1 1 I 
 
 
 
 V
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 Z7 1"
 
 An 
 English Grammar 
 
 By 
 
 John B. Wisely 
 
 Head of the Department of Grammar and Com- 
 position in the Indiana State Normal 
 SchooK Terre Haute 
 
 2L<^ S3-^' 
 
 Atkinson, Mentzer & Grover 
 
 Publishers 
 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON DALLAS 
 
 a.o(^~^S
 
 Copyright, igob 
 By John B. Wisely 
 
 P.iitcred at Stationers' Hall . I (mdon
 
 . PE 
 \ \ \ I 
 
 The Preface 
 
 M 
 
 UCH progress has been made in the last few years 
 in the teaching of EngUsh. Old ideas and meth- 
 ods have been thoroughly sifted ; text after text 
 has appeared ; and the results of all this agitation are seen 
 in better trained teachers, more natural and efficient methods 
 of instruction, and a saner view of the entire subject. One 
 by one \we have been trying out the facts in English, as 
 w^ell as in other lines, and we are every day coming more 
 surely to the conclusion that we must get back to funda- 
 mentals. We have been growing gradually into the con- 
 viction, that the pupils in the grades below the high school 
 should have about two years of good training in English 
 Grammar, that will ground them in the principles underly- 
 ing the English sentence. Nothing less will prepare them 
 for the subject of composition and nothing less will enable 
 them to use English intelligently and effectively. 
 
 In writing this book, with this thought in mind, the 
 author has had presented to him two problems : 
 
 I. The course in grammar for the grades must not con- 
 sist in food for babes. The book has been written with the 
 idea in mind, that below the sixth or seventh year, no at- 
 tempt is to be made to teach technical or scientific grammar. 
 All grammar, as such, is to be eliminated from this period ; 
 and during the last two or three years of the course, the 
 pupils are to receive a systematic training in the principles 
 underlying the construction of the English sentence. This 
 book, therefore, tries to present in a scientific way, those 
 topics which are vital in the organization of the subject of 
 grammar as set forth in the Introduction. 
 
 [v]
 
 vi An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 Almost all phases of historical grammar have been 
 omitted because that view is not vital in the organization of 
 the subject, nor is it necessary to a v^orking knowledge of 
 the science of the English sentence. It is thought that the 
 pupil, at this age, has not a sufficient basis for such a discus- 
 sion of the facts of grammar. The book, then, is an attempt 
 to present a logical course in scientific, technical, descriptive, 
 or formal grammar suited to the needs and capacities of 
 pupils in the upper grammar grades. 
 
 2. The author's somewhat extended experience in teach- 
 ing the subject in public and Normal schools, and his super- 
 vision of others in the work, has shown him how very easy 
 it is to make the study of grammar a bugbear, a deadening, 
 verbal memory grind to children. This is not necessary. 
 The subject of grammar may be made as interesting to the 
 pupil as the subject of botany, and it may be studied in 
 much the same way. 
 
 We used to study botany, physics, chemistry, from the 
 text-book as we have been studying grammar. Bacon, 
 Agassiz, and others showed us the error of our way. To-day, 
 in the study of botany, we study plants, using the text as an 
 aid. In the teaching of physics and chemistry, the labora- 
 tory is considered an essential. If the teacher of science to- 
 day had to give up his text-book or his laboratory, he would, 
 without hesitation, discard the text. 
 
 It is thought that this same spirit of investigation, this 
 same personal examination of the facts of the subject on 
 the part of every pupil, ought to be introduced into the 
 study of grammar ; and that the great variety of sentences 
 ought to stand before the student of grammar, for his 
 scrutiny and examination, just as the great variety of plants 
 is made to appear to him by the teacher of botany. 
 
 The purpose of the author in this book has been to pre- 
 sent suitable sentences and to ask such questions upon them 
 as will lead the pupil to construct the science of grammar
 
 The Preface vii 
 
 for himself. To this end only such definitions, statements 
 of facts, and explanations, as have been thought necessary 
 to help the child to think his way through the subject, have 
 been inserted. 
 
 There is no need of committing to memory any law or 
 principle of language from a text-book. All the facts 
 of grammar are embodied in the sentence, and the 
 pupil may study them at iirst hand, just as he studies 
 the flower in botany or the rock in geology. Should 
 he forget the rule, he has only to examine a few sen- 
 tences and restate it for himself. Nor is the teacher 
 asked to accept a single statement in this book. Grammar 
 is not a matter of authority ; it is a thought subject, and if 
 the teacher's thought on the materials here presented should 
 lead her to a different conclusion from that stated in a 
 definition, she should not hesitate to change the definition. 
 
 There is no need to tell the pupil that the flower has so 
 many petals and so many sepals, or to send him to a book 
 to read it, says the botanist ; he can discover these facts 
 for himself. Can he not also discover the uses of the sub- 
 stantive clause? If he is able to see that the fish has so 
 many spines in the dorsal fin, why can he not see that the 
 noun has gender, person, number, and case? There is a 
 close resemblance between this method of procedure in the 
 language studies and that followed in the study of the 
 natural sciences. True, no special laboratory, fitted up with 
 tables, cases of instruments, or bottles of reagents, is 
 necessary. The real unit of the subject, the sentence, is the 
 material upon which we work ; the instruments are the 
 minds of the pupils, constantly at hand, and never in the 
 way. 
 
 The work as presented in this text, then, is based upon 
 the following thoughts :
 
 viii An English Grammar 
 
 1. That the sentence, as determined by the thought 
 which it expresses, is the unit and subject of study in 
 grammar. 
 
 2. That there should be a twofold purpose in the mind 
 of the teacher who teaches it; namely, to make the pupils 
 familiar with the principles which underlie correct sentence 
 construction, and to give them skill in the use of the sen- 
 tence as an instrument in expressing thgir thought. 
 
 3. That the method which should be pursued in studying 
 the subject should be inductive, and might appropriately be 
 called the laboratory method. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due Miss Harriet E. Peet of the 
 Forestville School, Chicago, for assistance in the prepara- 
 tion of the work in Composition. For valuable criticisms 
 on the manuscript and proof thanks are due Mr. T. E. 
 Spencer of the Irving School, St. Louis, Missouri ; Mr. 
 A. Jones, Marion Normal School, Marion, Indiana ; Miss 
 Bertha L. Green, Lincoln, Nebraska; Mr. F. W. Nichols, 
 Evanston, Illinois; Mr. F. E. Sanford, Lagrange, Illinois. 
 
 J. B. W. 
 Terre Haute, Ind., February 2, 1906.
 
 The Table of Contents 
 
 The Preface v 
 
 The Introduction xi 
 
 I. THE FIRST SECTION : 
 
 Chapter I. The Subject as a Whole i 
 
 Chapter II. The Sentence as a Whole 9 
 
 II. THE SECOND SECTION: 
 
 Chapter III. Classes of Sentences 26 
 
 Chapter IV. Classes of Sentences 35 
 
 III. THE THIRD SECTION : 
 
 Chapter V. Thought Material or Ideas 43 
 
 Chapter VI. Words 51 
 
 Chapter VII. The Phrase 69 
 
 Chapter VIII. Modifiers 76 
 
 Chapter IX. The Organic Parts of the Sen- 
 tence 91 
 
 Chapter X. The Simple Sentence 95 
 
 Chapter XI. The Compound Sentence 112 
 
 Chapter XII. The Complex Sentence 141 
 
 IV. THE FOURTH SECTION: 
 
 Chapter XIII. Parts of Speech 190 
 
 Chapter XIV. The Noun 191 
 
 Chapter XV. The Pronoun 219 
 
 Chapter XVI. The Adjective 241 
 
 Chapter XVII. \erbs 263 
 
 Chapter XVIII. The Adverb 341
 
 The Table of Contents r 
 
 Chapter XIX. The Infinitive 345 
 
 Chapter XX. The Participle 356 
 
 Chapter XXI. The Preposition 366 
 
 Chapter XXII. The Conjunction 371 
 
 The Index 383
 
 Introductory 
 
 For Teachers Only 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SUBJECT 
 
 1. Both a Science and an Art. English grammar is 
 that language study which has for its subject-matter the 
 sentence. It is both a science and an art. As a science, it 
 deals with the fundamentals of sentence structure. It makes 
 known to the student the laws and principles which under- 
 lie sentence construction. As an art, it aims to enable the 
 student to acquire a skillful use of the sentence as an instru- 
 ment in expressing his thought. 
 
 These two phases of the subject are not inseparable. 
 One may understand the science of grammar and not be 
 able to use good English in conversation, and one may be 
 very skillful in the use of language and at the same time 
 know little or nothing about the laws and principles which 
 govern correct sentence construction. If a person has been 
 brought up in a family where he has always heard good 
 English, if his playmates and those with whom he has asso- 
 ciated have always used good English, then his English will 
 certainly be pure, though he may know nothing of the rules 
 of grammar. On the other hand, we have all known persons 
 who could repeat rule after rule of grammar and vet could 
 not speak correctly. 
 
 2. Mastery of the Art. As a mastery of the art side 
 of grammar is an accomplishment which comes only through 
 long and careful practice, it is essential that the teacher de- 
 vote much time to this side of the child's education in Eng- 
 
 [xij
 
 xii Inlroduclory 
 
 lisli. His language will need the careful supervision of his 
 teacher in all his work, and the pupil, himself, should be made 
 to feel that he must keep a constant watch over his language 
 in order to become proficient in its use. Eternal vigilance 
 on the part of both teacher and pupil, is the price of pure 
 English. The science of grammar will help, to some extent, 
 to give the pupil the art; it will help him to judge when his 
 sentences are correct, and to discover his own mistakes, but 
 the use of good English must be acquired largely by prac- 
 tice. 
 
 3. Value of Purpose. In teaching any subject, the 
 teacher should constantly bear in mind the end to be at- 
 tained. The teacher who sees clearly the end from the be- 
 ginning will be able, for the most part, to select such means 
 and devices as will accomplish this end. She will waste no 
 time on side issues or irrelevant matter, because the pur- 
 pose which she sees in the work draws her constantly toward 
 that end and excludes everything which does not contribute 
 to it. 
 
 4. Contribution to Character. If we say that the end 
 of education is moral character, then the chief value of the 
 study of grammar lies in that element which it contributes 
 to moral character. Does grammar really do this? I think 
 so. 
 
 5. It Deals With Mind. In the study of grammar, 
 the pupil's attention is directed inward for the first time. 
 It is the only subject in the common school course which re- 
 quires the pupil to consider his mental acts as such. Here 
 he stops to consider for the first time the nature of that 
 for which the word, the phrase, the clause, the sentence 
 stand. He deals primarily with the forms of pure thought, 
 although in a very elementary way. 
 
 This means that he gets some knowledge of the human 
 mind ; he sees, to some extent, the delicate working, the 
 marvelous powers of the human soul. Here he finds an op-
 
 Introductory xiii 
 
 portunity for making distinctions and doing similar thinking 
 to that which must be done in the study of psychology and 
 logic. He does closer and stronger thinking than that re- 
 quired in arithmetic or physiology, because the subject-mat- 
 ter upon which he is working is more subtile. 
 
 This work gives him an element of moral character which 
 he can not get from the study of any other subject; namely, 
 acute intellectual judgment, without which there could be 
 no moral judgment and hence no moral character. For if 
 the element of moral judgment be left out of character, if 
 the individual be unable to make fine distinctions in ques- 
 tions of right and wrong, strong moral character is impos- 
 sible. 
 
 6. More Immediate Purpose of the Subject. But 
 while this is the great value of the study of grammar, it is 
 not the immediate end which the teacher keeps before her 
 day by day. The result stated above is obtained only by 
 keeping in mind the fact, that the sentence is the unit or sub- 
 ject-matter of grammar, atid that all work in the subject has 
 for its object: 
 
 (i). To give pupils a knowledge of its structure — the 
 laws and principles which underlie its correct construction, 
 or the science of the English sentence. 
 
 (2). To give the. pupils a mastery of the sentence as an 
 instrument in expressing thought that will enable them to 
 use it correctly — the art of the English sentence. 
 
 7. Characteristics of the Subject. In order to ac- 
 complish these results, the teacher should bear in mind: 
 
 (t). That grammar is a subject in itself, apart from all 
 text-books on the subject, and if all the texts were destroyed, 
 we should still have the subject of grammar. It has a cen- 
 tral or organizing idea which binds together the facts of the 
 subject and indicates their relations to all other facts of 
 knowledge.
 
 xiv Introductory 
 
 (2). That it is a logical or thought subject. It is not 
 arbitrary and mechanical, but reasonable. 
 
 (2)- That it is analytic and inductive and not synthetic 
 and deductive, and should be taught according to the labora- 
 tory method, as explained in the preface. The purpose of 
 the discussion that follows is to make these three proposi- 
 tions clear to the teacher and thus enable her to get above 
 the common plane of ordinary text-book grammar work. 
 
 GRAMMAR A SUBJECT IN ITSELF. 
 
 8. Related to Other Subjects. There is a body of 
 facts which we call grammar. Can these facts be known 
 scientifically, just as one would learn the facts of botany, or 
 must the student be required to commit them to memory 
 from a text ? This group of facts is related to other groups 
 of facts. Grammar is related to the word studies of the lan- 
 guage group. It is also a near relative of reading, composi- 
 tion and rhetoric, and literature — those language studies 
 which have discourse for their subject-matter. Grammar is 
 the handmaid of logic. All its forms are determined bv and 
 adapted to the thought they express. The relations which 
 are found in the subject are logical relations and the true 
 study of these facts is the study of the logic of the English 
 sentence. Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard University, in his 
 "Science of Thought,'' says: "Certainly, while logic de- 
 rives such help from grammar, the reverse should be done, 
 and our grammars placed upon a direct logical footing." 
 
 g. Constructive Study of Grammar. When the stu- 
 dent studies grammar in the light of the relations set forth 
 above, when he sees it as based upon and growing out of 
 logic, as a practical illustration of psychology, as conditioned 
 by the word studies, and reading, and as preparing for and 
 aiding in a mastery of the other discourse studies, he is 
 studying the subject " constructively," as Dr. W. T. Harris 
 says.
 
 Introductory xv 
 
 Heretofore he has learned a great many of the facts of 
 orthography, orthoepy, grammar, reading, composition, 
 rhetoric, and Hterature, but these are somewhat fused to- 
 gether in his mind and mixed, to some extent, with the 
 facts of history, geography, and all other subjects which he 
 has studied. Now he sees the language group clearly set off 
 from all other studies, he sees the place of each study in 
 this group, and he sees all of them in the light of the studies 
 upon which they are based. 
 
 10. Facts of Grammar Related. But while the stu- 
 dent is corning into a complete comprehension of the rela- 
 tions stated above, he learns that the facts of grammar have 
 certain relations to one another and to the subject as a 
 whole. 
 
 In the consideration of such a common object as the 
 table, he has noticed that it is made up of parts, each one 
 holding a certain relation to every other one and all together 
 forming the whole. Without any one of these parts the 
 whole would not be complete. In this case, he sees a com- 
 mon idea, the idea of design or purpose, embodied in every 
 part of the table and binding all the parts together into the 
 whole. The table is to write upon and at the same time is 
 to be ornamental, and every part and attribute of it, legs, 
 sides, top, color, etc., embodies the central idea of the table. 
 Why was the table not painted red ? Why are the legs all 
 the same length ? Why is this bit of carving on the side ? 
 Why is it made of hard wood? To answer any of these 
 questions is to refer it to the central idea in the table. 
 
 It will be readily seen that the student might take another 
 view of the table. He might see it as a number of isolated 
 parts, existing in space — a mere heap of material. What is 
 the difference between this view and the first one? The 
 parts are all in the second view. The legs, top, sides, etc., 
 every bit of carving, all the attributes of the parts, color, 
 form, etc., all materials are present. But the view of the
 
 xvi Introductory 
 
 tabic is not the same as the first, because these parts are not 
 seen in their relations. They are not bound into a whole by 
 a unifvinof idea. 
 
 11. Two Views of Any Subject. It will be seen from 
 the foregoing discussion that there were two phases or sides 
 in this first view of the table ; namely, the part phase or 
 fact phase ; and the relation phase or unifying idea. 
 
 It is held that the relations existing among the facts of 
 grammar are similar to the relations existing among the 
 parts of the table with one exception. The relations exist- 
 ing among the parts of the table are mechanical relations, 
 and the whole is a mechanical whole, while the relations ex- 
 isting among the facts of grammar are vital, and the subject 
 may be shown to be a vital unity. 
 
 12. Two Points of View. Grammar, then, may be 
 studied from these two points of view : 
 
 (i). The student may consider the fact side, sentences 
 in their great variety of form and many shades of meaning, 
 together with the words which compose these sentences in 
 their various uses in the sentences. These form the subject- 
 matter of grammar, upon which the mind of the student is 
 to be exercised. 
 
 (2). The student may consider the relation phase of the 
 subject. This is the central idea, which is found in some 
 measure embodied in all the facts of the subject, and which 
 binds them all together. 
 
 The two points just stated are not two different subjects. 
 They are the same thing considered from two points of view ; 
 it takes both to form the science of grammar ; and any knowl- 
 edge which leaves out either phase of the subject could not 
 be said to be a scientific knowledge of grammar. 
 
 13. To Know a Subject Scientifically. Science, it has 
 often been said, is organized knowledge. To know a thing 
 scientifically is to know it in its relations. To know any 
 subject scientifically, is to know the relations which exist
 
 Introductory 
 
 xvii 
 
 among the facts of that subject; to see the relation of each 
 fact to other facts and to the whole by means of the funda- 
 mental idea in tlie subject; and to see the relation of the 
 subject as a whole to other subjects of study. 
 
 This view of the subject cannot be gained by committing 
 rules and definitions from a text-book on grammar, however 
 good the rules and definitions may be. The student's mind 
 must come into contact with the real unit of the subject, if 
 he is to see relations. In short, the subject of grammar must 
 be viewed as stated above in " (i) " and " (2) " : the facts 
 and the central or relating idea. When one sees the sub- 
 ject in this v.'ay, one may be said to have an organized knowl- 
 edge of grammar. 
 
 The sentence cannot say to the subject, " I have no need 
 of you " ; nor the adverb to the verb, " I have no need of 
 you " ; nor can grammar say to the most insignificant fact in 
 it, " I have no need of you." For this body of facts which 
 belong to grammar, being many, are at the same time one, 
 by reason of a common idea which is found in all of them, 
 and every one members one of another. 
 
 14. The Subject-Matter. It has been said that sen- 
 tences in their manifold variety of form and many shades 
 of meaning, together with the multitude of facts concerning 
 them, which the student must know in order to understand 
 how thoughts are expressed in sentences, form the subject- 
 matter of grammar. The student is to combine this vast ar- 
 ray of facts into an organized whole by means of what has 
 been called the " relation phase," or " unifying idea." This 
 unifying idea or central principle of the subject of grammar 
 must be a general truth, because every fact in the subject 
 must partake of its nature. It must be a primary truth, be- 
 cause every fact in the subject is to be built into it. It must 
 be a determining idea or relating truth, because, by means 
 of it, all the facts of grammar are to be logically arranged 
 or organized.
 
 xviii Introductory 
 
 15. The Central Idea. 'J'he only use of a sentence 
 is to express a thought. How does the sentence express 
 thought? The mowing machine expresses thought. By ob- 
 serving its parts and how they all cooperate to do the work 
 of the machine, one becomes aware of the fact that all this 
 existed in the mind of the inventor before it was put into 
 completed form. The mower is simply the expression of the 
 thought of the designer. 
 
 16. The Nature of a Judgment. The sentence does 
 not express thought in the v/ay indicated above. A judgment 
 or thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts a re- 
 lation between ideas. There are three elements in every such 
 judgment : 
 
 (i). The idea about which the mind asserts another 
 idea, which may be called the thought subject. 
 
 (2). The idea which the mind thinks with the first idea 
 and which it affirms or denies of it. This may be called the 
 thought predicate. 
 
 f^). The relation which the mind asserts between these 
 ideas, which is always one of agreement or disagreement and 
 which may be termed the thought relation. 
 
 I have in mind the idea, the cloud, and the idea, fleecy, 
 but these do not form a judgment. I must see a relation be- 
 tween the two. My mind must combine the two ideas into 
 a unity in which I see the attribute, Heecy, as belonging 
 to or forming one of the attributes of the cloud. In this 
 way, my mind forms the judgment or thought expressed by 
 the sentence, The cloud is fleecy. It is this triple unity 
 which the sentence expresses, and in order to express it, 
 the sentence must take on the triple form of the thought. 
 
 17. Three Parts of a Sentence. A sentence is the ex- 
 pression of a thought or judgment in words. Why is it 
 necessary that the sentence have the triple form of the 
 thought ?
 
 Introductory xix 
 
 (i). A subject, expressing the thought subject of the 
 judgment. 
 
 (2). A predicate, expressing the thought predicate of 
 the judgment. 
 
 (^). A copula, expressing the thought relation of the 
 judgment. 
 
 A picture expresses thought but it does not express 
 thought as the sentence does. There are no three parts to the 
 picture. It expresses thought by resemblance. Its form is 
 determined by the form of the object which it represents. 
 But there is no resemblance between the thought and the 
 sentence which expresses it, such as exists in the picture. 
 The thought is spiritual, subjective; the sentence is phys- 
 'cal, objective. The sentence is adapted to the thought 
 for the purpose of expressing it, and is determined by the 
 thought. Since the thought is not like the sentence and can- 
 not be like it in any other particular, except in the number 
 of its elements, the sentence, in order to express the thought, 
 must take on the triple form of the thought. The thought 
 imposes its form upon the sentence. 
 
 It might be said here, that grammarians, while recog- 
 nizing the fact that the sentence has three* parts, have not 
 usually considered it of enough importance to make the dis- 
 tinction, at all times, between predicate and copula. Since 
 the thought predicate and thought relation are so frequently 
 expressed by the same word, they have fallen into the in- 
 accuracy of dividing sentences into two parts, a subject and 
 a predicate. 
 
 18. Dr. Whitney on the Verb. The greatest linguistf 
 
 * See Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, beginning 
 of lesson 29, Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, p. 158, 
 par. 353. " Our Langnage," p. 84. Lee and Hadley's Grammar, pp. 
 
 53-55- 
 
 t The late Dr. William Dvvight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit 
 and comparative PhiloloL'y and instructor in modern languages in 
 Yale College ; .niithor of " Language and the Study of Language," 
 " Life and Growth of Language." etc.
 
 XX 
 
 Introductory 
 
 this country has known says : " The verb, be, in all its 
 various forms, has conic to stand as a mere connective of 
 assertion between a subject and some word or words de- 
 scribing- that subject, and so to have no meaning of its own 
 except that of signifying the assertion." And he adds, 
 " Indeed, every verb admits of being taken apart, or an- 
 alyzed into some form of this copula, he, which expresses 
 the act of assertion, and a predicate noun or adjective (es- 
 pecially the verbal adjective, the present participle), ex- 
 pressing the condition or quality or action predicated. Thus, 
 / stand is nearly / am erect, or, still more nearly, / am 
 standing; again, They beg, is equivalent to They are beg- 
 gars, or, They arc begging. 
 
 In the above examples, each sentence has three parts. 
 For example, in They are begging, the word. They, 
 is the subject of the sentence and expresses the thought sub- 
 ject of the judgment; the word, begging, is the predicate 
 of the sentence and expresses the thought predicate of the 
 judgment; and the word, are, is the copula of the sen- 
 tence and expresses the relation which the mind sees between 
 the thought subject and the thought predicate, or the thought 
 relation of the judgment. 
 
 Since every sentence must cointain a verb, it follows, that, 
 if the above statement from Dr. Whitney is correct, every 
 sentence may not only be separated into three parts, but 
 must contain three parts, and no group of words can be a 
 sentence or can possibly express a thought, if it lacks sub- 
 ject or predicate or copula. 
 
 19. Psychologists and Logicians. In addition to the 
 foregoing discussion it might be said that psychologists and 
 logicians in all times and almost wdthout exception, have in- 
 sisted that the sentence must have three parts corresponding 
 to the three elements of the judgment. The inaccuracy, on 
 the part of grammarians, has come about, as Dr. C. C. 
 Everett, of Harvard University, points out, because they
 
 Introductory xxi 
 
 have divorced grammar from logic. This is sure to lead to 
 error, since the sentence is only an instrument for express- 
 ing the thought, and grammar is directly dependent upon 
 logic at every point. If one word contains two parts of the 
 sentence, in which it occurs, that is all the more reason why 
 the analysis of the student should be subtle enough to dis- 
 cover that fact and to identify each part of the sentence with 
 the element of the thought which it expresses. To express 
 two elements of the thought in one part of the sentence 
 would be confusing to say the least. 
 
 20. The Central Idea Stated. This fundamental at- 
 tribute in the nature of the sentence, as it is determined by 
 the nature of the thought, is the universal truth in the sub- 
 ject of grammar. To put it in other words, the most gen- 
 eral truth, the central idea, in the subject of grammar is: 
 The three elements of the thought as they are accurately 
 expressed in the three parts of the sentence. The student 
 must see the sentence as the expression of the thought. It 
 expresses thought in common with a great many other 
 things ; the picture, the piece of music, the statue, all ex- 
 press thought ; but the sentence is arbitrary, expressing 
 thought in a particular way, by means of its triple form. The 
 student must see this. 
 
 This states the end and purpose of all the study of the 
 science of grammar. Why does the student study the 
 simple sentence or the declarative sentence? To see how 
 the three elements of the thought are expressed in those lan- 
 euaee forms. He wants to know how the sentence form 
 which we call complex is adapted to express the thought. 
 Why does he study noun and verb? To see what part they 
 play in the expression of the three elements of the thought 
 in the three parts nf the sentence ; to see how these lan- 
 guage forms are adapted to the expression of the thought 
 and how they are determined by the thought. 
 
 21. How Do We Know This is True? How do we
 
 xxii Introductory 
 
 know that the principle just stated is the most general, and, 
 therefore, the governing truth, in the subject of grammar? 
 Because it is the truth which organizes the subject. It 
 touches every fact in the subject and is the essential attribute 
 of every such fact. It is the truth to which every question 
 concerning the subject of grammar must be referred for its 
 answer, just as every question concerning the table can be 
 answered only by referring it to the central idea in the table. 
 This central truth in the subject of grammar is the most 
 general truth in the subject, because every other fact of the 
 subject depends upon it. 
 
 22. The Value of This View to the Teacher. The 
 value of this view of the subject to the teacher may be made 
 clear by pointing out what the governing or central idea of 
 any subject will indicate to the teacher concerning that sub- 
 ject. The organizing truth of a subject will determine the 
 following points with regard to the subject : 
 
 (i). It will set ofif the subject-matter of the study from 
 the subject-matter of all other studies. 
 
 (2). It will indicate the logical order of topics in the 
 subject. 
 
 (j). It will determine the order in which the topics 
 should be acquired or presented. 
 
 (4). It will indicate the important and unimportant facts 
 of the subject. 
 
 (^). It will indicate the important and unimportant ele- 
 ments in each fact in the subject. 
 
 (6). It will test the definitions of the subject. 
 
 fy). It will indicate the mental steps which the student 
 must take to master the subject, and the materials which 
 the teacher must put before the pupil in order to mduce his 
 mind to take these steps. 
 
 23. The Central Idea Sets Off Facts of Subject. 
 There must be some reason why mathematicians have 
 grouped certain facts and called that group arithmetic. It
 
 Introductory xxiii 
 
 is not mere chance riiat scientists include just the facts 
 they do inchide in the subject of physiology and exclude all 
 other facts. There is certainly some method by which gram- 
 marians have been able to decide what facts constitute the 
 science of grammar. It is the central idea in the subject 
 which sets off the facts of that subject from all other facts. 
 The central idea or organizing truth of the subject is the most 
 imiversal attribute of the subject. Any fact possessing this 
 attribute is a fact of the subject. Any fact which has to do 
 with the accurate expression of the three elements of the 
 thought in the sentence form is a fact in grammar. 
 
 24. It Indicates Logical Order of Topics. This or- 
 ganizing truth is the most general or universal truth in the 
 subject. Every fact is related to it. Some facts in the sub- 
 ject are more closely related to it than others. The fact 
 which stands most closely related to the organizing truth, 
 is first in the subject ; one equally near in its relation to the 
 central truth is coordinate with it ; one containing a less 
 degree of the central truth is subordinate to both ; and so on 
 with all the facts of the subject. 
 
 When each fact is given its place in the subject, according 
 to the relation which it bears to the central idea, the sub- 
 ject is organized. This means that the order of dependence 
 among the facts of the subject has been discovered ; the rela- 
 tive importance of the facts and of the elements in each 
 fact n'.ay be seen ; and the teacher sees the order in which 
 the facts of the subject should be presented and why they 
 should be presented in that order. 
 
 25. It Tests Definitions. The organizing truth tests 
 the definitions of the subject. Every fact in the subject 
 contains a certain degree of the general truth or universal 
 attribute of the subject. To define any fact of the subject 
 is to show its relation to the central idea of the subject. A 
 definition of the noun which does not show its relation to 
 the organizing truth of grammar, or which does not show
 
 xxiv Introductory 
 
 how it helps to express the three elements of the thought in 
 the three parts of the sentence, is faulty. 
 
 26. Organized Knowledge. When the student sees 
 the central idea of the subject of grammar and all it indi- 
 cates with regard to the subject, as set forth in the preceding 
 discussion, he may be said to have an organized or scientific 
 knowledge of the subject. 
 
 He is free from text-books, except as he uses them as a 
 means, and he sees the subject in the light of reason and in 
 all its relations. 
 
 Can the teacher be satisfied, or do mtelligent work in the 
 school room, with a less comprehensive view? 
 
 27. A Criticism. The most severe criticism which 
 could be pronounced upon grammarians and teachers of 
 grammar is that made by Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard, 
 when he says, they have divorced grammar from logic. And 
 any one who has carefully examined our text-books in gram- 
 mar, or observed thoughtfully much of the work done in our 
 schools in this subject, must admit that there is some truth 
 in the charge. The study of grammar has become largely 
 a study of form ; a mere classification of words ; a kind of 
 jugglery with symbols. What wonder that most boys and 
 girls, with normal minds, hate it ! 
 
 28. The True View. But if, as Dr. Harris says,* 
 " Grammar defines and fixes speech ; by its mastery man 
 obtains the first mastery over his mind as an instrument. 
 * * * It is the key to all that is spiritual. * * •* 
 Grammar as etymology and syntax initiates the pupil into 
 the general forms of thought itself. Thus there branch out 
 logic, psychology, and metaphysics, as well as the various 
 phases of philosophy. Has it not been said, indeed, that 
 the father of logic discovered its forms through grammar? 
 Under a thin veil the pupil deals with pure thought when he 
 
 * See Report of Board of Public Schools, St. Louis, bound vol- 
 ume of 1872-73.
 
 Introductory xxv 
 
 studies syntax " — if this be true, then there is no lack of op- 
 portunity for thinking in the study of grammar. 
 
 The sentence is only the " veil " ; it is composed of mere 
 words ; but this form has a content, the thought, and to un- 
 derstand the sentence, the student must be able to separate, 
 in thought, this form from its content. The student must 
 constantly hold these two elements in mind while dealing 
 with the sentence. When he considers the sentence. Glass is 
 brittle, he views it as the expression of a thought composed 
 of three elements : 
 
 (i). A thought subject, the idea, glass. 
 
 (2). A thought predicate, the idea, brittle. 
 
 (^). A thought relation of agreement between the two. 
 In the expi-ession itself, he sees parts corresponding to the 
 elements of the thought : 
 
 (i). A subject, the word, glass, expressing the thought 
 subject. 
 
 (2). A predicate, the word, brittle, expressing the 
 thought predicate. 
 
 (^). A copula or relational clement, the word, is, ex- 
 pressing the thought relation. 
 
 29. The Two Elements. When he considers the 
 word, soitr, in the sentence, The sour apple ripened rap- 
 idly, he sees two elements ; first, the form or zurord, and sec- 
 ond, its content. The word, sour, expresses an attribute 
 which belongs to the idea expressed by the word, apple. So 
 in dealing with the word, rapidly, he sees that it expresses 
 an attribute of the attribute expressed by the word, ripened. 
 Tn each case the student is required, first, to distinguish be- 
 tween the form and its content, and second, to combine the 
 two again to see how the form organizes itself around the 
 thought and is determined by it. 
 
 30. Form and Content. This seeing of form and con- 
 tent and the relation between the two cannot be too strongly 
 emphasized. The failure on the part of grammarians and
 
 xxvi Introductory 
 
 teachers to keep it in mind has given to the study of gram- 
 mar its formal and lifeless nature. The study of the sentence 
 from this point of view is no simple mental activity. It 
 requires the most careful attention and very close and ac- 
 curate thinking on the part of the student. 
 
 He is first conscious of the sentence form, a group of 
 words, and having obtained the thought which it expresses, 
 he proceeds to analyze that thought into its elements. He 
 finds that there are three principal elements in every thought ; 
 a thought subject, a thought predicate, and a thought rela- 
 tion, each of which may be composed of several elements. 
 Finally, he associates each element of the thought with its 
 corresponding part of the sentence, thus making the parts 
 of the sentence, the relations existing among them, and 
 their relations to the thought, to appear clearly. It will be 
 seen that this is a complex activity, the student being re- 
 quired to hold several points in mind, while he thinks his 
 way carefully through the sentence. 
 
 These two processes of separating form and content from 
 each other, and each one into its elements, analysis; and 
 combining form and content again into a vital unity, in 
 order to see how the thought determines the form, synthesis, 
 are tlie two fundamental processes in the mastery of gram- 
 mar. 
 
 31. The Student Must Deal With Sentences. The 
 principles already discussed would indicate, that in com- 
 bining the almost infinite variety of sentences into the unity 
 of a single principle, and in gaining the mastery over the 
 sentence as an instrument for communicating thought, it 
 is necessary for the student to deal not with text-books, but 
 with this great variety of sentences. Text-books are helpful 
 to him in proportion to the degree in which they put the sub- 
 ject-matter of grammar, the sentence, before him in sucli 
 a way as to help him to think it through for himself. But 
 if all texts on grammar were destroyed, we should still have
 
 Introductory xxvii 
 
 the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, left; and the 
 student might be led to construct the entire science of gram- 
 mar from his study of sentences. 
 
 GRAMMAR A LOGICAL SUBJECT. 
 
 Now perhaps enough has been said to show that the sub- 
 ject of grammar is a subject in itself ; that it does not depend 
 upon text-books ; that the unit of it is the sentence ; and that 
 every principle, definition, and fact of the subject is wrapped 
 up in the sentence. The subject has an organization of 
 its own, because it is a body of facts bound together, or 
 unified by a central idea or truth, which runs through or in- 
 heres in all the facts of the subject. 
 
 But now I wish to discuss the second proposition. Gram- 
 mar is a reasonable or logical or thought subject, not an 
 arbitrary subject to be taken on authority. It is not to be 
 bolted or swallowed whole. 
 
 32. Definitions and Principles of the Subject. The 
 definitions and principles of the subject of grammar do not 
 exi?t and thc\- arc not true, because Metcalf. or Sweet, or 
 Whitnev has them in his grammar. These men did not make 
 or invent the principles of our language and set them forth 
 for us to commit to memory and follow the remainder of 
 our days, nor could they, or any other men, possibly do so. 
 Grammarians have discovered and stated the principles of 
 language, and these principles are true, if they are true, 
 not because they are in the grammarians' books, but they 
 are in the books because they are true. 
 
 33. The Sentence an Instrument. The sentence is 
 merely an instrument or means ; it is not an end in itself. 
 The only legitimate use of a sentence is to express a thought. 
 A sentence is a group of words which expresses a thought. 
 This statement expresses the only true function of the sen- 
 tence. One mind has a thought to be communicated to an- 
 other mind ; the sentence is the vehicle of that thought. If
 
 XXV 111 Introductury 
 
 there were no thoughts to be conveyed trom one mind to 
 another, we should have no need for a senetnce. 
 
 Since the sentence is an instrument or a means, it is like 
 all other instruments or means in one particular ; that is, it is 
 determined by that which it is to do. We may surely say 
 of all instruments that they are made to suit the work which 
 they are to perform ; that which they are to do determines 
 them in every part and attribute. It would be ridiculous to 
 think that a man would attempt to make a mowing machine 
 without understanding the nature of grass, or the place in 
 which it grows. He might make it so that it would run 
 onlv on a smooth floor or concrete walk. 
 
 34. The Nature of an Instrument. Here is an instru- 
 ment called the garden hoe. Why is its handle five feet 
 long instead of ten feet long? Why is it made of wood? 
 Why is it round and one inch in diameter instead of square 
 and three inches in diameter? Why is its blade four inches 
 wide and three inches long instead of ten inches wide and 
 nine inches long? Why is it sharp? Is it not easily seen 
 that it is the purpose of the instrument which determines 
 these points? How could any man who knew nothing of 
 the nature of plants and the soil in which they grow ; who 
 did not know that weeds grow up among plants and must be 
 cut out, and that the soil about the roots of plants must be 
 stirred ; how could a man ignorant of the nature of the work 
 which a garden hoe is to perform, make such an instrument ? 
 And more, how could a person, ignorant of all this, under- 
 stand the instrument? 
 
 You are going along the street and you find a little wheel 
 with tinv cogs. What is the first question you ask about it ? 
 Why it is this: Where does it belong? What is its work? 
 Is it a part of a watch or a bicycle, or what is it for? 
 
 35. How We Study an Instrument. If one did not 
 understand the garden hoe, he might study it point by point. 
 He might see that the handle is long so that one need not
 
 Introductory xxix 
 
 stoop over too much in digging with the tool. He might see 
 that the blade must be sharp so that it will cut the weeds 
 and stir the hard ground easily, and so on. Each time he no- 
 tices a characteristic of the hoe, he sees that there is some- 
 thing in the nature of the work which it is to do that requires 
 that characteristic in the hoe. When he has mastered it, he 
 sees the appropriateness of this instrument to do its work, 
 and how the instrument depends upon its work for its nature. 
 Now there is nothing arbitrary or mechanical in the proc- 
 ess by which the individual has mastered the garden hoe, 
 if he has done it in the way indicated above. He takes noth- 
 ing for granted and nothing on authority. He sees the cor- 
 respondence between the nature of this instrument and the 
 nature of the work which it is to do, and if forty authors had 
 written text-books on the garden hoe, and every one of them 
 had said the handle should be three inches in diameter and 
 made of iron, he would not believe them. 
 
 36. The Sentence Adapted to the Thought. Now the 
 sentence is like the garden hoe, in that it is an instrument, 
 and has a work to perform ; namely, the expression of the 
 thought. What does this mean ? It means that the sentence 
 is adapted to the work of expressing the thought and that 
 it is determined in every part and attribute by the nature of 
 the thought which it expresses. It is just as necessary to 
 understand the thought and its nature in order to understand 
 the sentence, as it is to understand the garden in order to 
 comprehend the garden hoe. 
 
 37. Logic and Psychology in Grammar. But one may 
 say, then, how can you keep from teaching logic and psy- 
 chology in grammar? No one who teaches grammar scien- 
 tifically can keep logic and psychology out of his work, for 
 grammar is dependent upon logic at every point, and the ex- 
 planation of everv grammatical form involves the examina- 
 tion of a mental process. The great difficulty is that gram- 
 marians have divorced grammar and logic, in a great meas-
 
 XXX Iiitrodnclory 
 
 ure, and this has given to the subject its lifeless and formal 
 nature. It has made it a mechanical, deadening, memory 
 grind, instead of an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental 
 gymnastic. 
 
 One might turn to any part of the subject of grammar for 
 an illustration of the fact, that the sentence is adapted to the 
 expression of the thought and is determined in every part 
 and attribute by the nature of the thought ; that it is impos- 
 sible to give any reasonable explanation of language forms 
 without viewing them in relation to the thought which they 
 express. And I wish now to illustrate at some length, this 
 fundamental view of grammar. 
 
 The entire subject of grammar falls into four great sec- 
 tions of work : 
 
 Section I. 
 
 THE STUDY OF THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE. 
 
 38. In the first Section of the work, only those at- 
 tributes or characteristics of the sentence which are uni- 
 versal are noticed. The student has as many different kinds 
 of sentences as can be obtained placed before him, and in all 
 this variety, he is asked to see the universal attribute, which 
 makes them all sentences. He finds that some of these in- 
 dividual exam^ples are long and some short ; some declarative 
 and some interrogative ; some simple and some complex ; 
 some inverted order and some natural order ; but one char- 
 acteristic is found in each of them. Not every sentence is 
 imperative; not every one has a compound subject; but they 
 all have either explicit or implicit in them, the triple form, 
 expressing the thought. 
 
 39. Unity. This fact enables him to unify this great 
 variety of sentences and to see the unity in the thought of 
 each sentence. It is not an easy matter for the student to 
 grasp the unity of the thought in a long and involved sen- 
 tence ; to see the thought subject and thought predicate,
 
 Introductory xxxi 
 
 whicli the mind unites by an act of thinking into the triple 
 unit}- — the thought, Avhich the sentence expresses. But this 
 is what he must do if he ever masters the sentence, either as 
 an instrument in expressing his own thought, or as a medium 
 for obtaining the thoughts of others. 
 
 40. The Close of Section I. At the close of this phase 
 of his study in grammar, the student should be able to take 
 any sentence, distinguish between its form and content, an- 
 alyze its content into its three essential elements, see the 
 triple organic form of the sentence as determined by the 
 thought, the relation of each element of the thought to its 
 corresponding part of the sentence, and should be able to 
 express the result of his thinking in some concise form such 
 as the following: 
 
 The large hook is certainly very cheap. This is a sen- 
 tence, because it is the expression of a thought in words. 
 The subject of the sentence is the words, The large hook, 
 because they express the thought subject. The predicate 
 of the sentence is the words, very cheap, because they 
 express the thought predicate. The copula of the sentence 
 is the words, is certainly, because they express the thought 
 relation, or unifying act of the mind. 
 
 41. Do Not Make the Work Formal. It is not in- 
 tended that the above form shall always be used by the 
 student in expressing the result of his thinking. The chief 
 thing is to have his mind perform the two mental processes 
 of analysis and synthesis as indicated above, and any set form 
 of expressing the result is rather to be avoided, as having a 
 tendency to make the student mechanical and formal. 
 
 42. The Main Idea. Throughout this entire first sec- 
 tion of the work, the student's attention is directed to but 
 one thing — the universal sentence form as determined by 
 the thought. He is not permitted to say that the idea ex- 
 pressed by the word, hook, in the above sentence, is the 
 thought subject, or that the word, hook, is the subject of
 
 xxxii Iiilroducfory 
 
 the sentence ; but lie must see each clement of the thought 
 and each part of the sentence as a unit. The idea expressed 
 by the words, The large book, for that is one idea, though 
 a complex one, is the thought subject, and all these words 
 form the subject of the sentence. 
 
 When the student is able to see in any sentence, each one 
 of the three elements of the thought, which is expressed, and 
 see it as a unit, no matter how complex it may be ; when 
 he sees each of the essential parts of the sentence in the same 
 way ; when he has combined the whole into an organic unity, 
 in w^hich he sees the sentence as standing for or expressing 
 the thought, he is ready to pass from the first section of the 
 grammar work. 
 
 43. Careful Work. It will usually take considerable 
 careful work with the student to enable him to do what is 
 indicated above, but it is worth the effort, for the student 
 who has this ability is forever free from mechanical or formal 
 work in the subject, and is a long stride on his way toward 
 the mastery of grammar as based upon logic. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 THE STUDY OF CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 44. In the second Section of the work, the pupil still 
 deals with sentences as wholes, but he finds there are like- 
 nesses and dififerences among them which enable him to 
 classify them. 
 
 45. The Basis of Meaning. He notices that one kind 
 expresses a phase of thought which appeals to the intellect. 
 It communicates some information. 
 
 Another kind also expresses a phase of thought which ap- 
 peals to the intellect, but it inquires for information, asks 
 for some element of the thought which is unknown and 
 sought. 
 
 Still another kind expresses a phase of thought which
 
 Introductory xxxiii 
 
 stirs the emotions. Some information may be commu- 
 nicated, but it is to the end of awakening feeling. 
 
 Lastly, he notices that some sentences express thought 
 which is intended to produce an act of will. 
 
 So, on the basis of meaning, or phase of mental activity 
 which is prominent, or power of mind addressed, or chief 
 purpose, he divides sentences into the following classes : 
 Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, Imperative. 
 
 46. The Basis of Form. Some thoughts are simple 
 in structure ; some are complex ; some are compound. The 
 pupil will see that sentences must be of these kinds, also, 
 since they express the thoughts. He, therefore, classifies 
 sentences on the basis of form, as determined by the number 
 and the relation of the thoughts expressed, into the following 
 classes : Simple, Complex, and Compound. 
 
 47. The Close of Section II. When the pupil is able 
 to view sentences, as determined by the thought, in the 
 ways just indicated, he is ready to pass from the second sec- 
 tion of the grammar work. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 THE STUDY OF THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 48. Parts of the Sentence. In the third Section of 
 the work; the study of the organic parts of the sentence is 
 taken up. vSubjects of sentences are not all of the same kind. 
 Some are simple, consisting of but one word ; others are long 
 and complex. This requires a combination of words, for, 
 however long the subject of the sentence may be, it must be 
 a unity. This means that the pupil must deal with the 
 words expressing the unified thought subject, just as he has 
 dealt with the sentence, which expresses the unity called the 
 thought. He must separate form from content; the extent 
 and content of ideas present themselves to him ; and he 
 sees the whole subject of modifiers growing out of this
 
 xxxiv Introductory 
 
 distinction. He discusses the thought material or ideas, out 
 of which thought suhjccts, thought predicates, and thought 
 relations are made, and he sees how the words composing the 
 subjects, predicates, and copulas of sentences may be unified, 
 because of the ideas they express. He sees, for example, 
 that in the sentence. The old arm-chair is broken, he could 
 not say that the word, arm-chair, is the subject of the 
 sentence, because the mind does not assert the idea, broken, 
 of the idea, arm-chair; but of the idea, arm-chair, as changed 
 by the ideas, the and old. 
 
 49. The Close of Section III. Thus, all the different 
 forms which subjects, preilicates, and copulas may have, 
 are seen to be adapted to the expression of thought subjects, 
 thought predicates, and thought relations and determined by 
 them. We have principal words and subordinate or modify- 
 ing words in these parts of the sentence, because we have 
 principal and subordinate ideas in the elements of the thought 
 expressed in these parts of the sentence. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 50. Classes of Words. In the last Section of the 
 grammar work, the student finishes the work for which he 
 has laid the foundation in the Section immediately preceding, 
 so that the last Section is to the third, what the second was 
 to the first. In the third Section, he became familiar with 
 the" different kinds of ideas, expressed by words ; namely, ob- 
 iects of thought, attributes, and ideas of relation. On that 
 JDasis, he classified words into the following classes : sub- 
 stantive, attributive, and relational words. Two other 
 kinds, he learned, were sometimes used without much mean- 
 ing, merely to fill out the form of the sentence ; namely, ex- 
 pletives and interjections. 
 
 51. Close of Section IV. Now, in the fourth Section,
 
 Introductory xxxv 
 
 by observing likenesses and differences, he subdivides these 
 classes of words, and thus arrives at " Parts of Speech." 
 When the pupil sees the parts of speech, with all their prop- 
 erties, in the same light in which he has seen all the other 
 parts of the sentence, as indicated in the previous discussion, 
 he has finished the fourth Section of the grammar work, 
 and may be said to have fairly mastered the science of the 
 subject. 
 
 52. Conditions of Mastering the Subject. This fourth 
 Section of work can never be mastered, it will be seen, until 
 the pupil sees clearly that there are distinctions in thought 
 which give to the noun, gender, person, number, and case ; 
 to the verb, voice, mode, tense, and so forth. If the action 
 of the mind in dealing with objective things did not leave 
 with it a notion of one or more than one, the noun never 
 would have had that property which we call number ; and if 
 it were not possible for the mind to think a relation between 
 a thought subject and a thought predicate in past time, pres- 
 ent time, and so forth, the verb would never have had that 
 property which we call tense. 
 
 53. A Thought Study. This view of the subject 
 makes grammar a thought study, not a set of rules and prin- 
 ciples to be accepted upon authority — and committed to 
 memory; but a thing which is logical and is to be reasoned 
 out by the pupil. Tt is not a mere study of forms, but a study 
 of forms as determined by the content which they express. 
 
 GRAMMAR IS AN INDUCTIVE SUBJECT. 
 
 54. The Laboratory Method. Tt will be evident, I 
 think, that the work which follows and constitutes the sub- 
 ject-matter of this text, is arranged according to the prin- 
 ciples set forth in this discussion and with this thought in 
 mind ; that grammar, when properly studied, is an inductive 
 subject, and should be presented according to what might 
 appropriately be called the laboratory metfuxl.
 
 xxxvi Introductory 
 
 55. Compared With the Study of the Natural Sciences, 
 If the scientific student wishes to make himself master of 
 tlie mushroom, he goes out into the fields and gathers a speci- 
 men of every variety. He examines the specimens carefully 
 and tries to discover the common characteristics which make 
 them all mushrooms. By the aid of his glass and knife, he 
 finds out how the specimens differ and on the basis of the 
 fundamental diiTerences, he separates them into classes. He 
 takes advantage of the experience of other men, in work- 
 ing with mushrooms, as they have recorded it for him in 
 texts. By means of this experience, he verifies his own con- 
 clusions. Often, by means of this experience, he finds that 
 he has made mistakes in his work, and he returns to his 
 specimens to examine them more carefully and discover his 
 errors. When he has completed his work, he is an authority 
 on mushrooms himself. 
 
 56. Grammar Can be Studied in this Way. Why can 
 not the student of grammar study the clause in this way? 
 He will not have so much difficulty in collecting his spec- 
 imens as the student of mushrooms had. He will need 
 neither microscope nor scalpel. He can see that each of his 
 specimens has a subject, predicate, and copula, and is used 
 as a part of a sentence just as easily, perhaps more easily, 
 than the student of mushrooms saw the common character- 
 istics of mushrooms. He can also see distinctions which will 
 enable him, on different bases, to separate them into classes; 
 as, substantive, attributive ; simple, complex, compound ; ad- 
 jective, adverbial, and so forth. In short, the entire subject 
 of clauses can be thought out from examples, just as the 
 entire subject of mushrooms was thought out from the 
 specimens, by the student. 
 
 57. The Teacher and the Text to Aid the Pupil. Tt 
 is not held that the pupil in the grades can do this without 
 the aid of the teacher and the text. The teacher will stim- 
 ulate and direct his thought by proper questions and encour-
 
 Introductory xxxvii 
 
 agement. The text will disclose to him the errors in his 
 conclusions and send him back to study the examples more 
 carefully. But when he is through with the subject, he will 
 see all of grammar in the sentence and it will be a reason- 
 able thing to him, not a set of dry, arbitrary rules. 
 
 58. The Difference Between Life and Death, The 
 difference between grammar studied in this way, and tech- 
 nical grammar as it is too often taught, is the difference 
 between life and death to the student ; it is the difference be- 
 tween an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic, 
 and a mechanical, deadening, verbal memory grind. The 
 one process leaves him with the arbitrary technic of the sub- 
 ject, a mere crust, which he loathes; the other makes him 
 feel, as Dr. C. C. Everett* has said, that, " There is hardly 
 anything more interesting than to see how the laws of gram- 
 mar, which seem, at first sight so hard and arbitrary, are sim- 
 ply the laws of the expression of logical relations in con- 
 crete form." 
 
 * See his " Science of Thought," a book which no teacher of 
 grammar should be without, p. 82.
 
 Suggestions for Composition 
 
 To communicate thought should be the dominant mo- 
 tive of all composition work. A child's imagination should 
 be stimulated before he is asked to write, and then, when the 
 discourse impulse is upon him, he should be given an oppor- 
 tunity to express his thought. After this expression he 
 should be led to criticise his papers from the standpoint of 
 an audience, asking himself if he has so expressed his 
 thoughts that they could be easily comprehended by another 
 person. The study of form should be brought in as a means 
 to this end. 
 
 The work in composition in this book aims to give 
 the pupil, while working under the impulse of definite 
 thoughts to express, practice in the forms of discourse natur- 
 al to children of the grammar school age, and at the same 
 time, to give them some knowledge of the technique of writ- 
 
 ing- 
 
 The work begins with tlie study of the composition as a 
 whole, and then, by easy stages, develops the paragraph, the 
 sentence, and the choice of words. The work is unified, its 
 parts forming a natural sequence, but each part is, at the 
 same time, complete and interesting in itself. 
 
 The forms of discourse used are not those uf the col- 
 lege rhetoric, description, exposition, narration and argu- 
 mentation, which are seldom found in pure form anywhere, 
 but those more natural to children, the review, the descrij)- 
 tion as the word picture, the character sketch, and the storv. 
 
 The rcvicz^f has been taken up first because, although it is 
 the most difficult, it gives the pupil a chance to write away 
 from the text of his book, and leads him to see that one valu- 
 able thing in a composition is an honest expression of his 
 observation and opinions. 
 
 [xx.wiii]
 
 Suggestions for Composition xxxix 
 
 The work in description gives the pupil an opportunity to 
 be really creative. In this work he will see that fundamental 
 thing, the possibilities of the sentence and, further, the 
 power and beauty which comes through the use of simple 
 figurative language. He will enjoy painting with words 
 as much, or even more, than he does with colors. 
 
 In the character sketch, some of the work started in the 
 review and in description is carried on. It gives an excel- 
 lent opportunity for that which is not strictly composition 
 work, but which should not be lost sight of at any time, the 
 defining of the ideals of character. 
 
 The story gives vent to that most natural impulse, the 
 narration of events. In it are studied the first elements of 
 plot and dialogue. 
 
 Unity and other things which made for clearness have 
 been emphasized in the work in the review, beauty and 
 vividness in the work on description and in story telling 
 some things which make for interest. This work has per- 
 force been very elementary. 
 
 The subject matter used as a basis for the work is such 
 as has stood the test of the critical judgment of many chil- 
 dren. It appeals to their interests, is varied and good and 
 yet popular. 
 
 The method of the presentation of the subject matter and 
 the technique has been the following : 
 
 1. The reading of a selection. 
 
 2. Questions to bring out certain kinds of thought. 
 
 3. Directions for writing. 
 
 4. A study in technique. 
 
 5. A method of criticism. 
 
 This order is important, for by placing the study of 
 technique after the expression of thought the cramping of 
 thought for the expression of form is avoided.
 
 xl SHggestioii\s for Composition 
 
 Many of the papers required of the children have been 
 brief. QuaHty rather than quantity has been sought. Brev- 
 ity and interest do away with the fatigue and discourage- 
 ment which come to both teachers and pupils from pro- 
 longed aimless writing. The work outlined in the book 
 should be largely supplemented from other sources : the 
 daily experiences of the children, current events and work 
 in other studies. The review and character sketch work 
 in well with the study of literature ; description with ge- 
 ography, civics, science, and history ; and the story telling 
 with all.
 
 ■■*«3!fe. 
 
 THE WOODS IN WINTER 
 (See page i88)
 
 An 
 
 English Grammar 
 
 The First Section 
 * Chapter I 
 
 THE SUBJECT AS A WHOLE 
 
 Introductory. Purpose of the Study of Eng- 
 lish Grammar. We think in language, and it is 
 the most important means or tool which we use 
 in communicating with our friends and other 
 people. The mastery of it is, therefore, of the ut- 
 most importance to every one of us. Skill in its 
 use enables us to think clearly, to read under- 
 standingly, and to speak and write with grace, 
 ease, and force. 
 
 There are several subjects of study which help 
 us directly in obtaining a command of the Eng- 
 lish language. English grammar is one of these, 
 and it is therefore closely allied to our home life, 
 our social life, and our school life. Do you know 
 which of the following sentences are correct, and 
 whv ? 
 
 * Chapter One may simply be read carefully. It is preliminary. 
 The real study of the subject begins with Chapter Two.
 
 2 All English Granuiiar 
 
 1. I saw my friend, who T once thought would succeed in 
 business, fail. 
 
 2. I saw my friend, whom I once thought would succeed 
 in business, fail. 
 
 3. One of the children are going. 
 
 4. One of the children is going. 
 
 Some of you may have to ask your teacher or 
 some older person to tell you which sentences are 
 grammatically correct, or if you do know which 
 are correct, perhaps you may not know why. The 
 study of English grammar will enable you to de- 
 termine right and wrong forms of language for 
 yourself, and to know zvhy they are right or wrong. 
 
 How do you distinguish an educated from an 
 uneducated person? When you meet a stranger, 
 do 3^ou not judge him largely by his language? 
 If he uses good English, and seems to be fairly 
 well-informed, you decide that he is an educated 
 person. If he uses poor English, you think he is 
 illiterate. This method of judging people is often 
 unjust, for many very well-educated people use in- 
 correct English ; but people generally will judge you 
 in this wa}^ The use of incorrect English, then, 
 has a tendency to injure one's chances in life and 
 to destroy one's usefulness. 
 
 Besides, the English language is the mother 
 tongue in this country and we should all have 
 pride enough in it, and patriotism enough to learn 
 to speak it, and write it well. The German people 
 love their language. They enter into long dis-
 
 The Subject as a Whole 3 
 
 cussions to show that the German spoken at 
 Court, or the German used on the stage is the 
 purer form of the language. Why should not 
 American boys and girls be proud of their mother 
 tongue and desire to use it well? 
 
 The subject of English grammar also forces 
 us to think logically. There is no better subject 
 to train the mind to make distinctions and to 
 reach conclusions from the consideration of facts. 
 It is, therefore, a means of education aside from 
 its practical uses. 
 
 I. The Literal Meaning of Words. We are 
 often helped to understand a subject by discovering 
 the literal meaning of the word that names it. To 
 obtain the literal meaning of a word, we must: 
 
 1. Find the language from which it is derived; 
 as, Greek, Latin, French, or whatever it may be. 
 
 2. Obtain the parts of the word in the language 
 from which it is derived. 
 
 3. Find the meaning of each part in the lan- 
 guage from which the word is derived. 
 
 4. Then summarize, or put the meaning of these 
 parts together. 
 
 This gives the literal or original meaning of 
 the word. 
 
 To illustrate, we may take the word, definition. 
 In our study of grammar, we shall be constructing 
 and dealing with definitions of many different top- 
 ics; as, subject, predicate, noun, case, and voice. It
 
 4 Ati English Grammar 
 
 is well that we should know what a definition is 
 and what we must do to form one properly. The 
 literal mcanin,<4- of the word gives us some light 
 upon this. 
 
 The word, definition, comes from the Latin, de, 
 meaning around, ahout, from ; finire, meaning to 
 bound, to limit, to separate; and tion, meaning the 
 act of. Literally, then, the word means the act of 
 bounding about, limiting around, or separating 
 from. Now this is just what we do when we de- 
 fine a thing properly. We bound it about, sep- 
 arate it from everything else, or draw a line men- 
 tally around it. 
 
 The literal meaning of words may be obtained 
 from any modern dictionary. In "The Interna- 
 tional " it will usually be found the first thing under 
 the word. In "The Standard" it follows the defi- 
 nition of the word. 
 
 2. The Marks of a Good Definition. To form 
 an accurate, logical definition of a thing, we must 
 do three things : 
 
 1. Name the thing to be defined. 
 
 2. Put it into the smallest known class. 
 
 3. Give the marks, characteristics, or attributes 
 which set it off or distinguish it from all other mem- 
 bers of that class. 
 
 To illustrate, we may take the definition of an 
 island. An island is a small body of land sur- 
 rounded by water. When we say, an island, we
 
 The Subject as a Whole 5 
 
 have named the thing to be defined. When we say, 
 is a small body of land, we have put it into the small- 
 est knov^^n class. When we say, surrounded by 
 zvater, we have given the mark, characteristic, or 
 attribute which separates it from all other members 
 of its class or all other small bodies of land, such as, 
 the cape, promontory, and isthmus. 
 
 We must name the thing to be defined, in giving 
 a definition, in order to get it clearly before the 
 mind. It is better to put it into the smallest class 
 because that gives us more information about it and 
 also leaves us fewer individuals or members from 
 which to distinguish it. In defining the horse, for 
 example, we ma}' put it into the class animals or 
 we may put it into the class quadrupeds. It is 
 much better, however, to put it into the smaller 
 class, quadrupeds, for that gives us more informa- 
 tion about it ; for example, that it is four-footed. It 
 also makes the third step in the definition easier, 
 for we do not then have to distinguish it from 
 bipeds, but only from other quadrupeds. But we 
 must put the thing to be defined into a known class 
 whether that class be large or small, because the 
 mind immediately gives to the thing to be defined 
 the attributes of the class into which we put it. If 
 the class be unknown, the mind can have no attri- 
 butes to give to the thing to be defined. It does not 
 help us to put the thing to be defined into an un- 
 known class. We should test all our definitions by 
 these requirements.
 
 6 An En^IisJi Grammar 
 
 i^' 
 
 3. The Place of Grammar in the Language 
 Group. Grammar belongs to that group of sub- 
 jects which we call language studies because it 
 deals with or has for its subject-matter one phase 
 of language. Any subject which deals with lan- 
 guage, or has language for its subject-matter or 
 unit, is a language study. Geography is not a lan- 
 guage study because it deals with or has for its sub- 
 ject-matter or unit the facts and phenomena of the 
 earth. 
 
 The other subjects of this group of language 
 studies which we study in the public schools are: 
 literature, rhetoric, reading, composition, orthog- 
 raphy, orthoepy, and word analysis. 
 
 Orthography, orthoepy, and word analysis deal 
 with or have for their subject-matter that unit of 
 language which we call the word. 
 
 Composition, rhetoric, reading and literature 
 deal with or have for their subject-matter that 
 unit of language which we call discourse. 
 
 Grammar deals with or has for its subject- 
 matter that unit of language which we call the 
 sentence. 
 
 We might think, on first thought, that when we 
 are studying " parts of speech " the unit with which 
 we are dealing is the word. A little thought will 
 show us, however, that, although we are studying 
 words, the word is not the unit. If we ask what 
 part of speech the word, fine, is, we are unable to 
 tell until we see it in a sentence. If we say, It is a
 
 The Subject as a Whole 7 
 
 ■fine day, the word, fine, is an adjective. In the sen- 
 tence, TJte fine was remitted, the word, fine, is a 
 noun. While in the sentence, / fine you ten dollars, 
 the word, fine, is a verb. Thus we see that we can- 
 not even tell what part of speech a word is until 
 we see it in a sentence. 
 
 If we want to know the case of the word, pen, 
 we cannot tell until we see the word used in a sen- 
 tence. In the sentence. My pen is nezv, the word, 
 pen, is in the nominative case, while in the sen- 
 tence, I fiold my pen, the word, peit, is in the object- 
 ive case. Much more might be said to show that 
 whenever we are dealing with words in the subject 
 of grammar, the sentence is still the unit. We deal 
 with words in grammar only as parts of sentences. 
 In fact, the name '* parts of speech," implies that 
 there is a whole of speech. The whole of speech in 
 grammar is the sentence. 
 
 4. The Distinguishing Mark of Grammar. 
 
 The distinguishing mark of grammar, then, is that 
 it has for its subject-matter or unit the sentence. 
 No other language study deals with the sentence in 
 this way, or has the sentence for its subiect-matter 
 or unit. 
 
 5, Grammar Defined. Grammar is that lan- 
 guage study which has for its subject-matter or 
 unit the sentence. Test this definition and all 
 your definitions by the marks of a true definition, 
 as (liven in Section 2.
 
 S' An Ens.lish Grammar 
 
 fc.' 
 
 6. Outline of the Language Studies. An out- 
 line of the language studies, showing the place 
 of grammar among them, is as follows: 
 
 I. Definition. A language study is a study 
 that has for its subject-matter or unit some phase 
 of language; as, composition. 
 
 II. Classes- of language studies on the ba- 
 sis OF THE unit dealt WITH. 
 
 Class A. Dealing ivith Discourse. 
 
 1. Composition and Rhetoric. 
 
 2. Reading. 
 
 3. Literature. 
 
 Class B. Dealing zidth the Sentence. 
 I. Grammar. 
 
 Class C. Dealing zmth the Word. 
 
 1. Orthography. 
 
 2. Orthoepy. 
 
 3. Word Analysis.
 
 Chapter II 
 
 THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE 
 
 7. The Sentence Defined. If a person meets 
 you on the street and says, "" The tall green tree/' 
 your mind is not satisfied ; you have no complete con- 
 ception. You have an idea, hut your mind naturally 
 thinks, "Well, what about 'The tall green tree' f" 
 Your mind is satisfied when the person says, '' The 
 tall green tree was blown down by the storm." 
 
 This last group of words we call a sentence be- 
 cause it expresses a thought; the first group of 
 words is not a sentence because it does not express 
 a thought. 
 
 A sentence is a group of words which ex- 
 presses a thought ; as, A soldier must be brave. 
 
 Exercise i 
 
 Tell which of the follozving groups of words are 
 sentences and zvhich are not. Change the groups 
 of words zvhich are not sentences into sentences by 
 adding words to them: 
 
 1. The child in the window. 
 
 2. The picture hanging on the wall. 
 
 3. The sun is hot. 
 
 4. The sun shining in at the window. 
 
 5. The girl who tries to paint. 
 
 [9]
 
 10 A}i English Grammar 
 
 6. The streets are icy. 
 
 7. The large star shining in the west. 
 
 8. The large star. 
 
 9. The large star shining in the west is Venus. 
 10. The large -chair occupied by my father. 
 
 Write five sentences about objects which you 
 can see in the room. Write five groups of zuords 
 which are not sentences. Change these into sen- 
 tences by adding words to them. Write statements 
 showing hozu the first groups differ from your sen- 
 tences. 
 
 8. The Thought and the Sentence. The defi- 
 nition of the sentence shows us that it is only an 
 instrument to express the thought. The thought 
 is the important thing; the sentence exists for it. 
 If it were not for the thought, we should never need 
 a sentence. This must be true because every in- 
 strument depends upon or is determined by the work 
 which it is to do. 
 
 Take the garden hoe, for example. It is an in- 
 strument. It is made to suit the work which it is to 
 do. Every part and attribute of it depends upon 
 the work which it is to perform. Any question we 
 may ask about it must be answered by the nature 
 of the work which it is to do. Why is the handle 
 five feet in length instead of two? If the handle 
 were only two feet long, one would have to stoop too 
 much in using it. Why is the blade made of metal 
 instead of wood? It must stand hard knocks to
 
 The Sentence as a Whole il 
 
 break the clods and stir the soil. Why is the blade 
 sharp ? It must cut weeds. We see that everythino: 
 about this instrument is adapted to the work which 
 it is to do. 
 
 In the same way, the sentence is adapted to the 
 expression of the thought. A person could not un- 
 derstand the garden hoe unless he knew about the 
 garden and plants, how they grow, and that they 
 must be cultivated. Nor can a person understand 
 ihe sentence — the instrument for expressing the 
 1 bought — until he understands something about the 
 thought. 
 
 9. The Thought Defined. If we think of 
 that which the word, roses, expresses, we have an 
 idea. That which the expression, red roses or large 
 red roses, expresses is still an idea, though it is more 
 complex than the idea, roses. The group of words, 
 large red roses grozving by the zvindow, expresses 
 only one idea, though it is much more complex than 
 any of the other ideas just mentioned. 
 
 Any one of these ideas is a complete mental- act, 
 but it is not a thought. If we think of that 
 which the words, roses fragrant, or roses growing, 
 express, we still have only ideas. In this case we 
 have two ideas, that expressed by the word, 
 roses, and that expressed by the word, fragrant, or 
 ih.'il expressed by the word, roses, and that ex- 
 pressed by the word, grozving. We do not know 
 whether the ideas, fragrant and grozving, belong to
 
 12 An English Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 the idea, roses, or not. Other things are fragrant 
 and other things perform the act of grozuing. 
 
 The expression, roses growing, does not express 
 a thought, then, but only two ideas. In order to 
 make a thous^ht out of these two ideas the mind 
 must assert a relation between them. It must 
 assert that the idea, growing, belongs to the idea, 
 roses, or else it must assert that the idea, growing, 
 does not belong to the idea, roses. If we express 
 this first assertion by means of words, we must have 
 one more word than we have yet used ; as, Roses are 
 growing. If we express the second assertion, we 
 must have two more words ; as, Roses are not grow- 
 ing. 
 
 This shows us how the mind thinks a thought 
 and what is necessary to the thought. If the mind 
 wishes to think a thought, it begins with some idea 
 about which it can assert another idea; as the idea, 
 stars. Then it thinks some attribute or group of 
 attributes; as the idea, twinkling. This does not 
 form a thought. To form a thought the mind 
 must in the third place assert a relation between 
 the idea, stars, and the idea, twinkling. Let us say 
 that, in this case, it asserts the relation, that the 
 idea, twinkling, belongs to the idea stars. This 
 gives it the thought. Stars are twinkling. 
 
 The mind performs all these activities so quickly 
 that we do not realize that it has taken these three 
 steps; but, when we analyze the thought carefully, 
 we see that the mind must perform these three acts
 
 The Sentence as a Whole 13 
 
 or take these three steps every time it thinks a 
 thought. No thought can be formed by the mind 
 with fewer than these three elements: 
 
 1. An idea about which the mind asserts an- 
 other idea. 
 
 2. An idea which the mind asserts concerning 
 the first idea. 
 
 3. The relation between the two ideas. 
 What, then, is a thought or judgment? A 
 
 thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts 
 a relation between ideas; as, Snow is zvhite. The 
 thought is the mental act, Snozv is white. 
 
 What is an idea? An idea is a mental act 
 which may form an element or part of a thought, 
 such as is expressed in the sentence. Gold is valua- 
 ble. The idea is the mental act, gold or valuable 
 or is. 
 
 Exercise 2 
 
 Think of eight or ten things in your school room; 
 such as, pictures, -flowers, and maps. Begin with 
 these ideas; think other ideas which your mind can 
 assert about these ideas; make the assertions, thus 
 forming th ough ts. 
 
 Shozv hozu the mind has constructed the thoughts 
 expressed by the following sentences by pointing out 
 the three steps in the thoughts: 
 
 1. Flowers arc blooming. 
 
 2. Grass is growing. 
 
 3. Birds are singing. 
 
 4. Streams are flowing. ^ly
 
 14 
 
 All English Grammar 
 
 5. Coal is black. 
 
 6. Ice is cold. 
 
 7. Rain is falling. 
 
 8. Sugar is sweet. 
 
 9. Apples are ripe. 
 10. Pinks are fragrant. 
 
 10. The Thought and the Sentence Com- 
 pared. The differences between the thought and 
 the sentence brought out in the last two sections 
 are very important. They may be summed up as 
 follows : 
 
 The Thought. 
 
 1. The thought is a mental 
 
 act. 
 
 2. The thought is a group of 
 
 related ideas. 
 
 3. The thought is the end. 
 
 4. The thought is subjective, 
 inside, in the mind. 
 
 5. The thought cannot be 
 known through the 
 senses. We cannot see 
 it or hear it or touch it. 
 
 The Sentence. 
 
 1. The sentence is the ex- 
 
 pression of a mental act. 
 
 2. The sentence is a group 
 
 of related words. 
 
 3. The sentence is the means 
 
 or instrument, not the 
 end. 
 
 4. The sentence is objective, 
 
 outside, on the board or 
 in the book, or in the air 
 if spoken. 
 
 5. The sentence can be 
 
 known through the 
 senses. We can see it, 
 hear it and touch it. 
 
 II. The Elements of the Thought. From 
 what we have already learned about the thought, 
 we can see that every thought must contain three 
 elements. In the thought, The ants are busy, the
 
 The Sente-nce as a Whole 15 
 
 mind begins with the idea, The ants. That is the 
 idea about which it thinks or asserts another idea. 
 Then the mind thinks, in connection with it, the 
 idea, busy. It holds the two up together, as it were, 
 for comparison. Third, the mind sees the agree- 
 ment between these ideas and asserts that the 
 idea, busy, belongs to the idea. The ants. This third 
 element is the relation between the first idea, 
 The ants, and the second idea, busy. 
 
 In the thought. Flowers bloom, we have these 
 same elements. The first idea is the idea. Flowers. 
 The second idea, which the mind holds up with this 
 idea for comparison, is the idea, bloom. The third 
 idea or element is that this idea, bloom, belongs to 
 or this act is performed by the idea, Flowers. The 
 mind cannot think a thought with fewer than these 
 three elements, and no thought can contain more 
 than these three elements. 
 
 Exercise 3 
 
 In the thoughts expressed by the follozving sen- 
 tences, point out the three elements: 
 
 1. Elephants are powerful. 
 
 2. Walking is pleasant. 
 
 3. Some books are interesting. 
 
 4. M^en think. 
 
 5. Rain falls. 
 
 12. The Elements of the Thought. The 
 first idea in the thought, the idea with which the 
 mind begins, may be called the thought subject.
 
 16 An English Grammar 
 
 The second idea in the thought, the idea which 
 the mind compares with the first idea, may be 
 called the thought predicate. The third idea in 
 the thought, the relation between the first and the 
 second ideas, may be called the thought relation. 
 
 The thought subject is the idea about which 
 the mind asserts another idea. In the thought, 
 The fog is rising, the thought subject is the idea. 
 The fo9\ 
 
 The thought predicate is the idea which the 
 mind asserts of the thought subject. In the 
 thought, The fog is rising, the thought predicate is 
 the idea, risin 
 
 g- 
 
 The thought relation is the relation which the 
 mind asserts between the thought subject and the 
 thought predicate. In the thought, The fog is ris- 
 ing, the thought relation is that the idea, rising, or 
 the thought predicate, belongs to the idea, The fog, 
 or the thought subject. This thought relation is 
 expressed by the word, is. 
 
 The mind does not always assert that the 
 thought predicate belongs to the thought subject. 
 It may assert that the thought predicate does not 
 belong to the thought subject ; as. This paper is not 
 clean. In this thought, the mind asserts that the 
 thought predicate, the idea, clean, does not belong 
 to the thought subject, the idea, This paper. 
 
 This fact gives us two kinds of thought rela- 
 tions ; one in which the mind asserts that the thought 
 predicate belongs to the thought subject and one in
 
 The Sentence as a Whole 17 
 
 which the mind asserts that the thought predicate 
 does not belong to the thought subject. We call the 
 first a relation of agreement. We call the second 
 a relation of disagreement. 
 
 Exercise 4 
 
 In the thoughts expressed by the following sen- 
 tences, tell zi,'hicJi has a relation of agreement and 
 which a relation of disagreement: 
 
 1. Iron is heavy. 
 
 2. My pencil is not long. 
 
 3. My pen is not good. 
 
 4. Jonathan was faithful to David. 
 
 5. The lesson was not difficult. 
 
 Write Hvc sentences expressing relations of 
 agreement and five which express relations of dis- 
 agreement. 
 
 The mind may see tliat the thought predicate is 
 a part or an attribute of the thought subject; as, 
 The man is charitable. The snn shines. Or it may 
 see that the thought subject is an individual or a 
 class of individuals, and that the thought predicate 
 is an individual or a class of individuals, and that 
 the attributes of the thought predicate belong to 
 the thought subject; as, Monroe was a statesman. 
 Violets are plants. These men arc natives. The Mis- 
 sissippi is the father of waters. When the mind as- 
 serts any of these relations between the thought 
 subject and the thought predicate, we call it a 
 relation of agreement.
 
 1^ An English Graiinnar 
 
 But the mind may assert just the opposite of 
 this relation. It may assert that the thought pred- 
 icate does not belong to the thought subject or that 
 the attributes of the thought predicate do not be- 
 long to the thought subject; as, The man is not 
 charitable. The sun does not shine. Monroe was 
 not a statesman. Violets are not minerals. These 
 men are not natives. The Missouri is not the father 
 of waters. 
 
 When the mind asserts any of these relations 
 between the thought subject and the thought pred- 
 icate we call it a relation of disagreement. 
 
 13. The Thought Analyzed. We may then 
 analyze a thought or judgment as follows: Web- 
 ster, the statesman, zvas a great lawyer. The 
 thought is the mental act, Webster, the states- 
 man, was a great lawyer, because it is a mental act 
 in which the mind asserts a relation between ideas. 
 The thought subject is the idea, Webster, the 
 statesman, because it is an idea about which the 
 mind asserts another idea. The thought predicate 
 is the idea, a great lawyer, because it is the idea 
 which the mind asserts of the thought subject. The 
 thought relation is one of agreement because the 
 attributes of the thought predicate belong to the 
 thought subject. 
 
 Exercise 5 
 
 Analyze the fh oughts expressed by the follozving 
 sentences:
 
 TJie Sentence as a Whole 19 
 
 1. The climate of California is mild. 
 
 2. The snow was melting from the mountains. 
 
 3. The flowers were springing up everywhere. 
 
 4. Chaucer was the father of English poetry. 
 
 5. Tobacco is harvested in the latter part of August. 
 
 6. We camped on Moosehead lake. 
 
 7. The boys rowed the boat down the stream. 
 
 8. The cave was very damp. 
 
 14. The Parts of the Sentence. We have 
 now seen that the thought alway.s consists of three 
 elements ; that the sentence is the instrument for 
 expressing the thought ; that the instrument is al- 
 ways adapted to the work which it is to do; and 
 that the sentence is, therefore, adapted to the 
 thought. The sentence must then have three parts 
 corresponding to or expressing the three elements 
 of the thought. If you will refer to Section 10, you 
 will see that this is the only way in which the sen- 
 tence and the thought are alike. The thought has 
 three elements; the sentence has three parts. 
 This is the only way they can be alike. 
 
 That part of the sentence which corresponds to 
 or expresses the thought subject we call the sub- 
 ject of the sentence. That part of the sentence 
 which corresponds to or expresses the thought pred- 
 icate we call the predicate of the sentence. That 
 part of the sentence which corresponds to or ex- 
 presses the thought relation, we call the copula 
 of the sentence. 
 
 In the sentence, Dark clouds were overhead, the
 
 20 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 subject of the sentence is tlie words, Dark clouds, 
 because they express the thought subject. The 
 predicate of the sentence is the word, overhead, be- 
 cause it expresses the thought predicate. The cop- 
 ula of the sentence is the word, were, because it ex- 
 presses the thought relation. 
 
 15. The Parts of the Sentence Defined. A¥e 
 may then form the following definitions: 
 
 1. The subject of the sentence is the word or 
 group of words which expresses the thought sub- 
 ject; as, in the sentence, Milk is zvhite, the subject 
 is the word, Milk. 
 
 2. The predicate is the word or group of 
 words which expresses the thought predicate; 
 as, in the sentence, Storms are fright fid, the predi- 
 cate is the word, fright fid. 
 
 3. The copula is the word or group of words 
 which expresses the thought relation; as, in the 
 sentence. The righteous man is exalted, the copula 
 is the word, is. 
 
 16. Why Every Sentence in the English Lan- 
 guage Must Have These Three Parts. Every 
 person who wishes to master the English sentence 
 should know, first of all, the following facts : 
 
 I. The verb, he, in all its forms, he, am, is, are, 
 art, zvas, zvast, zvere, wert, and beejt, is the only 
 pure verb in the English language. 
 
 Note : Section 16 may simply be carefully read at first. Tn con- 
 nection nith the study of the pure verb, return to it for more care- 
 ful consideration.
 
 The Sentence as a Whole 21 
 
 2. We mean by saying it is the only .pure verb 
 that it is the only verb in the English language 
 which always expresses the thought relation and 
 never expresses anything else. The verb, be, with 
 its modifiers and auxiliaries, if it has any, is always 
 the copula of the sentence, and never anything else. 
 It and its modifiers are never a part of the predicate 
 of the sentence. At one time in the history of the 
 language, the verb, be, had the power to express an 
 attribute. It then meant exists. The sentence, God 
 is, at the time at which it was written, meant, God 
 exists. We do not so use this verb now. It has lost 
 all power to express an attribute, and has now come 
 to be used as a mere connective or copula between 
 the subject and the predicate. Whenever we find 
 any form of this verb in the sentence, then, we may 
 be sure that it, with its auxiliaries and modifiers, 
 if it has any, is the copula of the sentence. 
 
 3. Sometimes other verbs, such as, become, 
 grow, get, turn, refiiain, continue, stay, seem, ap- 
 pear, look, sound, smell, feel, stand, sit, go, and 
 move, are used in the sentence with the force of 
 a pure verb; as. The field looks green. The child 
 feels sick. 
 
 In such cases these verbs are the copulas of the 
 sentences. But these verbs are not always used in 
 this way. 
 
 4. Every other verb in the English language 
 may be expanded into some form of the verb, be, 
 and another word, usually the present participle,
 
 22 An Encrlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 which expresses the attribute or thought predicate 
 or the principal part of the thought predicate; as, 
 
 /. They beg is ec[ual to Tliey are beggars or 
 They are begging. 
 
 2. They may write is equal to They may be 
 writing . 
 
 J. He must go is equal to He must be going. 
 
 4. She does study is equal to She does be study- 
 ing. 
 
 5. We do insist is equal to IVe do be insisting. 
 
 6. The hoy Jiad gone is equal to Tlie boy had 
 been going. 
 
 /. They have studied is equal to They have been 
 studying. 
 
 8. His brotJier zvill have departed is equal to His 
 brother will have been departing. 
 
 In the above sentences the part in black faced 
 type in each case is the copula. It is clear, there- 
 fore, that every sentence in the English language 
 not only may have three parts, but every sentence 
 must have, either actually in it or implied in it, these 
 three parts: subject, predicate, and copula. 
 
 To say that a sentence has three parts, however, 
 is not the same as to say it has three words in it. 
 Sometimes, as we have just seen, one word per- 
 forms two offices in the sentence. In the sentence, 
 They beg, the word, beg, expresses the thought re- 
 lation and the thought predicate. Thus it performs 
 two offices in the sentence, or stands for two parts 
 of the sentence. These two parts of the sentence
 
 The Sentence as a Whole 23 
 
 may be shown by expanding the word, heg, into its 
 equivalent expression, are beggars, or are begging. 
 Now the sentence has three visible or audible parts, 
 They are begging. A sentence may have only one 
 visible or audible part; as, March. Yet this sen- 
 tence contains three parts, for there is a subject un- 
 derstood, the word, yoti. The sentence means, You 
 march. Then the word, march, performs two of- 
 fices. It expresses the thought relation and the 
 thought predicate and may be expanded into the 
 expression, be marching. The sentence, March, 
 tlien really means. You be marching, and in this we 
 have three visible or audible parts. No matter how 
 many or how few words a sentence may contain, it 
 is always made up of three parts: subject, predi- 
 cate and copula. 
 
 Exercise 6 
 
 Analyze the thoughts expressed by the following 
 sentences, by giving the thought subject, the tJiought 
 predicate, and the thought relation of each, with 
 the reason in each case. Then analyze the sen- 
 tences by giving the subject, predicate, and copula 
 of each, zvith a reason in each case. Let your lan- 
 guage in the analysis show clearly the distinction 
 betzveen the sentence and the thought. 
 
 To make tJiis point clearer, let us analyze these 
 sentences: 
 
 Model for the Analysis of the Thought. 
 
 /. The Kin^ was silent. 
 
 The thought is the mental act, The King was
 
 24 An English Grammar 
 
 silent, because it is a mental act in which the mind 
 asserts a relation between ideas. The thought subject is 
 the idea, The King, because it is the idea about which the 
 mind asserts another idea. The thought predicate is the 
 idea, silent, because it is the idea which the mind asserts of 
 the thought subject. The thought relation is one of 
 agreement because the thought predicate belongs to the 
 thought subject. 
 
 Model for the Analysis of the Sentence. 
 
 //. The King was silent. 
 
 The sentence is the group of words. The King 
 was silent, because it is a group of words which 
 expresses a thought. The subject of the sentence is the 
 words, The King, because they express the thought sub- 
 ject. The predicate is the word, silent, because it expresses 
 the thought predicate. The copula is the word, was, be- 
 cause it expresses the thought relation. 
 
 ///. Columbus discovered America. 
 
 The sentence is the group of words, Columbus discov- 
 ered America, because it is a group of words which expresses 
 a thought. The subject of the sentence is the word, Colum- 
 bus, because it expresses the thought subject. The predicate 
 is the words, discovered America, because they express the 
 thought predicate. The copula is implied in the word, dis- 
 covered. If it were expanded, it would be zvas discovering. 
 The copula is then the word, was, because it expresses the 
 thought relation. 
 
 Sentences To Be Analyzed. 
 
 1. The Puritans were strict. 
 
 2. Coal is a mineral. 
 
 3. My uncle's farm is fertile.
 
 The Sentence as a Whole 25 
 
 4. We enjoyed a moonlight sail. 
 
 5. Coasting is dangerous. 
 
 6. The natives enjoy climbing mountains. 
 
 7. A prairie fire is an impressive sight. 
 
 8. The village street leads past the church. 
 
 9. The Van Tassel homestead was not large. 
 
 10. A New England kitchen has a thrifty appearance. 
 
 Review 
 
 Read each sentence in the following paragraph 
 and think the thought expressed by it. Give the 
 three elements of the thought. Give the three parts 
 of the sentence. 
 
 This was to be our visiting day. The next that came 
 was Mr. Burchell, who had been at the fair. He brought 
 my little ones a pennyworth of gingerbread each, which 
 my wife undertook to keep for them, and give them by 
 letters at a time. He brought my daughters also a couple 
 of boxes, in which they might keep wafers. snufT, patches, 
 or even money when they got it. My wife was unusually 
 fond of a weasel-skin purse as being the most lucky ; 
 but this by the by. 
 
 — Goldsmith.
 
 TJic Second Section 
 Chapter III 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES 
 
 17. On the Basis of their Meaning or Chief 
 Purpose. Sentences are used to awaken thoughts 
 in the mind. Whenever, you use a sentence, you 
 wish to produce some effect upon another mind. 
 
 Exainine the following sentences to see if you 
 can state the chief purpose of each. What would 
 you expect to accomplish zvith them? 
 
 1. London is the largest city in the world. 
 
 2. Is London the largest city in the world? 
 
 3. Find the population of London for your next lesson. 
 
 4. What a large city London is ! 
 
 1. The chief purpose of the first sentence is to 
 give information to the mind. 
 
 2. The chief purpose of the second sentence 
 is to obtain information from the mind. 
 
 3. The chief purpose of the third sentence is 
 to have the mind act, to cause it to do something. 
 
 4. The chief purpose of the fourth sentence 
 is to awaken emotion. It awakens the emotion 
 of surprise at the size of the city of London. 
 
 This difference in the chief purpose of sen- 
 tences gives us four classes on that basis. We 
 call the first a Declarative sentence; the second, 
 
 [26J '
 
 Classes of Sentences 27 
 
 an Interrogative sentence; the third, an Impera- 
 tive sentence; and the fourth, an Exclamatory 
 sentence. 
 
 1 8. These Classes Defined. The four classes 
 of sentences may be defined as follows : 
 
 1. A Declarative sentence is a sentence whose 
 chief purpose is to give information; as, TJie first 
 man zuas Adam. 
 
 2. An Interrogative * sentence is a sentence 
 whose chief purpose is to obtain information; as, 
 WJio zvas the first woman? 
 
 3. An Imperative sentence is a sentence whose 
 chief purpose is to move the will ; as, Read the first 
 stanza of the poem. 
 
 4. An Exclamatory sentence is a sentence 
 whose chief purpose is to awaken emotion; as, 
 Alas! That zve sJiould fail! 
 
 Exercise 7 
 
 Classify flie following sentences on the basis of 
 their chief purpose and give your reasons: 
 
 1. Constant dropping wears away stones. 
 
 2. Tom rowed with untired vigor, and with a different 
 speed from poor Maggie's. — Eliot. 
 
 3. Mercy, sir, how the folks will talk of it ! 
 
 4. Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues we 
 write in water. 
 
 5. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk. 
 
 6. Why was the French Revolution so bloody and de- 
 structive ?
 
 28 An English Grammar 
 
 7. Be clean, for the strength of the hunter is known 
 by the gloss of his hide. — Kipling. 
 
 8. Honey from out the quarreled hive I'll bring. 
 
 9. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle. 
 
 10. Where are you going, my pretty maid? 
 
 11. " The Dwarf asked, " Who is my master? " 
 
 12. Toussaint wrote to Napoleon, " Sire, I am a French 
 citizen ; have I ever broken a law ? " 
 
 13. Tell me what you like and I will tell you what you 
 are, — Ruskin. 
 
 14. " Think you, Abel," said Paul at last, " that the 
 storm drove thither?" 
 
 15. The way was long, the wind was cold 
 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. — Scott. 
 
 Write five declarative sentences about facts in 
 history. Write five interrogative sentences asking 
 for information in geography. Write Hve impera- 
 tive sentences zvhicJi may be used by the teacher. 
 Write five exclamatory sentences which may be 
 used in climbing mountains, at a circus, at a base 
 ball game. 
 
 Exercise 8 
 
 19. Arrangement of the Sentence. Point out 
 the subject, predicate, and copula in each of the fol- 
 lowing sentences: 
 
 1. I am a poor man. 
 
 2. Who will help me? 
 
 3. Every man's task is his life preserver. 
 
 4. The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook. 
 
 5. When did the leopard ever change his spots? 
 
 6. Can one stop the current of a river?
 
 Classes of Sentences 29 
 
 7. How beautiful is white-winged peace ! 
 
 8. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of 
 him that bringeth glad tidings ! 
 
 9. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
 
 10. Charity begins at home. 
 
 11. Am I required to go? 
 
 20. Arrangement Defined. In which kind 
 of sentence in the preceding list does the subject 
 usually come first, the copula next, and the predi- 
 cate last? Is this always true? Notice sentence 9. 
 In what kind of sentence does the copula sometimes 
 come first? Notice sentence 11. Does the predi- 
 cate of the sentence ever come first? Notice sen- 
 tence 8. Sum up your observations on the sen- 
 tences. 
 
 The arrangement of the sentence is the order 
 in which the parts occur in it; as. The Romans 
 conquered the zvorld. Is the room zvarm? Whose 
 hook have you? 
 
 21. Kinds of Arrangements. In the sen- 
 tence, Poe ivas the father of the sJiort story, what 
 is the order of the subject, predicate, and copula? 
 We call this natural or regular arrangement. In 
 what order are the subject, predicate, and copula 
 when a sentence is in its natural order? 
 
 In the sentence, Great was the fall of Rome, what 
 is the order of the subject, predicate, and copula^ 
 Does the copula ever come first in the sentence^ 
 Illustrate. We call this arrangement of the sen-
 
 30 An English Grammar 
 
 tence inverted arrangement. In what order are 
 the subject, predicate, and copula when a sentence 
 is inverted arrangement? 
 
 Natural or regular arrangement is that ar- 
 rangement in which the subject comes first in the 
 sentence, the copula next, and the predicate last; 
 as, David was the clianipion of Israel. 
 
 Inverted arrangement is any arrangement of 
 the parts of a sentence other than the natural; as, 
 Holy art thou, oh, Lord of Hosts! 
 
 Arrange the sentences in the follozving extraet 
 from "Evangeline" in their natitrol order: 
 
 Fair was she to behold, that maiden of seventeen summers, 
 Black were her eyes as the berry that grows on the thorn 
 
 by the wayside, 
 Black, yet how softly they gleamed beneath the brown 
 
 shade of her tresses ! 
 Sweet was her breath as the breath of kine that feed in the 
 
 meadow, 
 When in the harvest heat she bore to the reapers at noontide 
 Flagons of home-brewed ale, ah ! fair in sooth was the 
 
 maiden. 
 Fairer was she when, on Sunday morn, while the bell from 
 
 its turret 
 Sprinkled with holy sounds the air, as the priest with his 
 
 hyssop 
 Sprinkles the congregation, and scatters blessings among 
 
 them. 
 But a celestial brightness, a more ethereal beauty, 
 Shone on her face and encircled her form, when after 
 
 confession.
 
 Classes of Sentences 31 
 
 Homeward serenely she walked with God's benediction 
 
 upon her. 
 When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of exquisite 
 
 music. — Longfellozv. 
 
 Exercise 9 
 
 Show what the arrangement of each of the fol- 
 lozving sentences is, and notice the punctuation: 
 
 1. Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 2. Who killed Cock Robin? 
 
 3. Wait until you can see the whites of their eyes. 
 
 4. O what a rapturous cry ! 
 
 5. Alas ! that thou shouldst die ! 
 
 6. Oh, where shall rest be found ! 
 
 7. Whom were you seeking? 
 
 8. Is the world round? 
 
 9. In the city, Wilfred was discontented. 
 
 10. The Puritan prostrated himself in the dust before his 
 Maker, but he set his foot on the neck of his king. 
 
 — Macaulay. 
 
 22. Punctuation and Capitalization. By ex- 
 amining the sentences in the preceding" lists, we 
 may note the following": 
 
 The first word of every sentence begins with 
 a capital letter. 
 
 The Declarative and Imperative sentences 
 close with the period (.). 
 
 The Interrogative sentence closes with the in- 
 terrogation point (?). 
 
 The Exclamatory sentence closes with the ex- 
 clamation point ( !) . 
 
 In the exclamatory sentence, ws often hr.ve a
 
 32 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 word which expresses emotion. It is called an 
 interjection. Point out the interjections in the 
 preceding- list of sentences. Notice the punctuation 
 marks after the interjections. 
 
 1. When the interjection and the remainder of 
 the sentence unite closely to express the same 
 emotion, no mark of punctuation follows the in- 
 terjection ; as, Oh for a lodge in some vast wilder- 
 ness! 
 
 2. When the interjection and the remainder of 
 the sentence do not unite very closely to express 
 the same emotion, the interjection is followed by 
 the comma (,) ; as, Oh, how happy I am! 
 
 3. When the interjection expresses an emotion 
 different from the thought expressed by the re- 
 mainder of the sentence, the interjection should be 
 followed by an exclamation point ( !) ; as, Alas! 
 wJiat a terrible accident! 
 
 Exercise 10 
 
 Punctuate and capitalise the follozving sen- 
 tences, and give your reasons: 
 
 1. fie on him 
 
 2. the natives gathered around him 
 
 3. call the guard 
 
 4. oh that those lips had language 
 
 5. is the young man safe 
 
 6. oh for a kindly touch from that pure flame 
 
 7. oh what a fall was there my countrymen 
 
 8. the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak 
 
 9. alas what mortal terror we are in
 
 Classes of Sentences 33 
 
 lo. where was Columbus born 
 
 If. and hark how clear bold Chanticleer 
 warmed with the new wine of the year 
 tells all in his lusty crowing — Lowell. 
 
 12, give me of your bark O Birch-tree 
 
 Review and Work in Composition 
 
 TO THE FRINGED GENTIAN 
 
 Thou blossom bright with autumn dew, 
 And colored with the heaven's own blue, 
 That openest when the quiet light 
 Succeeds the keen and frosty night. 
 
 Thou comest not when violets lean 
 
 O'er wandering brooks and springs unseen, 
 
 Or columbines, in purple dressed, 
 
 Nod o'er the ground-bird's hidden nest. 
 
 Thou waitest late and com'st alone, 
 When woods are bare and birds are flown. 
 And frosts and shortening days portend 
 The aged year is near his end. 
 
 Then doth thy sweet and quiet eye 
 Look through its fringes to the sky, 
 Blue — blue — as if that sky let fall 
 A flower from its cerulean wall. 
 
 I would that thus, when I shall see 
 
 The hour of death draw near to me, 
 
 Hope blossoming within my heart, 
 
 May look to heaven as I depart. — Bryant. 
 
 Learn all you can about the fringed gentian 
 from the poem. What color is it? JVhcn does it
 
 34 An English Grammar 
 
 bloom? Does it close at night and open in the 
 morning? Note lines three and four of the first 
 stanza. With zvhat other flozvers does the author 
 contrast it? How? What is the ''ground-bird"? 
 With what is the year compared? Explain the 
 fourth stanza in your ozvn words. What is a "ceru- 
 lean ivall"? What wish does the author express 
 in the last stanza? 
 
 Did you ever see a fringed gentian? Learn all 
 you can about the flozver from sources other than 
 the poem. 
 
 Write one-page papers on one or tzvo of the fol- 
 lozving topics: 
 
 1. Why is the fringed gentian so highly prized? 
 
 2. The Gentian and its Spring rivals ; a comparison. 
 
 3. Glimpses of Spring and Autumn. (Enlarge some of 
 the scenes suggested by the poem.) 
 
 4. The (icntian and the Poet's wish.
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES 
 
 23. On the Basis of Number and Relation of 
 the Thoughts Expressed, or the Form. Exam- 
 ine the follozmng sentences carefully. Tell how many 
 thoughts each expresses. Give the elements of each 
 I Ji ought. Give the parts of each sentence or clause. 
 IVhen the sentence 'expresses more than one 
 tJi ought, try to state the relation between the 
 thoughts. Is one thought a part of the otlier? Is 
 it a part of the thought subject, or the thought 
 predicate, or the thought relation of tJie other; or is 
 neither thought a part of the other? 
 
 1. Washington, the father of his country, was our first 
 president. 
 
 2. Washington, who was the father of liis country, was 
 our first president. 
 
 3. Washington was the father of his country, and he 
 was our first president. 
 
 We notice that the first of these sentences ex- 
 presses only a sinc^le thought subject, a single 
 thought predicate, and a single thought relation 
 Tn other words, it expresses only one thought. 
 We call this kind of sentence a simple sentence. 
 
 The second sentence expresses two thought 
 
 [35]
 
 36 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 subjects, two thought predicates, and two thought 
 relations. In other words it expresses two 
 thoughts. The first thought is expressed by the 
 words, IVashington was our first president. Give 
 the elements of this thought and then the parts of 
 the clause. The second thought is expressed by 
 the words. Who zvas tJie father of his country. 
 Give the elements of this thought and then the parts 
 of the clause. We notice, however, that the second 
 thought is a part of the thought subject of the first 
 thought. Sometimes the second thought is a part 
 of the thought predicate or the thought relation of 
 the first thought. When a thought is a part of 
 one of the elements of another thought, we call it a 
 subordinate thought, or we say that the thoughts 
 expressed by such a sentence are of unequal rank. 
 The first thought expressed by this second sentence 
 we call a principal thought because it does not de- 
 pend upon or is not a part of any other thought. 
 We call this kind of a sentence a complex sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The third sentence in the list also expresses two 
 thoughts. The first thought is expressed by the 
 words, Washington was the father of his country. 
 Give the elements of this thought and then the parts 
 of the clause. The second thought is expressed 
 by the words, lie zvas our first president. Give 
 the elements of this thought and then the parts of 
 the clause. In this particular it is like the second 
 sentence and diflfers from the first sentence. It
 
 Classes of Sentences 37 
 
 differs from the second sentence, however, in that 
 neither one of these thoughts is a part of the other. 
 We say that they are independent thoughts or 
 thoughts of equal rank because neither one is de- 
 pendent upon or forms a part of the other. We 
 call this kind of a sentence a compound sentence. 
 
 24. Simple, Complex and Compound Sen- 
 tences Defined. From what we have said in the 
 last section, we may form the following definitions: 
 
 1. A simple sentence is a sentence which ex- 
 presses a single thought; as. Gold glitters. 
 
 2. A Complex sentence is a sentence which 
 expresses one principal thought and one or more 
 subordinate thoughts; as, Gold, which is valua- 
 ble, glitters when held in the sunlight. 
 
 3. A Compound sentence is a sentence which 
 expresses two or more independent thoughts of 
 equal rank; as, Gold glitters in the sunlight and 
 it is valuable. 
 
 25. The Clause Defined. We may also see 
 from the last two Sections that a clause is very much 
 like a sentence. It expresses a thought and like 
 the sentence it has a subject, predicate and copula. 
 But it is always a part of a sentence. 
 
 A clause is a group of words, composed of a 
 subject, predicate and copula, which is a part of 
 a sentence; as, The Charter Oak, which zvas 
 blown down in a storm, was an historic landmark. 
 This sentence contains two clauses. The first clause
 
 38 An Etiplish Gratnmar 
 
 &' 
 
 is the words, The Charter Oak zvas an historic land- 
 mark. The second clause is the words, which was 
 blozvn doivn in a storm. 
 
 Exercise ii 
 
 Take your dictionaries and find flic literal mean- 
 ing of the zvords sXmplQ, complex and compound 
 as indicated in Section r. D-o the literal meanings 
 of these zvords help you to nnderst^and these kinds of 
 sentences f Why? 
 
 Analyze the follozving thonghts and sentences 
 according to the follozving scheme: 
 
 Classify the sentences on the two rases .which we 
 
 HAVE so far discovered, THAT IS. ON THE BASIS OF CHIEF 
 PURPOSE AND THE BASIS OF THE NUMBER AND RELATION OF 
 THOUGHTS EXPRESSED, STATE THE BASIS IN EACH CASE AND 
 GIVE THE REASONS FOR YOUR CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 T. If TIIF SENTENCE IS A SIMPLE SENTENCE: 
 
 (a) Give fhc elements of the tJionght expressed by it 
 zmth reasons for each. 
 
 (b) Give file parts of iJie sentence zmth reasons for 
 eacJi. 
 
 ir. If ttte sentence is complex: 
 
 (a) Give tlie elements of the entire thought zvith 
 reasons. 
 
 (b) Give the parts of the entire sentence with reasons. 
 
 (c) Give the zvords zvhich e.r press the principal thought. 
 
 1. Give the elements of the principal thought. 
 
 2. Give the parts of the principal clause. 
 
 (d) Give the zvords zvhich express eacfi subordinate 
 
 thought. 
 
 1. Give the elements of each subordinate thought. 
 
 2. Giz'c the parts of each subordinate clause.
 
 Classes of Sentences 39 
 
 TIT. Tf the sentence is compound: 
 
 (a) Give the words zvkich express each independent 
 thought. 
 
 1. Give the elements of each independent thought 
 
 with reasons. 
 
 2. Give the parts of each independent clause with 
 
 reasons. 
 
 (b) Give the words zMch express each subordinate 
 thought, if any. 
 
 1. Give the elements of each subordinate thought. 
 
 2. Give the parts of each subordinate clause. 
 
 1. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of 
 freedom. 
 
 2. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the 
 rapidity of vibration. 
 
 3. We can easily prove that the earth is a sphere. 
 
 4. They who are accompanied by noble thoughts are 
 never alone. 
 
 5. Blessed is the man who has nothing to say and who 
 ins-sts upon not saying it. 
 
 6. William Cullen Bryant was born at Cummington, 
 Massachusetts, November 3, 1794. 
 
 7. The Embargo was published in Boston in 1809, and 
 was written when Bryant was only thirteen years old. 
 
 8. The Catskill Mountains have always been a region 
 full of fable. — Irving. 
 
 9. He was accustomed to tell his story to every stranger 
 that arrived at Mr. Doolittle's hotel. — Irving. 
 
 10. Rip's story was soon told for the whole twenty years 
 had been to him but as one night. — Irving. 
 
 Ti. Many birds have different tones for various phases of 
 their emotions. 
 
 12. Song sometimes seems to have in it the element of 
 rejoicing in anticipation.
 
 40 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 13. There is a power whose care 
 
 Teaches thy way along that pathless coast. 
 
 — Bryant. 
 
 14. Vainly the fowler's eye 
 
 Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. 
 
 — Bryant. 
 
 15. All that breathe will share thy destiny. 
 
 — Bryant. 
 
 16. I have heard that nothing gives an author so great 
 pleasure as to have his works respectfully quoted by other 
 learned authors. — Franklin. 
 
 17. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of 
 heaven, blossomed the lovely stars. — Longfellow. 
 
 18. This pleasure I have seldom enjoyed. 
 
 19. Example appeals not to our understanding alone, 
 but it awakens our passions likewise. 
 
 20. If thou didst ever thy dear father love, revenge his 
 foul and most unnatural murder. — Shakespeare. 
 
 21. The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives. 
 
 22. If you blow your neighbor's fire, do not complain if 
 the sparks fly in your face. 
 
 23. Do not measure other people in your half bushel. 
 
 24. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 
 
 But one dead lamb is there ! 
 There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
 
 But has one vacant chair ! — Longfellow. 
 
 25. Thou lingering star, with lessening ray. 
 
 That lov'st to greet the early morn. 
 Again thou usherest in the day 
 
 My Mary from my soul was torn. — Burns. 
 
 i6. Lightly and brightly breaks away 
 
 The morning from her mantle gray. 
 ^7. Softly sweet in Lydian measures, 
 
 Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures ; 
 War, he sung, is toil and trouble;
 
 Classes of Sentences 41 
 
 Honor but an empty bubble. — Dryden. 
 
 28. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools, 
 That flattery's the food of fools ; 
 Yet now and then your men of wit 
 
 Will condescend to take a bit. — Swift. 
 
 29. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches ; none 
 Are just alike, yet each believes his own. — Pope. 
 
 30. Love is the ladder on which we climb 
 
 . To a likeness with God. — Pope. 
 
 31. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
 All but the page prescribed, their present state. 
 
 —Pope. 
 
 32. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death. 
 
 Exercise ii-B 
 
 Notice the simple, complex and compound sen- 
 tences in the extract from Hawthorne's "My Visit 
 to Niagara ", on page 68. Hozv many do you find 
 of each? How are they distributed through the 
 paragraph? What is the advantage of this variety 
 of sentences? 
 
 Paragraph I. Simple Sentence. 
 
 Rip entered the house. It was empty, forlorn and ap- 
 parently abandoned. The desolation overcame all of hi> 
 connubial fears. He called loudly for his wife and chil- 
 dren. The lonely chambers rang for a moment with his 
 voice. Then all again was silence. He hurried forth and 
 hastened to his old resort, the village inn. It, too, was 
 gone. —Irving. 
 
 Paragraph II. Complex Sentence. 
 
 As they descended. Rip every now and then heard long 
 rolling peals like distant thunder, that seemed to issue from
 
 42 An English Grmnmar 
 
 &' 
 
 a deep ravine, or rather cleft, between lofty rocks, toward 
 which their rugged path conducted. Supposing it to be the 
 muttering of one of those transient thunder-showers which 
 often take place in mountain heights, he proceeded. 
 
 — Irving. 
 
 Paragraph III. Compound Sentence. 
 
 They were dressed in quaint, outlandish fashion ; some 
 wore short doublets; others jerkins with long knives in their 
 belts; and most of them had enormous breeches of similar 
 style with those of the guide. Their visages, too, were 
 peculiar: one had a larg'e head, broad face, and small, 
 piggish eyes; the face of another seemed to consist en- 
 tirely of nose, and was surmounted by a white sugar-loaf 
 hat, set off with a little red cock's tail. 
 
 — Irving. 
 
 Study the above paragraphs of simple, complex 
 and compound sentences. What effect on the mind 
 have the different forms of the sentence? Which 
 is most dramatic? Which is clear, hut sometimes 
 contains many thoughts? Which smooth and grace- 
 fid, hut involved? 
 
 Write a paragraph relating some experience of 
 your own. Write it first using all simple sentences. 
 Improve the smoothness hy changing some of the 
 sentences to complex and some to compound sen- 
 tences. See that all three kinds are represented.
 
 The Third Section 
 Chapter V 
 
 THOUGHT MATERIAL OR IDEAS 
 
 26. What We Have Learned. From the pre- 
 ceding chapters we know the nature of a thought 
 and the nature of a sentence. We know that 
 the sentence expresses the thought and that the 
 sentence takes different forms to make different 
 impressions upon the mind or to express different 
 thoughts. This gives us different kinds or classes 
 of sentences. We know that each thought is made 
 up of three elements and that each sentence con- 
 tains three parts, subject, predicate, and copula, 
 corresponding to or expressing the three elements 
 of the thought. 
 
 27. The Use of Words. We now find, how- 
 ever, that these organic parts of the sentence, the 
 subject, predicate, and copula, are made up of 
 smaller units which we call words. Subjects are 
 not all alike; predicates are not all alike; nor are 
 copulas all alike. We cannot understand words, 
 however, until we understand that which the word 
 expresses, the idea, just as we saw that in order 
 to understand the sentence, we must understand 
 the thought which it expresses. The word is 
 an instrument for expressing the idea just as the 
 
 [43J
 
 44 An EniiUsh Grammar 
 
 t>' 
 
 sentence is the instrument for expressing the 
 thought. 
 
 Examine the ideas expressed by the words in 
 the following sentence to see if they are all alike. 
 How do they differ? Notice how the mind uses 
 the ideas in constructing thoughts: Jefferson, the 
 author of the Constitution, was a great statesman. 
 
 In studying the ideas expressed by the words 
 in this sentence, you will notice that the mind can- 
 not use all of them in the same way in constructing 
 a thought. Take, for example, the idea expressed 
 by the word, Jefferson. You will notice that it is 
 an idea which may be made the subject of a thought. 
 We may think or affirm or assert another idea 
 of it. We may think, Jefferson is dead, or Jefferson 
 zvas independent in his thought. 
 
 We call such an idea an object of thought. 
 The ideas, author, Constitution and statesman are 
 also objects of thought because the mind may as- 
 sert other ideas of these. 
 
 There are no other ideas expressed in the sen- 
 tence about which the mind can assert another 
 idea. The mind cannot assert another idea about 
 the ideas the, of, zvas, a, and great. These are not 
 ideas which can be made subjects of thoughts. 
 
 Now if we think carefully about the idea 
 expressed by the word, great, we see that 
 it is an idea which always belongs to another 
 idea. We cannot find a great by itself. In this 
 case, the idea, great, belongs to the idea statesman.
 
 Thought Material or Ideas 4-5 
 
 The ideas, the and a, are like the idea, great. These 
 are ideas by means of which the mind distinguishes 
 one idea from another. We call such ideas at- 
 tributes. How do you distinguish a chair from 
 a table, a knife from a pen? 
 
 If we take the idea expressed by the word, is, 
 we can easily see that it is not an object of thought, 
 because the mind cannot assert another idea of it; 
 nor is it an attribute because it does not belong to 
 any other idea. We cannot have an is pen or an is 
 knife. The idea, is, is merely the connection 
 which the mind sees to exist between the thought 
 subject, Jefferson, the author of the Constitution, 
 and the thought predicate, a great statesman. The 
 idea, of, is also an idea of relation. It is merely the 
 connection which the mind sees to exist between the 
 idea, author, and the idea, Constitution. If I hold 
 a book just above the table, the idea, above, is the 
 connection which my mind sees to exist between 
 the book and the table. If I hold it under the table, 
 the idea, under, is the idea of connection which my 
 mind sees to exist between the two. If I place it 
 upon the table the idea, upon, is the connection, and 
 so on. We call these ideas ideas of relation. Find 
 ten ideas of relation expressed in the sentences in 
 Exercise lo. 
 
 28. Ideas Defined. An idea is any mental 
 activity simpler than a thought. An idea is any 
 component element of a thought; as, The sun is
 
 46 An Enplish Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 ninety-tzvo million miles distant. Every word in 
 this sentence expresses an idea. Sometimes two or 
 more words express an idea, though in this case, 
 the idea is complex, composed of one principal idea 
 and other subordinate ideas belonging to it. The 
 words, The sun, in this sentence express such a 
 complex idea ; so do the words,^ ninety-tzvo million 
 miles distant.' 
 
 An object of thought is an idea about which 
 the mind can assert another idea; as. Snow is 
 composed of little crystals. The objects of thought 
 are the ideas, Snozv and crystals. 
 
 An attribute is an idea by which the mind dis- 
 tinguishes other ideas; as, The Mississippi, the 
 largest riz'er in the United States, flozvs into the 
 Gidf of Mexico. The attributes are the ideas, The. 
 largest, and Hozvs. 
 
 An idea of relation is the connection which 
 the mind sees to exist between other ideas; as, 
 The scenery of the Rocky Mountains is unsur- 
 passed. The ideas of relation are the ideas, of and 
 is. 
 
 These are all the kinds of ideas which the mind 
 uses in constructing thoughts. 
 
 Exercise 12 
 
 Classify the ideas expressed by the zvords in the 
 
 follozving sentences, giving reasons: 
 
 Model: Elephants are poiverfnl animals. The idea 
 Elephants is an object of thought because it is an idea about
 
 Thought Material or Ideas 47 
 
 which the mind can assert another idea. The idea are is an 
 idea of relation, because it is the connection which the mind 
 sees to exist between other ideas. The idea powerful is an 
 attribute because it is an idea by which the mind distin- 
 guishes another idea. 
 
 I. Find all fJie objects of thought expressed in 
 the following sentences, and give reasons: 
 
 1. This plant came from Palestine. 
 
 2. The people watched them in silence. 
 
 3. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay. 
 
 4. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
 That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
 Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown. 
 That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 
 
 — Byron. 
 
 II. Find all the attributes expressed in the fol- 
 loiving sentences, and tell zvhy they are attributes: 
 
 1. Truth crushed to earth will rise again. 
 
 2. The smooth glass is transparent. 
 
 3. The running stream murmurs sweetly. 
 
 4. The morns are m.eeker than they were, 
 The nuts are getting brown ; 
 
 The berry's cheek is plumper, 
 The rose is out of town. 
 
 5. The maple wears a gayer scarf, 
 The field a gayer gown. 
 
 Lest I should be old-fashioned, 
 
 I'll put a trinket on. — Dickinson. 
 
 III. Find all the ideas of relation expressed in 
 the fnlloiving sentences, and tell why they are ideas 
 of relation:
 
 ^8 An English Grammar 
 
 1. The red sky is beautiful. 
 
 2. The rushing storm is frightful. 
 
 3. The sun is set ; the swallows are asleep ; 
 The bats are flitting past in the gray air; 
 
 The slow, soft toads out of damp corners creep, 
 And evening's breath, wandering here and there 
 Over the quivering surface of the stream. 
 Wakes not one ripple from its. silent dream. 
 
 — Shelley. 
 
 IV. Classify iJie ideas expressed by the words 
 in the following sentences, and give reasons: 
 
 I. By fairy hands their knell is rung; 
 By forms unseen their dirge is sung; 
 There Honour comes, a pilgrim gray. 
 To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
 And Freedom shall awhile repair 
 To dwell a weeping hermit there. 
 
 2. The Night is mother of the Day, 
 
 The Winter of the Spring, 
 And ever upon old Decay 
 
 The greenest mosses cling. 
 Behind the cloud the starlight lurks. 
 
 Through showers the sunbeams fall; 
 For God, who loveth all His works. 
 
 Hath left His Hope with all ! 
 
 — Collins. 
 
 -Whittier. 
 
 Review and Work in Composition 
 
 Song of the Chattahoochee. 
 
 Out of the hills of Habersham, 
 
 Down the valleys of Hall, 
 
 I hurry amain to reach the plain.
 
 Thought Material or Ideas 49 
 
 Run the rapid and leap the fall, 
 Split at the rock and together again, 
 Accept my bed, or narrow or wide, 
 And flee from folly on every side 
 With a lover's pain to attain the plain 
 Far from the hills of Habersham, 
 Far from the valleys of Hall. 
 
 All down the hills of Habersham, 
 
 All through the valleys of Hall, 
 
 The rushes cried, Abide, abide, 
 
 The wilful waterweeds held me thrall. 
 
 The laving laurel turned my tide. 
 
 The ferns and the fondling grass said Stay, 
 
 The dewberry dipped for to work delay, 
 
 And the little reeds sighed. Abide, abide. 
 
 Here in the hills of Habersham, 
 
 Here in the valleys of Hall. 
 
 High o'er the hills of Habersham, 
 
 Veiling the valleys of Hall, 
 
 The hickory told me manifold 
 
 Fair tales of shade, the poplars tall 
 
 Wrought me her shadowy self to hold. 
 
 The chestnuts, the oak, the walnut, the pine, 
 
 Overleaning with flickering meaning and sign, 
 
 Said, Pass not, so cold, these manifold 
 
 Deep shades of the hills of Habersham, 
 
 These glades in the valleys of Hall. 
 
 And oft in the hills of Habcrsharri, 
 
 And oft in the valleys of Hall, 
 
 The white quartz shone, and the smooth brook-stone 
 
 Did bar me of passage with friendly brawl, 
 
 And many a luminous jewel lone
 
 50 An English Grammar 
 
 ^' 
 
 — Crystals clear or a-cloud with mist, 
 
 Ruby, garnet and amethyst — 
 
 Made lures with the lights of streaming stone 
 
 In the clefts of the hills of Habersham, 
 
 In the beds of the valleys of Hall. 
 
 But oh, not the hills of Habersham, 
 
 And oh, not the valleys of Hall 
 
 Avail : I am fain for to, water the plain. 
 
 Downward the voices of Duty call — 
 
 Downward, to toil and be mixed with the main, 
 
 The dry fields burn and the mills are to turn. 
 
 And a myriad flowers mortally yearn. 
 
 And the lordly main from beyond the plain, 
 
 Calls o'er the hills of Habersham, 
 
 Calls through the valleys of Hall. 
 
 — Lanier. 
 
 Do yoit like the poem? Why? Explain the 
 thougJit of it in your ozvn zvords. With zvhat dif- 
 ficulties does tlie stream meet in reaching ''the 
 main"? What human qualities does the stream 
 exhibit? What is the work of the stream as ex- 
 pressed in the last stanza? Does this poem contain 
 a lesson for people? Write one-page papers in 
 answer to tzvo or three of the aboz'e questions.
 
 Chapter VI 
 
 WORDS 
 
 29. The Word Defined. We have seen in 
 the preceding- chapter that a word is the expression 
 of an idea. This is not an accurate definition, how- 
 ever, for sometimes a group of words expresses 
 an idea; as, Our friends started in the morning. 
 The expression, in the morning, expresses an idea 
 of time. Sometimes, too, a word expresses more 
 than one idea; as. The sun shines. The word, 
 shines, expresses the thought relation and the 
 thought predicate. \\'e can see that it expresses 
 two ideas, because it is equivalent to the ex- 
 pression, is shining. Here the word, is, expresses 
 one idea, and the word, shining, expresses another. 
 There are some words also which do not express 
 ideas, as we shall see" later on ; but for all practical 
 purposes we may say : A word is a symbol which 
 expresses an idea. This is its usual function. 
 
 30. Classes of Words. We have seen in the 
 preceding- chapter that there are three great classes 
 of ideas: objects of thought, attributes, and 
 ideas of relation. Since words arc the instru- 
 ments to express ideas, just as sentences are the 
 instruments to express thoughts, we must have 
 
 [51]
 
 ^2 An English Grammar 
 
 three great classes of words; one to express ob- 
 jects of thought, one to express attributes, and one 
 to express ideas of relation. In this sentence, The 
 stars are beautiful, the word, stars, expresses an 
 object of thought. In the sentence. He is my friend, 
 the words, he, my, and friend, express objects of 
 thought. We call such a word a substantive 
 word. 
 
 A substantive word is a word which expresses 
 an object of thought; as, Franklin ivrote good 
 English. 
 
 In the sentence, The tall iiian ivalked rapidly 
 home, the words, the, tall, i^mlked, and rapidly, ex- 
 press attributes. We call such words attributive 
 words. 
 
 An attributive word is a word which expresses 
 an attribute; as. The white roses are fragrant. 
 
 In the sentence. The zvater flows through the 
 mill by the river, and it is turning the maehinery, 
 the words, through, by, and, and is, express ideas 
 of relation. We call such words relational words. 
 
 A relational word is a word which expresses 
 an idea of relation; as. The mill zvill never grind 
 with the water which is past. 
 
 Exercise 13 
 
 In the follozving sentences, point out the sub- 
 stantive, attributive, and relational zvords, giving 
 reasons for each: 
 
 I. The inventions of paper and the press have put an
 
 Words oS 
 
 end to all these restraints ; they have made everyone a 
 writer, and enabled every mind to pour itself into print, 
 and diffuse itself over the whole intellectual world. The 
 consequences are alarming. The stream of literature has 
 swollen into torrent, augmented into a river, expanded 
 into a sea. — having. 
 
 2. He may live without books, — what is knowledge but 
 grieving? 
 He may live without hope, — what is hope but deceiv- 
 ing? 
 He may live without love, — what is passion but pin- 
 ing? 
 But where is the man who can live without dinins;? 
 
 — Owen M credit J I. 
 
 31. Substantive Words: Nouns and Pro- 
 nouns. Examine the italicized substantive zvords 
 in the follozving sentences: 
 
 1. The knife is on the table. 
 
 2. The hook is on the table. 
 
 3. The pen is on the table. 
 
 4. It is on the table. 
 
 When we use the substantive words, knife, book, 
 or pen, we know just what object is on the table be- 
 cause these words name the objects of thought 
 which they express. When we use the substantive 
 word, it, we are not sure just what object is on the 
 table. We know that some object is on the table, 
 for the word, it, expresses an object of thought, but 
 it might be the pen, the book, or the knife, or any 
 other object of thought, because the word, it, does 
 not name the object of thought which it expresses.
 
 5-i An English Grauunar 
 
 This diiference in the way in which substantive 
 words express objects of thought gives us two 
 classes of them, namel}^, nouns and pronouns. 
 
 A noun is a substantive w^ord which expresses 
 an object of thought by naming it; as, Senators 
 are elected by the legislature. 
 
 A pronoun is a substantive word which ex- 
 presses an object of thought without naming it ; 
 as, They are elected for two years. 
 
 Exercise 14 
 
 Point out the nouns and pronouns in the follozv- 
 ing sentences. Give your reasons in each case: 
 
 1. Life, we've been long together; 
 
 Through pleasant and through cloudy weather. 
 
 2. Tis hard to part when friends are dear ; 
 Perhaps 'twill cost a sigh, a tear ; 
 Then steal away, give little warning ; 
 
 Choose thine own time; 
 Say not " goodnight," 
 But in some brighter clime 
 Bid me " good-morning ! " 
 
 — Mrs. Barbauld. 
 
 3. You should never despair of truth. 
 
 4. They, themselves, welcomed us gladly. 
 
 5. I talk half the time to find out my own thoughts, as 
 a schoolboy turns his pockets inside out to see what is in 
 them. — Holmes. 
 
 32. Attribute Words : Adjectives, Attributive 
 Verbs, and Adverbs. In the sentence, The schol- 
 arly man is in demand to-day, the word, scholarly, 
 is an attributive w^ord because it expresses an
 
 JVords 55 
 
 attribute. The attribute expressed by it belongs 
 to the object of thought expressed by the word, 
 man, hence the word, scholarly, expresses an attri- 
 bute of an object of thought. 
 
 In the sentence, Truth triumphs in the end, the 
 word, triumphs, is an attributive word because it 
 expresses an attribute. The attribute expressed 
 by it belongs to the object of thought expressed 
 by the word, truth, hence the word, triumphs, ex- 
 presses an attribute of an object of thought. 
 
 We see, then, that in this particular, the word, 
 scholarly, and the word, triumphs, are just alike. 
 Each expresses an attribute of an object of thought. 
 But they differ in one feature also. The word, 
 triumphs, expresses a thought relation, that is, 
 the relation between thought subject and thought 
 predicate ; while the word, scholarly, does not. This 
 is the distinction between the two. 
 
 We call such words as the word, scholarly, 
 adjectives. We call such words as the word, tri- 
 umphs, attributive verbs. 
 
 An adjective is an attributive word which ex- 
 presses merely an attribute of an object of 
 thought; as. Grateful persons resemble fertile 
 fields. 
 
 An attributive verb is an attributive word 
 which expresses an attribute of an object of 
 thought and also a thought relation; as. He car- 
 ried the palm. 
 
 Tn the sentence. The clouds of adversity soon
 
 Ob An hnglisn urammar 
 
 vanislij the word, soon, is an attributive word be- 
 cause it expresses an attribute. The attribute ex- 
 pressed by it does not 1)elong to an object of 
 thought, so it cannot be an adjective or an attrib- 
 utive verb. The attribute expressed by the word, 
 soon, belongs to the attribute, expressed by the 
 word, vanishes, hence the w^ord, soon, expresses 
 an attribute of an attribute. 
 
 In the sentence, Avarice is not a jezvel, the 
 word, not, is an attributive word because it ex- 
 presses an attribute. It does not express an at- 
 tribute of an object of thought, nor does it ex- 
 press an attribute of an attribute hke the word, 
 soon. The word, not, expresses an attribute which 
 belongs to the idea of relation expressed by the 
 word, is, hence the word, not, expresses an attri- 
 bute of an idea of relation. 
 
 If a word expresses an attribute of an attribute, 
 like the word, soon, or an attribute of an idea of re- 
 lation like the word, not, we call it an adverb. 
 
 An adverb is an attributive word which ex- 
 presses an attribute of an attribute, or an attri- 
 bute of an idea of relation; as, Trade, like a rest- 
 ive horse, is not easily managed. The pen is per- 
 haps mightier tlian the szvord. 
 
 Exercise 15 
 
 Point out tlie adjectives, attributive verbs, and 
 adverbs in tJie follovuing sentences. Give your rea- 
 sons in each case:
 
 Words 57 
 
 1. Presence of mind is greatly promoted by absence of 
 body. 
 
 2. A great many children get on the wrong track because 
 the switch is misplaced. 
 
 3. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax. 
 
 4. And thrice the Saxon blade drank blood. 
 
 5. Ere long he reached the magnificent glacier of the 
 Rhone, a frozen cataract more than two thousand feet in 
 height, and many miles broad at its base. It fills the whole 
 valley between two mountains, running back to their sum- 
 mits. At the base it is arched, like a dome, and above 
 jagged and rough, and resembles a mass of crystals of a 
 pale emerald tint, mingled with white. — Longfelloi^'. 
 
 6. Highways and cross paths are soon traversed ; and, 
 clambering down a crag, I find myself at the extremity of 
 a long beach. — Hawthorne. 
 
 Find the attributive verbs in this verse: 
 
 Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower, 
 
 And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down ; 
 And they looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower, 
 And the rack it came rolling up, ragged and brown ; 
 But men must work, and women must weep, 
 Though storms be sudden, and waters deep, -^ 
 
 And the harbor bar be moaning. 
 
 — Kiiigsley. 
 
 Find the adjectives in the same verse. 
 
 33. Relational Words. Pure Verbs, Preposi- 
 tions, and Conjunctions: In the sentence, Ghiss 
 is transparent, the word, is, is a relational word, 
 because it expresses an idea of relation. It expresses 
 the idea of relation between the thought subject.
 
 58 Ail English Grammar 
 
 Glass, and the thought predicate, transparent, and it 
 expresses nothing else. The attributive verb al- 
 ways expresses a thought relation too, but it always 
 expresses an attribute also. This word, is, and 
 other words like it, never express anything but the 
 thought relation. We call such words pure verbs. 
 
 A pure verb is a relational word which ex- 
 presses only a thought relation; as, Virtue is a 
 jczvcl. (Reread section i6 on page 20 carefully.) 
 
 Point out the pure verbs in the second para- 
 graph of JVhitc's " The 'Lunge" on page jji". 
 
 In the sentence, Choate zvas one of the greatest 
 men of the age, the word, of, in each case is a 
 relational word because it expresses an idea of 
 relation. The first word, of, expresses an idea of 
 relation between the ideas, one and men; the sec- 
 ond word, of, expresses the relation between the 
 ideas, men and age. These are ideas of unequal 
 rank, that is, the one idea belongs to the other, or is 
 subordinate to the other. They are not of equal 
 importance in the thought. The idea, men, is sub- 
 ordinate to the idea, one; and the idea, age, is sub- 
 ordinate to the idea, men. We call a word that 
 expresses this subordinate relation between ideas 
 a preposition. 
 
 A preposition is a relational word which ex- 
 presses a relation between ideas of unequal rank ; 
 
 as, The country was wasted by the sword.
 
 Words 59 
 
 Find five prepositions in the first paragrapJi of 
 " The 'Lunge" on page S3^- 
 
 There is one other kind of relational word. In 
 the sentence, Bread and milk is a good food, the 
 word, and, is a relational word because it ex- 
 presses an idea of relation. It expresses the re- 
 lation between the ideas, bread and milk. These 
 ideas are of equal rank; that is, they are of equal 
 importance in the structure of the thought. 
 This is just the opposite of the kind of relation 
 expressed by the preposition. 
 
 In one way it is like the relation expressed by the 
 pure verb, for the thought relation which the 
 pure verb expresses is a relation between ideas of 
 equal rank. The thought subject and the thought 
 predicate are always ideas of equal rank as they 
 are both principal elements of the thought. But 
 the relation expressed by the pure verb, the thought 
 relation, is always an asserted relation; while the 
 relation expressed by the word, and, and other 
 words like it, is always an unasserted relation. 
 The mind does not assert the relation between the 
 ideas, bread and milk; but it always asserts the 
 thought relation or the relation between the thought 
 subject and the thought predicate. 
 
 This unasserted relation may exist between 
 thoughts as well as between ideas; as, TJie hedges 
 are white zvith May, but the wind carries traces of 
 March. Here the word, but, is the relational word
 
 6o An English Grammar 
 
 is' 
 
 and it expresses an unasserted relation between two 
 thoughts of equal rank. 
 
 Sometimes this kind of word also expresses an 
 'masserted relation between thoughts of unequal 
 rank; as. Let my right hand forget her cunning 
 if / forget thee. Here the word, if, expresses an 
 unasserted relation between the^ thought, Let my 
 right hand fwget her cunning and the thought, / 
 forget' tliee. 
 
 We notice now that this kind of word ex- 
 presses merely or only an unasserted relation be- 
 tween ideas or thoughts of equal rank, or between 
 thoughts of unequal rank. It does not express this 
 relation and in addition to it an object of thought, 
 as does the relative pronoun; nor does it express 
 this idea of relation and in addition to it an attri- 
 bute, as does the conjunctive adverb, as we shall see 
 later on. These w^ords have simply this relational 
 use and we call tliem conjunctions. 
 
 A conjunction is a relational word which ex- 
 presses only an unasserted relation between ideas 
 or thoughts of equal rank, or between thoughts 
 of unequal rank; as, TJie tlag is red, zvhite, and 
 blue. Truth is often crushed to earth or falsehood 
 coidd not succeed as she does. We waited until the 
 train arrived. 
 
 Find examples of these conjunctions in "Robin 
 Hood and AUiu a fhdc", on page lOj. 
 
 I. Fill tJie following blanks zvitli relational
 
 Words 61 
 
 words which express asserted relation betzveen 
 ideas of equal rank, using a different word in each 
 case: 
 
 1. The lion the king- of beasts. 
 
 2. The soldier- -an officer. 
 
 3. The bells clear. 
 
 4. The doctor here. 
 
 5. Our teachers surprised. 
 
 ^ II. Fill the follozving blanks with words which 
 express only unasserted relation between ideas of 
 equal rank: 
 
 1. Ten two are twelve. 
 
 2. The hardships of the voyage landing were num- 
 erous. 
 
 3. ]\Tr. Hornung sells boots shoes. 
 
 4. The badge was yellow blue. 
 
 5. His sister is a gracious talented woman. 
 
 III. Fill the following blanks zvith words which 
 express only unasserted relation between thoughts 
 of equal rank: 
 
 1. Then the rains descended the floods came. 
 
 2. Such a law i-s needed, this one is faulty. 
 
 3. You may sun' yourself on the deck read in the 
 
 cabin. 
 
 4. Improvement comes only with effort —we must 
 
 all work. 
 
 5. The horse is beautiful he is unreliable. 
 
 I\^ Fill the follozving blanks with zvords which 
 express only unasserted relation between thoughts 
 'of unequal rank:
 
 62 An English Grammar 
 
 1. We shall wait the train arrives. 
 
 2. James cannot go the sun rises. 
 
 3. You will be successful- you persist. 
 
 4. You must rise early you will be ready. 
 
 5. Samuel will not come you invite him. 
 
 V. Fill the follozving blanks with words which 
 express relation betzveen ideas of unequal rank: 
 
 1. The snow^ the mountains is beautiful. 
 
 2. The eagle's nest is built the crag. 
 
 3. The castle Blenheim stands the river's 
 
 brink. 
 
 4. The flag the battleship was destroyed. 
 
 Tell zvhat kind of relational zvord you have in- 
 serted in each group and zuJiy. 
 
 Exercise 16 
 
 Classify the relational zvords in the follozving 
 sentences, giving reasons: 
 
 1. The legs of the table and of the chair were made of 
 walnut. 
 
 2. He spoke and they listened. 
 
 3. They listened but they could not hear. 
 
 4. They went because they could not help it. 
 
 5. If any one attempts to haul down the American flag, 
 shoot him on the spot. 
 
 6. They only knew that the earth was bright and the 
 sky was blue. 
 
 7. He will come before you have waited long. 
 
 8. You may have the book or the knife. 
 
 9. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination. 
 
 10. He was angry, otherwise he would have stayed. 
 
 11. He is very ill, yet he may live a week.
 
 Words 63 
 
 12. He had left before I arrived. 
 
 13. We heard the poet and artist. 
 
 14. Man may err, but no one but a fool will persist in 
 error. 
 
 15. The wind grumbled and made itself miserable all last 
 night, and this morning it is still howling as ill-naturedly 
 as ever, and roaring and rumbling in the chimneys. 
 
 — Hazvthorne. 
 16. " The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new, 
 
 And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears, 
 The rose is sweetest washed with morning dew, 
 And love is loveliest when embalmed in tears. 
 
 O wilding rose, whom fancy thus endears, 
 I bid your blossoms in my bonnet wave, 
 
 Emblem of love and hope through future years ! " 
 Thus spoke young Norman, heir of Armadave, 
 What time the sun arose on Vennachar's broad 
 wave. — Scott. 
 
 *34. Form Words: Interjections and Ex- 
 pletives. We have nozv discovered all the kinds of 
 zvords zvhich are absolutely essential in expressing 
 our thoughts. If we examine the italicised words 
 in tJie follozving sentences, hozvever, zve shall see 
 that they cannot he classified as substantive, attri- 
 butive, or relational words: 
 
 1. Alas', that thou shouldst die! 
 
 2. Pshaw! I do not care a fig! 
 
 3. There is sunshine in my soul. 
 
 4. There are four boys in the class. 
 
 The italicized words do not express objects of 
 
 Note: Pupils should not spend much time on form words.
 
 64 An Erwlish Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 thought, attributes, nor ideas of relation. The 
 same thoughts or essentially the same thoughts 
 may be expressed by the sentences, if these italicized 
 words be omitted from them, thus: 
 
 1. That thou shouldst die! 
 
 2. I do not care a fig ! 
 
 3. Sunshine is in my soul. 
 
 4. Four boys are in the class. 
 
 The words, alas and pshaw, seem to express 
 some vague kind of idea, which we call emotion 
 or feeling. The word, there, in both the sen- 
 tences, expresses no idea at all. The thought ex- 
 pressed by the sentence is just as complete without 
 it as it is with it. These words we call form 
 words. 
 
 A form word is a word which is not essential 
 to the expression of the thought; as, 
 
 Oh, that I had the wings of a dove! 
 Well, what did he say? 
 
 We do not mean to say, however, that form 
 words are of no use in the sentence. They are 
 not essential in the expression of the thought, 
 but they do in some way improve the form of the 
 sentence or help to make the thought clearer or more 
 ^^mphatic. 
 
 The form words like oh, alas, pshazv, in the 
 sentences already given, express emotion or feel- 
 ing, and we call them interjections. 
 
 An Interjection is a form word which ex-
 
 Words 65 
 
 presses emotion or feeling; as, Oh, that I could 
 find him! 
 
 Other form words do not express emotion or 
 feeHng. Some of them simply introduce the sen- 
 tence or make it less abrupt ; as, Well, did you vote? 
 
 Others change the arrangement of the sentence, 
 making it smoother; as, There ivcre giants in 
 those days. 
 
 If we omit the form word we must change the 
 arrangement of the sentence, thus: Giants zuere 
 in those days. This is not so smooth a sentence as 
 the other. It sounds awkward. 
 
 This kind of form words we call expletives. 
 
 An expletive is a form word which changes 
 the arrangement of the sentence, makes it less 
 abrupt or in some way improves its form; as, 
 
 1. N'ow, I do not believe a word of it. 
 
 2. There were five people present. 
 
 3. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 
 
 We can easily see, however, that these are not 
 important words. 
 
 Notice the use of form words in "A Selection 
 from Saul", on page 103. 
 
 35. Infinitives and Participles. We need to 
 notice here two other kinds of words. They are not 
 different in their uses, however, from nouns, adject- 
 ives, adverbs, and relational words. They are only 
 forms of the verb which have lost the asserting 
 power or the power of expressing a thought rela-
 
 66 An English Grammar 
 
 tion and are used in the sentence with the force of 
 some other word; as, 
 
 1. The sun, shining in at the window, warmed the room. 
 
 2. We beHeve in the life to come. 
 
 3. They came to assist us. 
 
 4. To zvander in the woods was his deUght. 
 
 The word, shining, and the expressions, to come, 
 to assist, and to zvander, are forms of the verbs, 
 shine, come, assist, and wander, but they do not ex- 
 press thought relations in these forms. The word, 
 shining, and the expression, to come, are used as 
 adjectives; the expression, to assist, \svistdi2.s> din 
 adverb; and the expression, to zvander, is used as a 
 substantive word, and is the principal part of the 
 subject of the sentence. 
 
 These \vords and expressions are called infini- 
 tives and participles, but for the present, as we 
 are now dealing only with the uses of words, we 
 may simply call them nouns, adjectives, or ad- 
 verbs, according to their use. Later on we shall 
 take up these w^ords and study them in detail. 
 We may here, however, easily formulate the fol- 
 lowing definitions: 
 
 An infinitive is the root form of the verb 
 which does not express a thought relation; as, 
 To walk rapidly is tiresome. 
 
 The to here is a form word, not a preposition, 
 as it usually is. It is a part of the infinitive. We 
 say the infinitive is the expression, to walk. The to 
 is called the sign of the infinitive.
 
 Words 67 
 
 A participle is the derived form of the verb 
 which does not express a thought relation; as, 
 The man, wretched in his grief, could not he com- 
 forted. The Hood of time is rolling on. 
 
 Exercise 17 
 
 Classify the words in the following sentences 
 into their smallest known classes. Give your rea- 
 son in each case: 
 
 r. Hiawatha thought that there was an old woman m 
 the moon. 
 
 2. The little boy asked many questions. 
 
 3. Nokomis answered his questions. 
 
 4. RippHng waters sang to him. 
 
 5. What is the water singing, Nokomis? 
 
 6. In the frosty winter nights, Hiawatha lay on his bed 
 of moss. 
 
 7. *' The broad road of stars is the pathway of the 
 Indian shadows." said Nokomis. 
 
 8. These sounds lulled Hiawatha to sleep. 
 
 9. " I will sing you a cradle song," said Nokomis. 
 ro. In the wigwam it was dark. 
 
 ri. Now, Barabbas was a robber. 
 
 12. Well, what are you going to do about it? 
 
 13. Our business is to grow. 
 
 14- In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and are 
 preserved: while everything valuable sinks to the bottom, 
 and is lost forever. 
 
 15. In peace, children bury tiieir parents ; in war, parents 
 bury their children. 
 
 r6. If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase 
 his stores but to diminish his desires. 
 
 17. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money 
 of fools.
 
 68 An English Grammar 
 
 ^' 
 
 18. A juggler is a wit in things, and a wit, a juggler 
 in words. 
 
 19. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but 
 does not relieve all the misery it creates. 
 
 20. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow. 
 
 21. And, balancing on a blackberry-briar, 
 The Cardinal sang with his heart on fire. 
 
 22. The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the 
 young and the old have one common ^Father. 
 
 23. Man, like the child, accepts the profifered boon. 
 And clasps the bauble, where he asked the moon. 
 
 — Pope. 
 
 24. Know then this truth, enough for man to know, 
 Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pope. 
 
 25. O summer day beside the joyous sea ! 
 O summer day so wonderful and white. 
 So full of gladness and so full of pain ! 
 Forever and forever shalt thou be 
 
 To some the gravestone of a dead delight, 
 To some the landmark of a new domain. 
 
 — Longfellozv. 
 
 26. Above and below me were the rapids, a river of im- 
 petuous snow, with here and there a dark rock amid its 
 whiteness, resisting all the physical fury, as any cold spirit 
 did the moral influences of the scene. On reaching Goat 
 Island, which separates the two great segments of the falls, 
 I chose the right-hand path, and followed it to the edge of 
 the American cascade. There, while the falling sheet was 
 yet invisible, I saw the vapor that never vanishes, and the 
 Eternal Rainbow of Niagara. 
 
 — From Hawthorne's " My Visit to Niagara."
 
 Chapter VII 
 
 *THE PHRASE 
 
 36. The Phrase Defined. W'c have now dis- 
 covered all the kinds of words which we use in 
 expressing our ideas. We are now to see that 
 sometimes a number of words unite to express a 
 single idea, or the group of words may have the 
 use of a single word in the sentence; as, TJic 
 speaker stood on the platform. In this sentence 
 the group of words, 011 the platform, expresses 
 the idea of place. My brother arrived in flic 
 evening. Tn this sentence, the group of words,\ 
 in the evening, expresses the idea of time. These, 
 groups of words are used in the sentence with the) 
 value of an adverB. A man of ivealth may do miiclv 
 good. The group of words, of wealth, expresses 
 one idea and the expression is used in the sen- 
 tence with the value of an adjective. 
 
 We call such a group of words a phrase. 
 
 A phrase is a group of words, not having a 
 subject, predicate, or copula, which is used in the 
 sentence with the value of a single word; as, 
 To succeed in life is his desire. 
 
 * Note : Pupils need not dwell long upon classes of phrases on 
 the basis of the characteristic word. 
 
 [69 1
 
 70 All English Grammar 
 
 37. Classes of Phrases. In the sentence, 
 He came into the room. The group of words, into 
 the room, is a phrase. The characteristic word of 
 the phrase or the word that gives character or 
 name to the phrase is the preposition, into; hence 
 we call this kind of phrase a prepositional phrase. 
 
 In the sentence, William likes to visit his friends 
 frequently, the expression, to visit his friends fre- 
 quently, is a phrase. The characteristic word of 
 this phrase is the infinitive, to visit; hence we call 
 this kind of phrase an infinitive phrase. 
 
 In the sentence, The girl reading the hook is my 
 sister, the expression, reading the hook, is a phrase. 
 The characteristic word of this phrase is the parti- 
 ciple, reading; hence we call this kind of phrase a 
 participial phrase. 
 
 In the sentence. The hoy should have hurried, 
 the expression, should have hurried, is a phrase. 
 The characteristic word of this phrase is the verb ; 
 hence we call this kind of phrase a verbal phrase. 
 
 38. Phrases on the Basis of the Characteris- 
 tic Word Defined. We have seen now that we 
 have four kinds of phrases on basis of the char- 
 acteristic word, as follows: 
 
 1. A prepositional phrase is a phrase whose 
 characteristic word is a preposition;. is, The pris- 
 oner stood before the judge. 
 
 2. An infinitive phrase is a phrase whose char- 
 acteristic word is an infinitive; as, To read Emer- 
 son requires concentration.
 
 The Phrase 71 
 
 3. A participial phrase is a phrase whose char- 
 acteristic word is a participle; as, Reading Haw- 
 thorne is a delightful pastime. 
 
 4. A verbal phrase is a phrase whose charac- 
 teristic word is a verb; as, He had watched, 
 with a heating heart, the departure of^he troops 
 under Dunwoodie. Harvey had been honest with 
 his captors. 
 
 In the paragraph from Lord Macaulay, on page 
 TOi, point out the phrases on the basis of the char- 
 acteristic ivord. 
 
 39. Classes of Phrases on the Basis of Their 
 Use in the Sentence, i . In the sentence, Throwing 
 the ham mer is good exercise, the expression, 
 throwing the hammer, is a participial phrase, on 
 the basis of the characteristic word. It is used 
 as the subject of the sentence, that is, with the value 
 of a substantive word; hence we call this kind of 
 phrase a substantive phrase. 
 
 2. In the sentence. He believed himself to be the 
 messenger of the Deity to the people of Athens, the 
 expression, of the Deity, is a prepositional phrase, 
 on the basis of the characteristic word. It is used 
 in the sentence as an adjective, that is, with the 
 value of an attributive word ; hence we call this 
 kind of phrase an attributive phrase. 
 
 3. In the sentence, Cromzvell might have been 
 King, the expression, might have been, is a verbal
 
 72 An English Grammar 
 
 phrase, on the basis of the characteristic word. It 
 is used as the co]nila of the sentence, that is, with 
 the value of a relational word; hence we call this 
 kind of a phrase a relational phrase. 
 
 40. Phrases on the Basis of Their Use De- 
 fined. These may be defined as follows: 
 
 1. A substantive phrase is a phrase which is 
 used in the sentence with the value of a substan- 
 tive word; as. The Greeks sought to produce per- 
 fect form. 
 
 2. An attributive phrase is a phrase v/hich is 
 used in the sentence with the value of an attribu- 
 tive word; b.s, Suddenly a man wading breast-high 
 through the water appeared. 
 
 3. A relational phrase is a phrase which is 
 used in the sentence with the value of a relational 
 .word; as. The Spaniards had been outwitted. 
 
 41. Classes of Attributive Phrases, i. If we 
 examine the phrases in the sentence, So confident 
 zvas he in the conelusion of the Council that he had 
 volunteered in the morning to go thither alone, 
 we can see that attributive phrases are not all 
 alike. The expression, of the eouncil, on the basis 
 of the characteristic word, is a prepositional phrase; 
 and on the basis of use, it is an attributive phrase. 
 It is used, however, with the value of an adjective; 
 hence, on the basis of use, we can put it into a 
 smaller class than attributive. We call such an 
 attributive phrase an adjective phrase.
 
 The Phrase 73 
 
 2. The expression, in the morning, is also a 
 prepositional phrase, on the basis of the character- 
 istic word; and on the basis of use, it is an attrib- 
 utive phrase. But it is used in the sentence with 
 the value of an adverb; hence we call this kind of 
 attributive phrase an adverbial phrase. 
 
 3. Ag-ain, if we notice the phrase, had volun- 
 teered, we can see that on the basis of the char- 
 acteristic word, it is a verbal phrase; and on the 
 basis of use, it is an attributive phrase. But it is 
 used in the sentence with the value of an attributive 
 \&vh. We call this kind of attributive phrase an 
 attributive verb-phrase. 
 
 On the same basis of use in the sentence, then, 
 we have the attributive phrase divided into the 
 adjective phrase, the adverbial phrase, and the 
 attributive verb-phrase. 
 
 42. Classes of Attributive Phrases Defined, 
 These may be defined as follows: 
 
 1. An adjective phrase is an attributive 
 phrase which is used in the sentence with the 
 value of an adjective; as, He took a house in the 
 neighborhood of his native town. 
 
 2. An adverbial phrase is an attributive 
 phrase which is used in the sentence with the 
 value of an adverb; as, Atliene went to the land 
 of the Phoenicians. 
 
 3. An attributive verb-phrase is an attribu- 
 tive phrase which is used in the sentence with the
 
 74 An English Grammar 
 
 value of an attributive verb; as, The old bell had 
 rung out joyfully on many occasions. 
 
 Exercise i8 
 
 Study the following sentences: 
 
 1 . Read each phrase and tell why it is a phrase. 
 
 2. Classify it on the basis of its characteristic 
 word and give a reason. 
 
 3. Classify it, on the basis of use in the sentence, 
 into its smallest known class, and give a reason: 
 
 1. The State University of Minnesota is located in the 
 city of MinneapoHs. 
 
 2. He has learned to love and obey his teacher. 
 
 3. The boy to be chosen must be intelligent to be useful. 
 
 4. He lives to assist his friends. 
 
 5. To lie willingly is base. 
 
 6. Walking the race was tiresome to the man wearing 
 the blue coat. 
 
 7. We could not cross, being unable to ford the river. 
 
 8. Being a member of the regiment, he passed unchal- 
 lenged. 
 
 9. The city of large dimensions sends the most goods to 
 foreign countries. 
 
 10. Caesar might have been King. 
 
 11. The traveler had walked many miles. 
 
 12. The child sat in the window. 
 
 13. The temperature of California is mild. 
 
 14. Like a spear of flame the cardinal flower 
 Burned out along the meadow. — Eddy. 
 
 15. Time is the warp of life. 
 
 Oh, tell the young, the gay, the fair, 
 To weave it well ! — Marsden.
 
 The Phrase 76 
 
 i6. How sweet it was to draw near my own home after 
 living homeless in the world so long ! — Haivthorne. 
 
 17. Sweet are the uses of adversity, 
 Which like the toad, ugly and venomous, 
 Wears yet a precious jewel in his head. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 18. The sufficiency of my merit is to know that my merit 
 is not sufficient. — St. Augustine. 
 
 19. There were tones in the voice that whispered then 
 you may hear to-day in a hundred men. — Holmes. 
 
 20. This then my creed, to do the best I can 
 And grant the same to every other man ; 
 So live that my attendant angel be 
 Not less the angel for his walk with me. 
 
 Review 
 
 /// the extract from HazvtJiorne's "My Visit to 
 Niagara", on page 68, find tJiree phrases of each 
 kind on each basis.
 
 Chapter VIII 
 
 MODIFIERS. 
 
 43. The Modifier Defined. Now that we set 
 clearly all the different kinds of words, we are 
 able to see how these words may be united in 
 forming subjects, predicates, and copulas. 
 
 Notice first that each italicized expression in the 
 following sentences is a word or group of words : 
 
 1. Milton, the poet, was blind. 
 
 2. Mary's book is soiled. 
 
 3. The ivhitc snow hurts my eyes. 
 
 4. The minister had lately come from the East. 
 
 The first italicized expression is a group of 
 words; the second, a word; the third, fourth, and 
 fifth are words; the sixth and last are groups of 
 words; and the seventh is a word. 
 
 Notice next that each italicized expression 
 changes the meaning of some other part of the 
 sentence. The first changes the meaning, or em- 
 phasizes the meaning of the word, Milton; the sec- 
 ond changes the meaning of the same word, Milton ; 
 the third changes the meaning of the word, book, 
 so does the fourth; the fifth changes the meaning 
 of the word, snow; the sixth changes the meaning 
 of the Avord, kiirf.<:, the seventh and eighth change 
 rjir meanmg of the expression, liad come^ 
 
 f76]
 
 THE DAY'S WORK DONE 
 (See page 187)
 
 Modifiers . 77 
 
 So far the italicized expressions are all alike. 
 Now notice one fundamental difference. The itali- 
 cized expressions, blind and soiled, express asserted 
 ideas. They are the predicates of the two sentences 
 in which they occur. All the other italicized ex- 
 pressions express unasserted ideas. This is the 
 distinguishing mark of a modifier. The predicate 
 is a principal part of the sentence, hence it can never 
 be a modiHer or a subordinate part of the sentence 
 any more than the copula or subject can. 
 
 A modifier is a word or group of words which 
 changes the meaning of some other part of the 
 sentence, by expressing an unasserted idea; as, 
 It is a long lane that has no turning. 
 
 44. Kinds of Modifiers. Tf you will notice 
 the modifiers in the sentences under Section 43, you 
 will see that they do not all express the same kind 
 of idea. The first expresses an object of thought; 
 the second, Mary's, expresses an object of thought ; 
 the third, white, expresses an attribute; the fourth, 
 my eyes, expresses an object of thought; and the 
 last two express attributes. We may conclude from 
 this that all modifiers will express either objects 
 of thought or attributes. 
 
 The word which expresses an object of thought, 
 we have called a substantive word, and the modifier 
 which expresses an object of thought, we may call 
 a substantive modifier. For the same reason, we 
 may call a modifier which expresses an attribute an
 
 T^ An En^Usli Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 attributive modifier. Thus, on the basis of the 
 kind of idea which the}' express, we may divide 
 all modifiers into two classes, substantive and at- 
 tributive. 
 
 A substantive modifier is a modifier which ex- 
 presses an object of thought; as, Arnold, the 
 traitor, zvas driven from J: is native country. 
 
 An attributive modifier is' a modifier which 
 expresses an attribute; as, The tall grass swayed 
 in the wind. 
 
 Exercise 19 
 
 In the following sentences point out all the modi- 
 fiers and tell zvhether they are substantive or attrib- 
 utive. Give your reason in each case. 
 
 1. The great plains are good grazing districts. 
 
 2. The girl gave her mother a knowing look. 
 
 3. The squirrel chattered from the bough of the oak 
 tree. 
 
 j\. The rabbit came forth from the thicket and listened. 
 
 5. I have killed the famous roebuck. 
 
 6. He comes because he is entertained. 
 
 7. The man is charitable In his way. 
 
 8. The apple is very sweet. 
 
 9. The girl is often tardy. 
 
 10. The stranger is charitable that he may receive praise. 
 
 11. The teacher is strict with her pupils. 
 
 12. The woman sells apples. 
 
 13. Conscience, our monitor, tells us when we are wrong. 
   14. The boy's story' was pitiful. 
 
 15. Were I Midas, I would make nothing else but just 
 such golden days as these, over and over again, all the 
 year throughout My best thoughts always come a little too
 
 TQ* 
 
 Modifiers 79; 
 
 late. Why did I not tell you how old King Midas came to 
 America and changed the dusky autumn, such as it is in 
 other countries, into the burnished beauty which it here puts 
 on ? He gilded the leaves of the great volume of Nature. 
 
 — Hawthorne. 
 i6. Nobody knew how the fisherman brown, 
 
 With a look of despair that was half a frown, 
 
 Faced his fate on that furious night. 
 
 Faced the mad billows with hunger white. 
 
 Just within hail of a beacon light 
 
 That shone on a woman fair and trim, 
 
 Waiting for him. — Larcom. 
 
 45. The vSubstantive Modifier. Notice llic 
 modifier in the sentence, Cicero, the orator, ar- 
 raigned Catiline. The modifier, the orator, is sub- 
 stantive, we notice first. In the second place it 
 changes the meaning of the substantive word, 
 Cicero. In the third place we notice that it ex- 
 presses the same object of thought as is expressed 
 by the word, Cicero, which it modifies, only it ex- 
 presses it in a dififerent way. 
 
 We call such a substantive modifier an apposi- 
 tive modifier. 
 
 An appositive modifier is a substantive modi- 
 fier which changes the meaning of a substantive 
 word by expressing the same object of thought 
 in a different way; as, 
 
 77/?'.? Monument zvas Erected 
 
 In Memory of 
 
 PTJTJJP NOLAND. 
 
 Lieutenant in the Army of the United States.
 
 50 An English Grammar 
 
 46. The Possessive Modifier. Now notice the 
 first modifier in the sentence, Wallace's book was 
 exceedingly popular. 
 
 We notice first that it is a substantive modi- 
 fier. Second, it changes the meaning of the sub- 
 stantive word, book. So far it is just like the ap- 
 positive modifier. But we notice now that it does 
 not express the same object of thought as is ex- 
 pressed by the word which it modifies. It changes 
 the meaning of the substantive word which it modi- 
 fies by expressing the idea of possession. It 
 shows who wrote the book. 
 
 We call such a substantive modifier a posses- 
 sive modifier. 
 
 A possessive modifier is a substantive modi- 
 fier which changes the meaning of a substantive 
 word by expressing an idea of possession; as, 
 
 The man's ntind was iindeveloped. 
 
 47. Direct Objective Modifier. In the sen- 
 tence. The boy struck the ball, we see that the 
 modifier, the ball, is also substantive. Here, how- 
 ever, its resemblance to the appositive and the pos- 
 sessive modifiers ceases, for it changes the meaning 
 of the attributive wor 6., struck. 
 
 We can see also that the object of thought 
 expressed by the modifier, the ball, is directly af- 
 fected by the attribute expressed by the word, 
 
 Note: The word, fyossession, is here used in a sense broad 
 enough to include ownership, authorship, origin, or kind.
 
 Modifiers 81 
 
 struck, which it modifies. In other words, that ob- 
 ject of thought is the direct receiver of the attri- 
 bute or the attribute goes out directly to that ob- 
 ject of thought. The object of thought expressed 
 by the modifier is the thing struck. 
 
 We call such a substantive modifier a direct 
 objective modifier. It always expresses the ob- 
 ject of thought which is struck, bought, written, 
 given, and so forth ; as, The boy shot the bird. The 
 direct objective modifier, the bird, expresses the ob- 
 ject which was shot, or it expresses the direct re- 
 ceiver of the attribute, shooting. 
 
 A direct objective modifier is a substantive 
 modifier which changes the meaning of an attrib- 
 utive word by expressing the direct receiver of 
 the attribute; as, The girl brougJit the water. 
 
 Write five sentences containing direct objective 
 modifiers. 
 
 48. Indirect Objective Modifier. In the sen- 
 tence, Mary brought her mother a drink of water, 
 the direct objective modifier is the expression, 
 a drink of water. It expresses the object of 
 thought which was brought. The modifier, her 
 mother, is also substantive. It changes the mean- 
 ing of the attributive word, brought. In both these 
 points it is like the direct objective modifier; but it 
 does not express the object of thought which
 
 82 An English Grammar 
 
 ]\Iarv brought. The object of thought expressed 
 by the modifier, Jier mother, is not directly affected 
 by the attribute expressed by the word, brought. 
 Herein it differs from the direct objective modifier. 
 
 But the object of thought expressed by this 
 modifier, her mother, is affected by the attribute 
 expressed by the word, brought, which it modifies. 
 The attribute goes out directly to the object of 
 thought, a drink of water, l)ut the result of that 
 comes to the other object of thought, Jier mother. 
 This object of thought receives the result of the 
 attribute. So that we may say that the object of 
 thought expressed by the modifier, her mother, is 
 indirectly affected by the attribute expressed by 
 the word, brought, which it modifies. The effect of 
 the attribute passes through the object of thought, 
 a drink of water, to the other object of thought, her 
 mother. That is the reason why we say it is indi- 
 rectly affected. 
 
 We call such a substantive modifier an indi- 
 rect objective modifier. It always expresses the 
 object of thought which receives the result of the 
 buying, selling, reading, writing, and so forth; as> 
 He sold his horse to William. The indirect object- 
 ive modifier, William, expresses the object which re- 
 ceives the result of the selling, or it expresses the 
 indirect receiver of the attribute of selling. 
 
 An indirect objective modifier is a substantive 
 modifier which changes the meaning of an attrib- 
 utive word by expressing the indirect receiver of
 
 Modifiers H3 
 
 the attribute; as, The teacher gave the boy good 
 advice. 
 
 Write -five sentences containing indirect object- 
 ive modifiers. 
 
 49. Adverbial Objective Modifiers. In the 
 sentence, The party zvalked home, the word, home, 
 is a substantive modifier. It changes the meaning 
 of the attributive word, zvalked. So far it is just 
 hke the direct and indirect objective modifier. But 
 the object of thought expressed by it is not in any 
 way affected by the attribute expressed by the word, 
 walked. Besides, this modifier, home, expresses the 
 idea of place. In the case of other modifiers of 
 this kind, we might find tliat they express time, 
 distance, extent, and so on. \\> call these ad- 
 verbial ideas 1)ecause the}' are most frequently 
 expressed by the adverb or adverbial modifier. 
 
 In the sentence, Harrison was president four 
 years, it is easy to see that this modifier, four years, 
 is just like the word, home, in the sentence before, 
 in that it is substantive and expresses an adverbial 
 idea. It expresses the adverbial idea of time. 
 We note that it is not like the word, home, however, 
 in that it changes the meaning of the relational 
 word, was, instead of changing the meaning of an 
 attributive word, as the modifier, home, does. 
 
 We have here, then, a substantive modifier 
 which changes the meaning of an attributive 
 word or a relational word and alw^ays expresses
 
 84 All Encrlish Grammar 
 
 an adverbial idea. We call it an adverbial object- 
 ive modifier l^ecaUvSe it is somewhat like a direct 
 objective modifier and somewhat like an ad- 
 verbial modifier. 
 
 An adverbial objective modifier is a substan- 
 tive modifier which changes the meaning of an 
 attributive word or of a relational word by ex- 
 pressing an adverbial idea; as, 
 
 T. A lauf^h is worth a hundred groans in any market. 
 2. The bird bnilt her nest six inches above the door. 
 
 Bring to class five sentences containing adverb- 
 ial objective niodiiiers. 
 
 Exercise 20 
 
 In the following sentences point out all the sub- 
 stantive modifiers, tell zvhat kind each is, and give a 
 reason : 
 
 1. The teacher gave the brightest pupil a reward. 
 
 2. The boy was tardy yesterday. 
 
 3. The river is a mile broad. 
 
 4. You should have come an hour sooner. 
 
 5. Mooween, the bear, is shy. 
 
 6. The wind blew the apples from the tree. 
 
 7. Orville's hand trembled as he held the cup. 
 
 8. His friend gave assistance to * Walter. 
 
 9. The man sought health. 
 
 10. Sunshine gives a plant strength. 
 
 11. Henry, the King, was absent. 
 
 *Note: The preposition is frequently used with the indirect 
 objective modifier; but it is not a part of the modifier. The indirect 
 objective modifier here is the word, " Walter," not the expression, 
 "to Walter."
 
 Modifiers . ^^ 
 
 12. Love thine enemies. 
 
 13. Wellington's victory was decisive. 
 
 14. Everything came to him marked by Nature, Right 
 side up with care, and he kept it so. The world to him, as 
 to all of us, was like a medal, on the obverse of which is 
 stamped the image of Joy, and on the reverse that of Care. 
 He never took the foolish pains to look at the other side, 
 even if he knew of its existence. Lozvell 
 
 15. And the cares that infest the day 
 Shall fold their tents like the Arabs, 
 
 And as silently steal away. Lon<^feIIow 
 
 50. Attributive Modifiers. We have now to 
 notice that attributive modifiers are not all alike. 
 In the sentence, Quiet waters run deep, the modi- 
 fier, quiet, is an attributive modifier because it ex- 
 presses an attribute. The attribute expressed by it 
 belongs to the object of thought, waters. It, there- 
 fore, changes the meaning of the substantive word, 
 zvaters. The attribute expressed by it is not an as- 
 serted attrilnite. We call such an attributive modi- 
 fier an adjective modifier. 
 
 An adjective modifier is an attributive modi- 
 fier which changes the meaning of a substantive 
 word by expressing an * unasserted attribute of 
 an object of thought ; as, It is a long lane that has 
 no turning. 
 
 Give five examples of adjective modifiers. 
 
 *Note: The word, unasserted, is necessary in this definition to 
 distinguish the adjective modifier from the predicate adjective, which 
 is not a modifier and always expresses an asserted attribute; as 
 Snow is ^white.
 
 86 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 51. Classes of Adjective Modifiers. Nor are 
 all adjective modiiiers alike. In the sentence, The 
 cold ice hnris my teeth, the adjective modifier, cold, 
 does not narro^v the meaning- of the w^ord, ice, which 
 it modifies, because there is no ice that is not cold. 
 The chief purpose of this adjective modifier is to 
 emphasize the attribute which it expresses. It sim- 
 ply makes ])Uominent the attribute of the object of 
 thouoht, ice, which does the hurting. 
 
 Sometimes the adjective modifier does narrow 
 the meaning of the word it modifies to some extent, 
 but its chief purpose is still to emphasize the at- 
 tribute which it expresses; as. These are beautiful 
 days. Now, whenever the chief purpose of the ad- 
 jective modifier is to emphasize or call attention 
 to the attribute which it expresses, that is, when 
 that is the object for which the author of the sen- 
 tence has used it, we call it a descriptive adjective 
 modifier. 
 
 A descriptive adjective modifier is an adjective 
 modifier whose chief purpose is to emphasize the 
 attribute which it expresses; as, His father is an 
 honest man. 
 
 52. Limiting Adjective Modifier. On the 
 other hand, many adjective modifiers are used in 
 some sentences to emphasize the attributes which 
 they express; as. My father is a large man; and in 
 
 Note: Pupils need not dwell long upon descriptive and limiting 
 adjective modifiers.
 
 Modifiers ' 87 
 
 other sentences to narrow the meaning of the words 
 which they modify; as, Large men are wanted on 
 the police force. 
 
 Whenever the chief purpose of an adjective 
 modifier is to narrow the meaning of the word 
 which it modifies, we call it a limiting adjective 
 modifier. 
 
 A limiting adjective modifier is an adjective 
 modifier whose chief purpose is to narrow the 
 meaning of the word which it modifies; as. These 
 men are natives. Brave men do not run away in 
 battle. 
 
 Give five examples of limiting adjective modi- 
 fiers and five of descriptive. Point out two descrip- 
 tive and tzvo limiting adjective modifiers in the ex- 
 tract from Hazvthorne's "My J-isit to Niagara", 
 on page 68. 
 
 53. The Adverbial Modifier. Tn the sen- 
 tence, The colonics grew rapidly, the word, rapidly, 
 is an attributive modifier. It differs from the ad- 
 jective modifier, however, in that it changes the 
 meaning of the attributive word, grew. The attri- 
 bute expressed by the modifier, rapidly, belongs to 
 the attribute expressed by the word, grew. So that 
 this modifier expresses an attribute of an attribute. 
 Such an attributive modifier we call an adverbial 
 modifier. 
 
 This is not the only kind of a word to which an 
 adverbial modifier can belong, however, as we shall
 
 88 A)i English Grammar 
 
 see if we examine the sentence, TJie story is cer- 
 tainly a noz'el. Here the word, certainly, changes 
 the meaning of the relational word, is. The at- 
 tribute expressed by it belongs to the idea of rela- 
 tion expressed by the word, is. So that this word, 
 certainly, expresses an attribute of an idea of re- 
 lation. Wq call this an adverbial modifier also. 
 An adverbial modifier is an attributive modi- 
 fier which changes the meaning of an attributive 
 word or of a relational word by expressing an at- 
 tribute of an attribute or an attribute of an idea 
 of relation; as, 
 
 The box soon returned. 
 
 The story is perhaps a zi'ork of art. 
 
 Write three examples of adverbial modifiers 
 which belong to relational ivords and five zuhich be- 
 long to attributive zvords. Find five examples of 
 the adverbial modifier in White's "The 'Lunge," 
 on page JS-- 
 
 54. Adverbial Ideas. We do not divide the 
 adverbial modifier into classes, but we may easily see 
 that they do not all express the same kind of idea. 
 
 The most important adverbial ideas expressed 
 by the adverbial modifier are as follows : 
 
 1. Time; as, My father came in the morning. 
 
 2. Place; as, His sister lives in the country. 
 
 3. Frequency; as, The boy is often tardy. 
 
 4. Purpose ; as. They came to help us. 
 
 5. Degree ; as, The horse is very black.
 
 Modifiers 89 
 
 6. Negation; as, The story is not true. 
 
 7. Doubt; as. The picture is perhaps tine art. 
 
 8. Necessity; as, The anszver is necessarily correct. 
 
 9. Certainty; as, He is surely right about it. 
 
 10. Condition; as, The boy 7vill come if you wish it. 
 
 11. Cause; as, The tiozvers arc zmthered because the 
 sun is hot. 
 
 12. Reason; as, Tlie fiozvers are unthered for I saw 
 them. 
 
 13. Manner; as, My friend ivalks rapidly. 
 
 14. Concession; as. Though you try, you zvill fail. 
 
 15. Extent; as, The horse ran to the end of the lane. 
 
 16. Direction; as, The doves flezv eastward. 
 
 17. Accompaniment; as, The prisoner escaped with his 
 companions. 
 
 18. Instrumentality; as, The farmer cultivated his corn 
 with a hoe. 
 
 19. Exclusion; as. The man is kind except to his horse. 
 
 20. Source; as. TJie stream Hows from the mountain. 
 
 21. Agency; as. The people zvere represented by these 
 men. 
 
 22. Means; as. The bridge zvas built with the people's 
 money. 
 
 23. Duration; as, Sonic must zvatch while others weep. 
 
 Exercise 21 
 
 Poiuf out all the affribufiz'c modifiers in the fol- 
 lozviiicr sentences. Tell zvhaf kind of attrihutive 
 modifiers they are and give yonr reasons. Give the 
 adverbial idea e.vpressed by each adverbial modifier: 
 
 1. McTiiiwhile the firing continued on hotli sides, though 
 the Spaniards were evidently weakening. 
 
 2. The child was good in school. 
 
 3. He comes, because he is entertained.
 
 90 An Eiwlis/i Graiiiniar 
 
 is* 
 
 4. Still Cjil stood by the port rail. 
 
 5. The apple is very sweet. 
 
 6. The shots frequently rattled above his head. 
 
 7. The boy seldom winced. 
 
 8. The stranger is charitable that he may receive praise. 
 
 9. The teacher is strict with his pupils. 
 10. The boy went with his mother. 
 
 1 1 Gil went with the officers to headquarters. 
 
 12. The cistern has been filled irom the spout. 
 
 13. He would not give up his secret even if they tortured 
 him. 
 
 14. The guard house was unlocked with the big key. 
 
 15. It is probably true. 
 
 16. The story is certainly interesting and perhaps true. 
 
 17. He traded with an Indian. 
 
 18. He built the house with his own money. 
 
 19. The demonstration is necessarily true. 
 
 20. The ground is not wet. 
 
 21. Roosevelt is at this time president. 
 
 22. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams 
 fly away. 
 
 23. Make hay while the sun shines. 
 
 24. The buttercup comes early in the spring. 
 
 25. The party walked home. 
 
 26. The bird built her nest six inches above the door. 
 
 27. We stood upon the ragged rocks 
 When the long day was nearly done-
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 55. How They are Made Up. We have al- 
 ready learned that the organic parts of the sen- 
 tence are the subject, the predicate, and the copula. 
 Since we now know different kinds of words and 
 modifiers, we may understand how these organic 
 parts are made up. 
 
 In the sentence, Horses are animals, each part 
 consists of a single word. In the sentence, The 
 interesting story zvas certain ly told in a pleasing 
 zvay, each part consists of more than one word. 
 We can see, however, that there is one principal 
 word in each part and that the other words belong 
 to or modify this principal word or some word be- 
 longing to it. For example, in this sentence, the 
 word, story, is the principal part of the subject. 
 It is modified by the word, the, a limiting adjective 
 modifier ; and by the word, interesting, a descriptive 
 adjective modifier. 
 
 The principal part of the predicate is the 
 word, told. It is modified by the expression, in a 
 pleasing zvay, an adverbial modifier, expressing 
 the adverbial idea of manner. The principal part 
 of this modifier is the word, zvay. It is modified 
 
 [91J
 
 92 ,4ii English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 by the word, a, a limiting adjective modifier, and 
 by the word, pleasing, a descriptive adjective modi- 
 fier. 
 
 The principal part of the copula is the word, 
 was. It is modified by the word, certainly, an ad- 
 verbial modifier expressing the adverbial idea of 
 certainty. 
 
 Thus we see that each organic part of the sen- 
 tence consists of a principal part and its subordi- 
 nate parts which are modifiers. The principal part 
 of the subject is always a noun or a pronoun or 
 some expression used substantively; as, Interesting 
 books zvere furnished. He, himself, spoke to me. 
 
 The principal part of the predicate ma}^ be 
 substantive; as. This man is an excellent lawyer; 
 or it may be attributive ; as, Birds sing sweetly. The 
 woman zvas very kind. 
 
 The principal part of the copula is always a 
 relational word; as, TJic child is not zvell. 
 
 Exercise 22 
 
 In the folloiving sentences point out the prin- 
 cipal zvord in each organic part and explain the 
 uses of the other zvords: 
 
 1. Tabby, the house cat, lay on a soft rug by the open 
 dcxjf. 
 
 2. There was a robin's nest in that tree. 
 
 3. The tail feathers of these birds were a dark brown. 
 
 4. Presently the>' would come flyin<i,' back to their leafy 
 home, bearmg in their yellow bills some choice tidbit for 
 the little ones in the nest.
 
 The Organic Parts of the Sentence 93 
 
 5. Suddenly she made a spring to seize the helpless 
 baby bird with her sharp claws. 
 
 56. Compound Subjects. Sometimes instead 
 of having one principal part or word in the sub- 
 ject, we have two or more; as, Bread and milk is 
 a good food. 
 
 We call this a compound subject. We must 
 be careful, however, to distinguish this kind of 
 sentence from a compound sentence; as, James 
 and Harry study. 
 
 This sentence does not contam a compound sul)- 
 ject, but it is an abridged compound sentence. It 
 expresses two thoughts of equal rank for it means, 
 James studies and Harry studies; while the sen- 
 tence with the compound subject cannot be ex- 
 panded. It does not mean. Bread is a good food 
 and milk is a good food. 
 
 57. Compound Predicates. We often have 
 two or more principal words in the predicate; as, 
 The flag is red, white, and blue. 
 
 The expression, red, zvhite, and blue, is a com- 
 pound predicate. It does not mean. The flag is 
 red and the flag is zvhite and the flag is bine. It 
 means that red, white, and blue are the colors of the 
 flag. 
 
 This is entirely different from the sentence. The 
 z'iolet is blue, beautiful, ami fragrant. 
 
 This sentence means, The z'iolet is bine and the
 
 0-i An English Grammar 
 
 violet is beautiful and the violet is fragrant. It is 
 an abridged compound sentence. 
 
 Exercise 23 
 
 Tell which of the following sentences contain 
 compound subjects or predicates and zvhich 
 are abridged compound sentences. Expand the 
 abridged compound sentences and show that the 
 others cannot be expanded: 
 
 1. Justice and Mercy are desirable qualities. 
 
 2. Health and wealth are desired by all. 
 
 3. Five and four are nine. 
 
 4. The Puritan and the Indian are fast passing. 
 
 5. Yellow and blue makes a pretty badge. 
 
 6. A desirable combination is elegance and ease. 
 
 7. The first sure symptom is love of ease and pleasure 
 felt at home. 
 
 8. His principle is justice and fairdealing, 
 
 9. The parrot talks and sings. 
 
 10. Mercy and truth have met in the way. 
 
 11. Pinks and roses are fragrant. 
 
 12. The sign is red and white. 
 
 13. Birds chirp and sing. 
 
 14. The moon and stars are shining. 
 
 15. The scholar and poet was also a Christian and 
 patriot.
 
 Chapter X 
 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE ' 
 
 58. Uses of Words in Simple Sentence. We 
 
 are now prepared to examine a number of simple 
 sentences in order to discover the following points : 
 
 I. The kind of words used in forming the sim- 
 ple sentence. 
 
 . 2. The exact use of each kind of word in the 
 simple sentence. 
 
 3. The modifiers which may belong to each 
 kind of word in the simple sentence. 
 
 We have seen in the last two Sections that there 
 are two kinds of simple sentence, the regular simple 
 sentence and the simple sentence with a compound 
 part. 
 
 A regular simple sentence is a simple sentence 
 v^hich has only one principal word in each of its 
 principal parts; as, His son is nozv entering college. 
 
 A simple sentence with a compound part is a 
 simple sentence some principal part of which con- 
 tains two or more principal words; as, A combina- 
 tion much to he desired is health of body and beauty 
 of soul. 
 
 59. To find the kind of words in a simple sen- 
 tence. Tn working out the kinds of words found 
 in the simple sentence, their uses and modifiers 
 let us take the following steps : 
 
 [95]
 
 96 All En^lis/i Graiiimuf 
 
 .b' 
 
 1. Classify the word in the smallest known 
 class: as, noun, adjective, pure verb, etc. 
 
 2. Give its exact use in the sentence; as, sub- 
 ject, principal part of the subject, appositive modi- 
 fier, principal part of an appositive modifier, limit- 
 ing adjective modifier, etc. 
 
 3. Draw a conclusion with regard to the class 
 of words to which it belongs. 
 
 ]\IODEL. 
 
 To make this clearer, let us take the sentence, The bfi^ 
 Indian rose from his seat. 
 
 The word, the, is an adjective. It is used as a limiting 
 adjective modifier of the word, Indian. Therefore, an ad- 
 jective may be used as a limiting adjective modifier in the 
 simple sentence. 
 
 The word, big. is an adjective. It is used as a descrip- 
 tive adjective modifier of the word, Indian. Therefore, an 
 adjective may be used as a descriptive adjective modifier 
 in the simple sentence. 
 
 The word, Indian, is a noun. It is used as the principal 
 part of the subject of the sentence. Therefore, a noun may 
 be used as the principal part of the subject of a simple sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The word, rose, is an attributive verb. It is used as the 
 principal part of the predicate of the sentence. It also ex- 
 presses the thought relation. Therefore, an attributive verb 
 may be used as the principal part of the predicate of a sim- 
 ple sentence. It also expresses the thought relation. 
 
 Tlie word, from, is a preposition. It is used as the rela- 
 tional word of the prepositional phrase, from his seat. 
 Therefore, a preposition may be used as the relational word 
 of a prepositional phrase in the simple sentence. 
 
 The word, his, is a pronoun. It is used as a possessive
 
 The Simple Sentence ^T 
 
 modifier of the word, seat. Therefore, a pronoun may be 
 used as a possessive modifier in the simple sentence. 
 
 The word. scat, is a noun. It is used as the principal 
 word of the prepositional phrase, from his seat. Therefore. 
 a noun may be used as the principal part of a prepositional 
 phrase in the simple sentence. 
 
 Exercise 24 
 
 In the following sentences lanll be found ex- 
 amples of every kind of substantive zvord zvhich 
 may be used in the simple sentence, every use which 
 each may have, and every kind of modifier zvhich 
 each may take. The last section makes clear to us 
 hozv zve may zvork these points out. Take each 
 substantive zvord in each sentence and give the 
 follozving points concerning it: 
 
 1. Classify the word in the smallest known class. 
 
 2. Giz'e its exact use in the sentence. 
 
 3. Draw a conclusion with regard to the class '■ 
 of zvords to zvhich it belongs. [See Section f^Q.) 
 
 4. Give all the modifiers of these substantive 
 zvords. 
 
 1. Flowers are plants. 
 
 2. Good students are usually the best scholars. 
 
 3. Samuel's message w^as not appreciated. 
 
 4. The old man's head dropped upon his breast 
 
 5. The Lord loveth a cheerful giver. 
 
 6. Boys like apples. 
 
 7. The man gave books to the children. 
 
 8. Esther had given him a beautiful cup. 
 
 9. My brother was absent years. 
 10. She remained three days.
 
 98 All EiK^lis/i Grammar 
 
 ^' 
 
 11. James, close the door. 
 
 12. Winifred, what does slic know about it? 
 
 13. Lee, a good man and great general, was fond of 
 children. 
 
 14. They started early. 
 
 15. He, himself, told me so. 
 
 16. This is he. 
 
 17. This is he of the rueful countenance. 
 
 18. They gave him full authority. 
 
 19. I told him, himself, of his mistake. 
 
 20. The children saw her. 
 
 21. We watched him, himself. 
 
 22. Their recommendations are strong. 
 
 23. Without me ye can do nothing. 
 
 24. The distance being a mile, we walked it. 
 
 25. You, I mean you. 
 
 26. He, what does he know about it? 
 
 27. I alone am left to tell the story. 
 
 28. They could always locate the ships in the densest 
 masses of smoke by these flashes. 
 
 29. A thousand gallant tars were waiting anxiously for 
 that signal. 
 
 30. The heavy masses of metal tore away corners of the 
 fort. 
 
 State clearly all the uses and modiHers of sub- 
 stantive words in the simple sentence. Write one 
 original example of each. Find examples of each 
 use, if you can, in ''The Beggar Maid", on page 
 
 Exercise 25 
 
 In the follozving sentences will he found exam- 
 ples of every kind of attributive zvord which may be 
 used in the simple sentence, every use zvhich they
 
 The Simple Sentence 99 
 
 may have, and every kind of modifier which they 
 may take. Give the follozving points concerning 
 eacJi attributive zvord in the sentences below: 
 
 1. Classify the word in the smallest known class. 
 
 2. Tell its exact use in the sentence. 
 
 3. Draw a conclusion with regard to tJie class 
 of zvords to which it belongs. (See Section ^p.) 
 
 4. Name all the modifiers of these attributive 
 words. 
 
 1. The large horse is doubtless exceedingly useful to 
 his owner. 
 
 2. The house stands just across the river. 
 
 3. The river is a mile broad. 
 
 4. The honest boy very promptly gave the man his 
 money. 
 
 5. The lesson should have been prepared an hour 
 sooner. 
 
 6. The river fell six inches. 
 
 7. The garden is beautiful. 
 
 8. Very weak things sometimes confound the mighty. 
 
 9. Horace Mann was kind to children. 
 
 State clearly all the uses and modifiers of at- 
 tributive words in the simple sentence. Write one 
 original example of each. Find an example of each 
 use in the extract from Hawthorne's "My Visit to 
 Niagara," on page 68. 
 
 Exercise 26 
 
 In the following sentences zvill be found exam- 
 ples of every kind of relational zvord which may be 
 used in the simple sentence, every use zuhich each
 
 l'"> An English Gramniar 
 
 may have, and every kind of modifier ivhich each 
 may take. Give the following points concerning 
 each relational word in the sentences below: 
 
 1. Classify the word in the smallest known class. 
 
 2. Tell its exact use in the sentence. 
 
 3. Drazv a conclusion witJi regard to the class 
 of zvords to 7i'hich it belongs. (See Section 59.) 
 
 4. Name all the modifiers of these relational 
 words. 
 
 1. You are doubtless right. 
 
 2. The boy is devoted to his mother. 
 
 3. The tree stands just below the falls. 
 
 4. Harrison was president four years. 
 
 5. The boy lives two miles below the mill. 
 
 6. The teacher gave the book to Sarah. 
 
 7. Two and one are three, 
 
 8. The flower is red and white. 
 
 9. The arrow struck two inches below the center. 
 
 State clearly all the uses and modifiers of rela- 
 tional zvords in the simple sentence. Write one 
 original example of each. Find an example of each 
 use in the extract from Hazvthorne's ''My Visit to 
 Niagara," on page 68. 
 
 Exercise 27 
 
 In the follozving sentences will be found exam- 
 ples of every kind of form word which can be used 
 in the simple sentence, and every use which it may 
 have. Give the follozving points concerning each 
 form zvord in the sentences below:
 
 Tlic Simple Sentence l'*l 
 
 1. Classify flu zvord in the smallest known class. 
 
 2. Give its exact use in the sentence. 
 
 3. Drazv a conclusion with regard to the class 
 of words to -cvJiicli it belongs. (See Section jO.) 
 
 1. Pooh ! I do not believe a word of it. 
 
 2. Alas ! what mortal terror we are in ! 
 
 3. Well, did you vote? 
 
 4. Now, I am sure he must be joking. 
 
 5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 
 
 6. There have always been people longing to tell bad 
 news. 
 
 7. There were three of us in the party. 
 
 8. There are ten boys in the class. 
 
 Review 
 
 Notice the effect of the use of the short, simple 
 sentence in the follozving paragraph from Macaul- 
 ay's ''Lord Clive". How many simple sentences 
 are found in the paragraph? With what kind does 
 it begin? With what kind does it close? Why? 
 Which kind is more dignified? Which is clearer? 
 
 During fifty days the siege went on. During fifty days 
 the young captain maintained the defence, with a firmness, 
 vigilance, and ability which would have done honor to the 
 oldest marshal in Europe. The breach, however, increased 
 day by day. The garrison began to feel the pressure of 
 hunger. Under such circumstances, any troops so scantily 
 provided with officers might have been expected to show 
 signs of insubordination ; and the danger was peculiarly 
 great in the force composed of men dififcring widely from 
 each other in extraction, color, language, manners, and 
 religion.
 
 102 An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 Exercise 28 
 
 We should now be able to give a complete ex- 
 planation of a simple sentence. Study the follow- 
 ing simple sentences and be able to give the follow- 
 ing points concerning them: 
 
 1. Give the sentence. 
 
 2. The thought expressed by it. 
 
 3. The elements of the thought. 
 
 4. The parts of the sentence. 
 
 5. Classify the sentence upon two bases. 
 
 6. Classify the ideas expressed by the zvords. 
 
 7. Classify the zvords, into their smallest known 
 classes. 
 
 8. Name the principal word in the subject, 
 predicate, and copula. Give all the modifiers. 
 
 9. Point out all the phrases, and classify them 
 upon each basis. 
 
 1. What kind of people first inhabited England? 
 
 2. The ship left at sunrise. 
 
 3. Forbid it, Almighty God ! . 
 
 4. Sweet is the breath of morn. 
 
 5. There can be no natural desire of artificial good. 
 
 6. Why do you weave around you this thread of occu- 
 pation ? 
 
 7. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds makes ill 
 deeds done ! 
 
 8. After to-morrow is the bane of many a life. 
 
 9. Old John of Gaunt is grievous sick, my lord. 
 
 10. Give each of us his share. 
 
 11. To Thee we bow, Friend, Father, King of Kings!
 
 Tlic Simple Sentence 103 
 
 12. Oh soul ! be changed into small water drops. 
 
 13. Pride goeth before destruction. 
 
 14. Break, break, break, 
 
 On thy cold, gray stones, O Sea ! — Tennyson. 
 
 15. The meeting points the sacred hairs dissever 
 From her fair head forever and forever. — Pope. 
 
 16. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 
 In ray less majesty, now stretches forth 
 Her leaden scepter, o'er a slumbering world. 
 
 — Yonng. 
 
 17. Every man has within himself a continent of undis- 
 covered character. — Stephen. 
 
 18. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among. 
 Leaps the live thunder. — Byron. 
 
 19. And like the wings of sea-birds 
 
 Flash the white-caps of the sea. — Longfellow. 
 
 20. Marbles forget their message to mankind. — Holmes. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 TJie Review 
 
 A SELECTION FROM " SAUL " 
 
 "Oh. our manhood's prime vigor! No spirit feels waste, 
 Not a muscle is stopped in its playing nor sinew unbraced. 
 Oh. the wild joy? of living! the leaping from rock u]) to 
 
 rock, 
 The strong rending of boughs from the fir-tree, the cool 
 
 silver shock 
 Of the plunge in a pool's living water, the hunt of the 
 
 bear. 
 And the sultriness showing the Hon is couched in his lair. 
 And the meal, the rich dates yellowed over with gold 
 dust, divine.
 
 1(»4 An English Grammor 
 
 And tlir lociist-tlcsli steeped in the pitcher, tlie fnll dratipjht 
 
 of wine, 
 And the slee]) in the (h'ied river-channel where l)ulrushes 
 
 tell 
 That the water was wont to go warbling so softly and 
 
 well. 
 How good is man's life, the mere living ! how fit to employ 
 All the heart and the soul and the senses forever in joy! 
 
 — -Robert Broicuino-. 
 
 TJii's song from "Saul" ivas sung by a shcplicrd 
 box to a great king who, because of his wrong do- 
 ing, had lost all interest in life. He had fallen into 
 a stupor from zvhich no one could rouse him. 
 
 Read the poem and determine why the young 
 musician chose this song to sing before the king. 
 
 Uliat is the subject of the song? What joys of 
 "mere liimig" are named? 
 
 Choose an appropriate title for the selection. 
 JVrite a review one paragraph long zvhich will so 
 characterise the poem that a person who had never 
 read it zvould get a clear idea of its spirit, its sub- 
 ject, and the other. means zvhich the author has used 
 to show his purpose. 
 
 A Title should suggest the topic of a selection in 
 a few words. A Review aims to so describe a poein, 
 article or book that a clear idea of its character and 
 content is given. 
 
 Read your paper. Does your title express the 
 topic briefly? Have you made your meaning clear? 
 Does your paragraph deal zvith one topic only?
 
 The Simple Sentence i05 
 
 Have you found your sentence endings? Have 
 you chosen the best possible zvords to express your 
 nieaniuQ? 
 
 All the words of a title should begin with cap- 
 ital letters except prepositions, articles and con- 
 junctions which should not begin with capitals, 
 unless used as the first word of the title. 
 
 The titles of books, poems, stories or pictures 
 should be inclosed with quotation marks when 
 used within a sentence. 
 
 ROBIX HOOD AND ALLIN A DALE. 
 
 Come listen to me, you gallants so free. 
 
 All you that love mirth for to hear, 
 And I will tell you of a bold outlaw, 
 
 That lived in Nottinghamshire. 
 
 As Robin Hood in the forest stood. 
 
 All under the green-wood tree. 
 There he was aware of a brave young man, 
 
 As fine as fine might be. 
 
 The youngster was cloathed in scarlet red, 
 
 Tn scarlet fine and gay ; 
 .\nd he did frisk it over the plain, 
 
 And chanted a roundelay. 
 
 As Rol)in Hood next morning stdod, 
 
 .Amongst the leaves so gay, 
 There did he esiJ\- the same young man 
 
 Come <lr(X)ping along the way.
 
 1''6 An English Graiiuiiar 
 
 &' 
 
 The scarlet he wore llie day before, 
 
 It was clean cast away ; 
 And at every step he fetcht a sigh, 
 
 "Alack and a well a day !" 
 
 Then stepped forth brave Little John, 
 
 And Midge the miller's son, 
 Which made the young man bend his bow, 
 
 When as he see them come. 
 
 " Stand off, stand off," the young man said, 
 
 "What is your will with me?" 
 " You must come before our master straight, 
 
 Under yon green- wood tree." 
 
 And when he came bold Robin before, 
 
 Robin askt him courteously, 
 " O hast thou any monev to spare 
 
 For my merry men and me?" 
 
 " T have no money," the young man said, 
 
 "But five shillings and a ring; 
 And that I have kept this seven long years. 
 
 To have it at my wedding. 
 
 " Yesterday I should have married a maid, 
 
 But she is now from me tane, 
 And chosen to be an old knight's delight, 
 
 Whereby my ])oor heart is slain." 
 
 " \\'hat is thy name?" then said Robin Hood, 
 
 " Come tell me, without any fail : " 
 " By the faith of m\- body," then said the }oung man, 
 
 " Mv name it is Allin a Dale."
 
 The Simple Sentence 107 
 
 " What wilt thou give me," said Robin Hood, 
 
 "In ready gold or fee. 
 To help thee to thy true love again, 
 
 And deliver her unto thee?" 
 
 " I have no money," then quoth the young man, 
 
 " No ready gold nor fee. 
 But I will swear upon a book 
 
 Thy true servant for to be." 
 
 " How many miles is it to thy true love ? 
 
 Come tell me without any guile : " 
 " By the faith of my body." then said the young man, 
 
 " It is but five little mile." 
 
 Then Robin he hasted over the plain. 
 
 He did neither stint nor lin. 
 Until he came unto the church. 
 
 Where Allin should keep his wedding. 
 
 "What has thou here?" the bishop he said, 
 
 "T i)rithee now tell unto me:" 
 '' I am a bold harper," quoth Rol)in Hood, 
 
 " And the best in the north country." 
 
 " O welcome, O welcome," the bishop he said, 
 
 " That musick best pleaseth me ; " 
 " You shall have no musick," quoth Robin Hood, 
 
 " Till the bride and the bridegroom I see." 
 
 With that came in a wealthy knight, 
 
 Which was both grave and old, 
 And after him a finikin lass. 
 
 Did shine like the glistering gold.
 
 108 An English Grammar 
 
 " This is not ;i fit match," quoth bold Robin Hood, 
 " That you do seem to make here ; 
 
 For since we are come into the church. 
 The bride shall chnsc her own dear." 
 
 Then Robin Hood put his horn to his mouth, 
 
 And blew blasts two or three ; 
 WHien four and twenty bowmen bold 
 
 Came leaping over the lee. 
 
 And when they came into the cluu-ch-yard, 
 
 Marching" all on a row. 
 The first man was Allin a Dale, 
 
 To give bold Robin his bow. 
 
 " This is thy true love," Robin he said, 
 
 ■' Young Allin, as I hear say : 
 And you shall be married at this same time, 
 
 Before we depart away." 
 
 *' That shall not be," the bishop he said, 
 
 " For thy word shall not stand ; 
 They shall be three times askt in the church. 
 
 As the law is of our land." 
 
 Robin Hood pulld oiT the bishop's coat, 
 
 And put it upon Little John ; 
 " By the faith of my body," then Robin said, 
 
 " This cloath does make thee a man." 
 
 \\'hen Little John went into the quire. 
 
 The people began for to laugh ; 
 He askt then seven times in the church. 
 
 Lest three times should not be enough.
 
 The Simple Sentence 1'**^ 
 
 " Who gives me this maid ? " then said Little John ; 
 
 Quoth Robin Hood. " That do I, 
 And he that takes her from AlHn a Dale 
 
 Full dearly he shall her bu\." 
 
 And thus having ende of this merr}' wedding. 
 
 The bride lookt like a queen. 
 And so they returned to the merry green- wood, 
 
 Amongst the leaves so green. 
 
 Read "Robin Hood and Allin a Dale." 
 
 Whom is 1he story ahonf.^ Where is the scene? 
 IFhaf is the time? What happens in the story? If 
 you like Robin Hood's character, tell ivhy. If you 
 like the zvay the story ends, tell why. What then 
 would you say is the purpose or point of this poem.'' 
 UHiat means, that is, zvhat characters, scenes and 
 incidents, has the author employed to shozv his pur- 
 pose? Describe the characters. I\dl the story brief- 
 ly. Give your criticism of the poem. 
 
 Write a rez'iew of " Robin Hood and Allin a 
 Pale?' Let your introductory paragraph introduce 
 the story by telling the purpose of the story, and the 
 means employed to show this purpose. The para- 
 graphs ivhicli follozv should each take one topic in- 
 troduced in the tirst paragraph and enlarge upon if. 
 One paragraph should describe the setting, another 
 the characters, another fell the story brieflv and an- 
 other give your appreciatiz'c criticism of the poem. 
 
 Study the follozving rez'iezv of " Iircr II 'olf Says 
 Grace?' Find the topic of each paragraph, l^hich
 
 110 Alt Eiii^lish Groiiuiiar 
 
 t,' 
 
 paragraphs include fitc flwught of the others? 
 JVhich arc merely explanatory of some topic al- 
 ready suggested? 
 
 A REVIEW OF •• BRER WOLF SAYS GRACE." 
 
 " Brer Wolf Says Grace " is one of the " Uncle 
 Remus " stories written in negro dialect by Joel Chandler 
 Harris. It tells about the ancient feud between Brer Wolf 
 and Brer Rabbit, and shows how a small creature with 
 brains can sometimes get ahead of a larger one who is not 
 so clever. 
 
 Brer Wolf and Brer Rabbit are both very entertain- 
 ing, but neither is to be wholly admired. Brer Rabbit is 
 lazy and mischievous, and sometimes cowardly and quitJ 
 unreliable. He is so foolhardy that he is often in trouble, 
 but one's sympathy is nevertheless with him. Although 
 he is smaller than the other creatures, he is so quick-witted 
 and clever that he gets ahead of them. Brer Wolf is 
 always very sure of himself ; in fact, he has such a good 
 opinion of himself that his downfalls seem amusing. 
 
 The way Brer Rabbit gets ahead of Brer Wolf in this 
 story is this. On his wa\- home from a party, one tlay. 
 Brer Rabbit fintls a basket full of greens in the middle of the 
 big road. He looks up the road and down the road and 
 sees no one coming, so creeps up to the basket and takes 
 a nibble and then a bite and then jumps into the basket 
 " kerblani," landing on old Brer Wolf hid in the bottom. 
 Brer Rabbit makes excuses and tries to escape, but Brer 
 Wolf has his prey and does not intend to let him go. Brer 
 Rabbit resolves, if possible, to prevent his own " sacrifice " 
 and so begins to " blubber '" and to beg Brer Wolf to sac- 
 rifice him, if he has to do it at all, in the right way. Brer 
 Wolf asks how that is. and Brer Rabbit tells him to shut 
 his eves and fold his hands and sav grace. This Brer
 
 The Simple Sentence 111 
 
 Wolf finally consents to do. and the minute Brer Wolf's 
 hands are off from him. Brer Rabbit loses no time, but 
 makes good his escape. 
 
 The story is full of odd expressions and clever inci- 
 dents. It is ver\- entertaining. 
 
 The Relation of Paragraphs. Each ])ara- 
 o^raph of a composition should deal with one topic 
 of the central theme or purpose and should be so 
 related to every other paragraph that the point to 
 the composition is made clear. The introductory 
 paragraph of a review should prepare the reader's 
 mind for what is coming by giving a general idea. 
 The paragraphs immediately following should en- 
 large and explain the same. The final paragraph 
 should emphasize the general point of view by sum- 
 ming up the thought gf the other paragraphs or by 
 giving a general comment. 
 
 Indent the first line of each paragraph and 
 start a new paragraph with each change of top- 
 ic.
 
 Chapter XI 
 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 
 
 60. Classes of Compound Sentence. Just as 
 we have found that there are different kinds of 
 simple sentences, so we may see, by examining the 
 following, that there are different classes of com- 
 pound sentences : 
 
 1. All flesh is grass and all its glory fades. 
 
 2. My roof shall always shelter and protect you. 
 
 3. Pitt was the pilot who guided the ship of state through 
 a stormy sea and she weathered the storm. 
 
 1. We notice that in the first sentence there 
 are two thoughts expressed and that each ele- 
 ment, (thought subject, thought predicate, and 
 thought relation) of each thought is expressed 
 separately or by separate words. We call this 
 kind of compound sentence a regular compound 
 sentence. 
 
 2. In the second sentence, we have two co- 
 ordinate, independent thoughts expressed also; 
 thus, My roof shall alzvays shelter you. My roof 
 shall always protect you. 
 
 In these two thoughts, however, there are some 
 common elements or some ideas which are the same 
 in both. The ideas, my, roof, shall, alzvays, and 
 you, are common to the thoughts. 
 
 [112J
 
 The Compound Sentence 11-^ 
 
 In the sentence, My roof shall akvays shelter 
 and protect you, these common elements of the 
 thoughts are expressed hut once. We call this 
 kind of sentence an abridged compound sentence. 
 
 3. The third sentence does not differ from the 
 other two except in the fact, that it expresses a 
 subordinate thought, zvJw guided the ship of state 
 through a stormy sea. 
 
 ~ \\t call this kind of compound sentence a 
 compound-complex sentence because, while it is 
 compound, in that it expresses co-ordinate, inde- 
 pendent thoughts, it is also like a complex sentence, 
 in that it expresses a subordinate thought. The 
 compound-complex sentence may express more than 
 one subordinate thought. 
 
 61. The Regular Compound Sentence. This 
 would be defined as follows: A regular com- 
 pound sentence is a compound sentence in which 
 all the elements of all the thoughts are expressed 
 separately; as, IVilliam Penn zvas friendly to the 
 Indians and Pennsyhania was not molested by 
 them. 
 
 62. The Abridged Compound Sentence. Tliis 
 may be defined as follows: An abridged com- 
 pound sentence is a compound sentence in 
 which the common element or elements of the 
 thoughts are expressed but once; as, Harrison 
 7vas a lawyer and a statesman. 
 
 63. The Compound-Complex Sentence. This
 
 114 An EnglisJi Grammar 
 
 may be defined as follows: A compound- complex 
 sentence is a compound sentence which expresses 
 one or more subordinate thoughts; as, When zve 
 were ready wc began the zvork and zve did not rest 
 until it zvas completed. 
 
 Exercise 29 
 
 Tell zvhat kind of conipoiind sentence each of the 
 follozving is, and zvhy: 
 
 1. Beautiful things ennoble and refine the character. 
 
 2. Science awakens man's perceptions and language 
 quickens his judgment. 
 
 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but foolish words 
 stir up strife. 
 
 4. Hawthorne, who was a very sensitive man, shunned 
 a crowd, but he was fond of friends. 
 
 5. This way is easy, but the other is steep. 
 
 6. The windows of the soul admit light and resist 
 harmful influences. 
 
 7. He who would be served in his youth and loves him- 
 self most knows no other king; he is thoroughly selfish. 
 
 8. He worked hard to keep the wolf from the door but 
 he succeeded only partially. 
 
 9. I gained an insulated rock, and beheld a broad sheet 
 of brilliant and unbroken foam, not shooting in a curved 
 line from the top of the precipice, but falling headlong 
 down from height to depth. — Haivthornc. 
 
 10. The bridge was tremulous beneath me, and marked 
 the tremor of the solid earth. — Hawthorne. 
 
 11. The south wind searches for the flowers 
 
 Whose fragrance late he bore ; 
 And sighs to find them in the wood 
 And bv the stream no more. — Br\ant.
 
 The Compound Sentence 115 
 
 13. Tread softly and speak low; 
 
 For the old year lies a-dying;. — Tennyson. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 Tlic Rc'c'icz^' (Continued) 
 
 THE BEGGAR MAID 
 
 Her arms across her breast she laid : 
 She was more fair than words can say : 
 Barefooted came the beggar maid 
 Before the king Cophetua. 
 In robe and crown the king stept down. 
 To meet and greet her on her way : 
 " It is no wonder," said the lords. 
 " She is more beautiful than day." 
 
 As swims the moon in clouded skies. 
 She in her poor attire was seen : 
 One praised her ankles, one her e\es. 
 One her dark hair and lovesome mien. 
 So sweet a face, such angel grace, 
 In all the land had never been : 
 Cophetua sware a royal oath : 
 " This beggar maid shall be my queen ! " 
 
 — Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 Read "The Beggar Maid." 
 
 What zvas Tennyson's purpose in writing 
 this poem? JVhat persons, places, time and occasion 
 has he used to sliow this purpose? Describe tJie 
 chief character. I'cU the story of the poem. If you 
 like the poem, tell zvhy. 
 
 Outline a revieiv of the poem. What zvill you
 
 1 1() All Eiii^lish Grouunar 
 
 I ell ill your introducfory paragraph? Uliaf ivill he 
 I he lopics of some of the other paragraphs? What 
 will you tell iu the linal paragraph? Write a revieiv 
 of the poem. 
 
 Ill oiitliuiug a paper, decide zvhat you zvaut in 
 xoiir introduction, and then see that the topics of 
 voitr other paragraphs are in some way explan- 
 atory of what has been suggested there. 
 
 Read your paper. Is it interesting? Are its 
 parts so related that they are smooth and easily un- 
 derstood? 
 
 THE HEIGHT OE THE RIDICULOUS 
 
 I wrote some lines once on a time 
 In wondrons merry mood. 
 And thought, as usual, men would say 
 They were exceeding good. 
 
 They were so queer, so very queer, 
 I laughed as I would die ; 
 Alheit, in the general wa_\\ 
 A sober man am I. 
 
 I called mv servant, and he came: 
 How kind it was of him 
 To mind a slender man like me. 
 He of the miehtv limb ! 
 
 '?-.' 
 
 " These to the printer," I exclaimed, 
 And, in my humorous way. 
 I added fas a trifling jest), 
 " There'll he the devil to pay."
 
 The Compound Sentence 11'*^ 
 
 He took the paper, and T watched. 
 And saw him peep -within ; 
 At the first hne he read, his face 
 Was all upon the grin. 
 
 He read the next ; the grin grew hroad, 
 And shot from ear to ear. 
 He read the third; a chuckling noise 
 I now began to hear. 
 
 The fourth ; he broke into a roar ; 
 The fifth ; his waistband sj)lit ; 
 The sixth ; he burst five buttons ofif. 
 And tumbled in a fit. 
 
 Ten (lavs and nights, with sleepless eye, 
 I watched that wretched man, 
 And since. I never dare to write 
 As funny as I can. 
 
 — Olivcy JVcudcU Holmes. 
 
 Read "TJic Height of the Ridiculous." 
 
 What kind of a poem is it? What is the purpose 
 or point to the story?' Hozv is this shozvn? If you 
 like the poem, tell li'hy. 
 
 Write a rezneiv one paragraph long of " The 
 Height of the Ridiculous." Let the first sentence 
 characterise the poem by telling zvhat kind of a poem 
 it is, and its purpose, f.et the others tell hozv 
 Holmes accomplished his purpose, and made the 
 poem the kind of one it is. 
 
 Read the follozving paragraph called "Caleb 
 Flummer and His Blind Daughter," and notice hozv
 
 lib Ail Eiis'lisli Grammar 
 
 !^' 
 
 one sentence gives the topic of the paragraph and 
 the ot tiers are explanatory of it. 
 
 CALEB PLl'MMER AND lllS BLIND DAUGHTER. 
 
 " Caleb and his blind danghter were held together by a 
 close bond of love, and yet how different they were! He 
 was old and bent and careworn, living in a real world of 
 poverty and shabbiness. She was young and happy, living 
 in a dream world, a world created t)y her father that he 
 might spare her, in her blindness, all the hard facts of her 
 life. He was sad at heart, affecting a light step and merry 
 wars to prevent her knowing the real state of things. 
 She, with a heart grateful to kind Providence, worked 
 busily with her delicate fingers, happy in her thoughts, 
 never dreaming of her father's sacrifices for her." 
 
 Read the verses from "Saul" on page lo^. 
 Whicli is the topic sentence? Which are explana- 
 tory of the topic? Which are used for emphasis? 
 
 The Relation of Sentences in a Paragraph. 
 
 The sentences in a paragraph should be related in 
 the same manner as the paragraphs are related to 
 each other. Each paragraph should have its topic 
 sentence either expressed or understood, and the 
 other sentences should be used either to explain or 
 emphasize the thought contained in it. 
 
 Re-read your paper. Have you a topic sentence 
 which relates the other sentences in your para- 
 graph ? 
 
 64. Words Used in Forming the Compound 
 Sentence. We may easily see that all the kinds 
 of words used in forming the simple sentence are
 
 The Compound Sentence ll'J 
 
 also used in the compound sentence; that they have 
 all the uses in the compound sentence which we 
 found them to ha\'e in the simple sentence ; and that 
 they have the same kinds of modifiers here as in the 
 simple sentence. 
 
 One question remains to be asked about these 
 words. Do any of these kinds of words have uses 
 in the compound sentence which they do not have in 
 the simple sentence? This is answered in the fol- 
 lowing- sections. 
 
 65. Groups of Words Used in Forming the 
 Compound Sentence. In the simple sentence, 
 we found the phrase and in the compound sen- 
 tence we shall find all the classes of phrases, used 
 in all the different ways which we discovered in the 
 simple sentence. 
 
 In addition to the phrase, w^e have in the com- 
 pound sentence the clause. (See Section 25.) 
 W^e now wish to know what kinds of clauses we 
 have and how they are used in the compound 
 sentence. 
 
 '•^66. The Clause. 
 
 The sentence, The river is deep since the heavy 
 rains fell hut we can ford it, expresses three 
 thoughts, namely: 
 
 1. The river is deep. 
 
 2. Since the heavy rains fell. 
 
 3. We can ford it. 
 
 Note : Do not dwell upon the classes of clauses except on the 
 basis of use.
 
 120 An En(:[Iish Grammar 
 
 This sentence, therefore, contains three clauses. 
 A group of words containing a subject, predicate, 
 and copula, which is used as a part of a sentence, 
 is a clause. 
 
 We also notice that the clauses, The river is 
 deep and zve ean ford it, are of equal rank in the 
 sentence; while the clause, since the heavy rains 
 fell, has no other clause of equal rank with it in 
 the sentence. We are looking at these clauses, then, 
 in relation to the other clauses in the sentence. On 
 the basis of relation of one clause to the other clauses 
 in the sentence, we have two kinds, co-ordinate 
 and individual. 
 
 67. Clauses on the Basis of the Relation of 
 One Clause to the Other Clauses in the Sentence 
 Defined. There are two kinds of clauses on this 
 basis: 
 
 1. A co-ordinate clause is a clause which is 
 used in a sentence containing another clause of 
 equal rank with it; as, The sun is bright hut the 
 wind is cold. 
 
 2. An individual clause is a clause which is 
 used in a sentence containing no other clause of 
 equal rank with it; as, If we remain here, we 
 shall he out of danger but zve cannot see the battle. 
 
 68. Clauses on the Basis of Use. The sen- 
 tence, / sec that you are in earnest but I cannot 
 assist you, contains three clauses; namely, i. /
 
 The Compound Sentence 121 
 
 see. 2. that you are in earnest. 3. / cannot assist 
 you. 
 
 The clause, that yon are in earnest, is used in 
 the sentence with the value of a single word. It 
 is a direct objective modifier of the word, see. We 
 call such a clause a subordinate or dependent 
 clause. 
 
 The clauses, / see and / cannot assist you, are 
 not used in the sentence with the value of a single 
 word. No word can be used in a sentence as these 
 clauses are used in this sentence. We call such 
 clauses independent or principal clauses. When 
 such a clause is found in a compound sentence, as 
 in the above, we call it an independent clause; but 
 when it is found in a complex sentence; as, We 
 knew not zvJiat zvc sJwuld do, we call it a principal 
 clause. 
 
 69. Clauses on the Basis of Use Defined. 
 There are two kinds of clauses on this basis: 
 
 1. A subordinate or dependent clause is a 
 clause which is used in the sentence with the 
 value of a single word; as We are not sure when 
 we shall start, Juif zve shall go early. 
 
 2. An independent or principal clause is a 
 clause which is not used in the sentence with the 
 value of a single word; as, Harry went quickly, 
 but lie was too late. The law, which had never been 
 enforced, was repealed.
 
 122 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 70. Classes of Subordinate or Dependent 
 Clauses. The sentence, We knozv [that you will 
 come and when you arrive we shall he glad to sec 
 yoit, contains two subordinate or dependent clauses. 
 The first, that you will come, is used in the sentence 
 with the value of a substantive word. It is a direct 
 objective modifier of the word, know. Since it is 
 used in the sentence with the value of a substantive 
 word, we call it a substantive clause. 
 
 A substantive clause is a subordinate or de- 
 pendent clause which is used in the sentence with 
 the value of a substantive word; as. He hopes 
 that you will succeed hut he is skeptical. 
 
 The second clause, zvhen you arrive, is used in 
 the sentence with the value of an attributive word 
 It is an adverbial modifier of the word, glad, ex- 
 pressing the adverbial idea of time. Since it is 
 used in the sentence with the value of an attributive 
 word, we call it an attributive clause.   
 
 An attributive clause is a subordinate or de-^ 
 pendent clause which is used in the sentence with 
 the value of an attributive word; as, The book,^ 
 which was soiled, lay on the table, but it was not fit 
 for use. 
 
 71. Classes of the Attributive Clause. The 
 
 sentence, The boy who zvas wanted was in the or- 
 chard but he came zvhen his father called him,] con- 
 tains two attributive clauses, t. The first, zvJio 
 was wanted, is used in the sentence with the value
 
 The Compound Sentence l'i3 
 
 of an adjective. It modifies the word, boy. Since 
 it is used with the vahie of an adjective, we call it 
 an adjective clause. 
 
 An adjective clause is an attributive clause 
 which is used in the sentence -with, the value of an 
 adjective; as. The house which was destroyed by 
 fire, was a total loss hut it will he rebuilt. 
 
 2. The second clause, zvhen his father called 
 him, is used in the sentence with the value of an 
 adverb. It is an adverbial modifier of the word, 
 came, expressing the adverbial idea of time. Since 
 it is used in the sentence with the value of an ad- 
 verb, we call it an adverbial clause. 
 
 An adverbial clause is an attributive clause 
 which is used in the sentence with the value of an 
 adverb; as, The night is dark because there is no 
 moon hut the stars <;iz'e some li^ht. 
 
 Exercise 30 
 
 Point out all the clauses in each of the following 
 sentences and classify them on the basis of relation 
 of one clause to the others in the sentence and on 
 the basis of use, giving your reasons: 
 
 1. The river is deep but we can ford it. 
 
 2. The person who knows when he should not speak is 
 wise, but few have learned this art. 
 
 3. The person who has access to good books is fortu- 
 nate and he should take advantage of the opportunity to use 
 them. 
 
 4. The boy who is diligent and who obeys his superiors 
 will be respected ; he need not fear failure.
 
 124 An English Gram mar 
 
 &' 
 
 5. When spring returns, the flowers bloom and the 
 birds sing. 
 
 6. Galileo believed that the earth was round and he 
 was right. 
 
 7. I know whom I have believed and I am persuaded 
 that he is able to save me. 
 
 8. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world and 
 this is not strange. 
 
 9. The storm had subsided but the sea was still furious. 
 
 10. The subject must serve his prince and the prince 
 must serve his subject, because God commands it and 
 human laws require it. 
 
 11. Mortals that would follow me 
 Love Virtue ; she alone is free : 
 
 12. Or if Virtue feeble were, 
 
 Heav'n itself would stoop to her. — Milton^ 
 
 72. The Members of a Compound Sentence. 
 
 In the sentence, / am anxious to accommodate you 
 but I cannot grant your request, we have two inde- 
 pendent clauses of equal rank. The first clause is 
 the expression, / aw anxious to accommodate you. 
 The second clause is the expression, / cannot grant 
 your request. The sentence is, therefore, compound 
 and these coordinate independent clauses are called 
 the members of the compound sentence. This 
 sentence has two members bttt a compound sentence 
 may have more than two members. If there 
 is a subordinate clause in a compound sentence, 
 making- it compound-complex, the subordinate 
 clause is a part of the member to which it belongs. 
 The members of a compound sentence are the
 
 The Compound Sentence 125 
 
 coordinate, independent clauses which compose 
 it; as, The historian gives us facts hut the writer 
 of literature presents truth. 
 
 73. Relations Existing between the Thoughts 
 Expressed by the Members of Compound Sen- 
 tences. If we examine the following sentences 
 carefully, we shall see that coordinate relations or 
 the relations between the thoughts expressed by 
 coordinate clauses are not all alike • 
 
 1. I awoke and I got up at once. 
 
 2. The bird was shot, or someone had struck it. 
 
 3. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds. 
 
 4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it. 
 
 74. Relation of Addition. In the first sen- 
 tence the thoughts expressed are in the same line 
 or of the same kind, and one is added to the other. 
 The thought, / azvoke, is in harmony with the 
 thought, / got up at once, and one is simply joined 
 to the other. We call this kind of a coordinate re- 
 lation a relation of addition. 
 
 A relation of addition is that coordinate rela- 
 tion which exists between thoughts, which are in 
 the same line, when one is added to the other; as, 
 Night dropped her sable curtain down and pinned 
 it with a star. 
 
 75. Conjunctions which Express the Relation 
 of Addition. The typical conjunction to express 
 this relation of addition or the conjunction which
 
 126 All English Grammar 
 
 is used most frequently to express it is the word, 
 and. Other conjunctions frequently used to express 
 this relation are as follows: also, besides, likeivise, 
 moreover, furthermore, both — and, not only — but 
 also, so — also. These are called copulative con- 
 junctions. 
 
 76. Relation of Opposition. In the third sen- 
 tence in Section y^, we have a relation expressed hy 
 the word b^it, which is just the opposite of the rela- 
 tion of addition. The thoughts are not in the same 
 line, that is, they are not alike or in harmony. The 
 thought, if zvas hidden behind the clouds, is adverse 
 to the thought, the sun was up. This kind of rela- 
 tion is called a relation of opposition. 
 
 A relation of opposition is that coordinate re- 
 lation which exists between thoughts when one is 
 in some way adverse to the other; as, A fool 
 speaks all his uiind, but a ivise man reserves some- 
 thing until hereafter. 
 
 77. Conjunctions which Express the Relation 
 of Opposition. The typical conjunction to ex- 
 ])ress the relation of opposition is the word, but. 
 Other conjunctions frequently used to express this 
 relation are as follows: yet, nevertheless, however, 
 still, only, whereas, notzvith standing, but — yet, 
 zvhile, albeit. These are called adversative con- 
 junctions. 
 
 78. Relation of Alternation. Sometimes the 
 mind is required to choose between the thoughts
 
 The Cojiipoiiud Sentence 127 
 
 expressed by the members of the compound sen- 
 tence, as in the second sentence in Section 73. Here 
 the mind has presented to it the thought, the bird 
 zuas shot, and the thought, someone had struck it. 
 The mind cannot accept both thoughts ; it considers 
 them; accepts one; and rejects the other. Some- 
 times it rejects both ; as, It is not raining, nor is it 
 snowing. 
 
 We call this kind of relation a relation of al- 
 ternation. 
 
 A relation of alternation is that coordinate 
 relation which exists between thoughts when the 
 mind accepts one and rejects the other, or rejects 
 both of them; as, A king must zvin or he must for- 
 feit his crown forever. Fie is neither dishonest nor 
 untrustzvorthy. 
 
 79. Conjunctions which Express the Relation 
 of Alternation. The typical conjunction to ex- 
 press the relation of alternation is the word, or. 
 Other conjunctions frequently used to express this 
 relation are as follows: either — or, neither — nor, 
 nor, ehe, otherzvise. These are called alternative 
 conjunctions. 
 
 80. Relation of Conclusion. In the fourth 
 sentence in Section 73, we can see that one of the 
 thoughts expressed is an inference from the other. 
 The thought, / must do it, is an inference from the 
 thought, it is my duty. We call this kind of rela- 
 tion the relation of conclusion.
 
 128 An Endish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 A relation of conclusion is that coordinate re- 
 lation which exists between thoughts when one 
 is an inference from the other; as, TJie man pays 
 his debts promptly, therefore, lie is honest. 
 
 8i. Conjunctions which Express the Relation 
 of Conclusion. The typical conjunction to ex- 
 press this relation is the word, therefore. Other 
 conjunctions frequently used to express this rela- 
 tion are as follows: hence, for, since, then, thus, 
 consequently, accordingly, so. These are called 
 causal conjunctions. 
 
 Exercise 31 
 
 Write compound sentences, using each of the 
 conjunctions in the preceding lists to express the 
 different kinds of relations zvhich may exist be- 
 tween the thoughts expressed by the members of 
 compound sentences. 
 
 Exercise 32 
 
 Study the sentences in this exercise and state 
 the following points: 
 
 1. Give the members. 
 
 2. Give the relation existing betzveen the 
 thoughts. 
 
 3. Name the conjunctions which express these 
 relations. 
 
 1. The man dies but his memory Hves. 
 
 2. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be absti- 
 nent in old aee.
 
 The Compound Sentence 120 
 
 3. The swallows are flying low, and we shall have 
 rain. 
 
 4. The truth has been made known, therefore you may 
 as well confess. 
 
 5. It is not necessary nor is it advisable. 
 
 6. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and 
 others have greatness thrust upon them. 
 
 7. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken 
 word is master of thee. 
 
 8. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous 
 words stir up anger. 
 
 9. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is ; 
 ■^or the former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees. 
 
 10. There was a fair maiden lived down by a mill — 
 
 Ferry me over the ferry, — 
 Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, 
 When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, 
 
 Her lips were as full as a cherry. 
 
 11. The splendor falls on castle walls 
 
 And snowy summits old in story ; 
 The long light shakes across the lakes, 
 And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
 
 — Tennyson. 
 
 12. And now there came both mist and snow. 
 And it grew wondrous cold. 
 
 And ice mast-high came floating by. 
 As green as emerald. 
 
 — Coleridge. 
 
 13. The day is done; and slowly from the scene 
 The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts, 
 And puts them back into his golden quiver. 
 
 — Longfelloiv. 
 
 82. Uses of Words in the Compound Sen- 
 tence. We have already seen that the conjunc-
 
 130 All English Grammar 
 
 tion can have one use in the compound sentence 
 in addition to that which it has in the simple sen- 
 tence. Tn the simple sentence its only use is to 
 express relation between ideas of equal rank. In 
 the compound sentence it can express, (i) rela- 
 tion between thou.c^hts of equal rank; as, The street 
 zvas muddy, but the men iviUingly marched through 
 it. 
 
 The conjunction may also express (2) relation 
 between thoughts of unequal rank in the com- 
 pound sentence; as, The facts were published be- 
 cause it zvas ifupossible longer to suppress them, 
 but tJiey did uot arouse the public. 
 
 The pronoun, in addition to the uses found for 
 it in the simple sentence, may in the compound sen- 
 tence express relation between thoughts of unequal 
 rank; as, The Csar, who was ignorant of the zvishes 
 of his people, finally had to be told the truth; but 
 he did not haz'c the moral courage to grant them 
 justice. 
 
 The adverb, in addition to the uses found for 
 it in the simple sentence, expresses in the compound 
 sentence also a relation between thoughts of unequal 
 rank; as, They were ready when the time came, but 
 their assistance zvas not needed. 
 
 Aside from these additional uses words are 
 used in the compound sentence just as they are in 
 the simple sentence, and they take the same kinds 
 of modifiers.
 
 The Compound Sentence 131 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 The Keview ( Confirmed) 
 
 Read the extract from "Evangeline", page jo. 
 
 What was tJie author s purpose in zvriting this? 
 What has he told in order to accomplish this pur- 
 pose? 
 
 Write a review one paragraph long on the ex- 
 tract from "Evangeline." 
 
 Read tJie follonnng paragraph from " The Bi- 
 ography of a Cri.::aly" and fry to discover why if 
 does not souml well. 
 
 " The Biography of a Grizzly " was written by Ernest 
 Thompson Seton. It is the story of a bear culx His 
 mother was shot when he was a cub. He was left friend- 
 less and homeless. It shows how full of tragedy the life 
 of a wild creature may be. It shows how ill treatment will 
 make a bear morose and savage. It shows how even the 
 most ill-treated creature may respond to fair treatment 
 and become gentle and tame. 
 
 Try differ cut ways of coniMning the sentences 
 and notice the effect. 
 
 Variety in Sentence Form. A sentence form 
 should suit the mood of the writing". In describing" 
 a fire il is natural to use short, exclamatory sen- 
 tences. In describing a peaceful twilight scene, tlie 
 sentence form is likely to be long and musical. The 
 car, however, grows tired of one sentence form. A 
 variety is desirable for most purposes, therefore a
 
 132 An En£[lish Grammar 
 
 &^ 
 
 paper may sometimes be improved by combining the 
 short sentences. j>iead Exercise ii-B, page 41. 
 
 Read your paper, asking yourself if there are anv 
 sentences in it zvJiicIi could be improved bv being 
 combined. 
 
 Exercise 33 
 
 Study the, sentences in this ^ exercise and state 
 the follozving points: 
 
 1. Give the members. 
 
 2. State the kind of relation existing betzveen 
 the thoughts expressed by tiie members. 
 
 3. Point out the conjunction zvhich expresses 
 this relation. 
 
 4. When the conjunction, is not present, supply 
 an appropriate one. 
 
 5. Notice tJie punctuation betzveen. the members 
 and try to give reasons for it. 
 
 1. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, 
 nor are they extremely hot in summer. 
 
 2. The man takes plenty of exercise; he is well. 
 
 3. We must conquer our pa'ssions or they will con- 
 quer us. 
 
 4. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas ; hence 
 it must be raining. 
 
 5. Neither James nor John had his lesson. 
 
 6. Solomon was both learned and wise. 
 
 7. Though it is deep, yet it is clear. 
 
 8. I care not whether it rains or snows. 
 
 9. Clark's men waded through many swamps and 
 reached the settlement at Vincennes. 
 
 10. The house was built upon a rock; it did not fall.
 
 The Compound Sentence 133 
 
 11. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs him- 
 self. 
 
 12. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but 
 it should not be the web. 
 
 13. 1 was told to go, else I should remain. 
 
 14. Be industrious, otherwise you will come to grief. 
 
 15. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, accom- 
 plished much good ; but she was taken away in the midst of 
 her usefulness. 
 
 16. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wings 
 with which we fly to heaven. 
 
 17. The conscious water saw its Lord and blushed. 
 
 18. The aspen heard them and she trembled. 
 
 19. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all 
 that gives them a title to rank as literature in the highest 
 sense is perennial. 
 
 20. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smoth- 
 ered the child-like simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds 
 of verbiage. 
 
 21. In peace thou art the gale of spring; in war the 
 mountain storm. 
 
 22. O dark and cruel deep, reveal 
 The secret that thy waves conceal ! 
 And ye wild sea-birds hither wheel 
 And tell it me ! 
 
 23. He cast off his friends as a huntsman his pack. 
 For he knew when he pleased he could whistle them 
 
 back. — Goldsmith. 
 
 24. Zeal and duty are not slow, 
 
 But an occasion's forelock watchful wait. 
 
 — Shakespeare, 
 ^5- Earth felt the wound, and Nature from her seat, 
 Sighing, through all her works gave signs of woe. 
 
 — Milton. 
 
 'xt
 
 134 An English Grammar 
 
 ,s' 
 
 83. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence. 
 The members of a compound sentence may be sep- 
 arated by the comma; as, Crafty men contemn 
 studies, simple men admire them, and zvise men use 
 them. 
 
 They may be separated by the semi-colon ; as, 
 A wise man seeks to shine in himself ; a fool to out- 
 shine others. 
 
 They may be separated by the colon ; as, When 
 a man has nothing good to say of his neighbor, he 
 does zvcll to he silent: few follozv this precept. 
 
 They may not need any punctuation between 
 them ; as, / zvas told to go or I should remain. 
 
 Punctuation is to make the meaning of the 
 sentence clear, and the tendency in modern Eng- 
 lish is to use as little of it as is absolutely necessary 
 to accomplish this result. 
 
 If we examine the four examples above, we can 
 see that punctuation is sometimes made necessary 
 in the compound sentence: (i) by the length of 
 the members, as in the third example; (2) by 
 the absence of the conjimction, as in the second; 
 (3) by interpunctuation, punctuation within the 
 members, as in the third; or (4) by the remote- 
 ness of the relation between the thoughts ex- 
 pressed by the members, as in the second. Every 
 time we punctuate a compound sentence, we 
 should think of these four points: 
 
 1. The length of the members. 
 
 2. The presence or absence of the conjunction.
 
 The Compound Sentence 135 
 
 3. The closeness or remoteness of the relation between 
 the thoughts. 
 
 4. Interpunctuation. 
 
 Exercise 34 
 
 Study the following sentences and state: 
 
 1. The members. 
 
 2. The kind of relation existing hetzveen the 
 thoughts expressed by the members. 
 
 3. Give the reasons for the punctuation. 
 
 1. No one ought to wound the feelings of another, nor 
 should one insult him. 
 
 2. Men are not judged by their looks, habits, and ap- 
 pearances; but they are judged by their lives. 
 
 3. A true friend will give counsel, but an evil-minded 
 person will deceive. 
 
 4. Stones grow ; plants grow : animals grow, feel, and 
 live. 
 
 5. Avoid affectation ; it is a contemptible weakness. 
 
 6. Harbour no malice in thy heart; it will be a viper 
 in thy bosom. 
 
 7. The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool 
 what he abounds in. 
 
 8. The noblest prophets have been children ; thev prac- 
 tice no deception. 
 
 9. The mountains rise and circling oceans flow. 
 
 10. Themistocles was cautious, and he was also valiant; 
 but the wisdom of the serpent and the courage of the lion 
 could not prevail against destiny. 
 
 11. The hermit sat at the door of his cave and thought 
 upon the deep things of life. 
 
 12. He suffered, but his pangs are o'er; 
 Enjoyed, but his delights are fled ;
 
 136 An English Grammar 
 
 Ilad friends, his friends arc now no more; 
 And foes, his foes are dead. 
 
 13. Swift to the breach his comrades fly; 
 " Make way for Hberty," they cry ; 
 And through the Austrian phalanx dart 
 
 As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart. 
 
 14. Leaves have their time to fali, 
 
 And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, 
 And stars to set ; but all. 
 
 Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 
 
 — He mans. 
 
 15. Turn, gentle Hermit of the Dale, 
 And guide my lonely way 
 
 To where your taper cheers the vale 
 
 With hospitable ray, — Goldsmith. 
 
 Exercise 35 
 
 Review and Work in Composition 
 
 In giving a complete analysis of a compound 
 sentence, or telling all that we have learned about 
 it, notice the follozving points: 
 
 1. Classify the sentence. 
 
 a. On the basis of chief purpose. 
 
 b. On the basis of the number and rela- 
 
 tion of the thoughts expressed. 
 
 2. Read the members. 
 
 J. State the kind of relation existing between 
 the thoughts expressed by the members. 
 
 4. Give the conjunctions. 
 
 5. Give the reasons for the punctuation.
 
 The Compound Sentence 137 
 
 6. Analyze each member. 
 
 a. Give the entire subject. 
 
 b. Give the entire predicate. 
 
 c. Give the entire copula. 
 
 d. Give the principal part of the subject 
 
 and all the modifiers. 
 
 e. Give same of predicate and copula. 
 
 Analyse the sentences belozv, following the 
 above outline: 
 
 1. Apply yourselves to study; it will redound to your 
 honour. 
 
 2. Every man desires to live long, but no man would 
 
 be old. 
 
 3. So Heaven decrees: with Heaven who can contend? 
 
 4. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses 
 of an enemy are deceitful. 
 
 5. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope ; a 
 pretended patriot, he impoverished the country. 
 
 6. There are but few voices in the land but many echoes. 
 
 7. Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man's 
 features, any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them. 
 
 8. Few and short were the prayers we said, 
 And we spake not a word of sorrow ; 
 
 But we silently gazed on the face of the dead 
 And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 
 
 9. May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
 And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
 
 —Pope. 
 
 10. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 
 
 11. Upon her breast a sparkling cross she wore, 
 Which Jews might kiss and infidels adore;
 
 138 An English Grammar 
 
 Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose, 
 Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those : 
 Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; 
 Oft she rejects, hut never once offends. — Pope. 
 
 12. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
 But at every gust the dead leaves fall, 
 
 — Longfellozv. 
 
 13. And as a hare, whom hounds and horns pursue. 
 Pants to the place from whence^ at first he flew, 
 
 I still had" hopes, my long vexations past, 
 Here to return, and die at home at last. 
 
 — Goldsmith. 
 
 14. Take her up tenderly, 
 Lift her with care, 
 Fashioned so slenderly, 
 
 Young, and so fair. — Hood. 
 
 15. Come as the winds come, when 
 Forests are rended ; 
 
 Come as the winds come, when 
 
 Navies are stranded. — Scott. 
 
 16. Alas, 'tis true I have gone here and there. 
 And made myself a motley to the view, 
 
 Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most 
 dear. — Shakespeare. 
 
 17. Fond fool ! six feet of earth is all thy store, 
 And he that seeks for all shall have no more. 
 
 —Pope. 
 
 18. This is the state of man: today he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope ; tomorrow blossoms. 
 And bears his blushing honours thick upon him ; 
 The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 TQ. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free, 
 
 And all are slaves beside. 
 20. And neither the angels in heaven above.
 
 The Compound Sentence i39 
 
 Nor the demons down under the sea, 
 
 Can ever dissever my soul from the soul 
 
 Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. — Poe. 
 
 21. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day 
 Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 22. This should have been a noble creature ; he 
 Hath all the energy which would have made 
 A goodly frame of glorious elements. 
 
 Had they been wisely mingled. — Shakespeare. 
 
 23. But look, the morn in russet mantle clad 
 Walks o'er the dew of von high eastern hill. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 24. See how the morning opes her golden gates 
 And takes her farewell of tlie glorious sun ! 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 25. I saw from the beach where the morn was shining, 
 A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on ; 
 
 I came when the sun o'er that beach was declining. 
 The bark was still there, but the waters were gone. 
 
 — Moore. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 The Review (Continued) 
 
 Read the extract about " Tlic Forest Prinieral", 
 page /(V?. 
 
 What is portrayed h.ere? What makes the poem 
 beautiful f Discuss its thought, the feeling that 
 comes over you iu reading it and the pictures sug- 
 i^ested by it. 
 
 Outline a revieiv of " TJic Forest Frimcval " by 
 paragraphs. JVrite a revieiv of the poem. 
 
 Word Study. One way of securing a pleas-
 
 140 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 ing effect in an English paper is through a wise 
 choice and a correct use of words. Avoid slang, 
 commonplace words and affectations. For most 
 purposes many is better than lots, angry than mad, 
 several than quite a few, and attractive, interesting 
 or enjoyable than perfectly lovely. 
 
 For the correction of common errors, master 
 exercises 67, 81, 92, 106, 117, IIQ.' 
 
 Notice the effect of unnecessarily repeating the 
 same word or words that are nearly alike. 
 
 The day will soon be here when we shall spend 
 a pleasant day together. This writer zvrites inter- 
 estingly. 
 
 Read your paper. Have you made a zvise choice 
 of words f
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 
 
 84. The Complex Sentence Defined. A com- 
 plex sentence is a sentence which expresses one 
 principal thought and one or more subordinate 
 thoughts; as, Gold, which is mined in Colorado, is 
 the most precious of metals. 
 
 85. Classes of the Complex Sentence. The 
 complex sentence, like the compound sentence, may 
 have all the elements of each thought expressed 
 separately; as, The book zvhich was torn was 
 thrown aside. 
 
 We call this kind of sentence a regular com- 
 plex sentence. 
 
 A regular complex sentence is a complex sen- 
 tence in which all the elements of each thought 
 are expressed separately; as, Joseph, who heard 
 the call, ran to the rescue. 
 
 We often have a complex sentence in which 
 some of the elements of some of the thoughts are 
 common and are expressed but once; as. His 
 brother is taller than he, which means, His brother 
 is taller than he [is tall]. 
 
 This kind of complex sentence we call an 
 abridged complex sentence. 
 
 J141J
 
 142 An English Grammar 
 
 ^»* 
 
 An abridged complex sentence is a complex 
 sentence in which the common elements of the 
 thoughts are expressed but once; as, The rock is 
 higher than I, which means, The rock is higher than 
 I [am high]. 
 
 86. Words Used in the Complex Sentence. 
 
 The same kinds of words are used in the complex 
 sentence as we found in the compound, and they 
 have the same uses and modifiers. Phrases are also 
 the same as in the simple sentence and have the 
 same uses. We have now to learn the uses of 
 clauses in the complex sentence. 
 
 87. The Substantive Clause, Usual Form. In 
 the sentence. Weakness is your excuse. 
 
 The word, weakness, is the subject of the sen- 
 tence. We may substitute for it the following 
 clause: That you are weak. The sentence then 
 reads. That you are weak is your excuse. 
 
 The clause, That you are zveak, is used as the 
 subject of the sentence. 
 
 Exercise 36 
 
 Now study the sentences in this exercise in this 
 same way, noting the following points about each: 
 
 1. Read the italicised expression. 
 
 2. Give its exact use in the sentence. 
 
 J. Substitute a clause for the italicised ex- 
 pression, making the sentence complex.
 
 TJ'ie Complex Sentence ^'^^ 
 
 4. State the exact use of the clause which 
 you have sub sti tided. 
 
 1. The result was the signing of the treaty. 
 
 2. They asked his presence. 
 
 3. This fact, the rotunditv of the earth, is beUeved by 
 all. 
 
 4. There is some dispute about the real discoverer of 
 America. 
 
 5. We are desirous of your success. 
 t>. They insisted on your remaining. 
 7. We are not sure of his success. 
 
 88. The Uses of the Substantive Clause, 
 Usual Form, in the Complex Sentence. From a 
 careful stud}- of the sentences above we should 
 see that the substantive clause, usual form, may 
 be tised in the following" wa}'s in the complex 
 sentence: 
 
 1. As the subject of the sentence; as, That the 
 earth is round is not doubted. 
 
 2. As the predicate of the sentence; as, TJieir 
 demand zvas that we surrender. 
 
 3. As an appositive modifier; as, The truth, that 
 all men are created equal, is often expressed. 
 
 4. Principal part of a prepositional phrase; as, 
 Have birds any sense of why they sing ? 
 
 5. Direct objective modifier; as, We hoped that 
 you could come. 
 
 6. Indirect objective modifier; as. He is not sure 
 that he will pass in his work. 
 
 7. Adverbial objective modifier; as. We are very 
 sorry that you have failed.
 
 144 An English Grammar 
 
 ib' 
 
 Exercise 37 
 
 Study the sentences in this exercise carefully and 
 note tJie follozving concerning them: 
 T. Read the principal clause. 
 2. Read the subordinate clause. 
 ?. Give the use of the subordinate clause. 
 4. Note and explain the punctuation. 
 
 *i. What you say is of little consequence. 
 
 2. Mv home is wherever I am happy. 
 
 3. I know not where they have laid him. 
 
 4. The fact, that it was done by him, is apparent. 
 
 5. He traded with what capital he had. 
 
 6. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 
 
 7. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many bor- 
 rowed words. 
 
 8. The fact, that mold is a plant, is interesting. 
 
 9. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers. 
 
 10. Astronomers believe that stars are suns. 
 
 11. The belief of astronomers is that stars are suns. 
 
 12. The belief, that stars are suns, is held by astronomers. 
 
 13. That the caterpillar turns to a butterfly is a curious 
 fact. 
 
 14. The thought, that we are spinning around the sun 
 some twenty miles a second, almost makes one dizzy. 
 
 15. We are quite sorry that it is so. 
 
 16. He was afraid that he should fall. 
 
 17. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the 
 pole. 
 
 18. That we were unsuccessful was not our fault. 
 
 *Note: When the substantive clause is used as the subject ofthe 
 sentence, as in i and i8, or as the predicate of the sentence, as in 2 
 and 20. the principal clause is the entire sentence. In all other cases 
 the principal clause may be separated from the substantive clause.
 
 The Complex Sentence 145 
 
 19. The cry, that the world is growing worse, comes 
 from a pessimist. 
 
 20. His request was that we should be present. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 
 State all the uses of the siibstanfiz'c clause, usual 
 form. Write one original example of each use. 
 
 Notice the punctuation of the follozving sen- 
 tences: 
 
 1. The fact, that eternal vigilance is die price of good 
 English, cannot be too strongly impressed upon pupils in 
 grammar. 
 
 2. It was evident that the boy had failed. 
 
 3. Why me the stern usurper spared, I know not. 
 
 4. The story of Washington's hatchet, it is now be- 
 lieved, is untrue. 
 
 5. That money easily earned easily goes, goes without 
 saying. 
 
 89. Punctuation of the Substantive Clause, 
 Usual Form. By noticing the punctuation of the 
 sentences in the preceding exercises, the following 
 principles for punctuating the substantive clause, 
 usual form, will be clear: 
 
 1. The substantive clause, usual form, used as 
 an appositive modifier is usually separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, The 
 fact, that he was honest, was doubted by no one. 
 
 The clause which is explanatory of the word, it, 
 however, is seldom set ofif by the comma; as. It is 
 true that the mistake could not have been az'oided. 
 
 2. When the substantive clause, usual form,
 
 1 •!-<■'' An English Gri 
 
 &' 
 
 nil mar 
 
 is out of its natural order, it should be separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, 
 
 TJiaf the stream could he forded, the general did not 
 doubt. 
 
 3. When the principal clause breaks up the 
 substantive clause, usual form, it should be sep- 
 arated from the rest of the sentence by the com- 
 ma; as, The subject of grammar, it is now thought, 
 should be taught inductively. 
 
 4. When a clause ends in a verb and is fol- 
 lowed by the same verb the two should be sep- 
 arated by the comma; sls. Whatever is, is right. 
 
 go. Substantive Clause, Usual Form, Defined. 
 A substantive clause, usual form, is a substantive 
 clause in which the author of the sentence ex- 
 presses his own thought in his own words; as, 
 / can see that you are in earnest. 
 
 91. The Direct Quotation. In the sentences 
 which follozv, work out carefully each of the folloiv- 
 ing points: 
 
 T. State the principal clause. 
 
 2. State the subordinate clause. 
 
 J. State the use of the subordinate clavise. 
 
 4. Note and explain the punctuation. 
 
 5. How do these clauses differ from those in 
 
 the preceding lists? 
 
 I. " Mental power can never be gained from senseless 
 fiction," says a certain writer.
 
 The Complex Sentence 147 
 
 2. The peacock struts about saving, " What a fine tail 
 I have ! " 
 
 3. Socrates's greatest saying was, " Know thyself." 
 
 4. Shakespeare's metaphor, " Night's candles are 
 burned out," is one of the finest in literature. 
 
 5. The essence of all Webster's great speeches is this : 
 " Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable ! " 
 
 6. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and 
 the thief. 
 
 7. Hamlet's exclamation was. " What a piece of work 
 is man ! " 
 
 8. Cries of, " Long live the King ! " rent the air. 
 
 9. " You will," he said, " be well satisfied with the 
 change." 
 
 10. A writer says, " I have heard more than one person 
 say, ' I am thankful.' " 
 
 11. I will ask of you, " What can you do? " 
 
 12. The me?sage ran thus: "England expects every 
 man to do his duty." 
 
 92. Uses of the Direct Quotation in the Com- 
 plex Sentence. We have seen in our study of the 
 preceding list of sentences that a direct quotation 
 may be used in the complex sentence in the follow- 
 ing ways : 
 
 T. Subject of the sentence; as, "Love thy neigh- 
 bor as thyself," is a precept not easily practiced. 
 
 2. Predicate of the sentence; as, The declaration 
 is, ''All men are created free and equal." 
 
 3. Appositive modifier; as, We do well to keep 
 in mind the adage, "Procrastination is the thief of 
 time." 
 
 4. Direct objective modifier; as, Lincoln said,
 
 148 An English Grammar 
 
 t^' 
 
 "The people are not akvays rigJit but they usually 
 wobble right." 
 
 5. Principal part of a prepositional phrase; as, 
 The whole duty of man is expressed in, "Do unto 
 others as you zvoidd have them do unto you." 
 
 Exercise 39 > 
 
 Rezvrite the follozving story in the form of a con- 
 versation, using direct quotations: 
 
 A wolf once swallowed a bone which stuck fast in his 
 throat. He beg'ged his neighbor, the crane, to remove it for 
 him, promising her a great reward. This she willingly under- 
 took, and because her beak was long, she removed the bone 
 with ease. She asked for her reward, but the wolf only 
 laughed and said that having had her head within the 
 jaws of a wolf and safely out again was reward enough. 
 
 Write one original example of each use of the di- 
 rect quotation in the complex sentence. 
 
 Imagine yourself to be purchasing some article 
 and invent tlie conversation that might take place 
 between yourself and the salesman, using the direct 
 quotation in its various forms. 
 
 Find all the direct quotations in "The Beggar 
 Maid", on page 11^^. Give the exact use of each. 
 Account for the punctuation. 
 
 93. Punctuation of the Direct Quotation. By 
 
 observing- the punctuation in the list of sentences in 
 
 Section qi. we may state the following principles: 
 
 I. A direct quotation should begin with a cap-
 
 The Complex Sentence 149 
 
 ital and should be inclosed in quotation marks; 
 as, "Hitch your wagon to a star," said Emerson. 
 
 2. A direct quotation, when not formally in- 
 troduced, should be separated from the rest of 
 the sentence by the comma; as, Franklin said, "A 
 man often pays too much for his whistle." 
 
 3. A direct quotation, formally introduced, 
 should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
 by the colon; as, Holmes once used the following 
 language: "Put not your trust in money, but put 
 your money in trust." 
 
 4. A direct quotation which is interrogative 
 or exclamatory should be followed by its appro- 
 priate mark; as, Charles Lamb, reading the epi- 
 taphs in a churchyard, inquired, " Where be all the 
 bad people buried?" " Give me liberty or give me 
 death!" exclaimed Patrick Henry. 
 
 5. A direct quotation within a direct quota- 
 tion should be inclosed in single quotation marks; 
 as. The speaker said, "An old adage says, 'Experi- 
 ence is a hard teacher.'" 
 
 6. When a direct quotation is broken up by 
 another part of the sentence, each part of the di- 
 rect quotation should be inclosed in quotation 
 marks; as, "The Scotch," said Burns, "are a stub- 
 born people." 
 
 Exercise 40 
 
 Study the folloiving sentences carefully and note 
 the follozving points:
 
 \ 
 
 150 " An English Grammar 
 
 1. Read the principal clause. 
 
 2. Read the subordinate clause. 
 
 J. Tell what kind of clause the subordinate 
 clause is. 
 
 4. Give the exact use of the subordinate 
 
 clause. 
 
 5. Giz'C Reasons for the capital letters and 
 
 punctuation. 
 
 1. This we know, that our future depends upon our 
 past. 
 
 2. The project, it is certain, will succeed. 
 
 3. He said, " The maxim, ' A fool and his money are 
 soon parted,' is many times exemplified." 
 
 4. In Wallace's novel, " Ben Hur," may be found the 
 following words : " The Hindoo here drew a long sigh, 
 as he said, ' The enemy of man is man, my brother.' " 
 
 5. " The English," said Voltaire, " gain two hours a 
 day by clipping words." 
 
 6. " Gallop," gasped Joris, " for Aix is in sight ! " 
 
 7. The queen said repeatedly with a firm voice, " Into 
 thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit." 
 
 8. " You lazy fellow ! " cried Hercules, " how dare 
 you send for me till you have tried to do without me ! " 
 
 9. " Fly, Rebecca, for no human aid can avail you," 
 said Ivanhoe. 
 
 10. Said the schoolmaster, " When asked about Esau, 
 the pupil said, ' Esau wrote a famous book of fables and 
 sold the copyright for a bottle of potash.' " 
 
 11. What teacher of rhetoric has not sympathized with 
 the delightful Portia in " The Merchant of Venice '' when 
 she says with a sigh, " If to do were as easy as to know 
 what were good to do, chapels had been churches and poor 
 men's cottages princes' palaces ! "
 
 The Complex Sentence 151 
 
 12. " Truth t;cts well," says a certain writer, " even 
 if she be run over by a locomotive." 
 
 13. The Mohammedans say, " God gave two-thirds of 
 all the beauty to Eve." 
 
 14. We daily verify the saying, " Man's extremity is 
 God's opportunity." 
 
 15. The principle involved in, "Resistance to tyrants is 
 obedience to God," was the seminal principle of the Amer- 
 ican Revolution. 
 
 16. The Ram's Horn says, " A self-made man likes to 
 boast of his job." 
 
 17. One historian says, " If we track Queen Elizabeth 
 through her tortuous mazes of lying and intrigue, the 
 sense of her greatness is almost lost in a sense of contempt." 
 
 94. Direct Quotation Defined. A direct quo- 
 tation is a substantive clause in which the author 
 of the sentence expresses the exact thought of 
 some other person in the exact words of that 
 other person; as. Some one has truly said, "He 
 that ivould govern others must iirst he master of 
 himself." 
 
 95. The Indirect Quotation. The indirect 
 quotation is also a kind of substantive clause. 
 What difference do you notice between the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 Direct quotation, '*!," said the little man, "am 
 the King of the Golden River." 
 
 Indirect quotation, Tlie little man said that he 
 was the King of the Golden River. 
 
 Studv the following sentences carefully and 
 note the following points:
 
 152 .-111 English Grauunar 
 
 T. The principal clause. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 J. TJie exact use of the subordinate clause. 
 
 4. The difference betiveen the subordinate 
 
 clauses and the other substantive clauses 
 
 already studied. 
 
 1. That we should be ready to march at dawn was the 
 command of the general. 
 
 2. The general's command was that we be ready to 
 march at dawn. 
 
 3. The command, that we be ready to march at dawn, 
 was given by the general. 
 
 4. The general commanded that we be ready to march 
 at dawn. 
 
 96. The Uses of the Indirect Quotation. 
 
 From the study of the preceding sentences we may 
 see that the indirect quotation can have the follow- 
 ing uses: 
 
 1. Subject of the sentence ; as, That we should 
 be prepared on all our lessons was the tJi ought of 
 the teacher. 
 
 2. Predicate of the sentence; as, The teacher's 
 thought was that we should be prepared on all 
 our lessons. 
 
 3. Appositive modifier: as, The thought, that 
 we should be prepared on all our lessons, was ex- 
 pressed by the teacher. 
 
 4. Direct objective modifier; as, The teacher 
 said that we should be prepared on all our lessons. 
 
 97. The Indirect Quotation Defined. An in-
 
 The Complex Sentence 153 
 
 direct quotation is a substantive clause in which 
 the author of the sentence expresses in his 
 own words the thought of some other person; 
 as, Grant said that he would fight it out on that 
 line if it took all summer. 
 
 The punctuation of the indirect quotation is the 
 same as that of the substantive clause, usual form. 
 
 Exercise 41 
 
 Study the following scntei'hces carefully and 
 note the follozving points: 
 
 1. Read the principal clause. 
 
 2. Read the subordinate clause. 
 
 J. Tell what kind of clause the subordinate 
 clause is. 
 
 4. Give the exact use of tJie subordinate 
 
 clause. 
 
 5. Verify the punctuation. 
 
 1. The traveler said that he was weary. 
 
 2. The speaker said that protection was a failure. 
 
 3. Nathan Hale's only regret was that he had but one 
 life to give to his country. 
 
 4. That the greatest vice of American writing and speak- 
 ing is a studied want of simplicity, was the thought of 
 Lowell. 
 
 5. Byron, seeing Moore eating an under-done beefsteak, 
 asked if he were not afraid of committing murder after 
 such a meal. 
 
 6. That England expected every man to do his duty 
 was the word which was passed along the line. 
 
 7. Socrates said that men should know themselves.
 
 15-1 Aji English Grammar 
 
 98. The Adjective Clause. We have now dis- 
 covered all the kinds of substantive clauses used 
 in the complex sentence and we have seen all the 
 uses of such clauses. Other kinds of clauses are 
 found in the complex sentences, as we may see by 
 studying the following sentence: Mahomet, the 
 foiinder of the faith of Islam, was horn in Mecca. 
 
 This is a simple sentence. The expression, the 
 founder of the faith of Islam, is an appositive modi- 
 fier of the word, Mahomet. It does not narrow or 
 restrict the meaning of the word, Mahomet. It 
 simply emphasizes an attribute of the object of 
 thought expressed by the word. We can change 
 the sentence into a complex sentence by making a 
 clause out of this appositive modifier. Mahomet, 
 who was the founder of the faith of Islam, was 
 horn in Mecca, 
 
 The principal clause is the expression, Ma- 
 homet was horn in Mecca. The subordinate clause 
 is the expression, ivho was the founder of the faith 
 of Islam. It is used as a descriptive adjective modi- 
 fier of the word, Mahomet. Hence we call this 
 clause a descriptive adjective clause. 
 
 The word, who, has two uses in the sentence. 
 
 1. It is the subject of the subordinate clause. 
 
 2. It expresses the relation between the thought 
 expressed by the principal clause and the thought 
 expressed by the subordinate clause. We call this 
 word, who, the connective. 
 
 Sometimes the adjective clause is used as a lim-
 
 The Complex Sentence 155 
 
 iting adjective modifier and then we call it a lim- 
 iting adjective clause; as, The boys who are tall 
 may pass info the next room. 
 
 Exercise 42 
 
 Study the following simple sentences carefully: 
 
 1. Give the exact use of each italicized ex- 
 
 pression. 
 
 2. State wliethcr the italicised expression 
 
 narrows the meaning of the word which 
 it modifies or simply makes prominent 
 an attribute of the object of thought ex- 
 pressed by it. 
 J. Expand each sentence into a complex sen- 
 tence. 
 
 4. State the principal clause. 
 
 5. State the' subordinate clause. 
 
 6. Give tJie exact use of the subordinate 
 
 clause. 
 
 7. Is it limiting or descriptive? 
 
 8. Point out the connective and give all its 
 
 uses. 
 
 1. Sunderland' s crime was never forgiven by James. 
 
 2. A man of good character will win respect. 
 
 3. The prisoner, stupefied with terror, could not respond. 
 
 4. The army, conquered at Waterloo, was commanded 
 by Napoleon. 
 
 6. Solomon, the builder of the Temple, was the son of 
 David. 
 
 7. It was a sight to gladden the heart.
 
 156 An English Grammar 
 
 8. Rice, largely consumed by the natives of Eastern 
 Asia, requires a damp soil. 
 
 9. Procrastination, the thief of time, is our worst enemy. 
 10. A selfish man, the ugliest thing upon which the 
 
 angels have to look, is a disgrace to humanity. 
 
 Exercise 43 
 
 Shtdy the follozving sentences and state clearly: 
 
 1. The principal clanse. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 J. The exact use of the subordinate clause. 
 
 4. Is it limiting or descriptive f 
 
 5. The connective and all its uses. 
 
 1. God rules the world, which he created. 
 
 2. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 
 
 3. The man who conquers selfishness gains in breadth 
 of character. 
 
 4. The evil that men do lives after them. 
 
 5. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he 
 did thrice refuse. 
 
 6. My father, whom all loved, was fond of flowers. 
 
 7. The girl and the cat, that were in the room, were 
 having a frolic. 
 
 8. He purchased such books as were wanted. 
 
 9. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 
 
 10. There is not a man here but knows it. 
 
 11. There is no fireside but has one vacant chair. 
 
 12. As many as received him to them gave he power. 
 
 13. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 
 
 14. To him who in the love of nature holds communion 
 with her visible forms, she speaks a various language. 
 
 15. The lever which moves the world's mind is the 
 printing press.
 
 The Complex Sentence 157 
 
 1 6. The Knights of the Round Table, who flourished 
 in the reign of King Arthur, were chivalrous and brave. 
 
 17. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, was a 
 philanthropist. 
 
 18. The author whose poem was read was present. 
 
 19. The teacher whose example is good will be re- 
 spected by his pupils. 
 
 99. The Adjective Clause Defined. An ad- 
 jective clause is an attributive clause v^hich is 
 used in the sentence with the value of an adjec- 
 tive; as, The horse, which was valuable, was lost in 
 the woods. 
 
 100. The Descriptive Adjective Clause De- 
 fined. A descriptive adjective clause is an ad- 
 jective clause which is used as a descriptive ad- 
 jective modifier; as, Pemu who was straightfor- 
 ward in his dealings with men, never lost a friend. 
 
 loi. The Limiting Adjective Clause Defined. 
 A limiting adjective clause is an adjective clause 
 which is used as a limiting adjective modifier; as, 
 Those pupils who have an average of eighty in the 
 work of the term may he excused from the final ex- 
 amination. 
 
 102. The Relative Pronoun in the Adjective 
 Clause. In the adjective clauses so far studied, 
 the relative pronoun or connective has had one sub- 
 stantive use and a relational use; but in the sen- 
 
 NoTE : Pupils need not dwell upon descripliic and limiting ad- 
 jective clauses.
 
 158 All English Gramiuar 
 
 &' 
 
 tences which follow, wc shall notice that it has also 
 another substantive use. 
 
 103. Simple and Compound Relative Pro- 
 nouns. In the sentence, He zvho zvins may laugJi, 
 the word, He, is the subject of the principal clause, 
 He may laugh. The word, zvho, is the subject of the 
 subordinate clause, zvJio zvins, and it is also the con- 
 nective, expressing- the relation between the 
 thought expressed by the principal clause and the 
 thought expressed by the subordinate clause. We 
 see, then, that the expression. He zvho, has three 
 uses in the sentence. Two of them are substantive 
 uses and one is a relational use. Now if we sub- 
 stitute the word, zvhoe^'er, for the expression. He 
 zvho, making the sentence read. Whoever zvins may 
 laugJi, the word, Whoez'er, will have these same 
 three uses. The word. Whoever, is now the subject 
 of the principal clause, JVhocver may laugh. It is 
 also the subject of the subordinate clause. Whoever 
 zvins. It also expresses the relation between the 
 thought expressed by the principal clause and the 
 thought expressed by the subordinate clause. 
 
 When the relative pronoun has only one sub- 
 stantive use and one relational use, we call it a 
 simple relative pronoun; but when it has two sub- 
 stantive uses and one relational use, as in this 
 sentence, wc call it a compound relative pronoun.
 
 The Complex Sentence 15- 
 
 Exercise 44 
 
 Study file following sentences carefully and 
 state: 
 
 1. The principal clause. 
 
 2. Tlie subordinate clause. 
 
 J. Tlie exact use of the subordinate clause. 
 
 4. The exact use of the italicized expression 
 
 as illustrated in Section 10^. 
 
 5. Substitute one zvord for the italicized ex- 
 
 pression. 
 
 6. The exact uses of the z<Jord zvhicli you 
 
 substitute. 
 
 1. He zelio runs nia)- read. 
 
 2. The thing ivhich is right is safe. 
 
 3. He wants anything that he sees. 
 
 4. The person ivhom falsehood pleases, truth offends. 
 
 5. Do the thing that is right. 
 
 6. The Lord chastcneth any person relioiii he loveth. 
 
 7. Any person zvhose property is injured may recover 
 damages. 
 
 8. The person leho keepeth the law is a wise son. 
 
 9. Judge ye the thing ivhich T saw 
 
 10. The person leho enters here should have a pure heart. 
 
 Exercise 45 
 
 Study the following sentences carefully and 
 
 glZ'C. 
 
 1. The principal clause. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 5. The connectiz'C and all its uses.
 
 ICO An English Grammar 
 
 4. The expanded expression for the con- 
 nective to sJi07v more clearly its uses. 
 
 1. Whoever sees not the sun is blind. 
 
 2. He knows whomever he has once seen. 
 
 3. Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son. 
 
 4. Whatever he doeth shall prosper. 
 
 5. Whosoever liveth in this land must obey the laws. 
 
 6. Whosever, child you have wronged shall be avenged. 
 
 7. Whosesoever faults ye forget will be happy. 
 
 8. I will be satisfied with whomsoever you may appoint, 
 o. You may have whichever you want. 
 
 10. Whatsoever ye shall ask I will do. 
 
 11. The child does whatever he pleases. 
 
 12. He will do what is right. 
 
 13. You may select whichsoever you desire. 
 
 14. What he says is true. 
 
 15. Turn to whosoever shall ask alms a sympathetic ear. 
 
 16. Into whatsoever ye shall enter, inquire who is 
 worthy. 
 
 17. Whoever studies will learn. 
 
 18. Whoever does no good does harm. 
 
 19. Whoever brings the treasure shall receive the re- 
 ward. 
 
 104. The Relative Pronoun Defined. A rela- 
 tive pronoun is a pronoun which has a relational 
 use in the sentence; as, Hawthorne, who was a 
 timid man, shunned the public gaze. 
 
 105. Classes of Relative Pronouns. We have 
 seen from our study of the preceding sentences 
 that on the basis of use, we have two classes of 
 relative pronouns, simple and compound.
 
 The Complex Sentence 161 
 
 1 06. The Simple Relative Pronoun Defined. 
 A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun 
 which has only one substantive use ; as, Burdette, 
 who was fond of a good story, had a fund of anec- 
 dotes. 
 
 107. List of Simple Relative Pronouns. The 
 
 following words are used as simple relative pro- 
 nouns: Who (with its other forms, zvhose and 
 whom), which, that, as, and but. These words are 
 not always relative pronouns. They are relative 
 pronouns only when they have a relational use in 
 the sentence. 
 
 The use of the words, but, and as, as relative 
 pronouns is not very common. The word, but, is 
 a relative pronoun only when it expresses the rela- 
 tion between thoughts of unequal rank and is 
 equivalent in meaning to the words, that not; as. 
 There is not a man here but knozvs it, is equal to, 
 There is not a man here that does not know it. 
 
 The word, as, is a relative pronoun only when 
 some such word as, sucli, many, or same is its 
 antecedent or a part of its antecedent; as, He 
 bought snch books as were needed. These are the 
 same as zve have. 
 
 108. Kinds of Objects Expressed by Relative 
 Pronouns. 1. The word, w/zo, expresses persons or 
 personified things; as, The father, who rvas azvay 
 from home, was quickly summoned. TJie lion, who 
 Jiad taken his seat on the throne, addressed Jiis sub- 
 jects in diplomatic language,.
 
 1^''-^ An English Graniniar 
 
 2. The word, ivliich, cx|M-es.ses inanimate ob- 
 jects, lower anJnials, persons taken collectively, and 
 sometimes small children ; as, Tlie house, which zvas 
 large, was burned. Tlie horse which zvas sold is 
 black. The crowd, which zvas large, became noisy. 
 The child, which zvas in its cradle, zvas awake. 
 
 3. The word. fJiat, may express inanimate ob- 
 jects, lower animals, persons, or any two or all of 
 these taken together; as. The guns that zvere near 
 zvere sei-zed by the soldiers. The dogs that zve saw 
 zvere well trained. The men that zve met zvere po- 
 lite. The men, dogs, and guns that zve sazv at the 
 station zvere on tlieir way West. 
 
 4. The words, as and Init, may express the same 
 kinds of objects as the word, that. 
 
 109. The Compound Relative Pronoun De- 
 fined. A compound relative pronoun is a relative 
 pronoun which has two substantive uses in the 
 sentence; as. Whoever z^'orks zvill succeed. 
 
 no. How the Compound Relative Pronouns 
 are Formed. The compound relative pronouns 
 are formed by adding the words, cz'cr, so, or soever, 
 to the following forms of the simple relative pro- 
 nouns: zvho, zvhose, zvhom and zvhich. 
 
 III. List of Compound Relative Pronouns. 
 
 This would give us the following list: whoever, 
 zvhoso, zvhosoever, zvho sever, zvhosesoever, zvhom- 
 ever, zvhomsoever, whichever, zvhichsoezjer.
 
 The Complex Sentence 163 
 
 Of these fonr.s, only the following are much 
 used in modern English, ivhoever, ivhosever, 
 whomei'cr, and whichever. 
 
 112. The Word, What* The word, zvhaf, when 
 a relative pronoun, is always compound; as. 
 What ye seek ye shall find. 
 
 To it may he added the words, ever, so, and so- 
 ever, to form other compound relative i:)ronouns. 
 Of these, only the form, zvhatever, is much used in 
 modern English. 
 
 113. The Proper Use of the Forms of the 
 Word, Whoever* Whether we use whoever, 
 wlwsever, or zvhomezwr in expressing a thought, de- 
 pends upon the use of the word in the subordinate 
 clause. The form of the word must agree with its 
 use in the subordinate clause; as, You may invite 
 whomever you choose. You may invite whoever 
 will come. 
 
 Exercise 46 
 
 Fill the following blanks with the proper form 
 of the com pound relatiz'c pronoun, whoever: 
 
 1. comes will be welcome. 
 
 2. you suggest will be selected. 
 
 3. He knows he has met. 
 
 4. The boy takes pencil he can. 
 
 5. The old lady asked she met. 
 
 6. The man put the question to appeared. 
 
 7. We like flatters us. 
 
 8. We welcomed came.
 
 164 An English Grammar 
 
 reads much will be well informed. 
 
 10. I congratulate succeeds. 
 
 114, The Simple Conjunctive Adverb in the 
 Adjective Clause. We have found so far that the 
 connective in the adjective clause may be a simple 
 or a compound relative pronoun. We are now to 
 find that it may also have another kind of connective. 
 
 In the sentence, Youth is the time at wJiich the 
 seeds of character are sozvn, the expression, at 
 which, in the adjective clause, at zvhich the seeds of 
 character are sown, has two uses. It is an adverbial 
 modifier of the word, sozvn, expressing the adverbial 
 idea of time. Then, the word, zvhich, is a relative 
 pronoun, which expresses the relation between the 
 thought expressed by the principal clause and the 
 thought expressed by the subordinate clause. The 
 expression, at zvhich, then, has one adverbial use 
 and one connective use. 
 
 We may substitute the word, zvJien, for the ex- 
 pression, at zvhich, making the sentence read. Youth 
 is the time zvhen the seeds of character are sown. 
 The word, zvhen, will then have the same two uses 
 as the expression, at zvhich.' It is an adverbial 
 modifier of the word, sown, in the subordinate 
 clause, expressing the adverbial idea of time. It 
 also expresses the relation between the thought 
 expressed by the principal clause and the thought 
 expressed by the subordinate clause. 
 
 We call such a word a simple conjunctive ad- 
 verb.
 
 The Complex Sentence 165 
 
 Exercise 47 
 
 Study the follozving sentences and give: 
 
 1. The principal clause. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 J. The exact use of the subordinate clause. 
 
 4. The exact uses of the italicised expres- 
 
 sion. 
 
 5. A zvord zvhich may be substituted for 
 
 the italicised expression. 
 
 6. The exact uses of the word substituted. 
 
 1. This is the place at luhich the oranges are sold. 
 
 2. I saw the city in zuhich Longfellow lived. 
 
 3. The place to which she fled is unknown. 
 
 4. I know a bank on zvhich the wild thyme grows. 
 
 5. You take the means by which I live. 
 
 6. This is the arrow W'ith zvhich he killed Cock Robin. 
 
 7. This is the house from zvhich Arnold fled. 
 
 8. I know the place of zvhich you speak. 
 
 9. I do not like the platform on zvhich they stand. 
 10. The principle on which he acts is unjust. 
 
 Exercise 48 
 
 Study the follozving sentences and give: 
 
 1. The principal clause. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 ^. The use of the subordinate clause. 
 4. The connective zvord and all its uses. 
 
 1. We came unto the land whither thou sentcst us. 
 
 2. I have shaken off the regal thoughts wherewith I 
 reigned. 
 
 3. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the con- 
 science of the king.
 
 l^iT) An English Grammar 
 
 4. It was a time when men's hearts were tried. 
 
 5. The place where he fell is unknown. 
 
 6. He would give the duke no reason why he followed 
 a losing suit. 
 
 7. Mark those laws whereby the universe is conducted. 
 
 8. A depot is a place where stores are kept. 
 
 9. A verb is a word whereby the chief action of the 
 mind is expressed. 
 
 10. The valley of Chamouni is a place where the traveler 
 loves to linger for days and even for weeks. 
 
 A conjunctive adverb is an adverb which has 
 a relational use; as, /[> caiuc to a place where 
 the roads crossed. 
 
 115. The Simple Conjunctive Adverb De- 
 fined. A simple conjunctive adverb is a conjunc- 
 tive adverb which has only one adverbial use; as, 
 
 This is the place where 7ve zvere to meet. 
 
 116. Connectives of the Adjective Clause. 
 
 We have now found that the adjective clause may 
 have three kinds of connectives: the simple rela- 
 tive pronoun, the compound relative pronoun, 
 and the simple conjunctive adverb. Tt can have 
 no others. These connectives can never be ttsed 
 in an}' other kind of clause. 
 
 117. List of Simple Conjunctive Adverbs. 
 
 The following" words may be used as simple con- 
 junctive adverbs but they are not always so used: 
 where, zvhen, wherezvith, zvhereon, zvhence, zvhere- 
 by, zvhither, zvherein, zvhy, zvhile, zvh ere from.
 
 The Complex Sentence !♦>" 
 
 Exercise 49 
 
 Use each of the zvords in the preceding list as 
 simple conjunctive adverbs. Write your sentences. 
 
 118, Punctuation of Adjective Clause. The 
 descriptive adjective clause should be separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, 
 
 Harry, zvho threzv the stone, did not know that it 
 had struck the zviridoiv. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 Description 
 THE EAGLE 
 
 He clasps the crag- with crooked hands ; 
 Close to the sun in lonely lands. 
 Rin.c^'d with the azure world, he stands. 
 
 The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls: 
 He watches from his mountain walls. 
 And like a thunderbolt he falls. 
 
 — Alfred, Lord Temiysoii. 
 
 I. 
 
 What has Tennyson pictured here? Upon what 
 does \our interest centre/ What arc the sur- 
 roundings:' What is the general impression left. 
 
 upon \on? 
 
 Purpose of Description. A description aims 
 
 to present a picture to the mind. 
 
 Write a description of the scene suggested by
 
 168 An English Grammar 
 
 flic poem. Notice the tense of tlie irrb in the poem. 
 [ \\T the same. 
 
 Read your paper, asking^ yourself zvhether or 
 not you have given a clear and definite picture, sucli 
 a one as an artist could paint. Study your sentences 
 and zvords in order to improve them. 
 
 Cattle fed. . 
 
 A shepherd watched his sheep. 
 
 Children played. 
 
 The car rattled. 
 
 The engine whistled. 
 
 A rohin sang". 
 
 What set'ings do you think of for the above ac- 
 tions? 
 
 Write a description one sentence long of any 
 of the above actions. Let your description show 
 the time, place and occasion of the actions. 
 
 If the sentences in the poem called " The Eagle " 
 were stripped of their modifiers, they would read 
 like this: "He clasps the crag. He stands. The 
 sea crawls. He watches. He falls." If this sen- 
 tence, " Near the little waterfall, darting hither and 
 thither among the trees, birds were flying," were 
 stripped of its modifiers, we would have this sen- 
 tence: "Birds were flying." Notice how much can 
 .be added to a sentence by its modifiers. 
 
 Read Chapter T^III, Sections 7? to 4/, noting 
 hozv many ideas may be expressed by the inoditiers 
 in a sentence. 
 
 Use of Modifiers in a Sentence. The mod-
 
 The Complex Sentence ^^^'^ 
 
 ifiers in a sentence help largely to give the sentence 
 its picture quality. 
 
 Read voitr descriptions. Have you made clear 
 and interesting pictures? Hare you kept them one 
 sentence long and not loosely joined independent 
 ilwucrJits bv and? 
 
 II. 
 
 • A Lonely Lighthouse. 
 
 A Gathering Storm. 
 
 A Flower Garden. 
 
 A Street Musician. 
 
 Crossing the Prairie. 
 
 A Ball Game. 
 
 Wliat pictures arc suggested by these topics? 
 
 Write a description one sentence long on any 
 one of the above topics. See that you have but one 
 main thought in the description and that is kept 
 until the end of the scjitcncc. See page 14^ for 
 punctuation. 
 
 Variety in Sentence Arrangement. X'ariety 
 in the arrangement of the i)arts of a sentence is de- 
 sirable. One way of securing variety is sometimes 
 to hold the main thought of a sentence until the 
 end. Example, "High in the Alps in a little cot- 
 tage near which were singing pines, little Heidc 
 lii'ed with her grandfather." 
 
 119. The Adverbial Clause, besides the sul)- 
 stantive and the adjective clauses, we have yet an- 
 other kind of clause which is used in the complex
 
 1~" An English Grammar 
 
 sentence, as we may notice by studying the sen- 
 tences which follow. In the sentence, Concentrate 
 your attention at the time at zvhich you study, the 
 expression, at the time, is an adverbial modifier of 
 the word, concentrate, expressing the adverbial 
 idea of time. The expression, at which, is an ad- 
 verbial modifier of the word, study, expressing the 
 adverbial idea of time. The word, zvhich, is a 
 simple relative pronoun, which expresses the rela- 
 tion between the thought expressed by the principal 
 clause and the thought expressed by the subordi- 
 nate clause. This expression, at the time at which, 
 then, has three uses. Two of them are adverbial 
 and one is a relational use. 
 
 We may substitute for this expression, the one 
 word, zvhcn, making the sentence read, Concentrate 
 your attention zvhen you study. 
 
 The principal clause is now the expression, Con- 
 centrate your attention. The subordinate clause is 
 the expression, zvlien you study. It is an adverbial 
 modifier of the word, concentrate, expressing the 
 adverbial idea of time. This, then, is an adverbial 
 clause. 
 
 The connective is the word, zvlien, and since it 
 takes the place of the expression, at the time at 
 which, in the other sentence, it must have the same 
 uses. It is an adverbial modifier of the word, con- 
 centrate, in the principal clause, expressing the ad- 
 verbial idea of tim.e. It is also an adverbial modifier 
 of the word, study, in tlie subordinate clause, ex-
 
 Tlie Complex Sentence 171 
 
 pressing the adverbial idea of time. It also ex- 
 presses the relation between the thought ex- 
 pressed by the principal clause and the thought 
 expressed by the subordinate clause. 
 
 Exercise 50 
 
 Study the following sentences and give: 
 
 1. The exact uses of tJie italicised expres- 
 
 sions. 
 
 2. A word which may be substituted for the 
 
 italicized expression. 
 J. TJic principal clause after the zvord is sub- 
 stituted. 
 
 4. The subordinate clause. 
 
 5. The kind of subordinate clause. 
 
 6. Its use. 
 
 7. The connective 01 the zvord substituted 
 
 and all its uses. 
 
 1. hnprove your moments during the time in zvhich you 
 are in school. 
 
 2. Swiftly olide the hours at fJie time at zvhich the 
 heart is vounsr. 
 
 3. Smooth runs the water at the f>lacc at zvhich the 
 brook is deep. 
 
 4. At the time at zcliich he slept, she over him would 
 spread his mantle. \ 
 
 5. He sleeps at the place at z^'hicli ni.u^ht overtakes l\im. 
 
 6. The boy does in the manner in zvhich he pleases. 
 
 7. 1 Ic became humhlcr in the degree in zvhich he i^rew 
 wiser.
 
 172 An English Grammar 
 
 8. Truth is strange in a degree in which fiction is not 
 strange. 
 
 9. In the manner in zv\hich the twig is bent the tree 
 is incHned. 
 
 10. At the time at zvhich Raleigh was launching paper 
 navies, Shakespeare was stretching his baby hands for the 
 moon. 
 
 *i20. The Compound Conjunctive Adverb 
 Defined. This kind of connective which we have 
 been substituting in the preceding sentences is 
 called a compound conjunctive adverb. 
 
 A compound conjunctive adverb is a con- 
 junctive adverb which has two adverbial uses ; as, 
 The people stood when the king entered. 
 
 Exercise 51 
 
 Study the following sentences and give: 
 
 The principal clause. 
 
 The subordinate clause.   
 
 The kind of subordinate clause. 
 
 Its exact use. 
 
 The connective and all its uses. 
 
 1. Gather dewdrops while they sparkle. 
 
 2. Peace rules the day when reason rules the hour. 
 
 3. Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest. 
 
 4. When Greeks joined Greeks, then began the tug of 
 war. 
 
 Note : The expressions most frequently used as compound con- 
 junctive adverbs are the following: when, where, while, as, whither, 
 whence, then — when, where — there, whenever, zi^herever, zvhereso- 
 ever, whithersoever, and whensoever.
 
 The Complex Sentence 173 
 
 5. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 
 
 6. When the heart beats no more, then the hfe ends. 
 
 7. In Britain the conquered race became as barbarous 
 as the conquerors were. 
 
 8. Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror 
 and surprise. 
 
 9. He walked among us as an upright man. 
 
 10. The train started as we got aboard. 
 
 11. As heroes think, so thought the Bruce. 
 
 1-2. The earlier you rise the better your nerves will bear 
 study. 
 
 13. Pride may be pampered while the fiesh grows lean. 
 
 14. They are better than we had expected. 
 
 15. Success will come when it is earnestly sought. 
 
 16. As the President passed, the children waved flags. 
 
 17. When the sun shines, the mist clears away. 
 
 18. As the soldiers marched by, the people waved flags. 
 
 19. When the time comes, peo])lc will be surprised. 
 
 20. This man hoped when others despaired. 
 
 21. The people shouted when they saw the flag. 
 
 22. The heart is l)rave when life is yciung. 
 
 23. Joy makes sunshine wherever he goes. 
 
 From your study of these sentences, make a 
 complete list of compound conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 121. The Pure Subordinate Conjunction. Tn 
 
 the sentence, / left before the sun rose, the principal 
 clause is the expression, / left. The subordinate 
 clause is the expression, before the sun rose. Tt is 
 an adverl)ial modifier of the word, left, hence it is 
 an adverbial clause. 
 
 The connective is the word, before; but this 
 word has no adverbial use. No expanded expres-
 
 174 An English Grammar 
 
 sion can be substituted for it. It has just the one 
 use ; namely, it expresses the relation between the 
 thought expressed by the principal clause and the 
 thought expressed by the subordinate clause. We 
 call such a connective a pure subordinate con- 
 junction. 
 
 Exercise 52 
 
 IVe must be careful to distinguish betzveen the 
 pure subordinate conjunction, whicJi always ex- 
 presses relation betzveen thoughts of unequal rank, 
 and the preposition, zvhich alzvays expresses rela- 
 tion betzveen ideas of unequal rank. 
 
 Study the follozving sentences and give: 
 
 1. The class of the sentence on basis of num- 
 
 ber and relation of thoughts expressed. 
 
 2. The principal clause. 
 
 J. The subordinate clause. 
 
 4. The connective, and state its exact use. 
 
 1. I came before your recess time. 
 
 2. I came before you had recess. 
 
 3. George Washington died after the accomplishment of 
 his great work. 
 
 4. George Washington died after his great work was 
 accomplished. 
 
 5. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge 
 ere your departure. 
 
 6. You shoukl drink from the fountain of knowledge 
 ere you depart. 
 
 7. You may wait until the arrival of the train. 
 
 8. You may wait until the train arrives.
 
 The Complex Sentence 1 75 
 
 122. The Pure Subordinate Conjunction De- 
 fined. A pure subordinate conjunction is a con- 
 junction which expresses the relation between 
 thoughts of unequal rank; as, If you ivish it, I will 
 retire. 
 
 Exercise 53 
 
 Study the following sentences and give: 
 
 1. The principal clause. 
 
 2. The subordinate clause. 
 
 J. The kind of snbordinate clause. 
 
 4. The exact use of the subordinate clause. 
 
 5. The connective and all its uses. 
 
 I. He rushes to battle as if he were summoned to a 
 banquet. 
 
 Explanation: If the sentence were expanded, it would read, 
 He rushes to battle as he zvould rush if he were summoned to a 
 banquet. The principal clause is the expression, lie rushes to 
 battle. The subordinate clause is the expression, as he Zi.'oiild rush 
 if he zcere summoned to a banquet. It is an adverbial clause, ex- 
 pressing the adverbial idea of manner. The connective is the 
 word, as, and it is a compound conjunctive adverb. It is an ad- 
 verbial modifier of the word rushes, in the principal clause and an 
 adverbial modifier of the expression. Z{.'(>uld rush, in the subordinate 
 clause, expressing the adverbial idea of manner. It also expresses 
 the relation between the thought expressed by the principal clause 
 and the thought expressed by the subordinate clause. There is 
 also a subordinate clause in the subordinate clause; namely, ;'/ he 
 zvere summoned to a banquet. It is an adverbial clause express- 
 ing the adverbial idea of condition. 'i'he connective is the word, 
 if, and it is a pure subordinate conjunction; that is, it has no 
 other use except to express the relation between the thought ex- 
 pressed by the principal clause, and the thought expressed by the 
 subordinate clause. 
 
 2. Our friends visited u< as frequently as they could, 
 
 3. T will run as far as God has any ^^round. 
 
 4. Oft as the morninG^ dawns should gratitude arise.
 
 1^70 An English Grammar 
 
 5. Since you insist upon it, I consent. 
 
 6. His head ached so that he could hardly study. 
 
 7. The lesson was interesting for the children were 
 attentive. 
 
 8. Our fathers sought these shores in order that they 
 might escape from persecution. 
 
 9. In case that we are beaten, we shall retreat. 
 
 10. Cursed be I that I did so. 
 
 11. Though you pay him, he will not serve you. 
 
 12. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy 
 England's freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred 
 years. 
 
 13. Obey the law of nature lest thou become unnatural. 
 
 14. Whereas the Embargo Act injured the commerce 
 of America, it was repealed. 
 
 15. Except you travel by night, }ou will find the journey 
 unpleasant. 
 
 17. Unless you are competent seek no promotion. 
 . 18. Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were 
 strangers in a strange land. 
 
 19. That is strange, notwithstanding he is vour neighbor. 
 
 20. 1 must go whether the train goes or not. 
 
 21. Although the w^ound soon healed again, vet, as he 
 ran, he yelled for pain. 
 
 22. Milton almost requires a service to be played before 
 you enter upon him. 
 
 23. The waves of sound do not move so rapidh- as the 
 waves of light. 
 
 24. The more we know of ancient literature, the more 
 v.'e are struck with its modernness. 
 
 Note: The following expressions are those which are most 
 trequenlly used as pure subordinate conjunctions: before after 
 since ere. till, that, for, if, zvhereas, so, save, except, unless, 
 provided, seeing, whether, although— yet, even— though, in order 
 that, m case that, etc.
 
 The Complex Sentence 177 
 
 Exercise 54 
 
 A review of the complex and compound sen- 
 tences; 
 
 Analyse the sentences below ace or din o; to the 
 following form: 
 
 1. Classify the sentence on tzvo bases, stat- 
 
 ing the basis in each case. 
 
 2. Give the principal parts of it. 
 
 J. Giz'c the principal word in each part and 
 
 all its niodiiiers. 
 4. Give the nwdifiers in the modifiers. 
 
 T. He who knows only his own side of the case knows 
 little of that. 
 
 2. When we go forth in the morning, we lay a mould- 
 ing hand upon our destiny. 
 
 3. Knowledge and timber should not be used much 
 until they are seasoned. 
 
 4. Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be 
 blessed. 
 
 5. That man has been from time immemorial a right- 
 handed animal is beyond dispute. 
 
 6. If the conditions should be favorable, we may see 
 the comet. 
 
 7. A man who grumbles much prays little. 
 
 8. The smallest dewdrop that lies on the meadow at 
 night has a star sleeping in its bosom. 
 
 9. Too many who have not learned to follow want to 
 lead. 
 
 10. Some people seem to think that whining is religion. 
 
 11. When an honest man stays away from the polls, 
 the devil votes.
 
 IT'*^ All niii^Iish Gram mar 
 
 12. It generally takes a blockhead a good while to find 
 out what ails him. 
 
 13. One of the first signs of spring which one sees is a 
 crowd of boys playing marbles. 
 
 14. If onr thoughts were written on our faces, how 
 quickly we would all hang our heads. 
 
 15. As the genuineness of a coin is made apparent by 
 the touch of an acid, so are the qualities of manhood 
 manifested by the test of trial. 
 
 16. The man who lives only for himself will not have 
 many mourners at his funeral. 
 
 17. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow. 
 
 18. In one rude crash he struck the lyre, and swept 
 with hurried hand the strings. 
 
 19. Ulysses listened to the song of the Sirens, yet he 
 glided b\ without being seduced to their shore. 
 
 20. Still the wonder grew 
 
 That one small head could carry all he knew. 
 
 — Goldsmith. 
 
 21. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, 
 O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 
 
 22. All seems infected that the infected spy. 
 
 As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. — Pope. 
 
 23. All are but parts of one stupendous whole 
 Wiiose body nature is, and God the soul. — Pope. 
 
 24. Much pleased was he to find. 
 
 That, though on pleasure she was bent, 
 
 She had a frugal mind. — Wordsivorth 
 
 25. Read from some humbler poet 
 
 Whose songs gushed from his heart, 
 As showers from the clouds of summer 
 
 Or tears from the eyelids start. — Longfellow. 
 
 26. A man he was to all the country dear. 
 And passing rich on forty pounds a year. 
 
 — Goldsmith.
 
 The Complex Sentence 179 
 
 27. O, well for the fisherman's boy 
 
 That he shouts with his sister at ])lay ! 
 Oj well for the sailor lad 
 
 That he sings in his boat on the bayl 
 
 — Tennyson. 
 
 28. You must wake and call me early, call me early, 
 
 mother dear : 
 To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad 
 
 New Year; 
 Of all the glad New Year, mother, the maddest, 
 merriest day ; 
 For I'm to be Queen o' the j\lay, mother, I'm to 
 be Queen o' the May. — Tennyson. 
 
 29. Joy comes, grief goes, we know not how ; 
 Everything is happy now. 
 
 Everything is upward striving; 
 
 'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true 
 
 As for grass to be green or skies to be blue, 
 
 'Tis the natural way of living, — Loivell 
 
 30. Where beams of warm imagination play 
 The memory's soft figures melt away. 
 
 31. lie loved his art and freely spent himself. 
 
 Counting no cost, nor measuring his days; 
 Not turned aside by misinterpreters 
 
 Nor halted for tlie sweet incense of jjraise. 
 
 — Jenkins. 
 
 123. Punctuation. W'c licixe now discovc-rcd 
 most of the followin.q- principles of punctuation 
 and capitalization : 
 
 I. A declarative or imperative sentence 
 should begin with a capital and close with a pe- 
 riod; as, The sun shines brightly. Please bring 
 me a book.
 
 180 An English Grammar 
 
 2. An interrogative sentence should begin 
 with a capital and close with a question mark; as, 
 
 IV hat did you sayF 
 
 3. An exclamatory sentence should begin 
 with a capital and close with an exclamation 
 point; as, O fJwt my father would come! 
 
 4. Parenthetical expressions are usually sep- 
 arated from the rest of the sentence by the 
 comma; as. It is mind, after all, which does the 
 work of the zvorld. 
 
 5. Strongly contrasted expressions should be 
 set off by the comma; as, Here, all is peace and 
 quietness; there, all is turmoil and strife. 
 
 6. The punctuation of the interjection (See 
 
 Section 22). 
 
 7. The adverbial clause which expresses the 
 adverbial idea of condition is frequently set off 
 by the comma; as, If you would succeed in busi- 
 ness, be honest and industrious. 
 
 8. A phrase or clause out of its natural order 
 is usually set off by the comma; as. When we 
 wish to enjoy ourselves, we go down by the lake. 
 
 9. The punctuation of the compound sen- 
 tence. (See Section 83.) 
 
 10. A series of expressions in the same con- 
 struction should be separated by the comma ; as, 
 
 Aristotle, Hamilton, Wheatley, and McCosh are 
 high authorities in logic.
 
 The Complex Sentence 181 
 
 11. When a series of expressions is arranged 
 in pairs, the pairs should be separated by the 
 comma; as, TJic poor and the rich, the weak and 
 file strong, the young and the old, have one common 
 Father. 
 
 12. The adjective clause. (See Section ii8.) 
 
 13. The appositive modifier is usually sep- 
 arated from the rest of the sentence by the 
 comma; as, Longfclloiv, the poet, lived in Cain- 
 bridge. 
 
 The appositive modifier of the pronoun, it, is not 
 usually so separated; as. It is not strange that we 
 should have missed you. 
 
 14. The substantive clause. (See Sections 
 89, 93 and 97.) 
 
 15. Words used by way of direct address 
 should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
 by the comma; as. Show pity. Lord, O Lord, for- 
 give! 
 
 16. Initials and abbreviations should be fol- 
 lowed by the period; as, At the request of the Rt. 
 Rev. W. H. Hooker, D. D., the vote was taken. 
 
 17. Such words as, namely, to-ivit, and so 
 forth, should be preceded by the semicolon or the 
 comma, and followed by the comma; as, Greece 
 has given us three great historians; namely, Herod- 
 otus, Xenophon, and Thucydides. 
 
 18. A series of expressions in the same con-
 
 1^2 An EnglisJi Grammar 
 
 struction, formally introduced, should be pre- 
 ceded by the colon; as, Pronominal adjectives are 
 divided into three classes: distributive, demonstra- 
 tive, and indefinite. 
 
 19. A clause which modifies each of a series 
 of expressions should be separated from the se- 
 ries by the comma; as, The horse and his rider, 
 that zvere so much admired, disappeared suddenly. 
 
 20. Ellipses may be indicated by the comma; 
 
 as, Arithmetic makes an accurate student; gram- 
 mar, a thoughtful student : history, a student with 
 a strong memory. 
 
 21. All proper names should begin with capi- 
 tals; as, Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana. 
 
 22. The first word in each line of poetry 
 should begin with a capital; as, 
 
 He does confess he feels himself distracted; 
 But from what cause, he will by no means 
 speak. 
 
 23. The words, I and O, should always be 
 capitals; as, // is I. O Harry, you are a poke! 
 
 * Exercise 55 
 
 Which capitals in tJie follozving quotation de- 
 note the beginning of nezv sentences f Which mark 
 only the beginning of a new line of poetry f 
 
 *Note: The teacher should u?e her judgment in drilling pupils. 
 Some classes need more exercises than others.
 
 The Complex Sentence 183 
 
 This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the 
 
 hemlocks, 
 Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in 
 
 the twilight, 
 Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic. 
 Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their 
 
 bosoms. 
 Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring 
 
 ocean 
 Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of 
 
 the forest. 
 This is the forest primeval ; but where are the hearts that 
 
 beneath it 
 Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the 
 
 voice of the huntsman ? — Longfellozv. 
 
 Capitalize and punctuate the follozving sen- 
 tences, giving reasons. Write your zuork. 
 
 1. it is true after all that we do not think much 
 
 2. his passion however prevented his seeing the danger 
 
 3. the affair passed off to your satisfaction no doubt 
 
 4. nelson has at last got into the senate 
 
 5. he promised however to set about reform at once 
 
 6. however much he promised it was but little that 
 he performed 
 
 7. on the left were waving fields of grain on the right 
 was the river 
 
 8. why this is all wrong 
 
 9. Joseph who happened to be in the field at the time 
 saw the carriage approach and in an ecstasy of delight 
 hastened to meet it 
 
 10. if you are honest with yourself you will see that 
 you are wrong 
 
 11. the tree will not bear fruit in autumn unless it 
 blossoms in the spring
 
 184 An English Grammar 
 
 12. plant in a man an earnest ]:)nrpose and yon awaken 
 in him a new power 
 
 13. give time to the stndy of nature whose laws are all 
 ileeply interesting 
 
 14. those friends who in the native vigor of his powers 
 perceived the dawn of robertson's future eminence were 
 at length amply rewarded 
 
 15. he preaches most eloquently w]io leads the most 
 pious life 
 
 16. no thought can be just of which good sense is not 
 the ground work 
 
 17. there are men and women whose desire for knowl- 
 edge is never satisfied 
 
 18. modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels 
 alike mountains and rivers and dikes out old ocean himself 
 
 19. did god create for the poor a coarser earth a thin- 
 ner air a paler sky 
 
 20. whitney carpenter and sweet are high authorities 
 in grammar 
 
 21. the good and the bad the liigh and the low the 
 honest and the dishonest were huddled together 
 
 22. himself the greatest of agitators napoleon became 
 the most oppressive of tyrants 
 
 23. macaulay the historian was a master of style 
 
 24. the word poet meaning a maker a creator is de- 
 rived from the greek 
 
 25. the greatest poet among the ancients homer like 
 the greatest among the moderns milton was blind 
 
 26. the request was made by the rt rev j e walker dd 
 
 27. i beg leave sir to present my friend lord hargrave 
 
 28. henry please close the door 
 
 29. then came the guests the table being spread and sat 
 down to the feast 
 
 30. to obtain an education he was willing to make 
 sacrifices
 
 The Complex Sentence 1^5 
 
 31. awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect 
 
 32. reading- maketh a full man, conference a ready man 
 writing an exact man 
 
 33. semiramis built babylon dido carthage and romulus 
 rome 
 
 34. someone justl}' remarks it is a great loss to lose an 
 affliction 
 
 35. Patrick henry began his great speech by saying it 
 is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope 
 
 36. as we perceived the shadow to have moved but did 
 not perceive its moving so our advances in learning con- 
 sisting of such minute steps are perceivable only by the 
 distance 
 
 T^y. so, sad and dark a history is scarcely to be found 
 in any work of fiction and we are little disposed to envy 
 the moralist who can read it without being softened 
 
 38. if we think of glory in the field of wisdom in the 
 cabinet of the purest patriotism of the highest integrity 
 public and private of morals without a stain of religious 
 feeling without intolerance and without extravagance the 
 august figure of Washington presents itself as the persona- 
 tion of all these 
 
 39. the temple is profaned the soldiers oath resounds in 
 the house of god the marble pavement is trampled by iron 
 hoofs horses neigh beside the altar 
 
 40. we have had three great speakers phillips webster 
 and hoar 
 
 41. attributive words are divided into three classes ad- 
 jectives adverbs attributive verbs 
 
 42. speaking of party pope makes this remark there 
 never was any party faction sect or cabal whatsoever in 
 which the most ignorant were not the most violent 
 
 43. can these words add vigor to your hearts yes they 
 can do it they have often done it 
 
 44. }cs my lords I am amazed at his lordship's speech
 
 186 All English Grammar 
 
 &■ 
 
 45. shall a man obtain the favor of heaven by impiety 
 by murder by falsehood by theft 
 
 46. o what a fair and ministering angel 
 
 47. ho trumpets sound a war note 
 
 48. Socrates said that he believed the soul to be im- 
 mortal 
 
 49. someone has said what an argument for prayer is 
 contained in the words our father which art in heaven 
 
 50. trench says what a lesson the word diligence 
 contains 
 
 51. there is but one object says augustine gi eater than 
 the soul and that is its creator 
 
 52. let me make the ballads of the nation Scid fletcher 
 and i care not who makes the laws 
 
 53. what do you think i will shave you for nothing 
 and give you a drink 
 
 54. to greece we are indebted for the three principal 
 orders of architecture the dorian the ionian and the Corinth- 
 ian 
 
 55. he who is his own lawyer is said to have a fool 
 for his client 
 
 56. 'tis not the w liok' of life to live 
 nor all of death to die 
 
 57. to honour god to benefit mankind 
 
 to serve with lofty gifts the lowly needs 
 of the poor race for which the god-man died 
 and do it all for love oh this is great 
 
 58. a still small voice spake unto me 
 thou art so full of misery 
 
 were it not better not to be 
 
 59. the lilies behold how we preach without words of 
 purity 
 
 60. and i will trust that he who heeds 
 the life that hides in mead and wold 
 who hangs yon alders crimson beads
 
 The Cofuplex Sentence 187 
 
 and stains these mosses green and gold 
 will still as he hath done incline 
 his gracious ear to me and mine 
 
 After the sentences in the preceding list are 
 punctuated, use them in reviewing any of the work 
 of the preceding chapters. 
 
 In about what proportion do these kinds of sen- 
 tences occur ? Could the thought of either of these 
 selections be expressed exclusively in simple sen- 
 tences or in compound sentences, or in complex sen- 
 tences? What is the advantage in using all three 
 kinds? 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 D escrip fioii (co n tin u ed) . 
 
 I. 
 
 What feeling do you get from looking at the 
 picture called " The Day's Work Done," facing- 
 page 7^5. What is pictured/ What season of the 
 vear is sit i^ nested bv it/ What time of day? 
 
 J V rite a description of the picture. 
 
 The Four W's. Notice how in " The Eagle" 
 Mr. Tennyson has presented a picture by making 
 clear zvhat he is talking about, the eagle \ by naming 
 the occasion, the eagle first zvatching and then 
 plunging: the place, the crag close to the sun in 
 lonely lands: the time, suggested by the position of 
 the sun. We see that four elements hax'c been 
 named or suggested : the what, the where, the when
 
 188 An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 and the why (the occasion). These are called the 
 four VV's. 
 
 Read your f^apcr. Have yon cither expressed 
 or suggested tlie four IV's? 
 
 II- 
 
 Study the picture called ''In the Pasture," fac- 
 ing page /(V<S\ 
 
 What impression does the picture uuihc upon 
 you? Name tlie four U"s. 
 
 Write a description of tlie picture a paragraph 
 long. Iwt the first sentence characterise the pict- 
 ure by giving the general impression ivhich you re- 
 ceived from it, and the others name the four W's. 
 Decide whether yon want to describe the picture as 
 if you were nozv looking upon it, or as if you had 
 looked upon it in tlie past and then keep your verbs 
 all in the same tense. For knozvledge of tense see 
 section 266. page 2()8. 
 
 III. 
 
 Study the picture callcil "The JJ'oods in JVin- 
 ter" , facing page i. 
 
 The Four W's Suggested. The season of 
 the year, the time of day. the ])lace, the peo])le and 
 the occasion may be sui^'gested in a description.. 
 Gailv colored leaves lUitterino- to the ground sul?- 
 gest fall; I turning sand and glaring sun suggest a 
 desert ; a ])ers()n riding a broomstick suggests a
 
 JN Till' r.isruRii
 
 The Complex Sentence 189 
 
 witch, and some one running excitedly down a 
 street suggests that there is trouble somewhere. 
 
 Write a description of the picture. Try to sug- 
 gest some of the four IV's.
 
 TJic Fourth Section. 
 
 Chapter 13 
 Parts of Speech 
 
 We have been studying sentences as wholes 
 and we have discovered the different classes of sen- 
 tences on the basis of their chief purpose and on the 
 basis of the number and relation of thoughts ex- 
 pressed. In studying the organic parts of sentences, 
 the subject, predicate and copula, we have learned 
 how all the dififerent kinds of words which we have 
 in our language are used in these dififerent kinds of 
 sentences and all the modifiers which belong to 
 them. 
 
 We are now to stud}^ these classes of words 
 more in detail. We have in the English language 
 more than two hundred thousand words; but, as 
 we have seen, we can arrange them all in a few 
 classes according to their uses in expressing 
 thought. 
 
 These classes of words which we have alreadv 
 discussed and defined arc called parts of speech. 
 
 [190J
 
 Chapter 14 
 
 The Noun 
 
 124. The Noun Defined, A noun is a sub- 
 stantive word which expresses an object of 
 thought by naming it; as. The gallant crew rowed 
 against a heavy sea. 
 
 125. Classes of Nouns. In the sentence, The 
 WabasJi flozvs south along the western boundary 
 of the state of Indiana, the nouns, state and Indiana, 
 express the same object of thought, but in differ- 
 ent ways. The nonn, state, expresses the object of 
 thought by calhno- attention to or emphasizing the 
 attributes which it has in common with other ob- 
 jects of thought in that class; while the noun, In- 
 diana, expresses the object of thought by calling 
 attention to or emphasizing the attributes pe- 
 culiar to it. Wc call the first a common noun and 
 the second a proper noun. 
 
 126. Proper Noun Defined. A proper noun is 
 a noun which expresses an object of thought by 
 emphasizing the attributes peculiar to it; as, Min- 
 neapolis is a beautiful city. 
 
 127. Common Noun Defined. A common 
 noun is ? noun which expresses an object of 
 
 [190
 
 19- An English Grammar 
 
 thought by emphasizing the attributes which it 
 has in common with the members of its class; as, 
 The city is beautiful. 
 
 Exercise 56 
 
 Write seven proper nouns zvhich are suggested 
 by the following common nouns. \ river, book, girl, 
 tree, building/ man, woman. 
 
 Write common nouns zvhich are suggested by 
 the foUoiving proper nouns: Chicago, Iowa, Harry, 
 France, Monday, Mary, June. 
 
 J y rite ten sentences containing proper nouns 
 and ten contaiuinz common nouns. 
 
 128. Classes of Common Nouns. Tn the sen- 
 tences, The horse is a useful animal. The school 
 zvas dismissed for a holiday. Iron is heavy. The 
 nouns, horse, school, and iron, are all common 
 nouns. The word, horse, however, expresses an 
 object of thought which is composed of individuals 
 thought together on the basis of their common at- 
 tributes; the noun, school, expresses an object of 
 thought made up of a number of individuals thought 
 together in space; while the noun, iron, expresses 
 an object of tliought which is the material or sub- 
 stance out of which other things are made. This 
 difference in common nouns gives us three 
 classes: class nouns, collective nouns, and sub- 
 stance nouns. 
 
 129. Class Noun Defined. A class noun is a
 
 The Noun 1^3 
 
 common noun which expresses an object of 
 thought made up of individuals that are thought 
 together on the basis of their common attri- 
 butes ; or it may express one or more than one of 
 these individuals; as, The horse is a useful animal. 
 The horse is tied to the post. The horses are ir 
 the field. 
 
 130. The Collective Noun Defined. A collect- 
 ive noun is a common noun which expresses an 
 object of thought made up of a number of indi- 
 viduals thought together in space; as, The jury 
 
 was dismissed. 
 
 131. The Substance Noun Defined. A sub- 
 stance noun is a noun which expresses an object 
 of thought that is the material out of which other 
 things are made; as, The spoon was made of pew- 
 ter. 
 
 132. Other Classes of Nouns. The division 
 of nouns into common and proper is on the basis of 
 the kind of attributes emphasized. Nouns may be 
 divided on another basis. In the sentence, The city 
 zvas destroyed by hre, the noun, city, expresses an 
 object of thought which was first known by its at- 
 tributes. We call this a concrete noun. 
 
 Tn the sentence. Truth will triumph in the end, 
 the noun, truth, expresses an object of thought 
 which was first known as an attribute. We call 
 this an abstract noun.
 
 194 An EiigHsJi Grammar 
 
 133. Concrete Noun Defined. A concrete 
 noun is a noun which expresses an object of 
 thought that was first known by its attributes; 
 as, I'lic money 7.vas stolen. New York is the me- 
 tropolis of the United States. 
 
 134. Abstract Noun Defined. An abstract 
 noun is a noun which expresses an object of 
 thought that was first known as an attribute; as. 
 Justice is a virtue which ineludes many others. 
 Christian was on his zvay to the Holy City zuhen 
 he met zvith Patience. 
 
 Exercise 57 
 
 In the follozmng sentences point out the nouns 
 and classify them into the smallest known classes 
 ou each basis, stating the basis in each case. 
 
 1. The house is made of brick. 
 
 2. The cup and spoon were presents. 
 
 3. Iron is a useful metal. 
 
 4. The girl's cheeks were rosy. 
 
 5. The man placed his hand on the boy's head. 
 
 6. The boat turned on her side. 
 
 7. Such a l)anner was long since waving over the portal 
 of the Province House. 
 
 8. Silver and gold have I none. 
 
 9. The odor of the flower was pleasant. 
 
 10. The articles were made of wood and iron. 
 
 11. Do you like the flavor of the fruit? 
 
 12. Thunder and lightning are frightful. 
 
 13. "Another trump for the Lady Eleanore ! " he cried. 
 
 14. The man is six feet in height. 
 IS- Truth is stranger than fiction.
 
 The Noun 195 
 
 16. The lad's goodness of heart atoned for his ughncss 
 of feature. 
 
 17. His absence is more to be desired than his presence. 
 
 18. Caesar's anger knew no bounds. 
 
 19. Which is greater, Martin Luther or Mohammed? 
 
 20. Ohver was on his way from Ludgatc to Cornhill 
 when he met a group of bootblacks. 
 
 21. A troop of children gamboled on the green. 
 
 22. The family became uneasy. 
 
 23. The school consisted of a dozen children. 
 
 24. Jupiter is larger than Venus. 
 
 25. The iieet was overtaken in the Red Sea. 
 
 26. Friendship is not to be despised. 
 
 27. The herd came up to the house. 
 
 -8. Strength may be substituted for weakness. 
 
 29. But, even amid the darkness, his fair face 
 
 Ever turned eager toward the eternal light. 
 He saw the bright beams of the coming day 
 
 Far through the blackness of th'enshrouding night. 
 
 — Jenkins. 
 
 30. Wounded and fallen, still he struggled on. 
 
 Brave-hearted, valiant to his latest breath: 
 With cvpress mourners came ; but. laurel-crowned, 
 Thev found him smiling in the arms of Death. 
 
 — Jenkins. 
 
 135. Properties of the Noun. Most words 
 change their form by inflection, derivation, or 
 composition to express different shades of mean- 
 ing-; as, man, man's, men. 
 
 These changes in I lie forms of words or in 
 their relations to their context to denote differ- 
 ent shades of meaning, we call properties. 
 
 136. Gender. Study the follozving sentenees:
 
 I*'*' An English Grammar 
 
 1. Boys play ball. 
 
 2. The girls arc interested in their work. 
 
 3. The child is asleep. 
 
 4. The tree is blighted. 
 
 The noun, boys, expresses an object of thought 
 of the male sex. The noun, girls, expresses an ob- 
 ject of thought of the female sex. The noun, child, 
 expresses an object of thought that has sex but 
 does not show which sex it is. The noun, tree, ex- 
 presses an object of thought that has no sex. Thus 
 we see that each word shows the relation between 
 the object of thought expressed by it and the idea 
 of sex. This property of nouns we call gender. 
 
 137. Gender Defined. Gender is that prop- 
 erty of the substantive word which shows the re- 
 lation which the object of thought expressed by 
 it bears to sex; as, man, woman, student, house. 
 
 138. Classes of Gender. We may see from 
 Section 136 that the object of thought expressed 
 by the noun may have four different relations to 
 .^cx; hence we have four classes of gender: mas- 
 culine, feminine, common, and neuter. 
 
 139. MascuHne Gender Defined. Masculine 
 gender is that gender which shows that the ob- 
 ject of thought expressed by the substantive word 
 
 is of the male sex ; as, His uncle -ivas present. 
 
 140. Feminine Gender Defined. Feminine 
 gender is that gender which shows that the ob- 
 ject of thought expressed by the substantive word
 
 The Noun ^^"^ 
 
 is of the female sex; as, TJic boy's mother was 
 worried. 
 
 141. Common Gender Defined. Common 
 gender is that gender which shows that the ob- 
 ject of thought expressed by the substantive word 
 has sex, but does not show which sex it is; as, 
 Tlic pupil zvas prompt. 
 
 142. Neuter Gender Defined. Neuter gender 
 is that gender which shows that the object of 
 thought 'expressed by the substantive word has 
 no sex; as, TIic problem was difficiilt. 
 
 143. Methods of Denoting Gender. Notice 
 the following words and give the gender of each: 
 Nephew, niece, he-hear, she-bear, host, hostess. 
 
 You will notice that sometimes we use differ- 
 ent words to express masculine and feminine gen- 
 der; sometimes we merely change the ending of 
 the word, and sometimes wc prefix a gender 
 word. This gives us three ways of distinguish- 
 ing gender: 
 
 I. By the use of the suffix. 
 
 Learn to spell the following gender words: 
 Masculine abbess Masculine Feminine 
 
 abbot Feminine liost hostess 
 
 actor actress hunter huntress 
 
 administrator achninistratrix idolater idolatress 
 
 adventurer adventuress Jew Jewess 
 
 baron baroness lad lass 
 
 benefactor benefactress lion lioness
 
 lOS 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 Masculine 
 
 I'oninine 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Feminine 
 
 count 
 
 countess 
 
 marquis 
 
 marchioness 
 
 czar 
 
 czarina 
 
 master 
 
 mistress 
 
 deacon 
 
 deaconess 
 
 patron 
 
 patroness 
 
 iluke 
 
 duchess 
 
 preceptor 
 
 preceptress 
 
 emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 prince 
 
 princess 
 
 enchanter 
 
 enchantress 
 
 prophet 
 
 prophetess 
 
 executor 
 
 executrix 
 
 shepherd 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 giant 
 
 giantess 
 
 sorcerer 
 
 sorceress 
 
 god 
 
 goddess 
 
 sultan 
 
 sultana 
 
 heir 
 
 heiress 
 
 tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 hero 
 
 heroine 
 
 waiter 
 
 waitress 
 
 2. By prefixing a gender word. 
 
 Learn to spell the zvords in the follozving list: 
 
 Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine 
 
 bull-elephant cow-elephant he-goat she-goat 
 
 cock-sparrow hen-sparrow man-servant maid-servant 
 
 he-bear she-bear pea-cock pea-hen 
 
 vV 
 
 By the use of separate words. 
 
 Learn to spell the zvords in the follozving list: 
 
 Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine 
 
 bachelor spinster, maid monk nun 
 
 buck doe ram ewe 
 
 bullock heifer stag hind 
 
 drake duck wizard witch 
 
 gander goose husband wife 
 
 Exercise 58 
 
 Write the follozving zvords in tzvo columns. In 
 the first cohwin write tlie masculine form and in the 
 second the feminine:
 
 The Noun 11»1) 
 
 Sister, niece, uncle, son, Mr., Charles, actor, ex- 
 ecutor, sorcerer, witch, duke, queen, husband, 
 mother, widow, goose, nun, patron, prophet. 
 
 144. Irregularities in Gender. i. A noun 
 which is usually neuter gender may become mas- 
 culine or feminine by personification, that is, 
 \\hen the mind gives to the object expressed by it 
 the attributes of a person; as. The ship lias lost her 
 rudder. The meek-eyed morn appears mother of 
 dews. TJie sun in his glory appears. The moon 
 in her zvane hides her face. 
 
 2. A noun usually common gender may be- 
 come masculine or feminine gender when the 
 context, that is, the meaning of the sentence, in- 
 dicates the sex of the ol)iect of thought; as. The fox 
 made her escape. TJic nightingale sings her song. 
 TJie deer ran until he dropped. 
 
 3. Nouns which are usually masculine gender 
 may become common gender wlien the context, or 
 iIk' meaning of the sentence, shows that the ob- 
 ject of thought exi)ressed tliereby is made u]) ol 
 individuals of both sexes; as. Heirs arc often dis- 
 appointed. The poets of .lincrica shonhi /t h(ni- 
 ored. 
 
 4. A noun which is usually common gender mav 
 become neuter gender when the context shows that 
 the mind is not emphasizing the attribute of sex 
 in ihe object of tliought expressed by it; as, T!ic 
 child /// its zveahness is master of all.
 
 200 An English Grammar 
 
 145. Person. Study the nouns in the follow- 
 ing sentences : 
 
 1. I, John, saw it in a dream. 
 
 2. I hope, Mary, that you will study dilig;ently. 
 
 3. Friends should trust one another. 
 
 We can see that the noun, Jo!in, expresses a per- 
 son who is speaking; the noun. Alary, a person 
 who is spoken to; and the noun, friends, expresses 
 the persons or object of thought which is spoken 
 of. Each noun thus indicates or has indicated for 
 it by the context, the relation between the object 
 of thought and the speaker. This property of nouns 
 we call person. 
 
 146. Person Defined. Person is that prop- 
 erty of the substantive word which shows the re- 
 lation between the object of thought expressed 
 by it and the speaker; as, /. William, szvear if on 
 ]]iy Iwuor. Yon, Arthur, may become a farmer. 
 Samuel is my cousin. 
 
 147. Classes of Person. A\> have seen in 
 Section 145 that the object of thought expressed 
 bv the substantive word ma^• bear three relations 
 to the speaker; namely, identity, person spoken 
 to, and person or object spoken of. We thus 
 have three classes of person, and we call them 
 first, second, and third. 
 
 148. First Person Defined. The first person 
 is that person which shows that the object of
 
 The Noun 201 
 
 thought expressed by the substantive word is 
 the speaker; as, /, Walter, take thee at thy word. 
 
 149. Second Person Defined. The second per- 
 son is that person which shows that the object 
 of thought expressed by the substantive word is 
 the object of thought addressed by the speaker; 
 as, Yon, Thomas, look guilty. 
 
 150. Third Person Defined. The third per- 
 son is that person which shows that the object 
 of thought expressed by the substantive word is 
 the object of thought that is spoken of; as, Har- 
 old came early in the morning. 
 
 Exercise 59 
 
 Point out the nouns in the following sentences 
 and give the person of each. Notice that the noun 
 does not change form to denote person but that the 
 relation betzveen the object of thought expressed by 
 it and the speaker must be determined by the con- 
 text: 
 
 1. The lion is the king of beasts. 
 
 2. The heroine of the play appears only once. 
 
 3. You, Mr. Williams, may meet me in my office. 
 
 4. I, W. R. Merriam, declare it to be true. 
 
 5. I hope, Edward, that you will remember that char- 
 acter is more precious than gold. 
 
 6. Tears fall sometimes when hearts are least willing to 
 show grief. 
 
 7. You are the gentleman who so kindly assisted me. 
 
 151. Number. Stud} the nuuiis in the fol-
 
 202 An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 lowing" sentences: IVc start for California in the 
 morning. These states seceded from the Union. 
 
 Notice that the noun, California, expresses a 
 single individual; while the noun, states, expresses 
 a number of individuals. This property of the 
 noun which indicates the nuniher of individuals ex- 
 pressed by it, w^e call number. 
 
 152. Number Defined. Number is that prop- 
 erty of the substantive word which shows 
 whether the object of thought expressed by it is 
 one or more than one individual; as, The thief es- 
 caped. Thieves quarrel among themselves. 
 
 153. Classes of Number, As we have seen 
 in Section 151, nouns always express one or more 
 than one individual, hence we can have but two 
 classes of number. We call them singular and 
 plural. 
 
 154. Singular Number Defined. Singular 
 number is that number which shows that the ob- 
 ject of thought expressed by the substantive 
 word is one individual; as, The horse was sold at 
 auction. 
 
 155. Plural Number Defined. Plural number 
 is that num.ber which shows that the object of 
 thought expressed by the substantive word is 
 more than one individual; as. The trees were 
 blozvn dozvn by the storm. 
 
 156. Rules for the Formation of the Plural.
 
 The Noun 203 
 
 Most nouns form the plural by adding s to 
 the singular; as, free, trees. 
 
 To this general rule, however, there are many 
 exceptions. The most important of these may be 
 indicated under the following special rules : 
 
 a. Last sound of singular. When the last 
 sound of the singular form does not unite well with 
 the sound of s, es is added to the singular to form 
 the plural. . This forms an additional S3dlable, which 
 is pronounced; as, box, boxes. 
 
 b. Plural of nouns ending in 3;. Most nouns 
 ending in y preceded by a vowel simply add s; as, 
 valley, valleys. 
 
 Nouns ending in 3' preceded by a consonant, 
 change 3' to i and add es to form the phiral ; as, lady, 
 ladies; city, cities. 
 
 Write the plurals of the follozving nouns: sky, 
 chimney, key, fly, penny, turkey. 
 
 c. Plural of nouns ending in o. Nouns 
 ending in preceded by a vowel form their ])lurals 
 regularly l)y adding s; as, folio, folios. 
 
 Nouns ending in preceded by a consonant usu- 
 ally form their plurals by adding es to the singular ; 
 as, negro, negroes; hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. 
 
 The following words are exceptions to this rule: 
 1)anjo chromo halo octavo 
 
 solo burro contralto junto 
 
 piano stiletto canto duodecimo 
 
 lasso proviso Casino dynamo 
 
 memento quarto
 
 204 An English Grammar 
 
 d. Nouns ending in / or fe. Nouns ending in 
 / or fe usually change this ending to v and add es to 
 form their plurals ; as, 
 
 beef, beeves half, halves elf, elves knife, knives 
 
 life, lives calf, calves half, halves leaf, leaves 
 
 loaf, loaves self, selves wife, wives shelf, shelves 
 
 sheaf, sheaves thief, thieves wolf, wolves 
 
 e. Plurals' IN ^n. A few words form their 
 plurals by adding en to the singular; as, ox, oxen; 
 brother, brethren; child, children. 
 
 f. Internal changes in nouns to form the 
 PLURAL. A few nouns form their plurals by inter- 
 nal changes ; as, 
 
 foot, feet woman, women 
 
 louse, lice man, men 
 
 mouse, mice tooth, teeth 
 goose, geese 
 
 g. Plurals of letters, figures, and other 
 SYMBOLS. Letters, figures and other symbols 
 form their plurals by adding an apostrophe and 
 s to the singular; as, /, I's; t, t's; f, fs; 4, 4's. 
 
 h. Plurals of proper nouns. Proper nouns 
 form their plurals regularly by adding s to the sin- 
 gular; as, Mary, Marys; Nero, Neros. 
 
 Proper nouns preceded by titles; as, Mr. Crow, 
 Mrs. Crozv, Miss Crow, General Crow, form their 
 plural in two ways. We may say, The Mr. Crows, 
 The Mrs. Crows, The Miss Crows, The General 
 Crows, or we may say : The Messrs. Crow, The Mes- 
 dames Crozv, The Misses Crow, The Generals Crow.
 
 The Noun ^^05 
 
 %^( 
 
 r e^ 
 
 i. Plurals of compound nouns. Most com- 
 pound nouns form their pkirals by adding the 
 proper sign of the phu-al to the principal or e^ 
 sential part of the word, that is, to the part wl 
 is described by the rest of the phrase; as, ox-cl 
 ox-carts; coiirt-inartial, courts-martial; aide-de- 
 camp, aides-de-camp. 
 
 When no single word' is principal or essential, 
 the sign of the plural is put at the end of the word ; 
 as, forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; spoonful, spoon- 
 fids: cupful, cnpfids. 
 
 There are a few compound nouns, the princii)al 
 words of which are difficult to determine, which add 
 the sign of the plural to both words; as, man-serv- 
 ant, men-servants ; woman-servant, women-serv- 
 ants: knigh t-templar, knigh ts-templars. 
 
 ']. Singular and plural the same. Some 
 nouns have the same form in both singular and 
 plural; as, trout, sheep, cod, szvine, salmon, grouse, 
 deer. 
 
 Some nouns expressing number or measure 
 mav be used in the plural sense without change 
 of form, the plural meaning being sufficiently 
 indicated by the numerals; as, two yoke of oxen, 
 four pair of horses, five dozen eggs, four score 
 years, tzvo hundred-zveight of Hour. 
 
 157. Plurals with Different Meanings. Some 
 nouns have more than one plural fornh These plu- 
 ral forms, however, dififer in meaning; as,
 
 206# 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 fish, fishes (separate objects), 
 fish (collective) ; 
 brother, brothers (by birth), 
 ■^thren (of an organization) ; 
 dies (for coining or 
 stamping), 
 dice (for play) ; 
 shot, shots (explosions), 
 shot (balls) ; 
 index, indexes (of books), 
 
 158. Foreign Plurals. 
 
 in u , 
 
 indices (in mathematics) ; 
 penny, pennies (coins), 
 pence (a sum of money) ; 
 genius, geniuses (bright 
 
 persons) ; 
 genii (spirits) ; 
 cloth, cloths (of different 
 
 kinds) , 
 clothes (garments). 
 
 Sonic nouns of foreis'ii 
 
 origin retain their foreign plurals. There is a 
 tendency, however, in modern English to form Eng- 
 lish plurals for these nouns; as, 
 alumna (feminine), alumnae; curricula (foreign) ; 
 
 genus, genera; 
 memorandum, memorand- 
 ums (English) , 
 memoranda (foreign) ; 
 phenomenon, phenomena ; 
 seraph, seraphs (English), 
 seraphim (foreign) ; 
 stratum, strata; 
 tableau, tableaux. 
 
 alumnus (masculine), alumni 
 analysis, analyses; 
 bacterium, bacteria; 
 bandit, bandits (English), 
 banditti (foreign) ; 
 beau, beaus (English), 
 beaux (foreign) ; 
 cherub, cherubs (English), 
 cherubim (foreign) ; 
 curricuhmi, curriculums 
 (English) , 
 
 159. Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in 
 Meaning. Some nouns which are plural in form 
 are singular in meaning; as. United States, nezus, 
 luatheiuatics, gallows, amends, pJiysics, and most 
 other words endin"' in irs. With each of these 
 words wc use a singular verh; as. The news is had. 
 Mathematics is difficult. Optics is a science.
 
 The Noun 
 
 207 
 
 The words, athletics and politics, however, usu- 
 ally take the plural verb. Again, the following 
 nouns which look very much like these usually take 
 plural verbs: scissors, suds, tongs, procecdij^s,^ 
 victuals, riches, trousers, vitals, dregs, pincers, nup- 
 tials, eaves, ashes, oats, assets. Such points in Eng- 
 lish are determined by usage and the student does 
 well to consult, in such cases, a large dictionary, 
 which is supposed to reflect good usage. 
 
 Exercise 60 
 
 Write the following nouns in tivo columns, the 
 singular in one and the plural in the other. Con- 
 sult your dictionaries for the correct spelling of 
 nianv ivords: 
 
 book 
 
 money 
 
 wife 
 
 knife 
 
 sin 
 
 strife 
 
 life 
 
 fife 
 
 desk 
 
 cargo 
 
 negro 
 
 folio 
 
 church 
 
 quarto 
 
 trio 
 
 no 
 
 witness 
 
 men 
 
 ox 
 
 mice 
 
 glory 
 
 teeth 
 
 geese 
 
 P 
 
 sky 
 
 q 
 
 (5 
 
 7 
 
 money 
 
 + 
 
 * 
 
 brother-in-law 
 
 court-martial 
 
 wagon-load 
 
 ox-cart 
 
 knight-templar 
 
 Miss Seward 
 
 Mr. Casad 
 
 Sir John 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton 
 
 Dr. Benson 
 
 Mrs. Smith 
 
 brother 
 
 die 
 
 fish 
 
 genius 
 
 index 
 
 penny 
 
 pea 
 
 Sarah 
 
 oh 
 
 ah 
 
 calculus 
 
 arcanum 
 
 criterion 
 
 thesis 
 
 analysis 
 
 vinega' 
 
 hemp 
 
 darkness 
 
 oil 
 
 ashes 
 
 assets 
 
 bellows 
 
 clothes 
 
 scissors 
 
 shears 
 
 tongs 
 
 news 
 
 molasses 
 
 lungs 
 
 alms
 
 208 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 corps 
 
 mumps 
 
 measles 
 
 odds 
 
 riches 
 
 scries 
 
 suds 
 
 tidings 
 
 wages 
 
 ethics 
 
 politics 
 
 mathematics 
 
 optics 
 
 physics 
 
 pedagogics 
 
 sheep 
 
 4de^ 
 gross 
 
 couple 
 
 salmon 
 
 trout 
 
 hose 
 
 yoke 
 
 hiss 
 
 adz 
 
 sash 
 
 embryo 
 
 grotto 
 
 oratorio 
 
 buffalo 
 
 mosquito 
 
 tomato 
 
 potato 
 
 valley 
 
 chimney 
 
 money 
 
 duty 
 
 spy 
 
 cow 
 
 foot 
 
 liandit 
 
 cherub 
 
 formula 
 
 memorandum 
 
 focus 
 
 terminus 
 
 erratum 
 
 medium 
 
 axis 
 
 genus 
 
 automaton 
 
 hypothesis 
 
 basis 
 
 crisis 
 
 ellipsis 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 Mr. 
 
 eaves 
 
 custom 
 
 letter 
 
 number 
 
 pain 
 
 part 
 
 liberty 
 
 virtue 
 
 vices 
 
 head 
 
 attorney-general 
 
 belief 
 
 brief 
 
 bluff 
 
 cliff 
 
 staff 
 
 ditty 
 
 daisy 
 
 baby 
 
 buoy 
 
 turkey 
 
 berry 
 
 fairy 
 
 soliloquy 
 
 tray 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Japanese 
 
 forget-me- 
 
 -not corral 
 
 aborigines 
 
 hose 
 
 i6o. Case. In Section 59 we found that the 
 nomi may be used in the sentence in the follow- 
 ing different relations or ways. It may be used 
 as subject, predicate, in direct address, inde- 
 pendently, or as an appositive modifier of any 
 one of these. These uses or relations of the noun 
 to other words in the sentence are called the 
 nominative relation. 
 
 It may be used as a possessive modifier or in 
 apposition with it. These uses constitute the 
 possessive relation of the noun in the sentence.
 
 The Noun 209 
 
 It may be used as direct objective niodiiier, in- 
 direct objective iiiodiFicr, adverbial o1:)jective modi- 
 fier, principal part of a prepositional phrase, sub- 
 ject or predicate-like element of a clausal phrase or 
 in apposition with any one of these. These uses 
 constitute the objective relation. 
 
 i6i. Case Defined. Case is that property of a 
 substantive word which is the relation that the 
 substantive word bears to the other words in the 
 sentence. 
 
 162. Classes of Case. Since, as we have seen 
 in Section 160, all the uses of substantive words 
 in the sentence may be grouped into three kinds 
 of relations, substantive words have three cases: 
 nominative, possessive, and objective. 
 
 163. Nominative Case Defined. The nomina- 
 tive case is the case of the substantive word that 
 stands in a nominative relation in the sentence; 
 as. The truth ivas revealed. 
 
 164. The Possessive Case Defined. The pos- 
 sessive case is the case of the substantive word 
 that stands in a possessive relation in the sen- 
 tence; as. The king's tune had come. 
 
 165. The Objective Case Defined. The ob- 
 jective case is the case of the substantive word 
 that stands in an objective relation in the sen- 
 tence; as, Th.e missionaries shozvcd the people Jww 
 to improve.
 
 210 An English Grammar 
 
 ii' 
 
 
 Exercise 6i 
 
 In tJic follozijing sc itences point out the nouns, 
 give the case of each, and the reasons: 
 
 1. Blue Island is a town situated on a bluff, which 
 rises abruptly from a prairie. 
 
 2. Mrs. Squeers administered the brimstone and treacle 
 with a common wooden spoon which widened every young 
 gentleman's mouth considerably. 
 
 3. They scaled Mont Blanc, the great mountain. 
 
 4. Simple races, as savages, do not climb mountains; 
 their tops are sacred and mysterious tracts never visited by 
 them. 
 
 5. This house was Longfellow, the poet's, home. 
 
 6. James, the student, is a writer, a journalist. 
 
 7. You, a farmer, may be a scholar. 
 
 8. Children, be honest and true. 
 
 9. We spoke of Tennyson, the great poet. 
 
 10. Blaine died in Washington city, the capital of the 
 United States. 
 
 11. He gave me the book. 
 
 12. They walked ten miles, a long distance. 
 
 13. They wished him to study law. 
 
 14. James believed the man to be honest. 
 
 15. "Now. Heaven forgive me!" said Sir WilHam 
 Howe to himself. 
 
 166. How Case is Denoted. Tn the Old Eng- 
 lish and Anglo-Saxon speech nouns had different 
 forms for different cases. These case endings 
 have been gradually dropped until at present we 
 have only one relic of them remaining, the sign 
 of the possessive case. There is no difference in 
 the forms of the nominative and objective cases,
 
 The Noun 211 
 
 but the possessive case may always be known by 
 the form of the word. The nominative and ob- 
 jective cases must always be told by the context 
 or meaning. 
 
 167. Possessive Case Forms. The possessive 
 forms of nouns in the singular number are made as 
 a rule by adding an apostrophe and 5 ('s) to the sim- 
 ple form of the noun; as, The owl's nest is large. 
 
 If the addition of the s, however, makes an un- 
 pleasant hissing sound, it is omitted, but the apos- 
 trophe is retained ; as, Moses' law was given to the 
 children of Israel. 
 
 The tendency in modern English, however, is to 
 add the apostrophe and ^ to most nouns, even though 
 they end in s; as, Harris's logic is helpful to stu- 
 dents. Dickens's "David Copperfield" is interest- 
 ing. Charles's reign was not successful. 
 
 The plural of nouns which end in ^ form the pos- 
 sessive case by adding the apostrophe alone; as, 
 Girls' hats are sold here. 
 
 If the plural does not end in s, the possessive is 
 formed as in the singular number by adding the 
 apostrophe and the .9 ('s) ; as. Children's toys may 
 he found within. The oxen's yokes were heavy. 
 
 The possessive case of compound nouns and 
 complex expressions used as nouns is formed by add- 
 ing the proper sign of the possessive to the end of 
 the expression; as, The captain of the Elbe's wife
 
 212 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 was absent. My sister-in-law's address is New 
 York. 
 
 When two or more persons possess a thing in 
 common, the sign of the possessive is attached to 
 the last name only; as, Barnum and Bailey's circus 
 is still on the road. 
 
 Separate ownership is indicated by adding the 
 sign of the possessive to each name ; as, Webster's 
 and Worcester's dictionaries arc in the library. 
 
 The expression, Anybody else's request would 
 be denied, is better usage than the expression, Any- 
 body's else request zvoidd be denied, but on the 
 other hand we should always say, Whose else could 
 be granted? not, Who else's could be granted? 
 
 Exercise 62 
 
 Form the correct possessives in the following 
 sentences: 
 
 1. The sailors life was in danger. 
 
 2. Childrens plays should be made a means of educat- 
 ing them. 
 
 3. Mens destinies are in their own hands. 
 
 4. Daniel Websters speeches are marvels of oratory. 
 
 5. The Bishop of Dublin palace was destroyed by fire. 
 
 6. Baker and Watsons store has been sold. 
 
 7. Webster and Worcester's dictionaries are much in 
 demand. 
 
 8. Her Majesty, Queen Victorias government, has been 
 much disturbed. 
 
 9. The captain of the Elbes wife was lost when the 
 vessel sank. 
 
 10. The knight templars costume was the most costly.
 
 The Noun 213 
 
 11. My brother-in-laws house was destroyed by fire. 
 
 12. Do no wrong for conscience sake. 
 
 13. The princess oown sparkled with jewels. 
 
 14. She had taken them all into her great heart, — the 
 boys sorrows and the girls cares. 
 
 15. Mrs. Cass appearance gave life to the occasion. 
 
 16. Jonas Russ slate made the noise. 
 
 17. I had the money changed at Sloan the druggist. 
 
 18. His character stands out when you compare it with 
 his uncle Henry of Hanover. 
 
 19. I would not have taken anybody else word for it. 
 
 20. I have granted your request but not anybody else ; 
 who elses could I grant? 
 
 21. We frequently buy books at the shop of Mr. Horns 
 on the Circle. 
 
 22. In spite of the guards precautions, the prisoner 
 escaped. 
 
 23. James task was finished early. 
 
 24. Moses law was formal. 
 
 25. Frances share of the fortune was badly managed. 
 
 26. Xerxes army v/as victorious. 
 
 27. The woman would accept neither her neighbors nor 
 the countys assistance. 
 
 28. Joris strength failed before he got to Aix. 
 
 29. I arranged for the money at Hill the banker. 
 
 168. Declension. To decline a noun is to give 
 all its number and case forms as follows: 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Nominative, girl Nominative, girls 
 
 Possessive, girl's Possessive, girls' 
 
 Objective, girl Objective, girls
 
 214 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 Exercise 63 
 
 From the expressions inclosed in marks of pa- 
 renthesis in each of the follozving sentences, select 
 the correct one, and give the reasons. 
 
 1. I had a full understanding of the (fact's signif- 
 icance, signiiicance of the fact). 
 
 2. (Congress's act, the act of Congress) was approved 
 by the people. 
 
 3. (My zvife's picture, picture by my wife) became 
 f'lmous. 
 
 4. He is a stranger (in the midst of us, in our midst). 
 
 5. Do not remain (on our account, on account of us). 
 
 6. He carried (a dice, die) in his vest pocket as a 
 mascot. 
 
 7. The millenium is yet a great (way, ways) off. 
 
 8. The news (was, were) received with a great demon- 
 stration. 
 
 9. (This, these) news created great consternation. 
 
 10. He rose to distinction between the twenty-fourth 
 and twenty-fifth (year, years) of his life. 
 
 11. Are you an (alumni, ahimnus) of this school? 
 
 12. When I looked through the microscope I saw a 
 (bacterium, bacteria). 
 
 13. Do you approve the change in the (curricula, cur- 
 riculum) ? 
 
 14. (This, these) scanty data (is, are) not sufficient. 
 
 15. Agassiz's (dictum, dicta) was, " Study the fish." 
 
 16. This (phenomenon, phenomena) was observed many 
 times. 
 
 17. Did you see the (harpist, harper)? 
 
 18. Do you expect a (rise, raise) in wages? 
 
 19. Is this the (person, party) in question? 
 
 20. We are not looking at the question from the same 
 (point of view, standpoint).
 
 The Noun 215 
 
 Exercise 64 
 
 Indicate the nouns in the following sentences, 
 and note the foil 'wing points: 
 
 1. Classify tiie noun on the different bases, 
 
 stating the basis in each case. 
 
 2. Decline it. 
 
 J. Giz'c its properties in the order in which 
 we have worked them out. 
 
 1. Lowliness is young Ambition's ladder, 
 Whereto the climber-upward turns his face ; 
 But when he once attains the upmost round, 
 He straight unto the ladder turns his back. 
 Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees 
 By which he did ascend. 
 
 2. His power, like to a fangless lion. 
 May offer, but not hold. 
 
 3. This rudeness is a sauce to his good wit. 
 Which gives a man stomach to digest his words 
 With better appetite. 
 
 4. And why should Caesar be a tyrant then ? 
 Poor man ! I know he would not be a wolf 
 But that he sees the Romans are but sheep : 
 He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. 
 
 5. If we do not make our atonement well, 
 Our peace will, like a broken limb united. 
 Grow stronger for the breaking.
 
 -1^ An English Grammar 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 The Character Sketch 
 
 RATISBOxN 
 
 I. 
 
 You know, we French stormed Ratisbon 
 
 A mile or so away 
 On a little moimd, Napoleon 
 
 Stood on our storming dav ; 
 With neck out-thrust, you fancy how, 
 
 Legs wide, arms locked behind, 
 As if to balance the prone brow 
 
 Oppressive with its mind. 
 
 II. 
 Just as perhaps he mused " My plans 
 
 That soar, to earth may fall. 
 Let once my army-leader Lannes 
 
 Waver at yonder wall " — 
 Out 'twixt the battery-smokes there flew 
 
 A rider, bound on bound 
 Full-galloping: nor bridle drew 
 
 Until he reached the mound. 
 
 in. 
 
 Then off there flung in smiling joy, 
 
 And held himself erect 
 By just his horse's mane, a boy: 
 
 You hardly could suspect — 
 (So tight he kept his lips compressed, 
 
 Scarce any blood came through) 
 You looked twice ere you saw his breast 
 
 Was all but shot in two.
 
 The Noun 217 
 
 IV. 
 " Well" cried he, " Emperor, by God's grace 
 
 We've got you Ratisbon ! 
 The Marshal's in the market-place, 
 
 And you'll be there anon 
 To see your flag-bird flap his vans 
 
 Where T. to heart's desire. 
 Perched him ! " The chief's eye flashed ; his plans 
 
 Soared up again like fire. 
 
 y. 
 
 The chief's eye flashed ; but presently 
 
 Softened itself, as sheathes 
 A film the mother-eagle's eye 
 
 When her bruised eaglet breathes. 
 " You're wounded ! " " Xay," the soldier's pride 
 
 Touched to the quick, he said : 
 "I'm killed. Sire!" And his chief beside. 
 
 Smiling, the boy fell dead. 
 
 — Robert Broivning. 
 
 Read the poem called ''Ratisbon." 
 
 Who is the hero? Why is he a hero? Find out 
 from the poem as much as you can about him. 
 
 Write a cJiaracfcr sketch one paragraph Ioiil;; 
 giving your idea of the hero's character, and the 
 reasons for your opinions. 
 
 The purpose of a character sketch is to portray 
 character. 
 
 // 
 
 Re-read " Rati.sbon." 
 
 Tell the story briefly. What scene is suggested? 
 
 What is in the foreground? The background? 
 
 What is the condition of the atmosphere?
 
 218 An E}i£[!isli Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 IVJiaf do yoit like about the puemf 
 Outline and write a review of " Ratisboii." 
 Read your paper. Are your paragraphs prop- 
 erly related through an introductoi y paragraph? 
 Does each of your paragraphs treat of one topic and 
 one only? Criticise your paper iu other ways. 
 
 Ill 
 Read the ex-tract from " Ez'angeliiie/' on page 
 
 30. 
 
 What zvere some of the traits of Evangeline's 
 character? Hozv does Longfellow make this plain 
 to you^ IJ'liat comparisons come to your mind 
 which zvould suggest her beauty? Her modesty? 
 Her purity? 
 
 Write a descriptizr character sketch one para- 
 graph long showing Evangeline's character. Use 
 at least one comparison of your own. 
 
 Read your paper. Docs it gii'e an idea of Evan- 
 geline's character? Is your comparison appropri- 
 ate? 
 
 IV. 
 
 Study the picture of " The Gleaner?' facing pai^^e 
 218. 
 
 What do yon gain of her character from her 
 attitnde? From the expression of her face? 
 
 Write a description of the picture zvliich de- 
 scribes the gleaners appearance and the impression 
 you get of her character. Use a comparison or two 
 if you can think of any that zvill help to make \our 
 meanino- clearer.
 
 THE GLEANER
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 THE PRONOUN 
 
 169. The Pronoun Defined. The sentence, 
 Harry hung Harry's hat on the rack when Harry 
 came into the Jioiise, is awkward and unnatural. 
 ^Ve would usually say, Harry hung his hat on the 
 rack when he came into the house. 
 
 These words, Ins and lie, are called pronouns 
 because they express the object of thought, if orrj', 
 without naming it. 
 
 A pronoun is a substantive word that ex- 
 presses an object of thought without naming it; 
 as, They zvandered in the woods. 
 
 170. Classes of Pronouns. Study the follow- 
 ing sentences : 
 
 1. He is my friend. 
 
 2. What can you do? 
 
 3. He would not give the name of the person who be- 
 friended him. 
 
 In these sentences the words, he, what, you and 
 who, are pronouns because they express objects of 
 thought without naming them. They differ, how- 
 ever, in that the words, he and you, show by their 
 forms the relation betw^een the objects of thought 
 
 f2I9l
 
 220 An EiwHsh Grammar 
 
 expressed by them and the speaker. The other 
 pronouns do not do this. 
 
 The word what, expresses an object of thought 
 unknown and sought. In this particular it is 
 different from llie other two. 
 
 The pronoun, zdio, as we have already seen in 
 our study of the complex sentence^ expresses the re- 
 lation between thoughts of unequal rank. No one 
 of the other pronouns does this. These differ- 
 ences enable us to classify pronouns into three 
 classes: personal, interrogative, and relative. 
 
 1. The Personal Pronoun Defined. A per- 
 sonal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its 
 form the relation of the object of thought ex- 
 pressed by it to the speaker; as, They deceive 
 themselves. 
 
 2. The Interrogative Pronoun Defined. An 
 interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that ex- 
 presses an object of thought which is unknown 
 and sought; as, Who was the oldest man? 
 
 3. The Relative Pronoun Defined. A relative 
 pronoun is a pronoun that expresses relation; as. 
 This is the man who gave the lecture. 
 
 Exercise 64 
 Point out the pronouns in the following sen- 
 tences and tell whether they are personal, interroga- 
 tive or relative. Give a reason in each case: 
 
 1. I am a poor man myself and I can S3'mpathize with 
 you. 
 
 2. Nathan said to him, " Thou art the man."
 
 The Pronoun 221 
 
 try 
 
 3. He, himself, acknowledged his fault to me. 
 
 4. The book which the child has is not worth reading. 
 
 5. The point was well stated by the child when he saw 
 
 it. 
 
 6. You who are blessed with plenty should be kina 
 to the poor. 
 
 7. They who sow in folly will reap in sorrow. 
 
 8. I will not pass from this room until they bear me to 
 the tomb of my forefathers. 
 
 9. "Take this, good Mistress Dudley," he added, pui- 
 ting a purse into her hands. 
 
 10. But Sir ^^"i!liam Howe, if he ever heard this legend, 
 had forgotten it. 
 
 ii_. We. ourselves, arc at fault. 
 
 12. Who killed Cock Robin ? 
 
 13. Our fathers, where are they? 
 
 14. Which did you enjoy more;*Fiske or Ridpath? 
 
 171. Classes of Personal Pronouns. In the 
 sentence. He, Jrunsclf, told inc the story, the pro- 
 nouns, he, and himself, are both personal pronouns. 
 They differ, however, in form. The pronoun, 
 he, cannot be traced back to a simpler form in the 
 English lano-uag-e, while the pronoun, himself, can 
 be traced l)ack to the words, ////// and self. This 
 difference in form "ives us two classes nf per- 
 sonal pronouns ; simple and compound. 
 
 172. Simple Personal Pronoun Defined. A 
 simple personal pronoun is a personal pronoun 
 which cannot be traced back to any simpler form 
 in our language; as, /, he, it. 
 
 173. Inflection. Inhere is much more change 
 of form to indicate the properties in the pronoun
 
 ^22 /ifi EiiglisJi Grammar 
 
 than in the noun. There are dififerent forms of 
 the pronoun to indicate gender, number, person, 
 and case. 
 
 174. First Person. The forms of the first per- 
 son may be indicated as follows : 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Nominative, I Nominative, we 
 
 Possessive, my, mine Possessive, our, ours 
 
 Objective, me Objective, us 
 
 The plural forms of the first person do not ex- 
 press two or more speakers, but the speaker and 
 others for whom he speaks. Sometimes this plural 
 form of the first person is used by an editor, ruler, 
 or representative to avoid the use of the pronoun, /, 
 and to lend dignity to the expression; as, "We 
 fed sure that the people zvill not accept this policy," 
 wrote the editor. 
 
 175. Second Person. The forms of the sec- 
 ond person may be indicated as follows: 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Nominative, thou Nominative, you,ye 
 
 Possessive, th}-, thine Possessive, your, yours 
 
 Objective, thee Objective, you 
 
 The pronoun, thou, with its forms, is no longer 
 used in ordinary conversation, except by the "Quak- 
 ers " or Society of Friends. These forms are used 
 in poetry, in the Bible, in prayer, and in other sol- 
 emn forms of discourse. In modern English the 
 plural forms are used also for the singular. 
 
 There is no change in form in the simple per-
 
 TJic Pronoun 
 
 223 
 
 sonal pronouns, first and second persons, to denote 
 gender, because the sex of the person speaking and 
 the person spoken to is usually known. 
 
 176. Third Person. The forms of the simple 
 
 personal pronoun, third person, may be indicated 
 
 as follows: 
 
 Masculine 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nominative, 
 
 Possessive, 
 
 Objective, 
 
 
 he 
 
 his 
 him 
 
 
 
 they 
 
 their, theirs 
 them 
 
 Feminine 
 
 
 
 Neuter 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 SiNGUl 
 
 LAR 
 
 Plural 
 
 she 
 
 her, hers 
 her 
 
 they 
 
 their, 
 
 them 
 
 theirs 
 
 it 
 
 its 
 
 it 
 
 
 they 
 
 their, theirs 
 
 them 
 
 Exercise 65 
 
 Write sentences containing the different forms 
 of the simple personal pronouns, first, second, and 
 third person. 
 
 177. Possessive Forms. Some of the posses- 
 sive forms of the simple personal pronoun are used 
 substantively. They express both the possessor and 
 the thing possessed and are equivalent to a noun 
 modified by a possessive ; as, 
 
 1. This pencil is mine == This pencil is my pencil. 
 
 2. Yours is on the table =: Your pencil is on the table.
 
 2*2J: An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 178. Peculiarities of the Personal Pronoun. 
 
 1. There is no pronoun, third person, singular 
 number, common gender, in the English language. 
 Usage sanctions the use of the masculine form to 
 express this meaning; as, // any member of the 
 class has forgotten his pencil, he zvill please raise 
 his hand. In case we wish to be specific, we use he 
 or she, his or her. 
 
 2. The pronoun, it, is often used when it has no 
 definite antecedent; as. It rains. This is called the 
 impersonal pronoun. 
 
 3. Such expressions as Jiis own. my own, your 
 own, and so forth, are emphatic forms, used for 
 emphasis and are taken as one word. 
 
 179. Pronouns or Adjectives. The possessive 
 forms of the personal pronouns are often classed 
 as adjectives. It seems more logical, however, to 
 class them as pronouns. The form. Ins, is only an- 
 other form of the word, he, and another form of the 
 same word is him. If the words, he and him, are 
 called pronouns, there seems to be no good reason 
 for calling the form, his, an adjective. It is true 
 that the form, his, does always express an attribute 
 of an object of thought; but so also does the pos- 
 sessive form of the noun. No grammarian calls 
 the word, boy's, an adjective; yet there is just as 
 good reason for this as for calHng his, hers, my, 
 and so forth, adjectives. 
 
 180. Compound Personal Pronoun Defined.
 
 The Pronoun 225 
 
 A compound personal pronoun is a personal pro- 
 noun which can be traced to a simpler form in our 
 language; as. They injure only themselves. 
 
 i8i. How Formed. Ilie compound personal 
 pronouns, singular, and plural, are formed by add- 
 ing the suffix, self, to the possessive, my, first per- 
 son; thy and your, second person; and to the ob- 
 jectives, liini, her and it, third person. The plural 
 compound personal pronouns are formed by adding 
 the suffix, selves, to the possessives, our, first per- 
 son; your, second person; and the objective, them, 
 third person. 
 
 The singular forms, then, are as follows: 
 
 myself himself 
 
 thyself herself 
 
 yourself itself 
 
 The plural forms are as follows: 
 
 ourselves themselves 
 
 yourselves 
 
 182. How Used. The compound personal 
 pronouns may have the following uses : 
 
 1. They are used in a reflexive sense; as, The 
 boy hurt himself. 
 
 2. They arc used for emphasis; as, Mary, her- 
 self, zvas present. 
 
 3. They are sometimes used in place of simple 
 personal pronouns; as, "Ourselves 7vill see this 
 prisoner," thundered the king.
 
 226 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 183. Peculiarity of the Compound Personal 
 Pronoun, llic compound personal pronouns 
 have no case forms. They are used only in the 
 nominative and objective relations. 
 
 Exercise 66 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks zvith the proper pro- 
 nouns: 
 
 ^ I. Any one can comer if — is invited. 
 
 t/ 2. Each must find -A^^- — book. 
 
 ;j<-fias everyone found pencil? 
 
 4. Every recitation carries with it own re- 
 
 sponsibiHties. 
 ^ 5. Every girl can succeed if is industrious. 
 
 6. Either Henry or William will give you — as- 
 sistance. 
 
 7. Each person is requested to furnish favorite 
 
 dish. 
 
 8. Every man is serious in saner moments. 
 
 9. Soldier after soldier came carrying musket 
 
 with . l^ W-vvW YtOJ- 
 
 10. Each of the boys did well, at least in own 
 
 judgment. 
 
 11. Every one of the children succeeded, at least in 
 own way. 
 
 12. Whoever loves mother, should do   
 
 best to make life easy for . 
 
 13. Every brave soldier met death with unflinch- 
 ing bravery. 
 
 14. Whoso bridleth mouth, and keepeth 
 
 tongue from gossiping, saveth trouble. 
 
 15. Everybody believes life would have been 
 
 more of a success, if he had chosen some other calling.
 
 The Pronoun 227 
 
 i6. Each child is requested to leave work on the 
 
 table. 
 
 \~. Evcr\- man is expected to do duty. 
 
 18. Each pupil must obey teacher. 
 
 19. Every citizen owes a duty to country. 
 
 20. Alost people do not love enemies. 
 
 184. Interrogative Pronoun. Read the fol- 
 lowing sentences: 
 
 1. Who is the man? 7. What do you want? 
 
 2. Who is the girl? 8. Which is she? 
 
 3. Who are these people 9. Which is theirs? 
 
 4. Whose is this? 10. Which are mine? 
 
 5. Whom did you call? 11. Which do you prefer? 
 
 6. What are those? 
 
 Notice that in each case the italicized pronottn 
 expresses an object of thought that is unknown 
 and sought. The words, who, ivhose, whom, ask 
 for the names of persons. The word, what, 
 asks for the names of things. The word, which, 
 asks for a selection from a group of persons or 
 things. We call such a pronoun an interrogative 
 pronoun. 
 
 185. Interrogative Pronoun Defined. An in- 
 terrogative pronoun is a pronoun which expresses 
 an object of thought that is unknown and 
 sought; as. Who called you? 
 
 186. Forms of the Interrogative Pronoun. 
 
 Yon will notice in the interrogative pronouns in 
 Section 184, that the word, zvho, is the only one
 
 228 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 which is clecHned. The forms may be arranged as 
 follows : 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Nominative, who Nominative, who 
 
 Possessive, whose Possessive, whose 
 
 Objective, ^whoni Objective, whom 
 
 These interrogative pronouns do not show by 
 their form the gender, person or numl^er of the 
 substantive word. Only in the case of the word, 
 zvho, is the case indicated by the form of the inter- 
 rogative pronoun : as. Who is here? Whose book 
 have you? Whom do you want? 
 
 187. Distinctions in Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 Usually the word, zvlw, asks for persons; the word, 
 what, asks for inanimate objects; the word, which, 
 is selective in its use, that is, it means that one is 
 to be distinguished from a number of persons or 
 inanimate objects; as. Which is the boy? Which 
 of the scenes do you most admire? Which of the 
 books have you decided to choose? Sometimes the 
 word, what, refers to persons ; as, What is the man? 
 He is a lazvyer. In such cases, the word, what, asks 
 for the occupation in distinction from the word, 
 who, which asks for identity; as. Who is she? She 
 is Mrs. Tolliver. 
 
 Exercise 67 
 
 The mistake most commonly made with the in- 
 terrogative pronouns is in the use of the words,
 
 The Frononn 229 
 
 who and whom. ' The tendency in modern English 
 is to discard the word, whom, using the word, who, 
 in both the nominative and the objective relations. 
 Careful speakers avoid this and in serious discourse, 
 it is inexcusable. 
 
 Put in the following blanks the proper form of 
 the pronoun, who, and give reasons: 
 
 I. do you see? 
 
 2. did you hear? 
 
 3. will you select? 
 
 4. did you ask? 
 
 5. do you tkink I am? 
 
 6. were you speaking to? 
 
 7. I am puzzled to send. 
 
 8. are you sending it to? 
 
 9. do you think me to be? 
 
 10. I know to ask. 
 
 11. I do not see he has given it to. 
 
 12. was speaking to you? 
 
 13. did you say wrote the letter? 
 
 14. do you think will get the nomination? 
 
 15. do you expect to invite next? 
 
 16. do you think it was asked me? 
 
 17. I do not know will go for me. 
 
 18. She is going to invite to her reception — I do not 
 know . 
 
 19. should I see yesterday but my cousin? 
 
 20. I asked was wanted. 
 
 188. Uses of Interrogative Pronoun. Notice 
 the use of the interrogative pronoun in the follovv'- 
 ing sentences: The speaker asked, "Who is Brock- 
 ton?" The speaker asked who Brockton was.
 
 230 An English Grammar 
 
 In the first sentence the question is given in the 
 exact words of the speaker. In the second sentence 
 the original words of the speaker are changed, but 
 the same meaning is expressed. We call the first 
 a direct question; the second is called an indirect 
 question. A direct question may be a sentence in 
 itself; as, Who was Canfield? 
 
 Or it may be a dependent clause; as. The man 
 asked, ''What is protection?" 
 
 Indirect questions are always dependent clauses 
 implying inquiry, ignorance, doubt, knowledge, and 
 so forth; as, Harry surmised zvho lie zvas. Harry 
 found out who he was. Harry was ignorant of who 
 he was. Harry explained to us who he zvas. 
 
 When the interrogative pronoun is used in a 
 direct question, it is said to have the direct use; 
 as. The leader said, ''Who zvill volunteer?" 
 
 W'hen the interrogative pronoun is used in an 
 indirect question it is said to have an indirect use; 
 as, James asked '^ who the iiian was. 
 
 Exercise 68 
 
 In the follozving sentences point out the inter- 
 rogative pronouns, and tell zvhether they have the 
 direct or the indirect use, and why: 
 
 1. Who was the discoverer of America? 
 
 2. Who were killed? 
 
 * Be careful to distinguish the interrogative pronoun in the 
 indirect question from the relative pronoun.
 
 The Pronoun 281 
 
 3. Which are the boys in trouble? 
 
 4. Which is the Jew and which the merchant here? 
 
 5. I know who killed Cock Robin. 
 
 6. I will tell you what I will take. 
 
 7. What are these people? 
 
 8. I know which is the most valuable. 
 
 9. What is the man? 
 
 10. I see which will come next. 
 
 189. Relative Pronoun. In Sections 102-1 it 
 under the complex .sentence the relative pronoun 
 is discussed. Only a few additional points are 
 needed here. 
 
 A. Forms of the Relative Pronoun. We no- 
 tice that the word, ivho, is the only relative pro- 
 noun which is declined. The forms of it may be 
 arranged. as follows: 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 Nominative, who Nominative, who 
 
 Possessive, whose Possessive, whose 
 
 Objective, whom Objective, whom 
 
 B. Distinction in Use. We are often told that 
 the relative pronoun, that, should always be used 
 in the limiting adjective clause and the relative pro- 
 nouns, zvJio and which, should always be used in 
 descriptive adjective clauses, but this distinction is 
 not observed in good English. It is impossible to 
 use the word, that, after a preposition and its use 
 in the limiting adjective clause often produces a
 
 232 An English Graniniar 
 
 disagreeable combination of sound; as, That man 
 that / sazv today was a genius. 
 
 As a rule, eu])hony should dictate which of the 
 three relatives to use in any adjective clause. 
 
 C. Properties of the Relative Pronoun. The 
 gender, person, and number of the relative pronoun 
 are never indicated by its form. They must be de- 
 termined by its. antecedent ; as, / who speak unto 
 thee am he. He who zvas absent lost his chance. 
 SJie who came this morning is my sister. They who 
 sow will reap. 
 
 The case of a relative pronoun, however, does 
 not depend upon its antecedent; but only in the 
 word, who, is it in.dicated by the form of the word. 
 The case of the other relative pronouns must be de- 
 termined as with the noun, by the context. 
 
 Since relative pronouns must agree with their 
 antecedents in number and person, the form of a 
 verb used with a relative must be the same as that 
 which would be used with its antecedent ; as, These 
 are the ladies who were expected. This is the lady 
 who zvas present. 
 
 Exercise 69 
 
 From the expressions inclosed in the marks of 
 parenthesis in each of the follozving sentences, select 
 the correct one: 
 
 I. He is one of the most popular authors that (has, 
 have) ever written novels.
 
 The Pronoun 233 
 
 2. The house is one of those that (overlook, overlooks) 
 the valley. 
 
 3. This is one of the most valuable contributions that 
 (has, have) ever been made to science. 
 
 4. That is one of the last poems which (was. were) 
 written by Shelley. 
 
 5. It was one of the best shows that (lias, liavc) ever 
 been seen here. 
 
 6. He is not the first person that (has, have) tried and 
 failed. 
 
 7. This is one of the worst boys that (is, are) now in 
 school. 
 
 8. One of the girl's many good qualities that (occur, 
 occurs) to me now is punctuality. , 
 
 Exercise 70 
 
 Fill the following blanks zvith the proper form 
 of the pronoun, who, and give your reasons. 
 
 1. He is a person I know can be trusted. 
 
 2. He is a person I know to be trustworthy. 
 
 3. I saw a man I have no doubt was your friend. 
 
 4. We send only persons we can trust. 
 
 5. He entrusts his business to a man he thinks 
 
 will look after it. 
 
 (). A man came into the room -; we afterwards 
 
 learned was an actor. 
 
 7. We have found the child we thought had been 
 
 lost. 
 
 8. Then a tall actor appeared wc all thought was 
 
 the best on the program. 
 
 D. Possessive Forms of Relative Pronouns. 
 
 We have the possessive form, zvhose, which we 
 usnallv use to express tlic idea of possession with
 
 234 An Ens[Hsh Grammar 
 
 t>' 
 
 reference to persons; as, TJiis is the child zvhose 
 hook zvas lost. 
 
 \\'hen we wish to express the idea of possession 
 with reference to inanimate objects or lower animals, 
 we usually use the prepositional phrase, of which. 
 Sometimes, however, this expression produces a 
 harsh, awkward, unnatural combination and in such 
 cases it is better to use the word, whose, even with 
 reference to inanimate objects or lower animals. 
 Euphony must be our guide in the use of the two 
 expressions. 
 
 Exercise 71 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks zvith the word, whose, 
 or the expression, of which, and give your reasons. 
 
 1. This is the gate ( hinges), (the hinges 
 
   ) were broken. 
 
 2. This is the tree ( bark), (the bark ) 
 
 was stripped off by hghtning. 
 
 3. These are the books ( pages), (the pages 
 
 ) were torn out. 
 
 4. Here is the dog ( eollar), (the collar ) 
 
 was lost. 
 
 5. The reader asked for a book ( name), (the 
 
 name ) we had never heard. 
 
 6. That is the man ( hat) , (the hat ) was 
 
 lost. 
 
 y. There is another phase of education ( im- 
 portance), (the importance ) is paramount. 
 
 8. Througli the window ( glass), (the glass 
 
 ) was dirty, we saw the dim form of a man. 
 
 9. Beneath the dish ( cover), (the cover ) 
 
 lay on the table, we found the money.
 
 The Pronoun 235 
 
 10. By the side of the road (- dust), (the dust 
 
 ) was deep we discovered cool water. 
 
 E. Relative Pronoun Omitted. The relative 
 pronoun is sometimes omitted : as, The knife 
 (zvhich) I left on the table zuas gone. The zuoman 
 (that or whom) you saw was my mother. It is 
 perseverance (that) enables a man to succeed. 
 
 190. Antecedent. The antecedent of a pro- 
 noun is a substantive expression which denotes 
 the same object of thought as the pronoun; as. 
 My brother, who was anxious to get home, left be- 
 fore I did. 
 
 191. Parsing. We are now prepared to give 
 all that may be known about a pronoun. This is 
 sometimes called parsing. Tt would include: 
 
 1. Classifying a' pronoun into the smallest known class. 
 
 2. Declining it. 
 
 3. Giving its antecedent. 
 
 4. Giving its gender. 
 
 5. Giving its number. 
 
 6. Giving its person. 
 
 7. Giving its construction. 
 
 8. Giving its case. 
 
 Note: Too much of this kind of work at one time is apt to be- 
 come monotonous, and mechanical. The pupils should be able, how- 
 ever, to answer any one of these questions whenever they are asked 
 to do so. 
 
 Exercise 72 
 
 Study the pronouns in the follozving sentences 
 and:
 
 236 An Efwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 1. Classify each into the smallest knozvn 
 
 class. 
 
 2. Decline it. 
 
 J. Give its antecedent. 
 
 4. Give its gender. 
 
 5. Give its number. 
 
 6. Give its person. 
 
 7. Give its use in the sentence. 
 
 8. Give its case. 
 
 p. Tell how you determined these properties. 
 10. Explain, any irregularity which you may 
 discover. 
 
 1. Each soldier drew his battle blade. 
 
 2. He liveth long who liveth well. 
 
 3. One's manners show one's breeding. 
 
 4. The person who doeth good hath his reward. 
 
 5. If any person in the audience objects, he will please 
 stand. 
 
 6. The poor widow lost her only son. 
 
 7. True to his flag, the soldier braved even death. 
 
 8. A pupil that is studious will learn. 
 
 9. He who runs may read. 
 
 10. He desired to pray, but it was denied him. 
 
 11. He has squandered his money, but he now regrets it. 
 
 12. You are here on time, Henry. 
 
 13. You are good children. 
 
 14. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the 
 Lord. 
 
 15. Thine ears have heard the joyful sound. 
 
 16. "We formerly thought differently, but now we have 
 changed our mind," wrote the editor. 
 
 17. It thundered as it seemed to me. 
 
 18. Come and trip it on the green.
 
 The Pronoun 237 
 
 19. ^^'ell, then, Mistress Dudley, since you will needs 
 tarry, I give the Province House in charge to you. 
 
 20. Try to see yourself as others see you, 
 
 21. Let every pupil use his own book. 
 
 22. If anyone be found at fault, do unto him as you 
 would wish to be done by. 
 
 23. *You, he, and I were boys together. 
 
 24. A friend and I were talking the matter over. 
 . 25. Whoever comes will take your place. 
 
 26. I must do whatever seems best. 
 2^. I will give you whatever is right. 
 
 28. They censure whomsoever I commend, 
 
 29. They knew not what it was. 
 
 30. I will call whomever you ask. 
 
 Exercise 73 
 
 From the expressions inclosed in the marks oj 
 parenthesis, select the correct one, and give your 
 reasons: 
 
 1. {Its, it's) tower leaned. 
 
 2. Is that friend of (yonr's, yours) with you yet? 
 
 3. He was a man (as, zvho) could be depended upon. 
 
 4. He adopts the same rules in Sunday school {that, 
 as) he adopts in his day school. 
 
 5. Such devices {ivhich, as) you have in mind are im- 
 portant. 
 
 6. He now thinks that foolish (zvhich, what) he once 
 thought wise. 
 
 7. (What, zvhatever) can the man want? 
 
 8. I cannot pay {the two of, both of) them. 
 
 9. Oh, if it had only been {me, I.) 
 
 * Note : Notice that when we use the personal pronouns in the 
 same sentence, the second person should come first, the third next, 
 and the first last.
 
 238 An English Grammar 
 
 10. You and (/, uie) arc invited. 
 
 11. Our father brought you and (/, me) a present. 
 
 12. Wretched people console themselves when they see 
 many who are quite as (bad, badly) off as (them, they). 
 
 13. Let (him, he) who made thee answer this. 
 
 14. You are somewhat taller than (me, I). 
 
 15. There is no one that I like better than (he, him). 
 
 16. I am sure of its being (he, himy. 
 
 17. I do not mind (his, him) going out evenings. 
 
 18. He was associated with Longfellow and other poets 
 for (which, ivhom) America is noted. 
 
 19. (Who, whom) shall the party put forward? 
 
 20. Find out (who, ivhom) the hat belongs to. 
 
 21. (Who, whom) can that be? 
 
 22. I saw my friend (who, whom) I once thought would 
 succeed in business fail. 
 
 23. She lived with an aunt (who, whom) she said 
 treated her shamefully. 
 
 24. Then came another man (who, whom) they all de- 
 clared was the best of the performers. 
 
 25. Under this tree, (the bark of zvhich, whose bark) 
 is scarred in many places, Washington took command of the 
 army. 
 
 26. This is a point, (the consideration of which, zvhose 
 consideration) has caused much trouble. 
 
 27. This is the tree (that, which) was struck by light- 
 ning. 
 
 28. To come so near to winning the prize, and then lose 
 it, I never could stand (it, that). 
 
 29. She is a better student than (either, any one) of her 
 three brothers. 
 
 30. (Either, any one) of the ten points is worth remem- 
 bering, but the (latter, last) is most essential. 
 
 31. (All, each) of the children took an apple.
 
 The Pronoun 239 
 
 32. I am (the one, he, the person) who signalled the 
 train. 
 
 2,:^. He gets Emerson's ideas, (the ones, those) that are 
 most essential, on first reading. 
 
 34. When (one, a person, we) (comes, come) to tliink 
 of it (Jie, one, zve) (takes, take) (one's, his, our) (life, lives) 
 in (one's, his, our) (hand, hands) every time (one, he, we) 
 (board, boards) a train. 
 
 35. If anyone has lost baggage, the matter will be in- 
 vestigated for (you, him) free of charge. 
 
 36. Soldier after soldier took up the cry and added 
 (their, his) (voice, voices) to the mighty din. 
 
 37. Everyone was absorbed in (his or her, his, their) 
 own pleasure, or was bitterly resenting the absence of the 
 pleasure (he or she, they, he) expected. 
 
 38. Everybody thought it right to extend (his, their) 
 sympathy. 
 
 39. I like to see each of them doing well, in (their, his) 
 own way at least. 
 
 40. Anybody can catch trout if (he, they) can find the 
 trout. 
 
 41. Everybody was there, if (he, they) could possibly 
 go. 
 
 42. He heard of a man whose life had been spent on the 
 water and (tvhose, his) record was good. 
 
 43. The undersigned is sorry to say that he took a hat 
 from the rack which is not (mine, his). 
 
 44. When I close my eyes I can see pictures like (the 
 ones, those) presented. 
 
 45. The two brothers love (one another, each other). 
 
 Exercise 74 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks zvith the proper forms 
 of the zvord, whoever :
 
 240 An English Grammar 
 
 1. The old man put the question to he met. 
 
 2. I am satisfied with you have selected. 
 
 3. I am ready to entertain may be sent. 
 
 4. The Lord loveth doeth his will. 
 
 5. You must restore book you have taken. 
 
 6. Make yourself agreeable to you meet. 
 
 7. Tell the truth to asks it. 
 
 8. Contest the ground with ^ opposes you. 
 
 9. The lady iiiquired of   she saw. 
 
 10. The missionary preached to remained.
 
 Chapter XVI 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 192. The Adjective Defined. An adjective is 
 an attributive v^^ord v^hich expresses an attribute 
 of an object of thought and does not express a 
 thought relation; as, The green leaves tremble in 
 the wind. 
 
 193. Classes of Adjectives on the Basis of 
 Use. Study the following sentences: 
 
 1. The United States is large. 
 
 2. The small children play in the yard. 
 
 You will notice that the adjective, large, is used 
 in the predicate of the sentence ; while the adjective, 
 small, is used to modify the noun, children. This 
 difference in the use of adjectives gives us two 
 classes which we call predicate and modifying ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 194. Predicate Adjective Defined. A predi- 
 cate adjective is an adjective that expresses an as- 
 serted attribute; as, The hook is heavy. 
 
 195. Modifying Adjective Defined. A modi- 
 fying adjective is an adjective that expresses an 
 unasserted attribute; as, Fragrant flozvers bloom 
 by the zvay. 
 
 [24 li
 
 242 An Erwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 Exercise 75 
 
 Study the adjectives in the follozving sentences 
 and classify them on the basis of use; give your 
 reasons: 
 
 1. These rude instruments were used by this savage 
 people. 
 
 2. All the government officials are -well paid. 
 
 3. The sun is bright. 
 
 4. Yonder pond contains fish. 
 
 5. The earth is round. 
 
 1 96. Classes of Adjectives on the Basis of 
 Chief Purpose. vStndy the adjectives in the fol- 
 lowinsf sentences : 
 
 1. The white snow hurts mv eyes. 
 
 2. White houses soon become dingy. 
 
 The word, white, is an adjective in each sentence, 
 but in the first sentence it simply emphasizes an at- 
 tribute of the object of thought, snow; it does not 
 narrow the meaning of the word, snow. In the sec- 
 ond sentence the adjective, zvhite, narrows the mean- 
 ing of the word, houses. This difiference in the chief 
 purpose of the adjective gives us two classes: 
 descriptive and limiting. 
 
 197. Descriptive Adjective Defined. A de- 
 scriptive adjective is an adjective the chief pur- 
 pose of which is to emphasize the attribute which 
 it expresses; as, Cold ice is necessary in summer. 
 
 198. Limiting Adjective Defined. A limit- 
 ing adjective is an adjective the chief purpose of
 
 The Adjective 243 
 
 which is to narrow the meaning of the substan- 
 tive word; as. This hook is mine. 
 
 In Robert Browning's " Saul," on ])age 103, 
 notice the use which he makes of these classes 
 of adjectiAes. W^hich class does he use more? 
 Whv ? 
 
 199. Classes of Limiting Adjectives. Study 
 the following sentences : 
 
 1. These plants were blooming. 
 
 2. Thirty persons were present. 
 
 3. The child is ill. 
 
 The adjectives, these, thirty and the, are all lim- 
 iting adjectives. They are not alike, however, be- 
 cause the adjective, these, may be used substan- 
 tively; as. These are mine. 
 
 The adjective, thirty, expresses number. The 
 adjective, the, simply makes definite the meaning of 
 the substantive w^ord, child. These dififerences in 
 limiting adjectives give us three classes: pronom- 
 inal, numeral, and articles. 
 
 200. Pronominal Adjective Defined. A pro- 
 nominal adjective is a limiting adjective which 
 may be used substantively; as, Thisw most beau- 
 tiful . 
 
 201. Classes of Pronominal Adjectives. In 
 
 the following sentences, note the difference in the 
 
 adjectives which they contain : 
 
 That flower is beautiful. 
 Which girl do you mean?
 
 24-4- All English Grammar 
 
 Many people were killed. 
 Each boy does his best. 
 
 You will notice that the adjectives, that, zvhich, 
 many, and each, are all pronominal adjectives be- 
 cause they may be used substantively. They are all 
 different, however, because the adjective, that, ex- 
 presses a relation between the object of thought, 
 expressed by the word, flower, which it modifies, 
 and the speaker; the adjective, zvhich, expresses an 
 attribute of the object of thought which is unknown 
 and sought; the adjective, many, expresses the 
 idea of number indefinitely ; the adjective, each, ex- 
 presses the idea of separation or isolation. These 
 differences between pronominal adjectives enable 
 us to divide them into four classes; demonstra- 
 tive, interrogative, quantitative, and distributive. 
 
 202. Demonstrative Adjective Defined. A 
 demonstrative adjective is a pronominal adjective 
 which shows the relation between the object of 
 thought expressed by a substantive word and the 
 speaker; as, That boy zvill succeed. 
 
 The demonstrative adjectives are: tins, that, 
 these, those, yon, yonder. 
 
 203. Interrogative Adjective Defined. An 
 interrogative adjective is a pronominal adjective 
 which expresses an attribute of an object of 
 thought as unknown and sought; as, What 
 
 hook do you desire?
 
 The Adjective --io 
 
 The interrogative adjectives are: which and 
 zvhat. 
 
 204. Quantitative Adjective Defined. A 
 quantitative adjective is a pronominal adjective 
 which expresses the attribute of number or quan- 
 tity indefinitely; as, Few people zvere present. 
 
 There are several of these ; unich, many, all, fezu, 
 and some others. 
 
 205. Numeral Adjective Defined. A numeral 
 adjective is a limiting adjective which expresses 
 the attribute of number or order definitely; as, 
 
 Ten people zvere in the house. 
 
 206. Classes of Numeral Adjectives. Notice 
 the adjectives in the following sentences and see 
 how they differ : 
 
 1. Three hours had passed. 
 
 2. The third boy in the class is the best student. 
 
 3. A fourfold punishment was administered. 
 
 You will notice that the adjectives, three, third 
 and fourfold, are all numeral adjectives because 
 they express the attribute of number definitely. 
 They are all different, however, because the ad- 
 jective, three, expresses the attribute of number 
 only; the adjective, third, expresses the order or 
 place of a thing in a series; while the adjective, 
 fourfold, expresses or implies the idea of multipli- 
 cation. On account of these differences we divide 
 numeral adjectives into three classes: cardinal, 
 ordinal and multiplicative.
 
 -■16 An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 £.' 
 
 207. Cardinal Adjective Defined. A cardinal 
 adjective is a numeral adjective which merely ex- 
 presses number definitely; ;is, Five birds sat on 
 the limb. 
 
 208. Ordinal Adjective Defined. An ordinal 
 adjective is a numeral adjective which expresses 
 the position or. order of a thing in a series; as, 
 The second boy from the end of the rozv is my 
 brother. 
 
 209. Multiplicative Adjective Defined. A 
 mailtiplicative adjective is a numeral adjective 
 which implies the idea of multiplication; as, A 
 double house was built. 
 
 210. Article Defined. An article is a kind of 
 limiting adjective used before a substantive word 
 to show whether it is to be taken in a definite or 
 indefinite sense; as, The boy appeared promptly. 
 
 211. Classes of Articles. Study the articles 
 in the following- sentences : 
 
 1. Go into the room and bring- me the book. 
 
 2. Go into the room and bring- nie a book. 
 
 \\'c can see that in the first sentence the article, 
 the. shows tliat the word, book, is to be taken m a 
 definite sense. The speaker and tlie person ad- 
 dressed have some particular book in mind, and the 
 article shows that it is this particular book that is 
 wanted. In tlie second sentence, the article, a, 
 shows that the word, book, is to 1)e taken in an in-
 
 The Adjective 247 
 
 definite sense. The speaker and the person ad- 
 dressed have no definite book in mind, but any book 
 will do. This ditt'erence in articles gives us two 
 classes : definite and indefinite. 
 
 212. Definite Article Defined. The definite 
 article is that article that shows that the substan- 
 tive word which it modifies should be taken in a 
 definite sense; as, T\\q man was not present. 
 
 The article, the, is the only definite article in the 
 English language. 
 
 213. Indefinite Article Defined. The indefi- 
 nite article is that article which shows that the 
 substantive word which it modifies is to be taken 
 in an indefinite sense; as, A man came into the 
 room. An axe zvas lying in the path. 
 
 The articles, a and an, are the only indefinite 
 articles in the English language. 
 
 Exercise 76 
 
 In ihc follozving sentences point out the adjec- 
 tives and classify them: 
 
 1. On the basis of use. 
 
 2. On the basis of the chief purpose. 
 
 Put limiting adjectives into the smallest known 
 classes, and give your reasons. 
 
 1. The book was written by John Fiske. 
 
 2. This proposition is unreasonable. 
 
 3. Which way did he go? 
 
 4. What book do you most prefer?
 
 248 An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 5. I know which way the deer went. 
 
 6. Few ducks were seen by the sportsman. 
 
 7. Some money was earned by the boys. 
 
 8. The yellow chicken looked at the big frog inquir- 
 ingly. 
 
 9. Every man stood to his post. 
 
 10. Neither man was right, and yet I would not censure 
 either. 
 
 1 1 . We were interested in watching two large prairie 
 fires. 
 
 12. Fifty men were in line. 
 
 13. James is the third pupil in the row. 
 
 14. Washington was the first president of the United 
 States. 
 
 15. This is a fourfold punishment. 
 
 16. Let us make a double house. 
 
 17. The bright dewdrops were glistening on the leaves. 
 
 18. The white rose is beautiful. 
 
 19. He who dares stand for the right, though he stand 
 alone, is truly brave. 
 
 20. The river is a mile broad. 
 
 21. The girl is cruel to her pets. 
 
 22. A child's kiss 
 Set on thy sighing lips shall make thee glad ; 
 
 A poor man served by thee shall make thee rich, 
 A sick man helped by thee shall make thee strong; 
 Thou shalt be served thyself by every sense 
 Of service which thou renderest. 
 
 — Wo rdstvo rth. 
 
 214. Pronominal Adjectives Called Pronouns. 
 Some g-rammarians prefer to call pronominal ad- 
 jectives, when they are nsed substantively, pro- 
 nouns ; as, That is yours. These are mine. 
 
 This is not incorrect, but it seems more lo^^ical
 
 The Adjective 249 
 
 to keep the words in the same class, no matter 
 whether they are used substantively or attributively. 
 When they are used substantively, a substantive 
 word can always be supplied. Those are fine, is 
 equivalent to Those apples, books, flowers, and so 
 forth, are fine. 
 
 215. Singular and Plural Adjectives. The 
 
 only adjectives that have singular and plural forms 
 are the demonstrative adjectives, this and that. The 
 plural of the adjective, tJiat, is those, and the plural 
 of the adjective, this is these. 
 
 Be careful to use the adjectives, that and this, 
 with singular nouns, and those and these with plu- 
 ral nouns; as, 
 
 1. I do not like that kind of book. 
 
 2. This sort of roses is short-lived. 
 
 3. These flowers are beautiful. 
 
 4. Those trees are green. 
 
 Exercise 77 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks with the proper demon- 
 strative adjectives: 
 
 1. I do not see kind of goods often. 
 
 2. We want no more of sort of lectures. 
 
 3. Where are you going with boxes of pens? 
 
 4. Giildren should avoid sort of games. 
 
 5. He combats classes of theories. 
 
 6. We dislike kind of weather. 
 
 7. I Fe helps sort of people. 
 
 8. James likes kind of fruit.
 
 250 An English Gram mar 
 
 g. Children like kinds of shames. 
 
 10. ^^'e fear kinds of animals. 
 
 11. 1 like sorts of sports. 
 
 2 1 6. Comparison. Notice how the adjectives 
 in the following sentences are alike and how they 
 differ : 
 
 1. My mother is tall. 
 
 2. My father is taller. 
 
 3. My brother is the tallest member of the family. 
 
 The adjectives, lall, taller, and tallest, express 
 the same attribute, but the adjective, tall, shows that 
 it has been compared merely with the mind's idea of 
 that attribute. The adjective, taller, shows that the 
 attribute expressed by it has been compared with the 
 same attribute in one other idea. The adjective, 
 tallest, show^s that the attribute expressed by it has 
 been compared with the same attribute in two or 
 more other ideas. This property of the adjective 
 we call comparison. 
 
 217. Comparison Defined. Comparison is 
 that property of the adjective or adverb which 
 shows whether the attribute expressed by it has 
 been compared with the same attribute in another 
 idea or merely with the mind's idea of that attri- 
 bute. 
 
 218. Degrees of Comparison. 1lie difference 
 in adjectives noted in Section 216, that is, that 
 they express different degrees of the attribute.
 
 The Adjective i^51 
 
 gives lis three degrees of comparison, positive, 
 comparative and superlative. 
 
 219. Positive Degree Defined. The positive 
 degree of comparison is that degree of compari- 
 son which shows that the attribute expressed by 
 the adjective or adverb has been compared merely 
 with the mind's idea of that attribute; as, Red 
 roses are beautiful. 
 
 220. Comparative Degree Defined. The Com- 
 parative degree of comparison is that degree of 
 comparison which shows that the attribute ex- 
 pressed by the adjective or adverb has been com- 
 pared with the same attribute in one other idea ; 
 as, My hrotlicr is taller than I. 
 
 221. Superlative Degree Defined. The super- 
 lative degree of comparison is that degree of com- 
 parison which shows that the attribute expressed 
 by the adjective or adverb has been compared 
 with the same attribute in two or more other 
 ideas; as. The largest boy in the room does the 
 poorest zvork. 
 
 222. When Used. i. The i)osilive degree is 
 ahvays used when the attri])ute expressed by the 
 adjective or adverl) has not 1:)een compared witli the 
 same attribute in any other idea; as, TJie blue .s7i'\' 
 is overhead. 
 
 2. Tlie comparative degree is always used when 
 the attribute expressed by the adjective or adverb
 
 252 An English Grammar 
 
 is' 
 
 has been compared with the same attribute in one 
 other idea ; as, To he good is better than to be great. 
 
 3. The superlative degree is used when the at- 
 tribute expressed by the adjective or adverb has 
 been compared with the same attribute in at least 
 two other ideas ; as, He is the tallest boy in Jiis class. 
 
 The words expressing the ideas in which the 
 attribute expressed by the adjective or adverb is 
 found are called the terms of the comparison. 
 AA'hen the attribute is compared in only tw^o ideas 
 the latter term excludes the former ; as, Gold is 
 brighter than any other metal. 
 
 When the attribute compared exists in more 
 than two other ideas the latter term must include 
 the former; as. Gold is tlie most valuable of metals. 
 
 223. Kinds of Comparison. \A'e may compare 
 in either of two w^ays. We may say, heavy, heavier, 
 heaviest, in \\hich case, the positive degree expresses 
 the lowest degree of that attribute; and the com- 
 parative degree a higher degree of the attribute; 
 and the superlative degree the highest degree of the 
 attribute. But we may also say, heavy, less heavy, 
 least heavy, in which case the positive degree ex- 
 presses the highest degree, the comparative a lower 
 degree, and the superlative the lowest degree of 
 all. This gives us two kinds of comparison: as- 
 cending and descending. 
 
 224. Ascending Comparison Defined. As- 
 cending comparison is that comparison in which
 
 The Adjective 253 
 
 the positive degree of the word expresses the low- 
 est degree of the attribute; the comparative, a 
 higher degree of the attribute; and the superla- 
 tive, the highest degree of the attribute; as, 
 
 beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 
 
 225. Descending Comparison Defined. De- 
 scending comparison is that comparison in which 
 the positive degree of the word expresses the 
 highest degree of the attribute ; the comparative, 
 a lower degree of the attribute; and the superla- 
 tive, the lowest degree of the attribute; as, beau- 
 tiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 
 
 226. Methods of Comparison. Study the ad- 
 jectives in the following sentences and note how 
 the comparative and superlative are formed in each 
 case: 
 
 1. Tall trees are easily blown over. 
 
 2. I am taller than my father. 
 
 3. The tallest boy in the room is a good student. 
 
 4. The boy is my brother. 
 
 5. To be is better than to seem. 
 
 6. This is the best way to solve the problem. 
 
 7. While she is the most strict mother I know, she is 
 also the most pleasant with her children. 
 
 8. This way is the longest. 
 
 9. The long pencil is lost. 
 
 In the word, fall, you will notice that the com- 
 parative is formed by adding the suffix, er, and the 
 superlative by adding the suffix, est. This method 
 of comparison we call inflection. The adjective,
 
 254 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 pleasant, forms its comparative with the word, more, 
 and its superlative with the word, vwst. This 
 method of comparison we call composition, \\'i1^ 
 the adjective, good, we use the word, better, for tlu' 
 comparative ; and the word, best, for the superlative. 
 We call this method irregular. 
 
 Adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives 
 of two syllables are usually compared by inflection. 
 The tendencv in modern Enplish is to use this 
 method more and more. Longer adjectives, how- 
 ever, are usually compared by using the method of 
 composition. Euphony has much to do with de- 
 termining the method of comparison. 
 
 Exercise 78 
 
 Compare the foUoiving adjeetives and use them 
 correctly in sentences; considt your dictionary : 
 
 beautiful 
 
 pretty 
 
 handsome 
 
 awful 
 
 dreadful 
 
 lovely 
 
 few- 
 
 less 
 
 healthy 
 
 healthful 
 
 much. 
 
 most 
 
 well 
 
 mad 
 
 angry 
 
 vexed 
 
 quite a 
 
 elegant 
 
 a larg^e 
 
 a considerable 
 
 real 
 
 a o-reat 
 
 opposite 
 
 contrary 
 
 those 
 
 drowned 
 
 
 
 227. Adjectives Not Compared. Some ad- 
 jectives express attributes that do not exist in dif- 
 ferent degrees : as, perfect, round, circular. 
 
 Strictly speaking such adjectives cannot be com- 
 pared, but good usage sanctions the expressions, 
 most perfect, straight est, squarest, and so forth.
 
 The Adjective 255 
 
 Exercise 79 
 
 State the meaning of each of the following- 
 words when used as adjectives, comparing words 
 in the first colunm with those in the second when 
 such comparison will help to bring out the meaning 
 more clearly: 
 
 each 
 
 every 
 
 which 
 
 what 
 
 this 
 
 these 
 
 few 
 
 less 
 
 either 
 
 neither 
 
 a or an 
 
 the 
 
 that 
 
 those 
 
 each other 
 Exercise 80 
 
 one another 
 
 Watch carefully the position of the zvord, only, 
 in all sentences. From the expressions inclosed in 
 the marks of parenthesis in each of the follozving 
 sentences select the correct one and give reasons. 
 Consult your dictionary for information: 
 
 1. The boy was permitted to go (everywhere, every- 
 zvheres). 
 
 2. My daughter may be described as (having a light 
 complexion, being light-complected). 
 
 3. We thus had more, not (less, feiver) friends. 
 
 4. One can hardly think of a man (more, better) 
 suited to the place. 
 
 5. The people had never seen a (costlier, more costlier) 
 equipage. 
 
 6. This is true of (most, almost) all of my friends. 
 
 7. Nobody was (like, likely) to see him. 
 
 8. The town was (quite, plenty) large enough. 
 
 9. There isn't a (sightlier, iiner) place in town. 
 10. Do you like (this, these) sort of books?
 
 256 An English Grammar 
 
 1 1 . How do you like (that, those) kind of gowns ? 
 
 12. This point is (easiest, most easily) seen. 
 
 13. My conscience feels (easily, easy). 
 
 14. The girl looked (prettily, pretty). 
 
 15. The teacher feels (bad, badly) to-day. 
 
 16. The party went (solid, solidly) for free trade. 
 
 17. She was not (only, alone) a true woman but a kind 
 I'riend also. 
 
 18. The boy (only) tried (only) three times. 
 
 19. That they use money is true of (both, each) party. 
 
 20. (Each, every) dog has his day. 
 
 21. (Each, every) day in the year should be the happiest 
 day. 
 
 22. We should avoid (many, much) of the baser 
 struggles. 
 
 23. He has caught (many, much) fish to-day. 
 
 24. Will (all, the whole) finance ministers, and uphol- 
 sterers and confectioners of modern Europe undertake in 
 joint stock company to make one shoeblack happy? 
 
 25. Of the states of the Union named, the (iirst four, 
 four first) are largest. 
 
 26. He says some very (aggravating, irritating) things, 
 
 27. In consequence of some very (aggravating, irritat- 
 ing) circumstances he was punished severely. 
 
 28. Statements like these seem hardly (creditable, cred- 
 ible). 
 
 29. Here, too, Sydney Carton is an (e.rceptional, excep- 
 tionable) man. 
 
 30. I shall not go (further, farther). 
 
 31. Rice is a (healthy, healthful) food. 
 
 32. The scene from the window was (luxuriant, luxur- 
 ious). 
 
 33. The boy told a (pitiful, pitiable) story. 
 
 34. The spider spins a (subtile, subtle) web. 
 
 35. There is a (continuous, continual) hurry to be off.
 
 The Adjective 257 
 
 36. The sk}' gradually became (cloudless, more and 
 more cloudless). 
 
 37. The shouts gradually became (more and more in- 
 audible, inaudible). 
 
 38. In this characteristic Coleridge is (unique, most 
 unique). 
 
 39. The vote was so (imanimous, so nearly unanimous) 
 that the crowd shouted. 
 
 40. We go about professing (total isolation, the f of ales t 
 isolation). 
 
 228. Parsing. In the follozving sentences point 
 out tJie adjectives. 
 
 1. Classify them into the smallest known 
 
 classes on each basis, stating the basis 
 first. 
 
 2. Compare each adjective. 
 
 J. Give the exact use of each in the sentence. 
 
 1. Old Fezzi wig's face was wreathed with benevolent 
 smiles. 
 
 2. The round earth moves smoothly on its way. 
 
 3. These dangerous savages came near. 
 
 4. Rude noises came from the forest in the rear. 
 
 5. Many people do not hesitate to say harmful things. 
 
 6. Sydney Carton is one of the finest characters in 
 literature. 
 
 7. A singular verb should be used with the name of 
 the United States, because these separate states form one 
 union. 
 
 8. Modern Europe is on friendly terms with the Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 9. The large window was entirely shattered by the ex- 
 plosion.
 
 258 An English Grammar 
 
 lo. Cloudy weather has a dampening effect upon the 
 spirits. 
 
 Notice the adjectives which Hawthorne uses in 
 the extract froiu "My Visit to Niagara/' on page 
 68. See if you can hnd one of each class of adjec- 
 tives in tJic selection. Which occurs most fre- 
 quently? 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 Narration 
 
 YOUNG LOCHINVAR 
 
 O Young Lochinvar has come out of the West, 
 
 Through all the wide Border his steed was the best ; 
 
 And save his good broadsword he weapon had none, 
 
 He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 
 
 So faithful in love and so dauntless in war, 
 
 There never was knight like the young Lochinvar ! 
 
 He stayed not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, 
 
 He swam the Esk River where ford there was none ; 
 
 But ere he alighted at Netherby gate. 
 
 The bride had consented, the gallant came late : 
 
 For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war 
 
 Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 
 
 So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall, 
 
 'Mong bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all. 
 
 Then spake the bride's father, his hand on his sword, — 
 
 For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word, — 
 
 " O, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war. 
 
 Or to dance at our bridal, voung Lord Lochinvar?"
 
 The Adjective 259 
 
 " I long wooed your daughter, mv suit you denied : 
 Love swells likx' the Solwaw but ehlis like its tide! 
 And now I am come. wit1i this lost love of mine. 
 To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine! 
 There be maidens in Scotland more lovely by far. 
 That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar." 
 
 The bride kissed the goblet : the knight took it up, 
 He quaffed off' the wine and he threw down the cup ! 
 SheMooked down to blush and she looked up to sigh. 
 With a smile on her lips and a tear in her eye. 
 He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar, — 
 "Now tread we a measure,"' said young Lochinvar! 
 
 So stately his form, and so lovely her face, 
 
 That never a hall such a galliard did grace. 
 
 While her mother did fret and her father did fume. 
 
 And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume. 
 
 And the bride-maidens whispered, " "Twere better by far 
 
 To have matched our fair cousin with _\oung Lochinvar." 
 
 One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear. 
 
 When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood 
 
 near. 
 So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung, 
 So light to the saddle before her he sprung, 
 " She is won ! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur ; 
 They'll have fleet steeds that follow ! "' (juoth yoimg Loch- 
 invar. 
 
 There was mounting inong (rraemes of the Netherbx- clan, 
 [•'osters, Fenwicks and Musgraves, they rode and thev ran : 
 There was racing and chasing o'er Cannobie Lea, 
 Hut the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did thev see !
 
 2^0 • /iu Enc^lisli Grammar 
 
 So daring- in love, and so dauntless in war, 
 Have ye e'er heard of i^allant like young Lochinvar? 
 
 — Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 I. 
 
 Read "Lochinvar." 
 
 In zvliaf difficulty does Lochinvar find himself F 
 Hozv docs lie extricate himself from his difficult v 
 and win his priced 
 
 Write the story of I^ochinvar's adventure as he 
 might tell it himself, as his bride might tell it, as 
 the " poor craven bridegroom " or as one of the par- 
 ents might tell it. Be careful to keep your paper in 
 the first person throughout. For study of person, 
 see page 200. 
 
 The purpose of story telling (narration) is to 
 show how certain lines of action lead to certain re- 
 sults. 
 
 //. 
 What scenes zvonld you select as suitable for il- 
 lustrations of the poem? What titles zvould vou 
 give these illustrations f 
 
 Write a description of your favorite scene in the 
 poem of "Lochinvar," zvhich could be used by an 
 artist from zvhich to illustrate the poem. 
 
 Read your paper. Haz'c you made your picture 
 so clear and definite that you yourself could drazv itf
 
 The Adjective 261 
 
 IVhat difference do you find in tlie etiaracters oj 
 Lochinz'ar and his rival? What proofs can you find 
 for your opinions? 
 
 JVrite a comparison of tlic tzvo men. Let your 
 introduction be a statement of tfieir differences and 
 tlie following paragraphs a statement of hozv these 
 differences zvere shozvn. 
 
 IV. 
 
 JVrite a review of " I^ochinvar." Let Mie first 
 paragrapli characterize tlie poem, the second tell 
 about the cliief characters, the third tell the story 
 briefly, in the third person, present tense, the fourth 
 describe your favorite scene and the fifth give your 
 reasons for liking the poem. 
 
 Interest in Story Telling. Notice how the 
 story of Lochinvar shows a knii^'ht in a difficuh sit- 
 uation and then proceeds to tell how through his 
 1)ravery and daring he extricates himself. Notice 
 that the outcome of the story is not disclosed until 
 near the end. Tliis keeps one interested. Notice 
 linw niucli the conversation adds to the interest and 
 helps to portray the characters of the people. 
 
 JVrite original stories on one of the follozving 
 topics, getting somebody into and then out of a dif- 
 ficulty. Add to the interest of your story by haz'- 
 ing the characters talk for tficmselves. For the
 
 2^2 ,^ji English Grammar 
 
 piuictiiatiou of direct quotations, see page lyg, sec- 
 tion 12^. 
 
 Afloat on a Raft. 
 
 How Mother Found Out that Tim Had Been 
 Swimming-. 
 
 A Strange Mishap. 
 
 \N\\y the Game Was Put Off.
 
 Chapter XVII 
 
 VERBS 
 
 229. The Verb Defined. Tn the following sen- 
 tences notice the words which express the thought 
 relation : 
 
 1. It is good to be here. 
 
 2. To find fault is easy. 
 
 3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 
 
 4. The fire was burning on the hearth. 
 
 5. The truth gradually came out. 
 
 The words, is, laid, was, and came, expressing 
 the thought relations are verbs. A verb is a word 
 which expresses a thought relation; as, The sena- 
 tor wanted to amend the motion. 
 
 In the sentence, He had spoken well, the thought 
 relation is not expressed by one word, but by the 
 expression, had spoken. Most grammarians call 
 this expression, had spoken, a verb. It does express 
 the thought relation, but it is not a word. When 
 two or more words perform the office of a single 
 word in a sentence, we have called such a group of 
 words a phrase, and it now seems simpler and 
 easier to call all groups of words which express 
 
 thought relations verb phrases instead of verbs. 
 
 [2631
 
 iH)4 An English Grammar 
 
 230. Principal Parts of Verbs. Study the 
 verbs and \'erb phrases in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The sun is ninety-two million miles away. 
 
 2. The soldier was without food for three days. 
 
 3. Tom Brown has been in many escapades. 
 
 4. The general gave his order in a very loud tone. 
 
 5. The sun gives light and heat. 
 
 6. Leland Stanford has given a great deal of money to 
 found a university at Palo Alto. 
 
 The verbs, is, zvas, been, are not different verbs, 
 but only different forms of the same verb. This 
 is also true of the forms, give, gave, and given. 
 No matter whether we wish to express thought in 
 present time, past time or future time, to express 
 completed action, or incompleted action ; or, indeed, 
 to express any shade or phase of thought whatever, 
 we must use some one of these three forms of the 
 verb. We call the three forms here illustrated in 
 these two \erbs the principal parts of the verb. 
 The principal parts of a verb are those parts 
 which are necessary to express all shades of 
 meaning and phases of thought in sentences; as, 
 ride, rode, ridden. 
 
 231. Names of Principal Parts. You will no- 
 tice that the form, is, or gives, expresses a thought 
 relation as a fact in the present time. We call this 
 form the present indicative. 
 
 On the other hand, zvas or gave are used to
 
 Verbs 265 
 
 express thought relations as a fact in past time. 
 We call this form the past indicative. 
 
 The forms, been and given, are always em- 
 ployed to express the thought when two periods of 
 time are used in locating the thought relation. We 
 call this the past or perfect participle. 
 
 232. Present Indicative Defined. The present 
 indicative is that principal part of a verb which 
 expresses a thought relation as a fact in the pres- 
 ent time; as, The sun shines. 
 
 233. Past Indicative Defined. The past in- 
 dicative is that principal part of the verb which 
 expresses a thought relation as a fact in past 
 time; as, The man rode rapidly. 
 
 234. Past Participle, or Perfect Participle De- 
 fined. The past or perfect participle is that prin- 
 cipal part of the verb which is always used with 
 an auxiliary to express a thought relation, as a 
 fact, in a period of time beginning in the past, ex- 
 tending up to and including the moment of speak- 
 ing; as, She has sung her song. 
 
 For all practical purposes it is accurate enough 
 to say that the present indicative is that form of the 
 verb which expresses a thought relation in the 
 present time; the past indicative is that form 
 of the verb which expresses a thought relation in 
 past time; and the past or perfect participle is 
 that form of the verb which we use with such words 
 as has, have, had, and the forms of the word, be.
 
 266 An English Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 Exercise 8i 
 
 In the follozmng sentences point out the verbs 
 and give their principal parts: 
 
 1. The minister frequently quotes from the Tahnucl. 
 
 2. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 
 
 3. The tree fell across the road. 
 
 4. The child merely wants his rights. 
 
 5. Sleep is re'freshing. 
 
 6. The boy can swim like a duck. 
 
 7. The wind blew fiercely. 
 
 8. The task wearied the class. 
 
 9. The sun shines through the window. 
 10. He rose at break of day. 
 
 235. Classes of Verbs. Study the verbs in the 
 following sentences : 
 
 1. The tree is old. 
 
 2. The rain falls in torrents. 
 
 It is easy to see from our work with the classes 
 of words that the verb, is, in the first sentence ex- 
 presses only the thought relation; while the verb, 
 falls, expresses the thought relation and an attribute 
 of the object of thought, rain. This diiTerence in 
 the meaning or kind of idea expressed by verbs gives 
 us two classes : pure and attributive. 
 
 236. Pure Verb Defined. A pure verb is a 
 verb that expresses only the thought relation; as, 
 
 The boy is tall. 
 
 237. Attributive Verb Defined. An attribu- 
 tive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute of
 
 Verbs 267 
 
 an object of thought and also a thought relation ; 
 as, TJie boy studies diligently. 
 
 238. Classes of Attributive Verbs. Study tlie 
 verbs in the following sentences, classify them on 
 the basis of the kind of idea expressed, and note the 
 nature of the attribute expressed by the attributive 
 verbs : 
 
 1. James struck the ball. 
 
 2. The flowers bloom. 
 
 You will notice that the attribute expressed 1w 
 the word, struck, is put forth by the object of 
 thought expressed by the word, James, and that it 
 passes over to or goes out to or affects the object 
 of thought ex]:>ressed by the word, ball. In other 
 words, the object of thought expressed by the word, 
 ball, received the attribute expressed by the word, 
 struck. The attribute expressed by this verb is of 
 such a nature that it requires an object of thought 
 upon which it may terminate. We cannot think 
 of striking without striking something, or selling 
 without selling something, or buying without buy- 
 ing something. 
 
 Now the attribute expressed ])y the \crb, bloom, 
 in the second sentence is. not of such a nature as to 
 require an object of thought upon which it may 
 terminate. The attribute does not go out from the 
 thought subject to some other object of thought. 
 When \\Q think of blooming, we do not think of 
 blooming an\i:hing, or when we think of walking
 
 268 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 we do not think of zvaiking anything, or when we 
 think of tolking we do not think of talking anything. 
 The attributes expressed by these verbs are differ- 
 ent in their nature. This makes us cah the at- 
 tributive verb, struck, a transitive verb, and the 
 attributive verb, bloom, an intransitive verb. 
 
 239. Transitive Verb Defined. A transitive 
 verb is an attributive verb which expresses an at- 
 tribute of such a nature as to require an object of 
 thought upon which it may terminate; as, The 
 boy brought Jiis liinch. 
 
 It is not necessary that this object of thought 
 upon which the attribute terminates be expressed. 
 \\q may have a transitive verb which does not take 
 a direct objective modifier; as, / will buy with you. 
 
 240. Intransitive Verb Defined. An intransi- 
 tive verb is an attributive verb which expresses an 
 attribute of such a nature as to require no object 
 of thought upon which it may terminate; as, He 
 travels by rail. 
 
 Exercise 82 
 
 In the following sentences point out the verbs, 
 classifying them on the basis of the kind of idea 
 expressed, and then classify the attributive verbs as 
 transitii 'c or in transitive : 
 
 1. Hitch your wagon to a star. 
 
 2. Fulton invented the steamboat. 
 
 3. The robin picked up the crumbs after hopping in at 
 the window.
 
 Verbs 269 
 
 4. We heard a highly instructive lecture. 
 
 5. We walked along the fragrant lanes. 
 
 6. We talked of pleasant times in olden da}s. 
 
 7. We journeyed through the fields together. 
 
 8. John Anderson, my jo, John, 
 We clamb the hills together ; 
 And mony a canty day, John, 
 We've had wi' ane anither ; 
 
 Now we maun totter down. Jolin, 
 
 But hand in hand we'll go ; 
 
 An' sleep thegither at the foot, 
 
 John Anderson, my jo. — Burns. 
 
 241. Classes of Verbs on the Basis of How 
 the Past Indicative and Perfect Participle are 
 Formed. Give the principal parts of the verbs in 
 the following sentences : Mary zvrofe a letter. The 
 girl walked in the afternoon. 
 
 You will notice that the verb, zvalk, forms its 
 past indicative and perfect participle by adding ed 
 to the present indicative ; as, zvalk, walked, zvalked. 
 
 In the sentence, We heard the rain, the verb, 
 heard, forms its past tense, and past or perfect par- 
 ticiple by adding d to the present indicative ; as, hear, 
 heard, heard. 
 
 The verb, write, does not form its past indica- 
 tive and past or perfect participle by adding either 
 d or ed to the present indicative. Tn forming the 
 past indicative and past or perfect participle of this 
 verb, there is an internal change in the word. This 
 difference in the wav in which verbs form their
 
 270 An English Grammar 
 
 principal parts gives rise to two classes of .^rbs: 
 regular and irregular. 
 
 242. Regular Verb Defined. A regular verb 
 is a verb which forms its past indicative and past 
 or perfect participle by adding d or edto the pres- 
 ent indicative; as, talk, talked, talked. 
 
 2.^2>- Irregular Verb Defined. An irregular 
 verb is a verb which does not form its past indica- 
 tive and past or perfect participle by adding d or 
 ed to the present indicative; as, ride, rode, ridden. 
 
 244, Irregular Verbs Difficult. The regular 
 verbs are as a rule easily mastered ; but the irregular 
 verbs must be carefully studied. You will need to 
 know two things concerning irregular verbs: 
 
 1. You must know their principal parts. These 
 nmst be thoroughly learned by practicing with 
 right forms. There is no way of reasoning out the 
 forms of irregular verbs; there is no principle 
 which will guide you in their formation. The prin- 
 cipal parts of irregular verbs, especially those in 
 common use, must sii^iply lie learned. 
 
 2. You nuist then learn to use the principal 
 parts of these verbs correctly. It is one thing to 
 know that the principal parts of the verb, eat, are 
 eat, ate, eaten, and quite another thing to know 
 when to use the form, ate, and the fomi, eaten. We 
 may say, in general, that we use t^Bform, eat, or 
 the present indicative of the verb \Nnen we wish to 
 express an act in the present time; we use the
 
 Verbs 
 
 271 
 
 form, ate, or the past indicative of any verb, when 
 we wish to express an act in the past time; and 
 we use the form, eaten, or the past or perfect parti- 
 ciple of any verb with an auxihary to express an 
 act occurring in a period of time beginning in the 
 past and continuing up to and including the present 
 time, or in other words, when we use it with such 
 w^ords as Jias, haz'e, or any such word which is used 
 with the past or perfect participle to form a verb 
 phrase. This, however, is only a general principle 
 which will in part guide us in the use of the prin- 
 cipal parts of verbs. 
 
 Exercise 83 
 
 The folloiuiiig is a list of the principal parts of 
 the most important irregular verbs. Use these 
 again and again in sentences until you are sure you 
 know then. 
 
 Present 
 
 Past 
 
 Past or Perfect Par 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 l)urst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 Ijreak 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got or gotten 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given
 
 272 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 Presknt 
 
 . Past 
 
 Past 
 
 OR Perfect Participle 
 
 go 
 
 
 went 
 
 
 gone 
 
 
 know 
 
 
 l<ne\v 
 
 
 known 
 
 
 
 lay (to 
 
 place) 
 
 laid 
 
 
 laid 
 
 lie (to 
 
 recline) 
 
 lay 
 
 
 lain 
 
 
 prove 
 
 
 proved 
 
 
 proved 
 
 (not proven) 
 
 know 
 
 
 knew 
 
 
 known 
 
 
 ride 
 
 
 rode 
 
 
 ridden 
 
 
 rise 
 
 
 " rose 
 
 
 risen 
 
 
 run 
 
 
 ran 
 
 
 run 
 
 
 see 
 
 
 saw 
 
 
 seen 
 
 
 set (to 
 
 put, or 
 
 set 
 
 
 set 
 
 
 to 
 
 place) 
 
 
 
 
 
 sit (to 
 
 rest) 
 
 sat 
 
 
 sat 
 
 
 shake 
 
 
 shook 
 
 • 
 
 shaken 
 
 
 show 
 
 
 showed 
 
 
 shown, 
 
 showed 
 
 speak 
 
 
 spoke' 
 
 
 spoken 
 
 
 slay 
 
 
 slew 
 
 
 slain 
 
 
 steal 
 
 
 stole 
 
 
 stolen 
 
 
 take 
 
 
 took 
 
 
 taken 
 
 
 draw 
 
 
 drew 
 
 
 drawn 
 
 
 wake 
 
 
 waked, 
 
 woke 
 
 waked, 
 
 woke 
 
 Note: Some of these verbs have other forms in the past or 
 perfect participle, but they are old or not in good usage. These 
 are the forms which should be fixed. 
 
 Exercise 84 
 
 The following is a list of the principal parts of 
 irregular verbs not in quite such common use as 
 those in the preceding list. They should, hozvever, 
 he thoroughly mastered. 
 
 In some cases regular verbs have been put into 
 the list because they have old irregular forms which
 
 Verbs 
 
 273 
 
 are not iiozv used, or because 
 confused ivith irregular verbs 
 
 Past Past 
 
 abode 
 
 awoke 
 
 bore 
 
 Present 
 
 abide 
 
 awake 
 
 bear (bri)ig forth) 
 
 i/ "f 
 
 bear (carry) 
 beat 
 --'^nd 
 bereave 
 beseech 
 bet ^ 
 
 bid (command) 
 bid (offer money) 
 bind 
 bite 
 bleed 
 blend 
 breect 
 bring 
 build^ 
 biiy' 
 can 
 cast 
 catch 
 chide 
 choose 
 
 cleave (to adhere) 
 cleave (to split) 
 cling 
 clothe 
 cost' 
 creep 
 crow 
 cut 
 
 bore 
 
 beat 
 
 bent 
 
 bereft 
 
 besought 
 
 bet 
 
 bade 
 
 bid 
 
 bound 
 
 bit 
 
 bled 
 
 blended 
 
 bred 
 
 brought 
 
 built 
 
 bought 
 
 could 
 
 cast 
 
 caught 
 
 chid 
 
 chose 
 
 cleaved 
 
 clove, cleft 
 
 clung 
 
 clothed, clad 
 
 cost 
 
 crept 
 
 crowed, crew 
 
 cut 
 
 tJiey arc sometimes 
 
 OR Perfect Participle 
 abode 
 
 awaked ^^'V-/-**^*- 
 born 
 borne 
 beaten 
 bent 
 
 bereft, bereaved 
 besought 
 bet 
 
 bidden 
 bid 
 bound 
 bitten 
 bled 
 
 blended, blent 
 bred 
 brought 
 built, l^tnltfe'd 
 bought 
 
 cast 
 
 caught 
 
 chidden 
 
 chosen 
 
 cleaved 
 
 cleft, cloven 
 
 clung 
 
 clothed, clad 
 
 cost 
 
 crept 
 
 crowed 
 
 cut
 
 274 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 IC^' 
 
 Present 
 
 drink 
 
 dwell 
 
 dress 
 
 draw 
 
 fall 
 
 feed 
 
 feel 
 
 fight 
 
 find 
 
 flee 
 
 fling 
 
 fly 
 
 forsake 
 
 freeze 
 
 freight 
 
 forbear 
 
 'get 
 
 ■gild-' 
 
 ^give 
 c'grind 
 
 grow 
 
 hang (to suspend) 
 
 hang (to execute) 
 
 have 
 
 heave 
 
 Ijide 
 
 r hold 
 ftit 
 
 hurt 
 keep 
 
 Past Past or Perfect Participle 
 
 dared, durst 
 
 dug, digged 
 
 dreamed, dreamt 
 
 drank 
 
 dwelt 
 
 dressed, drest 
 
 drew 
 
 fell 
 
 fed 
 
 felt 
 
 fought 
 
 found 
 
 fled - 
 
 flung 
 
 flew 
 
 forsook 
 
 froze 
 
 freighted 
 
 forbore 
 
 got 
 
 giWed,-^lt 
 -gtrded; "grrt 
 
 ^.: 
 
 gave 
 ground 
 
 hung 
 
 hanged 
 
 had 
 
 hove, heaved 
 
 hid 
 
 held 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 kept 
 
 dared 
 
 (kig, digged 
 
 dreamed, dreamt 
 
 drunk 
 
 dwelt 
 
 dressed, drest 
 
 drawn 
 
 fallen 
 
 fed 
 
 felt 
 
 fought 
 
 found 
 
 fled 
 
 flung 
 
 flown 
 
 forsaken 
 
 frozen 
 
 freighted, fraught 
 
 forborne 
 
 got 
 
 gilded", "gik 
 
 girded, girt 
 
 given 
 
 ground 
 
 grown 
 
 hung 
 
 hanged 
 
 had 
 
 hove, heaved 
 
 hidden 
 
 held 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 kept
 
 Verbs 
 
 275 
 
 Present 
 
 Past Past or 
 
 Perfect Participle 
 
 kneel 
 
 knelt, kneeled 
 
 knelt, kneeled 
 
 ^knit 
 
 knitted, knit 
 
 knitted, knit 
 
 1 ^ ^*^^ 
 
 laded 
 
 laden 
 
 ' ^ight 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 t^^ose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 ' ^ make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 may 
 
 might 
 
 
 
 mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 
 
 meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 _Lunfe_ 
 
 
 
 imnt^ 
 
 
 
 ■c^ti^a+rt" 
 
 
 
 Trn4t: 11 L 
 
 pay 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 quit 
 
 quitted, quit 
 
 quitted, quit 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 -f^SiV^ 
 
 r-eft, r-€a^ed 
 
 ueit^- reaved • 
 
 •Ferrtr 
 
 r-onQOu, T*ciix 
 
 i^ctukd, rent- 
 
 - '"4 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 '^^ :^^^ive 
 
 rived 
 
 riven, rived 
 
 say 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 see-k 
 
 sought 
 i ii 1 
 
 sought 
 seethed 
 
 -.&g£tfi€ i IHll'UllSlTlT^j yceiiicu 
 
 ^spptbo (tramiHfe ) 
 
 seethed, sod 
 
 seethed, sodden 
 
 s^Jl 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 shme 
 
 shone 
 
 shone 
 
 shred 
 
 shredded, shred 
 
 shredded, shred 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 shrive 
 
 shrove 
 
 shriven 
 
 'o^^sho^ 
 
 slay 
 
 shot 
 slew 
 
 shot 
 slain 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung
 
 276 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 Present 
 
 ^sink 
 "^leep 
 
 smell 
 
 slide 
 
 sling 
 
 smite 
 sew 
 spread 
 speed 
 spell 
 spend 
 spill 
 spin 
 "srat 
 split 
 
 V. 
 
 spoil 
 
 spnng' 
 stand 
 
 stay 
 
 swear 
 
 stick 
 
 sting 
 
 strow 
 
 stride 
 
 strike 
 
 string 
 
 strive 
 
 fi. '0 
 
 sweat, 
 
 swell 
 swing 
 
 Ijir' tear 
 
 j.^- 
 
 Past 
 
 Past 
 
 OR Perfect 1*akticij'le 
 
 sank 
 
 
 sunk 
 
 slept 
 
 
 slept 
 
 smelt 
 
 
 smelt 
 
 slid 
 
 , 
 
 slid, slidden 
 
 slung 
 
 
 slung 
 
 slunk 
 
 
 slunk 
 
 smote 
 
 
 ' smitten 
 
 sewed 
 
 
 sewed 
 
 spread 
 
 
 spread 
 
 sped 
 
 
 sped 
 
 spelled, 
 
 spelt 
 
 spelled, spelt 
 
 spent 
 
 
 spent 
 
 spilled, 
 
 spilt 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spun 
 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
 
 spit 
 
 split 
 
 
 split 
 
 spoiled. 
 
 spoilt 
 
 spoiled, spoilt 
 
 sprang 
 
 
 sprung 
 
 stood 
 
 
 stood 
 
 staved, 
 
 stove 
 
 stave4,~-stov-e 
 
 stayed, 
 
 staid 
 
 stayed, staid 
 
 swore 
 
 
 swore 
 
 stuck 
 
 
 stuck 
 
 stung 
 
 
 stung 
 
 strew 
 
 
 strewn 
 
 strode 
 
 
 stridden 
 
 struck 
 
 
 struck, stricken 
 
 strung 
 
 
 strung 
 
 strove 
 
 
 striven 
 
 sweat 
 
 
 sweat 
 
 swelled 
 
 
 swelled, swollen 
 
 swung 
 
 
 swung 
 
 swam 
 
 
 swum 
 
 tore 
 
 
 torn
 
 Verbs 
 
 277 
 
 ^T 
 
 ^ Present 
 
 Past Past or Perfect Participle 
 
 ' tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 tjH'nne 
 
 tfei=©ve 
 
 thrived, throve 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust [thriven 
 
 thread 
 
 threaded 
 
 threaded 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden 
 
 
 wiBeeth^ 
 
 waxed, wa^T^ 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 weave 
 
 weep 
 
 wove 
 wept 
 
 woven 
 wept 
 
 wend 
 
 wended 
 
 wended 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
 will 
 
 would 
 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 ^\•on 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound" 
 
 wrjsg 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrung 
 
 Note: Many verbs which used to form their principal parts ir- 
 regularl}' have now regular forms and the tendency in modern 
 English is to use the regular forms of irregular verbs rather than 
 the old irregular forms ; as, 
 
 proved is better than proven 
 knitted is better than knit 
 heaved is belter than hove 
 dived is better than dove 
 
 245, Devices for Fixing the Use of the Princi- 
 pal Parts of Irregular Verbs. All the devices pos- 
 sihle should he utilized for fixing the uses of the 
 principal parts of irregular verhs. The following 
 exercises will illustrate some of the devices that 
 ijiay he employed : 
 
 Exercise 85 
 
 Be able to CtU the following blanks with any ap-
 
 ^^^ Ati English Grammar 
 
 propria fe verb from the preceding list; omit the 
 zvord, it, from the formula when substituting an 
 intransitive verb: 
 
 I- I it now. 
 
 2. I it a week ago. 
 
 3- I liave it lately. 
 
 4- He it now. 
 
 5- He a week ago. 
 
 6. He has it lately. 
 
 7- They may today. 
 
 8. They yesterday. 
 
 9. They had before you came. 
 
 Exercise 86 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks zvith the proper forms 
 of speak and write: 
 
 1. She very well, 
 
 2. You have too soon. 
 
 3. I should have sooner. 
 
 4. Have they to you? 
 
 5. Has James to you about it ? 
 
 6. Who said you had about it? 
 
 Exercise 87 
 
 Pill the follozving blanks zvith tjie proper forms 
 of do : 
 
 I- I as I was told. 
 
 2. My work is . 
 
 3. Who the mischief? 
 
 4. The boy has his work well. 
 
 5. Who said I that? 
 
 6. Sarah it liersclf. 
 
 7. Mary her example.
 
 Verbs 279 
 
 Exercise 88 
 
 Insert ill these blanks the proper forms of the 
 verb, choose: 
 
 1. I the blue pencil. 
 
 2. Americans freedom of thought. 
 
 3. I to go ashore. 
 
 4. Henry was first. 
 
 5. My sister herself the goods. 
 
 6. He should have been . 
 
 7. Will you first? 
 
 Exercise 89 
 
 Fill these blanks with the proper forms of the 
 verbs, raise and rise: 
 
 1. He from the chair. 
 
 2. I have as early as five. 
 
 3. He that would thrive must by five. 
 
 4. Have you the window ? 
 
 5. Have you from your chair? 
 
 6. What makes the bread ? 
 
 7. Yeast the bread. 
 
 8. The sun at six. 
 
 9. The river has a great deal. 
 
 10. I saw the sun this morning. 
 
 11. I cannot this window. 
 
 12. The sun at five this morning. 
 
 13. The sun has . 
 
 14. I wish you would from the floor. 
 
 Exercise 90 
 
 /;/ the foUozving sentences, fill the blanks with
 
 ^^^ An English Grammar 
 
 the proper forms of the verbs, lie, lay, sit, teach, 
 learn, seem, appear, love, like: 
 
 1. The boy up straight. 
 
 2. I have up long- enough. 
 
 3- the lamp on the table and bv me. 
 
 4. James for his picture to-day. 
 
 5. I can my lesson. 
 
 6. Will you ^ me to write? ' 
 
 7. How long will it take you to me? 
 
 8. I cannot my lesson. 
 
 9. Will }Ou me to skate ? 
 
 10. Do not ask me to you. 
 
 11. You will not me to swim. 
 
 12. He down to rest. 
 
 13. He the book down. 
 
 14. He had down to rest. 
 
 15. He had the book down. 
 
 16. I will down to rest. 
 
 17. I will my pen down. 
 
 18. A man is on the porch. 
 
 19. James is out tomato plants. 
 
 20. The sun is just . 
 
 21. I am still. 
 
 22. She is near the window. 
 
 23. The sun looks red. 
 
 24. Belle is under a tree in the yard. 
 
 25. She is to be satisfied. 
 
 26. The dress ^ to be new. 
 
 27. The day fine. 
 
 28. Did she to be contented? 
 
 29. It to be red. 
 
 30. How did he to be? 
 
 31. The man to be well pleased. 
 
 2^2. T hope you will well.
 
 Verbs 281 
 
 33. I can well if I wish to. 
 
 34. The storm to be passing over. 
 
 35. The sun   between the clouds. 
 
 36. I my brother. 
 
 37. The boy his sister. 
 
 38. Do you oranges? 
 
 39. The child its parents. 
 
 40. I his appearance very much. 
 
 41. Do you amusements? 
 
 -42. They Nat Goodwin. 
 
 Exercise 91 
 
 Other devices requiring the pupils to use the 
 different forms of irregular verbs in sentences 
 should be invented ; as, The teacher rising from her 
 chair, may say: 
 
 "What do I do, Kate? 
 Kate: "You rise from your chair." 
 Teacher: "What did I do, Tom?" 
 Tom: "You rose from }our chair." 
 Teacher: "What have I done, Ned?" 
 Ned: "You have risen from your chair." 
 
 The teacher then breaks a piece of chalk, or 
 zvrifes on the board, or chooses a book, or speaks 
 loudly, and asks the same questions. The exercise 
 may be continued at zvill. 
 
 *246. Classes of Verbs on Basis of Peculiari- 
 ties. W'c have now classified verbs on the basis 
 of the kind of idea expressed by them and on the ba- 
 sis of how they form their past indicative and past 
 
 * NoTK ; Pupils need not flwcll npi>n Section ?.4fi.
 
 282 An English Grammar 
 
 or perfect participle. We are now to see that there 
 are certain other classes of verbs on the basis of 
 peculiar attributes. These are not really logical 
 divisions because the classes into which we divide 
 the verbs do not include all verbs. The division 
 into these classes, however, helps to emphasize cer- 
 tain essential attributes of these verbs. 
 
 Examine the verbs in the follozving sentences. 
 Classify these verbs on the bases previously worked 
 out and then notice hozv they diifer from the classes 
 of verbs on these bases: 
 
 1. It rains. 
 
 2. Let us live the life of the righteous. 
 
 3. He dreams of me. 
 
 4. One ought to do his best. 
 
 5. The child hurt himself. 
 
 6. The fairies made the poor hut a palace. 
 
 7. I can follow the reasoning. 
 
 a. In the first sentence, the verb, rains, has the 
 word, it, for its subject. If we are asked what the 
 word, itj means in this sentence, it is difficult to tell. 
 We may mean the cloud rains or nature rains, it is 
 indefinite. A verb which has a subject like this is 
 called an impersonal or unipersonal verb. 
 
 b. In the second sentence, the verb, live, takes the 
 direct objective modifier, the life of the righteous. 
 The principal word of this direct objective modifier, 
 life expresses an abstract object of thought which 
 is formed from the attribute expressed by the verb, 
 live. Such a verb is called a cognate verb, and the
 
 Verbs 283 
 
 expression, the life of the righteous, in this sen- 
 tence may be called a cognate direct objective 
 modifier. 
 
 e. In the third sentence the verb, dreams, has 
 more than one form for its past indicative and past 
 or perfect participle. The principal parts are: 
 dream, dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt. We 
 call such a verb a redundant verb. 
 
 d. In the fourth sentence, the verb, ought, has 
 only one of the principal parts ; namely, the present 
 indicative. The past indicative and the past or per- 
 fect participle are wanting. We call such a verb a 
 defective verb. 
 
 e. In the fifth sentence, the verb, hurt, takes a 
 direct objective modifier, the expression, himself, 
 which expresses the same object of thought as the 
 subject of the verb. Such a verb is called a re- 
 flexive verb. 
 
 f. In the sixth sentence, the verb, made, is modi- 
 fied by a direct objective modifier, the poor hut a 
 palace. The principal word in the direct objective 
 modifier, hiit, is modified by the expression, a pal- 
 ace, an appositive modifier, and this expression at 
 the same time supplements the meaning of the verb, 
 made. This kind of verb we call a factitive or 
 causative verb. The direct objective modifier in 
 such cases may be called a factitive direct ob- 
 jective modifier. 
 
 g. \n ihe seventh sentence, the verb, can, does 
 not express the thought relation in itself. It sim-
 
 284 An English Grammm 
 
 &' 
 
 ]jly helps the \erb, follow, to express the thought 
 relation. A verb which does this we call an aux- 
 iliary verb. 
 
 247. Impersonal or Unipersonal Verb De- 
 fined. An impersonal or unipersonal verb is a 
 verb which has for its subject the pronoun, it, 
 when it expresses no definite object of thought, 
 but only helps to show that some action or proc- 
 ess is going on; as, It lightened as it seemed to me. 
 
 248. Cognate Verb Defined. A cognate verb 
 is a verb which takes a direct objective modifier, 
 the abstract object of thought expressed by which 
 is formed from the attribute expressed by the 
 verb; as, He prayed a prayer for deliverance. 
 
 249. Redundant Verb Defined. A redundant 
 verb is a verb which has more than one form for 
 some one or more of its principal parts; as, This 
 hoy forsook his mother. 
 
 250. Defective Verb Defined. A defective 
 verb is a verb which is wanting in some one or 
 more of its principal parts; as, So mote it he. 
 Many of the auxiliary verbs are defective. 
 
 251. Reflexive Verb Defined. A reflexive verb 
 is a verb which takes a direct objective modifier, 
 the object of thought expressed by which is iden- 
 tical with the thought subject; as, / hurt myself. 
 
 252. Factitive or Causative Verb Defined. A 
 factitive or causative verb is a verb the meaning 
 of which is supplemented by some expression in
 
 Verbs 285 
 
 its direct objective modifier; as. They made tlie 
 walk lei'cl. 
 
 The word, level, in the (hrect objective modifier 
 supplenients the meaning- of the verb, made. 
 
 253. Auxiliary Verb Defined. An auxiliary 
 verb is a verb which helps another verb to ex- 
 press a thought relation; as, / will assist you. 
 
 Exercise 92 
 
 In the foUowing sentences point out the verbs 
 and classify them on the basis of 
 
 1. Kind of idea expressed. 
 
 2. How they form their past indicative and past 
 or perfect participle. 
 
 ?. Find one example of each kind of verb on the 
 basis of their peeuliarity. 
 
 1. "It snows!'' cries the schoolboy. 
 
 2. It rains the Hvelong day, and mournful is the house. 
 
 3. They die the death of the righteous. 
 
 4. I have fought a good fight ; I have finished the 
 faith. . 
 
 5. He blew a blast upon the winding horn. 
 
 6. I will run as far as God has any ground. 
 
 7. You call me unbeliever, cut-throat, dog. 
 And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine. 
 And all for use of that which is mine own. 
 
 — SJiakcspeare. 
 
 8. I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, 
 walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat with you, 
 drink with you, nor pray with you. — Shakespeare 
 
 9. If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand 
 forget her cunning.
 
 286 An English Grammar 
 
 10. I will never leave thee, nor forsake thee. 
 
 11. I may nc\cr see you again. 
 
 12. I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse 
 whom I disHke. — Shakespeare. 
 
 13. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one 
 nor refuse none ? — Shakespeare. 
 
 14. " By my troth," quoth he, " you're a bold man." 
 
 15. It must not be. 
 
 16. One ought to love his neighbor as himself. 
 
 17. Every one owes himself an education. 
 
 18. He forces himself to be generous. 
 
 19. The cargo made the boat sink. 
 
 20. The traveler walked himself weary. 
 
 21. The singer sang her throat hoarse. 
 
 22. The lightning struck him dead. 
 
 23. He has told the story many times. 
 
 24. This above all : to thine own self be true, 
 And it must follow, as the night the day, 
 Thou canst not then be false to any man. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 25. Child, thou wilt not leave thy mother so? 
 
 26. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy 
 neighbor. 
 
 27. We do reject the offer. 
 
 28. What should such fellows as 1 do crawling be'tween 
 earth and heaven ? — Shakespeare. 
 
 29. He does confess he feels himself distracted ; 
 
 But from what cause, he will by no means speak. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 Exercise 93 
 
 The words, may and can, are often confused. 
 The word, may, expresses permission or possibility. 
 The word, can, expresses power or abiHty. He may 
 take my book, means I give him permission to take
 
 Verbs 287 
 
 my book. He can fake my book, means he has the 
 power or authority or ability to take my book. 
 
 Fill file folloiving blanks zvifh fJie auxiliaries, 
 may or can : 
 
 1. I ask a question? 
 
 2. I start yet to-night. 
 
 3. Please, I take your book? 
 
 4. The boy do better work. 
 
 5. How far you ride? 
 
 6. The eagle carry off a child. 
 
 7. you see where you are going? 
 
 8. You take a walk. 
 
 9. stars be suns? 
 
 10. How you bear to leave? 
 
 11. How we know them? 
 
 12. Where \\c meet you? 
 
 13. The child walk. 
 
 14. The pujiil solve the problem. 
 
 15. You draw pictures. 
 
 16. Where the good be obtained? 
 
 254. Uses of Shall and Will. The auxiliaries, 
 shall and zvill, are also often used incorrectly. We 
 may say, in general, that we use the auxiliary, shall, 
 with the first person and zvill with the second and 
 third persons to denote simple futurity; as, / shall 
 be there. Yon zvill be tit ere. He zvill be there. We 
 use the auxiliary, zvill, with the first person and the 
 auxiliary, shall, with the second and third persons, 
 to denote futurity accompanied by determination on 
 the part of the speaker ; as, / zvill go, You shall go, 
 He shall go.
 
 288 All English Grammar 
 
 If ])ii])ils will hold in mind this one ])rinciple 
 with reg-ard to shall and zvill,. most of the errors 
 in the use of these words in principal clauses may be 
 avoided. 
 
 Exercise 94 
 
 Fill the foUowing blanks zvith'the proper forms 
 of shall or will : 
 
 1 . He —   speak in the evening. 
 
 2. you go with us? 
 
 3. You have your own way. 
 
 4. We go in spite of you. 
 
 5. We vote early. 
 
 7. They go, if they can. 
 
 8. She not be allowed to go home alone. 
 
 9. You have gone before we arrive. 
 
 10. We be avenged. 
 
 11. If you see him, you find him busy. 
 
 12. you dine with us to-morrow? 
 
 13. I read awhile. 
 
 14. I see him? 
 
 15. I read to you? 
 
 16. You have your money to-morrow. 
 
 17. He be punished for it. 
 
 18. I be happy to accept. 
 
 19. I die ere I obey him. 
 
 255, Mode. Tn the following sentences notice 
 the relation between the thought expressed by the 
 sentence and the fact or real relation in the external 
 world, that is, notice: 
 
 I. Whether the thought expressed by the sen-
 
 Verbs 289 
 
 tence corresponds to a reality or fact in the external 
 world ; 
 
 2. Whether there is some doubt in the mind con- 
 cerning whether it corresponds to a fact or reality 
 or not; 
 
 3. Whether the thought is a mere supposition 
 and there is no fact or reality in the external world 
 corresponding to it ; 
 
 4. Finally, whether the thought in the mind cor- 
 responds to the fact or reality in the external world 
 on account of necessity in external circumstances or 
 will outside of that of the actor : 
 
 1. We visited the exposition. 
 
 2. If the bird finds the crumbs, it will eat them, 
 
 3. If my father were here, it would be different. 
 
 4. Bring me the book. 
 
 5. You must study your lesson. 
 
 6. The answer must be wrong. 
 
 In the first sentence, it is easy to see that the re- 
 lation expressed by the verb, visited, corresponds to 
 an actttal relation in the external world or the 
 thought expressed by the sentence corresponds to a 
 fact in the external world. This relation between 
 the thought expressed by the sentence and the fact 
 in the .external world gives rise to that property of 
 the verb which we call mode. 
 
 The mind is not sure whether the thought ex- 
 pressed by the clause, // the bird finds the crumbs, 
 in the second sentence, corresponds to a fact in the 
 external world or not. Tlie bird may find the crumbs
 
 290 An English Grammar 
 
 or it may not find the crumbs and the mind is in 
 doubt as to which relation will exist. The relation 
 between the thought expressed by the clause, // my 
 father were here, and the fact in the external world 
 is not in doubt. The thought expressed by this 
 clause does not correspond to a fact in the external 
 world and the mind knows it. We may say that the 
 thought is a mere supposition and there is no fact 
 in the external world corresponding to it. It is the 
 same as if we said, Suppose my father zuere here, or 
 Let us imagine that my father is here. 
 
 The thought expressed by the fourth sentence, 
 Bring me the book, corresponds to a fact in the ex- 
 ternal world on account of will power outside of 
 the actor. When one person says to another. Bring 
 me the hook, he means that his will is to be exerted 
 upon the other to have that act performed. The 
 same is true in the fifth sentence, You must study. 
 The person who uses this sentence means that his 
 will' is to be exerted upon the person addressed in 
 order to have this act performed. The sentence, 
 The anstver must be wrong, is slightly dififerent 
 from the last two. We mean when we use this ex- 
 pression that conditions or external circumstances 
 are such that the answer could not possibly be any- 
 thing but wrong. It is wrong on account of neces- 
 sity in external circumstances. 
 
 256. Mode Defined. Mode is that property 
 of the verb which shows the relation between the
 
 Verbs 291 
 
 thought expressed by the sentence or clause and 
 the fact in the external world. 
 
 257. The Three Modes. Tn Section 261, we 
 have seen that four relations may exist between 
 the thoiig-ht expressed by the sentence and the fact 
 or reality in the external world: 
 
 1. The thoug-ht expressed by the sentence may 
 correspond to a reality or fact in the external world 
 and the mind may know it; as Franklin was a phil- 
 osopher. 
 
 2. The thought expressed by the sentence may 
 or may not correspond to a reality or fact in the 
 external world and the mind may be in doubt about 
 it; that is, there is a doubtful mind concerning an 
 actual relation; as, // it be raining, I ninst remain. 
 
 3. The thought expressed by the sentence may 
 be merely a supposition and there may be no reality 
 or fact in the external world corresponding to it 
 and the mind may know it ; as. If we were wealthy, 
 zve eonld enjoy many pleasnres. 
 
 4. The thought expressed l)y the sentence may 
 correspond to a fact or reality in the external worla 
 on account of will power outside of that of the actor 
 or necessity in external circumstances; as, Sing nie 
 a merry lax, niv lads. The demonstration must be 
 true. 
 
 The first relation indicated here is expressed 
 by the indicative; the second and third, by the 
 subjunctive; the fourth by the imperative.
 
 292 An English Grammar 
 
 t>' 
 
 258. Indicative Mode Defined. The indica- 
 tive mode is that mode which shows that the 
 thought expressed by the sentence or clause cor- 
 responds to a fact or reality in the external world ; 
 
 as, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. 
 
 259. Subjunctive Mode Defined. The sub- 
 junctive mode is that mode which shows that 
 there is some doubt in the mind as to whether the 
 thought expressed by the sentence Or clause cor- 
 responds to a reality or fact in the external world, 
 or it shows that the thought expressed by the sen- 
 tence or clause is only a supposition and there is 
 no fact in the external world to correspond to it ; 
 as, // my brother be present, I ean not find him. If 
 my brother were present, he ivoidd come to me. 
 
 260. Imperative Mode Defined. Imperative 
 mode is that mode which shows that the thought 
 expressed by the sentence or clause corresponds 
 to a reality or fact in the external world on ac- 
 count of necessity in external circumstances or 
 will power outside of that of the actor; as, Close 
 the door. The end must have come. 
 
 261. Potential Mode. Some grammarians 
 give four modes ; namely, indicative, subjunctive, 
 potential, and imperative. There is no serious 
 oljjection to this division, but it does not seem to be 
 necessary, as all relations between thoughts and real 
 relations in the external world may be classified un- 
 der the indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The
 
 Verbs 2U3 
 
 forms often called potential mode may be classed 
 easily under the other three. 
 
 262. Uses of Indicative Mode. The indicative 
 mode is by far the most common form of the verb 
 because it expresses a fact, or what the- mind 
 thinks to be a fact. It is also used in asking ques- 
 tions of fact. We must not "et the idea that everv 
 sentence which expresses a doubt or thought con- 
 trary to the fact is in the subjunctive mode. These 
 ideas are often expressed by other words than the 
 verb in the sentence. If we have the subjunctive 
 mode the verb itself must express this idea of doubt 
 or uncertainty. In the sentence, Perhaps I shall go, 
 the mind is not sure of the thought, but the doubt is 
 expressed by the word, perhaps, and not by the 
 verb. In the sentence. My brother is not at home, 
 we have the idea of negation expressed, but it is ex- 
 pressed by the word, not, and not the verb. 
 
 263. Remains of Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 We have almost lost the subjunctive mode from the Eng- 
 Hsh language. John Earle, in his " English Prose, Its 
 Elements, History, and Usage," says, " Some people seem 
 to think that the suhjunctivc mode is as good as lost, that 
 it is doomed and that its retention is hopeless. ■'' * * If 
 we lose the subjunctive verb, it will certainly be a grievous 
 impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its 
 value in giving variation to diction — and T make bold to 
 assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves jMiblic 
 gratitude." 
 
 However much we may regret the loss of the subjuncti\ r 
 and however much we may wish to help to perpetuate its
 
 2\)4: An English Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 use, the fact remains that it is gradually passing out of gen- 
 eral use. Scarcely any modern English writer takes the 
 pains to say, // // rain, and // he come. Nearly every one 
 uses the indicative forms, If it rains, and //" he comes, to 
 express the subjunctive meaning. 
 
 It is perfectly natural that the subjunctive mode should 
 pass from the English language because there are so few 
 strictly subjunctive forms in the English language. The 
 verb, be, has the. most subjunctive forms. The following 
 table will illustrate the difiference between the indicative and 
 subjunctive forms of the verb, be: 
 
 Present Past 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Sub. 
 
 I am 
 
 If I be 
 
 1 was 
 
 If I were 
 
 Thou art 
 
 If thou be 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 If thou wert 
 
 He is 
 
 If he be 
 
 He was 
 
 If he were 
 
 We are 
 
 If we be 
 
 We were 
 
 If we were 
 
 You are 
 
 If you be 
 
 You were 
 
 If you were 
 
 'I'hey are 
 
 If they be 
 
 They were 
 
 If they were 
 
 Here are nine forms of the subjunctive which differ from 
 the indicative. All the other forms of the verb, be, are the 
 same in the indicative and the subjunctive. This is the sum 
 and substance of the subjunctive mode forms in the English 
 language. This much of it should certainly be preserved, but 
 it is useless to try to keep up the distinction with attributive 
 verbs because there are only two separate subjunctive forms 
 among attributive verbs. The second and third person sin- 
 gular have no personal endings in the subjunctive, as the 
 following table will show : 
 
 Present Past 
 
 Ind. Sub. Ind. Sub. 
 
 I write If I write I wrote If I wrote 
 
 Thou writest If thou zcrile Thou wrotest If thou wrote 
 
 He writes If he Tvritc He wrote If he wrote 
 
 Sometimes the subjunctive meaning is expressed by 
 means of auxiliaries forming with the principal part of the 
 verb a verb phrase ; as.
 
 Verbs 295 
 
 r. Help me so to live that I may honor thee. 
 
 2. I wish that you may prosper. 
 
 3. I was afraid lest he might fall. 
 
 4. It would be better if he should come now. 
 
 We must not get the idea, however, that every verb 
 phrase which contains the word, )nay, would, should, and so 
 on, is subjunctive mode. These same auxiUaries may be 
 used in verb phrases when the thought expressed by the 
 sentence corresponds to a fact or reahty in the external 
 world; as, 
 
 1. I may take his book. 
 
 2. You should have your lesson. 
 
 3. The boy would not obey the teacher. 
 
 264. Uses of Subjunctive Mode. The sub- 
 junctive mode is almost the opposite of the in- 
 dicative. The indicative is the fact mode; it ex- 
 presses what is. The subjunctive is the mode of 
 uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind. The 
 most common ideas expressed by the verb in the 
 subjunctive mode may be summed up as follows: 
 
 1. Supposition contrary to the fact or which the 
 mind knows to be untrue or unlikely ; as, // you were 
 in his place, you would not disappoint us. 
 
 2. A conclusion which is based upon one of these 
 suppositions contrary to the fact ; as, // my mother 
 had known about the affair, she would have been 
 uneasy. 
 
 3. The idea of possibiHty; as, / hoped that he 
 might reach tJic city in time. 
 
 4. 'Hie idea of purpose; as, Help me to knozv thy 
 zvay that J may walk /// the light. 
 
 5. A wish; as, OJi that my father were here!
 
 296 An EnslJsh Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 6. Prayer or supplication; as, May fJiy will be 
 done on earth as it is in heaven. 
 
 Note: The subjunctive mode has other uses in subordinate 
 clauses, especially conditional clauses, but it is thought best not to 
 go into detail with children in the grades. 
 
 265. Suggestions on the Imperative Mode. 
 
 The imperative mode expresses commands, entreat- 
 ies, or admonitions addressed to the person spoken 
 to. It is therefore used only in the second person 
 and the root form of the verb is used in both singu- 
 lar and plural number ; as, Be industrious. Have no 
 fear. 
 
 It may be distinguished from the present indica- 
 tive, as a rule, by the fact that the subject is usually 
 omitted; as, Bring me the book. 
 
 Wishes concerning persons or things spoken of 
 are in the subjunctive mode; as, Long live the King. 
 May he have a safe voyage. 
 
 These are not commands or entreaties addressed 
 to the person spoken to and must not be confused 
 with imperative forms. 
 
 The verb, let, is usually in the imperative mode; 
 as, Let thy conduct be beyond reproach. Let not 
 ambition mock their useful toil. Let us be glad. 
 Let us conquer or die. 
 
 But the verb, let, may be in the indicative mode; 
 as, The child let the bird escape. The boy did not 
 let the man punish his dog.
 
 Verbs 297 
 
 Exercise 95 
 
 In the following sentences point out the verbs 
 and explain the mode of each, giving your reasons: 
 
 1. I can see the towers of London. 
 
 2. Here the sprinj^ of fresh water bubbles from the rock. 
 
 3. The mill will never grind with the water that is past. 
 
 4. The pen is .mightier than the sword. 
 
 5. His work, in many respects, is very imperfect. 
 
 6. Slovenliness and indelicacy of character generally 
 go together. 
 
 7. When thy friend is denounced openly and boldly, 
 espouse his cause. 
 
 8. Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves. 
 
 9. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern 
 what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. 
 
 10. If he has been here, I have not seen him. 
 
 11. If he were here, I should like to meet him. 
 
 12. If thou hadst conquered, the world would have 
 mourned. 
 
 13. If thou be brave, I will conduct thee through this 
 wilderness. 
 
 14. Were it not for leaving thee, my child, I could die 
 happy. 
 
 15. He may study his lessons. 
 
 16. If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. 
 
 17. It must be true. 
 
 18. Give me your hand. 
 
 19. Let this spirit dominate my life. 
 
 20. Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 21. Turn, gentle shepherd, rest awhile upon this mossy 
 bank. 
 
 22. My soul to-day is far away, 
 Sailing the Vesuvian bay.
 
 298 An English Grammar 
 
 23. If 't were done when 't is done, then 't w^ere well, 
 It were done quickly. — Shakespeare. 
 
 24. Down, slave, behold the governor ! 
 Down, Down ! and beg for mercy. 
 
 25. Be good sw^eet maid, and let who will be clever ; 
 Do noble things, not dream them all day long; 
 And so make life, death, and that vast forever 
 One grand sweet song. , — Kingsley. 
 
 26. Almost I am moved to laughter at that passion 
 Which once could sway and thrill me to the bone. 
 Terrible when we laugh at what we loved. 
 
 —Phillips. 
 2y. And he shall charm and smooth, and breathe and 
 bless, 
 The roaring of war shall cease upon the air. 
 Falling of tears and all the voices of sorrow. 
 And he shall take the terror from the grave. 
 
 —Phillips. 
 
 266. Tense. Study the verbs in tlie follozving 
 sentences: 
 
 1. The wind blows. 
 
 2. The wind blew\ 
 
 3. The wind will blow. 
 
 4. The wind has blown. 
 
 5. The wind had blown. 
 
 The verb, hloivs, in the first sentence, expresses 
 the thoug-ht relation in present time. The verb, 
 blew, in the second sentence, expresses the thought 
 relation in the past time. The verb phrase, will 
 blozv, in the third sentence, expresses the thought 
 relation in the future time. The verb phrase, has 
 blown, in the fourth sentence, expresses the thought
 
 Verbs 299 
 
 relation in a period of time beginning in the past, 
 extending up to, and including the moment of 
 speaking. The verb phrase, Jiad bloivn, in the fifth 
 sentence, expresses the thought relation in a period 
 of past time previous to another period of past time. 
 The verb phrase, ivill Jiave hJown, in the sixth sen- 
 tence, expresses a thought relation in a period of fu- 
 ture time previous to another period of future time. 
 This property of the verb here indicated we call 
 tense. 
 
 267. Tense Defined. Tense is that property 
 of the verb which shov^^s us the period of time in 
 which the thought relation is located. 
 
 268. Classes of Tense. From Section 266 we 
 can see that the thought relation mav be located 
 in any one of six periods of time. All time is 
 naturally divided into three general periods. 
 
 1. The time previous to the moment of speak- 
 ing is called past time. 
 
 2. A certain indefinite period of time, sometimes 
 a moment, sometimes an hour, a day, a century, cen- 
 tering around the moment of speaking, we call the 
 present time. 
 
 3. Time which is to follow the present, we call 
 ^he future. By the combination and division of 
 these general periods of time, we have the six 
 periods mentioned in Section 266. Some verbs 
 show that the thought relation is located in some 
 one of these three general periods of time. They
 
 300 
 
 An English Grammar 
 
 use only one period of time in locating the 
 thought relation. We call the tenses of these 
 verbs absolute tenses. 
 
 You will notice tliat the verb phrases in Section 
 266 each use two periods of time in locating the 
 thought relation. The verb phrase, Jias blown, uses 
 the past and present; the verb phrase, Jiad blown, 
 uses two periods of past time ; the verb phrase, zvill 
 have blozvn, uses two periods of future time in lo- 
 catiuQ: the thouo'ht relation. These tenses which 
 emplov two periods of time in locating the time of 
 the thought relation, we call relative tenses. 
 
 The periods of time in which thought relations 
 may be located by verbs or ver!) phrases may be in- 
 dicated as follows: 
 
 A period of time beginning in the past, extending up to, and 
 including the moment of speaking. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 Past 
 
 
 
 Pre 
 
 sent 
 
 Future 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ^_..> 
 
 X 
 
 
 A period of past time previous A period of future time pre- 
 
 to another period of past time. vious to another period of future 
 
 time. 
 
 269. Absolute Tense Defined. An absolute 
 tense is a tense that uses only one period of time
 
 Verbs 301 
 
 in locating the thought relation in time; as, The 
 tree fell fo the o-roitnd. 
 
 270. Relative Tense Defined. A relative tense 
 is a tense which uses two periods of time in locat- 
 ing the time of the thought relation expressed by 
 the verb; as, He had come fo visit us. 
 
 271. Classes of Absolute Tenses. Tt is easy to 
 see from vSection 268 thai, since there are three 
 periods of time in which absolute tenses may lo- 
 cate thought relations, we must liave three abso- 
 lute tenses. We call them present, past, and fu- 
 ture. 
 
 272. Present Tense Defined. The present 
 tense is that absolute tense which locates the 
 thought relation expressed by the verb in the 
 present time; as, The lambs play in the pasture. 
 
 273. Past Tense Defined. The past tense is 
 that absolute tense which locates the thought re- 
 lation expressed by the verb in past time; as, 
 The boy fell froiii the horse. 
 
 274. Future Tense Defined. The future tense 
 is that absolute tense which locates the thought 
 relation expressed by the verb or verb phrase in 
 the future tim.e; as. My sister will visit us. 
 
 275. Classes of Relative Tense. We may also 
 see from Section 268 that any relative tense uses 
 two periods of time in indicating the time of the 
 thought relation. It uses the present and past, or
 
 302 An Ens:lish Grammar 
 
 &* 
 
 tvjo periods of past time or two periods of future 
 time. This g^ives lis three kinds of relative tenses. 
 We call them present perfect, past perfect, and 
 future perfect. 
 
 276. The Present Perfect Tense Defined. The 
 present perfect tense is that relative tense which 
 locates the thought relation expressed by the verb 
 phrase in a period of time beginning in the past, 
 extending up to, and including the moment of 
 speaking; as He has invited us frequently, 
 
 277. Past Perfect Tense Defined. The past 
 perfect tense is that relative tense which locates 
 the thought relation expressed by the verb phrase 
 in a period of past time previous to another pe- 
 riod of past time; as, JJ'c had recited our lesson 
 by noon time. 
 
 278. Future Perfect Tense Defined. The fu- 
 ture perfect tense is that relative tense which lo- 
 cates the thought relation in a period of future 
 time previous to another period of future time; 
 as, / shall have started before you arrive. 
 
 Exercise 96 
 
 In the follozving sentences give the tense of each 
 verb or verb phrase and the reasons. Tell whether 
 the I'crb or verb phrase locates the thought relation 
 in the present time, past time, or future time; and 
 shozv hozv many periods of time are used in locating 
 the tJi oner Jit relation:
 
 Verbs 303 
 
 1. The leaves tremble in the wind. 
 
 2. The sun is shining brightly. 
 
 3. Columbus discovered America in 1492. 
 
 4. We saw General Grant. 
 
 5. We shall attend the World's Fair. 
 
 6. He would stand still in the midst of silence and 
 beauty. 
 
 7. Feelest thou not, O world, the earthquake of his 
 chariot thundering up Olympus ? 
 
 8. My sister was gathering flowers. 
 
 9. Be aye sticking in a tree, Jack ; it'll be growing 
 while ye're sleeping. 
 
 10. I have cautioned you frequently. 
 
 11. Wilford had roused him to reply. 
 
 12. When I shall have brought them to the land, then 
 will they turn to other gods. 
 
 13. I have sung m y song. 
 
 14. I had sung one song before you arrived. _ 
 
 15. I shall have sung the song before you arrive. 
 
 16. By slow degrees the whole truth has come out. 
 
 17. Matilda had taken her accustomed place in the 
 window seat. 
 
 18. I shall have seen all the wonders, when I write to 
 you. 
 
 19. Plans and elevations of their palace have been made 
 for them, and are now being engraved for the public. 
 
 20. How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 
 By all their country's wishes blessed. 
 
 Note: Pupils should pass over the classes of tenses rapidly. 
 
 279. Uses of Tense Forms. The present tense 
 forms do not always express thought relations in 
 present time nor do the past tense forms always ex- 
 press relations in past time. Sometimes the context 
 of the verb or verb phrase shows that tlie tense form
 
 304 An English Grammar 
 
 of the verb or verb phrase and the time of the 
 thought relation do not correspond: 
 
 1. The present tense form may have the FOLi^ow- 
 iNG uses : 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in present time ; as, 
 The boy sees /;^s- do^v;. 
 
 This is the usual use of the present form. 
 
 b. To express- a universal thought relation true at all 
 times ; as. The earth is round. 
 
 c. To express an habitual thought relation ; as, The man 
 sells goods. 
 
 d. To express a thought relation in future time ; as, 
 Mv sister visits her friends ne.vt z^'eek. 
 
 e. To express a thought relation which has existed in 
 the past or will exist in the future as if it were existing in 
 the present time ; as, They pack themselves into the small 
 room. Patrick Henry arises, trembling zvith agitation. 
 The zvords fall thick and fast from his lips. This is called 
 the historical present tense. 
 
 2. The past tense form may have the following 
 uses: 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in time wholly past; 
 as. The boy threw the stone into the pond. 
 
 This is the regular use of the past tense form. 
 j b. To express an habitual relation in past time ; as, 
 ^' Fie taught /';; this school many years. 
 
 c. To express a thought relation in the future time; as, 
 -J // he should be gone zvhen yon come, leave a message. 
 I d. To express a thought relation in the present time ; as, 
 ' // ;;;3' brother were present he zvonld join us. 
 
 3. The future tense form may have the following 
 uses: 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in future time; as. 
 The president will stop in our city.
 
 Verbs 305 
 
 This is the regular use of the future tense form. 
 b. To express an habitual relation in the present time ; 
 as, Hr will sit here on the veranda by the hour. 
 
 4. The present perfect tense form may have the 
 following uses : 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in a period of time be- 
 ginning in the past, extending up to and including the 
 moment of speaking; as, This man has written mueh that y^ 
 is excellent. 
 
 This is the regular use of the present perfect tense 
 form. — 
 
 b. To express a thought relation in the future time ; as. 
 The man shall not depart until I have seen /;/;;;. ^ 
 
 5. The past perfect tense form may have the fol- 
 lowing use: 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in a period of past 
 time previous to another period of past time ; as, He had 
 recited liis lesson before zve entered the room. 
 
 6. The future perfect tense form may have the 
 following use: 
 
 a. To express a thought relation in a period of future 
 time previous to another period of future time ; as, He will 
 have sung before we arrive. 
 
 Exercise 97 
 
 Give the tense form of each verb or verb phrase 
 in the following sentences. State the time in which 
 the thought relation is seen to exist: 
 
 1. He hears his daughter's voice. 
 
 2. Mqn is mortal. 
 
 3. The man travels for Hermand and Knox.
 
 306 An English Grammar 
 
 4. My brother goes to New York to-morrow on busi- 
 ness. 
 
 5. They cross the river ; they fire the town ; they form 
 under cover of the smoke ; they advance up the hill ; they 
 are driven back. 
 
 6. I can see the nation gathering her forces for the 
 mighty struggle ; they put forth one mighty effort and the 
 end comes. 
 
 7. The little birds sang gayly in the trees. 
 
 8. He lived in this little hamlet for many years. 
 
 9. If I should be there, you would be surprised. 
 
 10. If my sister were here she would enjoy the lecture. 
 
 11. The teachers will go to Denver the coming summer. 
 
 12. He will wander in the woods day after day. 
 
 13. Milton has given us Comus. 
 
 14. The hour shall not strike till I have gained my 
 point. 
 
 15. He had written a poem before this book appeared. 
 
 16. If I had walked rapidly, I should have overtaken 
 you. 
 
 17. At the close of this year, I shall have finished my 
 course. 
 
 18. The truth itself is not believed 
 From one who often has deceived. 
 
 19. The poor little hedgehog uncurled itself and dared 
 to breathe aloud. 
 
 20. " I am the princess of Saxe-Royal." she said to him, 
 with a benignant smile ; " and you have got through that 
 minuet ver\- fairlv." 
 
 280. Voice. Notice in the following sen- 
 tences, whether the attribute expressed by the verb 
 is exerted by the thought subject and directed away
 
 Ferbs 307 
 
 from it or is exerted by some other object of thought 
 and directed toward, exerted upon, or actually en- 
 dured bv the thousrht subject: 
 
 1. The carpenter saws the board. 
 
 2. The board was sawed by the carpenter. 
 
 3. The farmer plows the field. 
 
 4. The field was plowed by the farmer. 
 
 a. In the first sentence the verb, sazvs, expresses 
 an attribute that is exerted or put forth by the 
 thought subject, fJic carpenter, and is directed 
 toward or exerted upon the object of thought, fJic 
 board. 
 
 The same thing is true in the third sentence. 
 The attribute expressed by the verb, plozvs, is ex- 
 erted by the thotight subject, the farmer, and is di- 
 rected away from it and exerted upon the object 
 of thought, the Held. 
 
 b. In the second sentence the attribute expressed 
 by the verb phrase, zn'as sawed, is not exerted by the 
 thought subject, the hoard. It is exerted by the ob- 
 ject of thought, the carpenter, and is directed 
 toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the 
 thought subject, tJie hoard. 
 
 The same thing is true in the fourth sentence. 
 The attribute expressed by the verb phrase, zvas 
 plozved, is not exerted by the thought subject, tlie 
 Held, and directed away from it, but it is exerted by 
 the object of thought, the farmer, and directed 
 toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the 
 thought subject, the Held. The property of the verb
 
 308 All English Gniiiiinar 
 
 .i.' 
 
 or verl) phrase whicli indicates lliis to us we call 
 voice. 
 
 281. Voice Defined. It is clear from what has 
 l)een said in Section 280, that voice can belong 
 only to attributive verbs. Voice is that property 
 of the attributive verb which shows whether the 
 attribute expressed by it is exerted by the thought 
 subject and directed away from it, or is exerted by 
 some other object of thought and directed 
 toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the 
 thought subject. 
 
 282. Classes of Voice. It is also clear from 
 what has been said in Section 280, that voice is of 
 two kinds. We call them active and passive. 
 
 283. Active Voice Defined. Active voice is 
 that voice which shows that the attribute ex- 
 pressed by the verb is exerted or put forth by the 
 thought subject and is directed away from it; as, 
 The hoy broke fJic pitcher. The boys tramped 
 throii^ih the zvoods. 
 
 284. Passive Voice Defined. The passive 
 voice is that voice which shows that the attribute 
 expressed by the verb is exerted by an object of 
 thought other than the thought subject and is di- 
 rected toward, exerted upon, or actually endured 
 by the thought subject; as, TJie kite was torn by 
 the wind. The cat was worried by the dog.
 
 Verbs 309 
 
 Exercise 98 
 
 hi the follozving sentences fell ■ivliich verbs or 
 verb phrases are active 7'oice and wJiicJi passive and 
 ivhy: 
 
 1. The boy ate the apple. 
 
 2. The children climbed the hill. 
 
 3. The box was sent by my uncle. 
 
 4. The tree was blown down by the wind. 
 
 5. The girl talks rapidly. 
 
 6. The party walked over the hills. 
 
 7. The house was struck by lightning. 
 
 8. The stream flows from the mountain. 
 
 9. The mill is turned by the water. 
 10. The eagle carried ofif the child. 
 
 285. How the Passive Voice is Formed. The 
 
 passive voice is formed l\v the union of some form 
 of the verh, be, with t1ie past or perfect participle of 
 an attrihittive verl); as. The cozv was milked by the 
 maid. The girl is helped ^v her uncle. The child 
 has been found ^v tJie searching party. 
 
 Not every combination of the verl), be, with a 
 past or perfect participle of an attributive verb, 
 however, g'ives us the passive voice. The forms of 
 the verb, be, unite with the past or perfect partici- 
 ple of the attributive \'erb to form the passive voice 
 only when the participle denotes actual endurance 
 of the .attribute expressed b\- it on the part of the 
 thou.^ht subjcrt. Tbc attri1)ule expressed by the 
 participle nmst be exerted by some object of llioui^^ht 
 other than the tboui^lit subject and directed toward,
 
 310 An English Grammar 
 
 exerted upon, or actually endured by the thought 
 subject; as, TJie runner was fatigued by his exer- 
 tions. 
 
 In this sentence we have the passive voice be- 
 cause the attribute expressed by the participle, fa- 
 tigued, is put forth by the object of thought, exer- 
 tions, and directed toward, exerted upon, or actually 
 endured by the thought subject, the runner. 
 
 When the past participle combined with the verb, 
 he, denotes merely a condition as a result of action, 
 when it expresses a mere state, its combination with 
 the verb, be, does not form the passive voice; as. 
 The runner zvas fatigued. 
 
 *286. Classes of Active Voice. In the sen- 
 tence, TJie child Jnirt himself, the verb, Jiurt, while 
 it is active in form, is really passive in meaning, be- 
 cause the object of thought, himself, which receives 
 the attribute expressed by the verb, is the same as 
 the thought subject. In the sentence. The boy threzu 
 the ball, the verb, threw, is active in form and also 
 in meaning. We may say then we have two classes 
 of active voice: 
 
 a. Active in form and meaning; as. The zvind 
 destroyed the building. 
 
 b. Active in form and passive in meaning; as. 
 Every one owes himself an education. 
 
 287. Classes of Passive Voice. In liie sen- 
 tence. The tree zvas blozvn dozvn by the zvind, the 
 
 Note: Pass (luicklv ovi-r Sections 286-288.
 
 Verbs 311 
 
 verb phrase, was hloivn, is passive voice. It is pas- 
 sive in form and passive in meaning. 
 
 In the sentence, llie train was wrecked, the verb 
 phrase, was wrecked, is passive in form, but the at- 
 tribute expressed by the participle, wrecked, is not 
 exerted by some other object of thought upon the 
 thought subject or actually endured by it. This 
 shows that the phrase is not passive in meaning. It 
 has no voice. The verb phrase, ivas wrecked, has 
 no voice any more than has the expression, zvas 
 dtisfy, in the sentence, Tiic train zvas dusty. Thus 
 we may say that we have two classes of expressions 
 that look like passive voice : 
 
 a. Passive in form and meaning; as. The win- 
 dozv was broken by the ball. This is passive voice. 
 
 b. Passive in form Init no voice in meaning; as, 
 The boy was devoted to his zvork. This is not pas- 
 sive voice. 
 
 288. Forms that are not Passive. We ma\' 
 see from Section 2S/ that there are some forms 
 that look like passive voice and may be easily mis- 
 taken for the passive voice, which are not passive 
 voice. The following combinations cannot give us 
 passive voice : 
 
 a. An adjective in the predicate with a pure verb 
 does not constitute the passive voice; as, 7//r horse 
 was tired. 
 
 b. A substantive word in tlic predicate with a
 
 312 An Eii^ilish Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 pure verb does not constitute the passive voice; as, 
 // was pure stubborness on the part of the driver. 
 
 c. When there is a past participle in the predi- 
 cate with a pure verb the passive voice may exist 
 but not necessarily. It is passive voice then only 
 when the perfect participle denotes that the attri- 
 bute expressed by it is exerted upon the thought 
 subject by some other object of thought or that the 
 attribute expressed by the past participle is actually 
 endured by the thought subject; as, The train was 
 wrecked hy tramps. TJic Held was plowed by the 
 farmer. 
 
 The verb phrases, was wrecked and was plowed, 
 are both passive voice. In the sentences, The train 
 was wrecked, The Held was plowed, however, the 
 same verb phrases are not passive voice at all. The 
 past participles, wrecked and plozved, here merely 
 express the condition of the train and the Held. 
 
 Exercise 99 
 
 In the folloiving sentences point out the verbs 
 and verb phrases and shozv ivh ether they are active 
 voice, passive voice, or no voice at all: 
 
 1. The bird sings in the tree. 
 
 2. The flowers bloom by the brook. 
 
 3. The boy bought a knife. 
 
 4. The wind blew the nuts from the tree. 
 
 5. The rider was thrown by the horse. 
 
 6. The cistern was filled by the man. 
 
 7. The man was weary. 
 
 8. Her mother was anxious.
 
 l/'erbs 313 
 
 9. The paper was mutilated. 
 
 10. The bcx)k had been badly torn when I found it. 
 
 11. Great is the sun and wide he goes 
 Through empty heaven without repose : 
 And in the blue and gleaming days 
 
 More thick than rain he showers his rays. 
 
 — Stevenson. 
 
 12. The wind blows, the sun shines, the birds sing loud, 
 The blue sky is flecked with fleecy dappled cloud, 
 Over earth's rejoicing fields the children dance and 
 
 sing, 
 And the frogs pipe in showers, "It is Spring! It 
 is Spring ! " 
 
 — Thaxter. 
 
 Exercise 100 
 
 In the following sentences point out the verbs or 
 verb phrases and show whether they are active or 
 passive voice. Change the verbs or verb phrases in 
 the active voice to the passive voice, if you can, and 
 those in the passive voice to the active voice. Shozv 
 clearly zvhat verbs or verb phrases have no voice 
 and why: 
 
 1. The engine draws the train. 
 
 2. The story has been told by many writers. 
 
 3. England had taxed the colonies unjustly. 
 
 4. Marco Polo tells us strange stories. 
 
 5. The Mississippi was discovered by DeSoto in 1541. 
 
 6. The prudent neither waste time nor money. 
 
 7. Paris was besieged by the Prussians in 1871. 
 
 8. Every Patriot will defend the flag. 
 
 9. Our friends came last week. 
 
 TO. We were entertained in royal style. 
 
 II. The singer was fatigued by his exertions.
 
 31 -i An English Grammar 
 
 12. The traveler was weary. 
 
 13. The minister was fatigued. 
 
 14. I go where duty calls me. 
 
 15. The soldier was sleepy and tired. 
 
 Exercise loi 
 
 Write tzvo sentences illustrating the active voice 
 and two illustrating the passive voice. 
 
 Exercise 102 
 
 Iji the follozuing sentences, state zvhether the 
 verbs or verb phrases are active or passive or no 
 voice: 
 
 1. Where shair we dine to-day? 
 
 2. Frequently the exordium is too long, and the perora- 
 tion interminable. 
 
 3. The mother loves her child. 
 
 4. The speaker corrected himself. 
 
 5. The train was wrecked at midnight. 
 
 6. The slave was devoted to his master. 
 
 7. If she hate me, then believe. 
 She shall die ere I will grieve. 
 
 8. He that complies against his will 
 Is of the same opinion still. 
 
 9. I held it truth, witli him who sings 
 To one clear harp in divers tones, 
 That men may rise on stepping-stones, 
 Of their dead selves to higher things. 
 
 10. One having moved from his ola\' tenement 
 W^as ])assing softK- in a rapture sweet 
 Through the new country of the st)ul. and came 
 Upon a sudden radiance of lilootn
 
 Verbs 315 
 
 He stood before it wrapped in reverie, 
 Till some one touched him, saying, " It is yours." 
 
 —Buffs. 
 
 289. Person and Number. Study the follow- 
 ing sentences and notice the relation between the 
 form of tJie verb and the person and number of the 
 subject: 
 
 J. I see the hills of Jordan. 
 
 2. He sees the host advancing. 
 
 3. They see the outcome of the scheme. 
 
 4. You see how well we have succeeded. 
 
 5. Thou seest his wants. 
 
 Some of the subjects in these sentences are first 
 person, some second, some third; some of the sub- 
 jects are singular and some of them are plural. 
 We have the same verb in each sentence. The 
 verb changes its form in some instances to corre- 
 spond or harmonize or agree with its subject. These 
 changes in the form of the verb to mark its agree- 
 ment with its subject, we call person and number. 
 Person and number are thus not in any true sense 
 properties of the verb, because this verb, see, means 
 the same in all these sentences. The change in the 
 form of the word does not denote a change in its 
 meaning, as is the case in a true property. 
 
 290. Person and Number Defined. Person 
 and number are the changes which the form of 
 the verb undergoes to mark its agreement with 
 its subject. The subject is said to govern the
 
 316 An English Grammar 
 
 verb, which means simply that the verb accommo- 
 dates itself in form to the form of the subject. 
 
 291. Changes in Form to Denote Person and 
 Number. The changes which take place in the 
 verb to denote person and number may be indi- 
 cated as follows: 
 
 First Person : • I write, was, know, stand, go. 
 
 Second Person: Thou write.?^, wa.y/, know^.s/, standi.?/, 
 goest. 
 
 Third Person: He write.? or writeth, is, know.?, or 
 knowe til, standi", or standt7/i, goes, or goeth. 
 
 We can see from this table that the following 
 changes are made in the verb to mark its agreement 
 with its subject: 
 
 a. To change from first to second person : 
 
 t is added to some verbs ; as, / was, thou wast. 
 St is added to some verbs ; as, / zvrite, thou writest. 
 or est is added to some verbs ; as, / know, thou 
 knowest. 
 
 b. To change from first person to third person : 
 
 1. Add .y to some verbs; as, / standi He stands. 
 
 2. Add es to some verbs ; as, / go, He goes. 
 
 3. Add th to some verbs ; as, / ivrite, he writeth. 
 
 4. Add eth to some verbs ; as, / stand, he standeth. 
 
 The terminations, si, th, eth, est, and t, survive 
 in the English language only in the Bible, in prayer, 
 in poetry, and in the solemn style of writing. 
 
 Therefore, except in the verb, he, which has dif- 
 ferent forms: as, am, are, zvas, were, and so forth, 
 the only changes in the English language to denote
 
 Verbs 317 
 
 person and number are the terminations, s and es; 
 as, / know, He knozvs; I go, he goes. 
 
 Exercise 103 
 
 In the follozving sentences note the relation be- 
 tween the verb and its subject in each case. Tell 
 whetJier the subject is singular or plnral and zvJiether 
 t!ie verb is singidar or plnral: 
 
 1. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 
 
 2. He knows where the wild flowers grow. 
 
 3. They know where the wild flowers grow. 
 
 4. The scissors are dull. 
 
 5. Evil news rides post, while good news waits. 
 
 6. The tongs are hot. 
 
 7. The sheep was fast in the fence. 
 
 8. The sheep were driven to the pond and washed. 
 
 9. The school was dismissed for the holidays. 
 
 10. The school were not all present. 
 
 11. Henry, William, and Charles, were kings. 
 
 12. The boy or his father is at fault. 
 
 13. Each man, woman, and child was given a prize. 
 
 14. Every boy and every girl is expected to be obedient. 
 
 15. The officers and not the private were at fault. 
 
 16. The children, or the servant, or I am to blame. 
 
 17. Red, white, and blue makes a pretty flag. 
 
 18. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination. 
 
 19. " Paint me as I am," said Cromwell. 
 
 20. " You are excused," said the teacher, in a pleasant 
 voice. 
 
 21. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 
 
 22. Thou art a pretty fellow ! 
 
 23. The storm was dreadful along the Atlantic coast. 
 
 24. The islands were beautiful as we sailed in and out 
 among them.
 
 318 All En<:^lish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 25. 'Tis as easy as lying. 
 
 26. Thou standest on the threshold of life. 
 
 27. Thou waitest for the coming of thy mate. 
 
 28. Thou pretty child, why weepest thou? 
 
 29. He prayeth best who loveth best 
 
 All things, both great and small. — Whittier. 
 
 30. I dare do all that may become a man ; 
 
 Who dares do more is none. - — Shakespeare. 
 
 292. From the study of the sentences in the 
 preceding- list we may formulate the following 
 principles with regard to the agreement of verbs 
 with their subjects : 
 
 1. A singular subject requires a singular verb; 
 as, The boy recognizes his friends. 
 
 2. A plural subject requires a plural verb; as, 
 
 Tlie hoys are ea^-er to start. 
 
 3. If a subject be plural in form and singular 
 in meaning, usage determines the form of the 
 verb ; sometimes it is singular and sometimes it is 
 plural; as, The news is encouraging. The ashes 
 are zvhite. 
 
 4. If a subject be singular in form and either 
 singular or plural in meaning, the verb is singular 
 or plural according to the meaning of the subject; 
 
 as, The deer was shot by tJie hunter. The deer 
 were found in large numbers in this forest. 
 
 5. If the subject be plural in form but either 
 singular or plural in meaning, the verb is plural ; 
 as, The tongs are hot.
 
 Verbs 319 
 
 6. When the subject is a collective noun, it 
 takes a singular verb if the collection be thought 
 of as a whole; as, The family was surprised. 
 
 It takes a plural verb if the mind dwells upon 
 the individuals of the collection ; as, The family were 
 divided in their opinions with regard to the enter- 
 prise. 
 
 7. The compound subject or abridged com- 
 pound sentence : 
 
 a. Parts which are singular but which are taken 
 collectively; that is, connected by and or some copu- 
 lative conjunction, take a plural verb; as, James, 
 William, and Mary are good students. 
 
 b. Parts which are singular and are taken sep- 
 arately; that is, connected by or or nor, or if pre- 
 ceded by each, every or no, though connected by 
 and, take a singular verb; as, The father, mother, or 
 son is coming in the morning. Each student and 
 each teacher is to have a vacation. Every man, 
 ivoman, and child was to he ready to move. 
 
 c. If the parts of the subject be emphatically 
 distinguished, the verb must agree with the em- 
 phatic part; as. The father and not the children was 
 to blame. 
 
 d. If the parts differ in person and number and 
 are taken separately, the verb agrees with the part 
 nearest to it; as. The ivoman or the men were at 
 fault. 
 
 e. Parts which are singular and joined by copu-
 
 320 _/i)i English Grammar 
 
 lative conjunctions, if taken together as one thing, 
 require a singular verb ; as, Bread and butter is good 
 food. 
 
 8. Titles of books, though plural in form, are 
 singular in meaning and should have a singular 
 verb; as, "Gulliver's Travels" v^as zvritten by 
 Szvift. 
 
 9. The pronoun, you, always takes a plural 
 verb even when it is singular in meaning; as, 
 Mary, you were at fault. 
 
 10. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural 
 meaning from the distinguishing adjectives 
 which modify it; as, Mental, moral, and physical 
 education were required from the first. 
 
 11. The pronoun, I, always takes the plural 
 form of the attributive verb ; as, / know it, I see it. 
 It takes the singular form of the pure verb, how- 
 ever; as, / am in earnest. I was absent. 
 
 Exercise 104 
 
 Construct sentences illustrating each of the prin- 
 ciples stated in Section 2g2. 
 
 Exercise 105 
 
 Fill the follozving blanks with the proper forms 
 of suitable verbs: 
 
 1. Either of you able to do it. 
 
 2. Each of the pupils studied the lesson. 
 
 3. Neither of the prisoners guilty of the 
 
 charge. 
 
 4. No one of the animals dangerous.
 
 Verbs 321 
 
 5. Neither of them ten years old. 
 
 6. No one of the men escaped. 
 
 7. Every man, woman, and child lost. 
 
 8. Neither of the boats injured. 
 
 9. The ashes hght. 
 
 10. Oats a good price. 
 
 11. The molasses fine. 
 
 12. The news bad. 
 
 13. Politics his delight. 
 
 14. The deer pursued by the hunter. 
 
 15. Truth and Mercy met in the way, 
 
 16. Righteousness and Peace kissed each other. 
 
 17. The lion and the lamb lain down together. 
 
 18. Elegance and ease a combination which 
 
 pleases. 
 
 293. The Strong Verb. A strong verb is a 
 verb which forms its past indicative and perfect 
 participle by some internal change; as, break, 
 broke, broken. Most of the irregular verbs are 
 strong verbs. Sometimes these are called old verbs. 
 
 294. The Weak Verb. A weak verb is a verb 
 which forms its past indicative and perfect parti- 
 ciple by adding d or edto the present indicative; 
 
 as, call, called, called. The weak verbs are for the 
 most part regular verbs. Sometimes they are called 
 new verbs. 
 
 295. Conjugation. It is often convenient to 
 have the different forms of the verb arranged in 
 the regular order. This is called the conjugation 
 of the verb. Conjugation is the regular arrange- 
 ment of all the forms of the verb throughout the
 
 322 An English Grammar 
 
 &>' 
 
 different voices, modes, tenses, persons, and num- 
 bers. 
 
 * 296. Conjunction of the Verb, be. The pure 
 verb, be, is conjugated as follows: 
 
 Principal Parts 
 
 Present Indicative, be. Past Indicative, was. 
 
 Perfect Participle, been. 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Present Tense 
 lingular Plural 
 
 1. I. am. We are. 
 
 2. You are. (Thou art.) You are. 
 
 3. He is. They are. 
 
 Past Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I was. We were. 
 
 2. You were. You were. 
 
 (Thou zvast or zuert.) 
 
 3. He was. They were. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 Present Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 I; If I be. If we be. 
 
 2. If you be. (If thou be.) If you be. 
 
 3. I he be. If they be. 
 
 Past Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If I were. f If we . 
 
 2. If you were. If you . 
 
 (If thou 7vert.) 
 3: If he were. If they . 
 
 *Note: Do not have pupils commit to memory the conjugation 
 
 of verbs. These are for reference. 
 
 ^ fNoTE: Blank.s in the subjunctive show where it is like the in- 
 dicative.
 
 Verbs 323 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Future Ictisc 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I shall be. We shall be. 
 
 2. You will be. You will be. 
 
 (Thou wilt be.) 
 
 3. He will be. They will be. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Future Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 I. If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you , 
 
 (If thou zvill be.) 
 
 3. If he . If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 T. I have been. We have been. 
 
 2. You have been. (Thou hast been.) You have been. 
 
 3. He has been. They have been. 
 
 Note: Usually the subjunctive is given only in the four tenses- 
 present, past, present perfect, and past perfect. Here it is given in 
 all the tenses so that the pupil may compare it with the indicative. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 I. If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . (If thou have been.) If you . 
 
 3. If he have been. If they 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I had been. We had been. 
 
 2. You had been. (Thou hadst been.) You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. They had been.
 
 324 An English Grammar 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If J . if \ve . 
 
 2. If you . (If thou had been.) If you . 
 
 3. If he . If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 > Future Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I shall have been. We shaU have been. 
 
 2. You will have been. You will have been. 
 
 (Thou ivilt have been.) 
 
 3. He will have been. They will have been. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If 1 . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you- 
 
 (If thou tvill have been.) If they . 
 
 3. If he . 
 
 Imperative Mode 
 Be. 
 
 Infinitives 
 
 Present. Perfect. 
 
 To be. To have been. 
 
 Participles 
 
 Present. Perfect. 
 
 Being. Having been. 
 
 297. Conjugation of the Verb, telL 
 Principal Parts 
 
 Present Indicative, tell. Past Indicative, told. 
 
 Perfect Participle, told.
 
 Verbs 825 
 
 Active Voice 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Singular Present Tense piural 
 
 1. I tell. We tell. 
 
 2. You tell. (Thou tellest.) You tell. 
 
 3. He tells. They tell. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Singular Present Tense pim-al 
 
 1. If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you . 
 
 (If thou tell.) 
 
 3. If he tell. If they . 
 
 Indicative. Mode 
 
 Singular i'a^i Tcnse pu,ra: 
 
 1. I told. We told. 
 
 2. You told. You told. 
 
 (Thou toldst.) 
 
 3. He told. They told. 
 
 Singular Pa^i Tcnse piural 
 
 1. If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you . 
 
 (If thou told.) 
 
 3. If he . If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 Singular Future Tense piural 
 
 1. I shall tell. We shall tell. 
 
 2. You will tell. (Thou zvilt fell.) They will tell. 
 
 3. He will tell. You will tell. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 Singular Future Tense piura! 
 
 I. If 1 . If we . 
 
 2 If you . (If thou zvill tell.) If you . 
 
 3. If he . If they .
 
 326 An English Grammar 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1 . I have told. We have told. 
 
 2. You have told. You have told. 
 
 (Thou hast told.) 
 3 He has told. They have told. 
 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. If I 
 
 If we 
 
 2. If you 
 
 -. (If thou have told.) If you 
 
 3. If he have told. If they- 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. i had told. We had told. 
 
 2. You liad told. You had told. 
 
 (Thou hadst told.) 
 
 3. He had told. They had told. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 .Singular Plural 
 
 1. If I . If we 
 
 2. If you . (If thou had told.) If you 
 
 3. If he . If they 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I shall have told. We shall have told. 
 
 2. You will have told. You will have told. 
 
 (Thou milt have told.) 
 
 3. He will have told. They will have told.
 
 Verbs 
 
 32T 
 
 Singular 
 I. If I 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 
 Plural 
 If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you 
 
 (If thou will have told.) 
 
 3. If he If they 
 
 Imperative Mode 
 Tell. 
 
 Present. 
 To tell. 
 
 Infinitives 
 
 Perfect. 
 To have told. 
 
 Present. 
 Telling. 
 
 Participles 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Having told. 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Present Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 I am told. We are told. 
 
 You are told. You are told. 
 
 (Thou art told.) 
 He is told. They are told. 
 
 Singular 
 
 1. I was told. 
 
 2. You were told. 
 
 (Thou ivast told.) 
 
 3. He was told. 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 Plural 
 We were told. 
 You were told. 
 
 Thev were told.
 
 ^^^ An English Grammar 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Present Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If I be told. If we be told. 
 
 2. If you be told. If you be told. 
 
 (If thou be told.) 
 
 3. If he be told. If they be told. 
 
 Past Tense 
 Singular > Plural 
 
 1. If I were told. If we 
 
 2. If you . If you 1 
 
 (If thou were told.) 
 
 3. If he were told. If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Future Tense 
 Singular pjural 
 
 1. I shall be told. We shall be told. 
 
 2. You will be told. You will be told. 
 
 (Thou wilt be told.) 
 
 3. He will be told. They will be told. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Future Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If 1 . T£ ^g 
 
 2. If you . If you . 
 
 (If thou will be told.) 
 
 3. If he . If thev . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. 1 have been told. We have been told. 
 
 2. You have been told. You have been told. 
 
 (Thou hast been told.) 
 
 3. He has been told. They have been told.
 
 Verbs 329 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 'If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you . 
 
 fif thou have been told.) 
 
 3. If he have been told. If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 r. I had been told. We had been told. 
 
 2, You had been told. You had been told. 
 
 (Thou hadst been told.) 
 
 3. He had been told. Thev liad been told. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If I . If we . 
 
 2. If you . If you . 
 
 (If thou had been told.) 
 
 3. If he . If they . 
 
 Indicative Mode 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I shall have been told. We shall have been told. 
 
 2. You will have been told. You will have been told, 
 
 (Thou wilt have been told.) 
 
 3. He will have been told. They will have been told. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 Singular Plural 
 r. If I . Tf we . 
 
 If you . If \ou- 
 
 (If thou will have been told.) 
 If he . If ihcv-
 
 330 An English Grammar 
 
 Imperative Mode 
 
 Be told. 
 
 Infinitives 
 
 Present. Perfect. 
 
 To be told. To have been told. 
 
 Participles 
 
 Present. • Perfect. 
 
 Being- told. Having been told. 
 
 '■'298. Synopsis. Sometimes when we wish 
 to indicate the different forms of a verb, without 
 giving a complete conjugation, we give all the 
 forms in a single person and number. It does not 
 matter what person or number we take. The 
 synopsis of a verb is the regular arrangement of 
 all its forms in all its voices, modes, tenses, in a 
 single person and number. 
 
 299. Form.s of Verbs. Tn the conjugation in 
 Sections 296, and 297, the simple form of the verb 
 is used. We have, however, other forms of the 
 verb, and verbs may be conjugated with these 
 forms : 
 
 1. The simple form of the verb is the root 
 form ; as, / write. 
 
 2. The progressive form of the verb is that 
 form which expresses the attribute or the relation 
 in a state of continuance ; as, / was walking. 
 
 3. The emphatic form of the verb is that form 
 
 * Note : Pass over Sections 298 and 299 quickly.
 
 Verbs 331 
 
 which emphasizes the attribute or relation expressed 
 by it; as, / do study. 
 
 4. The interrogative form of the verb is that 
 form of the \erb which is used in asking questions ; 
 as, Did yoii write? 
 
 5. The negative form of the verb is that form 
 of the verb which expresses a thought relation of 
 disagreement ; as, I am not going. 
 
 You will notice that a form of a verb is fre- 
 quently not a verb, because it does not express a 
 thought relation. The progressive form of the verb 
 is never a verb, because it does not express a thought 
 relation. 
 
 The participle and the infinitive are forms of 
 the verb l)ut they are not verbs. 
 
 300. The Verb Phrase. A verb is a word. 
 Frequently, however, that which is expressed by 
 the verb is expressed by a group of words; as, 
 / can learn. The expression, can learn, in this sen- 
 tence expresses the thought predicate and the 
 thoucfht relation. These two elements of the 
 thought are often expressed by the verb; as, The 
 sun shines. 
 
 Since the two words, can learn, in the first sen- 
 tence, do just what the one word, shines, does in 
 the second sentence, we call them a verb phrase. 
 The verb phrase is akvays made up of a principal 
 verb and one or more auxiliary verbs; as. He will 
 write, lie should have studied, She would have 
 suffered.
 
 332 An English Grammar 
 
 In parsing the verb phrase, it is better to brealN 
 it up into the principal part and its auxiharies. 
 Parse the principal verb as you would any other 
 verb and then srive the uses of the auxiliaries. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 The Story 
 THE 'LUNGE 
 
 Dick and I traveled in a fifteen-foot wooden canoe, 
 with food, dnffel, tent, and Dence, the black-and-white 
 setter dog. As a consequence we were pretty well down 
 toward the water line, for we had not realized that a 
 wooden canoe would carry so little weight for its length 
 in comparison with a birch-bark. A good heav\- sea we 
 could ride — with proper management and a little bailing ; 
 but sloppy waves kept us busy. 
 
 Deuce did not like it at all. He was a dog old in the 
 wisdom of experience. It had taken him just twenty min- 
 utes to learn all about canoes. After a single tentative trial 
 he jumped lightl\- to the very center of his place, with the 
 lithe caution of a cat. Then if the water happened to be 
 smooth, he would sit gravely on his haunches, or would 
 rest his chin on the gunwale to contemplate the passing 
 landscajje. Rut in rough weather he crouched directl>- 
 over the keel, his nose between his paws, and tried not to 
 dodge when the cold water dashed in on him. Deuce was 
 a true woodsman in that respect. Discomfort he always 
 bore with equanimity, and he must often have been very 
 cold and very cramped. 
 
 For just over a week we had been traveling in open 
 water, and the elements had not been kind to us at all. 
 We had crept up under rock-cliff points*; had weathered the 
 rips of white water to shelter on the other side; had
 
 Verbs 333 
 
 struggled across open spaces where each wave was singl\- 
 a problem to fail in whose solution meant instant swamp- 
 ing ; had bailed, and schemed, and figured, and carried, 
 and tried again, and succeeded with about two cujifuls to 
 spare, until we as well as Deuce had grown a little tired of 
 it. For the lust of travel was on us. 
 
 All this morning we had been bucking a strong north 
 wind. Fortunately the shelter of a string of islands had 
 given us smooth water enough, but the heavy gusts some- 
 times stopped us as efiFectually as though we had butted 
 solid land. Now about noon we came to the last island, 
 and looked out on a five-mile stretch of tumbling seas. 
 We landed the canoe and mounted a bigli rock. 
 
 " Can't make it like this," said I. " I'll take the outfit 
 over and land it, and come back for vou and the dog. Let's 
 see that chart." 
 
 We hid behind a rock and spread out the map. 
 
 " Four miles," measured Dick. " It's going to be a 
 terror." 
 
 We looked at each other vaguely, suddenly tired, 
 
 " We can't camp here — at this time of day." objected 
 Dick, to our unspoken thoughts. 
 
 And then the map gave him an inspiration. " Here's 
 a little river," ruminated Dick, " that goes to a little lake, 
 and then there's another little river that flows from the 
 lake, and comes out about ten miles above here." 
 
 " It's a good thirty miles," I objected. 
 
 "What of it?" asked Dick, calmly. 
 
 So the fever-lust of travel broke. We turned lo the 
 right behind the last island, searched out the reed-grown 
 opening to the stream, and paddled serenely and philo- 
 sophically against the current. Deuce sat up and yawn.ed 
 with a mighty satisfaction. 
 
 We had been bending our heads to the demon of wind; 
 our ears had been filled wi<h his shoutings, our eyes blinded
 
 334 An English Cramniar 
 
 with tears, our breath cauj^ht away from us, our muscles 
 strung to the fiercest endeavor. Suddenly wc found our- 
 selves between the ranks of tall forest trees, bathed in a 
 warm sunlit^ht, oHding like a feather from one grassy bend 
 to another of the laziest little stream that ever hesitated 
 as to which way the grasses of its bed should fleiat. As 
 for the wind, it was lost somewhere away up high, where 
 we could hear it inuUering to itself about something. 
 
 The woods leaned over the fringe of bushes cool and 
 green and silent. Occasionally through tiny openings we 
 caught instant impressions of straight column-trunks and 
 transparent shadows. Miniature grass marshes jutted out 
 from bends of the little river. We idled along as with a 
 homelv rustic companion, through the aloofness of patrician 
 multitudes. 
 
 Evcrv bend offered us cha- ming surprises. Sometimes 
 a muskrat swam hastily in a pointed furrow of ripple ; 
 vanishing wings, barely sensed in the flash, left us staring ; 
 stealthv withdrawals of creatures, whose presence we real- 
 ized only in the fact of those withdrawals, snared our eager 
 interest ; porcupines rattled and rustled importantly and 
 regally from the water's tdgt to the woods ; herons, ravens, 
 an occasional duck, croaked away at our approach ; thrice 
 we surprised eagles, once a tassel-eared Canada lynx. Or. 
 if all else lacked, we still experienced the little thrill of 
 pleased novelty over the disclosure of a group of silvery 
 birches on a knoll ; a magnificent white pine towering over 
 the beech and maple forest ; the unexpected aisle of a long, 
 straight stretch of the little river. 
 
 Deuce approved thoroughly. He stretched himself, 
 yawned and shook oiT the water, and glanced at me open- 
 mouthed with doggy good-nature, and set himself to ac- 
 quiring a conscientious olfactory knowledge of both banks 
 of the river. T do not doubt he knew a great deal more 
 about it than we did. Porcupines aroused his especial en-
 
 Verbs   335 
 
 thusiasm. Incidental!}', t\vo clays later he returned to camp 
 after an expedition of his own, bristling- as to the face 
 with that animal's barbed weapons. Thenceforward his 
 interest waned. 
 
 We ascended the charming little river two or three 
 miles. At a sharp bend to the east a huge sheet of rock 
 sloped from a round grass knoll sparsely planted with 
 birches directly down into a pool. Two or three tree-trunks 
 jammed directly opposite had formed a sort of half dam 
 imder which the water lay dark. A tiny grass meadow 
 forty feet in fliameter narrowed the stream to half its 
 width. 
 
 We landed. Dick seated himself on the shelving rock. 
 T put my fish-rod together. Deuce disappeared. 
 
 Deuce always disappeared whenever we landed. With 
 nose down, hind-quarters well tucked under him, ears fly- 
 ing, he quartered the forest at high speed, investigating^ 
 every nook and cranny of it for the radius of a (puirter of 
 a mile. When he had quite satisfied himself that we were 
 safe for the moment, he would return to the fire, where he 
 would lie, six inches of pink t(Migue vibrating with breath- 
 lessness, beautiful in the consciousness of virtue. Dick 
 generally sat on a rock and thought. I generally fishetl. 
 
 After a time Deuce returned. T gave up flies, spoons, 
 ])hantom minnows, artificial frogs, and crayfish. As Dick 
 continued to sit on the rock and think, we both joined 
 him. The sun was very warm and grateful, and T am sure 
 we both acquired an added respect for Dick's judgment. 
 
 Just when it happened neither of us was afterwards 
 able to decide. Perhaps Deuce knew. Rut suddenl} , as 
 often a figure appears in a cinematograph, the diminutive 
 meadow thirty feet away contained two deer. They stood 
 knee-deep in the grass, wagging their little tails in im- 
 patience of the flies. 
 
 " Look 'a there ! " stammered Dick aloud.
 
 336 All English Grammar 
 
 *.' 
 
 Deuce sat up on his haunches. 
 
 I started for my camera. 
 
 The (leer did not seem to he in the sUghtest degree 
 alarmed. They pointed four big ears in our direction, ate 
 a few leisurely mouthfuls of grass, sauntered to the stream 
 for a drink of water, wagged their little tails some more 
 and quietly faded out into the cool shadows of the forest. 
 
 An hour later we ran out into reedsj and so to the lake. 
 It was a pretty lake, forest-girt. Across the distance we 
 made out a moving object which shortly resolved itself into 
 a birch canoe. The canoe proved to contain an Indian, an 
 Indian boy of about ten years, a black dog, and a bundle. 
 When within a few rods of each other we ceased paddling 
 and drifted by with the momentum. The Indian was a 
 fine-looking man about forty, his hair bound with a red 
 fillet, his feet incased in silk-worked moccasins, but other- 
 wise dressed in white men's garments. He smoked a short 
 pipe, and contemplated us gravely. 
 
 " Bo' jou', bo' jou'," we called in the usual double- 
 barreled North Country salutation. 
 
 " Bo' jou'. bo' jou'." he replied. 
 
 " Kee-gons ? " we inquired as to the fishing in the lake. 
 
 " Ah-hah," he assented. 
 
 We drifted by each other without further speech. When 
 the decent distance of etiquette separated us, we resumed 
 our paddles. 
 
 I produced a young cable terminated by a tremendous 
 spoon and solid brass snell as thick as a telegraph wire. 
 We had laid in this formidable implement in hopes of a 
 big muscallunge. It had been trailed for days at a time. 
 We had become used to its vibration, which actually seemed 
 to communicate itself to every fibre of the light canoe. 
 Every once in a while we would stop with a jerk that 
 would nearly snap our heads oflf. Then we would know 
 we had hooked the American continent. We had become
 
 Verbs 337 
 
 used to that also. It generally happened when we at- 
 tempted a little burst of speed. So when the canoe brought 
 up so violently that all our tinware rolled on Deuce, Dick 
 was merely disgusted. 
 
 " There she goes again," he grumbled. " You've 
 liooked Canada." 
 
 Canada held quiescent for about three seconds. Then 
 it started due south. 
 
 "Suffering serpents!" shrieked Dick. 
 
 " Paddle ! " yelled I. 
 
 It was most interesting. All I had to do was to hang 
 on and try to stay in the boat. Dick paddled and fumed 
 and splashed water and got more excited. Canada dragged 
 us bodily backward. 
 
 Then Canada changed his mind and started in our 
 direction. I was plenty busy taking in slack, so I did not 
 notice Dick. Dick was absolutely demented. His mind 
 automatically reacted in the direction of paddling. He 
 paddled, blindly, frantically. Canada came surging in, his 
 mouth open, his wicked eyes flaming, a tremendous indis- 
 tinct body lashing foam. Dick glanced over his shoulder, 
 and let out a frantic howl. 
 
 " You've got a sea serpent ! " he shrieked. 
 
 I turned to fumble for the pistol. We were heading 
 directly for a log stranded on shore, and about ten feet 
 from us. 
 
 " Dick ! " I yelled in warning. 
 
 He thrust his paddle out forward just in time. The 
 stout maple bent and cracked. The canoe hit with a bump 
 that threw us forward. I returned to the young cable. It 
 came in limp and slack. 
 
 We looked at each other sadly. 
 
 " No use," sighed Dick at last. " They've never in- 
 vented the words and we'd upset if we kicked the dog." 
 
 I had the end of the line in my hands.
 
 338 All Eiii::;lislt Grammar 
 
 " Look here! "" T cried. That thick brass wire had been 
 as cleanly bitten through as though it had been cut with 
 clippers. " He must have caught sight of you," said 1. 
 
 Dick lifted up his voice in lamentation. " You had 
 four feet of him out of water," he wailed, " and there was 
 a lot more." 
 
 " If you had kept cool," said I, severely, " we shouldn't 
 have lost him. You don't want to get rattled in an emer- 
 gency. There's no sense in it." 
 
 "What were you going to do with that?" asked Dick, 
 pointing to where I had laid the pistol. 
 
 " I was going to shoot him in the head." I replied, with 
 dignity. " It's the best way tn land them." 
 
 Dick laughed disagreeably. I looked down. At my 
 side lay our largest iron spoon. 
 
 \\'e skirted the left-hand side of the lake in silence. 
 Far out from shore the water was ruffled where the wind 
 swept down, but with us it was as still and calm as the 
 forest trees that looked over into it. After a time we 
 turned short to the left, through a very narrow passage be- 
 tween two marshy shores, and so, after a sharp bend of a 
 few hundred feet, came into the other river. 
 
 This was a wide stream, smoothly hurrying, without 
 rapids or tumult. The forest had drawn to either side to 
 let us pass. Here were the wilder reaches after the inti- 
 macies of the little river. Across stretches of marsh we 
 could see an occasional great blue heron standing mid-leg 
 deep. Long strings of ducks struggled quacking from in- 
 visible pools. The faint marsh odors saluted our nostrils 
 from a point where the lily-pads flashed broadly, ruffling 
 in the wind. We dropped out the smaller spoon and mas- 
 terfully landed a five-pound pickerel. Even Deuce 
 brightened. He cared nothing for raw fish, but he knew 
 their possibilities. Towards evening we entered the hilly 
 country, and so at the last turned to the left into a sand
 
 Verbs 339 
 
 cove where grew maples and 1)irches in l)eauliful park 
 order under a hill. There we pitched camp. and. as the 
 flies lacked, huilt a friendship-fire ahout which to fore- 
 gather when the day was done. 
 
 Dick still vocally regretted the muscallunge as the 
 largest fish since Jonah, so 1 told him of my big bear. 
 
 One day, late in the summer, I was engaged in pack- 
 ing some supplies along an old fur trail north of Lake 
 Superior. I had accomplished one pack-load, and with 
 empty straps was returning to the cache for another. The 
 trail at one point emerged into and crossed an open park 
 some hundreds of feet in diameter, in which the grass 
 grew to the height of the knee. When 1 was about half 
 way across a black bear arose to his hind legs not ten feet 
 from me, and remarked. Woof! in a loud tone of voice. 
 Now, if a man were to say 7Voof! to you unexpectedly, 
 even in the formality of an Italian garden or the accus- 
 tomedness of a city street, you would Jdc somewhat startled. 
 So I went to camp. There I told them about the !)ear. I 
 tried to be conservative in my description, because I did 
 not wish to be accused of exaggeration. My impression 
 of the animal was that he and a spruce-tree that grew 
 near enough for ready comparison were approximately of 
 the same stature. We returned to the grass park. After 
 some difficulty we found a clear footprint. It was a little 
 larger than that made by a good-sized coon. 
 
 " So, you see." I admonished, didactically, " that 
 'lunge probably was not so large as you thought." 
 
 " It may have been a Chinese bear," said Dick, dream- 
 ily — " a Chinese lady bear, of high degree." 
 
 I gave him up. — Stc^carf Edn'ard ]]'hitc. 
 
 I. 
 
 Read "The 'Lun^^c" 
 Outline and :crite a rei'iezv.
 
 340 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 Criticise your review in as tnany 7vays as pos- 
 sible. Criticise the paragraphs, the sentences and 
 tlie choice of words. 
 
 II. 
 
 What to your mind, is the most interesting in- 
 cident of the story of "The 'Lunge"? What scene 
 is the most picturesque? 
 
 Write a paper describing your favorite incident 
 or one describing your favorite scene. 
 
 Read your paper and criticise it in as many ways 
 as possible. 
 
 III. 
 
 What things are told of Deuce in the story of 
 "The 'LuuFc" which make him seem like a real 
 dog? 
 
 One of the greatest story writers once said, 
 " Talent consists in looking at what you are going 
 to write of long enough and attentively enough to 
 discover in it something that has not been seen and 
 reported by some one else." 
 
 Observe closely the ways of some dog of your 
 acquaintance. Write your observations. 
 
 IV. 
 Imagine yourself enjoying some of the experi- 
 ences reported in the story of " The 'Lunge?' 
 Write a letter home, telling of your imaginary ex- 
 periences. Keep it digniiied and give enough detail 
 in describing the camp and the manner of life in it. 
 so that your experiences will have an air of reality 
 about til em.
 
 Chapter XVIII 
 
 THE ADVERB 
 
 301. The Adverb Defined. An adverb is an 
 attributive word v^hich expresses an attribute of 
 an attribute or an attribute of an idea of rela- 
 tion; as, He came here. He is probably zvell. 
 
 Little need be said of the adverb in addition to 
 what has been given under the classes of words, 
 modifiers, and connectives in the complex sentence. 
 
 302. Classes of Adverbs on Basis of the Kind 
 of Idea to which the Attribute Expressed by it 
 Belongs. Notice the adverbs in the following 
 sentences: 
 
 She sang sweetly. 
 
 He is not well. 
 
 You will notice that the attribute expressed by 
 the adverb, sweetly, belongs to the attribute ex- 
 pressed by the word, sang. We call this kind of 
 an adverb a regular adverb. 
 
 In the second sentence you will notice that the 
 attribute expressed by the adverb, not, belongs to 
 the idea of relation expressed by the word, is. We 
 call this kind of adverb a modal adverb. 
 
 303. Regular Adverb Defined. A regular ad- 
 
 [340
 
 34:2 An English Grmnmar 
 
 verb is an adverb which expresses an attribute of 
 an attribute; as, Walter rides rapidly. 
 
 304. Modal Adverb Defined. A modal ad- 
 verb is an adverb which expresses an attribute 
 of an idea of relation ; You are perhaps somewhat 
 alike. Henry is almost over the ocean. 
 
 305. Classes of Adverbs on Basis of Use. You 
 
 will notice the adverbs in the following sentences: 
 
 1. The man runs rapidly. 
 
 2. The story is probably true. 
 
 3. This is the house where Longfellow lived. 
 
 4. Where are you going? 
 
 The adverb, rapidly, in the first sentence, merely 
 expresses an attribute of an attribute. The adverb, 
 probably, in the second sentence merely expresses 
 an attribute of the idea of relation. An adverb 
 that does this we call a pure adverb. The adverb, 
 where, in the third sentence in addition to express- 
 ing an attribute of an attribute expresses a relation 
 between thoughts of unequal rank. We call an ad- 
 verb of this kind a conjunctive adverb. For the 
 conjunctive adverb, its classes, uses, and definitions, 
 see the complex sentence, Sections 114, 115, 117 
 and 1 19-120. 
 
 The adverb, where, in the fourth sentence, in 
 addition to expressing an attribute of an attribute, 
 shows that this attribute is unknown and soueht. 
 We call such an adverb an interrogati\'e adverb. 
 
 306. Pure Adverb Defined. A pure adverb is
 
 The Adverb 343 
 
 an adverb which merely expresses an attribute of 
 an attribute or an attribute of an idea of relation ; 
 
 as, The stream flows rapidly. My brother is surely 
 present. 
 
 307. Interrogative Adverb Defined. An in- 
 terrogative adverb is an adverb which expresses 
 an attribute of an attribute or an attribute of an 
 idea of relation as unknown and sought; as, 
 When did your father leave? 
 
 Exercise 106 
 
 In the following sentences point out the adverbs, 
 classify them on basis of the kind of idea to which 
 the attribute expressed by them belongs, and on the 
 basis of use. Compare them when they can be 
 compared, give the exact use of each in the sen- 
 tence, and tell zvliat adverbial idea is expressed by 
 each. Review the adverbial ideas which may be 
 expressed by the adt'crbial modifier, Section 5^. and 
 see if all these adverbial ideas may be expressed by 
 the adverb: 
 
 1. The mountain streams flow rapidly. 
 
 2. The sentence is undoubtedly a just one. 
 
 3. The girl is exceedingly lonesome. 
 
 4. The vessel was wrecked when it was almost over 
 the ocean. 
 
 5. We shall meet there. 
 
 6. The method is slow at first, but will rapidly grow 
 easier. 
 
 7. Occasionally written exercises should be substituted
 
 3-1:4 An English Grammar 
 
 for the oral, when the teacher wishes to test the progress 
 of the class. 
 
 8. I shall be glad to see you whenever you may stop. 
 
 9. I saw the place where the World's Fair buildings 
 are to stand. 
 
 10. The young man was greatly respected in the town 
 where he was born. 
 
 11. No spot on earth, do I love more sincerely, 
 Than old Virginia, the place where I was born. 
 
 12. He speaks most sincerely when in private conversa- 
 tion. 
 
 13. I sincerely hope for your success. 
 
 14. The prisoner begged hard for mercy. 
 
 15. The boy :«tudies harder than his sister. 
 
 16. It rained hardest just after we started. 
 
 17. Now will we deal worse with thee than with them. 
 
 18. He is much taller than I. 
 
 19. He is more polite than his brother. 
 
 20. He is the most industrious boy in school. 
 
 21. The soul lives on forever. 
 
 22. We shall no doubt meet often hereafter. 
 
 23. I cannot believe otherwise. 
 
 24. The lady was greatly distressed by the news. 
 -25. When shall we three meet again? 
 
 26. Where do the people congregate? 
 
 27. I know why you have come. 
 
 28. I see how you made the mistake. 
 
 29. I can tell why the sun appears to rise and set. 
 
 30. This she said with so much decision that she evi- 
 dently considered it a condensed but complete answer. 
 " Imitation ? " repeated August, timidly, not understanding. 
 
 — De La Ramc.
 
 Chapter XIX 
 
 THE INFINITIVE 
 
 308. The Infinitive Defined. In the sentence, 
 To live is not simply to exist, the expressions, to 
 live and to exist, are forms of the verb, but they 
 do not express thought relations. The words, live 
 and exist, are the root forms of the verbs. This 
 form of the verb, which is usually preceded by the 
 sign, to, we call the infinitive. 
 
 The infinitive is the root form of the verb 
 which does not express a thought relation; as, 
 To err is human. 
 
 The sign, to, which usually precedes this form of the 
 verb, was not originally a part of the infinitive. In the 
 Anglo-Saxon and old English it was not used with the in- 
 finitive except when it was in the dative case, where it had 
 a real prepositional value. But when the case endings were 
 dropped so that the dative case could not be known by its 
 ending, the preposition, to, caused confusion because it was 
 indiscriminately used with all cases and thus lost its prepo- 
 sitional value and became a mere sign. 
 
 In a very few instances the sign, to, seems to retain its 
 prepositional use ; as, This af^ple is not fit to cat, is equal to 
 This apple is not fit for eating. There is a time to zvork, is 
 equal to There is a time for zvorking. 
 
 Even in such cases, however, the prepositional force is 
 practically lost, and the sign is now considered and described 
 as a part of the infinitive. 
 
 r345l
 
 346 An English Grammar 
 
 It is evident that ihe sign, to, is not an essential part of 
 the infinitive because it is frequently omitted : 
 
 1. After a few verbs, such as, dare, help, need, please, 
 go; as, He dared not leave tJie place. Go find your master. 
 
 2. In certain peculiar elliptical constructions ; as. You 
 had better go home. He zvoidd rather die than do it. 
 We had as tvell yield at once as struggle. 
 
 3. After the word. but. following a negative ; as She 
 cannot but grieve for him. They do naught but idle about. 
 
 4. After a verb which takes a direct objective modifier, 
 the principal part of which is modified by an infinitive ; as, 
 / sazv hint do //. IVc heard her sing. 
 
 5. .Sometimes when the infinitive is used as the predicate- 
 like element of a clausal phrase; as. Let not ainbition mock 
 their useful toil. 
 
 Note: The infinitive may be defined on the basis of its use 
 as Whitney and other good grammarians do. The definition on this 
 basis is perhaps more in accordance with the origin of the language 
 but it makes the infinitive much more difficult and it is thought that 
 the gain is not sufficient to outweigh the disadvantages. If we 
 define the infinitive on basis of use, we have infinitives in tug, par- 
 ticiples in ing, and abstract nouns in ing. This is confusing, especial- 
 ly to the beginner. On the basis of form or origin as we have 
 defined it. all infinitives are root forms of the verb and all de- 
 rived forms of the verb are participles. This is a much easier dis- 
 tinction for the beginner to make, and it matters not what we call a 
 word so long as we see its exact use in expressing the thought. 
 
 Exercise 107 
 
 Make sentences of your ozvii containing fJiese 
 infinitives and infinitiz'e phrases: To stand, to sur- 
 prise, to go, to pass, to put, to tell, to speak, to do, 
 to be omitted, to zvonder, to notice, to he suited, to 
 have been taken, to be expected, to fit, to have been 
 fitted, to have stolen, to attain, to be deplored, to 
 he sent, to hoT'C been eaten.
 
 The Infinitive 347 
 
 309. Substantive Uses of the Infinitive, i. 
 In the sentence, To study is tiresome, the infinitive, 
 to study, is used as the subject of the sentence. An 
 infinitive may be used as tlie subject of the sen- 
 tence; as. To run swiftly is a good exercise. 
 
 2. In the sentence, To see is to believe, the in- 
 finitive, to believe, is used as the predicate of the 
 sentence. An infinitive may be used as the predi- 
 cate of the sentence; as, To lie is to break the lazv. 
 
 3. In the sentence. My friend is about to depart, 
 the infinitive, to depart, is used as the principal part 
 of the prepositional phrase, about to depart. The 
 infinitive may be used as the principal part of 
 a prepositional phrase; as. The vessel is about to 
 sink. 
 
 4. In the sentence, / want to go, the infinitive, 
 to go, is used as the direct objective modifier of the 
 verb, zvant. The infinitive may be used as the 
 direct objective modifier; as, He zvisJies to leave 
 soon. 
 
 5. In the sentence, It is easy to talk, the infini- 
 tive, to talk, is used as an appositive modifier of the 
 pronoun, it. An infinitive may be used as an 
 appositive modifier ; as. He has formed the heroic 
 resolution to defend the fozver against the enemy. 
 It is hard to solve the problems. 
 
 6. In the sentence. The boy is certain to succeed, 
 the infinitive, to succeed, is the indirect objective 
 modifier of the adjective, certain. An infinitive may
 
 348 An English Grammar 
 
 be used as indirect objective modifier; as, The girl 
 is sure to win. 
 
 7. In the sentence, To tell the truth, I do not 
 care, the infinitive, to tell, is used independently. An 
 infinitive may be used independently; as, To speak 
 figuratively, the lion is the king of beasts. 
 
 Note i : The independent use of the infinitive is very much like 
 the adverbial use and may always be resolved into one. In the 
 sentence, The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts, the 
 infinitive phrase, to speak figuratively, is equivalent to the clause, 
 if we speak figuratively, which is an adverbial clause, expressing 
 the adverbial idea of condition. The infinitive used independently 
 can always be changed into an adverbial clause expressing some 
 adverbial idea. 
 
 2. The infinitive used as an appositive modifier, is rare except 
 in sentences beginning with the pronoun, it; as. It takes two to 
 make a bargain. 
 
 3. Whitney says that the infinitive may be used as an adverbial 
 objective modifier, but he gives it this use because he defines the 
 infinitive as the form of the verb which is used substantively. The 
 infinitive often expresses an adverbial idea; as He failed to appear. 
 
 Of course if we say that it is substantive, it_ would be an ad- 
 verbial objective modifier. As we have defined it on the basis of 
 origin or form, however, it may have an attributive use as well as 
 a substantive use. When it expresses an adverbial idea,_ it has an 
 attributive use. Where Whitney, according to his definition, calls 
 the infinitive an adverbial objective modifier, we, according to our 
 definition, will call it an adverbial modifier. 
 
 310. Attributive Uses of Infinitives, i. In 
 the sentence. Time to come is called future time, the 
 infinitive, to come, is used as an adjective modifier 
 of the word, time. An infinitive may be used as an 
 adjective modifier; as, The boy to be chosen must 
 be tall. 
 
 2. In the sentence. The children are to sing, the 
 infinitive, to sing, is used as a predicate adjective.
 
 The Infinitive 349 
 
 An infinitive ma}^ be used as a predicate adjective; 
 as, We are to have a jolly time. 
 
 3. In the sentence, We live to do our duty, the 
 infinitive, to do, is used as the adverbial modifier of 
 the verb, live, expressing the adverbial idea of pur- 
 pose ; an infinitive may be used as an adverbial modi- 
 fier; as, They came to assist us. 
 
 4. In the sentence. They zvish Jiim to teach, the 
 infinitive, to teach, is used as the predicate-like ele- 
 ment of the clausal phrase, him to teach. An infini- 
 tive may be used as the predicate-like element of 
 a clausal phrase; as. We zvish Charles to go to 
 school. 
 
 Note: A clausal phrase is a group of words having a subject- 
 like element, a predicate-like element, and a copula-like element, 
 which does not express a thought relation. It looks like a clause 
 but is merely a phrase because it does not express a thought rela- 
 tion. It can always be expanded into a clause without changing 
 the meaning of the original sentence in which it occurs. This is 
 the final test of the clausal phrase. In the sentence, We wished 
 William to be a teacher, the expression, William to be a teacher, 
 is a clausal phrase because it has a subject-like element, the word, 
 William; a predicate-like element, the word, teacher; and a copula- 
 like element, the infinitive, to be. It may be expanded into the 
 clause, that William be a teacher without changing the meaning of 
 the original sentence in which it occurs. 
 
 This construction is often confused with the construction in the 
 sentence. They made Victoria queen. 
 
 The expression, Victoria queen, is not a clausal phrase with the 
 copula-like element, to be, understood. It cannot be expanded into 
 a clause without changing the meaning of the original sentence. 
 This expression, Victoria queen, is a factitive direct objective modi- 
 fier of the verb, made. The word, Victoria, is the principal part 
 of the factitive direct objective modifier and it is modified by the 
 word, queen, an appositive modifier, which at the same time sup- 
 plements the meaning of the verb, wade. We may turn the word, 
 queen, around and take it into the verb expressing the thought, 
 thus : They croivned Victoria. The word, crozvned, in the sentence 
 expresses what is expressed in the other sentence, by the words,
 
 350 An English Grammar 
 
 made and queen. There is never anything like this in the clausal 
 phrase. Other examples of the factitive objective modifier are the 
 following: They made the stick straight, is equal to They straight- 
 ened tlie stick. 
 
 The ligJitniug struck the man dead, is equal to The lightning 
 killed the man. 
 
 There is still another construction which looks very much like 
 both these yet is different from them. In the sentence, They saw 
 him fall, the expression, him fall, is not a clausal phrase because it 
 cannot be changed into a clause expressing the same thought as the 
 original sentence. It is not a factitive direct objective modifier be- 
 cause the seeing has nothing to do with the falling. The infinitive, 
 fall, does not supplement the meaning of the verb, saw. This ex- 
 pression is simply a direct objective modifier of the verb, saw. The 
 principal part of the direct objective modifier is the word, him, and 
 it is modified by the infinitive, fall, an adjective modifier. Other 
 examples of this same construction are found in the following sen- 
 tences : We heard him sing. We felt the bridge give. 
 
 311. Relational Uses of the Infinitive. We 
 
 see from the discussion of the clausal phrase that 
 the infinitive may have a relational use. It may be 
 used as a copula-like element of a clausal phrase. 
 In the sentence, / know him to he a man, the infini- 
 tive, to be, is used as the copula-like element of the 
 clausal phrase, him to be a man. 
 
 2. In the sentence, The boy grew to be useful, 
 we seem to have two predicates. The words, grew 
 and useful, both express attributes which are 
 thought of in relation to the thought subject, the 
 boy. The sentence is almost equivalent to the com- 
 pound sentence, llie boy grezv and he was useful. 
 
 In this case, the word, useful, becomes a real 
 predicate, and the word, ziuas, which takes the place 
 of the infinitive, to be, is the real copula. We call 
 the expression, grezv to be useful, a double predi- 
 cate. The word, grezv, expresses a thought rela-
 
 The InHmtive 351 
 
 tion and may be expanded into the words zvas grow- 
 ing. The infinitive, to be, is i copula-Hke element 
 for the second part of the double predicate, useful, 
 because it does not express a thought relation but 
 stands in the place of a word that would express 
 a thought relation, if the sentence were expanded 
 into a compound sentence. An infinitive may be 
 used as a copula-like element with the second part 
 of a double predicate ; as. The people grezv to be 
 barbarous. 
 
 3. In the sentence, The children are to be happy, 
 the infinitive, to be, seems to have almost the force 
 of the future tense auxiliary, will. The sentence 
 means about the same as. The children will be happy. 
 An infinitive may be 'used as a future tense 
 auxiliary; as, Man never is but ahvays to be blessed. 
 
 Exercise 108 
 
 In the follozving sentences point out each infini- 
 tive, tell zvhaf form it has, and give its exact use 
 in the sentence: 
 
 1. Their business is to depreciate human nature, and 
 to consider it under its worst appearances. 
 
 2. I remained a long time considering the number of 
 things connected with this marvelous bridge, and to see 
 people falling just at the time when they seemed to be en- 
 joying themselves. 
 
 3. All efforts to restore life were fruitless. 
 
 4. As was the historian, so were the auditors, given to 
 asking questions, apt to believe on slight evidence. 
 
 5. The end of writing is to instruct.
 
 352 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 6. What cause withholds you then to mourn for him: 
 
 7. To earn is to have. 
 
 8. Read not to contradict and confute. 
 
 9. I find the perfection of the Greek language to lie 
 largely in the absence of every exclusive or unconditional 
 rule. 
 
 10. A man can find more reasons to do as he wishes 
 than to do as lie ought. 
 
 11. "What is a- Caucus-race? " said Alice; not that she 
 much wanted to know, but the Dodo had paused as if it 
 thought that somebody ought to speak, and no one else 
 seemed inclined to say anything. 
 
 12. To tell you the truth, my errand is not so much to 
 buy as to borrow. 
 
 13. The winter climate of Venice is still so sharp as to 
 make foreigners regret the generous fires and warmly built 
 houses of the North. 
 
 14. The way to be original is to be healthy. 
 
 15. To learn obeying is the fundamental art of govern- 
 ing. 
 
 16. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it. 
 
 17. The idea of a man's interviewing himself is rather 
 odd, to be sure. 
 
 18. There is nothing to be done but to turn 'round 
 and hoe back to the other end. 
 
 19. To forget Homer, to cease to be concerned and 
 even curious about Homer, is to make a fatal step towards 
 a new barbarism. 
 
 312. Substantive Modifiers of the Infinitive. 
 
 I. In the sentence, To skate, moving gracefully 
 over the ice, is a pleasant pastime, the expression, 
 moving gracefully over the ice, is the appositive 
 modifier of the infinitive, to skate. An infinitive 
 mav sometimes take an appositive modifier; as, To
 
 The Iniimtive 353 
 
 breathe, drawing air into the lungs, is necessary 
 to life. 
 
 2. In the sentence, To read good hooks is profit- 
 able, the expression, good books, is the direct 
 objective modifier of the infinitive, to read. An 
 infinitive may take a direct objective modifier; as, 
 He likes to visit his friends. 
 
 3. In the sentence. The girl wishes to give her 
 friends hooks, the expression, her friends, is the in- 
 direct objective modifier of the infinitive, to give. 
 An infinitive may take an indirect objective modi- 
 fier; as. The hoy wishes to write to you. 
 
 4. In the sentence. To zvalk a mile is good exer- 
 cise, the expression, a mile, is the adverbial object- 
 ive modifier of the infinitive, to zvalk. An infini- 
 tive may take an adverbial objective modifier; as, 
 He was asked to speak five minutes. 
 
 313. Attributive Modifier of Infinitive. In 
 
 the sentence. To spend money recklessly is criminal, 
 the word, recklessly, is an adverbial modifier of the 
 infinitive, to spend, expressing the adverbial idea of 
 manner. An infinitive may take an adverbial 
 modifier ; as. To laugh boisterously is a mark of an 
 ill-bred person. 
 
 We may see from this discussion of the modi- 
 fiers of the infinitive that, even when it is used sub- 
 stantively, it retains its verbal nature because it 
 takes the modifiers of a verb. 
 
 314. Forms of Infinitives. The forms of the
 
 354 An English Grammar 
 
 infinitive of the verb, sell, may be shown in the fol- 
 lowing manner. They illustrate the forms of the 
 infinitive of any verb. 
 
 1. Active. 
 
 a. Present; as, To sell. 
 
 b. Perfect; as, To have sold. 
 
 2. Passive. 
 
 a. Present; as, To be sold. 
 
 b. Perfect; as. To have been sold. 
 
 Exercise log 
 
 In the following sentences point out each infini- 
 tive, tell zvJiat form it is and give its exact use in the 
 sentence. Give its modifiers if it has any: 
 
 1. To be good is to be great. 
 
 2. To forgive is to be charitable. 
 
 3. The noblest revenge is to forgive. 
 
 4. My friend is about to depart. 
 
 5. All desire to live long but no one would be old. 
 
 6. It is easy to disagree with a friend. 
 
 7. The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts. 
 
 8. Mv child is anxious to go to school. 
 
 9. My friend failed to appear. 
 
 10. We believe in the life to come. 
 
 11. Time to come is called future time. 
 
 12. The school is to enjoy a holiday. 
 
 13. The people are to trust their leaders. 
 
 14. We eat to live and do not live to eat. 
 
 15. I know him to be a man. 
 
 16. They made William king. 
 
 17. The boy grew to be useful. 
 
 t8. To learn a lesson accurately is difficult. 
 19. I love to read good books.
 
 The Infinitive 355 
 
 20. He loves to send presents to his friends. 
 
 21. To study, exercising your mind, is excellent training. 
 
 22. To die, sleeping always, is not much to be dreaded. 
 
 23. Man never is but always to be blessed. 
 
 24. To err is human. 
 
 25. To obey is to enjoy. 
 
 26. He loves to play. 
 
 2y. He is trying to learn. 
 
 28. To spend money recklessly is criminal. 
 
 29. To report a speech correctly is difficult. 
 
 30. I study to learn. 
 
 31. They bade him depart. 
 
 32. I saw him falter. 
 
 33. I hope to see you. 
 
 34. I intended to call for you. 
 
 35. He expected to see you yesterday. 
 
 36. To do justice and judgment is more acceptable than 
 sacrifice. 
 
 37. It is our duty to try, and our determination to suc- 
 ceed. 
 
 38. They had dared to think for themselves. 
 
 39. Flee from the wrath to come. 
 
 40. I heard him declaim. 
 
 41. He went to see the World's Fair. 
 
 42. The gods are hard to reconcile. 
 
 43. The rain threatening to fall, we left early. 
 
 44. He told me when to come. 
 
 45. They tried to cheat, rob and murder him. 
 
 46. I come not here to talk. 
 
 47. In sooth, deceit maketh no mortal gay. 
 
 48. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at the 
 ill. 
 
 49. Let the great world spin forever down the ringing 
 grooves ot change. 
 
 50. 1 saw along the winter snow a spectral column pour.
 
 Chapter XX 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 315. The Participle Defined. In the sentence, 
 The crirl, sittino; bv the zvindozv, is mv sister, the 
 word, sifting, is a derived form of the verb but it 
 does not express a thought relation. We call such 
 a form of the verb a participle. A participle is 
 the derived form of the verb which does not ex- 
 press a thought relation; as. The pitcher, broken 
 at the fountain, cannot he restored. 
 
 All derived forms of the verb which do not express 
 thought relations will, according to this definition, be 
 classed as participles. Some grammarians distinguish be- 
 tween what we have called the substantive participle (but 
 they call the infinitive ending in ing or gerund), and the 
 participle proper, the form used as an adjective, holding 
 that the gerund has a different origin in the development 
 of the language. This is probal^ly true. It is probable 
 that the gerund or substantive participle (the infinitive 
 ending in ing), has been formed from the Anglo-Saxon 
 infinitive in an. This at a later period became en. The 
 termination, en, was afterwards changed to ing, an end- 
 mg borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon verbal noun. While 
 the participle proper is derived from the participle in 
 the Anglo-Saxon and generally ends in ed. But when 
 the form ends in ing, it is so difficult to distinguish the 
 gerund or infinitive in ing, from the participle proper or 
 adjective used as a noun, that the two may be considered 
 together and both called participles. There is no advantage 
 
 [356]
 
 The Participle 357 
 
 to be gained in the study of modern English in trying to 
 maintain the distinctions in the origin of these forms. 
 
 We call all derived forms of the verb, then, participles. 
 The only difificulty the pupil will now have, according to 
 this definition, will be in distinguishing between verbal or 
 abstract nouns and participles in iiig, used substantively. 
 This distinction is difficult to make because it is a dis- 
 tinction in meaning and not in form. The verbal or ab- 
 stract noun is wholly substantive in meaning and nature. It 
 expresses an object of thought which was at one time an at- 
 tribute expressed by a verb, but it does not take the modi- 
 tiers which belong to a verb. Some examples will make 
 the distinction clear ; as, Reading, writing, and spelling are 
 taught in the public schools. 
 
 The words, reading, writing, and spelling, in this sen- 
 tence are clear examples of abstract or verbal nouns. They 
 will not take adverbial or direct objective modifiers, or any 
 of the modifiers of the verb. This shov/s that they do not 
 retain their verbal nature, although they may be derived 
 from verbs. 
 
 1. The boy reading the story book is ni\- brother. 
 
 2. The girl, writing the letter, is ten years old. 
 
 3. The child, spelling the words of the signs, cannot 
 read. 
 
 In these sentences the words, reading, zvriting, and 
 spelling, are participles, but they are used as adjectives. 
 Such participles are easily distinguished from abstract or 
 verbal nouns. 
 
 1. Reading the story was entertainment enough for 
 Harry. 
 
 2. Writing rapidly is tiresome. 
 
 3. Spelling long words rapidly is difficult. 
 
 In these sentences the words reading, zvriting, and 
 spelling, are used substantively and they are participles. 
 Thev are used in the sentences with the value of substan-
 
 358 ,4)1 li)ii:;lis/i (.irainifiar 
 
 tive words, but at the same lime they retain their verbal 
 nature because each one oi them makes us think more of 
 an act than oi an object of thought or a process; and they 
 each take some of the modifiers oi the \erb. l"he dis- 
 tinction between the partieij^le which is used substantively 
 and the abstract ov verbal noun mav, in tins way, be easily 
 seen. 
 
 Exercise no 
 
 Select all the part lei f^les from the follozviiig seii- 
 leiiees: tell zvliy they are f^artieif'les, ami i;^r:'e the 
 z'erbs from zi'hieh they are derived: 
 
 1. After struggling- for some time in the deep water, 
 he sank to rise no nuTc. 
 
 2. The blessed work oi helping the world forward 
 happily does not wait to be done b}' perfect men. 
 
 ^^ Tie was two weeks learning to use his Ihppers. 
 
 4. riiey are worth learnmg. 
 
 5. The river was swollen with the long rains. 
 •6. Mrs. Cratchit made the gra\ \- hissing hot. 
 
 7. His writing has little Ci^mmercial \aUie, requiring 
 too much time in execution, 
 
 8. Knowing that T have no right to speak here, 1 ask 
 your leave. 
 
 9. The fog came pouring m at every chink ami key- 
 hole. 
 
 10. Night coming on, they broke their prison bars and 
 escaped, only to be recaptured before morning. 
 
 316. Substantive Uses of the Participle. 1 . 1 11 
 the sentence. Walking rapidly is good e.vcreise, the 
 participle, zcalkiiig. is used as the subject of the sen- 
 tence. A participle may be ttsed as the subject of 
 a sentence: :is. Writing letters is hard. The loving 
 are the darino;.
 
 The Participle 'i5'J 
 
 2. In the sentence, Boxing vigorously is not 
 fighting, the participle, fighting, is used as the predi- 
 cate of the sentence. A participle may Ije used as 
 the predicate of a sentence; as, Painting is not 
 daubing a canvas with color. 
 
 3. in the sentence. He heard the rapid running 
 of the wafer, the word, rnnning, is a participle. It 
 is used as the direct objective modifier of the verb, 
 heard. A participle may be used as a direct 
 objective modifier ; as, IVe saw the wrestling on 
 the lawn. 
 
 4. In the sentence, My brother is certain of suc- 
 ceeding in his enterprise, the word, succeeding, is 
 a participle. It is used as the indirect objective 
 modifier of the adjective, certain. A participle may 
 be used as an indirect objective modifier; as, 
 TJie boy is desirous of learning rapidly. 
 
 5. In the sentence. We learn to do by doing, the 
 word, doing, is a participle. It is used as the prin- 
 cipal part of the prepositional phrase. A participle 
 may be used as the principal part of a prepo- 
 sitional phrase; as, By running rapidly we caught 
 the train. There arc but three ways of living; by 
 working, by stealing, or by begging. — Froude. 
 
 6. In the sentence. That exercise, running rap- 
 idly, requires endurance, the word, running, is a 
 participle. It is used as an appositive modifier of 
 the word, exercise. A participle may be used as an
 
 360 An English Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 appositive modifier; as, That event, hurling the 
 discus, is dangerous. 
 
 7. In the sentence, The master being away, the 
 work was neglected, the expression, the master 
 being azvay, is said to be used independently. We 
 can easily see, however, as was pointed out under 
 the independent use of the infinitive. Section 309, 
 that this expression may be changed into an ad- 
 verbial modifier. The sentence really means, the work 
 zvas neglected because the master was azvay. If 
 we take it this way, the expression, the master being 
 away, is a clausal phrase. This seems a more rea- 
 sonable way to deal with this construction. How- 
 ever, most grammarians give the participle and the 
 infinitive an independent or absolute use; as, 
 Speaking figuratively, the man is a wolf in sheep's 
 clothing. 
 
 317. Attributive Uses of the Participle, i. In 
 
 the sentence. The boy leaving the doors open be- 
 hind him, rushed througJi the house, the word, 
 leaving, is a participle. It is used as an adjective 
 modifier of the noun, boy. A participle may be used 
 as an adjective modifier; as. The prisoner, stupefied 
 with terror, could not respond. 
 
 2. In the sentence, The plants were growing, 
 the word, growing, is a participle. It is used as 
 the predicate of the sentence. A participle may be 
 used as the predicate of a sentence ; as. The stream 
 was flowing.
 
 The Participle 361 
 
 3. In the sentence, The child grew interested in 
 the story, the word, interested, is a participle. It 
 is used as the second part of the double predicate, 
 grew interested in the story. A participle may be 
 used as the second part of a double predicate; as, 
 The man became imbued zvith the idea. (See 
 double predicate under the infinitive, Section jii. 
 
 4. In the sentence. The rain came dashing dozvn, 
 the word, dashing, is a participle. It seems here 
 to partake of the nature of an adjective expressing 
 an attribute of the object of thought, rain (it was 
 a dasliing rain) ; and also of the nature of an adverb 
 expressing an attribute of the attribute expressed 
 by the word, came, the manner of the "coming." 
 Such a participle may be said to have an adjective- 
 adverb use. A participle may be used as an ad- 
 jective-adverb; as, The hail came pelting against 
 the window. 
 
 5. This adjective-adverb use seems sometimes 
 to shade off into almost a pure adverbial use; as, 
 The horse came trotting down the road. The par- 
 ticiple, trotting, here seems to express almost 
 wholly the manner of coming. A participle may be 
 used as an adverb; as. The boy went tearing 
 throuo-Ji the zvheat. 
 
 318. Relational Uses of the Participle. In ihe 
 sentence, TJie train being late, zvc did not start, the 
 word, being, is a participle. The group of words, 
 the train being late, is a clausal phrase and the par-
 
 362 An English Grammar 
 
 ticiple, being, is the copula-like element of it. The 
 sentence means, JVe did not start because the train 
 was late. A participle may be used as the copula- 
 like element of a clausal phrase; as, My uncle 
 being ready, zve left immediately. 
 
 In the sentence. He stood, being hesitating in 
 his manner, the word, being, is a^ participle. It is 
 used as the copula-like element with the second part 
 of the double predicate, hesitating in his manner. 
 A participle may be used as the copula-like element 
 AAnth the second part of the double predicate; as, 
 He waited, (being) absorbed in thought. The par- 
 ticiple is the word, being, understood. These ex- 
 pressions, being hesitating in his manner, and ab- 
 sorbed in thought, are often called adjective modi- 
 fiers of the subject. 
 
 Exercise iii 
 
 Illustrate as many uses of the participle as you 
 can, by constructing sentences containing these par- 
 ticiples and participial phrases: making, disguis- 
 ing, wearing, rejoicing, finishing, being zvhipped, 
 having been lost, being foimd, szvaying, rocking, 
 plunging, being told, hazing been seen, hazdng been 
 rising, haznng been zvalking, having walked, lost, 
 szvollcn. steeped, tumbling, squealing, being made. 
 
 319. Substantive Modifiers of the Participle. 
 
 I. In the sentence. Spelling rapidly, naming the 
 
 letters of a zvord, is difficult, the expression, naming
 
 The Participle 363 
 
 tlic letters of a word, is an appositive modifier of 
 the participle, spelling. The participle may take an 
 appositive modifier; as, Writing neatly, forming 
 the letters which compose words, /^ not an easy 
 task. 
 
 The participle does not often take an appositive 
 modifier. 
 
 2. In the sentence, We did not like his singing, 
 the word, his. is a possessive modifier of the par- 
 ticiple, singing. A participle may take a possessive 
 modifier; as. Tom's rolling the ball made us nerv- 
 ous. 
 
 3. In the sentence. The boy is bringing the car- 
 riage, the expression, the carriage, is the direct ob- 
 jective modifier of tlie participle, bringing. A par- 
 ticiple ma}- take a direct objective modifier; as. 
 The boy playing the cornet is the leader of the band. 
 
 4.. In the sentence, JVriting to the boy, he said, 
 ''go quickly", the expression, tlic boy, is the indi- 
 rect objective modifier of the participle, zvriting. A 
 participle may take an indirect objective modifier; 
 as, Giving the reins to the driver, he dismounted 
 from the carriage. 
 
 5. In the sentence, IValking the mile zvas tire- 
 some, the expression, the mile, is an adverbial ob- 
 lective modifier of the jiarticiplc. zvalking. A par- 
 ticiple may take an adverbial objective modifier; 
 as, We were waiting fifteen minutes. 
 
 320. Attributive Modifier of Participle, i. In
 
 364 An English Grammar 
 
 the sentence, Thinking rapidly requires presence of 
 mind, the word, rapidly, is an adverbial modifier of 
 the participle, thinking. A participle may take an 
 adverbial modifier; as. The child, reading aloud, 
 ivas heard all over the house. 
 
 321. Forms of Participles. The forms of the 
 participle from the verb, see, may be indicated as 
 follows. They will illustrate the participial forms 
 of any verb: 
 
 1. Active. 
 
 a. Present; as, Seeing. 
 
 b. Perfect; as. Having seen. 
 
 2. Passive. 
 
 a. Present; as, Being seen. 
 
 b. Perfect; as, Haz'ijig been seen. 
 
 Exercise 112 
 
 In the folhnving sentences point out each infini- 
 tive and participle, tell what form each is, give its 
 exact use in the sentence and all its modifiers: 
 
 1. Thoughts shut up, want air, 
 
 And spoil like bales unopened to the sun. 
 
 — Young. 
 
 2. Let us be content in work, 
 
 To do the thing we can, and not presume 
 To fret because it's little. 
 
 3. One day with life and heart, 
 
 Is more than time enough to find a world. 
 
 4. Needful auxiliaries are our friends, to give 
 To social man true relish of himself. 
 
 5. Learn well to know how much need not be known. 
 And what that knowledge which impairs your sense.
 
 The Participle 365 
 
 6. Let him not violate kind nature's laws, 
 But own man born to live as well as die. 
 
 7. The blood more stirs 
 
 To rouse a lion than to start a hare. 
 
 8. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 
 
 — Taylor. 
 
 9. It is the curse of kings to be attended 
 
 By slaves that take their humors for a warrant. 
 To break within the bloody house of life, 
 And on the winking of authority. 
 To understand a law. 
 10. Have you sons! Look in the next fierce brawl 
 To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look 
 To see them live, torn from your arms, distained. 
 Dishonored, and if ye dare call, for justice 
 Be answered bv the lash.
 
 Chapter XXI 
 
 THE PREPOSITION 
 
 322. Preposition Defined. A preposition is a 
 relational word which expresses a relation be- 
 tween ideas of unequal rank; as, The president 
 lives in Washington. 
 
 323. Uses of Preposition. In the sentence, 
 We rise early in the morning, the preposition, in, 
 is the relational word of the prepositional phrase, 
 in the morning. In the sentence, She wrote to her 
 mother, the preposition, to, expresses the relation 
 between the object of thought expressed by the in- 
 direct objecti^'e modifier, her mother, and the at- 
 tribute expressed by the verb, zvrote. The expres- 
 sion, to Iter mother, is not a prepositional phrase as 
 is the expression, in the morning, in the first sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The preposition always has one of these two 
 uses : 
 
 1. Tt is the relational word of a preposit'onal 
 phrase; as, JVho works in the morning? 
 
 2. It expresses the relation between the ob- 
 ject of thought expressed by an indirect objective 
 modifier and the attribute expressed by the word 
 
 1366]
 
 The Preposition 367 
 
 which it modilies; as, She gave assistance to the 
 needy. 
 
 324. Modifiers of the Preposition. As we 
 have alread}- seen under the simple sentence, Sec- 
 tion 58, the preposition ma}- take the following" 
 modifiers : 
 
 1. The adverbial; as, Tiw house stands just 
 across the river. 
 
 2. The adverbial objective; as, The hoy lives 
 two miles below the city. 
 
 Exercise 113 
 
 In the follozving sentences point out each prepo- 
 sition, give its exact use, and all its modifiers: 
 
 1. He was brave on the field of battle. 
 
 2. He triumphed in his death. 
 
 3. The boy is very popular with his playmates. 
 
 4. Samuel offered his seat to the lady. 
 
 5. The teacher gave the book to Sarah. 
 
 6. The slave was very grateful to his master. 
 
 7. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
 
 8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 
 9. Good deeds return to bless him who does them. 
 10. To waste in vouth is to want in old aee. 
 
 '•fe^ 
 
 325. Object of Prepositions. The substantive 
 expression, following a preposition, is usually called 
 "the object of the preposition." It is easy to see, 
 however, that a preposition cannot have an object, 
 that is. a direct or indirect objectixc modifier be- 
 cause it always expresses an idea of relation.
 
 368 An English Grammar 
 
 Words which take direct or indirect objective 
 modifiers must express attributes. The expres- 
 sion, " object of a ])reposition," is, therefore, mis- 
 leading. The substantive expressions following 
 prepositions are in the objective case, but this is 
 because when any such expressions having dif- 
 ferent case forms are used after prepositions, the 
 objective form is always used. The substantive 
 expression which follows the preposition is the 
 principal part of a prepositional phrase or else 
 it is an indirect objective modifier. 
 
 Exercise 114 
 
 Prepositions arc small zvords but they are very 
 important in onr language because they have many 
 idiomatic uses. Most of these can be learned only 
 by noticing the usage of good speakers and writers. 
 Try to make the proper distinction between at and 
 in, to and vi^ith, in and to, from and with, in and 
 into, in and within, on and upon. 
 
 From the expressions inclosed in the marks of 
 parenthesis in each of the following sentences select 
 the correct one: 
 
 1. The vessel will arrive (ivithin, inside) of two weeks. 
 
 2. He did not remember (saying, of saying) that the 
 thief was tall. 
 
 3. She replied. " not that I (remember, remember of)," 
 
 4. Is your father (at, to) home? 
 
 5. The greatest masters of critical learning diflfer 
 (among, from, zvith) one another. 
 
 6. They danced (round, around) the pole.
 
 The Preposition 369 
 
 7. He was not successful, as a rule, {linth, at) narra- 
 tive. 
 
 8. There was the old man in the forest (hack of, he- 
 hind) the barn. 
 
 9. (Behind, hack of) his falsehood, there is a truth. 
 
 10. I have no decided preference (hetiveen, among) 
 these five authors. 
 
 11. There is some trouble (among, hetiveen) the teach- 
 er and his pupils. 
 
 12. She made a resolution (zvith, beticccn) every 
 mouthful, never to say one word to that magpie again. 
 
 13. He interfered with her sister's attachment (to, for) 
 Mr. Bingley. 
 
 14. The old clock on the stairs frightened us (hy, in) 
 striking two. 
 
 15. Judged (from, by) this (standpoint, point of i-iew) 
 he was wanting. 
 
 16. He put the water (in, ivithin) reach of the dog. 
 
 17. He went (in, into) the house. 
 
 18. He was thrown (into, in) the mud. 
 
 19. This merging of self (into, in) mankind is noble. 
 
 20. Put money (in, into) thy purse. 
 
 21. This discovery I made as soon as I was fairly (in, 
 into) the room. 
 
 22. " Paracelsus " shows Ptrowning's clever insight 
 (into, of) man. 
 
 2T^. \o\\ have an advantage (of, over) me in that you 
 know my name. 
 
 24. The difference (in, of) character (hctn'ccn, of) the 
 two men (affected, effected) their writings. 
 
 25. There is no use (in. of) my trying to get ready. 
 
 26. The remainder of his wages (is, are) deposited (on, 
 to) his credit. 
 
 27. A lady who did not belong to some church would 
 be looked (on. at) askance.
 
 370 All Ens'lish Grammar 
 
 i>' 
 
 28. The vessel was blown (on, onto) the rocks. 
 
 29. This was brought about (by, through) the services 
 of friends. 
 
 30. His longer poems are of a very different stamp 
 (tlian, from) his shorter ones. 
 
 31. Wordsworth's "Skylark" is altogether different 
 (to, from) Shelley's. 
 
 32. A difference arose (betzveen, among) the two in 
 their correspondence (zvith, to) each other. 
 
 33. Your decision accords (to, with) mine. 
 
 34. Gladstone set out (for, to) London. 
 
 35. The vessel sank far out (at, to) sea. 
 
 36. I believe (on, to) the contrary that Washington was 
 the greatest of good men, and best of great men. 
 
 37. Byron's " Farewell " was written after his separa- 
 tion (from, zvith) his wife. 
 
 38. He was accompanied (by. zvith) his wife. 
 
 39. I differ (from, zmth) you. 
 
 40. We parted (from, zvith) him at the corner. 
 
 41. He was fully alive to the advantages of foreign 
 methods (as zvell as to the necessity of iising them, as zvell 
 as the necessity of using them). 
 
 42. I wrote (to him, him) in May. 
 
 43. I went to Chicago and (from thence, thence) to St. 
 Louis. 
 
 44. They (pondered, pondered over) the question. 
 
 45. One calamity (follozi'S, follozvs after) another. 
 
 46. The teacher (examined, examined into) the subject 
 f^arefully.
 
 Chapter XXII 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION 
 
 326. Conjunction Defined. A conjunction is a 
 relational word which expresses an unasserted re- 
 lation between ideas or thoughts of equal rank or 
 thoughts of unequal rank; as, Two and three are 
 five. Hie day is bright and the ivind is fresh. They 
 came though ive did not expect thon. 
 
 327. Classes of Conjunctions. Ft is clear from 
 the definition and from the work on the compound 
 and complex sentences that conjunctions are of two 
 classes : 
 
 1. A conjunction which expresses a relation 
 between ideas or thoug^hts of ec|ual rank is called 
 a co-ordinate conjunction; as. Bread and milk is 
 good food. Truth is mighty and it will prevail. 
 
 2. A conjunction may express relation be- 
 tween thoughts of unequal rank. This is called a 
 subordinate conjunction; as. They walked zvith 
 us until the train left. 
 
 328. Correlative Conjunctions. Two words 
 often perform the office of a single conjunction; 
 the first of the pair indicating that something will 
 presently be added. We call such pairs of words 
 
 [3711
 
 372 An English Grammar 
 
 correlative conjunctions; as. Tlic man was neither 
 honest nor cfhciciif. Both IVilliam and Thomas 
 were present. 
 
 329. Phrasal Conjunctions. Sometimes a 
 group of more than two words has the force of a 
 single conjunction in the sentence; as, He came in 
 order that he might assist us. In case that zve are 
 defeated we shall retreat. 
 
 Such expressions may be called phrasal con- 
 junctions. 
 
 Exercise 115 
 
 In the folloiving sentences point out each con- 
 junction, classify it, give its exact use in the sen- 
 tence, and notice zvhetlier or not the conjunction has 
 modifiers: 
 
 1. Truth makes man free, but error binds him in end- 
 less chains. 
 
 2. Sincerity and modesty are essential to good char- 
 acter. 
 
 3. The blue and white flower is a ;oansy. ' 
 
 4. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of 
 my life. 
 
 5. I shall not proceed for danger lurks in my course. 
 
 6. I will have the heart of him if he forfeit. 
 
 7. I know that you will be pleased with my friend. 
 
 8. I see that you are disappointed in the book. 
 
 9. Bread and butter is palatable food. 
 
 10. I shall be sure to see you for I live in the town. 
 
 11. Swearing is neither profitable nor pleasant. 
 
 12. You will have to study or you will get behixid your 
 class.
 
 . The Conjunction 373 
 
 13. I have seen other people make the same mistake, 
 therefore I warn you. 
 
 14. Cunning may succeed for a time, but in the end 
 murder will out. 
 
 15. I oft delivered from his forfeitures 
 
 Many that have at times made moan to me ; 
 Therefore he hates me. 
 
 Exercise 116 
 
 Be careful to select the correct conjunctions to 
 express your nieaiiin}^. From the expressions in- 
 closed in the marks of parenthesis in each of the fol- 
 lozving sentences, select the correct one and give 
 reasons: 
 
 1. I am not sure (as. that) cither m}- brother or my 
 friend can help you. 
 
 2. Then fas, like) all rich men do. he appealed to the 
 public. 
 
 3. They were told not to leave (unless, unthont) they 
 were sent for. 
 
 4. Then these same sisters of mercy are bathing a hot 
 head ''or, and ) binding a broken limb. 
 
 5. At tliat time he was going (and, or) coming twice 
 a day. 
 
 6. My father is a wise (hut, and) cautious man. 
 
 7. (Since, as) you are going my way, I might as well 
 ride. 
 
 8. I loved Lincoln (as. because) he was a true man. 
 
 9. T consider him a superior man in (both, all) in- 
 tellect, feeling, and courage. 
 
 10. They regret (how, that) they left school. 
 
 11. They told us (how, that) ihev had just visited 
 Switzerland and fhozv. that) thev had thought of boarding 
 the Elbe.
 
 374 An E)igl}sh Grammar 
 
 12. (Though, if) science has made iinich i)rogress, there 
 arc still many problems. 
 
 13. I am sure that it was neither my father (or, nor) 
 my mother. 
 
 14. The book was neither so interesting- (or, nor) so 
 helpful as we had hoped to find it. 
 
 15. I have no word from the vessel (or, nor) do I ex- 
 pect any to-day. 
 
 16. (Though alone in the house, I ivas alone in the 
 house but) I was not frightened. 
 
 17. He looked at me curiously (as if, as though) he 
 knew me. 
 
 18. \'ery soon, (though, hoicevcr) , the sun appeared. 
 
 19. I smiled and tried to make myself agreeable (■idien, 
 though) my head was almost bursting. 
 
 20. (While, wheji) walking out this morning, I found 
 several white anemones. 
 
 21. To learn the subjects is a difficult task, (while, 
 but) to teach them is much more difficult. 
 
 22. She was under the large tree in the yard, (ivhile, 
 and) beside her was her book. 
 
 Work in Composition 
 
 THE REVENGE 
 
 I. 
 
 At Flores in the Azores Sir Richard Grenville lay. 
 
 And a pinnace, like a flutter'd bird, came flying from far 
 away : 
 
 " Spanish ships of war at sea ! We have sighted fifty- 
 three ! " 
 
 Then sware Lord Thomas Howard : " Tore God, I am no 
 coward ;
 
 The Conjunction ?5T5 
 
 But T cannot meet them here, for my ships are out of gear, 
 And the half m\- men are sick. T must fly, hut follow quick. 
 We are six siiips of the line; can we fight with fiftv-three? "" 
 
 II. 
 
 Then spake Sir Richard ( n-cnville : " I know }ou are no cow- 
 ard ; 
 
 You fly them for a moment to fight with them again. 
 
 But I've ninety men and more that are lying sick ashore. 
 
 I should count myself the coward if I left them, my Lord 
 Howard, 
 
 To these Inquisition dogs and the devildoms of Spain." 
 
 III. 
 So Lord Howard passed away with five ships of war that 
 
 day, 
 Till he melted like a cloud in the silent summer heaven : 
 Ikit Sir Richard bore in hand all his sick men from the land 
 \'ery carefully and slow, 
 Men of Bideford in Devon, 
 And we laid them on the ballast down below ; 
 For we brought them all aboard, 
 And they blest him in their pain, that they were not left to 
 
 Spain, 
 To the thumbscrew and the stake, for the glory of the Lord. 
 
 IV. 
 He had onlv a hundred seamen to work the ship and to fight. 
 And he sailed away from Flores till the Spaniard cann- in 
 
 sight, 
 With his huge sea-castles heaving upon the weather bow. 
 " Shall we fight or shall we fly ? 
 Good Sir Richard, tell us now, 
 For to fight is but to die !
 
 3't) An Eiwlish Grammar 
 
 &' 
 
 There'll be little of ns left by the time this sun be set." 
 And Sir Richard said again : " We be all good English men. 
 Let us bang these dogs of Seville, the children of the devil. 
 For I never turned my back upon Don or devil yet." 
 
 V. 
 
 Sir Richard spoke, and he laughed, and we roar'd a hurrah, 
 and so 
 
 The little Revenge ran on sheer into the heart of the foe. 
 
 With her hundred fighters on deck, and her ninety sick be- 
 low ; 
 
 For half of the fleet to the right and half to the left were 
 seen, 
 
 And tlie little Revenge ran on thro' the long sea-lane be- 
 tween. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Thousands of their soldiers look'd down from their decks 
 
 and laughed, 
 Thousands of their seamen made mock at the mad little 
 
 craft 
 Running on and on. till delay 'd 
 By their mountain-like San Pliilip that, of fifteen hundred 
 
 tons. 
 And up-shadowing high above us, with her vawning tiers 
 
 of guns, 
 Took the l)reath from our sails, and we stay'd. 
 
 VII. 
 
 And while now the great San Philip hung above us like a 
 
 cloud 
 WHience the thunder-bolt will fall 
 Long and loud. 
 Four galleons drew away
 
 Tlic Coiijiiiicfioji 377 
 
 From the Spanish fleet that clay. 
 
 And two upon the larboard and two upon the starboard lay, 
 
 And the battle-thunder broke from them all. 
 
 VIII. 
 But anon the great Sar. Philip she bethought herself and 
 
 went, 
 Having that within her womb that had left her ill-content ; 
 And the rest they came aboard us and they fought us hand 
 
 to hand. 
 For a dozen tunes they came with their pikes and mus- 
 
 queteers. 
 And a dozen times we shook 'em oft' as a dog that shakes his 
 
 ears 
 When he leaps from the water to the land. 
 
 IX. 
 
 And the sun went dow u. and the stars came out far over the 
 summer sea, 
 
 But never a moment ceased the fight of tlie one and the fif- 
 t\-three. 
 
 Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-lniilt gal- 
 leons came, 
 
 Shi]) after ship, the whole night long, with her battle thun- 
 der and flame : 
 
 Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back udth her 
 dead and her shame. 
 
 For some were sunk and many were shattered, and so could 
 fight us no more — 
 
 God of battles, was ever a battle like tliis in the world be- 
 fore? 
 
 X. 
 
 For he said, " higlit on ! Fight on ! " 
 Tho' his vessel was all but a wreck ;
 
 378 An Englis/i Gramuiar 
 
 And it chanced tliat, wlicn half of the short summer night 
 
 was gone. 
 With a grisl}- wound to he dressed he had left the deck, 
 But a bullet struck him that was dressing it suddenly dead, 
 And himself he was wounded again in the side and the 
 
 head. 
 And he said, " Fight on ! Fight on ! " 
 
 XI. 
 And the night went down and the sun smiled out far over 
 
 the summer sea, 
 And the Spanish fleet, with broken sides, lay round us all in 
 
 a ring ; 
 But they dared not touch us again, for they fear'd that we 
 
 still could sting, 
 So they watch'd what the end would be. 
 And we had not fought them in vain, 
 But in perilous plight were we, 
 Seeing forty of our poor hundred were slain, 
 And half of the rest of us maimed for life 
 In the crash of the cannonades and the desperate strife ; 
 And the sick men down in the hold were most of them stark 
 
 and cold. 
 And the pikes v^-ere all broken or bent, and the powder was 
 
 all of it spent ; 
 And the masts and the rigging were lying over the side ; 
 But Sir Richard cried in his English pride, 
 " We have fought such a fight for a day and a night 
 As may never be fought again ! 
 We have won great glory, my men ! 
 And a day less or more 
 At sea or ashore, 
 We die — docs it matter when? 
 Sink me the ship, blaster Gunner — sink her. split her in 
 
 twain ! 
 F'all into the hands of God, not into the hands of Spain! "
 
 The Conjunction 379 
 
 XII. 
 
 And the gunner said, " Ay, ay," but the seamen made reply: 
 
 " We have children, we have wives. 
 
 And the Lord hath spared our lives. 
 
 We will make the Spaniard promise, if we yield, to let us 
 
 go; 
 We shall live to fight again and to strike another blow." 
 .\nd the lion lay there dying, and they yielded to the foe. 
 
 XTII. 
 
 And the stately Spanish men to their flag-ship bore him 
 
 then. 
 Where they laid him by the mast, old Sir Richard caught at 
 
 last, 
 And they praised him to his face with their courtly foreign 
 
 grace ; 
 But he rose upon their decks and he cried : 
 " I have fought for Queen and Faith like a valiant man and 
 
 true ; 
 I have only done my duty as a man is bound to do : 
 ^^'ith a joyful spirit I. Sir Richard Grenville, die!" 
 And he fell upon their decks and he died. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 And they stared at the dead that bad been so valiant and 
 
 true, 
 And had holden the power and glory of Spain so cheap 
 That he dared her with one little ship and his English few ; 
 Was he devil or man ? He was devil for aught they knew, 
 liut they sank his l>ody with honor down into the deep. 
 And they mann'd the Revenge with a swarthier alien crew, 
 .\nd away she sailed with her loss and long'd for her own ; 
 When a wind from the lands they had ruin'd awoke from 
 
 sleep,
 
 380 All Eiiiilish Graininar 
 
 &' 
 
 And the water bci^an to heave and the weather to moan, 
 
 And or ever that evening' ended a great gale blew, 
 
 And a wave like the wave that is raised by an earthquake. 
 
 grew, 
 "i'ill it smote on their hulls and their sails and their masts 
 
 and their flags, 
 And the whole sea plunged and fell on the shot-shatter'd 
 
 navy of Spain, 
 And the little Revenge herself went down by the island 
 
 To be lost evermore in the main. 
 
 — Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 I. 
 
 Read "The Rezm^e." 
 
 Albottf ivliat is the poem written? Betzveen 
 ivhom did the battle take plaee? IVhen? IVJieref 
 Who are tlie main eharacters in the poem? What 
 are the main ineidents? What means lias been used 
 to make tJie story dramatic and vii'id? 
 
 Write tlie story briefly, telling some of the story 
 through eonversation. 
 
 11. 
 
 Wliat noble traits of character did Sir Richard 
 Grenville have? Which did lie sJiozv when he sazv 
 the enemy approaching? Which in the midst of the 
 fight? JVJiich zi'Jien honored? Hozv did tJie enemy 
 regard Iiini? Hozv did his ozvn men regard him? 
 What zvas the strongest proof of his real nobility of 
 character?
 
 TJic Conjunction 381 
 
 Write a character sketch one paragraph long of 
 Sir Richard Grenvillc Let the first sentence of your 
 paragraph give a general idea of his character and 
 in the others discuss it more fully. Give proofs for 
 all the statements which you make. 
 
 III. 
 
 What names could he given to some of the scenes 
 and incidents in "The Revenge f" 
 
 Picture to yourself some scene or incident men- 
 tioned in the poem and describe it fully, putting in 
 enough detail to gi'i'e a clear idea of it. 
 
 IV. 
 
 What is the purpose of " The Revenge"? How 
 has the author shozvn his purpose? JVhat impress- 
 es you most in reading the poem? JVhat do yon like 
 about the poem? 
 
 Outline and write a revieiv of " The Revenge?' 
 See that each paragraph of your revieiv deals with 
 but one topic and that the paragraphs are related.
 
 The Index 
 
 The refere7ices are to section nimibers 
 
 Abridged complex sentence, 85. 
 
 Abridged compmnul sentence, 56, 
 60. 62. 
 
 Ab-olute tense. 269; classes of, 271. 
 
 Abstract noun, 134. 
 
 Active voice, 283; classes of, 286. 
 
 Adjective, 32, 192; classes of on ba- 
 sis of chief purpose, 196. 
 
 Adjective clause. 71. 98. 99; con- 
 nectives of. 116; ]nnictuation of, 
 118, relative pronoun in the, 102. 
 
 Adjective modifiers, classes of, 51. 
 
 Adjectives, not compared, 227; on 
 basis of use. 193 ; singular and 
 plural, 215. 
 
 A.djective phrase, 41, 42. 
 
 Adverbial clause, 71, 119; ideas. 
 54; modifier. 53; objective modi- 
 fier defined. 49; phrase. 41. 42. 
 
 Adverb defined, 32, 301. 
 
 Adverbs, classes of on basis of kind 
 of idea to which the attribute 
 expressed, belongs, 302; classes 
 of on basis of use, 305. 
 
 -Kdversative conjunctions. 11. 
 
 Alternative conjunctions. 79. 
 
 Anal\-«is of the sentence, model for. 
 16.' 
 
 .\nalysis of the thought, model for, 
 
 16. 
 Antecedent, 190. 
 -Appositive modifier, 45. 
 Arrangement defined, 20; kinds of, 
 
 21 ; natural inverted, 21. 
 Article, 210; classes of, 211. 
 Ascending comparison, 224. 
 .Attribute defined, 28. 
 Attribute modifier defined, 44. 
 Attribute words, 32; classes of, 238. 
 Attributive clause, 70; classes of 
 
 71. 
 Attributive modifier defined, 50; oi 
 
 infinitive, 313. 
 Attributive phrase. 39. 40; classes 
 
 of. 41. 42. 
 Attributive usc'^ of the infinitive. 310. 
 Attributive verb, .32. 237; classes of, 
 
 230. 
 Attributive verb phrase, 41, 42. 
 .\ttri])utive word, defined. .30. 
 Auxiliary verb, 246. 253. 
 
 Capitalization, 22. 
 Cardinal .'idjective, 207. 
 Case. 160. 161: classes of, 162; how 
 denoted, 166. 
 
 (382)
 
 The Index 
 
 383 
 
 ausal conjunction, 81. 
 ausative verb, 246, 252. 
 hanges in form to denote person 
 and number. 291. 
 lass noun?, 129. 
 
 lasses of adjective modifiers, 51. 
 lanse. The, 66; classified on basis 
 of the relation of one clause to 
 the other clauses in the sentence, 
 67: classified on basis of use, 68; 
 defined, 25. 
 ognate verb, 246, 248. 
 ollective noun, 130. 
 ommon gender, 141. 
 ommon noun, 127 ; classes of, 128. 
 omparison. 216, 217; degrees of, 
 218; kinds of. 223: methods of, 
 226. 
 
 omparative degree. 220. 222. 
 Dmplex sentence. 84; abridged, 85; 
 classes of. 85; defined, 24: regu- 
 lar, 85; words used in, 86. 
 omposition. 22. 28. 59, 63. 81, 82. 
 83. 118. 120, 122, 123, 134. 159, 
 168, 183. 189. 191. 213. 227. 253, 
 265. 278. 279. 288. 300, .307. 314. 
 321. 329. 
 
 ompound. compound - complex 
 
 sentence, 60, 63. 
 
 ompound conjuncti\e adverb. 120. 
 ompound pergonal pronouns, 180; 
 how formed. 181; how used, 182; 
 peculiarity of. 183. 
 ompound predicates, 57. 
 ompound relative pronoun. 103, 
 109: how formed. 110; list of 
 111. 
 
 Compound sentence, 56; abridged, 
 60; classes of, 60; defined, 24; 
 groups of words used in forming 
 the, 65 ; members of, 72 ; punctua- 
 tion of, 83; regular, 60; relation 
 between thoughts expressed by 
 members of, 12>\ uses of words in 
 the. 82; words used in forming 
 the, 64. 
 
 Compound subject, 56. 
 
 Concrete noun. 1,32, 133. 
 
 Conjugation, 295: defined, Z2>. 
 
 Conjunction, defined, 326. 
 
 Co-ordinate clause, 67. 
 
 Co-ordinate conjunction, 327. 
 
 Copula defined. 15: the principal 
 part of. 55. 
 
 Copulative conjunction. 75. 
 
 Correlative conjunction, 328. 
 
 D. 
 
 Declarative sentence defined, 18. 
 
 Declension, 168. 
 
 Defective verb, 246. 250. 
 
 Definite article. 212. 
 
 Definition, marks of, 2. 
 
 Demonstrative adjective, 202. 
 
 Descending comparison, 225. 
 
 Descriptive adjective, 197. 
 
 Descriptive adjective clause, 98, 100. 
 
 Descriptive adjective modifier de- 
 lined, 51. 
 
 Devices for fixing use of principal 
 parts of irregular verbs, 245. 
 
 Direct objective modifier defined, 
 47.
 
 384 
 
 The Index 
 
 Direct quotation, 91, 94 ; punctua- 
 tion, 93; uses of in the complex 
 sentence, 92. 
 
 Distinguishing mark of grammar, 4. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elements of the thought 11, 12. 
 Exclamatory sentence defined, 18. 
 Expletive defined, 34. 
 
 Factitive verb, 246. 252. 
 Feminine gender, 140. 
 First person, 148, 174. 
 Forms not passive, 288. 
 Forms of verbs, 299. 
 Form words, 34. 
 Future perfect tense, 278. 
 Future tense, 274. 
 
 Gender, 136, 137; classes of, 138; 
 
 irregularities in, 144; methods of 
 
 denoting, 143. 
 Grammar defined, 5. 
 Grammar, distinguishing mark of, 
 
 4; place in the language group, 3. 
 
 Ideas defined, 9, 28. 
 Idea of relation defined, 28. 
 Imperative mode, 257, 260; sugges- 
 tion on, 255. 
 Imperative sentence defined, 18. 
 Impersonal verb, 246, 247. 
 Indefinite article, 213. 
 Independent clause, 69. 
 Indicative mode, 257, 258. 
 
 Inchcalive mode, uses of, 262. 
 
 Indirect objective modifier definec 
 48. 
 
 Indirect quotation, 95, 97; uses o 
 96. 
 
 Individual clause, 67. 
 
 Infinitive, 308; attributive modifie 
 of, 313; attributive uses of, 310 
 defined,' 35; substantive modifie 
 of, 312; substantive uses of, 309 
 forms of, 314; relational uses o 
 311. 
 
 Infinitive phrase, Zl , 38. 
 
 Inflection, 173. 
 
 Interjection, 34. 
 
 Interrogative adjective, 203; ac 
 verb, 307; pronoun, 170, 184, 185 
 distinction in, 187; forms o 
 186; uses in, 188. 
 
 Interrogative sentence defined, 1! 
 
 Intransitive verb, 240. 
 
 Inverted arrangement, 21. 
 
 Irregular verb, 243; difficult, 244. 
 
 K 
 
 Kinds of arrangements, 21. 
 
 Language studies, classes of, 6 
 
 definition of, 6 ; outline of, 6. 
 Limiting adjective defined, 198 
 
 classes of, 199. 
 Limiting adjective clause, 98, 101 
 
 199. 
 Limiting adjective modifier definec 
 
 52. 
 Literal meaning of words, 1.
 
 The Index 
 
 385 
 
 M 
 
 Marks of a good delinition, 2. 
 
 Masculine gender, 139. 
 
 Modal adverb, 304. 
 
 Mode, 255, 256. 
 
 Model for the analysis of the sen- 
 tence, 16; for analysis of the 
 thought, 16. 
 
 Modifier, defined, 43; kind of, 44 
 
 ^Modifying adjective, 195. 
 
 Multiplicative adjective, 209. 
 
 N 
 
 Natural arrangement, 21. 
 Neuter gender, 142. 
 Nominative case, 163. 
 Noun, 124; classes of, 125; defined, 
 
 31 ; plural in form but singular 
 
 in meaning, 159; properties of, 
 -135. 
 Number, 151, 152. 289, 290; classes 
 
 of, 153. 
 Numeral adjective, 205; classe of. 
 
 206. 
 
 Objective case, 165. 
 
 Object of thought defined, 28. 
 
 Ordinal objective. 208. 
 
 P 
 
 Parsing. 191, 228. 
 
 Participle, 315; attributive uses of, 
 
 317; attributive modifier of, .320; 
 
 <lefined, 35 ; forms of, 321 ; phrase, 
 
 2)1, 38; relational uses of, 318; 
 
 substantive modifiers of, 319; sub- 
 
 stative use- of 316. 
 
 Parts of speech, 123. 
 
 Parts of the sentence. 14; defined, 
 15. 
 
 Passive voice, 284; classes of, 287; 
 hov.' formed, 285. 
 
 Past indicative, 233. 
 
 Past participle, 234. 
 
 Past perfect tense, 277. 
 
 Past tense, 273. 
 
 Personal pronoun, 170; classes of, 
 171 ; peculiarities of, 178. 
 
 Person, 145, 146, 289. 290; classes 
 of, 147. 
 
 Plirase, 36; classes of, Zl ; on basis 
 of characteristic word, 38; on ba- 
 sis of their use in sentence, 39. 
 
 Phrasal conjunctions, 329. 
 
 Place of grammar in the language 
 group, 3. 
 
 Plural adjectives, 215. 
 
 Plurals foreign, 158. 
 
 Plural number, 155 ; rules for for- 
 mation of, 156; with different 
 meanings, 157. 
 
 Positive degree, 219, 222. 
 
 Possessive case. 164; forms, 167, 
 177. 
 
 Possessive modifier defined, 46. 
 
 Potential mode, 261. 
 
 Predicate adjective, 194. 
 
 Predicate defined, 15. 
 
 Predicate, the principal i)arl of, 55. 
 
 Prepositional phrase, Zl , 38. 
 
 Preposition, 322; defined, ZZ; modi- 
 fiers of, 324; object of, 325; uses 
 of, 323. 
 
 Present indicative, 232.
 
 386 
 
 The Index 
 
 Present perfect tense, 276. 
 
 Present tense, 272. 
 
 Principal parts, names of, 231. 
 
 Principal parts of irregular verb, 
 244. 
 
 Pronominal adjectives, 200; called 
 pronouns, 214; classes of, 201. 
 
 Pronoun, 169; defined, 31; classes 
 of, 170; or adjectives, 179. 
 
 Proper noun, 126. 
 
 Properties of noun, 135. 
 
 Punctuat'ion, rules of, 123 ; and cap- 
 italization, 22. 
 
 Pure adverb, 306. 
 
 Pure subordinate conjunction, 121, 
 122. 
 
 Pure verb, 16, 236; defined, 2)Z. 
 
 Quantitative adjective, 204. 
 
 R 
 
 Redundant verb, 246, 249. 
 
 Reflexive verb. 246, 251. 
 
 Regular, adverb, 303 ; arrangement, 
 21 ; complex sentence, 85 ; com- 
 pound sentence, 60. 61 ; verb, 242. 
 
 Relational phrase, 39, 40, uses of 
 the infinitive, 311: words, 33; 
 word defined, 30. 
 
 Relation of addition. 74; of agree- 
 ment, 12; of alternation, 78; of 
 conclusion, 80; of disagreement, 
 12; of opposition, 76. 
 
 Relative pronoun, 104, 108,170,189; 
 classes of, 105 : distinctions in use, 
 
 189; forms of, 189; in the adjec- 
 tive clause, 102; kinds of objects 
 expressed by, 108; omitted, 189; 
 possessive form of, 189; proper- 
 ties of, 189. 
 
 Relative tense, 270; classes of, 275. 
 
 Review, 16, 22, 28, 59, 63, 82, 
 83. 102, 118, 120, 122, 123, 134, 
 159, 168. 183, 190, 191, 215, 228, 
 253, 265, 278, 288, 300, 307, 314, 
 321, 329. 
 
 Scheme for study of a selection, 59. 
 
 Second person, 149, 175. 
 
 Sentence, classes of, 17, 22); classi- 
 fied on basis of their meaning, 17; 
 defined, 7 : on basis of number and 
 relation of thoughts expressed, 
 23; the arrangement of, 19; the 
 organic parts of, 55; why it must 
 have three parts, 16. 
 
 Shall and Will, uses of, 254. 
 
 .Simple conjunctive adverb, 114, 
 115; list of, 117. 
 
 Simple personal pronoun, 172. 
 
 Simple relative pronoun, 103, 106; 
 list of, 107. 
 
 Simple sentence, uses of words in, 
 58 ; defined, 24 ; model of analy- 
 sis, 59; to find kinds of words in, 
 59. 
 
 Singular adjective, 215. 
 
 Singular number, 154. 
 
 Strong verbs, 293. 
 
 Subject defined, 15; principal part 
 of 55, agreement with verb, 292.
 
 The hidex 
 
 3S7 
 
 Subordinate clause, 69; classes of, 
 70. 
 
 Subordinate conjunction, Zll . 
 
 Substance noun, 131. 
 
 Substantive clauses, 70; usual form, 
 87, 90; punctuation of, 89; the 
 uses of in the complex sentence, 
 88. 
 
 Substantive modifier defined, 45 ; of 
 the infinitive, 312. 
 
 Substantive phrase, 39, 40. 
 
 Substantive uses of the infinitive, 
 309. 
 
 Substantive words, 31 ; defined, 30. 
 
 Subjunctive mode, 257, 259; re- 
 mains of, 263 ; uses of, 264. 
 
 Superlative degree, 221, 222. 
 
 Synopsis, 298. 
 
 Tense, 266, 267; classes of, 268; uses 
 
 of forms, 279. 
 Third person, 150, 176. 
 Thought analyzed, 13. 
 Thought and the subject, 8. 
 Thfiught and sentence compared. 
 
 10; defined, 9; elements of, 11; 
 
 material or ideas, 26; predicate, 
 12; relation, 12; subject, 12. 
 Transitive verb, 239. 
 
 \'erb,'229'; auxiliary, 236, 246, 252, 
 253; agreement with subject 292; 
 be, conjugation of, 295; causa- 
 tive, 246; classes of, 235; classes 
 of on basis of how the past 
 indicative and perfect participle 
 are formed, 241 ; classes of on basis 
 of peculiarities, 246; cognate, 246. 
 248; defective, 246, 250; factitive. 
 246, 252: impersonal, 246, 247: 
 phrase, 300; principal parts of. 
 230: pure, 16, 236; redundant. 
 246, 249: reflexive, 246, 251; reg- 
 ular, 242; icU, conjugation of, 
 297, be, conjugation of, 296. 
 
 Voice, 280, 281 ; classes of, 282. 
 
 W 
 
 Weak verb, 294. 
 
 What, the word, 112. 
 
 Whoever, proper use of form of, 
 
 113. 
 Words, classes of, 30; delined, 29; 
 
 literal meaning of. 1 ; use of, 27.
 
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