IN 'rof . J. Henry Senger THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING: OB, THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. GEORGE YICTOR LE YAUX, Member of the Royal College of Preceptors, London, England; Author of " The Twin Records of Creation," &>c., &-c. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY, BY THE REV. GEORGE BELL, LL.D. Queen's University, Kingston. TORONTO : COPP, CLARK & Co., 47 FRONT STRBET. 1875. L IN MCMORIAM *"! Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-five, by GEORGE VICTOR LE VAUX, Clifton, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture, < PEEFAOE. Our design in preparing the following work was to furnish Student-Teachers, and others engaged in education, with a Manual containing a comprehensive resume, within a moderate compass, of all the more important principles and details of their Profession. In the execution of this task we have endeavoured to combine brevity with clearness, so that our mode of expression might be as simple and direct as was consistent with the nature of the subject. Several of the succeeding chapters have appeared from time to time in the English and Irish Educational Papers, some in the American Educational Monthly, and some in the Ontario Journal of Education. Those published in the old country, having secured the kind commendations of the London press, were reproduced in the Journal of Education for the Province of Victoria (Australia) and received with much favour by our fellow-labourers in the antipodes. These chapters (with others which appear in print for the first time) are now presented in book form, with the hope that they may to some extent fill a place, hitherto void, in our native educational literature, and thereby help to promote the interests of the young by reflecting mental light and youthful happiness into some of the darker and less attractive shades of the school-room. In years to come we hope to see the prejudices and moral weaknesses of present educational systems supplanted by the reign of light, love, and intelligence ; so that children, at home and abroad, may be emancipated from the thraldom of fear, and educated according to the teachings of Nature and the laws of their being. Believing it to be the duty of all who write for others to ascertain what their predecessors have thought and said on the same or similar subjects, we have perused with interest, in this and other lands, such educational works as have stood the test of time and popular criticism ; so that while advancing our own theories by the force of concurrent sentiments, we have been enabled to present IV PREFACE. our readers with radiant gems from many authors. In some cases we have adopted the thoughts of others, diverting them into more practical channels, but in no instance have we recommended any- thing not authorized by experience personal or otherwise. If we have receded in any point from that which is generally received and believed, it has been done in a spirit of amendment and in accordance with the advancement of modern science not for the purpose of novelty or change. We might therefore say, in the words of Lord Bacon, that " we could not be true or constant to the subject we handle were we not willing to go beyond others; but yet not more willing than to have others go beyond us again." The intelligent practice of the Art of Teaching must be founded on, and inferred from, experimental science mental and physical. Keeping this in view we have based our conclusions on the laws of mental development (as we understand them), endeavouring, so far as our limits would permit, to evolve guiding principles from the latest science. We are conscious that many generations must elapse ere the philosophy of mind is so thoroughly understood as to ensure a rich professional success to every teacher who seeks it ; nevertheless, each of us can give more attention to the laws of psychology and the right interpretation of Nature, and thus help to introduce and make perfect such a scheme of culture as will hasten the advent of light, and finally establish the Profession on a broad, scientific, and ever enduring basis. In conclusion, we respectfully beg to submit our views on these matters to the kind and courteous consideration of the Profession and general public, hoping that their publication may not be alto- gether fruitless nor profitless. The Author avails himself of this opportunity of recording his grateful sense of the valuable aid given him, in the revision of this work, by his esteemed friend, Miss Jane S. Chadwick a lady whose educational labours, extending over more than quarter of a century, have reflected honour and dignity on the profession, whilst affording such an example of zeal, skill, and ability, as justly to entitle her to rank as one of the premier teachers of the Province. G. V. L. CLIFTON, NIAGARA FALLS, 20th October, 1875. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. FIRST PRINCIPLES, INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. The Human Being, 9. Birth-place of Primeval Man, 10. Race Sub- divisions Characteristics, 10. The Negro, Mongolian, and Cau- casian or Indo-Gerinanic .Races, 10. Progress of Education amongst the Shemitic Races, Mexicans, Peruvians, &c., 12. Progress of Education amongst the Indo-Germanic Races, 15. Mythology Ancient Greece and Rome, 16. The Crusades, 17. Discovery of America, 17. Era of Colonization, 17. Education in England, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Prussia, &c., 18. Mixture and amalga- mation of races, 20. Development of Language and Religion in Ancient and Modern Times, 20. Christianity, the highest fruitage of Education and Religion, 21. Effects of Education on future Civilization, 22. A Commendation, 22. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Anecdotes of Napoleon and Lincoln, 23. Good Mothers and efficient Teachers, 24. First Lessons, 24. Mothers, the first Teachers, 25. The Parental Substitute, 26. Mutual duties, 26. Education, a noble work, 27. CHAPTER II, RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER. Teachers form the character of their generation, 28. Responsibilities, 29. The early habits of pupils an index to their future career, 29. Power of example and of youthful impressions, 30. How to make right impressions, 31. Teachers to sympathize with their pupils and seek their love, 32. To cultivate mutual affection, 33. To teach by example as well as by precept, 34. Vi ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. SPIRIT AND HABITS OF THE TEACHER. Things necessary to make a good Teacher, 35. To have a right percep- tion of his work, 36. Candidates for " Teacherships " to look well to their motives, 36. Ignorance, no excuse for professional mis- takes, 37. Physical Education, 38. Science of National and Self- Government, 38. To begin each day aright, 39. An important question, 39. Who can be a Teacher, 40. CHAPTER IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD TEACHER. To be a judge of human nature, 41. Aptitude for teaching, 42. Pupils should be led to do everything for themselves, 42. Courtesy of manner and other characteristics of the Teacher, 43. Youth to honour age, 44. An anecdote A Grecian legend, 44. Spartan courtesy, 45. Courtesy recognized, 45. Amiability of disposition, 46. Not to upbraid pupils with their mental or physical defects, 47. Absence of personal kindness, 48. To be honest, just and true, 49. Regularity and punctuality, 49. Lord Palmerston's opinion of Teachers' qualifications, 50. Teachers to lead in the march of intellect, 51. To beware of pride and vanity, 51. CHAPTER V. KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED. Teachers to study continually, 53. Temptations incident to the Pro- fession, 54. Doing two things at the same time, 55. To turn re moments to good account, 55. Sir Walter Raleigh's advice, Precepts by Pythagoras, 56. CHAPTER VI. MUTUAL DUTIES OF THE PROFESSION AND THE PUBLIC. We are all indebted to our profession, 57. Adequate remuneration, 57 Good services, good pay, 58. Test of civilization, 58. A cause and consequence, 59. The rich fool's argument considered, 59. An International Association of Teachers, 61. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. Til CHAPTER VII. BIGHT CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION. The Kindergarten system considered, 62. Meaning of Education, 63. The best Teacher, 64. Special preparation necessary, 64. To have a beau ideal, 65. Future reward, 66. A perfect man Unison of culture, 66. Formation of character, 67. First principles of education, 67. CHAPTER VIII. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION CONTRASTED. Imprudence of raising children in seclusion, 68. A Public School course the best preparation for the duties of after life, 69. Elements of success, 70. Self-deception, 71. Union of public and private systems commendable, 72. Necessity of a national provision for Education, 72. Compulsory Education, 73. CHAPTER IX. NATURAL ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESPECTIVE FACULTIES. Fundamental principles, 74. Development of the faculties, 74. Order of sequence, 74. SECTION 1. ATTENTION. Continuity of Attention essential, 75. Cultivate habits of observation and reflection, 76. Happiness of childhood, 77. Mutual affection, 77. How to secure attention, 78. Not to discourage, 78. Cause and cure of certain eccentricities, 79. Concentration of attention, 79. Natural disposition, 80. How to sweeten labour and ensure progress, 80. Self-reliance to be encouraged, 81. Abstraction, 82. SECTION 2. MEMORY. Memory and Retention 83. Mental store-house, 83. Visible illustra- tions, 84. Two varieties of Memory, 84. Invention, 85. Utility of Memory to the public speaker, 85. Conditions of efficiency, 85. SECTION 3. IMAGINATION. Imagination, what it is, 86. Connection with the sublime, 86, It counteracts certain mental defects, 87. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 137. Music in Schools, 137. Military education, 138. Qualify preferable to quantity, 138. Preparation of lessons at home, 139. Perfect recitations required, 139. The alternate system, Z40. Reviewing and grinding, 141. Loitering, &c., on the way to or from School, 142. Suspension of privileges, 142. The Registration system, 143. How applied in Upper Canada College, 143. Aver- age standing,, how found, 145. Private report book, 145. The demerit book, 146. American system of registration, 146. Monthly Roll of Honour, 147. Value of marks and time of entry, 148. A word to trustees, 148. CHAPTER V. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. Effects of associated pleasure or pain, 149. Natural consequences, 150. Obedience and how to secure it, 150. The father of the school, 151. Legislation concerning corporal punishment, 151. SECTION 1. THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS. Objects of punishment, 152. Censure faults, not persons, 153. Soli- tary confinement, 153. Admonition and advice, 154. Ridicule and reproach, 154. Humiliation considered as a punishment, 155. Quickness of apprehension in children, 156. Courtesy to juveniles, 156. Children not to be rebuked in anger, 156. The end of Education, 157. How to make study pleasant, 157. Natural tendencies of children, 158. Personal recriminations not to be countenanced, 158. The practice of sundry virtues commended, 159. Certain shortcomings to be treated with forbearance, 159. SECTION 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. Object of punishment, 159. Shame as a punishment, 159. Corporal punishment justifiable, 160. The probable origin of Public Schools, 161. The Teacher's commission, 162. Never to threaten pupils, 163. Corporal punishment to be inflicted publicly, 164. Teachers to establish their authority by force if necessary, 164. Punish- ment to be made effectual, 166. A supplementary duty, 167. The Teacher to be free from anger when inflicting punishment, 168. Teacher not to indulge himself in what he would deny to others, 169. Seneca's remarks on the education of children, 169. SECTION 3. MUTUAL DUTIES AND RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF TEACHERS. Powers and duties of principals, 170. Uniformity of discipline in several divisions of same school, 171. Powers and duties of assistants, 171. Teachers to keep a record of punishments, 171. Proper channel of inter-communication, 172. Notes from parents or guardians to bear signature, 172. Local supremacy of "Teachers of Division," 172. Assistant Teachers to report cause of absence to principal, 172. General supervision, 173. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI PAET III. METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER I. HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. Moreau's plan the best for Moreau, 174. Each Teacher to follow a general plan modified by original expedients, 175. The school- room and its decorations', 176. Plan of class-rooms, 177. Isolation and arrangements of desks, 179. The play-grounds and cloak- rooms, 180. Exercises to be conducted with military precision, 181. Calling and dismissing school, 181. Classification of pupils, 182. Test subjects, 182. Suggestions on the grading of schools, 183. How to secure uniformity of progress, 184. Subjects of study to be adapted to mental capacity, 185. Systems of Teaching, 185. Order of development, 185. Natural and logical order of study, 187. CHAPTER II. COLLECTIVE TEACHING. Sundry observations, 188. The elliptical method of teaching, 189. Same class same capacity, 189. Arrangement of lesson in its natural order of sequence, 190. Recapitulation, 190. Character- istics of good Teaching, 191. The object and utility of the intro- duction to lessons, 191. Lessons should have a practical applica- tion, 192. SECTION 2. THE ART OF CATECHIZING. Socratic method, 192. Tentative and examination questions, 193. Questions should be addressed to the whole class, 193. Character- istics of good answering, 194. Correction of errors, 194. CHAPTER III. SPELLING. Methods of teaching should be based on scientific principles, 195. Spelling and how to teach it, 195. Spelling machine, 196. Reading machine. 197. Reading should precede spelling, 198. The spell- ing stick, 199. How the higher classes should be taught spelling, 200. Order of merit, 200. How errors should be corrected, 201. Field days in spelling, 201. Xll ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. READING. Heading, and how to teach it, 202. Precedence according to merit, 203. Certain questions to precede lessons so as to ascertain amount of individual knowledge, 203. Pupils to be required to give a sum- mary of the lesson at its close, 204. To question each other, 204 Certain things to be observed, 204. Lessons to be of moderate length, 204. How to correct and improve style, 205. The concert method, 205. Pupils to ascertain the position of places mentioned in their lessons, 206. A substitute for the Register of Progress, 207. CHAPTER V. WRITING. Writing to be taught at an early age, 208. How to teach it, 209. First lessons, 208. Working arrangements, 209. Primary classes, 210- Supervision and correction, 210. CHAPTER VI. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. Arithmetic as a mental exercise, 211. First ideas of numbers, 211. Written Arithmetic, 212. Rapidity and accuracy, 212. A more approved method of teaching Algebra and Arithmetic, 213. Pupils to be well grounded in tables, 215. Mental Arithmetic, 215. Prin- ciples before rules, 215. How to ensure the acquisition of know- ledge, 216. CHAPTER VII. GEOGRAPHY. Hints on the study of Geography, 216. Boxing the compass, 217. Latitude and Longitude, how to teach them, 217. Rotation of the earth and differences of time, 218. Hints on the use of maps and charts, 218. Order of teaching Geography, 219. Geographical summary, 219. Weekly reviews, 220. ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER VIII. ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. How Nature teaches the languages, 220. Mental conceptions to pre- cede words, 221. Nature's method of Teaching, 221. Acquisition made easy, 222. CHAPTER IX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. Composition should accompany the study of Grammar, 222. How to teach Grammar to junior pupils, 223. Construction and classi- fication, 224. Inflections, &c., 224. Grammar to be made inter- esting, 224. An observation, 225. The Grammatical variations, 225. Composition secondary and original, How to teach it, 226. The best teacher of Grammar and Composition, 226. Importance and utility of correspondence considered, 227. Reading and pars- ing machine, 228. CHAPTER X. HISTORY. Methods of teaching History, 229. Incidental questions, 229. General recapitulation, 230. Pupils to prepare a sketch of lesson, 230. How to study History aright, 230. CHAPTER XI. GEOMETRY. Excellency of Geometry as a mental exercise, 231. A common method of teaching Euclid, 232. A change of system, 233. The more excellent method, 233. To use diagrams without letters, 234. Solution in general terms, 234. Connection of Geometry with the kindred sciences to be noted, 235. XIV ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. A SCIENTIFIC HABIT. Cultivation of a scientific habit desirable, 235. Natural History, 236. CHAPTER XIII. BOTANY. Children's love of flowers, 237. This love to be turned to account in the acquisition of Botanical knowledge, 237. Characteristics of parts of plants and flowers, 238. Arrangement of parts of flowers on stem, 238. Adaptation of plants to surrounding circumstances, 238. Season rings, 238. Classification of plants, 239- CHAPTER XIV. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Children to be taught as far as practicable through the medium of the eye, 239. Lessons about birds, 240. Lessons about fishes, 24(K Human Physiology, 240. CHAPTER XV. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. First lessons in Geology, 241. Formation of soils, 241. Peculiarities of location, 242. Utility of Geological knowledge, 242. CHAPTER XVI. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Importance of Agricultural Chemistry, 243. Different kinds of sub- stances, 243. Rotation of crops, 244. Supply of complementary elements, 244. Absorption and assimilation, 245. Utility of Agricultural Chemistry to the stock raiser, 245. Influences of heat, light, &c., on Agriculture, 246. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XVII. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Elements of Natural Philosophy to be taught at School, 246. First lessons, 247. Subject to be taught by simple practical experiments, 247. The pupils to conduct the experiments under the teacher's guidance, 248. A series of practical experiments with suggestions, 249. Effects of heat, 250. Construction of thermometer, 250. Properties of water, 250. When the text-book should be intro- duced, 250. 'CHAPTER XVIII. MECHANICS. Introductory lessons on Mechanics, 251. Virtual velocities, 252. The Mechanical powers, 252. Formulae, and practical hints on the application, of each power, 252. Hydrostatics and Dynamics, 254. Philosophy of falling bodies, 254. Sundry observations, 255. CHAPTER XIX. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. Public examinations desirable at certain intervals, 257. The school to be exhibited as it really is, 257. Results unreliable, 257. A superior private school, 258. Excellency of discipline and arrange- ments, 259. Defects of the system, 260. The memory system, 261. The system of the future, 261. When examinations reflect credit on the teacher and taught, 262. Quarterly examinations, 263. Parents to be apprized of the promotion of their children, 263. Periodical evening examinations, 264. Official books, 264. XVI ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART IY. CHAPTER XX. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Teacher's intercourse its characteristics 266. Teachers to avoid professional or other dissensions, 267. To cultivate a fraternal dis- position, 268. Absence of professional enthusiasm, 268. Its cause, 268. How to remove the evil, 269. Apprenticeship to the pro- fession, 270. The best remedies, 271. Advantages of experience, 271. The best use of wealth, 272. No excuse for want of books, 273. The great requisite of the age, 273. The laws of life and the order of mental evolution to be constant themes of study, 274. The science of mind considered, 275. Conditions of professional success, 275. How to secure it, 276. Nature's book on teaching, 276. The key to successful teaching, 277. The doctrine of natural re-actions considered, 277. Provision for public education, 279. Public School Boards, 280. Europe and America compared from an educational standpoint, 281. Higher education, 283. Popular education, 283. Provision for adult education, 285. Influences of age on education, 286. Necessary supplements to our public school system, 287. Sorrows and joys of life, the common property of all, 289. Dawn of the age of intellect, 289. Growth of mind, 290. Important public duties, 291. Conclusion, 292. APPENDIX. Notice to parents and guardians, 293. Daily register of progress, (U.C. College) 295. Summary of pupil's report, 296. Results for session, 297. Standard of classification, 298. Clifton School- daily record of progress, 299. Sample of a more approved system, 300. Form of Monthly Report for a Public School pupil, 301. Time table, or plan of work, for a graded school, 302. INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. To appreciate the real significance of questions of education, attention must be turned to the material to be acted upon- namely, the human being. To educate a human being is to draw out or develop all his powers or faculties. To ascertain what these are in our own race of the human species, we require to make a comparison between it and other races. As man is found in races differing so much in bodily peculiarities and mental powers, many questions have arisen both as to his origin and his history. Into the question of unity or plurality of origin I do not enter; but to another question, whether man's history, in civilization, has been an ascent or a descent, we must give a passing notice. All nations have certain traditions as to their early condition, and scientific inquiry brings out many impor- tant suggestions. Two pictures of primeval man are drawn, differing very materially. One is of a being pure, happy, simple in his tastes, but free from the degradations usually found in savage life. By many this is regarded only as a dream of poetry, or a beautiful myth, or, it may be, the mere yearning of the human soul for something better than is already possessed, reflected back into the dim mythical region of pre-historic time. The other is of a coarse and filthy savage, gross in tastes and habits, warring with the wild animals, tearing their flesh and cracking their bones, dwelling in caves, and little advanced above the lower animals, except in the superiority which the possession of hands gave him. While the superior weight of evidence, at present, is certainly on the side of man's descent to barbarism, much may be urged on the other side, and doubtless some portions of both pictures are true. Scripture, tradition and 2 ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. ' science all;peint to the origin of man at a central part of the land of tne eastern' hemisphere, whence successive waves of population have been continually flowing towards the distant portions of the earth, the more debased races occupying the positions more distant from the centre, and the debased races being gradually and continuously exterminated before the suc- ceeding waves of a superior race. Without noticing minutely the many subdivisions of races, we may observe that there are three great divisions plainly distinguishable, popularly known as the white, yellow, and black races. The black or negro race, comprising the Negroes proper, the Bushmen, the Hottentots, and the Papuans, differ among themselves, but in their native countries have always remained barbarous, displaying little tendency to improvement, and very little educational capacity. Wanting in energy and persever- ance, they show great sensitiveness. Below the white race in intellect, they are superior in imagination, and, when brought into contact with elevating influences, they will doubtless awake to a life of superior sentimental and imaginative power. The yellow or Mongolian race has shown peculiar powers in the way of overrunning the territories of other peoples, founding great empires, developing an early civilization which reaches a medium stage and then becomes stationary. The names of Attila, Tamerlane, and Genghis Khan, will at once suggest their warlike roving habits, while the condition of Japan, China, Siam and the American Indians will indicate their unprogressive nature. This race, although so capable of conquest, and of founding mighty empires, is singularly devoid of inventive genius and improvement. They have depopulated fair and flourishing lands, but have not re-peopled them. They have servilely copied the architecture of their forefathers, or of the people they have conquered. The history of their pro- gress has been ever the same ; the Scythian invasion recorded by Herodotus, or the march of Tamerlane, alike leaves traces of bloodshed and devastation in a desert, without any great work INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 11 of any kind as a monument of their power or skill. Were the Mongolian race swept from the face of the earth, they would leave but faint traces of their former existence, having no laws, no literature, no art to which, particularly, their name has been attached. As they are in civilization, so are they in educational pecu- liarities. China well illustrates this similarity. At a very early period this country appears to have risen to a certain stage in education, and then to have remained stationary in the use of an artificial and stereotyped system. The regulations, not originally devised by Confucius twenty-four centuries ago, but, as he himself states, only revised from ancient ages, and formally reduced to system, were admirable for the age in which he lived, but they are unsuitable for the present time ; yet they are rigidly adhered to. The education obtained has a great many grades, the higher grades opening the way to the possession of the civil offices of the Government. Throughout, the instruction in schools and colleges consists, to a large extent, of reading, writing, a little arithmetic, and a great deal of memorising of lists of names and events, and recitation and chanting of long passages from text books, the sense of which is little understood by the student. The Caucasian or white race is that in which the highest development has taken place, both intellectually and education- ally. The name Caucasian not being considered distinctive enough, that of Iranian has been applied to it, as Turanian to the Mongolian race. The Caucasian race occupies the central part of the old world, Western Asia extending as far as Hin- dostan, Northern Africa, the whole of Europe, and a consider- able portion of America. The complexion is fair in the tem- perate and cold regions, becoming brown in those which are hot , and the cheeks are tinged with red while greater variety of features prevails in this race than in any other. This race embraces many subdivisions, differing materially from each other. These may primarily be divided into two groups, sepa- 12 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. Tated by marked peculiarities, known as the Shemitic and Indo- European races. The name Syro-Arabian has been suggested as an improvement on Shemitic, and the name Aryan is now very properly applied as the designation of those branches of the Caucasian race formerly called Indo-European, or Indo- Germanic. The Syro-Arabian or Shemitic race of men are distinguished for brilliant imagination, ready conception of idea, and repug- nance to any constraint, whether of intellect or of person. They possess imagination in the highest degree. They have an in- tuitive conception of the beautiful, whether in idea or in mate- rial form, but have no idea of natural beauty being subjected to constraining rules. Their poetry is distinguished by spon- taneous, beautiful figures ; and in their mechanical works they naturally produce the most beautiful forms. The poor and ignorant Arab, who never heard of a rule or standard of beauty, moulds an earthenware jar for a drinking vessel in a form in which may be traced the most elegant vases of Greece and Rome, and identical with that sculptured by his refined and luxurious ancestors on the monuments of Nineveh three thou- sand years ago; and his speech consists of glowing words, expressing fanciful but appropriate figures. These qualities are innate, and not the result of cultivation. The Aryan race do not possess the power in a high degree of conceiving beautiful forms, but they readily perceive the beauty of that which is presented to them. They readily adopt from others those beauties which they have never themselves invented. They investigate the cause of the idea of beauty, and by analysis and reasoning reduce it to first principles, on which they found rules. Then by the application of these rules, they modify and improve what they have borrowed from others. Deficient in imagination as compared with the Shemitic race, they are vastly superior in reasoning powers; hence their superiority both in a national point of view and in the advancement of art. One of the Shemitic race invents, or rather intuitively conceives, INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 13 a beautiful architectural ornament, and there stops. The Greek takes up the ornament so furnished, and which lie would not have invented ; he investigates the reason why it is beautiful ; and stops not until he has developed a system of beauty in architectural structure and ornament, which, commending itself to the aesthetic sense of mankind, must continue for ever to be pleasing. From the peculiar characteristics of the Shemitic branches of the human family, we may naturally infer that they would be earnestly desirous of education, not perhaps for the highest intellectual development, but for the culture of imagination and the development of a taste for the fine arts, in a somewhat rude and primitive form. Such, as history informs us, was actually the case. On the fertile plains watered by the Tigris, the Euphrates and the Nile, the very dawn of history shows us wealthy and prosperous empires in the full possession of a written language, a class of men devoted to the cultivation and advancement of literature and science, and already an extensive knowledge of astronomy, geometry, chemistry, medicine, archi- tecture, painting, sculpture and other decorative arts, music, the working of metals, gems and ivory, and the application of many of these arts to the uses of public and domestic life. Commerce and navigation soon followed the development of home art. In later days, especially in the times of the Ptole- mies, Egypt was renowned for its schools of science, philosophy and literature, and for the formation of vast libraries. The Hebrew nation, although comparatively small as a branch of the Shemitic race, has filled a very large place in history. Under special favouring circumstances of Divine Providence they attained to a high place in literature and science. No literature of any age or nation can compare, for beauty and grandeur, with the book of Psalms, and many parts of the books of the Prophets. Solomon, apparently without the addition to his education of foreign travel, was yet a pro- digy of learning. Science and the useful arts flourished in a 14 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. high degree during the time of the Hebrew monarchy; the aesthetic and moral, however, being preferred to the intellec- tual in their training. For the higher training of those who were to fill the important civil and ecclesiastical ofiices, colle- giate schools were provided, under the name of " Schools of the Prophets." At a later period the Rabbinical schools, in both east and west, exerted a powerful influence on the world during several centuries after the Christian era. Among the Arabs, in early days, education of an intellectual kind had made little progress, but poetry was highly cultivated ; and their history was embalmed in a rude but highly picturesque poetry, which was chanted by their bards. From the days of Mohammed a new impulse was given to the Arab mind, which made it for the next six centuries the leading intellect of the world, and which exerted powerful influences of an educational kind both on that people and also on many other peoples, especially the western nations of Europe. No sooner had the first warlike fervour of the Saracens passed by, and Arabia, Palestine, Persia, part of India, Egypt and Northern Africa been subjected to the faith of Islam, than attention was turned to education. Thousands of schools were opened for elementary instruction, that the Koran might be read by all ; and higher schools were instituted for the critical study of the sacred book. Greek and Oriental learning was called in and extensively cultivated, and magnificent libraries were collected at Bagdad, Damascus and other cities. In mathematics espe- cially algebra and arithmetic astronomy, grammar, poetry, philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and natural science, they attained an eminence probably never before reached. During the seven centuries of Moslem power under the Moors of Spain, along with the display of beautiful art in architecture, schools and universities, with rich endowments, able professors, and large and valuable libraries, had sprung up. It is noted that in the reign of Ab-der-rahman III., in the tenth century, there were in Spain seventeen universities and sixty-six public libra- INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 15 ries, the celebrated university of Cordova having a library of 600,000 volumes. In the Oriental colonists of America we find the same pecu- liarities which are distinctive of the Shemitic race in the old world. Without entering on the disputed question whether the ancient Mexicans were of Phoenician, Hebrew or other origin, there is no doubt of their belonging to the Shemitic race, and, as such, quite distinct from the wandering Indians of Mongolian origin. America had been known to China and Japan, as Fu-sang, thirteen centuries ago ; the Atlantis of Plato, the Saturnian continent of Plutarch, and the Meropia of Elian, were not pure myths; there is probably some truth in the accounts of the commerce and colonizing of the Northmen in early times, and of the Welsh colony under Prince Madog, who either originated the Tuscarora tribe or became incor- porated with it ; but, after all, the western world was practically unknown to the eastern until the time of Columbus. Then, as a new and unknown people, the Mexicans were found in the use of a written hieroglyphic language, with high attainments in mathematics, architecture, &c., and a superior mental culture. With revolting religious rites there co-existed much refine- ment of manners, sublimity in the forms of worship, and a strict system of morals. An extraordinary institution among them was a tribunal, called the Council of Music, which had jurisdiction over all matters of science and art, and under whose supervision the whole education of the country appears to have been placed. The Peruvians resembled the Mexicans in many respects, but were not so far advanced in education. The Aryan race (called also Indo-European and Indo-Ger- manic) is widely diffused in different parts of the world. It established itself in Hindostan three thousand years ago; very early occupied Persia and Europe, and is in modern times planting itself by colonization in all parts of the world. If we compare the national peculiarities, the religion and the poetry of the ancient Greeks and Romans, the ancient and modern 16 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. Teutonic and Celtic nations, the Hindoos and Persians, they may, to a superficial observer, present no similarities, or even very close analogies. But the profound researches of the last few years, especially in the field of comparative philology and ethnology, have clearly shown their identity of origin and close relation in distinctive characteristics. Not only do they all possess, in common, the mental and physical peculiarities which distinguish them from the Shemitic race, but their traditions all spring from the same root. There is a grand parallelism in the myths of all, and the epic poems of India, Persia, Greece, Rome, Germany, England and Norseland, with their variety of life, heroes, wars and conquests, are in reality different versions of the same story ; and varied as these versions are by differences of climate and individual national circumstances, the origin of this story is to be found in the natural phenomena of the world, the course of the seasons of the year, and the alternations of darkness, dawn, light and twilight of the day- The mythology of the Yedic and Homeric poems contains the germs of the stories of Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian folk- lore. Among the infinite variety of shapes into which this material has been moulded by the poets and story-tellers of Greeks and Latins, Persians and Englishmen, Hindoos, Ger- mans and Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes, Frenchmen and Spaniards, the same common stock may be traced, even to the subtle distinctions of feature and character in the actors and scenes of the great drama of the powers of Nature, which is the theme of all Aryan national poetry. Distinguished for in- tellectual power and enterprise, this race are the great builders, manufacturers and merchants of the world. Their educational characteristics are in accordance with the natural. Less ima- ginative than the Shemitic race, their education has less of the aesthetic and poetic, and more of the intellectual development and solid acquirement. In ancient Greece considerable attention was paid to educa- tion, but generally it was more in the way of physical develop- INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 17 ment than intellectual culture. At Athens more attention was paid to intellectual and scientific attainments than at other places. In later days aesthetic and philosophic education became very popular ; while under the influence of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, a great advance was made in rhetoric, logic, ethics and mathematics. In these the schools of Athens and Alexandria became pre-eminent. In ancient Rome the education, so far as it went, was princi- pally moral and physical, until it came under the influence of the Greek system, which then prevailed, but not so generally as in Greece itself. As the several nations of Europe emerged from the chaos of the ruins of the Western Empire, schools and colleges began to be founded, and attention was paid to the scholastic philosophy, but there was such profound, general ignorance spread like a dark cloud over society, that little progress was made for some ages. But years rolled on. The awaking time of the Crusades had come and gone, leaving a thirst for new developments of society. There were Oriental visions and longings which in- creased the vitality of the already awakened spirit of commerce and enterprise. The people of Europe were waking up from .the night of the dark ages. The revival of learning was in progress, to which an immense impetus was given by the inven- tion of printing from movable types, and thence proceeded what may be called the modern epoch of progress and develop- ment. To the awakening of Europe succeeded the founding of an English-speaking nation in America. There could not have been a better time for such an event than that in which it took place. The seventeenth century was exceedingly rich in moral and intellectual power in England. The Puritan founders of New England were men of gigantic intellect, great learning, deep religious fervour, inflexible moral principle, and quench- less love of liberty, and the deep impress of these elements of national life were inwrought into the early life of the young nation. Hence, freed from many hinderances in the way of 18 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. progress which were inevitable in Old England, education speedily blossomed and bore abundant fruit in the new. Before the early colonists had comfortable homes to shelter themselves, they reared the church and school-house in each town, that provision for the wants of their spiritual and intellectual life might be in advance of that for their physical life. With extraordinary munificence, in their circumstances, support was provided for free common schools, grammar schools and higher seminaries of learning. Scotland was the first country in Europe to establish a complete system of parish schools for general instruction, on the principle of the property of all being liable to taxation for the erection of a school-house and teacher's dwelling. It has ample provision for obtaining a superior education, but not for carrying it on to such an extent as can be done in the universities of England. In England, at the present time, the means are ample in the universities and great endowed schools, for acquiring the highest grade of education. Owing to ecclesiastical difficulties, England is far behind some other countries in Europe in provision for the education of the masses ; but its prospects are improving. Ireland is rapidly progressing under the influence of its national system of education, which has outlived the violent opposition of extreme men among both Protestants and Roman Catholics. Established in 1831, it has had the honour of being the basis of our Ontario Public School system, and of furnishing us with masters and other officers for our Provincial Normal School.* Under its influence, the people of Ireland have made rapid pro- gress in education and general intelligence. In France, ample provision is made for superior education. If inferior to Ger- many in classical knowledge, it is superior in mathematical and physical science. Primary education was much neglected until about half a century ago. The efforts of Louis Philippe and Guizot, followed by those of succeeding rulers, have recently * T. J. Robertson, Esq., First Head Master, Provincial Normal School, Toronto ; J. G. Hodgins, Esq.. LL.D., Dep. Superint. of Education for Province of Ontario, &c. INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 19 developed a very thorough and efficient system of public schools connected with the municipal organization of the country. In Spain and Portugal, harassed by internal discord, the glory of ancient universities has passed away, and there is no system of public schools of any practical value in existence. In Italy, the former States of the Church have ample means of superior education, but are deficient in the elementary department. The former kingdom of Naples is at a low ebb. Sardinia has been since 1848 rapidly advancing so as to occupy a very respectable position. The whole of Italy is likely now to advance with rapid strides in education. Greece has, since its independence, made zealous efforts to improve, and has pro- vided a university, superior and primary schools. Denmark has for many years maintained a high standard of education. All grades of schools are provided, and the people are well educated. In Sweden and Norway the sparseness of the popu- lation presents a serious difficulty ; yet education is general and well conducted. Germany in all its States occupies a high educational position, although there is a great difference among them. Prussia, Saxony and Wurtemberg are celebrated for the thorough organization and general practical usefulness of their systems. Austria is somewhat behind Prussia, but is making advancement. Bavaria, Mecklenburg and some of the smaller States are not so far advanced. In the United States of America a great difference exists between the Northern and Southern portions, the latter being much inferior to the former. Ample provision has been made for superior education, but as yet it has not reached the high standard of that of Europe. In common and grammar schools the Eastern, Middle and Western States occupy a distinguished position, both in the wide diffusion of elementary education, and in the development of intellectual activity. In Canada, we have in Ontario an organization, of which an American writer says that " it is unsurpassed in its results, for attendance 20 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. and intellectual progress, by any in the world." The other Provinces are behind Ontario, but are rapidly improving. We cannot particularize further, and must turn to some general considerations. Among all the various branches of the Aryan race, there is much mingling of sub-varieties. The result of this is often the production of a character highly con- ducive to improvement and advancement. For example, the British race, at home, in the colonies, and in the United States of America, mingles the patient enduring spirit of the Saxon, the refined moral perception, grace and politeness of the Norman, and the fortitude, perseverance and impulsiveness of the Celt, together with many other peculiarities derived from the smaller intermingling of Phoenician, Roman, Danish and other elements. Such a race is pre-eminently fitted for overcoming difficulties, advancing enterprise, commerce and agriculture, making improvements, cultivating art and science, and attain- ing the highest intellectual position which education can aid in producing. Closely connected with education are questions of language and religion. Tracing back language to its earliest records, we find in the vast drifting desert of human speech, three oases which have been early formed, and in which, before history began, language assumed a more stable form. These were the Turanian, Shemitic and Aryan. In these, language was arrested and became solid and petrified. In the first it assumed a form mono-syllabic and agglutinate; in the second, radical; and in the third, inflectional. And concomitantly with this fixing of language was the fixing of three independent settlements of religion. In China, where we have the earliest record of Turanian speech, we find an ancient, colourless and unpoetical religion, which may be called mono-syllabic, consisting of the worship of single spirits, representing the sky, the sun, storms and lightnings, mountains and rivers, standing side by side, with nothing to bind them together; also the worship of ancestral spirits : while above all there towers a lofty range of half reli- INTRODUCTORY ETUNOLOGICAL ESSAY. 21 gious, half philosophical faith, a belief in two powers, variously applied, but originally meaning heaven and earth. In the ancient worship of the Shemitic races we find names of God, which appear in the polytheistic religions of the Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, as well as in the mono-theistic creeds of Jews, Christians and Mohammedans. The worship of these nations is a worship of God in history that is, as wielding the destinies of men, races and nations, rather than of the powers of nature. The names applied to God are generally expressive of moral qualities, such as Strong, Exalted, Lord, King. In the ancient worship of the Aryan race, carried to all parts of the earth by its adventurous sons, and which may be easily recognized in the classic remains of Greece and Rome, the valleys of India, or the forests of Germany, by the common names of the Divine Being, these names are expressive of the powers of nature. Their worship is, however, not a worship of nature, but of God in nature, as God hidden behind the veil of nature, rather than behind the veil of the human heart. As the races spread, and the true meaning of words was gradually lost, errors crept in; figurative language came to be understood literally; the Divine powers were transferred into many objects of worship; and widespread systems of idolatry gradually became developed. The early worshippers of India, who wor- shipped the Great Father in heaven, and the supreme power in nature, and even the writers of the Rig- Veda, who were begin- ning to lose their hold on the Divine, by the multiplication of epithets and names, would be astounded were they to witness the horrors of the durga pujah, the great festival of the goddess Kali, or contemplate the gigantic system of mythology of modern India, the most gorgeously developed and elaborated which the world has seen, with its 330,000,000 idols. Christianity, by birth a Shemitic religion, has spread most widely among the Aryan race. In Christianity, therefore, we have now the highest blossoming, or rather fruitage, of the whole religious idea or life of both of the great branches of the 22 INTRODUCTORY ETHNOLOGICAL ESSAY. Caucasian stock, and the mightiest power on earth for the development of the highest faculties of man. The human mind held by such a power, anchored to communion with its Father in heaven, and thoroughly awakened to research, will speedily overturn and sweep away^old superstitions, and build up a solid and enduring structure of religion and learning. Effete creeds, whether religious, scientific or educational, must pass away ; and nothing will stand which cannot bear the fullest blaze of light. Our branch of the human race is des- tined to higher and higher developments, to mightier achieve- ments than the world has yet witnessed, and the highest develop- ing power of education is required that we may fill our destined place on the arena of the world. The following work has been prepared by an experienced and successful Teacher, and as such, its conclusions are not to be regarded as merely theoretical, but as the results of actual experiment and practice. Mr. Le Yaux has made educa- tion, both theoretical and practical, the great study of his life. He has devoted to it the resources of a mind thoroughly trained in a wide range of general scientific knowledge, and a rich acquaintance with human life, derived from extensive travel and observation ; to all which he has added the practice of his theories in the actual organization and government of various grades of schools. I can with much pleasure, as well as with much confidence in the soundness of the principles and practice laid down in the book, cordially commend it to the reading public as a valuable addition to the educational literature of the day. GEOKGE BELL, LL.D. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. PAET I. FIRST PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Napoleon Bonaparte, while in exile at Elba, was asked Anecdotes by one of the ladies of his miniature Court if he would be a pleased to favour her with his opinion as to " What France needed most 1 " Placing one hand in his bosom and the other behind his back, the Emperor reflected for a moment, and then, looking earnestly at his fair companion, he replied in his usual grave and emphatic style " Mothers." Abra- ham Lincoln's answer to a similar question, though not so laconic, was equally suggestive. An English friend who had an interview with Mr. Lincoln the day preceding his assassination, after congratulating him on the apparent advent of peace, took the liberty of asking " What he con- ceived to be the best prescription for restoring order and prosperity in the prostrate South ? " No threatening words or angry reproaches escaped the lips of the venerable Presi- dent. The loving parent of a disobedient family, he was ever ready "to kill the fatted calf" and to receive "the penitent prodigal" to his bosom. While the question was being proposed, he approached one of the windows : feelings of sorrow seemed to agitate his heart ; but after looking out on the clear blue sky for a moment, his mind was cheered with more pleasant ideas, and a smile of benevolence lighted 24 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. up his countenance. "Mr. B ," said he, "the query you. propose is natural under the circumstances. It has engrossed my attention for some time. We must proclaim a liberal amnesty and establish good schools, and then the best prescription we can offer the South will be efficient teachers." Good mo- Both Napoleon and Lincoln were right. Their conclu- efficient sion, judged by the light of after events, proves that they thoroughly understood " the situation," and were fully con- scious of the great wants of their respective countries. But what was true of France and the Southern States is, to some extent, true of the whole world. Every race and nation need good mothers, and every people, whether civilized or barbarous, require efficient teachers. Upon these benefac- tors mothers and teachers depend the temporal and spiritual welfare of the present and all future generations. History tells us that all the great nations of antiquity had great mothers and great teachers. Every student knows that those States which had the best mothers and most efficient teachers, always subdued or annexed their less in- telligent or less worthy rivals. Recent events in Europe and America point to the same fact. The North overcame the South, because it had more excellent teachers than its rival ; or, rather, the South over-indulged its selfish pro- pensities, and rushed into a fratricidal contest, because its people were not sufficiently educated to know their own interests. Then, again, Germany has dismembered France, because the women of "Vaterland" were more excellent wives and mothers than those of Gaul. We feel assured, moreover, that there would have been no war in either case had the mothers and teachers on both sides been equally worthy. First A child's education commences when it first smiles in lessons. . response to its mother s caresses. It unconsciously receives many lessons from those who listen to or applaud its first THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 25> efforts to speak. Children acquire a knowledge of men's character and disposition by indulgence in a natural impulse which impels them to study the human face. They shrink from the clouded brow, but experience much delight when they perceive by the countenance that they have succeeded in exciting expressions of pleasure in the hearts of their friends. Feelings of kindness, and perhaps self-satisfaction, induce them to repeat what they believe to have given pleasure. Though this desire to please is an amiable and praiseworthy quality, it is, nevertheless, liable to many abuses, and should therefore be guided by reason and culti- vated with caution. While giving the child its due meed of praise or approval, we should occasionally direct attention to his errors, and be careful to check egotistical displays. During the days of infancy, the mother, by her " teachings Mothers- and influence," instils into the heart or incites in the mind teachers, of the child the germs of those characteristics which, in time to come, will distinguish him (or her) from all the world besides. In after years it becomes the teacher's peculiar province to invigorate those characteristics, and so develop the mental, moral and physical powers as to fix indelibly the noble impressions first made by the dearest and kindest of earthly friends. It is from mothers alone that children will learn as if by instinct, and in early childhood they are therefore the best of all teachers. But as time rolls on, and the child merges into the boy, or the boy into the man, the nature of our institutions (in conjunction with domestic or public duties and the want of special teaching skill) compel the parent to delegate his (or her) educational powers and privileges to another. That other the teacher, tutor or preceptor is thus constituted the locum tenens of the parent, and becomes forthwith his representative in all scholastic matters; not the representative of one particular parent, but of all the parents whose children are committed to his charge. 3 26 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. The parental It will be seen that the teacher, by reason of his special substitute. . . . . , , - , ., , training and experience, must be far more skilful as an educator than each individual parent could possibly be. In the division of labour of his little community, the educational interests have been committed to his care. He is, for the time being, the common parent of his pupils, and will treat them as if they were really his own children. To be suc- cessful in his calling, he must perfectly understand the nature of the materials on which he is to act ; he must be ^acquainted with all the best and most approved methods of teaching, and be expert and skilful in using them ; he must sympathize with humanity, and enthusiastically devote him- self to his work. His responsibility is much greater than that of any individual parent, inasmuch as his " collective family" is much larger than that of any particular "lionae circle." Mutual ^e au th or ity of * ne parent and teacher are patriarchal, duties. an( j O some extent inseparable. It is the bounden duty of the one to uphold and extend the influence of the other. Their interests are mutual and their hopes similar, if not identical. Children are easily managed when they feel that their parents and teachers understand each other, and work together in harmony and unity for their individual welfare. There should be no "clashing of authority;" parents and teachers must support each other. Anything like antagonism, or doubts and fears, would nullify the labours of both, and engender a tendency to rebellion and obstinacy. This would injure the pupils for time perhaps for eternity and pre- vent them from becoming amiable men and women, good and worthy citizens. Amongst the Greeks and Romans there was no profession so highly honoured as that of the educators of youth; and we understand that the modern Dutch and Germans exhibit a similar appreciation of that useful calling. It will soon be so in every civilized com- munity. Parents are becoming conscious of the fact that if THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 27 they wish their children to make " the largest amount of progress in the shortest space of time," they must teach them by example to love education and revere educators. "The great mind of the people," says Canning, "is becom- ing impressed with the idea that no office can compare in dignity, solemnity and public importance with that of the trainer and educator of youth ; that skill to fashion the intellects of the young, and ability to lead them in the paths of truth and virtue are worth more than the knowledge of all other arts and sciences together, and that the encourage- ment of accomplished teachers is therefore the first and noblest duty of every intelligent community." The teacher is the life of the school. Its value, its efficiency, its success, depends on his personaUcharacter and professional qualifica- tions. Commissioners and School Corporations may erect beautiful and commodious schools, furnishing them in the most approved style, but such labours will be comparatively fruitless unless the teachers employed be worthy of their vocation. Many of our Public Schools possess well stocked libraries, museums and philosophical apparatus, but these are lifeless and comparatively useless unless made effectual through the living agency of mind ; the direct intervention of men, apt to teach, skilful in illustrations and happy in application. A few teachers, eminent in professional know- ledge, skilful to understand, quicken, and direct the pupils' minds, are worth more than a whole army of unskilled and inexperienced men, even though favoured with every desirable extraneous aid The banker, the merchant, the farmer and the mechanic Edxicatkm.a work on earthly and perishable materials, and by fair means noble work> or foul, endeavour to secure a competency, if not to accumu- late wealth. How different is the work of the teacher 1 ? He works upon the living principle the immortal mind, and his wealth is seldom of this world. It is his province and privilege to excite, draw out, cherish, develop and build 28 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. up the divine fabric of the intellect ; to cultivate the finer feelings of the heart; to influence the morals of his generation ; to promote peace and proclaim the rights of man. His pro- fession is connected with time and eternity with the present, past and future ; its results are everlasting, its effects indeli- ble. Teaching is a noble work, worthy of the holiest charac- ter, of the highest intellect, and of the greatest skill. Ever foremost in wisdom, piety, and virtue, the literary and other qualifications of the educator should always be in advance of the age in which he lives, for great indeed are his responsi- bilities. He who spake as man never spake, even the Prince of Life, lived and died as a teacher, and His last words, " Go and teach all nations," are still ringing in our ears. The soul, the mind, the materials on which the teacher labours are everlasting, and said to be the express image of the Creator. His work is therefore the noblest in which man can be engaged. Much is required of teachers, but in the midst of their trials and annoyances let them consider the dignity and public utility of their calling, and remember that, unlike the generality of men, they can lift up their heads at any time and say, " We follow the profession of the Great Teacher. We also are apostles and co-labourers with Him who said, ' Suffer little children to come unto Me and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of God.' " CHAPTER II. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TEACHER. Teachers characters generation. Teachers form the character of each succeeding generation. They cannot fail to transmit their characteristics. They are BUre to leave their impression on the plastic minds of their pupils. The teacher can move the hearts of the young for good or evil, just as the evening zephyrs move the leaves of THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 29 the forest trees. His acts and words, ideas and precepts are imprinted on their little hearts, as faithfully as the impression of a seal on softened wax. Neither time nor eternity can ever efface these mental impressions. Once made, they remain a blessing or a curse for ever. Accord- ing as these impressions are good or evil, the pupils in after years emblazon or dim their country's fame, causing it to shine with the brightness of the mid-day sun, or to hide its head in a gloom blacker than Egyptian darkness. The influence of such youthful impressions is experienced at home and abroad in all the events of existence, and after inciting, encouraging or restraining the child, the youth and the man, through all the varied and transitory scenes of life they probably accompany the enfranchised spirit into the world beyond the grave, clothing it with peculiar char- acteristics through all the countless ages of eternity. In all the avocations of life, there is probably no position Responsi- in which the responsibilities are so great, nor is there any b in which so much real permanent good, or enduring evil, can be done, as in that of the teacher. It is an old and true saying that " example is better than precept." They labour in vain who teach by precept and not by example. As a rule, example should always precede, or accompany precept. The precept should be the expression of the example, as the rule in mathematics is the expression of the principle. The person who does not teach by example is not an educator, and does not deserve success. " Do as I say but not as I do," should never be the motto of the teacher, for of all the powers at his command, that of example (or of setting- examples) is the most influential. The habits acquired in school are those which. generally The habits characterize the pupils in after life. These characteristics, Sidex^f 8 &I taken collectively, indicate what the prestige of the nation ^ fllture will be in years to come. In the public school we may see the character of the future nation in embryo, and send it 30 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. clown to posterity stamped with our imprimatur. How anxiously should we endeavour to fashion it so that it may be admired of man and commended by God. The germs of some characteristics are born with the child ; others are in- stilled into his mind during the days of infancy. When he is transferred to the care of the public teacher they are still in a crude state ready for training, ripe for extensive develop- ment, and it becomes the bounden duty of the educator to cultivate them to their utmost capacity, eliminating the evil, strengthening the good, and faithfully performing every duty to the best of his^ ability. Successful teaching, like successful preaching, is always accompanied by example. If desirous of success the teacher, like the early preachers of the Gospel, must be a living model of the doctrines he inculcates. There must be no hypocrisy about him he must be thoroughly in earnest. Every word, deed, and even the expression of his face have their effect for good or evil on the imitative beings committed to his charge. Power of Example is infectious. It reigns supreme in early youth aSi m of lc ' an d childhd, as the imitative powers are then far stronger youthful than reason or judgment. Benjamin West declared that a imprewionk. > kiss from his mother had made him a painter ; an approving smile from Madame Bonaparte made her illustrious son a soldier and an emperor ; a story related by his teacher made Livingston a traveller. So is it in every stage of life ; & look, a word, an act, a smile, or a frown, from those we love- from teacher, parent, or friend may influence our destiny for time and eternity. " A pebble or a few grains of sand often decide whether the rain-drops falling on the crest of the Rocky Mountains shall flow westward to the Pacific Ocean or eastward to the Atlantic."* So is it in life ; the most insignificant circumstance affects individual character, and often originates events which decide whether the innocent child is to be a patriotic hero or a " worthless sot" an angel * JRuv. George Bell, LL.D. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 31 or a demon. The influence of youthful impressions being immortal and indelible, it is impossible to calculate the result of their prospective or immediate effects. It is the teacher's peculiar province to make such enduring impressions. Next to parents, no other human being possesses such power for good or evil over the youthful mind. How extremely careful should he be therefore that they may be such as shall be conducive to the welfare of the immortal beings entrusted to his care. " Life is such as we take it and make it, or rather, as it is taken hold of and made for us by those to whom the care of our youthful days is entrusted."* The children of the present will be the fathers, mothers, teachers, authors, lawgivers and rulers of the future.. Their character depends on their education, and that depends on our modern educators. Let our teachers then "be up and doing," remem- bering that tney labour for posterity. Recognizing "no standard of superior worth but wisdom, truth, and nobleness of soul," let them commence the exercise of their influence over the young by looking well to their personal example, manner, and general temper by becoming the right kind of men themselves ; not indolent, cold, selfish, cruel or irreve- rent, but brave, faithful, gentle and self-sacrificing : all the How to powers of their intellect, all the energies of their hearts and souls being consecrated to their work. Under the light and influence of these aspirations the teacher's enthusiasm will be caught up by his pupils. It is sure to impel them to make such efforts as will deserve, even if they do not ensure, success. Having chosen his sphere, and engendered this laud- able spirit amongst his pupils, let him pursue a straight- forward course, not deviating therefrom to the light hand or the left, and ere many years elapse he will be sure to discover that there are grander objects of ambition than worldly prosperity or individual wealth. Though his road be dark and slippery at first, it will gradually brighten, and * Nathaniel an of superior worth, and pointing out the duties they owe to humanity in general, he should never forget to claim their filial reverence for old age in particular. Let it be a point of etiquette with them nay, let it be the rule of their daily life to " rise up before the hoary head and honour the face of the old man." An anecdote "W"e may be excused if we digress for a moment to relate legend. ' an anecdote which will illustrate the spirit of the foregoing quotation an anecdote exhibiting clearly what we mean by true politeness, whilst it affords an example worthy of imitation by the youth of all generations. On a certain memorable occasion, in days gone by, a number of Greeks assembled at an Athenian theatre to see the performance of " a star" a primitive Shakspeare doubtless. The actor was popular and "drew a crowded house." The Spartan ambassador and his suite happened to be present. They occupied seats opposite those allotted to, or engaged by, the Athenian aristocracy. Before the play commenced, or dur- ing one of the intermissions, it happened that an old man a citizen of Athens came in. He surveyed the audience THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 45 for a moment, but though his head was white with the snows of age, and a staff supported his feeble form, yet no one offered him a seat in truth, there seemed to be no seats vacant. However, the young Athenian aristocrats, seeing his position, resolved to have a j oke at his expense. They therefore pretended to make place for him, and made signs inviting him to come amongst them and be seated. He bowed in reply, and walked to the place indicated, but when \ about to sit down, "the wags" closed on either side and re- occupied the vacant space. They then winked at each other and laughed at the chagrin of the old man. The cheeks of the gallant young Spartans burned with shame and indig- nation as they observed this rude and insolent "performance," For a moment they gazed at each other in amazement, and Spartan courtesy. then, as if moved by one will, every man of them rose and remained standing whilst one of their number went over to the old gentleman, and, bowing reverently, begged permis- sion to conduct him to a seat. The old man complied, and, leaning on the arm of the noble youth, crossed to the other side of the house, where he was cordially received by the ambassador and requested to take the most honourable seat. The comfort of the old patriarch being thus secured, the Spartans quietly resumed their seats and turned their atten- tion to the stage. After a moment's silence, a mighty cheer shook the foun- courtesy dation of the theatre. The audience " were struck by the reco * nized - little adventure," and took this method of showing their appreciation of such noble conduct. The gallant Spartans smiled with inward satisfaction, but the rude Athenians, now blushing at their own behaviour, held down their heads with shame. Both parties had received their reward remorse was the lot of the one, and an approving conscience the glory of the other. When the cheers had died away, the worthy old gentleman arose and, after thanking the kind "foreigners" for their 46 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. attention and example, expressed his regret that his fellow- citizens knowing what was right, did what was wrong; but that nevertheless, he was glad to find "the Spartans practised what the Athenians knew." Thenceforth Lacedemonian courtesy was praised in the patriot homes of Greece, and every citizen felt proud of his Spartan countrymen. By that one act these young Spartans set a worthy example to the youth of every generation, and made the world their debtors for time and eternity. Young friends do you approve of their conduct 1 ? If so, " Go, and do likewise." Macaulay, referring to this anecdote, writes as follows : * In Athens, ere its sun of fame had set, 'Midst pomp and show the gazing crowds were met, Intent for ever upon something new The mimic wonders of the stage to view, The seats were filled, but ere the show began, A stranger entered 'twas an aged man. Awhile he sought a place with aspect mild, The young Athenians sat and smiled. How poor the produce of fair learning's tree, That bears no fruit of sweet humility. The Spartan youths had their appointed place Apart from Athen's more distinguished race, And rose with one accord, intent to prove To honoured age their duty and their love ; Nor did a Spartan youth his seat resume Till the old man found due and fitting room. Then came the sentence of reproof and praise, Stamped with the sternness of ancient days ; For, standing full amidst the assembled crowd, The venerable stranger cried aloud ; " The Athenians learn their duty well ; but lo ! The Spartans practise what the Athenians know." The words were good, and in a virtuous cause They quickly earned a nation's glad applause But we have surer words of precept given In God's own Book the words that came from Heaven : " Be kind, be courteous, be all honour shown Seek others' welfare rather than thine own." Amiability Tne teacher's face, like the full moon in an azure sky, ??un i8P 8i " should, if possible, be always bright and pleasant-looking. Smiles, like sunbeams, should light up his countenance so * Condensed from original. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 47 that all with whom he comes in contact may, for the time being at least, be made to feel comfortable and happy. His aim should be to "Attract all and repel none." He must remember that to teach self-control by example, it is neces- sary that he should not allow the trials incident to life, and to his profession, to ruffle his countenance or influence his actions. An amiable disposition, a smiling countenance, and an engaging manner, never fail to warm into life the generous affections of the human heart, whilst they dispel the moonless gloom which so frequently besets the paths of both young and old. For these reasons, and others too numerous to men- tion, we should carefully cultivate those agreeable personal characteristics. Teachers should be particularly careful never to upbraid Not to up- a pupil with his (or her) mental or physical defects. It is with their not consistent with refined feeling or Christian principle to physical do so. On the contrary, his interest in and kindness towards such parties should be the more marked in consequence of these defects. Children, naturally irritable, selfish or obsti- nate, like those who are blind and deformed, are objects of pity and compassion. They are unfortunate in being subject to infirmities and misfortunes which can only be overcome by peculiar management, aided by sympathy and encourage- ment. Mental or physical deformities are heavy burdens, and perpetual censure (besides being useless in itself) only adds to the crushing weight of these afflictions. Let children be assisted in overcoming unpleasant natural peculiarities, and not abused for the misfortune of having inherited them. They are naturally weak, and should be treated with extreme tenderness. Mental defects and the singularities of manner peculiar to any pupil should be mentioned to him in private, and they never should be alluded to in the presence of his companions. When addressing a pupil the teacher should not gaze on, or appear to notice, any physical defects with which he may be afflicted. To do so would be inconsistent 48 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. with gentlemanly feeling, and might be the cause of unneces- sary pain. No vulgar jests, no coarseness of language, no disagreeable epithets, and no profanity should ever stain the lips of the teacher. His language should always be pure, accurate and chaste a model worthy of adoption and imitation by the innocent beings committed to his charge. Absence of It has been well said that " Children's happiness depends on kindness, the attitude assumed towards them by their comrades more than on anything else in the school, and a great part of the misery which they have to endure is what they inflict on each other. .... The chief violations of the spirit of kindness which will come under the teacher's notice are these : a selfish want of sympathy in the misfortunes that befal others; a disobliging spirit, which churlishly refuses to accommodate others . . . want of courtesy in speech and manner; nick-naming, which wounds the feelings of others ; the playing of practical jokes to their detriment or inconvenience ; tyranny on the part of the strong towards the weak ; ridicule of the poor or deformed ; and cruelty to animals. Much apparent unkindness amongst children arises from thoughtlessness ; they do not consider the consequences of their words or actions, or they have not imagination enough to realize them. . . . The training to kindness consists in the training to considerateness."* The teacher should gradually seek to foster in them the disposition to do good to others independent of its direct consequence to themselves to do good for the love of doing it ; and though he cannot force the development of kindness, he can and should restrain oppression. Pupils should be led to see that the duties or life are mutual, that they should bear with each other's infirmities, and be guided in all things by the word of Him who said: "Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you even so do unto them." * Currie. THE SCIENCE AND AET OF TEACHING. 49 Aristides "the Just," and "Honest" Old Abe of the West, To be . honest, just have become household names. The former title speaks to and true, us of Grecian worth and gratitude ; the latter quaint cogno- men expresses the affectionate regard of a great nation for one of her noblest sons. These are two of the most noble titles that can designate a human being two of which every teacher should endeavour to be worthy. Every man and woman should cultivate, and endeavour to unite in them- selves, these two characteristics ; but in no person is their combination so necessary as in the teacher. Strictly just and honest in all his dealings, he should always use the words of truth and soberness; for if honour, truth and justice were banished from all the world besides, they should find refuge in the heart of the teacher. It has been said that people gradually grow into the likeness of that upon which they constantly gaze mental or physical. For this reason, if for no other, they should carefully foster all the nobler sentiments of the heart by the daily practice of bene- volent deeds. Following the higher instincts of their nature they should surround themselves, so far as possible, with objects calculated to cultivate the taste, elevate the mind, and excite good and pleasurable emotions. If there be any truth in the foregoing statements (and there is) it follows that the constant " worship" of honesty and justice will secure our happiness in early youth, and crown our old age with wreaths of purity and peace. " There is (says a learned writer) something very admoni- Regularity J and punc- tory and awe-inspiring in the punctuality of God in His tuaiity. universe and in His providence. The laughing stars know their courses and rejoice to run them. The moon, ever true to her seasons, duly observes her time to wax and her time to wane. The great sun himself never forgets his time to rise, nor his time to set." Onwards for ever roll the heavenly orbs on high, never a moment late in fulfilling their appointed courses. Teachers, parents, pupils, friends, let us take a 50 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. lesson from the works of Nature, and make " Punctuality and Regularity" the rule of our lives. It has been well said that " the standard of a school depends sensitively on the regularity and punctuality of every person in it but more especially on the regularity and punctuality of its teachers."* A teacher should be regular and punctual in all his dealings and undertakings, no matter what others may be. It behoves him to be a bright example of these virtues not for his own sake alone, but for the sake of those imitative beings committed to his charge. Unless his actions exemplify his precepts, he cannot with propriety insist on their observance by others. He who neglects to practice what he teaches or preaches is, at best, but a recruiting agent for the already numerous army of hypocrites. His tongue says one thing and his actions say another of opposite or different import, so that he is divided against himself, and therefore his teaching "cannot stand." The rules a teacher makes, and the precepts he utters, are as binding on himself as they are on the pupils. The teacher, as well as the taught, must be subject to the common law of the school. If possible he should never be late in his attendance. As a rulo, he should arrive at least ten minutes before the time fixed for the commencement of business, and he should dis- miss the pupils punctually "when their time is up." If he be not regular and punctual himself, how can he insist on others being so ? especially when these others are little children. " Method is the hinge of business," and there can be no method without punctuality, and no progress without regularity and continuity of application. Lord Pal- The late Viscount Palmerston stated on one occasion to a opinion. deputation, comprising some members of the Royal College of Preceptors, that "if there were any class of men who could or should know everything, that class were teachers ; for (continued he) they can never know too much." No *Bey. Dr. Ryerson. THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 51 man has known, or ever can know, all the branches of knowledge at least not in this world. A teacher must be ever on the qui vive, always learning, always studying he can never know enough; or as Palmerston said, "he can never know too much." The first-class teacher should know, or endeavour to know, the whole circle of knowledge ; but more especially those branches which are of daily use in his vocation. In the grand march of intellect and science, he Teachers to should lead instead of being led. Fixing his eye on the march of star of his country, his great and paramount object should be to train up the youth of his fold, so that they may be good and worthy citizens an honour to him and a credit to themselves during the long years to come. Such a teacher will be affectionately remembered when lying in his grave. The teacher should always recollect that if he be acquainted with all the branches of knowledge except one which he should know, he may be said to be an ignorant man. In order that an edifice may be substantial, the foundation must be sound. A teacher's knowledge of the higher and more advanced subjects may, in many cases, be regarded as an accomplishment ; but, in all cases, a thorough knowledge of the elementary branches is absolutely necessary. How- ever, learning alone will not make an efficient teacher, nor enable him to overcome the many difficulties peculiar to his position. As already pointed out, there are sundry other requisites of a personal nature, which, if he does not naturally possess, he must endeavour to acquire amongst these we must give a prominent place to good sound common sense ; a quality which implies the power of looking at things in their ordinary nature and relations, irrespective of their connections or associations with ourselves or our interests. Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scholars ever To beware of pride and England or any other country produced, yet, during the vanity. evening of his life, he repeatedly stated that he appeared to himself as a little child picking pebbles on the shore, whilst 52 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. the great and boundless ocean of knowledge and truth spread out unexplored before him. These were the sentiments of a philosopher of a true Christian of a great and noble, yet a meek and humble, man. Sir Isaac, notwithstanding all his learning, was a mere child in his own eyes ever ready and anxious to learn more. This should be the spirit of the true teacher, and with the false ones we would have no com- munication. The teacher should avoid self-sufficiency and false pride as he would avoid Satan, and, like Sir Isaac, be ever ready to learn something new something useful. The wisest man that ever lived even Solomon himself was but a mere cadet in knowledge. How therefore can any sensible man be a pedant? too proud to learn more too vain to profit by the experience of others. Teachers, as a class, should certainly be the best scholars of the age ; but if, in consequence of their superior knowledge, they (or any of them) be puffed up with vanity, pedantry, false pride and self-conceit, they are unfit for their calling unworthy of the name of educators. We cannot see how any human being, not the victim of a diseased imagination, can be guilty of such follies. A teacher should possess a sound mind and a sound body, and by practising such vanities, or pursuing such bubbles, he unintentionally indicates that he is per- sonally conscious of the existence of a defect or imperfection in one or both whilst he, unconsciously perhaps, degrades himself in the estimation of his fellow-men, and thereby brings contempt on his profession. Learning always endows those who possess it with a certain superiority above their fellows a superiority which will be duly acknowledged by people in every rank in life, provided it be accompanied with no absurd pretensions or ridiculous airs. Modesty seldom fails to charm. We should never allow self-deception to swamp the faculties of reason and judgment. Be we ever so good or great, still there is ample space for improvement. There is no real or genuine comfort in considering ourselves better than we really are. Let us be blind to our own THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 53 merits, and leave the perception and appreciation of them to others. All men, at best, are but dust and ashes. In one sense, all had the same beginning, and all will have the same end. It has been well said that " the greatest and best men mentioned in history were the most humble" the most forgetful of self, and the least given to foolish parade. So it has been, and will be in every age. Humility and personal worth are inseparable. CHAPTER V. KNOWLEDGE TO BE REPLENISHED. The Falls of Niagara would soon cease to exist were the Teachers t his labours 1 Every word he speaks should be fraught with meaning, and every sentence he utters should more clearly develop the ideal of his mind. The skilful teacher is a "mind artist," whose works will influence the world for good, and leave their impression on the history of our race. The unskilful teacher is just the reverse he may influence the world for evil more or less in proportion to his mental calibre. He may be likened to the novice who would attempt to chisel an Apollo or a Venus from a marble block. His highest efforts would be at best but a series of failures or painful blunders blunders that probably could never be remedied so far as that block of marble may be concerned. How much more irreparable would be the errors of the blundering teacher ] How many blocks of marble would be worth one good citizen one immortal soul 1 ? Other labourers 66 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Future reward. A perfect man uni- son of culture. may blunder, and perhaps destroy the materials on which they labour, but the teacher cannot afford to do so. A thousand diamonds, each the size of the world, could not buy one of the little souls entrusted to his care. How absolutely necessary is it, therefore, that before commencing his professional duties he should have correct ideas of his work, and be fully posted in the best and most approved methods of performing it ? The teacher who possesses these qualifications, and avails himself of every opportunity of turning them to good account in the interest of the public, will surely command success, and in days to come " many shall rise up and call him blessed." It has been well said that " he who labours for others, forgetful of selfish interests, is sure of immortality." Man was designed to be " perfect after his kind " in his physical as well as in his mental and moral natures : not in one only, but in the whole three together. No man can be perfect after his kind who does not possess a benevolent heart, a vigorous mind, and a healthy body. It is the due development and "proportional combination" of these charac- teristics which constitute a " whole man." It is a well- known fact that persons friendly to education have often affirmed thtit during the early years of childhood the physical powers should be allowed to develop themselves, unchecked by the tempering restraints involved in the exercise of the other two. Others again have held that the mental faculties of children should engross all attention to the exclusion of the physical and moral powers, whilst a third party (equally earnest) make a similar affirmation with respect to the moral feelings. These three views are equally erroneous. Nature and experience inform us that the true course consists of a due combination of the whole three. All of them are equally important, so that none of them should be placed " afore or after the other " in the order of culture. Their development should be contemporaneous. From infancy up, the respective THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 67 mental faculties, physical powers and moral feelings, should be carefully attended to, so that, being called forth into harmonious action, none may flourish at the expense of the other. It will be seen from the foregoing that those who consider education to be the mere art of carrying children through a certain programme of intellectual studies, are grievously in error as to the right meaning of that science, whose object is to develop, " perfect men and women" out of the crude material so characteristic of childhood and youth. If we were to watch an icicle from the commencement of Jj he f a i rv well-furnished, well-arranged, comfortable influences, g^oo^ enlarges the perceptive faculties, captivates the heart, generates cheerful emotions, fosters taste, and has a special tendency to render the minds of children susceptible to the precepts of the teacher. Broken windows, broken desks, "lame" benches, wet walls, damp or uneven floors, and rooms too hot or too cold, have a contrary effect. No mat- ter what "economical" trustees say to the contrary, the quality of the building and furniture have a most powerful effect on the minds and bodies of teachers and pupils. How can a sweet little child like to spend five or six hours every day in a building which has a cheerless exterior and a gloomy interior ? It would be strange, indeed, if such sen- sitive and innocent little creatures did not look upon such schools as men look upon asylums and jails, or as sheep would look on the shambles, were they endowed with reason. Bright children love a school which is bright inside and bright outside. The building should be a handsome one comfortably furnished, large, cheerful -looking, exhibiting artistic taste in all its arrangements a model of neatness THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 10T and convenience. Everything connected with the institution should bear evidence of refined taste. While speaking of this subject, we will take the liberty Personal of stating that personal neatness is one of the primary essentials in a good teacher. It is a necessary qualification, a cardinal virtue, which no educator can afford to neglect. He must insist on its practice by his pupils, and be careful to exhibit it in his own person. Success in teaching depends, in no small measure, on the observance of this rule. Next to cleanliness, there is scarcely any other personal characteristic so essential in the practice of education. Create an intellectual atmosphere in the school, so that honour, truth, and justice may " flourish like trees planted beside rivers of water." Then strive to make the class- rooms cheerful and attractive, and let the teachers endeavour to acquire similar characteristics. Success will then depend on the good sense of the community, and the generosity or justice of trustees. A quiet, gentlemanly (or ladylike) manner should be the Manner of leading characteristics of boys (and girls) in school. The school*, behaviour of all should be gentle and unassuming. Each pupil should possess a business-like air, and during business hours a general calm should reign throughout the respective departments. The teacher should tolerate no conversation in the desks during school sessions, and, when "hearing a class," he should never allow one pupil to interrupt another, or two to speak at the same time. Then, a pleasing calm, a genial quietness, a salutary restraint, will pervade the whole school thus increasing the comfort of the pupils and the efficiency of the teachers. While giving a lesson, a teacher should be all life and Teacher to animation. We do not mean to imply that he should lee- beanimate| >ria ll ii- (he lead in? ideas or " landmarks " MS ill v pre:;enled themselves to his menial vision; how, by means of reflection, he -would mange these ideas in natural and logical order, and then lay them up for future use in (he storehouse of his under- Htanding. By these moans, ho will load his pupils to study in a philosophical inaimor, and much \;ilual>Ie time \\ill he M:I\I-.I \\hieh \\ould otherwise U- lo::|. or \\a;;ied (<> no pur pose. If it pupil, having a thirst for knowledge, /:-mwv; June to study ariyht, and has a clear idea of what he should study, ho is sure to become a learned man. If MM- habit <>!' think ing justly, and strongly, Im formed :>t :in curly n^n, l-ho cii-- ciiin:-! ::n ,-:. ol' till.i:-' lit',- will, of ! 1 1< Mi r : -1 \ ::, c;iir\ on (Jir great work of personal improvement. gi.allty Ami One hook studied woll, and properly "digested," will 1(5 of IIIOI-M real s. i \ iee to him than would a hundred studied ouraorily and without order or reflection. Quality will always toll against quantity, .For thcao reaaoiiH, the y/m// ncr and quality of study are far more important than the matter and quantity far more essential to the ri-hl . de\ e| opnient of (he faenliie:; and lh,- projv.-r eidtix ;il ion of literary taste. UHRIIW to When the teacher nnderl.Mken to -\pIain a subject, ho he PHI. .iii.l lui|ik>. should he careful to use lan^ua-'e which will he intelli.ufihle to children. In fancy he must, descend to the level of (heir mental capacity .standing henide t hem as one of themselves; and from (hal point, ^a/e in inia^inal ion on (lieeau-e or causes of their perplexity. lie \\ill then see the respretive difficulties as children see them, and be able to explain each in its natural order, and in lMn,'iia;;o both simple and expres siv'O. Tllis method of aii;dy/.iu^ suhjecls. Hie lo-ical order obsorvod in explaining each component, part, and I he art of putting all together again skilfully presenting it to the youthful mind as a complete whole constitutes what may THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. I 1 1 bo called the science of teaching, and will seldom fail to excite an interest in study, or to create a desire for the acquisition of knowledge. The teacher must remember that language whirh would he plain :md ;;im|>le to liiin rni^ht h<; inwmpw 1 1 ' i < i ble to children. He should, therefore, never use words of foreign origin if In; can express his idens in pure A njdo SJI.XOM. Should he do ::<>, the e>: pl;in:> I ory l;i n"n:i may VMiiei Jine;; he more I neom ] )f< h<-n: ;i hie l,o hl.H pupils th.'ili I, lie. original difficulty, as it will only cover the pre-existing " Hwairif)" with a canopy of clouds or fogH. Wo could cite many -::'!H|)|<:H to nhow thul/ l\ic. uiiKWcr to a question in:i.y lx; correct and yet Ix: more iiicotnpnthf-.nHibln to !,|M-. diild Uian Uu; :-;erv;uiee. Should the interest j,, f.|,,.. :.uhjeet X''" w dull during recitation, he would do well to stop proceeding until it is revived. The interest created by him in any sub- 112 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. ject, and the amount of information imparted, are sure to be in proportion to the attention of the pupils. He should decline to proceed with the lesson without the attention of his class, or should the pupils be unable to recite without aid. By following this plan, each individual will have to stand on his own basis; the deficiency of the indolent will be exposed, and all will feel that disgrace will overtake those who fail to study the lessons thoroughly. It has been well said that "the teacher is the school;" but it is equally true that he should be the text book. He should be per- fectly acquainted with all the authorized works in use in his sphere, and be able to catechize in the various subjects without reference to the book. CHAPTER II. HOW TO MAKE STUDY ATTRACTIVE. Child- People who have been so unfortunate as never to have nttur6. enjoyed the companionship or friendship of little children, are ignorant of some of the greatest pleasures in life. They have, perhaps, carelessly passed by the little flowers without investigation and without interest, not knowing or appre- ciating their value. What can be more beautiful than the radiant orbs which reflect our image as we look into the clear wells of light, so characteristic of youthful eyes'? How earnestly they gaze at us ! How merrily, affectionately, and gratefully they return our smiles ! How full of love, hope, curiosity, and innocence are those windows of the soul! How fruitful! how interesting the study of those living, laughing, rolling, dancing gems ! If patient, watchful, and sympathetic, we may perceive in the light of their reflection, the various thoughts and fancies which chase each other THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 113 through the youthful mind, as well as the germs of those feelings which will some day stir up the heart and fire the imagination of the adult. If the teacher acquires a fair knowledge of the child's mental organization, he will be the better able to adapt his instructions to the child's requirements. His professional success depends chiefly on his knowledge of Nature, and his ability to interpret her precepts aright. It behoves him to study her operations carefully, closely, perseveringly. Let him question her in all his difficulties. She is the great teacher of teachers, and the only one whose instructions are free from error. Her admonitions will direct him "in the way he should go." She will tell him that enjoyment must be combined with education, and that methods of instruc- tion should produce a happy and healthful activity. "La tout est beau (says Rousseau) parceque tout est vrai." Wo naturally dislike such places and things as suggest painful reminiscences, and, in accordance with certain laws of mental association, we delight in those which recal former pleasures. The remembrance of painful lessons may make the acqui- sition of knowledge repulsive, and the remembrance of pleasureable ones will make it attractive. If the process of education be made pleasant and agreeable, it will not cease when school days come to an end it will be progressive and continuous. Those therefore who would succeed as educators must study child-nature, and adjust their instructions to the laws of life. Pleasure and instruction go together in the teachings of Nature : they should not be divorced in the school-room. If feelings of pain be associated with words or ideas, the pain will invariably return to the mind when- ever these words or ideas are recalled, and the child will soon, contract a dislike for what he believes to be the cause of his sorrow. Education should be conducted on "the happiness priiici- ness princi- ple." Pleasant feelings excite intellectual action whilst im- p e ' 114 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. proving the bodily health and natural disposition. Teachers and pupils, according to the laws of their being, are at the mercy of associated ideas. Their relations are friendly or antagonistic in proportion to the happiness or misery pro- duced by the prevailing mode of culture. A teacher will be hated if he create no other than painful emotions; he will be liked if he sympathize with his pupils, and can lead them to daily conquests ; he will be esteemed and admired if his precepts be good, noble, and confirmed by practice ; he will be loved if he teaches in accordance with Nature's principles. From these Tacts we infer that that system of education which gives the most pleasure and least pain is the best and most appropriate. pr U i!Ses. When children are well taught in accordance with Nature's plan, they will often prefer mental to physical exercise; they will take delight in their studies, and generally prefer school to home life. Our pupils deserve our warmest smiles and deepest sympathies let us give them promptly, gener- ously, and cordially. Let us cheer them on to victory, let us inspire them with the desire of mental conquests, and show them how to "storm the fortifications" of doubt and difficulty, ourselves leading the attack. Let us encourage them in their .attempts to concentrate attention, and, if pos- sible, endow them with a desire to persevere through repeated failures. Constant exercise will produce a constant appetite, and a working mind will inhabit a working body. Such efforts must educate the finer feelings of the heart whilst creating mental enjoyment, arid will thus increase the sum total of man's happiness. HOW to cui- Should children acquire a dislike to study, it would be tivate the . love of imprudent, and, perhaps, unjust, to force books and studies upon them. It would be cruel to punish them for not lov- ing what they consider uninteresting. Better far to associ- ate pleasure with the cultivation of habits of attention and application. Better to create or cultivate the desire for THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 115 knowledge by a series of interesting conversations on such subjects as are likely to be useful and attractive. When this desire is created, study will become pleasant and books cease to be repugnant. To preserve this desire in good working order, the attention when aroused must not be fatigued; there must be variety in the subjects of study, and periods of application must be regularly followed by inter- When a les . vals of rest. As Moiis. Marcel observes, " Lessons should ^/ e hou1 ' 1 cease before the child evinces symptoms of weariness. .... His desire of variety should be indulged, and the gratification of his curiosity should be combined with his improvement." We believe that a lesson should cease while the child's attention is still on the qui vive before the desire for further information begins to wane. "The various powers of children's minds stretch out like young tendrils to grasp the truths of the material world;"* but their yearning for knowledge should not be gratified so far as to destroy their desire for more. Knowledge should be self-mastered, and is best acquired 8eif-instru- tion the by a process of self-instruction, more or less modified. For best. this reason, the subjects in the programme of studies should be so arranged as to make it possible for the pupil to ascend the successive steps with little or no external help. To effect this object, the ascending steps must correspond with the successive stages of evolution, in the ordinary development of the respective faculties. This concurrence will tend to make application pleasant, and thereby endow acquisition with intrinsic gratification. The mental vigour educed by self-evolution, "will guarantee (says Herbert Spencer) a vividness and permancy of impression which the ordinary methods can never produce." The concentration of thought, essential in the solution of difficulties, necessitates a contin- uous organization and classification of knowledge previously acquired, and, in connection with the pleasurable excite- * Rev. Dr. BelL 116 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ment peculiar to success, it tends to make a permanent Sufficient record in the memory of all facts received. l.hysioU recreation. j^ children be allowed perfeot freedom of action in the play-grounds, so long as they recognize and respect each other's rights and privileges; but insist on perfect discipline in the school. When taking fresh air and exercise, Nature impels them to be lively and sportive, and, in our opinion, the teacher or parent who would unnecessarily damp their flowing spirits and joyous hilarity of heart, would be little better than a tyrant. During their younger years, and under such circumstances, let the innocent little creatures be free to run, leap, and romp just as they please. Nature prompts them to do so. How can we be so forgetful of our own young days as to curtail their happiness! Let us make Nature our guide and ally, and encourage the little ones to " sing for joy." She impels them to run, jump, and shout with delight. God's works smile on them from every side- Why should man alone be frowning and stern] Freedom will promote health, and increase the delights of life. After due exercise in " Nature's sportive fields," a return to order will be agreeable, and the labours of study attractive. If children dislike studies, it is chiefly because their teachers oppose, neglect, or ignore Nature, and cannot, therefore, make them attractive. Dislike of study, or failure in acqui- sition or application, point to personal ignorance or profes- sional incapacity on the part of the teacher, or to mental debility on the part of the pupil, arising, perchance, from imperfect instruction in the past, or a too rapid promotion in the present. "Experience," says Fallenberg, "has taught me that indolence in young persons is so directly opposite to their natural disposition to activity, that unless it be the consequence of bad education, it is almost invariably con- nected with some constitutional defect." Excise Mons. Vernet justly observes that "the exercise of our fatigue. faculties is always attended with pleasure so long as the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 117 exercise can be continued without fatigue." For this reason, lessons should not be too numerous, nor the term of appli- cation too long. It matters little how much is learned in a given time, provided the habits of attention be strengthened or acquired, the wish to improve excited, and a longing for more information created. Children regard their lessons as some grown people regard friends they love them while they think them useful and pleasant; but contract a dislike for them when they imagine them to be troublesome or dis- agreeable. In teaching, we should point out the design and practical utility of the respective subjects of study, and then exercise all our ingenuity to make them attractive and agreeable. If we watch a child studying under the guidance of Na- Nat re ' 8 mode. of ture, we will notice that he earnestly examines the object culture. of his attention. He feels it, tastes it, breaks it, weighs it, and makes it undergo the scrutiny of all his senses, com- mitting his respective observations to memory, one by one. There is no distraction, no confusion, no interruption, no mental sleep in Nature's mode of culture. The attention is undivided, vigorous, and active; all the energies of the mind are concentrated upon one object, and only one, at a time. Hence, we infer that children should never be interrupted in their experiments on surrounding objects, or while en- gaged in work, play, or the solution of difficulties. Such interruption breaks the course of their ideas, and, besides giving them real annoyance, prevents them from acquiring knowledge by personal experience. Instead of thwarting or interrupting them, teachers or parents should direct their activity, furnish materials for additional combinations, and make such suggestions as will enable them to take fresh, and, if possible, more extensive observations. It is our duty to foster their love of play by directing it into useful and scientific channels ; and, instead of finding fault with their physical restlessness and apparent mental idleness, we should 113 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. hearken to the voice of Nature and arouse ourselves to the consciousness of the fact that it is our privilege to guide their energies in the pursuit of knowledge by giving proper direction to their natural curiosity and bodily vigour. How Nature Nature teaches by means of tangible and familiar obiects. teaches. She does not fatigue the mind with long lessons. Her in- structions are practical, not theoretical or abstract. She calls for no painful exertion of mind or body. She proceeds gradually, from the known to the unknown from the sim- ple to the complex one step at a time, taking due care that the foremost foot is firmly fixed before she moves the other; hence, her lessons aro always received with real gratification and positive delight. She fills the minds of her pupils with ideas, but leaves the mode of expression to their judgment and choice. All her lessons are useful, and imparted to be used. She is, therefore, the best and most successful teacher Under her guidance, as Dr. Gall observes, "Every new les- son is a pleasure, and an additional step in advance. In every instance, the exercise of to-day revives and consoli- dates that of yesterday, while it smooths and prepares a way for that of to-morrow." When Na- Mental enquiry creates mental hunger; but after a certain mtaesher length of application, a child's attention will necessarily wane. Having stored up for future use the ideas acquired, his desire for further investigation, or additional experiment, will cease for a time in obedience to Nature's promptings. His lesson has been learned, and the law of his being declares it is time to play, or change the subject. Any attempts to stimulate, or further force, the attention, would, under the circumstances, be injudicious and unjust perhaps cruel. The mental appetite has been appeased, and time is required for rumination and mental digestion. Prolonged or com- pulsory efforts, in such a case, would probably excite feel- ings of dislike. Nature requires rest, variety, change. Let her have them. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 119 CHAPTER III. INCENTIVES TO STUDIOUS HABITS. The desire to be useful and to do what is right, are the J noblest incentives of human action the most praiseworthy of action, principles of individual character. Being the offspring of a good conscience, they are the worthiest preceptors of per- sonal conduct. United with the anxious desire of advance- ment and the earnest love of acquisition, they are the fundamental elements on which the teacher must repose his efforts whilst exciting and promoting studious habits amongst his pupils. Emulation is, perhaps, one of the most com- mendable aspirations which can stir up or influence the human mind. By emulation we mean the love of distinc- tion, the earnest desire to advance in knowledge, to improve our condition in life, to excel others without wishing to depress them. Progress is imprinted on our nature we were never created to retrograde or remain stationary. "Onward and upward" should be the motto of man in par- ticular, as of Nature in general. Wholesome emulation will seldom fail to develop progress in youth or manhood, and should, therefore, be judiciously employed by every teacher. It tends to make men and boys better, wiser, or greater than they really are, and (as the saying runs) often "enables them to surpass themselves." It is, therefore, one of the noblest aspirations which can fire the heart of youth or guide the feelings of man. Curiosity is the expression of a desire for knowledge the earliest development of the young intelligence, and, since it is "the first motive of sentient, intelligent being," it may be regarded as the source and stimulus of attention. Curiosity often "runs wild," and is then the source of importunity, impertinence, inconstancy, and change. Its development, therefore, requires careful cultivation and guidance. Its energies should be concentrated on a few ob- 120 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. jects objects of personal worth or public utility and these should be pursued in accordance with Nature's mode of teaching. The desire of The pleasures experienced in acquiring useful and inter- esting information more than repay the labours of study. This "delicious pleasure" varies in proportion to the age and mental development of the student. Its influence is greatest in infancy, and least in old age. A baby feels more delight in studying the philosophy of a drum, out of which it has just " knocked the bottom," or in contemplating the fragments of a China cup it has just broken, than the aged miser would experience in discovering a gold mine. "The propensity in children to do mischief" is, in reality, a whole- some and commendable curiosity an intense desire to ac- quire information. Their mind is conscious of its ignorance and want of experience it is awake to acquire knowledge of men and things. They have been placed as strangers in a world of wonders, and in exercising their " destructive ingenuity," or in asking "peculiar questions," they are merely seeking to gratify their curiosity they are fulfilling one of the conditions of Nature, and, in this respect, should be aided rather than discouraged. In after years, he will be the most successful teacher who can most effectually excite and satisfy this curiosity or thirst for knowledge. This laudable propensity once properly aroused, the mind of the pupil shall thenceforth neither si umber nor sleep, and, instead of a task, learning will be a pleasure to the teacher and the taught. The love of The love of approbation is a very powerful incentive to approbation. gtu( jy Many educators consider it to be a very commend- able one ; others regard it as reprehensible. We don't. Being a selfish propensity inherent in our nature, its appli- cation requires considerable caution, discrimination, and judgment. It is commendable so long as it excites the child or the man to desire the admiration of the good, the pious, THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 121 and the learned so long as it incites him to seek the approval of his teacher, parents, and friends so long as it impels him to increase his own merit without wishing to depreciate that of others. The skilful teacher will seldom appeal in vain to this propensity the desire of distinction and approval. Indeed, it is the opinion of many old and experienced educators, that the teacher will frequently suc- ceed by its means in governing his pupils, and in awaken- ing a thirst for study, when he would fail to produce the same effects by an appeal to other motives. Should the skilful teacher appeal to all these incentives in vain, and that the pupil is really indifferent about the approbation of his friends, devoid of curiosity, and careless about being useful and of doing what is right, then indeed will we admit that there is little hope for the improvement of that child but such a child we have never met, nor do we ever expect to meet with such a hardened specimen of humanity. Whether it is commendable to offer prizes to be competed The priz for in schools, and whether the incentive to study thus pro- considered. duced, does not more than counterbalance the envy and jealousy it may be supposed to engender, have, for many years, been questions of discussion between the great edu- cationists of the age. On the whole, we believe that the balance of opinion is in favour of their introduction and use. It must be remembered, however, that when the prizes offered are but few in number, and the candidates numerous, it is often exceedingly difficult to do full justice to the sev- eral competitors. Men are not, and never will be, of one mind; the candidate who would be considered best by one judge, might be rated as second by another, and vice versa : so that the examiners may be divided as to the relative merits of the youthful "rivals." Then again the facilities of the competitors in preparation and acquisition may be unequal. The facilities of some of the pupils may be more than sufficient, whilst those of the majority are inadequate. 9 122 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Some may have all the assistance afforded by good text books, kind parents, and intelligent friends, besides having no extraneous matters to attend to after school hours, whereas other children, equally anxious and equally indus- trious, may have none of these advantages. It is true, moreover, that the prize is often the measure of success, not of effort of good luck, not of worth ; and, in any case, every experienced person will readily concede that success in such a contest is a very unreliable test of a pupil's merit. The most meritorious does not (but should) always wear the crown. Nature and good fortune may have given one child mental advantages superior to those of another who is far more industrious, so that what the one can learn in a few hours, may cost the others as many days or weeks of perse- vering toil.* If the motive and effort of the latter be taken into account, the former must yield him the palm of merit, and these are the only means by which we can justly meas- ure the virtue and value of an action. Though the intention and effect be the same in both cases, there is a vast difference in the effort. Some teachers regard prizes as a sort of "literary bribe," and affirm that they tend to make children seek their end SoSe by ky fair means if convenient, and by ignoble means if neces- sary. It is true that ambition is seldom scrupulous about the character of her servants. Her devotees are often willing to stoop to anything that will ensure success. That " the end will justify the means" is a positive falsehood, and the root of much mischief. But if such ignoble means be used to ensure success, the teachers or examiners may possibly detect the fraud, and punish the guilty by public exposure and forfeiture of privileges. However, it is not at all likely that pupils will resort to such artifices, and, if they do, the prudence and experience of the teacher will be more than a match for them. *Page. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 123 A prize or two offered to the best and second best scholars in a class, stimulates only a few. The teacher and even onl y a fevr - the pupils themselves knowing by experience the capabili- ties of the respective candidates, can tell beforehand who will be the victors at the examinations or, at least, who are likely to be. Those pupils who have no hope of obtain- ing a prize, and who feel confident of their inability to win one, will make little exertion, or perhaps be totally indiffer- ent, seeing that persevering toil will bring them no immedi- ate reward despairing of success, they may in fact pretend to despise "the bauble." It is obvious that unless the mind of each child in the uniformity respective classes be awakened unless the individual will capacity. of all be influenced to increased efforts, to honourable rivalry with each other, by awarding prizes, then the system is a failure.* If the system fails to arouse the whole school to renewed activity to increased exertion, to additional efforts, to a higher ambition and that only two or three or half a dozen really contend for the prize, the remainder being indifferent, then it is a mere gift to this limited number one of them being sure of it. If it be a gift, why call it a prize 1 The efficiency of the prize system depends on the uniformity of the competitors in mental capacity. Prizes are the most powerful, popular, and perhaps the best of all incentives when the members of the respective classes are of the same degree of mental standing, and when the facilities of acquisition are similar, and the services of skilful examiners can be secured. We are inclined to believe that prizes or rewards should The reward; be used in every school. The prize system, in its purity, is sys * more suitable for colleges and universities than for common and middle class schools. Judging by our own experience, and the information gleaned from others, we have no hesita- tion in stating that, when "prizes" are offered in these * Page. 124 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. schools as an incentive to study, they should partake of the nature of rewards, and be so numerous that every industri- ous, well-conducted child can receive some token in recog- nition of his efforts "to become good and great." The number of prizes offered to each class should be in proportion to its size. Prizes should be offered for efficiency in each individual subject, and also for proficiency in the whole programme of school studies. No pupil should be eligible to compete for the latter prizes unless his character and conduct were irreproachable; but every pupil having his name on the school register should have permission to com- pete for the prizes for individual subjects. There should also be "good conduct" and "regular attendance" prizes, or re- wards, in addition to the foregoing. Unless these things be carefully attended to, the system of awarding prizes or re- wards, will fall short of the object in view. If prizes or rewards be introduced at all, they should be awarded to good conduct, diligence, punctuality, amiability, and intrinsic worth, as well as to superior talent, or marked success in certain examinations ; and, as aforesaid, they should be so numerous that every deserving pupil shall receive some tangible evidence of the appreciation of his efforts. The merit An accurate register of scholarship and individual deport- ment never fails to engender and promote healthy emulation ; yet such a journal is seldom kept. If not attended to at the close of each lesson or recitation, it must be made from memory ; and, in the latter case, perfect accuracy is impos- sible. The pupils will, therefore, have little confidence in the record, and its moral force will be nullified. Taking these things into consideration, many of our most experienced teachers recommend the use of merit cards. These "merits" act as a substitute for, whilst securing the good results of, accurate records and they possess the advantage of occupy- ing less of the teacher's time than would the record system. They also enable the pupil to take home with him every THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 125 evening witnesses of his daily progress, and therefore com- mand for him a lively paternal interest, whilst securing for the teacher the active co-operation of his pupil's natural guardians. There are many ways for using the merit cards. We will How used. mention one or two of those commonly used. In the morn- ing each pupil may receive as many merits as will represent the perfect work of one day the same, or a certain number of them, to be forfeited should the recipient fail in recitation, or infringe any of the rules of the school, with reference to conduct, diligence, or punctuality. Or, if preferred, the following plan may be adopted, provided the pupils "change places" in their classes. Give a merit to each pupil as often as he may happen to get a head mark in reciting his respec. tive lessons the recipient to go to the foot of the class each time he receives the same. The less advanced and " more bashful" will thus have "a chance," and the more clever will have an opportunity of winning their way up again. Each time a pupil gets head of his class he is to receive a "ticket" or "merit," and then retire to the foot as before no pupil to receive a merit for giving correct answers to questions directly addressed to himself, unless pupils "above him" have failed to answer them. According to this plan, as in the for- mer, the teacher may fine any pupil one or more merits should he be guilty of a misdemeanor during the day. It may be remarked that the smaller merits may be exchanged for "fives, tens, fifties, or hundreds." The merits should be " paid into the treasury" once a month, and a receipt for the same handed to the pupil. A chart or roll of merit, containing the names of the The roll of pupils, and exhibiting the number of merits won by each m during the respective months of the season, should be placed in some conspicuous part of the school-room. It must not be forgotten, however, that the "merit card" system is liable to abuse unless it be supplemented or checked 126 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. by registration. It is possible that pupils may sell or give away some of their merits to others. Unless such transactions be discovered, the latter would, by such a species of dishon- esty, attain a higher standing than that to which they were justly entitled ; and the suspicion of foul play thus engen- dered in the minds of their more honourable companions, would destroy their confidence in the system, whilst para- lyzing their efforts to excel. The number of "merits" handed in by the pupil, and credited to him on the roll of merit, at the end of the month, or at the close of the school session, will show his individual and relative standing; so that, if premiums or prizes are given, there can be no difficulty or mistake in ascertaining or determining to whom they should be awarded. No sus- picion of favouritism or foul play can possibly arise, for, by looking at the roll of merit, even the pupil himself can tell to whom the rewards belong provided the number of merits given to each individual are duly checked or registered. Sects of the ^ * s neec ^ ess * discuss the value of prizes as incentives to system. study no experienced educationist will deny their power. When mismanaged, the system has doubtless been the origin of some evil ; but when skilfully conducted, it has been pro- ductive of much good. Rewards bestowed as indicated (or even prizes) can do no harm they afford no food for mis- apprehension, envy, or jealousy, and no scope for deceit or hypocrisy. Every pupil will feel that if he deserves a memento of his benefactor's kindness, his teacher's love, or of his own honest, earnest efforts, he will be sure to receive it. Each, perchance, may reason with himself and say " I have every chance of obtaining a prize or award. If I fail in talent or perfect recitation, I will acquire one for diligence, or for good conduct, or for regularity and punctuality, or for some other individual excellence, if not for general merit- I will persevere in my studies, and carefully avoid giving trouble or offence to my companions, or to my teachers. I THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 127 will infringe none of the rules of the school, and do every- thing I find to do 'with all my might/ so that, even should I fail to win a prize, all will admit that my efforts deserved success." It is evident that either reward or prize system, conducted according to the foregoing principles, would secure the due recognition of the merits of each individual pupil, whilst it would prevent the larger pupils from appropriating all the pearls, and incite the smaller ones to press forward to the goal set before them. CHAPTER IV. ELEMENTS OF GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. The teacher should always endeavour to be consistent in his doings, and never forget to respect his own authority- He should say what he means, and mean what he says, and authority. never issue an order unless he intends it to be obeyed ; nor should he give a second command until the first has been executed. All commands should be issued coolly and delib- erately, in a voice clear and distinct loud enough to be heard by all, but not too loud and when uttered, he should permit no hesitation in their execution. " A low, decided tone of voice accomplishes much more than a loud, bluster- ing one ; the former attracts and fixes attention, the latter divides and confuses it." The teacher should be possessed of the faculties of decision and firmness of purpose, so that he may determine quickly, and act promptly and justly in accordance with his sense of duty. In teaching, as in every- thing else, decision of character is the first element of suc- cess. There should be no hesitation apparent in his manner no vacillation visible in his conduct, for " a courageous 128 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Decision of character. Requests v. Commands. heart and a resolute mind are omnipotent." "When he de- cides, he should be sure to decide justly. When he issues orders, he should, if necessary, compel obedience. "Unless in case of error," as Locke affirms, " his word should be irre- vocable." He must convince the whole school, individually and collectively, that he is a man of energy and tenacity of purpose, and will exact prompt and implicit obedience to all his commands that he will permit no half measures, and tolerate no habits of partial submission or indolent compli- ance. Then shall his pupils confide in his justice, and, as Milton observes, "None will question the equity of his decisions;" then (and not till then) will order, regularity) prompt obedience, persevering industry, and steady progress, become the characteristics of his school. It is far better, however, that these things should be the result of dutiful affection, than the effects of mere slavish submission. A sensitive pupil will obey with greater pleasure and alac- rity when requested than when ordered; it is, therefore, better to request than to command. It is imprudent to foster or exhibit a love for commanding, and unwise to mani- fest any feeling which would indicate a want of personal confidence or a doubt of professional ability. Require only what is reasonable, just, and necessary; be sure that the pupil comprehends your meaning, and then enforce your orders to the letter. The teacher should do all things for the best best for his pupils, for himself, and for the public. Rever- ing justice, loving what is right, acting in accordance with religious and patriotic principles, professional failure will be impossible; success certain. Such a party will be a good, if not a great, teacher a fellow-labourer with his Creator in the noble work of progress. Courage, resolution, and tenacity of purpose are just as government, requisite in the principal of a school as in the commander of an army. The mode of discipline or manner of government should be kind and gentle, for the assurance conveyed there- Force as an element of THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 129 by, that no harm is intended, will tend to secure a perfect and willing obedience ; but this obedience implies the exist- ence of a power sufficient to enforce it if necessary. This power is the basis of that authority which commands and subdues the will. But power should always be united with kindness, so that children may obey the one while they love the other so that they may yield submission affectionately, and as the result of affection. Authority and love form the basis of all good government, and these in turn may be re- ferred to force a force based on strength, power, or influence. Every child is more or less a reasoning creature, an intelli- gent being, and a loyal, loving individual, and hence a subject for compulsion, persuasion, or inducement, according to the prevailing peculiarities of his disposition. Government by force is the lowest order in the scale of discipline, and gov- ernment by personal or moral influences is the highest, purest, and best. Government by supremacy of will is a mean between these extremes. But any of these methods, if used exclusively, would, doubtless, prove a failure, owing to dif- ference in disposition and home associations. A mixed method, combining the advantages of all, will, therefore, be the most useful in the management of large numbers of children. In all cases, the teacher must possess the ability to command obedience when necessary, to control stubborn- ness, quicken diligence, and reform bad habits. It will well repay the teacher to make himself thoroughly Abbott's . maxima. acquainted with the more approved systems of education and school government as practiced at present and in days gone by. He can then strike out a new and independent course for himself, and with the success which always follows well-directed efforts. His chances of success will, at all events, be materially increased by an acquaintance with the maxima and writings of the teachers and philosophers of other ages. Apropos of what we have been writing are the following maxims of Jacob Abbott : " When you consent, 130 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. consent cordially; when you refuse, refuse finally; when you punish, punish good-naturedly : commend often never scold." Seif-reii- Before undertaking the office of a teacher, the candidate should duly consider the duties to be performed, the difficul- ties to be overcome, and his personal qualifications for the position. He should not accept nor adopt such a responsible calling unless, after due consideration, he has reason to be- lieve that he can teach and govern efficiently unless he possesses self-reliance, and has perfect confidence in his abil- ity to satisfactorily perform the onerous duties peculiar to the office. When pupils discover that a teacher entertains doubts of his own ability, they are sure to put his misgiv- ings to the test, and will completely conquer him should his skill and resources fall short of the occasion. Fixity of will is the measure of ability in such cases. Resolution will give him the victory. Fretfuiness The teacher should never so far forget the high responsi- to be bility of his post as to wear an air of peevishness on the one hand, or of frivolity on the other ; nor should he blend these characteristics together, as is done in many instances. The trials of life should never influence his conduct in school. In sickness or in health his manner should be uniform, calm, and genial. If not favored with a, strong constitution, it may, at times, be difficult to overcome these frailties. We are inclined to believe, however, that they can be thoroughly subdued, even by a confirmed invalid, should he only con- sider how little his pupils have to do with the cause of his illness or the state of the weather. "Unless a man learns to govern himself in such trivial matters, he cannot possibly govern others. How can the blind lead the blind 1 To com- I n nis dealings with hia pupils, and with the public gen- woSd a8 he era lly> the teacher should never forget his personal dignity continue. go f ar as ^ o "p u fc on airs" (as it is called), nor should he ever assume a manner foreign to his natural character. " Be THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 131 what you appear to be," is a good and wholesome motto. With children, as with full-grown people, attachment always follows respect esteem and admiration always precede affec- tion and love. To gain this esteem, affection, and love, he must be courteous and affable, yet firm and resolute deeply interested in the welfare of his pupils. His future success depends, in a great measure, on " first impressions." On taking charge of a school, or class, he should be sure to com- mence as he would wish to continue, and vice versa. In a day or two, each pupil in the school or class has formed his (or her) estimate of the new teacher. One has formed an opinion of him in one respect, another in another respect, and so on. If the individual opinions thus formed were written out in order, the aggregate would undoubtedly be a fair estimate of the teacher's character. The teacher should be particularly careful not to exhibit Not wise to ,. . . ..*,,,. ., .., exhibit distrust, or appear to entertain suspicion 01 his pupils, either suspicion, collectively or individually. He should never let them see that he is watching them, or that he suspects they would do wrong. Such an act would not only decrease their respect for him personally, but would actually tend to make them what he desires them not to be.* If he has reason to believe that a pupil is vicious or idle, and inclined to be troublesome, he may possibly reform him by the exercise of a little stratagem by apparently placing great confi- dence in him, for instance, or by appointing him to some responsible position in the school pro tern., or by occasionally requesting his assistance in some responsible capacity. The judicious application of such incentives as these will be almost sure to transform "the backslider" into a good, indus- trious, trustworthy boy. To doubt an honest child is tanta- mount to doing all we can to make him a liar. Unless able to convict, we should never appear to doubt. If a boy be wild, idle, and troublesome, it is not wise of TO look on the teacher to look altogether on the dark side of his char- of a boy's _ character. * Page. 132 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Pupils not each other. acter. He should be permitted to understand that the teacher's gaze is fixed on the bright side also that his good qualities have been noted as well as his bad ones, and that, 110 matter how reprehensible his acts have been, still it is believed that many of his intentions were good. This course being in accordance with Nature, will probably be effective. At all events, it will exhibit to the pupil "a strong likeness of himself," so that as time rolls away he may gradually become conscious of his errors, and be strengthened to avoid his follies in the future. The teacher cannot be too careful in bestowing his commendations. Always strictly just and honest, he will not, of course, offer them unless they have been merited. Boys, like older folks, can distinguish be- tween praise and flattery they will not fail to look upon the one as honest payment of a just debt, and upon the other as a sinister present. Verbal bribes, like those of a more tangible nature, are certain signs of weakness, and he who offers them merits contempt. The painful and malevolent passions of rivalry, arising from envy or jealousy, should be carefully repressed by the j m p ar tial distribution of affection and applause by the due administration of exact justice, each receiving "what was justly due to him." When necessary, the plain truth should be spoken, as to their respective excellencies; but we should never contrast pupils with each other, nor should we censure one while we praise another. As Rousseau observes, " Let us compare the pupil as he is, with what he himself has been, or may be, but never compare his deficiencies with another pupil's excellencies." We naturally love those who are, to us, a source of pleasure. To prevent envy or jealousy, and make children fond of each other, we must place them in situations where no passion or appetite will cross their natural sympathy, and where they can dispense pleasure to each other. "It is true," as Edgeworth states, " that many of our most useful and agreeable actions arise from the desire THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 133 to excel; yet, as a rule, we should avoid placing children in painful competition with each other." Children should be encouraged, but not nattered. They Chadren should receive their just reward when they act so as to merit encouraged, the approbation of parents, teachers, and friends. The teacher or parent who always scolds, and is never satisfied with a child's efforts, is sure to break his spirit, and to des- troy in him the desire to please, since all his efforts, all his deeds (whether good or bad), meet with the same reception. Teachers, be gentle, but firm, with your pupils ; watch over them constantly; reprove earnestly, but " be not bitter against them." Have compassiom on their infirmities ; re- member that you were children yourselves ; recal your child- hood days, and you will be better able to sympathize with your pupils in all their little trials, joys, and sorrows. En- deavour to discriminate between idleness and want of ability. Encourage as much and reprove as little as possible. Try to "overcome evil with good;" and remember that if a child has done its best, it can do no more. It then merits praise, and not censure, however insignificant the result of its efforts. The teacher should be careful not to appear to believe a offenders to pupil guilty of an offence until the charge is clearly proved e red inno- by reliable evidence, and he should suspend judgment in all proved"* 1 cases until such evidence is produced. He should avoid * mlty< anything that would tend to produce the impression that he had pre-judged the case. "Innocent until proved guilty," should be the motto of the school as well as of the hall of justice ; and the reputation of a child shoiild be as sacred as that of a man or woman. Such kind and charitable feelings exhibited by the teacher towards the accused, will tend to show that he takes an interest in their welfare, and would fain consider them honorable and trustworthy; and his good opinion will have no small effect in making them so. As Marmontel observes, "This is the wisest plan, and also the To maintain proper discipline. A time for everything, and every- thing in its time. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. most just." Such a rule of conduct will foster sentiments of mutual confidence and esteem, and induce the pupils to feel that the teacher is their friend as well as their judge. "Respect their feelings, and they in turn will respect yours." In the matter of discipline, the teacher should be strict without being severe. As Mr. Lancaster observes, "Each and all should always have something to do, and a motive for doing it." The various exercises should be so conducted that the pupils may feel that indolence and inattention are sure to be followed by detection, and that degradation and punishment will be the natural consequences. As order, quietness, and implicit obedience are characteristics of every well-conducted school, the teacher should not be insensible to any breach of the same, be it ever so insignificant. "A time for everything, and everything in its time," was the favourite motto of good old Lancaster the motto which he placed over the door of his school in imitation of that of Plato;* and, without strict attention to its precepts, no teacher can be really successful. Should the teacher disre- gard its principles, irregularities will accumulate; indolence, mischief, and confusion will increase, until, perplexed and oppressed, he bows down beneath their united weight, and is finally led to believe that his profession is the most weari- some in the world and that, far from being " a delightful task," it is a sore burden too heavy to be borne. However, if he adhere strictly to his "time-table," appointing a time for every duty and attending to every duty at its proper time in other words, if he carry on business in a sys- tematic manner then order, regularity, and quietness will be the characteristics of his school ; otherwise, it will become a babel a pandemonium. Whatsoever the teacher finds to do let him do it with all his might, for, as an old couplet states " One thing at a time and that done well, Is a very good rule as many can tell." * "Let no one ignorant of mathematics enter hero. ' THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 135 A person can only attend to one thing at a time with all J^!- his might, and at one and the same time can only do one *f e n atten " thing well. If he attempt to do two things at one time, and does one of them well with all his might, the other must of necessity be done badly or imperfectly. Therefore, if a teacher be giving a lesson in geography, let him not mix it up with algebra, and if giving a lesson in geometry, let him not "interline it" with a lecture on grammar. While hear- ing the recitations of one class, let him not attempt to correct the exercises of another. So of individuals as of classes. When giving a lesson in any subject, he should not allow pupils to interrupt him with complaints against their fellows, or with requests of assistance in other lessons, etc. He should not tolerate extraneous interference by the members of other classes, but he may encourage the individual pupils of the class he is instructing to ask any questions connected with the subject. He should not, however, allow them to ask collateral questions until the close of the lesson. They should wait on him, not he on them. Were he to permit individuals to interrupt him during the delivery of his in- structions by asking questions, etc., concerning extraneous subjects, the attention of his class would be arrested, their chain of thought and his broken, and a large amount of time squandered to no purpose. When the lesson has been deliv- ered, he might profitably allow the pupils to question each other, beginning with the last and ending with the first in the class taking care to revise the queries proposed when necessary. If the teacher be not systematic in all his school arrange- Not to allow ments, then frequent interruptions will occur during the t?ons P delivery of the respective lessons. On the one side, James will ask for leave to go out; on the other, little Georgie will request permission to take a drink; Minnie will require Borne assistance in arithmetic ; Maggie may want to know the position of some city, town, or river; whilst Philip, 136 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. aggrieved by idle John, immediately cries out for justice and protection. All this time the teacher must be attending to these various requests and complaints to the neglect of the lesson (the members of his class gazing listlessly at each other) or vice versa; or he must be attending to both. If the latter, then he is attempting an impossibility, and is only half doing his work ; if the former, then he is attending to the requests and neglecting the lesson, or vice versa, and the class before him, and the children preferring petitions, are slowly but surely acquiring habits of disorder, inattention, and carelessness. It would be totally subversive of good order to attend to the lesson exclusively, and permit the complainants to prefer their petitions unheeded. On the other hand, if he allows the interruptions, and attends to the complaints, he must partially neglect the lesson, and thus the chain of ideas will be broken, the pupils will lose all interest in the subject, and the effect of this "dual work" will be ruinous to the school. It is in the power of every teacher to put an end to these unseemly things, and he should do it. Of course, every one will admit that there will be always some interruptions in a large school consisting of pupils of various ages, many of whom were never trained in habits of order and system at home, and are, therefore, heed- less of these virtues abroad. However, while engaged in delivering lessons or in hearing recitations, the teacher, as a rule, should never attend to extraneous requests never allow complaints to be made, never inflict punishment, and but seldom administer reproof. Then his teachings will be effective, prolific of good to his pupils, and of comfort to himself. A time for As he has a time for teaching, during which he should tingmejji- permit no interruptions, so should he have a time for inves- tigating irregularities of conduct, for administering reproof or punishment a time for receiving complaints, and for attending to requests, and (as a rule) that time should be THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING*. 137 during intermission or immediately before its commence- ment. Most of the negligence, disorder, and insubordination, Certain > variation* occasionally visible in some schools, may be traced to the command- monotonous character of the programme, and the lack of interest in the respective studies. He, therefore, will be the best disciplinarian who can excite and maintain the deepest interest in the various exercises. It is thus that he will wake up mind in the fullest and truest sense of the word. It would be well, perhaps, if the teacher were occasionally to introduce a little variety in the respective exercises. This he can accomplish by means of recitations, special readings, music vocal or instrumental etc. By such means he will seldom fail to interest the minds of even the most indolent ; and, in addition, will so engross the attention of the more unruly as to prevent them being troublesome. These exer- cises, like David's harp, will seldom fail to expel the spirit of discord, as they tend to elevate the mind, cultivate the taste, soothe the passions, and, in addition, are an excellent recreation. -Now, thanks to the enlightened spirit of the age, music Music in vocal or instrumental, or both is being introduced into all our public schools. Almost all the superior public schools are provided with a piano or melodeon. This is specially true in cities and towns, and the country schools are follow- ing suite. Many a time has the writer enjoyed the sweet performances in the public schools of New York, Ohio, and Illinois. In these schools, one of .the pupils plays volunta- ries whilst the classes are marching to or from their class- rooms. Everything is done with precision and in silence. Not a sound is heard on such occasions but the music and the pupils' measured tread. When the weather is cold, wet, or boisterous, the respective divisions practice certain evolutions during intermissions in the hall or class-rooms. These evolutions are very graceful and becoming, and are 10 138 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. sometimes accompanied by patriotic and soul-stirring songs. The principal, or the first assistant, superintends, and one of the pupils discourses the music. Such exercises as these are calculated not only to refine the taste, elevate the affec- tions, and create a love for the school and its officers, but likewise to educate citizens and patriots who shall rival the worthies of ancient Greece and Borne. The pupils of "the music class" preside at the piano in turn, and, on ordinary occasions, many of them remain in to practice during recess preferring the enjoyments of the school-room to the pleas- ures of the play-grounds. Music, in fact, is one of the characteristic recreations of public school life in America. We would it were so in other countries also. The cost of the instrument is a mere trifle in comparison with the ben- efits it confers on the rising generation. It furnishes a continual feast to the pupils at school, and at home it is the source of much profitable amusement. Give the young warblers a chance to speak their thoughts in music. Jdun *f convenient, it would be well to put boys through a in ichoois. course of military drill. No other exercise will be so effec- tual an aid in school government. It trains the pupil to habits of prompt obedience it predisposes him to observe the rules and regulations, and, to a certain extent, prepares his mind to receive durable impressions. In a military and physiological point of view, it would be wise perhaps to have all school boys drilled, and trained to the use of arms. Any country adopting this policy would, in less than fifteen years, be a nation of citizen soldiers powerful as a friend, terrible as an enemy. not * n P rescr *bing "home work," or in assigning lessons for the respective school exercises, teachers should be very care- ful not to require their pupils to master too large a task more than they can well accomplish, allowing sufficient time for recreation. If the lessons appointed be too lengthy, the pupils must necessarily learn them superficially or pos- sibly they may be induced to give up the task in despair, THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 139 and not learn them at all. Such habits, like all others, would "grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength." As a necessary consequence, they would lose their self-respect, be indifferent about their failures, reckless in manner, and, perhaps, acquire propensities which would materially injure their mental and moral character for time and eternity. In prescribing lessons, the teacher should consider the minimum capacity of the children, rather than the maximum he should appoint too small a lesson, rather than too large a one. In this respect, as in others, his motto should be, "quality before quantity." We have reason to believe that pupils would progress in Preparation their studies with greater celerity and more uniformity, if Home work, they were to learn their lessons under the immediate super- vision of their teachers. Parents are seldom willing or com- petent to render much assistance to their children at home. Some, having the inclination to do so, have not the necessary time ; and others, having the time, are devoid of the ability or inclination. As a necessary result, many pupils even the most industrious, for want of a little aid are obliged to prepare their lessons in a very imperfect manner, whilst the majority neglect them altogether. The indolence and care- lessness of even a few will divert the efforts of the more industrious, and check the progress of the whole class. But when the work is done under the teacher's supervision it is generally well done better done than elsewhere. Pupils may, with propriety, be required to prepare their lessons in the easier branches at home ; but lessons in the more diffi- cult subjects should be studied at school, under the immedi- ate supervision of the teacher. While engaged in this exer- cise, immobility and perfect silence should be maintained. The time fixed for the preparation of each lesson must Perfect necessarily be limited, and indolent pupils who fail to keep required* pace with the rest, should be " kept in" and required to study during the greater part of the intermissions and, if necessary, compelled to return and prepare their lessons after school is 14:0 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. dismissed, so that they may make good their deficiencies, and keep pace with the more intelligent and industrious. Judging by our own experience and that of others whom we have consulted concerning this subject, we feel assured that we advance a good and wholesome rule when we say that, if the exercises be performed in a careless or slovenly man- ner during school hours, the teacher should have them pro- perly done after hours, retaining for that purpose (after the usual time of dismissal) those pupils who may have exhibited laxity of discipline or application. This privation would be a disgrace as well as a punishment, and the offenders would probably soon endeavour to avoid both by attending more strictly to business ; so that instead of gazing on their books in a passive listless manner, their minds, aroused to activity by a sense of duty, would be absorbed in their studies dur- ing the appointed hours. If a pupil, convicted of indolence or wilful negligence failed to remain in, or to return to study his lessons after hours, as instructed, he should be sub- jected to corporal punishment. If his parents or guardians object to this arrangement and discipline, the young offender should be expelled forthwith, so that his example may be a warning to his companions and save them from similar errors. The teacher will seldom have occasion to adopt the latter expedient. He may never have occasion to exercise such authority; but its possession will have a material effect on his labours, and will tend to keep youthful feet on the right path the path of duty and of peace. The Alter- r ^ ne carrying out of the foregoing principles, regulations, nate System. an( j SU gg e stions, is not so difficult as may appear at first sight. For instance, the teacher can give instruction to one of the classes, sections, or divisions of his school, or hear them recite, while the remainder would be engaged in the preparation of their fixed or prescribed lessons or tasks. During the succeeding hour he could examine or instruct the latter, and while doing so, could have the former engaged THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 141 at the work of preparation, and so on alternately, the time occupied in the delivery of any lesson not to exceed three- quarters of an hour in length thirty minutes would be suffi- cient in the junior classes. This plan has been adopted in most of our public schools, and is specially applicable when circumstances do not permit trustees to secure the services of a teacher for every class. The system has also been adopted in the public schools of the United States, Canada, Prussia, Ireland, and in the superior schools of England countries whose inhabitants have been long noted for their intelligence, prowess, and patriotism. "The Alternate Sys- tem," as it has been called, is a special feature in the public schools of Massachusetts a State whose school system has long been a model for America, and the admiration of distant nations. Frequent reviews are necessary with every student, but Reviewiug more particularly with the young. They strengthen and and grinding improve all the faculties, whilst impressing useful facts on the tablet of the mind, but if carried to excess- they will weaken the power of attention. When skilfully conducted, they are a source of never-failing interest. One of the most successful teachers now living, once informed us that he ascribed all his success to "grinding;" another, speaking in the same spirit, attributed his "fame in the art" to frequent reviews and searching private examinations. The teacher should know by the manner, voice, and countenance of the pupil, when he clearly understands, and is master of the ideas advanced. The mind should then be directed to the consideration of some other topic prompt, active, and unre- mitting attention being required in all cases. The teacher should never indulge in i^he habit of calling special attention to certain questions or parts of lessons to the exclusion of others. Such a practice would weaken and perhaps ulti- mately destroy the powers of attention. On the whole, we are inclined to believe that, in the nature of things, no sys- 142 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. tern can be successful without " grinding." It will always be a mighty lever in the hands of a judicious instructor. If possible, the teacher should review his work, at least once a month we allude to the studies of the more advanced pupils. The work of the younger children should be re- viewed once a week. At the close of each lesson the teacher should call on the members of the respective classes to give him a summary of the facts adduced, (in their own words,) taking care to arrange them in logical order or natural sequence. The pupils should be encouraged to furnish any personal incidents or other matters likely to explain or illustrate any of the subjects under consideration. He might profitably devote five minutes or more to this pur- pose at the close of each lesson, and at the same time encour- age the pupils to mention any difficulty which may have occurred to them in connection therewith, or any statement, etc., which they may have failed to understand or compre- hend. No pupil should be allowed to put questions, or in- terrupt the class during the time a lesson is being given, more especially if the subject of his enquiries has nothing to do with the matter under consideration. Loitering, The teacher should prohibit pupils from loitering around way toor * the gates, or on their way to or from school, as such a prac- 00 tice tends to promote indolence and slovenly habits. Such habits exhibited outside the school have a tendency to im- press strangers with the idea that discipline is lax inside. Pupils should be taught to be kind and courteous to their companions, polite and respectful to their teachers and elders, " to hurt no person by word or deed, to be true and just in all their dealings," ever zealous to promote the honour of the school, and always desirous of deserving a good name. Suspension Suspensions, or total loss of privileges accompanied by con- finement, is an effectual aid in school government, and in compelling the observance of all rules and regulations. The infringement of laws, human or divine, entails punishment ; THE SCIENCE AND AKT OF TEACHING. 143 and the abuse of privileges should be followed by their tem- porary or permanent suspension. If a pupil be guilty of improprieties of conduct, or neglectful of his duties, or if he disregard the rights of his fellows, then punishment, in some .form, should follow as a necessary consequence. The voice of conscience, the code of right and wrong, should be the common law of the school ; and parties interested should be made to feel that the teachers will, and the pupils must, obey its precepts that no infringement of its principles will be permitted that all without exception must conform to its enunciations. Before proceeding to consider the infliction of the minor TheRegis- . , . , tration sys- or major punishments, we will venture to treat of the tem. " Merit System" and its registration of " credits" a system deservedly popular on both sides of the Atlantic. Having carefully studied its effects as applied to the Collegiate Schools of England and Public Schools of the United States, we have no hesitation in affirming that in the hands of a skil- ful teacher, the registration of merit and demerit marks is a most effective medium of good government. It is a most powerful ally in stirring up the minds of the pupils a valu- able aid in inciting them to honourable rivalry, to renewed application, to persevering study, so that if possible they may surpass themselves and each other. This system is carried out more perfectly in the Upper Canada College (Toronto) than in any other school or college with which we are per- sonally acquainted. "We will therefore venture to give a synopsis of the method as practised in that Institution under the vigorous supervision of its kind and excellent Principal, G. R R Cockburn, Esq., M.A. In the Upper Canada College (and similar institutions) the HOW applied delivery, or recitation, of a lesson occupies about forty-five lege.' ' Cc minutes. The janitor rings the College bell on the expira- tion of the allotted time, and the students then change classes or go out to enjoy "recess." Each master or pro- 144 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. fessor teaches his particular subject to all the classes in turn, and in his own particular room. The classes, it will be observed, change rooms, but the teacher never does so. Each master, or teacher, is supplied with a " Daily Register" and a "Demerit Book." Each of these books contains the names of all the students in attendance, classified in their respective classes according to the order in which they wait on the teacher. Before commencing his lesson, or lecture, the master reads out the names from the "Daily Register," and the standing (individually) held at the close of last lesson on the same subject. Each boy takes his place in the order and position indicated thereby. After this process has been completed, the teacher commences his lesson, and the pupils, during its delivery, change places according to the value of their answers. A pupil invariably goes above all the pupils he has corrected. If, perchance, he happens to be third from the head, and corrects the pupil tenth from the head, the question having meantime been passed round to all below number ten, and to the first and second boys, he takes the position number nine from the head, and counts one Round. When the lesson is over, the boy who has most Rounds, or supposing the number of Rounds equal, the boy who is nearest the head is ranked one, and the others follow in rotation according to their standing. The boys who are idly disposed and desire to keep together, are thus shaken up, and idle coteries destroyed. By this method no boy can come out head by a mere chance correction, made perhaps just before the end of the lesson. When "the lesson is over," (i. e., about three minutes before the bell tolls,) he desires them to "number." In response, the first boy says "one," the second "two," and so on to the last. Then the teacher calls the name of each individual in order, as at the begin- ning, and as he does so, the party named mentions the num- ber he holds in the class, and the same is entered opposite his name in the Register. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 145 At the end of each month the numbers opposite each Average standing individual's name are added up, and the total divided by how found, the number of lessons he attended during that time. The quotient indicates his average standing in the class for that particular month in that subject of study. When the aver- age places of all have been thus ascertained they are "num- bered off;" the lowest quotient will be the first in the order of merit for that class during that month ; the next lowest will be second ; the nex t third ; and so on to the highest, which, of course, indicates the last in the order of merit. On entering the college each pupil is supplied with a neat Private Re- Private Report Book, into which his absolute and his average standing in each class (and also his absolute and his average for all the classes united) is copied every month by the res- pective masters ; by whom also, remarks are recorded oppo- site each subject, stating whether the pupil is progressing satisfactorily or otherwise, The total number of pupils in each class is also stated, so that the efficiency and progress, of each boy can be seen at a glance. The demerit marks accorded, the fines, penalties and punishments inflicted, and sometimes the offences committed, are also recorded ; so that teachers and friends may judge of a boy's character, whether good, bad, or indifferent, by this barometer of conduct. These reports are made out and entered in the Pupil's Private Re- port Book on the last school day in each month -after which the said Report Book is forwarded to the parents or guard- ians for inspection. Should they reside at a distance, the principal sends them a copy by mail of their son's " Report" as exhibited in the Report Book, and retains the latter until the close of the session. In this way the parents and guard- ians receive a " monthly reminder" of the capacities of their children and of the progress made ; and the pupils, from love of parents or other motives, take a pride in study, so that they may attain a higher position and, if possible, ob- tain a better report each month. On the whole, we are in- 146 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. clined to believe that the foregoing is a most excellent plan for exciting an honest and praiseworthy emulation. The Demerit The Demerit Book is used for recording any breach of dis- cipline, any acts of insubordination, negligence, etc., with the kind and degree of punishment inflicted. A separate book is sometimes kept for recording the latter items. In all such institutions corporal punishments are inflicted by the principal alone, or with his approval, and only for the graver and higher offences, such as ojbstinacy and insubor- dination. Pupils guilty of any of the minor offences, are punished (at the discretion of the teacher in charge) by allotting additional lessons, or by " the imposition of demerit marks, or the deprivation of some privilege." The demerit marks are entered in the Demerit Book opposite the offender's name; also, the date and nature of his offence. On the last school day of each month these marks are summed up and added to his " sum of averages," which is, of course, a very severe punishment, as it removes, or rather degrades, him so many places in the relative order of merit in his class. As "1" is the highest number a pupil can get in his class, it follows that he who has " the smallest total will have the greatest merit." Generally speaking, boys would prefer any amount of corporal punishment to this moral one. The application of a moral pnnishment is not unfrequently found to be conducive of more goocl, individu- ally and collectively, than either "public or private flogging." A teacher should be judicious and sparing in awarding merit (or demerit) marks. To be lavish of them would decrease their value and lessen their effect. American The following is a good method of keeping a school record. registration. Some may prefer it to the foregoing, especially if the classes are very large and the teachers too few in number, as in most of our common or public schools. The former system is the more exact, the latter the less laborious on the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 147 teacher.* Let the number " 5" be adopted as the maxi- mum standard of perfection for a recitation, or for a day's deportment. Should the pupil recite lessons in a subject every day, he will (if able to answer all questions perfectly) obtain 25 marks for that subject every week, or 100 every month there being five days in the school week, and about twenty in the school month. [It simplifies the work to regard each week as a unit of time complete in itself four such weeks to make a school month.] Should a class recite in a subject only twice a week, th.Bn "40" will be the maximum for the month in that subject. The principle of the system is unaffected by the number of recitations. His own convenience, the necessities of the school, and the requirements of the law, must guide the teacher as regards the frequency of recitations in any particular subject or number of subjects. At the close of each month the marks obtained in the Monthly several subjects should be added up, and the result placed Honour. in the margin under the heading "monthly summary." From this summary, or rather from the aggregate arising from the addition of the several summaries, a monthly "roll of honour" should be prepared the order of sequence of the pupils' names corresponding with their order of merit, as indicated by the maximum of marks. This "roll of honour" should be placed in a neat frame, to be provided by the school board, and hung up in the school, until replaced by the "roll" for the succeeding month. As in the preceding system, the average standing may be found by dividing the maximum of marks by the number of lessons the pupil has attended. This is done in U. C. College, and in each suc- ceeding roll of honour the ranks previously obtained are also * For specimens of both systems see Appendix. The samples of the mode of registration of merit marks, etc., in U. C. College, furnished us through the kind- ness of the principal, have been copied directly from the books of that institution. The samples of the second method have been taken from the "Record Books" of Clifton School, Niagara Falls. They, therefore, have the advantage of being the exponents of actual practice. 148 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Value of marks and time of entry. A word to trustees. recorded along-side the name of the pupil, so that the Form Master may judge by a glance at the list whether a pupil ia rising or falling in his class. The record of scholarship should be entered at the close of each lesson a perfect recitation (as aforesaid) being marked "5," and a total failure "0" or "" the inter- vening numbers being awarded according fco the degree of intermediate merit. Before the close of each day the roll of deportment and attendance should be called. If a pupil has conducted himself to the teacher's satisfaction not requiring or receiving admonition, reproof, or other punishment he will be entitled to a record of "5," and will answer accord- ingly. The number "10" ia taken as the maximum of merit for a recitation in some of the public schools in Philadelphia, whilst "5" has been adopted as the maximum in most of the schools in the cities of New York and Boston. Any number may be used, but we believe that, in practice, "5" will be found most convenient. Of late years we have seen the "registration system" prac- tised in schools of every grade, and invariably found that it worked well in all. It is popular with the pupils and well received by intelligent parents, wheresoever adopted. Unfor- tunately, very few teachers give Registration a fair trial, very few receive it with favour, feeling that it entails a large amount of additional labour for which, under present arrange* ments, they would receive no additional remuneration. The system does, undoubtedly, entail much additional labour ; and the managing officers of schools would find it to the advantage of their several communities were they less nig- gardly in money matters. The teacher cannot be expected to make himself the "scape-goat" of the community, or to perform extra work without extra pay. " Good teachers," as a learned writer remarks, "cannot be paid too highly," and, "if trustees want good hands," they must give good hire. We have no doubt, judging by our own knowledge of the foregoing system, and the observations made by us of its THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 149 successful working in Europe and America, that it will gradually be introduced and finally prevail in all our schools. Oregon, quite a new State, has inserted an article in its constitution providing for the registration of progress, etc., of pupils of the public schools ; and another, prohibiting any person from assuming the office of teacher who has not a diploma from the State Normal School, or a certificate from the Board of Public Instruction. In these respects she has set a worthy example, not only to her sister States, but to the proud and boastful countries of Europe. CHAPTER V. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. Children will naturally practice such habits as are associ- Effects of i'ii -t -ii i i i associated ated with pleasure, whilst they will soon learn to avoid such pleasure or as are followed by immediate or even prospective pain. Punishment will, therefore, be more intelligible and effec- tive with young children, if it be immediately and uniformly associated with actions from which we wish them to refrain. The same principle holds good in the use of rewards. By associating pleasure or pain with certain actions, habits may be formed long before reason can be sufficiently developed to be used as a means of government. We should make reason our friend and ally as soon as possible. Otherwise, it may become an enemy. As pointed out elsewhere, it is natural for children to dislike everyone, and everything, that gives or causes them pain, and equally natural that they should like all that gives them pleasure. To secure and retain their affection, the teacher or parent must respect his own authority, be consistent in its exercise, and particu- larly careful not to enforce it in a fretful, peevish, or ungen- 150 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. erous manner. The little sufferer will then attribute his pain to his offence, and regard it as the natural consequence of his own conduct, instead of associating it with the person of his just, but generous ruler. Natural con- He will, unconsciously, perhaps, reason on the philosophy of natural consequences, and gradually learn, by experience, that trust and confidence are the reward of sincerity and truth, that all the useful virtues give birth to esteem, that the heroic virtues command sympathy and admiration, and that the amiable virtues engender affection and foster love. Good and bad actions should be referred to their proper source, and receive their due meed of praise, censure, or pain, without unnecessary delay; and a repetition of an offence should, on detection, be inevitably followed by a repetition of the punishment. and < how C to ^ ne v ^ ue ^ obedience should be taught as a habit, inas- ecure it. much as we expect it from children long before they are capable of yielding it on rational grounds. The best way to secure it is, at first, to command children to do agreeable things, then those which are less agreeable, and so on to the repugnant. They will thus by degrees become accustomed to the habit, and then the observance of disagreeable orders will not be so difficult. Frequent prohibitions, and contra- dictory commands, promote disobedience, peevishness, and other infirmities of disposition. The voice of command should be gentle, but decided. However disagreeable an order may be, the pupil must regard prompt obedience as an imperative necessity. Authority is placed in jeopardy by giving a command without enforcing it; and, if we conde- scend to entreat compliance, we abdicate our functions, and give the child the impression that he may refuse if so dis- posed. Before giving commands we should be sure that the child is able to obey them, and, in case of refusal, that we are able to compel him. If we are not exact in requiring prompt obedience, we will never succeed in obtaining it. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING*. 151 We should endeavour to lead our pupils to perceive that we wish to promote their welfare and happiness, and that obedi. ence to our commands will facilitate, if it does not ensure, this object. If children entertain a love of glory and many of them do the courage and fortitude, which would other- wise have a tendency to degenerate to obstinacy, may be admired and extolled ; for they will impel their possessors to travel in the path of honour. The love of glory enlarges the understanding, transforms obstinacy into magnanimity, and strengthens every noble feeling of the heart. It is, therefore, a worthy ally in educational work. The teacher may be regarded as the common parent for The Father the time being, of all the children under his charge, and is school, justified in treating them in every respect as if they were really his own. His responsibility is, however, much greater than that of any individual parent his " collective family " being much larger than that of any " home circle." There is scarcely a domestic circle in the land in which " the head of the house " (notwithstanding his moral influence and other parental advantages) has not more than once deemed it his duty to inflict corporal punishment on some member of his family. This he did with the view of reforming the " little culprit," and for the sake of example; hoping thereby to deter his other children from committing similar offences. The teacher, for identical reasons, uses similar means to pro- duce like results, being the parents' substitute, or locum tenens, in all educational matters. The abolition or continuance of corporal punishment in our schools, is a subject which has been discussed with much interest throughout the length and breadth of the land ; and, strange to say, it is a question on which the greatest teach- ers and most learned men of the age have taken opposite views. Some of the States New Jersey, for instance passed laws prohibiting corporal punishment in the public schools ; but ere many months elapsed, the respective legia- 152 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. latures had to repeal these enactments, "the moral suasion system" not having been successful in winning "little offend- ers" to a right sense of duty. Events proved that a middle course was best that corporal punishment should not be abolished, but that it should be resorted to as seldom as pos- sible ; only when all other means had been tried and found to fail. Efficient school government is not a tyranny. It is an arrangement for the public good, placing the teacher temporarily in the position of parent to each and all under his tuition to children not his own. This arrangement, made by the common consent of parents and guardians, has been founded upon the experience of ages past, not for the teacher's special convenience, but for the pupils' public and private welfare. SKCTION 1. THE MINOR PUNISHMENTS. Objects of The "minor punishments" are frequently and thought- lessly used and abused by both parents and teachers. We will therefore take the liberty of considering them before proceeding to treat of the infliction of corporal correction. This is regarded by the vulgar as the "major punishment," but we believe that children of a refined nature will fre- quently regard it as "a misfortune" far more easily borne than any of the minor or moral punishments. Reformation of the culprit, and the detention of others from committing like offences, are the principal objects in view, when we in- flict punishment of any kind. When these objects are united, the motive for punishment is doubly just and proper. Legitimate authority, having praiseworthy objects in view, has an unquestionable right to inflict legitimate punishments to accomplish legitimate ends. It is so with civil and mili- tary governments, in every country on earth. It is so in the private family, and should be so in the public school. No punishment, not proper nor legitimate, should be inflicted THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 153 on any pupil : no unseemly or disagreeable epithets should be applied to him. As Mr. Page well observes, " he should never be scolded or abused, never be struck with the hand, and never subjected to any punishment partaking of the nature of prolonged torture. The teacher must avoid the appearance of inflicting punishment as if it were a pleasing duty as if he were glad of having the opportunity of paying the pupils off for some real or imaginary crime. He should administer it with regret and sorrow, and in obe- dience to the claims of justice. Punishment should be ad- ministered in love, and because the little sufferer is beloved; otherwise the teacher would be a tyrant, and the pupil a martyr. If we express censure or indignation, it should be against censure the child's fault not against himself; and even then it should faults - never pass the bounds of exact justice. Should it do so, the little culprit will command the sympathies of his school fel- lows. It is not advisable to punish or censure a whole class or division at once, as numbers keep each other in counten- ance, and, to a certain extent, modify the shame of guilt. Solitary confinement, in a properly lighted and well venti- Solitary con* lated room, is one of the most commendable of the minor punishments. It affords time for reflection, and, if exclusive and effective, will seldom fail to produce repentance, contri- tion, and reformation. It will, therefore, be found an import- ant aid in preventing the repetition of offences, as it will eradicate or stem the evil at its source. But to be successful, it must be effective it must be really solitary, and the offenders must have no means of communication during its continuance. In school the confinement must necessarily be limited, but at home it may be prolonged if necessary. In the former case, the refractory pupils will feel that should they " hold out " a certain length of time, they must be liberated unconditionally. It would be better that they should never be confined than that this should occur. How- 11 154 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ever, they might be required to attend school on Saturdays, or other holidays, to undergo this punishment. In the nature of things, solitary confinement is better adapted for domestic discipline than for school government. We cannot, therefore, recommend its general application. -^ n * ne even * f a P u pil being condemned to "solitary con- finement," the teacher, when releasing him at the close of the allotted time, should administer a " proper dose " of kind reproof, showing the guilty one how his conduct appears in its various phases leading him to "see himself as others see him"- after which he may give him some good and friendly advice as regards the future. The skilful teacher will seldom find this course to fail, even with the most obdu- rate, and will probably have the satisfaction of feeling, ere many weeks elapse, that he has converted another " prodi- gal." Advice is better received in private than in public. "Were reproof administered to a pupil publicly, a spirit of obstinacy might be developed in him, the manifestation of which would be anything but agreeable or edifying. Human nature is weak at best, and inclined to be rebellious on such occasions more especially if the reason and judgment be not well developed. For this cause, if for no other, reproof (like advice) should always be administered in private, un- less the offence be a very grave one. The kind considera- tion exhibited in respecting the offender's feelings so far as not to expose him in the presence of his companions, will tend to open his heart to receive better impressions, and may possibly stamp on his conscience the seal of contrition, besides increasing his affection for the teacher personally. Ridicule and Ridicule and reproach are objectionable as aids in school management. The former tends to loosen the ties between the teacher and the taught ; and the latter, though not quite so objectionable, has much the same effect. Both should be avoided. They generally fall on the awkward, innocent, and over-sensitive pupils, whilst the idle and vicious, having THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 155 no reputation to forfeit, are quite indifferent or insensible to their application or effect. The unskilful use of either reproach or ridicule could not fail to destroy the harmony and mutual affection which exists between the pupils and teacher of every well-regulated school. It would annoy and degrade one section of the pupils, whilst it unduly elevated the other. Besides, it would foster a tendency in the latter to regard themselves as much better individuals than the former. In fact; it is wrong to sneer at pupils, and not pru- dent to rail at them, or to work much on their feelings. On the whole, it must be apparent to every reflecting mind (particularly to every experienced teacher) that reproach and ridicule are extremely dangerous as school punishments, if not wholly pernicious or reprehensible. Humiliation, as a means of school discipline though a Humiliation legitimate punishment should be used, if resorted to, with much caution and extreme delicacy. If not skilfully used, it might possibly produce the same effects as ridicule, and be followed by disobedience and rebellion. Before resorting to it, therefore, the teacher should be careful to satisfy himself that it is requisite. Sometimes the public confession of an error or offence, may be absolutely necessary; and when made it should be accompanied with a request for forgive- ness. To condone the offence, this confession should spring from a contrite heart. The confessor should be really peni- tent really sincere; for, as Blair well observes, "sincerity is the basis of every virtue .... Ingenuousness and candour possess the most powerful charms, and carry an apology for almost every failing." The teacher should always encourage his pupils to frankly acknowledge their offences, commending them to pursue the wisest, best, and most gentlemanly policy under the circumstances, namely make a free confession with a, suitable apology. If they confess their offences, regret their occurrence, and resolve not to be guilty of such conduct in future, the teacher may with pro- 156 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. priety overlook the past, and agree to receive them into favour again. Should the " little culprits " fail to do (or decline to do) these things, and that the offence is a grave one, the teacher being morally bound to investigate the case, will be legally (and naturally) justified in using every legitimate means, even corporal punishment, to bring about the desired reformation. "Quickness "Grown persons often make an incorrect estimate of the sion" in understanding of children, and judge them by what they know, rather than by their capacity of comprehension." Their knowledge is "very limited," but their power of com- prehension is very great. They are close observers in small things, and can draw correct inferences from few and insig- nificant actions. People often wonder at the grotesque mixture of wisdom and folly in the sayings and doings of some "solitary little one," whose old-fashioned ways indicate its inexperience and want of genial companionship. Its sayings are foolish, from comparative ignorance; and wise, from quickness of apprehension. It behoves the educator to train and develop the latter faculty, so as neither to de- press, repress, or over-exert it. Like all other faculties it should be duly exercised, not prematurely forced. No human being can overstep with impunity the intellectual boundaries fixed by Nature. jtnreniies k Juvenile inquisitiveness is a natural thirst for knowledge, and should, therefore, be encouraged rather than discoun- tenanced. The pupil should not be ridiculed, or laughed at, if he fail to convey his ideas in suitable or intelligible lan- guage. Rather let him be requested to put his question in other words, so that the teacher, if possible, may discover his meaning. This being done, let the teacher courteously furnish the required information, taking care to use words suitable to the child's capacity. children not No teacher should forget himself so far as to lose his tem- buked in per, or to become what children call a "scold." It is very anger. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 157 objectionable to chide pupils frequently or passionately such " indulgence" would certainly lessen the teacher's au- thority, and diminish the pupils' respect for his person. If they have violated, or infringed on, any of the rules, a few words representing the reprehensible nature of their offence, spoken in a kind and sober tone, with coolness, courtesy, and becoming dignity, will be far more effective in producing sorrow and amendment than many hasty rebukes or sundry angry allusions. In fact, the teacher who would command respect and professional success, must diligently study the temper, disposition, and character of his pupils individually, and fill them, "not so much with learning as with a desire to learn," not so much with the fear of punishment as with the desire not to offend. He must lead them to discover at an early age that virtue The end of and wisdom are the great objects of all learning " that the ec end of education (as Milton affirms) is to repair the ruins of Eden by regaining to know God aright ;" and that the more they advance in learning, the nearer they approach to Him who is the fountain of all knowledge. People naturally love liberty, and dislike anything that How to tends to curtail their privileges. So is it with children. By pleasant" J nature they have an antipathy towards the performance of compulsory duties, and have an aversion for anything en- joined as a task, particularly if it tends to limit their pleas- ures, or control their freedom. The skilful teacher will therefore induce them to perform their various duties with- out giving them reason to feel, or even suspect, that they are in the harness of restraint, and must be obedient to the whip of compulsion. He may* even succeed in creating in some of them, if not in all, a desire to be taught for the sake of the honour, delight, and recreation the information may afford ; but, if possible, he will never allow them to suspect that the acquisition of any subject, or part of a subject, is imposed as a compulsory task. The moment he does so, its 158 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. study will be shorn of its attractions, and may be regarded as "a punishment rather than a pleasure." dracfe? of* Children love dominion, and take much delight in exact- children, ing obedience to their will. During infancy this tendency displays itself in frequent fits of crying, and in "unreason- able peevishness ;" in boyhood, the presence of the " disease" is indicated chiefly by sullenness of temper, or the desire of personal acquisition a longing to have "things as their own." This love of power and inordinate possession, being the foundation of many evils, and the roots of contention and injustice, must be promptly rebuked, and, if possible, extracted from the system. If children strive together for the mastery, as often happens, and the case be duly reported to the teacher, he should, as a rule, give judgment against the originators of the strife, calling attention to the spirit of the Saviour's words "Whosoever would be chief among you, let him be your servant." criSJticfns Though it be necessary for the teacher to curb the insolent counLn^ an ^ unruly, and to check ill-nature, yet, as a rule, it would auced. no ^ Q p ru( j en t o f him to countenance the accusations or informations of pupils against each other. Such charges are generally the result of anger, envy, or malice feelings which need repression, not development. However, if on investi- gation, he finds the accused " guilty," he would do well to reprove him in private, and if possible induce him (1st) to solicit pardon from, and (2nd) make reparation to, the injured party both to be done as if the offender were acting of his own free will. Such a course will make the apology more easy to the one and more acceptable to the other, whilst it mutually engenders and promotes feelings of good nature, civility, courtesy, and respect. In well-regulated homes, children never get what they cry for, or basely ask. Of course their necessities are supplied, but the desires of pas- sion or fancy are firmly denied : so should it be in every well-ordered school. Pupils should be taught, so far as pos- THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 159 sible, to practice the virtues of resignation, submission, mod- T f he s ^dry e esty, and self-denial, so that they may cheerfully " bear and virtues. forbear," cordially sympathizing with each other in every little trial and difficulty incident to " school-life," being ever ready to assist each other ever willing to divide and share their little stock of delicacies or curiosities. Faults arising from inadvertency, mental weakness, for- Certain getfulness, unsteadiness, and absence of mind when not jjg^^j.^ wilful may be treated with some little indulgence, more indulgence, especially if the pupil be dull of comprehension or percep- tion. Probably the best way to correct such errors, or irregu- larities, is to recognize them as constitutional, but conquer- able misfortunes, whose subjugation will require continued efforts on the part of the pupil, and continued tenderness and good-will on the part of the teacher. The influence of mu- tual affection will be almost sure to sharpen the intellect of the pupil, opening and expanding his mind, so that he may do his duty faithfully and well. Without this incentive to action (as Locke truly observes) "there would probably be much uneasiness, and but little learning." SECTION 2. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. The greatest happiness and ultimate good of the whole, should be the chief objects of school government. The pun- ishment of the few is not only to be tolerated but com- mended, when it is necessary for the public or general good, more especially when there is reasonable hope that its in- fliction will reform the offender, and deter others. The least possible amount of pain which can produce the desired effect, is the just measure of punishment ; and the best system of government is that which reduces to a minimum the temp- tation to do wrong. Children favoured with reasonable and affectionate parents shame as a are under judicious discipline at home, and, as a necessary pums meu ' 160 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. consequence, they will seldom need punishment at school. Intelligent and well-disposed pupils require little restraint. Shame is a more powerful feeling than that arising from bodily pain. Hence the advisability of leading children to perceive that it is shameful to need government by force. Corporal Many educational writers seem to think (with certain punishment justifiable, legislators) that the use of " the rod of correction" is incon- sistent with the spirit and progress of this enlightened age- They affect to regard corporal punishment as a relic of bar- barism, and as a crime against juvenile humanity. On en- quiry it will generally be found that these writers have never been practical teachers, and have never raised a family of their own. The theories of such kind-hearted gentlemen are seldom founded on experience, and (we regret to say) will not stand the stern test of practice. In teaching, as in other things, we must take human nature as it is as we find it, and not as we hope it may be some centuries hence. Guided by the experience of mankind, we must deduce our inferences from general principles and actual experiment. It would be folly to draw our conclusions from (or to found a theory on) isolated cases of permanent success, as the result of mere moral suasion. The oldest book in the world de- clares with divine authority, that " He who spareth his rod hateth his son ; but he that loveth him chasteneth him be- times."* "Chasten thy son," says Solomon, "while there is hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying, . . . for if thou deliver him thou must do it again."f " Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of correction shall drive it far from him." J " Correct thy son and he shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul." While extracting these precepts, our mind reverts to the writings of a sage of an anterior age. We remember that it is recorded in the first book of Samuel, that God *Prov. xiii. 24. -fTrov. xix. 18-19. JProv. xxii. 15. Prov. xxix. If. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 161 Himself punished a certain parent, and pronounced a fearful doom against his posterity, because he neglected his duty in this respect. We allude to Eli, Judge of Israel. When informed of the evil deeds of Hophiii and Phineas, the soft- hearted old man (believing, doubtless, in the omnipotence of moral suasion), merely pointed out the enormity of their offence, hoping probably that they would repent and reform ; but he did not inflict any tangible degradation or punish- ment, or take any steps to produce contrition or reformations and for these reasons the Lord declared that both his sons should die in one day that his priesthood should be given to another, and that all his posterity should die in the flower of their age.* What a dreadful punishment of the old man's apathy, and of his weakness in neglecting to " train up his children in the way they should go If Well might Solomon say : " Withhold not correction from thy child, for if thou beatest him with the rod of correction he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod and deliver his soul from hell."! And to the young he says in another place : " Apply thy heart unto instruction and thine ears unto the words of knowledge. " " Hear counsel and receive instruction, that thou mayest be wise in thy latter end."|| These precepts give a divine sanction to the judicious appli- cation of corporal punishment to the discreet use of the rod, and not only invest the parent with the necessary authority, but absolutely require him to exercise it effici- ently; and, moreover, the practice of all nations, ancient and modern, barbarous and civilized, seems to indicate that such a right has always been recognized by mankind gene- rally. In the early ages of the world, parents were the principal Jf ie ^jj^! n (and in most cases the sole) teachers of their own children. school s. Every father had to instruct his sons in the arts of peace *1 Sam. ii. 22-36. fProv. xxii. 6. t Prov. xxiii. 13-14. Prov. xxiii. 12. || Prov. xix. 20. 162 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. and war, so that he was tutor, chaplain, judge, and military commander all in one. In like manner, the mother had to teach her daughters the arts of domestic life, attending also to the education of her sons during their younger years. But, as civilization advanced, the arts of life became more numerous and complex, so that domestic or public obligations compelled parents to delegate their educational duties and privileges to another, who thus became the locum tenens of the parent. Then, after the lapse of years, another change took place, as men became conscious of the advantages to be derived from "a division of labour." A number of families residing in the same locality made arrangements to transfer the education of their children to one such officer thinking, doubtless, that this plan would be more economical than for each to keep a private tutor. This officer, through "imme- morial custom," and by virtue of his election, became the common parent (so to speak) of all the pupils entrusted to his charge being authorized to treat them in every respect as if they were really his own. Probably it was thus public schools first originated ; and, in this way, instead of every parent in a town or district being of necessity com- pelled as of old to assume the office of private teacher to his own family thereby neglecting other duties a common tutor was (and is) appointed to represent them all, who, by reason of his special training and experience, is far more skilful as an educator than each individual parent (or pri- vate tutor) could possibly be. er-s com- h ^ n ^ e P resen ^ a o e > the teacher is not only recognized as mission. the legal representative of the parents in all scholastic mat- ters, but is likewise considered as endowed with full parental powers while in the school-room. Public opinion supports his influence, and the laws confirm his authority. Indeed, it seems to be tacitly understood, if not generally conceded, that "the teacher, in the school -room, stands in the parents' shoes." Let him, therefore, make the most of the position THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 163 accorded him by the law, by public opinion, and by imme- morial usage, always acting towards "the little ones" as if they were really his own judiciously and discreetly exer- cising his delegated authority according to his superior judgment, and "the light that is in him;" not scrupling to inflict even corporal punishment when he considers it neces- sary, and conscientiously believes that, under similar circum- stances, an intelligent and prudent parent would do likewise. "Tenderness is a very requisite quality in an instructor, yet there is often the truest tenderness in well-timed cor- rection." * The teacher should be careful never to threaten his pupils, Teachers more especially if he is not prepared to carry his threats into threaten execution. If a boy be innocent, no one has a right to pl threaten him ; if guilty, justice or good example call for his punishment. The ruler who continually threatens his sub- jects, will gradually alienate their affections, and ultimately be "favoured" with their hatred and contempt. They will hate his person, scoff at his words, revile his actions, and at last rise in rebellion and deprive him of power if not of his head. He who strikes without previous threats, is the man whom people honour and obey. A.n old proverb tells us that "the dog which barks the loudest is not the quickest dog to bite." Children acquire a knowledge of this fact as if by instinct, and soon learn that the loudest and greatest talker is usually the weakest and smallest actor that the firmness and decision of a man of many words are confined to his tongue. They feel that he does not really mean what he says, and, if they do not actually learn to despise their ruler, they, at least, acquire the habit of listening with indifference to his words. Parents and teachers who under- stand human nature, will never threaten children. If a grave offence be committed, and the teacher is of opinion * Goldsmith. 164 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. that the imposition of a certain task say "double home work," so many hundred lines, loss of privileges for a term, or confinement, followed by admonition or advice, etc. would be ineffectual in producing reformation, then let him resort to corporal punishment without "scolding" or previous threats. The teacher must never "give in to disobedience or wilful neglect." ^unishm Corporal punishment should be inflicted in the presence to be inflict- O f the whole school, and in as solemn a manner as possible. ed publicly. When inflicted publicly, it tends not only to reform the offender, but deters others from committing similar offences. When inflicted privately, its example is lost to the school, and the disgrace to the sufferer is not lessened. Inflicted publicly in a proper manner, with a right spirit, and for sufficient cause, its effects on the school will be lasting and salutary. The degree of severity cannot be exaggerated to parents and guardians, nor ridiculed and "made light of" to school-fellows and other associates. The teacher cannot be misrepresented; nothing can be mis-stated, or erroneously reported, as dozens of anxious eyes will witness its applica- tion, dozens of attentive ears will listen to the investigation, and dozens of expanding minds will moralize on the relations between cause and effect. If this punishment were admin- istered in private, (in a room where there would be no wit- ness,) its example would be lost, and the teacher might be misrepresented, and the degree of severity erroneously re- ported. Punishment should be inflicted as early in the day as may be convenient, and, as a rule, it should never be administered during the last hour of the school session. To establish The teacher can scarcely expect prompt obedience from force, if all his pupils (on taking charge of a school). He must &ary ' first win their love or affectionate regard ; and this he can- not do in a day, a week, or perhaps in a month. Without a will of his own, and an affectionate, straight-forward, gen- tlemanly manner, concurrent with an unalterable tenacity THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 165 of purpose, he will never win their esteem ; and, without enjoying their esteem, he cannot secure their love. What, then, is he to do 1 Should he allow some of them, desirous of being troublesome, to run riot for weeks or months, and thus set a pernicious example to the remainder, whilst he endeavouring to convert them by softer means declines to establish his authority by force] "Were he to do so, he would never win their affection, and never succeed in ruling by love, by reason, or persuasion. No half measures ever succeed in such cases "he fears to strike," would be the motto of all. Things would go on from bad to worse; "the sickly sheep would infect the flock," and, as a last and only resource, a new physician would be invited to attend to the case, and the old one paid off. If the pupils abuse their freedom, and disregard or disrespect the immortal principles of law and order, the teacher must act promptly, and do as governments do in extreme cases "suspend the constitu- tion, and rule by martial law." A ruler, abolishing fines, prisons, penal servitude, and capital punishment, would soon have no country to rule, 110 servants to obey him, no friends to love him all would be confusion, riot, and bloodshed ; so of a teacher who, on failing to establish his authority by reason and love, would decline to do so by force. At the very first, the teacher must establish habits of order and implicit obedience at any cost. When this has been done, he will have to resort but seldom to the rod of correction. Habits of order and obedience being promulgated and firmly established, his appeals to higher motives than fear or force will seldom fail. He can thenceforth rule by the power of reciprocal affection, and rely for success on the finer feelings of human nature. These will carry conviction to the con- science through the avenues of the heart, and the pupils can then be easily led to exercise their mental faculties under the teacher's supervision, even as they would exercise their physical powers without his instructions; for activity of 166 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. mind is as natural to them as activity of body. Both need direction and exercise. Good government is essential to progress, and it can be maintained only through " eternal vigilance." "Aimez les enfaiits," says Archbishop Fenelon, "n'oubliez rien pour en etre aime. La crainte est necessaire qnand I'amour manque ; mais il la faut toujours employer a regret, comme les remedes violents et les plus dangereux." ^bcrmade* Corporal punishment is the last resource, and, when used, effectual. its application should be made effectual. The punishment should be continued until the offender is thoroughly sub- dued; otherwise its application will only "make bad worse." The rod should be used only when absolutely necessary, and when other means have failed or would be likely to fail. Slight offences should not be followed by a slight application of the rod ; nor should the teacher be so deficient in wisdom and good taste as to keep this instrument in his hand when he visits the several departments and classes, or when going from one part of his school-room to another. It should be kept in the desk or drawer until required for use, and de- posited in the same place after it has done its work. Its constant appearance, or its frequent and slight application, will familiarize the pupils with its terrors and familiarity, it is said, generates contempt. "All punishments," as Seneca observes, "are either for amendment or example, or for both The custom of offending will take away the shame of it . . . . and for these reasons, punish- ments should be effectual, few, and far between." Moreover, it is as dishonourable for a teacher to have too many pun- ishments, or rather occasions to punish, "as it is for a prince to have too many executions, or a physician too many funerals." It would be far better never to attempt to ad- minister corporal punishment, than that it should fail in design, or soon need repetition. As a rule, it should be inflicted on the hands with a cane of moderate thickness. The child should never be struck on the head, or on the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 167 front part of the body. Good discipline is the foundation of good teaching the fundamental basis of education yet it should be always tempered with mercy, and administered in love. The teacher should never be in a hurry to inflict corporal A supple- punishment. He would do well to remember that one duty, thoughtless word, one unjust blow, may nullify the laborious inculcations of many days. Quiet deliberation and long- forbearing justice, are fundamental elements of success in school government. When inflicting punishment he should, therefore, be perfectly calm, self-possessed, and free from anger ; but at the same time, he should exhibit a just sense of the reprehensible nature of the offence. If not free from anger he should defer the punishment. Except in the case of very young pupils, it will always be wise to allow some time to elapse a day or two, or more, according to circum- stances from the investigation of an offence and delivery of judgment, until the infliction of punishment. During the interval, the offender will have the opportunity of reflecting on the nature of his crime and the justice of his sentence, and may perhaps become truly penitent. Thoroughly un- derstanding the teacher's character, and knowing by expe- rience that silence and delay do not mean exemption, he will feel certain that nothing will arrest the course of justice except due contrition and immediate reformation the ex- hibition of a heartfelt repentance and timely amendment. The teacher should carefully avoid the appearance of "favour" or prejudice during the investigation of a case ; but above all, he should never execute judgment or inflict punishment while under the influence of anger. It is related in ancient story that on a certain occasion 'the great teacher Plato being incensed with the conduct of one of his slaves, thoughtlessly raised his hand to inflict punishment. Suddenly recollect- ing himself, he checked his uplifted arm, but still retained it in its elevated and menacing position. The poor slave 168 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ran away after some hesitation, although his master remain- ed "fixed to the spot," as if he were a statue. One of his intimate friends, having observed the occurrence, asked the philosopher what he meant by such singular conduct 1 "I am now (said he) chastising an angry man." He had post- poned his servant's punishment, and was punishing himself for having given way to anger. Seneca states that on another occasion this individual committed some offence for which Plato thought it advisable to administer corporal punishment. But being under the influence of anger, he addressed his friend Speusippus, who happened to be pres- ent, saying " Do you chastise that fellow, please. I am angry, and might go farther than becomes me." This is the spirit we would commend. The modern teacher, like his Grecian predecessor, should never inflict punishment while under the influence of anger. He, also, is liable to " go far- ther than becomes him." It is true, he cannot legally dele- gate his executive power in this respect to another ; but h.3 can stop his uplifted hand, and allow the offender time to repent, and his own anger time to evaporate. The teacher The teacher should not rest satisfied with the mere inflic- to be free from anger tion of corporal punishment. A much higher and nobler when inflict- , ing punish- duty awaits him. Coercion prepares the way lor persua- sion. Negociations and amicable arrangements are often impracticable until after a satisfactory trial of arms. The infliction of punishment does not terminate the teacher's opportunities or responsibilities. Every act of coercive dis- cipline should be carefully followed up by sound suggestions and friendly influences, until the subjugation of the will is supplemented by the conquest of the heart. The more cri- tical the case, and the more violent the treatment, the more pressing is the need for the watchful and unwearied appli. cation of the necessary subsequent restoratives.* *Jewell. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 169 The teacher teaches wherever he is. His daily walk and conversation are living lessons practical inculcators of every praiseworthy quality, or the opposite. Calm, steady, and gentle, he should be consistent in all his actions a standard of justice and honour, a model in manners, and a bright example of patient self-control. Whilst insisting on the due observance of all rules and regulations of the school by his pupils, he should be particularly careful not to in- fringe them himself; nor should he ever allow himself any indulgence which duty or principle would compel him to deny to others. Whatever he would wish his pupils to do, that he must also do himself; for, as Seneca well observes, " the best instructors are those who teach in their lives, and prove their words by their actions." The divine Seneca, in his " Cautions Against Anger," Seneca's advances many useful hints concerning the education of the educa"* children. We take the liberty of transcribing a few of them, which may possibly be interesting to parents, and useful to the young teacher. The noble Roman affirms that " a careful education is a great matter in enabling us to conquer our evil propensities, for our minds are easily formed in youth ; but bad habits once acquired are very difficult to cure. Children should be trained to avoid provocations and the beginnings of anger. Nothing breeds anger more than a soft effeminate education. The choice of a healthy nurse and a good-natured tutor, goes a great way in eradicating or eliminating its germs from the system ; for the sweetness of the blood and manners pass into the child. . . . The teacher's favourite or mother's darling, seldom come to good. Flattery and fortune nourish touchiness, and as he grows up he becomes a choleric coxcomb . . It is a very nice point to check the germs of anger in a child, so as not to take off his edge and quench his spirits. In this matter, care must be taken that he be neither too much emboldened by license, nor too much depressed by severity. Commenda- 12 1 70 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. tions give him confidence and courage ; but, if dispensed to excess, they seldom fail to promote a spirit of insolence. . . When to use the bridle and when the spur, is the main difficulty." Parents or teachers should never put the child to the necessity of begging anything basely; and if he demeans himself in this manner, let him go without what he desires he is unworthy to receive it. They should give him nothing that he cries for, until the dogged fit is over. However, if convenient, they may let him have it when he has regained his equanimity, and assumed a cheerful and becoming demeanour. " He will thus learn that nothing is to be gained by peevishness," and, as a necessary consequence, will, day by day, become less waspish and quarrelsome. Let him be led to understand, in his various exercises, that it is not generous nor just to injure his competitors and oppo- nents, or even to wish them harm, but that it is praise- worthy to overcome them without wishing to depress them. SECTION 3. MUTUAL DUTIES AND OFFICIAL RELATIONS. Powers and In Canada and most of the States, the principal of a public school is invested, by law, with full power and author- ity in the management and control of the school. In such cases he is bound to conduct the school according to law, and it becomes his duty to observe and enforce the rules and regulations prescribed by the State, or Provincial Coun- cil of Public Instruction, and any other rules or regulations consistent therewith, which himself and the school board may, from time to time, think expedient or necessary for the efficient government of the respective departments or classes. It is also his duty (with the concurrence of the school board) to prescribe the work of the assistant teachers. The law, or public opinion, holds him responsible for their work ; hence the necessity for continual vigilance. It is the princi- pal's duty, also, to prescribe a general plan of teaching for the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 171 whole school ; but without sacrificing harmony of arrange- ment or development, he may permit its provisions to be slightly modified in application, so as to meet the peculiar necessities of each division or department. There may be variety in method, but there should be unity in design. We here venture to advance a few suggestions which may be of material service in effecting these objects. 1. Each assistant in charge of a division, department, Uniformity class, or section, should rule in accordance with the pre- scribed general plan or method, and in its administration be guided by the principles of government adopted for, and ap- plicable to, the whole school. There will then be uniformity of discipline and no clashing of interests no occasion, and no opportunity, for invidious comparisons, or internal jea- lousies ; each individual division will supplement and sus- tain the whole. 2. As a rule, each teacher of division (i. e. an assistant in p owers an< i charge of a class-room) should receive authority and, in fact, aSstants be required to investigate and decide on all matters of dis- cipline within his (or her) particular realm. But the graver offences, and all matters affecting other divisions, or the order and government of the school in general, and such as may be committed on the grounds, or in entering or leaving school, or on the way to or from school, should be referred to the principal. 3. All cases of suspension, expulsion, or of corporal pun- A Record of ishment, should be entered in a book, to be kept for that purpose, by the principal. Before inflicting corporal pun- ishment, each teacher should enter a statement of the case in this book, names of witnesses, amount of punishment, etc., and then affix their signature. The principal should revise these reports occasionally, and give such advice (pri- vately) to the teacher concerned as he may think judicious. This book should be open for inspection by parents ; and it might not be amiss to lay it before the school board at their regular meetings. 172 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. channel of ^' ^ G principal is the only proper channel of communica- inter-com- tion between the assistant teachers and trustees, or public munication. at large. All letters relative to the pupils, or other school matters in this connection, should pass through his hands ; and should any of the people, ignorant, or otherwise, of this rule, address an official communication to an assistant teacher, said teacher as a matter of courtesy, if not of right, should immediately lay it before the principal, who should reply (if necessary) in such terms as he may think judicious; or the assistant may reply under his instructions. ?o g noteT e8 ** " -^ notes presented by pupils should bear the signa- ture of the parent or guardian, known as such to the teacher." Local supre- g. "A teacher," says Tracy, "should not be interfered with macy of J J > teachers. i n the Government of his or her class while in actual com- mand not even by the principal. The teacher, of whatever grade, should, in the estimation of the pupil, be principal of his or her own class. Any suggestions or advice from the principal should, in all cases, be apart from the observation of the school or class ; otherwise the authority of the teacher is, in the minds of the pupil, weakened; for, if the principal manifest a lack of confidence in the teacher, so will the pupil. It is a great mistake for the assistant to appeal unnecessarily to the principal in maintaining order in the class ; for the pupil is thereby impressed with the idea that his teacher is incompetent, or he would manage without assistance. Pupils should not be sent to the principal for punishment or re- proof, except for absolute disobedience'. All else being set- tled by the teacher unaided, increases his authority and secures for him the respect of the pupil. When a teacher is obliged to send an unruly pupil out of the class-room, he should, at the time, explain the nature of his offence to the principal, said explanation to be made to the principal alone." TO report 7. Teachers should not allow anything but impossibilities absence to to prevent their attendance at school ; for, when a teacher is principal. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 173 absent, not only his class but the whole school is more or less embarrassed. When a teacher is absent through any cause, he should never fail to apprise the principal of the circumstances. 8. The principal should visit each class, division, or de- General supervision. partment at least once a day. It would be advisable that he should note the state of discipline, the character of the work being done, etc., on these occasions, and make an entry of same in the Report Book of the division, or in the General Report Book of the school. He should review the work of each division, at least once a month ; or require the respec- tive teachers to do so under his direction. He should then make an entry of the result in the General Report Book, after (privately) calling attention to defects, or publicly pointing out excellencies. The adoption and observance of such rules and regulations as the foregoing, cannot fail to create a unity of influence, effort, and design amongst teachers of the same school. PART III. METHODS OF TEACHING. CHAPTER I. HINTS ON THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. Moreau's It is said that when Napoleon was about to send Moreau fit for 6 (A.D. 1801) to fight the Austrians, he drew up a plan of Moreau. campaign, such as he himself would have used, and presented it to the General with his commission as Generalissimo. Moreau read it over, and then, after a few moments' deliber- ation, declined to accept the command, affirming that should he fight as directed, and in accordance with the instructions contained in the document before him, he would certainly be defeated. The First Consul was not pleased with the gallant officer's blunt but honest declaration, as it reflected on, or apparently depreciated, his own military talents. However, after a little consideration, he very wisely resolved to let the General have his own way, stating that "he be- lieved Moreau's plan was the best for Moreau." That gallant officer fought according to "hisowii plan," and the total defeat of the Austrians under Klenau, at Hohenlinden, was the re- sult. As it was with Moreau, so is it with, almost every indi- vidual teacher. His own plans and expedients (or methods) are the best for him. We do not mean to imply that the teacher should decline to enquire into the nature and positive success of other methods, and blindly follow his own. Quite the reverse. We mean that the teacher, like General Moreau, must have diligently studied and thoroughly mastered the theory and practice of his art, before he can take rank, or assume any very responsible position in his profession ; and THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 175 that, having thus posted himself duly graduated, so to speak, in all the principles and applications of his calling he should strike out an independent and original course. In writing the preceding sheets, we have not taken it upon ourselves to particularly recommend any individual plan system or method of education, nor have we wittingly spoken dogmatically to our fellow-citizens and co-labourers on any contested subject or theory ; for, as aforesaid, we believe that, in the majority of cases, each teacher's "own plan is the best for him." Still, in practice as in theory, there are general principles and a common basis from which no teacher can materially diverge, without suffering the penalties of fail- ure and defeat. Each teacher should be careful to found his plan or system on these fixed and eternal principles, and not, as is too often the case, on his own or other men's hobbies. As Wickersham observes, " Teaching is an art based on sci- entific principles that must always guide its practice . it lays under contribution all science and all art, in working out the grandest end that human conception ever realized the perfection of the human race." Let the teacher, there- fore, be just and honest towards himself and his charge let him act like Moreau, or like David of old, who pre- ferred his own simple weapons to those which he had not tested nor proved. But should he have cause to doubt or suspect the comparative efficacy of his own weapons, let him lose no time in discarding them, so that he may acquire the use of others more efficient. Prussia was the first nation in Europe to arm her soldiers with the needle gun. The vic- tories of Konnigratz, Sadowa, Gravellotte, and Sedan, were the result of this intelligence and promptitude. Had she been content with her old weapons, Alsace, Lorraine, Schles- wig Holstein, and the minor German States, would not have been annexed ; Sadowa and Sedan would have had a differ- ent ending, and her King would never have reigned over a "united Fatherland." These facts tell us we should never 176 THE SCIENCE AND AET OF TEACHING. despise new principles, or ignore new discoveries ; and that, while revering the old, we should acquire an intelligent, practical knowledge of the new. Having treated of some of the general principles on which all good, sound education should be based, we will now proceed to consider matters which involve the practical application of the great truths advanced in the foregoing pages. The school- The class-rooms of the public schools in the more respect- room and its decorations, able towns and villages, as well as in the cities of the res- pective States (of America), are generally decorated with life-size paintings of Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and other worthies of the Republic. This decoration speaks volumes for the taste and generosity of the people. Apart from the decoration of the walls and consequent beauty of the interior, it cannot fail to have a powerful influence on the minds of the rising generation. Besides cultivating the taste of the pupils and developing their ideas of the beauti- ful, it creates a certain emulation which tends to incite them to the performance of patriotic and heroic deeds. As time rolls away, we trust the class-rooms of our public schools will become more and more like the private drawing-room. Then will children look upon them as the most pleasant as well as the most profitable places in which they can spend their time. The decoration of our educational institutions deserves the consideration of every citizen. The legislature of every civilized community should make a liberal provi- sion for this purpose. It behoves our legislators to make the school attractive so far as money can do it ; and by doing so, they will discharge one of the most important duties which they owe to posterity. No capital will bring in such a large interest as that which is invested in educa- tion. The United States have generally acted in accordance with this principle, and Canada following the example of her southern sisters has already taken the initiative in decorative matters. The Canadian system of education is THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 177 said to equal that of Massachusetts, but in artistic arrange- ment, decorative attractions, and architectural design, the schools of the States far excel those of Canada. We are of opinion that large public schools should contain PIan of class-rooms. a special room for each class, and also a room of sufficient capacity to allow all the pupils to assemble together during opening and closing exercises, and on special occasions, such as exhibition or celebration days, etc. In. this room pupils, with their teachers, should assemble every morning for prayers, etc., after which they should bo dismissed by the principal, class by class, to their respective class-rooms.* At one end there should be an elevated platform, from which the principal or his assistant may overlook the whole school, and direct the various movements of the classes. It would be advisable for the principal and his assistants to have desks or seats on this dais, as it would be their most appro- priate place at the commencement and close of business. But if the school is not a very large one, and all must find accommodation in one room that room should be rectan- gular in shape. At the further end of the room a gallery (or galleries) should be erected, with fixed seats jr chairs for pu- pils, during the delivery of collective or object lessons. This gallery should be separated from the rest of the room by means of a movable glass partition. There should be a par- tition, because without it the classes will interrupt each other * Some years ago while engaged as a master at the Upper Canada College, Toronto, we had the pleasure of studying practically the excellencies of^this system the arrangements alluded to being strictly observed in that Institution. So far as we know, the principle has not baen hitherto adopted in any other Cana- dian schools. It is coming into general favour in the States, and is fully exempli- fied in the new State Normal School, at Buffalo, under th^ kind and able supervision of its excellent principal, Mr. Buckham. Officers charged with the erection of Normal or other large schools, would do well to visit both of these Institutions, and study their arrangements, before adopting plans or awarding contracts. Stand- ing, as it does, at the head of the great public schools of the continent, U. C. Col- lege should have buildings more worthy of its fame. The interior arrangements are excellent, hut the style of architecture is not such as we would recommend. The Toronto Provincial Normal School Buildings are, on the whole, worthy of much commendation particularly those sections allotted to the Education Offices, Library and Museum. The Model Schools (or schools of practice) are neither as commodious or convenient as we would wish to see them, and, in r- ality, detract from the beauty an I symmetry of one of the prettiest and best ordered institutions in the Province. 178 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. during recitation, etc., and it should be of glass, so that the principal may see through it, and, if necessary, overlook the work of the whole school or department at one and the same time. The part of the floor occupied by desks, if the room be very large, should gradually rise towards the rear, and the smaller pupils should occupy the first seats. The desks should be arranged so that the pupils when seated may face the teacher's platform. Behind the recitation gallery, and at other convenient places, maps, diagrams, etc., might be suspended. The walls of all class-rooms should be lined with slate (three feet three inches wide) for " black-board " purposes, the lower margin being about three feet from the floor. The windows should be elevated about four feet from the ground, so that outside transactions may not attract the attention of the pupils. The wall behind the teacher's platform, and also certain portions of the side walls, should be adorned with historical paintings and with life-size likenesses of the great and good men of other times. The ground space of a school-room laid out according to the foregoing plan would consist of four divisions : (1) The teacher's platform, (2) the recitation or object lesson gallery, (3) the space occupied by desks in the body of the school, and (4) the open space between the front desks and the platform. In small schools the gallery may be dispensed with. All classes, when at recitations, should be separated from each other by movable glass partitions; but if the attendance be very large, the accommodation sufficient, and the staff of teachers in pro- portion, each class, division, or department should have its own particular room; or the pupils should change class- rooms as often as they change subjects. According to the former plan, the teacher in charge of this class or department would teach them every subject ; and according to the latter plan, certain teachers would teach them certain subjects, and they would daily pass under the jurisdiction of each indi- vidual teacher in the school. Both arrangements have their THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 179 advantages and objections ; but of the two, the latter is the more commendable. In either case the respective classes (having separate class-rooms, and, for the time being, differ- ent teachers) would meet together in the assembly room of the school only twice a day at the commencement and con- clusion of business. The tolling of a bell would announce the intermissions or respective changes, and each class would of course know by its "time table" what subject would come next, and what teacher (and in what class room) they should attend during the ensuing hour. Each class-room should possess the most approved means of ventilation, and, unless in very rare cases, the building should not exceed two stories in height. Desks should not be larger than what may be necessary isolation to accommodate two pupils. The distance between each desk, from front to rear, need not be more than twelve or fifteen inches ; but the distance between the " ends of each range " of desks and seats should not be less than two feet four inches. That is to say, the aisles should be between two and three feet in width. The centre aisle should not be less than four or five feet. If a school " be seated " according to this plan, each pupil can get to, or from, his particular seat without disturbing his companions: the space lost in width, and occupied with aisles, will be more than gained in length, as more desks can be made to fit from front to rear, than under the old system.- In addition, a more general air of comfort and respectability will pervade the establishment ; the teachers can preserve better order, and there will be less " crowding " on entering or leaving the school-room. But instead of being made for two, it would be better if the desks were constructed for ' the accommodation of only one pupil. In many of the more respectable public schools in American cities,* the desks and * Normal School, Buffalo, for instance 180 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. seats are isolated; each pupil has a desk and seat for himself, and this desk and seat have no connection with other desks or seats. We affirm without hesitation that this is one of the great improvements of the age one which only needs time to be generally adopted. The upper part of these desks resembles a gentlemen's writing case when open being elevated in front, and dipping as it approaches the body. It is fastened to a cast iron pillar, (or to two iron castings,) which, in turn, is fixed to the floor. Immediately in rear of this pillar is a seat resembling a small arm chair, which is also fastened to a pillar fixed to the floor at a convenient distance from the former. These desks are placed together in pairs to the right and left of the regular aisles, and only two feet apart. Being thus isolated from each other, no pupil can hold communication with his com- panions without detection, as there is no covering in front to hide from the teachers " the telegraphic movements " of " little hands and feet." There is another feature in these primary arrangements which (so far as we know) is peculiar to America a feature which deserves not a little attention. It has met with much favour in New England, especially in "the old Bay State." We allude to the practice of placing the principal's platform in a large and commodious recess in the side of the school-room, the pupils being faced as usual towards either end. By this arrangement the teacher has a full side view of each pupil a better view, perhaps, for all practical purposes than he could enjoy were he to gaze on them from front to rear. Die play A good play ground, well stocked with gymnastic appara- cioak- tus, should be attached to every school. Part of it should be eovered in, so as to protect the pupils from the extremes of temperature. Flowers, fancy shrubs, and trees might be cultivated in another portion of it, if the grounds are large enough. There should also be a suitable place for cricket and other such games. The grounds should be enclosed THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 181 with a high wall, and a good pump should be situated in some convenient place therein. In the respective cloak- rooms there should be a wash-stand, looking-glass, some brushes and other apparatus for arranging and adjusting the toilet. These things are necessary in every respectable school, and all schools should be respectable. The articles required cost but little, and they tend materially to promote habits of taste, cleanliness, and good order amongst the pupils. Scholastic exercises should be conducted with considera- Excrcises ble military precision. When the bell " calls school," the pupils should arrange themselves in files on the play ground or some other convenient place. When it ceases to ring, they should march into the school and to their respective class- rooms, keeping time to the music of an organ or piano. Should there be no instrumental music available, they may be allowed to sing some patriotic soul-stirring song. The piano should be situated on the platform, to the right or left of the principal's desk. One of the assistant teachers, or some of the older pupils, should discourse the music ; or each pupil competent to do so might take the post in turn. The music, whether vocal or instrumental, should be con- tinued until all the pupils have entered, and are standing in line beside their respective seats. Then the principal should command " the halt " by touching his bell, and, by a second sound thereof, order them to be seated. If it be the custom of all the teachers and pupils to Ca m nc ," assemble in the large common hall or assembly room at the 2U?" commencement and close of business, the principal, after scho 1 -" conducting the religious exercises or other " collective busi- ness," should dismiss the classes to their homes, or to their respective class-rooms, not altogether, but separately, and at short intervals. He should first (by touching his bell) dismiss the lowest class with its teacher, then the second class with its teacher, and so on, until all have left, or until none remain, except the principal's own particular class, 182 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Classifica- tion of pupils. Test sub- jects. should he have one. During their departure some patriotic tune should be played on the piano : so that as a rule they should march into, and out of, school (or their respective class-rooms) to the sound of music. Though the dismissal of the pupils should not be en bloc, it should be continuous class after class in succession. The school may be conveniently organized into three divisions or departments, each division into two classes ; and, if the school be a large one, each of the classes should be sub-divided into two sections, each section to number from twenty to thirty pupils. In Ontario the pupils of the public schools are supposed to be divided into six classes, the quali- fications of each class or grade being fixed by the Council of Public Instruction. Under this system a teacher may be placed in charge of each class, as in central schools, or two or more classes may form a division under the superintend- ence of one teacher, as in the generality of public schools the head master being responsible in all cases for the classification, management and control of each class or divi- sion, as well as for the general progress of the whole. In conjunction with the School Board, he has the power to prescribe the duties of all his assistant teachers, and the school laws require him to see that these duties are effi- ciently performed. Generally speaking, the head masters of the public schools have little cause to find fault; for there is no " class of workers " in the world more faithful, diligent, and zealous than Canadian female teachers the class whence the supply of assistant teachers is usually drawn. As a rule, pupils should pursue all their studies in the same division, or class. But, although it is desirable that their progress from class to class should be uniform, still, a pupil may be allowed, if qualified, to study reading in one section of that class, and arithmetic in another, or vice versd; and so of the other subjects. These may be regarded as the THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 183 t most appropriate test subjects for the younger children, (i. e. those best adapted for enabling a teacher to determine the section, class, or division to which each child should belong,) but dictation, composition, (with accurate punctuation, spell- ing, etc.,) mathematics, and the elements of natural science, may be more suitable for senior pupils; as difference in skill, in their case, is more easily ascertained in the latter subjects than in the former. They are also more appropriate to the supposed mental calibre of the pupils of advanced age. It has been ascertained that in almost all schools classified Gra(lin s- as above, the third or lowest division will contain about twice as many pupils as the first ; and the second about as many, and half as many more. In large schools the fore- going classification into divisions, classes and sections, is the best that can be adopted. Taking fifteen as the average number in each section, a school arranged as indicated would stand as follows : First Division or Department, two classes, each class two sections 60 pupils Second Division or Department, three classes, each class two sections 90 " Third Division or Department, four classes, each class, two sections 120 " Total average attendance .... 270 " If twenty be taken as the average number in each " section," it will give a total of 360 for the whole school ; but schools are seldom so large, even in our most prosperous cities, as to exhibit such a high average. As a rule, a "section" should not contain less than ten, nor more than thirty pupils; and there should be an assistant teacher for each class of two sections, or " a teacher for every thirty in the average." In many English schools what we call sections are called classes and vice versd : but the name is a matter of little import, provided we have the principle. In small schools the inter- mediate grade should be omitted, and the pupils classified as 184 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. follows at least we think the following classification will be more appropriate in rural schools than that given above. The following is to be considered as merely an approxi- mation : First Division, one class of, say 20 pupils. Second Division, two classes, fifteen pupils each. 30 " Third Division, two classes, twenty pupils each. 40 " Total average attendance .... 90 In very small or very large schools, the classification should be somewhat different still to the foregoing : we merely submit these examples as guides to classification. They may serve as a basis for that purpose. It would be unwise, if not impossible, to lay down any fixed or rigid rules on this subject, as so much depends on circumstances circumstances not general. However, enough has been said on the sub- ject for all practical purposes. ^ ^ e * eac ^ ier ^ e desirous of promoting uniform progress, the classes must be of uniform size ; the pupils of the same class, if not of the same section, must be of the same intel- lectual attainments ; and whatever assistance he thinks pro- per to furnish should be given, not to one individual but, to the whole class collectively. If a pupil ask for aid, the teacher should note the difficulty, and explain the same to the whole class at a fit and convenient time, when, if possi- ble, he will lead " the youngsters" to solve it for themselves. Unless he attend to these things, and that the pupils present at collective lessons be endowed with the same, or nearly the same, degree of mental capacity, his teaching cannot possibly be very efficient or successful. He will be like the sower who went forth to sow, whose seed fell amongst thorns and on rocks, as well as on good soil. We may remember, it is said, that the seed which fell on the latter, grew up and came to maturity, whilst that which fell on rocks and amongst thorns, remained unproductive. The child's mind is the ground on which the seed is cast. It behoves the teacher THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 185 to see that the soil is duly prepared for the seeds of instruc- tion properly cleared of rocks, stumps and weeds so that in days to come, he may reap where he has sown. The teacher should be careful to suit the subiects of study, Subjects of * ' study to be and the mode of treating them, to the mental capacities of adapted to . mental capa- the children under his charge. {Starting with common city. things and long familiar ideas, he should lead them on grad- ually to higher objects to more enlarged acquirements, more extensive views, and, so far as possible, to the maxi- mum of excellence in everything. The subjects or branches of learning, likely to be useful in after life, should be made the instruments of moral culture and mental development. The lessons of the lower sections and classes should be speci- ally adapted to the exercise of the perceptive faculties. At this stage, obsarvation and curiosity are the " working organs," and. so far as possible, the pupils should be taught through the medium of the eye. As the children grow older, or advance in their respective classes, as aforesaid, memory, imagination, reason and judgment, should be developed in natural order. This development is the foundation of good education. The healthy cultivation of the mental, moral and physical powers is far more desirable than the mere acquisi- tion of knowledge. The various methods of instruction may be reduced to Systemiof two the synthetical and the analytical. By the former we combine, construct, or put together; by the latter, we reduce compounds to elements. The one ascends from par- ticular facts to general principles, the other descends from general principles to particular facts. When the essential particulars of any subject are so order of numerous as to be likely to fatigue the attention, pupils may commence its study by learning the general principles first, and then proceed to the consideration of the respective facts. However, as a rule, they should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the homo- 13 18o THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. geneous to the heterogeneous. If possible, the mind should be introduced to principles through the medium of exam- ples, and gradually led from the particular to the general. Every study should have an experimental introduction. The facts a child acquires in this manner should be made the basis of communication of more advanced or more com- plex ideas. When he fully understands these ideas, we may a^ke a further step in advance. As he thus gradually digests each lesson, we may supply the knowledge he craves, and thus make the mind self-developing. As M. Le Compte well observes, " the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race." " In mode and arrangement," says Herbert Spencer, " the education of children must harmonize with the education of the race, considered historically." " There are stages of development in the immature growth of indi- viduals," says Hugh Miller, " which seem to correspond with stages of development in the immature growth of nations." There is in every child, as we may ascertain by looking back on our own individual history, an aptitude to acquire information in the order in which the race to which he belongs mastered its various kinds of knowledge. The education of the individual may be facilitated by leading him through the steps traversed by the general mind those steps being taken in their order of sequence. Hence, education should be a repetition, in miniature, of the suc- cessive stages of development in the civilization of the race. The more fully we consider these facts, the more firmly are we convinced of their truth. The history of educational progress amongst the race (or mankind generally) is a potent ally in enabling us to understand "child nature," whilst it suggests many useful hints as regards the true principles of teaching. One mind is a type and representative, more or less, of all minds ; hence, if we understand our own con- ceptions, and duly comprehend the power and effect of the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 187 laws which regulate the action of thought, we will be able to divine the thoughts and ascertain the motives of other people. We may generally read a parent's character through that of his child ; and, vice versd, the evil passions and infirmities of disposition to be checked or eradicated in children, are traits of character which have been more or less transmitted from their progenitors. Hereditary trans- mission hands down mental and moral characteristics as well as physical excellencies or defects. The order- in which subjects of study should be presented Natural and to the understanding, deserves much thought. By judicious arrangements and careful elimination, the accumulated know- ledge of ages may be condensed into a small compass, and imparted to children in such a form as will create a thirst for rn^re light, whilst saving them useless labour. An expe- rienced teacher can impart as much information in a few hours, as the unassisted tyro would fail to acquire in as many months perhaps years. The subjects embraced in the programme of studies should follow each other in natural and logical order. The primary, or elementary subjects should invariably be presented first, and the elements of each, thoroughly understood by the pupil before the teacher proceeds to the inculcation of higher truths. In other words, the subjects best calculated to promote the right cultivation of the mental powers, should be presented to the mind in the order of sequence which nature follows in the development of these faculties. For these reasons, "natural and logical order" should be a motto with every student and teacher; otherwise, success, if possible, will at all events be doubtful. Pupils desirous of acquiring any branch of knowledge should learn to regard it in an applicate as well as in a theoretical sense, and vice versd. For instance, in the acquistion of geometry, arithmetic, grammar, geogra- phy, or any other branch of learning, they should study the subject, and regard books relating thereto as mere tools or 185 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. means for that purpose. As matters stand, they frequently fall into the error of studying the author more than they study the subject, implicitly adopting his views without the least reflection or personal investigation. Mind should not be a passive recipient, like the sponge. It should be the great and constant aim of the teacher to make it an active agent, so that it may exercise its divinity, and assert its near relation to the Creator. CHAPTER II. COLLECTIVE TEACHING. Bnndry ob- I n collective teaching the teacher's success will depend, in a great measure, on his personal carriage and general appear- ance. His manner of address should, therefore, be easy, fluent, and graceful. He should be animated, without being "flouried." Being careful to avoid such characteristics as " meaningless pauses," stammering, and unnecessary repeti- tion, he should state exactly what he means, and in as few words as possible. It is far better to be a man of too few than too many words. Simplicity should be one of the char- acteristics of every teacher simplicity of language, simplicity of illustration. In fact, simplicity may be regarded as "the maximum of excellence." During the delivery of a lesson, prior to its commencement and after its close, the teacher should test his pupils' comprehension of the subject by a series of skilful questions. As explained more fully else- where, the time occupied in the delivery of a lesson should not be prolonged so as to weary the class, and create a dis- like for the subject. A lesson extending over the space of half an hour will be quite long enough for junior classes, THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 189 and forty-five minutes will be sufficient for the senior divi- sions. The teacher can easily guess how long a lesson may be, and also ascertain the effect of his teaching, by noting the interest he is able to inspire and maintain. He should never continue a lesson until the pupils lose their relish for the subject. He must stir up and partially satisfy their mental appetites, but he must not allow them to feed to the verge of satiety. Better to stop short of this point and bring the lesson to a close, while the pupils are yet anxious to learn more about it. They will then return to, or resume, its investigation at some future time with renewed pleasure, and study it in private with an ever-increasing interest. With very young children, the elliptical method of teach- The e iii p ti- ing is, perhaps, the most effective at all events, it will be cal method - most successful in maintaining attention. It has its dangers, however, and, to be successful, must be guided by a skilful "hand." As a rule, the practice of this method will be suc- cessful if accompanied by many questions, and but few ellip- ses. Both skilfully intermixed, will be effective. The pupils should not be required to fill in an ellipsis which, in the nature of things, they could not be expected to supply. The ellipses should not be ambiguous nor uncertain, and should consist of but few words. If the class be composed of very young children, one word will be sufficient. The analytical and synthetical methods may be used with Same class, great advantage in collective teaching. In conducting his Sty? instructions according to the collective method, the teacher should be particularly careful that the pupils in each class be of the same degree of mental capacity ; that he educate as well as talk; that they be instructed as well as pleased; that he be supplied with specimens, models, or diagrams, to illustrate his lesson ; that whatever maps he may require be at hand, and that any subjects needing illustrations, addi- tional to those provided, be sketched on the black-board. If the members composing a class be not of the same (or 190 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. nearly the same) degree of capacity, the subject, and the teacher's method of treating it, will be too simple for some, and incomprehensible to others. Therefore, neither party will be edified probably both will be injured, fatigued, or "disgusted." Imperfect classification is one of the greatest impediments to success, and one of the most serious obstacles with which the conscientious teacher has to contend. The difficulty arises from many causes, such as irregularity of attendance, want of sufficient help, the natural though fool- ish anxiety of parents to have their children promoted, the desire of teachers to comply with parents' wishes, etc. The teacher who would be successful must exhibit a will of his own, and classify his pupils according to their natural and acquired abilities, irrespective of exterior influences. But to return : Arrange- The teacher must thoroughly understand his subject, and meat of J ' lesson in its arrange the matter in natural and logical order, if he be order and really desirous of practising collective lessons successfully. He should prepare a sketch of the subject, and after the delivery of the lesson, tile the same for future reference. This sketch should exhibit the heads, divisions, and sub- divisions of the lesson, arranged in their natural order of sequence, so that the treatment of the matter, and manner of delivery may be apparent at a glance. It would be wise to note (as a P.S.) the specimens, models, charts, or dia- grams, necessary for illustrating the subject. Object lessons are generally collective lessons; and every collective lesson, should be more or less an object lesson. When the teacher has deduced and explained all the par- ticulars of the first section of his lesson, he should lead his pupils to recapitulate what they have learned, whilst he writes the headings or sketch of same on the black-board, from their dictation taking care to ascertain whether they have gained ideas as well as words. He should then take up the next section and treat it in like manner, and so on THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 191 to the end of the lesson, when there should fce a general recapitulation of the whole, the teacher pointing to the headings on the board. At the close, the black-board should exhibit a perfect sketch of the principal points of the lesson, duly numbered in their order of sequence then each idea will have been developed, deduced, and expressed in its logical order. Each of these lessons should form part of a regular series of a complete whole being naturally con- nected one with another, links in the development of the great chain of intellect, well-prepared stones in the great arch of science. From what has been stated in this and preceding chap- ciiaractoi li- ters, it will be seen that successful teaching depends chiefly teaching ' on the following characteristics, namely : (^1) Simplicity, by which we mean that the mind should be fixed upon only one thought at a time : (2) Gradation, or logical and natural order: (3) Repetition, which is necessary to due impression: (4) Illustration, which groups and associates examples of same facts : (5) Precision in the use of words, whereby the elective faculty selects the best and most appropriate : (6) Enunciation or Definition, whereby principles are clothed in words : (7) Application, which applies the results of the les- son to the benefit of the pupil ; by solving or confirming some principle in religion, science, or morals. Every collective lesson should have an introduction, and introduc- . ,. . . tion to an application. The object of the introduction is to connect i.esson the lesson with the preceding lessons on the same subject. It should be short, clear, useful, and interesting ; so that it may open the mind to receive additional light, and fix the attention on what follows. The illustrations used should be apposite and natural, interesting, clear and graphic, the essential points of resemblance being distinctly and promi- nently placed before the mental gaze. Illustration to be effective must be ample, without being redundant. 192 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Lesson to The practical application of a lesson should grow naturally ticai appii- out of the lesson. It should not be forced, nor introduced as a mere statement, but as a reflection associated with, and arising from, the subject. It should not comprise more than one or two inferences. Were they increased in number, the impression of each would be lessened, and the mind con- fused. The teacher should have a definite purpose in every lesson he gives, and should not rest satisfied until he has accomplished the object in view. Should he have a just conception of his work, he will be able to describe before- hand what he aims at, how he expects to attain it, and what effect each lesson may be expected to produce. The collec- tive lesson, if skilfully delivered, is a potent agent in devel- oping noble ideas, habits, and actions. It is the most effec- tive instrument he can use to influence the affections, or draw out and develop the various faculties of the mind. Under the management of a skilful teacher it is one of the most powerful aids in doing good. We know of no means more efficient in "pointing a moral or adorning a tale." SECTION 2. THE ART OF CATECHISING. Socntic i 1 }^ art of asking questions admits of two divisions. The first division may be used as a means of instruction, and is then called the catechetical or Socratic method. It is a well- known fact, that by means of a few judicious well-connected questions, pupils may be easily led to discover principles, and to solve difficulties, which would otherwise be insurmount- able. Full many a time does the bosom of the pupil glow with honest pride when he remembers, that personal efforts have enabled him to overcome such literary obstacles. But to effect these objects, the questions should naturally grow out of each other, beginning at some familiar point and pro- ceeding step by step to the unknown until the answer to the last question of the series reveals the mystery, and unfolds the knowledge sought. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 193 The second division of the art comprehends queries pro- Tentative and examiu- posed as test questions at recitations, reviews, and public or atton ques- tions. private examinations, and also such as may be proposed to ascertain the extent of pupils' knowledge of a subject before giving a lesson. In proposing questions, as in performing other educational work, the teacher's chief object should be to exercise and strengthen the respective mental faculties of the pupils. The test of their actual knowledge (except at certain examinations) is a matter secondary to these consid- erations. A question, admitting of such an answer as " yes " or " no," should never be proposed. Queries should be of a searching nature, and be proposed in such a manner as to find out how much or how little the pupil knows of the sub- ject. This course will tend to secure careful and thorough, preparation. It will improve the pupil's power of expression, cultivate his memory, increase his knowledge, make his in- formation more definite, and thereby enable him to acquit himself with credit and satis fact ion. The pupil's answers, like the teacher's queries, should be clear, full, and exact free from ambiguity and uncertain ty. As a rule, the pupil should not be interrupted or corrected until "quite through with his reply." The tact or skill requisite in asking ques- tions aright may be regarded as one of the mysteries of the teacher's art and not the least of them. This tact is, in fact, one of his most important qualifications, and (if not naturally possessed of it) he must necessarily acquire it, should he be desirous of more than ordinary success. It is a real test of the teacher's aptitude and ability. However, it must be remembered that the true measure of his skill is not what he can do and say himself, but what he can get his pupils to say and do. Individual questioning is impossible in a large class; and, TO be gen- if possible, it implies a loss of power, as each pupil will re- application, ceive only a fraction of the whole instruction. Questions 194 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Clrutracter- i sties of good answering. Correction of errors. should be addressed to the class, not to individual pupils. To be effective, they must act upon the whole, not upon any part or unit. After all have held up their hand, or given some other sign of their ability or inability to reply, the teacher may call on one individual to give the answer; but he should never designate the individual before giving the question. In this manner, all the pupils will profit by the questions addressed to one, and the whole lesson will be continuous to the whole class. Effective questioning must combine the individual and simultaneous methods. Under such a combination the pupils will acquire a tendency to answer mentally, and, if the ques- tions be fairly distributed, the class will imbibe the maxi- mum amount of knowledge. Thoughtfulness and distinctness are the best characteristics of good answering. Hence, re- plies are to be judged by a double standard by the amount of truth they contain, and the amount of thought they indicate. In rejecting an answer, the teacher should give credit for the amount of truth or evidence of thought expressed or implied therein the class, or the pupil himself, being led to amend or enlarge, as necessary. This course will encourage the diffident, and check the thoughtless ardour of the over- confident, whilst it develops instead of repressing intelli- gence. Should the teacher detect any inattention on the part of a pupil he should instantly ask him to answer the question proposed, or to repeat it. If unable to do so, he should forfeit his standing in the class. Error is the result of ignorance, prejudice, or habit. Per- sonal correction on the part of the pupil is the only true safe-guard against its repetition. The correction of errors is no small part of the work of both teacher and pupil ; but unless a sense of error be felt by those who make it, there can be no real or thorough correction. It is not always expedient to insist on rapidity of thought. Hasty answers THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 195 are often the result of impulse, and then imply the absence of reflection. For these reasons pupils should be encouraged to "think twice before they speak once." CHAPTER III. SPELLING. Having treated of the school building, of the order or Method* of plan of instruction and classification, and of the general principles which should guide every teacher in the intelligent practice of his art, we will now proceed to consider the more P rmci i' le!: important of those branches of knowledge supposed to be imparted at every public school. Feeling that theory should give way to practice, and science develop itself in art, we will venture to submit, at least, one of the more approved methods of teaching each particular subject. However, we would not bind the teacher to adopt this method, seeing that " Korean's plan was the best for Moreau." There are cir- cumstances in which other methods will work equally well. The teacher, however, must remember that all systems of education should be founded on well-established scientific principles, and that life is too short to waste much time in visionary experiments. Doubtless the following pages may be useful to the young and inexperienced teacher, and not wholly uninteresting to the Nestors of the profession. Keeping the foregoing objects in view, we will now pro- Spelling, and how to ceed to consider the more important subjects of popular teach it. instruction. First on the list, and first in the order of se- quence, is spelling the foundation-stone of all literary edu- cation. This subject may be taught to very young children by means of a box or spelling apparatus, containing a chart 196 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. of pictures and words (names), which, by the agency of cranks, can be moved like a panorama behind an opening the said opening, through the action of flexible slides, to be closed, enlarged, or decreased, at the will of the teacher. The pictures are of great value, as they prepare the mind to receive the name of the object presented. Then the crank is turned again, and, as it slowly revolves, letter after letter of the name is exposed in regular sequence ; so that the little ones actually spell the word by naming each letter as it appears. By these means, they first receive a strong im- pression of the object; they then obtain its na.ne, ^through the teacher, if necessary,) and finally learn to spell the same. This done, they should write the word on their slates (if able to write), after which the teacher may write the word on the black-board, and direct them to compare it with the word on their slates, making any necessary corrections. They may then proceed to consider the next object, and to spell and write its name in like manner the new object being revealed, and the former one concealed, by another turn of the crank; and so on to the end of the lesson. It will be seen that this system combines real amusement with genuine intellectual instruction. The fact of a portion of the lesson being concealed, tends to excite the curiosity sn; ..1 to hold the attention of the pupils, so that they are sure to be on the qui vive as to "what will come next." This spell- ing apparatus is specially adapted for the use of primary THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. schools, and may be said to supersede the use of primers. Besides making instruction pleasant and profitable, it saves much time and labour, and materially increases the instruc- tor's teaching power. It will be seen that reading (and even viva voce composition) can be taught young pupils by means of this apparatus ; but the reading machine is a much better aid in this respect. 197 The Reading Machine, of which the above is a cut, was devised (with some necessary alterations) from a model seen by us some years ago in the Royal Museum at Naples. It is simple in construction and very easily managed. It may be described as a frame, or box, mounted on a movable support and fixed so as to revolve on a horizontal axle, E, F. It may be of any height or length, but its width from front 198 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Heading precede spelling. to rear need not exceed two and a half inches. The face or front of the machine may be divided into as many vertical sections containing words, as the teacher may desire; each section being covered with slides which can be moved up- wards or downwards at pleasure, one slide being absent in each column. Inside these slides is a card, of suitable dimensions, containing sentences arranged so that at any stage of an expression the words will suit and make sense, no matter which of the slides may be moved in the adjoin- ing column. The teacher may remove the card and substi- tute another by opening the base-board, c, D. The iron feet are sufficiently heavy and far apart to secure stability. It would be advantageous to mount them on rollers. The card headings, corresponding to the spaces from A to B, contain pictures representing the subject of the lesson (the lion for instance) in various attitudes or relations. According to Nature's mode of teaching, reading should precede spelling in the order of sequence. The young child acquires the use of words long before he is required to analyze them into sounds, or express them by letters. After he has learned to read and write the letters of the alphabet (small script or italic) he may, by means of the "reading machine," be taught to read short sentences. After read- ing a sentence, the words may be resolved into syllables and letters, and then written by the teacher on the black-board, the children dictating the letters. The children may then copy same, letter for letter, on their slates; after which they should be required to read it collectively and simultane- ously finally spelling each word as they have written it. The machine used for teaching spelling in some of the Massachusetts primary schools (see fig., page 196,) is about three feet long by one and a half in breadth and two ii height, and when in use is fixed on a table set apart for tl purpose. The respective objects, and their names, letter by letter, are exhibited to the class by the movement of THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 199 the crank turned by the teacher's band bevelled wheels acting on the cylinders inside cause them to revolve, and thus roll the canvas round the drum at one end of the machine (a), whilst it is unrolled at the other (b). In some primary schools the " spelling stick " (see cut) is favoured with a prominent place. This instrument consists of a piece of wood, or iron, properly fashioned and grooved for holding the card-board letters. By the aid of this simple device the teachers of primary classes will find it easy to command the attention of their pupils, teach the form of letters, and show how to combine them into words. It has been well said that " by its use words and their spelling may be taught to a large class with less outlay of time and patience than is required for teaching a single pupil with the book alone." It will be seen that if words, instead of letters, be placed on the card-board, the Spelling Stick will be transformed into a "Sentence Stick" an instrument which may be very advantageously used in teaching children how to construct sentences, just as they had previously been shown how to construct words. In fact this is done in the ordinary manner, as above, with but little effort on the part of the teacher. By means of " The Stick " the teacher may (with- out the use of the rod) lead his primary classes to acquire, almost unconsciously, a good working knowledge of the first principles of composition. 200 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. HOW the Pupils of the higher classes should be taught spelling by classes means of dictation, composition and analysis of words. taught. Spelling is needed chiefly in M T riting, and is taught best in connection with that exercise. Its acquisition, in this man- ner, will cost comparatively little time or labour, and the necessary practice in writing words will ensure the pupil a degree of facility in expressing his thoughts, which will be no small help when he comes to study the art of composition. Each pupil should provide himself with a dictionary, and also with a spelling book " without meanings." During the preparation of his lesson he should write on his slate the words prescribed, and attach their meanings as given in the dictionary. The time fixed for spelling exercises having arrived, and the class being called, the pupils will erase any words they may have on the slates, and take their places according to their order of merit in the last spelling class. The teacher will then give out the words of the prescribed lesson in irregular order, and the pupils will write the same to his dictation. This being done he will instruct them to write the meanings, allowing a fixed time to do so. He will then tell them to hold down (or exchange) slates, after which " he will glance over each and mark the errors, beginning at the head of the class. When all the slates have been examined thus, the pupils who have no errors will take pre- cedence, according to their order of merit, of those who have. In like manner those who have only one error will take precedence of those who have two, whilst those who have more than two may be " plucked," i. e. sent to their seats with instructions to remain in during intermissions, or to remain after school hours to study the lesson. The former, merit. that is, those who had but one or two errors, correct the same, while the latter are returning to their seats. The teacher examines the corrections and instructs the class to "number." He then reads aloud the name of each individual in the spelling class, from the " Daily Register of Progress." THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 201 While doing so, each pupil, as mentioned, states the " num- ber " indicating his standing in the class as acquired during the present lesson. This number is immediately entered by the teacher opposite the pupil's name, under the proper date, and so on from first to last. Pupils sent to their seats will have no standing, and must take places in the class next time after all their companions, and in the relative order indicated by their register numbers on the roll of the school. The pupils of intermediate or junior classes may not be How error* compelled to give " meanings for words " as indicated above, corrected. but should be required to write them correctly, dividing each into its proper syllables. The correct copying of prose or poetry is an agreeable exercise, and also an excellent me- thod of teaching this subject. Pupils making mistakes in spelling should invariably correct them in writing on paper or on the black-board this will tend to fix them on the tablet of the mind. Some teachers require pupils to prepare their spelling exercises at home, but the circumstances of each being different, and the facilities of acquisition variable, we believe it would be batter to have the work done in school under official supervision. The higher classes should study the philosophy of spelling while labouring to acquire perfection in the art. This is often neglected by modern students, but was never forgotten by our fathers. They were also more skilful in the art than we are. They seem to have had more time for practice than their sons and grandsons of the present age. In former times, besides the "Field days' . in spelling. ordinary daily lessons in spelling, there were what might be called general field days. On these occasions the pupils (by " choosing sides") divided into two parties, and were ranged in lines opposite each other. The two best pupils in the school made the "selections" alternately, under the super- vision of the teacher. Sometimes, instead of "the whole school being ranged against each other," irrespective of sex, the girls became the opponents of the boys, or a class was 14 202 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ranged against a class. The words were then given out by the teacher, or by one of the pupils elected for the purpose, and the lively contest commenced; or the pupils on either side gave words to their opponents words taken from lessons that had been learned. Each pupil who missed a word, fell out of line and took his seat, and at last only a few remained standing on the "bloodless field." These "heroes" then commenced the contest anew (if time per- mitted), and waged "war" until one had the high honour of standing alone, "monarch of all he surveyed." This pupil was then hailed as "champion speller" of the school, until the varying fortunes of another battle gave his laurels to some industrious rival. If time were limited, the side which had the greater number standing after "the first round of spelling" had been finished, might, of course, be regarded as having won the match. We would not be so minute in describing this method were it not that it has fallen into disuse, and may be forgotten, unknown, or misunderstood by young teachers. It was formerly very popular, and is so still, wherever used. It forms an agreeable variation when the mind is fatigued with heavier studies, and, if introduced, the teacher may rely on its favourable accept- ance and general success. CHAPTER IV. READING. Reading, In reading, as in spelling and other exercises, the teacher, teach it f course, appoints the lesson beforehand. It is the custom in many schools for pupils to go through their reading exer- cise in their desks, each standing up when it comes to his THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 203 turn to read; but, if convenient, it would be advisable for the pupils to go through this lesson at the class stations, to merit - taking and changing places according to merit. Having duly prepared the lesson, and taken their respective posi- tions, the teacher gives the signal to "begin," and then the first pupil in the class commences to read, previously naming the page, subject, etc. As a rule, before giving the order to Some ques- commence, the teacher should propose a few searching ques- tions to pre- tions, so that he may ascertain what the pupils really know lessons. about the lesson. By this means he gains several necessary advantages ; he leads the pupils to perceive how much they have still to learn in connection with the subject; he excites their curiosity to know more ; he gains and concentrates their attention, and places himself in a position to adapt his teaching to their mental capacity and general acquirements. If consistent with his convenience, he should also ask a few leading questions concerning the lesson, on the same subject, immediately preceding the one under consideration. This practice will enable him to retain and continue the thread of succession. In reading exercises, strict attention should be paid to the clear, distinct utterance of each word, to cor- rect pronunciation, proper inflection, and just emphasis the teacher himself occasionally reading a sentence as a model. Pupils detecting errors in the reading of their com- panions should raise their right hand in token of dissent; and one of them, specially selected by the teacher, should make the necessary correction. If it be the custom of the school that pupils are to be permitted to "change places" in their classes, taking precedence according to merit, then, if several of the pupils have their hands up, the teacher, as a rule, would require the correction to be made, or the correct answer to be given, by the nearest boy to him who had erred, and who may have his "hand up." Should this party answer satisfactorily, he should be allowed to "go up," that is, to take precedence of the erring boy, and all the inter- 204 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. mediate pupils, if any. At the close of each paragraph (if the class be a junior one) questions might be advantageously proposed relative to the meaning of the respective sentences and component words. If necessary, explanations should be given, diagrams and other illustrations exhibited, and, finally, the pupils should be required to express the sense of the paragraph in their own words. At the close of the Pupils to lesson (whether the classes be junior or senior) a general miry of the summing up is desirable. Each pupil should be required to lea-ion at its . . . , . . , eio (or on the black-board) at right angles to and cutting each other. One of these would represent the equator and the other the first meridian. The pupils could then be easily led to perceive that all objects on either side of the line representing the former, would be north or south, whilst those situated on it (or immediately under it) would be neither one nor the other in other words, that all places 15 218 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING, K >tation of the earth, iiid differ- ences of -time. flints on the use of maps and charts. under the equator have no latitude, and that those on cither side of it have north or south latitude according to their position. In like manner they would easily discover that all places under the first meridian have no longitude, and that all places to the right or left of it are in east or west longitude respectively. The globe may then be introduced, and the pupils led to perceive how the respective meridians (marked thereon) " come under the sun" in regular succes- sion during the space of twenty -four hours the earth in the meantime making one complete revolution on its axis, every point on its surface, except the poles, describing a circle or 360. Having thus learned that the earth revolves 011 its axis at the rate of 360 in twenty-four hours, they will easily perceive that it rotates 15 in one hour, or 1 in four minutes. Hence, people say that " fifteen degrees of longitude make a difference of one hour in time." The cal- culation of time from difference of longitude (or of longitude from difference of time) will originate many questions of an instructive and interesting nature. The pupils will easily perceive that time varies as the longitude changes, but the fact that all places east of them have earlier time than /they have, and that all places west have later time, will at first cause some confusion. The action of the sun and moon with reference to alternate light and darkness, etc., being explained and understood, the attention of the pupils may be directed to the orbitual motion of the earth, when the causes of the seasons and other collateral matters may be fully discussed. The first map introduced, in teaching political geography, should be that of the city, township, or county in which the school is situated ; the second should be that of the state or country; the third, that of the continent which includes their particular nation. Map-drawing should go hand in hand with these subjects, each pupil being requested to sketch maps on the black-board, or to fill up those drawn THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 219 (in outline) by the teacher, correctly locating the cities, de- lineating the rivers, mountains, etc. As a preliminary exer- cise to this, the teacher should point to certain localities on the blank map, desiring the pupils to name the places, and mention their natural characteristics, historical associations, etc. The difference of countries (or parts of countries) in physical appearance, mineral wealth, and geological forma- tion, should be pointed out. Attention should be specially directed to their agricultural productions, manufacturing en- terprise, and commercial facilities ; nor should the national character of the modern and ancient inhabitants be over- looked or forgotten. The maps of the great empires of antiquity should be studied in connection with ancient history. It should always be borne in mind that a vast amount of geographical and historical information is acquired incidentally. For this reason every city, river, mountain, etc., mentioned in the respective lessons, should be pointed out on the maps, and then a short summary should be given of their historical associations. The principal things to be attended to in teaching Order of geography are as follows to commence with some known geograjSiy. locality, and direct attention to its physical features, or rather by a series of skilful questions to lead the pupils to state its natural peculiarities, political importance, etc.; to draw (or cause the pupils to draw) an outline map of the district under consideration ; to require the pupils to point with their finger towards any place mentioned, or to indi- cate its position on the map, globe, or chart, relating, at the same time, the characteristics of the locality and the historical events associated with the name. At the close of the lesson the pupils may be allowed to question each other on the contents of same. The following may give some idea as to the order in which Gepgra- the geographical facts of a country, continent, or island summary should be introduced to a class: (1) Boundaries, (2) Extent 220 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. and divisions, (3) General character of surface, (4) Internal waters, (5) Nature of soil and climate, (6) Productions, (7) Cities and towns, (8) Facilities of internal communica- tion, (9) Inhabitants Race, (10) Education, religion and government, (11) Science and art, (12) Miscellaneous facts. During a short time every Friday the pupils may be per- Weekly mitted (as aforesaid) to examine each other on the subjects of study during the week. When each pupil has asked his query, the teacher, if so disposed, may propose a series of general questions on the present and preceding lessons, and also mention such, collateral matters as occurred to him during the " mutual examination." CHAPTER VIII. ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE. How Nature Nature, when teaching a language, always commences W ^ n <> uns . She impels the young child to begin with sim- ple sounds words of one syllable, such as rna, pa, ba, da, etc. She then prompts him to repeat them at short inter- vals hence the combinations of ma-ma, pa-pa, da-da, etc. His words, at first, are all names (nouns); adjectives, and certain pronouns, follow in regular succession. By imita- tion, he gradually acquires the use of verbs and all this time he has no knowledge of the grammatical relations of words. The ideas expressed are stored up in his mind; a language has been learned, but the memory has not been burdened with words. In fact, Nature has never called upon him to exert his memory for that purpose She re- quired him to remember the ideas, but allowed him to Jet THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 221 the words take care of themselves. Yet, by preserving the ideas, she has made the words his own. They return with the respective ideas, but he is unconscious of having ever occupied himself in acquiring them. While exercising his faculties in the acquisition of knowledge, he has, without any special exertion, learned to speak and understand a language the elements of which he uses correctly, without knowing when or how he acquired them. The ideas compris- ing this knowledge were impressed on the mind by the action of the judgment or will ; but the words must have been committed to memory unconsciously and unintentionally. When Nature uses words as a medium for conveying Mental ideas, they are always kept in the back ground. The ideas to^recede S exist first in the speaker's mind, and often suggest the words which givo them expression. Should the ideas be vigor- ously conceived, words will follow naturally, correctly, and in the form and order required. Should the mind attempt to grasp both the ideas and words at one and same time, the attention will be divided and distracted, and the under- standing little benefited. Should the mind attend to words alone, the comprehension will be weakened, and the intel- lect degraded. Ideas should, therefore, precede v/ords. It is injudicious to cultivate the memory at the expense Nature's of the reason and judgment, as the mere acquisition of les- teaching?' sons by rote will not promote intellectual improvement. In such cases, the recurrence or expression of ideas depends on a set form of words, and can, therefore, never make a pei- manent lodgment in the memory. If words be preferred to ideas, the texture of the mind will be injured, and its im- pressions weakened. Such a preference would not only enervate the understanding, but ultimately produce, more or less, incapacity of thought. It would, moreover, cause children to dislike study, and thus injure or destroy their chances of success in after life. A chapter, first read for the sake of its ideas alone, and for the sake of the pleasure it 222 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. affords, will produce impressions far more clear and per- manent than if it were first "learned by rote," and then "sifted for ideas." Acquisition In committing lessons to memory, the first object of the pupil should be to understand the ideas ; second, to arrange them in natural or consecutive order as in the book ; third, to clothe them in appropriate words; fourth, to commit them to memory for future use. In this, as in all other educational matters, the powers of the mind must be con- centrated upon one filing, and only one, at a time ; and the attention must not be diverted until that thing be tho- roughly known. Nature first imparts ideas, and then sup- plies appropriate words or terms. Her order of instruction should never be reversed. Such a course would, more or less, be sure to paralyze physical effort, and promote men- tal debility. Let us, therefore, study her means, follow her methods, and conform to the order of sequence and devel- opment exhibited in her teachings ; we may then entertain a reasonable hope that success will crown our efforts. CHAPTER IX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. Composition In the nature of things, English composition, both spoken pany The" anc ^ written, should precede or accompany the study of grammar. English grammar. Grammar should be introduced in con- nection with sentences composed by the pupils, and written from their dictation by the teacher on the black-board, or it may be introduced through the aid of the Reading Machine (see page 227). By these means its study becomes an intel- lectual exercise, and the children are taught the principles of the science through the medium of the eye. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 223 The method of treating the subject will, of course, depend very much on the age and mental capacities of the children. If they be very young, the subject may be introduced by pupils asking them to mention the names of some things or places they see or have seen. Such answers as house, tree, field, boat, book, river, etc., may be given in reply. The selection of the names should be left to themselves, as it is a matter of importance that they should have a clear idea of the meaning of each term. The words, thus given, are written vertically on the black-board, in their order of sequence the plurals being placed in an opposite column. The teacher then points to the word house, tree, or field, etc., and asks what kind it may be? In all likelihood they will answer "nice," "pretty," "green," etc., and then these qualities these words are written before the names of the things to which they allude the pupils spelling as the teacher writes. They are then asked "what these" new words "tell us of the names'?" and will probably answer "Their kind, their quality." They may then be informed that another word for names is "nouns" and that both words are similar in meaning. The word "nouns" is then written over the list of names, and the pupils are informed (because they could not be expected to discover it themselves) that words which express "kind or quality" are called "adjectives." They are then asked what the nice house, the pretty tree, the large field, etc., might do? and may reply, "The nice house falls," "the pretty tree blossoms," etc. They are then asked to mention something they themselves could dol and will probably give some such reply as "We talk, learn, eat, drink, jump, and sleep," etc. If asked what these words tell us, they may reply "They tell us of the doing of some- thing." The teacher may then inform them that "words. which tell us of the doing of something," are called verbs. The question is then asked "What have you been learn- ing'?" and they will probably reply, "We have been learning 2'2 t THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ubout nouns, adjectives, and verbs." They are then required to define these words viva voee, or on their slates or black- board, giving examples of each. The other parts of speech should be taught in much the same manner, construe- r f} ie p u yn} s should then be "practised" in the construction tion and r ciassifica- o f sentences containing all the parts of speech. The point- ing out of the several parts of speech as they occur in an ordinary reading lesson, is also a good method of impressing them with correct ideas of classification. Occasionally, they may be required to write out the different parts of speech in a certain number of sentences, taking care to place each word under its proper heading. A few preliminary exer- cises on the Reading and Parsing Machine will afford mate- rial assistance in this respect. inflections The properties or inflections of the different parts of speech may then be taught on the same common-sense prin- ciple, each being attended with so much "practical drill" as may be sufficient to permanently fix the subject on the pupils' mind. The parts of speech, aii-1 their variations or inflections, being thus "imprinted on the tablets of the memory," the principles of concord and government may be introduced, the teacher taking care to lead the children to discover the laws and rules of syntax for themselves. He can do this by a series of judicious questions relative to the composition, or verbal construction, of certain sentences, written specially on the black-board said sentences to con- tain the principles (or violation of principles) involved in Gnnmmto the rule to be deduced. Grammar is usually considered "a very dry subject," and one of which the pupils of many schools entertain a certain undefined dread, or suspicious awe, arising principally from imperfect methods of teaching. The pupil, loft to himself and the usual text book, finds that he is expected to ac- quire, and even love, that which he does not comprehend or .esteem; and he is whipped or disgraced if he fails to perform THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 225 the allotted task. Poor fellow! his lot is not an enviable one. I fear that we teachers have a great deal to answer for. We often lose sight of the fact that we were not always wise or learned men ourselves. Perhaps we are still want- ing in this respect. We seldom take the trouble to bring ourselves down to the pupil's mental level, so that we may look out on his difficulties from a child's standpoint. Yet, it is only by such condescension that we can discover and remove these obstacles. In fact, we have yet to learn how to deal with children as we would wish teachers to deal with us, were we children once more. To be successful teachers, we must become as little children. Grammar, being considered " a dry subject" by children, it behooves the teacher to aim at making it as interesting as any other subject. If lie can do this, and also duly impress the pupils with a just sense of its utility, they will smile at the idea of its being "dry," and become as thoroughly posted in it as in any other subject if not more so. It is a matter worthy of note that pupils "well up" in An observ a- grammar, are invariably well posted in the other school tlon ' subjects. This probably arises from the fact that owing to imperfections in the method of teaching, and to non-develop- ment of the reason and judgment, pupils are generally on the confines of manhood before they thoroughly understand " what grammar is all about" before they can comprehend its piinciples, or intelligently apply its rules. By the adop- tion of the common-sense method, previously alluded to, pupils will be enabled, to educate themselves (so to speak), and the teacher will skilfully lead them, by the judicious exercise of their own minds, to discover the various laws and principles peculiar to each element of the language merely supplying them with the proper terms as occasion requires. As aforementioned, when the pupils are thoroughly posted Th Gram- 011 " the Parts of Speech," the teacher must retrace his nations, steps and considering them one by one lead the children 226 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. to discover the variations of each. By inducing them to observe the genius and common usages of our language, and by leading them to illustrate the same by reference to familiar examples, they cannot fail to discover the rules of syntax for themselves the teacher giving form to the expression of their ideas when necessary.* In this way they will be led to think for themselves, while acquiring the ideas and experience of others ; their thoughts will become more original, and their conceptions, like the rose-buds of early spring, will gradually unfold until they expand into full- grown flowers. The pupils will thus be educated in the true sense of the word. Composition Composition and grammar should be taught in conjunc- and original, tion they naturally go "hand in hand with each other." In practising composition, the pupils will be enabled profit- ably to employ the principles learned in grammar. It may consist of two kinds original and secondary. In the order of sequence (or study), secondary composition should always precede original. In first-class schools, one hour a week should, at least, be devoted to the study of the science and art of composition ; two hours would not be too much. In some cases parents and friends will be likely to render con- siderable assistance, and it may, therefore, be advisable to occasionally appoint it as a "Home Exercise." If it be a " Secondary Composition," the ideas may be appropriated from the works of some standard author, or from some lesson given by the teacher; but they must be neatly dressed in the pupils' own language. When criticising the MSS. of pupils, the teacher should pay strict attention to the vera- city of the information, the style, orthography, penmanship, punctuation, use of capitals, etc. Before concluding this subject we may observe that Eng- lish grammar, regarded as a text-book, is a collection of the laws and principles which should govern the expression of English thought. It should therefore be borne in mind that * Rev. Dr. Davies. The best teacher of grammar and com- position. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 227 the rules of grammar are merely the expression in words of the recognized usages of language. Ke who can most success- fully lead his pupils to discover these principles and usages for themselves, before they attempt to learn the rules by rote, will be the most successful teacher of grammar and composition. One hour per week, at least, should be set apart for the important and utility practice of "letter writing." This is one of the most useful of corres- . . . pondance. and important branches of composition. Other branches may be regarded as an accomplishment, but this is a neces- sity in every sphere of life. It behoves every respectable citizen to be an expert correspondent. It is a matter of fact that there are many intelligent and respectable people in this enlightened country (and fair scholars too) who are totally unable to write a passable letter. This defect should be remedied at once so far as the rising generation are concerned; and there is no more effectual way for doing so than by introducing " correspondence" into all our schools taking care to prescribe it as one of the regular periodical exercises. Its importance should be duly recognized on the programme of studies. In every stage and condition of lifa it is one of the most useful and agreeable exercises. Never- theless, at the present moment its study and practice are neglected or ignored in more than three-fourths of our public schools. This gigantic defect is partially remedied by "our commercial colleges." These private institu- tions profess to teach business correspondence ; but the subject should be thoroughly taught in all schools and seminaries, without restriction. The public school is the crowning glory of this favoured land one of the institu- tions of which we feel especially proud. By its means alone can we reach the children of the masses. The desire, therefore, of the people, and the common object of both teachers and legislators, should be to equip the rising genera- tion with the armour of intelligencs, and to educate them 228 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. in the use of all weapons, or tools, essential to their success in the battle of life. The above is a modification of the Reading Machine al- ready described. Its face or front is divided into eight ver- tical columns or sections, to correspond with the Eight Parts of Speech. Slips containing the names of the Parts of Speech, in print, are placed at the head of the respective columns from A to B in such order as the teacher may desire ; or these " headings " may appear on the card selec- tions if preferred. The card may be inserted or removed by opening the base-board, c, D. Its dimensions should cor- respond to the arrangement of the machine ; and it should embrace sentences comprising all the Parts of Speech, arranged so that each word will make sense with what has gone before, no matter which slide is opened in the vertical section immediately succeeding. After half an hour's intel- ligent practice at this Machine the youngest children in primary classes will feel little or no difficulty in classifying the words of any ssntoiics so as to place them under their proper headings or respective Parts of Speech. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 229 / CHAPTER X. HISTORY. There are two methods of teaching history, each perhaps History ._;' methods of equally useful in its way both very different in form, teaching. According to the first method, the pupils receive a lesson viva voce from the teacher on the events, manners, customs, etc., of some particular time or era, and are then required to read at home the account of the same as given in history. On the occasion of next' lesson they are questioned closely on the subject. This is, perhaps, the method best adapted for junior pupils. According to the second method the pupils read history at school as a reading lesson or as a recitation. Prior to the commencement of this exercise the teacher should examine them to ascertain how much they know of the subject, and to excite an interest therein. During the progress of the lesson he should occasionally question them as regards the positions, etc., of the localities mentioned, and also as regards matters alluded to, which he may have reason to believe they do not thoroughly under- stand. Their attention should be specially directed to the effects likely to be produced by the invasion and subjugation of one people by another to the changes which follow amalgamation of races to how people were housed, clothed and fed in different ages to the manners, customs and facilities of intercourse which existed at different periods how railroads, canals, steamboats, etc., promote the general happiness, preventing local famine, equalizing prices, and extending commercial intercourse to the advance of science the invention of paper, of printing, etc., etc., to the fact that the poorest citizens are now in the enjoyment of privileges and advantages, comforts and conveniences denied to kings in olden times. Children should thus be " intro- duced to the events of other ages," and not confined to the 230 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. acquisition of dry chronological facts. Let the teacher exert his professional skill so as to interest the pupils in their work. They will then find every lesson instructive, and cannot fail to improve the future by reflecting on the past. When the prescribed lesson has been read, the whole General subject (or the substance of it) should be recapitulated in tion. the answers to a series of searching, well-connected, well- arranged questions judiciously proposed. During the progress of the lesson, or at its close, the teacher may (as hinted elsewhere) furnish any additional information con- nected with the events mentioned, and relate any incidents of interest associated with localities named therein. Then, write* i with a view of impressing the principal facts of the lesson on *^ e ^ r minds, he may require each pupil to write a skeleton of same ; or he may desire each in turn to mention some one idea in its order of sequence some " one step in the argument," so that when put together they may exhibit a _ chaste and logical outline of the subject under consideration. He may then allow the pupils to question each other the last in the class commencing, as described in the Chapter on Reading. Finally he may require them to prepare (at their convenience) an abstract of the lesson, the same to be presented for inspection at some specified time. How to It is not necessary that a large number of studies should history be mastered in youth, but it is essential that pupils should acquire the art of studying aright, and that whatsoever is taught should be taught livingly, philosophically, profoundly. In teaching history, for instance, it is not necessary that the pupil should be taken though the minutia? of the subject from the creation until the present day, or that he should be compelled nolens volens to pore over the fragmentary records of lost races, much less "the gigantic" volumes which relate the story of modern nations. Rather let the pupils be taught to study "read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" the history of an individual nation. As he proceeds, let the THE SCIi^CE AND ART OF TEACHING. 231 teacher show him how to apply the principles of historical evidence to the statements contained therein; let him then be led to trace the causes and effects of events, and directed to investigate the motives of actions, so that he may observe the workings of human nature in what has been done and suffered;* let him endeavour to detect the ruling spirit of each successive age, sympathizing with what is noble and abhorring what is unworthy; let him master the great truths and impulses which formed the basis of human action in the past, and learn to judge impartially of men and things, whilst recognizing a moral Providence, a retributive justice, amidst all mutations and corruptions. He will thus acquire the art of tracing all events to their origin, whilst forming a judicious conclusion as to their ultimate effects. The exercise thus afforded will enable him to study aright, and as he grows in years he will extend his researches (should time permit) until he has studied the whole course of human history. One book studied in this way will afford him more educational discipline than would all the histories in the world read in the usual cursory style. CHAPTER XL GEOMETRY. Geometry presents us with one of the most extensive and Excellency attractive fields for the exercise of the faculties of memory, reason, and judgment. Some mathematicians exhibit a dis- position to ignore Euclid, and go so far as to assert that trigonometry and mensuration may be mastered without the aid of 'pure geometry. They might as well assert that a stone bridge could be built on a basis of sand. Supposing * Canning. L'J'iJ THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. that a knowledge of Euclid were unnecessary for the acquisition and right application of other branches of mathematics, it would still be worthy of study, as no other subject affords such mental discipline. Other subjects may equal it in positive utility, but none can surpass it as an invigorator of the mind. Euclid is not so popular in America as in the British Isles. The fact that our people prefer utility to abstract excellence, is the only reason we can offer for such a singular anomaly; yet it is possible that defective teaching ability may have something to do with the matter. It is a matter of notoriety that the subject is highly appreciated in our universities, while partially ignored in our public schools. It is a well-known fact that pure geometry is better adapted for cultivating and invigorating the reason and judgment than for developing the inferior faculties. Those who degrade it to a mere memory exercise, mistake its real objects, and divert it from its legitimate province. In attempting to cram, they fail to educate ; and, as a necessary result, the youthful students learn to dislike the subject. This can scarcely be wondered at when we consider the mode of study adopted in some schools. We will venture to illustrate our meaning by an example which came under our own notice in a land famous for its mathema- tical scholars. Some years a^o we held the position of First Assistant A common ' L method of Master in one of the High Schools of England. Occasion- teaching Euclid. ally the duties of general superintendence devolved upon us, and in that capacity we had to visit the respective class- rooms once or twice a day. On one of these occasions it happened that we were present during the delivery of a lesson in Euclid the class being the highest in the institution. The method of teaching having attracted our attention, we remained until the close of the lesson. This method was as follows : The young men, seated at their desks during the first half hour, read the proposition (or THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 233 lesson prescribed) over and over, the books being open before them. During the succeeding fifteen minutes they were engaged in writing verbatim (from memory) the words of the text the book being closed. Each pupil used the diagram lettered as in the book. During the next fifteen minutes each pupil had to read what he had written, and the teacher glancing at the book told him to " sit down " if his composition failed to coincide with that of the text. If he happened to remember the words of the book, and sue" ceeded in giving a verbatim report, the teacher smiled and informed him that he was a " good boy." The good boy then resumed his seat with an air of conscious pride, and was asked no further questions. We represented the weakness and inutility of this system A change of to the teacher a graduate of a famous university and like- sys em ' wise explained our views to the principal who happened to be the teacher's father; but both gentlemen informed us that such was the method in use at Cambridge, and that as most of the pupils were preparing for matriculation in that university, they thought it advisable to adhere to the " Cambridge System." We were under the impression at the time that these gentlemen had been misinformed, but on making enquiries as to the practice at other colleges, we found that the system was a favorite one in several of the great educational institutes though it had not been formally encouraged by Cambridge. On further enquiry, we learned through Professor Stokes and others, that Professors in the great English universities had no fixed plan of imparting information 011 this subject, but generally followed the method of teaching practised in the sister institutions of Scotland and Ireland. Geometry should always be taught as a real intellectual exercise. The enunciation of each proposition should first be analyzed, and each statement clearly understood. Then the different assertions should be written in logical order on 16 234- THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. the black-board. The teacher, pointing to these, should require the pupils to enumerate the queries, or things to be done, and also the data or things given. Having described the diagram each part in the order in which it is mentioned in the enunciation he may ask the pupils if they can suggest any way for solving the theorem (or problem) or any of its individual assertions. Perhaps one boy can do one part, and another boy the next, and so on until the proposition is solved. Should they wander from the right path the teacher will, of course, lead them back, occasionally making such suggestions as ho may think necessary to throw light on the subject. When they have gone through the solution in this way, the teacher may solve the proposition himself in the presence of the whole class ; after which they may be allowed to take their seats and study the solution as given in the text book. On referring to the text they will be delighted to find that they have successfully solved the pro- position they will be proud of their discoveries, pleased TO use with themselves, and grateful to the teacher. But a new iTtSout* exercise is before them. After some time they are called to their places or class stations, and one by one required to perform the solution without assistance, using the diagram without letters. Each pupil, while solving the proposition at the board, is closely watched by his companions, who listen to his words with the ears of critics. If he happens to go wrong, up go the hands of his comrades the teacher points to one, down go the hands, and the pupil indicated instantly corrects the error, and takes his place in the class accordingly. After they have been well drilled in this exer- Soiution in cise, they are required to solve the proposition in general terms. terms no diagrams being used. Each pupil takes prece- dence according to his merit. The latter is, perhaps, the most interesting as well as the most useful exercise in the study of Euclid. It improves the memory, strengthens the judgment, sharpens the reasoning faculties, increases the THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. 235 power of expressing ideas, stores the mind with new terms, and tends to make the pupils eloquent by enabling them to speak effectively and concisely, with accuracy and precision, whilst creating and fostering a love of truth in general, and of mathematical knowledge in particular. Such is the "more excellent way " for teaching geometry. In teaching Euclid, especially the second, fifth and sixth The connec- books, the teacher should lead his pupils to discover its kindred intimate relation to Arithmetic and Algebra. After aiialyz- be noted, ing the enunciation of each proposition, as before described, the teacher, by directing the pupils to take numbers to repre- sent the respective lines, or parts of lines, and to operate on them as indicated in the same (enunciation), will greatly facilitate their comprehension of the subject, and thereby in- delibly imprint on their minds the facts elicited. After doing so, he may proceed with the diagram as before described, and conclude with the solution in "general terms." During the pupil's progress through the various books, the teacher should point out the connection of the respective propositions with the kindred sciences, whensoever that can be done with advantage. In teaching mensuration or trigonometry, fre- quent reference should be made to the principles in geometry on which each rule, proposition, or exercise is based. If the pupil be thoroughly posted in the latter subject, he will experience no difficulty in acquiring an efficient knowledge of the former. CHAPTER XII. A SCIENTIFIC HABIT. Thirst for knowledge is a desire for novelty and change The cultiva . a wish for more than we have a disposition not to be g^^ffc content with what we know a longing for information. In haWt - 236 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. early youth, having no experience and but little knowledge. we need instruction in the best and most approved methods of acquisition. Whether old or young, as students, we must learn to despise nothing ; we must investigate and strive to understand the nature and use of everything that comes under our observation. In other words, we must carefully cultivate a scientific habit, and labour to acquire a thorough knowledge of the more useful and important branches of science. Nature generally endows children with every requisite necessary for the formation of this habit. They naturally notice everything they see or hear, and seldom fail to draw right conclusions from the data thus afforded. Nature impels them to study her wondrous workings by implanting in their breasts the curiosity and inductive propensities necessary to unravel her mysteries; but at first they may need a tutor or guide, just as at an earlier stage of existence they required the services of a nurse. The scientific habit once acquired, time and opportunity alone can define its limits. The play of the pupil may be made to afford him the most useful and instructive lessons. Circumstances alone can determine whether he is to become a Newton, a Herschell, or a mere average scholar; but in either case he must have a beginning teaching of some sort must initiate and drill him in the earlier stages of progress. Natural ^ n ^ e cultivation of a scientific habit, care must be taken hiitory. to p resen t Slicn subjects of study as are likely to be attrac- tive to youthful minds, the less difficult and more popular subjects preceding the more difficult and less attractive, in their order of sequence, each branch being introduced and treated in a manner such as will ensure its comprehension by youthful and inexperienced minds. Natural History is, perhaps, one of the most popular subjects with the generality of children. Besides presenting them with rich and inex- haustible mines of information, it will be a powerful aid in inculcating scientific habits, and for these reasons should be THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 237 taught in every school. Children, if favoured with a little assistance, are capable of understanding every department of natural history. They have eyes, and a lively curiosity which impels them to investigate and make enquiries, so as to satisfy their natural desire of acquisition. Nature compels them to use the faculties with which she has endowed them. It is the teacher's province to train and develop said faculties, and to ensure this result he is justified in pressing science and art into his service. CHAPTER XIII. BOTANY. During the spring, summer, and early autumn months children's children indulge in the habit of bringing flowers and flowers branches of trees to school. They adorn their desks with these "spoils of the season." Nor will they forget their teacher. His desk will receive its share of the regalia. We remember the little devices occasionally practised by some dear pupils to induce certain teachers to leave the class-room at intermissions, and mingle in the sports on the play- grounds, so that some of them in the meantime might decorate the teacher's desk with flowers and evergreens. How slyly the little flower " without a name " used to be laid apart by itself, so that its character and history might be discussed on the occasion of the next lesson in botany. How delicate and yet how devoted are the attentions of children artless yet full of art, cunning yet delightfully innocent they seldom fail to please. Children enjoy their teacher's pleasure and surprise, and To be turned J J to account when they learn that he is fond of flowers, etc., they are in teaching botany. 238 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Arrange- ment. Adaptation to circum- stances. Characteris- tics of parts. Season rings. sure to keep him well supplied. He may easily turn these little attentions and civilities to good account in imparting a knowledge of botany. Holding up a flower (for instance) he may direct their attention to its form, colour, number of its parts, and the functions of each part in the floral economy. Directing attention to the uniformity in number and size of the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils and shape of leaves characteristic of one class, he may compare or contrast them with corresponding parts of another class, and thus lead the pupils to form correct ideas of classification. By directing attention to the form and shape of the root whether fibrous, bulbous or tap-rooted and inquiring where the flower was found, in what situation and under what conditions, he may easily lead them to discover that different kinds of plants grow in different situations and in different kinds of soil ; each in the soil best suited to its habits; some in the shade, some in the sunlight, some in water, some on dry land, whilst others grow on their fellow plants. The attention of the children may then be directed to the charac- teristics of the roots, trunks (or stems), twigs, branches, leaves and leaflets of different trees, the parts of one being compared with the corresponding parts in another. They may be thus led to distinguish between flowering and flowerless plants, being occasionally required to state points of likeness and points of difference. Their attention may then be directed to the characteristics of exogens and endogens, the outside growers and inside growers (a sample of each being produced for inspection.) Each pupil should note the point of difference in the appearance of the plants while growing; the difference in the wood, in the leaf, branch, stem and bud or embryo, as the case may be. Having learned that the layers of wood of an exogen are called season rings, and that one ring is formed every season, they will easily discover that the number of "rings" indicate the age of the tree. Looking closer, they may perceive that THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. the concentric circles or season rings are not all of equal thickness, and when informed that these inequalities may be ascribed to some variety in the seasons of former years such as a cold or dry summer they will not be slow in per- ceiving that they can thus ascertain the probable character of the weather during every season since the tree commenced its growth. Having thus become acquainted with the kind, form, manner, and term of growth of the various plants and organs of vegetation and reproduction, and the particular uses and peculiarities of arrangement of the respective parts, the attention of the young botanists should be directed to the principles and practice of botanical classification. CHAPTER XIV. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Animal Physiology may be taught to children at a very Teft cii them early age. It is a very interesting subject, and one in which ye- they specially delight. Most of its details may be taught through the medium of the eye, and for these reasons it can be easily adapted to their comprehension or capacity. Their attention should first be directed to the domestic animals, after which they should be led to study the structure, out- ward appearance, habits, and other peculiar characteristics of each class, order, genus, and species. Attention should then be directed to the changes which the food undergoes during the process of mastication, digestion, etc., before its conversion into blood. A series of lessons should be given on this subject, so that the pupils may thoroughly master its difficulties, and fully and clearly understand its nature and effects on the physical peculiarities of each class of animals. 240 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. To these should be added a series of skilfully arranged lessons on the circulation of the blood, the organization and action of the heart, lungs, senses, arteries, veins, etc. Lessons I n teaching that branch of animal physiology which relates to birds, the attention should first be directed to the form, habits, and other characteristics of those varieties with which the pupils are most familiar. The birds themselves (or "their pictures") should be produced before the class. Those which migrate should be distinguished from those that do not indulge in this propensity. The times of their departure and arrival may be noted, the reason for these observances, etc. The pupils may then be required to state the characteristics of water birds (the Natatores,) and to point out the various ways in which they differ from (the Insessores) those that roost or perch, etc. characteristics of those that sing, those noted for brilliancy of plumage, etc. characteristics of the cursores, scansores, grallatores, and raptores, and how each differs from the other according to mode of life, etc. Lessons -^ ^ ew l essons ma y then be given on the construction, about fishes. cnarac teristics, habits, etc., of fishes and reptiles; after which the pupils should be required to learn by rote the classifica- tion of the animal kingdom, as given by some writer of eminence. Having acquired a passable knowledge of the siib- kingdoin vertebrata, the pupils may now (if time and circumstances permit) direct their attention to the sub- kingdoms invertebrata, duly studying the various structure and peculiarities of the Mollusca, Articulata, and Radiata. u muiii Human physiology should form an important branch of study in every school, and be placed in a prominent position in the programme. No pupil should be left in ignorance of the laws of health and physical development; nor should they be uninstructed as to what they should eat and what they should drink, and how human food, in all its varieties, should be prepared for use. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 241 CHAPTER XV. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. Geology, though still one of the infant sciences, should not First lessons be altogether ignored in the public school. The attention of the pupils might profitably be directed to this subject some time before they commence their studies in agricultural chemistry. Geological science is useful, necessary, and inter- esting. When properly taught it cannot fail to be the source of much pleasure. The teacher need not necessarily enter into the technicalities of the science. By reference to charts or to some locality in the vicinity of the school, the pupils may be led to distinguish between stratified and un- stratified rocks. Their attention may then be directed to the divisions and sub-divisions of the former to the order of sequence of the different strata irrespective of locality to the manner in which the different strata were deposited through the agency of water, the materials being originally of igneous and metamorphic origin to the fossils character- istic of each stratum to the degradation, denudation, and erosion of rocks under the influence of water, heat, cold, frost, and thaw to the action of glaciers and the accumulation of alluvial debris. The formation of soils will thus become an interesting Formation of soils study. The pupils will easily understand, by due attention to the foregoing, how the mineral ingredients are derived from underlying rocks or from the detritus of neighbouring mountains how the high hills are being ground down and the valleys elevated how the depth of the soil increases from year to year how great rivers form deltas in one locality, whilst "they wear away the stones" in another, as at Niagara Falls. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Having taken a course of lessons in these subjects, and committed the order of stratification to memory, the atten- tion of the children may be recalled to the consideration of the unstratified rocks, such as granite, syenite, etc., the agency of their formation and protrusion being explained as clearly and fully as possible. Having learned that the unstratiaed rocks generally appear on the summits of moun- tains as well as at the base of the aqueous formations, the class may bs easily led to perceive that the cause of their elevation must be referred to internal violence; and that during their upheaval the concentric crusts, coats, or layers of the secondary strata were broken and laid bare for inspection, and that the internal treasures of the earth were thus brought within the reach of man. utility of While directing the pupils' attention to the laws of knowledge, geological super-imposition, the teacher may justly refer to some of the many instances in which vast sums of money were needlessly and uselessly spent by miners, ignorant of the principles enunciated by the discoverers of "the order of sequence." He may then question the pupils as to their knowledge of the preceding subjects, and the general applica- tion of geological science, being careful to ascertain where they would look for coal? the names of the strata under- lying and overlying the coal measures ? where they would bore for oil, water, or salt, etc., etc. the names of the creatures which characterized the Silurian, Devonian, and other eras 1 their dimensions, structure, and habits 1 the names of creatures which have become extinct during the human era? the probable causes of their extinction, etc. alterations in climate ] cause and consequence 1 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 243 CHAPTER XVI. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. There is no knowledge of a secular nature more interesting i m p 0r t a than that which is furnished by chemical science ; and of all the branches of chemistry there is none so useful or so important as that which relates to agriculture. We are a great agricultural people, and likely to continue so for ever. Our farmers should, therefore, conduct their field operations on scientific principles, being careful to leave their profession better than they found it. " Head rules muscle, and (as a learned writer well observes) all farmers who educate only their muscle must occupy the inferior relation of muscle."* Hence we infer that the elements of agricultural chemistry, or the theory of farming, should be taughfc in every public school more especially in rural ones. Human forces are mere developments of nature. Man's nourishment and strength are her gifts; and through her the student of humanity learns the true relationships of things, and through them finally succeeds in understanding the wonderful workings of the human mind. The great object of the farmer is to make his lands yield Different the most productive crops at the least possible expense. To jjjjjjf f effect this laudable desire, he must be guided in his agricul- tural operations, by science and experience. Science teaches him that all soils, plants, and animals are composed of two kinds of substances, whose proportional ingredients vary in different species that one kind of substances is organic and volatile; that the other is inorganic and incapable of growth except by accumulation; and that these again can be analyzed into their separate elements, the number, nature, and amount of which will indicate the composition of the original compound. These things are * Rev. E. Rycrson, D. D. 244 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. not difficult of comprehension, and should be taught in the laboratory and on the farm, by practical experiment. The pupils must first learn "the chemical alphabet" the names, symbols, and atomic numbers of the respective elements. After which, the teacher, by a series of judicious, well- selected experiments, may lead them to discover the law of multiple proportions. After going through a series of lessons on the metals, metalloids, acids, bases, etc., attention should be directed to the composition, conservation, irriga- tion, and drainage of soils, the nature and structure of plants, etc., the rotation of crops, and general economy of the farm. Rotation of Science teaches us that different species of plants require different kinds of nourishment or the same kind in different proportions that every crop deprives the soil of a portion of its elements; that no soil, however fertile, can yield an indefinite succession of crops without being manured; that rotation preserves the soil from impoverish- ment, clears it of pernicious weeds, turns each element to account in favour of reproduction, and enables the farmer to "replenish and recuperate the soil," while relieving him from the necessity of directly applying manure to such crops as could not receive it without hazard or positive injury. The principles of rotation will teach him how to obtain the largest interest on his capital. Science will show him that the culmiferous and leguinenous plants should succeed each other alternately, and that the period of rotation should extend over six or seven years. Practice on the farm will prove the value of the theory of rotation. supply of A knowledge of the particular substances which a crop taryeie- absorbs from the soil, and of the elements needed by the crop which is to follow, will enable the farmer to form a good system of rotation such a system as may be suited to the exigencies of the time, climate, and nature of the land. Knowing the composition arid capabilities of the soil, he can THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 245 apply such manures as will be most beneficial. By burning some of the plants which he intends to sow, so that he may examine their ashes, and by analyzing a portion of the soil in which he would expect them to grow, the farmer may judge by the component ingredients, and the peculiar habits of the plant, whether the crop would be productive. Having Absorption ascertained the component elements of the soil, and of the lation. projected crop, and knowing what ingredients will be supplied by the atmosphere, he can apply that kind of manure which contains the proper supply of nourishment the same or complementary elements. Children can be easily led to understand that if grasses, vegetables, etc., cannot find in the soil such substances as they need for support, the crop must necessarily be a failure in proportion to the deficiency in the requisite amount of food. The farmer can supply some of these substances, and atmospheric influences will furnish the remainder. The pupils will not find it difficult to remember that plants take in their food in a fluid form, and cannot under any circumstances absorb or assimilate substances in a solid state. Hence, a manure may contain the necessary ingredients, and remain useless through improper application. Plants cannot avail them- selves of the nourishing properties of manures unless the latter are soluble in water. Solution must precede absorp- tion. When the pupils have been well grounded in the fore- utility of going facts, their attention should be directed to the great chemistry to difference which exists between the respective grasses, so far raiser, as their nourishing properties are concerned this fact being exemplified by reference to certain fields in the immediate vicinity. They may be led to perceive that some grasses possess more of the elements of which bone and sinew is made, than others that the grass in one field gives the cows a large flow of milk and a certain quality of butter that the grasses in another field have a tendency to fatten the 246 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. cows, etc.; so that chemistry is useful even to the stock- raiser; for it instructs him as to the particular kind of food grass, hay, etc. which should be furnished to certain kinds of cattle, or to cattle intended for certain uses. It also enables him to fix the amount of exercise, and to pre- scribe the quality of the accommodation or shelter neces- sary for their comfort and his profit. influences A series of well-arranged, well-connected lessons should batft& be given on light, heat, cold, moisture, etc., and their influences on vegetation. If passably posted in the laws of absorption and radiation, the pupils will easily perceive that the degree of warmth, or amount of heat, which a soil obtains from the sun, depends upon its chemical composition and power of retention, and that this heat will materially affect vegetation. The temperature of a dry soil, for instance, may be 90 or 100, when that of the air is only 60 C or 70; and the temperature of a wet soil is alway 10 or 15 below the temperature of a dry soil. Wet soils are favourable to evaporation. They thus lose much of their natural heat, and are, therefore, called cold soils. Hence the necessity of correcting this defect by draining. 'We might enlarge on this subject, but think enough has been said to show the utility and necessity of a knowledge of agricultural chemistry, as well as the advantages to be gained by placing it on the programme of school studies. CHAPTER XVII. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Elements of No intelligent person will question the utility and im- PhUosophy po rfcance of acquiring a knowledge of natural philosophy, it Pubiii ght or chemical physics ; and but few will deny that the founda- Schoois. t on O f t hi s knowledge should be laid at the public school. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 247 We would like to dwell on this subject and. if possible, to give a few examples of how lessons in philosophy should be given in the school room ; but want of space prevents us from indulging ourselves in this respect. However, we will take the liberty of advancing a few hints as to the manner in which the respective branches should be introduced to the notice of children. The teacher may commence his lessons in natural philo- First lessons sophy by a few simple experiments, illustrating the action Philosophy, of attraction of gravity, cohesion, capillary attraction, etc. He may then direct attention to the pressure of the atmos- phere, and its effects in the economy of nature. Should he not be able to procure orthodox apparatus, his ingenuity will, in some cases, enable him to provide passable substitutes. A large basin will do service as a pneumatic trough, and a large drinking glass will suit, in some experiments, as well as a receiver. Both together will enable him to illustrate several important lessons, especially such as relate to the pressure of the atmosphere, etc. For instance, let him fill the basin with water and, inverting the glass, place its mouth horizontal to the surface. Inviting one of the pupils to press it downwards gradually until it is submerged, let the teacher call attention to the fact, that as the glass descends, the air confined therein occupies less and less space. He must then lead them to discover, by a series of logical well-ar- ranged questions (based on facts within their comprehension), why the glass presses upwards against the boy's hand 1 why the surrounding water does not fill the submerged glass, no matter how great the pressure ? -why the air in the glass expands or contracts in proportion to the depth of the sub- mergence 1 From this, and kindred experiments, the pupils Subject to may be led to form correct ideas of the compressibility, elas- simpie S pra!?- ticity, impenetrability, and other properties of the atmos- mtnts^ P phere. This experiment will also enable them to compre- hend the philosophical principles involved in the construction. 248 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. The pupil the C Speri- guidance. of the diving bell. Let the teacher now fill the glass with water, cover its niouth with a sheet of paper, and then sud- denly inverting it (mouth downwards), explain why the water and paper remain suspended. They will thus be led to see that the atmosphere presses equally in all directions that its upward pressure is sufficient to counterbalance gra- vity. Submerging the glass, and allowing it to fill with water, let him invert it and raise it out of the water until its mouth nearly reaches the surface. Let him then call attention to the facts that the column of water in the glass is supported that it would be supported were the column thirty-three feet high ; and why 1 that the same pressure would support only thirty inches of mercury, and why? that the height of the column varies as the density or specific gravity of the liquid that the -atmospheric pres- sure is about 151bs to the square inch, etc. Handing one of the pupils the barrel of a quill, or some similar tube open at both ends, the teacher may direct him ^ P u * one extremity in his mouth and the other in the wa- ^ ( Qr ^ m {^ an( j trv wn8 ther he can thereby help him- self to a drink. The teacher may then direct attention to the fact that the liquid rose in the tube as the " air was sucked out ;" and why 1 that the liquid will not rise if a hole be bored in the tube above the water; and why 1 ? that it will rise if this hole be submerged, etc. The pupils may then receive a few special lessons on "the barometer and its variations," "the common pump, and its construction, etc. In explaining the philosophy of the latter, special attention must be paid to the use of valves, the action of the piston, its tendency to create a vacuum, the limit to which water can be raised by the common pump, etc. ; the pupils in all cases conducting the experiments under the teacher's guid- ance. By actual experiment, the pupils may then be led to per- ceive that air has weight that it expands by heat that the lower strata are more dense than the upper, and have THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 249 to sustain a greater pressure -that the lighter bodies always A scries of rise above and rest on the heavier; each body taking its experiments place in the order of sequence according to its relative tions. SUo specific gravity, as cream on milk, for instance, a cork on water, etc., and hence that smoke ascends, and a balloon rises above the clouds. Their attention may then be directed to the principles of rarefaction why there is always a draught up the chimney, a current of air from the door to the fire 1 ? why a current enters a room near the threshhold of the door, whilst another leaves the room at the top of the door, as may be proved by holding a lighted candle to these places why the one current is cold and the other warm] why the janitor raises one part of the school windows, whilst he lowers the other, when desirous of ventilating the rooms, etc. ? The teacher may now direct attention to the philosophy of winds, their velocity, cause, and consequences the different kinds of winds, and their uses in the economy of nature. Attention may then be directed to the nature and velocity of light and sound their utility in calculating dis- tances, as in the cases of thunder, lightning, cannon shots, etc. (light travelling at the rate of about 192,000 miles per second, and sound travelling 1,142 feet in the same time). They may then introduce a few simple experiments, showing that the speed of sound varies as the density of the media through which it passes that it is about four times quicker in water, and twenty times quicker in solids, than in air. Why the Indians apply their ears to the ground when calculating their distance from foes on the march? why boys apply their ears to the rails of a railroad when they wish to discover whether there is an approaching engine on the line. After the pupils have been well grounded on the preceding subjects, they should receive a series of lessons on the principles of radiation, reflection, refraction, absorption, evaporation, electricity, magnetism, etc., and then the laws relating to them should be committed to memory. 17 250 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. Effects of Heat. Construc- tion of Ther- mometer. Properties of Water. When the text book should be introduced. By a series of judicious experiments and well-arranged questions, the pupils may be led to discover that heat expands all bodies, and is present in all matter that the increase of volume at a given temperature varies in different bodies- that air and gases expand most, fluids next, and then solids, examples being mentioned in each case that conterminous bodies have a tendency to equalize their heat, or to assume an equal temperature that air, gas, and porous bodies are bad conductors, and that metals and solids generally are good ones -and that the hair or fur of animals and plumage of birds vary with the climate, etc. The principles on which the thermometer is constructed may now be explained the nature and use of that instru- ment why the tube is of a narrow and smooth bore how it is graduated how the freezing and boiling points are determined the best thermometer for warm countries the best for polar regions, and why 1 and how we may ascertain the relative quantity of heat in different bodies, etc. The pupils should receive a series of lessons on the nature and properties of water in its respective forms, during which their attention should be directed to the temperature at which it becomes ice, and whether it then expands or contracts in volume why it should not be left in pipes in frosty weather effects of its expansion on agriculture. When water becomes vapour or steam how one cubic inch of water becomes 1728 cubic inches of steam utility in the arts, etc. how soluble salts and difference of pressure re- tard the boiling of water. How the formation of vapour absorbs heat and thus produces cold evaporation and dis- tillation. In this manner, or in a manner somewhat similar to this, the teacher should, from time to time, guide the pupils through a regular course of lessons 011 the philosophy of common things, making each as interesting as possible; asking for examples and giving illustrations; enlisting the THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 261 active co-operation of the children so that he may be able to turn every available circumstance to good account. After receiving, viva voce, such lessons as we have alluded to, the pupils should refer to the text books, and supplement their knowledge by a careful study of the subject as given therein; or, at the close of the viva voce series, they may be required to take a regular course through the text book. The teacher's lessons will have enabled them to thoroughly comprehend the author's meaning in u all cases of doubt or difficulty," so that their studies, instead j}f being dull, will be considered interesting and agreeable. CHAPTER XVni. MECHANICS. The teacher may introduce his lessons on this branch of introduc- tory lessons Natural Philosophy by asking the pupils for information as on Mecha- to the manner in which certain familiar tools, or simple machines, are used in e very-day life how a spade, hay fork, fishing rod, etc., are used how a large stone may be moved with a walking stick how water is taken from a draw-well by means of the wheel and axle how casks are placed on or taken off a waggon by means of the inclined plane, etc. 1 He may then explain, or give a series of lessons illustrating what we mean by, such terms as force, motion, centre of gravity, momentum of forces, etc., and require the defini- tions to be entered in the pupils' note books, and committed to memory. Directing attention to the manoeuvres of John and James, while balancing each other on a plank placed over a log of wood, to how they adapt the length of the arms to their respective weights, etc., he may lead the pupils 252 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. to deduce the laws which regulate the power and action of " virtual the lever. Taking a rod of any length (say 30 inches), and velocities." - , . assuming that the power multiplied by the units of distance through which it moves is equal to the weight multiplied by the units of distance through which it moves, he may, by placing the fulcrum at different distances, show that the equilibrium is not deranged, and hence that the assumption is true in every case, and of universal application. The pupils may thus be led to discover and enunciate the prin- ciple of virtual velocities or equality of moments. Themechan- Directing the pupils' attention to a chart (or to models) of the six mechanical powers, the teacher, after giving the name of each, should point out the fact that they may be all referred back to two, namely, to the lever and the in- clined plane. He may then lead them to observe that to understand the power of a machine we must consider four things, viz. the force or power which acts, the resistance to be overcome, the fulcrum or centre of motion, and the respective velocities of the power and weight. The pupils should then receive a lesson on each of the mechanical pow- ers and their varieties. The art of illustrating is one of the great secrets of successful teaching, and for this reason ap- propriate illustrations should precede or accompany the enunciation of every mechanical principle. If the lessons on the simple machines be properly delivered and efficiently illustrated, the pupils, at the close of each lesson, should clearly comprehend the principle involved, and be able to form a rule, or to construct a formula, for its application. Formulae, [The following, with similar rules and formula for the and practi- L cui hints on remaining powers, founded on the principle of the equality tion of each of moments, may be deduced from such lessons and made the bases of many useful and practical problems. As the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means, a simple arithmetical operation will enable us to find a mean or extreme when three of the terms are given.] THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 253 The Lever. The power is to the weight as the weight arm is to the power arm : Thus, P : W : : Ws arm : P's arm. Single Cord Pulley. The power is to the weight as 1 is to twice the number of movable Pulleys : Thus, P : W : : 1 : 2w. Pulley with Fixed Separate Cords. The power is to the weight as 1 is to 2 raised to the power indicated by the number of movable pulleys : Thus, P : W : : 1 : 2 W . When the Cord passes over a Fixed Pulhy attached to a Beam. The power is to the weight as 1 to 3 raised to the power indicated by the number of movable pulleys : Thus, P : W : : 1 : 3*. The Wedge. The power is to the weight as one half the width of the back to the length : Thus, P : W : : J B : I> The Wheel and the Pinion. The power is to the weight as the continued product of the leaves is to the continued product of the teeth : Thus, P : "W : : I x I' : txt'. The Differential Screw. The power is to the weight as the difference in pitch of the two screws is to the length of lever multiplied by 2 multiplied by 3.1416: Thus, P : W: : Diff.: Ix 2x3.1416. The Endless Screw. The power is to the weight as the radius of the axle is to the product of the number of teeth in wheel, multiplied by the length of the winch : Thus, P : W : : r: t x 1. During the progress of the series of lessons on the mecha- nical powers in fact during the delivery of all lessons the teacher may occasionally vary the exercise by some interest- ing observations of a simple kind, always encouraging the pupils to give him the result of their own thoughts, and also to mention such illustrations of the subject as may occur to them. If giving a lesson on the lever, for instance, he might ask, in connection with some of the examples men- 254 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. tioned by the pupils, Why hollow tubes are stronger than solid ones? Should they fail to reply, he may then state the reason, or reserve " the difficulty" to form the subject of some succeeding lessons. Then again he may ask, Why it is easier to break a ruler flatways than edgeways? Why the joists of a house are made thin and laid edgeways in their respective places'? Being thus brought face to face with another principle of nature, they may be led to per- ceive that in such cases the strength of the material is equal to the breadth multiplied by the depth squared, divided by the length: Thus, S = bxd 2 + l. Or thus I : b : : d 2 : S. Hydrosta- The pupils may then receive some lessons on the principles namics. of liquid pressure, the hydrostatic press, hydrostatic bel- lows, hydrostatic paradox, specific gravity, etc., after which their attention may be directed to the study of Dynamics. By a series of practical lessons, judiciously and logically arranged, the pupils should be led to discover (1) that when the velocities of moving bodies are equal, their momenta are proportional to their masses; (2) that when the masses of two moving bodies are equal, their momenta are proportional to their velocities; and (3), that when neither the masses nor velocities of two bodies are equal, their momenta are in pro- portion to the products of their weights by their velocities.* Attention should also be directed to the facts that one of the bodies being stationary at the moment of impact, the velocity of the united mass (v) ( Y and v representing the respective velocities; M and m the masses of the respec- tive bodies, That when the two bodies are moving in the same direction, the velocity of the united mass = (Mx ^ +(mxV) . M + m That when the bodies are moving in different directions, of |2f the velocity of the united mass = (MxV)-(mx^) bodies. M + m The pupils' attention may then be directed to the nature and effects of gravity with respect to falling bodies. They * Dr. J. H. Sangster. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 255 must be led to understand that it acts separately, equally, and continuously, on every particle of matter without refer- ence to the nature of the body ; and that all bodies falling freely, move through equal spaces in the same time; that gravity never ceases to act; that the falling body gains a new impulse and a consequent increase of velocity each mo- ment of its descent, and that its final velocity is the sum of all the increments of velocity thus communicated; that the velocity at the end of the second moment of descent is twice that acquired at the end of the first; and that its velocity at the end of the third moment is three times that which it had at the end of the first, and so on. The pupils may be then informed that a falling body acquires a velocity of about 32 feet per second at the end of the first moment of descent; that the average speed being the arithmetical mean between its initial and terminal velocities, the descent in the first second must have been 16 feet. The following for- mulse may then be constructed, each forming the basis and summary of a lesson : The space through which a body falls during any second of its descent = 2 (sec. 1) x 16. The final velocity at the end of any second = Second x 2 x 16. The whole descent in given number of seconds = Seconds x 16 : (or s = l gp). "When a body descends with initial force, space travelled in given time ^Vx + 16x 2 : (or s = vt + J gf). When a body ascends with initial force, space travelled in given time -Y x t-lQ x t' 2 : (or s = vt- \ gt*). When a body descends with initial force, the final velocity = V + *x 32 : (or v = V + tg). When a body ascends with initial force, the final velocity = V - t x 32 : (or v = Y - tg). The foregoing, and Hydro-dynamics, will afford materials sundry ob- for many useful and interesting lessons of a practical nature. servatlons - 250 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. In a work of this description it would be impossible for us to do more than hint at such lessons; but even a young and inexperienced teacher would have but little difficulty in fill- ing up the meagre outlines here presented. The teacher who would succeed in his profession must remember that one of the great secrets of success is the power to make study attrac- tive by practically illustrating what is taught. Children can, and will, learn any subject, however difficult, if the teacher can only make it sufficiently interesting. In studying these things, or in directing others how to study them, prudence will not permit us to fetter mind by rules too rigid or too numerous. Curiosity, amusement, and natural tastes may be allowed to direct the student in certain exceptional cases in the higher institutions of learning, and we are of opinion that, within certain limits, a similar indulgence might be extended to the pupils of the higher classes in public schools. This principle is recognized in the Cornell University, (Ithaca,) and with marked advantage. The studies of pu- pils may be as wide as their condition in life and mental calibre will permit; but it is not advisable that their atten- tion should be directed to the acquisition of a large number of subjects at the same time. Better at first to concentrate their attention on a few, and then gradually keep adding to the number as they grow in mental strength. The manner in which we would have other subjects intro- duced may be inferred from the suggestions advanced in the foregoing pages. Further digression is unnecessary. We will therefore proceed to discuss other matters, hoping the preceding sketches may not be wholly profitless nor alto- gether uninteresting, THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. CHAPTER XIX. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. Public examinations at certain intervals twice a year at Public ex- aminations least, four times at most are very useful and desirable, if desirable nt J certain in- they be conducted so as to test the efficiency and accuracy ten-ais. of the instruction given, as well as the general progress of the youthful students. In fact they are commendable when they exhibit the school as it really is, and pernicious when they represent it in false colours or under false lights. These periodical examinations should certainly be held; but it 2 I JJ C 53?J ) . must be borne in mind that they will do more harm than lted as li good should the pupils be led to act the hypocrite in order that they may win the applause and admiration of the spec- tators. No particular lessons should be appointed for these examinations; no special preparation should be made for them; nor should the examiners, beforehand, apprise the pupils of the nature of the questions they intend to ask. On these occasions the school should exhibit a true picture, a faithful photograph, of the real progress made since the last " periodical examination." These rules are frequently infringed, in fact we are well aware that they are seldom, if ever, observed. Their violation affords a cloak for much deception; but in such cases the people seem to enjoy and encourage the deceit " by bestowing liberal encomiums on the deceivers." However, the most intelligent minds, and the most discriminative audiences are liable to be deceived by appearances. No experienced teacher will deny that public periodical examinations are unreliable in their results, unreliable-, and therefore, unsatisfactory tests of the real progress of a school or any section thereof; nor do they afford sufficient data whereby to judge of the teacher's professional capacity, attainments or success. A teacher not possessing a high 258 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. character, but favoured with a certain amount of self-assur- ance and " business tact," can very easily exhibit his school in such a light as to astonish spectators by its apparent efficiency, and thus command their favourable commenda- tions.* A man who is dishonest and hypocritical can ex- hibit an inferior school in such a way as to induce visitors to believe it to be in a much more healthy condition as re- gards efficiency, than another school, which may be far superior to it but which is governed by an honest conscien- tious teacher. It follows therefore that on such occasions we should not place too much reliance on apparent success, as it is often the mere counterfeit of merit. A superior Some years ago while engaged as editor of a paper in a school!* large provincial town in Ireland, we received a communica- tion from the Superioress of one of the local educational institutions requesting " the favour of our presence and assistance at an examination of the pupils in attendance at her school." Knowing from our official connections that this lady and her staff of sister teachers had earned the gratitude and esteem of people of "all denominations," by the affectionate interest they had taken in the educational welfare of the young, irrespective of creed, class, or con- dition, we gladly availed ourselves of her kind invitation. Next day we duly reported our arrival and were cordially received by the Superioress and Chaplain, and conducted through the several departments of the institution, the na- ture and the objects of the various arrangements being ex- plained to us in due order. The walls of one room were decorated with specimens of the pupils' handwriting, draw- ing, and fancy work of different kinds. The schools were graded in much the same manner as corresponding institu- tions in this country the Public School System being taken as a basis. The discipline in all the divisions or departments was perfect; and the Calisthenical exercises excelled anything * David Page. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 259 of the kind we have ever seen. We were proud to notice that neither the sisters nor pupils were ashamed to learn, or afraid to sing, good patriotic, freedom-loving songs ; and, while devotedly attached to the land of their birth, we found that they not only "feared God" but "honoured the King." The examination in English history brought out the many laudable features in Queen Victoria's life; and at its close the young ladies (by request) sung the National Anthem with all the power, sympathy, and pathos, so char- acteristic of Celtic hearts. In fact their rendering of the music was so expressive as to incite the enthusiasm and com- mand the encomiums of the oldest and highest ecclesiastics present. We could not help thinking, during the proceed- ings, how sadly we Protestants misunderstand our fellow citizens of the Catholic faith, and how much we might learn from them in matters of devotion, discipline, and patriotism, were we so disposed. We must add, however, that notwithstanding the excel- Excellency lency of the discipline, and the apparent efficiency of the and arrange^ pupils, we were not quite satisfied as to the intrinsic super- iority of the system of teaching as indicated by the mode of examination. We never heard better answering; still we think the result was unreliable. The pupils answered the questions addressed to them, clearly, pointedly, deliber- ately; but nevertheless, the answers were more "racy" than appeared natural, and more verbose than necessary too formal and too exhaustive. The questions were given viva voce from a MS. volume on the examiner's desk ; and we occasionally noticed, by certain changes in some child's face, and certain hesitations in her manner, that the intellectual energies were not looking for ideas but for half-forgotten modes of expressions. We therefore inferred one, or both, of two things the pupils had been specially prepared for examination, or they were answering by rote. The good sisters told us during another visit some days afterwards, 260 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. that the latter was the case, and that they always insisted on accurate acquisition of the text by rote. The Memory System never appeared to more advantage than under the skilful management of these kind, patient, and indefatig- able ladies. Their success was apparently greater than any ordinary teachers could have commanded with all the newest (and now more approved) modes of instruction ; yet we could not recommend its unrestricted use in Public Schools. Peculiar circumstances may make it popular and successful in some places, subject to conditions mentioned on p. 222 ; but the results will always be unreliable, and, more or less, unsatisfactory, if pupils be examined through the medium of formal stereotyped questions, copied directly from text books or selected from recent catechetical acquisitions. Examina- tions should exhibit what pupils really know ; not what we think they ought to know, or would wish them to know. Defect of the The committal to 'memory of the words of text books, and certain stereotyped dialogues, was once a very popular mode of instruction ; but its fallacy has been long apparent. Prussia, Switzerland, and Ireland were the first countries to adopt an intellectual method of instruction and acquisition, whereby the respective ideas concerning a subject are im- printed on the mind, the pupil being then permitted to ex- press them in his own words the best which nature can suggest. We advocate the use of memory, though opposed to its abuse, or special cultivation at the expense of higher and more useful faculties. Under certain circumstances it may be prudent to have certain subjects, or portions of sub- jects, committed to memory (see p. 222) : but the acquisi- tion of whole text-books verbatim, especially those portions required for examination, is an abuse of the faculty. The examination alluded to was one of the best memory exercises we ever witnessed, and the most likely to impress a visitor with the absolute perfection of the system of teaching adopted. Still it was far from being an infallible exponent of real edu- THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 261 cational progress far from being reliable as a test of the right development of true mental power. It merely showed what could be accomplished by the persistent and judicious training of a single faculty. " The rote system," with its unhealthy mode of recitation The Memory and " memory" examinations, is what prevails in many parts ' of the States. It looks well outwardly, but inwardly it is un- sound. It prefers accuracy of expression to crude evidences of native intelligence. It deceives a non-professional visitor by inducing him to accept " accurate memory answers" as expressions of individual thought. Visitors who cannot look beneath the surface are apt to give credit for real pro- gress when the efficiency is only apparent ; and they often withhold commendations which have been richly deserved, because of their inability to measure aright the quality or quantity of intellectual work. Pupils are frequently "crammed" specially for such exhibitions. Even in this Canada of ours, instances have often come to our knowledge of public school pupils having been favoured beforehand with a list of questions they were to be asked on examina- tion day, or the number of certain propositions to be solved on that occasion. This was in " the good old days," when teaching was a refuge for the outcasts of all other professions an asylum for men who had little or no professional coil- science. In the case above alluded to, the visitors might deceive themselves, and probably did ; but the teachers highly educated, accomplished, and religious ladies were entirely above suspicion. As we ascertained during succeed- ing visits, the examination exercises differed very slightly from those pursued on ordinary occasions. The teachers believed that the acquisition of the text by rote was the best system of teaching, and adopted it accordingly. It was the system that was at fault and not the teachers. They acted conscientiously and in good faith just as our fellow- labourers, its patrons, do to the south of the line. 262 THE SCIENCE AND ART OP TEACHING. The system There is, however, no method of instruction, or examina- future. tion, so bad that it does not contain some good, and none so good that it does not admit of much improvement. In truth, the art of teaching (in all its branches) is yet in embryo. The system of the future has yet to be developed. It must be founded on practical experiment, and its philo- sophy interpreted by liberal-minded, generous-hearted men and women, whose souls are radiant with the light of science and full of sympathy with child-nature. As a necessary preliminary to this state of things, " the greatest liberality, in religious matters, should be shown in our public schools, and the greatest care taken in the preparation and right interpretation of our text-books. Nothing offensive to any class of citizens, should be tolerated or allowed in institutions supported by general taxation."* To effect these laudable objects, teachers must be persons of truly Catholic and unsec- tarian minds free from all kinds of religious bigotry, pre- judice, or intolerance, receiving the opinions and expressed feelings of others with all the courtesy and respectful con- sideration so characteristic of true Christian hearts ; being always ready, like the bee, to extract honey from every open- ing flower. When exam- Public examinations, however, when conducted properly, ect credit are very useful and desirable, inasmuch as they cause the teacher and people to take a greater interest in educational matters than e taught. tlie y ot ij erw i se wou id d 0> When conducted, not for show or applause, but so as to test the quality and quantity of the instruction given, and the cultivation and refinement developed by the same during the respective terms, the teacher and the taught are exhibited in their true light, and intelligent, well-educated men can form a correct estimate of the efficiency of the school. Under such circumstances, should the examination be a success, parents and guardians may justly be delighted with the efforts of their children, * Rev, Dr. Ryerson. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 263 while the latter, incited to renewed exertions, will in future be proud and happy when succeeding examinations afford them opportunities of acquitting themselves to the satisfac- tion of their friends. Parents and pupils will feel deeply grateful to the esteemed teacher, and he whilst remember- ing that good men need no commendation for doing their duty will feel happy to receive their encomiums, knowing that they speak the words of sincerity and truth. Two public examinations each year, are quite sufficient Quarterly one at midsummer, and one at Christmas; nevertheless we tions. are inclined to believe that it would be advisable to hold two minor examinations between these intervals. Accord- ing to this arrangement there would be four examinations in the year two public and official, and t\vo of a "more quiet" and less pretentious nature and the intervals be- tween each would be of moderate length, so that the minds of the pupils while pursuing their studies, may be fixed on each subject with a view to its retention and possible use on examination day, as well as on the more laudable object of their own permanent personal improvement. The near approach of "the quarterly test days " will be a great incen- tive to study, and cannot fail to incite them to increased exertion and more accurate attention. On the other hand, more than one general examination each quarter would be objectionable, as they would interfere too much with the regular course of study. At the half-yearly examinations, rewards or prizes (if any) Parents to should be distributed to the successful candidates, and those of the pro- found duly qualified should be promoted to the next higher their child- classes, the announcement of their promotion being made in presence of the audience. Parents or guardians, if not present, should be officially informed of the promotion of their children. On these occasions the pupils should be re- quired to pass through a written (or printed) and oral exam- ination. The examining committee should comprise the In- 264 THE SCIENCE AND A&T OF TEACHING. Periodical evening :xamina- tions. Official books. spector of Schools, the Head Master, and the Chairman of the School Board. It will be the duty of this committee to prepare questions and examine answers ; after which they should make out an official report, carefully noting each pupil's standing in the respective subjects. Some member of the committee should copy same into the General Report Book, whilst another should prepare a " Roll of Honour," showing each pupil's order of merit; or absolute and relative rank. In many of the great schools in Europe an evening ex- amination, partaking of the nature of a "celebration," is held once or twice a year for the gratification of parents and friends. This laudable custom is adopted by the principals of public schools in many of the more important French, English, and Irish cities. Part of the half-yearly examina- tions are held in the evening so as to suit the convenience of parents and other friends whose business avocations would not permit them to attend during the day. Recently the practice seems to have commanded general favour in many parts of Ontario and New York. These evening ex- aminations are usually diversified by dialogues, recitations, and music. They are generally interesting, and afford an agreeable treat to parents and guardians. We therefore venture to hope that they will, in time, become a universal institution. There can be no possible objection to such popular entertainments provided they do not interfere with the regular course of study by inordinately engrossing the minds of the children. They have been very favourably received wherever adopted. Parents and pupils welcome their advent with much enthusiasm, being always willing and ready to do whatever they can to promote efficiency, and thus ensure the success of the enterprise. We may here be permitted to observe that it is the duty of the teacher to keep the daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and yearly registers of the school in a neat and proper man- THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 265 ner. These registers are indispensable books in all well- regulated schools. "In them," as an eminent educator well observes, "the patrons and friends of the school have a tole- rable record of their labours ; and by means of them the teacher can at any time exhibit the proficiency of every scho- lar who has attended the school." It is therefore a matter of the greatest importance that they should be accurately and neatly kept. In addition to the foregoing, each school should have a Visitor's Journal. It should be placed on a suitable desk in some convenient and conspicuous spot. On visiting days this book should be kept open, and visitors should be requested (by a notice attached) to insert in same any remarks suggested by their visit. On examination days the visitors may be formally, but cordially, invited to record therein their individual impressions of the proceedings., 18 266 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. PAKT IV. CHAPTER XX. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Teachers' intercourse its char- acteristics. The social and official intercourse of teachers should be free from any traits of character inimical to true friendship and genuine refinement. Its leading characteristics should be personal esteem, professional respect, and a delicate re- gard for the rights and feelings of others. Candid without rudeness, earnest without positiveness, mutual confidence and reciprocal kindness should daily cement their friendship. The younger " craftsmen" should look up to the older and more experienced with feelings of respect and devotion ; likewise the Assistants to the Principal ; and the latter should be always ready to sacrifice his own interests or con- venience to promote the welfare of his colleagues or ofiicial inferiors. It behoves him to regard their welfare as insepe- rable from his own. It is his duty to prescribe their duties, and superintend the performance e> writing on the 5th January, 1875, says : " We are sorry to say that, in general, there is not that amount of care shown in the selection of school trustees which the interests of education require. We hold that among all our local officials, there are none who can influence the com- munity for good or for evil to such an extent as those who have the management of our public schools. The powers of these officials are very extensive, and their duties are both numerous and important. They can tax to any extent. Whether willing or not, city and town councils must comply with their demands, and provide the necessary funds. They have the choice of all the teachers, and the building and equipping of the different school- rooms are entirely in their hands. We have only to make this statement to show that school trustees ought to be persons of more than ordinary intelligence, and of high moral character. It is of far moro importance to have reliable school trustees than to have superior city or town councillors. By all means let ua have the best for both, but if there are degrees of THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 281 sympathetic and prejudiced views sometimes find a seat at the Board. As the late Bishop of Illinoist observes, in speak- ing of the Western States, " It occasionally happens that a man of obtuse principles, and little chivalrous feeling, finds a seat amongst the worthy and enlightened friends of educa- tion a man who, perhaps, in the plenitude of his rare in- telligence, gives expression to his temporary authority by un- dermining the influence of, and fostering conspiracies against, school officers a man who occasionally exercises factious opposition towards some teacher who may be of too ster- ling a character to flatter his weaknesses, or whose position he may covet for a relative." We believe, however, that in " this Canada of ours" the majority of trustees are straight- forward honest men lovers of justice and fair play, as they understand them. Hence, as corporate bodies, their offences are " sins of omission" rather than " sins of commission" a failure to use their power rather than an abuse of it. It is often said (and apparently with some reason) that, as a rule, they are not sufficiently intelligent to be generous in the use of their authority that they are negligent in the provision of suitable school accommodation, and so dull in their appre- ciation of education as to be incapable of paying good sala- ries to teachers. In truth, if the teachers be paid badly the fault must be referred to the local trustees, not to the State or Provincial Government. The Government, in this respect, has done its duty ; it only remains for the people to do theirs (through their school trustees), in a generous and in- telligent spirit, in accordance with the national will. The Governments of Canada and the neighbouring States, Europe and in proportion to population, have made almost as liberal a compared, provision for the education of the people as European nations both, let those who are preferable be taken for the trusteeship. Yet, in a vast number of cases, it is exactly the reverse. It seems to be thought that any one can do for a school trustee, and instead of the office being sought by respectable and trustworthy men, it too often goes a begging, and is all but forced upon indi- viduals totally unsuitable, both in character and intelligence." t Bight Rev, Dr. Whitehouse. 19 282 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. make for their fleets and armies, and their efforts have been nobly seconded by the more intelligent and enlightened sec- tions of the community. The most prominent buildings in a European landscape are the castles of the aristocracy ; the most striking buildings in European cities are prisons and pauper houses; but in American scenes the most imposing edi- fices are public schools and collegiate halls. Every Ameri- can and Canadian is comparatively well acquainted with the history and politics of his country, and with the individual merits of the more prominent public men whether they be writers, statesmen, teachers, farmers or inventors. As a necessary consequence he possesses a certain energy of will, tenacity of purpose, and intelligent reliance on self, seldom, if ever, found in ordinary European populations. America, in the diffusion of education and amalgamation of her heterogeneous people, is performing a noble work difficult and gigantic. Her educational labours would be comparatively easy and light were it not for the presence of an ever-increasing foreign element. Year after year tens of thousands of Europeans, fresh from the bondage of serf- dom, land upon her hospitable shores, bringing with them all the prejudices, poverty and ignorance so characteristic of antiquated regimes and Old World institutions. What does Columbia the land of Washington and Cartier do with these hardy " outcasts " aliens in race and language per- haps ? She gives them a cordial greeting a hearty welcome sends them out to the Great West presents them with a little estate and, if they so desire, adopts them as her own children, giving them all the advantages and privileges enjoyed by her first-born the sons of the soil. Nor is this all. She establishes public schools to educate them " to teach them the love of country, a reverence for law and order, and a preference of honour, not only to pleasure but to life."* * Archbisiop Fenelou. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 283 The majority of our eminent men are persons who have Higher graduated in the trying school of Experience men who have never obtained a college diploma, not being able in early life to command the necessary capital. They are emigrants or the sons of emigrants, and have ensured their personal success by the force of their innate abilities. Such success is the best of all degrees, and can only be obtained in the University of Practical Life. The universities of Europe are aristocratic guilds, and may justly be regarded as the private academies of the rich. Universities on this continent belong to the people, and, like the public schools, are open to the penniless child of the friendless widow as well as to the aspiring son of the ambitious statesman. There is no national institution of learning amongst us which a poor boy may not attend, if he can command suffi- cient funds to pay his board ; and there is no degree which he may not attain, if possessed of the necessary mentc.l capacity. Weal this doubtless a great convenience, but time and mental ability are the only " necessary requisites." In Europe, education, like wealth, is generally confined to a class. In America, both are widely (though not yet suffi- ciently) diffused amongst the masses. Our institutions, however, have a mighty reflex influence on European coun- tries, and, whilst breaking down social barriers and remov- ing the prejudices of caste, are causing society to " level up." Those in authority are beginning to feel that the welfare and stability of nations and governments depend on the elevation, education, and consequent prosperity of the working classes. Hence the tendency of the mother countries to copy our laws and institutions. The English-speaking States of North America have popular made gigantic strides in material wealth during the present educatlon - century; but public education, with its corps of faithful teachers, was (and is) the pioneer of their prosperity. Foreign nations are becoming electrified by our example. Our 284 THE SCIENCE AND AET OP TEACHING. wonderful progress has aroused them from the lethargy of , ages, and foreign statesmen conscious of the dangers which would threaten the peace, welfare, and stability of a nation inspired by bigotry and ruled by ignorance or prejudice are desirous of having their people thoroughly educated ; but the people themselves have not yet responded with the energy which might have been expected. The fact is, they have been so long in darkness that their mental eyes cannot bear the light. This transition stage will soon pass away, and then the light of knowledge will shine on their hearts and fertilize their minds. Public education, aided by the benign influences of real Christianity, will enlighten the conscience, quicken generous sentiment, and develop every power of the human being mental, moral, physical. Whilst imparting courage, strength, and stability, it will make each individual the centre of a cheerful and radiant social circle, investing all his actions with a genial grace, finally impelling him to love and culti- vate all that is lofty, perfect, and beautiful in human char- acter. The intelligence and patriotism arising from such culture cannot fail to promote the public welfare and secure the national honour. Mental and social elevation arises chiefly from the promptings of a good and generous heart, and from the continued activity of the intellectual forces exerted in the acquisition of knowledge. It is, therefore, the result of the combined action of natural impulse and mental power. The right cultivation of these promptings, or impulses, and the proper development and judicious guidance of these intellectual energies, comprise all the duties of the teacher, and convey all we mean by education. Such an education must elevate each citizen intellectually, morally, socially. "Without it, no man can elevate himself or others ; so that from the first to the last hour of life, he must remain obli- vious of one of the greatest sources of happiness, and fail in one of the most important objects of existence that of being a fountain of light and joy to " those who sit in darkness." THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 285 This is what every citizen should strive to be each in his respective sphere of usefulness.* The right education of the young is the best guarantee of J^jgjJJ 1 the welfare of all classes in the future. But manhood, and education. even age, should not be forgotten. Philosophers and states- men, while attending to the interests of the child, should not overlook the welfare of the adult. They are indebted to the present, as well as to the future. To discharge this debt in a wise and patriotic manner they must create facilities for the education of adults by establishing "Night Schools," and making arrangements for the delivery of peri- odical courses of lectures on technical subjects Natural Philosophy, Mechanical Arts, etc. In such a population as * We have stated elsewhere that good home government was the essential basis of good school government, and that the children of amiable, high-minded, and intelligent parents generally inherited, more or less, these noble characteristics. In referring to these matters, Herbert Spencer justly remarks that it is very erroneous for teachers and others to ascribe all the faults and difficulties to the children and none to the parents ; or to assume, like certain governments, that "the virtues are with the rulers and the vices with the ruled." "So far is this from the truth," says he, "that we do not hesitate to affirm that to parental mis- conduct is traceable a great part of the domestic (and school room) disorders com- monly ascribed to children. . . . The truth is, that the difficulties of moral education are necessarily of dual origin and necessarily result from the combined faults of parents and children. If hereditary transmission is a law of nature, as every naturalist knows it to be, and as our daily remarks and current proverbs admit it to be ; then on the average of cases the defects of children mirror the defects of their parents. . . . The most glaring defect in our programmes of education is entirely overlooked. . . . Though some care is taken to fit youth of both sexes for society and citizenship, no care whatever is taken to fit them for the still more important position they will ultimately have to fill the position of parents. . . . While many years are spent by a boy in gaining knowledge of which the chief value is, that it constitutes what some call ' the education of a gentleman ;' and while many years are spent by a girl in those decorative acquire- ments which fit her for evening parties ; not an hour is spent by either of them in preparation for that gravest of all responsibilities the management of a family. . . . Not only is the need for such self-instruction unrecognized, but the com- plexity of the subject renders it the one of all others in which self-instruction is least likely to succeed. No rational plea can be put forward for leaving the Art of Education out of our curriculum. Whether as bearing upon the happiness of parents themselves, or whether as affecting the characters and lives of their children and remote descendants, we must admit that a knowledge of the right methods of juvenile culture, physical, intellectual and moral, is a knowledge second to none in importance. This topic should occupy the highest and last place in the course of instruction passed through by each man and woman. As physical maturity is marked by the ability to produce offspring, so mental maturity is marked by the ability to train those offspring in a proper manner. The subject which involves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should culminate is, the Theory and Practice of Education." Few will read these remarks without admitting the existence of the evils alluded to evils which are more general than is commonly believed. It behoves every good and patriotic citizen to assist in removing such glaring defects. This can be done only by the creation of a higher intelligence, by the more general diffusion of education amongst all classes, ages, and conditions of men. G. V. L. 286 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. ours, composed as it is of a large foreign adult element, anxious for and needing improvement, there should be suitable and comfortable provision made in cities and towns for the accommodation of all who may desire instruction in the Public School subjects. These students should, when practicable, be placed in charge of the local Public School teachers, the salaries of these officials being supplemented in proportion to their increased duties and responsibilities. Night Schools should be established during the winter months, for the benefit of young men labourers, clerks, artisans, and all others, irrespective of age or condition, who might be willing to conform to the rules and regulations necessary for the successful government of such institutions. Night schools have been established, by the bounty of wealthy citizens, in many parts of England, France, and Ireland, and are the source of many blessings to the adult population in their immediate vicinity. It remains for some of our American commonwealths to make them State institutions, and thus give them a legal or recognized existence on this Continent. Night schools should be merely supplementary to, not rivals or substitutes for, day schools. Both institu- tions should, of course, be carried on in the same building and under the management of the same School Boards, influences None are too old to learn; yet it cannot be denied that education, the influence of long established habits will, in some cases, make the minds of old people impervious to impressions which would have been happily received in younger years. "After a certain age (writes the amiable Archbishop Fenelon) men lose their pliancy, and become fixed in their habits, which have grown old with them and become, as it were, a part of their constitution." Much, however, as we admire the precepts of the good prelate of Cambray, we cannot concur with him (and other worthies) in believing that old men may become conscious of the existence of objectionable or injurious habits, and even sigh over their presence, earnestly THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 287 desiring their removal, and yet not have sufficient fortitude, or energy of will, to resist and overcome such infirmities; nor can we believe that "the faults of age are hopeless," or that "youth is the only season in which nature can be corrected."* Without referring to history, many of us could adduce instances from personal observation which would prove the contrary. All men, of all ages, are capable of improvement ; but u in youth," as the royal teacher well observes, " the power of correction is unlimited." In some respects people advanced in life are more susceptible of improvement than the young ; but manhood and age have a multitude of cares which are apt to wage war for the dominion of the mind. The child, be he ever so ignorant, is, therefore, the more hopeful subject, and, on the whole, will probably be the more successful student. Free libraries, cabinets of natural history, fine arts collec- Suppie- J ' ments to the tions, and museums of the industrial arts, should be estab- Public lishedin connection with the Public School system in towns, system. Similar institutions should be established at central places in the country, the adjoining townships combining to share the expense and advantages of same. These institutions might embrace the following departments : 1st. A free reading-room, open to all who will conform to to a few simple regulations. Also an elevating resort, in the shape of an attractive, neatly-furnished room, where young men could meet to exchange opinions on current events and other topics. * More than 150 years have elapsed since the good and amiable Fenelon put the foregoing words to the account of Mentor. But the world has changed since then, and our increasing knowledge of human nature has kept pace with the lapse of time. Fenelon's own life and example affords many proofs that old men may break old habits and form new ones that they may learn to the latest hour of their lives that they may rise superior to Fortune, and derive pleasure and profit j in the evening of their days, not only from their own continued culture, but from their labours as practical educators. We append the passage alluded to in the foregoing: "La vieillesse n'a plus rien de souple, la longue habitude la tient comme enchainee ; ell n'a plus de ressource contre ses defauts. Semblables aux arbres dont le tronc rude et noueux s'est durci par le nombre des annees, et ne peut plus se redresser, les homines a un certain age ne peuvent presque plus se plier eux-memes contre certaines habitudes qui ont vieilli avec eux, et qui sont entrees jusques dans la moe'lle de leurs os. Souvent ils les connaissent, mais trop tard ; ils gemissent en vain; la tendre jeuuesse est le seul age on Fhomme peut encore tout sur lui-meme pour se corriger." Les Aventures De Telemaque. 288 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 2nd. A free public library for the use of members. 3rd. A free course of lectures on literary and historical subjects to be delivered each session by men of acknowledged ability, as orators, teachers, and philanthropists. 4th. A popular course of lectures upon scientific subjects. 5th. A literary society affording opportunities for mental improvement, and general culture in writing and speaking. 6th. A gymnasium where persons of leisure may find pleasant and profitable recreation in physical exercise. By these and similar means the people will be refined, educated, and ennobled. As they grow in intelligence they will acquire a more philosophical knowledge of their various callings ; the forces of nature will be more fully subdued to man's use ; the cost of production will be lessened, and labour economised to the highest degree. The people can then acquit themselves to greater personal advantage, and therefore command higher wages. Their duties will be discharged with greater avidity more facility and less labour because the light of science will guide their least as well as greatest efforts. Under such arrangements the toils of daily life will become potent instruments of self culture, mighty levers of elevation to the human race, because labour will thenceforth be applied with intelligence and "practical ease," being the mere physical expression of the knowledge and power stored up in the workman's mind. To effect this object, "labour and refreshment" physical toil and mental education must succeed each other at regular intervals ; and life be so diversified in its aims, aspirations, and employments, as to call forth all the latent energies of the body and soul, inspiring the love of truth and imparting a sense of pleasure to its acquisition. The knowledge arising from the prosecution of original enquiry and the cultivation of scientific habits cannot fail to lessen labour and increase production, whilst elevating the people and increasing the comforts of life. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 289 Nature never intended that the advantages of life should Sorrows and . joys of life, be monopolized by one class, caste, or order of men, as is the common generally the case in Europe. She is no respector of castes all. or classes, and doubtless intended that the trials and bless- ings of life should be the common property of all. The tendency of the present age is to ignore all distinctions not arising from personal worth to rebel against any claims to superiority based on the merits of ancestors, or on the power of ill-gotten wealth. It has often been a matter of surprise to us that Christianity, and kindred influences, have not long ago succeeded in establishing reciprocal charity and an identity of interests amongst all classes, in these highly- favoured countries. However,' the prejudices and delusions inherited from former ages are gradually evaporating ; and although the present hour is not so full of light as we could wish, we have reason to hope for a bright to-morrow. On this continent, where the civilization of the East and West have met together, and the children of the Orient and Occi- dent "have kissed each other," the people think, speak, and act for themselves, and enjoy the comforts as well as the toils of life. Yet even here there is room for much improve- ment. The people need more discrimination, more judg- ment, more education in a word, more real Christianity. The age of intellectual enquiry has dawned upon the world. The age of Men now ask for reasons for what they are required to do, suffer, or believe. They are no longer content to be " like dumb driven cattle." They are "up and doing." Hence- forth they will and must think for themselves. It therefore behoves wise legislators and prudent teachers to lead them to think justly, strongly, impartially, and at the same time inspire them with the love of truth and justice the first principles of Science and Religion. The affections, feelings, and enlightened opinions of the people arising from rational conviction and the teachings of eternal truth are now the only real basis of stability in human institutions. In every 290 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. civilized land the pomps and vanities of physical force are paling before the mighty energies and pulsations of the human mind, directed as they are by popular education and Divine intuition. No social or political ordinance can possibly survive the sweeping changes of the present and future ages, unless it has its foundation in the human heart ; hence the advisability, if not necessity, of studying more accurately the principles of those laws or natural forces which control human action. Growth of The mental energies of an educated people grow larger and stronger in the presence of danger and in times of doubt, difficulty, or uncertainty so that no obstacle, royal or democratic, can enervate their intelligence, or perma- nently withstand their onward march. If it be true (and it is) that the mind makes the man, it is equally true that mind makes the nation. In truth, it is the highest, greatest, and most god-like force in the universe ; yet it can never attain its full development in the human being without the fostering aid of generous, sympathetic, and intelligent in- struction. As education and civilization advance, the volume of mind increased by ever-increasing rills and streams from the fountains of thought will make the nations illustrious, and attain such an irresistible sweep as to overwhelm all opposing obstacles. The force of mind will increase from age to age until all other powers and forces are subject to it. Enlightened public opinion, even now, causes men to acknowledge it as intrinsically glorious one of the noblest emanations from the Creator. Great thoughts are the characteristics of great minds. Once kindled, they transform the hearts of men into living fires, whence pro- ceed those mental sparks, or ideal germs, which time and circumstances develop into great deeds. It may be regarded as an axiom in international politics, that the more intel- ligent and energetic races of men are endowed with the greatest mind national and individual and they are sure, THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. 291 therefore, sooner or later, to subdue their neighbours, men- tally, morally, or physically. It is unnecessary to quote examples to sustain this statement : the history of man, from the first page to the last, emphatically confirms its truth. When this greatness of mind and activity of will are widely diffused amongst a people, their nation, in a certain sense, becomes omnipotent and immortal. Such were Greece and Rome in the past, and such may our own country be in the future. It should be the ambition of all good citizens to assist important public in the creation and general development of such an intel' duties. lectual greatness, of such moral and physical excellence, as will secure individual freedom and well-being, whilst perpetuating the unity and omnipotency of a strong, healthy, national will. The absence of such an ambition, or the neg- lect to cultivate it, indicates a want of real patriotism and vital religious sentiment. Influenced by the presence of such noble aspirations, time teachers express in actions the love they feel for their country and their God. They seek the higher truths through the medium of the lower the spiritual and mental through the temporal and tangible. They zeal- ously study the manifestations of nature, life and thought, and thus approach nearer to the Divinity, whilst obtaining a key to the right interpretation of individual and national existence, past, present, and to come. As patriotic men they must cordially and generously share their superior lights with less-favoured citizens; and further, they must aim at the correction or gradual development of public opinion, so that the national voice may ultimately do honor to vigour of physique as well as to vigour of mind. They must also remember that no nation can be justly regarded as educated until the great majority of its people are made fully conscious of the fact, that voluntary breaches of the laws of health or bodily development are criminal offences, injurious to the family or the community physical sins for 292 THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING. which nature will, sooner or later, inexorably demand satis- faction. The moral and vital energies necessary for the right conception and accomplishment of such worthy designs must be infused into the people by the more general dif- fusion of science and the more liberal encouragement of physical training; and our legislators must be inspired by the conviction that the intelligence of a community depends more on the high average of education, as distri- buted amongst the many, than on vast stores of know- ledge monopolized by a few : nor must it be forgotten that the god-like principles and noble ideas inspired by knowledge are of more importance than knowledge itself being, as they are, the true source of magnanimity and mental energy. In an age and country like ours, the great object of the philanthropist, legislator, and patriot should be the creation and accumulation of such powers and influences as may be necessary to awake, and educate aright, the slum- bering energies and latent capacities of all classes and all ages ; and this object will be best accomplished by making a more liberal national (and local) provision for public educa- tion, so that men and women of large and enlightened minds may be employed, at good salaries, to take charge of the Nation's schools, and thus send streams of light and mental life into every homestead in the land. Conclusion. In conclusion we would say that teachers owe it to them- selves, and to their profession, to avoid and rise above the din and conflict of professional, political, and sectarian strife to lay broad and deep the foundations of intelligence, truth, and fraternity so that, with Divine favour, they may be the better able to secure, diffuse, and perpetuate the many blessings, public and private, which flow from the judicious development of a free and comprehensive system of educa- tion such as that which ^has made this Province the light and life of our New Dominion. APPENDIX. NOTICE TO PARENTS AND GUARDIANS.* The Report (see p. 296) which is prepared with great care and accuracy, furnishes each parent or guardian with a minute and exact statement of his son's (or ward's) progress and standing in every subject of study. Strict attention to the following particulars is requested : 1. No one but the parent or guardian should sign the Report. Should circumstances prevent due attention to this point, special arrangements should be previously made with the Principal. 2. The pupil's progress, as manifested by each Report, should be minutely observed, to see whether he is getting up or down in his Form (or Class), whether his averages are becoming lower or higher, and whether his demerit marks and detentions (if he has any) are increasing or decreasing. Sixty demerit marks will cause the suspension or dismissal of the pupil ; but as soon as any pupil has twenty-five demerit marks recorded against him, the Principal will notify the parent or guardian of the fact, and the pupil will take home a daily report, to be signed by the parent or guardian, and returned to the Principal. * The following pages (293 to 298 inclusive) have been selected from papers kindly furnished us by the Principal of the Upper Canada College, George B. R. Cockburn, Esq., M.A., to whom we are also indebted for many valuable sugges- tions contained in the foregoing work. The selections alluded to furnish a sample of one of the most perfect systems of Registration of Merit to be found in any school on this continent. They will richly repay patient perusal, and we can say, from practical experience, that teachers who may introduce such a Record of Progress into their schools, will reap an abundant harvest. No other system can surpass it as a medium of stirring up mind or exciting scholastic enthusiasm, G. V. L. 294 APPENDIX. 3. Whenever the Report is unsatisfactory in any of these particulars, the parent ought to call immediately at the College (or School) and enquire into the matter, as prompt attention to this particular may often save the pupil being dismissed, or suspended, or put back a whole session. 4. No pupil is advanced with his Form (or Class) at the end of the session, who, in the written and oral examina- tions upon the studies of the Form (or Class) fails to obtain in each subject the " Minimum Yalue for Promotion," (see p. 297). * * * No pupil, on completing the course, will obtain a Certificate of Distinction, who fails to obtain honors in every subject, and First Class honors in Classics and Mathematics. 5. Parents and guardians are respectfully informed that their sons or wards have certain lessons prescribed for every evening, and they are particularly requested to allow no arrangements to interfere with the due preparation of them. From one to three hours are required for that purpose, according to the Form and ability of the pupil. * * * 6. Writing and Book-keeping are marked according to an average, ranking from 1 to 6 and 1 to 10 respectively, and those averages are determined by the attention shown and progress made by the pupil. APPENDIX. 295 S8UI TOsqB ::::": sara ^ N O r 1 r 1 9^n 31 UB}I osqy >-l (M Tt* CO IO CO 00) J[ireH J* s i oo - ^ ffl 00 9 8 rH CO <7J U5 S t>. g 3 :::::: s a ^ CO * ^ ^ ^ 05 i-l ^ (M CO !3 CO "o ri q H P-l rH CO o S ^ ^ H co W iJ X}B $ S 3 3 3 296 APPENDIX. 1 1 APPENDIX. 297 UPPER CANADA COLLEGE. RESULTS FOE THE SESSION. EXAMINATION MARKS ACCORDKD TO GEORGE WILTON. SUBJECTS. {Third Form.) Maximum Value. Minimum Value for Promotion. Value actually , obtained. Remarks on 1st Examina- tion. Remarks on 2nd Examina- tion. 1st Examin. 2nd Examin. Shakspeare 75 50 150 125 125 75 50 50 50 100 75 75 75 100 50 100 75 50 25 65 55 50 35 25 25 30 60 40 35 35 45 25 45 35 45 48 100 97 104 61 29 37 29abs 70 66 56 55 88 33 67 53 69 49 125 100 110 60 40 35 45 85 70 65 60 85 40 90 70 Latin Grammar Arithmetic Geometry Natural Philosophy. . . English Composition. . English Grammar .... English Dictation, &c. Mod. Hist. & Literature Modern Geography Chemistry Fr. Trans. , Reading, &c French Grammar German Book-keeping Total value actually obtained 1,038 1,180 1,038 Average of Average Ranks . . . 6.15 2.21 2,218* Session Average Rank 3.94 Session Absolute Rank, 4, in a Form of 23 Pupils. 1st Ex., 8 aba, 2nd Ex. For careless Penmanship and bad Spelling in each Subject, five per cent, of the " value actually obtained " will be deducted. * I have filled up the 1st and 2nd Examination Columns merely to illustrate the manner of working. To find the Session Average, by which the Session Absolute Rank is settled, and Prizes, &c., distributed, add the 1st and 2nd Examination totals together, then divide by 1,000, and subtract quotient (2.21) from the Average of Average Ranks (6.15). 20 298 APPENDIX. UPPER CANADA COLLEGE. Report ending of Form VI. RESULTS FOR THE SESSION. EXAMINATION MAEKS.* SUBJECTS. Maximum Value. Minimum Value for First Class. Minimum Value for Second Class. Minimum Value for Third Class. Value actually obtained. Remarks on 1st Examination. Remarks on 2nd Examination. 1st Exami- nation. 2nd Exami- nation. Latin . . .... 200 75 75 150 75 65 125 60 75 125 150 150 100 75 100 60 150 56 56 112 56 48 93 45 56 93 112 112 75 56 76 45 120 45 45 90 45 39 75 36 45 75 90 90 60 45 60 36 100 37 37 75 37 32 62 30 37 62 75 75 50 37 50 30 Latin Composition Greek Greek Grammar Antiq. Anct. His. & Geog English Composition.. Modern History & Geog Arithmetic Geometry Mensuration and Trig. . Cbemistiy & Physiology French Grammar Total value actually obtained Average of Average Ranks Session Absolute Rank in a Form of Pupils. Please to examine carefully the above Report, compare it with the preceding (if any), and the notice to Parents and Guardians on page N.B. This Report to be carefully preserved by the Parent or Guardian. The duplicate is kept by the Pupil. 1st Ex... Pupils answering three-fourths of Maximum Value of any Subject, are entitled to First Class Honours in that Subject, while those who answer two-thirds secure Second Class Honours. Those answering one-half of the Maximum Value are placed in the Third Class. * Teachers will easily perceive, by above Report of Examination Marks, how they might prepare similar programmes, embracing the Public School Subjects. O. V. L. Jj | H _j. rrj O | g fj s a Ai O fl , as s i Bill I I I H a 1 B I APPENDIX. CO r-l IO CO 5 l-HO CO CO iH rH -H CO CO rH CO CO CO CO CO rH CO CO iH tfi O CO rH lO CO CO CO CO rH CO CO rH rH rH CO l CO >O CO CO IO rH O l-H CO CO CO CO CO rH O CO rH rH kO rH rHJ I o'^^SSg isflti%a s3*8lS*lf!!l iP^liliiH ill wJsaJ J S fit^llhll 299 300 APPENDIX. w HH =0 g^niosqy I S 2 . _, 55 5 S S 9S13J8AV I ^ ^ ^ co CO* co IO IO 1O kO kO kO CO O lO O I 10 10 10 10 s| < Ml MJ CO 10 |jj i 5 10 us co eo 10 co co eo kO IO kO kO kO IO l J co o eo co o CO IO CO >O i-H CO li 6\ "5 CO i CO MS r-t *\ if) CO rH CO CO CO 1O CO rH <*\ \ kO CO kO r-l CO CO -S ^ w HJ ,4 3 m fi Hi ^ J25 IlfSlH^P 1 !!!!^ ifi|&ililpFf||li lf!!illi|!iill?ii^ .3i8SS*S3'.So8g S 8 if*f*1irfti"!2*i?{ I||f|lt!I|Lili||l IIPl!|llllliil!l!l *3a^i3ll*llijt?t*>1p EJlil^JIfSg^SfjSgt ti^^^^^^^'^^s liflflllli'JlllWl rf7| ! *| a ^ : ^ e? *m< ?1J! I9j APPENDIX. 301 CLIFTON PUBLIC SCHOOL. FIFTH CLASS. Report of. for the term of 4 weeks ending 187 " As Sands make the Mountains, so Moments make the Year. " SUBJECTS OF STUDY, ETC. MERIT MARKS. ! i 5 i i 5 W g Q 1 Possible. Obtained 100 40 40 40 60 80 20 40 60 40 30 40 40 20 50 ...... Spelling, Dictation, and Derivation .... Reading Geography and use of Globes Arithmetic Mental and Written Composition . . History Ancient and Modern . . Drawing and Mapping Botany and Chemistry Natural Philosophy Geometry and Mensuration Days absent Times late Ranks in a class of P^l Parents are requested to examine, sign, and return this Report, and to visit the School as often as convenient. Parent or Guardian. . . Head Master. 302 APPENDIX. TIME TABLES. In pages 100-103 of this work, we pointed out the absolute necessity of a good "Working Time Table." We believe that the construction of such a plan of work is no small test of a teacher's administrative ability, especially when there is a great inequality between the number of classes and the number of teachers. Such a duty is a matter of more than ordinary difficulty to young teachers who have had little or no professional experience, or Normal School Training. We therefore append a few specimens, which may be of some assistance. In the construction of a Time Table, teachers must necessarily be governed by circum- stances by the number of pupils, teachers, studies, classes and class-rooms. They should not be too hasty in changing, or prescribing a plan of work ; but once fixed or adopted, it should be scrupulously followed Let the teacher first pre- pare, and work for a week or two by, a trial Time Table in which due provision is made for the more essential subjects. He may, in the meantime, distribute the less important subjects according to their relative value and the time at his disposal, making sure that, while each class (or section) is reciting, the others are engaged in the work of preparation. He will thus provide suitable work for all classes at all times during school hours. The following Tables are copies of those in use at a Canadian Public School, in which there is a registered attendance of 360 pupils, and an aver- age of 230. This institution may be regarded as a fair average specimen of the Graded School. It has five class rooms; but only four teachers a head master and three lady assistants. The pupils are graded, according to their attainments, into four divisions, each division being sub- divided into two sections. APPENDIX. 303 In rural districts, schools cannot, of course, be graded in this manner ; still the following tables may afford such sug- gestions as will materially aid the young teacher in the con- struction of a plan of study suitable to the attainments, requirements, &c., of his pupils, and the peculiar circum- stances of his locality. 304: APPENDIX. A GRADED PUBLIC SCHOOL OF FOUR DIVISIONS. TIME TABLE FOURTH OR PRIMARY DIVISION. Hours. Length of Time. Subjects. 9. 00 to 9. 10 10 Opening Exercises. 9.10 9.45 35 Tablet Lessons (1st Sec.) 9.4510.00 15 Singing, &c. 10.0010.30 30 Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec.) 10.3010.50 20 Intermission. 10.5011.20 30 Arithmetic (Mental). 11.2011.30 10 Calisthenical Exercises. 11.30-12.00 30 Reading and Spelling (1st Sec.) 12.00 1.00 60 Intermission. 1.00 1.40 40 Tablet Lessons (2nd Sec. ) 1.40 2.00 20 Writing on Slates or Black Board. 2.00 2.10 10 Calisthenical Exercises. 2.10 2.30 20 Arithmetic (on Slates or Black Board.) 2.30 2.50 20 Intermission. 2.50 3.20 30 Object Lesson. 3.10 3.20 10 Singing. 3.20 3.50 30 Reading and Spelling (1st Sec.) 3.50 4.00 10 Closing Exercises. APPENDIX. 305 t> ^ Q M H H I '- 1 S : i "o "3 ft A OQ 02 i . l r S I li 1 & A o ce^S^tS f ;j "Sou 111 1 "o ' ' ! -Q 8 g S S S ! Q 21 1 1 306 APPENDIX. It o O ^ | g I S g| X -*-> tf C3 ""' d o s ^ 1 p P, Jfcb feb c = 1 1 a - *J j g :5 'S .2 I 1 fcc n3 - S - 05 g S 1 1 S ' 1 EH C P (1) Grammar (2) Geograph "S cJb bb C C ^ ^ 111 3 S S j (2) Map Dra 1 Writing. Vocal Music i of Compositif cq p 1 ^ 0*0* W a | -1 1 S . . If c o i | H i 1 1 g 3 3 tfl B o 1 1 i III EH S c S ci Si- C- |s^ i -i c r | i i i 1 l s 1 e> "S ti ti J r 33 w ^ ,~ s g S P .S ^ H fill 1 1 o o iii C QJ y> g 5 5 rmission i 1 i 111 !^S | 1 1 1 i s s s t> e* | o o o o o o o o 0000 E S M CO CO W -*. M 1 S S 8 - % co o co w: 2 O Ci O O i-H i-l (M rH rH C4 C4 C>1 CO * P3 EH i -i n 2 o i i c^ o co 1 1 1 S OOO CO CO O CO Ci O O> O O rH i-l i-H rH (N rH fH rH rH rH (N d W CO APPENDIX. O * i i o 2 SI S 8 ^ -' d 1 2 1 c 3 1 : 0? 1 I ! I 1 S o ft 1 | I 1 . " > ^ g 0> 5 > o &0 y fill i I o S S S S"B S S ^ o I i 1 6 | 1 S >, IT* & H *s ^ 'g - o ^ oS s 1 *& 2 -2 "O 1 1 * f 1 6 Ji! | | -t H H g S o o K: O _!!_, lift o e S S3S -< S S s I g 3 O d *o o . o *0 45 I w >> g i 1 111 | i . 1 s .5 . "* o ^ *t< 53 ! c If & w o ^ s~> . S ,:g "I o* S S * o" ^ O^ ^1* ^i^ 10 s fe pj .s 3 S S ; g i g > O O O O q S o 10 o o 5 i-H CO O O Oi O O C rH g i I I 8 8 g 1 1 I I ? S cS S Ci SI C2 C I- > O rH O- 1 r-* rM r- r-l CN C 1 ^ CN CO CO CO YB 04547 GEOLOGY AND GENESIS HARMONIZED. THE m\ RECORDS OF CREATION; OB, GEOLOGY AND GENESIS ; THEIR PERFECT HARMONY AND WONDERFUL CONCORD. MOP ap I un bal mi the a n sul M122832 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY fac between the Word and works of the Creator. The future of Nature in connection with the glorious destiny of man is vividly conceived. Watchman. A valuable contribution to science and the evidences of revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against His Word. No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed. The Rock. A very able book, . . . An admirable exposition of the History of the Earth, as indicated by Geology and sketched in Genesis. It will be read with much interest and profit. Right Rev. Dr. Whitehouse, Bishop of Illinois. LONDON : LOCK WOOD & Co., Stationer's Hall Court, E. C.