cities resemble? (2.) How was their population 
 divided? (3.) What was their political organization ? (4.) What officers did 
 they have ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What constituted a superior class ? (2.) Who were land culti- 
 
 vators? (3.) What is said of these? 
 
 305
 
 oob History o^ Governments. 
 
 Dwuersliip, and no interest in it, except to earn a pittance by labors, 
 for tiie proprietor. 
 
 V. — (1.) Sometimes the proprietors of laud resided at Rome, and 
 their large estates were intrusted to overseers, who lived in the 
 Italian cities. (2.) The overseers only thought of raising as much 
 revenue as possible from their employers' lands, at the least expense 
 for labor, (3.) Under these agents, agricultural tenants were as 
 mtich oppressed as were the slaves. 
 
 VI. — (1.) After the western empire of Eome fell before the 
 Goths, a few Italian cities remained governed by lieutenants of the 
 eastern emperor at Constantinople. (2.) The title of these lieuten- 
 ants was Exarch., and they collected a tribute from the cities under 
 them. (3.) Other Italian cities of Greek origin, such as Naples, 
 Gaeta, and Amalfi, survived the fall of Rome, as independent muni- 
 cipalities. 
 
 VII. — (1.) When Lombard barbarians took possession of Italy, 
 they divided the territory among their chiefs, (2,) Under their 
 jurisdiccion the country was separated into thirty dukedoms or mar- 
 quisates. (3.) The Lombards were conquered in their turn by the 
 Franks, under Charlemagne. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The city of Rome was, for many centuries before 
 Charlemagne, a dukedom, governed by a lieutenant of the eastern 
 emperor at Constantinople. (2.) During three centuries, the bishop 
 of Rome, called Pope, was elected by the clergy, the senate, and 
 the people of the diocese or district. (3.) When Charlemagne 
 subdued the Lombards, he was crowned at Rome as restorer of 
 the western Roman empire. (4.) The eastern emperors then ceased 
 to exercise any authority in Rome. 
 
 V. — (1.) What is said of overseers? (2.) What motives influenced over- 
 seers? (3.) What was the consequence? 
 
 VI.— (1.) What is said of a few cities? (2.) What of the lieutenants? 
 (3.) What was the condition of other cities? 
 
 Vn. — (I.) What did the Lombards do ? (2.) How was the country sepa- 
 rated? (3.) What became of tlie Lcnbards ? 
 
 VTTT- — (1.) W^hai is said of Rome ? (2.) How was its bishop elected? 
 (3.) WLat is said of Charlemagne? (4.) What of the eastern emperors?
 
 Italian Republics. 307 
 
 IX. — (1.) After Charlemagne's death, his Italian provinces 
 passed from Frai kish to German control. (2.) Italy then became 
 part of the Holy Romnii Empire, and iis cities paid an annual tri- 
 bute to the German monarchs. (3.) Italian districts and states re- 
 mained separate and independent of each other. (4.) Most of the 
 cities were rebuilt and surrounded by walls. (5.) Eaeli had its 
 own form of municipal government. (6.) Some cities or districts 
 continued to acknowledge dukes, marquises, or counts, as under the 
 Lombards. (7.) Others elected senates and magistrates, after the 
 ancient democratic form. (8.) Others were under jurisdiction of 
 abbots or bishops. 
 
 X.— (1.) The German emperor visited Italy once in five or sever 
 years, at the head of his army. (2.) He encamped on a great plain 
 called Roncaglia, near the city of Placentia. (3.) Here he sum- 
 moned before him the dukes, marquises, counts, and magistrates, 
 who represented various Italian states and cities. (4.) They as- 
 sembled in his camp, the emperor presiding over their deliberations. 
 (5.) They delivered to him the tribute or taxes due from different 
 districts, and he agreed to such laws as he thought proper for the 
 jurisdiction of the country. (6 ) After remaining some months, the 
 emperor marched his army back to Germany. (7.) The nobles dis- 
 persed to their castles, the magistrates and bishops to tiieir cities, 
 and the country remained as usual, till another imperial visit. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Ciiarlemagne and his successors granted to citizens of 
 towns the right of building fortifications, and of assembling in town 
 meeting at the sound of a great bell. (2.) Each city raised a for 9 
 of militia, commanded by chosen magistrates or leaders. (3\|. 
 
 IX (1.) What occurred after Cliarlcmagiie's death? (2.) What did Italy 
 
 become? (3.) What is i.s said of different states? (4.) What of the cities? 
 (6.) What did each have? (6) What did some continue to do? (7.) What 
 government did others adopt ? (8.) What localauthority did others recognize ? 
 
 X. — (1 ) What is said of the German emperor? (•>.) Where did he 
 encamp? (3.) What did he summon to his presence? (4.) What did ihese 
 representatives do ? (5.) What was then doner (6.) What occurred after- 
 ward? (7.) What did tlie Italian authorities then do ? 
 
 XI, — (1.) What grants were made by Charlemagne and his successors? 
 •i.) What did each city raise? (3.) What partisan divisions took place?
 
 3o8 History of Governments. 
 
 When the popes of Rome assumed authority over Italy, and the 
 German emperors opposed their claims, the Itahau cities tooli sides 
 upon the question. (4.) Some declared in favor of the pope and 
 some of the emperor, and in this quarrel waged war against each 
 other as independent states. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The meeting of citizens at the sound of a bell was 
 called a parliament. (2.) Citizens assembled in the market-place, 
 or great square of a city, and elected two magistrates every year. 
 (3.) One was intrusted witii the administration of justice, and the 
 other was deputed to command the militia. (4.) The militia of each 
 city consisted of several bodies, from parishes or classes of the 
 people. (5.) Each division was led by a gonfalonure, or standard 
 bearer. 
 
 XIIL— (1.) The two chief magistrates of a city usually retained 
 the ancient title of consuls. (2.) There was a secret council, or 
 consilio, chosen for each city, composed of a few members selected 
 from each division of the citizens. (3.) There was also a legisla- 
 tive council, consisting of a limited number of citizens, who pre- 
 pared measures to be acted upon by the assembled people. (4.) 
 The secret consilio had charge of finance, and the levying and col- 
 lecting of taxes or contributions, for goverument expenses. (5 ) 
 The city magistrates consisted of consuls and counsellors, and were 
 called signoria. 
 
 XIV. (1.) Whilst cities were organized by the people in this 
 
 manner, strong castles were built by the nobility wherever they 
 owned land. (2.) The most powerful of the aristocracy erected 
 their stron'j-holds on high mountains, almost inaccessible to attack. 
 (3.) Less important lords raised towers and castles on the plains, 
 
 (4.) What was the consequence? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What was an Italian parliament? (2.) What did citizens do? 
 (3.) What authority had the nnigistrates? (4.) Of what did the militia con- 
 sist? (5.) What is said of a (lonfaloniere ? 
 
 Xm.— (1.) What title had the chief magi.strates ? (2.) What council was 
 created? (3.) What other council was constituted? (4.) Of what did the 
 couKilio have charge ? {5-) What were the liignoria ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What is said of castles? (2.) Where did the most powerful 
 cobk-s build castles ? {Z.) Where did minor nobles erect them ?
 
 Italian Republics. 309 
 
 in vicinity of cities. (4.) The mouutaia nobles preserved an inde- 
 pendent and arrogant auihority over districts vvliich sul)mitted to 
 them. (5.) Those who dwelt in the plain country enrolled them- 
 selves as citizens of some republic, and became the aristocracy of 
 Italian cities. (G.) Consuls, gonfalonieres and other magistrates, or 
 leaders, were generally elected by the people from among these 
 nobles. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The city of Florence was the most democratic body- 
 politic in Italy, during its early period of free institutions. (2.) The 
 first republican movement of Florentines was to divide themselves 
 into fifty companies of militia, each with a chosen captain. (3.) Tiie 
 fifty captains formed a representative body, or council of the state. 
 (4.) Two chief magistrates were chosen, called a podesta, and a 
 capiiano del popolo, or captain of the people. (5.) The first was a 
 civil, and the second a military, head of the republic. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The republic was divided into six parishes, each 
 called a sestier. (2.) Each sestier elected two magistrates, called 
 anziani, or elders. (3.) The twelve magistrates so chosen were 
 called the signoria, and were intrusted with authority over the 
 podesta and captain of the people. (4.) The twelve magistrates 
 look their meals together, dwelt at the same public palace, and 
 never appeared but in company. (5.) Their term of oiEce was 
 limited to two mouths. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) The magistrates called anziani afterward gave place 
 to the priori delle arti, or presidents of arts. (2.) The arts, 01 
 trades, signified members of certain trades and professions associated 
 as corporations, called higher and lower corporations. (3.) Ac 
 
 (4.) What power did iiiouiitain nobles hold? (5.) What did the nobles resident 
 oil plains do? (6.) Wliat did these nobles become? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What is said of Florence? (2.) VVliat was the first republican 
 ir.ovenient ? (a.) What did the fit'ty captains form ? (4.) What chief magis- 
 trates were chosen? (a ) What authority did tiiese magistrates hold? 
 
 XVI. — (1.) How was the Florentine republic divided? (2.) What officers 
 were elected? (o.) What is s^iid ol' these twelve ? (4.) What was their prac- 
 tice ? (5.) What was their term of olHce ? 
 
 XVII.— (1.) What cliange was afterward made? (2.) Wnat did the trades 
 signify? (3.) W'lio were chosen magistrates?
 
 31 o History of Governments. 
 
 first, three, and subsequently six, repi-eseutatives of the higher 
 trades were chosen magistrates. (4.) Tbe priori delle arti were 
 chosen for two months, and lived together in the public palace, as 
 the anziani had done. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) At the head of the college of arti was an officer 
 called gonfalonier of justice. (2.) When this officer displayed the 
 gonfalon, or standard, of the republic, all citizens were obliged to 
 assemble in defence of the state, or to assist in executing the laws. 
 (3.) At this period, nobles were excluded from office by law. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The corporations of trades, dividing Florentine citi- 
 zens, were twenty-one in number. (2.) The seven higher professions 
 were called the major arts, comprising merchants, manufacturers, 
 scholars, and the like. (3.) The minor arts were handicrafts and 
 rougher arts or trades. 
 
 XX. — (1.) The magistrates of the Florentine republic were 
 selected, at first, by drawing lots. (2.) A general register was 
 previously made, comprising all citizens thirty years of age who 
 were eligible to vote. (3.) Out of this register a list of citizens 
 suitable to hold office as magistrates was selected by a majority of 
 the magistrates in power. (4.) Each magistrate had a right to 
 name .'iome candidate. (5.) The list of candidates was then sub- 
 mitted to thirty-six deputies, chosen by the six divisions of the city, 
 called the balia. (6.) The balia struck out whatever names they 
 disagreed to, and classified the rest. (T.) The names were then 
 divided l)y series, placed into a purse, and drawn out under suitable 
 supervision. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The people of Florence continued to assemble in 
 
 (4.) What is said of the priori delle arti ? 
 
 XVm.— (1.) W'hat officer was at ttie head of the arts, or trades? (2.) What 
 were citizens obliged to do? (3.) What peTSons were excluded from office? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How many corporations of trades were there ? (2.) What were 
 the major arts ? (.3.) What were tiie minor arts ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) How were magistrates selected? (2.) What was previously made? 
 (3.) What list was prepared? (4.) W^hat right did each magistrate possess? 
 (5.) What was the balia? (6.) W hat did the ba'ia do? (7.) What waa then 
 done with the names ? 
 
 XXI.— -(1.) What assemblies continued?
 
 Italian Republics, 31 1 
 
 their parliaments, hold ou the public square. (2.) There they voted, 
 by raising their voices, on propositions submitted to them by the 
 signoria. (3.) They claimed, as the whole people, to be superior to 
 laws and constitutions. (4.) The popular parliament thus possessed 
 irresponsible supremacy, liable to be influenced for evil by designing 
 demagogues. (5.) The balia represented the power of the people 
 as their chosen delegates. 
 
 XXII. — (1.) An aristocracy of wealth grew up, from the election 
 of rich merchants to principal offices. (2.) These persons succeeded 
 in admitting members of the nobility to a share in government. 
 (3.) A combination of the nobles and wealthy families followed 
 this encroachment on democracy. (4.) The minor corporations 
 asserted their rights, from time to time, and at one period succeeded 
 ill electing a woollen worker to the chief magistracy. (5.) The 
 influence of wealthy classes finally predominated, and the people 
 lost all voice in the administration of public affairs. (6.) The prin- 
 cipal magistrate became a hereditary duke, and the republic of 
 Florence merged into the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. 
 
 XXIII. (1.) The republic of Florence lost its democratic cha- 
 racter by permitting the influence of wealth and luxurious display 
 to destroy the early love of individual freedom. (2.) The division 
 of citizens into distinct ranks, based on their trades, occasioned 
 jealousies between persons claiming equal privileges of voting. (3.) 
 Different arts and trades became opposed, and each desired its own 
 representatives in government, without respect to fitness for office. 
 (4.) The contentions thus engendered afforded opportunities for 
 ambitious possessors of wealth and title to combine against an un- 
 educated and dependent populace. (5.) Then followed misguided 
 
 (2.) What did the people do ? (3.) What did they claim to be ? (4.) What 
 was the effect of this? (6.) What did the balia represent ? 
 
 XXII. (1.) What grew up in the state? (2.) What did the aristocrats 
 
 succeed in doing? (3 ) What combination followed? (4.) What did the minor 
 corporations assert? (.5.) What finally occurred? (6.) What government re- 
 placed popular institutions ? 
 
 XXIII. (1.) How did the Florentine? republic lose its popular freedom? 
 
 (2.) What jealousies were occasioned? (3.) What is said of arts and trades? 
 4.) What did their contentions afford? (5.) What followed in the state?
 
 312 History of Governments. 
 
 democracy, disorder and anarchy, ended only by the usurped govern- 
 ment of tyrants. 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) The Venetian Republic was founded by fugitives 
 from various parts of the Roman empire, driven from their homes 
 by barbarians. (2.) The fugitives settled several small islands 
 situated on the marshes of tlie Adriatic shore. (3.) The first 
 colonists supported themselves by fishing, manufacturing salt, and 
 voyaging in light vessels for trading purposes. 
 
 XXV. — (1.) The population of each island constituted a sepa- 
 rate independent body-politic. (2.) They administered public 
 affairs in a simple way, by tribunes and popular assemblies. (3.) 
 Afterward, citizens of all the islands met in a convention, and 
 elected a single chief called a doge, or duke. (4 ) About the time 
 of Charlemagne they united in building the city that has been since 
 known as Venice. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) Many families of ancient Italian nobility were 
 comprised in the early community of Venice: (2.) They submitted 
 to laws framed by the popular majority, and gained possession of 
 magistracies only by degrees. (3.) The doge of Venice was an 
 elected ruler, and his power was strictly limited by regulations made 
 in assemblies of tlie people. (4.) When the aristocracy became 
 more influential, they succeeded in having autliority given to the 
 doge to appoint a private council from members of ancient families. 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) A grand council of state was formed, numbering 
 four hundred and eighty persons. (2.) The republic was previously 
 divided into six sections. (3.) Each section chose annually two 
 
 XXIV.— (1 ) How was the Venetian republic founded? (2.) Where did the 
 fugitives locate? (3.) How were they supported ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What is said of each island? (2.) How did they administer 
 public atiairs? (3.) What combination was afterward formed? (4.) What 
 was done about the time of Charlemagne? 
 
 XXVI.— (1.) What is said of the Venetian community? ('2.) What of the 
 nobility? (3.) What was the doge's position ? (4.) What did the aristocracy 
 succeed in doing? 
 
 XXVII. — (1.) What body of representatives was constituted? (2.) How 
 was the republic previously divided? (8.) What did each section choose?
 
 Italian Republics. • 313 
 
 graad electors, or tribunes, as popular representatives. (4.) The 
 twelve electors so appointed named the four hundred and eighty 
 members of the grand council. (5.) No more than four members 
 of any one family could be named. (6.) The same persons could 
 hold office any number of terms. (1.) It soon became a custom to 
 reelect all who served well, dropping only those who had become 
 unpopular. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) The grand council elected from its own members 
 all other officers of state. (2 ) They chose the doge, and six coun- 
 sellors of the red robe, to constitute a Signoria. (3.) The doge was 
 clidsen for life, the red-roloe counsellors for a term of eight months. 
 (4.) Another council of sixty members, called the Pregadi, was 
 appointed each year. (5.) The grand council also chose a body 
 of forty judges, called the Quarantia, to take charge of criminal 
 justice. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The doge was sworn to execute the laws and 
 guard the liberties of the republic. (2.) When he died, a commis- 
 sion of inquiry was appointed to ascertain if he had exceeded his 
 powers. (3.) If such appeared to be the case, his heirs were held 
 responsible for all damage to the state. 
 
 XXX. — (1.) The grand council afterward provided for select- 
 ing the doge by committees and the drawing of lots. (2 ) They 
 first appointed a commission by lot from the whole body of coun- 
 sellors. (3.) The members of this commission named a smaller 
 committee. (4.) The conmiittee thus appointed drew lots for the 
 choice of a body of one quarter of its members. (5.) At last the 
 
 (4.) What did the twelve electors do? (5.) What restriction was made? 
 [^.) What could the same persons do? (.7.) What was the consequence? 
 
 XXVin.— (1.) What did the grand council do? (2.) How did they form 
 the signoria? (3.) How long did these magistrates hold office? (4.) What 
 other council was appointed annually ? (5.) What is said of the quarantia ? 
 
 XXIX.— (1.) What was the doge sworn to do? (i.) What took place at hia 
 death ? (3.) What was the result? 
 
 XXX. — (1.) For what did the grand council afterward provide? (2.) What 
 body did they first appoint? (3.) What did the members of the first commia- 
 sion name? (4.) What did the committee do? (5.) What result was reached 
 at last ? 
 
 14
 
 c^^ * History of Governments. 
 
 number of commissioners was reduced to forty-( ne, and these 
 elected the doge by a majority of twenty-five votes. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The people were deprived of all liberty in the 
 choice of their magistrates. (2.) At a later period the privilege 
 of choosing their twelve electors was also taken from the citizens at 
 large. (3.) The quarantia, or forty criminal judges, were empow- 
 ered to overlook the list of grand counsellors every year, strike off 
 such as were not suitable, and fill up vacancies. (4.) This was the 
 beginning of that hereditary aristocracy which ruled Venice always 
 after. 
 
 XXXII. — (1.) The names of all members of the grand council 
 
 were then inscribed in a register called the Golden Book. (2.) The 
 quarantia were instructed to select no new man for membership, but 
 only members of families which had previously furnished grand coun- 
 sellors. (3.) All limitation as to number was abandoned, and any 
 Venetian twenty-five years of age, descended from a grand counsel- 
 lor, became entitled to sit as a member of the body. 
 
 XXXIII. — (1.) The organization of a Venetian aristocracy was 
 completed by the creation of a body of supreme magistrates called 
 the Council of Ten. (2.) This body consisted of ten counsellors of 
 the black robe, annually elected by the grand council, assisted by 
 six counsellors of the red robe and the doge, as members of the 
 signoria. (3.) The Council of Ten was intrusted with a power 
 superior to the laws. (4.) Its members were deputed to watch 
 over the nobles and punish their crimes against the state. (5.) The 
 deliberations and action of these magistrates were secret, and the 
 
 XXXI. — (I.) Of what were the Venetian people deprived? (2.) What 
 encroachments were made at a later period ? (3.) To what body was given 
 the power of revising the list of grand counsellors? (4.) Of what this was 
 the beginning? 
 
 XXXn.—0-) ^Vhat names were then registered? (2.) What instructions 
 were given to the quarantia? (3.) What persons were allowei to be grand 
 counsellors ? 
 
 XXXm.— (1.) What is said of the Council of Ten? (2.) Of what persons 
 did this body consist? (3.) What was its pwwer? (4.) What were its -neni 
 bers deputed to do? (5.) What is sai<* *)f these magistrates?
 
 Italian Republics. 315 
 
 Mitbority of their tribunal was unlimited over every citizen. (6.) 
 T'.iey controlled au organization of spies and police. 
 
 XXXIV.— (1.) The republic of Sienna was organized as au 
 aristocracy of citizens, excluding members of the nobility. (2.) The 
 signoria consisted of nine magistrates, choseu for two months. (3.) 
 The signoria assumed tyrannical authority, and was replaced by a 
 magistracy of twelve members. (4.) Sienna experienced all the 
 evils of power exercised by an ignorant populace. 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) The republic of Lucca passed through various 
 forms of popular organization. (2.) Its later administrations were 
 aristocratic, the chief offices being confined to about one hundred 
 and fifty families, whose members exercised power by rotation. 
 (3.) Its authorities consisted of a gonfalonier, nine anziani, or 
 elders, a legislature of thirty-six members, and a grand council of 
 ninety. 
 
 XXXVI. -(1.) The republic of Genoa was ruled by an aristo- 
 cracy of noble and wealthy families. (2.) The names of these fami- 
 lies were inscribed in a golden book, like that established in Venice. 
 (3.) The number registered did not comprise more than one hundred 
 and seventy families. 
 
 XXXVII. — (1 ) A chief magistrate, called Boge, was elected by 
 all the people. (2.) A council of state was constituted from mem- 
 bers of the aristocratic classes. (3.) The doge was required to be 
 fifty years of age, and to reside in the Palazzo ddla Signoria, where 
 the senate held its sessions. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) The doge exercised the right of proposing all 
 
 ((■) ) What (lid they control? 
 
 XXXIV. -(1.) What is said of Sienna? (2.) Of what did its signoria con- 
 q'st ? (3.) What befell the signoria ? (4.) What did Sienna experience ? 
 
 XXXV. — (1.) What is said of Lucca ? (2.) What were its later adminls- 
 trationa ? (3.) Of what did its authorities consist? 
 
 XXXVL— (1.) What is said of Genoa? (2.) What of a golden book? 
 (3.) What was the number registered ? 
 
 XXXVIL— (1.) What is said of a doge? (2.) How was a council of state 
 formed? (3.) What was required of the doge? 
 
 XXXVin. — (1.) What is said concerning la^-s?
 
 qi6 History of Governmenis. 
 
 laws for passage by the senate, and none could be enacted without 
 his acquiescence. (2.) All decrees and orders of the republic were 
 issued in the name of its first magistrate. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) The doge was at first chosen to office for a 
 term of two years, and was then obliged to serve as a senator and 
 procurator for five years, before he became eligible to a second 
 election. (2.) Afterward, the chief magistrate was chosen for 
 life. 
 
 XL. — (1.) The doge was assisted in his administration by twelve 
 governors and eight procurators (not including ex-doges who served 
 in the latter positions). (2.) The procurators and governors were 
 elected for two years, and formed a government or privy council. 
 (3.) The procurators had charge of all financial matters of the 
 republic. 
 
 XLI. — (1.) In earlier days of the Genoese republic, its sove- 
 reignty was possessed by two bodies of citizens called the Great 
 Council and the Smaller Council. (2.) The first, of three hundred 
 members, was constituted from Genoese nobles twenty-two years 
 old. (3.) The second, of one hundred members, was selected from 
 the older families of the state. 
 
 XIjII. — (1.) The two councils possessed the right to deliberate, 
 in connection with the governors and procurators, upon laws, cus- 
 toms, taxes and levies, a majority vote deciding all questions. (2.) 
 The smaller council negotiated peace, declared war, and made 
 alliances, four-fifths deciding all questions. 
 
 XLIII. — (I.) The Genoese nobility comprised two orders, termed 
 
 (2.) In whose name were laws issued? 
 
 XXXIX.— (1.) What was the doge's term of office? ('2.) How was this 
 regulation changed ? 
 
 XL. — (1.) Who assisted the doge? (2."' What is said of these officers? (3.) 
 Of what did the procurators have charge? 
 
 XLI. — (1.) What is said of early government in Genoa? (2.) What waa 
 the first of these bodies? (3.) What is said of the other? 
 
 XLII. — (1.) What right of deliberation had the two councils? (2.) What 
 powers did the smaller council exercise ? 
 
 XLIII (1.) What did the nobility comprise?
 
 Italian Republics. 3^7 
 
 old and new. (2.) The old nobility was confined to twenty-eight 
 families, including the Grimaldi, Fieschi, Doria, Spinola, and others. 
 (3.) The new nobility numbered four hundred and thirty-seven 
 families. (4.) The doge could be chosen from either order, as en- 
 rolled in the Golden Book. 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) Milan, Bologna, and other Italian cities and states, 
 partook, more or less, of a republican character, at different periods 
 of their history. (2.) Like Florence and Venice, they fell under the 
 power of aristocratic families, or military oligarchies. (3.) Tyranny 
 and hereditary monarchy followed, till all at length succumbed to 
 foreign power. (4.) The history of Florence and Venice is the 
 history of all others, in respect of prosperity and decline. 
 
 XLV. — (1.) The changes of Italian governments exhibit the 
 danger of encouraging distinctions of classes, whether of poor or 
 rich. (2.) The rise and progress of republicanism in Italian cities 
 were based on virtue and industry in the people at large. (3.) Its 
 decline and fall were caused by popular ignorance and servility. 
 controlled by luxurious and ambitious claimants to superior birth. 
 (4.) Italian republics were prevented from uniting as a confedera- 
 tion by the jealousies of arrogant families, who divided communities 
 and individuals in their respective causes. (5.) Venetia, on the 
 Italian peninsula, is now governed as a province of Austria, -md 
 the remainder of Italy is organized under royal governments. 
 
 (2.) How was the old nobility limited? (3.) What did the new number? 
 (4.) From what was the doge chosen ? 
 
 XLIV.— (1.) What is said of other Italian cities and states? (2.) What 
 happened to them? (3.) What followed? (4.) What is said of their histories? 
 
 XLV.— (1.) What do the changes of Italian governments exhibit? (2.) What 
 is said of Italian republicanism? (3.) What of its decay? (4.) How was 
 Italian confederation prevented? (6.) What is the present condition of Italian 
 states t
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HANSEA IC LEAGUE OF FREE CITIES. 
 
 I. — (1.) When the feudal system began to oppress all rapka 
 below nobility, in France, Germany, and Italy, the trading class of 
 every community adopted measures to protect its members. (2.) 
 By means of commerce, individuals grew wealthy, and made their 
 riches the means of securing special privileges from the nobility or 
 landholding lords. 
 
 II. — (1.) The first privilege obtained by cities was that of build- 
 ing walls, and the next was that of choosing their local magistrates. 
 (2.) These privileges were usually secured by written guaranties 
 called charters, signed by the monarchs. (3.) Many cities obtained 
 such charters from the sovereigns of France and Germany, and In 
 consequence became rich and flourishing capitals. 
 
 Ill, — (1.) Chartered or free cities, organized their government 
 generally on an aristocratic basis. (2.) They became places of 
 refuge for individuals oppressed by feudal usages. (3.) Their chief 
 citizens embarked in commercial enterprises, and grew to be wealthy 
 and powerful enough to defy princes and nobles. 
 
 IV". — (1.) A great commercial and political combination of 
 chartered cities was formed in the twelfth century. (2.) It became 
 known as the Hanseatic League of Free Cities. (3.) Hanse 
 signifies an association for mutual dependence. (4.) The German 
 
 I. — (1.) What is said of trading classes? (2.) What was the result of com- 
 merce ? 
 
 n. — (1.) What privileges were obtained by cities? (2.) How were these 
 privileges secured ? (3.) What is said concerning such charters ? 
 
 m. — (1.) How were chartered cities generally governed? (2.) What did 
 they become? (3.) What is said of their chief citizens? 
 
 rv. — (1.) What combination was formed? (2.) Under what name did it 
 become known ? (3.) What does the word ^o!?(.se signify? (4.) What cities 
 818
 
 Hanseatic League of Free Cities. 319 
 
 cities of Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremeu, were at the bead of this 
 league, which numbered at one period eighty-five cities. (5.) The 
 merchants of allied cities engrossed nearly all the commerce of 
 Europe, and became so formidable to monarchy, that many kings 
 compelled their cities to withdraw from the league. 
 
 V. — (1.) The Hanseatic League of Cities preserved the spirit of 
 free institutions during all the feudal period. (2.) Through the 
 power and influence exercised by these confederated communities, 
 merchants, manufacturers, and artisans, were enabled to assert their 
 independence of claims that were founded on rank alone. (3.) The 
 democratic or middle classes found leisure and means to educate 
 themselves and children. (4.) Industry and enterprise were mea- 
 sured against idleness and arrogance, and freedom of commerce 
 prepared the way for freedom of thought. 
 
 VI. — (1.) German Free Cities were originally seats of powerful 
 landholding nobles or dignitaries of the church. (2.) Most of them 
 ])urchased their first charters from the emperor , for large sums of 
 money contributed by wealthy members of the community. (3.) 
 The citizens were usually divided into three classes. (4.) First came 
 the class of free citizens, entitled to hold office ; second, the out- 
 side citizens, composed of farmers, strangers, and soldiers ; and 
 third, corporations or trades-unions. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Several Free Cities of France were noted as pow- 
 erful and flourishing municipalities. (2.) The cities of Liege, 
 Ghent, Bruges, and other P'iemish chartered corporations, chose 
 their own magistrates, and established strong bodies of militia to 
 defend their privileges, even against kings. (3.) The popul?»^ion 
 of every city was organized into corporations, or guilds, of trades:^ 
 
 headed the League ? (5 ) What is said of merchants of the allied cities? 
 
 V. — (1.) What spirit did the Hanseatic League preserve? (2.) What effect 
 was manifested? (3.) How were the people benefited? (4.) What good 
 results followed ? 
 
 VI.— (1) What were German Free Cities originally? (2.) How did they 
 obtain charters? (3.) How were citizens usually divided? (4.) What were 
 these classes ? 
 
 Vn.— ,1.) What is said of French Free Cities? (2.) Wliat di i they estab- 
 lish? (3.) How were their citizens organized?
 
 320 History of Governments. 
 
 men, each with its chief, or headman. (4.) Military captains of 
 troops, both of horse and foot, were appointed by local magistrate? 
 to lead the local forces in time of danger. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Hanseatic League of Cities became enfeebled 
 by local factions and domestic quarrels, caused by distinctions among 
 citizens. (2.) Wealthy families grew luxurious in habit, and arro- 
 gant in pretensions. (3.) The people lost their independence, and 
 the body-politic became like other communities, submissive to des- 
 potic power. (4.) Of the ancient confederation, only three cities, 
 Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen, are now known as Hanse Towns. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MODERN FREE CITIES. 
 
 I. — (1.) The municipality of Hamburg is constituted as a mixed 
 aristocratic and democratic commonwealth, (2.) There are no 
 nobility, hereditary magistrates, or privileged classes. (3.) Ah' 
 citizens are considered to have an equal interest in the support of 
 municipal institutions. 
 
 II. — (1.) Government consists of a senate and three assemblies, 
 or colleges of citizens. (2.) The senate is composed of four magis- 
 trates called burgomasters, four called syndics, four secretaries, 
 and twenty-four counsellors. (3.) Three of the burgomasters and 
 eleven of the counsellors must be lawyers, and the remainder are 
 merchants. 
 
 (4.) What leaders were appointed ? 
 
 Vin.— (1.) How did the Hanseatic League become weakened? (2.) What 
 is said of wealthy families? (3.) What followed this? (4.) What cities of the 
 League now remain ? 
 
 I. — (1.) How is the municipality of Hamburg constituted? (2.) What dis- 
 tinctions do not exist? (3.) How are all citizens regarded? 
 
 II.— (1.) Of what does Hamburg government consist? (2.) How is the sea 
 ate composed? (3.) What qualifications must they have?
 
 Modern Free Cities. 321 
 
 III. — (1.) Tlip. four .syndics are lawyers, who are consulted for 
 their opinion upon all legal questions, but have no vote in the sen- 
 ate. (2.) The qualifications of a citizen for the post of senator 
 consist of three. (3.) He must be a native of Hamburg, thirty 
 years of age, and a member of the Lutheran Church. (4.) Tlie sen- 
 ate is a permanent body, having power to fill all vacancies in its 
 own ranks. (5 ) A vacancy is filled partly by ballot and partly 
 by lot. 
 
 rV. — (1.) All the names of senators are written on slips of paper, 
 which are put into a box. (2.) In another box are placed an 
 equal number of slips, all blank but four, on which are written the 
 word ''proposed.''^ (3.) The two youngest senators then draw a 
 slip from each box, till the four inscribed with "pxoposed" are 
 drawn. 
 
 V. — (1.) The four senators who have their names drawn out at 
 the same time with four slips containing the word " proposed," are 
 each entitled to propose a citizen to fill the vacant seat in the sen- 
 ate, (2.) When four candidates are selected, their names must be 
 written on four ballots, which are folded and placed in one box. 
 (8.) Four other ballots, on one of which is the word " chosen," are 
 placed in the other box. (4.) The two youngest senators then draw 
 as before, until the ballot containing the word " chosen " is drawn, 
 and the name drawn with that ballot is the name of the new 
 senator. 
 
 VI. — (1.) A citizen so elected senator is obliged to accept the 
 post or quit the city of Hamburg. leaving one-tenth of his property 
 behind him. (2.) He is required to take an oath of oflSce, and then 
 
 III. — (1.) What are the foar yyudics? (2) How many qualifications must 
 a senator have? (3.) What are they ? (4.) What is the senate ? (5.) How is 
 a vacancy filled ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) What names are put into a box ? (2.) What are placed in another 
 box ? (3.) What is then done ? 
 
 V. — (1.) Who are entitled to propose candidates? (2.) What is done with 
 candidates' names? (3 ) What are placed in the other box ? (4.) What then 
 Cakes place ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) What is an elected senator obliged to do? (2.) What else is 
 required of him ? 
 
 14*
 
 322 History of Governments. 
 
 remain in his home till the next Sunday, when he is expected to 
 attend church with the rest of the senate. 
 
 V"II. — (1.) On first taking his seat, a newly-elected senator 
 wears a black velvet cloak, without sleeves. (2.) Afterward he is 
 permitted to wear the full senatorial robe, consisting of a velvet 
 cloak, with sleeves, and a high-crowned, round hat, covered and 
 fringed with black. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The senate of Hamburg is the governing body, ap- 
 pointing agents and consuls to foreign countries, and receiving 
 foreign envoys. (2.) It has authority to make all contracts, issue 
 orders, grant letters-patent, and supervise the action of tribunals 
 and other departments of justice and administration. 
 
 IX. — (1.) Next to the senate comes the general assembly of 
 citizens, called Burgerschaft. (2.) This is the body-politic of Ham- 
 burg, and is divided into five classes, or parishes, of citizens, who 
 elect three legislative chambers called colleges. 
 
 X. — (1.) The first of the three colleges is called the College of 
 Aldermen. (2.) It consists of fifteen — three being chosen by, the 
 privileged inhabitants of each one of the five parishes. (3.) The 
 members of this college have the right to attend the meetings of 
 the senate, and speak on any proposition therein submitted. (4.) 
 They may impeach any senator whom they suspect of infringing the 
 laws of Hamburg. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The second college of the burgerschaft, or citizens, is 
 called the College of Sixty. (2.) It is composed of the body of 
 aldermen and forty-five other citizens, called deacons, nine chosen 
 
 Vn. — (1.) What does a newly chosen senator wear? (2.) How is he after- 
 ward officia'ly clothed? 
 
 Vin. — (1.) What power has the Hamburg senate? (2.) What is it em- 
 powered to do ? 
 
 IX.— 1 1.) What body comes next to the senate in Hamburg? (2.) What is 
 said of the Burgerschaft ^ 
 
 X (1.) What is the first college called? (2.) How many members has the 
 
 college of aldermen? (.3.) What rights do they possess? ('4.) What power 
 may they exercise? 
 
 XI.--(1.) What is tJ.e second college called? (2.) How is the college of
 
 Modem Free Cities. 323 
 
 from each parish. (3.) The duty of this college is t3 watch over 
 the lower departments of government. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The thiid college is called the College of One Hun- 
 dred and Eighty. (2.) It consists of the two other colleges and one 
 hundred and twenty citizens called sub-deacons, twenty-four chosen 
 from each parish. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) Another body of ten members, called the Chamber, 
 is constituted by election of two citizens from each parish. (2.) This 
 chamber is chosen for ten years, and its duty is to audit the public 
 accounts and lay them before the senate. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) When an important law or measure is proposed, 
 the general body of citizens, or whole biirgerschaft, is called together 
 by the senate and college of aldermen, to meet in the senate house. 
 (2.) It is requisite that at least two hundred citizens shall be 
 present in this assembly, besides the colleges and senate. 
 
 XV. — (1.) A written explanation of the proposed law or measure 
 is given to the chairman of each parish. (2.) The citizens retire to 
 live I'ooms, each according to his parish, to discuss and vote upon 
 the matter before them. (3.) No member of one parish is allowed 
 to go into the room of another, under heavy penalties. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When the citizens, each in his own parish, have de- 
 cided their opinions, the five bodies reassemble. (2.) The question 
 on the law or measure is taken by vote of the parishes. (3.) If 
 three out of the five agree to the proposition, it is adopted ; if not, 
 it is rejected. 
 
 sixty composed ? (3.) What is its duty? 
 
 Xn.— (1.) What is the third college of biirgerschaft called? (2.) Of what 
 docs the college of one hundred and eighty consist ? 
 
 XIII. — (1.) What is tlie Chamber? (2.) What is the duty of the Hamburg 
 Chamber ? 
 
 XrV. — (1.) What takes place when an important measure is proposed to be 
 passed? (2.) What number of citizens >i<.ust assemble ? 
 
 XV. — (1.) What is furnished to each parish? (2.) What do the citizens do? 
 (H.) What IS not allowed? 
 
 XVI. — (].) What is done after sufficient deliberation? (2.) How is the 
 question taken, on adopting the law, or measure ? (3.) What is requisite to 
 pass the law ?
 
 324 History of Governments. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) There are two classes of burghers, or citizens, ir. 
 Hamburg, called the great aud small citizens. (2.) The distinction 
 between them is based on the possession of property, and affects 
 only their liberty of trade. (3.) Great burghers are not liable to 
 any restrictions, while small burghers are forbidden to do wholesale 
 business in their own names. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) The military force of Hamburg consists of about 
 fifteen hundred foot soldiers and a militia of citizens trained to arms, 
 called the Burgher Guard. (2.) Every citizen and son of a citizen 
 is obliged to serve in this guard, from the age of eighteen to forty- 
 five years, providing his own arms and clothing. 
 
 XIX. — (l.) The highest court of justice in Hamburg is composed, 
 of a burgomaster, worth five hundred dollars, ten senators, five 
 lawyers, and five merchants. (2.) This court passes on important 
 civil suits, and may reverse criminal decisions of lower tribunals. 
 (3.) A lower court, composed of a president, two judges and an 
 actuary, lawyers, and four other judges, not lawyers, tries criminal 
 cases and small civil suits. 
 
 XX. — (1.) A third court is devoted to questions affecting 
 trade, and is called the Court of Commerce. (2.) It is com- 
 posed of a president, vice-president, nine merchants and two actu- 
 aries. (3.) The court is held twice every week, in two divisions 
 or chambers. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) The city of Lubeck, originally chief of Hanse Towns, 
 is still a free city, like Hamburg.- (2.) Its government is intrusted 
 to a senate and house of burgesses. (3.) Magistrates are chosen 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What divisions of citizens are there in Hamburg? (2.) On 
 what is the distinction between them based ? (3.) What is said of the two 
 classes ? 
 
 XVni. — (1.) Of what does the Hamburg military consist? (2.) How is the 
 militia formed ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How is the highest judicial court composed? (2.) What juris 
 diction has this court? (3.) What is said of a lower court ? 
 
 XX. — (1.) What is the court of commerce? (2.) Of what persons does it 
 consist? (3.) When and how is this court held? 
 
 XXI.— (1 ) What is said of Lubeclt ? (2.) What is its government? (3.)
 
 Modern Free Cities. 325 
 
 by members of these bodies, which represent the incorporated com- 
 panies, or trades of the city. (4.) Lubeck, like Hamburg and 
 Bremen, is a member of the Germanic Confederation, in which it 
 possesses the privilege of casting a single vote in full council. 
 
 XXIL— (1.) Bremen is the third of the free towns still in con- 
 federation. (2.) Its government is similar in character to that 
 exercised in Hamburg. (3.) The principle of organization is 
 aristocratic. 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Frankfort-on-the-Maine remains a free city, 
 though not in confederation with the others. (2.) Its legislation is 
 vested in a senate of forty two members. (3.) The right of voting 
 for magistrates is exercised by the people, under some restrictions 
 as to qualifications. 
 
 How are magistrates appointed? (4.) Of wlm; other confederation, besides the 
 Hanseatic League, is Lubeck a member ? 
 
 XXII. — (1.) What is said of Bremen? (2.) What is its government? 
 ( o.) What is its principle of organization? 
 
 XXin.— (1.) What is said of Frankfort ? (2.) What of its legislature ? (3.) 
 What persons exercise suffrage?
 
 AMERICAN REPUBLICAN STATES. 
 
 I, — (1.) The American Republics are divided into those of North, 
 Centra], and South America. (2.) The United States of America 
 is the general name given to a political union of the more northerly 
 democratic states, governed by a federal head. 
 
 II. — (1.) The Mexican republic consists of a number of states or 
 provinces confederated under one central government. (2.) The 
 republics of Central America are five in number, each independent 
 of the other. (3.) Their names are Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nica- 
 ragua, San Salvador, and Honduras. (4.) The republics of South 
 America are independent sovereignties, with democratic forms of 
 government. 
 
 III._(1.) The United States were originally colonies planted by 
 British, Dutch, Swedish, French, and Spanish emigrants. (2.) 
 Thirteen colonies revolted from the government of Great Britain, 
 and formed a confederacy. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The Mexican republic was composed of provinces 
 
 I._(l.) How are American republics divided? (2.) What is the United 
 States of America ? 
 
 n. (1.) Of what doe.^ the Mexican republic consist? (2.) What is said of 
 
 Central American republics? (Z.) What are their names? (4.) What are the 
 South American republics ? 
 
 ni.— (1.) What were the United States originally? (2.) What is said of 
 thirteen colonies ? 
 
 IV. — (1.) Of what was the Mexican republic composed? 
 «26
 
 American Republican States. 327 
 
 settled by Spaniards, who conquered the previous inhabitants. (2.) 
 They revolted from Spain, and organized a republican government. 
 
 v.— (1.) The Central and South American republics were for- 
 merly military and civil colonies, planted by Spaniards, who con- 
 quered the Peruvians and other aboriginal nations. (2.) Their in- 
 habitants threw off the domination of Spaiu, and formed separate 
 independent states. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The Haytien republican state is composed of negroes, 
 mulattoes, and other descendants of Africans, formerly held as slaves 
 by Spanish settlers. (2.) This state occupies a portion of the 
 island of St. Domingo. 
 
 VII.— (1.) The republic of Peru is governed according to a 
 constitution, by representative bodies. (2.) The legislature is com- 
 posed of two houses, a senate and chamber of deputies. (3.) One- 
 half the number of senators is elected every four years. (4.) One- 
 third of the deputies is chosen every two years. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The chief magistrate is styled President, and is 
 elected ior a term of six years. (2.) He cannot be reelected till 
 six years elapse after his term closes. (3.) The president selects a 
 council of state of fifteen persons. (4.) No more than three of 
 this council can belong to the army, and no more than three can 
 be ecclesiastics. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The leading religion is Roman Catholic, with a hier- 
 archy consisting of one archbishop and four bishops. (2.) The 
 tribunals consist of a supreme court in the capital city, a superior 
 court in each department, district courts in smaller circuits, and 
 
 (2.) What is said of these provinces? 
 
 v.— (1.) What were the South American republics formerly ? (2.) What 
 action did their inhabitants take ? 
 
 VI. — (1.) Of what is the Haytien state composed? (2.) Where is this 
 republic established? 
 
 VII.— (1.) How is Peru governed? (2.) How is the legislature composed? 
 (3.) When are senators elected? (4.) When are deputies chosen ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What is said of the chief magistrate ? (2.) How is the presi- 
 dent's office limited ? (3.) What does the president select ? (4.) What restrio 
 tions concern the council ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What is the religion of state ? (2.) What are the tribunalflT
 
 ^28 History of Governments. 
 
 justices of the peace. (3.) Each department of the republic has a 
 police superinteDdeut, with his subordiuate officials. (4.) There are 
 special courts iustituted for the settlemeut of cases among the 
 Indian tribes, and for the mining districts. 
 
 X. — (1.) The republic of Bouvia has a legislature composed of 
 three cliambers, that of senators, that of tribunes, and that of cen- 
 sors. (2.) The president holds office during life, and has the power 
 of naming his successor. 
 
 XI. — (1.) The Argextine republic consists of a state called La 
 Plata. (2.) It formerly belonged to a confederacy of several South 
 American provinces, which had revolted from Spanish rule. (3.) 
 The president of La Plata possesses many arbitrary powers. 
 (4.) The legislature is constituted of delegates elected from various 
 districts, and representatives of the clergy. 
 
 XII. — (1.) The republic of Venezuela is divided into sixteen 
 provinces, each of which elects a number of delegates to constitute 
 two houses of the legislature. (2.) A president and vice-president 
 are chosen by the people at large. (3.) Other departments of ad- 
 ministration are established in a similar manner to like departments 
 of the United States government. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) The republic of Ecuador is divided into three de- 
 partments, with subdivisions or districts. (2.) Delegates are 
 chosen from districts to constitute a legislature. (3.) The popula- 
 tion consists, as in other Spanish American states, of descendants of 
 Spaniards, and a number of mixed races, of various complexions. 
 (4.) The president and vice-president compose the executive, and the 
 
 (S.) Wh.it police is establislied ? (4.) What .special courts are noticed ? 
 
 X.— <1.) What legislature has Bolivia? (2.) What is said of the Bolivian 
 president ? 
 
 XL— (1.) What is the Argentine republic? (2.) To what did it formerly 
 belong ? (3.) What is said of the president ? (4.) How is the legislature con- 
 stituted ? 
 
 Xn. — (1.) How is the legislature of Venezuela constituted 'i (2.) How ia 
 the executive formed ? (3.) What is said of other departments ? 
 
 Xm. — (1.) How is Ecuador divided ? (2.) How is the legislature organized? 
 (8) What is said of the population? (4.) What constitutes executive and
 
 American Republi.an States. 32(, 
 
 legislature comprises senate and liouse of representatives (5.) A 
 council of state is appointed to assist tlie president. (6.) Suffrage 
 is exercised by persons of all races, and the privilege of holding 
 office is open to all. 
 
 XrV. — (1.) The republics of New Granada, Venezuela, and 
 Ecuador, formerly constituted a single state called the Colombian 
 republic. (2.) New Granada is now an independent state, with a 
 republican constitution resembling that of the American republic. 
 (3.) A president and a legislature of two houses are elected by the 
 people. (4.) All ranks and colors possess equal rights of suffrage 
 and election to office. (5.) The state is divided into seven depart- 
 ments and two territories, with thirty-six provincial subdivisions. 
 
 XV. — (1.) The repubhc of Chili is divided into eleven provin 
 cial departments, or states. (2.) The general government is con- 
 ducted by a president and legislature. (3.) The president is assisted 
 in the administration of public affairs by a council of eight mem- 
 bers. (4.) The legislature consists of a senate and a house of 
 deputies. (5.) The senate is composed of persons elected for nine 
 years, from the provinces, two being allowed to each. (6.) One- 
 third of the senators are chosen every three years. (7.) The house 
 of deputies is elected for three years, by the people, one deputy 
 being chosen for every twenty thousand inhabitants. (8.) The 
 judiciary consists of a supreme court, court of appeals, and supe- 
 rior courts. (9.) A well-organized militia, called the national guard, 
 and a standing army, comprise the military force of Chili. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) The republic of Uraguay is governed as an inde- 
 pendent state, under a constitution similar to that of other South 
 
 le.^islative bodies ? (5.) What other body is appointed? (C.) What popular 
 privileges are secured ? 
 
 XIV.— (1.) What states were formerly comprised in a single republic? 
 (2.) What is New Granada now ? (3.) What authorities are popularly chosen? 
 (4.) What privileges are common ? (5.) How is the state divided ? 
 
 XV.— U-) HowisChiH divided? (2.) How is its government conducted? 
 (8.) What body asgists the president? (4.) What branches compose the legis- 
 lature? (6.) What persons form the senate? (6.) How are senators elected ! 
 (7.) How is the house of deputies constituted ? (8.) Of what does the judi 
 ciary consist? (9.) What military organization is there? 
 
 XVL — (1.) How is Uraguay governed ?
 
 330 History of Govermnents. 
 
 American states. (2.) Equal suffrage, and the privilege of holding 
 oflSce, is extended to foreigners as well as natives. 
 
 XVII. — (1 ) The state of Paraguay is called a republic, but its 
 president possesses extraordinary powers. (2.) He is elected for 
 life, and exercises arbitrary authority. (3.) The state is divided 
 into departments, called partidos, each governed by a commander, 
 called the Comisionado. (4.) The commanders are appointed by 
 the president, and responsible only to him. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Of the five states of Central America, Costa Rica 
 enjoys tlie only secure government. (2.) This republic is divided 
 into three political departments. (3.) Each of these is separated 
 into partidos. (4.) The administration is intrusted to a president, 
 and the law-making authority vested in a representative legislature. 
 (5.) The other states — Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, and 
 Nicaragua — pretend to republican organization, but are distracted 
 by partisan chiefs, who oppose each other. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) The republic of Mexico is a combination of twenty- 
 two states, five territories, and a federal district comprising the 
 capital city. (2.) The constitution resembles, in its provisions, that 
 of the American repubh'c, but establishes a state religion of the 
 Roman Catholic form. (3.) The government is divided, as in the 
 United States of America, into legislative, administrative, and judi- 
 cial departments. (4.) There is no provision for public courts or 
 trial by jury. (5.) Of late years, the federal government has been 
 unsettled, and the states distracted by contests of ambitious mili- 
 tary chiefs. 
 
 (2.) What are the popular privileges? 
 
 XVn. — (1.) What is said of Paraguay ? (2.) What is the position of the presi- 
 dent? (.3.) How is the state divided ? (4.) What is said of the commanders? 
 
 XVm.— (1.) What is said of Costa Rica? (2.) How is it divided? 
 (3.) How subdivided? (4.) What is the form of government? (5.) What is 
 the condition of other Central American states ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) How is the Mexican republic constituted? (2.) What does itj 
 federal constitution resemble? (3.) How is supreme authority divided? 
 (4.) In what respects does the Mexican constitution differ from that of the 
 American republic? (5.) What has been the condition of Mexico during lata 
 years ?
 
 'ruifi 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 FEDERAL REPUBLIC. 
 
 GOYERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 I._(l.) Government of the American Republic is founded on a 
 Union entered into by the people of the original thirteen States and 
 all other States subsequently admitted. (2.) Every State gives up 
 certain powers and duties belonging to itself, to be exercised and 
 performed by representatives of all the States, and by an adminis- 
 tration elected by all the people. 
 
 II._(1.) The governmental system of the United States is re- 
 corded and explained in a collection of articles and obligations 
 agreed upon by all the people. (2.) In this written instrument of 
 record the powers and duties of the national legislature and execu- 
 tive are deflued. (3.) By the provisions therein specified, all the 
 States and their citizens are goverued as a single uudivided nation 
 (4.) This written instrument is called the " Constitution of the 
 United States." 
 
 L— (1.) On what is government of the American Republic founded ? (2.) 
 What is said of certain powers and duties ? 
 
 n. (1.) What is said of the governmental system ? (2.) What are defined 
 
 in this instrument? (3.) What authority does it possess' (4.) What is this 
 written instrument called ? ^_
 
 332 History of Governments. 
 
 III. — (1.) The natiohal, or supreme government of the Union is 
 composed of a first magistrate, '^^I'ed President, a Vice-President, 
 and a legislative body called the Congress. (2.) The President is 
 assisted by a cabinet of connsellors appointed by himself (3.) The 
 Congress is divided into two branches, called a Senate and a House 
 of R' presentativGS. 
 
 IV". — (1.) The Senate is composed of persons who have attained 
 the age of thirty years, and been citizens during ni':^e years. (2.) 
 Senators are selected by the legislatures of the StaVs. (3.) A 
 senator represents the State from which he is sent, as an independ- 
 ent commonwealth and sovereign republic, under the national consti- 
 tution. (4.) Every State is entitled to choose two senators, to 
 serve for six years each, 
 
 v. — (1.) The House of Representatives is composed of persons 
 twenty-five years old, who have been citizens during seven years. 
 (2.) Representatives must be citizens of the State from which they 
 are sent, chosen according to the laws of that State regarding 
 elections. 
 
 VI. — (1.) Senators of the United States are divided into three 
 parts, according to the date of their election. (2.) One-third of the 
 number vacate their seats every two years. (3.) This insures an 
 experienced body of legislators at all times. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Representatives are chosen once in two years. (2.) 
 The legislative power of a single congress continues for that length 
 of time. (3.) Representatives are voted for by electors of the dis- 
 
 m. — (1.) How is the American government composed? (2.) How is the 
 President assisted'? (3.) How is Congress divided ? 
 
 rV.— (1.) How is the Senatu composed? (2.) How are senators appointed? 
 (3.) What does a senator represent? (4.) How many senators are allowed to 
 each American State ? 
 
 V. — (1.) How is the House of Representatives composed? (2.) What quali- 
 fications must representatives possess ? 
 
 VI.— (].) How are senators classified? (2.) What senators are changed 
 every alternate year? (3.) What does this insure? 
 
 Vn. — (1.) When are representatives chosen? (2.) What is said of congrea 
 cional powers? (3.) How are representatives voted for?
 
 Government of the United States. 3^33 
 
 trict which they represent in any State. (4.) A congressional dis- 
 trict is fixed by hiw, and contains nsually about one hundred thou- 
 sand inhabitants. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The President of the American Republic is elected 
 for four years. (2.) His cabinet council consists of seven officers of 
 stete, each changed with the duties of a particular department of the 
 government. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The seven officers are called Secretary of State, 
 Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of the 
 Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Postmaster-General, and Attorney- 
 General. (2.) They receive their appointment from the President, 
 and if approved by the Senate, become executive officers. (3.) They 
 are subject to removal by tlie President, without consultation of the 
 Senate. 
 
 MANNER OF LEGISLATING IN CONGRESS. 
 
 X. — (1.) The two branches of Congress, called Senate and House 
 of Representatives, exercise joint legislative authority. (2.) They 
 examine into all pubHc business over which the Constitution allows 
 Congress to have jurisdiction. (3.) The manner of legislating iu 
 Congress is by deliberation in committees, and by a vote of each 
 house upon matters brought before its members during session. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Senators meet in one chamber and representatives in 
 another. (2.) The House of Representatives is presided over by an 
 officer called the Speaker, chosen from its members. (3.) Tlie 
 Senate is presided over by the Vice-President of the American 
 Republic, or United States, in right of his office. 
 
 (4.) What is a congressional district ? 
 
 VIII. — (1.) What is the President's term of office? (2.) What is said of his 
 cabinet council ? 
 
 IX. — (1.) What are the seven cabinet officers called ? (2.) How are they 
 selected ? (3.) What authority may remove them ? 
 
 X.— (1.) What authority has Congress ? (2.) What do they do ? (3.) What 
 is the mode of congressional legislation ? 
 
 XI.— (1.) Where does Congress assemble? (2.) Who presides over thfl 
 representative branch ? (3.) Who presides over the Senate?
 
 334 History of Governments. 
 
 XII. — (1.) Every proposition for the passage of a law or measure 
 iutroduced into one or tlie other branch of Congress is called either 
 2>, Bill or a Resolution. (2.) When a bill is proposed, it must be 
 submitted in writing, and pass through certain forms of scrutiny and 
 discussion before passage. (3.) If a bill be adopted by both houses, 
 it must receive the President's signature before it can go into opera- 
 tion as an Act of Congress. (4.) An Act of Congress remains the 
 law of the land until it is modified or repealed by another Act of 
 Congress. 
 
 XIII. — (1.) When a bill is passed by both houses, it is presented 
 to the President for approval. (2.) If he objects to its passage, 
 he returns it to Congress without his signature, stating his reasons 
 for so doing. (3.) This act is termed a veto of the bill, from a 
 Latin word signifying "I forbid." 
 
 XIV. — (1.) If the President fails to return a bill in ten days 
 after its presentation to him, it is considered to be approved, and 
 takes effect as an Act of Congress. (2.) If it be returned with the 
 President's veto, it may still become a law, provided two-thirds of 
 each house agree to pass it without the President's approval. 
 
 XV. — (1.) A bill may be introduced in either of the two houses, 
 provided it is not to raise revenues for government. (2.) All bills 
 30 relating to money must first be presented in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. (3.) A bill is introduced in Congress by a representative 
 or senator, who rises in his seat and presents it to the speaker. 
 (4.) If no objection be made, it is read once by its title, and then 
 
 XII. — (1.) What is meant by a bill or resolution ? (2.) What is done with 
 a bill? (3.) AVhat is requisite for every bill? (4.) What is said of an Act of 
 Congress ? 
 
 XIII.— (1.) What is done with a bill passed by both houses? (2.) How 
 does the President negative a bill ? (3.) What is the act of returning a bill 
 with objections called? 
 
 XIV. — (1.) When is a bill considered to be passed? (2.) How may a bill 
 be passed in opposition to the President's objections ? 
 
 XV.— (1.) How may bills be brought before Congress? (2.) In what house 
 must bills to raise money originate ? (3.) What is tie manner of presenting a 
 bill? (4.) What ib done with a bill when preserted svithout objection?
 
 Government of the United States. 333" 
 
 referred to a committee of members having cbarge of the public 
 business to which it pertains. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) When a bill is so referred, it becomes the duty of a 
 committee having charge of it to consider it carefully. (2.) If it 
 meets their approval, it is their province to recommend li to the 
 house where it originated, for adoption by the members, (3.) If 
 the committee be opposed to its passage, they may make an un- 
 favorable report upon it. (4.) Their report may then be accepted 
 or rejected by the house to which it is presented. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) If a bill be recommended for passage, it receives a 
 second reading by its title, and is committed to a committee of the 
 whole for discussion. (2.) A committee of the whole means all 
 members of either house who deliberate at certain times on the 
 merits of bills. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) If a bill be favorably reported from committee of 
 the whole, it is ordered to be engrossed for a third reading, with 
 such alterations or amendments, if any, as have been made in com- 
 mittee of the whole. (2.) After a third reading, a vote upon it is 
 taken by yeas and nayo of all members present. (3.) If a majority 
 of all the members of one house vote in its favor, it is declared 
 passed, and must be sent to the other house of Congress for 
 consideration. 
 
 XIX. — (1.) When a bill is laid before the other house, it is 
 referred to committee of the whole in that house. (2.) If favorably 
 reported, it is read a third time and then voted upon. (3 ) If a 
 majority of all the members be in favor of it, it is declared to be 
 ___ — ^ ^ - 
 
 XVI (1.) What is the duJy of committees? (2.) What should a committee 
 
 do witli a bill if it be approved ? (3.) What if disapproved ? (4.) What action 
 may be taken on a committee's report. 
 
 XVII. — (1.) What is done with a bill after it is rccommendod for passage' 
 (2.) What is meant by a cominilteo of the whole ? 
 
 XVm. — (1.) What becomes of a bill when it is aj)proved in committee ol 
 the whole? (2.) What is done when a bill has been read for the third time i' 
 (3.) What number of votes is required to pass a bill ? 
 
 XIX. — (1.) What is done with a bill when sent for consideration to tbs 
 other house? (2.) What action is afterward taken ? (3.) W'.iat is necessary
 
 5^b HIstor) of Governments 
 
 passed, and transmitted to the President for approval. (4.) I: 
 amended or altered before passage, it must be returned to the 
 liouse in which it originated (5.) If that house agrees to the 
 amendments or alterations, it will become an Act of Congress, 
 and, when signed by the President, a law. 
 
 POWERS OF CONGRESS. 
 
 XX. (1.', Each house of Congress possesses power to decide 
 
 whether its members are or are not entitled to their seats. (2.) 
 Each may compel the attendance of members who absent them- 
 selves without sufficient cause. (3.) Each house has exclusive 
 authority over its own members for any offence they commit as 
 legislators. 
 
 XXI. — (1.) Congress is empowered to levy and collect taxes, 
 and raise money by other means, for government expenses. (2.) It 
 makes all necessary regulations for commercial intercourse. (3.) It 
 grants the privileges of citiaenship to foreigners, under such restric- 
 tions as it may adopt. 
 
 XXII.-^(1.) Congress alone has authority to coin money, and 
 regulate the value of coined money. (2.) It passes laws to fix the 
 standard of weights and measures throughout all the States. (3.) 
 It makes laws to punish persons who counterfeit the national money. 
 (4.) It has power to pass laws for the relief of debtors. (5.) It 
 establishes post-offices and post roads, and authorizes contracts for 
 carrying the mails. (6.) It makes laws for the protection and re- 
 ward of authors and inventors, who produce valuable works. 
 
 to its passage or adoption? (4.) What must be done with the bill if it be 
 amended or altered ? (5.) What is then necessary to its passage ? 
 
 XX.— (1.) What peculiar power does each house of Congress possess? 
 (2.) What may each house do ? (3.) What exclusive authority has each 
 house ? 
 
 XXL— (l.) What is Congress empowered to do? (2.) What regulations 
 does it make ? (3.) What privileges does it grant ? 
 
 XXn (1 ) What sole authority has Congress? (2.) What laws does it 
 
 pass ? (3.) What penalties does it establish ? (4.) What power has it to grant 
 rehef? (5.) What powers has it regardmg posts? (6.) What protection doea 
 h provide for certain persons ?
 
 Government of the United States. 337 
 
 XXIII. — (1.) Congress provides for the establishing of national 
 courts and tribunals under the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 (2.) It establishes penalties for the punishment of piracy and other 
 offences against the law of nations. (3 ) It has power to declare 
 war, regulate rules and methods of warfare, and raise and support 
 armies. (4.) It has jurisdiction over the land and sea forces of the 
 country, and can call out the militia of all the States, in case of ne- 
 cessity. (5.) It claims exclusive government over the District of 
 Columbia, and over all naval stations, forts, arsenals, and otlier 
 works or territory owned by the United States. 
 
 XXrV. — (1.) Congress possesses authority to dispose of puVjlic 
 lands and territories not included under the jurisdiction of any State 
 of the Union. (2.) It makes necessary laws and regulations for 
 the government of persons residing on such lands. (3.) It has 
 power to explain the offence of treason, and provide penalties 
 for it. 
 
 XXV.— (1.) Congress has power to admit new States into the 
 confederacy, when such States are formed out of the public territory 
 owned by the United States. (2.) It may regulate, by law, the 
 times, places, and manner of holding elections for representatives, 
 and the time and manner of electing senators. 
 
 XXVI. — (1.) AH laws, orders, and resolutions, necessary in ex- 
 ercising the authority of Congress, must pass under the rules of 
 both houses. (2.) They must be agreed to by at least a majority 
 of the members of both. (3.) Every order, resolution, or vote 
 (except a vote of adjournment), on which both houses act, is re- 
 
 XXHL— (1.) What judicial institutions does Congress provide? (2.) Wliat 
 penalties does it establish? (3.) What military authority does it possess? 
 (4.) What military jurisdiction does it exercise? (5.) What exclusive gov- 
 ernment does it cl:um ? 
 
 XXIV. — (1.) Wiiat power has Congress over the soil? (2.) What laws doea 
 it establish over territories ? (3.) What offence may it define and punish ? 
 
 XXV. — (1.) What power has Congress to enlarge the confederation? (2.) 
 What elections may it regulate ? 
 
 XXVI.— (1.) How n.ust all legislation be conducted? (2.) What is necos- 
 sarv to the passage of Congressional laws? (3.) What is necessary to the 
 legality of all actioij taken by both houses of Congress ?
 
 ^8 History of Governments. 
 
 quired to be submitted to the President of the United States before 
 it can take effect. 
 
 POWERS OF THE UNITED STATES SENATE. 
 
 XXVII.— (1.) The Senate has power to judge of the rights and 
 qualifications of its own members. (2.) It exercises exclusive 
 jurisdiction over their conduct as legislators. (3.) It chooses an 
 officer to preside over its deliberations, in the absence of the Vice- 
 President of the United States, who is the regular officer. (4.) It 
 appoints all other officers and clerks and committees necessary to 
 the transaction of its affairs. 
 
 XXVIII. — (1.) The Senate has sole power of trying all cases 
 of impeachment. (2.) Impeachment is a charge brought against 
 the President, Vice-President, or any civil officer of the United States, 
 for treason, bribery, or any other high offence. (3.) Impeachment 
 must be presented by tlie House of Representatives before beinj^ 
 tried by the Senate. 
 
 POWERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) The House of Representatives possesses the same 
 jurisdiction and authority over its own members as is possessed by 
 the Senate over members of that body. (2.) It elects a speaker to 
 preside over its deliberations during the term for which each con- 
 gress is chosen. 
 
 XXX. — (I.) The House elects officers and clerks to perform 
 various duties connected with its legislation. (2.) It possesses 
 power, like the Senate, to appoint committees of investigation from 
 
 XXVn. — (1.) What particular power has the Senate ? (2.) What exclusive 
 
 jurisdiction does it exercise? (3.) What chief officer does it choose? (4.) 
 What other officials does it appoint? 
 
 XXVm. — (1.) What sole power has the Senate ? (2.) What is meant by 
 impeachment ? (3.) In what house must impeachment be made ? 
 
 XXIX. — (1.) What particular authority is possessed by the House of Repre- 
 seutatives ? (2.) What chief officer does it elect? 
 
 XXX.— (1.) What other officials does the House elect? (2.) What powc 
 does it possess to appoint committees?
 
 Government of the United States. 339 
 
 its mem'bers, and to give such committees authority .to sum- 
 mon witnesses and administer oaths. 
 
 XXXI. — (1.) The House has sole authority to place high 
 officials of civil administration under impeachment. (2.) The 
 House acts as an accuser of the party charged with offence, 
 while the Senate is the tribunal to decide upon the charge. 
 (3.) Two-thirds of the representatives must vote for an im- 
 peachment before it can be presented to the Senate for action. 
 
 XXXII.— (1.) The House has sole authority to bring 
 forward measures for the purpose of raising a revenue to pay 
 government expenses. 
 
 MEMBERS OF C0NGBE39. 
 
 XXXIII.— (1.) In all cases except treason, felony, and 
 breach of the peace, members of Congress are privileged from 
 arrest during their attendance at the session, and in going to 
 or returning to the same. (2.) No senator or representative 
 can be called to account elsewhere, for any speech or remark 
 that he makes during debate as a legislator. 
 
 XXXIV.— (1.) Senators and representatives of Congress 
 now receive, as compensation, a fixed yearly salary, in lieu of 
 former additions to their per diem pay. (2.) Their privilege of 
 using the United States mails, free of charge, is restricted. 
 
 XXXV.— Every senator or representative is entitled to re- 
 ceive, in addition to his salary, a certain sum, per mile, for the 
 
 XXXI.— (1) Wliat sole power does the House possess ? (1.) Wliat Is said of Im- 
 peachment ? (3.) What is required for the presenting of impeachments ? 
 
 XXXII.— (1 ) What sole authority is excorcised by the House of Kepresenta- 
 tives ? 
 
 XXXIII.— (1.) What privileges have members of Congress ? (2.) How are th/-y 
 protected ? 
 
 XXXIV.— (1-) What comjiensatlou Is made to every member of Congress ? (2.) 
 Wh;u iprivilege is restricted ? 
 
 XXXV.— (1.) What addUlous to salary do members of Congress receive ?
 
 340 History of Governments. 
 
 distance which he travels at each session, in going and returning 
 between his residence and the capital, or seat of government. 
 
 XXXVI. — (1 ' Each house of Congress possesses the privilege 
 of ordering books, documents, and other printed matter and sta- 
 tionery, for tlie use of every member. (2.) Most of the books 
 printed by order of Congress are intended for distribution to libra- 
 ries, and literary or scientific associations, through members of Con- 
 gress, to whom they are assigned. 
 
 RESTRICTIONS OF MEMBERS OF CONGRESS. 
 
 XXXVTI. — (1.) No senator or representative can hold any 
 other civil office, either elective or appointed, while he continues to 
 be a member of Congress. (2.) He cannot be appointed to any 
 civil office under tbe national government during the term for which 
 he was elected, if such office be created, or its emoluments increased, 
 during that terra. 
 
 XXXVIII. — (1.) Senators and representatives, and all other 
 officers of the United States government, are forbidden to accept 
 any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from 
 any king, prince, or foreign state, without special consent of 
 Congress. 
 
 POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT. 
 
 XXXIX. — (1.) The President of the United States is com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia of all the 
 States, when the latter are in actual service. (2.) He may require 
 a written opinion from tbe head of each department under govern- 
 ment, upon any matter embraced in the duties of such department. 
 
 XXxVi. — (1.) What privilege does each house posses.** (2.) What distri- 
 bution is intended to be made ? 
 
 XXXVII. — (1.) How is a member of Congress restricted as to holding office ? 
 ^2.) What appointments is he prevented from receiving? 
 
 XXXVin.— (1.) What is forbidden to United States officials? 
 
 XXXIX. — ^1.) What military command has the President? (2.) What maj
 
 Government of the United States. 341 
 
 (3.) He has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences com- 
 mitted against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 XL. — (1.) The President has power to make all treaties, with 
 consent of two-thirds of the Senate, at any of its sessions. (2.) He 
 appoints ambassadors, agents and officers, under the uationnl 
 government, whose appointment is not otherwise provided for by 
 law. 
 
 XLI. — (1.) The President has power to call Congress to assem- 
 ble on occasions when he deems it necessary. (2.) When a dis- 
 agreement takes place between the two houses in reference to 
 adjournmeur, the President may adjourn them to such time as he 
 thinks proper. 
 
 XIjII. — (1.) The President possesses power to prevent the 
 enactment of any measure by Congress, unless two-thirds of the 
 members of both houses vote in its favor. 
 
 feLECTION OF PRESIDENT AXD VICE-PRESIDENT. 
 
 XLiIII. — (1.) In order to be eligible to the office of President, a 
 person must have been born in the United States. (2.) He must 
 have resided in the country at least fourteen years, and must be 
 thirty-five years of age when elected. 
 
 XLIV. — ^(1.) In order to be eligible to the office of Vice- 
 President, a person must possess the same qualifications as for that 
 of President. (2.) The two officers are elected at the same time 
 and for the same term. 
 
 he require from heads of departments? (:i.) What judicial power does he 
 po.ssess ? 
 
 XL — (1.) What atithority makes treaties ? (2.) What appointments does 
 the President make ? 
 
 XLI.— (1.) What power has the President to assemble the Congre.ss ? (2.) 
 What adjourning power has he? 
 
 XLIL — (1.) What power has the President over congressional action? 
 
 XLIII.— (1.) What is the fir.st qualification for presidential ollice ? (2.) What 
 Other qualifications are necessary ? 
 
 XLIV. — (1.) What qualifications must the Vice-President possess? (2.) How 
 are both officers chosen ?
 
 342 History of Governments. 
 
 XL v. — (1.) The Vice-President is presiding officer of the 
 Senate. (2.) If the office of President be vacated during a presi- 
 dential term, the Vice-President becomes acting President, or chief 
 magistrate. (3.). He then resigns his place as presiding officer of 
 tlie Senate to some senator elected by that body. 
 
 XLVI. — (1.) If the offices of President and Vice-President be 
 both vacated during a presidential term, the powers and duties of 
 chief magistrate devolve upon the Speaker of the House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 XLVIL— (1.) The President and Vice-President of the United 
 States are chosen, once in four years, by votes of electors delegated 
 by the people of States in their respective districts. 
 
 XLVIII. — (1.) The people do not vote directly for the names 
 of President or Vice-President on a ticket or ballot. (2.) The voters 
 of each State choose a number of officers, called electors, to represent 
 them in an assembly denominated an electoral college. (3.) The 
 electoral college of each State meets at its State capital immedi- 
 ately after a presidential election. 
 
 XIjIX. — (1.) The number of electors chosen by each Stable is 
 just equal to the number of senators and representatives to which 
 such State is entitled in the national Congress. (2.) A list of the 
 names of candidates for electors is printed on a single, ballot. (3.) 
 The whole list together is voted for by all the voters of a State. 
 (4.) There may be as many lists as there are parties voting in the 
 State. 
 
 XLV — (1.) What position does the Vice-President hold ? (2.) What office 
 may he fill ? (.3.) What does he do when called upon to act as President ? 
 
 XliVI. — (1.) What officer becomes acting President in case both elected 
 officers are removed? 
 
 XliVIL— (1.) When are President and Vice-President elected? 
 
 XLVIII.— (1.) What is said respecting the votes for President and Vice- 
 President? (2.) AVhat do the voters of each State do? (3.) When do the 
 electoral colleges meet? 
 
 XLIX.— (1.) What number of electors is chosen by each State? (2.) What 
 is printed on a single ballot ? (3.) How are the electors voted for ? (4.) How 
 many lists may there be ?
 
 Government of the United States, 343 
 
 L, — (1.) The persons named upon the list of candidates which 
 receives the o:rcatest number of votes in a State are declared elec- 
 tor? for President and Vice-President. (2.) They are supposed to 
 represent the popular vote of the State. (3.) No United States 
 senator or representative, and no person holding office under the 
 national government, is eligible to be chosen an elector. 
 
 LI. — (1.) When electors of a State are chosen in this manner, 
 they proceed to meet and cast their own votes. (2.) Each elector 
 votes for a President, and for a Vice-President. (3.) One of the 
 persons for whom he votes must not be an inhabitant of the State 
 whiclj the electors represent. (4.) Each elector names on one ballot 
 the person he wishes to be President, and on another the person he 
 wishes to be Vice-President. (5.) A list is then made of all persons 
 voted for by the college, with the number of votes for each. (6.) 
 The electors sign, certify, and seal such list, and send it to the 
 federal capital, directed to the president of the Senate. 
 
 lill. — (1.) When the president of the Senate has received a 
 sealed list from the electoral college of every State, he opens all of 
 them in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives. 
 (2.) The number of votes recorded in each list is ascertained, and 
 the entire number counted. 
 
 LIII. — (1.) The candidate for President, whose name appears on 
 a majority of electoral ballots, is declared President. (2.) The can- 
 didate for Vice-President, whose name appears in like manner on a 
 majority of electoral ballots, is declared Vice-President. 
 
 L. — (1.) What persons become electors for President and Vice-President 
 (2.) What are these persons supposed to represent? (3.) What citizens are 
 restricted from being cliosen electors ? 
 
 LI.— (I.) What do electors do when chosen? (2.) What does each elector 
 do? (3.) What must one of his candidates not he? (4.) What does each 
 elector name on his balbts ? (5.) What list is then made ? (6.) What is done 
 witii such list ? 
 
 LII. — (1.) What does the president oi the Senate do? (2.) What action is 
 then taken ? 
 
 IjIII. — (1.) What person is declared President? (2.) What person is de 
 dared Vice-President ?
 
 24^ History of Governments. 
 
 LIV. — (1.) If no candidate for President appear to have received 
 a majority of electoral votes, three' persons, whose names were on 
 the highest number of ballots, are placed as candidates before the 
 House of Representatives. (2.) The members of that House then 
 proceed to ballot till one of the three names receives the votes of a 
 majority of the States represented, or until March 4th next ensuing. 
 
 LV. — (I.) In this ballotting, each State is allowed but one vote, 
 which is cast by a majority of its representatives present, (2.) If 
 the House of Representatives shall fail to make its choice before 
 March 4, then the Vice-President will act as President, according to 
 the provision made in case of death or disability of the President. 
 
 LVI.— (1.) The Vice-President is chosen by the members of the 
 Senate, instead of the House of Representatives. (2 ) Out of two 
 persons whose names were on the highest number of electoral ballots 
 for Vice-President, the Senate chooses one to be tlie Vice-President, 
 and to acfas President in case of no choice of a President, as above. 
 
 JUDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 LVII. (1.) The federal judiciary consists of a supreme court, 
 
 circuit courts, and district courts. (2 ) The supreme court is com- 
 posed of a chief-justice and eight associate judges, appointed to 
 hold office during good behavior. (3.) The judges of the supreme 
 court are also circuit judges. (4.) The full supreme court holds one 
 session a year at the national capital, for the review of cases on 
 appeal, and the settlement of constitutional questions. (5.) A cir- 
 cuit court, held twice a year in every State, is composed of one 
 supreme court judge and one district judge of the State or district 
 wherein the court sits. (6.) The district courts are held in {i-\ed 
 
 LIV.— (1.) What takes place if no person has been elected by the colleges? 
 (2 ) What do the representatives do ? 
 
 LV.— (1.) How many votes has each State ? (2.) What follows in case of 
 no choice by the House of Representatives ? 
 
 LVI.— (1.) Which House chooses the Vice-President? (2) How is he 
 chosen by the House of Representatives ? 
 
 LVII.— (1.) Of what does the federal judiciary consist ? (2.) How is the 
 supreme court composed ? (3.) Who are the circuit judges ? (4.) What session 
 does the full supreme court hold ? (5.) What comprises a circuit court ? (IJ.)
 
 Government of the United States. 345 
 
 districts comprising a State, or portion of a State, by a judge ap- 
 pointed specially for the district. (1) In some cases, a single dis- 
 trict judge has two or more districts under his charge, (8.) There 
 are a district attorney and a marshal appointed in each district. 
 (9.) The first acts as a federal prosecuting officer, and the second 
 acts as a federal sherift'. (10.) All constitutional points and offences 
 against United States law, not controlled by State jurisdiction, are 
 tried in the federal courts. 
 
 DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT, 
 
 LVIII. — (1.) The chief officer of the cabinet is called Secretary 
 of State. (2.) He is head of the diplomatic department, communi- 
 cating witli foreign governments, American agents residing abroad, 
 and agents of foreign powers resident in this country. 
 
 LIX. — (1.) The Secretary of the Treasury is head of a depart- 
 ment of public finance. (2.) He examines into all accounts for and 
 against the national government. (3,) He has charge of public 
 moneys, and is accountable for their safe keeping and proper dis- 
 bursement. (4.) He supervises the mercantile marine and com- 
 mercial interests of the country, custom houses, duties and imposts. 
 
 LX. — (1.) The Secretary of War has charge of national military 
 matters, defence of the country, and organization of governnjenl 
 forces. (2,) The standing army of the United States consists of 
 ten thousand men, distributed among various military stations 
 located in States aud territories. (3.) This regular force is main- 
 tained as a nucleus of such armies as might be called for in case of 
 war. (4.) A national academy for instruction iu military science is 
 supported by the federal government. 
 
 What is said of the district courts? (7) What is sometimes the case? 
 (8.) What legal officers are appointed from each district? (9.) In what capa- 
 city do these officials act? (lo.) What jurisdiction have the federal courts? 
 
 LVm. — (1.) What is the chief cabinet officer called ? (2.) Of what depart 
 merit is he the head ? 
 
 LIX. — (1.) What is the Secretary of the Treasury? (2.) What does he 
 examine? (3.) Of what has he charge? (4.) What supervision docs he 
 exercise ? 
 
 LX.— (1.) What is the Secretary of War? (2.) Wliat is the United States 
 Btanding army ? (3.) Why is this regular force maintained ? (-4.) What mili- 
 tary institution is supported by government ?
 
 34C History of Governments. 
 
 LXI. — ,'1.) The Secretary o*" the Navy is head of all naval af- 
 fairs connected with the federal government, (2.) The United 
 States maintains a navy, composed of armed vessels, for the pro- 
 tection of trade upon the seas. (3.) Dock-yards and other naval 
 stations are under superintendence of the navy department. 
 
 LXII. — (1.) The Postmaster-General is head of the mail and 
 postal service of the United States. (2.) The federal government, 
 through congressional action, establishes post-roads, and provides 
 for carrying letters, newspapers, and other mail matter, throughout 
 the States. (3.) All post-offices are under control of this depart- 
 ment. (4.) Its contracts for transporting the mails are usually 
 made witli private express companies or agents. 
 
 IjXIII. — (1.) The Secretary of the Interior is head of a depart- 
 ment which has charge of public lands and mines, Indian affairs, 
 pensions, patents, and public buildings. (2.) This department is 
 usually called the Home Department. 
 
 LXIV. — (1.) The Attorney-General is prosecutor or advocate in 
 all suits for or against the United States government in the Supreme 
 Court. (2.) lie is chief law adviser of the administration. 
 
 LXV. — (1.) Business, necessary or incidental to various depart- 
 ments, is transacted by clerks, deputies, commissioners and other 
 officials, and by contractors or other agents. (2.) The more subordi- 
 nate appointments are generally made by heads of departments. (3.) 
 Higher offices are filled by nomination of the President and approval 
 of the Senate. 
 
 LXL— (1.) What is the Secretary of the Navy? (2.) What is said of the 
 U. S. navy? (3.) What superintendence has this department? 
 
 LXII. — (1.) What is the Postmaster General? (2.) What does the federal 
 government do? (3.) What control has the post-office department? (4.) What 
 is said of its contracts ? 
 
 liXIIL— (1.) What is the Secretary of the Interior? (2.) What is this de- 
 partment called ? 
 
 LXIV. — [I.) Wliat is the Attorney- General? (2.) What is his position in 
 the cabinet ? 
 
 LXV.— (1.) How is business appertaining to government transacted? (2.) 
 How are the lower officials appointed? (3.) How are higher offices filled?
 
 rCPULAR GOVERNMOT 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHARTER GRANTS. 
 
 I. — (1.) In early ages nations and tribes were governed by 
 two kinds of law. (2.) One consisted of orders proceediug from 
 a king or oilier ruler, according to his will and power. (3.) The 
 other was embraced in,^ customs of the people. (4.) In some 
 nations the king's power was restricted by religious customs 
 or traditional laws. 
 
 II. — (1.) The custom of securing ownership in land or other 
 proj^erty was a very ancient one. (2.) Abraham bought a plot 
 of ground for burial purposes, paying for it in presence of wit- 
 nesses. (2.) Security was sometimes given by a solemn oath 
 between the parties. (4.) When wi'itten language came into 
 use, the title to property was usually secured by writings in- 
 scribed on landmarks, or on metal and other material. (5.) Such 
 writings were respected as agi-eements between men, 
 
 III. — (1.) Laws, edicts, and grants of privilege or property 
 were signed and sealed. (2.) Mutual agreements so made were 
 termed covenants, and regarded as sacred obligations. (3.) A 
 ruler made grants of certain lands or privileges to his chief 
 men and their families, or to his soldiers and other followers. 
 (4.) When such grants were made under seal and signature, or 
 witnessed with an oath, they were considered to be seciu'ed to 
 those receiving them. (5.) In this way some rights and liber- 
 ties were pledged to the subjects of a king or other ruler. 
 
 847
 
 ^48 History of Governments. 
 
 IV. — (1.) In ancient Egypt tLe laws were inscribed on stone 
 monuments. (2.) In Greece and Rome they were engraved on 
 metal tablets. (3.) We read of the Ten Commandments being 
 carved on tablets of stone. (4.) Sach laws and proclamations 
 were sometimes affixed to the gates of the temples or public 
 highways. 
 
 v. — When paper material came into use, covenants, laws 
 and grants of privileges were written upon it. (2.) The term 
 charter was employed to designate such writings ; from a Greek 
 word clmrtos signifying ;paper. 
 
 VI.— (1.) When tribes and nations yielded their rights as 
 men to kings and other chief men, all authority was claimed 
 by government. (2.) Every right or privilege was then held 
 simply as a gift or grant bestowed by the ruling power. (3.) In 
 some tribes the people reserved certain privileges to their own 
 control. (4 ) In other tribes a priesthood, or the soldier force, 
 reserved special authority in matters pertaining to their own 
 class. (5.) The right to choose their own military leaders or 
 other chiefs was exercised by some tribes. (6.) This right was 
 the origin of citizenship, and was always restricted to free born 
 men, or men made free. 
 
 VII.— (1.) Classes of people often combined to claim 
 privileges and rights from government. (3.) Such privi- 
 leges and rights, when conceded, were usually secured under 
 written laws or charters. (3.) The exercise of chartered rights 
 constituted popular liberty in Greece and Home. 
 
 VIII.— (1.) The first national charter on record was a 
 Hebrew code of laws. (2.) Collections of royal edicts and 
 proclamations constituted a written code of law in Assyria and 
 Persia. (3.) In Greece and Rome codes of law were written 
 in books and consulted by judges and lawyers. (4.) These laws 
 constituted written guarantees of popular liberty. (5.) They 
 enumerated rights and privileges of citizens which no ruler waa 
 permitted to set aside.
 
 Charter Grants. 349 
 
 IX. — {!.) In tlie middle ages, feudal laws contained pro- 
 visions for military service, manual labor, land holding and 
 taxations, (2.) Military chiefs held lands by tenure granted 
 under royal seal. (3.) Laborers on such lands were obliged 
 to yield a portion of all products to their landlord, and to serve 
 him in war or peace. (4.) Titles of nobility were conferred by 
 kings and other superiors, as charter rights. (5.) Landhold- 
 ing and titles of rank created superior classes. (6.) These 
 superior classes restricted the power of governments, while 
 keeping the inferior classes in subjection. 
 
 X. — (1.) In England a charter was extorted from King 
 John, by his chief barons in arms, supported by their tenantry. 
 (2.) This charter secured large privileges to the land-holding 
 class, and enumerated certain rights and privileges claimed by 
 the people at large. (3.) It was called Magna Charta, and the 
 present British constitution embodies some of its original pro- 
 visions. 
 
 XI» — (1.) When British colonies were planted in North 
 America, the settlers were secured by charters in various privi- 
 leges and rights, granted to chiefs of colonizing companies. 
 (2.) These charters were written documents called patents under 
 royal seal and signature. 
 
 XII« — (1.) After the revolutionary war in 1776, the peo- 
 ple of thirteen British colonies combined to frame a national 
 constitution, uniting thirteen states, each governed by a state 
 constitution or charter. (2.) The government of the United 
 States was substituted for the British government, and the 
 state constitutions took the place of royal charters or patents. 
 
 XIII. (1.) Under the constitution of the United States, 
 all the people of states are united as a nation. (2.) It is required 
 that each state constitution shall conform to the national con- 
 stitution. 
 
 XIV. (1.) In the foundation of a new state, within the 
 United States, the people of a territory first convene a body 
 of delegates, to adopt a state constitution. (2.) This con-
 
 J50 History of Governments. 
 
 stitution is then presented to the congress of the TJnited 
 States, and under its provisions the territory is admitted into 
 the Union as a State. 
 
 XV« (1.) The people of a state elect representatives to meet 
 as a state legislature. (2.) A state legislature enacts la^vs to 
 be binding on every citizen. (3.) It may grant rights and 
 privileges to individuals and corporations. (4.) A corporation 
 may consist of any number of persons transacting business un- 
 der a charter. (5.) The charter they receive is their security 
 in transacting business. (6.) Charters are considered to be 
 vested rights during the time for which they are granted. 
 
 XVI. — (1.) A vested right is a right or privilege which 
 cannot be withdrawn through any contingency not specified. 
 (2.) Rights secured by charters are called franchises or free- 
 doms. (3.) They may be granted for a term of years, or without 
 limit. (4.) Charters are the guarantees of persons associated 
 in companies for any business purpose. (5.) Banting, Insur- 
 ance, Manufactures, and various pursuits, are conducted by 
 corporations under charter grants. 
 
 XVII.— (1.) The people of a -village, town, county, or city 
 may be authorized to transact public business as a corporation. 
 (2.) Their rights and privileges are set forth in a charter grant- 
 ed by the state legislature, according to law. (3.) A legislative 
 charter-grant is their security in conducting business, and 
 during its term of operation it secures popular rights. 
 
 XVIII. — (1.) Cities, towns and villages may receive char- 
 ters from the legislature as bodies corporate, to transact public 
 business, (2.) Such charters, however, do not confer vested 
 rights, such as corporations secure for private business. 
 (3. ) They constitute codes of laws or regulations ; but are sub- 
 ject to repeal or modification by the legislature, unless their 
 provisions be permanently enforced by statute or constitution.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NATIONALITIES. 
 
 I. — (1.) Manlrind has been classified in five varieties, the 
 Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the 
 American. (2.) The Caucasian variety is white, the Mongolian 
 yellow, the Ethiopian blacir, the Malay brown, the American 
 red, in color of shin. (3.) These five varieties are subdivided 
 into nationalities. (4.) A nationality consists of one or more 
 tribes. 
 
 II. — (1.) A nationality is a union of people who dwell in 
 neighborhood, or who are united by relations of kindred, or 
 by other recognized connections. (2.) The ancient Hebrew 
 nationality embraced Twelve Tribes descended from one family, 
 (3.) Modern Hebrew people are merged in other nationalities, 
 but recognize relations of kindred wherever they dwell. 
 
 III. — (1.) Nationality may be defined as a union of people 
 by mutual consent and attachment to their country and its 
 customs. (2.) Nationalities cannot be established by political 
 authority or subjection. (3.) Tribes and communities mav be 
 forced to obey a national government, but subjection does not 
 always nationalize them. (4.) Mutual acquaintance and com- 
 mon interests must unite them into nationality, and centuries 
 of union are required to form such nationalities. 
 
 IV. — (1.) British nationality is a union of several parts of 
 nationalities formerly in opposition. (2.) The Welsh people 
 are descendants of original natives of England. (3.) The Irislt 
 once formed several distinct nations on their own island. 
 (4.) The ancient Scotch people dwelt distinct in tribal families. 
 
 V. — (1.) French nationality and German nationality have 
 grown up in like manner. (2.) Sometimes a strong tribe, or an 
 army of soldiers, subdued another tribe or part of a nationali-
 
 2^2 FJistory of Governments. 
 
 ty. (3.) TBus territories were joined tog^etber, and province 
 was added to province. (4.) Most of the large nationalities in 
 Europe have been increased by such additions of territory, with 
 its inhabitants. (5.) A war or a treaty between principal 
 states added territory to one or the other. (6.) The Austrian, 
 Prussian and Russian nationalities have been auo^mented in this 
 way. (7.) The Italian nationality is constituted by a union of 
 several provinces formerly governed by separate sovereigns, or 
 by Austria. 
 
 "VI — (1.) A nationality made by mutual consent, and se- 
 cured through a common language, and free institutions, is 
 based on natural laws of association. (2.) Every citizen pos- 
 sesses the right to vote in agreement with a general govern-, 
 ment. (3.) No resort to war or revolution by arms is neces- 
 sary. (4. ) Every state is represented equally in the National 
 Senate. (5.) All the people of the country are equally repre- 
 sented in the National Congress. (6.) Every question of diffi- 
 culty may be settled by votes of the people at their elections. 
 (7.) No large military force is necessary beyond the militia of 
 each state. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 VILLAGES AND TOWNS. 
 
 I. — (1.) Village government is the basis of democratic insti- 
 tutions. (2.) It constitutes a union of free citizens for mutual 
 intercourse and benefit. (3.) It is the simplest form of govern- 
 mental law. 
 
 II, — (1.) A village of North American Indians was a dem- 
 ocratic republic. (2.) A village of ancient Britain was likewise 
 democratic in its government. (3.) Such villages are found at 
 the present day in Africa and Polynesia, and among Arabian or 
 Tartar tribes.
 
 ^ Villages and Towns. 253 
 
 III. — (1.) Villages of civilized people may be democracies 
 under the republican system. (2.) Democialic authority is ex- 
 ercised in town meetings of every village in the United States. 
 (3.) Every voter is a citizen, and may cast his vote at a town 
 meeting. (4.) The people of a village thus elect their officials 
 and decide upon public measures for local welfare. 
 
 IV. — (1.) On matters beyond their local affairs, villages are 
 governed by county and state laws. (2.) They are represented in 
 boards of supervisors and by members of the legislature. (3.) In 
 all business of village government they act as a democracy. 
 (4.) In all matters of county or state interest they take part as 
 a representative or republican democracy. 
 
 V. — (1.) The charter of a village corporation legalizes all 
 public business transacted in accordance with it. (2.) Under 
 its provisions the villagers elect local officers. (3.) The powers 
 and duties of village officers are prescribed by the charter. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The customary government of a village in the 
 United States is conducted by a Board of Trustees, who elect a 
 Piesident and clerk. (2.) In some villages a President is 
 elected by the people in town meeting. (3.) Officers are chosen 
 to fix the value of property and the amount of tax assessable 
 on village inhabitants, and to collect all taxes. (4.) Other 
 village officers are treasurers, road commissioners, fire-wardens, 
 pound masters, fence-viewers, one or more being elected in each 
 village. (5.) In some southern states the villages are denomina- 
 ted parishes. 
 
 VII. — (1.) A township may contain one or more villages. 
 (2.) When a town government is constituted by charter-grant, 
 the village government is merged in it. (3.) The officers of 
 towns consist of assessors, road commissioners, justices of the 
 peace, constables, overseers of the poor, inspectors of election, 
 pound-masters, fence-masters, inspectors of weights and meai- 
 ures, town clerks and tax collectors. (4.) Each town charter 
 fixes the number, term of office, and compensation of local
 
 ^£4 History of Governments. 
 
 officers. (5.) Supervisors, or Select men are chosen to "be chief 
 ofl&cers of towns. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The supervisor is a member of the town hoard. 
 (2.) The town board consists usually of the supervisor, the 
 town clerk, and the town justices. (3 ) The supervisor repre- 
 sents the town in a Board of County Supervisors. 
 
 IX. — (1.) The inspectors of election act as a board of can- 
 vassers at each town election. (2.) Canvassers are officers who 
 receive and count the votes cast, and keep a list of the voters. 
 (3.) The supervisors of towns meet as a board of county can- 
 vassers, to count all votes cast in the county. (4.) They con- 
 stitute a board of supervisors, to oversee county affairs. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COUNTY GOVEKNMENT. 
 
 I. — (1.) As related, concerning early usages in England, a 
 county was composed of wapentakes. (2.) Each wapentake com- 
 prised a land district, subsisting one hundred families. (3.) 
 Tytldngs were subdivisions, subsisting ten families each. (4.) 
 A county was known as a shire, and signified a division of the 
 people for military purposes. 
 
 II. — (1.) The chief man of a sMre was called an earldorman, 
 and subsequently an earl. (2.) The title was equivalent to 
 that of count in France, (3.) Thus the shire or territory of an 
 earl came to be designated by Norman possessors as a county. 
 (4.) The officer below an earl in rank was called a viscount, or 
 vice-count. (5.) The sheriff of a county sometimes bore the 
 title of vice-count, 
 
 III. — (1.) The title sheriff was originally shire-reeve ; sig- 
 nifying a chief steward. (2.) The reeve of a sliire collected
 
 County Government. * ^SS 
 
 tittes and rents, and summoned the tenantry to attend tbeir 
 earl. (3.) The Anglo-Saxon name of reeve- was gerefa. (4.) 
 Graf is the German title for an earl or count. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Villages, towns and counties, as now known, were 
 originally in England iythings, hundreds and shires. (2.) 
 The land-holding tenants were called franldlns or freemen. 
 (3.) The freemen were enrolled as members of the tythings and 
 hundreds. (4.) As population and industries increased, towns 
 grew up. (5.) In populous towns, tythings became wards. 
 (G.) In rural districts tythings increased to hamlets and vil- 
 lages. (7.) The word hamlet signified a collection of home- 
 steads. 
 
 V. — (1.) In ancient Rome, land-holders dwelt in country- 
 seats called villas. (2.) A Roman villa sometimes contained 
 hundreds of families, slaves and freedmen, who served the pro- 
 prietor. (3.) When lands were sold, slaves were sold with 
 them. (4.) Hence they were called villeins, or land-slaves. 
 (5.) Serf and serfdom were afterwards known as villeinage. 
 (6.) Finally the word village became used to signify a collection 
 of houses in rural districts. 
 
 VI. — (1.) A county may comprise a large city or a number 
 of towns and villages. (2.) Counties in the United States are 
 land divisions of every state. (3.) They are governed by 
 boards of supervisoi-s representing the towns. (4.) Each 
 county has a sheriff, and a district attorney, as law officers. 
 (5.) Counties are also served by county judges, jail officers, 
 loan commissioners, and officers in charge of weights and meas- 
 urements. (6.) Coroners and surrogates are county officers. 
 (7.) A coroner examines into cases of sudden death. (8.) A 
 surrogate is intrusted with the settlement of property be- 
 queathed by wills. 
 
 VII. — (1.) Jail officers and measurers are usually appointed 
 by the boai'd of supervisors. (2.) Other officials are selected 
 by the people for terms of years. (3.) .District attorneys pros- 
 ecute and defend suits for the people. (4.) Sheriffs have charge
 
 35^ • History of Governments. 
 
 of jails and prisoners, and serve legal papers, according to 
 statute laws. (5.) Loan commissioners receive and loan money 
 in accordance with statute laws. (6.) School commissioners 
 visit schools in the county, examine teachers, and have care of 
 public education in the county. (7.) Other officials are elected, 
 when advisable, under charter or statute laws. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 LEGI3LATUKE3. 
 
 I. — (1.) The voting people, m an American state, are repre- 
 sented in their state legislature. (2.) The number of represen- 
 tatives in a legislature is fixed by the state constitution. 
 (3.) Tbey are chosen from districts ; a certain number of the 
 population being apportioned to each district. (4.) The highest 
 number of votes is necessary to elect a candidate. (5.) This is 
 called Si plurality of votes. (6.) Most of the officers elected in 
 the United States ai*e chosen by & plurality vote. 
 
 IT. — (1.) The legislature of a state is sometimes termed its 
 General Assembly. (2.) It comprises two branches, an upper 
 house and a lower house. (3.) The upper house is styled a 
 Senate. (4.) The lower house is usually called an Assembly or 
 House of Representatives. (5.) The members of a State Sen- 
 ate are elected from large legislative districts. (6) Members 
 of the other house are elected from smaller legislative districts. 
 
 III. — (1.) Laws are passed by state legislatures in like 
 manner as in Congress. (2.) A majority of votes in each house 
 is necessary to pass a bill, and the Governor must sign it, to 
 make it a law. (3.) Some laws require two-thirds of the votes 
 in each house for their passage. (4.) A state legislature pos- 
 sesses all powers of law-making in accordance with the state 
 constituion. (5.) Legislatures apportion and fix legislative 
 districts after each state census.
 
 Congressional and Judicial Districts. 357 
 
 COXGRESSIOXAL DISTRICTS. 
 
 IV. (1.) Members of Congress are choseii from districts 
 
 fixed by law according to population. (2.) The apportionment 
 is made by Congress after each national census. (3.) Congress- 
 men are elected to the House of Representatives. (4.) United 
 States Senators are elected by state legislatures. 
 
 v.— (1.) A state legislature elects a United States Senator 
 to represent the state. (2.) Members of congress arc elected 
 to represent the people at large in congressional districts. 
 (3.) The upper house and lower house of a state legislature 
 elect a United States Senator by joint ballot. (4.) Each state 
 is represented by her senators thus chosen. (5.) A congress- 
 ional district must contain, at least, 113,000 inhabitants. 
 
 JUDICIAL DISTBICTS. 
 
 VI. — (1.) The judiciary of a nation embraces its courts of 
 law and justice. (2.) Judges are officials appointed to hear and 
 decide disputes, and to administer justice in cases of wrong-do- 
 ing. (3.) Judges may be appointed by government, or elected 
 by the people. (4.) In the United States there is a judiciary 
 for the nation, and an independent judiciary in each state. 
 (^.) A court of law is composed of one or more of the judges 
 presiding over a trial. 
 
 VII.— (I.) The United States judiciary comprises a supreme 
 court, circuit courts, a court of claims and district courts, and offi- 
 cials denominated commissioners. (2.)-The supreme court con- 
 sists of a chief justice and eight associate justices, appointed by 
 the president of the United States and the senate, to servo dur- 
 ing good behavior. (3.) The Supreme court is held at Wash- 
 ington. (4.) The circuit courts are held in nine judicial dis- 
 tricts. (5.) Each circuit court is held by a supreme justice, 
 and the district court judge. 
 
 VIII- — (l.'i Supreme court and circuit judges conduct all 
 trials in which the United States is a party to any suit. (2.)
 
 2^S History of Governments. 
 
 Each circuit court deals with crimes committed in its circuit, 
 and with civil suits involving no more than five hundred dol- 
 lars. (3.) District courts are thirty-eight in number. (4.) In 
 each district there is a United States judge, a U. S. district at- 
 torney, and a U. S. marshal, apj)ointed by the president and 
 senate. (5.) U. S. district courts have jurisdiction over all 
 cases of United States law in their districts, whether on land or 
 water.' 
 
 IX« — (1.) The U. S. Coui-t of claims is held at Washington, 
 (2.) It is composed of a chief judge and four associate judges. 
 (3.) It inquires into claims against the United States which are 
 i-eferred to it. (4.) Other United States courts are held in the 
 territories not yet admitted as states. (5.) Each territory has 
 a U. S. court, with a judge, district attorney and marshal. 
 
 X. — (1.) United States commissioners with judicial power 
 are appointed for specific purposes. (2.) U. S. district atfcor- 
 iieys are charged with the prosecution of government claims, 
 and of offenders against United States law. (3.) U. S. mar- 
 shals superintend the national census in their districts, oi/.ce in 
 ten years, and carry into execution the orders of U. S. courts. 
 
 XI. — (1.) Each state of the United States has its independ- 
 ent judiciary. (2.) The duties and powers of state and local 
 courts are defined by law in each state. (3.) The constitution 
 of a state usually defines state courts by nb,me and limits 
 of jurisdiction. (4.) Other courts in each state are provided 
 for, by terms of town and city charters, or by statute laws. 
 (4.) Law officers, corresponding to the courts, are either elected 
 by vote or otherwise appointed. 
 
 JtTBIES. 
 
 XH. — (1.) Decisions in courts of law are intrusted to twelve 
 judges, selected by lot from citizens at large. (2.) They are 
 called jurors, and the twelve constitute a jury. (3.) They 
 listen to the lawyers' pleas, and testimony of witnesses, and 
 give their judgment under direction of the court. (4.) Their
 
 Municipal Government. 359 
 
 judgment, when delivered, is called a verdict of a jury, and tbey 
 are sworn to decide in accordance with law and facts proven, 
 (5.) Eveiy person accused of any offence against law is entitled 
 to a trial by jury. 
 
 XIII.— (1.) Under the Saxon government in England a jury 
 was composed of twelve freeholders chosen out of the wapen- 
 take or' Imjidred. (2.) Freeholders are owners of real estate. 
 (3.) In courts of Scotland a majority of any jury can deliver a 
 verdict for all. (4.) In the United States, as in England, the 
 twelve jurors must agree upon their verdict. 
 
 XIV. — (1.) Coroners' juries are composed of six or more 
 citizens called by a coroner to view the body of a dead person, 
 and decide as to the cause of death. (2.) Grand juries are 
 juries of citizens summoned by law to inquire whether persons 
 or corporations are chargeable with offences against law or pub- 
 lic order. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I — (1.) Municipal government means the government of 
 free citizens in a town or city. (2.) Municipal rights are the 
 rights of self-government, enjoyed by a city population. (3.) 
 The word municeps means a citizen of a free town. (4.) Muni- 
 cipal law is charter law granted to a city by the supreme pow- 
 er of the state. (5.) Charter law confers munities, or fran- 
 chises and securities, wherever it is bestowed. (6. ) In a re- 
 public the people of a state confer munities by charter laws, 
 and such munities are held as rights under charter laws. 
 
 II. — (1.) Jloman towns regulated their own affairs ; even 
 under the Emperors. (2.) A specified body of citizens elected 
 local judges and other officers. (3.) They likewise elected an 
 officer called city defender, who protected citizens against
 
 j6o History of Governments. 
 
 arbitrary or unjust ruling hj imperial officers. (4) Municipal 
 government continued to be enjoyed by city populations dur- 
 ing the middle ages. (5.) The German free cities and several 
 Italian cities preserved local liberty in this way. 
 
 III. — (1.) When the Normans invaded England, their chiefs 
 respected the claims of city populations to local government. 
 (2.) Norman kings granted charters to London and other En- 
 glish towns. (3.) Viscounts wore appointed in each shire, to 
 act as county-sheriffs. (4.) A chief magistrate, called a 
 mayor, was appointed in every large town, to act as the bailiff 
 or civil governor. (5.) The title bailiff, arose from the word 
 baillle ; signifying free government. (6.) The title mayor 
 comes from the word major ; signifying superior jjosition or 
 power. 
 
 IV. — (1.) Free towns in England possessed a voting popu- 
 lation, who elected local magistrates. (2.) They were known as 
 tax-payers, and shared certain public duties and responsibilities. 
 (3.) Privileges and munities were granted to them by charter 
 from the crown. (4.) Trades-peopie in cities associated as/ree 
 ^MiMs under charter grants. (5.) Guilds were trade-unions, %Q- 
 cured in special rights and privileges by royal charter. 
 
 v.— (1.) A land district occupied by dwelling-houses was 
 anciently called a bm-gh or borough. (2.) The heads of fami- 
 lies dwelling in a horgh became sureties for each other to their 
 king or chief man. (3.) In return, they were defended by the 
 chief in possession of their homes, and certain freedoms, 
 (4.) The borgh system of mutual sureties is common in Japan. 
 (5.) The word borgh signified a security or defence. (6.) As 
 horouglis increased in population and dwellings, they became 
 towns and cities. (7.) Charters from the crown confirmed 
 their ancient rights, and granted others. (8.) In this way the 
 right of representation in parliament was given to bor- 
 oughs. 
 
 VI.— (1.) Municipal systems and borough systems are of 
 very ancient date. (2.) They appear to have been known in all
 
 Municipal Government. 361 
 
 nations under different names (3.) Thev preserved the princi- 
 ple of self-government from age to age. (4.) Rights of election 
 and of representation were thus kept in mind. (5.) These 
 rights were often encouraged by kings, to repress the power of 
 the nobility. 
 
 VII — (1-) Cities of the United States are governed by 
 local officers, chosen by their feliow citizens. (2.) The city 
 limits are divided into districts called wards. (3.) In some 
 cities a ward population elects a ward magistrate called alder- 
 man. (4.) In other cities a general body, styled a Board 
 of Aldermen, ov Common Council, is elected. (5.) Boards of 
 Aldermen are legislative bodies for cities. (6.) They enact 
 local laws and ordinances, in accordance with statute and char- 
 ter laws. 
 
 VIII. — (1.) The Chief Magistrate of a city is called Mayor. 
 (2.) He is charged with the supervision of municii>al adminis- 
 tration. (3.) Municipal administration is confided to munici- 
 pal departments. (4.) The powers and duties of such depart- 
 ments are defined by charter or statute laws. (5.) Departments 
 comprise the administration of justice, police affairs, health 
 and safety of citizens. (6.) They likewise take charge of 
 education, public charity, tax collection, public works, city 
 finances, and public proi>erty. (7.) In a free city, or Municipal- 
 ity, all local matters are regulated by resident voters, under 
 charter-law securities. 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 STATE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I. — (1.) A State is a body of people, under government of 
 their choice, or under superior rule. (2.) It is a stationary or 
 permanent body of people, occupying lands and dwellings. 
 (3 ) The territory occupied by a state population ma^ be large
 
 3^2 HIsfory of Governments. 
 
 or small. (4.) The Republic of San Marino, in Italy, lias et- 
 isted a thousand years, with a territory of only twenty-one 
 miles in area. 
 
 II* — (1.) Smaller states may be included in larger ones, 
 preserving state boundaries and state laws. (2.) Large states 
 may be governed by small states. (3.) The government of the 
 Xetherlands, representing five provinces, of different dialects, 
 is called the states-general. (4.) Government of thirty eight 
 America'! states is called the United States government. (5.) 
 Each state population is distinct with state government ; but- 
 all the people share in the general government through their 
 •elected agents. 
 
 III. — (1.) The United States government exercises no juris- 
 diction over state governments. (2.) Its power is intended to pro- 
 tect the people at large. (3.) It is intrusted with the supervision 
 of commerce, currency, foreign intercourse, postal service, and 
 taxation for national purposes. (4.) Its powers are controlled 
 by congress and the constitution of the United States. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The two United States Senators of each state 
 represent their state as a self-governing body. (2.) They have 
 position and voice to declare the popular will of their state. 
 (3.) The congressmen, elected from districts, represent a na- 
 tionality of citizens throughout all the states. (4.) The agree- 
 ment of senators and representatives, making laws, represents 
 state governments and the nationality as one government. 
 
 v.— (1.) Each state of the United States is governed ac- 
 cording to its own constitution. (2.) That charter of govern- 
 ment is usually agreed upon in a state convention of elected 
 delegates. (3.) It operates as supreme law during a specified 
 term of years. (4.) Its provisions define the powers and the 
 duties of state officers, courts of law, and other permanent 
 officials and agencies of government. (5.) All legislation must 
 be in accordance with those provisions. 
 
 VI. — (1.) A state government comprises a governor and 
 lieutenant governor, a secretary of state, a state treasurer, and
 
 State Government. ^^3 
 
 a cMef law officer. (2.) It sometimes embraces a counoil of 
 state commissioners, of various departments, and other officials, 
 appointed or elected under statute laws. (3.) It superintends 
 all state works, prisons, highways, and water-ways, within its 
 state limits. 
 
 VII. — (I.) The voters of each state vote for their own 
 presidential electors. (2.) Presidential electors are state offi- 
 cers exclusively. (3.) They assemble, when elected, in a body 
 called the state electoral college, within the boundaries of their 
 own state. (4.) Their duty is to count and decide the vote of 
 their state for president and vice president of the United States. 
 (5.) They never go out of the jurisdiction or limits of their 
 own state, but assemble as a college usually at the state 
 capitol. When they perform their specified duties, they elect 
 a messenger to carry their count to the national congress. (7.) 
 They then adjourn as a state electoral college, concluding their 
 official work.
 
 COLONIZATION iND COMBINATIOxN. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MIGRATIONS. 
 
 I. — (1.) The earliest colonies, of which we have historic 
 record, were plamted by Egyptians and Phoenicinns. (2.) Phoe- 
 nicians were those tribes mentioned in Hebrew cLronicles as 
 Philistines. (3.) They inhabited the coast of Canaan, now 
 called Palestine, from the foot-hills of Mount Taurus to an 
 island called Tyre. (4.) Tyre, from its maritime situation, be- 
 came a centre of commerce, and the Phoenicians were a nation 
 of merchants and navigators. (5.) They traded with all people 
 then known, through caravans traveling overland, or by vessele 
 called galleys, with oars, rowed by slaves, and defended by 
 ai-med soldiers. (6.) Colonies of Phoenicians and their slaves 
 settled in Euroj)e, forming communities, which peoj^led the 
 lands now known as Spain, France, and Great Britain. 
 (7.) Traits of Hebrew and Phoenician ancestors are traceable 
 in their descendants of Celtic blood. (8.) Phoenician mariners 
 and Hebrew slaves made original settlements, as far north 
 as Ireland. 
 
 II. — (1.) Migrations from Egypt and Assyria, to other parta 
 
 of Africa and Asia, and to Europe, were frequent in ancient 
 
 times. (2.) Military chiefs conducted their families and slaves 
 
 to remote distances, settling India and Farther Asia. (3.) When 
 
 Egyptian or Assyrian soldiers and their priesthoods combined 
 
 to migrate, they instituted their mode of government wherever 
 
 they went. (4.) In this way a separation of people into classes 
 
 was continued, through the caste system of India. 
 Mi
 
 Colonization and Combination. 365 
 
 III.— (1.) Where pastoral tribes migrated, with their flocks 
 and herds, thev sought valleys defended from aggression by 
 moimtains and defiles. (2.) Weaker communities thus secured 
 safer abiding places, and became mountain tribes. (3.) Pasto- 
 ral people, in migration, associated or separated, accordingly 
 as they we*-e attracted by eligible areas of land, for grass and 
 tillage. (4.) Thus various wandering families from Syria and 
 Mesopotamia found their way to valleys of Taurian and Cau- 
 casian mountains, and spread over plains of Asia and Europe. 
 (6.) Persians, Medes, and other mountain nations, were so es- 
 tablished, usually governed by chiefs and chosen men. 
 (G.) Patriarchal government was preserved in single tribes, 
 wandering, with cattle, as Arabian families now move about. 
 (7.) Such tribes, in combination, could readily constitute an 
 independent nationality. (8.) Each male member of such 
 t,ribes bore arms, and personal independence was encouraged in 
 each community. 
 
 IV.— (1.) Wandering tribes confederated for mutual defence 
 throughout Northern Europe. (2.) Thus originated those bar- 
 barian nations which afterward grew powerful enough to over- 
 run the Roman Empire. (3.) Many of those confederate bar- 
 barians were descendants of people who had escaped from 
 Assyrian or Egyptian servitude. (4.) Solavonian communities, 
 now occupying Russia and Northern Europe, are the posterity 
 of people who migrated from lands oppressed by Asiatic des- 
 potism. (5.) To such migrations of wandering tribes, coloniz- 
 ing upper Europe, all barbarian nationalities were traced. 
 
 v.— (1.) Barbarism was simply the subsis|;ence of people in 
 communities remote from civilized arts and sciences. (2.) Men 
 were content to dwell in rude habitations, and to remain 
 peacefiii, so long as they obtained subsistence from the earth, or 
 by such handicrafts as commanded wages for labor. (3.) But 
 when they increased to numbers crowding the lands they occu- 
 pied, subsistence was gained with difficulty, and they began to 
 migrate in tribes and nations. (4.) Conducted by chosen 
 chiefs, the barbarian tribes moved southward. (5.) Southern
 
 ^66 History of Governments. 
 
 Europe, above tlie river Rhine, was then a vast wilderness, in- 
 habited by scattered tribes. (G.) Roman armies were S3nt to 
 conquer those tribes, and were sometimes successful, sometimes 
 defeated. (8.) When northern barbarians arrived at the Rhine, 
 they combined with southern barbarians, to invade the Roman 
 possessiona. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 CONQUEST. 
 
 I. — (1.) In lower Asia, during ages, there were continuous 
 successions of wars. (2.) Population in Eastern lands was 
 augmented by the increase of persons captured in war or held 
 in servitude as slaves by birth. (3.) There was no condition 
 such as citizenship known in Egyj»t or Assyria. (4.) Priest- 
 hood and aristocracy constituted governing classes, who main- 
 tained armies of soldiers, paying for military sei*vice by taxation 
 of the working people. (5.) Dynasties, or successions of mon- 
 archs belonging to one family, ruled from generation to gener- 
 ation. (6.) At intervals, revolutions took place, and dynastic 
 government was transferred from family to family. (7.) A 
 vigorous confederacy of pastoral tribes, invading Egypt, was 
 able to take possession of that country and to change its rulers. 
 (8.) In like manner, the Medes and Persians descended from 
 their mountain villages, and conquered Assyria. (9.) After- 
 wards, a nation of Greek extraction, in Macedonia, under 
 Alexander the Great, succeeded in subjugating both Egypt and 
 Assyria. 
 
 II. — (1.) A history of the Eastern world, in those centuries, 
 is a history of mankind enslaved by dynasties and aristocracies, 
 and of wars made to coerce tribes and nations. (2.) Annals of 
 European nations, during like periods, chiefly record an in- 
 crease of Roman possessions by a similar employment of armies 
 to subjugate foreign nationalities, and to substitute slave labor 
 for free labor, in handicrafts and agricultuie.
 
 Conquest. 367 
 
 III, — (1.) Barbarism, in European wildernesses, preserved 
 communities in comparative freedom and independence, while 
 libertv was unknown to the masses of Eastern nations, and was 
 lost by Greeks and Romans. (2.) When Greek republics 
 yielded their independence, and the Roman commonwealth was 
 crushed under imperial dynasties, all popular rights and liber- 
 ties became extinct. (3.) Barbarian invasions had the eifect of 
 infusintf new blood, and more manliness, into the communities 
 thev overran. (4.) Roman empire was divided under the rule 
 of barbarian chiefs, and barbarian customs modified govern- 
 ment everywhere. (5.) Despotic authority retreated to Asia, 
 where it had originated. (6.) Several independent monarchies 
 were established by barbarian armies in Italy, France and 
 Germany. . 
 
 IV. — (1-) But the masses of the people only changed mas- 
 ters. (2.) Sultans and shahs succeeded Assyrian kings in 
 eastern countries, while military monarchs followed Caesars, in 
 forming aristocracies throughout Europe. (3.) Subordinate 
 barbarian chiefs were endowed with large possessions of land, 
 as gifts from their conquering leaders. (4.) Holding such 
 grants of land, they claimed to rule over the people who owned 
 such lands, making them tenants at will. (5.) In this way 
 mihtary followers of barbarian kings became feudal barons, 
 witli hereditary rank. (6.)Tiller8 of the soil, workers at handi- 
 crafts, and all laboring people, were looked upon as servants and 
 slaves. (7.) Merchants and manufacturers were held to be in- 
 ferior classes, and were compelled to pay taxes to support aristo- 
 cratic and kiuglj gOYerumeut.
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 ANNEXATION. 
 
 I.— (1.) Conquest by war, in ancient times, was usually fol- 
 lowed by eequestration of territory. (2.) Conquered people 
 were dispossessed of their lands, and sometimes removed from 
 their own country, to become slaves or settlers in other lands. 
 (3.) When the Jewish nation was subjugated by Assyrian in- 
 vaders, large numbers of Jews were carried into Assyrian cap- 
 tivity. (4.) Invading monarchs were accustomed to divide a 
 conquered country among their chiefs and soldiers. (5.) The 
 practice of sequestrating the lands of a people defeated in war, 
 or reduced to submission, after rebellion, continued through 
 many ages. (6.) When barbarian armies overran the Romaa 
 empire, all C07jquered territory was held to pass into possess- 
 ion of the invaders. "When the Saxons subdued the island 
 tribes of Britain, they took possession of lands, villages and 
 cities. (8.) When the Normans subsequently conquered the 
 iSaxoo nation in Britain, they divided lands and provinces in a 
 like manner, among their chiefs and soldiers. 
 
 U_ — (1.) Territories were sometimes passed from one gov* 
 eriiment to another by peaceful transfer. (2.) In such cases, 
 there was no sequestration of lands and no invasion of privat«! 
 titles to them. (3.) If the people, however, objected to a 
 change of their governors, and rose in arms, to resist, they 
 were treated as enemies, and, if repressed, were compelled to 
 resign possession of their lands. (4.) When marriages were 
 contracted between royal families, provinces and sometimes 
 entire countries were transferred, as dowries or settlements. 
 (5.) The preferences of communities or individuals, in regard 
 to governing powers, were never consulted. (6.) Dynastic 
 claims were the only claims respected in transferring , territor- 
 ies from government to government. (7.) A dynasty was a 
 368
 
 Annexation. 369 
 
 line or succession of monarclis, liolJing tlieir autliority bv 
 claims of blood-connection. (8.) Dynasties terminate when 
 supplanted by superior force, or when the blood-relationsbip 
 becomes extinct through death. (9.) Most of the European 
 states are governed by dynastic successions. 
 
 III. — (1.) Wars and marriage connections between dynas- 
 tic governments have constructed the principal countries of 
 Europe and Asia, as they are now shown upon niaj^s. (2.) 
 Small territories, populated by land-holding lords, have been 
 augmented through many generations of successive rulers, 
 until they now I'ank as kingdoms and empires. (3.) Austria 
 is formed out of various countries, formerly governed by in- 
 dependent sovereigns, and now ruled by an imperial dynasty. 
 (4. ) Prussian empire is the result of successful wars, followed 
 by annexations and sequestrations of alien territory, (5.) The 
 kingdom of Poland, after being subjugated by superior force, 
 was partitioned between Russia, Austria and Prussia, losing 
 its very name by absorption into foreign countries. (6.) The 
 government of Austria extended, until lately, over a large por- 
 tion of Italy. (7.) The government of England formerly laid 
 claim to large territories in France, and waged successive wars 
 to make good that claim. (9.) The Turkish government for- 
 merly ruled Greece, and several German princij^alities beyond 
 the river Danube. (10.) But the defeat of Turkey by Russia, 
 in the last war between those powers, alf oi'ded pretext for se- 
 questration of Turkish territory between several European 
 powers. 
 
 IV. — (1.) The government of Q-reat Britain has sequestra- 
 ted and annexed a large part of Hindostan, and the chief isl- 
 ands of Polynesia. (2.) Great Britain has likewise, through 
 successful wai's or treaties, obtained territory in Asia, Africa 
 and America. (3.) The govei'nment of Spain, claiming do- 
 minion by right of discovery, formerly ruled the whole of colo- 
 nized South America. (5.) Spanish government in South 
 America was overthrown by popular revolution, as British 
 government in North America was limited in the same way.
 
 370 History of Governments. 
 
 (5.) Spain now holds possession of Culja and Porto Rico, and 
 Great Britain governs Canada and several West Indian islands, 
 through a viceroy and governors. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 AUTONOMY OF STATBEI. 
 
 I. — (1.) The right of every human being to life, liberty, and 
 the pursuit of happiness is declared to be a natural and inalien- 
 able right. (2.) But natural rights are common to all human 
 beings, and no individual right can permit one person to injure 
 another. (3.) Each individual holds his natural rights subject 
 to the welfare of all other individuals. (4.) No individual 
 possesses the right to kill auother, or to enslave another, or to 
 interfere "with another's pursuit of happiness. (5.) Warfare 
 between governments authorizes individuals to kill in accord- 
 ance with certain usages of war. (6.) Laws of a government 
 command the life of a criminal to be taken, or the liberty of an 
 offender against public order to be restricted. (7.) In such 
 cases the natural right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness, 
 is forfeited by the individual, because he or she becomes an 
 offender against fellow beings, by invading their natural rights- 
 
 II. — (1.) As every individual in a community possesses natur- 
 al rights, so it follows that communities of individuals possess 
 the right to associate and be governed as they prefer, pi-oviding 
 their combination and government do not molest or endanger 
 the rights of other communities to select their own social and 
 political modes of living. (2.) The rights of an individual 
 become enlarged into the rights of all individuals constitu- 
 ting a community. (3.) The number of people embraced in 
 such a community may be great or small. (4.) They may 
 comprise a population, and claim a territory, of a few thousand 
 ]ieople and a few hundred miles; but if they associate together 
 ui unity, and agree on their own form of government, they
 
 Autonomy of States. 371 
 
 constitute a state. (4.) Such a slate is independent, by natural 
 rights, of all other neighboring states, large or small. (6.) 
 Its preference to be independent, as a community, and to dwell 
 under such government as its people prefer, is said to be its 
 claim to autonomy. 
 
 III^_(1.) ArTONOMT is a word derived from certain Greek 
 words; autos (meaning self,) and nemein, to exercise rule;) and 
 its signification is self-government. (2.) The right of a state to 
 self-government is its right to autonomt. (3.) The limits of 
 territory claimed by such a state are its autonomic limits. 
 (4.) If a stronger state, by force of war, or by any pretext, de- 
 prives another self-governed people of territory,or imposes laws 
 upon them without their consent,it invades and ends their auto- 
 nomy. (5. ) When a border province of France has been annexed 
 by Germany against the will of its people, or a border province 
 of Gei-many is annexed by France in opposition to its inhabit- 
 ants, the right of autonomy is invaded and a community is 
 denied its preference for self-government in its own territory. 
 (6.) When the wars of Great Britain in India overthrew native 
 governments, and substituted British sovereignty over Hindoo 
 natives and thefr lands, there was an abolition of autonomy in 
 every subjugated Indian country. (7.) A treaty si -ned by 
 European prime ministers, after the last war between Russia 
 and Turkey, deprived the latter nation of several provinces, 
 without consaltation with the iahabitants of those provinces. 
 (8.) The autonomy of no divided or annexed country was guar- 
 antied to its inhabitants, because they were transferred as if 
 their lands and themselves had been bought and sold in 
 open market. 
 
 lY ,_(!.) If the AUTONOMY of every community, or nation- 
 ality, i'n Europe and Asia, were respected by neighbors, and by 
 governments at large, there would be self-government for each 
 state established by its people. (2.) Each state would then 
 be sovereign and independent, like each of the United States 
 of America. (3.) This would not prevent their association, 
 state with state, to form a imion of states, like the American
 
 J72 History of Governments. 
 
 Union. (4.) Germany might be a nationality of German 
 States, as it claims to be, with a full and free autonomy guar- 
 antied to each state. (5.) Austria might form a union of all 
 Sclavonic states, and allow autonomy to every state embraced 
 in it. (6.) The adoj^tiou of a national constitution, like that of 
 the United States of America, and . the recognition of a state 
 constitution for each state, would constitute a national union, 
 by which the people of every state, and every community in a 
 state, could be represented in national congress. (7.) Dynastic 
 authority is opposed to such autonomic independence; and cen- 
 tral government, more or less despotic, is substituted for auto- 
 nomic or popular self-government. 
 
 V. — (1.) The Republic of Prance embraces in its territorial 
 divisions eighty -nine departments — presided over by pre- 
 fects. (2.) If the people of those divisions were allowed to ex- 
 ercise autonomic government, they might elect a governor 
 for each department by popular vote, under a state constitu- 
 tion, and provide for state judiciaries and other state, muni- 
 cipal, and village officers. (3.) This would approximate the 
 French government to those forms which constitute autonomic 
 government in the United States of America. 
 
 "VI. — (1.) AuTONOivrsr, in popular government, is illustrated 
 by the United States Federal and State constitutions. (2.) The 
 American Union of states, as a bepublic, is a complete form of 
 NATIONAL AUTONOMY ; defining its own government and the ex- 
 tent of its territory. (3.) Each state of the union is a com- 
 plete state, self governed, and with defined boundaries. (4.) 
 There are large states, like New York and Texas, claiming ter- 
 ritory as wide in extent as some kingdoms of Europe. (5.) 
 There are small states like Rhode Island and Delaware, of very 
 limited dimensions. (6) But each state is an autonomy, equal 
 in self-government to each of its fellow states, as members of 
 
 the NATIONAL REPUBLIC.
 
 COMITY OF NATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TREATIES. 
 
 I, — (1.) Compacts "between man and man, whether as 
 individuals or communities, Lave been customary in all times. 
 (2.) Solemn obligations, ratified by oaths, combined tribes 
 and nations for war and peace. (3.) Stipulations for mutual 
 defence against aggression, or agreements concerning bound- 
 aries of land, and privileges of trade or passage from country 
 to country, were known in the earliest historic ages. (4.) 
 Such common understanding between communities, generally 
 made in writing, sealed and signed, are known as treaties. 
 
 II, — (1.) The obligations embraced by treaties constitute 
 in modern times, the comity of nations; whereby friendly 
 relations subsist, during peace, and certain usages of war are 
 recognized. (2.) Treaties imbody a code of regulations and 
 agreements between governments, generally termed interna- 
 tional LAW. (3.) Special understandings may subsist, by 
 treaty, between two governments, exclusive of other govern- 
 ments. (4.) Treaties are usually made by a convention of persons 
 'assembling together, as representatives of their respective 
 governments. (5.) These representative persons are delegated 
 with certain authority, by their respective governments, and are 
 termed ambassadors or ministers. 
 
 III. — (1.) Ambassadors and ministers are of two kinds. 
 
 373
 
 374 Treaties. 
 
 (2.) Eesident ministers are persons appointed by one govern- 
 ment to reside in the capital cities of other countries, as 
 representatives of their own government. (3.) Ambassadors 
 are usually appointed for a special duty, to represent their 
 governments in a treaty-making convention or other congress 
 of various powers. (4.) A minister resident continues to be 
 his country's representative abroad for as long a period as his 
 government employs him. (5.) He is the chief medium of 
 international relations between his government and the gov- 
 ernment to which he is sent. (6.) He receives a salary for 
 his services, atid is assisted by a secretary of legation, and 
 by other officials, appointed and paid like bimself, by their own 
 government. 
 
 IV, — (1.) The official intercourse between ambassadors, 
 ministers, and other international agents, is called diplomatic 
 Es-TERCOURSE. (2.) Besides ministers resident, Other officials are 
 appointed by different governments, to reside at the sea ports 
 of other countries, and to act as representatives called consul- 
 general, consuls, and commercial agents. (3.) A consul- 
 general, in a foreign country ranks, next in authority to his 
 country's minister-resident, and is chief of the various consuls 
 and commercial agents representing his country. (4.) Consuls 
 and commercial agents represent the government and commer- 
 cial interests of their own country, and protect its citizens, in 
 foreign parts. 
 
 v. — (1.) When cause of disagreement threatens war be- 
 tween two governments, the minister resident, or ambassador, 
 suspends his functions, and retires to his own country ; or his 
 recognition, as a representative of his own governmeat, is ter- 
 minated by the government to which he is accredited. (2.) 
 CoinxY between the two nations then ceases, and, if war ensues, 
 they are termed "belligerent governments." (3.) But the. 
 COMITY OF NATIONS remains in force over both, to regulate their 
 modes of warfare, according to usages of civilization. 
 
 VI, — (1.) "Balance of power," as it is termed, is an 
 arbitrary regulation, sustained by force, but recognized as a 
 provision of comity between the principal nations of Europe.
 
 History of Governments. 375 
 
 (2.) Under its operations the stronger governments of Europe 
 assume the authority to dictate boundaries of various coun- 
 tries. (3.) They dictate, by treaty stipulations, after a war, 
 or to avert war, whether a province or a country shall belong 
 to one or another European nation. (4.) Their decisions, at 
 various periods, have transferred feeble governments to the 
 control of stronger ones, and annexed or sequestrated the ter- 
 ritories of entire nations. (5.) The autonomy of a State, in 
 Europe, is not considered, in such changes of its relations to 
 other States. (6. Arbitrary enforcements of this " balance of 
 power," destroyed the autonomies of Poland, Silesia, and var- 
 ious countries, once independently governed. (7.) The latest 
 treaty made, under its operation, has transferred several 
 provinces governed by Turkey to the control of Eussia, 
 Austria and Great Britain. (8.) "Balance of power," in 
 Europe, continually endangers peaceful relations, and operates 
 as a standing menace against the autonomies of border States. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COMITY AND AUTONOMY. 
 
 j^ n,) The cojnTY of nations tolerates many abuses of 
 
 arbitrary power exercised by civilized governments. (2.) It 
 permits strong governments to oppress and abolish weaker 
 ones, and to destroy nationalities, under pretext of civilizing 
 or protecting them. (3.) Through its international agreements 
 or understandings, large portions of Asia, comprising a hund- 
 red million inhabitants, have been made tributary to the small 
 insular kingdom of Great Britain. (4.) Native governments 
 of Hindostan have been abolished, and replaced by British 
 rulers. (5.) In like manner, portions of Africa, America, and 
 insular Asia, have been brought under arbitrary control of 
 Great Britain; and several islands of the Mediterranean, and of
 
 37^ Comity and Autonomy. 
 
 American seas, are governed by her military forces and civil 
 
 autliority. 
 
 II. — (1.) The aggrandizement of governments, through 
 colouial possessions, and the control of large territories, be- 
 yond their own native soil, has always been a prolific cause of 
 wars between nations, and of internecine strife. (2.) Interne- 
 cine strife is an agitation of society which becomes manifest 
 in rebellion and civil war. (3.) British rule over India is 
 maintained by arbitrary repression of native population ; aud 
 the military forces of Great Britain are employed in Africa 
 and Polynesia, to supj^ress frequent insurrections. (4.) To 
 maintain such unnatural governmental relations, with alien 
 subjects, the citizens of Great Britain at home are heavily 
 taxed, and excessive burthens are imposed upon tributary 
 nations. (5.) From such inordinate taxation, the thirteen 
 British colonies of America emancipated their communities, 
 by the Revolution of 1776; and their progress, as a nationality, 
 has since been based on autonojiic institutions, as an example for 
 a'l communities worthy to be free. (6.) The UiaTED States of 
 Ajierica present the only solution, thus far, of that disputed 
 problem — human capacity for self-government. (7.) If the 
 Republic, left by G-eoege Washtsgtox, can be overthrown like 
 all previous republics, the inherent unfitness of men to subsist 
 in freedom must be admitted, and despotism will dominate the 
 future of humanity, as it has subjected mankind, and de- 
 based manhood, through an immemorial past. 
 
 III. — (1.) The lessons presented by ancient and modern 
 governments are of similar weight and purport. (2.) Nature, 
 through language, climate, and physical lines of sepai'ation, di- 
 vides and distinguishes different nationalities. (3.) Human 
 governments, in all ages, have departed from Nature's indica- 
 tions, by their efforts to subject one people to another, and to 
 merge different nations under one rule. (4.) The Assyrian 
 government, in early centuries, abused its power, in the subjec- 
 tion of neighboring tribes and nationalities. (5.) It became 
 an unwieldy despotism over provinces inhabited by people
 
 History of Governments. 377 
 
 who differed in language, religion, color and habits. (6.) It 
 fell' to pieces, when central power decayed, after Alexan- 
 der's reign ; and the Assyrian provinces were divided, under 
 military adventurers. (7.) In like manner, the Roman em]nre, 
 after subjecting all known countries to its military dominion, 
 became a prey to foreign tribes of barbarians ; and was broken 
 up, after Coustantine's reign, into governments ruled by mil- 
 itary chiefs, Roman and barbarian. (8.) ('harlemagne, in 
 feudal ages, annexed Germany and Italy to France ; but his 
 deat*h left half his dominions to military adventurers. (9.) 
 Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and other conquering monarchs, 
 sabjected India to their rule ; but, when they passed away, 
 their possessions were seized by chiefs of armies, and new 
 governments replaced the central despotism. (10.) So, in his 
 time, Napoleon Bonaparte marched his armies over continental 
 Europe, and even menaced Asia with his arbitrary control. 
 (11.) But his dominion fell to pieces, after the battle of 
 Waterloo; and the monarchs of Europe returned to their 
 thrones, to re establish kindoms, under their "Balance of 
 Power" demands. 
 
 IV. — (1.) CoiNnTY OF Nations has never yet established the 
 vital principle of government, which is AUTONOinr, or self gov- 
 ernment. (2.) If every nation were permitted to decide upon 
 its own boundaries of soil, according to agreement of national- 
 alities, there would be no occasion for dynastic wars ; and no 
 government would then question another's right to independ- 
 ence. (3.) Dynastic wars have in all ages, been more frequent 
 than other belligerent differences between nations. (4.) Quar- 
 rels that result from misunderstandings of national rights, or of 
 international relations, might then be settled by international 
 courts of arbitration, created by joint appointment of supreme 
 judges ; and revolutions would only take i^lace, when 
 local governments abused authority and oppressed their 
 people. (5.) No standing armies, no frontier fortresses, and no 
 iron clad war- ships, would be required. (0.) Vast suras of 
 money, now raised by taxes, to be expended in wars, and prep-
 
 378 Comity and Autonomy. 
 
 arations for wars, miglit be employed to assure the prosper- 
 ity of nations and communities, througli works of internal 
 improvements. (7.) Commerce would then flow, naturally, 
 from land to land, according as commercial demands increased, 
 through prosperous conditions of people in all countries. (8.) 
 Markets would never be overstocked with manufactures, be- 
 cause all products of industry would be consumed by people as 
 they increased in prosperity, and were able to purchase luxur- 
 ies, as well as the comforts and necessaries of life. (9.) Such 
 conditioning of governments and society — every nation gov- 
 erning itself — every people aided to become industrious — would 
 constitute a counTY of governments such as Natui'e indicates ; 
 as her true relations of people to people, of families to families, 
 and of individuals to individuals — helping one another, and 
 hurting neither property nor life.
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Xt — (1.) The History of Governmexts lias been brought 
 down from years of earliest record to the present year. Peace, 
 in Europe and America, is interrupted only by the struggles 
 of a few tribes and nations to maintain their own autonomies, 
 against invading powers. (2.) The goTernments of Russia and 
 Turkey, after an exhaustive war, terminated their quarrel by 
 stipulations agreed upon, in a congress of European powers, 
 convened at Berlin, in 1877. (3.) The empire of Germany, 
 constituted after a struggle between the forces of France and 
 Prussia, is governed by a constitution, which modifies in soma 
 respects the arbitrary authority exercised by an imperial 
 government. (4.) The kingdom of Spain, after a revolution 
 which left a transient republican government, is governed by 
 a king chosen by the Cortes or national assembly. (5.) The 
 republic of France, maintaining a standing army, is still 
 menaced by perils arising therefrom, whenever some successful 
 revolution may confer power upon a military adventurer. (6.) 
 The kingdom of Great Britain, with its subject empire of 
 India, depends mainly upon prosperous commerce and manu- 
 factures, to preserve peace at home and maintain im^jenal 
 dominion over extensive territories classed as British Pos- 
 sessions. (7.) The extensive northern empire of Russia is 
 disturbed by democratic agitations, which extend through all 
 classes of its people, who are oppressed by a despotism respon- 
 sible to no authority but its own. (8.) The nations and tribes 
 once ruled by Assyrian and Persian dynasties, in Asia Minor, 
 8T»
 
 38o 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 are subjected to rapacious governors, who over-tax and oppress 
 the industrial classes, under Turkish military rule, from ISji-ia 
 and Egypt to the borders of Russia. (9.) The united kingdoin 
 of Italy has been constitiited by a combination of all Italian 
 States, including states of the Church, as a constitutional 
 monarchy, with its capitol at Rome ; and all temporal domin- 
 ion, exercised during twelve hundred years, has passed away, 
 from the Pope of Rome. (10.) The impei'ial government of 
 Austria is now confined to a few German States, and her 
 Sclavonic provinces ; all Italian provinces being lost to her, 
 through wars with Prussia and France. 
 
 II. — (1.) Other States of Europe conserve their forms of 
 governments as presented in our History, before its revision. 
 ( 2 ) Minor States, embraced in the German confederation, as 
 more or less autonomic, and those States bordering Austria 
 and Turkey, known as the "Danubian Principalities" have not 
 been separately described ; because their forms of government 
 are sufficiently defined in chapters upon other Minor States. 
 (3.) For this reason, also, we have omitted special mention of 
 several Asiatic States,, embracing Bueiviah, Si^m, Affghan- 
 iSTAii, KHrk'A, and some island kingdoms of Asia; Madagascae, 
 Abyssinia, Soudan, Ashaxtee, Timbuctoo, Dahomey; barbarian or 
 savage kingdoms of Africa; the kingdom of Muscat, in Arabia- 
 and those Arabian communities which subsist in Mount 
 Lebanon, as Druses. Makonites, and other tribal autonomies, 
 more or less subjected to Turkisb rule. 
 
 III. — (1.) Our History OF Governments comprises all that 
 is interesting or useful to comprehend, in a work treating of 
 governmental structures, as they have been modified under 
 changes of time. (2.) If its pages likewise conipi'ehend an in- 
 structive moral, suggested by comparison, or a lesson intimated 
 by facts, they will subserve the purpose kept in view. (3.) 
 That purpose was to show, through simple detail, the superioi-- 
 ity of self-yovernment over all subjective governments, and to 
 illustrate the natural truth, that, if manhood cannot become 
 a law unto itself, and a conservator of its own indej'endence,
 
 History of Governments. 381 
 
 .here is no form of government or law that can preserve man- 
 hood in liberty of life. (4. ) Nationalities are aggregations of 
 individualisms ; and if manhood forsake the individual, it will 
 abuudon the nation. (5.) Armit-s, wLiicli dumuiaie com- 
 munities of slaves or subjects, conserve military manhood, but 
 at the loss of moral manhood; and the loss of moral manhood 
 mav make slaves of soldiers as well as of citizens. (IV ) Citizen 
 soldiers, such as subsist in tribe-life, are the only military type 
 for civilized communities to accept; and the armed citizen of 
 an orderly commonwealth is the best conservator of manhood, 
 as he is the best type of military force. (7.) With every 
 nationality in the enjoyment of autonomic manhood, a Militia 
 establishment is the best military establishment ; because it 
 can be subjected to no chief and no paymaster. (8.) And with 
 MANHOOD in government, to preside over alv.nhood in society ; 
 community aiding community — individual aiding individual — 
 toward industrial prosperity ; autonomy would elevate every 
 nation, and civilization might make possible a Ui<iVEasAL 
 Commonwealth. 
 
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