X 
 
 ! li
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 JRNlA 
 
 LES 
 LIBRARY
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE UNITED STATES EXHIBIT AT THE 
 
 PARIS EXPOSITION 
 
 I9OO 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University 
 New York 
 
 PUBLISHERS 
 
 J. B. LYON COMPANY 
 
 ALBANY, N. Y. 
 
 1000 
 
 5909
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1900, 
 
 BY 
 J. B. LYON COMPANY.
 
 L A 
 
 \ 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION vii 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Professor of Philosophy and Educa- 
 tion in Columbia University, New York 
 
 /" 
 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION - - i 
 
 ANDREW SLOAN DRAPER, President of the University of Illinois, 
 Champaign, Illinois 
 
 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION^ 33 
 
 SUSAN E. BLOW, Cazenovia, New York 
 
 t^ELEMENTARY EDUCATION * 77 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, United States Commissioner of Education, 
 Washington, D. C. ' 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION * 141 
 
 ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, Professor of Education in the Uni- 
 versity of California, Berkeley, California 
 
 . THE AMERICAN COLLEGE - v 207 
 
 ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Professor of Latin in Princeton Uni- 
 versity, Princeton, New Jersey 
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY / 249 
 
 EDWARD DELAY AN PERRY, Jay Professor of Greek in Columbia 
 University, New York 
 
 ' EDUCATION OF WOMEN - 319 
 
 M. CAREY THOMAS, President of Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, 
 Pennsylvania , 
 
 . TRAINING OF TEACHERS - - 359 
 
 B. A. HlNSDALE, Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in 
 the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 
 
 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE v 409. 
 
 GILBERT B. MORRISON Principal of the Manual Training High 
 School, Kansas City, Missouri 
 
 INDEX --..' 4 64a
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Spontaneity is the keynote of education in the United 
 States. Its varied form, its uneven progress, its lack of sym- 
 metry, its practical effectiveness, are all due to the fact that 
 it has sprung, unbidden and unforced, from the needs and 
 aspirations of the people. Local preference and individual 
 initiative have been ruling forces. What men have wished 
 for that they have done. They have not waited for state 
 assistance or for state control. As a result, there is, in the 
 European sense, no American system of education. There 
 is no national educational administrative machinery and no 
 national legislative authority over education in the several 
 states. The bureau of education at Washington was not 
 established until 1867, and save in one or two minor respects, 
 its functions are wholly advisory. It is absolutely depend- 
 ent upon the good will of the educational officials of the 
 states, counties and municipalities and upon that of the 
 administrative officers of privately-conducted institutions, 
 for the admirable and authoritative statistics which it col- 
 lects and publishes year by year. That these statistics are so 
 complete and so accurate is evidence that the moral influence 
 and authority of the bureau of education are very great, and 
 that it commands a co-operation as cordial as it is universal. 
 But the national government has, from the 
 
 a lona gov- verv beginning, made enormous grants of land 
 ernmentand ' . 5 ' , , . . & . 
 
 , . and money in aid ot education in the several 
 
 education J 
 
 states. The portion of the public domain 
 hitherto set apart by congress for the endowment of public 
 education amounts to 86,138,473 acres, or 134,591 English 
 square miles. This is an area larger than that of the six 
 New England states, New York, New Jersey, Maryland and 
 Delaware added together. It is a portion of the earth's 
 surface as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-
 
 Vlll INTRODUCTION 
 
 tenths as great as France, and considerably greater than the 
 combined areas of Great Britain, including the Channel 
 islands, and the kingdom of Holland. The aggregate value 
 of lands and money given for education by the national 
 government, as Commissioner Harris shows in detail, 1 is 
 nearly $300,000,000. 
 
 The uniform tendency of recent develop- 
 
 Education a i j i_ j- i j j t. 
 
 f ,. ment, as marked by judicial decisions and by 
 state function J 
 
 legislative enactments, is to treat all publicly- 
 controlled education as part of a slowly-forming system which 
 has its basis in the authority of the state government, as dis- 
 tinguished from that of the nation on the one hand and 
 from that of the locality on the other. This system may be 
 highly centralized, as in New York, or the contrary, as in 
 Massachusetts, but the theory underlying it is the same. 
 The two fundamental principles which are emerging as the 
 result of a century's growth are, first, that education is a 
 matter of state concern, and not merely one of local prefer- 
 ence ; and, second, that state inspection and supervision 
 shall be applied so as to stimulate and encourage local inter- 
 est in education and to avoid the deadening routine of a 
 mechanical uniformity. The state acts to provide adequate 
 opportunity for elementary education for all children, and 
 abundant opportunity for secondary and higher education. 
 But the state claims no monopoly in education. It protects 
 private initiative, whether stimulated by religious zeal, phil- 
 anthropy or desire for gain, in doing the same thing. It is 
 not customary, in the United States, for state officials to 
 inspect or to interfere with the educational work of pri- 
 vately-established institutions. When these are chartered 
 bodies, they are subject simply to the general provisions of 
 law governing corporations of their class. When they are 
 not chartered bodies, the state treats them as it does any 
 private business undertaking : it lets them alone. Standards 
 of efficiency and of professional attainment are regulated in 
 these institutions by those in neighboring public institu- 
 te 96
 
 INTRODUCTION IX 
 
 tions, by local public opinion and by competition. Some- 
 times these forces operate to raise standards, sometimes to 
 lower them. New York has gone farther than any other 
 state in attempting to define and to classify all educational 
 institutions, private as well as public. Pennsylvania has 
 recently entered upon a similar policy ; and it is being urged 
 in other states as well. The public elementary schools are 
 more or less carefully regulated by law, both as to length of 
 school term, as to subjects taught, and as to the necessary 
 qualifications of the teachers. The public secondary schools, 
 familiarly known as high schools, and the state universities ^ 
 are usually without any such regulation. 
 
 The term "common schools" is often used 
 Statistics of in the United States of the public elementary 
 public educa- 1111^1 
 
 , . schools alone ; but the more correct use is to 
 
 tion 
 
 include under it all public elementary schools, 
 the first eight years of the course of study, and all 
 public secondary schools, maintaining a four years' course, 
 as a rule, in advance of the elementary school. In 1897-8 
 the total estimated population of the United States was 
 72,737,100. Of this number 21,458,294 a number nearly 
 equal to the population of Austria were of school age, as it 
 is called ; that is, they were from 5 to 1 8 years of age. This 
 is not the age covered by the compulsory education laws, but 
 the school age as the term is used by the United States census. 
 By school age is meant the period during which a pupil may 
 attend a public school and during which a share of the public 
 money may be used for his education. It is obvious, then, that 
 persons who have satisfactorily completed both an elementary 
 and a secondary course of study may still be returned as of 
 "school age " and as " not attending any school." This fact 
 has always to be taken into account in the interpretation of 
 American educational statistics. 
 
 In 1897-8 the number of pupils entered upon the regis- 
 ters of the common schools * that is, the public elementary 
 and the public secondary schools was 15,038,636, or 20.68 
 per cent of the total population and 70.08 per cent of the
 
 X INTRODUCTION 
 
 persons of "school age." The total population of Scotland 
 and Ireland is only about half so many as this. For these 
 pupils 409,193 teachers were employed, of which number 
 131,750, or 32.2 per cent were men. The women teachers 
 in the common schools numbered 277,443. The teachers, 
 if brought together, would outnumber the population of 
 Munich. The women alone far more than equal the popu- 
 lation of Bordeaux. No fewer than 242,390 buildings were 
 in use for common school purposes. Their aggregate value 
 was nearly $500,000,000 ($492,703,781). 
 
 The average length of the annual school session was 143.1 
 days, an increase since 1870 of n days. In some states the 
 length of the annual school session is very much above 
 this average. It rises, for example, to 191 days in Rhode 
 Island, 1 86 in Massachusetts, 185 in New Jersey, 176 in 
 New York, 172 in California, 162 in Iowa, and 160 in Michi- 
 gan and Wisconsin. The shortest average annual session 
 is in North Carolina (68.8 days) and in Arkansas (69 days). 
 Taking the entire educational resources of the United States 
 into consideration, each individual of the population would 
 receive school instruction for 5 years of 200 days each. 
 Since 1870 this has increased from 3.36 years, and since 1880 
 from 3.96 years, of 200 days each. 
 
 The average monthly salary of men teachers in the com- 
 mon schools was $45.16 in 1897-8; that of the women 
 teachers was $38.74. In the last forty years the average sal- 
 ary of common school teachers has increased 86.3 per cent 
 in cities and 74.9 per cent in the rural districts. The total 
 receipts for common school purposes in 1897-8 were almost 
 $200,000,000 ($199,317,597), of which vast sum 4.6 per 
 cent was income from permanent funds, 17.9 per cent was 
 raised by state school tax, 67.3 per cent by local (county, 
 municipal or school district) tax, and 10.2 came from other 
 sources. The common school expenditure per capita of 
 population was $2.67; for each pupil, it averaged $18.86. 
 Teachers' salaries absorb 63.8 per cent ($123,809,412) of 
 the expenditure for common schools.
 
 INTRODUCTION XI 
 
 The commissioner of education believes the normal 
 standard of enrollment in private educational institutions to 
 be about 15 per cent of the total enrollment. At the pres- 
 ent time it is only a little more than 9 per cent, having been 
 reduced apparently by the long period of commercial and 
 financial depression which has but lately ended. 
 
 Illiteracy in the United States can hardly 
 Ilitcr3.cv 
 
 be compared fairly with that in European 
 
 countries because of the fact that an overwhelming propor- 
 tion of the illiterates are found among the negroes and 
 among the immigrants who continue to pour into the country 
 in large numbers. The eleventh census of the United States, 
 taken in 1890, showed that the percentage of illiterates to the 
 whole population was 13.3, a decrease of 3.7 per cent since 
 the census of 1 880. But the percentage of illiterates among 
 the native white population (being 73.2 per cent of the whole) 
 was only 6.2 of those ten years of age or older. Among the 
 foreign born white population (14.6 per cent of the whole), 
 the percentage of illiteracy was 13.1, and among the colored 
 population (12.2 of the whole), it was 56.8. That is, nearly 
 one-half of the whole number of illiterates in the United 
 States were colored. Only in Florida, Mississippi, West 
 Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia, Arkansas, Tennessee, 
 South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, and 
 New Mexico, was the percentage of illiteracy among the 
 native white population greater than 10. This percentage 
 fell below 2 in New Hampshire (1.5), Massachusetts (0.8), 
 Connecticut (i.), New York (1.8), District of Columbia 
 (1.7), Minnesota (1.4), Iowa (1.8), North Dakota (1.8), 
 South Dakota (1.2), Nebraska (1.3), Montana (1.6), Wyom- 
 ing (1.3), Nevada (0.8), Idaho (1.9), Washington (1.3), 
 Oregon (1.8) and California (1.7). In Kansas it was 
 exactly 2. 
 
 It is not infrequently charged by those who 
 
 have but a superficial knowledge of the facts, 
 and crime ' 
 
 or who are disposed to weaken the force of 
 the argument for state education, that one effect of the
 
 Xll INTRODUCTION 
 
 system of public education in the United States has been to 
 increase the proportion of criminals, particularly those 
 whose crime is against property. The facts in refutation of 
 this charge are so simple and so indisputable that they 
 should always be kept in mind. 
 
 In the first place, it must be remembered that communi- 
 ties which maintain schools have higher standards as to what 
 is lawful than communities which are without the civilization 
 which the presence of a school system indicates, and that, 
 therefore, more acts are held to be criminal and more crimes 
 are detected and punished in a community of the former sort 
 than in one of the latter. A greater number of arrests may 
 signify better police administration rather than an increase 
 in crime. 
 
 Again, where records have been carefully kept, it appears 
 that the illiterate portion of the population furnishes from 
 six to eight times its proper proportion of criminals. This 
 was established for a large area by an extensive investiga- 
 tion carried on by the bureau of education in 1870. 
 
 The history of the past fifty years in the state of Massa- 
 chusetts is alone a conclusive answer to the contention that 
 education begets crime. In 1850 the jails and prisons of 
 that state held 8,761 persons, while in 1855 tne number had 
 increased to three times as many (26,651). On the surface, 
 therefore, crime had greatly increased. But analysis of the 
 crimes shows that serious offences had fallen off 40 per cent 
 during this period, while the vigilance with which minor 
 misdemeanors were followed up had produced the great 
 apparent increase in crime. While drunkenness had greatly 
 fallen off in proportion to the population, yet commitments 
 for drunkenness alone multiplied from 3,341 in 1850 to 
 18,701 in 1885. The commitments for crimes other than 
 drunkenness were i to every 183 of the population in 1850 
 and i to every 244 of the population in 1885. In other 
 words, as has been pointed out, persons and property had 
 become safer, while drunkenness had become more danger- 
 ous to the drunkard.
 
 INTRODUCTION Xlll 
 
 The American people are convinced that their public 
 school system has justified the argument of Daniel Webster, 
 made. in 1821 : "For the purpose of public instruction," he 
 said, " we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion 
 to his property, and we look not to the question whether he 
 himself have or have not children to be benefited by the 
 education for which he pays ; we regard it as a wise and 
 liberal system of police, by which property, and life, and the 
 peace of society are secured. We seek to prevent, in some 
 measure, the extension of the penal code by inspiring a sal- 
 utary and conservative principle of virtue and of knowledge 
 in an early age. We hope to excite a feeling of respecta- 
 bility and a sense of character by enlarging the capacities 
 and increasing the sphere of intellectual enjoyment. * * * 
 Knowing that our government rests directly upon the public 
 will, that we may preserve it we endeavor to give a safe and 
 proper direction to the public will. We do not, indeed, 
 expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen ; but we 
 confidently trust * * * that by the diffusion of general 
 knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political 
 fabric may be secure as well against open violence and 
 overthrow as against the slow but sure undermining of 
 licentiousness." 
 
 Where the public school term in the United 
 Education . 
 
 and industry States 1S longest, there the average productive 
 
 capacity of the citizen is greatest. This can 
 hardly be a coincidence. When the man of science finds 
 such a coincidence as this in his test tube or balance, he 
 proclaims it a scientific discovery proved by inductive evi- 
 dence. The average school period per inhabitant, taking 
 the United States as a whole, was, in 1897, 4.3 years. The 
 average school period for Massachusetts is 7 years. The 
 proportion, therefore, between the school period in that 
 state and the school period in the whole United States is as 
 70 to 43. It is very interesting to note that the proportion 
 between the productive capacity of each individual in Massa- 
 chusetts and that of each individual in the whole United
 
 XIV INTRODUCTION 
 
 States, is as 66 to 37. Education, 70 to 43 ; productivity, 
 66 to 37. On the basis of 306 working days in Massachu- 
 setts, and on the basis of a population something over 
 2,000,000, this means that every citizen of Massachusetts 
 man, woman, infant in arms is to be credited with a pro- 
 ductive capacity every year of $88.75 more than the aver- 
 age for the United States as a whole. Or to put in the 
 most striking fashion, it means that the excess of productive 
 capacity for the state of Massachusetts in one year is 
 $200,000,000, or about 20 times the cost of maintaining the 
 public schools. If the state of North Carolina, for exam- 
 ple, could bring it about through education that every indi- 
 vidual's productive capacity was increased 10 cents a day 
 that is, just one-third the Massachusetts excess for 306 
 working days, estimating the population roughly at 1,750,000, 
 the state would be better off in the next calendar year to 
 the amount of $54,000,000. If the increase could equal 
 the Massachusetts excess of 29 cents, North Carolina would 
 be better off to the extent of $160,000,000. North Caro- 
 lina now spends less than $1,000,000 a year for public 
 education. 
 
 The number of public secondary schools, 
 Public sec- h j i scnoo i s i n tne United States in 1897-8 
 ondary edu- . . . 
 
 cation was 5>3i5. employing 17,941 teachers and 
 
 enrolling 449,600 pupils. Nearly 3,000 of 
 these schools (2,832) were in the North Central states. 
 The rapid increase of these schools, the flexibility of their 
 program of studies and the growing value of the training 
 which they offer, are among the most significant educa- 
 tional facts of the last two decades. The present rate of 
 increase of secondary school pupils is nearly five times as 
 great as the rate of increase of the population. It is note- 
 worthy, too, that nearly 50 per cent (49.44) of the whole 
 number of secondary school pupils are studying Latin. The 
 rate of increase in the number of the pupils who study Latin 
 is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number 
 of secondary school students.
 
 INTRODUCTION XV 
 
 Between 1890 and 1896, while the number of students in 
 private secondary schools increased 12 per cent, the num- 
 ber of students in public secondary schools increased 87 per 
 cent. Further, since 1893-4 the number of pupils in pri- 
 vate secondary schools has steadily declined. 
 
 The number of colleges in the United States 
 
 T 1 " O 
 
 oca in u- excluding 1 those for women only is 
 
 enceofthe ., s r , ... J 
 
 .. very large. Many ot these institutions, small 
 
 and weak, ill-equipped and ill-endowed, are 
 frequently criticized severely for endeavoring to continue 
 the struggle for existence. This criticism is, in part, jus- 
 tifiable, but it ought not to be forgotten that almost 
 every college exerts a helpful influence upon the life of its 
 locality. The fact is frequently overlooked that all American 
 colleges depend for their students in large measure upon their 
 own neighborhood. Few draw from the nation at large, and 
 these few draw only a small proportion of their students 
 from beyond the confines of their own state or the limits of 
 their own section of the country. For example, of the 28,000 
 (27,956) students attending colleges in the North Atlantic 
 division, 26,393, or 94.41 per cent, are residents of the 
 states included in that division. Of the 8,529 students in 
 colleges of Massachusetts, 55.62 per cent are residents of 
 that state, and 83.37 per cent are residents of the North 
 Atlantic division, of which Massachusetts is a part. In 
 Oregon the percentages rise to 96.09 and 99.87, respectively. 
 The development of universities in the United 
 
 States has taken place during the present 
 universities . & ,f . . 
 
 generation. 1 he name university is, in 
 
 America, no proper index to the character and work of the 
 institution which bears it. Professor Perry has set out 
 illustrations of this fact with great clearness. 1 Nevertheless, 
 the distinctions between secondary school, college and uni- 
 versity are more widely recognized each year and it is not 
 too much to hope that, in course of time, the various insti- 
 tutions will adopt the names which properly belong to each. 
 
 1 1: 254
 
 XVI INTRODUCTION 
 
 The definition of a university which I have suggested 
 elsewhere T is this : " An institution, where students, ade- 
 quately trained by previous study of the liberal arts and 
 sciences, are led into special fields of learning and research 
 by teachers of high excellence and originality ; and where, 
 by the agency of museums, laboratories, and publications, 
 knowledge is conserved, advanced and disseminated." In 
 this sense there are at least half-a-dozen American universi- 
 ties now in existence, and as many more in the process of 
 making. These universities are markedly different from 
 those of France, Germany, and Great Britian, but they respond 
 in a most complete way to the educational needs of the Ameri- 
 can people, and they are playing an increasingly important 
 part in the advancement of knowledge and the development 
 of its applications to problems of government, of industry and 
 of commerce. The administrators of American universities 
 have studied carefully the experience of European nations, 
 and they have applied the result of that experience, wherever 
 possible, in the solution of their own problems. 
 
 The variety and value of American contri- 
 Literature of . 11- r i 
 
 butions to the literature of education are 
 education .-..'' 
 
 worthy of notice. Nearly 300 periodical pub- 
 lications of one type or another are devoted mainly to edu- 
 cation. A few of these rank with the leading educational 
 journals of the world. Perhaps the publications of the 
 National educational association, a voluntary organization 
 of teachers of every grade, are the most characteristic Ameri- 
 can contributions. They include not only the invaluable 
 series of annual Proceedings, containing papers and discus- 
 sions by the leaders of American education for a generation, 
 but reports upon particular subjects the investigation of which 
 has been undertaken from time to time by special commit- 
 tees. Among the subjects so reported upon are these : 
 Secondary school studies, Organization of elementary edu- 
 cation, Rural schools, College entrance requirements, Rela- 
 tion of public libraries to public schools, and Normal schools. 
 
 1 The Meaning of Education (New York, 1898), p. 130
 
 INTRODUCTION XV11 
 
 The most valuable official publications are these : the 
 annual reports, issued since 1868, by the United States 
 commissioner of education, those since 1889 being par- 
 ticularly noteworthy; the reports issued by Horace Mann 
 as secretary of the state board of education of Massachu- 
 setts, 1838-49 ; the twelve volumes of reports issued by Wil- 
 liam T. Harris, as superintendent of the public schools of 
 St. Louis, Mo., 1867-79 I an d the annual reports of Charles 
 W. Eliot as president of Harvard university, 1871-99. 
 The annual reports of state and city superintendents of 
 schools are a storehouse of information and often contain 
 elaborate discussions of educational theory and practice. 
 Private aid One fact in American education is certainly 
 
 to education unique. That is the vast sum given in aid or 
 endowment of education by individuals. It 
 recalls the best traditions of the princes and churchmen of 
 the middle ages, but is on a vastly larger scale. For some 
 time past the income of Harvard university from this source 
 has been nearly or quite a million dollars annually. In 
 1898-9 the total amount of gifts to Harvard university for 
 purposes of general or special endowment was $1,383,460.77, 
 and for immediate use $161,368.90. Columbia university 
 has received in the last decade $6,736,482 in money and in 
 land. An unofficial estimate 'of the amount given by indi- 
 viduals during the year 1899 for universities, colleges, 
 schools and libraries is over $70,000,000. The tendency 
 which these colossal figures indicate is one of the most for- 
 tunate and most hopeful in American life. The makers and 
 holders of great fortunes are pouring out from their excess 
 for the development of the higher life and greater produc- 
 tive capacity of the people. The religious bodies, in par- 
 ticular the Roman Catholic church, are doing the same 
 thing upon a very large scale. The conviction that educa- 
 tion is fundamental to democratic civilization is perhaps the 
 most widespread among the American people. Public funds 
 and private wealth are alike given unstintingly in support 
 of it.
 
 XV111 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Education, conceived as a social institution, 
 
 is now being studied in the United States 
 education s . 
 
 more widely and more energetically than ever 
 before. The chairs of education in the great universities are 
 the natural leaders in this movement. It is carried on also 
 in normal schools, in teachers' training classes and in count- 
 less voluntary associations and clubs in every part of the 
 country. Problems of organization and administration, of 
 educational theory, of practical procedure in teaching, of 
 child nature, of hygiene and sanitation, are engaging atten- 
 tion everywhere. Herein lies the promise of great advances 
 in the future. Enthusiasm, earnestness and scientific 
 method are all applied to the study of education in a way 
 which makes it certain that the results will be fruitful. 
 The future of democracy is bound up with the future of 
 education. 
 
 The present work passes in review these and many other 
 tendencies in American education. It describes the organi- 
 zation and influence of each type of formal school ; it takes 
 note of the more informal and popular organizations for 
 popular education and instruction ; it discusses the educa- 
 tional problems raised by the existence of special classes 
 and of special needs, and sets forth how the United States 
 has set about solving these problems. It may truly be said 
 to be a cross-section view of education in the United States 
 in 1900. 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK 
 March i, 1900
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATKS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 . ' . ; 1 . . . : : 
 
 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION 
 
 AND 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 BY 
 
 ANDREW SLOANE DRAPER 
 President of the University of Illinois 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Any treatment of the legal organization and the authori- 
 tative methods of administration by which the great public 
 educational system of the United States is carried on must 
 almost necessarily be opened by a statement of the salient 
 points in the evolution of that system, for the form of organi- 
 zation and the laws governing the operations of the schools 
 have not preceded, but followed and been determined by the 
 educational movements of the people and the necessities of 
 the case. 
 
 V The first white settlers who came to America in the early 
 part of the seventeenth century were from the European 
 peoples, who were more advanced in civilization than any 
 others in the world. Each of the nations first represented 
 had already made some progress in the direction of popular 
 education. Such educational ideals as these different peo- 
 ples possessed had resulted from historic causes, and were 
 very unlike. The influence more potent than any others in 
 determining the character of American civic institutions 
 were English .and Dutch./ The English government was a 
 constitutional monarchy, but still a monarchy, and the con- 
 stitutional limitations were neither so many nor so strong 
 as later popular revolutions have made them. English 
 thought accepted class distinctions among the people. The 
 advantages of education were for the favored class, the 
 nobility. The common people expected little. Colleges 
 and fitting schools were maintained for the training of young 
 men of noble birth for places under the government and in 
 the government church, but there were no common schools 
 for all. The nobility were opposed to general education lest
 
 4 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [4 
 
 the masses would come to recognize God-given rights and 
 demand them, and the masses were yet too illiterate to 
 understand and enforce the inalienable rights of human 
 nature. The Dutch had gone farther than the English ; 
 they had just waged a long and dreadful and successful war 
 for liberty, and with all its horrors war has uniformly sharp- 
 ened the intelligence of a people. This war for civil and 
 religious liberty had enlarged their freedom and quickened 
 their activities ; they had become the greatest sailors and the 
 foremost manufacturers in the world ; and they had estab- 
 lished the government policy of maintaining not only col- 
 leges, but common schools for all. 
 
 The first permanent white settlers in the United States 
 were English and Dutch. In the beginning they had no 
 thought of ceasing to be Englishmen and loyal subjects of the 
 English monarchy, or Dutchmen with permanent fellowship 
 in the Dutch Republic. They each brought their national 
 educational ideas with them. Each people was strongly 
 influenced by religious feelings, and life in a new land inten- 
 sified those feelings. The English in Massachusetts were 
 at the beginning very like the English in England. The 
 larger and wealthier and more truly English colony recog- 
 nized class distinctions and followed the English educational 
 policy. They first set up a college to train their aristocracy 
 for places in the state and the church, and for a considerable 
 time their ministers, either at the church or in the homes, 
 taught the children enough to read the Bible and acquire the 
 catechism. The Dutch, more democratic, with smaller num- 
 bers and less means, and more dependent upon their govern- 
 ment over the sea, at once set up elementary schools at public 
 cost and common to all. In a few years the English over- 
 threw the little Dutch government and almost obliterated 
 the elementary schools. For a century the English royal 
 governors and the Dutch colonial legislatures struggled 
 over the matter of common schools. The government was 
 too strong for the humble people ; little educational progress 
 was made. Near the close of that century the government
 
 el EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 5 
 
 established King's college to educate sons of noble birth 
 and prevent the spread of republican ideas. The Revolu- 
 tion of 1776 changed all. In fighting together for national 
 independence the different peoples assimilated and became 
 Americans in the new sense. They not only combined their 
 forces in war, but in peace they combined the enlarged intel- 
 ligence which the war had brought to them. They realized 
 that education in all its phases and grades must be encour- 
 aged, and, so far as practicable, made universal under a democ- 
 racy in which the rights of opportunity were to be equal. 
 
 But while they began to be interested in education it was 
 because they saw that schools would help the individual and 
 so promote virtue and extend religion. It did not occur to 
 them at the first that the safety of the new form of govern- 
 ment was associated with the diffusion of learning among all 
 the people. This is not strange, for the suffrage was not 
 universal at the beginning of independent government in 
 America. Therefore, while the desirability of education was 
 recognized, it was understood to be the function of parents 
 to provide it for their children, or of guardians and masters 
 to extend it to their wards and apprentices. When schools 
 were first established they were partnership affairs between 
 people who had children in their care, and for their con- 
 venience. They apportioned the expense among themselves ; 
 such as had no children were without much concern about 
 the matter. 
 
 It was soon seen that many who had children to educate 
 would neglect them in order to avoid the expense of con- 
 tributing to the support of the school. Aside from this the 
 schools were very indifferent affairs. If they were to be of 
 any account they must have recognition and encouragement 
 from government. It was easily conceived to be a function 
 of government to encourage schools. Encouragement was 
 given by official and legislative declarations in their behalf 
 and then by authorizing townships to use funds derived from 
 excise fees and other sources for the benefit of the schools 
 when not otherwise needed. It was a greater step to attempt
 
 6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [6 
 
 to say that townships should require people, who had chil- 
 dren to educate, to maintain schools, and a still greater one 
 to adopt the principle that every child was entitled to at least 
 an elementary education as of right, that this was as much 
 for the safety of the state as for the good of the child, that 
 therefore the state was bound to see that schools were pro- 
 vided for all, and that all the property of all the people 
 should contribute alike to their support. Perhaps it was 
 even a greater step to provide secondary and collegiate, and 
 in many cases professional and technical, training at the 
 public cost. But these great positions were in time firmly 
 taken. 
 
 There was nothing like an educational system in the 
 United States at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 At that time there were four or five colleges, here and there 
 a private academy or fitting school, and elementary schools 
 of indifferent character in the cities and the thinly settled 
 towns. In the course of the century a great system of 
 schools has come to cover the land. It is free and flexible, 
 adaptable to local conditions, and yet it possesses most of 
 the elements of a complete and symmetrical system. The 
 parts or grades of this system may perhaps be designated 
 as follows : 
 
 a) Free public elementary schools in reach of every home 
 in the land. 
 
 b) Free public high schools, or secondary schools, in 
 every considerable town. 
 
 c) Free land grant colleges, with special reference to the 
 agricultural and mechanical arts, in all the states. 
 
 d) Free state universities in practically all of the southern 
 states and all the states west of Pennsylvania. 
 
 e) Free normal schools, or training schools for teachers, 
 in practically every state. 
 
 f) Free schools for defectives, in substantially all of the 
 states. 
 
 g) National academies for training officers for the army 
 and navy.
 
 7~| EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 7 
 
 h) A vast number of private kindergartens, music and 
 art schools, commercial schools, industrial schools, profes- 
 sional schools, denominational colleges, with a half dozen 
 leading and privately endowed universities. 
 
 This mighty educational system has developed with the 
 growth of towns and cities and states. It has been shaped 
 by the advancing sagacity of the people. Above all other 
 of American civic institutions, it has been the one most 
 expressive of the popular will and the common purposes. 
 Everywhere it is held in the control of the people, and so far 
 as practicable in the control of local assemblages. While 
 the tendencies of later years have, from necessities, been 
 towards centralization of management, the conspicuous char- 
 acteristic of the systems has always been the extent to which 
 the elementary and secondary schools are controlled and 
 directed by each community. The inherent and universal 
 disposition in this direction has favored general school laws 
 and yielded to centralized administration only so far as has 
 come to be necessary to life, efficiency and growth. But 
 circumstances have made this necessary to a very consider- 
 able extent. 
 
 Bearing in mind the historic facts touching the develop- 
 ment of the school system, we may proceed to consider the 
 legal organization and authoritative scheme of administra- 
 tion which have arisen therefrom. We will begin with the 
 most elementary and decentralized form of organization and 
 proceed to the more general and concentrated ones, following 
 the steps which have marked the growth of the system in a 
 general way, but with no thought of tracing the particular 
 lines of educational advancement in the several states. 
 
 THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 
 
 The " school district " is the oldest and tne most primary 
 form of school organization. Indeed, it is the smallest civil 
 division of our political system. It lesulted from the natural 
 disposition of neighboring families to associate together for 
 the maintenance of a school. Later it was recognized by
 
 8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [8 
 
 law and given some legal functions and responsibilities. 
 Its territorial extent is no larger than will permit of all the 
 children attending a single school, although it sometimes 
 happens that in sparsely settled country the children have to 
 go several miles to school. It ordinarily accommodates but 
 a few families : districts have had legal existence with but 
 one family in each : many with not more than a half dozen 
 families. It is better adapted to the circumstances of the 
 country than to those of the town or city. A different form 
 has been provided for the considerable towns, and still 
 another for the cities as they have developed. The " district 
 system " is in operation in most of the states, and in such 
 the number of districts extends into the thousands. In New 
 York, for example, there are over eleven thousand and in 
 Illinois over twelve thousand school districts. 
 
 The government of the school district is the most simple 
 and democratic that can be imagined. It is controlled by 
 school meetings composed of the resident legal voters. In 
 many of the states women have been constituted legal voters 
 at school meetings. These meetings are held at least 
 annually and as much oftener as may be desired. They 
 may vote needed repairs to the primitive schoolhouse and 
 desirable appliances for the school. They may decide to 
 erect a new schoolhouse. They may elect officers, one or 
 more, commonly called trustees or directors, who must carry 
 out their directions and who are required by law to employ 
 the teacher and have general oversight of the school. 
 Although the law ordinarily gives the trustees free discre- 
 tion in the appointment of teachers, provided only that a 
 person duly certificated must be appointed, yet it not infre- 
 quently happens that the district controls the selection of 
 the teacher through the election of trustees with known 
 preferences. 
 
 Much has been said against the district system, and doubt- 
 less much that has been said has been justified. At the 
 same time it cannot be denied that the system has had much 
 to commend it. It has suited the conditions of country life :
 
 <J EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 9 
 
 it has resulted in schools adapted to the thought and wants 
 of farming people : it has done something to educate the 
 people themselves, parents as well as children, in civic spirit 
 and patriotism : and it has afforded a meeting place for the 
 people within comfortable reach of every home. The school 
 has not always been the best, but it has been ordinarily as 
 good as a free and primitive people would sustain or could 
 profit by. It is true that the teachers have generally 
 been young and inexperienced, but they have not yet been 
 trained into mechanical automatons, and as a rule they have 
 been the most promising young people in the world, the 
 ones who, a few years later, have been the makers of opinion 
 and the leaders of action upon a considerable field. Cer- 
 tainly the work has lacked system, continuity and progres- 
 siveness, the pupils have commenced at the same place in the 
 book many times and never advanced a great distance, but, 
 on the other hand, the children in the country schools have 
 had the home training and the free, natural life which has 
 developed strong qualities in character and individual initia- 
 tive in large measure, and so have not suffered seriously, in 
 comparison with the children living in the towns. The dis- 
 trict system has sufficed well for them and it has otherwise 
 been of much advantage to the people ; and with all its 
 shortcomings, or the abuses that are common where it pre- 
 vails, they are hardly worse than are found under more pre- 
 tentious systems. Surely the " American District School 
 System " is to be spoken of with respect, for it has exerted a 
 marked influence upon our citizenship, and has given strong 
 and wholesome impulses in all the affairs of the nation. 
 
 THE TOWNSHIP SYSTEM 
 
 While in the first half of the century the general educa- 
 tional purpose seems to have been to make the district sys- 
 tem more perfect, the tendency in the latter half has unmis- 
 takably been to merge it into a more pretentious organization, 
 covering a larger area, and capable of larger undertakings. 
 The cause of this has been the desire for larger schools,
 
 IO EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [ IO 
 
 taught by teachers better prepared, and capable of broader 
 and better work, as well as the purpose to distribute educa- 
 tional advantages more evenly to all the people. Accord- 
 ingly, in most of the states there has been a serious discus- 
 sion of the relative advantages of the township as against 
 the district system, and in quite a number of the states the 
 former has already supplanted the latter. 
 
 The township system makes the township the unit of 
 school government. It is administered by officers chosen at 
 annual town meetings, or sometimes by central boards, the 
 members of which are chosen by the electors of different 
 sub-districts. In any event, the board has charge of all the 
 elementary schools of the township, and if there is one, as 
 is frequently the case, of the township high school. The 
 board, following the different statutes governing them and 
 the authorized directions of the township school electors, 
 provides the buildings and cares for them, supplies the 
 needed furnishings and appliances, employs the teachers, and 
 regulates the general operations of the school. 
 
 It is at once seen that the township system is much less 
 formally democratic and much more centralized than the dis- 
 trict system. It has doubtless produced better schools and 
 schools of more uniform excellence. One of its most benefi- 
 cent influences has been the multiplication of township high 
 schools, in which all the children of the township have had 
 equality of rights. These high schools have given an uplift- 
 ing stimulus to all the elementary schools of the township, 
 and have led all the children to see that the work of the 
 local school is not all there is of education, and given many 
 of them ambitions to master the course of the secondary 
 school. 
 
 Very much has been said upon the subject, but it is not 
 necessary to go irito it at length here. The township sys- 
 tem has many advantages over the district system for a people 
 who are ready for it. It is adapted to the development and 
 to the administration of a higher grade of schools and very 
 likely to better schools of all grades. It is a step, and an
 
 Il] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION II 
 
 important step, towards that general centralization in man- 
 agement and greater uniformity of improved methods of 
 supervision and instruction now so manifest throughout the 
 school system of the United States. 
 
 THE COUNTY SYSTEM 
 
 The southern states, most if not all of them, have a 
 county system of school administration. This has not 
 resulted from the development of the school system, but 
 from the general system of county rather than township 
 government prevalent in all the affairs of the southern 
 states from the beginning, and easily traceable to historic 
 causes. The county is the unit of school government in 
 the southern states, because it has been the unit of all 
 government. 
 
 The county system is not constituted identically in all of 
 the southern states of the union. In Georgia, for example, 
 the grand jury of each county selects from the freeholders 
 five persons to comprise the county board of education ; in 
 North Carolina the justices of the peace and county com- 
 missioners of each county appoint such a county board of 
 education, while in Florida such a board is elected by the 
 people biennially, and in some states a county commissioner 
 or superintendent of schools is the responsible authority for 
 managing the schools of the county. In Georgia "each 
 county shall constitute one school district," but in several of 
 the states the county board or superintendent divides the 
 territory into sub-districts and appoints trustees or directors 
 in each. In the latter case the local trustees seem to be 
 ministerial officers carrying out the policy of the county 
 board. In any case the unit of territory for the administra- 
 tion of the schools is the county, and county officials locate 
 sites, provide buildings, select text-books, prescribe the 
 course of work, examine and appoint teachers, and do all the 
 things which are within the functions of district or township 
 trustees or city boards of education in the northern states.
 
 12 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [l2 
 
 THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 
 
 As communities have increased in population they have 
 outgrown any primary or elementary system of organization 
 for school purposes. Laws of general application or com- 
 mon usage in a county sparsely settled would not suffice for 
 a city of many thousands of people. In such cities the peo- 
 ple could not meet to fix the policies and manage the busi- 
 ness of the schools : they could not meet even to choose 
 officers to manage the schools. So the state legislatures 
 have made special laws to meet the circumstances of the 
 larger places. In some states these laws are uniform for all 
 cities of a certain class, that is, cities having populations of 
 about the same number, but more often each city has gone 
 to the legislature and procured the enactment of such stat- 
 utes as seemed suited to the immediate circumstances. 
 
 Because of this there is no uniform or general system of 
 public school administration in the American cities. Of 
 course there are some points of similarity. In nearly every 
 case there is a board of education charged with the manage- 
 ment of the schools, but these boards are constituted in 
 almost as many different ways as there are different cities, 
 and their legal functions are as diverse as there is diversity 
 in cities. In the city of Buffalo, New York state, the school 
 affairs are managed by a committee appointed by the city 
 council, but happily this case stands by itself, and the evil 
 consequences possible under such a scheme have been much 
 ameliorated in this particular case for the last half dozen 
 years by a most excellent superintendent of schools, elected 
 by the people of that city. 
 
 In the greater number of cities the boards of education 
 are elected by the people, in some cases on a general city 
 ticket, and again by wards or sub-districts ; in some places at 
 a general or municipal election, and in others at elections 
 held for the particular purpose. But in many cities, and 
 particularly the larger ones, the boards are appointed by 
 the mayor alone, or by the mayor and city council acting
 
 13] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 13 
 
 jointly. In the city of Philadelphia the board is appointed 
 by the city judges, in Pittsburgh by local directors, and in 
 New Orleans by the state board of education. In a few 
 instances the board is appointed by the city councils. 
 
 In the city of Cleveland, Ohio, the board of education 
 consists of two branches : a school director elected by the 
 people for the term of two years, and a school council of 
 seven members, likewise elected by the people in three groups 
 with terms of three years each. This scheme was devised 
 in 1892 by prominent business men of the city, and, having 
 been enacted by the legislature, has been in very satisfac- 
 tory operation since. 
 
 It must be said that there has been much dissatisfaction 
 with the way school affairs have been managed in the larger 
 cities. In the smaller places, even in cities of a hundred 
 thousand or more inhabitants, matters have gone well enough 
 as a general rule, but in the greater cities there have been 
 many and serious complaints of the misuse of funds, of 
 neglect of property, of the appointment of unfit teachers, 
 and of general incapacity, or worse, on the part of the 
 boards. Of course it is notorious that the public business 
 of American cities has very commonly been badly managed. 
 It would not be true to say that the business of the schools 
 has suffered as seriously as municipal business, but it cer- 
 tainly has been managed badly enough. 
 
 All this has come from the amounts of money that are 
 involved and the number of appointments that are con- 
 stantly to be made. More than a hundred millions of 
 dollars are paid annually for teachers' wages alone in the 
 United States. People who are needy have sought positions 
 as teachers without much reference to preparation, and the 
 kindly disposed have aided them without any apparent appre- 
 ciation of the injury they were doing to the highest interests 
 of their neighbors. Men engaged in managing the organi- 
 zations of the different political parties have undertaken to 
 control appointments in the interests of their party machines. 
 And the downright scoundrels have infested the school 
 organization in some places for the sake of plunder.
 
 14 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [14 
 
 As cities have grown in size and multiplied in numbers, 
 the more scandal there has been. And American cities have 
 grown marvelously. In 1790 there was but one having 
 between eight and twelve thousand inhabitants: in 1890 
 there were one hundred and forty-seven such. By the census 
 of the latter year there were fourteen cities having between 
 seventy-five thousand and one hundred and twenty-five thou- 
 sand inhabitants. Now there are certainly a dozen with 
 more than a half million of people each. The aggregate 
 population of a dozen cities exceeds the aggregate popula- 
 tion of twenty states. But if the troubles have multiplied 
 and intensified as the cities have grown, so has the determi- 
 nation of the people strengthened to remedy the difficulties. 
 
 There has been no more decided and no more healthy 
 educational movement in the United States in recent years, 
 and none with greater or more strongly intrenched obstacles 
 in its way, than that for better school organization and 
 administration in the larger cities. Its particular features 
 or objective points are pointed out by the committee of fif- 
 teen of the National educational association in the following 
 declarations : 
 
 " In concluding this portion of the report, the committee 
 indicates briefly the principles which must necessarily be 
 observed in framing a plan of organization and government 
 in a large city school system. 
 
 First. The affairs of the school should not be mixed up 
 with partisan contests or municipal business. 
 
 Second. There should be a sharp distinction between leg- 
 islative functions and executive duties. 
 
 Third. Legislative functions should be clearly fixed by 
 statute and be exercised by a comparatively small board, 
 each member of which is representative of the whole city. 
 This board, within statutory limitations, should determine 
 the policy of the system, levy taxes, and control the expendi- 
 tures. It should make no appointments. Every act should 
 be by a recorded resolution. It seems preferable that this 
 board be created by appointment rather than election, and
 
 1 5] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 15 
 
 that it be constituted of two branches acting against each 
 other. 
 
 Fourth. Administration should be separated into two 
 great independent departments, one of which manages the 
 business interests and the other of which supervises the 
 instruction. Each of these should be wholly directed by a 
 single official who is vested with ample authority and charged 
 with full responsibility for sound administration. 
 
 Fifth. The chief executive officer on the business side 
 should be charged with the care of all property and with the 
 duty of keeping it in suitable condition : he should provide 
 all necessary furnishings and appliances : he should make all 
 agreements and see that they are properly performed : he 
 should appoint all assistants, janitors, and workmen. In a 
 word, he should do all that the law contemplates and all that 
 the board authorizes, concerning the business affairs of the 
 school system, and when anything goes wrong he should 
 answer for it. He may be appointed by the board, but we 
 think it preferable that he be chosen in the same way the 
 members of the board are chosen, and be given a veto upon 
 the acts of the board. 
 
 Sixth. The chief executive officer of the department of 
 instruction should be given a long term and may be appointed 
 by the board. If the board is constituted of two branches, 
 he should be nominated by the business executive and con- 
 firmed by the legislative branch. Once appointed he should 
 be independent. He should appoint all authorized assist- 
 ants and teachers from an eligible list to be constituted as 
 provided by law. He should assign to duties and discon- 
 tinue services for cause, at his discretion. He should deter- 
 mine all matters relating to instruction. He should be 
 charged with the responsibility of developing a professional 
 and enthusiastic teaching force, and of making all the teach- 
 ing scientific and forceful. He must perfect the organization 
 of his department and make and carry out plans to accom- 
 plish this. If he cannot do this in a reasonable time he 
 should be superseded by one who can."
 
 1 6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [16 
 
 It ought to oe said before passing from this phase of the 
 subject that these principles have made much headway, and 
 that the promise is excellent. There is not a city of any 
 importance in the country in which they are not under dis- 
 cussion, and there are few in which some of them have not 
 been adopted and put in operation. 
 
 The powers of the city boards of education are very 
 broad, almost without limits as to the management of the 
 schools. They commonly do everything but decide the 
 amount of money which shall be raised for the schools, and 
 in some cases even that high prerogative is left to them. 
 They purchase new sites, determine the plans and erect new 
 buildings, provide for maintenance, appoint officers and 
 teachers, fix salaries, make promotions, and, acting within 
 very few and slight constitutional or statutory limitations, 
 enact all of the regulations for the control of the vast system. 
 
 The high powers, cheerfully given by the people to school 
 boards, have arisen from the earnest desire that the schools 
 shall be independent and the teaching of the best. Of 
 course these independent and large prerogatives are exceed- 
 ingly advantageous to educational progress when exercised 
 by good men : when they fall into the hands of weak or bad 
 men they are equally capable of being put to the worst uses. 
 And it is not to be disguised that in some of the foremost 
 cities they have fallen into some hands which are corrupt, 
 but more often into the hands of men of excellent personal 
 character, but who do not see the importance of applying 
 pedagogical principles to instruction, and who are, in one 
 way or another, used by designing persons for partizan, self- 
 ish or corrupt purposes. Of course it is not to be implied 
 that there are not to be found in every school board men or 
 women with clear heads and stout hearts who understand the 
 essential principles of sound school administration and are 
 courageously contending for them. Nor must the serious 
 difficulty of holding together pupils from such widely differ- 
 ent homes in common schools be lost sight of. And again, 
 the obstacles in the way of choosing and training a teaching
 
 17] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION lj 
 
 force of thousands of persons, and of continually energizing 
 the entire body with new pedagogical life, must be remem- 
 bered. And yet again, the dangers of corruption where 
 millions of dollars are being annually disbursed by boards 
 which are practically independent, are apparent. But, nok 
 withstanding all of the hindrances, the issue is being joined 
 and the battle will be fought out to a successful result. 
 There can be but one outcome. The forces of decency and 
 progress always prevail in the end. 
 
 The demands of the intelligent and sincere friends of 
 popular education in our great cities are for a more scientific 
 plan of organization which shall separate legislative and 
 executive functions, which shall put the interests of teachers 
 upon the merit basis and leave them free to apply pedagogi- 
 cal principles to the instruction, which shall give authority to 
 do what is needed and protect officers and teachers, while it 
 locates responsibility and provides the way for ousting the 
 incompetent or the corrupt. The trouble has been that the 
 boards were independent and the machine so ponderous and 
 the prerogatives and responsibilities of officials so confused 
 that people who were aggrieved could not get a hearing or 
 could not secure redress, perhaps for the reason that no one 
 official had the power to afford redress. What is demanded 
 and what is apparently coming is a more perfect system, 
 which will give one credit for good work in the schools and 
 enable a parent to point his finger at and procure the dis- 
 missal of one who inflicts upon his child a school room 
 which is not wholesome and healthful, or a teacher who is 
 physically, pedagogically or morally unfit to train his child. 
 
 THE STATES AND THE SCHOOLS 
 
 Since the American school system has come to be sup- 
 ported wholly by taxation, it has come to depend upon the 
 exercise of a sovereign power. In the United States the 
 sovereign powers are not all lodged in one place. Such as 
 have not been ceded to the general government are retained 
 by the states. The provision and supervision of schools is 
 2
 
 1 8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [18 
 
 one of these. Hence the school system, while marked by 
 many characteristics which are common throughout the 
 country, has a legal organization peculiar to each state. 
 
 The dependence upon state authority which has thus 
 arisen has gone farther than anything else towards the 
 development of a system and towards the equalization of 
 school privileges to the people of the same state. Naturally 
 indisposed to relinquish the management of their own school 
 affairs in their own way, they have been obliged to bow to 
 the authority of their states, in so far as the state saw fit to 
 assert its authority, because they could not act without it, as 
 counties, cities, townships and districts have no power what- 
 ever to levy taxes for school purposes except as authorized by 
 the state. They have become reconciled to the interven- 
 tion of state authority, moreover, as they have seen that 
 such authority improved the schools. 
 
 Of such improvement by such intervention there can be 
 no doubt. In many cases state school funds have been 
 created, or large sums are raised by general levy each year, 
 which are distributed so as to give the most aid to the sec- 
 tions which are poorest and most need it. In the state of 
 New York, for example, the cities pay more than half a mil- 
 lion of dollars every year to the support of the schools in 
 the country districts. In practically all of the states excel- 
 lent normal schools are maintained to prepare teachers for 
 the elementary and secondary schools. In all of the south- 
 ern and western states great state universities are sustained 
 as parts of the state school systems. In ten universities of 
 the North-Central division of states there are twenty thou- 
 sand students in college and professional courses, and the 
 work is of as high grade and of as broad range as in the 
 oldest universities of the country. These things are exert- 
 ing strong influences upon the sentiment of the people of 
 the different states and increasing their respect for the 
 authority of their states over their schools. 
 
 And the application of state authority to all of the schools 
 supported by public moneys of course makes them more
 
 1 9] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 19 
 
 alike and better. The whims of local settlements disappear. 
 The schoolhouses are better. More is done for the prepara- 
 tion of teachers, and more uniform exactions are put upon 
 candidates for the teaching service. The courses of study 
 are more quickly and symmetrically improved. There is 
 criticism and stimulus from a common center for all of the 
 educational work of the state. 
 
 The different states have gone to very different lengths 
 in exercising their authority. The length to which each has 
 gone has depended upon the necessity of state intervention 
 by the exercise of the taxing power, or of delegating that 
 power to subdivisions of the territory, and upon the senti- 
 ment of the people. In most cases it has been determined 
 by the location of the point of equipose between necessity 
 and free consent. The state government has, of course, 
 not been disposed to go farther than the people were willing, 
 for all government is by the people. The thought of the 
 people in the different states has been somewhat influenced 
 by considerations which arise out of their early history, but 
 doubtless in most cases it is predicated upon their later 
 experiences. 
 
 All of the state constitutions now contain provisions 
 relating to popular education. This was not true of the 
 original constitutions of all of the older states, for when 
 they were adopted the maintenance of schools was looked 
 upon as a personal or local rather than a state concern. 
 But later amendments have since introduced such provisions 
 into all of the older state constitutions. And all of the 
 newer ones have contained strong and elaborate sections, 
 making it a fundamental duty of the government they estab- 
 lished to encourage education and provide schools for all. 
 
 Of course, all of the states have legislated much in refer- 
 ence to the schools, and there is scarcely a session of one of 
 the state legislatures in which they do not receive consider- 
 able attention. In all of the states there is some sort of a 
 state school organization established by law. In practically 
 all there is an officer known as the state superintendent of
 
 2O EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [20 
 
 public instruction, or the state school commissioner. In 
 some there is a state board of education. In New York 
 there is a state board of regents in charge of the private 
 academies, in some measure of the public secondary schools, 
 and of all of the higher institutions ; and also a state super- 
 intendent of public instruction, with very high authority 
 over the elementary schools and in a large measure over 
 the public high schools. 
 
 The officer last referred to doubtless is vested with larger 
 authority than any other one educational official in the 
 country. He apportions the state schools funds; he deter- 
 mines the conditions of admission, the courses of work and 
 the employment of teachers, and audits all the accounts of 
 the twelve normal schools of the state ; he has unlimited 
 authority over the examination and certification of teachers ; 
 he regulates the official action of the school commissioners 
 in all of the assembly districts of the state ; he appoints the 
 teachers' institutes, arranges the work, names the instructors, 
 and pays the bills. He determines the boundaries of school 
 districts. He provides schools for the defective classes and 
 for the seven Indian reservations yet remaining in the state. 
 He may condemn schoolhouses and require new ones to be 
 built. He may direct new furnishings to be provided. He 
 is a member of the state board of regents and of the board 
 of trustees of Cornell university. He may entertain appeals 
 by any person conceiving himself aggrieved from any order 
 or proceeding of local school officials, determine the practice 
 therein, and make final disposition of the matter in dispute, 
 and his decision cannot be " called in question in any court 
 or in any other place." 
 
 All this, with the splendid organization of the state board 
 of regents, unquestionably provides New York with a more 
 complete and elaborate educational organization than any 
 other American state. 
 
 There are some who think that it is more elaborate and 
 authoritative than necessary ; that it unduly overrides local 
 freedom and discourages individual initiative. One who has
 
 2i] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 21 
 
 been a part of that system, and who has also been associated 
 with educational work where there is but very slight state 
 supervision, will hardly be disposed to think so. But it is 
 certainly exceptional among the states. Most of them 
 undertake to regulate school affairs but very little. In the 
 larger number of cases the state board of education only 
 controls the purely state educational institutions, and the 
 principal functions of the leading educational official of the 
 state are to inspire action through his addresses and gather 
 statistics and disseminate information deducible therefrom. 
 
 However, there can be no doubt about the general ten- 
 dency being strongly towards greater centralization. Not 
 only are its advantages quite apparent, but the overwhelming 
 current of legislation and of the decisions of the courts is 
 making it imperative. These are practically in accord, and 
 are to the effect that in each state the school system is not 
 local, but general ; not individual schools controlled by sepa- 
 rate communities, but a closely related system of schools 
 which has become a state system and is entirely under state 
 authority. Local school officials are now uniformly held to 
 be agents of the stat~ for the administration of a state sys- 
 tem of education. 
 
 The granting of aid by the state, the necessity of the 
 exercise of powers without which the schools cannot live, 
 and which powers reside exclusively in the state, implies the 
 right of the state to name the conditions upon which the aid 
 shall be received, and the duty to see that the exercise of 
 such powers shall result in equal advantages to all. 
 
 Widely dissimilar conditions lead different states to a 
 greater or lesser appreciation of their educational responsi- 
 bilities and make them more or less able or disposed to exer- 
 cise their legal functions to the full measure of their good. 
 Yet all are appreciating the fact that a constitutional, self- 
 governing state exists for the moral and intellectual advan- 
 tage of every citizen and for the common progress of the 
 whole mass. All are moving as best they are able, and 
 according to the light they have, in fulfillment of wise public
 
 22 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [ 2 2 
 
 policy and constitutional obligation. They have employed 
 and will continue to employ different methods. Some will 
 act directly through state officials : some will delegate a 
 large measure of authority to local boards and officials so 
 long as it seems well : but all have the highest authority, the 
 supreme responsibility in the matter, and under the influence 
 of the later knowledge will undo whatever may be necessary, 
 and take whatever new steps may be necessary, to carry the 
 best educational opportunities to every child. 
 
 And it is the purpose of the people and the law of most 
 of the states that such educational opportunities shall not 
 only be provided for every American child, but that every 
 one shall be required to take advantage of them. Compul- 
 sory attendance laws have been enacted in most of the states. 
 These are not as carefully framed as a good knowledge of 
 educational administration might very easily lead them to 
 be, and they are not as completely enforced as the true inter- 
 ests of many unfortunate children require, yet it may be said 
 safely that the right and the duty of the state to educate 
 them is recognized, and that the tendency towards greater 
 thoroughness in the way of making education universal as a 
 safeguard to our free citizenship is general. 
 
 It was not so in the beginning, but American public 
 schools are rapidly coming to be related together in a sys- 
 tem of schools, that system a state system, and at once the 
 most flexible and adaptable to our manner of living, our 
 social ideals and our national ambitions. 
 
 THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION 
 
 As already pointed out, the authoritative management of 
 the schools has never been conferred upon the general gov- 
 ernment, but is reserved to and exercised by the several 
 states. What might have been done at the time of the 
 framing of the federal constitution, if it had been supposed 
 that in a few years the support and management of schools 
 would develop into a government function, can only be 
 speculated upon. It is well known that the members of the
 
 23] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 23 
 
 first constitutional convention were not indifferent to edu- 
 cation. But their view of the subject was the view of all 
 men of their time, i. e., that it was highly desirable that all 
 social organizations should encourage, perhaps even by that 
 time that it was proper for government to see that schools 
 were maintained, but that the real responsibility, and of 
 course the expense, should fall upon people legally charge- 
 able with the custody of children. The functions of gov- 
 ernment touching education were not then under considera- 
 tion at all, and when they forced themselves upon public 
 attention the towns, and, when the exercise of the power of 
 taxation became imperative, the states assumed them as 
 they were bound to do. 
 
 Accordingly, the federal government has never exercised 
 any control over the public educational work of the country. 
 But it may be said with emphasis that that government has 
 never been indifferent thereto. It has shown its interest at 
 different times by generous gifts to education, and by the 
 organization of a bureau of education for the purpose of 
 gathering the fullest information from all of the states, and 
 from foreign nations as well, and for disseminating the same 
 to all who would be interested therein. 
 
 The gifts of the United States to the several states to 
 encourage schools have been in the form of land rights from 
 the public domain. In the sale of public lands the practice 
 of reserving one lot in every township " for the maintenance 
 of public schools within the township " has uniformly been 
 followed. In 1786 officers of the revolutionary army peti- 
 tioned congress for the right to settle territory north and 
 west of the Ohio river. A committee reported a bill in 
 favor of granting the request, which provided that one sec- 
 tion in each township should be reserved for common schools, 
 one section for the support of religion, and four townships 
 for the support of a university. This was modified so as to 
 give one section for the support of religion, one for common 
 schools, and two townships for the support of a " literary 
 institution to be applied to the intended object by the leg-
 
 24 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [24 
 
 islature of the state." This provision, coupled with the 
 splendid declaration that " religion, morality and knowledge 
 being necessary to good government and the happiness of 
 mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever 
 be encouraged," foreshadowed the general disposition and 
 policy of the central government and made the " Ordi- 
 nance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest terri- 
 tory" famous. The precedent here established became 
 national policy, and after the year 1800 each state admitted 
 to the Union, with the exception of Maine, Texas and West 
 Virginia, received two or more townships of land for the 
 founding of a university. In 1836 congress passed an act 
 distributing to the several states the surplus funds in the 
 treasury. In all $28,101,645 was so distributed, and in a 
 number of the states this was devoted to educational uses. 
 
 But the most noble, timely, and carefully guarded gift of 
 the federal government was embodied in the land grant 
 act of 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts. This act gave to each state thirty thousand acres of 
 land for each senator and representative in congress to 
 which the state was entitled under the census of 1860, for 
 the purpose of founding "at least one college where the 
 leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific 
 and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach 
 such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the 
 states shall respectively prescribe, in order to promote the 
 liberal education of the industrial classes in the several pur- 
 suits and professions of life." This act has been added to 
 by other congressional enactments and the proceeds of the 
 sales of lands have been generously supplemented by the 
 state legislatures until great peoples' colleges and universi- 
 ties have arisen in all of the States. 
 
 The work of the United States bureau of education is a 
 most exact, stimulating and beneficent one. Without exer- 
 cising any authority, it is untiring and scientific in gathering 
 data, in the philosophic treatment of educational subjects,
 
 25] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 25 
 
 and in furnishing the fullest information upon every con- 
 ceivable phase of educational activity to whomsoever would 
 accept it. Its operations have by no means been confined 
 to the United States. It has become the great educational 
 clearing house of the world. The commissioners who have 
 been at the head of this bureau have been eminent men and 
 great educational leaders. The present commissioner, Dr. 
 William T. Harris, stands without a peer as the most philo- 
 sophical thinker and the readiest writer upon educational 
 subjects in the world. Under such fortunate direction the 
 bureau of education has collected the facts and made most 
 painstaking research into every movement in America and 
 elsewhere which gave promise of advantage to the good cause 
 of popular education. 
 
 So, while the government of the United States is not 
 chargeable under the constitution with providing or super- 
 vising schools, and while it does not exercise authority in the 
 matter, it will be quickly seen that it has been steadily and 
 intelligently and generously true to the national instinct to 
 advance morality and promote culture by its influence and 
 its resources. 
 
 PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Up to this time we have been treating of the American 
 public school system, using the term in its strictest sense. 
 We have been referring to the schools supported by public 
 moneys and supervised by public officers. Yet there is an 
 infinite number of other schools which comprise an import- 
 ant part of the educational system of the country and are 
 of course subject to its laws. Any statement concerning 
 American school organization and administration, even of 
 the most general character, would be incomplete which did 
 not cover these, but obviously it is not desirable in this con- 
 nection to do more than touch upon the relation in which 
 they stand, by common usage and under the laws, to Ameri- 
 can education. 
 
 In the first half of the century just closing many private 
 " academies " or " seminaries " sprang up in all directions
 
 26 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [26 
 
 where the country had become at all settled. This was in 
 response to a demand from people who began to reach out, 
 but could not get what they wanted in the common schools. 
 Any teacher with a little more than ordinary gifts could open 
 one of these schools upon a little higher plane than usual 
 and very soon have an abundance of pupils and a profitable 
 income. Many of these institutions did most excellent work. 
 Not a few of the leading citizens of the country owe their 
 first inspiration and much help to them. The larger part of 
 these schools served their purpose and finally gave way to 
 new public high schools. Some yet remain and continue to 
 meet the desires of well-to-do and select families who prefer 
 their somewhat exclusive ways. A considerable number have 
 been adopted by their states and developed into state nor- 
 mal schools, and not a few have by their own natural force 
 grown into literary colleges. 
 
 The earlier American colleges were, in the beginning, in 
 a large sense the children of the state. Yale, Harvard, 
 Princeton, Columbia were all chartered by and in some meas- 
 ure supported by their states at the start, and are yet sub- 
 ject to the law, though they have become independent of 
 such support. A vast number of colleges has been estab- 
 lished by the religious denominations for the training of their 
 ministry, and, so far as possible, for giving all their youth a 
 higher education while keeping them under their denomina- 
 tional influence. 
 
 In recent years innumerable schools have arisen out of 
 private enterprise. Every conceivable interest has produced 
 a school to promote its own ends and accordingly adjusted 
 to its own thought. So professional, technical, industrial and 
 commercial schools of every kind have sprung up on every 
 hand. 
 
 All such schools operate by the tacit leave of the states 
 in which they exist. The states are not disposed to inter- 
 fere with them, as they ask no public support. Some of 
 them hold charters granted by the legislature, and more 
 secure recognized standing by organizing under general cor-
 
 27] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 2 7 
 
 poration laws enacted to cover all such enterprises. In some 
 cases the states distribute public moneys to some of these 
 institutions by way of encouragement, and perhaps impose 
 certain conditions upon which they shall be eligible to share 
 in such distributions. But ordinarily a state does no more 
 than protect its own good name against occasional impostors 
 who wear the livery of heaven to serve the devil more effectu- 
 ally, and it is feared that some states have not yet come to 
 do this as completely as they ought. 
 
 The tendency to regulate private schools by legislation, to 
 the extent at least of seeing that they are not discreditable 
 to the state, is unmistakable. New York, for example, has 
 prohibited the use of the name " college " or " university " 
 except when the requirements of the state board of regents 
 are met. All of the reputable institutions, and they con- 
 stitute nearly the whole number, desire reasonable super- 
 vision, for it certifies their respectability and constitutes them 
 a part of the public educational system of the state. 
 
 EXPERT SUPERVISION 
 
 It has not been convenient in tracing the preceding pages 
 to treat of an exceedingly important phase of the American 
 school system which distinguishes that system from any other 
 national system of education, and which has come to be well 
 established in our laws ; that is, supervision by professional 
 experts, both generally and locally. 
 
 From the beginning the laws have provided methods for 
 certificating persons deemed to be qualified to teach in the 
 schools. This has ordinarily been among the functions of 
 state, city, and county superintendents or commissioners. 
 Sometimes boards of examiners have been created whose 
 only duty should be to examine and certificate teachers. The 
 functions of certificating and of employing teachers have, 
 for obvious reasons, not commonly been lodged in the same 
 officials. Superintendents began to be provided for by law 
 in the early part of the century. The first state superin-
 
 28 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [28 
 
 tendency was established by New York in 1812. Other 
 states took similar action in the next thirty years. Town, 
 city and county superintendencies came along rapidly, and 
 by or soon after the middle of the century had been set in 
 operation in most parts of the then settled country. 
 
 The main duty of these officials in the earlier days was to 
 examine candidates for teaching, report statistics, and make 
 addresses on educational occasions. In later years, however, 
 they are held in considerable measure responsible for the 
 quality of the teaching. In the country districts the super- 
 intendents hold institutes, visit the schools, commend and 
 criticise the teaching, and exert every effort to promote the 
 efficiency of the schools, until a discreet and active county 
 superintendent comes to exert almost a controlling influence 
 over the school affairs of his county. 
 
 In the cities, and particularly the larger ones, the problem 
 is much more difficult. The teachers are much greater in 
 number and the task of securing persons of uniform excel- 
 lence is much enlarged. The schools are less homogeneous 
 and instruction less easy. Frequently the superintendent 
 cannot know the personal qualities of each teacher, or even 
 visit all of the schools. Yet a system must be organized by 
 which, through the aid of assistants, the superintendent's 
 office will be advised fully of the work of every teacher in 
 the system. And if the system is to have anything like uni- 
 form excellence, if the rights of children are to be met, and 
 the instruction is to have life in it, all teachers must be upon 
 the merit basis, the most deserving must be advanced in rank 
 and pay as rapidly as practicable, and the weak must be 
 helped and trained into efficiency or removed from their 
 positions. 
 
 The laws are coming to recognize the responsibilities and 
 difficulties of the superintendent's position, and are continu- 
 ally throwing about that officer additional safeguards and 
 giving him larger powers and greater freedom of action. 
 The great issue that is now on in American school affairs is
 
 29] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 29 
 
 between education and politics. The school men are insist- 
 ing upon absolute immunity from political influence in their 
 work. It would doubtless seem strange to people of other 
 nations not familiar with our political conditions, that such 
 insistence may be necessary. Pure democracy has its 
 troubles. The machinations of men who are seeking politi- 
 cal influence constitute the most serious of them. However, 
 the good cause of education against political manipulation 
 is making substantial progress. The law books of all of the 
 states show provisions recognizing the professional school 
 superintendent : in many of the states they contain provis- 
 ions directing and protecting his work : and in some of them 
 they are beginning to confer upon him entire authority over 
 the appointment, assignment and removal of teachers, while 
 they impose upon him entire responsibility for the quality of 
 the teaching. 
 
 It is this professional supervision, by states and counties 
 as well as by towns and cities, taken up almost spontane- 
 ously at the beginning and early established and compen- 
 sated by law, which has given the American schools their 
 peculiar spirit. As intelligence has advanced and the people 
 have come to know the worth of good teaching and have 
 been unwilling that their children should be associated with 
 teachers who have not the kindly spirit of a true teacher, or 
 be kept marking time by incompetents, they have favored 
 larger exactions and closer supervision over the teaching, to 
 the end that it might be in accord with the best educational 
 opinion. All this is yearly becoming more and more appar- 
 ent in the laws, and it is advancing the great body of 
 American teachers along philosophical lines more steadily 
 and rapidly than any other great body of teachers in the 
 world is advancing. American teachers have always had 
 freedom. Now they are learning to exercise it, and they are 
 being permitted to exercise it, in accord with educational 
 principles.
 
 3<D EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [30 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 In conclusion a few facts touching the great school sys- 
 tem, the legal organization of which we have briefly tried to 
 sketch, and which has produced that organization and in 
 turn has in part been produced by it, will be of interest. 
 The enrollment of pupils in the state common schools alone 
 was, in 1895-6, 14,379,078. These schools were kept open 
 an average of 140.5 days in the year. The number of teach- 
 ers employed was 130,366 males and 269,959 females, a total 
 of 400,325. The total value of the public school prop- 
 erty was $455,948,164, and the running expenses for the 
 year were $184,453,780. There was raised by taxation 
 $163,023,294. Of institutions above the grade of elemen- 
 tary schools there were 677 colleges and universities, with 
 97,134 collegiate students and 69,014 preparatory students. 
 Some of these are too ambitious in calling themselves 
 " colleges," it is true, yet all are doing work that counts, and 
 educational nomenclature is straightening itself out slowly 
 but steadily. There were 5,108 public high schools with 
 409,433 secondary pupils, and there were 2,100 private high 
 schools and academies with 107,633 secondary pupils. 
 There were 77 law schools with 10,449 students, 148 medi- 
 cal schools with 24,265 pupils, 157 theological schools with 
 8,173 students, and 362 normal schools with 67,380 students. 
 In cities of over 8,000 inhabitants there were 60 1 schools 
 with 3,590,875 pupils. In the whole country there were 
 7,184 public libraries with 34,596,258 volumes. 
 
 In the year 1896 there was paid for teachers' and superin- 
 tendents' wages in the common schools $i 16,377,778, or 63.1 
 per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes. 
 
 Laws making attendance at school compulsory have been 
 enacted in 32 states and territories. 
 
 One of the most gratifying facts in connection with the 
 educational work of the United States is the large increase 
 in the number of graduate students in the colleges. The 
 following table exhibits the number of resident graduate
 
 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 
 
 students in universities and colleges of the United States 
 for 25 years and down to as late a time as the figures are 
 available : 
 
 72 198 
 
 73 219 
 
 1873-74 283 
 
 1874-75 369 
 
 1875-76 399 
 
 i876-'77 389 
 
 1877-78 414 
 
 1878-79 465 
 
 i879-'8o 411 
 
 i88o-'8i 460 
 
 i882-'83 522 
 
 1883-84 778 
 
 1884-85 869 
 
 1885-86 935 
 
 :886-'87 1,237 
 
 i887-'88 1,290 
 
 1888-89 i>343 
 
 2,131 
 
 . 2,499 
 
 2,851 
 
 1893^94 3,493 
 
 1894-95 3,999 
 
 1895-^6 4,363 
 
 4,919 
 
 The United States bureau of education, to which I am 
 indebted for the foregoing figures and much other informa- 
 tion, is aided by a corps of 1 5,000 voluntary correspondents 
 who furnish printed reports and catalogs and cheerfully 
 answer the bureau's inquiries upon every phase of educa- 
 tional work. 
 
 It is of course difficult for one not familiar with American 
 institutions and American ways to understand or appreciate 
 the American school system. To him it seems anything but 
 a system. It is a product of conditions in a new land, and 
 it is adapted to those conditions. It is at once expressive of 
 the American spirit and it is energizing, culturing and ennob- 
 ling that spirit. It is settling down to an orderly and sym- 
 metrical institution, it is becoming scientific, and it is doing 
 its work efficiently. It exerts a telling influence upon every 
 person in the land, and is proving that it is supplying an 
 education broad enough and of a kind to support free 
 institutions.
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATKS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 .SUSAN E. BLOW 
 Cazenovia, New York 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 
 
 The history of the kindergarten in America is the record 
 of four sharply defined movements ; the pioneer movement, 
 whose point of departure was the city of Boston ; the philan- 
 thropic movement, whose initial effort was made in the vil- 
 lage of Florence, Mass., and whose greatest triumphs have 
 been achieved in San Francisco ; the national movement, 
 which emanated from St. Louis ; and the great maternal 
 movement which, radiating from Chicago, is now spreading 
 throughout the United States. The first of these move- 
 ments called public attention to the several most important 
 aspects of the Froebelian ideal ; the second demonstrated the 
 efficiency of the new education as a redemptive force ; the 
 third is making the kindergarten an integral part of the 
 national school system ; the fourth is evolving a more 
 enlightened and consecrated motherhood and thereby 
 strengthening the foundations and elevating the ideals of 
 American family life. 
 
 In 1840 the first kindergarten was established by Friedrich 
 Froebel at Blankenburg, Germany. Nineteen years later 
 Miss Elizabeth Peabody of Boston became interested in 
 Froebel's writings. In 1867 she went to Germany to study 
 the kindergarten system. Returning to America in 1868 
 she devoted the remainder of her life to the propagation of 
 Froebel's educational principles. Through her apostolic 
 labors parents were inspired to seek the help of the kinder- 
 garten in the education of their children ; philanthropists 
 were incited to establish charity kindergartens ; the Boston 
 school board was persuaded to open an experimental kinder- 
 garten in one of its public schools and a periodical devoted 
 to the elucidation and dissemination of Froebelian ideals was 
 founded and sustained for four years. The pioneer move- 
 ment, therefore, broke paths in the four directions of private,
 
 4 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [36 
 
 public, philanthropic and literary work. Above all through 
 the contagious power of devout enthusiasm it created the 
 consecrated endeavor without which the kindergarten as 
 Froebel conceived it can have no actual embodiment. 
 
 In 1872 an independent pioneer movement was begun in 
 New York by Miss Henrietta Haines who invited Miss 
 Boelte to conduct a kindergarten in her school for young 
 ladies. Miss Boelte had studied three years with Froebel's 
 widow, had won a high reputation in Germany, and later had 
 done efficient work in England. About a year after her 
 arrival in America she married Prof. John Kraus and estab- 
 lished an independent kindergarten and normal class. Her 
 normal work still continues and she is to-day the leading rep- 
 resentative in America of the Froebel tradition. The power 
 of her work results from her resolute adherence to all the 
 details of the original Froebelian method. By this unswerv- 
 ing conformity she has kept alive, through their practical 
 application, ideas which are of the highest importance to 
 the theoretic development of the kindergarten system. 
 
 In 1874 Mr. S. H. Hill, of Florence, Mass., contributed 
 funds to open the first charity kindergarten in the United 
 States and later put in trust a sum sufficient to sustain and 
 extend the work. Four years later a philanthropic move- 
 ment was initiated in Boston by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, who 
 for the ensuing fourteen years supported free kindergartens 
 for poor children, these beneficent institutions reaching at 
 one time to thirty in numher. The influence of her noble 
 example has doubtless conspired with other causes to create 
 the one hundred and fifteen local associations which are now 
 rendering efficient service to the Froebelian cause in differ- 
 ent sections of the United States. Of such philanthropic 
 associations the wealthiest and best organized is the Golden 
 Gate association of San Francisco. At the time of its 
 greatest prosperity this organization supported forty-one 
 kindergartens ; had given training to more than thirty thou- 
 sand children ; had received in endowments and other forms 
 of contribution five hundred thousand dollars ; and had pub-
 
 37] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 5 
 
 lished and distributed over eighty thousand annual reports. 
 Unfortunately the financial depression of 1893 reduced its 
 subscription list and at present it supports only twenty-three 
 kindergartens. A training school for kindergartners is con- 
 ducted under its auspices. Other associations deserving 
 of special mention are the New York kindergarten associa- 
 tion, which supports seventeen kindergartens, and whose 
 aim is to provide for the children against whom the over- 
 crowded public schools still close their doors ; the Brooklyn 
 association, which provides for sixteen kindergartens, and 
 under whose auspices there were conducted during the past 
 year one hundred and eighty-three mothers' meetings ; the 
 Pittsburgh and Allegheny free kindergarten association, 
 which in six years has established twenty-eight kindergar- 
 tens, with an enrollment of fourteen hundred children ; the 
 Cincinnati association, which supports twenty-four kinder- 
 gartens ; the Free kindergarten association of Chicago, 
 which supports eighteen kindergartens and has a flourishing 
 normal school ; the Chicago Froebel association, whose presi- 
 dent organized the first charity kindergarten in that city, and 
 to the veteran leader of whose normal department is due in 
 large measure the introduction of the kindergarten into the 
 Chicago public schools ; the Louisville association, which 
 supports nine kindergartens, and has parents, nurses, Sun- 
 day school, boarding and normal departments. 
 
 Valuable as is the work accomplished by private kinder- 
 gartens and kindergarten associations, it is necessarily a 
 restricted work ; and had the Froebelian movement devel- 
 oped only upon these lines the kindergarten must have 
 remained forever the privilege of the wealthy few, and the 
 occasional gift of charity to the abject poor. The public 
 kindergarten opened in Boston, though carried on for sev- 
 eral years, was finally given up upon the plea that the city 
 could not afford to appropriate funds to extend the system, 
 and a second public kindergarten, which was opened in Brigh- 
 ton, Mass., in January, 1873, was abolished when Brighton 
 was annexed to Boston in 1874. Meantime, however, Hon.
 
 6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [38 
 
 William T. Harris, the present United States commis- 
 sioner of education, who was then superintendent of schools 
 in St. Louis, had called attention to the kindergarten and 
 suggested that experiments be made with a view to intro- 
 ducing into the public school such features of the system as 
 might prove helpful in the education of children between 
 the ages of four and six. The outcome of this suggestion 
 was the opening of an experimental kindergarten in the fall 
 of 1873. The work was approved by the school board; 
 new kindergartens were opened as rapidly as competent 
 directors could be prepared to take charge of them, and when 
 Dr. Harris resigned his position as superintendent in 1880 
 the St. Louis kindergartens had an enrollment of 7,828 chil- 
 dren and the system was so firmly established that it has 
 since that time proved itself impregnable to all attack. 
 
 The experiment in St. Louis was a crucial one and had it 
 failed it would have been difficult to prevail upon other cities 
 to introduce the kindergarten into their public schools. 
 There were many ready arguments against such an innova- 
 tion : the argument from expense ; the argument based on 
 the tender age of kindergarten children ; the argument that 
 kindergartens would spoil the children and fill the primary 
 grade with intractable pupils ; the argument that only rarely 
 endowed and, therefore, rarely to be found persons could suc- 
 cessfully conduct a kindergarten. These arguments would 
 have acquired irresistible force when confirmed by an abor- 
 tive experiment. Dr. Harris steered the kindergarten cause 
 through stormy waters to a safe harbor. He proved that the 
 kindergarten could be made an integral part of the public 
 school system. He reduced the annual expense to less than 
 five dollars for each child. He called attention to the fact 
 that the years between four and six were critical ones and 
 that the needs of the child at this period were not provided 
 for either by the family or the school. He. convinced him- 
 self that children who had attended kindergartens conducted 
 by competent directors did better on entering school than 
 those who had received no such training, and the weight of
 
 39] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 7 
 
 his authoritative statement gave other educators faith in the 
 possibilities of the system. Finally, he proved that with 
 wise training young women of average ability made satisfac- 
 tory kindergartners. It was impossible to go on repeating 
 that a thing could not be done in face of the fact that it had 
 been done, and with the success of the experiment in St. 
 Louis recognition of the kindergarten as the first stage of all 
 public education became simply a matter of time. 
 
 The reasons which convinced Dr. Harris of the value of 
 the kindergarten are stated in the following extract from his 
 monograph entitled Early History of the Kindergarten in 
 St. Louis, Mo. : 
 
 "If the school is to prepare especially for the arts and 
 trades it is the kindergarten which is to accomplish the 
 object, for the training of the muscles, if it is to be a train- 
 ing for special skill in manipulation, must be begun in early 
 youth. As age advances it becomes more difficult to acquire 
 new phases of manual dexterity. Two weeks' practice of 
 holding objects in his right hand will make the infant in his 
 first year right handed for life. The muscles yet in a pulpy 
 consistency are very easily set in any fixed direction. The 
 child trained for one year in Froebel's gifts and occupations 
 will acquire a skillful use of his hand and the habit of accu- 
 rate measurement of the eye, which will be his possession 
 for life. 
 * * * * ******* 
 
 " In the common school, drawing, which has obtained only 
 a recent and precarious foothold in our course of study, is 
 the only branch which is intended to cultivate skill in the 
 hand and accuracy in the eye. The kindergarten, on the 
 other hand, develops this by all its groups of gifts. 
 
 " Not only is this training of great importance by reason 
 of the fact that most children must depend largely upon 
 manual skill for their future livelihood, but from a broader 
 point of view, we must value skill as the great potence 
 which is emancipating the human race from drudgery by 
 the aid of machinery. Inventions will free man from thral- 
 dom to time and space. 
 
 " By reason of the fact already adverted to, that a short 
 training of certain muscles of the infant will be followed by
 
 8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [40 
 
 the continued growth of the same muscles through his after 
 life, it is clear how it is that the two years of the child's life 
 (his fifth and sixth), or even one year, or a half year in the 
 kindergarten will start into development activities of muscle 
 and brain which will secure deftness and delicacy of indus- 
 trial power in all after life. The rationale of this is found 
 in the fact that it is a pleasure to use muscles already inured 
 to use ; in fact a much-used muscle demands a daily exercise 
 as much as the stomach demands food. But an unused 
 muscle or the mere rudiment of a muscle that has never 
 been used, gives pain on its first exercise. Its contraction 
 is accompanied with laceration of tissue, and followed by 
 lameness, or by distress on using it again. Hence it hap- 
 pens that the body shrinks from employing an unused muscle, 
 but, on the contrary, demands the frequent exercise of 
 muscles already trained to use. Hence in a thousand ways 
 unconscious to ourselves, we manage to exercise daily what- 
 ever muscles we have already trained, and thus keep in prac- 
 tice physical aptitudes for skill in any direction. 
 
 " The kindergarten should be a sort of sub-primary edu- 
 cation, and receive the pupil at the age of four or four and 
 a half years and hold him until he completes his sixth year. 
 By this means we gain the child for one or two years when 
 he is good for nothing else but education, and not of much 
 value even for the education of the school as it is and has 
 been. The disciplines of reading and writing, geography 
 and arithmetic, as taught in the ordinary primary school, are 
 beyond the powers of the average child not yet entered upon 
 his seventh year. And beyond the seventh year the time of 
 the child is too valuable to use it for other than general 
 disciplines, reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., and drawing. 
 He must not take up his school time with learning a 
 handicraft. 
 
 w " The kindergarten utilizes a period of the child's life for 
 /preparation for the arts and trades without robbing the 
 school of a portion of its needed time. 
 
 " Besides the industrial phase of the subject which is per- 
 tinent here, we may take note of another one that bears 
 indirectly on the side of productive activity, but has a much 
 wider bearing. At the age of three years the child begins 
 to emerge from the circumscribed life of the family, and to 
 acquire an interest in the life of society and a proclivity to
 
 4l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 9 
 
 form relationship with it. This increases until the school 
 period begins, at his seventh year. The fourth, fifth and 
 sixth years are years of transition not well provided for 
 either by family life or by social life in the United States. 
 In families of great poverty the child forms evil associations 
 in the street, and is initiated into crime. By the time he is 
 ready to enter the school he is hardened in vicious habits, 
 beyond the power of the school to eradicate. In families of 
 wealth, the custom is to entrust the care of the child in this 
 period of his life to some servant without pedagogical skill 
 and generally without strength of will power. The child of 
 wealthy parents usually inherits the superior directive power 
 of the parents, who have by their energy acquired and pre- 
 served the wealth. Its manifestation in the child is not 
 reasonable, considerate will power, but arbitrariness and self- 
 will with such a degree of stubbornness that it quite over- 
 comes the much feebler native will of the servant who has 
 charge of the children. It is difficult to tell which class 
 (poor or rich,) the kindergarten benefits most. Society is 
 benefited by the substitution of a rational training of the 
 child's will during his transition period. If he is a child of 
 poverty, he is saved by the good associations and the indus- 
 trial and intellectual training that he gets. If he is a child 
 of wealth, he is saved by the kindergarten from ruin through 
 self-indulgence and the corruption ensuing on weak manage- 
 ment in the family. The worst elements in the community 
 are the corrupted and ruined men who were once youth of 
 unusual directive power. children of parents of strong will." 
 
 By reducing his argument in favor of the kindergarten to 
 a brief statement which no one could dispute and whose 
 force every one could appreciate, Dr. Harris greatly 
 increased its weight, and immediately upon the publication 
 of his report the movement in favor of public kindergartens 
 showed an increased momentum. In the twenty-nine years 
 which have elapsed since the successful experiment in St. 
 Louis the kindergarten has been made part of the public 
 school system in one hundred and eighty-nine cities. In 
 1897-98 the total number of public kindergartens was 1,365 ; 
 the total number of teachers 2,532 the total number of 
 pupils 95,867.
 
 10 
 
 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 
 
 [42 
 
 The cities which have the most fully developed systems of 
 public kindergartens are Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Phila- 
 delphia, New York, Brooklyn, Indianapolis, Rochester, Des 
 Moines, Grand Rapids, Brookline, Newark, Jamestown and 
 Los Angeles. Philadelphia, which reports 201 kindergartens, 
 leads in numbers all the cities of the United States. St. 
 Louis follows with 115 kindergartens, New York with 100, 
 Boston with 67, and Chicago with 63. An estimate, based 
 on the sale of kindergarten material, fixes the total number 
 of kindergartens in New York at 600, so that, including 
 private work and association work,, this city has presum- 
 ably a more extensive provision of kindergartens than any 
 other in the United States. 
 
 Sixteen cities have a special supervisor of kindergartens. 
 
 The following states have the most extensive provision of 
 kindergartens, public and private. The order of the names 
 indicates the relative extent of the provision : 
 
 1 New York 8 Wisconsin 
 
 2 Massachusetts 9 Pennsylvania 
 
 3 Michigan 10 Ohio 
 
 4 Illinois n Indiana 
 
 5 California 12 Iowa 
 
 6 Connecticut 13 Colorado 
 
 7 New Jersey 14 Minnesota 
 
 15 Washington 
 
 In the year 1873 tne National bureau of education began 
 collecting statistics with regard to the total number of kin- 
 dergartens in the United States. The results are necessa- 
 rily imperfect, but they enable us to form an approximate 
 idea of the growth of the system. Taking public and pri- 
 vate work together, the advance of the kindergarten is shown 
 in the following tables : 
 
 
 1873 
 
 1882 
 
 1892 
 
 1898 
 
 Kindergartens 
 
 42 
 
 U8 
 
 I 311 
 
 4 ^63 
 
 Teachers 
 
 T\ 
 
 814 
 
 2 ^t; 
 
 8 Q^7 
 
 Pupils 
 
 I 2S2 
 
 16916 
 
 6>5 206 
 
 180604 
 
 
 
 

 
 43] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION II 
 
 Since the aim of the kindergarten is not instruction, but 
 development, its results cannot be tested by examinations or 
 expressed in statistical tables, but must be gathered from 
 the testimony of experts who have had time and opportunity 
 to study its influence. In other words, kindergarten children 
 must be judged by elementary teachers and principals of 
 schools, and unless, upon entering the primary grade, they 
 show superiority to children coming direct from the home, 
 the kindergarten cannot be said to have justified its adoption 
 into our national system of education. Conversely, if the 
 mental and moral superiority of kindergarten children prove 
 to have converted primary teachers and school principals 
 from enemies into warm friends of the Froebelian method, 
 this fact should be accepted as convincing evidence of the 
 merit of the work. 
 
 Before presenting the testimony which I have collected, 
 it is necessary to call attention to the fact that, in the kinder- 
 garten, talking is not forbidden, but, on the contrary, chil- 
 dren are encouraged to share with the kindergartner and 
 with each other all their happy experience of effort and suc- 
 cess. It is, therefore, natural that pupils promoted from the 
 kindergarten should not at first understand the law of silence 
 imposed by the character of the work in the elementary 
 grades, and hence that, without any bad motive on their 
 own part, they should prove troublesome pupils during the 
 first weeks of school life. The failure to understand this fact 
 has caused some unjust criticism of kindergarten children. 
 It will, however, be apparent to all who read carefully the 
 testimony now to be submitted that the adjustment of the 
 kindergarten child to the school environment is a problem 
 which is rapidly progressing towards a happy solution. 
 
 The more complete the testimony offered, the more cer- 
 tainly should we expect to find some differences of opinion 
 as to the characteristics of kindergarten children. In any 
 large city there will probably be a few incompetent kinder- 
 gartners and some unintelligent or reactionary primary 
 teachers. That the kindergarten fails to commend itself to
 
 12 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [44 
 
 teachers who are themselves mere martinets should be 
 accounted a merit rather than a defect. The condemnation 
 of incompetent kindergartners by wise primary teachers is a 
 cause of rejoicing to all true friends of the Froebelian 
 method. T he influence of the kindergarten should be 
 determined by the majority report. Variations of opinion 
 should be explained by the occasional defect of the kinder- 
 gartens and the occasional incapacity or prejudice of the 
 judge. 
 
 The most extensive and carefully collected information 
 which I have received with regard to the characteristics of 
 kindergarten children came from Miss Laura Fisher, director 
 of the sixty-nine public kindergartens of Boston, and con- 
 sisted of 163 letters from teachers of the first grade sent in 
 reply to the following circular communication from Mr. 
 Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the Boston schools : 
 
 " To the principals of districts : 
 
 " For the Paris Exposition of 1900 Miss Susan E. Blow 
 has been appointed to prepare a monograph of the kinder- 
 garten in the United States. She desires to use the infor- 
 mation which you can gather by asking teachers of your first 
 grade primary to answer carefully the questions hereto 
 appended. Please give a copy of these questions to each 
 first grade teacher, asking her to prepare her answers and 
 give them to you as soon as possible. Ask her to be per- 
 fectly frank in her expression of opinion even if she must 
 make some unfavorable criticisms. 
 
 " In returning the answers to me after you have collected 
 them, you will confer a great favor if you yourself will write 
 your impressions of the kindergarten system of instruction. 
 
 " QUESTIONS 
 
 " i. How many years have you taught children in the 
 first grade ? 
 
 " 2. About what proportion (per cent) of your children 
 have come to you from the kindergarten ? 
 
 " 3. What, if anything, have you observed as to the char- 
 acteristics of kindergarten children as compared with other 
 children ?
 
 45] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 13 
 
 " 4. How do you think the kindergarten training has affected 
 the progress of the children in the primary grade, particu- 
 larly in your own grade ? Has their progress been quicker 
 in point of time ? Has the character of the work done been 
 improved ? " 
 
 From the 163 letters received in reply to this circular I 
 eliminated those reporting that less than ten per cent of the 
 children attending the given primary room had received 
 kindergarten training. I also omitted several letters based 
 upon experience with children who had been only a few 
 weeks or months in the kindergarten. The total number of 
 letters omitted was 36. Of the remaining 127 letters 102 
 are favorable and 25 unfavorable to the kindergarten. Among 
 the letters which I have classed as unfavorable one only is 
 unqualified in -its disapprobation. All the others admit 
 some distinctive merits in kindergarten children, those most 
 frequently specified being increased power of observation 
 and linguistic expression, greater manual skill, and more 
 general information. The most frequent criticisms are that 
 kindergarten children are talkative and not easily amenable 
 to school discipline. I quote two letters which represent the 
 general trend of unfavorable criticism : 
 
 I 
 
 " I have taught the lowest grade one year, two months. 
 
 " About fifty per cent of my children came from the 
 kindergarten. 
 
 " I find the kindergarten children are less inclined to obey 
 quickly. They have acquired the habit of whispering over 
 their work which has seriously hurt my other children. I 
 find they understand in some cases more quickly than the 
 other children and are more deft with their fingers. 
 
 " My kindergarten children are evenly scattered over my 
 class. Owing to limited experience I think I am hardly 
 competent to make a trustworthy estimate of the work of 
 kindergarten children as compared with others. The chil- 
 dren who came from home were nearly seven years of age, 
 and as the children who came from the kindergarten were 
 in most cases younger, there has been but little difference in 
 the results of their work."
 
 14 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [46 
 
 II 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade something over 
 two years in all. About one-fifth of this present class has 
 attended a kindergarten, but has not come direct to me from 
 there. 
 
 " I have noticed that they observe much more closely 
 than ordinary children, that they are skillful with their hands 
 in any kind of work that calls for skill, as drawing, clay 
 work, science, etc. That in the arrangement of material, 
 such as busy work, they are more orderly and careful in 
 arrangement. I have found by looking the matter up that 
 the children who have passed through kindergarten now pres- 
 ent in my room are among the worst behaved and trouble- 
 some in the whole room. I also notice a habit to watch each 
 other's work too much. 
 
 " I cannot say that I have found them any more able to 
 take the work than ordinary children. I do not know that 
 their minds are any more fitted for the retention of new 
 ideas. I think, in some cases, the work is better done by 
 these children than it would be without such training. But I 
 do not know that some of the others would have done any bet- 
 ter work with the kindergarten training. For some children 
 I think it a great help, for others I might say unnecessary." 
 
 Contrasting the 102 favorable with the 25 unfavorable 
 letters, the first fact which thrusts itself upon the notice of 
 the reader is that the majority of their writers seem to have 
 had little difficulty in solving the problem of discipline. A 
 large proportion of these letters make no direct reference to 
 this question, while the account given of the moral charac- 
 teristics of kindergarten children precludes the thought 
 that they have been found difficult to control. Most of the 
 varying shades of opinion expressed by the remaining writ- 
 ers are indicated in the following extracts, and in the letters 
 quoted in full at the conclusion of my summary of the Bos- 
 ton testimony in behalf of the kindergarten : 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 " During the first weeks of the school term the children 
 from the kindergarten are very lively, in fact more so than
 
 47] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 15 
 
 is best for the good order of the school room. This is 
 due to the great amount of freedom which the children are 
 allowed in the kindergarten. This fault, if it may be con- 
 sidered as such, must be corrected. When the child realizes 
 that he is in a new atmosphere and that he must attend to 
 one person he very soon adapts himself to the change." 
 
 " The kindergarten has done so much that is of great 
 value to the children, that I am willing to overlook the only 
 little difficulty that I have found. During the first few 
 weeks of school the children like to go about and show their 
 little friends what they have succeeded in doing or finding 
 out and whisper or talk about it. But they soon learn that 
 we can all work better when each one takes care of his 
 own work and the inclination to move and talk gradually 
 diminishes." 
 
 3 
 
 " The children I received from the kindergarten were 
 more restless at first. They were easier to discipline after a 
 short time." 
 
 4 
 
 " Kindergarten children are alert and active, with eager 
 questioning minds and eyes that see and note everything. 
 They know how to use their hands and how to talk and are 
 lovable and sympathetic. They come to the primary room 
 happy, self-confident and talkative. On the other hand, the 
 discipline of such children is very hard and it requires the 
 greatest effort on the teacher's part to accustom them to the 
 quiet, independent work of the primary room." 
 
 5 
 
 " Entering school from the kindergarten the children have 
 already learned their social relations and their obligations to 
 their companions. Hence from the first there is an absence 
 of shyness and fear, and a school made up of kindergarten 
 children is a delightfully social community. This trait, if 
 firmly and tactfully dealt with, leads not to disorder but to 
 right school spirit. I have not found it more difficult to 
 tone down this trait than to arouse it as it lies dormant in 
 other children."
 
 1 6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [48 
 
 " Each year the kindergarten children come to school 
 better prepared than the year before. I have noted this 
 particularly in regard to discipline. They are each year 
 more ready to settle down to quiet work. They seem each 
 year to be more evenly developed." 
 
 7 
 
 " The discipline in my class during the time I had kinder- 
 garten children was as good, if not better, than it was when 
 I had children come to me from their homes. In point of 
 fact, I much prefer the kindergarten children." 
 
 " The moral side of the child's nature receives special care 
 in the kindergarten. The careful, firm discipline of the kin- 
 dergarten has a great effect upon the receptive minds and 
 hearts of the children. Many of the mothers are glad to 
 testify to this influence.. The rough child grows more gentle, 
 the thoughtless child more careful." 
 
 9 
 
 "The most important characteristic of my kindergarten 
 children was their high moral tone. There was among them 
 more than the usual spirit of kindness, good will and help- 
 fulness. They were more easily controlled than other chil- 
 dren by an appeal to reason or honor. For little children, 
 they had a very quick perception of right and wrong." 
 
 10 
 
 " Kindergarten children give so much better attention, 
 follow directions so much more readily and apply themselves 
 so much more diligently that they progress much more rap- 
 idly than other children. Their work is always well done 
 and they do all the work given them, particularly what is 
 known as busy work. A great deal of time is saved in this 
 way and the discipline of the school is made much easier." 
 
 Replying to the questions with regard to the relative 
 progress of kindergarten children and the character of
 
 49] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION l"J 
 
 their work thirty-eight teachers report both a progress 
 quicker in point of time and improvement in the quality of 
 work. Thirteen teachers report increased rapidity without 
 change in the character of work, and twenty-eight improve- 
 ment in the character of work without increased rapidity of 
 progress. Thus fifty-one report greater rapidity, sixty-six 
 improvement in quality of work, and seventy-nine a decided 
 gain either in speed or quality or in both. The remaining 
 twenty-three teachers seem to consider that kindergarten 
 training increases the child's general intelligence but does 
 not noticeably affect the ordinary routine of school work. 
 
 In the Kindergarten Magazine for March of the current 
 year Miss Sarah Louise Arnold, superintendent of primary 
 schools, Boston, pronounces a judgment which confirms 
 the majority report of the teachers whose testimony I have 
 summarized. Her statement is as follows : " As a matter of 
 fact the children who have had the full kindergarten training 
 advance much more rapidly than do the children who come 
 to the primary room without such training. In certain 
 schools the kindergarten children have been separated from 
 the other children entering the first grade, and have been 
 taught by teachers who understood the work of the kinder- 
 garten. In almost every instance these classes have com- 
 pleted the primary course in two years instead of three." 
 
 To the disciple of Froebel the most interesting para- 
 graphs of the Boston letters are those which answer the 
 question, " What, if anything, have you observed as to the 
 characteristics of kindergarten children as compared with 
 other children?" In condensing these replies I have 
 grouped them under three heads, first, specific gain in 
 knowledge and skill, second, intellectual, and, third, moral 
 characteristics. The specific gains mentioned are clearer 
 ideas of number, form and color ; greater knowledge of and 
 interest in nature, improved singing, better expression in 
 reading, improved articulation, more orderly and careful 
 arrangement of material in busy work, and greater manual 
 skill shown especially in writing and drawing. The intel-
 
 1 8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [50 
 
 lectual characteristics of kindergarten children as compared 
 with others are said to be greater general activity of mind, 
 quicker comprehension, a more ^-receptive mental attitude, 
 greater logical power, greater concentration, more imagina- 
 tion, greatly increased powers of observation and expression, 
 quicker recognition of likenesses, differences and relations, 
 greater love for the beautiful and visibly increased origi- 
 nality and creative power. Of their moral characteristics it 
 is said that as compared with others kindergarten children 
 are neater, cleaner, more orderly, more industrious and more 
 persevering. They are also more self-reliant, more pains- 
 taking and more self-helpful. They are less self-conscious 
 and more polite. They obey more quickly and are more 
 gentle towards each other. They have a more developed 
 spirit of helpfulness. They are more eager, alert, enthusi- 
 astic and responsive. They are interested in a wider range 
 of subjects. They have finer sensibilities, manifest love for 
 and confidence in their teachers and show special interest in 
 everything pertaining to home and family life. 
 
 In thus condensing the evidence of many different writers 
 I necessarily rob it of force and color. It seems well, there- 
 fore, to present a limited number of replies in full in order 
 that readers may judge for themselves of the impression 
 created by kindergarten children upon teachers of different 
 character, age and experience. 
 
 I 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade about six years. 
 About 35 per cent have come to me from the kindergarten. 
 
 "These children show certain characteristics which are 
 not so fully developed in the other children. Their intel- 
 lectual qualities are, as a rule, more fully developed, espe- 
 cially perception, imagination, memory and power of thought. 
 Their sensibilities, too, as a general thing, are much quicker 
 to act. For example, if a flower is given to each member 
 of the class, it is the little boy or girl who has attended the 
 kindergarten who is the first to feel its beauty. Power of 
 expression is well developed in these children. What stands
 
 5l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 19 
 
 out more than anything else in these small kindergarten 
 people is the cheerful, sunny atmosphere they bring to the 
 primary room and the spirit of kindness and helpfulness. 
 In other words, they have begun to come into that stage 
 where love for all humanity is developed in a simple child- 
 like way. It seems to me that this is the most important 
 characteristic of the child from the kindergarten. 
 
 " I think the progress of these children in the primary 
 school is greatly facilitated by their previous training. 
 Their progress has been quicker as to time. The character 
 of the work done has been improved." 
 
 II 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade two years. 
 
 " The first year 72 per cent had attended kindergarten ; 
 the second year 74 per cent. 
 
 " The kindergarten child observes more quickly and with 
 greater accuracy. He is methodical in thought, and, conse- 
 quently, in all expression, oral, written and manual. From 
 an ethical standpoint he is superior to the non-kindergarten 
 child. In all ways he is more intelligent, more nearly the 
 being his Creator meant him to be. 
 
 "The kindergarten training has been a powerful agent in 
 stimulating the ambition of the child and in making pro- 
 gress a continual joy. 
 
 " In the majority of cases the progress of the kinder- 
 garten children has been quicker in point of time. In all 
 cases the character of the work has been improved." 
 
 Ill 
 
 " I have taught a little over two years in the first grade. 
 
 " Last year all my children had attended the kindergarten ; 
 this year only 5 per cent. 
 
 " I have found that where tne cnildren have had a kinder- 
 garten training they are much more industrious, interested, 
 observant, enthusiastic, imaginative, responsive and courte- 
 ous. They have more general information. The training 
 they have received is a great help in number, language, 
 expression in reading, drawing and all manual work. 
 
 " The progress has been quicker in point of time, and the 
 work on an average much neater."
 
 2O KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [52 
 
 IV 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade for five years. 
 
 " Until November of the present school year about 80 
 per cent of my children have come to me from the kinder- 
 garten. Very few children have come directly to me from 
 their homes. Those who have not come from the kinder- 
 garten have usually spent more or less time in the first grade 
 before they have come to me. 
 
 " The majority of the kindergarten children have been 
 more anxious to work. They have had more confidence in 
 their ability to do what is required of them, and have shown 
 more perseverance in conquering difficulties. Their work 
 has been cleaner, neater and arranged in a more orderly 
 manner. Their power of concentration is much stronger. 
 Their creative power is also much more highly developed. 
 Through their games and talks, they have acquired more 
 knowledge of the world about them, which knowledge has 
 been of much help to them in their new work, especially in 
 reading, language and drawing. They have learned to write 
 more readily, and they have clearer ideas of number. Their 
 love of the beautiful and their power of appreciating beauti- 
 ful thoughts have been much greater. 
 
 " As a rule, the child who has had a full kindergarten 
 training has done much better, stronger work in the first 
 grade than one who has been in the kindergarten but a 
 short time, or than one whose attendance has been very 
 irregular. 
 
 " Progress has been quicker in point of time, for the chil- 
 dren who have had the benefit of the full kindergarten 
 training have accomplished more in a given time than those 
 of the same age who have not received the same training. 
 The character of the work has been improved." 
 
 V 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade thirty-two years. 
 
 "Since the kindergarten was established in our district, 
 about four years ago, about fifty per cent of my pupils have 
 come to me from that grade. Before that time, I received 
 only a few children from the kindergarten. 
 
 " The characteristics of kindergarten children consist of 
 trained powers of observation, skill in using the hands, a
 
 53] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 21 
 
 knowledge of number, form, color and music. A great deal 
 has been done for some children in teaching them self-control. 
 
 " I think the effect of the kindergarten training has been 
 decidedly favorable to the progress of the children in my 
 own grade. 
 
 " Their progress in point of time has not been much 
 quicker, as I have had very few who have had more than 
 one year of kindergarten training, and several of the 
 bright ones have been delicate children who could only 
 attend half a day or quite irregularly. 
 
 " I have a class of children whose parents are not anxious 
 to have them pushed. 
 
 " The character of the work done has been much improved." 
 
 VI 
 
 " I have taught four years, one m the Hancock district 
 and three in the W. Allston. 
 
 " The first year fifty per cent of my children were from 
 the kindergarten ; the second, third and fourth years about 
 fifteen per cent. 
 
 " Kindergarten children are creative, self-active and inde- 
 pendent. They are accustomed to school life and used to 
 being one of many instead of one alone. 
 
 " They have been waked up and are used to thinking. 
 They are ready to begin to learn, whereas other children, 
 with the exception of those who have brilliant minds, have 
 to become accustomed to school work. Kindergarten chil- 
 dren have learned how to work, how to use their hands, how 
 to care for property. 
 
 " They have a good foundation for any kind of work. 
 
 " For the above reasons they are able to do the work of 
 my grade in half the prescribed time. They always get 
 more out of their work than other children and are always 
 at the head of the class." 
 
 VII 
 
 " I have taught six years in the first grade. About 30 
 per cent of my children have come to me from the 
 kindergarten. 
 
 " I have observed that kindergarten children are interested 
 and ready at once for the work. The other children do not 
 know how to act. Much time is taken up in teaching them 
 minor details. They are not so quick with their fingers.
 
 22 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [54 
 
 " The kindergarten children know how to handle their 
 pencils and learn to write in a very short time. 
 
 "In every case the kindergarten children have shown 
 marked progress in the primary grades. 
 
 " Toward the latter part of the school year they have 
 done second grade work. I have been interested in follow- 
 ing their course through the grammar school, and have found 
 that they received double promotion." 
 
 VIII 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade fifteen years. 
 
 " Last year about fifty per cent, this year about sixty per 
 cent, and in preceding years perhaps thirty or forty per cent, 
 of my children came to me from the kindergarten. 
 
 " I find the children who have had two years of kinder- 
 garten training ready to do the work of the first grade, 
 whereas other children need a great deal of preliminary 
 work. The muscles of the hands of these children have 
 been so trained that they are ready to use pen or pencil for 
 writing and drawing, ready to cut and fold paper, ready to 
 handle material for seat work. This training of the hands 
 has had its corresponding development in the brain, and 
 their minds are ready to intelligently guide the hands and 
 to grasp new ideas. Their eyes have been so trained that 
 they are ready for the color, form and observation work. 
 This training of the eye affects also the work in reading very 
 noticeably, as the children distinguish the forms of words 
 and letters more easily. Their ears have been so trained 
 that they are ready to listen and follow directions. Their 
 number experiences have been many and varied, and it is in 
 arithmetic especially that I notice their advantage over other 
 children. 
 
 " In fact the normal child who has had a thorough kinder- 
 garten training does rapidly, and with ease, understanding, 
 joy and appreciation what the normal child without this 
 training does slowly and with difficulty. 
 
 " The kindergarten training has helped many of my chil- 
 dren to do the work of the primary grade in less time than 
 other children, but I think the great gain has been in the 
 character of the work. It has been in quality rather than 
 in quantity : in enrichment and expansion rather than in 
 extent."
 
 55] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 23 
 
 IX 
 
 " I have taught children in the first grade eight years. 
 
 " I have always had some kindergarten children in my 
 class with the exception of this year. Last year my class 
 was made up wholly of the kindergarten children. The 
 kindergarten children are wide-awake. I never had such 
 an enthusiastic spirit in my class as I did the year it was 
 made up wholly of kindergarten children. The children 
 who come directly from home are, as a rule, diffident, and not 
 responsive. It usually takes two weeks to get acquainted, 
 to find some common bonds of interest. The' kindergarten 
 children I had watched in the kindergarten. I knew the 
 stories and pictures they loved ; the work they had done 
 in form and color, and the games they had played. We 
 were friends at once, and the work began earlier and with 
 less friction. The children from home stand in awe of the 
 teacher ; the others have grown to love school and its 
 work. The spirit of helpfulness is very strong. The first 
 two weeks of school I was troubled with the discipline. 
 The children talked aloud and hummed, but they worked. 
 The humming did mean a happy spirit, but of course it did 
 hinder the work. The talking without permission I found 
 was almost always prompted by good motives. At the end 
 of three weeks these children succeeded very well in these 
 directions. They are good workers and they must have 
 enough to do. Folding hands and sitting up straight does 
 not appeal to them. 
 
 " The training given the children in the kindergarten 
 enables them to take up work more intelligently. They are 
 wide-awake in observation lessons. They are quick in rec- 
 ognition of form and color, and in seeing resemblances. 
 They are intensely interested in stories and poems. I never 
 had a class who read with so much expression. I think the 
 work done in the kindergarten songs sweetened their voices. 
 Of course I do not think the kindergarten training makes a 
 dull boy bright, but I do think that a dull child is brighter 
 and more responsive than if he had not had this training. 
 
 " In point of time, if by that is meant double promotions, 
 the children have not gone on any faster. But I do think 
 the children were better developed and more ready to take 
 up the second grade work than the children entering the 
 first grade from home.
 
 24 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [56 
 
 " I think the kindergarten children do better ana neater 
 work. They are more self-reliant. They have more cre- 
 ative power and are always ready with new combinations in 
 design work." ^ 
 
 X 
 
 " I have taught the lowest grade in the primary school for 
 four years. My first class contained no kindergarten chil- 
 dren ; my second, third and fourth contained 33 1-3, 100 and 
 70 per cent respectively, making an average of 51 per cent. 
 
 " I have found the kindergarten children to have broader, 
 more original and better trained minds than most of the 
 other children. They are better able to concentrate their 
 attention ; they grasp an idea more readily and go ahead by 
 themselves. They distinguish form more quickly, and so 
 learn to write and read in a shorter time than the others. 
 They have already formed habits of cleanliness and punctu- 
 ality which, with other children of the lower classes, we have 
 to struggle some months to establish. 
 
 " I think the kindergarten training has advanced the pro- 
 gress of the children in the primary school both in point of 
 time and in the character of the work. If a child has had 
 two years' training in a kindergarten and then enters my 
 room at the age of five and a half or six he can generally 
 finish the first grade work by March first and enter the third 
 grade in September, and, as I have stated in the previous 
 paragraph, the work is better and more intelligently done 
 and shows much originality." 
 
 XI 
 
 " It is a great pleasure to me to have the opportunity 
 offered by the questions sent us relative to kindergarten 
 work in preparation for the Paris Exposition to say that I 
 think the kindergarten training is of vital importance to the 
 children of foreign and ignorant parentage such as we have 
 in our district. From general judgment I say that all chil- 
 dren need the kindergarten, but I know that it is of the first 
 importance to those who come from oppressed, lawless and 
 unlovely homes. I hope the fact that I have taught only two 
 years in this grade will not render my testimony worthless. 
 
 " Last year about 5 per cent of my children had had some, 
 but not a complete kindergarten training. This year, for 
 one month, about 95 per cent of my children were from the
 
 57] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2$ 
 
 kindergarten. At the end of that time the best 45 per cent 
 moved on, the rest remaining with me. None of those left 
 with me had completed the kindergarten course before enter- 
 ing the primary grade. That one month's experience with 
 nearly a whole class of kindergarten children was delightful. 
 
 " To my mind the comparative characteristics of the kin- 
 dergarten child and the street child are these : 
 
 " The kindergarten child observes and discriminates ; is 
 intelligent in his attitude towards things ; is able to remem- 
 ber things taught ; is ingenious, spontaneous, interested and 
 imaginative ; has a sense of honor and respects the property 
 and rights of others ; is gentle, kind, helpful and thought- 
 ful ; possesses a sense of the beautiful, and a sense of indi- 
 vidual moral responsibility ; is cognizant of the Supreme 
 Being and reverential. 
 
 " The street child is unobservant, dull in attitude, weak 
 in imagination, indifferent to things. He is rough, shame- 
 less, thoughtless, teasing, disregards the rights and property 
 of others, is little moved by the beautiful, is ignorant in gen- 
 eral, and, therefore, lacking in love and reverence. He has 
 no sense of individual responsibility and is morally chaotic. 
 
 " The kindergarten child has further learned to direct him- 
 self along a specific line of action whether it be work or 
 control, in obedience to a spoken or unspoken law. He is, 
 in short, intelligent, sensitive, responsive and self-directing 
 in a far greater degree than the other child. With regard 
 to rapidity of progress, I can answer only in regard to the 
 work in my own grade. The kindergarten child, as I have 
 observed him, moves much more rapidly over the ground of 
 work than another child of equal ability. 
 
 " The character of the work done by kindergarten chil- 
 dren shows a great improvement over that done by other 
 children. Their manual training helps them to learn writing 
 and seat work more quickly. The information they have 
 acquired in the kindergarten and the dexterity they have 
 gained enable them to progress rapidly, while at the same 
 time their work is better done. They bring to their work a 
 respect for it which increases their sense both of its dignity 
 and of their own dignity. 
 
 " Of great importance in such a district as ours is the 
 training in understanding good English which the kinder- 
 garten gives the child. Our children who come directly 
 from the homes are a long time learning to understand us
 
 26 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [58 
 
 when we speak plain but good English. They are also a 
 long time learning to express themselves. In the expression 
 of what has been impressed upon them, kindergarten chil- 
 dren are greatly in advance. 
 
 " The whole mental and moral character of the children 
 who have attended the kindergarten is much superior to that 
 of the children who come to us directly from the home. 
 
 " I have one suggestion, not a criticism, to make. A very 
 few children, who have strong imagination and who prefer 
 to use their imagination rather than their perception, are 
 likely to have that tendency increased by the training in 
 imagination given in the kindergarten, so that they have 
 difficulty in seeing things as they really are. For example, 
 such children repeatedly read one word of a sentence and 
 then recite a sentence totally unlike what is before them. I 
 think that kindergarten teachers do not realize this as we do, 
 and that in the care of such children they ought, perhaps, to 
 lay more stress upon truth-telling. This is the only possible 
 fault I have seen in a child as a kindergarten child, and this 
 only in a very few children. 
 
 " I wish that all children under six years of age in our 
 district were compelled to go to the kindergarten before 
 entering the primary room." 
 
 XII 
 
 " It is my pleasure, as it is also my duty; to submit the 
 following answers to the questions issued in the recent cir- 
 cular with regard to the effects of kindergarten training 
 upon the pupils of my own grade, the first primary. 
 
 " Five years has been the length of my service in the first 
 grade. 
 
 " About forty per cent of my pupils have received instruc- 
 tion in the kindergarten. The children who have had kin- 
 dergarten training seem to possess greater enthusiasm for 
 and interest in their school work, and, therefore, concentrate 
 their attention sooner and for a longer period than those 
 from home. 
 
 " My pupils from the kindergarten have greater and more 
 accurate powers of observation and discrimination. This 
 fact is noticeable in their quick recognition of written forms 
 and their associated sounds. 
 
 " The vocabulary of the kindergarten child is larger, and 
 his power of expression, therefore, greater. He is less shy
 
 59] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2 7 
 
 and timid and so expresses himself readily and freely. He 
 is able from this fact to take up the regular language work 
 in reading sooner, and so time is saved. The willingness to 
 narrate his experiences is so marked that I have to be care- 
 ful that the others have equal opportunities to express them- 
 selves. This is true particularly at the beginning of the 
 school year. 
 
 " The experience gained in the kindergarten helps the child 
 to understand the literature presented to him more readily 
 and thoroughly. 
 
 " Generally the kindergarten child recognizes numbers and 
 performs operations with them more quickly than other chil- 
 dren, helped by his former work in weaving and other kin- 
 dergarten occupations. These latter also help him to be 
 more skillful with his hands. He can be left at his busy 
 work with less oversight and with better results to be seen 
 on inspection. This is a saving of time. The manual 
 training which he has received also results in a greater power 
 of expression in the drawing and writing lessons. The 
 terms used in drawing are also more familiar, being recalled 
 instead of newly learnt. Consequently less drill is needed. 
 
 " The kindergarten child is more familiar with school 
 routine, and, therefore, requires fewer directions. Having 
 attended school before, the primary teacher is not obliged 
 to spend time and energy in comforting him on his separa- 
 tion from home friends. 
 
 " Finally, the kindergarten child seems to me more cour- 
 teous, more helpful and more ready to recognize the rights 
 of his fellow-pupils. 
 
 " The kindergarten pupils now in my own grade have 
 been able to accomplish more in the required studies than 
 those of the same age who came directly from home. The 
 few exceptions occur in the cases of children who are not to 
 be regarded as normal. 
 
 " Several children who have received the full kindergarten 
 course have been able to omit the second year course in the 
 primary, and have, therefore, completed that course in two 
 years instead of the usual three years. This does not occur 
 with other children unless they are unusually old when they 
 enter or have special home training. One child, who proved 
 too immature for the work of my grade, after a short train- 
 ing in the kindergarten, was able to do the work better and 
 more quickly than he could possibly have done without it.
 
 28 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [60 
 
 " That the character of the work has been improved, I 
 have no doubt. Since I have always been so fortunate as to 
 have some pupils from the kindergarten, I cannot compare 
 the work accomplished with that of pupils, all of whom came 
 direct from home. The comparison I have made between 
 the latter and kindergarten children seems to be just, and I 
 feel sure the kindergarten has helped to produce better 
 results throughout my class, even when a very small propor- 
 tion of the children in the class had had the benefit of its 
 training." 
 
 The following letter, also received from Boston, and writ- 
 ten by a teacher of third grade, shows that the influence of 
 kindergarten training extends beyond the primary room : 
 
 "In speaking of the value of kindergarten training I 
 judge from observation and inference rather than from a 
 close grade connection with it. 
 
 " I have more than once met with such contrasts in the 
 moral attitude and mental atmosphere of younger children 
 who had been under kindergarten training, and older ones 
 from the same family who began school life before kinder- 
 gartens were established, that I can attribute the source of 
 the happy and healthful influence to but one cause. Indeed, 
 it was unmistakably evident in several instances that the 
 leaven had worked where it would happily do so much good 
 in the future in raising the minds of the parents to a finer 
 conception of the duties and possibilities in training their 
 children. This has come to me more than once from a per- 
 sonal confession and acknowledgment. An influence that 
 makes thus early for the formation of character surely can- 
 not have too high an estimate, especially from those whose 
 efforts must succeed it in the work. 
 
 " I feel that to the kindergarten training is due much of 
 the possibility of developing in the children the power to 
 observe, to generalize, to execute and to express themselves 
 as intelligently and thoughtfully as they were able to do a 
 year or two later in school life, before kindergartens were 
 with us. In my present class the kindergarten children are 
 all to be promoted with one exception, and they are ten 
 months younger than the other children. Their average 
 age is eight years and ten months, while that of the non- 
 kindergarten children is nine years and eight months, or 
 practically a year of school life. I find the difference is
 
 6l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 29 
 
 about the same in favor of kindergarten children for several 
 years back, as far as I examined. There seems to be but 
 one influence as to the cause for this, the quickening and 
 brightening influence of the first training, coming at a time 
 when the children are awakening fast to the multitude of 
 influences and interests which surround them, and which is 
 of a character to lead the little hearts and hands to the best 
 they can think and do." 
 
 The limits prescribed for this monograph prevent me 
 from doing full justice to the valuable material sent me 
 from Boston. So far as I am aware, no equal number of 
 competent witnesses reporting upon children received from 
 so large a number of kindergartens have ever been publicly 
 cited in behalf of the Froebelian method. Their testimony 
 proves beyond peradventure that the kindergartens of Bos- 
 ton have actually achieved nearly all the results claimed for 
 the system by its most enthusiastic friends. The following 
 letter from Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the 
 Boston public schools, describes the obstacles with which 
 the kindergarten has still to contend and suggests a plan by 
 which its influence may be increased : 
 
 " My acquaintance with kindergartens began in the year 
 1 88 1, when, in making my first official visits in the Boston 
 schools, I found the kindergartens then privately supported 
 by Mrs. Shaw in certain school rooms granted rent free for 
 that purpose by the school committee. At first I was 
 amused by the novel exercises, and then pleased by the evi- 
 dent hold these exercises, or the teachers, or both, had upon 
 the children. Longer and closer study of the kindergarten 
 exercises convinced me that here was a real educational 
 agency of singular efficiency. 
 
 " Looking at it from the practical side I observed that 
 there were some thousands of children in Boston whose 
 education both morally and intellectually would be greatly 
 advanced by their being placed at an early age in good 
 kindergartens. I thought too that for all children the 
 kindergarten was the best means of passage from the home 
 to the primary school. A knowledge of the spirit and 
 methods of the kindergarten spread among the primary 
 teachers seemed likely to exercise a beneficial influence on
 
 -JO KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [62 
 
 the primary schools. There was no doubt that this same 
 benign influence had made itself felt in many homes. 
 Among the strongest early friends of the kindergarten were 
 many parents whose children had been kindergarten pupils. 
 There were many primary teachers whose experience with 
 kindergarten children enabled them to analyze and describe 
 the effects of the kindergarten system of instruction in favor- 
 able terms. 
 
 " These were some o* tne considerations which moved me 
 in the year 1888 to recommend that the kindergarten be 
 made an integral part of the system of public instruction in 
 the city of Boston. Since this was done, the public kinder- 
 gartens have steadily grown in number and in popularity, in 
 so much that nearly all school districts in the city are sup- 
 plied with them, and about one-third of the children now 
 pass through them before entering the primary schools. 
 Our primary teachers have become more and more appre- 
 ciative of the excellent foundation the kindergarten gives 
 for the child's subsequent instruction. Altogether, it may 
 truly be said that the public kindergartens of Boston have 
 fulfilled, and more than fulfilled, the expectations formed of 
 them at the time of their adoption. Imperfections they 
 have shown, as what schools or what things human do not ? 
 But every year there have been improvements, every year a 
 better understanding of the essential principles of kinder- 
 garten instruction, and every year a more widespread knowl- 
 edge of the practical benefit of these principles when prop- 
 erly applied. 
 
 " As to the subsequent progress 01 Kindergarten children 
 in the school grades, it has been impossible for me to arrange 
 and properly carry out a thorough statistical inquiry. I can 
 only say in general that my impressions, gathered from con- 
 versations with teachers these many years, lead me to the 
 conclusion that the progress of kindergarten children com- 
 pares very favorably with that of other children of the same 
 age and similar environment. This progress is not so much 
 manifested by quicker passage from grade to grade in the 
 schools for there is much that is arbitrary and artificial in 
 the rules governing the promotion of pupils through the 
 grades as it is in the broader and stronger work done by 
 children whose education has been started aright in the 
 kindergarten. 
 
 " Another influence which obscures the result in statistical
 
 63] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 3! 
 
 inquiry arises from the fact that the tests applied to deter- 
 mine progress are often quite out of harmony with that 
 theory of education of which the kindergarten is an exem- 
 plification. The principles worked out by Froebel in the 
 kindergarten were also by him applied to the later education 
 of children and youth. Therefore, the subsequent progress 
 of kindergarten children ought to be tested by methods 
 which are consistent with those principles. 
 
 " Still another obstacle in the way of satisfactory statistical 
 work is the fact that in very many of the classes of the first 
 primary grade only a minority of the children are from kin- 
 dergartens. The teacher is apt to adapt her methods to the 
 wants of the majority. So it happens that the kindergarten 
 children surfer from a change in the method of their instruc- 
 tion. What was so well begun in the kindergarten is 
 broken off, and, consequently, the results that might other- 
 wise have been expected never appear. Notwithstanding 
 all these difficulties it has been possible in Boston to organ- 
 ize a few primary classes, composed wholly, or almost wholly, 
 of kindergarten children. The progress made by such 
 classes has been eminently satisfactory. This result seems 
 to warrant the belief that if all children could be taken 
 through the kindergarten before entering the primary schools 
 the instruction in the latter would be advanced and enlarged 
 to a degree not now possible." 
 
 Much of the information received from other cities I omit 
 because it does not relate to experiences with a sufficiently 
 large number of children. I have, however, condensed the 
 following results from letters sent me by Miss Mary C. 
 McCulloch, supervisor of the St. Louis kindergartens. These 
 letters, thirteen in number, were written by teachers of the 
 first grade, and reported the progress of kindergarten chil- 
 dren in each of the several districts of the city. Two of the 
 letters I eliminated because, while kindly in feeling, they 
 were not precise in statement. Of the remaining eleven let- 
 ters nine reported that kindergarten children were proficient 
 in arithmetic, and affirmed the conviction that the training 
 of the kindergarten facilitated progress in learning to write, 
 and was of marked value in learning to read. The other 
 two recognized no difference in these respects between kin-
 
 32 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [64 
 
 dergarten children and children who came to school direct 
 from the home. The unanimous verdict was that kinder- 
 garten children were superior to others in drawing. All the 
 letters concurred likewise in the statement that kindergarten 
 culture developed the aesthetic sense. The intellectual 
 characteristics specified were accurate observations ; correct 
 expression ; power to make numerical combinations ; famili- 
 arity with geometric forms ; quick recognition of magnitude 
 and relation ; a generally increased perceptive power, and 
 signal ability in illustrating poems and stories. With regard 
 to manners and morals nine teachers recognized the good 
 influence of the kindergarten. Of the remaining two one 
 found " few causes for complaint," and the other referred 
 merely to a possible good effect upon order and punctuality. 
 The moral characteristics which were said to distinguish 
 kindergarten children were order, cleanliness, courtesy, con- 
 sideration, kindness, a perceptible development of the ideal 
 of social dependence and " a love for the beautiful in char- 
 acter awakened by fairy tales and developed along the lines 
 of self-abnegation through song, stories, games arid daily 
 practice." 
 
 From Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, to whose labors is largely 
 due the adoption of the kindergarten by the school board 
 of Chicago, I have received the following valuable testi- 
 mony of superintendents and principals of schools : 
 
 From Dr. E. Benj. Andrews, superintendent of schools : 
 " Our best first grade pupils are from the kindergarten, 
 and the influence of kindergarten teaching is more and more 
 felt in all the grades. Its ethical and social value is equal 
 to its intellectual value. In fact the kindergarten is now 
 recognized by all thoughtful persons as one of society's main 
 hopes for the future." 
 
 From Albert G. Lane, Esq., district superintendent : 
 " It has been noticeable that children well trained in the 
 kindergarten have keen sense-perception, possess construct- 
 ive and expressive power and are alert, active and open- 
 minded."
 
 65] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 33 
 
 From James Hannan, Esq., assistant superintendent : 
 " The most positive friends of the kindergarten are those 
 who know it best No principal who has had one in his 
 school is willing to do without it. We have had several 
 cases where the principal of an old school has been trans- 
 ferred to a new one and in every such case there has been 
 urgent demand for the establishment of a kindergarten in 
 the new school." 
 
 From Mr. Lincoln P. Goodhue of the D. S. Wentworth 
 school : 
 
 " The kindergarten-trained child is more responsive in 
 early primary work, has greater freedom of thought and 
 expression, better and more definite control of motor activi- 
 ties and many well-established useful habits not usually 
 found in the ordinary beginner. 
 
 " During the first year many of the kindergarten children 
 take first rank in their rooms, although some fall into the 
 lower classes, even into the C class. It is seldom, however, 
 that a kindergarten child is found overtime in grade. In 
 the second year and above opportunity for the observation 
 of the kindergarten child in this school has been quite lim- 
 ited, and I am unable to submit any definite statement. 
 
 " That the average child is helped very materially by the 
 kindergarten course must be admitted. That the children 
 of the poor are led into habits of thought and conduct which 
 their home environment could never develop is also true. 
 
 " The dull child, while he may still be dull, must be quick- 
 ened more or less by kindergarten training well done. The 
 whole question as to the value of the kindergarten can be 
 answered only when the other question as to the training 
 and qualifications of the kindergarten teachers has been 
 positively settled. It is more true in the kindergarten per- 
 haps than in the grades that the teacher makes the school." 
 
 From Miss Minnie R. Cowan, principal of the McAllister 
 school : 
 
 " In the following respects we find the pupils who have 
 had kindergarten training very superior to children who 
 come directly from the home, power of observing closely 
 and accurately and ability to express their thoughts readily 
 and clearly.
 
 34 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [66 
 
 " They have also a considerable degree of manual skill, 
 and in the first year of school life especially this is a great 
 aid to their progress. 
 
 " I have not found that they ordinarily gain any time in 
 the grades, but they do the work of the grades more easily 
 and perfectly." 
 
 From Mrs. Elizabeth Huntington Sutherland, principal of 
 the Alice E. Barnard school : 
 
 " Having been seventeen years in this school, I have had 
 many large families begin and complete their work with me. 
 
 " The older three or four children of said families were in 
 school before our kindergarten was established ; the younger 
 three or four since. Invariably there is a marked contrast 
 in the ability of the two groups. The younger ones are 
 brighter in every way, and often seem hardly to belong to 
 the same stock. Much of this difference I believe to be due 
 to the early wholesome awakening brought about by the 
 training in the kindergarten." 
 
 From Mr. Fulton B. Ormsby, principal of the Perkins 
 Bass school : 
 
 " My observations thus far convince me that the kinder- 
 garten is a distinct and positive help to the future progress 
 of the child. 
 
 " The motor activities are so developed that the various 
 occupations of the school room are taken up with skill and 
 readiness, and the powers of observation so aroused that the 
 more formal instruction, if desired, may be undertaken at 
 once with success. 
 
 "In our school, the children who have had the kinder- 
 garten training are advancing more satisfactorily than those 
 who lack such training." 
 
 From Mr. Samuel A. Harrison, principal of the Burroughs 
 school : 
 
 " The observations of myself and teachers are that pupils 
 coming from the kindergarten : 
 
 " i. Know better how to handle themselves. They have 
 been trained to control their attention, and can begin school 
 work at once. 
 
 " 2. They have gained some little learning in singing and 
 numbers.
 
 67] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 35 
 
 " 3. They are cleaner, neater and better mannered, and 
 their training shows to advantage in all school proprieties." 
 
 From Mr. Frank A. Houghton, principal of the Kershaw 
 school : 
 
 " The kindergarten has a most excellent influence on the 
 primary grades. I feel its influence on the work of the first 
 grade especially." 
 
 Miss Ida De La Mater, extra teacher, who supervises the 
 primary work of the Kershaw school, adds : 
 
 " I have found that the kindergarten children lack concen- 
 tration, self-control, and are hard to discipline. 
 
 " In the games, story work, language and general informa- 
 tion, they are better than other children. I am in hearty 
 sympathy with the work." 
 
 From Mr. Charles F. Babcock, principal of the H olden 
 school : 
 
 " The children who have been in the kindergarten classes 
 are noted for their powers of observation and expression, 
 fluency in language, etc. They are vastly superior to those 
 who have not had this training. The only objection to 
 them is that they develop into regular chatterboxes, and it 
 takes some time to tone them down. We have the kinder- 
 garten and non-kindergarten classes together and can speak 
 of them better for so doing." 
 
 From Mr. Daniel Appleton White, principal of the 
 Everett school : 
 
 " I have carefully revised the records of this school in 
 regard to the progress of kindergarten children. By com- 
 paring the progress of several hundreds of children who are 
 at present members of this school, I obtain the following 
 statistics : 
 
 " Of one hundred promotions from first to second grade, I 
 find that the children who have had the kindergarten work 
 required an average time of thirty-seven and one-half weeks 
 for the completion of the grade work, while the others 
 required forty-four and one-third weeks for the same. For 
 the second grade the respective results are forty-five and 
 one-tenth weeks and forty-four and eight-tenths weeks. For 
 the third grade forty-three and seven-tenths weeks and forty-
 
 36 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 
 
 six weeks, while for the fourth grade the average time 
 required was thirty-three weeks and forty-four and four- 
 tenths weeks. 
 
 " In addition to these facts I cheerfully submit my opinion 
 of the advantages of the kindergarten training so far as I 
 have observed them. In my judgment * * * the chil- 
 dren gain exceedingly in regard to the following points : 
 
 " The formation of good habits, the development of free- 
 dom and activity, the power to understand directions, the 
 social element, and last, but not the least, the attention paid 
 to cleanliness." 
 
 Since the kindergarten system has been more highly 
 developed in Boston, Chicago and St. Louis than in other 
 places, testimony from these cities has seemed to me of the 
 highest importance. Similar results are, however, showing 
 themselves in many smaller cities and towns, in witness 
 whereof I permit myself to quote the following published 
 statements 
 
 I 
 
 " Having often been asked if there is any difference in 
 the ages of those children in the several grades who have 
 had kindergarten training and those who have not been so 
 fortunate, I have this year taken some pains to see if there 
 is really any difference. I find that the age of the kinder- 
 garten trained children in every grade is actually less than 
 that of the remainder of the class by a few months until the 
 eighth grade is reached, where the difference is ten months, 
 or one whole school year. At first this does not seem very 
 much, but a year at school is a great factor in the life of any 
 student." (Olive McHenry, principal of Hawthorne school, 
 Des Moines, Iowa. Published in report of city superintend- 
 ent of schools for 1893-94.) 
 
 II 
 
 " Referring to our kindergartens and schools as we see 
 them in New England, what is the opinion of the most intel- 
 ligent primary teachers to-day concerning what the kinder- 
 garten does ? Being very familiar with this matter in a 
 town where eleven kindergartens, having some nineteen 
 teachers, are feeding the primary schools, it is a pleasure to 
 say that there is unanimous agreement on the part of all the
 
 69] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 37 
 
 primary teachers that the children receive incalculable 
 benefit through their kindergarten training, and are far bet- 
 ter prepared to take up the activities of the school because 
 of that training. 
 
 " Many of these teachers are well advanced in life, and 
 had long experience before the kindergarten was adopted in 
 the town. They have not been hasty in making up their 
 minds ; on the other hand, they have no doubt been slow in 
 doing so. They find the kindergarten children coming to 
 them full of anticipation of what they are to enjoy, and 
 they are slow to adopt any measure that tends to dampen 
 this enthusiasm. They find them active and needing activ- 
 ity. They are quick to see, curious to ask questions, and 
 anxious to co-operate in everything pertaining to the school. 
 And it is delightful to note that the same methods which 
 make the kindergarten a highly socialized community where 
 there is much mutual sympathy, and co-operation operate 
 also in the school so that it becomes something quite different 
 from the school of other days when children were treated as 
 little men and women and when the aim of the teacher was 
 to have as little stir and activity as possible, doing violence 
 to the nature of the child and often crippling him for life. 
 
 " The time has come when we may safely claim that the 
 kindergarten with all that it has brought to the school of 
 spirit and method gives enlarged capacity to do work of all 
 kinds and its beneficent influence is felt not only in all grades 
 of schools but in college and in after life." (Samuel T. 
 Button, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass., in 
 Kindergarten Magazine for April, 1899.) 
 
 In view of the attacks so freely and insistently made upon 
 what is called the " sentimentalism " of the kindergarten, it 
 may be well to call attention to the fact that none of the 
 expert witnesses whose testimony I have quoted seem to have 
 detected its existence. That among kindergartners there 
 are some sentimentalists I have no doubt. That sentimen- 
 talism is inherent in the Froebelian ideal or tolerated in the 
 best training schools for kindergartners I unhesitatingly 
 deny. There is greater danger of its appearance in private 
 than in public work because any person calling herself a 
 kindergartner may be accepted as such by ignorant or
 
 38 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [70 
 
 thoughtless parents. In public kindergartens under compe- 
 tent supervision its persistence is impossible. 
 
 It is greatly to be desired that all cities establishing kin- 
 dergartens in connection with their public schools, should 
 insist upon having a specially qualified supervisor. With- 
 out watchful and intelligent guidance the kindergarten tends 
 either to relapse into a mere play school or to become too 
 closely conformed to the primary school. The ideal super- 
 visor stands to the individual kindergartener in a relation 
 similar to that which the latter occupies towards her children. 
 She quickens their intellectual and moral aspiration, deepens 
 in them the complementary impulses of self-culture and child- 
 nurture, points out practical errors and .suggests the ways 
 and means of overcoming them. She must thoroughly under- 
 stand the method of the kindergarten, its psycologic implica- 
 tions and its relationship to education as a whole. She must 
 unite intellectual insight with moral earnestness and practi- 
 cal sagacity. Hence only the most gifted and illuminated 
 kindergartners are adequate to the work of supervision. 
 
 Two great dangers assail the kindergarten and threaten 
 to impede its progress towards the realization of Froebel's 
 ideal. The first of these dangers is reversion to instinctive 
 games and traditional toys. In some kindergartens, children 
 are taught to play street games, while it has recently been 
 urged that " peg boards, tops, bean bags, kites, dolls, jack- 
 straws, hoops, spool, chalk and wire games and the whole 
 toy world " should be added to the Froebelian instrumentali- 
 ties. Tendencies such as these indicate a complete failure 
 to comprehend what Froebel has done. He recognized in 
 traditional games the deposit of unconscious reason ; pre- 
 served what was good and omitted what was crude and 
 coarse in these products of instinct ; supplied missing links 
 and presented a series of games wherein each is related to 
 all the others and which, by means of dramatic and graphic 
 representation, poetry and music, win for the ideals they 
 embody a controlling power over the imagination. In like 
 manner, from among traditional toys he selected those which
 
 7l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 39 
 
 possessed most educative value, ordered them into a related 
 series and suggested a method by which they might be con- 
 sciously used to interpret the child's experiences and develop 
 his creative power. If this transfiguration of traditional 
 games and toys is valueless, then the kindergarten has no 
 raison (fetre. But if Froebel has translated the hieroglyphic 
 of instinctive play and found means which, without detriment 
 to the child's spontaneity, influence the growth of character 
 and the trend of thought, then the clamor for street games 
 and promiscuous toys is educational atavism. 
 
 The second danger which threatens the integrity of the 
 kindergarten is the substitution of exercises which attempt 
 to wind thought around some arbitrarily chosen center for 
 those Froebelian exercises whose confessed aim is to assist 
 thought to unwind itself. Too many kindergartners have 
 allowed themselves to be betrayed into selecting some object 
 such as a pine tree or a potato, and making all songs, games, 
 stories and gift exercises revolve around it. Between these 
 so-called cores of interest and the exercises clustered around 
 them there is no valid connection. The clustering like the 
 subject depends wholly upon the caprice of the teacher. 
 Could such exercises succeed in their object, the pupils of 
 different teachers would have their thoughts set to revolving 
 around different centers and more than this around arbitrary 
 and contingent centers. That such a procedure directly 
 contradicts Froebel's ideal will be apparent to all who have 
 understood his writings. That it likewise contradicts every 
 true ideal of education will be evident to all who understand 
 that the function of education is to substitute objective and 
 universal for subjective and contingent associations. The 
 discovery of related qualities in nature, the disclosure of 
 their causes and the reduction of these causes to a system is 
 the great work of science. The discovery of the related 
 activities of mind and their genetic evolution is the work of 
 psychology. The portrayal of the universal and divine man 
 latent in each individual is the supreme achievement of 
 literature and art. To lead pupils away from what is capri-
 
 4<D KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION \_"J2 
 
 cious, arbitrary and accidental, and thus capacitate them to 
 receive and augment their scientific, aesthetic, literary and 
 psychologic inheritance is the great duty of education. The 
 substitution of arbitrary for necessary cores of thought 
 wherever attempted is, therefore, the parody of education. 
 
 The future of the kindergarten in the United States is 
 largely dependent upon the work of the normal schools for 
 kindergarteners. The friends of the system must, therefore, 
 view with disapprobation and even with dismay the rapid mul- 
 tiplication of schools with low standards of admission and a 
 low conception of the training they should give. Inexperi- 
 enced students are attracted to such schools, and the result is 
 that the whole country is flooded with so-called kindergartners 
 who are ignorant of the first principles of all true education. 
 
 In the early days of the Froebelian movement it was 
 believed that in a single year young girls could be prepared 
 to conduct a kindergarten. In most reputable training 
 schools the course has now been extended to cover two years. 
 The requirements for admission into these schools are, gen- 
 erally, graduation from a high school, or an education equiva- 
 lent thereto. The courses of study include theory of the 
 kindergarten gifts and occupations, study of the Mother Play, 
 practice in songs and games, physical culture, lessons in sing- 
 ing, drawing, modeling and color, lectures on the art of story 
 telling, and more or less observation of the practical work 
 of the kindergarten. Finally, some trainers insist that their 
 normal pupils shall not only observe but assist in actual work 
 with the children. 
 
 In addition to this specific training, the best normal schools 
 offer courses in science, literature, psychology, and the his- 
 tory of education. 
 
 Prominent among private training schools are those of 
 Miss Garland, Miss Symonds, Miss Wheelock and Miss 
 Page in Boston ; that of Mme. Kraus-Boelte in New York ; 
 that conducted by Miss H. A. Niel in Washington, in con- 
 nection with the work established and sustained by Mrs. 
 Phcebe A. Hearst, and that of the Kindergarten institute of
 
 73] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 4! 
 
 Chicago, which is co-operative with the social settlement 
 work in that city. Conspicuous among normal departments 
 conducted under the auspices of kindergarten associations, 
 is the training school of Miss C. M. C. Hart in Baltimore, 
 which, in addition to a two years' course for kindergartners, 
 offers a fine post-graduate course, and a course preparatory 
 for normal work. Other training schools connected with 
 kindergarten associations are the normal departments of the 
 Froebel association, and the Free kindergarten association 
 of Chicago, and the training schools conducted under the 
 auspices of the Louisville and Golden Gate associations. 
 
 Kindergarten departments have been established in sev- 
 eral great guasz-public institutions. Among the most nota- 
 ble of these are the kindergarten department of Pratt insti- 
 tute, Brooklyn, and of Teachers college, Columbia univer- 
 sity, and of Workingman's institute, New York. 
 
 Of the 164 public normal schools in the United States 36 
 provide some kind of kindergarten training, the courses 
 varying in length from about two years to six months. 
 These kindergarten departments are distributed as follows in 
 the normal schools of the different states : 
 
 New York, 7 Illinois, i 
 
 Michigan, 5 Colorado, I 
 
 Pennsylvania, 4 Kansas, I 
 
 California, 4 Rhode Island, I 
 
 Massachusetts, 3 Georgia, I 
 
 New Jersey, 2 Nebraska, I 
 
 Connecticut, 2 Ohio, I 
 
 Wisconsin, 2 Minnesota, i 
 
 The public normal schools whose kindergartens are most 
 worthy of mention are those of Boston and Philadelphia. 
 In general, however, the kindergarten work in public normal 
 schools is inferior to that of private training schools, kinder- 
 garten associations and the great institutions to which refer- 
 ence has been made above. 
 
 Kindergartners are admitted to surpass all other teachers 
 as students of educational literature. They are also distin-
 
 42 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [/4 
 
 guishing themselves by zealous and persistent attendance 
 upon post-graduate courses in pedagogics, science, literature, 
 history and psychology. Between the years 1880 and 1888 
 large numbers of St. Louis kindergartners participated in 
 classes organized during successive winters for the study of 
 Herodotus, Thucydides, Sophocles, Homer, Dante and 
 Goethe. They also followed lecture courses in psychology 
 and philosophy, and constantly attended classes devoted to 
 the deeper study of Froebel's educational principles and the 
 illustration of his method. Through the efforts of the Chi- 
 cago kindergarten college post-graduate work of a high order 
 has become a feature of Froebelian activity in that city, and 
 for many years there has been conducted each winter a liter- 
 ary school whose lecturers are recognized as the greatest 
 interpreters in America of the supreme works of literature. 
 During successive winters Miss Laura Fisher, director of the 
 public school kindergartens of Boston, has organized post- 
 graduate classes in the study of the Mother Play and the 
 Pedagogics of the Kindergarten and has also conducted valu- 
 able courses in literature and psychology. Through the 
 efforts of Miss C. P. Dozier, supervisor of the New York 
 kindergarten association, and Miss Mary D. Runyan, head of 
 the kindergarten department of Teachers college, Columbia 
 university, post-graduate work has been organized in New 
 York city. Classes in psychology, literature and the phil- 
 osophy of history are conducted by Miss Hart in Baltimore, 
 and courses in literature and psychology are already given 
 in connection with the young but flourishing work of Miss 
 Niel in Washington. In Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Buffalo 
 and other cities post-graduate work is less developed, but 
 good beginnings have been made. 
 
 The power of the kindergarten over the minds of its stu- 
 dents arises from the fact that it connects the ideal of self- 
 culture with the ideal of child-nurture. The true woman 
 does not wish to " deck herself with knowledge as with a gar- 
 ment, or to wear it loose from the nerves and blood that 
 feed her action." Therefore, she responds with whole heart
 
 75] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 43 
 
 to the appeal to learn all she can, be all she can, and devote 
 all she is and all she knows to the service of childhood. 
 
 Rooted in maternal impulses it would be strange indeed if 
 the kindergarten did not appeal to mothers. That classes 
 for mothers should come into existence was a predestined 
 phase of the Froebelian movement. Whoever has studied 
 the writings of Froebel knows that the education of mothers 
 was one of the most important features of his endeavor. 
 Practically, however, the work in this direction amounted to 
 very little until a mothers' department was established in 
 that unique institution, the Chicago kindergarten college. I 
 call this institution unique because it has consciously 
 attempted the transformation of the girls' college into a school 
 for motherhood. The colleges for men offer many different 
 courses. Why should not the colleges for women offer at 
 least elective courses in subjects fitting their students for 
 the vocation of mother and home maker ? Why should not 
 the study of Froebel's Mother Play, the use of kindergarten 
 gifts and the practice of kindergarten games be made one of 
 these elective courses? Why should not all institutions 
 which ignore the mission of woman as nurturer be supplanted 
 by institutions like the Chicago kindergarten college, which, 
 while giving general culture, make it their supreme aim to 
 fit women for the work, which, if there be any meaning in 
 the process of natural evolution, is theirs by divine appoint- 
 ment ? And, finally, why should not such institutions give 
 instruction not only to young girls but to mothers themselves ? 
 During the single year 1891-92 the mothers' department of 
 the Chicago college gave instruction to 725 mothers. In the 
 eight years since its foundation it has given whole or partial 
 courses to nearly five thousand mothers. The effects of such 
 instruction in enhancing the sanctity and uplifting the ideals 
 of family life can hardly be exaggerated. Recently the work 
 of this department has been extended by holding convoca- 
 tions for the discussion of all phases of child-nurture. Four 
 of such convocations have already been held, each of which 
 had nine sessions of from two to two and one-half hours in
 
 44 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 
 
 length. The attendance was from three to five thousand 
 persons. 
 
 While the maternal ideal is dominant in the Chicago col- 
 lege it is not exclusive. This organization supports a number 
 of kindergartens wherein students learn to apply Froebelian 
 principles. It has departments for kindergartners, kinder- 
 garten trainers and primary teachers. It has also depart- 
 ments of literature and publication and a philanthropic 
 department, these several departments being all in the hands 
 of competent specialists. Finally, it has developed and 
 extended the literary and historic courses begun in St. Louis 
 and by adding courses in science and art has connected the 
 kindergarten with the total round of man's spiritual activity. 
 
 Radiating from the kindergarten college as its center the 
 maternal movement is spreading throughout the United 
 States. It is the highest reach of the Froebelian ideal and 
 means nothing more nor less than the attempted regenera- 
 tion of all human life through the regeneration of the family. 
 
 Froebel's supreme claim to our grateful remembrance rests 
 upon the fact that consciously repeating the unconscious 
 process of social evolution he set the little child in front of 
 the great army of advancing humanity. Science affirms 
 that the feebleness of infancy created the family and that 
 from the family have been evolved the higher institutions. 
 " Without the circumstances of infancy," writes one of our lead- 
 ing scientists, 1 "we might have become formidable through 
 sheer force of sharpwittedness. But except for these cir- 
 cumstances we should never have comprehended the mean- 
 ing of such phrases as self-sacrifice or devotion. The phe- 
 nomena of social life would have been omitted from the his- 
 tory of the world and with them the phenomena of ethics 
 and religion." In his cry, " Come, let us live for the chil- 
 dren," Froebel utters in articulate speech the ideal whose 
 unconscious impulsion set in motion the drama of human 
 history. The little child was pioneer of the process which 
 created human institutions. We must make him the pioneer 
 of their perfection. 
 
 1 Cosmic Philosophy, John Fiske, II: 363.
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATERS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS 
 United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 PART I GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 In all the schools of the United States, public and private, 
 elementary, secondary and higher, there were enrolled in the 
 year 1898 about sixteen and one-half millions (16,687,643) 
 pupils. (Sec appendix I.) This number includes all who 
 attended at any time in the year for any period, however 
 short. But the actual average attendance for each pupil 
 in the public schools (supported by taxes) did not exceed 
 98 days, although the average length of the school session 
 was 143.1 days. There were enrolled in the aggregate 
 of public and private schools out of each 100 of the popu- 
 lation between the ages of 5 and 18 years, 71 pupils. 
 
 Out of the entire number of sixteen and a half millions 
 of pupils deduct the pupils of private and parochial schools 
 of all kinds, elementary, secondary, higher, and schools for 
 art, industry and business, for defective classes and Indians, 
 there remain over 15,000,00x3 for the public school enroll- 
 ment, or nearly 91 per cent of the whole. (See appendix I.) 
 In the 28 years since 1870 the attendance on the public 
 schools has increased from less than 7,000,000 to 1 5,000,000. 
 (Appendix II.) The expenditures have increased some- 
 what more, namely, from 63,000,000 to 199,000,000 of dol- 
 lars per annum, an increase from $1.64 per capita of popu- 
 lation to $2.67. To account for this pro rata increase of 
 6 1 per cent in the cost of the common schools one must 
 allow for a slight increase in the average length of the school 
 term, and for the increase of enrollment from less than 1 7 
 per cent to more than 20 per cent of the population. But 
 the chief items of increase are to be found in teachers' 
 wages for professionally educated teachers, and the cost of
 
 4 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [80 
 
 expert supervision. These account for more than two-thirds 
 of the 50 per cent, while the remaining one-sixth (of the 
 whole) is due to better apparatus and more commodious 
 school buildings. 
 
 The increase of cities and large villages, owing to the 
 influence of the railroad, has brought nearly one-half the 
 school population within reach of the graded school holding 
 a long session of from 180 to 200 days per year, and taught 
 by professional teachers. (See appendix III.) In 1870 
 there were for each 10,000 inhabitants 12.75 miles of 
 railway, but in 1890 the number of miles of railway for the 
 same number of inhabitants had risen to 26.12 miles, or 
 more than double the former amount. The effect of this 
 increase of railway is to extend the suburbs of cities and 
 vastly increase the urban population. The rural schools in 
 sparsely settled districts still continue their old practice of 
 holding a winter school with a session of 60 to 80 days 
 only, and taught by the makeshift teacher who works at 
 some other employment for two-thirds of the year. The 
 school year of ideal length should be about 200 days, or 
 
 5 days per week for 40 weeks, i. e., nine and one-half months. 
 In the early days of city schools the attempt was made 
 to hold a session of over 46 weeks in length, allowing only 
 six weeks or less for three short vacations. But experi- 
 ence of their advantage to the pupil has led to the increase 
 of the holidays to nearly double the former amount. 
 
 Reducing the total average attendance in all the schools, 
 public and private, to years of 200 school days each, it 
 is found that the average total amount of schooling each 
 individual of the population would receive at the rates 
 of attendance and length of session for 1898, is five years, 
 counting both private and public schools. 
 
 The average schooling, it appears from the above show- 
 ing, amounts to enough to secure for each person a little 
 more than one-half of an elementary school course of eight 
 years, enough to enable the future citizen to read the 
 newspaper, to write fairly well, to count, add, subtract, mul-
 
 8l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 
 
 tiply and divide, and use the simplest fractions. In addition 
 he acquires a little geographical knowledge, so important to 
 enable him to understand the references or allusions in his 
 daily newspaper to places of interest in other parts of the 
 world. But the multiplicity of cheap books and periodicals 
 makes the life of the average citizen a continuation of school 
 to some extent. His knowledge of reading is called into use 
 constantly, and he is obliged to extend gradually his knowl- 
 edge of the rudiments of geography and history. Even his 
 daily gossip in his family, in the shop, or in the field is to 
 some extent made up of comments on the affairs of the state, 
 the nation, or distant peoples, China, Japan, Nicaraugua, 
 or the Sandwich islands, as the case may be, and world 
 interests, to a degree, take the place of local scandals in his 
 thoughts. Thus, too, he picks up scraps of science and 
 literature from the newspaper, and everything that he learns 
 becomes at once an instrument for the acquirement of 
 further knowledge. In a nation governed chiefly by public 
 opinion digested and promulgated by the daily newspaper, 
 this knowledge of the rudiments of reading, writing, arith- 
 metic and geography is of vital importance. An illiterate 
 population is impenetrable by newspaper influence, and for 
 it public opinion in any wide sense is impossible ; its local 
 prejudices are not purified or eliminated by thought and 
 feeling in reference to objects common to the whole civilized 
 world. 
 
 The transformation of an illiterate population into a 
 population that reads the daily newspaper, and perforce 
 thinks on national and international interests, is thus far the 
 greatest good accomplished by the free public school system 
 of the United States. It must be borne in mind that the 
 enrollment in school of one person in every five of the entire 
 population of the country means the same result for the 
 southern states as for the northern, since the states on the 
 Gulf of Mexico enroll nearly 22 per cent of their total popu- 
 lation, colored and white, and the south Atlantic 20.70 per 
 cent, while the north Atlantic and the western, mountain and
 
 6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [82 
 
 Pacific divisions enroll only 18 per cent, having a much 
 smaller ratio of children of school age. 
 
 In a reading population one section understands the 
 motives of the other, and this prevents political differences 
 from becoming too wide for solution by partisan politics. 
 When one section cannot any longer accredit the other with 
 honest and patriotic motives, war is only a question of time. 
 That this general prevalence of elementary education is 
 accompanied by a comparative neglect of the secondary and 
 higher courses of study is evident from the fact that out of 
 the number of pupils enrolled more than ninety-five in every 
 hundred are pursuing elementary studies ; less than four in 
 a hundred are in secondary studies in high schools, acade- 
 mies and other institutions ; only one in a hundred (13 in 
 one thousand) is in a college or a school for higher studies. 
 
 In considering the reasons for the increase of the length 
 of the term of the elementary school and its adoption of a 
 graded course of study, one comes upon the most important 
 item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of 
 education, namely, the introduction of professionally trained 
 teachers. The first normal school established in the United 
 States recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. It was 
 founded at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The num- 
 ber of public normal schools supported by the state or 
 municipal governments has increased since that year to 167, 
 enrolling 46,245 students, and graduating nearly 8,000 per 
 annum. To this number are to be added 1 78 private normal 
 schools, with an aggregate of 21,293 students and 2,000 
 graduates. In 1880 there were 240 normal school students 
 in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936, or 
 nearly four times as many in each million. 
 
 The professionally educated teacher finds his place in the 
 graded schools, above mentioned as established in cities and 
 large villages, and kept in session for the entire scholastic 
 year of 200 days. It is the experience of school superin- 
 tendents that graduates of normal schools continue to 
 improve in skill and efficiency for many years. The advan-
 
 83] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 7 
 
 tage of the professionally educated teacher above others is 
 to be found in the fact that he has been trained to observe 
 methods and devices of instruction. On entering a school 
 taught by another teacher he at once sees, without special 
 effort, the methods of teaching and management, and notes 
 the defects as well as the strong points if there are any. 
 He is constantly increasing his number of successful 
 devices to secure good behavior without harsh measures, 
 and to secure industry and critical attention in study. Every \ 
 normal school has a thorough course of study in the ele- 
 mentary branches, taking them up in view of the higher 
 branches from which they are derived, and explaining their 
 difficult topics. This kind of work prepares the teacher in 
 advance for the mishaps of the pupil, and arms him with the 
 skill to assist self-activity by teaching the pupil to analyze 
 his problem into its elements. He can divide each step that 
 is too long for the pupil to take, into its component steps, 
 down to any required degree of simplicity. The normal 
 school graduate, too, other things being equal, has a better 
 idea than other teachers of the educational value of a branch 
 of study. He knows what points are essential, and what are 
 accidental and subsidiary. He therefore makes his pupils 
 thoroughly acquainted with those strategical positions, and 
 shows him how to conquer all the rest through these. 
 
 As it would appear from the statistics given, the rural dis- 
 tricts are precluded by their short school terms from securing 
 professional teachers. The corps of teachers in a highly- 
 favored city will be able to claim a large percentage of .its 
 rank and file as graduates of its municipal training schools 
 perhaps 50 to 60 per cent. But the cities and villages as 
 a whole in their graded schools cannot as yet show an aver- 
 age of more than one teacher in four who has received the 
 diploma of a normal school. 
 
 Another important advantage has been named as belong- 
 ing to the schools of the village or city. They are graded 
 schools, and have a regular course of study, uniformity of 
 text-books, and a proper classification of pupils. In the
 
 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [84 
 
 small rural schools some 20 to 50 pupils are brought together 
 under one teacher. Their ages vary from 4 years to 20, and 
 their degree of advancement ranges from new beginners in 
 the alphabet up to those who have attended school for 10 or 
 12 winters, and are now attempting Latin and algebra. It 
 often happens that there is no uniformity of text-books, except 
 perhaps in the spelling-book and reader, each pupil bringing 
 such arithmetic, geography or grammar as his family at home 
 happens to possess. Twenty pupils are classified in three 
 classes in reading, three in spelling, and perhaps as many 
 classes in arithmetic, grammar, geography, and other studies 
 as there are pupils pursuing those branches. The result is 
 from 20 to 40 separate lessons to look after, and perhaps five 
 or 10 minutes to devote to each class exercise. The teacher 
 finds himself limited to examining the pupil on the work 
 done in memorizing the words of the book, or to comparing 
 the answers he has found to the arithmetic problems with 
 those in the printed key, occasionally giving assistance in 
 some difficult problem that has baffled the efforts of the 
 pupil no probing of the lesson by analytical questions, no 
 restatement of the ideas in the pupil's own words, and no 
 criticism on the data and methods of the text-book. 
 
 This was the case in the old-time district school such 
 as existed in 1790, when 29 out of 30 of the population 
 lived in rural districts; also as late as 1840, when only one 
 in twelve lived in a city. As the railroad has caused vil- 
 lages to grow into cities, so it has virtually moved into the 
 city a vast population living near railway stations in the 
 country by giving them the morning newspaper and rapid 
 transportation. In 1890 one-third of the population were 
 living in cities of not less than 8,000 inhabitants. But the 
 suburban populations made urban by the railroad as indi- 
 cated above would swell the city population to one-half 
 of the whole nation. Hence the great change now taking 
 place in methods of building school houses and in organ- 
 izing schools. 
 
 In the ungraded schools the naturally bright pupils accom-
 
 85] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 9 
 
 plished a fair amount of work if they happened to have good 
 text-books. They were able to teach themselves from the 
 books. But the rank and file of the school learned a little 
 reading, writing and arithmetic, and probably studied the 
 same book for several winters, beginning at the first page 
 on the first day of school each year. Those who needed no 
 help from the teacher learned to help themselves and enjoyed 
 a delightful freedom. Those who were slow and dull did 
 not get much aid. Their industry may have been stimulated 
 by fear of the rod, which was often used in cases of real or 
 supposed indolence. Harsh measures may succeed in forc- 
 ing pupils to do mechanical work, but they cannot secure 
 much development of the power of thought. Hence the 
 resources of the so-called "strict" teacher were to compel 
 the memorizing of the words of the book. 
 
 With the growth from the rural to the urban condition of 
 population the method of " individual instruction," as it is 
 called, giving it a fine name, has been supplanted by class 
 instruction, which prevails in village and city schools. The 
 individual did not get much instruction under the old plan, 
 for the simple reason that his teacher had only five or ten 
 minutes to examine him on his daily work. In the properly 
 graded school each teacher has two classes, and hears one 
 recite while the other learns a new lesson. Each class is 
 composed of twenty to thirty pupils of nearly the same 
 qualifications as regards the degree of progress made in 
 their studies. The teacher has thirty minutes for a recita- 
 tion (or " lesson " as called in England), and can go into the 
 merits of the subject and discuss the real thoughts that it 
 involves. The meaning of the words in the book is probed, 
 and the pupil made to explain it in his own language. But 
 besides this all pupils learn more by a class recitation than 
 by an individual recitation. For in the class each can see 
 the lesson reflected in the minds of his fellow-pupils, and 
 understand his teacher's views much better when drawn out 
 in the form of a running commentary on the mistakes of the 
 duller or more indolent pupils. The dull ones are encour-
 
 IO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [86 
 
 aged and awakened to effort by finding themselves able to 
 see the errors and absurdities of fellow-pupils. For no two 
 minds take precisely the same view of a text-book exposition 
 of a topic. One child is impressed by one phase of it, and 
 another by a different phase. In the class recitation each 
 one has his crude and one-sided views corrected more or 
 less by his fellows, some of whom have a better comprehen- 
 sion of this point, and some of that point, in the lesson. He, 
 himself, has some glimpses of the subject that are more ade- 
 quate than those of his fellows. 
 
 The possibilities of a class recitation are, therefore, very 
 great for efficient instruction in the hands of a teacher who 
 understands his business. For he can marshal the crude 
 notions of the members of the class one after another, and 
 turn on them the light of all the critical acumen of the class 
 as a whole, supplemented by his own knowledge and experi- 
 ence. From beginning to end, for thirty minutes, the class 
 recitation is a vigorous training in critical alertness. The 
 pupil afterwards commences the preparation of his next les- 
 son from the book with what are called new " apperceptive " 
 powers, for he finds himself noticing and comprehending 
 many statements and a still greater number of implications 
 of meaning in his lesson that before had not been seen or 
 even suspected.. He is armed with a better power of analy- 
 sis, and can " apperceive," or recognize and identify, more of 
 the items of information, and especially more of the thoughts 
 and reflections, than he was able to see before the discus- 
 sions that took place in the recitation. He has in a sense 
 gained the points of view of fellow-pupils and teacher, in 
 addition to his own. 
 
 It is presupposed that the chief work of the pupil in school is 
 the mastery of text-books containing systematic treatises giv- 
 ing the elements of branches of learning taught in the schools. 
 For in the United .States more than in any other country 
 text-book instruction has predominated over oral instruction, 
 its method in this respect being nearly the opposite of the 
 method in vogue in the elementary schools of Germany.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II 
 
 The evil of memorizing words without understanding their 
 meaning or verifying the statements made in the text-book 
 is incident to this method and is perhaps the most widely 
 prevalent defect in teaching to be found in the schools of the 
 United States. It is condemned universally, but, neverthe- 
 less, practiced. The oral method of Germany escapes this 
 evil almost entirely, but it encounters another evil. The 
 pupil taught by the oral method exclusively is apt to lack 
 power to master the printed page and get out of it the full 
 meaning ; he needs the teacher's aid to explain the techni- 
 cal phrases and careful definitions. The American method 
 of text-book instruction throws the child upon the printed 
 page and holds him responsible for its mastery. Hence 
 even in the worst forms of verbal memorizing there is per- 
 force acquired a familiarity with language as it appears to 
 the eye in printed form which gradually becomes more use- 
 ful for scholarly purposes than the knowledge of speech 
 addressed to the ear. This is the case in all technical, or 
 scientific language, and in all poetry and literary prose ; the 
 new words or new shades of meaning require the mind to 
 pause and reflect. This can be done in reading but not in 
 listening to an oral delivery. 
 
 In the United States the citizen must learn to help him- 
 self in this matter of gaining information, and for this reason 
 he must use his school time to acquire the art of digging 
 knowledge out of books. Hence we may say that a deep 
 instinct or an unconscious need has forced American schools 
 into an excessive use of the text-book method. 
 
 In the hands of a trained teacher the good of the method 
 is obtained and the evil avoided. The pupil is taught to 
 assume a critical attitude towards the statements of the book 
 and to test and verify them, or else disprove them by appeal 
 to other authorities, or to actual experiments. 
 
 This ideal hovers before all teachers, even the poorest, 
 but it is realized only by the best class of teachers found in 
 the schools of the United States, a class that is already 
 large and is constantly increasing, thanks to the analytic
 
 12 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [88 
 
 methods taught in the normal schools. Text-book memoriz- 
 ing is giving place to the method of critical investigation. 
 
 This review of methods suggests a good definition of 
 school instruction. It is the process of re-enforcing the 
 sense-perception of the individual pupil by adding the expe- 
 rience of the race as preserved in books, and it is more espe- 
 cially the strengthening of his powers of thought and insight 
 by adding to his own reflections the points of view and the 
 critical observations of books interpreted by his teachers and 
 fellow-pupils. 
 
 In the graded school the pupil is held responsible for his 
 work in a way that is impossible in the rural school of 
 sparsely-settled districts. Hence the method of investiga- 
 tion, as above described, is found in the city schools rather 
 than in the rural schools. Where each pupil forms a class 
 by himself, there is too little time for the teacher to ascertain 
 the character of the pupil's understanding of his book. 
 Even if he sees that there has been a step missed somewhere 
 by the child in learning his lesson, he cannot take time to 
 determine precisely what it is. Where the ungraded school 
 makes some attempt at classification of pupils it is obliged 
 to unite into one class say of arithmetic, grammar, or geog- 
 raphy, pupils of very different degrees of progress. The 
 consequence is that the most advanced pupils have not 
 enough work assigned them, being held back to the standard 
 of the average. They must " mark time " (or go through 
 the motions of walking without advancing a step) while the 
 rest are coming up. The least advanced find the average 
 lesson rather too much for them, and become discouraged 
 after trying in vain to keep step with their better prepared 
 fellow-pupils. This condition of affairs is to be found in 
 many rural districts even of those states where the advantages 
 of classification are seen and appreciated in city schools, and 
 an effort is in progress to extend those advantages to the 
 rural schools. But the remedy has been, in many cases, 
 worse than the disease. For it has resulted that classifica- 
 tion gets in the way of self-help which the bright pupil is
 
 89] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 13 
 
 capable of, and the best scholars " mark time " listlessly, 
 while the poorest get discouraged, and only the average 
 pupils gain something. 
 
 It must be admitted, too, that in many village schools just 
 adopting the system of grading, this evil of holding back 
 the bright pupils and of over-pressure on the dull ones exists, 
 and furnishes just occasion for the criticism which is made 
 against the so-called "machine" character of the American 
 public school. The school that permits such poor classifica- 
 tion, or that does not keep up a continual process of read- 
 justing the classification by promoting pupils from lower 
 classes to those above them, certainly has no claim to be 
 ranked with schools organized on a modern ideal. 
 
 I have dwelt on this somewhat technical matter because 
 of its importance in understanding the most noteworthy 
 improvements in progress in the schools of the United 
 States. Briefly, the population is rapidly becoming urban, 
 the schools are becoming "graded," the pupils of the lowest 
 year's work placed under one teacher, and those of the next 
 degree of advancement under a second teacher ; perhaps 
 from eight to twenty teachers in the same building, thus form- 
 ing a "union school," as it is called in some sections. Here 
 there is division of labor on the part of teachers, one taking 
 only classes just beginning to learn to read and write, another 
 taking the pupils in a higher grade. The inevitable conse- 
 quence of such division of labor is increase of skill. The 
 teacher comes to know just what to do in a given case of 
 obstructed progress just what minute steps of work to 
 introduce just what thin wedges to lift the pupil over the 
 threshold that holds back the feeble intellect from entering 
 a new and higher degree of human learning. 
 
 It will be asked : What proportion of the teachers of 
 cities and villages habitually use this higher method in con- 
 ducting recitations. According to a careful estimate, at 
 least one-half of them may reasonably claim to have some 
 skill in its use ; of the one-half in the elementary schools 
 who use it perhaps two-fifths conduct all their recitations so
 
 14 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [90 
 
 as to make the work of their pupils help each individual in 
 correcting defects of observation and critical alertness. Per- 
 haps the other three-fifths use the method in teaching some 
 branches, but cling to the old memoriter system for the rest. 
 It may be claimed for graduates of normal schools that a 
 large majority follow the better method. 
 
 The complaint urged against the machine character of the 
 modern school has been mentioned. I suppose that this 
 complaint is made quite as often against good schools as 
 against poor ones. But the critical-probing method of con- 
 ducting a recitation is certainly not machine-like in its effects. 
 It arouses in the most powerful manner the activity of the 
 pupil to think and observe for himself. Machine-like schools 
 do not follow this critical method, but are content with the 
 memoriter system, that prescribes so many pages of the book 
 to be learned verbally, but does not inquire into the pupil's 
 understanding, or " apperception," as the Herbartians call it. 
 It is admitted that about 50 per cent of the teachers actually 
 teaching in the schools of villages and cities use this poor 
 method. But it is certain that their proportion in the corps 
 of teachers is diminishing, thanks to the two causes already 
 alluded to : first, the multiplication of professional schools 
 for the training of teachers ; and second, the employment of 
 educational experts as supervisors of schools. 
 
 The rural schools, which in the United States enroll one- 
 half of the entire number of school children, certainly lack 
 good class teaching, even when they are so fortunate as to 
 obtain professionally educated teachers, and not five per cent 
 of such schools in the land succeed in procuring better serv- 
 ices than the " makeshift" teacher can give. The worst that 
 can be said of these poorly taught schools is that the pupils 
 are either left to help themselves to knowledge by reading 
 their books under the plan of individual instruction, or, in the 
 attempt at classification and grading, the average pupils 
 learn something, while the bright pupils become listless and 
 indolent for want of tasks commensurate with their strength 
 and the backward pupils lose their courage for their want of
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 15 
 
 ability to keep step. Even under these circumstances the 
 great good is accomplished that all the pupils learn the 
 rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic, and all are 
 made able to become readers of the newspapers, the maga- 
 zines, and finally of books. 
 
 Another phase of the modern school that more than any- 
 thing else gives it the appearance of a machine, and the 
 American city schools are often condemned for their mechan- 
 ism, is its discipline, or method of organization and govern- 
 ment. In the rural school with twenty-five pupils, more or 
 less, it makes little difference whether pupils come into the 
 school room and go out in military order, so far as the work 
 of the school is concerned. But in the graded school with 
 three hundred to eight hundred pupils order and discipline 
 are necessary down to the last particular, for the safety of 
 the pupils as well as for the accomplishment of the ends for 
 which the school exists. There must be regularity and 
 punctuality, silence and conformity to order, in coming and 
 going. The whole school seems to move like a machine. 
 In the ungraded school a delightful individuality prevails, 
 the pupil helping himself to knowledge by the use of the 
 book, and coming and going pretty much as he pleases, with 
 no subordination to rigid discipline, except perhaps when 
 standing in class for recitation. 
 
 Regularity, punctuality, silence, and conformity to order, 
 military drill, seem at first to be so much waste of 
 energy, necessary, it is true, for the large school, but to be 
 subtracted from the amount of force available for study and 
 thought. But the moment the question of moral training 
 comes to be investigated, the superiority of the education 
 given in the large school is manifest. The pupil is taught 
 to be regular and punctual in his attendance on school and 
 in all his movements, not for the sake of the school alone, 
 but for all his relations to his fellow-men. Social combina- 
 tion is made possible by these semi-mechanical virtues. 
 The pupil learns to hold back his animal impulse to chatter 
 or whisper to his fellows and to interrupt their serious
 
 1 6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [92 
 
 absorption in recitation or study, and by so much self- 
 restraint he begins to form a good habit for life. He learns 
 to respect the serious business of others. By whispering he 
 can waste his own time and also that of others. In moving 
 to and fro by a sort of military concert and precision he 
 acquires the impulse to behave in an orderly manner, to stay 
 in his own place and not get in the way of others. Hence 
 he prepares for concerted action, another important lesson 
 in citizenship, leaving entirely out of account its military 
 significance. 
 
 With the increase of cities and the growth of great indus- 
 trial combinations this discipline in the virtues that lie at 
 the basis of concerted action is not merely important, but 
 essential. In the railroad system a lack of those semi- 
 mechanical virtues would entirely unfit one for a place as 
 laborer or employee ; so, too, in a great mill or a great busi- 
 ness house. Precision, accuracy, implicit obedience to the 
 head or directive power, are necessary for the safety of 
 others and for the production of any positive results. The 
 rural school does not fit its pupils for an age of productive 
 industry and emancipation from drudgery by means of 
 machinery. But the city school performs this so well that it 
 reminds some people unpleasantly of a machine. 
 
 The ungraded school has been famous for its harsh 
 methods of discipline ever since the time of the flogging 
 schoolmaster Orbilius whom Horace mentions. The rural 
 schoolmaster to this day often prides himself on his ability 
 to "govern" his unruly boys by corporal punishment. 
 They must be respectful to his authority, obedient and studi- 
 ous, or else they are made to suffer bodily pain from the 
 hand of the teacher. But harsh discipline leaves indura- 
 tions on the soul itself, and is not compatible with a refined 
 type of civilization. The schoolmaster who bullies his 
 pupils into obedience does what he can to nurture them into 
 the same type as himself. 
 
 In the matter of school discipline the graded school has 
 an advantage over the school of the rural district. A corps
 
 93] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION I/ 
 
 of teachers can secure good behavior more efficiently than a 
 single teacher. The system, and what is disparaged as its , 
 " mechanism," help this result. In many cities of the largest 
 size in the United States, corporal punishment is seldom 
 resorted to, or is even entirely dispensed with. (See appen- 
 dix V.) The discipline of the school seems to improve 
 after the discontinuance of harsh punishments. The adop- 
 tion of a plan of building better suited for the purpose of 
 graded schools has had much to do with the disuse of the 
 rod. As long as the children to the number of one or two 
 hundred studied in a large room under the eye of the prin- 
 cipal of the school, and were sent out to small rooms to recite 
 to assistant teachers, the order of the school was preserved 
 by corporal punishment. When Boston introduced the new 
 style of school building with the erection of the Quincy 
 school in 1847, giving each class-teacher a room to herself, 
 in which pupils to the number of fifty or so prepared their 
 lessons under the eye of the same teacher that conducted 
 their recitations (z. e., " heard their lessons "), a new era "in 
 school discipline began. It is possible to manage a school 
 in such a building with little or no corporal punishment. 
 
 The ideal of discipline is to train the pupil into habits of 
 self-government. This is accomplished partly by perfecting 
 the habit of moving in concert with others, and by self- 
 restraint in all actions that interfere with the work of other , 
 pupils. 
 
 That the public schools of cities have worked great and 
 favorable changes to the advantage of civil order cannot be 
 doubted. They have generally broken up the feuds that 
 used to prevail between the people of different precincts. 
 Learning to live without quarreling with school-fellows is an 
 efficient preparation for an orderly and peaceful life with 
 one's neighbors. 
 
 The rural school, with all its shortcomings, was, and is 
 to-day, a great moral force for the sparsely settled regions, 
 bringing together the youth of the scattered families, and 
 forming friendships, cultivating polite behavior, affording to
 
 1 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [94 
 
 each an insight into the motives and springs of action of his 
 neighbors, and teaching him how to co-operate with them in 
 securing a common good. 
 
 The city school is a stronger moral force than the rural 
 school because of its superior training in the social habits 
 named regularity, punctuality, orderly concerted action 
 and self-restraint. 
 
 Take any country with a school system, and compare the 
 number of illiterate criminals with the total number of illit- 
 erate inhabitants, and also the number of criminals able to 
 read and write with the entire reading population, and it will 
 be found that the representation from the illiterate popula- 
 tion is many times larger than from an equal number of 
 people who can read and write. In the United States the pre- 
 vailing ratio is about eight to one that is to say, the illit- 
 erate population sends eight times its quota to jails. In the 
 prisons or penitentiaries it is found that the illiterate stratum 
 of the population is represented by two and a half times its 
 quota. (See part IV of this monograph.) School educa- 
 tion is perhaps in this case not a cause so much as an index 
 of orderly tendencies in the family. A wayward tendency 
 will show itself in a dislike of the restraints of school. If, 
 however, the wayward can be brought under the humanizing 
 influences of school, trained in good behavior, which means 
 self-restraint and orderly concerted action, interested in 
 school studies and the pursuit of truth, what can do more to 
 insure a moral life, unless it is religion ? 
 
 PART II EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The European student of education inquiring about 
 schools always asks concerning the laws and regulations 
 issued by the central government at Washington, taking for 
 granted that things of such interest as education are regu- 
 lated by the nation, as in Europe. 
 
 The central government of the United States, however, 
 has never attempted any control over education within the 
 several states. It is further than ever from any such action
 
 95] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 19 
 
 at the present time. The idea of local self-government is 
 that each individual shall manage for himself such matters 
 as concern him alone ; that where two or more persons are 
 concerned the smallest political subdivision shall have juris- 
 diction and legislative powers ; where the well-being of sev- 
 eral towns is concerned the county or the state may determine 
 the action taken. But where the interests of more than one 
 state are concerned, the nation has ultimate control. 
 
 While the general government has not interfered to estab- 
 lish schools in the states, it has often aided them by dona- 
 tions of land, and in some cases by money, as in the acts of 
 1887 and 1890, which appropriate annual sums in aid of 
 agricultural experiment stations and increase the endowment 
 of agricultural colleges, which were formerly established in 
 1862 by generous grants of land. 
 
 The total amount of land donated to the several states 
 for educational purposes since 1 785 to the present have been 
 as follows : 
 
 1. For public or common schools: Acres 
 
 Every i6th section of public land in states admitted 
 prior to 1848 and the i6th and 36th sections since 
 (Utah, however, having four sections) 67,893,919 
 
 2. For seminaries or universities : 
 
 Two townships in each state or territory contain- 
 ing public land 1,165,520 
 
 3. For agricultural and mechanical colleges : 
 
 30,000 acres for each member of congress to which 
 
 the state is entitled 9,600,000 
 
 Total number of acres 78,659,439 
 
 At the rate of one dollar and a quarter an acre (the tra- 
 ditional price asked by the government for its lands) this 
 amounts to about one hundred millions of dollars. 
 
 Besides this a perpetual endowment by act of 1887 is 
 made of $15,000 per annum for each agricultural experiment 
 station connected with the state agricultural college, and 
 $25,000 perpetual additional endowment by act of 1890 for
 
 2O ELEMENTARY EDUCATION,, [96 
 
 each of the colleges themselves this is equivalent to a 
 capitalized fund of one million dollars at four per cent for 
 each state and territory, or in the aggregate about fifty 
 millions more. 
 
 The general government supports the military school at 
 West Point, established in 1802, to which each congressional 
 district, territory (and the District of Columbia) is entitled 
 to send one cadet, the president appointing ten additional 
 cadets at large. Each cadet receives $540 a year to pay his 
 expenses. (The course of study is four years. The num- 
 ber of graduates between 1802 and 1876 was 2,640, about 
 fifty per cent of all admitted.) 
 
 The United States naval academy at Annapolis was estab- 
 lished in 1845. Its course of study in 1873 was extended to 
 six years. Cadets are appointed in the same manner as at 
 West Point. 
 
 The general government provides for the education of 
 the children of uncivilized Indians and for all the children in 
 Alaska. There have been, besides the general grants 
 referred to, special grants of land for educational purposes 
 such as the "swamp lands" (Acts of 1849, ^SO, 1860), by 
 which 62,428,419 acres were given to 14 states (Alabama, 
 Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Lou- 
 isiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and 
 Wisconsin) and by some of these appropriated to education. 
 
 By the act of 1841 a half million of acres was given to 
 each of sixteen states (including all above named except 
 Indiana and Ohio, and besides these Kansas, Nebraska, 
 Nevada and Oregon). This gives an aggregate of 8,000,000 
 of acres, the proceeds of most of which was devoted to 
 education. The surplus funds of the United States treasury 
 were in 1837 loaned to the older states for educational 
 purposes to the amount of $15,000,000 and this fund con- 
 stitutes a portion of the school fund in many of the states. 
 
 The aggregate value of lands and money given for educa- 
 tion in the several states is therefore nearly three hundred 
 millions of dollars.
 
 97] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 21 
 
 In 1867 congress established a national bureau of educa- 
 tion " for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts 
 as shall show the condition and progress of education in the 
 several states and territories, and of diffusing such informa- 
 tion respecting the organization and management of school 
 systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
 the United States in the establishment and maintainance of 
 efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of 
 education throughout the country." This bureau up to 
 1898 has published 350 separate volumes and pamphlets 
 including 30 annual reports ranging from 800 to 2,300 pages 
 each. The policy of the national government is to aid 
 education but not in anywise to assume its control. 
 
 The several states repeat in the general form of their state 
 constitutions the national constitution and delegate to 
 the subdivisions counties or townships the manage- 
 ment of education. (See appendix VIII, The local unit of 
 school organization.) But each state possesses centralized 
 power and can exercise it when the public opinion of its 
 population demands such exercise. 
 
 Compulsory attendance Even in colonial times as far back 
 as 1642 a compulsory law was enacted in Massachusetts 
 inflicting penalties on parents for the neglect of education. 
 In the revival of educational interest led by Horace Mann 
 in the years after 1837, it was felt that there must be a state 
 law, with specific provisions and penalties and this feeling 
 took definite shape and produced legislative action. A 
 truant law was passed in 1850 and a compulsory law in 
 1852, requiring a minimum of 12 weeks attendance on school 
 each year for children between the ages of eight and four- 
 teen under penalty of twenty dollars. 
 
 In the Connecticut eolony in 1650 the Massachusetts law 
 of 1642 was adopted. Amendments were adopted in 1805 
 and 1821. By a law of 1813 manufacturing establishments 
 were compelled to see that " the children in their employ 
 were taught to read, write and cipher [arithmetical calcu- 
 lation], and that attention was paid to their morals." In
 
 22 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [98 
 
 1842 a penalty was attached to a similar law which forbade 
 " the employment of children under the age of 1 5 years unless 
 they had been instructed at school at least three months of 
 the 12 preceding." 
 
 The efficiency of these early laws has been denied because 
 cases of prosecution have not been recorded. But a law- 
 abiding people does not wait until prosecuted before obey- 
 ing the law. 
 
 The existence of a reasonable law is sufficient to secure 
 its general obedience in most parts of the United States. 
 But in the absence of any law on the subject the parents 
 yield to their cupidity and do not send their children to 
 school. The efficiency of a law is to be found in its results 
 and if twenty parents in a district send their children to 
 school in obedience to the law and would not otherwise have 
 sent them, it follows that the law is very useful though the 
 twenty-first parent is obdurate and refuses to send his chil- 
 dren and yet is not prosecuted for it. 
 
 This explanation of the working of one compulsory law 
 will throw light on the working of compulsory laws in the 
 twenty-seven states and territories that have passed them. 
 There are exceptional localities in each state where an 
 obnoxious law is openly and frequently violated, but the 
 law is obeyed in all but a few places. In each locality, too, 
 there are individuals who are disposed to violate the law and 
 succeed in doing so, while all the citizens except these few 
 obey the law because they have a law-abiding disposition. 
 Abolish the law and the number who neglect the education 
 of their children will increase by a large per cent. More 
 and more attention has been given in later years to drafting 
 compulsory laws with provisions that are sure to be effi- 
 cient. The advocates of these new laws are apt in their 
 pleas for more stringent laws to do injustice to the old laws. 
 The following paragraphs show what states have adopted 
 compulsory laws and the dates of adoption (the earlier dates 
 in Connecticut and Massachusetts being unnoticed) : 
 
 Statistics of compulsory attendance Thirty states, one
 
 99] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 23 
 
 territory and the District of Columbia have laws making 
 education compulsory, generally at a public or approved 
 private school. Sixteen states and one territory do not 
 make education compulsory, although all of these have fully 
 organized systems of schools free to every child of school 
 age of whatever condition. 
 
 The most general period of required attendance at school 
 is from eight to fourteen years of age, as is the case in Ver- 
 mont, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Indiana, Michi- 
 gan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mon- 
 tana, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and California. 
 It begins likewise at eight, but is extended to 15 in Maine 
 and Washington, and is from eight to 16 in New Hampshire, 
 Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and New 
 Mexico. 
 
 The child is required to begin attendance at the earlier age 
 of seven, and continue to 12 in New Jersey, to 13 in Wiscon- 
 sin, to 14 in Massachusetts, Kentucky and Illinois; to 15 in 
 Rhode Island, and to 16 in Wyoming. 
 
 This is a general statement of age limits ; the required 
 time period is in some states shortened in the case of chil- 
 dren employed to labor, or extended in the case of those not 
 so employed, or growing up in idleness, or illiterate. 
 
 In Massachusetts and Connecticut the child is required to 
 attend the full time that the schools are in session ; in New 
 York and Rhode Island, also, the full term, with certain 
 exceptions in favor of children employed to work. In Penn- 
 sylvania the attendance is required for 70 per cent of the 
 full term ; in California for 66 2-3 per cent ; for 20 weeks 
 annually in Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Utah ; 16 weeks 
 annually in Maine, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and 
 Nevada; 12 weeks annually in New Hampshire, District of 
 Columbia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, New Mexico, Idaho, Washington, Ore- 
 gon ; and eight weeks annually in Kentucky. 
 
 In the following states habitual truants are sent to some 
 special institution (truant or industrial school, reformatory,
 
 24 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lOO 
 
 parental home, etc.) : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan. 
 
 Massachusetts requires counties, and New York requires 
 cities to maintain truant schools, or provide for their truants in 
 the truant schools of neighboring localities. Illinois requires 
 cities of over 100,000 inhabitants to maintain truant schools. 
 In Rhode Island towns and cities must provide suitable places 
 for the confinement and instruction of habitual truants. 
 
 Clothing is furnished in case of poverty to enable children 
 to attend school in Vermont, Indiana and Colorado. 
 
 Laws absolutely prohibiting the employment of children 
 under a specified minimum age in mercantile or manufactur- 
 ing establishments are in force in New Hampshire (under 
 10 years), Rhode Island (under 12), and Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut (under 14). These states, together with Ver- 
 mont, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, 
 North and South Dakota, have laws permitting the employ- 
 ment of children of a certain age only while the schools are 
 not in session, or provided they have already attended school 
 a given number of weeks within the year. 
 
 Statistics of supervision There are county superintend- 
 ents of schools in all those states where the county is a 
 political unit for the administration of civil affairs other than 
 courts of law. About thirty-five states have this form of 
 organization. But in the six New England states and in 
 Michigan the only supervision is that of the township, and 
 the counties in those states are units almost solely for the 
 administration of justice through county courts. In Arkan- 
 sas, Texas and North Carolina supervision is only that of 
 the subdivisions of townships described as districts. Louis- 
 iana, Mississippi and West Virginia have a modified town- 
 ship supervision. The county superintendents are elected by 
 the people in only 13 states. In the rest they are appointed 
 by some state or county officers, or chosen by the combined 
 vote of the school boards. (See appendix VIII for an expla- 
 nation of the local unit of school organization.)
 
 lOl] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 
 
 Each state has a superintendent of public instruction. 
 He has this title in 29 states ; in the remaining states other 
 designations, as " superintendent of common schools," " of 
 free schools," or " of public schools," " of education " or 
 " commissioner of public schools," are used ; he is called 
 " secretary of state board of education " in Massachusetts 
 and Connecticut. 
 
 Eight hundred and thirty-six (836) cities have superin- 
 tendents of their public schools. 
 
 //School boards In cities the local boards which have the 
 management of the schools are generally termed "boards 
 of education ; " in towns and districts the designations most 
 generally used are "school directors" and "school trustees." 
 
 They are termed "school directors" in Arkansas, Illinois, 
 Iowa, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Washington ; 
 "school trustees" in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New 
 York, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina and Texas ; 
 "school boards" in Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska and New 
 Hampshire ; " school committees " in Massachusetts and 
 Rhode Island ; " school visitors " in Connecticut; "superin- 
 tending school committees " in Maine ; " boards of educa- 
 tion" in Ohio; and "prudential committees" in Vermont. 
 
 These boards are similar in their constitution, powers and 
 duties, and are generally chosen by the voters at elections. 
 They are corporate bodies and can make contracts, acquire, 
 hold and dispose of property. 
 
 They employ teachers (and superintendents when such are 
 deemed necessary) and fix their salaries. They make the 
 rules and regulations for the government of the schools and 
 fix the course of study and the list of text-books to be used. 
 They hold meetings monthly or oftener. 
 
 Women in school administration There are at present 
 (1899) two women holding the position of state superin- 
 tendent of schools, 1 8 that of city superintendent, and 256 
 that of county superintendent. The last named are divided 
 between California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana,
 
 26 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lO2 
 
 Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- 
 vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Washing- 
 ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In all these states, women 
 hold minor school offices also. Ohio, Maine, New Hamp- 
 shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut have 
 no officers corresponding to county superintendents, but in 
 all those states there are women who are members of county 
 examining boards, township superintendents and the like. 
 They may be district trustees or members of local school 
 boards in still other states, as in New Jersey. Women may 
 hold any school office in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Louisiana, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wyo- 
 ming, and any office of school management in Minnesota. 
 One of the members of the Iowa educational board of exam- 
 iners must be a woman. 
 
 Women have like suffrage, in all particulars, with men in 
 Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. With certain lim- 
 itations specified, in some of the states they may vote at 
 school elections in Arizona, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, 
 Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
 Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing- 
 ton and Wisconsin. The limitations, when there are any, 
 usually restrict the suffrage of women to widows with chil- 
 dren to educate, guardians and taxpayers, or to certain kinds 
 of elections. 
 
 Salaries of teachers The expenditure for salaries in the 
 public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, 
 was $123,809,412, in 1897-98, or 63.8 per cent of the total 
 expenditure for school purposes. The highest average sal- 
 aries are found in the western division, among the Pacific 
 states and territories, the average per month for men being 
 $58.59, and for women $50.92, in that section of the union. 
 The lowest average salaries and the least variance between 
 the averages for men and women are found in the South 
 Atlantic section. The averages are, for men $31.21, and 
 for women $31.45.
 
 10$] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2f 
 
 The length of the school year must be considered in 
 determining the annual salary. This period averages for 
 the whole country 143.1 days, or about seven months of 20 
 days each, and ranges from 98.6 days in the south central 
 division to 174.5 days in the North Atlantic. (See appendix 
 VI, Teachers' pensions, etc.) 
 
 Co-education of the sexes In both the central and the 
 western divisions the education of boys and girls in the same 
 schools is common and exceptions rare in the public schools. 
 In the North and South Atlantic divisions many of the older 
 cities continue to educate the girls in separate schools. In 
 newly-added suburban schools, however, co-education is the 
 rule (as in Boston, for example). In the rural districts of 
 the Atlantic divisions north and south, co-education has 
 always been the custom. Considering the whole country, it 
 may be said that co-education, or the education of boys and 
 girls in the same classes, is the general practice in the ele- 
 mentary schools of the United States. The cities that pre- 
 sent exceptions to this rule are fewer, apparently, than 6 
 per cent of the total number. In the majority of these 
 cities the separation of boys and girls has arisen from the 
 position or original arrangement of buildings, and is likely 
 to be discontinued under more favorable conditions. Of 
 the 50 principal cities enumerated by the census of 1890, 
 4, namely, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) ; Newark (New 
 Jersey); Providence (Rhode Island) ; and Atlanta (Geor- 
 gia) report separation of the sexes in the high schools 
 only ; 2 cities of this class, San Francisco (California), and 
 Wilmington (Delaware), reported in 1892, separation in 
 all grades above the primary. In 6 cities, New York and 
 Brooklyn (New York) ; Boston (Massachusetts) ; Balti- 
 more (Maryland) ; Washington (District of Columbia), and 
 Louisville (Kentucky) both separate and mixed classes 
 are found in all grades. Five cities of the second class, hav- 
 ing a population of 8,000 or more, report separation of the 
 sexes in the high schools, and 10 cities of the same group 
 separate classes in other grades. Of cities whose population
 
 28 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [104 
 
 is less than 8,000, nine report separate classes for boys and 
 girls in some grades. 
 
 Co-education is the policy in about two-thirds of the total 
 number of private schools reporting to this bureau, and in 65 
 per cent of the colleges and universities. 
 
 Sectarian division of school funds In connection with this 
 matter of state compulsory laws against neglect of schools it 
 is well to mention the provisions made in the several states 
 prohibiting appropriations of money to aid denominational 
 schools. 
 
 There are forty states with constitutional provisions for- 
 bidding all, or at least sectarian diversion of the money 
 raised for the support of education. 
 
 /. Constitutions which prohibit sectarian appropriations 
 
 California, 1 Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, 
 Indiana, 2 Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 3 Mis- 
 souri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon,* 
 South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, 2 Wyoming, 
 
 21 states. 
 
 2. Constitutions which do not prohibit sectarian appropri- 
 ations Alabama, 4 Arkansas, 4 Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa, 4 
 Kansas, Kentucky, 5 Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
 Nebraska, 6 Nevada, 6 New Jersey, 7 New York, North Caro- 
 lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 4 Rhode Island, South Carolina, 6 
 Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, 23 states. 
 
 j. Constitutions which prohibit any diversion of the school 
 fund Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor- 
 ida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- 
 tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
 nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
 
 'Can make per capita grants to institutions. 
 * Covers only religious and theological institutions. 
 
 'Prohibits any devise, legacy, or gift by last will and testament to religious or 
 ecclesiastical corporations or societies. 
 
 4 Sectarian appropriations can be made by two-thirds vote of all the members 
 of both houses of the legislature. 
 
 5 Has a revised constitution pending popular adoption. 
 'Prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools. 
 
 1 Prohibits appropriations to societies, associations or corporations.
 
 IO5] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 
 
 Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 
 Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
 Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Vir- 
 ginia, Wisconsin, 36 states. 
 
 The local unit of school organization The state exercises 
 remote authority over all public schools in its borders. 
 The county in most states has a closer supervision of all 
 schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in 
 New England. In certain states it becomes the unit for the 
 entire local administration of public schools. The town or 
 township takes more or less of the local functions in other 
 states, and the district becomes a local unit for variable 
 functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas there is a 
 community system. Counties generally receive, hold and 
 disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by sub- 
 division of counties. Towns or townships generally hold 
 the same relation to districts formed by division of towns 
 or townships. In a few states districts have their own tax 
 collectors and treasurers. 
 
 The summarized statement below shows the principal 
 agency through which local support and control of schools is 
 exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns 
 and independent districts exist. 
 
 County Alabama, with either town or township ; Florida, 
 with provision for districts of limited power ; Georgia ; Lou- 
 isiana, recognizing congressional townships in accounts of 
 sixteenth section land funds ; Maryland ; Mississippi, with 
 provision for separate districts ; North Carolina, with dis- 
 tricts capable of holding real estate ; Tennessee, with some 
 local functions in districts and only supervisory powers in 
 sub-districts ; Utah, with provision for division. 
 
 Town or township Alabama, the congressional township * 
 for administrative convenience, its officers appointed and its 
 accounts kept by county officers ; Connecticut, the town may 
 abolish districts ; Illinois, township based on congressional 
 township or district, optional ; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio 
 
 1 The expression " congressional township " refers to the division established in 
 new territories by the government survey. Lines of latitude and longitude cross 
 one another six statute miles apart, making townships exactly six miles square.
 
 3O ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [106 
 
 and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city 
 (or borough in Pennsylvania), a district corporation for 
 school purposes ; Iowa, township based on congressional 
 township, with sub-districts for supervisory convenience and 
 independent districts, both in use ; Maine, Massachusetts ; 
 Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county ; 
 New Hampshire ; New York, recognized for certain land 
 funds, but districts generally ; North Dakota, based on con- 
 gressional township ; Rhode Island, may create or abolish 
 districts ; South Dakota, based on congressional township ; 
 Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. 
 
 District Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado; Con- 
 necticut, where not abolished by the town ; Delaware, 
 Florida, Idaho ; Illinois, optional with townships ; Iowa, 
 independent districts as well as townships ; Kansas, Minne- 
 sota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships ; Ken- 
 tucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional ; Montana, Nebraska ; 
 Nevada, each village, town or city is a district ; New Mexico ; 
 New York, commissioner's district, a county or part of a 
 county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts 
 of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain 
 land funds ; North Carolina, with limited powers as stated 
 under county ; Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina ; Ten- 
 nessee, with Jimited powers as stated under county ; Texas, 
 but cities may acquire exclusive control of their schools, 
 towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes 
 only, in 35 community counties families associate from year 
 to year to support schools and draw their share of public 
 money ; Utah, permissible as stated under county ; Virginia, 
 West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial 
 districts ; Washington, each city or town (incorporated) ; 
 Wisconsin, optional, see town or township ; Wyoming. 
 
 PART III THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 A committee appointed by the National Educational Asso- 
 ciation in 1894 prepared a course of study for the eight years 
 of the elementary schools recommending two innovations,
 
 IO7] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 31 
 
 namely, the introduction of Latin, French or German in the 
 eighth year and algebra in the seventh and eighth years. 
 The following presents the course as given in the report of 
 the committee together with a conspectus in the nature of a 
 yearly programme. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 
 
 Reading. Eight years, with daily lessons. 
 
 Penmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, 
 five for third and fourth, and three for fifth and sixth. 
 
 Spelling Lists. Fourth, fifth and sixth years, four lessons per week. 
 
 Grammar. Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to mid- 
 dle of fifth year, text-book from middle of fifth year to close 
 of seventh year, five lessons per week. (Composition writing 
 should be included under this head. But the written exami- 
 nations on the several branches should be counted under the 
 head of composition work.) 
 
 Latin or French or German. Eighth year, five lessons per week. 
 
 Arithmetic. Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth 
 year, five lessons per week. 
 
 Algebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week. 
 
 Geography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, 
 text-book from middle of third year, five lessons weekly to 
 seventh year, and three lessons to close of eighth. 
 
 Natural Science and Hygiene. Oral lessons, 60 minutes per week, 
 eight years. 
 
 History of United States. Five hours per week seventh year and 
 first half of eighth year. 
 
 Constitution of United States. Last half of the eighth year. 
 
 General History and Biography. Oral lessons, 60 minutes a 
 week, eight years. 
 
 Physical Culture. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Vocal Music. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Drawing. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 
 
 Manual Training or Sewing and Cooking. One-half day each week 
 in seventh and eighth years.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 [108 
 
 GENERAL PROGRAM 
 
 BRANCHES 
 
 ISt 
 
 2(1 
 
 3d 
 
 4 th 
 
 5th 
 
 6th 
 
 7 th 
 
 8th 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 10 lessons a 
 week 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 
 
 
 10 lessons a 
 week 
 
 5 lessons a 
 week 
 
 3 lessons a 
 week 
 
 
 
 Spelling lists 
 
 
 
 
 4 lessons a week 
 
 
 
 English grammar 
 
 Oral, with composition 5 lessons a week 
 lessons with text-book 
 
 
 
 Latin, French, or German. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 les- 
 sons 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Oral, 60 min- 
 utes a week 
 
 5 lessons a week with 
 text-book 
 
 
 
 
 Algebra 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons a 
 week 
 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 Oral, 60 , 
 
 ininJtes l j2K?!**l!!!? 
 
 a week wlth text - book 
 
 3 lessons a 
 week 
 
 
 Natural Science+Hygiene 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 United States History 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons 
 a week 
 
 United States Constitution 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 General History J . . . . 
 
 Oral, sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Physical Culture 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 Sixty minutes a week divided into 4 lessons 
 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 
 Manual Training or Sew- 
 ing-(-Cookery 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 One-half day 
 each week 
 
 
 Number of Lessons 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 24+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 
 Total Hours of Recitations 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 II 2-3 
 
 13 
 
 16 1-4 
 
 16 1-4 
 
 I? 1-2 
 
 I? 1-2 
 
 Length of Recitations 
 
 15 min 
 
 iSmin 
 
 2o iniii 
 
 2omin 
 
 25 min 
 
 25 min 
 
 30 min 
 
 30 min
 
 109] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 
 
 The subjects actually taught in the elementary schools In 
 the report of the National bureau of education for 1888-89 
 (pp. 373-410), from a selected list of 82 of the most 
 important cities of the nation, statistics are given showing 
 the amount of time consumed in the entire eight years of 
 the elementary course on each of the branches constituting 
 the curriculum. The returns included 26 branches, one 
 of which was spelling. Tfye total number of hours of 
 instruction in the entire eight years varied in the different 
 cities from 3,000 to 9,000, with a general average of about 
 7,000 hours, which would mean that each pupil used about 
 four and a half hours per day for 200 days in actual study 
 and in recitation or class exercises. The amount of time 
 reported as used by pupils in studying and reciting spelling 
 during the eight years varied from about 300 to 1,200 hours, 
 with an average of 516. This means that from 37 to 150 
 hours a year, with average of 77 hours a year for eight years, 
 was devoted to spelling. The English speaking child who 
 learns to read has to use an inordinate amount of time in 
 memorizing the difficult combinations of letters used to rep- 
 resent English words. 
 
 This report of the bureau of education gives the time 
 devoted to reading in 82 cities as ranging from about 600 to 
 about 2,000 hours, and the average as 1,188 hours. Thus 
 from 75 to 250 hours a year, with an average of 150, are 
 spent in learning to read. 
 
 Geography is reported as using from 200 to 1,000 hours, 
 with an average of about 500, or 25 to 125 hours per year, 
 the average being rather more than 60 hours a year. This, 
 we see, is less than the time devoted to spelling. 
 
 Arithmetic, as shown by the report, still receives more 
 attention than any other branch. The amount of time used 
 varies from 600 to 2,240 hours, with an average of about 
 1,190 hours that is to say, from 75 to 280 hours per year 
 an average of 150 hours a year. No other nation gives 
 so much time to arithmetic. The question naturally arises 
 whether corresponding results are obtained in the mastery
 
 34 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lIO 
 
 of this difficult branch, and whether so much arithmetic 
 strengthens or weakens the national character on the whole. 
 
 Turning from arithmetic to grammar, we find a great 
 falling off in the amount of attention it receives compared 
 with the time assigned to it a few years ago. The 82 cities 
 report a very large substitution of " language lessons " for 
 technical grammar. Grammar proper gets from 65 to 680 
 hours of the course, with an average of about 300 hours. 
 This would allow from 8 to 80 hours, with an average of 38 
 hours per year, if distributed over the entire course. But it 
 is evident that grammar proper is, as a study, not profitable 
 to take up until the seventh year of the course of study. 
 But the language lessons, which are practiced in all the 
 grades above the lowest two, more than compensate for any 
 curtailment in technical grammar and " parsing." 
 
 Mathematics gives an insight into the nature of matter 
 and motion, for their form is quantitative. But the form of 
 mind on the other hand is shown in consciousness a sub- 
 ject and object. The mind is always engaged in predicating 
 something of something, always modifying something by 
 something, and the categories of this mental operation are 
 the categories of grammar, and appear as parts of speech. 
 The child by the study of grammar gets some practice in the 
 use of these categories and acquires unconsciously a power 
 of analysis of thoughts, motives and feelings, which is of 
 the most practical character. 
 
 History, which gives an insight into human nature as it is 
 manifested in social wholes tribes, nations and peoples 
 is a study of the elementary school, usually placed in the 
 last year or two of the course, with a text-book on the his- 
 tory of the United States. The returns from the 82 cities 
 show that this study everywhere holds its place, and that it 
 receives more than one-half as much time as grammar. Con- 
 sidering the fact that grammar is begun a year earlier, this is 
 better than we should expect. With history there is usually 
 joined the study of the constitution of the United States for 
 one-quarter of the year. Besides this, some schools have
 
 I I l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 
 
 taken up a special text-book devoted to civics, or the duties 
 of citizens. History ranges from 78 to 460 hours, with an 
 average of about 150. 
 
 General history has not been introduced into elementary 
 schools, except in a few cases by oral lessons. Oral lessons 
 on physiology, morals and manners, and natural science have 
 been very generally introduced. The amount of time 
 assigned in 66 cities to physiology averages 169 hours ; to a 
 course of lessons in morals and manners in 27 cities 167 
 hours ; to natural science on an average in the 39 cities that 
 give a systematic course of lessons, 1 76 hours. 
 
 Singing is quite general in all the schools, and instruction 
 in vocal music is provided for in many cities. Lessons in 
 cookery are reported in New Haven (80 hours) ; and Wash- 
 ington, D. C. (114 hours). It is also taught in Boston, and 
 many other cities not reporting it in the list of 82. 
 
 Physical culture is very generally taught. Of the 82 cities, 
 63 report it as receiving on an average 249 hours a year. 
 
 Manual training Manual training is by no means a nov- 
 elty in American schools. Thomas Jefferson recommended 
 it for the students of the University of Virginia, and Ben- 
 jamin Franklin included it in his plan for an academy in 
 Philadelphia. An active propaganda was carried on in 
 behalf of manual labor in educational institutions for many 
 years, beginning about 1830, and some of our foremost 
 institutions had their origin under its influence. But what 
 is now known as " manual training " is traced to an exhibit 
 of a Russian institution at the centennial exposition in 
 1876. The value of the system of hand training there sug- 
 gested was recognized by such men as John D. Runkle and 
 C. M. Woodward, who became advocates of the new idea 
 and introduced it into the institutions under their charge. 
 Strong opposition was met among schoolmen for a time, but 
 manual training has steadily grown in popularity, and with 
 its growth it has constantly improved in matter and method, 
 and consequently in usefulness. In 1898 manual training 
 was an essential feature in the public school course of 149
 
 36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lI2 
 
 cities. In 359 institutions other than city schools there is 
 training which partakes more or less of the nature of man- 
 ual training, and which belongs in a general way to the same 
 movement. These institutions embrace almost every class 
 known to American education, and the manual features vary 
 from the purely educational manual training of the Teach- 
 ers college in New York city to the specific trade instruction 
 of the apprentice schools. 
 
 In many cases the legislatures have taken cognizance of 
 the movement. Massachusetts requires every city of 20,000 
 inhabitants to maintain manual training courses in both ele- 
 mentary and high schools. Maine authorizes any city or 
 town to provide instruction in industrial or mechanical draw- 
 ing to pupils over 1 5 years of age ; industrial training is 
 authorized by general laws in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana 
 (in cities of over 100,000 population), Maryland, New Jer- 
 sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- 
 ming. Congressional appropriations are regularly made for 
 manual training in the District of Columbia ; Georgia author- 
 izes county manual labor schools, and in Washington manual 
 training must be taught in each school under the control of 
 the State normal school. 
 
 Kindergartens Kindergartens are authorized by general 
 law in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Vermont and Wisconsin. 
 
 Cities also establish kindergartens through powers inherent 
 in their charters. In 1897-98 there were public kinder- 
 gartens in 189 of the 626 cities of 8,000 population and over. 
 In these 189 cities there were 1,365 separate kindergartens 
 supported by public funds. The number of kindergarten 
 teachers employed was 2,532, and under their care were 
 95,867 children, 46,577 boys and 49,290 girls. 
 
 Information was obtained concerning 2,998 pnvate kinder- 
 gartens in 1897-98 and it is probable that at least 500 others 
 were in existence. The 2,998 private kindergartens had 
 6,405 teachers and 93,737 pupils. It will be seen that the
 
 113] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 
 
 total number of kindergartens, public and private, was 4,363, 
 with 8,937 teachers and 189,604 pupils. The actual number 
 of pupils enrolled in kindergartens in the United States in 
 1897-98 must have exceeded 200,000. 
 
 PART IV THE PLACE OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE IDEALS 
 
 OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 Education in the United States is regarded as something 
 organic something belonging essentially to our political 
 and social structure. Daniel Webster announced, in his 
 clear and incisive manner, this necessity that appertains to 
 the American form of government. He said: "On the 
 diffusion of education among the people rests the preserva- 
 tion and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend 
 no danger to our country from a foreign foe. * * * Our 
 destruction, should it come at all, will be from another 
 quarter. From the inattention of the people to the con- 
 cerns of the government, from their carelessness and negli- 
 gence, I confess I do apprehend some danger. I fear that 
 they may place too implicit confidence in their public serv- 
 ants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct ; that in 
 this way they may be the dupes of designing men and 
 become the instruments of their undoing. Make them intel- 
 ligent and they will be vigilant ; give them the means of 
 detecting the wrong and they will apply the remedy." 
 
 We are making the experiment of self-government a 
 government of the people by the people and it has seemed 
 a logical conclusion to all nations of all times that the rulers 
 of the people should have the best education attainable. 
 Then, of course, it follows that the entire people of a democ- 
 racy should be educated for they are the rulers. 
 
 Quoting again from Webster's Plymouth oration in 1822 : 
 " By general instruction we seek as far as possible to purify 
 the whole atmosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, 
 and to turn the strong current of feeling and opinion, as 
 well as the censures of the law and the denunciations of 
 religion, against immorality and crime."
 
 38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ IJ 4 
 
 This necessity for education has been felt in all parts of 
 the nation, and the whole subject is reasoned out in many a 
 school report published by city or state. By education we 
 add to the child's experience the experience of the human 
 race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and 
 shallow ; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it 
 is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience 
 is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making 
 costly mistakes we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of 
 others. The successes and failures of one's fellow-men 
 instruct each of us far more than our own experiments. 
 
 The school attempts to give this wisdom in a systematic 
 manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the 
 shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is 
 digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its 
 several departments, so that a child may understand it. He 
 has a teacher to direct his studies and instruct him in the 
 proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded 
 in them. He is taught first in the primary school how to 
 spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above 
 all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. 
 All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- 
 nifications ; each word has many meanings and uses, but the 
 child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and 
 vaguest, when he begins. His school work is to train him 
 into accuracy and precision in the interpretation of language. 
 He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page 
 with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the state- 
 ments he reads, and to test them in his own experience and 
 by comparison with other records of experience. 
 
 In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge 
 his own puny life by the addition of the best results of 
 other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to 
 insure a growth in self-respect as the mastery of the thought 
 of the thinkers who have stored and systematized the expe- 
 rience of mankind. 
 
 This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The
 
 115] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 39 
 
 patriotic citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate 
 people is a government of one-sided and shallow experi- 
 ence, and that a government by the educated classes insures 
 the benefits of a much wider knowledge of the wise ways of 
 doing things. 
 
 The work of the school produces self-respect, because the 
 pupil makes himself the measure of his fellows and grows to 
 be equal to them spiritually by the mastery of their wisdom. 
 Self-respect is the root of the virtues and the active cause 
 of a career of growth in power to know and power to do. 
 Webster called the free public school "a wise and liberal 
 system of police, by which property and the peace of society 
 are secured." He explained the effect of the school as excit- 
 ing " a feeling of responsibility and a sense of character." 
 
 This, he saw, is the legitimate effect ; for, as the school 
 causes its pupils to put on the forms of thought given them 
 by the teacher and by the books they use causes them to 
 control their personal impulses, and to act according to rules 
 and regulations causes them to behave so as to combine 
 with others and get help from all while they in turn give 
 help ; as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish 
 promptings, and to prefer the forms of action based on a 
 consideration of the interests of others it is seen that the 
 entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth edu- 
 cated in the school has been submitted to a training in the 
 habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He 
 has become to some extent conscious of two selves ; the one 
 his immediate animal impulse, and the second his moral 
 sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmoni- 
 ous action of all. 
 
 The statistics of crime confirm the anticipations of the 
 public in regard to the good effects of education. The jails 
 of the country show pretty generally the ratio of eight to 
 one as the quotas of delinquents furnished from a given 
 number of illiterates as compared with an equal number of 
 those who can read and write. Out of 10,000 illiterates 
 there will be eight times as many criminals as out of 10,000
 
 4O ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll6 
 
 who can read and write. In a state like Michigan, for exam- 
 ple, where less than five per cent of the people are illiterate, 
 there are 30 per cent of the criminals in jail who are illiter- 
 ate. The 95 per cent who are educated to read and write 
 furnish the remaining 70 per cent. 
 
 In comparing fractions, it is necessary to consider the 
 denominators as well as the numerators. Comparing only 
 the numerators, we should say education produces more 
 crime than illiteracy ; for here are only 30 per cent of those 
 criminals from the illiterate class, but 70 per cent are from 
 those who can read and write. On the other hand, taking 
 the denominators also into consideration, we say : But there 
 are less than five per cent illiterates and more than 95 of 
 educated persons in the entire adult population. Hence the 
 true ratio is found, by combining the two fractions, to be 
 one-eighth, or one to eight for the respective quotas fur- 
 nished. (f:g::8:i). 
 
 The penitentiaries, or state prisons, contain the selected 
 criminals who have made more serious attacks on person 
 and property and on the majesty of the law than those left 
 in the jails. These, therefore, come to a larger extent from 
 the 70 per cent of arrests which are from the educated class ; 
 and it is found, by comparing the returns of the 20 odd states 
 that keep records of illiteracy, that the illiterates furnish 
 from two to four times their quota for the prisons, while 
 they furnish eight times their quota for the jails and houses 
 of correction. 
 
 But it is found on investigation that the criminals who can 
 read and write are mostly from the ranks bordering on illit- 
 eracy. They may be described as barely able to read and 
 write, but without training in the use of those arts for 
 acquainting themselves with the experience and wisdom of 
 their fellow-men. 1 
 
 'A point is made that those states which have the completes! systems of educa- 
 tion have the most criminals in their jails and prisons. This is true, but its sig- 
 nificance is not read aright until one sees by an analysis of the causes of arrest 
 that it is not a real increase of crime, but an increase of zeal on the part of the 
 community to abolish the seeds of crimes, to repress the vices that lead to crime.
 
 117] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 41 
 
 It is against all reason and all experience that the school 
 whose two functions are to secure good behavior and an 
 intelligent acquaintance with the lessons of human experi- 
 ence, should not do what Webster said, namely, " Prevent 
 in some measure the extension of the penal code, by inspir- 
 ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of 
 knowledge in an early age." 
 
 Thus the political problem, which proposes to secure the 
 general welfare by intrusting the management of the gov- 
 ernment to representatives chosen by all the people, finds 
 its solution in the establishment of schools for the people. 
 
 PART V HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED 
 
 K STATES 
 
 All who become interested in the system of education pre- 
 vailing in the United States and see the direct bearing it has 
 on the realization of the ideal of self-government, feel an 
 interest in the question of its origin. Anything is best 
 understood when seen in the perspective of its history. We 
 see not only what is present before us but its long trend 
 hitherward. 
 
 The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the 
 purpose of reinforcing the education of the four funda- 
 mental institutions of civilization. These are the family, 
 civil society (devoted to providing for the wants of food, 
 clothing, and shelter), the state, the church. The character- 
 istic of the school is that it deals with the means necessary 
 for the acquirement, preservation, and communication of 
 intelligence. The mastery of letters and of mathematical 
 symbols ; of the technical terms used in geography and gram- 
 mar and the sciences ; the conventional meaning of the lines 
 used on maps to indicate water or mountains or towns or 
 latitude and longitude, and the like. The school devotes 
 
 In Massachusetts, for example, there were in 1850, 3,351 arrests for drunkenness, 
 while in 1885, the number had increased to 18,701. But meanwhile the crimes 
 against person and property had decreased from 1860 to 1885 forty-four per cent, 
 making allowance for increase of population. Life and property had become 
 more safe, but drunkenness had become less safe.
 
 42 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll8 
 
 itself to instructing the pupil on these dry details of arts 
 that are used to record systematic knowledge. These con- 
 ventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art 
 of self-help ; he can of his own effort open the door and 
 enter the treasure-house of literature and science. What- 
 ever his fellow-men have done and recorded he can now 
 learn by sufficient diligence of his own. 
 
 The difference between the part of education acquired in 
 the family and that acquired in the school is immense and 
 incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and 
 customs, habits and beliefs, form a sort of close-fitting 
 spiritual vesture : a garment of the soul always worn, and 
 expressive of the native character not so much of the indi- 
 vidual as of his tribe or family or community. The indi- 
 vidual has from his birth been shaped into these things as 
 by a mould ; all his thinking and willing and feeling have 
 been moulded into the form or type of humanity looked 
 upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. 
 
 This close-fitting garment of habit gives him direction but 
 not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, 
 from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. 
 
 But the school gives a different sort of training, its 
 discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The educa- 
 tion of the family is in use and wont and it trains rather than 
 instructs. The result is unconscious habit and ungrounded 
 prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not 
 grounded in reason, being unconscious results of early train- 
 ing. But the school lays all its stress on producing a con- 
 sciousness of the grounds and reasons of things. I should 
 not say all its stress ; for the school does in fact lay much 
 stress on what is called discipline, on habits of alert and 
 critical attention, on regularity and punctuality, and self- 
 control and politeness. But the mere mention of these 
 elements of discipline shows that they, too, are of a higher 
 order than the habits of the family, inasmuch as they all 
 require the exertion of both will and intellect consciously 
 in order to attain them. The discipline of the school forms
 
 I 1 9] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 43 
 
 a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis 
 of habits which have been acquired in the family. 
 
 School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the 
 acquirement of techniques ; the technique of reading and 
 writing, of mathematics, of grammar, of geography, history, 
 literature, and science in general. 
 
 One is astonished when he reflects upon it at first, to see 
 how much is meant by this word technique. All products of 
 human reflection are defined and preserved by words used in 
 a technical sense. The words are taken out of their collo- 
 quial sense, which is a loose one except when employed as 
 slang. For slang is a spontaneous effort in popular speech 
 to form technical terms. 
 
 The technical or conventional use of signs and symbols 
 enables us to write words and record mathematical calcula- 
 tions ; the technical use of words enables us to express 
 clearly and definitely the ideas and relations of all science. 
 Outside of technique all is vague hearsay. The fancy pours 
 into the words it hears such meanings as its feelings prompt. 
 Instead of science there is superstition. 
 
 The school deals with technique in this broad sense of 
 the word. The mastery of the technique of reading, writ- 
 ing* g eo g ra P n y an d history lifts the pupil into a plane of 
 freedom hitherto not known to him. He can now by his 
 own effort master for himself the wisdom of the race. 
 
 By the aid of such instruments as the family education has 
 given him he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only 
 pick up a few of its results, such as the custom of his com- 
 munity preserves. By the process of hearsay and oral 
 inquiry it would take the individual a lifetime to acquire 
 what he can get in six months by the aid of the instruments 
 which the school places in his hands. For the school gives 
 the youth the tools of thought. 
 
 Immigrants to America in the colonial period laid stress 
 on the establishment of schools. The ideas of Luther 
 were echoed by reformers in Holland, Sweden, Switzer- 
 land and elsewhere. Education is called " the foundation
 
 44 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l2O 
 
 of the commonwealth," in 1853, in a school law of Holland. 
 At that time there was a stringent school law passed. In 
 Sweden education was common before 1650, and every peas- 
 ant's child was taught to read. 
 
 Boston, in 1635, voted a school and funds to support a 
 master. Roxbury was quite active in the founding of free 
 schools. Plymouth, Weymouth, Dorchester, Salem, Cam- 
 bridge, and other towns had schools before 1650. A law of 
 the general court of Massachusetts decreed that in every 
 town the selectmen should prosecute those who refused to 
 " train their children in learning and labor," and to impose a 
 fine of 20 shillings on those who neglected to teach their 
 children "so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
 to read the English tongue." 
 
 Schools were established in the Connecticut colonies 
 immediately after their settlement. The Rhode Island col- 
 onies had schools by 1650. In 1636 occurred the important 
 vote of the general court of Massachusetts, setting apart 
 four hundred pounds for the establishment of a college which 
 was endowed two years afterward by John Harvard, receiv- 
 ing 1700 pounds and named from its benefactor. The 
 public Latin school of Boston dates from 1635. Meanwhile 
 in New York the Dutch had brought over their zeal for 
 education. The Dutch West India company, in 1621, 
 charged its colonists to maintain a clergyman and a school- 
 master. It seems that in 1625 the colonial estimate included 
 a clergyman at 1440 florins, and a schoolmaster at 360 
 florins. In 1633 the first schoolmaster arrived Adam 
 Roelandson. His name is revered like that of Ezekiel 
 Cheever and Philemon Purmont, schoolmasters of early 
 Boston. 
 
 As regards common schools in Virginia, the opinion of the 
 royal governor, Berkeley, is often quoted : " I thank God 
 there be no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope we 
 shall not have them these hundred years ; for learning has 
 brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world, 
 and printing has divulged them and libels against the best
 
 I2l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 45 
 
 of governments : God keep us from both." The governor 
 of the Connecticut colony answered to a question (appar- 
 ently of the commissioners of foreign plantations) : " One- 
 fourth of the annual revenue of this colony is laid out in 
 maintaining free schools for the education of our children." 
 
 A propos to this utterance of Berkeley, against whom the 
 more progressive spirit of Virginia arose in rebellion in 1676, 
 there should be quoted a more noteworthy sentence from the 
 Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, who wrote (to J. C. Cabell) in 
 1818: "A system of general instruction which shall reach 
 every description of our citizens from the richest to the 
 poorest, as it was my earliest, so shall it be the latest of all 
 the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take 
 an interest." 
 
 In 1647 the Massachusetts general court passed what has 
 become the most celebrated of the early school laws of the 
 colonies. In it occurs the often-quoted passage: "To the 
 end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our 
 forefathers, * * * it is ordered that every township 
 within this, jurisdiction * * * of the number of fifty 
 households shall appoint one within their town to teach all 
 such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose 
 wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such 
 children, or by the inhabitants in general * * * further 
 ordered that any town * * * of one hundred * * * 
 householders * * * shall set up a grammar school, the 
 master thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they 
 may be fitted for the university." This law attached a pen- 
 alty to its violation. " Grammar " meant Latin grammar at 
 that period. 
 
 New Jersey established schools as early as 1683, and an 
 example of a permanent school fund is found in an appro- 
 priation made that year. In 1693 a law compelled citizens 
 to pay their shares for the maintenance of a school. In 
 1726 a clergyman from Pennsylvania established in New 
 Jersey a classical school that grew in after times into Prince- 
 ton college.
 
 46 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l22 
 
 The original charter given William Penn required that 
 the government of his colony should erect and aid public 
 schools. Within 20 years after its settlement, schools were 
 founded in Philadelphia, and others in towns of that colony. 
 
 The management of the district (elementary) schools 
 began in most cases with the church and gradually came 
 into the hands.of the smallest political subdivision, known as 
 "districts." Each township was divided into districts for 
 school purposes, and for minor political purposes such as 
 repair of the public highways. Each district contained an 
 average of four square miles, with a schoolhouse near the cen- 
 ter of population, usually a little distance from some village, 
 and holding a maximum of forty or fifty pupils. The school 
 committee employed teachers. The schools held a three 
 months' session in the winter,' and sometimes this was made 
 four months. The winter school was nearly always " kept " 
 by a man. There might be a summer school for a brief 
 session kept by a woman. Wages for the winter school, 
 even as late as 1840, in the rural districts of New England, 
 were six to ten dollars a month. The schoolmaster might 
 be a young college student trying to earn money during his 
 vacation to continue his course in college. Morexommonly 
 he was a surveyor, or clerk, or a farmer who had a slender 
 store of learning but who could " keep order." He pos- 
 sessed the faculty to keep down the boisterous or rebellious 
 pupils and could hear the pupils recite their lessons memor- 
 ized by them from the book. 
 
 There were in some places school societies, semi-public 
 corporations, that founded and managed the schools, receiv- 
 ing more or less aid from the public funds. Such associa- 
 tions provided much of the education in New York, Phila- 
 delphia, and in many parts of New England before the 
 advent of the public school. 
 
 When the villages began to catch the urban spirit and 
 establish graded schools with a full annual session, there 
 came a demand for a higher order of teacher, the profes- 
 sional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals ;
 
 123] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 47 
 
 the best enlightened in the community began an agita- 
 tion of the school question, and supervision was demanded. 
 In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made 
 most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a 
 state board of education in 1837, and the employment of 
 Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had 
 been connected with Providence, Worcester and Lowell by 
 railroads before 1835, an d in 1842 the first great trunk rail- 
 road had been completed through Springfield to Albany, 
 opening to Boston a communication with the great west by 
 the Erie canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany 
 to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch 
 in America that has gone on increasing the power of the 
 city to this day. 
 
 The number of cities containing 8,000 inhabitants and 
 upwards, was, in 1790, only six; between 1800 and 1810 it 
 had increased to n ; in 1820 to 13; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 
 44; in the fifty years between 1840 and 1890 it increased 
 from 44 to 443, or 10 times the former number. The urban 
 population of the country in 1790 was, according to the 
 superintendent of the census (see Bulletin No. 52, April 17, 
 1791), only one in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had 
 increased to one in 12 ; in 1890, to one in three. In fact, 
 if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban 
 by their close connection with the large cities, and the subur- 
 ban districts, it is safe to say that now one-half of the popu- 
 lation is urban. 
 
 Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachu- 
 setts just at the beginning of the epoch of railroads and the 
 growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the 
 evils of the schools as they had been. The school district 
 system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Rhode 
 Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro- 
 nounced by him to be the most disastrous feature in the 
 whole history of educational legislation in Massachusetts. 
 
 Horace Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to 
 the examination of teachers and their instruction in teachers'
 
 48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [124 
 
 institutes ; to the improvement of school buildings ; the 
 raising of school funds by taxation ; the creating of a cor- 
 rect public opinion on school questions ; the care for vicious 
 youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hide-bound 
 text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral dis- 
 cussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words 
 of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school 
 apparatus. 
 
 Horace Mann's influence founded the first normal school 
 in the United States at Lexington (afterwards moved to 
 Framingham), and a second one founded at Bridgewater in 
 the fall of the same year (1839). 
 
 Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut 
 was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the 
 legislature the act organizing a state board of commissioners, 
 and became himself the first secretary of it (1839). ^ 
 Connecticut established a normal school. In 1843, 
 Barnard went to Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up 
 the state school law under which he became the first com- 
 missioner, and labored there six years. 
 
 These were the chief fermenting influences in education 
 that worked a wide change in the management of schools in 
 the middle and western states within the past fifty years. 
 
 Superintendents of city school systems began in 1837 
 with Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839; New Orleans 
 in 1841 ; Cleveland in 1844; Baltimore in 1849; Cincinnati 
 in 1850; Boston in 1851; New York, San Francisco and 
 Jersey City in 1852 ; Newark and Brooklyn^ in 1853 ; Chi- 
 cago and St. Louis in 1854 ; and finally Philadelphia in 1883. 
 
 State superintendents began with New York, 1813 ; New 
 York was followed by 16 of the states before 1850. From 
 1851 to the civil war, eight states established the office 
 of state superintendent ; since then, nineteen other states, 
 including 10 in the south, that had no state systems of 
 education previously. 
 
 Normal schools in the United States increased from one, 
 beginning in 1839 * n Massachusetts, to 138 public and 46
 
 125] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 49 
 
 private normal schools in 1889, with an attendance of 
 upwards of 28,000 students preparing for the work of teach- 
 ing. This would give a total of some twelve thousand a 
 year of new teachers to meet the demand. It may be 
 assumed, therefore, that less than one-sixth of the supply of 
 new teachers comes from the training schools specially 
 designed to educate teachers. 
 
 The history of education since the time of Horace Mann 
 is very largely an account of the successive modifications 
 introduced into elementary schools through the direct or 
 indirect influence of the normal school.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
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 i 2 
 
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 dinary secondary schools. 
 
 in universities, colleges, and public and private high schools. 
 
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 : individual high schools to the 
 
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 -ii. Students in academic and 
 
 iltural and mechanical colleges. 
 
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 ;r, 21,687 students talcing normal 
 
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 Number of 
 school ye. 
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 1870-71 
 
 
 
 M * o> o o o 
 
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 ^ ::::::::: 
 
 South Atlantic Divisio 
 
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 UNITED STATES. . . 
 
 North Atlantic Dii 
 South Atlantic Di 
 South Central Div 
 North Central Div 
 Western Division. 
 
 JS tJ j 
 
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 I2 9 ] 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 53 
 
 IN<O * n*o m m moo moo IN o -*vo co c> moo oo *fr * 
 
 vo rr*o o t^oo inoo o * *N ^<r 
 
 \o M ^oo* r*i n rnop >H co rn en tx i 
 
 C>00 t^ CN f* r*00 vO * MD t- ^O tNV 
 
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 O 4- M" d 
 
 oo tNOO t-* tN txoo to m nt^ rv-v^-p, .min "V^t* vo * 
 
 <s : 
 
 M vo m a- moo -*-co voootxt^ mHtoi-ttx ooo m 
 oo m o> * m vovo . w to M 
 
 omowfiot^^mmow ONQm^o-txw^- **-vo 
 
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 fnvo^ o-Mt^w toco O'-eifnt^^'Ov M VOM m w u>vo 
 
 mf-NOO nSovo 5>oo noowovm J^nmio 
 
 MotxmnM'*'* M 
 
 > o -* tx r- t^vo m moo o o i/>f* t^o*^O c*vovoooc* 
 
 ) fi O w r* moo voooooroi^vo vot^. in in m M SvvOOQm 
 
 xt~mo> o>omf>"<OM mo> MM^H votn IOM 
 
 , mvo vo M in t^ o^vo M-^-fn^woo M .*o> 
 
 CN *vo MMmto <t <S 
 
 s-g o.lg8 i i | j S 
 
 8 3 
 
 J= 03
 
 54 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 [130 
 
 APPENDIX III Common school statistics of the United States 
 
 
 1870-71 
 
 1870-80 
 
 1889-90 
 
 1897-98 a 
 
 I General statistics 
 
 39 So So 
 12 305 600 
 
 7 561 582 
 19.14 
 
 6i.45 
 4 545 3i7 
 60. i 
 132.1 
 600 432 802 
 
 48.7 
 79-4 
 
 50 155 783 
 15 065 767 
 
 9 867 505 
 19.67 
 
 65.50 
 6 144 143 
 62.3 
 130-3 
 800 719 970 
 
 S3-* 
 1.1 
 
 62 622 250 
 1 8 543 201 
 
 12 722 581 
 20.32 
 
 68. 61 
 8 153 635 
 64.1 
 '34-7 
 i 098 232 725 
 
 59-2 
 86.3 
 
 72 737 100 
 21 458 294 
 
 15 038 636 
 20.68 
 
 70.08 
 10 286 092 
 68.4 
 I43-I 
 i 47i 435 367 
 
 68.6 
 97-8 
 
 Number of persons 5 to 18 years of age 
 Number of different pupils enrolled on the 
 
 Per cent of total population enrolled 
 Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age 
 
 
 
 Average length of school term (days) 
 Aggregate number of days attended 
 Average number for each person 5 to i 
 
 Average number for each pupil enrolled. . . . 
 
 002Q3 
 129 932 
 
 122 795 
 163 798 
 
 "5 525 
 238 397 
 
 I3 1 750 
 277 443 
 
 
 
 
 286 593 
 42.8 
 
 363 922 
 34-5 
 
 409 193 
 32.2 
 
 i5$45 16 
 b $38 74 
 242 390 
 $492 703 781 
 
 
 41.0 
 
 Average monthly wages of teachers : 
 Males 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 132 119 
 $143 818 703 
 
 178 222 
 $20 9571 718 
 
 224 526 
 $342 53' 79i 
 
 
 II Financial statistics 
 Receipts : 
 
 
 
 $7 744 765 
 26 345 323 
 97 222 426 
 II 882 292 
 
 $9 213 323 
 35 600 643 
 134 104 053 
 o 399 578 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $143 194 806 
 
 $199 317 597 
 
 Per cent of total derived from 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-4 
 18.4 
 67.9 
 8.3 
 
 4-6 
 17.9 
 67.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Expenditures: 
 For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, 
 
 
 
 $26 207 041 
 91 836 484 
 
 22 463 190 
 
 $32 814 532 
 123 809 412 
 
 37 396 526 
 
 For salaries of teachers and superin- 
 
 $42 580 853 
 
 $55 942 972 
 
 
 
 
 
 $69 107 612 
 '75 
 
 $78 094 687 
 1.56 
 
 $140 506 715 
 2.24 
 
 $194 020*470 
 2.67 
 
 Expenditure per capita of population 
 
 Expenditure per pupil (of average attend- 
 ance) : 
 
 
 
 $3-I 
 11.26 
 2.76 
 
 $3-19 
 12.04 
 3-63 
 
 
 $9-37 
 
 $9.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 $15.20 
 
 $12.71 
 
 $I7-23 
 
 $18.86 
 
 Per cent of total expenditure devoted to 
 
 
 
 18.6 
 65-4 
 16.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 16.9 
 63-8 
 iQ-3 
 
 8-4 
 13.2 
 
 
 61.6 
 
 71.6 
 
 
 Average expenditure per day for each pupil 
 (in cents): 
 
 7-i 
 "5 
 
 7.0 
 
 9-7 
 
 
 
 The figures for 1897-98 are approximate. 
 
 b In 44 states.
 
 131] 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
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 133] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 57 
 
 APPENDIX V Corporal punishment 
 
 In one state, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to 
 inflict corporal punishment. No other state goes to this length, 
 but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South 
 Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a 
 penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would 
 be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other states just as surely 
 as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to 
 a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for 
 corporal punishment, but whipping has been the common mode of 
 discipline in school from time immemorial ; custom legalizes it, and 
 unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the 
 authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this 
 effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, 
 and probably in other states. 
 
 Local school boards have always the implied power to make 
 regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, 
 and three states, viz., Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, 
 expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, 
 expressed or implied, several cities, notably New York city, 
 Chicago, and Albany, have prohibited absolutely the use of the 
 rod. The same is true of Providence, Rhode Island, except in 
 the primary grades, and in them whipping must not be inflicted 
 unless the written consent of the parent or guardian has been pre- 
 viously filed with the city superintendent. 
 
 Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under 
 rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among 
 them being Baltimore, Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville, Minne- 
 apolis, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Rochester, St. Louis, San Fran- 
 cisco, Worcester, and Philadelphia.
 
 58 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [134 
 
 APPENDIX VI Teachers pensions, and benefit associations 
 
 Voluntary mutual benefit associations for temporary aid only 
 exist in Baltimore, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chi- 
 cago, Buffalo, San Francisco, St. Paul, and one interstate. These 
 have from one to two dollars initiation fee, one to five dollars 
 annual dues. Special assessments of one dollar each are made in 
 some cases. Benefits in sickness range from fifty cents a day to 
 ten dollars a week ; at death funeral expenses only are paid in 
 some instances, and in others a sum equal to one dollar from each 
 member of the association. 
 
 Associations for annuity or retirement fund only are in New 
 York city, Boston, and Baltimore, and there is an annuity guild in 
 Massachusetts. The initiation fees reported are three to five dol- 
 lars ; the annual dues one to one and a half per cent of salary up 
 to eighteen or twenty dollars. The annuity is from 60 per cent of 
 salary to $600 a year. Time of service required for retirement, 
 from 2 to 5 years with disability, from 35 to 40 years without 
 disability. 
 
 Associations for both temporary aid and annuity exist in Ham- 
 ilton county (Cincinnati), Ohio ; Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and 
 District of Columbia. Initiation fees, one to ten dollars ; annual 
 dues, five to forty dollars ; annuity, five dollars per week to $600 
 a year, and $100 for funeral expenses in case of death ; temporary 
 aid during illness, five or six dollars per week ; minimum service 
 for retirement with disability, 3 to 5 years; without disability, 
 35 to 40 years. 
 
 Pension or retirement funds are authorized by state legislation 
 for St. Louis, all cities in California, Brooklyn, New York, Detroit, 
 Chicago, New York city, all cities in New Jersey, Cincinnati, and 
 Buffalo. Dues, one per cent of salary; annuity, $250 to one-half 
 of salary; minimum, $300, to $i, 200 maximum ; minimum service 
 with disability, 20 to 35 years; without disability, 25 to 35 years.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 59 
 
 APPENDIX VII United States railroad mileage; census years 
 
 1830-90 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1880 
 
 iS/O 
 
 1860 
 
 1850 
 
 l840 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 87 724. 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Miles per 10,000 population. 
 
 26.12 
 
 17.49 
 
 12.75 
 
 9.20 
 
 3.71 
 
 1.61 
 
 .03 
 
 APPENDIX VIII Text-books; selection and supply. 
 
 In a few states text-books do not form a specific subject of legis- 
 lation, but local boards have control under the general charge of 
 the welfare of the schools. 
 
 In most states legislation regulates the selection of text-books. 
 
 In some states a guaranty is required from publishers to supply 
 books, according to samples, at wholesale, retail, introduction, 
 exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years. 
 
 In fewer states the school boards buy and sell the books on pub- 
 lic account. In certain states boards continue to own the books 
 used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied 
 at public expense. 
 
 ' In most states special or general laws give cities the control of 
 the details of their school administration, including text-books. 
 
 Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other 
 than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a 
 violation of law, to be dealt with as it occurred. 
 
 State superintendent is here used to indicate the chief officer of 
 the state schools. 
 
 In the states immediately following, individuals, except indi- 
 gents, buy their books : 
 
 Arizona. The lists are fixed for 4 years by territorial board. 
 
 Arkansas. The list is fixed for 3 years, with exceptions, by local 
 board, from books recommended by state superintendent. 
 
 California. The state prepares, publishes, and sells books for 
 primary and grammar schools, but high schools supported wholly 
 by local effort are almost free of the law. Penalty for using 
 other than the state list, forfeiture of one-fourth the apportionment 
 from state funds. Indigent pupils are furnished free. 
 
 Georgia. County board fixes list. Unchanged within 5 years 
 except by a three-fourths vote of the full board. Penalty, teacher 
 cannot receive pay from pupils using other books.
 
 6O ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [136 
 
 Indiana. A state board selects books under publishers' guaranty. 
 County boards may fix a list of additional books for high schools 
 for 6 years. Books are bought and sold by, or subject to, arrange- 
 ment of local board, and become private property. Districts sup- 
 ply indigents. 
 
 Illinois. District board fixes list for 4 years. Indigents sup- 
 plied free. 
 
 Kentucky. County board of examiners fixes list for 5 years, 
 with publishers' guaranty. The county judge furnishes indigents. 
 
 Louisiana. State board fixes list for 4 years, with limited local 
 discretion. 
 
 Mississippi. The county school board adopts a series of books 
 for 5 years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, pupils without the 
 prescribed books in any branch are not to receive instruction in 
 that branch. 
 
 Missouri. A state school-book commission fixed a list, with 
 publishers' guaranty, for 5 years from September i, 1897, to be 
 handled through dealers. Indigents are supplied from local con- 
 tingent funds. 
 
 Nevada. State board fixes list for 4 years. Penalty, forfeiture 
 of apportionment. District furnishes indigents. 
 
 New Mexico. The territorial board of education is authorized 
 to fix a list for 4 years and to contract with publishers and sell to 
 counties. Districts furnish indigents. 
 
 North Carolina. County board fixes list for 3 years, with pub- 
 lishers' guaranty. 
 
 Ohio. A state commission fixes a list on publishers' guaranty, 
 from which local boafds fix lists for 5 years (with exception). 
 Boards may buy and sell to pupils or arrange with dealers to sup- 
 ply them. Indigents are furnished. 
 
 Oklahoma. Territorial superintendent fixes a list for 5 years on 
 publishers' guaranty. 
 
 Oregon. State board fixes a list for 6 years on publishers' 
 guaranty. 
 
 South Carolina. State board fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
 lishers' guaranty, and may require publishers to have depositaries 
 in each county, or county boards may furnish books at cost. 
 
 Tennessee. County superintendent suggests suitable books. 
 
 Texas. The law resembles that of Missouri. Penalty, upon 
 any teacher or trustee, $10 to $50 for each offense. Every day of 
 violation of law to be considered a separate offense.
 
 137] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 6 1 
 
 Virginia. Two books of John Esten Cooke Virginia, a His- 
 tory of Her People ; Stories of the Old Dominion are prescribed 
 by law. State board fixes a list. 
 
 West Virginia. A contract list for 5 years is part of the law of 
 1896, with exceptions. County school book boards are established 
 by act of 1897. Publishers keep books with local depositaries on 
 account of district building fund. Penalty, on every officer or 
 teacher, $3 to $10 for each offense. 
 
 Wyoming. A convention of superintendents fixes a list for 
 5 years. 
 
 The states following, regularly or through stated action, author- 
 ize provision for free use of books by pupils : 
 
 Colorado. District boards fix list for 4 years, with exceptions. 
 Indigents are furnished and, on popular vote, all pupils, free. 
 
 Connecticut. State board may fix list for 5 years. Town boards 
 may take additional action and, on popular vote, furnish free text- 
 books. 
 
 Delaware. State board fixes list ; district board furnishes free 
 text-books. 
 
 Idaho. Books adopted by a state board of text-book commis- 
 sioners for all common, graded, and high schools are furnished free 
 by the district ; under contracts with publishers for 6 years. 
 
 Iowa. Local boards may buy and sell to pupils at cost. 
 County uniformity *can be fixed for 5 years. Text-books are fur- 
 nished free to indigents, and, on popular vote, to all, by the 
 district. 
 
 Kansas. A school text-book commission (1897) has selected 
 text-books in common-school studies for five years and contracted 
 with publishers to furnish them to pupils through agencies at every 
 county seat. On popular vote, with a two-thirds majority, school 
 boards may purchase books and furnish their use free to pupils. 
 Penalty for using other text-books, except for reference, $25 to 
 $100, with or without imprisonment. 
 
 Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island (towns), 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania (local boards), Maryland (counties), fur- 
 nish free text-books. 
 
 Michigan. District boards furnish books to indigents, and, on 
 popular vote, to all pupils, free. 
 
 Minnesota. Local boards may fix a list for 3 to 5 years, with 
 publishers' guaranty, and may purchase and provide for loan free 
 or for sale at cost to pupils.
 
 62 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [138 
 
 Montana. A state board of text-book commissioners fixed a 
 list for 6 years to be handled through dealers, with publishers' 
 guaranty. Upon vote of a district, free text-books are furnished. 
 
 Nebraska. Local boards furnish books free ; may fix list with 
 publishers' guaranty not beyond 5 years. A local dealer may be 
 designated to handle the books on agreed terms. 
 
 New York. Every union free school board is " to prescribe the 
 text-books * * * and to furnish the same out of any money 
 provided for the purpose." 
 
 Common-school districts, by popular vote, may furnish indigent 
 pupils. 
 
 North Dakota. Local boards may furnish free text-books, and 
 must on popular vote. Contracts must be for 3 to 4 years with- 
 out change. 
 
 South Dakota. A county board of education is required to 
 adopt a uniform series for 5 years, to be furnished through desig- 
 nated depositaries under publishers' guaranty. On petition of a 
 majority of electors, a school corporation must arrange for free 
 text-books. 
 
 Utah. A convention of superintendents fixes a list, except for 
 cities, for 5 years, on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on teacher, 
 loss of eligibility. Boards of education are authorized to furnish 
 free text-books, and, in cities, to select books. 
 
 Vermont. County authority fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
 lishers' guaranty. On popular vote, local boards furnish free text- 
 books. 
 
 Washington. The state board of education fixes a list for 5 
 years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on district, forfeiture of 
 one-fourth the apportionment. Local boards furnish indigents, 
 and, on popular vote, all pupils. 
 
 Wisconsin. District board fixes list for 3 years. Penalty on 
 every member of the board, $50. On popular vote, books are fur- 
 nished free without time limitation as to change.
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 APPENDIX IX Average total amount of schooling (expressed in 
 years of 200 school days each) each individual of the population 
 would receive as his equipment for life, under the conditions exist- 
 ing at the different dates given in the table, and counting in the 
 work done by all grades of both public and private schools and 
 colleges 
 
 
 1870 
 
 I880 
 
 1890 
 
 * 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 United States 
 
 fi 
 
 
 4.4.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. %> 
 
 
 
 
 3 3 
 
 o y" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Atlantic Division 
 
 S .o6 
 
 5.69 
 
 6.05 
 
 6. 15 
 
 6.18 
 
 6.10 
 
 6-35 
 
 6.47 
 
 6.52 
 
 6.64 
 
 6.76 
 
 South Atlantic Division 
 South Central Division 
 
 1.23 
 
 I. 12 
 
 2.22 
 
 1.86 
 
 2-73 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.78 
 2.62 
 
 2.74 
 2.69 
 
 2.79 
 2.64 
 
 2-95 
 2.89 
 
 2.95 
 2.65 
 
 2.93 
 2.7O 
 
 3-5 
 2.75 
 
 3-14 
 2-95 
 
 North Central Division 
 
 4-01 
 
 4.65 
 
 5-36 
 
 5-35 
 
 5-31 
 
 5.38 
 
 5-57 
 
 5.69^ 
 
 5-84 
 
 5-8? 
 
 S-8 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average total amount of schooling per inhabitant, etc., considering 
 only the public elementary and secondary schools, and expressed as 
 before in years of 200 school days each 
 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 
 i 8< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 28 
 
 
 4 *6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Atlantic Division 
 South Atlantic Division 
 
 4- 5 3 
 .80 
 
 4.84 
 
 1. 00 
 
 4-99 
 2.42 
 
 5-06 
 2.46 
 
 5.10 
 2.46 
 
 5.10 
 2.51 
 
 5-28 
 2.70 
 
 5-47 
 2.68 
 
 5-52 
 
 2.66 
 
 5.61 
 2.78 
 
 5 'Z I 
 
 2.87 
 
 South Central Division 
 
 .80 
 
 I -57 
 
 2.20 
 
 3.3t 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.59 
 
 2-59 
 
 2-44 
 
 2-49 
 
 2.68 
 
 North Central Division 
 
 3-?i 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.67 
 
 4-74 
 
 4-7S 
 
 4.84 
 
 5.00 
 
 S-iS 
 
 5.21 
 
 S.28 
 
 5-25 
 
 Western Division 
 
 
 
 3.98 
 
 4.16 
 
 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.87 
 
 4*95 
 
 5.02 
 
 5.25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NOTE. The figures of this table for the years previous to the current year have been revised 
 and differ slightly from those heretofore published.
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNIXKD STATKS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN 
 Professor of Education in the University of California 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 One could not expect to find distinctively American insti- 
 tutions among the colonists of the seventeenth century. 
 There was as yet no distinctively American character. Two 
 opposing influences were at work shaping the colonial life : 
 the first was the spirit of protest against European institu- 
 tions, which many of the colonists had brought with them 
 from the Old World ; the second was the ever-present 
 instinct of imitation. Real American schools might be 
 expected to develop with the development of real American 
 nationality. In the beginning, there could be only such 
 schools as might arise under the mingled influence of a 
 desire to be like the mother-country and a desire to be 
 different. 
 
 We find, as a matter of fact, the history of American sec- 
 ondary education presenting three pretty well-defined types 
 and stages of development. There is, first, the colonial 
 period, with its Latin grammar schools ; secondly, the period 
 extending from the revolutionary war to the middle of the 
 nineteenth century, during which the attempt was made to 
 solve the problem of American secondary education by 
 means of the so-called academy ; and, thirdly, the succeeding 
 period down to the present time, chiefly characterized by the 
 upgrowth of public high schools. 
 
 The specific influences which most vitally influenced the 
 early development of secondary education in America were, 
 on the one hand, the example of the " grammar schools " of 
 old England ; and, on the other hand, the rising spirit of 
 democracy, in large measure Calvinistic as to its modes 
 of thought, and in touch with movements in the Calvin- 
 istic portions of Europe.
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION [144 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS 
 
 Early in the history of the colony of Virginia, funds were 
 raised and lands set apart for the endowment of a Latin 
 grammar school. But these promising beginnings were 
 swept away by the Indian massacre of 1622, and the school 
 seems never to have been opened. The town of Boston, in 
 the Massachusetts Bay colony, set up a Latin school in 1635, 
 which has had a continuous existence down to the present 
 time. This school was established by vote of the citizens in 
 a town meeting. It was supported in part by private dona- 
 tions, and in part by the rent of certain islands in the harbor, 
 designated by the town for that purpose. A town rate seems 
 also to have been levied when necessary to make up a salary 
 of 50 a year for the master. 
 
 Other Massachusetts towns soon followed the example of 
 Boston. The money for the support of these schools was 
 obtained in a variety of ways. School fees were commonly 
 but not universally collected. A town rate, which was 
 depended upon at first only to supplement other sources of 
 revenue, gradually came to be the main reliance ; and by the 
 middle of the eighteenth century the most of the grammar 
 schools of Massachusetts charged no fee for tuition. 
 
 Latin schools were early established in the colonies 
 included in the territory of the present state of Connecti- 
 cut: one at New Haven in 1641, and one at Hartford not 
 later than 1642. A notable bequest left by Edward Hop- 
 kins, sometime governor of Connecticut colony, whose later 
 years were passed in England, became available soon after 
 the middle of the seventeenth century. The greater part of 
 it was devoted to the maintenance of Latin grammar schools 
 in Hartford and New Haven, and also in the towns of H ad- 
 ley and Cambridge in Massachusetts. 
 
 The Dutch at New Amsterdam now New York 
 opened a Latin school in 1659. This school was continued 
 for some years after the colony passed under English rule. 
 Secondary schools were established in the colony of Penn-
 
 145] SECONDARY EDUCATION 5, 
 
 sylvania in the latter part of the seventeenth century. One 
 of these, the William Penn Charter School, at Philadelphia, 
 has continued down to the present day. King William's 
 school, at Annapolis, was erected by the legislature of Mary- 
 land in 1696. Similar schools were from time to time estab- 
 lished in different sections of the same colony. The 
 eighteenth century saw schools of like character opened, 
 partly by legislative enactment, partly by private initiative, 
 in these and in the remaining colonies. Some of the num- 
 ber, like the University Grammar School in Rhode Island 
 and the Free School at New York, were either the fore- 
 runners or the accompaniments of colonial colleges. 
 
 Not only were these several schools opened during the 
 colonial period : important beginnings were made also in 
 the organization of colonial systems of secondary educa- 
 tion. The Puritan colony of Massachusetts took the lead 
 in this movement. In 1647 the colonial legislature decreed 
 that an elementary school should be maintained in every 
 town having a population of fifty families ; and that in 
 every town having one hundred families there should be 
 a grammar school, in which the students might be fitted 
 for admission to the university. 
 
 This liberal provision was soon copied by the neigh- 
 boring colonies of Connecticut and New Hampshire. In 
 Connecticut the provision was afterwards changed to a 
 requirement of a grammar school in each county town. 
 These New England colonies maintained and enforced 
 ^uch provisions regarding grammar schools, with varying 
 degrees of strictness, to be sure, down to and even after 
 the revolutionary war. Maryland established by law a 
 system of county grammar schools, thus keeping pace 
 with the more northern colony of Connecticut. 
 
 The interest in secondary education declined and many 
 schools fell into decay as the revolutionary period 
 approached. When the colonies were transformed into 
 states, after the declaration of independence, the four sys- 
 tems of schools mentioned above were continued with little
 
 6 SECONDARY EDUCATION [146 
 
 change. No other of the thirteen states had anything that 
 could be called a system of public instruction. 
 
 COLONIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 The chief emphasis in these schools was laid on the 
 preparation of future collegians to pass the college entrance 
 examination. The most of the schools were in this sense 
 " preparatory " or " fitting " schools. The requirements for 
 admission to college determined their course of study. In 
 the middle of the seventeenth century, the requirements of 
 Harvard college, which fixed the scholastic standard for 
 New England, are stated as follows : " When scholars had 
 so far profited at the grammar schools that they could read 
 any classical author into English, and readily make and 
 speak true Latin, and write it in verse as well as prose ; and 
 perfectly decline the paradigms of nouns and verbs in the 
 Greek tongue, they were judged capable of admission in 
 Harvard college." A century later, the requirements of 
 Princeton college, which profoundly influenced the second- 
 ary schools of the middle states, were described in these 
 words : " Candidates for admission into the lowest or fresh- 
 man class must be capable of composing grammatical Latin, 
 translating Virgil, Cicero's Orations, and the four Evangelists 
 in Greek ; and by a late order * * * must understand 
 the principal rules of vulgar arithmetic." 
 
 The colonial grammar schools taught accordingly Latin, 
 and a little Greek. They gave instruction in religion ; but 
 little else was added to the classical languages. 
 
 Social grades were pretty sharply distinguished in the 
 colonies. The grammar schools and colleges were intended 
 especially for the directive and professional classes. They 
 had little if any connection with such elementary schools as 
 there were. In Massachusetts, towns which maintained 
 grammar schools were not required to maintain reading 
 schools. Sometimes pupils were taught to read in grammar 
 schools. But the grammar school teachers objected to this 
 burden ; and the mixing of the two grades of instruction in
 
 147] SECONDARY EDUCATION 7 
 
 one school was recognized as an evil. There seems to have 
 been no middle grade of school, answering to the needs of a 
 middle class in society. And for girls there was no provision 
 whatever beyond occasional instruction in the merest rudi- 
 ments of learning. 
 
 In the colleges, the ecclesiastical spirit and purpose was 
 paramount. The students were for the most part preparing 
 for the clerical vocation in some one of the Protestant 
 denominations. But naturally only a part of the students in 
 the grammar schools showed the disposition and the aptitude 
 to pursue classical studies and enter the profession to which 
 they led. The grammar schools exercised a kind of selective 
 function, discovering latent capacity for the higher studies 
 and starting talented youth on the way to college. Those' 
 who showed capacity of a lower grade or of a different sort 
 seem to have received but little attention or encouragement 
 in the schools of that day. 
 
 A TIME OF TRANSITION 
 
 As we approach the revolutionary period, we find new 
 social conditions giving rise to a new order of schools. In 
 the earlier days there had been, in most of the colonies, a 
 close connection between ecclesiastical and political func- 
 tions. With the growth of sectarian differences, there 
 appeared a decided tendency toward the separation of gov- 
 ernmental from ecclesiastical affairs. The grammar schools 
 and colleges had been established for the public good as 
 represented in both church and commonwealth. They had 
 been founded and maintained by a remarkable combination 
 of governmental, ecclesiastical, and private agency. Some 
 of the colonies must be reckoned among the foremost of 
 modern societies to exemplify direct governmental participa- 
 tion in educational affairs. But as governmental and eccle- 
 siastical interests drew apart, the position of educational 
 institutions was disturbed. This change tended to lessen 
 the prestige of colonial systems of education among the 
 more zealous adherents of the several religious denomina-
 
 8 SECONDARY EDUCATION [148 
 
 tions. At the same time, a growing distrust of the colleges 
 appeared among those who were most in accord with the 
 secularizing tendency of the time. These influences com- 
 bined with many others to weaken the old grammar schools. 
 In their stead there grew up a new type of secondary school, 
 commonly known as the academy. For two or three genera- 
 tions following the revolutionary period this type was in 
 the ascendancy. The effort to solve the problem of sec- 
 ondary education by this 'means ultimately failed. But the 
 academy nevertheless occupies a place of great significance 
 in the history of our educational institutions. 
 
 THE ACADEMIES 
 
 Both the name and the character of the new institu- 
 tion were suggested by English precedents. In England, 
 dissenters from the established religion were excluded from 
 both grammar schools and universities. In the latter part of 
 the seventeenth century, following a suggestion of Milton, 
 the non-conformist bodies proceeded to establish so-called 
 academies. These schools were in the main of second- 
 ary grade. Yet they undertook to prepare candidates for 
 the clerical office in non-conformist congregations ; and 
 they offered a wide range of literary and scientific studies, 
 in free imitation of the universities. They even afforded 
 instruction in some studies, chiefly of a technical and prac- 
 tical character, not commonly taught in the universities. 
 
 The American colonists were, many of them, in close rela- 
 tions with various bodies of English dissenters ; and the 
 fame of the English academies would seem to have influ- 
 enced their thought in the matter of public education. At 
 one time, the strong theological bent of their English proto- 
 types reappeared in the new American schools ; at another 
 time, the resemblance was more obvious in the range and 
 character of the studies offered. But the American acade- 
 mies soon came to have a well-defined character of their 
 own, apart from any conscious imitation of English models. 
 
 As early as the year 1726, a school for classical and theo-
 
 149] SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 
 
 logical studies was established by the pastor of a Presby- 
 terian congregation at Neshaminy,'in Pennsylvania. It was 
 described by a visitor as an " academy " ; but was more com- 
 monly known as the " Log College," in allusion to the fact 
 that it was conducted in a small building made of logs. 
 This school in the wilderness was the center of deep and 
 widespread interest in classical studies as well as in the 
 religious life. It sent out large numbers of zealous pastors 
 and teachers, who established " log colleges " all over the 
 highlands of the middle and southern colonies. 
 
 Through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin, a school was 
 established at Philadelphia, legally incorporated as an acad- 
 emy in 1753, which was probably the first institution in 
 America to be formally designated by that title. It was 
 under the control of a self-perpetuating board of trustees. 
 A fund was raised by private subscription for its establish- 
 ment and maintenance. This was supplemented by a grant 
 from the city treasury and by tuition fees. But fees were 
 remitted in the case of those who were unable to pay. This 
 academy was organized in three departments or schools ; 
 viz., the Latin, the English, and the mathematical. The 
 theological element was not prominent here. Much stress 
 was laid on the teaching of the English language and litera- 
 ture, and the mathematical sciences. The school ultimately 
 developed into the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Within two or three decades from the founding of this 
 school at Philadelphia, a number of schools somewhat simi- 
 lar in character, and some of them bearing the name 
 academy, were established in the middle and southern colo- 
 nies. The new movement received fresh incentive and 
 definiteness of direction from the establishment of the two 
 Phillips academies, one at Andover in Massachusetts and 
 the other at Exeter in New Hampshire, incorporated, the 
 former in 1780 and the latter in 1781. These schools, well 
 endowed, and conducted under self-perpetuating boards of 
 trustees, were the pioneers of a long line of similar estab- 
 lishments in New England. Their influence extended to
 
 IO SECONDARY EDUCATION [150 
 
 remote states, especially in the growing west ; and they rank 
 to-day among the strongest and most influential of our sec- 
 ondary schools. 
 
 STATE SYSTEMS 
 
 Soon after the close of the revolutionary war, new state 
 systems of education began to be established, in which 
 special provision was made for secondary schools. The 
 earliest and most remarkable of these was the University of 
 the State of New York, erected in 1784 and remodeled in 
 1787. This institution is a notable example of the strong 
 and increasing influence which French thought then exer* 
 cised in American affairs. The conception of a university 
 put forth by Diderot and others of the great French writers 
 of the latter half of the eighteenth century, was first realized 
 in the state of New York. The New York university 
 embraced the whole provision for secondary and higher 
 education within the state, with the exception of schools of 
 a purely private character. It seems to have been intended 
 at the outset to embrace elementary schools as well, but 
 these were organized later under a separate administrative 
 system. The university was placed under the control of a 
 board of regents, consisting of the governor and the lieuten- 
 ant-governor of the state, ex officio, together with nineteen 
 others, elected by the state legislature. At first this board 
 of regents had been identical with the board of trustees of 
 Columbia college. But this arrangement was unsatisfactory 
 for many reasons : because of the ecclesiastical character of 
 the college, for one thing ; and also because of the growing 
 belief that the interests of the college were distinct from, 
 if not opposed to, those of the new academies. The reor- 
 ganization of 1787 accordingly made the board of regents 
 a body distinct from the trustees of any institution included 
 in the university. The trustees were to exercise control 
 over their several institutions. But this control was made 
 subject to the general and not at all rigorous supervision 
 of the regents.
 
 I5l] SECONDARY EDUCATION II 
 
 In 1813 the legislature of the state established a perma- 
 nent fund known as the literature fund, the income of 
 which was to be applied wholly to the support of secondary 
 schools. The distribution of this fund was made subject to 
 the control of the regents of the university. 
 
 This university set up by the state of New York appealed 
 to the imagination of men by its comprehensiveness and 
 novelty. It exercised great influence on later systems ; but 
 only one state and one territory seem to have modeled their 
 scheme of public instruction after the New York pattern. 
 An act of the legislature of Georgia, passed in 1785, pro- 
 vided that " All public schools instituted, or to be supported 
 by funds or public moneys in this state, shall be considered 
 as parts or members of the university." But the university 
 of . Georgia never realized the large and liberal plan pro- 
 posed for it. 
 
 In the territory of Michigan, an act was passed in 1817 
 instituting a university of imposing character. The presi- 
 dent and professors of this institution were empowered " to 
 establish colleges, academies, schools, libraries, museums, 
 athenaeums, botanical gardens, laboratories and other useful 
 literary and scientific institutions * * * throughout the 
 various counties, cities, towns, townships, and other geo- 
 graphical divisions of Michigan." As may be supposed, 
 this establishment existed mainly on paper. Yet it should 
 be noted that before the act was repealed, in 1821, there had 
 been opened under its provisions a college, a classical school, 
 and several primary schools. 
 
 But although the comprehensive type of university 
 organization was not widely adopted, there was a general 
 desire in the early part of the nineteenth century to establish 
 complete and well-rounded systems of public instruction. 
 Primary education was still all too largely neglected. In 
 the state systems which were from time to time devised, 
 emphasis was laid at one time upon secondary schools, at 
 another upon institutions of higher learning. Some of the 
 best thought of our political leaders was devoted to the
 
 12 SECONDARY EDUCATION [152 
 
 problem of devising systems which should meet the needs 
 of our rapidly growing states in all of the several grades of 
 instruction. 
 
 The legislature of Tennessee declared, in 1817, that, 
 " Institutions of learning, both academies and colleges, 
 should ever be under the fostering care of this legislature, 
 and in their connection with each other form a complete 
 system of education." 
 
 Even more significant is the provision of the constitution 
 of Indiana, adopted in 1816, that, " It shall be the duty of 
 the general assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, 
 to provide by law for a general system of education, ascend- 
 ing in regular gradation from township schools to a state 
 university wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open 
 to all." 
 
 For the most part, however, actual state agency in sec- 
 ondary education was as yet limited to the subsidising of 
 privately managed academies. In Massachusetts, the pro- 
 vision for grammar schools under town control was continued 
 after the colony became a state. But the law was so changed 
 that only the larger towns were left subject to this require- 
 ment. At the same time academies established by private 
 initiative were endowed by the legislature with grants of 
 public lands. The state assumed no control whatever over 
 the academies which it thus subsidised. 
 
 In Kentucky, the state legislature granted six thousand 
 acres of public lands to an academy in each county. In 
 Pennsylvania, colleges and academies received financial aid 
 from the state for many years, culminating in 1838 in a 
 general state system of educational subsidies. Five years 
 later, such aid was discontinued. In others of the states, 
 the granting of state subsidies, in money or in lands, to sec- 
 ondary and higher schools, was customary for many years. 
 For the most part, there is but little of system or consistency 
 observable in the distribution of such aid ; and the state- 
 aided institutions were not subjected to any sort of state 
 control.
 
 153] SECONDARY EDUCATION 13 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE ACADEMIES 
 
 The type of secondary school which grew up under these 
 conditions demands closer consideration. The old acade- 
 mies were generally endowed institutions, organized under 
 the control of self-perpetuating boards of trustees or of 
 religious bodies. They were established for the most part 
 to serve the need of a wide constituency and not merely of 
 a single community. They were often located in small 
 country places. Many of them made provision for boarders 
 as well as for day pupils. 
 
 They were not intended in any especial or exclusive sense 
 for the training of future members of the learned pro- 
 fessions. Many of them, to be sure, as time went on, drew 
 near to the colleges and became known primarily as prepara- 
 tory schools. In the western states, colleges were often 
 organized with preparatory schools attached to them, and 
 these preparatory schools were commonly called " acade- 
 mies." But such was not the earlier purpose of the acade- 
 mies. They were largely schools for the middle classes of 
 society, and sought to give a good middle grade of instruc- 
 tion, with only occasional or subordinate reference to college 
 preparation. They answered to a growing desire after 
 learning for its own sake, or for the increased efficiency it 
 would give in other than professional pursuits. 
 
 The training which they offered was regarded as more 
 " practical " than that of the colleges. Their course of 
 instruction presented a wider range of studies than that of 
 the grammar schools ; not infrequently wider than that of the 
 colleges themselves. They laid new stress on the study of 
 the English language, together with its grammar, rhetoric, 
 and the art of public speaking. They gave instruction in 
 various branches of mathematics, often including surveying 
 and navigation. They made important beginnings in the 
 pursuit of the natural sciences. Natural philosophy (phys- 
 ics) was a favorite subject, of which astronomy constituted 
 an important division. Geography was also taught ; and his-
 
 14 SECONDARY EDUCATION [154 
 
 tory, especially the history of Greece and Rome, and of the 
 United States. French was sometimes taught ; more rarely 
 German. In the better academies, the Latin and Greek 
 languages still constituted the substantial core of the instruc- 
 tion offered. 
 
 In the earlier days, the course of study in these schools 
 was not well defined. In some subjects, especially English, 
 Latin, and mathematics, a good degree of continuity of 
 work was apparently maintained. In others, classes were 
 formed at irregular periods. Many young men who were 
 obliged to labor on the farms during the rest of the year, 
 would attend an academy during the winter term, and the 
 order of instruction would to some extent be arranged with 
 reference to their needs. There was necessarily great 
 diversity among the different institutions, those in the same 
 state or even in the same county presenting great differences. 
 When finally definite courses of study were laid out, they 
 varied in length from three to four or five*years. 
 
 Parallel courses were offered. That including classical 
 studies and covering the required preparation for admission 
 to some college was commonly regarded as the standard 
 course of the school. Along with this might be found an 
 English course. At a later date, a scientific course was 
 often provided in place of or in addition to the English 
 course. 
 
 The religious character of these schools should be noted. 
 Many of them were established by religious bodies. It 
 was during the period which we have under consideration 
 that Catholic secondary schools began to appear in consid- 
 erable numbers. These were for the most part established by 
 the several teaching orders. The Society of Jesus founded 
 institutions of secondary and higher education in the United 
 States after the revolutionary war. The Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools opened their first school in America at 
 Montreal in 1838; and soon after set up establishments 
 within the United States, at Baltimore and New York. 
 These were doubtless of elementary grade at the start ; but
 
 155] SECONDARY EDUCATION 15 
 
 the brethren extended their courses after a time to include 
 secondary studies. Many conventual schools for girls/were 
 also established, and it became no uncommon thing for them 
 to draw a large clientage from other than Catholic families. 
 
 The academies established by Protestant bodies were in 
 some instances under direct ecclesiastical control ; but more 
 frequently their formal connection with ecclesiastical societies 
 terminated with their legal incorporation. They were, how- 
 ever, generally characterized by great moral earnestness, on 
 the part of both teachers and pupils ; and many of them 
 were remarkable for the intensity of religious life which 
 they fostered. The religious instruction which they carried 
 on concerned itself for the most part with the broad under- 
 lying principles of Christianity, avoiding in large measure 
 the discussion of doctrines upon which the sects of Chris- 
 tendom are divided. It consisted mainly of lessons from the 
 King James version of the Bible both the Old and the 
 New Testament. This was often supplemented by instruc- 
 tion in moral philosophy. Thus, the non-Catholic academies, 
 even such as had arisen from the initiative of religious socie- 
 ties, tended toward the non-sectarian character which has 
 been more fully exemplified in the public schools of later 
 times. 
 
 The grammar schools had been exclusively for boys. 
 Such was the case with many of the academies. Others of 
 these schools were co-educational. With the increasing 
 interest in education for women, there grew up a large num- 
 ber of academies for girls, which were all too often weighed 
 down with the title of " female seminary." These two types 
 of secondary education for girls prepared the way for two 
 types of institution of higher education, both of which 
 appeared in the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, 
 viz., the co-educational college and the college for women 
 exclusively. 
 
 The academies aroused and ministered to a strong and 
 widespread desire for education. They greatly broadened 
 the intellectual horizon of families and communities. They
 
 j6 SECONDARY EDUCATION [156 
 
 reinforced the protest which was arising against the too 
 narrow curriculum of the American colleges. In many other 
 ways they rendered a timely and most efficient service in the 
 betterment of American thought and life. 
 
 One specific service must receive separate mention. In 
 the absence of special schools for the training of teachers, 
 the better elementary schools were for a long time in the 
 hands of teachers who had studied in the academies. In 
 New York and Pennsylvania, this service of the academies 
 received recognition at the hands of the state legislature. 
 Special classes were organized in these schools for instruc- 
 tion in the art of teaching. A seminary for teachers was 
 opened in connection with the Phillips academy at Andover. 
 When state normal schools began to be established, in Mas- 
 sachusetts in the year 1839, suggestions for their organiza- 
 tion and management were drawn from this seminary and 
 from the current practice of the academies. 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL MOVEMENT 
 
 In the early part of the nineteenth century, there appeared 
 in the several American states a strong demand for schools 
 under the exclusive control of the state government. Various 
 influences contributed to this sentiment. The Calvinistic 
 view of the civil power had apparently prepared the way 
 for state agency in education. The spirit which drove the 
 Jesuits from France and during the French revolution made 
 education a part of the program of democracy, roused an 
 answering spirit in America. The steadily advancing sepa- 
 ration between church and state kept alive the question as to 
 the relation of the schools to both. So far as the higher 
 education was concerned, it seemed to be the well-estab- 
 lished theory that the state should grant charters to col- 
 leges, authorizing them to manage their own affairs under 
 close corporations, with incidental aid from the state in the 
 shape of gifts of land or money. And this had come to be 
 the prevalent method of meeting the demand for secondary 
 education. But the notion of higher institutions chiefly
 
 157] SECONDARY EDUCATION IJ 
 
 supported and directly controlled by the state now began 
 to get abroad. 
 
 The University of Virginia, under the guidance of Thomas 
 Jefferson, led the way to the realization of this idea. In New 
 Hampshire, the legislature undertook to transform Dartmouth 
 college into Dartmouth university, without the consent of the 
 college corporation. The attempt was frustrated by a decis- 
 ion of the United States supreme court. This decision was 
 of the utmost importance in the history of American educa- 
 tion as well as of American jurisprudence. It declared, in 
 effect, that an institution founded and administered as was 
 Dartmouth college was a private corporation ; that the char- 
 ter granted it by the state was in the nature of a con- 
 tract, and accordingly could not, under the constitution of 
 the United States, be altered by the legislature without the 
 consent of the board of trustees. This decision established 
 the inviolability of chartered rights. It thus gave security 
 and stability to all incorporated institutions ; it drew also a 
 sharp distinction between " public " and " private " institu- 
 tions, and placed the most of the then existing higher and 
 secondary schools in the latter class. These schools served 
 a public purpose and were open to public resort. They were 
 in all but the legal sense public schools. But the clear defi- 
 nition of their legal status served to strengthen the rising 
 demand for schools which should be public in every sense 
 of the word. The growth of cities and many other causes 
 combined to reinforce this demand. 
 
 The first step in the establishment of public secondary 
 schools to supplement or fill the place of the academies 
 was taken by the larger towns and municipalities, under 
 the lead of Boston. The new institutions were a direct out- 
 growth of the system of elementary schools. The course 
 of study in these schools was becoming better defined and 
 was slowly extending. In Boston, it was extended down- 
 ward in the year 1818 to include primary schools in which 
 the first steps in reading were taken. The same system was 
 extended upward in 1821 by the establishment of an " Eng-
 
 1 8 SECONDARY EDUCATION [158 
 
 lish classical school," which soon took the name of " English 
 high school." The name seems to have been adopted in 
 imitation of the high school of Edinburgh. There had been 
 for many years close intellectual sympathy between the Mas- 
 sachusetts town and the Scotch capital. The new Boston 
 school differed, however, in important particulars from its 
 namesake in Edinburgh. The ancient languages were not 
 included in its curriculum. It did not employ the moni- 
 torial method of instruction, then in vogue in Edinburgh. 
 But the two schools were alike in this : that each was sup- 
 ported and controlled by the municipality and was an object 
 of municipal interest and pride. 
 
 The English high school was established to meet the needs 
 of the middle, and especially the commercial, classes. Its 
 course of study was three years in length, embracing the 
 English language and literature, mathematics, navigation 
 and surveying, geography, natural philosophy (including 
 astronomy), history, logic, moral and political philosophy. 
 Latin and modern languages *were added later, and the 
 course extended to four years. Students were received into 
 the high school from the elementary schools of the city, but 
 were not at the first prepared in the high school for admis- 
 sion to college. That was still the function of the Latin 
 school. But with the addition of foreign languages to its 
 course of study, the English high school has fitted its stu- 
 dents for admission to certain higher institutions, and particu- 
 larly to the Institute of Technology. 
 
 Boston was still a town when she set up her English 
 classical school, but became a city in the following year. 
 The new school was proposed by the school committee, and 
 was approved by the people, assembled in town meeting. 
 Other Massachusetts towns soon followed the lead of Boston 
 in this matter. Philadelphia, in 1838, established the Cen- 
 tral high school, under special authorization from the Penn- 
 sylvania legislature. Baltimore followed, with the establish- 
 ment of a " city college." Providence opened a public high 
 school in 1843. Hartford, in 1847, transformed her old
 
 159] SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 9 
 
 grammar school into a school of the newer type. New York 
 opened a "free academy" in 1848, the name of which was 
 afterwards changed to " the College of the City of New York." 
 This school was established in accordance with a special act 
 of the state legislature, ratified by vote of the people of the 
 city. Other high schools sprang up in various parts of the 
 country before the year 1850 in Connecticut, in New York, 
 in Ohio. Since that time the movement has steadily con- 
 tinued, until now these schools are found in every state in 
 the union, in cities, in smaller towns, and even occasion- 
 ally in thickly populated country districts. 
 
 The zeal of communities in the establishment of these 
 schools not infrequently outran the express provision of state 
 school laws. But the movement encountered hostility from 
 various sources, notably from those who regarded the 
 academy as the final or best solution of the problem of pub- 
 lic secondary education, and from those who were opposed 
 on principle to the recognition of secondary education as a 
 proper field for governmental agency. The legal questions 
 involved in this latter contention were brought to a settle- 
 ment in the supreme court of Michigan, in what is com- 
 monly known as the " Kalamazoo case." The decision of 
 the court in this case was prepared by one of the most emi- 
 nent of American jurists. It was summed up in the words, 
 " Neither in our state policy, in our constitution, nor in our 
 laws do we find the primary school districts restricted in the 
 branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to be 
 taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if their 
 voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise 
 the taxes for the purpose." 
 
 This case not only settled the question which it raised 
 within the territorial limits of the state of Michigan. It 
 settled also the general policy of the American common- 
 wealths in this matter. The opinion of the court, in its 
 ample setting-forth, made clear the fact that American 
 thought and purpose were moving steadily toward a com- 
 plete system of education, under full public control, its
 
 2O SECONDARY EDUCATION [l6o 
 
 several parts well knit together so as to form an organic 
 whole. 
 
 But in several of the states the people were not left to 
 work out the problem of secondary education in the isola- 
 tion of scattered communities. In these states, well ordered 
 systems of secondary schools were established by statute. 
 As early as 1798, Connecticut authorized the opening of 
 higher schools by the local authorities (" school societies "). 
 In Massachusetts, the law requiring grammar schools in the 
 towns was so far weakened, in 1824, that towns having a 
 population of less than 5,000 were allowed to substitute 
 therefor an elementary school, if the people should so 
 determine by vote at a public election. This marks the low- 
 est ebb of public school sentiment in the Bay state at 
 least so far as secondary education was concerned. The 
 academies were then at the height of their prosperity. But 
 two years later the return movement set in. It was enacted 
 that every town having five hundred families should provide 
 a master to give instruction in history of the United States, 
 bookkeeping, geometry, surveying and algebra ; and every 
 town having four thousand inhabitants, a master capable of 
 giving instruction in Latin and Greek, history, rhetoric, and 
 logic. The young state of Iowa adopted a provision in 
 1849 expressly permitting the adding of higher grades to 
 the public schools; and in 1858 authorized the establish- 
 ment of county high schools. In New York, the systematic 
 grading of the schools went steadily forward ; and the 
 " academic departments " of these schools, corresponding to 
 the high schools of other states, formed a part of the uni- 
 versity of the state of New York and received financial aid 
 from the literature fund. In Maryland, the county acade- 
 mies, which had displaced the grammar schools of colonial 
 days, continued for many years to receive financial aid from 
 the state, and only in comparatively recent times were 
 merged into a state system of high schools. 
 
 Other important state establishments have taken shape at 
 so recent a date that they will be described later under the 
 account of present-day systems of schools.
 
 l6l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 
 
 THE OLD AND THE NEW 
 
 We have seen that by the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury a great change had come over secondary education in 
 the United States. Two aspects of the new order of things 
 are worthy of note : First, the position in which it placed 
 the old academies ; secondly, the tendency which it marked 
 toward a closing up of gaps in the system of public 
 instruction. 
 
 The academies had long been the ordinary and accepted 
 agency for secondary education. They had provided a 
 general training for the great body of students. They had 
 also drawn near to the colleges, and now prepared a large 
 proportion of the candidates for admission to the fresh- 
 man class. Private schools had grown up which paid 
 especial attention to fitting boys for college ; and from the 
 earliest times many had received such preparation at the 
 hands of private tutors, and particularly under the personal 
 direction of clergymen. But the academies were now par 
 excellence the preparatory schools of the country. The 
 growth of high schools had taken away from them the char- 
 acter of the ordinary provision for secondary education. 
 Many of them declined as the high schools advanced ; many 
 were given over to the communities in which they were con- 
 ducted and became high schools, under public management. 
 Those that survived laid more and more stress on their func- 
 tion of preparing for college. A goodly number of these 
 are stronger now than ever before ; and new schools- of this 
 type are founded from time to time. In recent years the 
 increase of wealth, the rise of new social distinctions, dis- 
 satisfaction with the colorless religious character of the 
 high schools", and many other causes, have caused a new 
 demand for such schools to arise. They prepare for col- 
 lege, but do not in general look upon this as their sole 
 function. They are recognized as constituting a highly 
 important part of American provision for public education. 
 While the high schools are for day pupils only, the acade-
 
 22 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l62 
 
 mies are generally boarding schools. They afford favorable 
 ground for the deep rooting and vigorous growth of tradi- 
 tions of culture and scholarship. The more famous of them 
 draw students from long distances, and accordingly exercise 
 a widespead influence upon American educational standards. 
 The high schools, on the other hand, are an evidence of 
 the widespread desire in America for complete systems of 
 education under public management. The impulse which 
 resulted in their establishment is closely related to that 
 which, especially in the southern and western states, led to 
 the founding of state universities. The organic connection 
 between the high schools and schools of elementary grade 
 has already been noted. At the first there was a recognized 
 gap between the high schools and institutions of higher 
 learning. The earliest high schools were intended specifi- 
 cally for those who were not preparing for college. But 
 there soon appeared a disposition on the part of the public 
 school authorities to close up this gap. Studies regarded as 
 distinctively preparatory to college were from time to time 
 introduced into high school courses. Of these, Greek 
 had and still has the most precarious hold upon public 
 favor. Yet there were and still are even small communi- 
 ties remote from the great centers of wealth and learning, 
 where Greek has an assured and honored place in the 
 high school curriculum. 
 
 A CONTINUOUS SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 It .should be stated here that well-established American 
 usage now recognizes three consecutive stages of instruction, 
 commonly distributed as follows : Eight years are assigned 
 to the elementary school ; four years to the high school or 
 academy, following directly upon the elementary course ; 
 and the four years next following to the college, which offers 
 finally the bachelor's degree. The whole course from the 
 primary school to the first degree is accordingly sixteen 
 years in length. It should be noted, however, that there is 
 a growing disposition to recognize the first two years of the
 
 163] SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 
 
 college course as offering instruction which is essentially of 
 secondary grade. And there is also a growing demand for 
 the introduction of secondary studies and secondary methods 
 into the upper grades of the elementary school course. 
 
 The tendency of public high schools to assume the func- 
 tion of preparation for college met with strong opposition. 
 It was claimed that this service could best be rendered by 
 special schools conducted for that express purpose. The 
 discussion of this question has brought out two contrasting 
 ideals of American life, and has shown more clearly the 
 nature of the movement which called the high school into 
 being. 
 
 The colonial period was a time in which distinctions of 
 rank were still fairly well defined in American society. 
 The higher schools of that time, intended especially for the 
 ruling class, had no organic connection with the lower 
 schools. The secondary schools were a part of the higher 
 system, and had little or nothing to do with the lower. 
 
 The first fifty years or more of independence was a time 
 of readjustment. The earlier system of social levels was 
 gradually transformed into a continuous series of grada- 
 tions. Society became an inclined plane, as it were, with 
 free and open passage up and down the scale. Every school 
 child was taught to consider himself as started on a way 
 which might lead to the highest places. 
 
 It seems inevitable that public education should in turn 
 have been influenced by the sentiments which it had helped 
 to form. An unlimited system of public schools was neces- 
 sary to the realization of the unlimited aspiration of the 
 people. The prevalent instinct slowly rose to a conscious 
 determination that there should be no cul-de-sac in the edu- 
 cational systems of the republic. 
 
 THE SCHOOLS AND THE COLLEGES 
 
 Even when the high schools had begun to prepare their 
 more favored students for college, the connection between 
 the secondary and the higher institutions was not so close as
 
 24 SECONDARY EDUCATION [164 
 
 was desired. In some of the leading states of the east, the 
 chief, or indeed the only, provision for higher education was 
 in institutions managed by private corporations. In many 
 of the newer states, there were growing up universities under 
 full state control. But these universities were supported out 
 of funds separate from those devoted to the common schools, 
 and were controlled by separate administrative boards. The 
 requirements for admission to college were determined by 
 the college faculties, with only incidental reference to the 
 purely educational problems confronting the secondary 
 schools. The fitness of candidates for admission was deter- 
 mined by an examination, conducted at the college, by col- 
 lege instructors, and covering the requirements which the 
 college had prescribed. 
 
 This system, to be sure, possessed great advantages. It 
 compelled all schools which undertook preparation for a 
 given college to come up to a definite scholastic standard 
 imposed from without. It exercised no authority over the 
 schools, but exerted an influence which a preparatory school 
 could not escape. Besides, the standard set for classes pre- 
 paring for college had an indirect influence on classes in the 
 same school which were pursuing other lines of study. So 
 the most powerful single agency affecting the course and the 
 methods of instruction in the better high schools, as in the 
 academies, was for many years the entrance examinations of 
 the several colleges. 
 
 But there were evils attendant upon this system. When 
 the excellence of a four-year course of school instruction was 
 to be tested by a single examination at the end of the course 
 this examination being conducted by the instructors in 
 another, and often a remote institution, with sole reference 
 to the plans and purposes of that institution, it was inevi- 
 table that the lower school should become merely tributary 
 in all essential particulars to the higher. The college exam- 
 ination became the chief end and aim of much of the work 
 in our secondary schools. There appeared a marked ten- 
 dency to substitute a cramming process for real educational
 
 165] SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 
 
 procedure. Teachers in secondary schools were too largely 
 turned aside from independent investigation of the essen- 
 tial problems of secondary education, to the more petty 
 inquiry into the exact nature of the entrance examinations 
 at certain colleges. It was clear that such a state of things 
 did not answer to the organic continuity of instruction which 
 American social conditions seemed to demand. 
 
 The attempt to correct this evil has taken several different 
 directions. Some of the most interesting movements affect- 
 ing our secondary education within the past three decades 
 have had this origin. How may a more vital relation be 
 established between secondary schools and colleges, which 
 shall conserve the highest educational interests of both ? 
 Such is the general question for which a solution has been 
 sought. 
 
 THE " ACCREDITING SYSTEM " 
 
 One of the earliest and most noteworthy attempts at its 
 solution is the so-called accrediting system, introduced by the 
 University of Michigan in 1871. Under this system, the 
 university admits to its freshman class, without examination, 
 such graduates of approved secondary schools as are espe- 
 cially recommended for that purpose by the principals of 
 those schools. This system has met with great favor and 
 has had widespread application. The United States com- 
 missioner of education reported in 1896, that there were 
 then 42 state universities and agricultural and mechanical 
 colleges, and about 150 other institutions in which it had 
 been adopted. It depends upon a purely voluntary agree- 
 ment between the secondary schools and the higher institu- 
 tions. The college or university satisfies itself that the 
 secondary school applying for such recognition is properly 
 taught. Usually a committee of the faculty is sent to 
 inspect the school, and the school agrees to submit itself to 
 such inspection. It is the school rather than the individual 
 that is examined ; and the inquiry relates chiefly to the vital- 
 ity, intelligence, and general effectiveness of the instruction.
 
 -26 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l66 
 
 Hardly any two institutions follow exactly the same 
 method in the practice of accrediting schools. The Michi- 
 gan system provides for inspection of each school by a com- 
 mittee of the faculty, consisting of one or two members. 
 On a favorable report from this committee the school is 
 accredited for one, two, or three years, according to the 
 degree of established excellence which it presents. With 
 the spread of the system to other institutions, it has differ- 
 entiated on the one hand in the direction of a more frequent 
 and thorough-going inspection of the schools, and on the 
 other hand in the direction of less thorough inspection or 
 none at all. Perhaps the lowest outcome of this differentia- 
 tion is represented by the announcement of the authorities 
 of one college that " Students bearing the personal certifi- 
 cates of a former teacher, concerning studies satisactorily 
 completed, will be given credit for the work they have 
 done." 
 
 On the other hand, the highest grade of efficiency in 
 university inspection is found in such a system as that main- 
 tained by the University of California. Here the accred- 
 iting of schools is in the charge of a committee of the 
 academic senate, representing the chief departments of 
 instruction. All secondary schools within the state which 
 apply for accrediting public high schools, private schools, 
 and institutions under corporate or ecclesiastical manage- 
 ment are visited each year under the direction of this 
 committee by several members of the teaching force of the 
 university. A given school is commonly so visited and 
 inspected in the course of each year by instructors from 
 each of the university departments of English, Latin, his- 
 tory, mathematics, and physics. In some instances, the 
 departments of Greek, modern languages, chemistry, and the 
 biological sciences, or any one or more of them, may be 
 added to the list. In other cases, the visitor from the 
 department of English, for example, may, by special arrange- 
 ment, examine the school for the Latin department ; and 
 other economical combinations are made from time to time.
 
 1 6 7] SECONDARY EDUCATION 2 7 
 
 The heads of departments visit many schools in person ; 
 university instructors of various subordinate grades share in 
 this labor; but so far as possible the assignment to such 
 duty is limited to persons of considerable scholastic experi- 
 ence, and experience as a teacher in secondary schools is 
 regarded as a qualification of no small importance. The 
 men who go out for the purpose of such visitation are at 
 the time engaged in ordinary university instruction. The 
 loss to their classes from the interruptions to continuous 
 work which their occasional absence must cause, is mini- 
 mized by various devices. The expense of the visitation is 
 borne by the university. A school may be "accredited" 
 without a favorable report in all subjects, but the report 
 must be favorable in a sufficient number of lines to indicate 
 that the school is a real educational institution. Superior 
 excellence in a single isolated department is not regarded 
 as constituting a claim to a place on the university list. 
 
 The purpose of a well-considered accrediting system is not 
 primarily to provide a means whereby applicants for admis- 
 sion to college may escape a dreaded examination. It is 
 rather to encourage and build up strong and efficient 
 schools of secondary grade. This result the system has 
 undoubtedly tended to bring about. It has drawn our sec- 
 ondary and higher grades of instruction into closer articu- 
 lation and sympathy one with the other. It has tended to 
 release the teachers in secondary schools from the domina- 
 tion of merely formal examination requirements, and has 
 turned their attention to vital matters in the domain of 
 education. 
 
 On the other hand, the system has had and still has 
 serious disadvantages. It tends to foster a too prevalent 
 disposition to dispense with or evade all tests of accurate 
 scholarship in the shape of definite examinations. It 
 entails a heavy burden upon the higher institution ; it 
 demands large expenditures of money and of the time of 
 university instructors. In the University of California, the 
 actual cost in money for the traveling expenses of the inspec-
 
 28 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l68 
 
 tors is about equal to the salary of an assistant professor. 
 The aggregate of the time required each year by all depart- 
 ments for the purposes of the examination of schools is not 
 far from three full academic years. Counting the average 
 salary of the inspectors as that of an associate professor, we 
 have here an approximate total cost for services and travel- 
 ing expenses of between $8,000 and $9,000 annually. It is, 
 moreover, impossible so to conduct the inspection that all 
 departments of all schools shall be tried by uniform or even 
 consistent standards of excellence. Nor does the accrediting 
 system wholly obviate the evil of subjecting the secondary 
 schools to tests and influences somewhat foreign to the real 
 purposes of secondary education. It cannot be regarded 
 and is not generally regarded as a final solution of the prob- 
 lem with which it deals. But it marks a very great advance 
 toward that end ; and it is safe to say that its present advan- 
 tages greatly outweigh its obvious disadvantages. 
 
 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 Parallel with the later development of the accrediting sys- 
 tem, there have grown up important voluntary associations 
 of instructors, in which representatives of the colleges meet 
 with representatives of the secondary schools for the discus- 
 sion of topics of common interest. The parent society of 
 this sort is the New England association of colleges and 
 preparatory schools, organized at Boston in 1885. The 
 object of this association was declared to be, " The estab- 
 lishment of mutually sympathetic and helpful relations 
 between the faculties of the colleges represented and the 
 teachers of the preparatory schools, and the suggestion to 
 that end of practical measures and methods of work which 
 shall strengthen both classes of institutions by bringing 
 them into effective harmony." 
 
 This organization grew out of a previously existing state 
 association of secondary school teachers in Massachusetts. 
 It in turn prompted the establishment of the commission of 
 colleges in New England on admission examinations. This
 
 169] SECONDARY EDUCATION 29 
 
 commission, formed by agreement among the several New 
 England colleges, and possessing no authority, has by its 
 recommendations done much to unify the requirements for 
 college matriculation. Its most notable achievement has 
 been the mapping out of requirements in the English lan- 
 guage and literature. It has made important recommenda- 
 tions also with reference to courses in the ancient classics 
 and the modern languages. 
 
 The example of New England has been followed by other 
 sections of the country. The association of colleges and 
 preparatory schools in the middle states and Maryland came 
 into existence in 1892, growing out of the college association 
 of Pennsylvania, established five years earlier. The north 
 central association of colleges and secondary schools was 
 formed at Evanston, Illinois, in 1895 ; and the association of 
 colleges and preparatory schools of the southern states, at 
 Atlanta, Georgia, later in the same year. State organiza- 
 tions somewhat similar in character are found in a number 
 of the states, as in New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Colorado, 
 Michigan, and both Dakotas. 
 
 These various societies, through their discussions and rec- 
 ommendations, have exercised a vast influence upon the 
 development of our secondary education. 
 
 THE COMMITTEE OF TEN ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDIES 
 
 But the chief landmark in the recent history of this grade 
 of school is the work of the committee on secondary school 
 studies, appointed by the National educational association 
 in 1892, and commonly known as the "committee of ten." 
 This committee was the outcome of a movement within the 
 national association in the direction of uniformity of col- 
 lege entrance requirements. Its chairman was the president 
 of Harvard university. In its membership were included 
 the United States commissioner of education and some of 
 the foremost representatives of both secondary and higher 
 education in America. Not limiting itself to the mechanical 
 adjustment of relations between the high school and the col-
 
 3O SECONDARY EDUCATION [170 
 
 lege, this committee proceeded to consider the problem of sec- 
 ondary education from an educational point of view. Nine 
 sub-committees of ten members each, were appointed to pre- 
 pare reports on the several ordinary departments of sec- 
 ondary school instruction, viz., Latin, Greek, English, other 
 modern languages, mathematics, physics (with astronomy 
 and chemistry), natural history (biology, including botany, 
 zoology, and physiology), history (with civil government and 
 political economy), and geography (physical geography, 
 geology, and meteorology). 
 
 The committee of ten, having secured carefully prepared 
 reports from its sub-committees, and having examined a large 
 number of the courses in actual use in secondary schools, 
 drew up a report which was published by the United States 
 government in December, 1893, together with the reports of 
 the several sub-committees. The contents of this document 
 may be briefly summarized as follows : 
 
 In all of these discussions, the distribution of the years of 
 school life now generally followed in the educational admin- 
 istration of the American states is assumed as a datum. The 
 demand for an earlier introduction of secondary school studies 
 is, however, reiterated by several of the sub-committees. They 
 call attention to the disadvantage to students pursuing, for 
 instance, the study of Latin, which results from postponing 
 the beginnings of that study to the ninth year of the school 
 course, when the student has already passed the most favor- 
 able time for memorizing paradigms and a strange vocabu- 
 lary. The committee of ten, while approving strongly of 
 these recommendations, confine their proposals to improve- 
 ments in the ordinary four-year secondary course. 
 
 After discussing the principles which should guide in the 
 framing of courses of study, the committee present four 
 sample courses, which may be taken as illustrations of the 
 application of those principles. These sample courses are, 
 however, generally regarded as the least successful and sig- 
 nificant outcome of the committee's labors. The portions 
 of the report which represent the most mature deliberation
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 31 
 
 are those which propose general principles for guidance in 
 the making of such courses. 
 
 The committee lay great stress on the correlation of 
 studies in secondary schools : the unifying of many subjects 
 into a well-knit course of instruction, through the recognition 
 of their numerous inter-relations. They endorse the unani- 
 mous recommendation of the sub-committees that the instruc- 
 tion in any given subject shall not be different for a student 
 preparing to enter a higher institution from that for students 
 who go no further than the high school. They make an 
 urgent plea for more highly trained teachers. They declare 
 against a multiplicity of " short information courses," such as 
 have been given in many high schools in times past : a dip 
 into one science followed by a dip into another, and no deep 
 draught from any. Instead, they recommend that such sub- 
 jects as are studied be pursued consecutively enough and 
 extensively enough to yield that training which each is best 
 fitted to yield. They would have continuous instruction 
 in the four main lines of language, mathematics, history, and 
 natural science. In particular, they recommend that in the 
 first two years of a four-year course, each student should 
 enter all of the principal fields of knowledge, in order that 
 he may fairly " exhibit his quality and discover his tastes." 
 They recommend the postponement of the beginning of 
 Greek to the third year, in order that the student may not 
 find himself at the bifurcation of the course into classical and 
 Latin-scientific courses, before he is ready, or his advisers suffi- 
 ciently informed as to his capabilities, to make an intelligent 
 choice. The committee would require in each course a 
 maximum of twenty recitation periods a week ; but they 
 would have five of these periods devoted to unprepared 
 work ; and would reserve double periods for laboratory exer- 
 cises whenever possible. 
 
 Within the limitations indicated above, as to continuity 
 and extensiveness of studies in each of the broad divisions 
 of knowledge, the committee would leave to the individual 
 student and his advisers the largest possible freedom in the
 
 32 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l/2 
 
 choice of studies. With reference to requirements lor admis- 
 sion to college, the committee recommend " that the colleges 
 and scientific schools of the country should accept for admis- 
 sion to appropriate courses of their instruction the attain- 
 ments of any youth who has passed creditably through a 
 good secondary school course, no matter to what group of 
 subjects he may have mainly devoted himself in the second- 
 ary school." Describing more exactly what might be con- 
 sidered " a good secondary school course " for this purpose, 
 they propose that it shall consist of any group of studies 
 from those considered by the sub-committees, " provided 
 that the sum of the studies in each of the four years amounts 
 to sixteen, or eighteen, or twenty periods a week, as may 
 be thought best, and provided, further, that in each year 
 at least four of the subjects presented shall have been pur- 
 sued at least three periods a week, and that at least three of 
 the subjects shall have been pursued three years or more." 
 
 This report called forth a very active discussion, which has 
 not yet come to an end. The definite courses of study 
 which it suggested have not been widely adopted ; nor have 
 college admission requirements been made uniform in the 
 manner which it proposed. But its influence has been far- 
 reaching and, in the main, highly beneficial. 
 
 THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 
 
 Since the early days of the academies, it has been cus- 
 tomary in many schools to offer alternative courses ; one of 
 them classical, the other " modern." Other options have 
 been added from time to time, so that now a large school 
 commonly offers several parallel courses. But especially 
 within the last twenty years, there has appeared a strong 
 demand that instead of a choice of courses the students be 
 offered a wide range of choice in particular subjects. 
 
 Several influences have combined to bring about this 
 demand. The general adoption of an elective system in 
 the colleges may be mentioned. Teachers have objected to 
 close prescription in high schools when freedom is increasing
 
 173] SECONDARY EDUCATION 33 
 
 in the higher institutions. The conviction that the secondary 
 schools should not be merely tributary to the colleges is gain- 
 ing ground. What is good education in the high school, it is 
 maintained, is good preparation for the higher schools. The 
 independence of the secondary school carries with it inde- 
 pendent responsibility for the supply of the actual educa- 
 tional needs of the youth attending such a school. And the 
 students in the high schools are thought to have reached the 
 stage of differentiation of educational needs. The need of 
 the state, moreover, which education must satisfy, is the 
 need of full spiritual unity underlying the utmost diversity 
 of talent and culture. The elementary schools, with their 
 single course of study, are conservators of spiritual unity. 
 The secondary schools can and ought to serve a different 
 purpose. Their instruction should be adapted to the culti- 
 vation of the diverse talents of the youth enrolled in them. 
 No two students have exactly the same aptitudes ; so far as 
 possible, every student should pursue a different course of 
 instruction from every other student. 
 
 It will be seen that one tendency of this doctrine is to 
 substitute a quantitative for a qualitative consideration of 
 the curriculum. The most diverse subjects are held to be 
 equivalent for the purposes of general culture, if pursued for 
 equal periods of time under equally favorable conditions. A 
 high school curriculum, under this system, would consist of a 
 fixed number of units of study, to be chosen at will from the 
 whole number of studies taught in the school. Certain utter- 
 ances of the committee of ten have tended to strengthen 
 this quantitative view of the curriculum. It has received 
 reinforcement, also, from some prominent institutions of 
 higher instruction, as the Indiana and the Leland Stan- 
 ford Junior universities, which have stated their admission 
 requirements for the most part in quantitative terms. 
 
 In the attempt to reduce this doctrine to practice, cer- 
 tain modifications necessarily enter. The choice of studies 
 cannot be left simply to the immature pupil. He must have 
 the advice of parents or guardians, and particularly the
 
 34 SECONDARY EDUCATION [174 
 
 advice of the principal of the school. Even if other sub- 
 jects may be given over to absolute freedom of election, 
 studies in English are found to be indispensable in every 
 course. Little by little, other subjects are acknowledged to 
 be essential ; until it appears that there is little difference in 
 practical working between a system of parallel courses ren- 
 dered flexible by the allowing of occasional substitutions, and 
 an adequately supervised elective system. The committee 
 of ten enunciated an important regulative principle in pro- 
 posing that each secondary school curriculum should provide 
 an outlook into the several domains of language, mathematics, 
 history, and natural science. From whichever side the prob- 
 lem of the course of study is approached, the discussions seem 
 to tend toward a requirement in each of several broad fields 
 of knowledge, together with large freedom in the choice of 
 particular subjects within those fields. 
 
 COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS 
 
 The latest attempt at an adjustment of the relations of 
 secondary schools and colleges, to the educational advantage 
 of both, is contained in the report of the committee on col- 
 lege entrance requirements. It seems not unlikely that this 
 report may be more fruitful of tangible results than any of the 
 papers relating to the same subject which have preceded it. 
 
 In 1 895, the National educational association, through its 
 departments of secondary education and higher education, 
 appointed a committee to consider the specific question of 
 the unification of college entrance requirements. This com- 
 mittee, as finally constituted, consisted of fourteen members, 
 representing the high schools and universities of different 
 sections of the country, under the chairmanship of the 
 superintendent of high schools of the city of Chicago. The 
 first important service rendered by the committee was the 
 preparation and publication of a table showing the actual 
 entrance requirements of sixty-seven representative colleges, 
 universities, and higher technical schools in the United 
 States.
 
 1 75] SECONDARY EDUCATION 35 
 
 The committee's final report was presented at the meet- 
 ing of the National educational association in July, 1899. 
 This report is mainly devoted to the attempt to establish 
 " national units, or norms," in the several subjects taught in 
 the secondary schools as preparatory to the college course. 
 The fundamental problem, in the language of the committee, 
 " is to formulate courses of study in each of the several sub- 
 jects of the curriculum which shall be substantially equal in 
 value, the measure of value being both quantity and quality 
 of work done. It is not to be expected, nor is it desired, that 
 all colleges should make the same entrance requirements, 
 nor is it to be expected that all schools will have the same 
 program of studies. What is to be desired, and what the 
 committee hopes may become true, is that the colleges will 
 state their entrance requirements in terms of national units, 
 or norms, and that the schools will build up their program of 
 studies out of the units furnished by these separate courses 
 of study." This hope is reinforced by experience with col- 
 lege entrance requirements in English, which have within 
 the past few years become nearly uniform throughout 
 the country, on the basis of the recommendations of the 
 commission of colleges in New England on admission 
 examinations. 
 
 In the determination of these norms, the committee 
 received assistance from several bodies of expert scholars 
 in the several branches of instruction. The American 
 philological association proposed courses of study in Latin 
 and Greek. The modern language association of America 
 rendered a like service with reference to the French and 
 German languages. The American historical association and 
 the Chicago section of the American mathematical society 
 reported on courses in history and mathematics. And the 
 department of natural-science instruction of the national edu- 
 cational association presented recommendations relating to 
 physical geography, chemistry, botany, zoology, and physics. 
 These several supplemental papers are published in connec- 
 tion with the committee's report. The committee express
 
 36 SECONDARY EDUCATION C 1 ?^ 
 
 general approval of the courses recommended in these 
 papers, suggest some slight modifications, and offer an 
 independent report on the subject of English. Their 
 further recommendations are summed up in fourteen reso- 
 lutions, of which the following seem to be of the greatest 
 general significance : 
 
 I. That the principle of election be recognized in second- 
 ary schools. 
 
 IV. That we favor a unified six-year high school course 
 of study beginning with the seventh grade. 
 
 VI. That while the committee recognizes as suitable for 
 recommendation by the colleges for admission the several 
 studies enumerated in this report, and while it also recog- 
 nizes the principle of large liberty to the students in second- 
 ary schools, it does not believe in unlimited election, but 
 especially emphasizes the importance of a certain number of 
 constants in all secondary schools and in all requirements 
 for admission to college. 
 
 That the committee recommends that the number of con- 
 stants be recognized in the following proportion, namely : 
 four units in foreign languages (no language accepted in less 
 than two units), two units in mathematics, two in English, 
 one in history, and one in science. 
 
 XII. That we recommend that any piece of work com- 
 prehended within the studies included in this report that has 
 covered at least one year of four periods a week in a well- 
 equipped secondary school, under competent instruction, 
 should be considered worthy to count toward admission to 
 college. 
 
 The committee disclaim any implication that different 
 subjects may be regarded as educationally equivalent. " This 
 proposition" [resolution XII], they say, "does not involve 
 of itself, necessarily, the idea that all subjects are of equal 
 cultural or disciplinary value, * * * yet the advantages 
 to our educational system of the adoption of this principle 
 will be so great as far to outweigh any incidental disadvan- 
 tage which may accrue from accepting as of equal value for
 
 177] SECONDARY EDUCATION 37 
 
 college purposes the more or less unequal values represented 
 by these studies." 
 
 COURSES OF STUDY 
 
 The actual courses of study in our secondary schools show 
 great diversity. There is here, as in other portions of the 
 American educational system, no semblance of national con- 
 trol. There are but few states if any where the course of 
 study is prescribed by state authority. This matter is gen- 
 erally left to the discretion of municipal or district boards of 
 education. Yet the differences between neighboring schools, 
 or between the schools of different sections of the country, are 
 not so great as one might suppose. Owing to the extensive 
 circulation of all sorts of educational publications, and the 
 frequent meeting of teachers one with another in educa- 
 tional conventions, there is a surprising approach toward 
 uniformity in the educational provisions found in all parts of 
 the country. Even the poorer and more backward sections 
 are often found striving conscientiously and earnestly after 
 the ideals proposed by more favored districts. High schools 
 may be found having courses ranging all the way from one 
 to six years in length ; but the four-year course is the gen- 
 erally recognized standard. Twenty years ago, it was com- 
 mon to find courses weighed down with a large number of 
 subjects, many of them pursued for only a fraction of a year. 
 This was notably true of subjects in natural science ; but it 
 is true to a much less extent at the present day. In spite of 
 all assaults made upon the classical studies, they are appa- 
 rently growing in favor. It would perhaps be fair to say 
 that in many of the better schools, public as well as private, 
 the classical course is commonly regarded as the standard, 
 from which the other courses pursued in the same school are 
 looked upon as variants. But the classical course now com- 
 monly includes one or two years of natural science. 
 
 The courses given below represent three different types 
 of school : 
 
 i. Courses in Phillips academy, Andover, Massachusetts. 
 an incorporated and endowed boarding school for boys.
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 [I 7 8 
 
 [The figures in the columns indicate the number of recitation periods a week 
 devoted to the several subjects. Figures in parentheses indicate that the subjects 
 for which they stand are alternative with others in the same column.] 
 
 
 CLASSICAL COURSE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC COURSE 
 
 > 
 i i 
 in 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 i i 
 
 h- 1 
 ( 1 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 i i 
 
 i i 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 in 
 tn 
 
 m 
 U 
 
 Q 
 
 M 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 43 
 G 
 
 < 
 
 M 
 
 </J 
 
 rt 
 U 
 
 English 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 4 
 (4) 
 (4) 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 (I) 
 (I) 
 
 2 
 
 hteen hours selected from the 
 egoing subjects, with the addi- 
 n of pnysics, trigonometry, 
 chanical drawing and zoology. 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 (2) 
 
 Eighteen hours selected from the 
 foregoing subjects, with the addi- 
 tion of trigonometry, mechanical 
 drawing, zoology, political 
 economy and physics. 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 (4) 
 (4) 
 3 
 3 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 German 
 
 
 Algebra 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Geometry 
 
 History 
 
 
 3 
 
 Natural Science. 
 Chemistry . . . 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 (4) 
 (2) 
 
 Botany 
 
 
 
 
 fill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Courses recommended for the high schools of Minne- 
 sota by the state high school board. 
 
 
 First 
 year 
 
 Second 
 year 
 
 Third 
 year 
 
 Fourth 
 year 
 
 English 
 
 5 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 Latin 
 
 5 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 Mathematics , .! 
 
 e 
 
 C 
 
 
 C 
 
 History 
 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 
 Natural science 
 
 c 
 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LATIN SCIENTIFIC COURSE 
 
 In Latin, first year, grammar ; second year, Caesar ; third 
 year, Cicero ; fourth year, Virgil. In mathematics, first 
 year, algebra ; second year, plane geometry ; fourth year, 
 solid geometry and higher algebra. In natural science, first 
 year, zoology or botany ; third year, physics ; fourth year, 
 chemistry.
 
 179] 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 39- 
 
 Literary Course: as above, substituting four years of 
 German for Latin. 
 
 Classical Course : as above, substituting Greek grammar 
 and Anabasis for equivalents. 
 
 English Course: as above, substituting for Latin four 
 credits chosen from botany, physiography, bookkeeping, 
 civics, history, political economy, and senior commcfn 
 branches. 
 
 3. Course for Public Latin school, Boston, Massachusetts : 
 
 
 Class VI 
 
 Class V 
 
 Class IV 
 
 Class III 
 
 Class fl 
 
 Class I 
 
 English 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Latin 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 7 ["4.1 
 
 A 
 
 c 
 
 /I 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 A.~\ 
 
 C 
 
 B 
 
 e 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 'J.' 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 German 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 4 \<\ 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 Algebra 
 
 *r LJj 
 
 
 4. hi 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 Geometry 
 
 
 
 T- Lj J 
 
 J 
 
 
 4. 
 
 History 
 
 * 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 Geopraohv . 
 
 J 
 3 
 
 J 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 Physics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Military Drill 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The brackets indicate an assignment of hours for the 
 spring term which differs from that in the same subjects 
 for the remainder of the year. Botany, physiology and 
 hygiene are studied during the spring term in the hours 
 assigned to geography in the table. Objective geometry is 
 studied in connection with arithmetic in classes VI and V. 
 Plane geometry is begun in the hours assigned to algebra in 
 class II. 
 
 DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 The differentiation which appears everywhere in our sec- 
 ondary education is not limited to the diversifying of studies 
 within the several schools ; it appears also in the erection of 
 special schools for special classes of students. In the first 
 place, we may note the provision for separate schooling of
 
 4O SECONDARY EDUCATION [l8o 
 
 boys and girls. The grammar schools of the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries were for boys alone. A number of 
 the old academies were co-educational. Early in the nine- 
 teenth century, academies for girls exclusively were estab- 
 lished, and large numbers of such schools have flourished 
 down to the present day. A public high school for girls was 
 established at Boston in 1826, but it was short-lived, owing 
 to the large expense which it entailed. j/Vt Providence, 
 Rhode Island, in 1843, a co-educational high school was 
 opened ; and the most of the high schools established since 
 that time have been for both sexes. 
 
 The report of the United States commissioner of educa- 
 tion for 1896-97 showed a total of 5,109 public high schools 
 in the whole country, of which 35 were for boys only, 26 for 
 girls only, and the remainder co-educational. The same 
 report showed a total of 2,100 private high schools, acade- 
 mies, etc., of which 351 were for boys only, 537 for girls 
 only, and 1,212 co-educational. 
 
 Another special type of school, the evening high school, 
 has been established in a number of our larger cities. These 
 schools have offered very elastic courses of study, suited to 
 the varied needs of their clientage ; and have been a great 
 boon to many who have been obliged to work by day after 
 the completion of an elementary school course. 
 
 In the northern and western states, white and colored 
 students, where there are colored students of secondary 
 grade, commonly attend the same schools. In the southern 
 states, separate schools are provided for those of African 
 race. The report of the commissioner of education for 
 1896-97 showed 169 schools in the United States for the 
 secondary and higher education of colored youth exclusively. 
 In many of these schools both grades of instruction were 
 provided in the same institution. About 20 of the number 
 were public high schools. The remainder were private or 
 denominational institutions. In these 169 schools, 15,203 
 colored students were receiving instruction of secondary 
 grade.
 
 l8l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 4! 
 
 The European manual training exhibits at the centennial 
 exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, gave a strong impetus 
 to a movement already begun toward the establishment of 
 manual training schools in American cities. St. Louis took 
 a step forward, in 1879, m tne establishment of such a school 
 in connection with Washington university. Within a few 
 years, similar schools were established, some under private 
 and some under public control, in Baltimore, Chicago, 
 Toledo, New York, Philadelphia, and other cities. In these 
 schools, the idea of manual training for the purposes of 
 general culture was usually uppermost, their projectors dis- 
 claiming any intention of establishing schools for the teach- 
 ing of trades. More recently trade schools have been 
 established in the largest cities, but for the most part under 
 private initiative and control. 
 
 The commercial spirit of this country finds expression in 
 the frequent appearance of such subjects as bookkeeping 
 and commercial arithmetic in general courses of study. 
 Special schools for distinctively commercial training are 
 usually private ventures. These are found in great numbers 
 in all parts of the country, generally going by the name of 
 "commercial college" or "business college." In 1896-97, 
 the commissioner of education presented reports from 341 
 such schools, with 77,746 students in attendance. Within 
 the past decade there has been a growing demand for public 
 commercial high schools in the larger cities. Thus far, com- 
 paratively slight provision has been made to meet this 
 demand, but there is reason to expect that there will in the 
 near future be a considerable expansion of our public educa- 
 tion on this side. The business high school in Washington, 
 D. C., may be mentioned as one illustration of the serious 
 interest which has begun to appear in this side of secondary 
 instruction. 
 
 The recognition of the importance and need of purely 
 vocational schools of secondary grade puts a new aspect on 
 the problem of the school curriculum. As has been shown, 
 Americans are loath to recognize any necessity of a bifur-
 
 42 SECONDARY EDUCATION [182 
 
 cation of courses, such that the student taking one road 
 finds the way open to indefinite advancement in higher 
 studies, while one taking the other alternative finds a defi- 
 nite limit a little way before him. We have commonly failed 
 to recognize the need of turning aside at some point, early or 
 late, to master a distinct occupation in life. We have been 
 willing to sacrifice expertness in one's calling to the hope 
 of unlimited progress in higher culture. With the growing 
 interest in technical training of a commercial or mechanical 
 sort, there appears a set of difficult problems. A purely 
 vocational course in a trade school presents no educational 
 outlook beyond the mastery of the trade. If a final choice 
 must be made between the highway of learning and the 
 cul-de-sac, how shall it be so far postponed as to give to 
 each pupil his full share of general culture, without reduc- 
 ing unduly his chance of full preparation for his life work ? 
 Still more difficult are the questions relating to certain semi- 
 vocational courses, such as those of the manual training high 
 school. The tendency is to regard these as primarily courses 
 for general culture, with an outlook into the college or the 
 higher scientific school. It is possible that at times their 
 service as preparatory to the mastery of certain trades has 
 been somewhat obscured in this view. But questions such 
 as these are still before us for settlement. 
 
 THE STUDY OF ADOLESCENCE 
 
 One movement should be mentioned which is part cause 
 and part result of the increased attention which is now paid 
 to problems of secondary education, in themselves consid- 
 ered. Reference is made to the study of the several aspects 
 of adolescence, as a stage in the mental development of indi- 
 viduals. Secondary education being essentially the educa- 
 tion of adolescents, whatever throws light upon the peculiar 
 psychology and natural history of this period of youth is of 
 value to the educator. Many studies of particular phases 
 of adolescent development have been made within the past 
 few years, under the stimulus of investigations begun at
 
 183] SECONDARY EDUCATION 43 
 
 Clark university. These studies are as yet fragmentary ; 
 and they cannot be said to have led to well-defined reforms. 
 Yet their influence has been manifest in the general tone 
 and spirit of secondary education. They have prompted to 
 a more sympathetic treatment of our youth in their time of 
 spiritual reconstruction ; to a better appreciation of the diffi- 
 culties attending the passage from the intellectual depend- 
 ence of childhood to the individual convictions of manhood 
 and womanhood. They have led to a more careful obser- 
 vation of individual differences of development, and have 
 strengthened the demand for greater freedom in both 
 courses and methods of instruction. Such results warrant 
 the hope that further researches in this field may lead to 
 generalized knowledge of the needs and aptitudes of youth, 
 which will be ot the highest significance in educational 
 practice. : 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Methods of instruction in all secondary school subjects 
 have been profoundly influenced of late from the side of 
 the natural sciences. Laboratories have become common 
 in high schools and academies. College entrance require- 
 ments have been extended to include laboratory work in 
 physics, and, in some instances, in chemistry or in the biologi- 
 cal sciences. In Massachusetts, in 1897, it was reported that 
 66 high schools were provided with laboratory facilities, 80 
 had fair or limited facilities, and 98 had poor facilities or 
 none. 
 
 In these laboratories, students perform representative 
 experiments in the science they are pursuing, under the guid- 
 ance and subject to the criticism of the instructor. These 
 experiments are commonly regarded as illustrative of or pre- 
 paratory to the statement of principles in a text-book. The 
 " method of re-discovery " has influenced the practice of the 
 schools ; yet there are probably few school laboratories in 
 which the students are expected to re-discover on their own 
 account the laws of physics or chemistry, or of any other 
 of the sciences. A fine blending of discovery, verification,
 
 44 SECONDARY EDUCATION [184 
 
 and correction seems to be the ideal of our best teachers of 
 natural science. Much stress is laid on the accurate record- 
 ing of observations and experiments. The students' note- 
 books serve as one of the chief tests of the excellence of 
 their work. 
 
 This is different from the prevailing method of a genera- 
 tion ago : the text-book was then the main reliance in school 
 instruction, even for classes in the natural sciences. 
 
 The lecture system has never occupied a large place in 
 our secondary schools. Clearness of exposition has always 
 been, and will doubtless always be an important element in a 
 teacher's equipment for teaching. Skillful instructors have at 
 all times exercised themselves to help their pupils over diffi- 
 culties in such manner as would prepare them to surmount 
 future difficulties for themselves. And we read of old-time 
 masters who were famous for their ability to ask searching 
 and stimulating questions. But set lectures have not found 
 favor here. Oral and written recitations by students, on the 
 other hand, fill a large place in the work of our schools. 
 
 The recent extension of laboratory exercises, together 
 with the proportionate reduction of text-book study, repre- 
 sents a notable change of view as to the function of instruc- 
 tion in general. We find accordingly that a like change 
 appears in the treatment of other branches than the natural 
 sciences. The attempt is now made to put the student in 
 touch with first-hand materials of knowledge ; and to guide 
 and stimulate him to the end of making over these crude 
 facts into real knowledge for himself. This procedure seeks 
 to give full recognition to both the ideal and the sensuous ele- 
 ments in knowledge ; and it indicates some appreciation of 
 the fact that the ideal element to be truly ideal must be sup- 
 plied by the active agency of the student's own thought, 
 exercised upon the products of his own experience. 
 
 In the practice of the schools, we find these principles 
 applied, for example, to the teaching of history. While text- 
 books are not dispensed with, the effort is made to give the 
 student some acquaintance with the sources of our historical
 
 185] SECONDARY EDUCATION 45 
 
 I 
 
 knowledge. In the study of literature, less attention is paid 
 to historical summaries than was formerly the case, and more 
 time is devoted to the study of literary masterpieces. In 
 grammar and rhetoric, the study of principles is closely con- 
 nected with the study of passages from literature which 
 embody those principles in living forms ; and with composi- 
 tion exercises upon topics which invite free expression. In 
 the study of modern languages, facility in conversation is 
 not commonly sought ; though there are schools here and 
 there which lay great stress upon this acquisition. The 
 ability to read the languages readily and with understanding, 
 and to enter into an appreciation of their literatures, are the 
 ends chiefly striven for. To these ends, grammatical study 
 is of course necessary. But the grammar is studied, on the 
 whole, less abstractly than formerly, and more in its actual 
 embodiment in literature. Greater effort is made now than a 
 generation ago to secure a reading knowledge of the ancient 
 classics. More hope is held out to classes in Latin and Greek, 
 that they may, with attentive effort, attain to such mastery. 
 There is much difference of opinion among leading teachers 
 as to the proportionate attention to be paid to " sight read- 
 ing ; " and as to the value of the inductive method in the 
 mastery of grammatical principles : but actual practice seems 
 to be tending slowly toward a middle course, which retains 
 much of the old-time thorough discipline in Latin and Greek 
 grammar, but brings this training into more vital connection 
 with the study of classic literature. The writing of Latin 
 verse is generally discarded. Prose composition is receiving 
 increased attention, and is now more imitative in its charac- 
 ter than formerly, being commonly based on the Latin or 
 Greek masterpiece which the class is studying at the same 
 time. The question of approaching Attic through modern 
 Greek has been warmly discussed, but the proposed change 
 finds little, if any, acceptance in actual practice. In mathe- 
 matics, much stress is laid upon the original demonstration 
 of theorems, particularly in plane and solid geometry. It 
 appears from time to time that instruction in mathematics is
 
 46 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l86 
 
 weakened by a failure to insist upon the use of accurate lan- 
 guage in demonstrations ; and from time to time fresh efforts 
 are put forth to strengthen the work on this side. At the 
 present day, especial stress is laid in some quarters upon 
 the need of more careful and accurate English expression in 
 all school exercises. The attempt to teach English expres- 
 sion, oral and written, wholly through the medium of instruc- 
 tion in other branches does not promise well ; but there is, 
 fortunately, a growing recognition of the fact that all teachers 
 must have at least some share in the responsibility for such 
 instruction. 
 
 MORAL VALUES 
 
 The moral influence of secondary schools is undoubtedly 
 the most important topic to be considered in this paper, but 
 it is at the same time the most difficult to reduce to accurate 
 statement. The religious background of moral instruction 
 has already been referred to. It should be added that even 
 in public high schools, from which all instruction in sectarian 
 dogmas is strictly excluded, there is not uncommonly found 
 a pervasive religious atmosphere, an influence emanating 
 from the personal character of the instructors. In many 
 of these schools, it is still customary to open the daily 
 session with the reading of a passage from the Bible or 
 the repetition of the Lord's prayer ; or with the singing of 
 a devotional or patriotic hymn. But whatever there may 
 be of religious tone and spirit in these schools is of a very 
 general and unobtrusive sort, and far removed from ecclesi- 
 asticism. Teachers wholly indifferent to dogmatic religion 
 or in known opposition thereto are freely employed in the 
 schools ; but would probably be found to constitute only a 
 small minority of the teaching force of the country. In some 
 schools, elementary ethics is taught, along with elementary 
 psychology, or perhaps economics. But this is unusual. 
 The moral force of the high schools depends, then, mainly 
 on the personal influence of the teachers in their instruction 
 in the ordinary school subjects ; on the government of the 
 school ; and on the relations of the students one with another.
 
 187] SECONDARY EDUCATION 47 
 
 Some subjects of instruction offer especial advantages as 
 regards the formation of high ideals of conduct. The teach- 
 ing of literature, and particularly the literature of the mother 
 tongue, is found to be of great value in this respect the 
 more so, doubtless, when untimely moralizing is dispensed 
 with, and noble sentiments are permitted to make their 
 appeal through the charm of their artistic presentation. 
 Choice works of plastic and pictorial art are rapidly finding 
 their way into our school rooms. There is no systematic 
 study of aesthetics in the school programs. These works of 
 art are expected to accomplish their mission by their mere 
 presence, sometimes supplemented by an informal discussion 
 of their merit's ; or they serve to reinforce the aesthetic side 
 of instruction in literature and in drawing. In some schools 
 music is steadily cultivated, and holds an honored place. 
 
 History is probably, on the whole, the most neglected of the 
 main lines of study in secondary schools ; and the moral loss 
 resulting from such neglect is serious. Greek and Roman 
 history is commonly taught, at least in classical courses ; but 
 too often in a scrappy and inadequate fashion. Later Euro- 
 pean history receives some attention. The history of the 
 United States is, perhaps, the most seriously slighted of all. 
 The reason for this seems to be that the history of our own 
 country is studied in the grammar schools ; and it is not 
 emphasized by the colleges as an admission subject. But a 
 change for the better is slowly coming over the historical side 
 of our school programs. 
 
 Skillful teachers, however, make instruction in all subjects 
 moral by arousing a pure desire for truth, a spirit of intel- 
 lectual honesty, a will to work and to overcome difficulties, 
 and a long line of modest and every-day virtues. 
 
 The government of our best secondary schools, and even 
 of many of the smaller schools, which are comparatively 
 unknown, presents much which may be regarded with genu- 
 ine satisfaction. The relations of teachers and students are 
 comparatively informal. There is little consciousness of 
 official or artificial barriers between them. While strict dis-
 
 48 SECONDARY EDUCATION [l88 
 
 ciplinary measures are often found necessary and are often 
 enforced with vigor, the prevalent type of high school and 
 academy government is that which treats the students as if 
 they were already ladies and gentlemen, and throws them as 
 far as possible on their own responsibility. Some interesting 
 and successful experiments have been made in the organiza- 
 tion of regular systems of self-government among students. 
 It would seem, however, that only a principal who has the 
 strength and skill to govern well is capable of making a 
 school into a truly self-governing body. 
 
 Under any system of government, the social life of the 
 school is the chief teacher of morals. It is one of the glories 
 of American high schools that the children of rich and 
 poor, of high and low, meet there on common ground. 
 The fact that tuition in these schools is free to all, helps to 
 bring about this result. It is unnecessary to point out the 
 numberless bearings of this democratic spirit in the schools 
 upon the pupils who are subject to its influence. 
 
 There is undoubtedly a growing disposition among fami- 
 lies of wealth and high social position, to send their children 
 to private schools ; and this fact has tended of late to the 
 increase of such schools. This disposition is, however, by 
 no means universal. And while the atmosphere of a private 
 boarding school is necessarily different from that of a pub- 
 lic high school, it may be questioned whether in the great 
 endowed schools of the country there is any marked encour- 
 agement given to purely aristocratic tastes and tendencies. 
 The principals of boarding schools find it necessary at times 
 to protest against providing students with too lavish a sup- 
 ply of spending money. And the fact that such protests are 
 heard seems to indicate that there is a serious effort on the 
 part of school authorities to minimize distinctions based on 
 wealth. 
 
 STUDENTS 
 
 The social organization of the students in these schools 
 calls for further notice. High schools and academies are 
 much alike in this respect. The instinct of association is
 
 189] SECONDARY EDUCATION 49 
 
 strong in our youth, and it finds expression in all sorts of 
 clubs, leagues, societies, and fraternities. The example of 
 the colleges has been influential in the schools in this par- 
 ticular. The several classes are commonly organized, with 
 class officers, and have occasional gatherings of a social 
 character. The offices of the highest class in school are 
 sought for with keen competition. Athletic associations, 
 foot-ball and base-ball clubs, and the like, are usually main- 
 tained. Match games are played with neighboring schools, 
 which call forth unbounded enthusiasm. Several schools 
 are often joined in an athletic league ; and the annual field 
 days of these leagues are great occasions in the school year. 
 The athletic records and trophies of a school are very highly 
 prized. Well-equipped gymnasiums are now common in the 
 larger schools, and provision for military drill is sometimes 
 found ; but formal exercises do not take the place of free com- 
 petitive games. Debating clubs and other literary societies 
 are maintained with much interest. Contests in debate with 
 neighboring schools call forth a spirit of emulation like that 
 displayed in athletic struggles. Musical organizations are 
 perhaps less common, but are among the most pleasing of 
 school societies. Annual publications by successive classes 
 present a record of the varied interests of the larger schools, 
 and afford a field for budding literary and artistic genius to 
 show its quality. Secret, Greek-letter societies are sometimes 
 formed after the fashion of the colleges. Not unfrequently, 
 too, voluntary associations for religious culture and observ- 
 ance are maintained by the students. All of these organ- 
 izations are commonly under the immediate control of the 
 students themselves ; teachers frequently attend the various 
 meetings, but more as friendly advisers than as governors. 
 
 The completion of the course of study in a secondary school 
 is celebrated in public with "graduation" exercises and the 
 conferring of diplomas upon the members of the class. The 
 graduates of a flourishing school will usually be found organ- 
 ized in an alumni association. The monthly or annual meet- 
 ings of such an association become of increasing significance 
 as the years pass and its numbers and influence are enlarged.
 
 50 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 TEACHERS 
 
 A committee of the National educational association 
 the so-called committee of fifteen on elementary education 
 reported in 1895, among other topics, on the training of 
 teachers for secondary schools. This committee declared 
 that, " The degree of scholarship required for secondary 
 teachers is by common consent fixed at a collegiate educa- 
 tion." They proposed a course of special training for such 
 teachers, consisting of instruction during the senior year of 
 the college course in psychology, methodology, school sys- 
 tems, and the history, philosophy, and art of education ; and a 
 graduate year of practice in teaching, under close supervision, 
 supplemented by advanced studies in educational theory. 
 
 This proposal is far in advance of common practice or 
 requirement. Very few of the American states make any 
 specific requirement for the high school teacher's certifi- 
 cate beyond that for a license to teach in the elementary 
 schools. There are, on the other hand, many secondary 
 schools in which teachers rarely obtain employment, if at 
 all, unless they are college graduates ; and there are large 
 sections of the country in which common usage is rapidly 
 tending in this direction. 
 
 The most of the leading universities and some of the 
 higher normal schools are devoting especial attention to the 
 professional training of teachers for schools of this grade. 
 A committee of university professors, appointed for this 
 purpose, has recently published a report, setting forth the 
 existing legal provisions for the certification of high school 
 teachers in the several states, and recommending practicable 
 reforms. 
 
 A Massachusetts report for the year 1897 shows that one 
 per cent of the high school teachers then employed in that 
 state were graduates of scientific schools, 13 per cent of 
 normal schools, 66 per cent of colleges, and the remaining 
 20 per cent unclassified. 
 
 In the state of New York, in 1898, 32 per cent of the
 
 191] SECONDARY EDUCATION 51 
 
 teachers in secondary schools (not including principals) were 
 college graduates, 39 per cent were normal school graduates, 
 19 per cent were high school graduates, and 10 per cent had 
 had other training. Of the principals, 51 per cent were col- 
 lege graduates, 35 per cent normal school graduates, 8 per 
 jent high school graduates, and 6 per cent had had other 
 training. These figures include private academies as well 
 as public high schools. They include also one-year, two- 
 year, and three-year schools, as well as fully-developed high 
 schools and academies. 
 
 An inquiry into the preparation of teachers in the second- 
 ary schools of California, in October, 1897, showed that of 
 522 teachers then employed in the public high schools of the 
 state, 308, or 59 per cent, were college graduates. 
 
 These figures may be taken as representing the conditions 
 which obtain in some of the more favored sections of the 
 country. 
 
 STATE SYSTEMS 
 
 The several states have been slow to organize general sys- 
 tems of secondary schools. In this respect secondary edu- 
 cation stands in marked contrast with that of elementary 
 grade. But a few of the states have made considerable 
 progress in this particular. 
 
 The early history of secondary schools in Massachusetts 
 has already been told. This state is the foremost in the 
 union in the universality of its provision for secondary 
 education. Every " town " (township) in the state is required 
 by law to provide free high school tuition for all students 
 who are prepared for that grade of instruction. Inasmuch 
 as the whole state is divided into towns, this means that free 
 secondary education is offered to every child in the common- 
 wealth. Of the 353 towns in the state, 185 are required by 
 law to maintain high schools ; 70 others maintain high 
 schools, though not required to do so ; and those not main- 
 taining such high schools are required to pay the tuition fees 
 of qualified students within their limits who go elsewhere 
 for high school instruction and may pay for their trans-
 
 52 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 portation also. The poorer towns receive help from the 
 state in paying for tuition in outside schools. The high 
 schools must offer a four-year course, of forty weeks to the 
 year. They must prepare pupils for the state normal schools, 
 and for higher scientific schools and colleges. There are 
 262 of these high schools in the state, employing 1,312 
 teachers. In 1897 Massachusetts paid $12,390,638 for pub- 
 lic schools, of which $2,400,000, or 19 per cent, was for high 
 schools. In 1896, the total municipal tax in the state was 
 $15.23 on $1,000. Of this, $4.72 was for public schools, 
 $0.91 of which was for high schools. These figures include 
 the cost of school buildings along with the current expense 
 of schools. 
 
 The organization of the university of the state of New 
 York has been mentioned Only so much of the varied 
 activity of this great institution calls for notice here, as has 
 to do with secondary schools. This, however, presents the 
 most thoroughly organized state system of secondary educa- 
 tion which has yet been developed on American soil. All 
 incorporated secondary schools in the state and all other 
 secondary schools which may, after official inspection, be 
 admitted to membership by the regents, are institutions of 
 the university. One of the six departments into which the 
 work of the regents is divided is the high school depart- 
 ment, which has to do with high schools, academies, and all 
 interests of secondary education. Both the college and the 
 high school department are under one department director. 
 He is assisted by nine inspectors of schools, one of whom is 
 employed as an inspector of apparatus, and by a large staff 
 of examiners. 
 
 On the basis of reports made by this department, the 
 regents distributed in 1898 a total of $209,250.48 in state 
 funds to the secondary schools of the state. The method 
 of distribution is as follows: (a) $100 is allotted to each 
 school approved by the regents, without regard to its size or 
 special attainments, (b) One cent is allowed for each day's 
 attendance of each student in such schools ; provided that
 
 193] SECONDARY EDUCATION 53 
 
 each student so counted must hold a "regents' preliminary 
 certificate " for admission to the school, or the school must 
 be approved by two university inspectors, as having a higher 
 entrance requirement than the minimum prescribed for the 
 preliminary certificate, (c) The state duplicates the amount 
 raised by the schools for the purchase of approved books and 
 apparatus up to the sum of $500 a year for any one school, 
 (d) Grants are made on the basis of credentials obtained by 
 pupils in the school who pass the regents' examinations a 
 method of "payment by results". In 1898, of the money 
 distributed by the regents to secondary schools, about 25 per 
 cent came under item (a) ; 22 per cent under item (b) ; 19 
 per cent under item (c) ; and 34 per cent under item (d). 
 
 The regents' examinations are held three times a year. 
 They were taken in 1898 by 608 of the 645 secondary schools 
 in the university. The diplomas issued by the regents to 
 graduates of secondary schools are accepted by Cornell 
 university and by other institutions of higher education 
 in the state, in lieu of entrance examinations in the subjects 
 which they cover. The report of the director of the high 
 school department for 1898 says of the examinations: "In 
 June 1898 the secretary stated to the regents that 10 years' 
 experience had confirmed his views, given to the board in 
 1889, that examinations have the highest educational value 
 and that the small minority which would abolissh them are 
 extremists. It is believed, however, that these tests would 
 be more valuable if they were used for their educational 
 value and not at all as a guide in distributing public money. 
 Inspection will enable us in most cases to determine satisfac- 
 torily without regents examinations whether a school is 
 maintaining a standard deserving aid from state funds." 
 
 A syllabus is issued by the regents for the guidance of 
 instruction in university institutions. There is free consul- 
 tation between the officers of the university and the instruc- 
 tors in the schools with reference to the contents of this 
 syllabus. An annual university convocation, in which the 
 representatives of all divisions of the university meet for
 
 54 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION [ : 94 
 
 public discussion, forms one of the notable educational gath- 
 erings of the country. 
 
 In Maryland, a law of the year 1865 swept away the old 
 academy system, and substituted for it a system of county 
 high schools. This radical change was followed by a reac- 
 tion. Later legislation took a middle course. A law enacted 
 in 1872 provided for the establishment of high schools in 
 the several counties, to be under the control of the boards 
 of county school commissioners, or of district boards 
 appointed by them. Each of these high schools must be 
 " visited and examined annually by the principal of the State 
 normal school, or a professor thereof," and must also be vis- 
 ited once in each term by the county examiner. The sup- 
 port of these high schools is provided for by the county 
 school commissioners, who set apart for that purpose a por- 
 tion of the ordinary school funds received from the state 
 and the county. At the same time, a number of academies, 
 about twenty in all, continue to receive direct donations, 
 in various fixed amounts, from the treasury of the state. 
 
 We find in Indiana what is virtually a system of university 
 accrediting of high schools, the administration of which has 
 been turned over to the state board of education. In July, 
 1873, the board of trustees of Indiana university adopted a 
 resolution to the effect that a certificate " from certain high 
 schools " should entitle the bearer to admission to the fresh- 
 man class. In August of the same year, the state board of 
 education adopted plans under which the high schools which 
 were worthy of such recognition should be designated and 
 commissioned. In 1888 the following order was passed: 
 " That hereafter no high school commission be granted 
 except on a favorable report in writing, to be made to the 
 state board of education, by some member of the state 
 board, who shall visit the high school in question as a com- 
 mittee of the state board for that purpose. 
 
 " That all the high schools now in commission be visited 
 by committees of the board as soon as may be, and that the 
 present list be modified by the reports from such visitation.
 
 195] SECONDARY EDUCATION 55 
 
 " That in case of change of superintendent in any com- 
 missioned high school, the commission then existing shall 
 be in force until a visitation shall be made by a committee 
 of the state board." 
 
 The territory of the state was divided up among the mem- 
 bers of the board for the purposes of such visitation. 
 
 By such simple means and without specific legal enact- 
 ment, an important system of high schools has been built 
 up. These schools rest upon a statutory provision authoriz- 
 ing local school authorities to provide for the teaching, not 
 only of the elementary branches, in English, but also of 
 " such other branches of learning and other languages as 
 the advancement of the pupils may require." They are 
 supported in the same manner as the elementary schools. 
 
 The supervisory power of the state board of education is 
 secured by the broad provision that, " said board shall take 
 cognizance of such questions as may arise in the practical 
 administration of the school system not otherwise provided 
 for, and duly consider, discuss, and determine the same." 
 
 This board consists of the governor of the state, the state 
 superintendent of public instruction, the respective presi- 
 dents of the State university, Purdue university, and the 
 State normal school, the school superintendents of the three 
 largest cities in the state, ex officio, and "three citizens of 
 prominence actively engaged in educational work in the 
 state, appointed by the governor." A four-year course of 
 study for high schools, prepared by this board, is recom- 
 mended for adoption by all schools which seek to be placed 
 on the "commissioned high schools" list. The board 
 announces that commissions will be granted to those high 
 schools only which meet the following requirements : 
 
 1. The character of the work must be satisfactory. 
 
 2. The high school course must be not less than thirty 
 months in length, counting from the end of the eighth year. 
 
 3. The whole time of at least two teachers must be given 
 to the high school work. 
 
 4. The course of study must be at least a fair equivalent 
 of that recommended by the state board.
 
 56 SECONDARY EDUCATION [196 
 
 It will be seen that this system provides for inspection of 
 the schools only at long and irregular intervals. In practice, 
 this defect is partially overcome by the close oversight which 
 the universities exercise over those members of their fresh- 
 man classes who enter on certificates from the schools. 
 Such students are understood to be admitted to the uni- 
 versity for a probationary period, in which they may show 
 whether or not they have been properly prepared for the 
 work they have undertaken. 
 
 The interest in secondary education which has grown up 
 under this system has extended to all sections of the state. 
 There are now 151 high schools on the "commissioned" list, 
 including those of the more populous centers. There is 
 growing up, also, a large number of "township high schools " 
 in the more sparsely settled portions of the state. In 1891, 
 there were 125 such schools with an enrollment of 920 pupils. 
 In 1898, the number had grown to 389, with an enrollment 
 of 8,459 pupils. Seven of these schools have been placed 
 on the " commissioned " list. 
 
 The Wisconsin state system of free high schools was 
 established in 1875. ^ provides for the maintenance of 
 high schools by towns, incorporated villages, cities, or school 
 districts or sub-districts containing incorporated villages or 
 two-department graded schools within their limits. Two or 
 more adjoining towns, or one or more towns and an incorpo- 
 rated village, may unite in establishing and maintaining a 
 high school. These schools are managed by local high 
 school boards, which are commonly, but not always, identical 
 with the boards for elementary schools. They are supported 
 primarily by local taxation ; but a district is entitled to 
 receive from the general fund of the state a sum' not exceed- 
 ing one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in 
 the high school of such district, and not exceeding five 
 hundred dollars in any one year ; provided the school has 
 been kept in accordance with certain requirements prescribed 
 by law, and provided further that the total amount paid from 
 the state treasury for this purpose in any one year shall not
 
 197] SECONDARY EDUCATION 57 
 
 exceed fifty thousand dollars. Such a school is under the 
 direct inspection and oversight of the state superintendent. 
 To receive state aid, a school must establish and maintain a 
 course of study prescribed, or at least approved, by that 
 official ; and must be taught by teachers whose certificates 
 he has approved. The state superintendent issues a manual 
 for the guidance of these schools, containing general sug- 
 gestions, courses of study, an outline of subjects and methods 
 of instruction, and the text of the high school law. He is 
 assisted in the visitation and supervision which the law 
 prescribes by an inspector of free high schools, whom he 
 appoints. 
 
 An effort has been made in Wisconsin to encourage the 
 building up of high schools in the less thickly settled por- 
 tions of the state. This undertaking has met with only a 
 moderate degree of success. Here as elsewhere it has been 
 found difficult to promote the general establishment of such 
 schools by other units of civil administration than those 
 which establish and maintain elementary schools. In Wis- 
 consin the elementary schools are governed and supported 
 by district school authorities, and not by township boards. 
 
 In the cities and towns of Wisconsin, the high schools are 
 making marked progress, under the system of state super- 
 vision. Within the past few years, many of them have been 
 housed in fine, new buildings, provided with excellent labora- 
 tories for instruction in the natural sciences. Important 
 beginnings have been made also in the equipment of some 
 of the schools for courses in manual training. State aid, to 
 the amount of $250 a year for any one school, is extended 
 to such courses by special provisions of the high school law. 
 In the spring of 1899 six schools were receiving such special 
 aid. At the same time there were in all 211 state-aided high 
 schools in Wisconsin. Of these 56 had a three-year course 
 and 155 a course four years in length. Of the four-year 
 schools, no were accredited to the University of Wisconsin. 
 The accrediting system was introduced by the university in 
 1878, and is carried on independently of the state system of
 
 58 SECONDARY EDUCATION [198 
 
 inspection. About a dozen of the largest and strongest high 
 schools in the state are not included among those receiving 
 state aid. 
 
 The courses of study are commonly designated as the 
 English, the general science, the modern classical, and the 
 ancient classical course. A given school will ordinarily 
 establish the English course first, and will from time to time 
 add the others in the order named. There were in 1899 ten 
 schools in the state which carried the full classical course. 
 
 Minnesota has maintained a state system of high schools 
 since 1881. At the head of this system stands the state high 
 school board, consisting of the governor, the superintendent 
 of public instruction, and the president of the University of 
 Minnesota, ex officio. This board appoints a high school 
 inspector and a graded school inspector. Any public high 
 school in the state may become a state high school, and is 
 then entitled to receive from the state the sum of eight hun- 
 dred dollars annually. To be a state high school, it must 
 admit students of either sex from any part of the state with- 
 out charge for tuition, must provide a course of study cover- 
 ing the requirements for admission to the University of 
 Minnesota, and must be subject to the rules and open to the 
 inspection of the state high school board. This board deter- 
 mines, on the basis of the reports of its inspector, what 
 schools are entitled to the bounty of the state ; but not 
 more than five schools may receive such aid in any one 
 county in any one year. Provision is also made for state 
 graded schools, of lower rank than the state high schools ; 
 and for the promotion of such schools to the rank of state 
 high schools when they have attained such a degree of 
 advancement as to entitle them to that designation. 
 
 The state high school board conducts a written examina- 
 tion of classes in the schools twice a year. Students who 
 successfully pass such examinations, in any of the high 
 school subjects, receive certificates for the subjects so 
 covered ; and these certificates are accepted by the university 
 and the normal schools of the state in lieu of entrance exam-
 
 199] SECONDARY EDUCATION 59 
 
 inations in the subjects specified. The taking of this state 
 examination is ordinarily optional with the school ; and no 
 grants of money are based on examination results. The 
 state board may, however, require a school to take an exam- 
 ination as a part of the annual inspection. " The main pur- 
 pose of state examinations ", as stated by the inspector of 
 high schools in his report for 1898, "is not to test the stu- 
 dents, but to promote the general efficiency of the schools." 
 
 Perhaps the most significant thing about the Minnesota 
 system is the encouragement it gives to high schools in the 
 smaller towns. Communities all over the state tax them- 
 selves freely to supplement the bounty distributed by the 
 state board. 
 
 Laboratory apparatus for the high schools is made at the 
 state prison and sold to the schools at cost. For the year 
 1898-99, there were 1 10 graded schools and 97 high schools, 
 under the supervision of the state high school board. 
 
 Several other states have made marked advance within the 
 past few years in the direction of improved systems of sec- 
 ondary schools. These improvements have been gained 
 through the untiring efforts of devoted friends of education, 
 and should receive notice in such a place as this. But lack 
 of space forbids. There is reason to regret, along with this 
 omission, the unavoidable passing over of influential move- 
 ments and important institutions which are in every way 
 deserving of mention along with those which have been 
 noticed ; but the time has been wanting to consider fully the 
 proportionate importance of these things, as well as the 
 space for a full exposition of them all.
 
 6o 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 [2OO 
 
 STATISTICS 
 
 Through the courtesy of the United States commissioner 
 of education, the following statistics for the whole country 
 for the year 1897-98 are presented in advance of their pub- 
 lication by the bureau of education : 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 STATISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR 1897-98 
 
 
 Public 
 high schools 
 
 Private 
 high schools 
 
 Public and 
 private 
 high schools 
 
 Number of schools reporting. . . 
 Teachers of secondary students. 
 Male 
 
 5315 
 I794I 
 
 8 1542 
 
 1990 
 
 9357 
 407$ 
 
 7305 
 27 298 
 12 617 
 
 Female 
 
 93QQ 
 
 5 282 
 
 14681 
 
 Secondary students 
 
 44Q 6OO 
 
 IO$ 22S 
 
 ^4 82S 
 
 Male 
 
 180 187 
 
 S2 172 
 
 241 3SQ 
 
 Female 
 
 2<5O4.I3 
 
 C7 CK3 
 
 313 466 
 
 Secondary students preparing 
 for college 
 
 51 066 
 
 26603 
 
 77 7^0 
 
 Classical course 
 
 27 031; 
 
 16 361 
 
 44 206 
 
 Male 
 
 13 $7$ 
 
 II 128 
 
 24 7O3 
 
 Female 
 
 14 360 
 
 C 233 
 
 IQ CO? 
 
 Scientific courses 
 
 23 131 
 
 IO 332 
 
 33 463 
 
 Male 
 
 12 056 
 
 7 42Q 
 
 IQ 48 $ 
 
 Female 
 
 1 1 O7 1 ? 
 
 2 QO3 
 
 13 Q78 
 
 Graduates in the class of 1898. . 
 Male 
 
 53022 
 IQ 247 
 
 12 148 
 
 6 302 
 
 65 170 
 
 2 "5 <;4Q 
 
 Female 
 
 33 77$ 
 
 5 846 
 
 30621 
 
 College preparatory students in 
 the graduating class 
 
 HCC2 
 
 5 388 
 
 IQ Q4O 
 
 Male 
 
 6 600 
 
 3 628 
 
 10 327 
 
 Female 
 
 7 8<53 
 
 I 760 
 
 Q 6l3 
 
 
 

 
 20l] 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 6l 
 
 
 T;ABLE n 
 
 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC HIGH 
 
 SCHOOLS IN 1897-98 
 
 COURSES, STUDIES, 
 ETC. 
 
 Students preparing for 
 college : 
 
 Classical course 
 
 Scientific courses... 
 
 Total preparing for 
 college 
 
 Graduating in 1898. . . . 
 College preparatory 
 
 students in graduat- 
 ing class 1 
 
 Students in 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Trigonometry 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Physical geography . 
 
 Geology 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Psychology 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 English literature... 
 
 History (other than 
 United States) 
 
 Civics ... 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 students 
 
 to total 
 number 
 secondary 
 
 Male 
 students 
 
 to total 
 number 
 male 
 
 Female 
 students 
 
 to total 
 number 
 female 
 
 
 students 
 
 
 students 
 
 
 students 
 
 27935 
 
 6.21 
 
 13 575 
 
 7.18 
 
 14 360 
 
 5-52 
 
 23 131 
 
 5-15 
 
 12 056 
 
 6.37 
 
 II 075 
 
 4-25 
 
 51 066 
 
 11.36 
 
 25 631 
 
 13-55 
 
 25435 
 
 9-77 
 
 53 022 
 
 11.79 
 
 19247 
 
 IO.I7 
 
 33775 
 
 12.97 
 
 14552 
 
 27-45 
 
 6699 
 
 34.81 
 
 7853 
 
 23.25 
 
 223 307 
 
 49.67 
 
 87 529 
 
 46.27 
 
 135 778 
 
 52.14 
 
 14 O2I 
 
 3-12 
 
 7656 
 
 4-05 
 
 6365 
 
 2.44 
 
 33917 
 
 7-54 
 
 12 OO6 
 
 6.35 
 
 21 911 
 
 8.41 
 
 59 577 
 
 13-25 
 
 23 336 
 
 12-34 
 
 36 241 
 
 13.92 
 
 252 358 
 
 56.13 
 
 106 676 
 
 56.39 
 
 145 682 
 
 55-94 
 
 121 813 
 
 27.09 
 
 49787 
 
 26.32 
 
 72 026 
 
 27.66 
 
 10 200 
 
 2.27 
 
 4 966 
 
 2.63 
 
 5 234 
 
 2.OI 
 
 17 170 
 
 3.82 
 
 6 35i 
 
 3-36 
 
 10 819 
 
 4-15 
 
 93038 
 
 20.69 
 
 39493 
 
 20.88 
 
 53 545 
 
 20.56 
 
 37 329 
 
 8.30 
 
 16 450 
 
 8.70 
 
 20 879 
 
 8.02 
 
 112 133 
 
 24.94 
 
 47074 
 
 24.88 
 
 65059 
 
 24.98 
 
 19 646 
 
 4-37 
 
 7 725 
 
 4.08 
 
 ii 921 
 
 4.58 
 
 134 785 
 
 29.98 
 
 57392 
 
 30-34 
 
 77393 
 
 29.72 
 
 12 325 
 
 2.74 
 
 4355 
 
 2.30 
 
 7 970 
 
 3-o6 
 
 161 724 
 
 35-97 
 
 66 949 
 
 35-39 
 
 94775 
 
 36-39 
 
 180 156 
 
 40.07 
 
 74014 
 
 39.12 
 
 106 142 
 
 40.76 
 
 169 478 
 
 37.70 
 
 69 636 
 
 36.81 
 
 99842 
 
 38-34 
 
 IO2 242 
 
 22.74 
 
 43997 
 
 23.26 
 
 58 245 
 
 22.37 
 
 1 Per cent to number of graduates.
 
 62 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 [2O2 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PRIVATE HIGH 
 SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 189^-98 
 
 COURSES, STUDIES, 
 ETC. 
 
 Number 
 students 
 
 Percent 
 to total 
 number 
 secondary 
 students 
 
 Male 
 students 
 
 Percent 
 to total 
 number 
 male 
 students 
 
 Female 
 students 
 
 Per cent 
 to total 
 number 
 female 
 students 
 
 Students preparing for 
 college: 
 Classical course 
 
 16 361 
 
 IS S4 
 
 II 128 
 
 21 11 
 
 S 211 
 
 9.86 
 
 Scientific courses... . 
 
 , 10 332 
 
 9.82 
 
 7429 
 
 14.23 
 
 20X>3 
 
 5-47 
 
 Total preparing for 
 college 
 
 26 601 
 
 2S.l6 
 
 l8 SS7 
 
 1S.S6 
 
 8 136 
 
 15.33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graduating in 1898. . . . 
 College preparatory 
 students in gradual- 
 
 12 148 
 
 c -188 
 
 11-54 
 
 44 IS 
 
 6 302 
 3 628 
 
 12.08 
 
 17 S7 
 
 5846 
 I 760 
 
 11.02 
 IO. II 
 
 Students in 
 Latin 
 
 5O 986 
 
 48 AS: 
 
 27 008 
 
 SI 4Q 
 
 21 O78 
 
 41. SO 
 
 Greek 
 
 IO Q71 
 
 IO 47 
 
 8 081 
 
 17 21 
 
 I QQO 
 
 1.7S 
 
 French 
 
 24 248 
 
 21 OA 
 
 8 682 
 
 16 64 
 
 IS S66 
 
 2Q.14 
 
 German 
 
 TO All 
 
 l8 4S 
 
 
 18 63 
 
 9 698 
 
 18.28 
 
 Algebra 
 
 e.A -107 
 
 CI 7O 
 
 
 efi 4O 
 
 24 Q27 
 
 46.00 
 
 Geometry 
 
 2C 7O2 
 
 24 43 
 
 14 7OI 
 
 28 is 
 
 10 911 
 
 2O. S 7 
 
 Trigonometry , 
 
 S SIQ 
 
 e 2S 
 
 3447 
 
 6 61 
 
 2 O72 
 
 l.ol 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 7 26l 
 
 6.9! 
 
 2 l88 
 
 4.IQ 
 
 S O7S 
 
 Q.S7 
 
 Physics 
 
 20 612 
 
 TO <O 
 
 10 230 
 
 19 61 
 
 10 382 
 
 IQ.S7 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 10 119 
 
 9 62 
 
 
 9S7 
 
 S 128 
 
 Q.67 
 
 Physical geography. 
 Geolocv . . 
 
 22 849 
 
 6 205 
 
 21.79 
 5OO 
 
 10 555 
 
 2 506 
 
 20.23 
 4.8O 
 
 12 294 
 1 6o,Q 
 
 23.17 
 6.Q7 
 
 
 28 205 
 
 26 80 
 
 12 561 
 
 24.O8 
 
 IS 644 
 
 29.49 
 
 Psvcholotrv .. 
 
 7 871 
 
 7 48 
 
 2 814 
 
 S 1Q 
 
 S OSQ 
 
 Q.S4 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 14 124 
 
 12.41 
 
 IS. 164 
 
 29.O7 
 
 18 960 
 
 35-74 
 
 English literature.. . 
 History 
 
 35 654 
 
 1Q SS6 
 
 33-88 
 
 27 en 
 
 15 709 
 
 1 8 146 
 
 30.11 
 1S.i6 
 
 IQ945 
 21 2IO 
 
 37-59 
 10.08 
 
 
 16 s6s 
 
 ic 74 
 
 7 Q7S 
 
 IS. 20 
 
 8 590 
 
 jy-V" 
 l6.I9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Per cent to number of graduates.
 
 203] 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 TABLE IV 1 
 
 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC AND PRI- 
 VATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 1897-98 
 
 COURSES, STUDIES, 
 ETC. 
 
 Number 
 students 
 
 Per cent 
 to total 
 number 
 secondary 
 students 
 
 Male 
 students 
 
 Per cent 
 to total 
 number 
 male 
 students 
 
 Female 
 students 
 
 Per cent 
 to total 
 number 
 female 
 students 
 
 Students preparing for 
 college: 
 Classical course 
 
 AA 206 
 
 7. OX) 
 
 24. 7O1 
 
 IO.24 
 
 IQ 501 
 
 6.25 
 
 Scientific courses . . . 
 
 33 463 
 
 6.03 
 
 19485 
 
 8.07 
 
 13978 
 
 4.46 
 
 Total preparing for 
 college 
 
 77 75O 
 
 I4.O2 
 
 44. l88 
 
 18.31 
 
 11 571 
 
 IO.7I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Graduating in 1898. . . . 
 College preparatory 
 students in graduat- 
 ing class * 
 
 65 170 
 
 TO OAO 
 
 11.75 
 30.60 
 
 25 549 
 
 IO 127 
 
 10.59 
 
 4O.42 
 
 39 621 
 o 611 
 
 12.64 
 24.26 
 
 Students in 
 Latin 
 
 27/1 2O7 
 
 dO. 44 
 
 II? 417 
 
 47.8l 
 
 158 856 
 
 50.68 
 
 Greek 
 
 2/1 no/1 
 
 4. CO 
 
 16 639 
 
 6.89 
 
 8 155 
 
 2.67 
 
 French 
 
 eS l65 
 
 IO.4.8 
 
 20 688 
 
 8.57 
 
 17 4.77 
 
 11.06 
 
 German 
 
 78 OO4 
 
 14.. 24. 
 
 -j-j nee 
 
 I1.7O 
 
 45 Q1Q 
 
 14.66 
 
 Algebra 
 
 1O6 755 
 
 55. 2Q 
 
 136 146 
 
 56.41 
 
 170 600 
 
 54.43 
 
 Geometry 
 
 14.7 515 
 
 26.e,Q 
 
 64. 578 
 
 26.76 
 
 82 Q17 
 
 26.46 
 
 Trigonometry 
 
 re 7io 
 
 2.83 
 
 8 4.11 
 
 1.4Q 
 
 7 106 
 
 2.33 
 
 
 2/1 411 
 
 4.4.O 
 
 8 51Q 
 
 1.e4. 
 
 15 804 
 
 5.07 
 
 Physics 
 
 Jig 650 
 
 20.48 
 
 4.O 721 
 
 2O.6o 
 
 6l Q27 
 
 20.39 
 
 
 J.7 J.J.S 
 
 8.55 
 
 21 A /IT 
 
 8.88 
 
 26 007 
 
 8.30 
 
 Physical geography.. 
 Geology .. 
 
 134 982 
 
 25 851 
 
 24-33 
 4.66 
 
 57629 
 
 10 231 
 
 23.88 
 
 4-24 
 
 77 353 
 15 620 
 
 24.68 
 4.98 
 
 
 162 990 
 
 2Q.**8 
 
 60 OK. 1 
 
 28.08 
 
 93 37 
 
 29.68 
 
 Psychology 
 
 20 198 
 
 3.64 
 
 7 160 
 
 2. Q7 
 
 13 029 
 
 4.16 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 IQC 8d8 
 
 oe^o 
 
 82 113 
 
 34.02 
 
 113 735 
 
 36.28 
 
 English literature. . . 
 History (other than 
 United States) 
 Civics 
 
 215 810 
 
 209 034 
 118 807 
 
 38.90 
 37.68 
 
 21. 4.1 
 
 89723 
 87 982 
 
 51 072 
 
 37.18 
 36.45 
 
 21.53 
 
 126 087 
 
 121 052 
 
 66835 
 
 40.22 
 
 38.62 
 21.32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Result of combing tables II and III. 
 * Per cent to number of graduates.
 
 6 4 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS PURSUING CERTAIN STUDIES 
 IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 1890 TO 1898, 
 IN FOUR-YEAR PERIODS. 
 
 
 1889-90 
 
 1893-94 
 
 1897-98 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Per cent 
 to 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Per cent 
 to 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Per cent 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total number of sec- 
 ondary students. . . 
 Number studying 
 Latin 
 
 297 894 
 
 loo 144 
 
 12 869 
 28 032 
 
 34 208 
 127 397 
 59 789 
 
 
 407 919 
 
 177 898 
 20 353 
 42 072 
 52 152 
 215 023 
 103 054 
 15 500 
 
 97 974 
 42 066 
 
 
 554 814 
 
 274 293 
 
 24 994 
 58 165 
 78 994 
 306 755 
 147 515 
 15 719 
 113 650 
 47448 
 
 49-44 
 4.50 
 10.45 
 14.24 
 
 55-29 
 26.59 
 2.83 
 20.48 
 8-55 
 
 33-62 
 
 4-32 
 9.41 
 11.48 
 
 42-77 
 20.O7 
 
 43-59 
 4-99 
 10.31 
 12.78 
 52.71 
 25-25 
 3.8o 
 24.02 
 10.31 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Trigonometry .. . . 
 
 Physics 
 
 63 644 
 28665 
 
 21.36 
 9.62 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Reports of the commissioner of education. Washington, annual 
 publication. 
 
 These reports include a great deal of statistical information relating to sec- 
 ondary education. Since 1871 they have presented statistics of private high 
 schools, academies, etc.; since 1876, of city high schools; since 1886-87, of 
 students pursuing each of the more common secondary school studies; since 
 1889-90, of public high schools not included in city school systems. 
 
 Adams, Herbert B. (Editor). Contributions to American educa- 
 tional history. Washington, 1887-. 
 
 Published as circulars of information of the United States bureau of educa- 
 tion. Nineteen monographs have already appeared in this series, the most 
 of which contain matter relating to the history of secondary schools. 
 
 Education in the United States, its history 
 settlements. New York, D. Appleton and 
 
 Boone, Richard G. 
 
 from the earliest 
 Company, 1893. 
 
 Contains several chapters on the history of secondary education.
 
 205] SECONDARY EDUCATION 65 
 
 Report of the committee on secondary school studies appointed 
 at the meeting of the National educational association, July 
 9, 1892, with the reports of the conferences arranged by this 
 committee and held December 28-30, 1892. Washington, 1893. 
 
 Better known as the report of the committee of ten. It has been repub- 
 lished by the American Book Company (New York) for the National educa- 
 tional association. 
 
 Report of committee on college entrance requirements, July, 1899. 
 
 Published by the National educational association, 1899. 
 
 The American journal of education. [Barnard's] Vols. 1-31. 
 Hartford, Conn., 1856-1881. 
 
 These volumes contain a great amount of matter relating to the history of 
 American secondary schools. 
 
 The Academy, a journal of secondary education. Issued monthly 
 under the auspices of the associated academic principals of the 
 state of New York. Vols. 1-8. Syracuse and Boston, 1886-1892. 
 
 School and college, devoted to secondary and higher education. 
 One volume only, Boston, 1892. 
 
 The school review, a journal of secondary education. Vols. i- 
 (current publication). Chicago, 1893-. 
 
 The educational review. Vols. i-(current publication). New 
 York, 1891-. 
 
 To these should be added the annual reports of the sev- 
 eral school systems mentioned in this monograph, the vol- 
 umes of proceedings of the various associations of teachers 
 to which reference has been made, and the annual catalogs 
 and occasional anniversary publications of the more impor- 
 tant schools.
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATES 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 BY 
 
 ANDREW FLEMING WEST 
 Professor of Latin in Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK.
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 I ITS PLACE AND IMPORTANCE 
 
 The American college has no exact counterpart in the 
 educational system of any other country. The elements 
 which compose it are derived, it is true, from European sys- 
 tems, and in particular from Great Britain. But the form 
 under which these elements have been finally compounded is 
 a form suggested and almost compelled by the needs of our 
 national life. Of course it is far from true to say that Ameri- 
 can colleges have been uninfluenced in their organization 
 by European tradition. On the contrary, the primary form 
 of organization found in our earliest colleges, such as Har- 
 vard, Yale and Princeton, is inherited from the collegiate life 
 of the University of Cambridge. But it was subjected to 
 modification at the very beginning, in order to adapt the 
 infant college to its community, and progressively modified 
 from time to time in order to keep in close sympathy with 
 the civil, ecclesiastical and social character of the growing 
 American nation. The outcome of all this has been an 
 institution which, while deriving by inheritance the elements 
 of its composition, and in some sense its form, has managed 
 to develop for itself a form of organization which notably 
 differs from the old-world schools. 
 
 Moreover the college, as might be expected from the fore- 
 going considerations, occupies the place of central importance 
 in the historic outworking of American higher education, 
 and remains to-day the one repository and shelter of liberal 
 education as distinguished from technical or commercial 
 training, the only available foundation for the erection&C 
 universities containing faculties devoted to the maintenance 
 of pure learning, and the only institution which can furnish 
 the preparation which is always desired, even though it is not
 
 '4 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2IO 
 
 yet generally exacted, by the better professional schools. 
 Singularly enough, but not unnaturally, the relation of direc- 
 tive influence sustained to-day by our colleges to the univer- 
 sity problem is not unlike the relation held in the middle 
 ages by the inferior faculty of arts at the University of Paris 
 to the affairs of the university as a whole. 1 The points of 
 resemblance are marked and are of a generic character. In 
 both cases the college, or faculty of arts, appears as the 
 preliminary instructor in the essentials of liberal education. 
 In both cases this earlier education is recognized as the 
 proper prerequisite for later study in the professional facul- 
 ties. In both cases the inferior faculty, even if still undevel- 
 oped or but partially developed, contains the germ of the 
 higher university faculty of pure learning, the faculty of 
 arts, sciences and philosophy. In this there is much that is 
 remarkable, but nothing novel. For the American college 
 in this respect merely perpetuates and develops a funda- 
 mental tradition of liberal learning, which found its way 
 from Paris through Oxford to Cambridge, and then from 
 Cambridge to our shores. The parallel of our college his- 
 tory with the old-world history holds good in other impor- 
 tant respects, and would be most interesting to trace. Still, 
 in order to understand the precise nature and unique influ- 
 ence of the college in American education, it is not neces- 
 sary here to trace step by step the story of its development, 
 for in its various forms of present organization it reveals not 
 only the normal type which has been evolved, but also sur- 
 vivals of past stages of development, instances of variation 
 and even of degeneration from the type, and interesting 
 present experiments which may to some extent foreshadow 
 the future. 
 
 II THE OLD FASHIONED COLLEGE 
 
 The three commonly accepted divisions of education into 
 the primary, secondary and higher stages, while fully recog- 
 nized in America, are not followed rigorously in our organi- 
 
 1 Rashdall : Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Chap. I, p. 318.
 
 2Il] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 5 
 
 zation. The primary education is more clearly separable 
 from the secondary than is the secondary from the higher 
 or university stage. The chief cause for this partial blend- 
 ing, or perhaps confusion, of the secondary and higher 
 stages is the college. However illogical and even practi- 
 cally indefensible such a mixture may appear in the eyes of 
 some very able critics, it is still true that the historical out- 
 working of this partial blending of two different things, 
 commonly and wisely separated in other systems, has been 
 compelled by the exigencies of our history and has at the 
 same time been fruitful in good results. 
 
 Let us then take as the starting point of our inquiry the 
 fact that the American college, as contrasted with European 
 schools, is a composite thing partly secondary and partly 
 higher in its organization. It consists regularly of a four- 
 year course of study leading to the bachelor's degree. Up 
 to the close of the civil war (1861-1865) it was mainly an 
 institution of secondary education, with some anticipations 
 of university studies toward the end of the course. But 
 even these embryonic university studies were usually taught 
 as rounding out the course of disciplinary education, rather 
 than as subjects of free investigation. Boys entered college 
 when they were fifteen or sixteen years of age. The average 
 age of graduation did not exceed twenty years. The usual 
 course of preparation in the best secondary schools occupied 
 four years, but many students took only three or even two 
 years. In the better schools they studied Latin and Greek 
 grammar, four books of Caesar, six books of Virgil's ^neid, 
 six orations of Cicero, three books of Xenophon's Anabasis 
 and two of Homer's Iliad, together with arithmetic, plane 
 geometry (not always complete) and algebra to, or at most 
 through, quadratic equations. There were variations from 
 this standard, but in general it may be safely asserted that 
 the Latin, Greek and mathematics specified above consti- 
 tuted as much as the stronger colleges required for entrance ; 
 while many weaker ones with younger students and lower 
 standards were compelled to teach some of these prepara-
 
 6 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [212 
 
 tory studies in the first year or the first two years of the 
 college course. With but few and unimportant exceptions 
 the four-year course consisted of prescribed studies. They 
 were English literature and rhetoric, Latin, Greek, mathe- 
 matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, the elements of deduc- 
 tive logic, moral philosopy, and political economy, and often 
 a little psychology and metaphysics. Perhaps some ancient 
 or general history was added. French and German were 
 sometimes taught, but not to an important degree. At grad- 
 uation the student received the degree of bachelor of arts, 
 and then entered on the study of law, medicine or theology at 
 some professional school, or went into business or into teach- 
 ing in the primary or secondary schools. Such was, in barest 
 outline, the scheme of college education a generation ago. 
 
 Ill THE COLLEGE OF TO-DAY ; PROPOSALS TO SHORTEN THE 
 
 COURSE 
 
 At the present time things are very different. With the 
 vast growth of the country in wealth and population since 
 the civil war there has come a manifold development. The 
 old four-year course, consisting entirely of a single set of 
 prescribed studies leading to the one degree of bachelor 
 of arts, has grown and branched in many ways. It has 
 been modified from below, from above and from within. 
 The better preparation now given in thousands of schools 
 has enabled colleges to ask for somewhat higher entrance 
 requirements and, what is more important, to exact them with 
 greater firmness. The age of entrance has increased, until 
 at the older and stronger colleges the average is now about 
 eighteen and a half years. A four-year course leading to a 
 bachelor's degree remains, although in some quarters the 
 increasing age of the students is creating a tendency to 
 shorten the course to three years, in order that young men 
 may not be kept back too long from entering upon their 
 professional studies. It was an easy thing a generation 
 ago for young men to graduate at twenty, and a bright 
 man could do it earlier without difficulty. After two or
 
 213] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 7 
 
 three years spent in studying law or medicine he was ready 
 to practice his profession, and then began to earn his living 
 at the age of twenty-two or twenty-three. This was within 
 his reach. But to-day a college student is twenty-two 
 years old at graduation as old as his father or grand- 
 father were when they had finished their professional studies. 
 If he follows in their steps, he must wait until he is twenty- 
 five to begin earning his living. Accordingly boys are now 
 passing in considerable numbers directly from secondary 
 schools, which do not really complete their secondary educa- 
 tion, to the professional schools, thus omitting college alto- 
 gether. If this continues the effect both on colleges and pro- 
 fessional schools will be discouraging. The problem is an eco- 
 nomic one, and it is affecting college courses of study. One 
 solution, as suggested above, is to shorten the course to three 
 years. This has been advocated by President Eliot of Har- 
 vard. Three years is the length of the course in the under- 
 graduate college established in connection with the Johns 
 Hopkins university. Another proposal is to keep the four- 
 year course and allow professional in place of liberal studies 
 in the last year, thus enabling the student to save one year 
 in the professional school. This experiment is being tried 
 at Columbia. A third proposal is to keep the college course 
 absolutely free from professional studies, but to give abun- 
 dant opportunities in the last year or even the last two years 
 to pursue the liberal courses which most clearly underlie 
 professional training, thus saving a year of professional 
 study. That is, teach jurisprudence and history, but not 
 technical law, or teach chemistry and biology, but. not techni- 
 cal medicine, or teach Greek, oriental languages, history and 
 philosophy, but not technical theology. This seems to be 
 the trend of recent experiments in Yale and Princeton. 
 The one common consideration in favor of all these pro- 
 posals is that a year is saved. Against the three-year course, 
 however, it is argued that there is no need to abolish the 
 four-year course in order to save a year. Against the 
 admission of professional studies it is argued that work done
 
 8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [214 
 
 in a professional school ought not to count at the same time 
 toward two degrees representing two radically different 
 things. Against the proposal to allow the liberal studies 
 which most closely underlie the professions, it is argued that 
 this is a half-way measure, after all. Nevertheless for the 
 present, and probably for a long time in most colleges, the 
 four-year course is assured. 
 
 IV ALTERATIONS IN THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE AND IN THE 
 MEANING OF THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE 
 
 The four-year course, however, no longer leads solely to 
 the degree of bachelor of arts, nor has this old degree itself 
 remained unmodified. With the founding of schools of 
 science, aiming to give a modern form of liberal education 
 based mainly on the physical and natural sciences, and yet 
 only too often giving under this name a technological course, 
 or a somewhat incongruous mixture of technical and liberal 
 studies, the degree of bachelor of science came into use as a 
 college degree. Then intermediate courses were consti- 
 tuted, resting on Latin, the modern languages, history, 
 philosophy, mathematics and science, and thus the degree of 
 bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy came into use. 
 Sometimes the various courses in civil, mechanical, mining 
 or electrical engineering were made four-year undergradu- 
 ate courses with their corresponding engineering degrees 
 virtually rated as bachelor's degrees. Still other degrees 
 of lesser importance came into vogue and obtained a foot- 
 ing here and there as proper degrees to mark the comple- 
 tion of a four-year college course. The dispersing pressure 
 of the newer studies and the imperious practical demands 
 of American life proved too strong either to be held in form 
 or to be kept out by the barriers of the old course of purely 
 liberal studies with its single and definite bachelor of arts 
 degree. New degrees were accordingly added to represent 
 the attempted organization of the newer tendencies in courses 
 of study according to their various types. The organiza- 
 tion of such courses was naturally embarrassed by grave
 
 215] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE i 9 
 
 difficulties which are as yet only partially overcome. Com- 
 pared with the old course they lacked and still lack defi- 
 niteness of structure. They aimed to realize new and 
 imperfectly understood conceptions of education, and were 
 composed of studies whose inner content was changing rap- 
 idly, as in the case of the sciences, or else were " half-and- 
 half " forms of education, difficult to arrange in a system 
 that promised stability, as in the case of studies leading to 
 the bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. A graver 
 source of trouble, in view of the too fierce practicality of 
 American life, was the admission of various engineering and 
 other technical studies as parallel undergraduate courses, 
 thus tending to confuse in the minds of young students the 
 radical distinction between liberal and utilitarian ideals in 
 education, and tending furthermore, by reason of the attrac- 
 tiveness of the " bread-and-butter " courses, to diminish the 
 strength of the liberal studies. When in addition it is 
 remembered that the newer courses, whether liberal, semi- 
 liberal or technical, which found a footing of presumed 
 equality alongside of the old bachelor of arts course, exacted 
 less from preparatory schools in actual quantity of school 
 work necessary for entrance into college, it will be seen that 
 the level of preparation for college was really lowered. 
 
 The present drift of opinion and action in colleges which 
 offer more than one bachelor's degree is more reassuring 
 than it was some twenty years ago. There is a noticeable 
 tendency, growing stronger each year, to draw a sharp line 
 between liberal and technical education and to retain under- 
 graduate college education in liberal studies as the best 
 foundation for technical studies, thus elevating the latter to 
 a professsional dignity comparable with law, medicine and 
 divinity. The more this conception prevails, the more will 
 college courses in engineering be converted into graduate, 
 or at least partially graduate courses. No doubt most inde- 
 pendent schools will continue to offer their courses to young 
 students of college age, but where such schools have been 
 associated as parts of colleges or universities the tendency
 
 IO 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 1 6 
 
 to a clearer separation of technical from liberal studies in 
 the manner indicated above seems likely to prevail. If this 
 happy result can be considered assured, then the under- 
 graduate college course, the sole guarantee of American 
 liberal culture, will have a good chance to organize itself in 
 accordance with its own high ideals, however imperfectly it 
 may have realized these ideals in the past. 
 
 Another hopeful tendency which is gradually gathering 
 strength is to give the various bachelor's degrees more defi- 
 nite significance by making them stand for distinct types of 
 liberal or semi-liberal education. Three such types or forms 
 are now slowly evolving out of the mass of studies with 
 increasing logical consistency. First comes the historical 
 academic course, attempting to realize the idea of a general 
 liberal education, and consisting of the classical and modern 
 literatures, mathematics and science, with historical, polit- 
 ical and philosophical studies added, and leading to the 
 bachelor of arts degree. The second is the course which 
 aims to represent a strictly modern culture predominantly 
 scientific in character, and culminating in the degree of 
 bachelor of science. As this course originated in the 
 demand for knowledge of the applied sciences in the arts and 
 industries of modern life, the ideal of a purely modern lib- 
 eral culture, predominantly scientific in spirit, was not easy 
 to maintain. On the contrary, the technical aspects of the 
 sciences taught tended more and more to create a demand 
 for strictly technological instruction to the exclusion of the 
 theoretical and non-technical aspects. It is this cause more 
 than any other which has tended to restrict the energies of 
 schools of science to the production of experts in the various 
 mechanical and chemical arts and industries and has caused 
 them to do so little for the advancement of pure science. 
 Conscious of this difficulty, many schools of science have 
 been giving larger place in the curriculum to some of the 
 more available humanistic studies. Fuller courses in French 
 and German have been provided for and the study of Eng- 
 lish has been insisted upon with sharper emphasis. Eco-
 
 217] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 1 
 
 nomics, modern history and even the elements of philosophy 
 have found place. Some improvement has also been effected 
 by increasing the entrance requirements in quantity of school 
 work. But in spite of all these efforts the course still suffers 
 from an inner antagonism between technical and liberal 
 impulses, and until the bachelor of science course finally set- 
 tles into a strictly technical form, or else comes to represent 
 a strictly modern liberal culture, its stability cannot be 
 regarded as assured. In the independent scientific schools, 
 unassociated with colleges, it seems probable the course will 
 keep or assume a highly technical form, but wherever it exists 
 side by side with other bachelor's courses as a proposed rep- 
 resentative of some form of liberal education, it does seem 
 inevitable that the bachelor of science course will tend to 
 conform to the ideal of a modern culture mainly scientific 
 in character. But even if this result be achieved, the pro- 
 cess of achievement promises to be slow and difficult. Few 
 American colleges are strong enough financially to make the 
 experiment, which it must be admitted involves considerable 
 financial risk, and even where the risk may be safely assumed 
 there still remains a serious theoretical difficulty in realizing 
 this form of liberal education. The antagonism between 
 the technical and liberal impulses in the course seems very 
 difficult to eliminate completely. For if the question be 
 asked, Why should an American college student seek as his 
 liberal education the studies which represent a purely mod- 
 ern culture rather than pursue the bachelor of arts course, 
 which professes to stand for a more general culture ? the 
 preference of most students will be found to rest upon their 
 instinct for something useful and immediately available, 
 rather than on a desire for things intellectual. This con- 
 stantly militates against devotion to the intellectual value 
 of their modern studies and tends more and more to drag 
 them toward technical standards. 
 
 The third aspirant to be considered a type of liberal col- 
 lege education is the course intermediate in character 
 between the two already discussed. It is labeled with the
 
 12 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [218 
 
 degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. It 
 differs from the other two courses mainly in its treatment of 
 the classical languages. In its desire to placate the practical 
 spirit it drops Greek, but retains Latin both as an aid to 
 general culture and as a strong practical help in learning the 
 modern languages. Notwithstanding its indeterminate and 
 intermediate character, it is serving a valuable end by pro- 
 viding thousands of students, who do not care for the clas- 
 sical languages in their entirety, with a sufficiently liberal 
 form of education to be of great service to them. It is by 
 no means technical in spirit. Judged from the standpoint 
 of the historical bachelor of arts course, it is a less gen- 
 eral but still valuable culture. Judged from the standpoint 
 of the bachelor of science course, it appears to escape the 
 unhappy conflict between the technical and liberal impulses 
 and anchors the student somewhat more firmly to funda- 
 mental conceptions of general culture. 
 
 These three are the principal forms of undergraduate col- 
 lege education which in any degree profess to stand as types 
 of liberal culture in this country at the present time, and 
 they are usually labeled with three different degrees, as 
 already indicated. 
 
 But some colleges, following the example of Harvard, 
 have dealt with the bachelor's degree very differently. The 
 degree has been retained as the sole symbol of liberal col- 
 lege education, but the meaning of the degree has been 
 radically altered in order to make it sufficiently elastic to 
 represent the free selections and combinations made by 
 the students themselves out of the whole range of liberal 
 studies. In these colleges it therefore no longer stands 
 for the completion of a definite curriculum composed of a 
 few clearly-related central studies constituting a positive 
 type. What it does stand for is not quite so easy to 
 define, because of the variation of practice in different col- 
 leges and the wide diversity in the choice of studies exer- 
 cised by individual students in any one college. But, gen- 
 erally speaking, it means that the student is free to choose
 
 259] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 3 
 
 his own studies. In the undergraduate college connected 
 with the Johns Hopkins university at Baltimore choice is 
 regulated by prescribing moderately elastic groups of cog- 
 nate studies, the student being required to say which group 
 he will choose. In Harvard college the range of choice is 
 restricted in no such way. The student is allowed to choose 
 what he prefers, subject to such limitations as the priority 
 of elementary to advanced courses in any subject, and the 
 necessary exclusions compelled by the physical necessity of 
 placing many exercises at the same time, in order to accom- 
 modate the hundreds of courses offered within the limits of 
 the weekly schedule. In Columbia college the degree is 
 still different in respect to the mode of the student's freedom 
 of choice, and especially in the admission of professional 
 studies in the last year of the course. A Columbia student 
 in his senior year may be pursuing his first year's course in 
 law or medicine, and at the same time receiving double 
 credit for this work, both toward the degree of bachelor of 
 arts and toward the professional degree of doctor of medi- 
 cine or bachelor of laws. These examples are sufficient to 
 indicate the variety of meaning found in colleges which 
 have changed the historical significance of the bachelor of 
 arts degree. 
 
 V OTHER PHASES OF CHANGE 
 
 Up to this point we have looked at the American college 
 mainly from the outside. We^observed^ in^ the college of a 
 generation ago an institution of liberal education providing 
 a single fpur-year course, consisting entirely of prescribed 
 studies for young men from sixteen to twenty years of age, 
 and culminating in one bachelor's degree of fairly uniform 
 intentional meaning. We observe in the college of to-day 
 the developed successor of the earlier college, providing a 
 four-year course consisting generally of a mixture of pre- 
 scribed and elective studies in widely varying proportions. 
 The average age of the students has increased at least two 
 years, and at the end of the course there is a multiform 
 instead of a uniform bachelor's degree, or in some instances
 
 14 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [22O 
 
 a single bachelor's degree of multiform meaning. To some 
 extent the undergraduate collegian has become a university 
 student. To what extent ? is the real question around which 
 a controversy of vital importance is raging. 
 
 The profound change indicated by these external symp- 
 toms, a change so full of peril in the directions of disintegra- 
 tion and confusion, and yet so full of promise if rationally 
 organized, has been in progress since the civil war, and is 
 still steadily and somewhat blindly working along towards 
 its consummation. An exact estimate of such a state of 
 affairs, a diagnosis which shall at the same time have the 
 value of a prognosis for all colleges, is manifestly impossible 
 at the present time. The difficult thing in any such attempt 
 is not merely to understand the change from a uniform to a 
 multiform mode of life and organization, but to understand 
 what it really is that is changing. This something that is 
 changing is the old-fashioned American college. It seems 
 simple enough to understand what this was, but at the same 
 time it needs to be remembered that the old-fashioned col- 
 leges, while aiming to follow out a single course of study 
 ending in a single degree of single meaning, nevertheless 
 did not succeed in exhibiting such close individual resem- 
 blance to each other as is to be found, let us say, among the 
 lycees of France, the public schools of England or the gym- 
 nasia of Germany. Many so-called colleges really served as 
 preparatory schools for larger and stronger colleges, and 
 many so-called universities did not attain and in fact do not 
 yet attain to the real, though less pretentious dignity of the 
 better colleges. In fact "university," as President Gllman 
 observes, is only too often a " majestic synonym " for " col- 
 lege." To aid in giving as much simplicity and consequents 
 clearness to our view as is necessary to disclose the leading 
 features of the situation, neglecting all the others, we may 
 therefore at once discard from our consideration all except 
 the better colleges which, when taken together, exhibit the 
 dominant tendency. 
 
 How, then, have these better colleges changed ? Speak-
 
 22l] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 15 
 
 ing generally, they have changed in a way which reflects the 
 diversified progress of the country, and yet in some sense 
 they have had an important influence in leading and organ- 
 izing the national progress itself. Then, too, the change is 
 not merely a change of form, but of spirit. In the older 
 days scarcely any college had as many as four or five hundred 
 students, and the range of studies, even if important, was 
 limited. The faculty of the college exercised a strong 
 paternal anxiety and oversight on behalf of the morals and 
 religion, as well as over the studies of the students. The 
 authority of the president was almost patriarchal in charac- 
 ter. Not highly developed insight into the problems of edu- 
 cation, but plain common sense in governing students was 
 the condition of a successful presidency. The life of the 
 students was mildly democratic, being tempered by the gen- 
 erally beneficent absolutism of the president and the faculty, 
 which in turn was itself tempered by occasional student 
 outbreaks. According to the last report of the United 
 States commissioner of education (1896-97) there are now 
 472 colleges, 1 excluding those for women only. Seventy- 
 seven of these enroll more than 200 undergraduate stu- 
 dents, and of these seventy-seven colleges twenty-four 
 enroll over 500, and eight over 1,000. The range of 
 studies, as already mentioned, has increased. With the 
 strengthening of preparatory courses, the school preparation 
 of students has improved, and at the same time their average 
 age at entrance has risen. The number of professors has 
 multiplied. The old-fashioned college professor, the man of 
 moderate general scholarship and of austere yet kindly 
 interest in the personal welfare of those he taught, still 
 remains ; but at his side has appeared more and more fre- 
 quently the newer type of American college professor, the 
 man of high special learning in some one subject or branch 
 of that subject, who considers it his primary duty to investi- 
 gate, his next duty to teach, and his least duty to exercise a 
 
 1 That is, 472 " colleges and universities." As almost every university, real or 
 nominal, contains a college, the total of 472 colleges is approximately correct.
 
 1 6 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [222 
 
 personal care for the individual students. Perhaps the old 
 type will be replaced by the new. Such a result, however, 
 would not be an unmixed gain, and it is indeed fortunate that 
 our finest college professors to-day endeavor to combine 
 high special attainments as scholars with deep interest in 
 the personal well-being of their students. The authority of 
 the faculty is still sufficient, but is exercised differently. Stu- 
 dent self-government is the order of the day, and the more 
 this prevails the less is exercise of faculty authority found to 
 be necessary. With student self-government there has 
 naturally come an increase of intensity in the democratic 
 character of student life. The presidents of our larger col- 
 leges, and even of many of the smaller, are becoming more 
 and more administrative officers and less and less teachers. 
 It is no doubt something of a loss that the students should 
 not have the intimate personal acquaintance with the presi- 
 dent enjoyed by students a generation ago, but this can- 
 not be avoided in places where a thousand undergrade 
 ates are enrolled. Out-door sports have also entered to 
 modify and improve the spirit of our academic life. They 
 have developed their own evils, but at the same time have 
 done wonders for the physical health of the students, the 
 diminution of student disorders and the fostering of an 
 intense esprit de corps. In the reaction from the asceticism 
 of our early college life there is little doubt our athletics 
 have gone too far ; so far as to divert in a noticeable degree 
 the student's attention from his studies. But it is gratifying 
 to notice that the abuses of college athletics can be corrected, 
 and that they are to some extent self-correcting. It must 
 not be forgotten that unlike his father or grandfather, whose 
 college life was so largely spent indoors, the American stu- 
 dent of to-day lives outdoors as much as possible. The 
 moral and religious spirit of the college of to-day is inher- 
 ited from the old college. 
 
 Nearly all our colleges are avowedly or impliedly Chris- 
 tian. A respectable minority of them are Roman Catholic. 
 The large majority are under Protestant influences, some-
 
 223] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 17 
 
 times denominational, but generally of an unsectarian char- 
 acter even in the church colleges. In most of them the stu- 
 dent is expected to attend certain religious exercises, such 
 as morning prayers ; in many, however, all such attendance 
 is voluntary. The voluntary religious life of the under- 
 graduates finds its expression in various societies, which 
 endeavor to promote the Christian fellowship and life of 
 their members. While moral and religious convictions are 
 freer and sometimes laxer than of old the Christian life in 
 our colleges is real and pervasive. 
 
 As a rule the student is so absorbed by the scholastic, 
 athletic and miscellaneous activities of his college that he 
 sees little outside social life. This is particularly true in 
 colleges which enjoy truly academic seclusion amid rural 
 surroundings, for here more than anywhere else is to be seen 
 the natural unperturbed outworking of the undergraduate 
 spirit. It is the old spirit enlarged and liberalized, the 
 spirit which finds its delight in a free, democratic, self-respect- 
 ing enjoyment of the four years which are so often looked 
 back upon as the happiest four years of life. 
 
 VI INCREASED FREEDOM IN STUDIES. DEVELOPMENT OF 
 ELECTIVE COURSES 
 
 Such are some of the non-scholastic aspects of our present 
 college life. They are important in that they give tone to the 
 whole picture, but they do not account for what, after all, is 
 the great transformation which has been wrought, for that 
 transformation is distinctly scholastic. It is caused by the 
 increase of students, their better preparation and their 
 greater age. The studies which by common consent made 
 up the curriculum leading to the old bachelor of arts degree 
 are now being completed before the end, sometimes by the 
 middle of the college course. There is to-day no reason why 
 a young man of twenty should not know as much as his 
 father knew at twenty. But at twenty his father had gradu- 
 ated with the bachelor of arts degree, whereas at twenty the 
 son is only half way through his college course. In other
 
 1 8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [224 
 
 words, he has passed the time of prescription and entered 
 upon the time of his freedom. As this fact forced itself 
 more and more upon the older and stronger colleges, experi- 
 ments were made in granting a limited amount of elective 
 freedom to students in the latter part of their course ; first 
 in the senior year and then in the junior year, until in some 
 instances the whole four-year course is now elective. The 
 solid block of four years' prescribed study has been cleft 
 downward, part of the way at least, by the " elective " 
 wedge, thin at its entering edge, but widening above the 
 more it enters and descends. To-day the problem of the 
 relation of prescribed to elective studies is a question of con- 
 stant interest and perpetual readjustment. On the whole, 
 the area of elective opportunity is extending downward, but 
 whether this downward extension is being accomplished by 
 injuring the foundations of liberal education, is to-day as 
 grave a question as any we have to meet. In some colleges 
 a student may obtain the bachelor of arts degree without 
 studying any science, or he may omit his classics, or he may 
 know nothing of philosophy. The solutions offered for this 
 perplexing problem are many. 
 
 The first proposal, which has now scarcely an advocate, 
 except possibly some laudatores temporis acti, is plainly an 
 impossible one. It is to insist on the old-fashioned four-year 
 prescribed course. But the old-fashioned course is gone. 
 It cannot be restored, because it no longer suits our age. 
 Young men will not go to college and remain there until the 
 age of twenty-two years without some opportunity to exercise 
 freedom of choice in their studies. 
 
 The second proposal is to constitute the undergraduate 
 course entirely, or almost entirely, of elective studies. It 
 is argued that when a young man is eighteen or nineteen 
 years of age, he is old enough to choose his liberal studies, 
 and that his own choice will be better for him individually 
 than any prescription the wisest college faculty may make. 
 The advocates of this view admit its dangers. They see 
 the perils of incoherency and discontinuity in the choice of
 
 225] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 9 
 
 studies. They see that many students are influenced, not 
 by the intrinsic value of the studies, but by their liking for 
 this or that instructor, or the companionship of certain stu- 
 dents, or for the easiness of those crowded courses which in 
 college slang are called " softs " or " snaps " or " cinches." Yet 
 they argue that the college student must be free at some time, 
 that his sense of responsibility will be developed the sooner 
 he is compelled to choose for himself, and that he will have 
 the stimulating and sobering consciousness that what he does 
 is his own act and not the prescription of others for him. 
 Those who oppose this view argue that the academic free- 
 dom here proposed belongs to university rather than to col- 
 lege students ; that the American freshman is not a university 
 student in the sense in which that term has been commonly 
 understood in the educated world. He has not spent eight, 
 nine or ten years in secondary studies, as is the case in 
 France, England or Germany. On the contrary, he has 
 usually spent not more than four years in such secondary 
 studies occasionally a year or so more. At eighteen or 
 nineteen years of age, he, therefore, comes to college with 
 less training and mental maturity than the French, English 
 or German youth possesses on entering his university. 
 If, therefore, he is to be as well educated as they are, 
 some of his time in college, the first two years at least, 
 should be spent in perfecting his properly secondary edu- 
 cation before entering upon that elective freedom which, as 
 is generally conceded, has a place and a large place in our 
 present undergraduate courses. The arguing on this ques- 
 tion has been interminable, and almost every intellectual 
 interest of our colleges is bound up in its proper solution. 
 
 A third proposal is a conservative modification of the one 
 just mentioned. It is to prescribe groups of cognate studies 
 with the object of concentrating attention on related subjects 
 in that field which the student may prefer, as, for example, 
 physical science or ancient literature or philosophy. Of 
 course the advantage claimed for this mode is that it allows 
 the student to choose the field of study he likes, and then
 
 2O THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [226 
 
 safeguards him against incoherency by requiring him to pur- 
 sue a group of well-related courses in that field. Or he may 
 elect the "old-fashioned college course," if he likes. The 
 advocates of wider freedom object to this as fettering spon- 
 taneity of choice, as not recognizing the fact that there are 
 many students for whom it is advantageous to choose a study 
 here and there at will, as a piece of side work outside the 
 chosen field of their activity. The objectors to this plan of 
 restricted groups and also to the plan of practically unre- 
 stricted freedom, assert that the fundamental difficulty in 
 basing any college course on a single group of cognate 
 studies within some one field is that it offers temptations to 
 premature specialization at the expense of liberal education. 
 Still another proposal remains to be considered. It is the 
 proposal of those who believe that the best type of liberal 
 education is to be found in the historic bachelor of arts 
 course, which has been the center and strength of Ameri- 
 can college life. They concede, however, that the other 
 bachelor's courses which have been established will give a 
 valuable education to many, provided these courses are 
 consistently organized according to their own ideals. 
 They hold that it is possible to ascertain with sufficient 
 exactness just what studies ought to be prescribed as integral 
 parts of these courses, and that it is the preliminary training 
 given in these prescribed studies which develops maturity in 
 the young student and enables him to choose intelligently 
 his later elective studies. At the present time, in their view, 
 it is not wise to introduce elective studies until about the 
 middle of the college course. These studies, once intro- 
 duced, should themselves be organized and related in a sys- 
 tem, and connected with the underlying system of prescribed 
 studies. The principle of freedom should be introduced 
 gradually, not suddenly. A form of this view which finds a 
 good deal of support is that elective studies should be 
 introduced first of all in the form of extensions of subjects 
 already studied by the student, in order that he may make 
 his first experiment of choice in an area where he is most
 
 227] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 21 
 
 familiar. According to this view the second stage of elec- 
 tive studies should be the introduction of large general 
 courses in leading subjects, accompanied or flanked by special 
 courses for students of exceptional ability in special direc- 
 tions, and finally leading to as high a degree of specializa- 
 tion as the resources of the college will allow. 
 
 But in this region the American college merges itself into 
 the university, and it may be fairly asserted that in the last 
 year and in some colleges in the last two years the student 
 is really a university student. In these various ways we are 
 to-day experimenting in order to find a form under which to 
 organize the rapidly-increasing mass of elective studies. 
 
 VII MODES OF INSTRUCTION. ACADEMIC HONORS 
 
 Instruction is still mainly conducted by recitation and lec- 
 ture, the recitation finding its chief place in the earlier and 
 the lecture in the later part of the course. For purposes of 
 recitation the classes are divided into sections of twenty-five 
 or thirty students, and the exercise is usually based on a 
 definitely allotted portion of some standard text-book. 
 Much has been done to improve the character of this exer- 
 cise. The attempt is made to make it something more vital 
 than the mere listening to students as they recite what they 
 have learned. The correction of mistakes, the attempt to 
 lead the student along so as to discover for himself the 
 cause of his mistakes, the endeavor to teach the entire class 
 through the performance of each individual, to carry the 
 whole group along as one man and thus conduct them 
 through a stimulating and pleasant hour, is the aim of the 
 more skilful instructors. Variety and consequent freshen- 
 ing of attention and effort are added by setting collateral 
 topics of special interest to this or that student, for him to 
 look up somewhat independently. And it must be confessed 
 that the professors most skilled in the art of conducting 
 recitations, rather than those who depend wholly on lectures, 
 leave the most abiding impression. The old-fashioned reci- 
 tation too often put the student into a laborious treadmill,
 
 22 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [228 
 
 and monotony was the result. But the best recitations in 
 our colleges to-day are fine examples of dialectic play 
 between instructor and student, and the best moments of 
 such exercises are remembered with enthusiasm. While 
 instruction by recitation continues with effectiveness in the 
 latter part of the course, especially with smaller groups of 
 students, yet instruction by lecture is the rule. The lec- 
 turer may have to face a class which enrolls as many students 
 as the whole college contained a generation ago. Two or 
 three hundred may assemble to hear him. He delivers his 
 lecture, while those before him take notes or sometimes, as 
 they listen, read the outline of his discourse in a printed 
 syllabus prepared for the use of the class, and add such 
 jottings as may seem desirable. In many lecture courses 
 the recitation is employed as an effective auxiliary. 
 
 But other forms of instruction find place. In all except 
 the elementary courses in science the laboratory plays a most 
 important part, and even in the lectures in the introductory 
 courses in physics, chemistry or biology full experimental 
 illustration is the rule. Then, too, the library serves as a 
 sort of laboratory for the humanistic studies. Students are 
 encouraged to learn the use of the college library as auxiliary 
 to the regular exercises of the curriculum. Certain books 
 are appointed as collateral reading, and the written exami- 
 nation at the end of the term often takes account of this 
 .outside reading. But American students read too little. 
 That prolonged reading, which gives such wide and assur- 
 ing acquaintance with the important literature of any sub- 
 ject, is as yet unattempted in a really adequate degree. 
 
 The academic year is divided into two, and sometimes 
 into three terms. At the end of each term the student is 
 required to pass a fairly rigorous set of written examina- 
 tions. Oral examinations have largely disappeared. Some- 
 times a high record of attainment in recitations during the 
 term entitles a student to exemption from examination, but 
 this is not common. In awarding honors for scholarly pro- 
 ficiency the old academic college confined itself almost
 
 229] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 23 
 
 entirely to general honors for eminence in the whole round 
 of studies. The " first honor-man " in older days was the 
 hero and pride of his class. At graduation he usually deliv- 
 ered the valedictory or else the Latin salutatory. Honors 
 for general eminence still remain in most colleges. The 
 rank list of the class at graduation either arranges the stu- 
 dents in ordinal position (in which case the first honor-man 
 still appears) or else divides the class into a series of groups 
 arranged in order of general scholarly merit. In such cases 
 the old first honor-man is one of the select few who consti- 
 tute the highest group in the class. But special honors in 
 particular studies, while not unknown in the past, are really 
 a development of our time. Undoubtedly they have tended 
 to increase the interest of abler students in their favorite 
 studies. A student trying for special honors is, of course, 
 specializing in some sense, though he is not ordinarily pur- 
 suing original research. He is rather enlarging and deepen- 
 ing his acquaintance with some one important subject, such 
 as history or mathematics. But sometimes he is beginning 
 independent investigation, and thus passes beyond the col- 
 legiate sphere of study. 
 
 VIII STUDENT LIFE 
 
 Let us try to picture the career of a young American of 
 the usual type at one of our older eastern colleges to-day. 
 At eighteen years of age he has completed a four-year course 
 in some secondary school, let us say at a private academy in 
 the middle states, or some flourishing western high school. 
 He does not need to make the long journey to his future 
 college in order to be examined for entrance, but finds in 
 the distant town where he lives, or at least in some neigbor- 
 ing city, a local entrance examination conducted by a repre- 
 sentative of his intended college. The days and exact hours 
 of examination and the examination papers are the same as 
 for the examination held at the college. His answers are 
 sent on to be marked and estimated. In a week or two he 
 receives notice of his admission to the freshman class.
 
 24 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [230 
 
 When the long summer vacation is over he sets out for his 
 college. Having passed his entrance examinations, he is now 
 entitled to secure rooms in one of the dormitories, or else to 
 find quarters outside the college campus in town. His name 
 is duly enrolled in the matriculation book and his student 
 career begins. He usually comes with an earnest purpose 
 to study, or at least to be regular in all his attendance. 
 His newness and strangeness naturally pick him out for a 
 good deal of notice on the part of the older students, especi- 
 ally those of the sophomore class. He is subjected to some 
 good-natured chaffing and guying, and perhaps to little 
 indignities. If he takes it good-naturedly, the annoyance 
 soon ceases. If, however, he shows himself bumptious or 
 opinionated or vain or " very fresh," his troubles are apt to 
 continue. Unfortunately it is not impossible they will cul- 
 minate in some act of mean bullying, known in college par- 
 lance as " hazing." The entering freshman is too often like 
 the newly-arrived slave mentioned in Tacitus, conservis 
 ludibrio est ; and it would be little comfort for him to know 
 that in this respect he is also a lineal successor of the 
 bejaunus, the freshman " fledgeling " among the students of 
 medieval Paris. But the daily round of college exercises 
 demands his attention, and in the class room he begins to 
 pass through a process of attrition more beneficent in its 
 spirit. Under the steady measuring gaze of the instructor, 
 and the unuttered but very real judgment of his classmates 
 who sit about him, he begins to measure himself and to be 
 measured by college standards. Probably for the first time 
 in his life he is compelled to recognize that he must stand 
 solely on his merits. The helps and consolations of home 
 and of the limited circle in which his boyhood was fostered 
 and sheltered are far away. He is learning something not 
 down in the books ! and what he is thus discovering is well 
 pictured in the words of Professor Hibben : "There is a 
 fair field to all and no favor. Wealth does not make for a 
 man nor the lack of it against him. The students live their 
 lives upon one social level. There is a deep-seated intoler-
 
 231] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 25 
 
 ance of all snobbishness and pretension. The dictum of 
 the Varsity field, ' No grand-stand playing ! ' obtains in all 
 quarters of the undergraduate life. It signifies no cant in 
 religion ; no pedantry in scholarship ; no affectation in 
 manners ; no pretence in friendship. This is the first and 
 enduring lesson which the freshman must learn. He learns 
 and he forgets many other lessons, but this must be held in 
 lively remembrance until it has become a second nature." 
 But he has many encouragements. He is passing out of 
 callow youth toward manhood, and his classmates are in the 
 same situation with him. Here is the impulse which sud- 
 denly sweeps the whole entering class together in intimate 
 comradeship. And so he starts out with his companions on 
 the ups and downs of his four-year journey. No wonder so 
 many college graduates say freshman year was the most 
 valuable of all; it was surely the hardest. His college 
 comradeship continues and constitutes his social world. 
 Day after day, term after term, they are thrown together in 
 all the relationships of student life. In the classroom, at the 
 " eating clubs," at the athletic games, in the musical, literary 
 and religious societies, in scenes of exuberant jollification 
 and careless disorder, and in endless criticism of the faculty 
 or of the various courses of study, how their frank and 
 unconventional ways constantly surprise and bewilder the 
 common-place American philistine ! You may pass across 
 the lawns of many a campus at any hour of the day and 
 almost any hour of the night in term-time, and rarely is 
 there a time when some student life is not astir. Some are 
 thronging toward the lecture hall to the punctual ringing of 
 the college bell, meeting returning throngs whose exercises 
 are just finished. They are walking by twos or threes, 
 smoking or chatting or mildly " playing horse " in some very 
 pleasant way, unmindful and probably unaware of Lord 
 Chesterfield's horrified injunction to his son : " No horse- 
 play, I beseech of you." Or they are thronging to fill the 
 " bleachers " at a baseball or football game that is about to 
 be played on the college grounds. The different varieties
 
 26 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [232 
 
 of the college cheer startle the air, and afford some color of 
 excuse to the ingenious hypothesis that our student cheers 
 are derived from Indian war whoops. Or else when they 
 are assembled in Sunday chapel, a decorous but not always 
 solemn audience, their capacity for " simultaneous emotion " 
 appears in their spirited singing of a favorite hymn, or per- 
 haps shows itself in the sudden sensation that sweeps across 
 the chapel like a lightly rustling breeze in response to an 
 inopportune remark of some inexperienced visiting clergy- 
 man. Or in the moonlit evenings of October, the time when 
 the trees are turning red and yellow, their long processions 
 pass to and fro, singing college songs. Truly the American 
 collegian is brimful of the "gregarious instinct." 
 
 In addition to this ever-present gregarious comradeship 
 which environs and inspires him, our entering freshman 
 finds the deeper intimacies of close individual friendship. 
 As a matter of course he has some one most intimate friend, 
 generally his room-mate or "chum." Side by side they 
 mingle with their fellows. They stand together and, it may 
 be, they fall together, and then rise together. And thus the 
 class is paired off, and yet not to the lessening of the deep 
 class fellowship. Here indeed is a form of communism, 
 temporary and local, but most intense. They freely use things 
 in common, not excepting the property of the college. 
 The distinction between meum and tuum does not hold 
 rigorously. Td r&v <ptta>v xoivd said the ancient poet, and so say 
 they. Accordingly a desirable hat or scarf or some article 
 of athletic costume changes ownership again and again, with 
 nothing sought in return. They are welcome to enter each 
 others' rooms at pleasure and use their friends' tobacco and 
 stationery, or to borrow such articles of furniture and bric-a- 
 brac as will brighten their own rooms for some special 
 occasion. The doors of their apartments are commonly left 
 open ; sometimes a latch-string is ingeniously arranged so 
 the door can be opened from the outside. Money, however, 
 stands on a different basis from other valuables. It is freely 
 loaned for an indefinite time, but is strictly repaid. A
 
 233] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 2 7 
 
 student who lends his fellow money at interest cannot live 
 in a college community. 
 
 Our student, unless he is an unusual recluse, takes some 
 part in athletics. If he is not able to win a place on the 
 football team or baseball nine or crew; which represents his 
 alma mater in intercollegiate contests, he is very likely to be 
 found playing ball in some organization improvised for the 
 day, or trying his hand at tennis or golf. The bicycle is a 
 necessity of his life, and on it he rides to recitations and 
 lectures, to his meals and to the athletic field. 
 
 He has still other interests outside the curriculum. He 
 may be a member of the voluntary religious society of the 
 students. Perhaps he gets a place on the glee club or 
 dramatic club. He may become one of the editors of the 
 daily college paper or of the monthly literary magazine. 
 Perhaps he is manager or assistant business manager for 
 one or another undergraduate organization. Then there 
 are the whist clubs and time-consuming chess clubs. There 
 are also circles for outside reading and discussion springing 
 up around the course of study, as well as the societies which 
 train in speaking and debating. Perhaps he may win the 
 distinction of representing his college in an intercollegiate 
 debate, and success in intercollegiate debating is highly 
 coveted. The contestants are greatly honored, for debat- 
 ing and athletics form the principal bond of union between 
 the different colleges and give to their participants intercol- 
 legiate distinction. 
 
 Until the student passes out of freshman year, he is not 
 always free to choose what kind of clothes he will wear. 
 A freshman wearing a tall hat and carrying a walking-stick 
 is an offense to the other classes. In some colleges fresh- 
 men are not allowed to wear the colors, except on rare occa- 
 sions. But as soon as he becomes a sophomore he is free to 
 do as he likes. Then he and his classmates may suddenly 
 appear wearing various hats, picturesque and often grotesque 
 in appearance, and revel particularly in golfing suits. Toward 
 the close of the course their daily dress becomes more con-
 
 28 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [234 
 
 ventional, though the universal interest in athletics continues 
 to affect the student mode all the way to the end. He has 
 other amusements besides athletics, and these again are 
 found in the student circle. His briarwood pipe goes with 
 him almost everywhere. He smokes as he studies ; he 
 smokes at the games. Seated side by side with thousands 
 of other students and alumni at the great intercollegiate 
 matches, he helps form the fragrant cloud of blue incense 
 that rises from the "bleachers " and drifts over the field. In 
 the evening, when the work of the scholastic day is done, he 
 sits with his comrades at an unconventional " smoker," or else 
 they may gather round the table of some restaurant with 
 pipe and " stein ; " for the American student who drinks at 
 all prefers beer to either wine or whisky. At such evening 
 sessions the different phases of student politics are discussed 
 again and again. College songs are sung, the air being 
 carried in that sonorous baritone which is the dominant sound 
 in all our student music. Tales and jests fill out the hour. 
 At the end the college cheer is given as the men start stroll- 
 ing homeward, singing as they go. Arrived on the campus 
 they disperse, and their good-night calls echo from the doors 
 and windows of the different dormitories. And so the day 
 ends where it began ; within that closed circle where every 
 student lives in " shouting distance " of the others. 
 
 Our former freshman is getting on bravely toward the end 
 of his course. He is now a free, familiar, established deni- 
 zen of his college. He " owns " it. New freshmen, unpleas- 
 antly raw and needing to be taught their place, new fresh- 
 men so different from what he is and yet so like what he once 
 was, are crowding in at the bottom of the course. They 
 look up to him and his compeers in the senior class with no 
 little awe and hope. What he is, they may become. In 
 him they "see their finish." In them he reluctantly recalls 
 his beginnings. The closing months of senior year pass 
 swiftly. His class procession is preparing to march out into 
 the world, and there take its place as a higher order of fresh- 
 men in the long file of the classes of alumni advancing with
 
 235] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 2Q 
 
 their thinning ranks toward middle manhood and beyond, 
 and when commencement is over his undergraduate life is 
 ended. 
 
 What has he acquired in the four years ? At least some 
 insight into the terms and commonplaces of liberal learning 
 and some discipline in the central categories of knowledge, 
 some moral training acquired in the punctual performance 
 of perhaps unwelcome daily duty and some reverence for 
 things intellectual and spiritual. He is not only a very 
 different man from what he was when he entered, but very 
 different from what he could have become had he not 
 entered. He is wiser socially. He is becoming cosmopol- 
 itan. Awkwardness, personal eccentricity, conceit, diffidence, 
 and all that is callow or forward or perverse have been taken 
 from him, so far as the ceaseless attrition of his fellow- 
 students and professors has touched him. He has been 
 unconsciously developed into the genuine collegian. He is 
 still frank and unconventional. But he has become more 
 tolerant, better balanced, more cultivated and more open- 
 minded, and thus better able to direct himself and others. 
 This is the priceless service his college has rendered him. It 
 is little wonder his student affiliations last. As he goes out 
 to take his place among the thousands of his fellow alumni 
 it is natural that his and their filial devotion to their 
 academic mother should last through life. He will return 
 with his class at their annual or triennial or decennial or 
 later pilgrimages to the old place. No matter what univer- 
 sity he may subsequently attend, here or abroad, his college 
 allegiance remains unshaken. It is this which explains the 
 active interest shown by our alumni. In the best sense they 
 advertise their college to the public, and it is to their exer- 
 tions the recent rapid advancement of many of our colleges 
 is largely due. 
 
 IX ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. STUDENT EXPENSES 
 
 The form of government is simple. A college corpora- 
 tion, legally considered, consists of a body of men who have
 
 '30 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [236 
 
 obtained the charter and who hold and administer the prop- 
 erty. Where a particular state has established a college or 
 even a university, which regularly includes a college, the 
 members of the corporation are commonly styled regents, 
 and are appointed by the state to hold office for a limited 
 term of years. But most colleges have been established as 
 private corporations. In this case the title is vested in a 
 board of trustees, sometimes composed of members who hold 
 office for life, or else composed of these associated with 
 others who are elected for a term of years. Boards of trus- 
 tees holding office for life usually constitute a close corpo- 
 ration, electing their own successors as vacancies occur. 
 The two chief functions of such governing bodies, whether 
 known as regents or trustees or by any other name, are to 
 safeguard the intent of the charter and to manage the prop- 
 erty. They give stability to our college system. To carry 
 out the main purpose for which the charter was obtained 
 they create a faculty of professors and instructors and 
 entrust the general headship to a president. The president 
 and professors usually hold office for life. In some places 
 provision is beginning to be made for the retirement of pro- 
 fessors on pensions as they grow old. Instructors and some- 
 times assistant professors are appointed for a limited time, 
 such appointments being subject to renewal or promotion. 
 In the larger colleges the president is assisted in his admin- 
 istrative work by one or more deans. By immemorial tradi- 
 tion the president and faculty are charged with the conduct of 
 the entire instruction and discipline. They have the power 
 to admit and dismiss students. The conferring of degrees 
 belongs tp the corporation, but this power is almost invari- 
 ably exercised according to recommendations made by the 
 faculty. Honorary degrees, however, are sometimes given 
 by the trustees or regents on their own initiative. 
 
 In state colleges the income is derived from taxation ; in 
 others from endowments, often supplemented by annual sub- 
 scriptions for special purposes. The increase of income of 
 a college founded by a state depends on the increase of the
 
 237] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 31 
 
 wealth of the state and the liberality of disposition shown by 
 the legislature. State colleges receive few private gifts. 
 But the private colleges are cut off from dependence on the 
 state, and have to rely on private gifts. This stream of pri- 
 vate liberality flows almost unceasingly. The fact that many 
 colleges are integral parts of real or so-called universities 
 makes it difficult to say how much the specifically collegiate 
 endowments and incomes amount to. But a few significant 
 facts may be mentioned. No college president, unless he is 
 at the same time the president of a university, receives as high 
 a salary as ten thousand dollars annually. He is more likely 
 to receive four, five or six thousand dollars. Two thousand 
 dollars is considered a good professor's salary in small col- 
 leges ; three thousand is a usual salary in the larger colleges, 
 while few professors receive more than four thousand. 
 
 The expenses of individual students vary greatly. In 
 some places there is no charge for tuition ; in others they 
 must pay as much as one hundred or one hundred and fifty 
 dollars. In little country colleges the total cost for a year 
 often falls within three hundred dollars ; in the larger old 
 eastern colleges, drawing patronage from all parts of the 
 land, the student who must pay all his bills and receives no 
 aid in the form of a scholarship can hardly get along with less 
 than six or seven hundred dollars, exclusive of his expenses 
 in the summer vacation. The average expenses in some of 
 the oldest colleges, according to tables prepared by succes- 
 sive senior classes, is higher than this, running up to eight 
 or nine hundred dollars, or even more. But these institu- 
 tions afford the student of limited means multiplied oppor- 
 tunities for self-help. There are many instances where bright 
 boys have been able to win their way through, standing high 
 in their classes and at the same time supporting themselves 
 entirely by their own exertions. Moreover many colleges 
 possess scholarships which are open to able students who 
 need temporary pecuniary help. The young American 
 of narrow means, if he be of fair ability and industry, can 
 almost always manage to find his way through college
 
 32 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [238 
 
 X THE COLLEGE IS AMERICAN 
 
 The college lies very close to the people. Distinctions of 
 caste may manifest themselves occasionally, and yet the col- 
 lege is stoutly and we believe permanently democratic. Its 
 relation to the better side of our national life has been pro- 
 foundly intimate from the beginning. The graduates of 
 Harvard and Yale in New England, of Princeton and Colum- 
 bia in the middle states, and of the College of William and 
 Mary in Virginia contributed powerfully to the formation of 
 our republic. Edmund Burke attributed the " intractable 
 spirit " of the Americans to " their education," and by this 
 he meant the college education. " The colleges," wrote 
 President Stiles of Yale shortly after the revolution, "have 
 been of signal advantage in the present day. When Britain 
 withdrew all her wisdom from America this revolution found 
 above two thousand in New England only, who had been 
 educated in the colonies, intermingling with the people and 
 communicating knowledge among them." John Adams of 
 Harvard delighted to find in President Witherspoon of 
 Princeton " as high a son of liberty as any in America." 
 Hampden-Sidney college in Virginia, founded about the 
 time of the revolution, incorporated in its charter the follow- 
 ing clause : " In order to preserve in the minds of the stu- 
 dents that sacred love and attachment which they should 
 ever bear to the principles of the ever-glorious revolution, 
 the greatest care and caution shall be used in selecting such 
 professors and masters, to the end that no person shall be 
 so elected unless the uniform tenor of his conduct manifest 
 to the world his sincere affection for the liberty and inde- 
 pendence of the United States of America." And from that 
 day to this the collegiate spirit and the national spirit have 
 been at one. Rightly, indeed, did our appreciative French 
 visitor, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, perceive that the place 
 to find " the true Americans " is in our college halls ; " les 
 vrais Americains, la base de la nation, I'espoir de ravenir" 
 Scarcely one in a hundred of our white male youth of college
 
 239] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 33 
 
 age has gone to college. But this scanty contingent has 
 furnished one-half of all the presidents of the United States, 
 most of the justices of the supreme court, not far from one- 
 half of the cabinet and of the national senate, and almost a 
 third of the house of representatives. No other single class 
 of equal numbers has been so potent in our national life. 
 
 FIRST NOTE A FEW STATISTICS 
 
 In the reports of the United States commissioner of 
 education, colleges, universities, schools of technology and 
 professional schools are classed under the general heading 
 of " Institutions for Higher Education." The latest report 
 is for the academic year ending July first, 1897. The statis- 
 tics for colleges are to be found in chapter XXXVI (pp. 
 1648-1755). A study of the tables given discloses clearly 
 the difficulty of separating the whole body of collegiate 
 facts by themselves and the further difficulty of distinguish- 
 ing between the really substantial and the nominal institu- 
 tions. " One of the most discouraging features in our system 
 of higher education," says the commissioner in his report 
 (p. 1647), " is the lack of any definite, or, in fact, in a large 
 number of states the lack of any requirements or conditions 
 exacted of institutions when they are chartered and author- 
 ized to confer degrees. This condition of affairs is largely, 
 if not entirely, responsible for the large number of weak, 
 so-called colleges and universities scattered throughout our 
 country, institutions that are no better than high schools, 
 and in a large number of cases do not furnish as good an 
 education as may be obtained in good secondary schools." 
 It is not an exaggeration to say that more than half of our 
 professed colleges are not worthy of the name. Accord- 
 ingly since it is impossible to separate and evaluate in 
 an exact way the purely collegiate statistics, especially in 
 short limits, this paper has been devoted to general char- 
 acterization and description. We are still far from having 
 a complete account of the history and present condition of 
 our colleges. While good special histories exist for some
 
 34 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [240 
 
 of the older institutions, no comprehensive and detailed 
 general account of adequate character has yet been written. 
 In view of the limited means at its command, the bureau of 
 education in Washington from year to year has done all 
 that could be asked in its reports. But it is greatly to be 
 desired that congress shall furnish the commissioner of edu- 
 cation with the means necessary to institute an elaborate 
 and searching investigation, which shall bring to light the 
 real status, the exact inner condition of all the colleges. 
 
 In the report mentioned, statistics for universities and 
 colleges are at times necessarily given together. Every uni- 
 versity, with hardly an exception, contains a college. The 
 whole number of professedly collegiate students enrolled in 
 universities and colleges for men and for both sexes and for 
 women is 84,955 (p. 1654). The male students number 
 52,439 (p. 1670). The estimated population of the United 
 States in 1896 was 70,595,321, or one college student to 831 
 of the population. The states which enroll the greatest 
 number of students attending college are : 
 
 Massachusetts 8 in 
 
 New York 7 257 
 
 Pennsylvania 6 527 
 
 Ohio 5 257 
 
 Illinois 5 692 
 
 College students are found in greatest numbers in the 
 belt beginning in New England, passing southwestward 
 through the middle states, and thence extending broadly 
 across the middle west. These northeastern and north- 
 central portions contain 70 per cent of the college students 
 and 63 per cent of the population of the whole country ; 
 114 colleges, exclusive of colleges for women, enrolling 
 31,941 students and generally possessing the largest endow- 
 ments, are under no ecclesiastical control ; 59 colleges, 
 enrolling 5,954, are Roman Catholic ; 284 are under the 
 control of various Protestant denominations and enroll 
 29,104. It thus appears that the division of student enroll- 
 ment between non-sectarian and sectarian colleges is not
 
 241] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 35 
 
 very uneven, but the non-sectarian colleges show an average 
 enrollment of nearly three hundred and the church colleges 
 of about one hundred. 
 
 The number of professors and instructors in all colleges, 
 except colleges for women only, is 7,228; 749 of these are 
 women. So far as reported there were 31,762 students pur- 
 suing the course for the degree of bachelor of arts ; 11,812 the 
 courses leading to the degrees of bachelor of letters and 
 bachelor of philosophy; 12,711 the course leading to the 
 degree of bachelor of science, and 4,190 the courses leading 
 to various other first degrees of minor importance. The total 
 is 60,475. These figures indicate that a little more than 
 half our collegiate undergraduates, who seek any degree, 
 are studying for the degree of bachelor of arts, which still 
 generally means, with some important exceptions, that they 
 have had a classical education. The figures for the bachelor 
 of letters and the bachelor of philosophy may be properly 
 associated in one total as representing the intermediate type, 
 which enrolls a little more than one-third of the number study- 
 ing for the bachelor of arts. The figures for the bachelor of 
 science, as will be observed, do not materially differ from the 
 total for the bachelor of philosophy and bachelor of letters. 
 Turning to the table on page 1673 ^ appears that the pro- 
 portion of students who received the degree of bachelor of 
 arts at graduation in 1897, as compared with other bachelor's 
 degrees, is very nearly the same as the proportion indicated 
 by the figures which represent undergraduate enrollment. 
 
 SECOND NOTE : LIST OF AMERICAN COLLEGES ARRANGED IN 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER 
 
 As has been explained, it is impossible at present to effect 
 a perfect statistical separation between colleges and univer- 
 sities. The list given below embraces all colleges and uni- 
 versities reported up to July first, 1897, excepting those for 
 women only. It is primarily a college list, although the 
 universities of the country appear in it. As a matter of fact 
 the older real universities have usually grown up around
 
 36 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [242 
 
 colleges, and strong universities of recent establishment, such 
 as Johns Hopkins and Chicago, regularly contain colleges. 
 Clark university in Massachusetts is the only significant 
 exception ; it has no undergraduate department. The names 
 of many of the older colleges have changed. Harvard col- 
 lege is now the center of Harvard university and Yale col- 
 lege of Yale university. Princeton university originated 
 under the name of the college of New Jersey, and Colum- 
 bia university was Kings college. The most important 
 common feature in the entire list is the corporate right to 
 grant the bachelor's degree. 
 
 The list is classified under five periods. The first includes 
 eleven colleges founded before the American revolution. 
 They form a distinct class by themselves, representing the 
 colonial and revolutionary influences. It will be noticed that 
 they all lie along the narrow strip of Atlantic coast, extend- 
 ing southwestward from Massachusetts to Virginia. The 
 second group is composed of twelve colleges founded imme- 
 diately after the revolution. They likewise form a sepa- 
 rable class. In spirit they were repetitions of the earlier 
 colleges, and were planted here and there in the newer parts 
 of the country. The third class consists of thirty-three col- 
 leges founded between the years 1800 and 1830. The latter 
 date is somewhat arbitrary ; but the thirty years are taken to 
 include the first marked development of the United States 
 previous to the wave of European immigration which set 
 in strongly after 1830. The fourth class contains one hun- 
 dred and eighty colleges. They were founded in a period 
 when the country was rapidly settling and developing. A 
 great wave of immigration was flowing in, and the railroad 
 and telegraph were facilitating the westward distribution of 
 the new population. The period was naturally brought to an 
 end by the civil war. The fifth class extends from the close 
 of the civil war in 1865 to the present time. The interrupted 
 national development enters energetically on a new period 
 and is represented on this list by the foundation of two hun- 
 dred and thirty-six colleges, just one-half of the entire list.
 
 243] 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 37 
 
 I Before the American Revolution (n) 
 
 1789 
 1791 
 
 1800 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1802 
 
 1804 
 1805 
 
 1807 
 1808 
 
 1812 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1819 
 1819 
 1819 
 
 Harvard University, Massachu- 
 setts 
 
 College of William and Mary, 
 Virginia 
 
 Yale University, Connecticut 
 
 Princeton University, New Jer- 
 sey 
 
 Washington and Lee University, 
 Virginia 
 
 1776 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Columbia University, New York 
 Brown University, Rhode Island 
 Rutgers College, New Jersey 
 Dartmouth College, New Hamp- 
 shire 
 
 Hampden-Sidney College, Vir- 
 ginia 
 
 // From the American Revolution to 1800 (12) 
 
 1783 Dickinson College, Pennsylvania 
 1783 Washington College, Maryland 
 1785 College of Charleston, South 
 
 Carolina 
 1785 University of Nashville, Ten- 
 
 St. John's College, Maryland 
 Georgetown University, District 
 of Columbia 
 
 1793 Williams College, Massachusetts 
 
 1794 Greenville and Tusculum Col- 
 
 lege, Tennessee 
 
 1794 University of Tennessee, Ten- 
 
 nessee 
 
 1795 Union College, New York 
 
 1795 University of North Carolina, 
 
 North Carolina 
 1795 Washington College, Tennessee 
 
 /// From 1800 to 1830 (33) 
 
 Middlebury College, Vermont 1820 
 University of Vermont, Vermont 
 
 University of Georgia, Georgia 1820 
 
 Bowdoin College, Maine 1820 
 
 Washington and Jefferson Col- 1821 
 
 lege, Pennsylvania 1821 
 Ohio University, Ohio 
 
 South Carolina College, South 1822 
 
 Carolina 1824 
 
 Moravian College, Pennsylvania 1824 
 
 Mount St. Mary's College, Mary- 1825 
 
 land 1825 
 
 Hamilton College, New York 1825 
 
 Allegheny College, Pennsylvania 1826 
 Colby University, Maine 
 
 Center College, Kentucky 1827 
 
 Colgate University, New York 1828 
 
 Maryville College, Tennessee 1829 
 
 Western University of Pennsyl- 1829 
 
 vania, Pennsylvania 1829 
 
 Gonzaga College, District of 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Indiana University, Indiana 
 St. Mary's College, Kentucky 
 Amherst College, Massachusetts 
 Columbian University, District 
 
 of Columbia 
 
 Hobart College, New York 
 Miami University, Ohio 
 Trinity College, Connecticut 
 Franklin College, Ohio 
 Kenyon College, Ohio 
 University of Virginia, Virginia 
 Western Reserve University, 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Shurtleff College, Illinois 
 McKendree College, Illinois 
 Georgetown College, Kentucky 
 Illinois College, Illinois 
 St. Louis University, Missouri 
 
 IV From 1830 to 1865 (180) 
 
 1830 Spring Hill College, Alabama 1831 
 
 1831 Dennison University, Ohio 1831 
 1831 New York University, New York 
 
 University of Alabama, Alabama 
 Wesleyan University, Connecti- 
 cut
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 [244 
 
 1832 Hanover College, Indiana 
 1832 Lafayette College, Pennsylvania 
 1832 Pennsylvania College, Pennsyl- 
 vania 
 
 1832 Randolph Macon College, Vir- 
 ginia 
 1832 Richmond College, Virginia 
 
 1832 Wabash College, Indiana 
 
 1833 Haverford College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1833 Oberlin College, Ohio 
 
 1834 Delaware College, Delaware 
 1834 Franklin College, Indiana 
 1834 Tulane University, Louisiana 
 
 1834 Wake Forest College, North 
 
 Carolina 
 
 1835 Marietta College, Ohio 
 
 1835 Richmond College, Ohio 
 
 1836 Alfred University, New York 
 1836 Franklin and Marshall College, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1836 Kentucky University, Kentucky 
 
 1837 Central High School, Pennsyl- 
 
 vania 
 
 1837 Davidson College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1837 De Pauw University, Indiana 
 1837 Emory College, Georgia 
 1837 Guilf ord College, North Carolina 
 1837 Knox College, Illinois 
 1837 Mercer University, Georgia 
 1837 Muskingum College, Ohio 
 
 1837 University of Michigan, Michi- 
 
 gan 
 
 1838 Emory and Henry College, Vir- 
 
 ginia 
 
 1839 Erskine College, South Carolina 
 
 1839 Concordia College, Indiana 
 
 1840 St. Xavier College, Ohio 
 
 1841 Bethany College, West Virginia 
 1841 Centenary College of Louisiana, 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 1841 Howard College, Alabama 
 
 1842 Cumberland University, Ten- 
 
 nessee 
 
 1842 University of Notre Dame, Indi- 
 ana 
 
 1842 University of the State of Miss- 
 ouri, Missouri 
 
 1842 Villanova College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1843 Albion College, Michigan 
 
 1843 College of the Holy Cross, Mas- 
 sachusetts 
 
 1843 New Windsor College, Maryland 
 
 1843 St. Vincent's College, Missouri 
 
 1844 Iowa Wesleyan University, Iowa 
 1844 Milton College, Wisconsin 
 1844 Ohio Wesleyan University, Ohio 
 
 1844 Willamette University, Oregon 
 
 1845 Baylor University, Texas 
 
 1845 Wittenberg College, Ohio 
 
 1846 Baldwin University, Ohio 
 
 1846 Bucknell University, Pennsyl- 
 vania 
 
 1846 Mount Union College, Ohio 
 1846 St. John's College, New York 
 
 1846 St. Vincent's College, Pennsyl- 
 
 vania 
 
 1847 Beloit College, Wisconsin 
 1847 Earlham College, Indiana 
 
 1847 College of the City of New York, 
 New York 
 
 1847 College of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception, Louisiana 
 
 1847 College of St. Francis Xavier, 
 New York 
 
 1847 Otterbein University, Ohio 
 
 1847 Southwestern Baptist University, 
 Tennessee 
 
 1847 Taylor University, Indiana 
 
 1848 Burritt College, Tennessee 
 1848 Iowa College, Iowa 
 
 1848 Pacific University, Oregon 
 1848 St. Charles College, Maryland 
 
 1848 University of Mississippi, Mis- 
 
 sissippi 
 '1849 Geneva College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1849 Hiwasse College, Tennessee 
 1849 Lawrence University, Wisconsin 
 1849 South Kentucky College, Ken- 
 tucky 
 
 1849 William Jewell College, Mis- 
 souri 
 
 1849 University of Wisconsin, Wis- 
 
 consin 
 
 1850 Austin College, Texas 
 1850 Bethel College, Tennessee 
 1850 Capital University, Ohio 
 1850 Heidelberg University, Ohio 
 1850 Hiram College, Ohio 
 
 1850 Illinois Wesleyan University, 
 
 Illinois 
 1850 University of Rochester, New 
 
 York 
 1850 University of Utah, Utah
 
 245] 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 39 
 
 1851 Carson and Newman College, 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1851 Catawba College, North Carolina 
 1851 Christian Brothers College, Mis- 
 souri 
 
 1851 Santa Clara College, California 
 1851 Trinity College, North Carolina 
 
 1851 University of the Pacific, Cali- 
 
 fornia 
 
 1852 Antioch College, Ohio 
 
 1852 Furman University, South Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1852 Lombard University, Illinois 
 1852 Loyola College, Maryland 
 1852 Mississippi College, Mississippi 
 
 1852 Westminster College, Pennsyl- 
 
 vania 
 
 1853 Central University of Iowa, Iowa 
 1853 Hedding College, Iowa 
 
 1853 Ripon College, Wisconsin 
 1853 Roanoke College, Virginia 
 1853 Rutherford College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1853 Westminster College, Missouri 
 
 1854 Bethel College, Kentucky 
 
 1854 Hamline University, Minnesota 
 1854 Lincoln University. Pennsyl- 
 vania 
 1854 St. Mary's University, Texas 
 
 1854 Wofford College, South Carolina 
 
 1855 Amity College, Iowa 
 1855 Berea College, Kentucky 
 1855 Butler College, Indiana 
 
 1855 Central Pennsylvania College, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1855 Christian University, Missouri 
 1855 Eureka College, Illinois 
 1855 Hillsdale College, Michigan 
 1855 Kalamazoo College, Michigan 
 1855 Northwestern University, Illi- 
 nois 
 
 1855 Polytechnic Institute of Brook- 
 lyn, New York 
 
 1855 Southwestern Presbyterian Uni- 
 versity, Tennessee 
 1855 St. Ignatius College, California 
 
 1855 Tufts College, Massachusetts 
 
 1856 Keachie College, Louisiana 
 1856 Mars Hill College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1856 Monmouth College, Illinois 
 1856 Moores Hill College, Indiana 
 
 1856 Niagara University, New York 
 1856 Seminary of St. Francis of Sales, 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 1856 State University of Iowa, Iowa 
 1856 Western College, Iowa 
 1856 Wilberforce University, Ohio 
 
 1856 Setcn Hall College, New Jersey 
 
 1857 Bowdon College, Georgia 
 1857 Central College, Missouri 
 1857 Cornell College, Iowa 
 
 1857 Highland University, Kansas 
 1857 Rock Hill College, Maryland 
 1857 Seminary West of the Suwanee 
 
 River, Florida 
 1857 St. Meinrad College, Indiana 
 
 1857 Upper Iowa University, Iowa 
 
 1858 Baker University, Kansas 
 
 1858 Grand River Christian Union 
 
 College, Missouri 
 1858 Legrange College, Missouri 
 1858 Newberry College, South Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1858 St. Benedict's College, Kansas 
 1858 St. Lawrence University, New 
 York 
 
 1858 Susquehanna Unirersity, Penn- 
 
 sylvania 
 
 1859 Adrian College, Michigan 
 1859 Lenox College, Iowa 
 
 1859 McMinnville College, Oregon k 
 
 1859 Mission House, Wisconsin 
 
 1859 North Carolina College, North 
 
 Carolina 
 
 1859 Olivet College, Michigan 
 1859 Pennsylvania State College, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 1859 St. Bonaventure's College, New 
 
 York 
 
 1859 St. Francis College, New York 
 1859 Southern University, Alabama 
 1859 Union Christian College, Indiana 
 
 1859 Washington University, Mis- 
 
 souri 
 
 1860 Augustana College, Illinois 
 1860 Louisiana State University, Lou- 
 isiana 
 
 1860 Kentucky Wesleyan College, 
 Kentucky 
 
 1860 St. Francis Solanus College, Illi- 
 nois 
 
 1860 St. Stephen's College, New York 
 
 1860 Wheaton College, Illinois
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 [246 
 
 1861 Blackburn University, Illinois 
 
 1861 Luther College, Iowa 
 
 1861 Northwestern College, Illinois 
 
 1861 Pacific Methodist College, Cali- 
 
 fornia 
 
 1862 Gustavus Adolphus College, Min- 
 
 nesota 
 
 1862 Oskaloosa College, Iowa 
 1862 Pennsylvania Military College, 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 1862 St. Joseph's Diocesan College, 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1862 University of Washington, Wash- 
 
 ington 
 
 1863 Bates College, Maine 
 
 1863 Boston College, Massachusetts 
 1863 Manhattan College, New York 
 
 1863 Roger Williams University, Ten- 
 
 nessee 
 
 1864 Central Wesleyan College, Mo. 
 1864 Gallaudet College, District of 
 
 Columbia 
 
 1864 German Wallace College, Ohio 
 1864 University of Denver, Colorado 
 
 V From 1865 to the Present Time (236) 
 
 1865 Des Moines College, Iowa 
 1865 Hope College, Michigan 
 1865 Jefferson College, Louisiana 
 1865 Lane University, Kansas 
 1865 Northwestern University, Wis- 
 consin 
 
 1865 Northern Illinois College, Illi- 
 nois 
 
 1865 Ottawa University, Kansas 
 1865 Shaw University, North Carolina 
 1865 St. Vincent's College, California 
 1865 University Institute, Mississippi 
 1865 Washburn College, Kansas 
 
 1865 Westfield College, Illinois 
 
 1866 Agricultural and Mechanical 
 
 College of Kentucky, Ken- 
 tucky 
 
 1866 Central Tennessee College, Ten- 
 nessee 
 
 1866 Fisk University, Tennessee 
 1866 Lebanon Valley College, Penn- 
 sylvania 
 
 1866 Lehigh University, Pennsylvania 
 1866 Lincoln University, Illinois 
 1866 Pritchett College, Missouri 
 1866 Scio College, Ohio 
 1866 University of Kansas, Kansas 
 1866 Tabor College, Iowa 
 
 1866 Whitman College, Washington . 
 
 1867 Ewing College, Illinois 
 
 1867 Howard University, District of 
 
 Columbia 
 
 1867 King College, Tennessee 
 1867 LaSalle College, Pennsylvania 
 1867 Muhlenberg College, Pennsyl- 
 vania 
 1867 Philomath College, Oregon 
 
 1867 Ridgeville College, Indiana 
 1867 Simpson College, Iowa 
 1867 St. John's University, Minnesota 
 1867 U. S. Grant University, Ten- 
 nessee 
 
 1867 West Virginia University, West 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1868 Avalon College, Missouri 
 
 1868 Biddle University. North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1868 Clark University, Georgia 
 1868 Cornell University, New York 
 1868 St. Benedict's College, New Jer- 
 sey. 
 
 1868 St. Viateur's College, Illinois 
 1868 University of Illinois, Illinois 
 1868 University of Minnesota, Minne- 
 sota 
 
 1868 University of the South, Ten- 
 nessee 
 1868 Wartburg College, Iowa 
 
 1868 Western Maryland College, 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1869 Atlanta University, Georgia 
 1869 Augsburg Seminary, Minnesota 
 1869 Claflin University, South Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1869 Rust University, Mississippi 
 1869 St. Ignatius College, Illinois 
 1869 St. Mary's College, Kansas 
 1869 Straight University, Louisiana 
 1869 Swarthmore College, Pennsyl- 
 vania 
 1869 Trinity University, Texas 
 
 1869 University of California, Cali- 
 
 fornia 
 
 1870 California College, California
 
 247] 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 1870 Carleton College, Minnesota 
 1870 Carthage College, Illinois 
 1870 Canisius College, New York 
 1870 Leland University, Louisiana 
 1870 Ohio State University, Ohio 
 1870 St. John's College, New York 
 1870 Thiel College, Pennsylvania 
 1870 University of Wooster, Ohio 
 1870 Ursinus College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1870 Wilmington College, Ohio 
 
 1871 Christian Brothers College, Ten- 
 
 nessee 
 
 1871 Evangelical Proseminary, Illi- 
 nois 
 
 1871 Syracuse University, New York 
 
 1871 University of Nebraska, Neb- 
 
 raska 
 
 1872 Arkansas College, Arkansas 
 1872 Arkansas Industrial University, 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1872 Boston University, Massachu- 
 setts 
 
 1872 Buchtel College, Ohio 
 1872 Doane College, Nebraska 
 1872 Morrisville College, Missouri 
 
 1872 St. Joseph's College, Ohio 
 
 1873 Add-Ran University, Texas 
 1873 Drury College, Missouri 
 1873 German College, Iowa 
 
 1873 New Orleans University, Louisi- 
 ana 
 
 1873 North Georgia Agricultural Col- 
 lege, Georgia 
 1873 Penn College, Iowa 
 1873 Southwestern University, Texas 
 1873 University of Cincinnati, Ohio 
 1873 Weaverville College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1873 Wiley University, Texas 
 
 1874 Battle Creek College, Michigan 
 1874 Central University, Kentucky 
 1874 Colorado College, Colorado 
 
 1874 Sweetwater College, Tennessee 
 
 1875 Knoxville College, Tennessee 
 1875 Liberty College, Kentucky 
 1875 Park College, Missouri 
 
 1875 St. Olaf College, Minnesota 
 
 1875 Vanderbilt University, Tennes- 
 
 see 
 
 1876 College of the Sacred Heart, 
 
 Colorado 
 1876 Chaddock College, Illinois 
 
 1876 Johns Hopkins University, Mary- 
 land 
 
 1876 Lake Forest University, Illinois 
 1876 Morgan College, Maryland 
 1876 Parsons College, Iowa 
 1876 Rio Grande College, Ohio 
 
 1876 University of Oregon, Oregon 
 
 1877 Detroit College, Michigan 
 1877 Ogden College, Kentucky 
 
 1877 Philander Smith College, Arkan- 
 sas 
 
 1877 University of Colorado, Colorado 
 
 1878 Alabama Baptist Colored Univer- 
 
 sity, Alabama 
 
 1878 Brigham Young College, Utah 
 1878 College of Montana, Montana 
 1878 Creighton College, Nebraska 
 1878 Holy Ghost College, Pennsylvania 
 1878 Southwest Baptist College, Mis- 
 souri 
 
 1878 St. Mary's College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1880 Allen University, South Carolina 
 1880 Drake University, Iowa 
 1880 Indian University, Indian Ter- 
 ritory 
 1880 Presbyterian College of South 
 
 Carolina, South Carolina 
 1880 University of Omaha, Nebraska 
 
 1880 University of Southern Califor- 
 
 nia, California 
 
 1881 Bethany College, Kansas 
 1881 Fort Worth University, Texas 
 1881 Marquette College, Wisconsin 
 1881 Paul Quinn College, Texas 
 
 1881 St. Edward's College, Texas 
 
 1882 Bridgewater College, Virginia 
 1882 Campbell University, Kansas 
 1882 Coe College, Iowa 
 
 1882 Gates College, Nebraska 
 1882 Hastings College, Nebraska 
 1882 Livingstone College, North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 1882 Milligan College, Tennessee 
 1882 Pike College, Missouri 
 
 1882 University of South Dakota, 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 1883 University of Texas, Texas 
 1883 Yankton College, South Dakota 
 1883 College of Emporia, Kansas 
 1883 John B. Stetson University, 
 
 Florida
 
 42 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 [2 4 8 
 
 3883 Missouri Wesleyan College, Mis- 
 souri 
 1883 Tarkio College, Missouri 
 
 1883 Pierre University, South Dakota 
 
 1884 Fairfield College, Nebraska 
 1884 Florida State Agricultural Col- 
 lege, Florida 
 
 1884 Grove City College, Pennsylvania 
 1884 Hendrix College, Arkansas 
 
 1884 University of North Dakota, 
 
 Nor.th Dakota 
 
 1885 Colfax College, Washington 
 1885 Dakota College, South Dakota 
 1885 Defiance College, Ohio 
 
 1885 French American College, Massa- 
 chusetts 
 
 1885 Lafayette College, Alabama 
 1885 Macalester College, Minnesota 
 1885 Morris Brown College, Georgia 
 
 1885 Young L. G. Harris College, 
 
 Georgia 
 
 1886 Findlay College, Ohio 
 
 1886 Florida Conference College, 
 
 Florida 
 1886 Kansas Wesleyan University, 
 
 Kansas 
 
 1886 Ouachita Baptist College, Arkan- 
 sas 
 
 1886 Rollins College, Florida 
 1886 Searcy College, Arkansas 
 1886 Southwest Kansas College, Kan- 
 sas 
 
 1886 St. Ignatius College, Ohio 
 1886 State University of Nevada, 
 Nevada 
 
 1886 Union College, Kentucky 
 
 1887 Alma College, Michigan 
 
 1887 Cooper Memorial College, Kan- 
 sas 
 
 1887 Fargo College, North Dakota 
 1887 Gonzaga College, Washington 
 1887 Midland College, Kansas 
 1887 Occidental College, California 
 
 1887 University of Wyoming, Wyo- 
 
 ming 
 
 1888 Barboursville College, West Vir- 
 
 ginia 
 
 1888 Cotner University, Nebraska 
 1888 Nannie Lou Warthen College, 
 
 Georgia 
 1888 Nebraska Wesleyan University, 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 1888 Parker College, Minnesota 
 1888 Pomona College, California 
 
 1888 Scarritt Collegiate Institute, 
 
 Missouri 
 
 1889 Catholic University of America, 
 
 District of Columbia 
 1889 (Clark University, Massachu- 
 setts) 
 1889 Lafayette Seminary, Oregon 
 
 1889 Missouri Valley College, Mis- 
 
 souri 
 
 1890 Arkadelphia Methodist College, 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1890 Benzonia College, Michigan 
 1890 Black Hills College, South Da- 
 kota 
 
 1890 Blount College, Alabama 
 1890 Elon College, North Carolina 
 1890 Howard Payne College, Texas 
 1890 Lineville College, Alabama 
 1890 Montana Wesleyan University, 
 
 Montana 
 
 1890 Morningside College, Iowa 
 1890 Puget Sound University, Wash- 
 ington 
 
 1890 St. Leo Military College, Florida 
 1890 Volant College, Pennsylvania 
 1890 Whitworth College, Washing- 
 ton 
 
 1890 York College, Nebraska 
 
 1891 Arkansas Cumberland College 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1891 Austin College, Illinois 
 1891 Buena Vista College, Iowa 
 1891 Charles City College, Iowa 
 1891 Duquesne College, Pennsylvania 
 1891 Greer College, Illinois 
 1891 Lenoir College, North Carolina 
 1891 Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
 sity, California 
 1891 Pacific College, Oregon 
 1891 Polytechnic College, Texas 
 1891 Portland University, Oregon 
 1891 St. Bede College, Illinois 
 1891 Throop Polytechnic Institute, 
 
 California 
 1891 Union College, Nebraska 
 
 1891 University of Arizona, Arizona 
 
 1892 Central Christian College, Mis- 
 
 souri 
 
 1892 Fairmount College, Kansas 
 1892 Henry College, Texas
 
 249] 
 
 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 
 
 43 
 
 1892 Millsaps College, Mississippi 1893 
 
 1892 Northwest Missouri College, Mis- 1893 
 
 souri 1893 
 1892 Red River Valley University, 
 
 North Dakota 1893 
 
 1892 St. Bernard College, Alabama 1893 
 1892 University of Chicago, Illinois 
 
 1892 University of Idaho, Idaho 1894 
 
 1892 University of Oklahoma, Okla- 1894 
 
 homa 
 
 1892 Vashon College, Washington 1894 
 
 1892 Walla Walla College, Washing- 1895 
 
 ton 1896 
 
 1893 American Temperance Univer- 1897 
 
 sity, Tennessee 
 
 Fredericksburg College, Virginia 
 
 Lima College, Ohio 
 
 Mountain Home Baptist College, 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Soule College, Kansas 
 St. John's Lutheran College, 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Cedarville College, Ohio 
 Henry Kendall College, Indian 
 
 Territory 
 
 St. Louis College, Texas 
 University of Montana, Montana 
 Adelphi College, New York 
 Atlanta Baptist College, Georgia
 
 x
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATBS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD DELAVAN PERRY, PH. D., 
 
 Jay Professor of the Greek Language and Literature, Columbia University, 
 
 New York
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 I INTRODUCTION. DO UNIVERSITIES OR THEIR EQUIVALENT 
 EXIST IN THE UNITED STATES? 
 
 Professor Ladd of Yale university, in an essay originally 
 read before the " Round Table" of Boston, about 1888, and 
 republished in his little book, The Higher Education? says : 
 " Any one possessed of the requisite information knows at 
 once what is meant by the university of France, the English 
 universities, or a German university ; but no one can become 
 so conversant with facts as to tell what an American uni- 
 versity is." And again : " it is scarcely less true than it 
 was a score of years ago, that, although there may be uni- 
 versities in America, no one can tell what an American 
 university is." 
 
 A discouraging statement certainly, if true, for the would- 
 be exponent of the American university ! While not so 
 accurate at the present day as when first made, it is still true 
 enough, if one fail to free himself at the very start from 
 dependence upon the name as necessarily indicative of the 
 thing. It is incontestable that within the last ten years the 
 conception of the natural and necessary relation of the " uni- 
 versity " to the " college " has become much clearer, and that 
 many and important changes of organization and adminis- 
 tration have resulted, so that it is certainly easier than it was 
 in 1888 to define, or at least to describe, the American uni- 
 versity. However, there remain difficulties of many kinds ; 
 and it still is, and will undoubtedly be for years to come, if 
 not actually impossible, at least very difficult, to give a defini- 
 tion broad enough to include all institutions of learning in 
 the United States which possess true university character, 
 and precise enough to exclude all others. 
 
 N. Y., Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1899.
 
 4 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [254 
 
 The first difficulty is this : The names " university " and 
 " college," as used in the official titles of institutions, are 
 absolutely worthless as indications of the character of these 
 institutions. Among the scores of titular " universities " in 
 this country most are merely colleges, some good, some indif- 
 ferent, some so badly endowed and organized as to be not 
 even good high schools. On the other hand, Bryn Mawr 
 " college " has never assumed, even in informal use, the name 
 " university," yet offers true university instruction of the 
 highest order in most of the subjects covered by the philo- 
 sophise he Fakultdt of a German university ; and even Har- 
 vard and Columbia, though they have now acquired a true 
 university character, of a very elaborate type, and are habitu- 
 ally spoken of as such, have retained in their corporate titles 
 their ancient designation of " college." It happens that in 
 the most eastern states the word " university " is much less 
 used as a title, the higher institutions of learning having 
 mostly been founded while the English influence was still 
 strong, many of them indeed in colonial times, under direct 
 English authority, and so having adopted the peculiarly Eng- 
 lish name of " college." In the newer states more ambitious 
 plans prevailed, and the consideration of conditions in non- 
 English European countries notably those of Germany, 
 where the universities had obtained a more commanding 
 position and influence than elsewhere by the beginning of 
 the i gth century led to the choice of the name of appar- 
 ently greater dignity. This consideration seems also to have 
 been paramount with the founders of the countless purely 
 sectarian institutions which sprang up all over the country, 
 and still lead a precarious existence, striving to hold the 
 attention of their brethren in the faith by promiscuously 
 showering down honorary degrees. Yet it would be grossly 
 unfair to assume that in all cases the name of university was 
 adopted out of pure conceit ; in many the choice of name 
 was the proclamation of a purpose sincerely cherished, and 
 resolutely carried forward, amid difficulties of which the 
 European critic can form no conception, to a realization
 
 255] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 5 
 
 more or less complete. It will be necessary then to get rid 
 of this first difficulty by ignoring completely the difference 
 in title. If we shall succeed in describing the thing, though 
 we may be ever conscious of the unfortunate ambiguity of 
 terms, now doubtless too firmly fixed in official and legal 
 use to be easily changed, we may rest content. 
 
 Another difficulty is this. It is now clearly seen that, as 
 institutions, the college and the university, having very dif- 
 ferent functions, demand a different organization and admin- 
 istration. Yet the full recognition of this fact is compara- 
 tively recent, and the logical consequences have been reached 
 in only a few instances. The circumstances of foundation 
 and the necessities of the hour have made it practically 
 impossible for the university and the college in the United 
 States to exist apart. There are still but two institutions 
 which may be called even fragmentary universities entirely 
 unconnected with a college : The Clark university of Worces- 
 ter, Mass., and the Catholic university of America at Wash- 
 ington. Down to 1876, when the Johns Hopkins university 
 was opened, whatever real university instruction was offered 
 was organized at a college already existing, and even the 
 founders of the Johns Hopkins, though their chief purpose 
 was avowedly to provide for university instruction of the 
 highest grade, felt it necessary or at least advisable to organ- 
 ize a college also. The wide scope planned for Cornell 
 university, opened in 1868, from the first necessarily included 
 a college, nay, many colleges, as part of the scheme. In all 
 discussion of the American university, therefore, in this 
 article it must be borne in mind that the term (with the two 
 exceptions noted above) is used to include only certain parts 
 of institutions whose organism is often highly complex, and 
 that probably no two institutions coincide in theory or even 
 in practice, though certain principles and practices are com- 
 mon to those of more complete type. 
 
 What then is that American university, a description of 
 which is here undertaken, if it does not anywhere exist in 
 completeness and exactness, unobscured by contact with
 
 6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [256 
 
 institutions of different character and divergent aims ? It 
 will be least misleading to say at the outset : It is nowhere. 
 In so far, therefore, Professor von Hoist's famous pronounce- 
 ment is right ; a university in the European sense does not 
 exist in America. And yet, from Harvard on the Atlantic 
 tidewater to the University of California, which looks out 
 through the Golden Gate upon the Pacific, and from Minne- 
 apolis to New Orleans, will be found many institutions which 
 offer training in the methods of scientific research, oppor- 
 tunities for the prosecution of such research, and abundant 
 facilities in the way of libraries, museums and laboratories, 
 to those individuals who have had such preliminary training 
 as to be able to profit fully by these advantages, and which 
 certify by the formal bestowal of a particular degree or 
 degrees that the individual receiving one of them has proved 
 himself or herself to have acquired the methods and habits 
 of such scientific research. This is equivalent to saying, in 
 the technical language in vogue in the United States, that 
 these institutions offer to graduate students courses leading 
 to advanced or higher degrees. Where such courses are 
 well organized and equipped and successfully maintained, 
 there is a university at least in part, and, it may be, in the 
 whole. Whether the institution do only this, or this and 
 many other things besides, and whether it be called univer- 
 sity or college, may be important questions from some points 
 of view ; for the point of view of this discussion the exist- 
 ence of such organization for research work by graduates is 
 the test, and it is its purpose to describe as clearly as possi- 
 ble such organization of this character as may be found in 
 the United States of America. Apparent or evident diva- 
 gations from this strict purpose will perhaps find readier 
 pardon from the foregoing allusions to some of the diffi- 
 culties in the way.
 
 257] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 II DIFFERENT FORMS OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES. THE STATE 
 UNIVERSITIES. CONTRAST WITH EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES 
 
 It has often been remarked by observant foreign travel- 
 lers in the United States that among this young people 
 many institutions change less rapidly than in the older 
 nations of Europe. This conservatism, in large part an 
 English trait persisting through many generations, is par- 
 ticularly observable in the field of education ; experiments 
 are carefully tried, downright innovations still less willingly 
 adopted. Only where occasion is offered for new founda- 
 tions are we apt to find a ready breaking with traditional 
 forms. When, on reviewing the American institutions of 
 learning to discover which of them give the opportunities for 
 training in the methods of research that we have taken as 
 our standard of measurement, we find them to be almost 
 without exception colleges, or technical schools, or pro- 
 fessional schools as well, or all of these together, we shall 
 also find that they were generally colleges first of all, and 
 that training in research was made a part of the system only 
 later, very gradually and hesitatingly, the two institutions 
 which disclaim all " college " work being almost the youngest, 
 and one of them not yet displaying a very encouraging 
 vitality. We shall find also that one of the oldest and most 
 famous colleges of all, Yale, was also the first to institute 
 regular courses of instruction for those who wished to pur- 
 sue their studies after receiving the degree of bachelor of 
 arts. 
 
 A. Universities unconnected with colleges 
 
 i Clark university, Worcester, Mass. Clark university 
 was founded in 1887 by the generous gift of Mr. Jonas G. 
 Clark, and the work of instruction was begun in 1889. From 
 the first the range of the future university was strictly lim- 
 ited ; there was to be no college, no technical school, no pro- 
 fessional schools pure and simple. Only those who had 
 taken a first degree were to be admitted, and of these only
 
 8 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 such individuals as should give promise of high attainments 
 in some specialty of scientific research. The design and 
 organization of the new institution were intrusted to Mr. 
 Stanley G. Hall, for some years professor of philosophy at 
 Johns Hopkins university in Baltimore. Only a few depart- 
 ments were organized, and these were intended to cover sub- 
 jects closely and organically connected, viz. : mathematics, 
 physics, chemistry, biology (including anatomy, physiology 
 and palaeontology) and psychology (including neurology, 
 anthropology, criminology and history of philosophy). It 
 was strongly emphasized in the scheme of foundation that so 
 far as possible the line of demarcation between professor 
 and student should be wiped out ; the professors and other 
 instructors were to feel themselves as merely older students, 
 the students were to be expected to lecture occasionally on 
 topics connected with their chosen specialties. The attempt 
 to secure large numbers of students was expressly dis- 
 claimed. Seminar-organization was adopted as the essential 
 plan of the institution, one which should bind together 
 instructors and students into homogenous groups. For suc- 
 cessful completion of certain requirements of research, 
 including the publication of an acceptable dissertation, the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy was offered. A number of 
 fellowships and scholarships were established, making it 
 possible for students of limited means to carry on their 
 researches unhampered by the necessity of seeking lucrative 
 employment outside of their university studies. 
 
 As was expected, the number of students has never been 
 great; it has varied from 53 in 1892-3 to 38 in 1896-7 and 
 48 in 1898-9. The number of instructors has remained 
 nearly constant, being in 1898-9 10. The departments at 
 present (1899) organized are the following: Mathematics, 
 biology, philosophy, physics, pedagogy, psychology and 
 anthropology ; it is intended to organize others from time 
 to time, in logical order of development. Thus far Clark 
 university, judged by its size alone, is a " torso of a univer- 
 sity," to use Professor von Hoist's famous phrase ; its
 
 259] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 9 
 
 methods, however, and the character of the work accom- 
 plished there, are thoroughly those of the most fully 
 developed universities of the old world. 
 
 2 The Catholic university of America, Washington, D. C. 
 The inception of this institution dates from 1884, when 
 its establishment was decided upon at a Roman Catholic 
 congress held in Baltimore. The actual work of instruction 
 was begun in 1889, in the school of theology. The univer- 
 sity is now constituted as follows : 
 
 1 School of divinity, comprising four departments : a Bib- 
 lical sciences ; b Dogmatic sciences ; c Moral sciences ; 
 d Historical sciences. 
 
 2 School of philosophy, comprising six departments : 
 a Philosophy ; b Letters ; c Mathematics ; d Physics ; e 
 Chemistry ; f Biological sciences. 
 
 For admission to the school of philosophy candidates must 
 have received the bachelor's degree, or show by passing an 
 examination that they have received the full equivalent of a 
 collegiate course of training. Two degrees are granted, 
 master of philosophy (Ph. M.), after two years' graduate 
 study, an examination on a major and a minor subject, and 
 the presentation of a satisfactory dissertation ; and doctor 
 of philosophy, after not less than three years' graduate 
 study, an examination on a major and two minor subjects, 
 and a satisfactory dissertation. 
 
 3 The school of social science, comprising four depart- 
 ments : a Sociology ; b Economics ; c Political science ; 
 d Law. 
 
 The first three of these constitute a school of social 
 science, or political science, in a narrower sense. Three 
 degrees are offered, bachelor, master and doctor of social 
 science ; no specific period of study is prescribed for them, 
 but satisfactory dissertations are required and examinations 
 must be passed. The department of law is somewhat differ- 
 ently organized, and grants six degrees : bachelor and mas- 
 ter of laws, doctor of civil law, doctor of ecclesiastical law, 
 doctor of civil and ecclesiastical law (J. U. D.), and doctor
 
 IO THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [260 
 
 of laws (LL. D.). The holding of a bachelor's degree, 
 while not demanded for admission to the school of law, is 
 urgently recommended. 
 
 4 The institute of technology consists of four depart- 
 ments : a Applied mathematics ; b Civil engineering ; c 
 Electrical engineering ; d Mechanical engineering. 
 
 Neither Clark university nor the Catholic university of 
 America admits women to any of its courses of instruction. 
 
 B. Universities united with colleges and professional and 
 
 technical schools 
 
 The union of college and university may fairly be called 
 the typical American form of organization for the higher 
 education. Only in the institutions of comparatively recent 
 origin do we find that university organization was attempted 
 from the first. The professional and technical schools have 
 generally occupied a position of great independence toward 
 the institution as a whole, in many cases having hardly 
 more than the name in common, but possessing their own 
 budgets and boards of trustees, sometimes even being admin- 
 istered as proprietary schools, wherein the professors divided 
 among themselves the fees paid by the students. The 
 medical schools have been the most independent in this 
 respect. It should be borne in mind that in the case of 
 such complex institutions the name " university " is applied 
 to the whole, so that, theoretically at least, the university 
 may include the equivalent of a German university, technische 
 Hochschule (formerly called Poly technician), landwirtschaft- 
 liche Hochschule or agricultural college, and Gymnasium. 
 Passing under review the many types of organization 
 wherein university and college are united, we shall find that 
 in most cases the graduate and undergraduate work are car- 
 ried on by the same individuals, so that, instead of a univer- 
 sity and a college being in alliance, so to speak, as might be 
 said if the body of instructors of each part were composed 
 of quite different individuals, with one governing body for 
 the whole, we have to do really with a complex and overlap-
 
 26 1] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY II 
 
 ping structure. Herein lies, it must be said, one of the 
 greatest disadvantages for the American university, though 
 there are valuable compensations. The American univer- 
 sity professor is rarely able to devote himself exclusively to 
 advanced scientific work with well-prepared students, but 
 must, in most cases, carry on a good deal of mere class 
 work as well, which cannot but prove detrimental to the 
 progress of his researches. 
 
 The many institutions falling under this head illustrate 
 almost as many principles of combination as there are insti- 
 tutions. A detailed description of all is of course impossi- 
 ble here ; those that are chosen as the most instructive types 
 may best be grouped in two classes : 
 
 Into the first class (a) will come those which, though pos- 
 sessing both a collegiate or undergraduate and a graduate 
 department, yet in practice draw a hard and fast line between 
 the two, conducting the undergraduate and graduate courses 
 as entirely separate, sometimes with quite different methods, 
 and rigidly excluding from the latter courses all who have 
 not taken a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent (as for 
 example the testimonium maturitatis or Reifezeugniss of a 
 German gymnasium). Very few institutions belong in this 
 first group. 
 
 a 
 
 i Johns Hopkins university This famous establishment, 
 the good influence of which upon the general development of 
 higher education in the United States has been incalculably 
 great, was founded by the noble bequests of Johns Hopkins, a 
 citizen of Baltimore. Mr. Hopkins devoted nearly all of his 
 estate, amounting to more than three and a half million dol- 
 lars, to the foundation of a university and a hospital. The 
 institution was incorporated in 1867 ; the board of trustees 
 was organized in 1870, and held its first meeting in 1874. 
 In the same year Professor Daniel Coit Oilman, of the Uni- 
 versity of California, and previously of Yale university, was 
 elected president. The work of instruction was begun in 
 1876 ; from the first the chief aim was proclaimed to be the
 
 12 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [262 
 
 development of instruction in the methods of scientific 
 research. An undergraduate or collegiate course was also 
 arranged, intended to give the best possible preparation for 
 the advanced work, and leading to the degree of bachelor 
 of arts. In the university proper only a faculty of philoso- 
 phy was organized, as the faculty of medicine, which was 
 also planned, had to wait for its realization upon the open- 
 ing of the hospital. This event took place in 1889, and 
 four years later the school of medicine was opened. It 
 admits women on equal terms with men, this having been 
 stipulated by Miss Garrett, by whom large gifts were made; 
 women are not admitted to either the school of philosophy 
 or the undergraduate department. 
 
 An important place at Johns Hopkins university has 
 always been held by the " fellows." Twenty fellowships are 
 awarded each year to the most promising among the many 
 candidates, without preference of college ; each fellowship is 
 of the annual value of $500, though it does not exempt 
 from charges for tuition. The candidates must prove 
 their ability to carry on independent researches in the sub- 
 jects in which they seek fellowships, and engage to prose- 
 cute such researches during the time of their appointment. 
 In the language of the official announcement of the univer- 
 sity the fellowships are bestowed " almost exclusively on 
 young men desirous of becoming teachers of science and 
 literature, or proposing to devote their lives to special 
 branches of learning which lie outside of the ordinary 
 studies of the lawyer, the physician and the clergyman." 
 The university also extends the privilege of " fellowships by 
 courtesy " (without emolument) to certain individuals. 
 
 The university receives as students the following classes : 
 
 1. College graduates and other advanced scholars, who may 
 proceed to the degree of doctor of philosophy, in literature 
 or science, or remain for longer or shorter periods in such 
 of the various seminaries or laboratories as they may choose. 
 
 2. Undergraduate students looking forward to the degree 
 of bachelor of arts. 3. Candidates for the degree of doctor
 
 263] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 13 
 
 of medicine. 4. Doctors of medicine desiring to pursue 
 certain postgraduate courses. 5. Students who have taken 
 no degree, and are not looking forward to a degree, but who 
 desire to avail themselves for a brief period of the opportu- 
 nities here offered. 
 
 The courses of study under i, 3 and 4 are entirely closed 
 to those who are still candidates for a baccalaureate degree. 
 
 2 Bryn Mawr college -- This excellent institution for 
 women, modeled closely after the pattern of Johns Hopkins 
 university, is situated at Bryn Mawr, a suburb of Philadel- 
 phia. It was founded chiefly by the gifts of Dr. Jos. 
 W. Taylor and other members of the Society of Friends 
 {" Quakers "), and opened in 1 885. Four classes are admitted : 
 Graduates, undergraduates, special students, and hearers ; 
 the latter, receiving no formal recognition from the institu- 
 tion, are admitted to various courses by the consent of the 
 instructors. To the graduate courses only holders of the 
 degree of bachelor of arts are admitted. These courses 
 cover the usual ground of the " faculty of philosophy," as at 
 Johns Hopkins, i. e., philosophy, logic and psychology, lan- 
 guage and letters, political and social science, history, nat- 
 ural science and mathematics, and lead to the degrees of 
 master of arts and doctor of philosophy. 
 
 From the first the standard set at Bryn Mawr has been 
 extremely high, and a very able body of instructors has been 
 secured. Its degrees are held fully equal to those granted 
 anywhere in the United States. 
 
 3 University of Pennsylvania In 1751 the "Charitable 
 School " at Philadelphia, which had been established in 1 740, 
 was reconstituted, under the advice of Franklin, into an 
 academy, comprising an English, Latin and mathematical 
 school. Two years later a charter was granted by the gover- 
 nors of the province of Pennsylvania; and in 1755 the insti- 
 tution received the privilege of granting degrees, and was 
 officially designated as: " The College and Academy of 
 Philadelphia, in the Province of Pennsylvania." In 1791, 
 after several years of tribulation, a more recent institution,
 
 14 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [264 
 
 founded largely by spoliation of the old college, was united 
 with it, under the name of the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 The university is entirely a private and self-perpetuating 
 corporation, except that the governor of the state is virtute 
 officii president of the trustees. It comprises the following 
 teaching divisions : The college, including the school of 
 arts and the Towne scientific school ; the department of 
 philosophy (graduate school) ; the department of law ; the 
 department of medicine ; the laboratory of hygiene ; the 
 department of dentistry ; the department of veterinary 
 medicine. 
 
 The department of philosophy, or graduate department, is 
 organized to give advanced instruction in the various 
 branches of literature and science. Admission is granted to 
 persons holding a " bachelor's degree in arts, letters, philoso- 
 phy, pure or applied science, granted by the University of 
 Pennsylvania or by any college or university whose degrees 
 are recognized by this university." Admission to the gradu- 
 ate school does not imply admission to candidacy for a 
 degree. The courses of instruction are grouped as follows : 
 I. Semitic languages. II. American archaeology and lan- 
 guages. III. Indo-European philology. IV. Classical lan- 
 guages. V. Germanic languages. VI. Romanic languages. 
 VII. English. VIII. Philosophy, ethics, psychology and 
 pedagogy. IX. History. X. Economics, politics, soci- 
 ology and statistics. XI. Mathematics. XII. Astronomy. 
 XIII. Physics. XIV. Chemistry. XV. Botany and 
 zoology. XVI. Geology and minerology. 
 
 The principle of separation between undergraduate and 
 graduate students is, with some few exceptions, strictly 
 carried out. These exceptions are found chiefly in depart- 
 ments which are not represented in the college plan of 
 instruction except by one or more courses offered to seniors, 
 as e. g. Semitic languages and Sanskrit. 
 
 In this group might also be placed, with some reserva- 
 tions, Yale university. The graduate school, which conducts 
 the courses leading to the degrees of master of arts and doctor
 
 265] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 15 
 
 of philosophy, while accepting as a rule only actual gradu- 
 ates of Yale or other colleges, admits in exceptional cases 
 other persons of liberal education. Some few of the higher 
 undergraduate courses are open to graduate students, and 
 may be counted toward the higher degrees. A description 
 of the organization of the university will be given below. 
 
 b 
 
 By far the greater number of institutions which conduct 
 " graduate " work fall into the second division (<$) which we 
 have established, as not drawing a rigid line of demarcation 
 between the undergraduate and the graduate courses. This 
 does not mean that students who have not received their first 
 or bachelor's degree, or its equivalent, are accepted as can- 
 didates for the master's or doctor's degree, for to the writer's 
 knowledge that is nowhere the case ; but merely that some 
 at least of the courses leading to the higher degrees are 
 open to undergraduate students. This feature, so difficult 
 for foreign, especially German, observers to understand, is 
 partly a necessity, partly the result of a deliberate policy which 
 has in the main well justified itself. The policy will be dis- 
 cussed later ; the necessity has arisen from the limited 
 endowment of most of the institutions, which has made it 
 impossible, even where it would have been desirable, to 
 increase largely the number of professorships and the extent 
 of such educational aids as libraries, laboratories, etc. 
 
 The institutions remaining for our consideration are most 
 conveniently divided into those of private (or originally pri- 
 vate) foundation and the " state universities." The former 
 have generally been aided at different times with greater or 
 less liberality by the governments of the states in which they 
 are established, in many cases a return having been demanded 
 by the state in the form of free scholarships of one or another 
 kind, or other privileges ; the state universities have fre- 
 quently received valuable aid from private individuals. It 
 should be stated here that the national government supports 
 no universities, this being left entirely to the separate states.
 
 l6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [266 
 
 Institutions of private foundation 
 
 i Harrard university The foundation of this venerable 
 institution, at once the oldest, largest and most famous seat 
 of learning in the United States, dates from 1636, when the 
 general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay voted a 
 gift of four hundred pounds " towards a school or college." 
 Instruction was not begun until 1638, in which year a bequest 
 of John Harvard, a non-conforming clergyman of England, 
 and a graduate of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, who had 
 died at Charlestown, became available. The sum realized 
 was sufficient to open the institution at once, and the grati- 
 tude of the court was shown by the attachment of Harvard's 
 name to the new college. In 1642 the management of the 
 institution was entrusted to aboard of overseers; in 1650 
 the college was made a corporation, the board of overseers 
 being also retained. With considerable changes in the mode 
 of selecting the president and fellows (who constitute the 
 " corporation ") and the overseers, this organization has per- 
 sisted until the present day. The corporation is self-per- 
 petuating ; the board of overseers, for a long period chosen 
 by the legislature of Massachusetts, is now elected entirely 
 by the graduates of Harvard college. From 1636 until 
 1782, when a school of medicine was established, Harvard 
 college composed the entire institution, conferring only the 
 degrees of bachelor and master of arts. The term university 
 seems to have been first applied to it in 1780, and has for 
 many years been used of the institution as a whole, of which 
 Harvard college is by statute merely a part. The legal titles 
 of the controlling bodies are, however, " The President and 
 Fellows, and the Board of Overseers, of Harvard College." 
 The various departments of the university, added from time 
 to time, have been largely reorganized during the last ten 
 years. The present organization of the departments of 
 instruction is briefly as follows : 
 
 I-III Three schools under the faculty of arts and 
 sciences, viz. :
 
 267] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY I/ 
 
 I Harvard college, leading to the degree of bachelor of arts. 
 
 II The Lawrence scientific school (degree of bachelor of 
 science). 
 
 III The graduate school (degrees of master of arts, mas- 
 ter of science, doctor of philosophy and doctor of science). 
 
 IV The divinity school (degree of bachelor of divinity). 
 
 V The law school (degree of bachelor of laws). 
 
 VI The medical school (degree of doctor of medicine). 
 
 VII The dental school (degree of doctor of dental 
 medicine). 
 
 VIII The school of veterinary medicine (degree of doc- 
 tor of veterinary medicine). 
 
 IX The Bussey institution (degree of bachelor of agri- 
 cultural science). 
 
 Of these the graduate school corresponds very closely in 
 range and methods of instruction to the philosophise he Fak- 
 ultat of the universities of Northern Germany, offering 
 courses of research in philology (Semitic languages, Indo- 
 Iranian, the classics (including Greek and Roman archae- 
 ology), English, Germanic and Scandinavian, Romance 
 languages, Celtic, Slavonic, history and political science, 
 philosophy (including ethics and psychology), fine arts, 
 music, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, botany, 
 zoology, geology, mineralogy, American archaeology and 
 ethnology, physiology. Admission to the graduate school 
 is ordinarily granted to graduates of colleges and scientific 
 schools of good standing. This does not, however, imply 
 admission to candidacy for a degree ; such is granted only to 
 those whose credentials are approved by the committee on 
 admission from other colleges, which satisfies itself that the 
 applicant has had a training substantially equivalent to that 
 demanded for the Harvard bachelor's degree. It frequently 
 happens that such applicants spend a year in study for the 
 Harvard degree of bachelor of arts, after which they may 
 or may not go on to the higher degrees. 
 
 The courses offered under the faculty of arts and sciences 
 are of three kinds :
 
 1 8 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [268 
 
 (1) Primarily for undergraduates. These, though often 
 open to graduates, may be counted only toward the bach- 
 elor's degree. 
 
 (2) For undergraduates and graduates. These may be 
 counted toward either the bachelor's, or toward the master's 
 and doctor's degrees ; they are attended chiefly by under- 
 graduates in their last, or graduates in their first, year of 
 study as such. 
 
 (3) Primarily for graduates. These courses are attended 
 only by such undergraduates as have made unusual progress 
 in their studies, and some of them are entirely closed to 
 undergraduates. 
 
 The school of law, with a course of three years, admits to 
 full standing as candidates for the degree holders of a bach- 
 elor's degree in arts, literature, philosophy or science granted 
 by certain institutions named in the university catalogue, 
 also persons qualified to enter the senior class of Harvard 
 college. In the main it may be called a true graduate 
 school, as out of 551 students enrolled in 1898-9, 489 held 
 the bachelor's degree. This is true, in a minor degree, of 
 the school of divinity, in which candidates for the degree of 
 bachelor of divinity must have a satisfactory degree in arts 
 or an equivalent approved by the faculty. The medical 
 school, which at present prescribes a moderate examination 
 for entering students, will soon be put on a true university 
 basis by the requirement that in and after June, 1901, can- 
 didates for admission must present a degree in arts, litera- 
 ture, philosophy, science, or medicine from a recognized 
 college or scientific school ; from this rule exceptions are to 
 be made only by special vote of the faculty in each case. 
 
 2 Yale university, New Haven, Conn. In 1701 there was 
 founded at Saybrook the Collegiate School of Connecticut, 
 which was transferred to New Haven in 1716, and in 1718 
 renamed Yale college, in recognition of the gifts made to 
 the young institution by Elihu Yale of London. The 
 degree of bachelor of arts, first awarded in 1702, was the 
 only one given until 1814. In the latter year the degree of
 
 269] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 19 
 
 doctor of medicine was first bestowed, that of bachelor of 
 laws in 1843, doctor of philosophy in 1860, and civil engi- 
 neer and bachelor of divinity in 1867. The name Yale col- 
 lege was retained by the entire institution until compara- 
 tively recent years. 
 
 The present organization shows four departments : I Phil- 
 osophy and the arts ; II Theology; III Medicine; IV Law. 
 
 The department of philosophy and the arts includes Yale 
 college (for some years called the " academical depart- 
 ment"), the Sheffield scientific school, the graduate school, 
 and the schools of fine arts and music. The graduate 
 school, in its reorganized form, corresponds quite closely to 
 that of Harvard university and to the German philosophische 
 Fakultat, but differs from the latter in including advanced 
 technical instruction in civil and mechanical engineering. 
 It offers the degrees of master of arts, master of science, 
 doctor of philosophy, civil engineer, and mechanical engi- 
 neer. Admission is granted to graduates of Yale and of 
 other colleges and universities, and (in exceptional cases) to 
 other persons of liberal education, at least eighteen years 
 old. The departments of study are these : Psychology, 
 ethics and philosophy ; economics, social science, history 
 and law ; Semitic languages and biblical literature ; classical 
 and Indo-Iranian philology ; modern languages and litera- 
 tures ; natural and physical science ; pure and applied mathe- 
 matics ; the fine arts; music; physical culture. Out of 257 
 students registered as in actual attendance upon the courses 
 of the graduate school in 1898-9 only 8 were not holders of 
 degrees, and of these 6 had received academic training 
 in Japan. Some of the courses designed for advanced 
 undergraduates in Yale college or the Sheffield scientific 
 school are open to graduates, and may be counted toward 
 the higher degrees. The schools of theology, medicine and 
 law do not demand the possession of a degree as a condition 
 of entrance, though this is practically recommended. 
 
 3 Columbia university, New York In 1754 there was 
 founded in the city of New York, under royal charter of
 
 2Q THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [270 
 
 George II, an institution for the education of youth, to 
 which the name Kings college was given. The college 
 existed under this name until 1784, though the exercises 
 were partially, at times wholly, suspended during the war 
 of the revolution. In 1784, on the incorporation of the 
 " Regents of the University of the State of New York," 
 the property of Kings college was vested in them, and its 
 name changed to Columbia college. In 1787, however, this 
 act was repealed, and the original charter issued to the col- 
 lege was confirmed. The legal style of the new corporation 
 was fixed as " The Trustees of Columbia College in the 
 City of New York." This is still its legal designation. In 
 1896 the board of trustees sanctioned the use in all official 
 publications of the term Columbia University in the City of 
 New York ; the name Columbia college has accordingly 
 been restricted to its original sense, viz., the college proper, 
 exclusive of the professional and graduate schools. It had 
 been for some years customary to speak of this as the school 
 of arts, to distinguish it from the schools of law, medicine 
 and mines. The school of medicine (which bears also the 
 title college of physicians and surgeons) was founded in 
 1807, the school of law in 1858, the school of mines in 1864 ; 
 from the latter were set off in 1 896 the schools of chemistry, 
 engineering and architecture. Affiliated with Columbia 
 university are Barnard college, founded in 1889, and Teachers 
 college, founded in 1888. The former offers to women 
 undergraduates courses identical with those given in Colum- 
 bia college, while its graduate students are admitted to the 
 work of the faculties of philosophy, political science and pure 
 science in Columbia university ; the latter is devoted to the 
 special training of teachers, men and women alike, and certain 
 of its courses are accepted by Columbia as part of the work 
 required for its degrees, both baccalaureate and advanced. 
 The organization of Columbia university, excluding Bar- 
 nard and Teachers colleges, is as follows : 
 
 I Columbia college. 
 
 II The university, including
 
 2;i] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 21 
 
 A. The non-professional schools 
 
 1 Faculty of philosophy, which offers advanced courses 
 and opportunities for original research in philosophy and 
 education, psychology, Greek and Latin (induing archae- 
 ology and epigraphy), English, literature, music, and the 
 Germanic, Romance and oriental languages. 
 
 2 Faculty of political science, giving similar instruction 
 in political and social science, including history, economics 
 and public law. 
 
 3 Faculty of pure science, for mathematics and the .vari- 
 ous branches of natural science. 
 
 4 Faculty of applied science, covering mining, metal- 
 lurgy, engineering and architecture. 
 
 B. The professional schools 
 These are 
 
 1 School of medicine, or college of physicians and sur- 
 geons, with a four years' course leading to the degree of 
 doctor of medicine. 
 
 2 School of law, with a three years' course leading to the 
 degree of bachelor of laws. 
 
 3 Schools of mines, chemistry, engineering and architec- 
 ture, which are under the charge of the faculty of applied 
 science, and offer courses, each of four years, leading to the 
 appropriate technical degrees (bachelor of philosophy, engi- 
 neer of mines, civil engineer, etc.). 
 
 Applying the test hitherto used, we find that the non-pro- 
 fessional schools, which award the degrees of master of arts 
 and doctor of philosophy, exact as the condition of admis- 
 sion to candidacy for a degree the possession of a bacca- 
 laureate or equivalent degree. Their organization as three 
 faculties (or four) instead of one is modelled largely after 
 those South German universities which have subdivided the 
 ancient faculty of philosophy into two or more parts. The 
 professional faculties do not as yet demand the possession of 
 a degree of entering students ; but the faculty of law has
 
 22 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [2/2 
 
 announced that in and after 1903 the bachelor's degree in 
 arts or philosophy will be required of all candidates for 
 admission to full standing. (In 1898-9, out of 348 pri- 
 marily registered under the faculty of law, 216 held degrees.) 
 
 A peculiarity of the Columbia organization is the system 
 by which seniors in Columbia college, who have entered the 
 college not later than the beginning of the junior year, are 
 allowed to select part or all of the courses necessary for the 
 bachelor's degree from among those designated by the 
 " university " faculties, professional or non-professional, as 
 open to them. Naturally only the introductory courses, or 
 those of more general bearing, are so offered by these facul- 
 ties. The object of this arrangement is to shorten the time 
 necessary to the attainment of the higher, particularly of the 
 professional, degrees. With the establishment of the four 
 years' course in medicine, and the higher standards set by 
 all the faculties, it was found that those who finished their 
 college course before entering on professional studies could 
 rarely secure the professional degree before reaching their 
 twenty-fifth year, and it was believed that while good stu- 
 dents should be ready to begin professional work after com- 
 pleting their third year in college, yet the bachelor's degree 
 should not be cheapened by awarding it for less than four 
 years of collegiate study. On the whole the plan has 
 worked well, though some complaints are made of the diffi- 
 culty of carrying on graduate courses to which undergradu- 
 ates, often necessarily of a lower grade of preparation, are 
 admitted. In many cases courses thus open to undergradu- 
 ates and graduates alike may not be counted toward the 
 higher degrees unless additional work be done in connection 
 with them. 
 
 4 Cornell university, Ithaca, N. Y. Cornell university occu- 
 pies a middle ground between the institutions of private (or 
 chiefly private) foundation and independent corporate exist- 
 ence and the state universities to be described below. Its 
 foundation was chiefly due to the generosity and strenuous 
 efforts of Ezra Cornell, and it possesses corporate independ-
 
 273] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY. 23 
 
 ence ; out tne government of the state of New York is rep- 
 resented by ex-officio members on the board of trustees, and 
 the funds for its establishment, other than those given by 
 Mr. Cornell and other benefactors, were derived from the 
 sale of the grants of public lands made to the state of New 
 York by the " Morrill Act" of the national congress in 1862. 
 Mr. Cornell's plan designed the establishment of an institu- 
 tion " where any person might find instruction in any study ; " 
 and if this has long since been seen to be impossible of reali- 
 zation, yet the very breadth of sympathy evidenced by the 
 desire has resulted in a foundation of -unusual breadth and 
 strength. The university was incorporated in 1865, and 
 opened to students in 1868. Its constitution has undergone 
 many changes, as well of internal arrangement as of outward 
 expansion ; its present organization is the following : 
 
 I Graduate department. 
 
 II Academic department, or department of arts and 
 sciences. 
 
 III College of law. 
 
 IV College of civil engineering, 
 
 V Sibley college of mechanical arts. 
 VI College of architecture. 
 VII College of agriculture. 
 VIII College of medicine. 
 
 The New York state veterinary college and college of 
 forestry are administered by Cornell university. The col- 
 lege of medicine, constituted in 1897-8 from the faculties of 
 two medical schools already existing in the city of New 
 York, is situated in that city, though the work of the first 
 two years may be done in Ithaca. 
 
 The graduate department provides courses of instruction 
 and research for graduate students leading to advanced 
 degrees. No sharp line is drawn between graduates and 
 undergraduate students, many of the courses being open to 
 undergraduates who have prepared themselves by taking 
 the necessary preliminary elective courses, but a large num-
 
 24 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [ 2 74 
 
 ber are specially adapted to the wants of graduate students, 
 and some are open exclusively to them. The degrees offered 
 to graduate students are : Master of arts, master of science 
 in architecture, master of civil engineering, master of mechan- 
 ical engineering, master of science in agriculture, and doctor 
 of philosophy. 
 
 Seniors and juniors in the academic department are 
 allowed, with certain restrictions, to elect studies in other 
 departments of the university which shall count towards 
 graduation in the academic department. The Columbia 
 principle is thus applied more widely. 
 
 The schools of law and medicine have not as yet made 
 the possession of a first degree a necessary condition of 
 admission. 
 
 The exigencies of space forbid the description here of 
 several of the prominent autonomous corporative institutions 
 which include true university instruction in their work, such 
 as Brown university at Providence, R. I., Princeton univer- 
 sity in New Jersey, the Leland Stanford, Jr., university at 
 Palo Alto, Cal., the Tulane university of Louisiana, the 
 Vanderbilt university at Nashville, Tenn., and others. All 
 comprise the college and the various scientific schools. We 
 turn, therefore, to the most recently founded of the larger 
 institutions, one which has taken at a bound a place in the 
 very front rank of American education. 
 
 5 The university of Chicago The history of the university 
 of Chicago begins with the year 1886, when Mr. J. D. Rocke- 
 feller formed the idea of founding a new institution of learn- 
 ing in Chicago. By a series of extraordinarily munificent 
 gifts, made by Mr. Rockefeller and others, the establishment 
 of the new institution was assured ; the first buildings were 
 erected in 1891, and the doors opened to students October 
 i, 1892. The organization is complicated, and in many 
 respects unlike that of any other American university. An 
 entirely original feature is the division of the academic year 
 into four quarters of twelve weeks each, instead of two or 
 three terms. Instruction is given during the whole year,
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 25 
 
 except during the interval of one week at the end of each 
 quarter ; students remain for one or more quarters as they 
 chose, and each instructor is bound to teach during thirty- 
 six weeks of the year, with certain bounties for additional 
 instruction given beyond this requirement. The university 
 is organized in five distinct divisions : I The schools, col- 
 leges and academies ; II The university extension ; III The 
 university library, laboratories and museums ; IV The uni- 
 versity press ; V The university affiliation. The first divis- 
 ion, comprising the whole teaching staff of the university 
 proper, consists of i The schools ; a Graduate schools ; 
 b Professional schools. 2 The colleges ; a Junior college, 
 corresponding to the first two years ; b Senior college, cor- 
 responding to the last two years of the ordinary college. 
 
 The graduate schools thus far organized are two, the 
 graduate school of arts and literature, and the Ogden (grad- 
 uate) school of science. Admission is granted (i) to those 
 who have been graduated from the colleges of the univer- 
 sity of Chicago with the degree of bachelor of arts, science 
 or philosophy ; (2) to graduates of other institutions of 
 good standing, holding degrees corresponding to those 
 granted by the university. The degrees conferred are : Mas- 
 ter of arts, master of science, master of philosophy, and 
 doctor of philosophy. Most of the courses in the graduate 
 schools are open to graduate students only, but some are 
 9pen to students in the senior college who have received the 
 preliminary training enabling them to profit by these courses. 
 The divinity school includes, a the graduate divinity school, 
 designed primarily for college graduates ; b the English 
 theological seminary, with resident courses only in the sum- 
 mer quarter ; c and d the Scandinavian theological semi- 
 naries. The graduate divinity school admits to candidacy 
 for the degree of bachelor of divinity only graduates of 
 accepted colleges ; the degrees of master of arts and doctor 
 of philosophy are also offered.
 
 26 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [276 
 
 The state universities 
 
 At the present time, in each of twenty-nine of the states 
 of the union, there is maintained a single " state university," 
 supported exclusively or prevailingly from public funds, and 
 managed under the more or less direct control of the legis- 
 lature and administrative officers of the state. In some 
 cases private benefactions have notably supplemented the 
 support given from public revenues. These states are the 
 following : Alabama, California, Colorado, Georgia, Illi- 
 nois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, 
 Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North 
 Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, 
 South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, 
 West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. 1 The organization 
 of these institutions, while more similar than that of the 
 universities which are autonomous corporations, yet shows 
 many points of divergence ; and their extent and stand- 
 ards of scholarship vary even more widely. The larger 
 among them exhibit a very complete development of 
 technical and professional schools, with the exception of 
 schools of theology, which naturally have no place in a 
 country where state aid is not extended to religion. The 
 professional schools of law and medicine, however, are 
 generally supported, at least in greater part, by the fees 
 received from students, and up to the present time nne 
 of them has been put on a true university basis. Other- 
 wise, the sources of income of these universities are mainly 
 the following: i The proceeds of land-grants made in 1862 
 by the federal government, in accordance with the famous 
 " Morrill Act" of 1862, for the maintenances of colleges 
 whose leading object should be instruction in those branches 
 of learning relating to agricultural and mechanical arts, 
 including military tactics, and not excluding other scientific 
 
 1 The university of the state of New York is not a university at all, but rather 
 a state board of education, with supervision of all instruction given in the state. 
 The "University of France," as constituted under Napoleon I, is closely analo- 
 gous to it.
 
 277] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 2 7 
 
 and classical studies ; 2 State taxation, whether by way of 
 annual appropriations from the general taxes of the state, or 
 by continuous appropriations from a permanent special tax ; 
 3 Tuition fees (only in some of the universities, while in 
 many instruction is entirely gratuitous) ; 4 Private gifts and 
 endowments the least common source of revenue, although 
 some brilliant exceptions are to be noted. 
 
 The universal verdict of public opinion, in the states 
 where such institutions are maintained, is that they, as state 
 organizations supported directly by public taxation from 
 which no taxable individual is exempt, should be open with- 
 out distinction of sex, color or religion to all who can profit 
 by the instruction therein given. Each forms the uppermost 
 division of the general system of public education of the 
 state in which it is maintained, and is managed with a view 
 to completing the scheme of instruction begun in the pri- 
 mary and carried on in the secondary schools. Control is 
 vested in a board of public officials, generally called 
 "regents." For example, the board of regents of the Uni- 
 versity of Minnesota consists of the governor of the state, 
 the superintendent of public instruction, the president of the 
 university, and seven members appointed by the governor 
 and confirmed by the senate. In Michigan the regents are 
 elected by popular vote for terms of eight years an 
 unusual feature. The composition and mode of choice of 
 these boards varies greatly in different states, and not less 
 their fitness for the responsibilities entrusted to them. In 
 some states, as in Michigan and Wisconsin, the result of 
 many years' endeavor has been, though after many vicissi- 
 tudes and bitter struggles, the creation of noble schools of 
 training ; in others the constant changes in political com- 
 plexion of the legislature, and the self-seeking of party lead- 
 ers, have made the universities mere shuttlecocks of public 
 or party opinion, and not only has their development been 
 hindered, but in some cases their usefulness deliberately 
 crippled. Instances are not unknown where particularly 
 able and courageous professors, who would not cut their
 
 28 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [278 
 
 scientific opinions after the prevailing fashion in politics, 
 have been driven from their chairs, even by outrageously 
 underhanded methods. 
 
 Of the state universities the most prominent and success- 
 ful are those of Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Cali- 
 fornia. The first mentioned is the oldest and perhaps the 
 best known. Under the direction of a series of singularly 
 able men it has grown, since its foundation in 1837, into a 
 position of commanding importance. The three others, 
 while considerably younger, have shown a surprisingly rapid 
 growth. As examples of the organization of state universi- 
 ties will be taken Wisconsin and California. 
 
 The University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. When the 
 state of Wisconsin was organized in 1848, the university was 
 established by constitution as a part of the free school sys- 
 tem of the state. The law establishing it declares that its 
 object shall be " to provide the means of acquiring a 
 thorough knowledge of the various branches of learning 
 connected with scientific, industrial and professional pur- 
 suits." The institution was reorganized in 1866, when the 
 college of agriculture was united with it ; and the profes- 
 sional and technical schools were added in rapid succession. 
 
 The university comprises six divisions : 
 
 I College of letters and science, with seven different 
 undergraduate courses leading to baccalaureate degrees. 
 The corresponding graduate courses lead to the higher 
 degrees of master of arts, literature or science, and doctor of 
 philosophy. These graduate courses include philosophy, 
 pedagogy, economic and social science, history, philology, 
 mathematics, natural sciences. 
 
 II College of mechanics and engineering; the under- 
 graduate courses lead to the degree of bachelor of science, 
 and graduate courses to those of civil, mechanical, or electri- 
 cal engineer. 
 
 III College of agriculture, with three different courses, 
 one leading to the degree of bachelor of science, and a 
 course for graduates, to the degree of master of science.
 
 279] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 29 
 
 IV College of law, with a three years' course, leading to 
 the degree of bachelor of laws. 
 
 V School of pharmacy. 
 
 VI School of music. 
 
 The school of economics, political science and history and 
 the school of education are subdivisions of the college of 
 letters and science ; their work extends over the later portion 
 of the undergraduate, and through the graduate, depart- 
 ments. The line between advanced undergraduates and 
 graduate students is not sharply drawn, some courses being 
 open to both classes of students. 
 
 The University of California, Berkeley and San Francisco, 
 Cal. The University of California, an integral part of the 
 public educational system of the state, was established in 
 1 868, and instruction was begun the following year. The 
 college of California, which had been organized in 1855, 
 transferred its property and students to the new institution 
 in 1869, and closed its own work of instruction. The pro- 
 fessional schools, though contemplated in the original plan, 
 were not actually organized until later. In June, 1888, the 
 Lick observatory at Mount Hamilton became a part of the 
 university. 
 
 The controlling body is unusually large, consisting of the 
 governor and lieutenant-governor of the state, the speaker 
 of the assembly, the state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion, the presidents of the state agricultural society and the 
 mechanics' institute of San Francisco, and the president of 
 the university (all these ex-officio), and sixteen other regents 
 appointed by the governor with the approval of the state 
 senate. 
 
 The institution is supported by various state funds ; the 
 college of law has a special endowment ; the other profes- 
 sional schools are supported by tuition-fees. 
 
 In 1898 gifts amounting to many millions of dollars were 
 made to the institution by Mrs. Phcebe Hearst, which will 
 make possible the development of the university on a scale 
 hitherto unexampled in America.
 
 -JO THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [280 
 
 The organization of the university comprises the follow- 
 ing departments of instruction : 
 
 I In Berkeley : 
 
 A The colleges of general culture : Letters (with degree 
 of bachelor of arts), social science (bachelor of letters), 
 natural sciences (bachelor of science), commerce (degree 
 not yet established). 
 
 B The colleges of applied science, leading to the degree 
 of bachelor of science. 
 
 II At Mt. Hamilton: 
 
 The Lick astronomical department (observatory). 
 
 III In San Francisco: 
 
 i The Mark Hopkins institute of art. 2 The Hastings 
 college of the law. 3 The medical department. 4 The 
 post-graduate medical department. 5 The college of dent- 
 istry. 6 The California college of pharmacy. 7 The vet- 
 erinary department. 
 
 In the graduate department, regularly organized courses 
 of instruction and research lead to the degrees of master of 
 arts, literature or science, and doctor of philosophy. These 
 courses comprise instruction in philosophy and education, 
 history and political science, philology, decorative and indus- 
 trial art, mathematics and natural science, engineering and 
 agriculture. They are classified as : i Primarily for gradu- 
 ates ; 2 for graduates and advanced undergraduates. 
 
 Contrast with European universities 
 
 The foregoing account of the chief types of university 
 organization in the United States will, it is hoped, have 
 made clear most of the details in which their structure is 
 peculiarly American. The older institutions, starting from 
 the English type of college, never developed in the direction 
 of universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where the idea of 
 the university as a great teaching body was lost in the 
 excessive development of the college as a place of residence, 
 and of the university as primarily a congeries of colleges.
 
 28 1] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 31 
 
 The early medieval universities of Europe, on the continent 
 as well as in England, generally provided for their students 
 places of residence in buildings set apart for this purpose, 
 instruction of the lower grades in connection with these 
 residence halls, and higher instruction independently of them. 
 On the continent, however, especially in France and Ger- 
 many, the residential feature rapidly became less important, 
 and finally, with a few unimportant exceptions, disappeared 
 altogether, so that the entire resources of the universities, 
 though often scanty enough, could be turned to account for 
 the work of instruction. In England exactly the opposite 
 occurred ; the residential halls became, through the impulse 
 of successive pious foundations, the important factors in the 
 university life, even attaining corporate independence and 
 ultimately great wealth, and gradually assumed most of the 
 instruction of the students, though the examinations and 
 the award of degrees remained the prerogatives of the uni- 
 versity as a whole conditions which made directly for the 
 fixity of residence characteristic of English universities, and 
 adopted as a matter of course in the American colleges pat- 
 terned after the English model. If the establishment of 
 Harvard and Yale colleges had been followed at brief inter- 
 vals of time by the foundation of other residential colleges 
 in Cambridge and New Haven, and if there had existed in 
 the colonies an established church with a prestige such as 
 that possessed by the church of England in the home coun- 
 try, keeping the colleges under its control, a state of affairs 
 similar to that at Oxford would doubtless have resulted. 
 The scanty population and limited means of the colonies, 
 and their independence of the church of England, prevented 
 such a result, fortunately, on the whole, for the educational 
 welfare of the country at large. 1 Yet the residential feature 
 has persisted throughout the history of the American col- 
 lege ; though abandoned here and there, as at Columbia and 
 
 1 It is interesting to note that during the last few years the rapid growth of 
 Harvard college, which had 1,851 undergraduate students in attendance during 
 1898-9, led to a suggestion that it be divided somewhat on the English plan into 
 three or four separate colleges, a plan which met with little favor.
 
 32 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [282 
 
 the University of Pennsylvania, it has been restored at the 
 latter, has again been adopted in principle, if not yet in 
 practice, at Columbia, and deliberately introduced, in various 
 forms, at many new institutions, even in some which at first 
 had made no provision for students' residence. The Ameri- 
 can institutions differ furthermore from the English universi- 
 ties in this, that their growth has been so largely in the 
 direction of professional and technical schools, though these 
 have been thus far in less than a half a dozen instances 
 placed on a real university basis. 
 
 The points of difference between the American and the 
 continental European universities are not less apparent. 
 Taken as a whole, the American institutions exhibit only a 
 portion of what in Europe is thought necessary to the con- 
 stitution of a complete university, viz., the traditional four 
 faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy, because, 
 although all four may be in existence (as for example at 
 Harvard), they are not all organized and administered on 
 the same plane ; but on the other hand they include elements 
 which in Europe are sharply marked off from the universi- 
 ties, namely, technical schools, and undergraduate schools 
 which in some cases correspond fairly well to the lycee or 
 gymnasium of France or Germany, in others to the last two 
 or three years of these institutions and the first year of the 
 university or technical school. If we separate the strictly 
 graduate schools of the American universities from the 
 remainder of their respective institutions, we shall find them 
 in general covering pretty nearly the ground of the " philo- 
 sophical faculties " of Germany, and more or less closely 
 approximating them in methods of work. A decided point 
 of difference, however, consists in the comparative infre- 
 quence of migration on the part of students from university 
 to university, which is so nearly the universal rule in 
 Germany.
 
 283] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 33 
 
 III EARLIEST BEGINNINGS OF UNIVERSITY OR GRADUATE 
 INSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OUT 
 OF THE COLLEGE. INFLUENCE OF GERMAN MODELS AND 
 METHODS 
 
 The cataloges of Harvard college contain, somewhat 
 before 1800, the names of individuals enrolled as "resident 
 graduates," though no statement is made of the advantages 
 offered them or the work expected of them. This continues 
 for many years, the numbers of the graduate students vary- 
 ing greatly; e.g., in 1811 are entered twelve such; in 1825, 
 one; in 1833, nine; in 1837, one; in 1845, J 5J m l &5> 
 three; in 1855, six; in 1860, nine. During the early years 
 of the i gth century Americans began to seek out the uni- 
 versities of Germany. The first American to be graduated 
 at a German university was Edward Everett, who was made 
 a doctor of philosophy of Gottingen in 1817. He was fol- 
 lowed in 1819 by Joseph Green Cogswell, by George Ban- 
 croft in 1820, and R. B. Patton in 1821. The inspiration 
 there received sowed the seed from which has sprung such 
 abundant fruit. Yet the seed was long in sprouting. A 
 very interesting letter from Bancroft, written in 1871,' offer- 
 ing the foundation of a graduate scholarship, tells of the 
 writer's unsuccessful attempts in 1821 "to introduce among 
 us some parts of the German system of education, so as to 
 divide more exactly preliminary studies from the higher 
 scientific courses, and thus facilitate the transformation of 
 our colleges into universities, after the plan everywhere 
 adopted in Germany." He then continues: "But it is not 
 easy to change an organization that has its roots in the 
 habits of the country ; and the experiment could not suc- 
 ceed." " I then applied * * * for leave to read lec- 
 tures on History in the University. At Gottingen or at 
 Berlin I had the right, after a few preliminary formalities, 
 to deliver such a course. * * * My request was 
 
 1 In the Harvard University Catalog for 1898-9, pp. 459 ff.
 
 34 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [284 
 
 declined by my own alma mater. * * *" After 1821 
 no American seems to have received a German degree until 
 1848, when B. A. Gould, the astronomer, took the doctor's 
 degree in philosophy. From this time on the numbers 
 increased rapidly. Gottingen was the favorite university 
 with Americans, though some studied elsewhere, W. D. 
 Whitney taking his degree at Breslau in 1852. 
 
 The year 1847 saw the establishment at Yale of a " depart- 
 ment of philosophy and the' arts," for scientific and graduate 
 study, leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy. 
 The catalog of that year says : " The branches intended 
 to be embraced in this department are such in general as 
 are not included under theology, law or medicine ; or more 
 particularly, mathematical science, physical science and its 
 application to the arts, metaphysics, philology, literature and 
 history. The instructions in the department are intended 
 for graduates of this and other colleges, and for such other 
 young men as are desirous of pursuing special branches of 
 study ; but it is necessary for all students in philosophy and 
 mathematical science that they be thoroughly grounded in 
 these studies." Among the first lecturers in these courses 
 were President Woolsey in Greek, Professors Silliman in 
 chemistry, Porter in logic and philosophy, Salisbury in ori- 
 ental languages. During the years between 1847 anc ^ J 86i 
 these courses were gradually expanded, and soon separated 
 into two divisions, i, the Yale (afterwards called the Shef- 
 field) scientific school ; and 2, special courses in history, phil- 
 ology, philosophy and mathematics. Other scholars of note 
 were added to the list of lecturers, notably W. D. Whitney 
 in 1854. In the catalog for 1 860-61 appears for the first 
 time in the United States the announcement that the degree 
 of doctor of philosophy will be awarded. As candidates 
 there were to be admitted, without examination, bachelors of 
 arts, science and philosophy ; others after successfully pass- 
 ing equivalent examinations. The degree was first bestowed 
 in 1 86 1. A distinct graduate school was first fully organ- 
 ized in 1872.
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 35 
 
 At the University of Michigan a university course was 
 projected early in President Tappan's administration (1852 
 1863), but never fully carried out. In 1858-9 some gradu- 
 ate courses of lectures were established. The degree of 
 master of arts was first conferred after examination in 1859 ; 
 previously it had been given, as elsewhere, " in course," i. e., 
 after the lapse of a certain period. 
 
 At Columbia college a plan was formed between 1854 and 
 1857 to establish three schools, of philosophy or philology, 
 jurisprudence and history, and mathematics and physical 
 science, to extend through the senior year of the college 
 and two years beyond it, the degree of bachelor of arts to 
 be given as usual at the end of the four years' course. The 
 plan was not completely realized, but twenty-five years later 
 it was revived in a somewhat different form by the establish- 
 ment of the school of political science, and the principle 
 has been substantially adopted in the present organization 
 of the university. In 1858 courses of lectures for advanced 
 students were opened by Professors A. Guyot, G. P. Marsh, 
 W. G. Peck and others, but continued only for one year. 
 
 In 1860 the Harvard catalog contains for the first time 
 a definite statement about graduate students : " Graduates 
 of the university, or of other collegiate institutions, desirous 
 of pursuing studies at Cambridge without joining any pro- 
 fessional school, may do so as resident graduates." In 
 February, 1863, courses of lectures were offered "open to 
 all graduates of colleges and school teachers who enter their 
 names, to persons connected with the university, except 
 undergraduates, and to others on payment of $5 " on nat- 
 ural science, philosophy, literature, art, etc. Among the lec- 
 turers were Louis Agassiz, James Russell Lowell, Charles 
 Eliot Norton. These lectures were continued until 1872 ; 
 but the number of resident graduates remained practically 
 stationary, even declining to 5 in 1868-9. 
 
 In 1872 Harvard university announced that it would con- 
 fer the degrees of doctor of philosophy and doctor of 
 science, and that the degree of master of arts would be
 
 36 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [286 
 
 given only on examination. To candidacy for these higher 
 degrees were to be admitted bachelors of arts of Harvard, 
 and bachelors of arts of other colleges who should satisfy the 
 faculty that they had had a training equal to that given at 
 Harvard. Excellent provision was made for the instruction 
 of graduates, and one fellowship and one scholarship for 
 graduates were established. In 1872 28 graduate students 
 were enrolled; in 1876-7, 61 ; in 1889-90, in. The gradu- 
 ate department was organized as a separate school in 1890. 
 In the twenty-five years from 1873 to 1898 the doctorate in 
 science or in philosophy has been conferred on 212 men. 
 
 At Cornell university, where actual instruction was begun 
 in 1868, the degree of doctor of philosophy was planned for 
 from the beginning, though at first the requirements were 
 strangely limited. Rapid changes were soon made, how- 
 ever, and in 1871 we find the requirements of two years' 
 resident graduate study, the passing of examinations, and 
 the presentation of a satisfactory dissertation, laid down in 
 the catalog. The graduate courses are thus described in 
 the catalog of 1876: "Post graduate courses of study 
 leading to secondary or advanced degrees have been or will 
 be on application marked out, in the following general 
 departments : Chemistry and physics, ancient classical lan- 
 guages and literature, modern European languages and 
 literatures, oriental languages and literatures, mathematics, 
 natural history, and philosophy and letters." In the same 
 year regulations for the award of the degree of doctor of 
 science were established. 
 
 At Princeton " post-graduate " courses are first mentioned 
 in the catalogue for 1877-8, as in operation, with 44 students, 
 in three groups, philology, philosophy and [natural] science. 
 At first only a certificate of work done was given to these 
 students ; the degree of master of arts was still given " in 
 course." Courses in natural science, leading to the degree 
 of master of science, were established in 1881 ; and about 
 the same time new regulations for the master's degree were 
 published, and that of doctor of philosophy was offered.
 
 287] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 37 
 
 Johns Hopkins university was organized from the first 
 with chief regard to graduate work ; its influence upon 
 older institutions became very marked from the time of its 
 opening in 1876. The University of Michigan first offered 
 the doctor's degree in philosophy in 1874-5. The degree 
 of master of arts ceased to be conferred " in course" in 1877. 
 
 At Columbia the master of arts degree was conferred " in 
 course" for the last time in 1880; thereafter it was given 
 only to bachelors of arts of three years' standing, who had 
 pursued for at least one year a course of study under the 
 direction of the faculty of the college, in one or more of five 
 groups : Greek, Latin, English ; philosophy, ethics, logic ; 
 mathematics, mechanics, astronomy ; physics, chemistry, 
 geology; constitutional law, economics, history. Instruction 
 for graduates was begun in the same year. The degree of 
 doctor of philosophy was first awarded in 1884. The regu- 
 lations for the award of the higher degrees suffered several 
 changes from year to year. In 1890 the entire institution 
 was thoroughly reorganized ; the school of philosophy was 
 established ; it and the school of political science, existing 
 since 1879, were made " university " faculties, and in 1893 
 the faculty of pure science was added to them. 
 
 At Bryn Mawr college, opened in 1885, graduate instruc- 
 tion was undertaken from the first, as at Johns Hopkins, 
 though the organization of undergraduate work was made 
 relatively more important than at Baltimore. Clark univer- 
 sity, from 1887, has never organized undergraduate courses. 
 
 The twenty-eight years elapsed since the first doctor of 
 philosophy was created at New Haven, in 1861, have brought 
 about an expansion and development of graduate study that 
 is not less than wonderful. In 1898-9 over 3,600 students, 
 of whom nearly 1,000 were women, were enrolled in some 
 24 institutions. The whole number who were receiving 
 graduate instruction in the United States was much greater 
 than this; and in 1898, 246 persons received from these 
 institutions the degree of doctor of philosophy. 
 
 In this rapid development, from 1860 to 1899, of the doc-
 
 38 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [288 
 
 torate as the goal to which the graduate student presses on, 
 must be recognized the working of the impulse and inspira- 
 tion brought from Germany. The enthusiastic desire, felt 
 by Bancroft in 1820, of transforming the American college 
 into a German university, shows itself again in Michigan 
 and elsewhere a generation later. Between 1870 and 1880 
 many Americans were returning home from foreign study, 
 and the number of those seeking the universities of the 
 fatherland increased rapidly. What appealed to them most 
 among the advantages there found was the freedom of 
 research, and the abundant encouragement and opportunities 
 extended to the aspiring student. There was little or noth- 
 ing in the American college organization of 1870 to encour- 
 age this spirit, and it is no wonder that each returning Ph. D., 
 or his less fortunate brother whose means or time had not 
 permitted him to acquire this badge of accomplishment, 
 should have proved an apostle of a new dispensation. That 
 many mistakes should be made was inevitable ; the first 
 enthusiasm overlooked many of the stubborn facts of Ameri- 
 can life which refused to be bent into agreement with Ger- 
 man standards. It is to the credit of American educators 
 that so many ways have been found of keeping what is good 
 for us in the German system, and bringing it into harmony 
 with a national view of life quite different from that which 
 produced this system. The plan, so often advocated, of turn- 
 ing the colleges into universities at once, could not have 
 succeeded, because the projectors forgot that only the Ger- 
 man secondary school system made possible the German 
 university and its methods of work, that the reform must be 
 begun at the bottom as well as at the top, and that the 
 American college was too intimately connected with the 
 American national life to be abolished or summarily turned 
 into a Gymnasium. The last ten or fifteen years have 
 brought much greater clearness of vision. The problem to 
 be worked out, a problem whose solution is well begun, is 
 how to make of the college the proper complement of the 
 secondary school. In their gymnasial organization, with its
 
 289] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 39 
 
 rigid training under one system for nine years, the Germans 
 have beyond question an educational advantage of incalcu- 
 lable value ; but such a system is possible only in a state 
 whose government is sufficiently strong and paternal to 
 impose its will upon the people for generation after genera- 
 tion. We too could have gymnasia if we were willing to 
 pay the price for them. That price, however, would be one 
 against which the personal independence of the American 
 would instantly protest. The maintenance of the rigid con- 
 trol and discipline of the gymnasium is made possible only 
 by a direct interference of the teachers, as government offi- 
 cials, even with what seem to Americans to be pure family 
 matters. 1 
 
 Naturally, then, what was adopted from Germany was 
 found to be most available and useful when employed as a 
 supplement to the American college, not as a substitute for 
 it. That this addition to our educational system was in 
 general made in connection with existing institutions has 
 been on the whole a great advantage to us. Great libraries, 
 laboratories and museums, such as are necessary to a univer- 
 sity, cannot be created at once, even with adequate endow- 
 ments. Until the principle of American government is 
 changed it will not be possible to create state institutions 
 exclusively devoted to the highest education ; nor, under the 
 political conditions of the United States, is it desirable. 
 The number of men thoroughly competent to organize and 
 administer a great university is very small indeed ; the best 
 commercial or political organizer often fails most signally in 
 this field. For this very reason, probably, the expe'riment 
 has not yet been possible on a scale large enough to afford 
 
 a real test. 
 
 i 
 
 1 So for instance the domiciliary visits sometimes made by the teachers, to see 
 if the pupils are at work at the hours prescribed for Hausarbeit. For an excellent 
 account of the German gymnasia, see Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools, N. 
 Y. 1899.
 
 4<D THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [290 
 
 IV QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION. STUDIES AND DEGREES. 
 HONORARY DOCTORS OF PHILOSOPHY. AIDS TO STUDY AND 
 RESEARCH : MUSEUMS, LABORATORIES, LIBRARIES 
 
 In general, the possession of a bachelor's degree is requi- 
 site for admission to the graduate school of an American 
 university. In the earlier years of the existence of these 
 schools, it was chiefly the degree of bachelor of arts which 
 was demanded. A difficulty soon arose. Many students 
 presented themselves who had had a good training, though 
 without the classics, or at least without Greek, and held 
 bachelors' degrees in philosophy or science. At some insti- 
 tutions these degrees represented distinctly less severe work 
 than the degree of bachelor of arts, at others this discrep- 
 ancy did not exist. In general, however, it must be said, 
 the first degrees in "philosophy," "letters" or "science" 
 were more easily acquired than that in arts. To ensure the 
 proper preparation of intending students, most graduate 
 faculties or boards of administration reserved and still 
 reserve the right of passing upon the special qualifications 
 of each individual who does not hold a first degree from the 
 institution where he seeks admission as a graduate student. 
 In some universities great liberality sometimes too great 
 is shown toward applicants. At Columbia those who 
 hold a baccalaureate degree in arts, letters, philosophy or 
 science, or an engineering degree, or the equivalent of one 
 of these from a foreign institution of learning, are admitted 
 as candidates for the degrees of master of arts and doctor of 
 philosophy ; the university faculties protect themselves by 
 requiring that every candidate for a higher degree must 
 present to the dean of each school in which he intends to 
 study evidence that he is qualified for the studies he desires 
 to undertake. A student once admitted to one of the 
 schools, however, unless as a special student, becomes ipso 
 facto a candidate for a degree, and is expected to settle at 
 once upon his major and two minor subjects. At other 
 universities admission to a graduate school does not imply
 
 2Ql] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 4! 
 
 admission to candidacy for a degree, this being granted only 
 later, when the student has shown himself thoroughly quali- 
 fied for the necessary work. This qualification includes in 
 many institutions the ability to read fluently French and 
 German, sometimes Latin. The plan has been found to 
 work well where it has been in operation, and deserves gen- 
 eral adoption. It is followed, e. g., at Harvard, and at the 
 University of Chicago. At the latter institution the names 
 of those who are, and those who are not yet, admitted to 
 candidacy for a degree are printed separately in the 
 catalog. 
 
 All the graduate schools, with few if any exceptions, award 
 the degrees of master of arts and doctor of philosophy. At 
 Columbia these are the only ones thus awarded, the degree 
 of master of laws, though classed as a university degree, 
 being given for work done under the faculties of law and 
 political science together. The doctorate is offered at some 
 institutions in two forms, doctor of philosophy and doctor of 
 science ; the latter, given for advanced work in natural 
 science, is rarely taken. At Harvard, for instance, while 
 190 degrees of Ph. D. were granted from 1873 to 1898, but 
 22 of S. D. were given, the greatest number in any one year 
 being three, and none were awarded in 1874, 1876, 1877, 
 1880, 1883, 1885, 1888, 1890, 1896, or 1898. 
 
 The master's degree has not been reduced to such sim- 
 plicity. Many institutions still create masters of science, 
 philosophy, letters (or literature), corresponding to the bac- 
 calaureate degrees in those subjects. 
 
 The requirements to be fulfilled for the doctor's degree 
 show greater uniformity among the different institutions than 
 those for the master's. The minimum period of study any- 
 where accepted is two years after receiving the bachelor's 
 degree. Where undergraduates are admitted to some of 
 the courses arranged for graduates, this means that three 
 years (as at Columbia), or even four (as at Cornell), may 
 still be passed under the direction of the graduate faculty 
 or committee of graduate instruction by a student who
 
 42 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [292 
 
 merely fulfills the minimum requirement of graduate attend- 
 ance. But even in those institutions where the minimum 
 period is two years the degree is not often obtained in that 
 time ; it may indeed be safely said that the minimum of 
 three years' study is practically universal. The Johns Hop- 
 kins university, in establishing its regulations for the doc- 
 tor's degree, adopted the German system of Hauptfach and 
 Nebenf acker, the " major subject " being that field of research 
 which furnishes the subject for the dissertation demanded, 
 and the "minor subjects" being required to be organically 
 connected with it. Harvard and Yale, on the other hand, 
 do not hold to this system, demanding merely that the 
 amount and kind of work done shall be satisfactory to the 
 controlling board or committee. At Harvard the regula- 
 tions read as follows : " A candidate for the degree of doctor 
 of philosophy must offer himself for examination in some 
 one of the divisions of the faculty of arts and sciences. 
 The subjects in which the degree may be taken are * * * : 
 philology, philosophy, history, political science, music, mathe- 
 matics, physics (including chemistry), natural history, Amer- 
 ican archaeology and ethnology. Within his chosen division 
 the candidate must name some special field of study, approved 
 as sufficient by the committee on honors and higher degrees 
 in that division. He is liable to minute examination on the 
 whole of that special field and is also required to prove such 
 acquaintance with the subject-matter of his division in gen- 
 eral as the committee in that division shall require." For 
 the doctorate in science two subjects in the range of the 
 mathematical, physical and natural sciences are demanded, 
 in one of which special attainments must be shown. Colum- 
 bia goes farther perhaps than any other American univer- 
 sity in specifying minutely what branches of study may 
 count as subjects in the schools of philosophy, political sci- 
 ence and pure science. Concerning the recognition of work 
 done in graduate schools elsewhere great diversity of prac- 
 tice prevails. No university has yet seen fit to accept can- 
 didates for the degree who have completed all their residence
 
 293] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 43 
 
 elsewhere, as is so freely done in Germany ; the feeling is 
 still strong that the institution that bestows a degree upon a 
 candidate must have had that candidate under its direct 
 charge for a considerable time. The practice shows a dis- 
 trust of other institutions which is far from complimentary 
 to the general state of the university education in America, 
 and is partly explainable from the strong competition for 
 students which, characteristic of most of the colleges, is often 
 seen in the graduate schools as well. It is to be hoped that 
 this spirit will gradually disappear. The sooner all the 
 graduate schools realize that their interests are absolutely 
 identical the better for university education in America. 
 The smallest minimum time of actual residence where the 
 degree is sought that is anywhere prescribed for the doctor's 
 degree is one year. Generally it is the last year of resi- 
 dence that is thus demanded. Wisconsin stipulates that 
 either the last year or the first two years be spent in resi- 
 dence there. At some of the universities there are regula- 
 tions concerning the minimum number of hours of lectures 
 to be taken ; at Columbia, for instance, candidates for either 
 the master's or the doctor's degree are expected to attend 
 lectures for at least four hours a week in the major subject, 
 and two hours a week in each of the minors, and a seminar 
 must be attended in the major subject. At Johns Hopkins 
 each minor subject is expected to be followed for a year, the 
 first minor to about double the extent of the second. Most 
 of the universities, however, leave the graduate student free 
 in this respect, justly regarding the direction and advice of 
 the professor as a better guide than hard and fast regula- 
 tions. Nearly everywhere a reading knowledge of French 
 and German, and in many institutions a similar knowledge 
 of Latin, are demanded of the candidate. The require- 
 ments of a dissertation embodying original research, and of 
 examinations, are enforced at all the prominent institutions. 
 In the management of the examinations the practice of the 
 various institutions differs widely. In many both written 
 and oral examinations must be passed, and often the candi-
 
 44 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [294 
 
 date must pass an oral examination at least on his major 
 subject, and defend his dissertation, before the whole fac- 
 ulty a custom which ought to be made universal. Fifteen 
 at least of the universities granting the doctor's degree 
 require the dissertation, when accepted, to be printed ; in 
 most cases where this is done a stated number of copies 
 must be furnished, free of cost to the institution, to its 
 library, for distribution among other institutions at home and 
 abroad. 
 
 Concerning the master's degree, as has been said above, 
 much less uniformity prevails. The Ph. D. degree was so 
 distinctively a new departure when first introduced into 
 America that it was easier to establish regulations for it 
 which should be at variance with old-established usage ; but 
 the master of arts was as old as the college itself, and a 
 firmly fixed tradition gave it, for many years, as a matter of 
 course, after a certain interval of time, to those bachelors 
 who were willing to pay a moderate amount for the privilege. 
 Only rarely was any evidence of continued study demanded. 
 After the middle of the present century, however, this cus- 
 tom was viewed with increasing disfavor, and one college 
 after another abolished it. Requirements of residence and 
 study were established, or of study elsewhere than at the 
 institution granting the degree, with an examination as a 
 test. But these requirements were made on two different 
 principles. In some places the master's degree was viewed 
 as an advanced baccalaureate, and requirements of certain 
 " courses," covering a certain number of hours of attendance, 
 adopted. Elsewhere it was regarded as a sort of minor doc- 
 tor's degree, and the requirements arranged accordingly, i. e., 
 attendance for a certain minimum period, without stipulation 
 of the number of hours, and a thesis or essay. Columbia 
 seems to have gone farthest in this respect, demanding work 
 in three subjects, as for the doctor's degree. In all cases, 
 however, under both systems alike, the time spent in resi- 
 dence for the master's degree may count towards the doctor- 
 ate. The minimum term of residence is everywhere a year,
 
 295] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 45 
 
 except that the University of Michigan is satisfied with six 
 months from its own graduates. Clark university and Johns 
 Hopkins do not grant the master's degree separately from 
 the doctorate ; at Bryn Mawr it may be given separately 
 only to graduates of that college. 
 
 The better and more logical plan seems to be the separa- 
 tion of the master's degree in principle from the doctor's. 
 While both go back to the same beginning, and when first 
 bestowed in European universities meant about the same 
 thing, their courses of development diverged, England hold- 
 ing to the master of arts and Germany substituting for it 
 the doctorate in philosophy, to correspond with that in law 
 and medicine, and everywhere doing away with the bacca- 
 laureate, except as transferred to the gymnasia and repre- 
 sented by the testimonium maturitatis. It is interesting, 
 and characteristic for the peculiar development of American 
 educational forms, that the two divergent branches of the 
 parent stem should have been brought together again in our 
 universities. There will always be a considerable number 
 of students who wish to continue their work beyond the 
 bachelor's degree, but along the same lines, and do not care 
 to enter upon the detailed research necessary for the doctor- 
 ate. For these the master's degree, administered on the 
 first plan, is most appropriate. Those, on the other hand, 
 who seek the doctorate are mostly indifferent to the master's 
 degree. 
 
 The methods of study and instruction differ but slightly 
 from those in vogue in the German university, and thus far 
 have yielded excellent results. The differences are mainly 
 such as result naturally from the greater burdening of the 
 American professor with routine work, and from the varying 
 conditions of previous training on the part of the students. 
 In general, the " lecture," or freier Vortrag, is less common 
 than in Germany, though gradually supplanting the recita- 
 tion even in the upper classes of the college ; in the opinion 
 of the present writer, the lecture is still far from receiving 
 its due development among us. Its value in the exposition
 
 4 6 
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 [296 
 
 of the fundamental principles of the various sciences is not 
 yet everywhere fully recognized. " Seminar " methods are 
 now very widely used even where the constitution of the 
 class is much less restricted than in the German seminars. 
 The American seminar is of course very variously adminis- 
 tered, depending on the ability of those in charge and the 
 preparation of the students. The professors, so far as their 
 other prescribed tasks allow, set the example of individual 
 scientific research; It cannot yet be said, however, that this 
 is made easy for the American professor. 
 
 An interesting chapter in the history of American educa- 
 tion, and unfortunately one that cannot yet be brought to a 
 close, concerns the fight made against the outrageous prac- 
 tice of awarding the doctorate in philosophy as an honor- 
 ary degree. Awarded first by Yale in 1860 as strictly a 
 specialist's degree, it has been jealously guarded by the 
 more reputable institutions, while the less scrupulous col- 
 leges seized upon it with avidity as a new advertisement for 
 themselves. Several learned societies, following the lead 
 taken by the American philological association in 1881, set 
 themselves vigorously against the abuse, and in 1896 a con- 
 vention of graduate students held at Baltimore strongly 
 condemned the practice. The sentiment of the enlightened 
 public is gradually being brought to condemn the custom, 
 though the rate of progress suffers considerable variation 
 from year to year. The following table shows the figures 
 for certain years : 
 
 NO. OF PH. D. DEGREES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GRANTED IN UNITED 
 
 1873 
 
 1884 
 
 1889 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 STATES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 On examination 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 121 
 
 233 
 
 234 
 
 230 
 
 227 
 
 104 
 
 Honoris causa 
 
 17 
 
 36 
 
 50 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 Ratio of honorary Ph. D. to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph. D. on examination... 
 
 68* 
 
 I28# 
 
 4i# 
 
 I4# 
 
 15* 
 
 91-2$ 
 
 3* 
 
 5* 
 
 With the equipment ol laboratories, museums and libra- 
 ries, indispensable for research, the American universities
 
 297] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 47 
 
 are now fairly well, and some of them abundantly, provided. 
 Many of the laboratories are the gift of private individuals ; 
 sometimes the buildings only have been thus provided, 
 sometimes the equipment only, sometimes both. The insti- 
 tutions situated in or near large cities have in addition the 
 advantage of the public museums and libraries ; thus, to 
 mention but a few instances, Harvard is within easy reach 
 of the Boston museum of fine arts and the Boston public 
 library, besides having under her own control several excel- 
 lent museums ; Columbia is close to the Metropolitan 
 museum of art, the American museum of natural history, 
 and others ; the Johns Hopkins students can easily reach the 
 great national collections at Washington, and so on. The 
 western universities are not as yet so highly favored in this 
 respect. 
 
 The growth of the university and college libraries in the 
 United States is hardly less than phenomenal. The largest 
 are the following : Harvard, 524,000 vols.; Chicago, 309,000 ; 
 Yale, 290,000; Columbia, 260,000; Cornell, 211,000; Penn- 
 sylvania, 160,000. It must be said, however, that the excel- 
 lence of the library is not always indicated by its size. The 
 liberal and practical spirit in which American university 
 libraries are administered is very striking ; of the cumber- 
 some methods and vexatious restrictions so common in 
 European libraries little is to be found. 
 
 V PUBLICATIONS OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 
 
 From a number of the universities of the United States 
 issue serial publications of a scientific character, and occa- 
 sional learned works, written or edited by professors and 
 advanced students of those institutions. Some of the uni- 
 versities issue these at their own expense, the entire publi- 
 cation being under the immediate control and direction of 
 the institution, as at Chicago, others through arrangements 
 made with publishing houses. The following list of the 
 chief publications of six of the leading universities will afford 
 an idea of the activity prevailing in this field :
 
 48 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY _ 
 
 I Harvard university Some departments of study issue 
 periodicals or yearly volumes, embodying the work of 
 instructors and students at the university. Such are : 
 
 Harvard Oriental Series. Vols. I-V. 
 
 Harvard Studies in Classical Philogy. Yearly. Vols. I-X. 
 
 Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature. Yearly. Vols. 
 I-VII. 
 
 Harvard Historical Studies. Vols. I-VII. 
 
 Quarterly Journal of Economics ; now in thirteenth year. 
 
 Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College. Vols. I-XXXVI. 
 
 Contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory. Nos. 1-40. 
 
 Publications of the Museum of Comparative Zoology : Bulletins, 
 vols. I-XXXII ; Memoirs, vols. I-XXII. 
 
 Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory. Nos. 1-86. 
 
 Publications of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology 
 and Ethnology: Reports, Nos. 1-31; Papers, Nos. 1-6; Memoirs, 
 Nos. 1-5. 
 
 2 Johns Hopkins university The Johns Hopkins press 
 issues the following, edited by professors of the university : 
 
 American Journal of Mathematics. Quarterly. Vols. I-XXI. 
 American Chemical Journal. Monthly. Vols. I-XXI. 
 American Journal of Philology. Quarterly. Vols. I-XX. 
 Studies from the Biological Laboratory. 
 
 Studies in History and Politics. Monthly. Vols. I-XVII ; also 
 eighteen extra volumes. 
 
 Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports. Vols. I-VII. 
 
 Contributions to Assyriology, etc. Vols. I-IV. 
 
 Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory. Vols. I-IV. 
 
 Modern Language Notes. Monthly. Vols. I-XIV. 
 
 Journal of Experimental Medicine. Bi-monthly. Vols. I-IV. 
 
 American Journal of Insanity. Quarterly. 
 
 Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey. 
 
 3 University of Pennsylvania The following are issued 
 under the editorial supervision of the university publications 
 committee. They are issued for the most part at irregular 
 intervals. 
 
 Series in Philology, Literature and Archaeology. 
 
 Series in Philosophy. 
 
 Series in Political Economy and Public Law.
 
 299] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 49 
 
 Series in Botany. 
 Series in Zoology. 
 Series in Mathematics. 
 Series in Hygiene. 
 Series in Astronomy. 
 
 The museums of archaeology and palaeontology also pub- 
 lish occasional reports. 
 
 4 Columbia university The Columbia university press 
 is a private corporation, the trustees of which must be mem- 
 bers of the teaching staff, and its presiding officer the presi- 
 dent of the university. Up to the present time it has issued 
 sixteen volumes, mostly by present or former members of 
 the university. 
 
 From the university issue the following series of studies 
 and contributions, some few of them through regular pub- 
 lishing channels : 
 
 Biological Contributions from C. U. 
 
 C. U. Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education. 
 
 Contributions from the Electrical Engineering Department of 
 C. U. 
 
 Contributions from the Geological Department, the Herbarium, 
 the Mineralogical Department, the Observatory. 
 
 Memoirs from the Department of Botany. 
 
 Studies from the Analytical and Assay Laboratories, the Depart- 
 ment of Pathology. 
 
 Studies in History, Economics and Public Law. 
 
 The following journals are issued under the direction of 
 members of the faculty : 
 
 Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 
 Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 
 Educational Review. 
 Political Science Quarterly. 
 School of Mines Quarterly. 
 
 5 University of Wisconsin The university issues four 
 series of publications, known as the Bulletins of the Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin, under the direction of a committee 
 consisting of the president and several professors.
 
 5<D THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [300 
 
 Series m Economics, Political Science and History. Vols. I 
 and 2. 
 
 Series in Science. Vols. I and 2. 
 
 Series in Language and Literature. Vol. I. 
 
 Series in Engineering. Vols. I and 2. 
 
 6 University of Chicago The University press forms one 
 of five divisions in the constitution of the university, and is 
 managed by a director appointed by the trustees. The 
 department of publication, one of its parts, issues the fol- 
 lowing journals, edited by professors of the university : 
 
 Journal of Political Economy. Quarterly. 
 Journal of Geology. Bi-monthly. 
 Astrophysical Journal. Ten nos. a year. 
 American Journal of Sociology. Bi-monthly. 
 Biblical World. Monthly. 
 
 American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature (con- 
 tinuation of : Hebraica). Quarterly. 
 Botanical Gazette. Monthly. 
 School Review, Ten nos. a year. 
 American Journal of Theology. Quarterly. 
 
 Several series of " Studies " have also appeared. These are : 
 
 Contributions to Philosophy. I-IV. 
 Economic Studies. I-IV. 
 Studies in Political Science. I-III. 
 Studies in Classical Philology. I-V* 
 Germanic Studies. I-III. 
 English Studies. I. 
 Physiological Archives. I. 
 Anthropological Bulletins. I, II. 
 
 The press also issues from time to time books, particu- 
 larly those of scientific value. 
 
 VI FELLOWSHIPS AND SCHOLARSHIPS. GIFTS AND ENDOW- 
 MENTS FOR UNIVERSITIES, PARTICULARLY FOR RESEARCH 
 
 The generosity of private individuals towards education, 
 which in its largest form has made possible the foundation 
 of such institutions as Johns Hopkins, Cornell and Chicago, 
 manifests itself likewise in the humbler guise of gifts and
 
 30l] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 51 
 
 endowments for special purposes, in the establishment of 
 museums and laboratories, of funds for the maintenance of 
 these or of libraries, in the foundation of scholarships and 
 fellowships intended to aid students of high promise in the 
 prosecution of their studies, or to reward those who have 
 shown conspicuous merit. In general, it may be said that 
 the specifically college part of an institution fares much bet- 
 ter than the university or graduate part in these respects. 
 The reasons are not far to seek. Prizes naturally appeal 
 more to the younger students, and are more easily awarded 
 in connection with the definitely arranged work of under- 
 graduate courses ; it is harder for undergraduates to support 
 themselves by giving private instruction, and in other ways, 
 than for graduate students ; the need of " dormitories " or 
 residence halls, which few colleges can afford to erect from 
 their own funds, is more pressing for undergraduates ; and, 
 finally, of the college-trained men, from whom the larger 
 number of endowments come (though to this there are many 
 striking exceptions), not a very large proportion have had 
 actual experience of graduate work, and do not so readily 
 recognize the importance of it, and their loyalty to their alma 
 matres is accordingly concentrated chiefly upon the collegi- 
 ate rather than the university part, where the latter exists. 
 Scholarships and fellowships are much more bountifully 
 supplied, for graduates as well as undergraduates, in the 
 universities of private foundation than in the state universi- 
 ties. In the latter tuition is either free or considerably 
 cheaper than in the former, and the need for aid to the stu- 
 dent correspondingly less. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cor- 
 nell, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Bryn Mawr, 
 and Chicago are particularly well supplied in this respect ; 
 Chicago has nearly eighty fellowships to award each year, 
 Columbia and Pennsylvania each over thirty. The amount 
 paid by a fellowship to the holder varies from $120 (as some 
 at Chicago) to $800 ; the most usual figure is about $500. 
 The value of a fellowship may, however, be decreased by 
 the requirement, made at some universities, that all tuition
 
 52 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [302 
 
 fees must be paid by the holders ; Columbia is perhaps the 
 most liberal in exempting the holders of fellowships from 
 such payments. In some universities certain duties in the 
 way of instruction, etc., are expected of the fellows. 
 
 The differences between scholarships and fellowships are 
 in general briefly these : The fellowships are awarded only 
 to graduates ; a scholarship may be for graduates or for 
 undergraduates ; the scholarships are awarded generally for 
 a single year only, and without possibility of renewal, while 
 some fellowships run for several years, and the annual ones 
 may be reassigned once or twice to the same person. 
 
 The fellowship system was first extensively used by Johns 
 Hopkins, and has rapidly become a striking feature of Ameri- 
 can university organization. The object sought has been in 
 most cases completely attained, viz., to bring together a body 
 of picked men or women, who display high ability and good 
 previous training for the work of research, and spare them 
 the necessity, so trying to earnest students, of earning their 
 living while carrying on their advanced studies. Some few 
 of the fellowships are so organized as to permit part or the 
 whole of the time over which they extend to be spent in study 
 abroad ; Bryn Mawr in particular offers three European fel- 
 lowships, and for 1898-9 Harvard made twelve appointments 
 to non-resident fellowships. 
 
 Some of these fellowships are paid out of the general funds 
 of the university awarding them ; others are maintained by 
 the proceeds of private gifts and endowments. At some 
 institutions the fellowships are assigned permanently to cer- 
 tain departments ; at others the majority of them are given 
 to the most promising candidates, little regard being had to 
 an even distribution among departments. The fellowships 
 and scholarships founded by individuals are generally 
 attached to some one department. Among the notable 
 benefactions of this sort are : At Harvard, the Kirkland 
 fellowship, founded by Bancroft in 1871 ; the Walker fel- 
 lowship (1881), generally given to a student of ethics and 
 philosophy; the John Tyndall fellowship (1885), in physics;
 
 33] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 53 
 
 the Robert Treat Paine fellowship of social science (1887); 
 the Hemenway fellowship of American archaeology and 
 ethnology (1891). At Columbia, the Tyndall fellowship, 
 similar to that at Harvard, both of them, with others else- 
 where, having been founded by Professor Tyndall ; the 
 Barnard fellowship, in physical science, established by will 
 of the late President Barnard; the Henry Drisler fellow- 
 ship in classical philology; the Mosenthal fellowship in 
 music ; the Schiff fellowship in political science. The Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania possesses a permanent fund of 
 $500,000, the gift of Provost Harrison, the income of which 
 is partly applied to nineteen fellowships, fourteen of which 
 are permanently assigned to particular departments. This 
 fund also supplies five remarkable senior fellowships, yield- 
 ing $800 a year each, open only to doctors of philosophy of 
 the university. Johns Hopkins awards the Bruce fellowship 
 in biological science. Cornell offers, among others, two 
 President White fellowships, one in modern history and one 
 in political and social science, and three Susan Linn Sage 
 fellowships in philosophy. 
 
 Several fellowships at the American schools of classical 
 studies at Athens and in Rome are also offered to graduates 
 of American universities ; of these the Hoppin fellowship at 
 Athens, and the fellowship in Christian archaeology at the 
 school in Rome, are private foundations. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no prominent institution in the United 
 States devoted to the higher education which does not pos- 
 sess some practical demonstration of the determination of 
 individuals to further the work, not only of instruction, but 
 of research as well. The greater gifts result in museums, 
 laboratories or libraries ; such are the Semitic museum and 
 the Fogg art museum at Cambridge, the Avery architectural 
 library at Columbia, the White historical library at Cornell, 
 and many more. The magnificent library building at Colum- 
 bia is the gift of her president ; a great fund, presented by 
 the Due de Loubat, will one day become available as a 
 library fund at Columbia ; the generosity of several gradu-
 
 54 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [304 
 
 ates of Yale brought to her the admirable classical library 
 of Ernst Curtius, as the historical library of Bluntschli was 
 brought to Baltimore ; in Messrs. Stanford and Rockefeller 
 
 o 
 
 and Mrs. Hearst the Leland Stanford, Jr., university, the 
 University of Chicago and the University of California 
 have found more than princely benefactors ; the gifts of the 
 patrons of Princeton, Cornell, Chicago are almost without 
 number. In the Drisler classical fund Columbia possesses 
 a means of supply for the purchase of books and illustra- 
 tions, such as casts and photographs, for the better prosecu- 
 tion of the work in Latin and Greek. The Harvard astro- 
 nomical observatory, among many splendid gifts, received 
 in 1885 one of more than a quarter of a million dollars, the 
 entire fortune of the late Robert Treat Paine, for purposes 
 of astronomical research. Owing to the comparative lack 
 of great fortunes in the southern states, the universities there 
 have not fared so well ; but the spirit is abroad there too, and 
 the constant increase of wealth in those states is certain to be 
 followed by the liberal extension of aid to the universities. 
 A very remarkable and encouraging feature of the gener- 
 osity manifested in the United States towards institutions of 
 learning is the fact that so many of the gifts, among them 
 several of the largest, have come from men who had not 
 enjoyed collegiate education. A case in point is the munifi- 
 cence of Mr. Fayerweather, a merchant of New York, who 
 bequeathed in 1891 more than four millions of dollars to 
 various colleges and universities, wisely refraining from 
 adding, as many public spirited men of less judgment have 
 done, to the superfluity of institutions already existing, and 
 with equal wisdom leaving to the recipients of the funds the 
 determination of the purposes for which the funds should be 
 used. It is truly encouraging for the future of education in 
 America that so many of her millionaires are willing to give 
 freely of the fortunes that they have accumulated, and that 
 those who give the most should set the example of entrust- 
 ing the application of the funds to those who best under- 
 stand the needs to be met.
 
 305] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 55 
 
 VII SOME PRESENT UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS 
 
 Da muss sick manches R'dtsel ti'sen, 
 Dock manches Ratsel knupft sick auch, 
 
 Faust. 
 
 When the problems of education are all solved, educa- 
 tion itself will be dead, and the need of it greater than 
 ever. The entire range of education in the United States 
 has been in a state of rapid transition for many years 
 already, and nowhere have the changes been more constant 
 than in the domain of college and university education. 
 From the establishment of graduate courses at Yale in 1847 
 until the present day, probably no year has passed without 
 seeing some new experiment tried, some old institution reor- 
 ganized or new one founded. If the new institutions have 
 often shown too little willingness to profit by the experience 
 of others, or to adopt the ways and means of other lands, it 
 must be remembered that the educational problem has been 
 but one of many with which the leaders of thought in this 
 country have been confronted, and that in the attempt to 
 conform institutions to the spirit of the country it has been 
 necessary first to discover, often at great pains and heavy 
 cost to the experimenter, what that spirit was. 
 
 Naturally the most important question has been and still 
 is that of organization. It has doubtless become apparent 
 from the foregoing description that no two universities are 
 just alike, and that the differences do not by any means con- 
 cern unimportant points. Every possible variety of organi- 
 zation and administration seems to the observer especially 
 the foreign observer to have been tried, except that of a 
 consistent and rigid adherence to forms sanctioned by cen- 
 turies of permanence in Europe. 
 
 The vacillation has come from uncertainty as to the true 
 purposes of the university. In Europe these purposes were 
 long ago settled : the university exists to train servants of 
 the state, or, as prevailing in England, to train up a race of 
 gentlemen who shall never forget the obligations of their
 
 56 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [306 
 
 caste. It is the glory of Germany that she has seen more 
 clearly than other nations how truly the highest scientific 
 training is none too good for her public servants. 
 
 The wholly different conditions prevailing in the United 
 States have been reflected in the organization of our univer- 
 sities and colleges. There is no state religion, and the 
 national constitution forbids the patronage or proscription of 
 any sect ; consequently the theological faculty, originally the 
 most important in the universities of western and northern 
 Europe, found no state recognition. The practice of the law 
 was subject to few restrictions, and indeed in at least one 
 state is still open to every citizen of mature age, so that the 
 schools of law, when they began at all, grew up mostly on a 
 basis of private organization, with purely practical training 
 as their object, and often underbid one another in their 
 eagerness for students. With such exceptions as the nature 
 of the profession brings with it, the regulation of the study 
 and practice of medicine went the same course, proprietary 
 schools being the most frequent form of organization for 
 instruction in the healing art. As for the faculty of arts or 
 philosophy, which, originally preparatory for one of the 
 others, had in Germany been put on a par with them and 
 made the doorway to the new profession of teaching in the 
 state schools, its ground was partially covered by the cur- 
 ricula of the best colleges. The character of these colleges 
 however resembled more nearly that of the German philo- 
 sophical faculty of two centuries ago. The state systems of 
 education did not at first include more than elementary 
 schools, so that there was no great incentive for prescribing 
 a college course for those persons who wished to teach in 
 them ; nor would such a regulation have been popular in 
 intensely democratic communities, or, in the poverty of 
 many of the states, easily possible of fulfillment. Under 
 these circumstances the European conception of a univer- 
 sity was lost ; and when it began to be regained, different 
 systems, imperfect and incongruous it is true, but still in 
 many ways useful, had grown up to fill the needs which are
 
 3O7] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 57 
 
 supplied in Europe by the university. Other needs had 
 made themselves felt in America even more keenly : the 
 needs incident to the rapid settling and exploitation of a 
 new country, where vast distances and a phenomenal growth 
 of population made imperative some provision for training 
 in the technical professions and mechanical arts. It is not 
 strange, then, though it has been unfortunate for the country 
 at large, that the last need to be recognized in education has 
 been the need of thorough training in the humanities and in 
 pure science, in what has been admirably well called 1 " dis- 
 interested scientific thinking, as distinguished from tech- 
 nical or commercial science." 
 
 American educators, then, are not yet at one as regards 
 the true function of the university. In general, two oppos- 
 ing views are chiefly held. The purpose of the Leland 
 Stanford, Jr., university is declared to be : To fit young 
 persons for success in life. An admirable purpose, no doubt, 
 but one which the university must share in common with 
 many other institutions. Of a like breadth of conception is 
 the avowed purpose of Ezra Cornell : I would found an 
 institution where any person may find instruction in any 
 study. The brilliant history of Cornell university is chiefly 
 due to the wisdom of the men who have seen what limita- 
 tions should be put upon this great plan. This view of the 
 true function of a university is chiefly prevalent in the west ; 
 one sometimes hears it said that the western universities 
 exist solely for the sake of the students, while some of the 
 eastern universities seem to think that the students exist 
 chiefly for the sake of the universities or of science at large. 
 The universities of private foundation are proceeding more 
 and more on the assumption that their function is to train, 
 in their graduate departments or faculties of philosophy, 
 specialists, as teachers, and to a less extent as investigators ; 
 those which have raised some of their professional schools to 
 
 1 By Professor West of Princeton, in the Educational Review for October, 1899. 
 So too Professor Coulter (Ibid. IV [1892] 366 ff): " The university is in the largest 
 sense a place for the emancipation of thought."
 
 58 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [308 
 
 true university rank by refusing admission to all who have 
 not received a non-professional degree aim not merely to 
 instruct the future physicians and lawyers in the technique 
 of their professions, but to give them true scientific insight 
 and philosophic grasp. 
 
 Until there is agreement as to the true function of a uni- 
 versity, there cannot be agreement as to their organization 
 and administration. Whoever holds to the Stanford idea 
 will wish to see all departments of instruction put on pre- 
 cisely the same plane ; whoever believes that scientific 
 research is the highest and noblest aim of education will 
 demand for the university an organization which shall 
 emphasize this, leaving to other institutions the teaching 
 which is entirely practical. 
 
 As a whole, American universities seem to be trying to 
 do too many things at once, generally with an altogether 
 inadequate equipment of instructors, and with an insufficient 
 endowment. Each university aims to cover the entire field 
 of instruction ; the result is that the professors, who are, 
 except in the professional faculties, almost always college 
 instructors as well, are cruelly overburdened with teaching 
 and administrative duties, with the inevitable result that few 
 of them can carry on much research. The organization of 
 most of our universities is too complicated. Many profes- 
 sors have to attend two, three, or even four faculty meetings 
 each month, and serve on committees without number ; some 
 of them are even expected to do purely clerical work. 
 
 Perhaps the most important of American university prob- 
 lems at present, as bearing directly upon the necessary organi- 
 zation and determining it, is the relation of university or 
 graduate work to undergraduate work and to professional 
 training. 
 
 With the very liberal regulation, often lack of regulation, 
 exercised by the state governments over the practice of the 
 professions of law and medicine, the number of practition- 
 ers has inevitably become excessively great. The need of 
 stricter control has been seen, and many states have increased
 
 309] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 59 
 
 the requirements for admission to practice. That any of the 
 states will require a complete collegiate education as a pre- 
 liminary to admission to practice is a very remote possibility. 
 It rests with the universities to raise the plane of their pro- 
 fessional schools so that only the fittest will survive. Experi- 
 ence has shown that raising the standard of an institution is 
 surely followed in a few years by an increase in numbers as 
 well as in the quality of students entering. A beginning 
 has already been made, as indicated above, for the profes- 
 sional schools of law and medicine. As for the technical 
 schools, most of them, whether connected with the universi- 
 ties or not, have been too ready to admit students on very 
 slight requirements. Perhaps in time the best of these will 
 see that a good preliminary training ought to be demanded 
 of their students, and so put themselves also on a university 
 level. 
 
 Enough has been said, it is hoped, to show that there is 
 little chance of re-establishing in any American university 
 the traditional four faculties, unaccompanied by any other 
 departments of instruction. If means were abundant, it 
 would perhaps be advisable to separate entirely from the 
 universities the technical schools, except such as should be 
 willing to demand a preliminary degree for admission and 
 to develop more fully the theoretical and research side of 
 their teaching. At present undue prominence is given to 
 the technical schools in many institutions, largely because 
 they are the best paying parts, and the tone of the whole 
 institution, as an organization that should exist as largely 
 for the advancement of research as for any other cause, is 
 distinctly lowered thereby. 
 
 The graduate school, or faculty of philosophy, bears closer 
 relations with the collegiate course than can be borne by 
 any professional faculty. The overburdening of professors 
 alluded to above might be remedied by the appointment, 
 where endowments would allow, of professors exclusively 
 for graduate work on the lines of the faculty of philosophy, 
 who should be able to engage in extended research work
 
 60 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [310 
 
 with advanced students. Hitherto no institution has been 
 in a position to do this in any large degree. Nor has it 
 been possible to try on a really instructive scale the experi- 
 ment of a university without college or technical schools. 
 Whether such a university could properly maintain a faculty 
 of theology, it is hard to say. The Union theological semi- 
 nary in New York, while under Presbyterian management, 
 is in many respects a real university faculty, and the same 
 may be said of some few others. The relations between 
 Columbia and the Union seminary have become close, with 
 the good result that many students of the latter attend 
 courses at Columbia under the faculties of political science 
 and philosophy, and are eligible for Columbia degrees. 
 
 Concerning the precise relation to be borne by the gradu- 
 ate work to that of the college, no general agreement has 
 yet been reached. Even where the two are carefully sepa- 
 rated, no such great dissimilarity in methods exists as pre- 
 vails in Germany between the gymnasium and the university. 
 Where, as at Harvard, the lines of demarcation are partly 
 obliterated, the change from one method to another is very 
 gradual. Johns Hopkins aims above all at producing spe- 
 cialists, and even her college courses are largely shaped to 
 this end. The results certainly justify her policy. 
 
 The preparation which the candidates for admission to the 
 graduate schools bring with them is naturally very varied. 
 For many kinds of advanced work, the general training 
 given in the college is not enough ; so that the student, in 
 order not to lose much valuable time afterward, has to begin 
 his special studies before receiving his first degree. This is 
 encouraged by the system in vogue at Columbia, especially 
 in the case of students looking forward to medicine or the 
 law. A tendency to over-early specialization is showing 
 itself in many places ; the students are naturally anxious to 
 begin the active duties of life as soon as possible, and are 
 unwilling to postpone the acquirement of the professional 
 degree until the 25th or 26th year of their age. A remedy 
 for this has been sought in several directions, but none of
 
 3Il] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 6l 
 
 the plans tried has been successful enough to prevail over 
 the others. The trouble seems to lie largely in the loss of 
 time during the earlier school years. The pupils are not 
 taken in hand early enough, nor do they receive severe 
 en6ugh training. With the improvement in organization 
 and methods which is everywhere noticeable, it ought to be 
 possible after a few years to send young men and women to 
 college at sixteen as well prepared as they are now at seven- 
 teen or eighteen. With this done, the college course might 
 well be shortened to three years. 
 
 It may be asked, what of the Lehrfreiheit and Lern- 
 freiheit, the freedom for teacher and learner, as they are 
 claimed for the universities of Germany, in those of Amer- 
 ica ? As for the first, the American university professor has 
 little cause for complaint ; whatever may have been the case 
 twenty-five years ago, he may now teach what he likes nearly 
 everywhere, though now and then the regents of a state uni- 
 versity, or the religious body controlling a divinity school, 
 raise noisy protest. In one respect there is yet much room 
 for improvement : as yet no serious effort has been made to 
 introduce one of the most valuable features of the German 
 university system, the system of Privatdozenten. It is not 
 yet possible, any more than it was for Bancroft in 1821, for a 
 young man of ability to secure the right of lecturing at a 
 university by merely proving that he is competent to do it. 
 The introduction of this custom has been several times 
 attempted, but so far with quite insignificant results. 
 
 As for the Lernfreiheit, that too has become naturalized 
 among us ; even the undergraduate enjoys a large measure 
 of it, largest in those colleges where the elective system has 
 taken firm root. One development of it, the migration of 
 students from one university to another without loss of 
 standing, is still unsatisfactory. The custom is highly 
 desirable, and is steadily gaining ground in America ; it is 
 much commoner from the colleges to the purely profes- 
 sional schools, students of law and medicine naturally seek- 
 ing the large cities ; the chief obstacles to its adoption are
 
 62 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [3 1 2 
 
 the differences between the various universities in the mat- 
 ter of organization and of requirements for degrees, and the 
 close connection between college and university which lead 
 the college graduate in many instances to remain for gradu- 
 ate work where he has taken his bachelor's degree, out of 
 pure attachment to his alma mater. According to a writer 
 in the Educational Review, 1 in 1892-3 at Harvard 119 out 
 of 206 graduate students, or nearly 58 per cent, had received 
 degrees at other institutions ; at Johns Hopkins 201 out of 
 270, or 74 per cent ; at Yale 59 out of 125, or 47 per cent ; 
 at Cornell 119 out of 182, or 65 per cent; at Columbia 
 (faculties of philosophy and political science) 109 out of 
 212, or 51 per cent; total of these five, 607 out of 995, or 
 61 per cent. In 1898-9, however, of the graduate students 
 registered in the graduate school at Harvard, only 39 per 
 cent had received their degrees elsewhere ; at Yale only 43 
 per cent. 
 
 It is interesting to observe how rapidly the spirit of inde- 
 pendence with responsibility is developing among the gradu- 
 ate students. At twenty-two or more institutions which 
 maintain graduate schools the students in these have formed 
 themselves into associations for the furtherance of their 
 mutual interests, and these clubs have formed a national 
 federation which holds annual meetings, where papers are 
 read, and questions affecting the whole range of graduate 
 work are discussed. The interest shown in these proceed- 
 ings, and the intelligent spirit in which many important ques- 
 tions are approached, make these associations into a most 
 valuable adjunct to the work of the graduate schools. At 
 the fourth annual convention, held at Cambridge, Mass., in 
 December, 1898, addresses were delivered by President Eliot 
 and Professor J. W. White, of Harvard, and papers were 
 read, followed by animated discussion, on the following top- 
 ics : The migration of students ; the regulations concerning 
 major and minor subjects ; specialized scholarship vs. prepa- 
 ration for teaching, as a basis for graduate study ; the mas- 
 
 1 Gross, Chas., E. R. VII, 26 ff.
 
 313] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 63 
 
 ter's degree ; graduate studies in European universities ; the 
 regulation of graduate to undergraduate courses. The fed- 
 eration of graduate clubs also carries on a determined oppo- 
 sition to the practice of conferring the Ph. D. honoris causa. 
 A project vigorously advocated by many eminent Ameri- 
 can educators is the foundation of a national university for 
 the United States, to be situated at Washington, to be con- 
 trolled by a board of regents under the chairmanship of the 
 president of the United States, and to be constituted on the 
 true university basis of admitting to any of its schools only 
 those who have received the preliminary training shown by 
 the possession of a bachelor's degree. The plan is an allur- 
 ing one from some points of view. The chief difficulty 
 would seem to be in the matter of endowment. To add 
 another institution of learning to those that swarm in the 
 United States, unless the new comer should at once outrank 
 them all in the magnitude and completeness of its equip- 
 ment, and unless its rise should imply the setting of a num- 
 ber of the minor lights, would be a very doubtful service to 
 the cause of university education. So far no endowments at 
 all comparable with those of half-a-dozen of the universities 
 already existing have appeared ; and it is extremely doubtful 
 whether congress could be depended upon to give the insti- 
 tution the thoroughly adequate support without which it 
 must remain at best one additional " torso of a university." 
 
 NOTE: Since the above lines were written, a large and representative committee 
 appointed by the National Educational Association to consider the question has 
 reported against the establishment of such a national university.
 
 64 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [314 
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 Some statistics of graduate schools in the United States 
 
 The peculiarly complicated and varying organization of 
 the American college-university makes it impracticable to 
 draw up satisfactory tables of statistics on such simple lines 
 as would suffice if the universities of Germany, for instance, 
 were to be thus treated. Only such figures are given here 
 as suffice to show the rapid increase in the numbers of 
 graduate, non-professional students during the last twenty- 
 eight years, and the attendance at the best known institu- 
 tions in 1898-99 : 
 
 I 
 
 Number of graduate students (excluding professional schools) 1 871-87 
 
 1871-72 198 
 
 1874-75 369 
 
 1877-78 ... 414 
 
 1 880-8 1 460 
 
 1883-84 778 
 
 1886-87 i 237 
 
 II 
 
 Attendance of graduate students (exclusive of professional schools) 
 
 1889-97 
 
 1889-90 i 998 graduate students at 1 14 institutions. 
 
 1891-92 2900 " " " 121 " 
 
 1893-94 3026 " " " 135 " 
 
 1895-96 3756 " " " 122 
 
 1896-97 4392 " " " 146 " 
 
 NOTE: It should be borne in mind that (except for 1889-90) no account is here 
 taken of non-resident graduate students, and that an overwhelming majority of 
 graduate students is to be found in attendance at the 23 institutions mentioned in 
 Table III. A very great number of institutions report less than half-a-dozen 
 graduate students.
 
 315] 
 
 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 III 
 
 Statistics of the 23 most prominent institutions reporting graduate 
 
 students, 1898-9 1 
 
 
 t 
 ?! 
 
 "Ha 
 
 as 
 
 2 a 
 
 O"* 
 
 8 
 
 1" 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 GRADUATE STU- 
 DENTS (EXCLUD- 
 ING PROFES- 
 SIONAL SCHOOLS) 
 
 Remarks 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 Women 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 i. Brown university 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 40 
 130 
 
 10 
 
 95 
 
 26 
 328' 
 130 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 45 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 55 
 37 
 
 57 
 4 
 47 
 
 31 
 47 
 
 112 
 
 30 
 o 
 
 101 
 
 581 
 48 
 
 260 
 
 59 
 109* 
 
 329 
 
 2IO 
 
 58 
 
 49 
 104 
 18 
 124 
 124 
 128 
 
 o 
 
 3i 
 o 
 
 16 
 
 IO2 
 
 2 4 I 
 
 39 
 61 
 90 
 276 
 
 o 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 39 
 17 
 52 
 7 
 35 
 34 
 o 
 
 58 
 6 
 27 
 
 12 
 26 
 42 
 
 69 
 61 
 191 
 
 857 
 
 48 
 342 
 
 68 
 142* 
 329 
 
 2IO 
 
 97 
 66 
 156 
 25 
 159 
 158 
 128 
 
 58 
 37 
 27 
 
 28 
 128 
 283 
 
 Women only 
 
 Includ'g sum- 
 mer quarter 
 Women not 
 admitted 
 
 Women a d- 
 mitted thro' 
 Barnard 
 
 Women ad- 
 mitted to 
 some cour- 
 ses and only 
 thro' Rad- 
 cliffe; d e- 
 gree of A. 
 M. given by 
 Radcliffe , 
 Ph. D., not 
 given to 
 women 
 Women not 
 admitted 
 
 Women not 
 admitted 
 Women only 
 
 Women only; 
 Ph. D. not 
 given 
 
 2. Bryn Mawr college 
 
 3 University of California 
 
 4 University of Chicago 
 
 5. Clark university , 
 
 6. Columbia university (including Barnard 
 college) 
 
 7. Columbian university (Washington, 
 (D. C). . 
 
 
 
 10. Johns Hopkins university 
 
 ii. Leland Stanford, Jr., university 
 
 12. University of Michigan 
 
 13. University of Minnesota 
 
 14. University of Missouri 
 
 15. New York university 
 
 16. University of Pennsylvania 
 
 17. Princeton university 
 
 18. Radcliffe college (closely connected with 
 Harvard) 
 
 19. Vanderbilt university 
 
 20. Wellesley college 
 
 21. Western Reserve university 
 
 22. University of Wisconsin 
 
 23. Yale university 
 
 
 1 The figures are taken (except for Cornell) from the 
 for 1899. 
 
 Including professional schools. 
 
 Graduate Handbook "
 
 ,66 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY [316 
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 Brief bibliography 
 
 The chief source of information concerning all educational 
 matters in the United States is the admirable series of reports 
 of the commissioner of education, issued from the United 
 States bureau of education, Washington, D. C. These are 
 issued for each academic year (i. <?., September-June), gen- 
 erally within two years after the close of the academic year 
 for which the report is drawn up. The last issued to date 
 (October, 1899) is the report for 1896-7. These contain 
 not only exhaustive statistics, but also reviews of the educa- 
 tional progress of the year, and valuable articles by various 
 writers on educational questions at home and abroad. 
 
 Of accounts of the American system of higher education 
 the following may be reported here : 
 
 Compayre', G. L 'enseignement supeMeur aux Etats-Unis. Paris, 
 1896. (Rapports de la de'le'gation envoyde a 1' Exposition Col- 
 ombienne de Chicago. 1893, ire partie.) 
 
 de Coubertin, Pierre. Universite's Transatlantiques. Paris, 1890. 
 (Largely impressions de voyaged) 
 
 Zimmermann, Athanasius, S. J. Die Universitaten in den Ver- 
 einigten Staaten Amerikas. Ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte. 
 Freiburg, Baden, 1896. (Erganzungshefte zu den " Stimmen aus 
 Maria Laach." No. 68, XVII. Erganzungsband.) An excellent 
 account in brief compass, with a selected bibliography. 
 
 Bryce, James. The American Commonwealth. N. Y. Vol. II. 
 
 Schoenfeld, H. Amerikanische Staatsuniversitaten. Article in 
 the Padagogisches Archiv, Vol. XXXVIII (1896). 
 
 Report of Commissioner of Education. 1889-90, vol. II, p. 783 ff. 
 (On organization of the state universities.) 
 
 Thwing, C. F. The American College in American Life. 
 Tappan, H. P. University Education. N. Y., 1851. 
 
 Burgess, J. W. The American University : When shall it be? 
 Where shall it be? What shall it be? Boston, 1884. 
 
 Haven, E. O. Universities in America. Ann Arbor, 1863.
 
 317] THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 67 
 
 Johnston, W. P. Work of the University in America. Address 
 
 before the South Carolina college. Columbia, S. C., 1884. 
 Butler, N. M. Introduction to Paulsen's German Universities, 
 
 Engl. translation. N. Y., 1895. 
 Howard, G. E. Evolution of the University. Lincoln, Nebraska, 
 
 1890. 
 The American University and the American Man. Palo 
 
 Alta, CaL, 1893. 
 Eliot, C. W. Educational Reform. Essays and addresses. N. Y., 
 
 1898. 
 Ladd, G. T. Essays on the Higher Education. N. Y., 1899. 
 
 For the history and development of the individual univer- 
 sities the " annual catalogues " or " registers " published by 
 the institutions themselves often give valuable material. In 
 some of the universities it is the custom to publish the 
 " annual reports " of the president or chancellor ; these are 
 of great importance for an understanding of the policy of 
 the university in question. Harvard, Columbia, Johns 
 Hopkins and others publish such reports an example 
 worthy of imitation by every large institution of learning. 
 
 The Federation of graduate clubs has published several 
 small volumes of great interest. These at first gave merely 
 the courses offered to graduate students at the most promi- 
 nent institutions; but the Graduate handbook for 1899 
 (printed for the federation by Lippincott, 1899 unfortu- 
 nately not in the market) contains the proceedings of the 
 meeting at Cambridge alluded to on p. 62. 
 
 In the successive volumes of the Educational review (N. 
 
 Y., 1891 ) will be found many valuable articles on a wide 
 
 range of topics connected with American university educa- 
 tion, e. g. : Davis, H., Limitations of state universities, I, 
 426 ff. Butler, N. M., On permitting students to take studies 
 in professional schools while pursuing a regular undergradu. 
 ate course, III, 54 ff. Jordan, D. S., The policy of the Stan- 
 ford university, IV, i ff ; The educational ideas of Leland 
 Stanford, VI, 136 ff. Hyde, W. D., Organization of Ameri- 
 can education, IV, 209 ff. Coulter, J. M., The university
 
 68 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 spirit, IV, 366 ff. Low, Seth, Higher education in the U. 
 S., V, i ff. von Hoist, H. E., The need of universities in the 
 U. S. (the famous Chicago address), V, 105 ff. Gross, Chas., 
 Colleges and universities in the U. S., VII, 26 ff. Santa- 
 yana, G., Spirit and ideals of Harvard univ., VII, 313 ff. 
 Taylor, J. M., Graduate work in the college, VII, 62 ff. 
 Hinsdale, B. A., Spirit and ideals of the University of 
 Michigan, XI, 356 ff., 476 ff. Baird, W., The University of 
 Virginia, XII, 417 ff. Draper, A. S., State universities of 
 the middle west, XI, 313 ff. Edgren, H., American gradu- 
 ate schools, XV, 285. Anon., The status of the American 
 professor, XVI, 417 ff. In vol. XVI, pp. 503 ff., is repro- 
 duced an interesting article published in the London Spec- 
 tator of Feb. 12,1 898, entitled, What is a university ?
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATBS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 EDUCATION OF WOMEN 
 
 BY 
 
 M. CAREY THOMAS 
 President of Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 EDUCATION OF WOMEN 
 
 The higher education of women in America is taking place 
 before our eyes on a vast scale and in a variety of ways. 
 Every phase of this great experiment, if experiment we choose 
 to call it, may be studied almost simultaneously. Women 
 are taking advantage of all the various kinds of education 
 offered them in great and ever-increasing numbers, and the 
 period of thirty years, or thereabouts, that has elapsed since 
 the beginning of the movement is sufficient to authorize us 
 in drawing certain definite conclusions. The higher educa- 
 tion of women naturally divides itself into college educa- 
 tion designed primarily to train the mental faculties by 
 means of a liberal education, and only secondarily, to equip the 
 student for self-support, and professional or special educa- 
 tion, directed primarily toward one of the money-making 
 occupations. 
 
 COLLEGE EDUCATION 
 
 Women's college education is carried on in three different 
 classes of institutions : coeducational colleges, independent 
 women's colleges and women's colleges connected more or 
 less closely with some one of the colleges for men. 
 
 i. Coeducation Coeducation is the prevailing system of 
 college education in the United States for both men and 
 women. In the western states and territories it is almost 
 the only system of education, and it is rapidly becoming the 
 prevailing system in the south, where the influence of the 
 state universities is predominant. On the other hand, in the 
 New England and middle states the great majority of the 
 youth of both sexes are still receiving a separate college 
 education. , Coeducation was introduced into colleges in 
 the west as a logical consequence of the so-called Ameri- 
 can system of free elementary and secondary schools. 
 During the great school revival of 1830-45 and the ensu- 
 ing years until the outbreak of the civil war in 1861, free
 
 4 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [322 
 
 elementary and secondary schools were established through- 
 out New England and the middle states and such western 
 states as existed in those days. It was a fortunate circum- 
 stance for girls that the country was at that time sparsely 
 settled ; in most neighborhoods it was so difficult to estab- 
 lish and secure pupils for even one grammar school and one 
 high school that girls were admitted from the first to both. 1 
 In the reorganization of lower and higher education that took 
 place between 1865 and 1870 this same system, bringing with 
 it the complete coeducation of the sexes, was introduced 
 throughout the south both for whites and negroes, and was 
 extended to every part of the west. In no part of the 
 country, except in a few large eastern cities, was any dis- 
 tinction made in elementary or secondary education between 
 boys and girls. 2 The second fortunate and in like manner 
 almost accidental factor in the education of American 
 
 1 That their admission was due in large part to the stress of circumstances is 
 shown by the fact that in the very states in which these coeducational schools 
 had been established there was manifested on other occasions a most illib- 
 eral attitude toward girls' education. In the few cities of the Atlantic sea- 
 board, where European conservatism was too strong to allow girls to be taught 
 with boys in the new high schools, and where there were boys enough to fill the 
 schools, girls had to wait much longer before their needs were provided 
 for at all, and then most inadequately. In Boston, where the boys' and girls' 
 high schools were separated, it was impossible until 1878 for a Boston girl to be 
 prepared for college in a city high school, whereas, in the country towns of Massa- 
 chusetts, where boys and girls were taught together in the high schools, the girl 
 had had the same opportunities as the boy for twenty-five or thirty years. Indeed, 
 it was not until 1852 that Boston girls obtained, and then only in connection with 
 the normal school, a public high-school education of any kind whatsoever. In 
 Philadelphia, where boys and girls are taught separately in the high schools, no 
 girl could be prepared for college before 1893, neither Latin, French, nor German 
 being taught in the girls' high school, whereas, for many years the boys' high school 
 had prepared boys for college. In Baltimore the two girls' high schools are still, 
 in 1900, unable to prepare girls for college, whereas the boys' high school has for 
 years prepared boys to enter the Johns Hopkins university. The impossibility of 
 preparing girls for college is only another way of stating that the instruction 
 given is very imperfect. 
 
 8 The magnitude of this fact wfll be apparent if we reflect that here for the first 
 time the girls of a great nation, especially of the poorer classes, have from their 
 earliest infancy to the age of eighteen or nineteen received the same education as 
 the boys, and that the ladder leading, in'Huxley's words, from the gutter to the 
 university may be climbed as easily by a girl as by a boy. Although college edu- 
 cation has affected as yet only a very few out of the great number of adult women 
 in the United States, the free opportunities for secondary education have influenced
 
 323] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 5 
 
 women was the occurrence of the civil war at the forma- 
 tive period of the public schools, with the result of placing 
 the elementary and secondary education of both boys and 
 girls overwhelmingly in the hands of women teachers. 
 In no other country of the world has this ever been the 
 case, and its influence upon women's education has 
 been very great. The five years of the civil war, which 
 drained all the northern and western states of men, 
 caused women teachers to be employed in the public 
 and private schools in large numbers, and in the first 
 reports of the national bureau of education, organized 
 after the war, we see that there were already fewer men 
 than women teaching in the public schools of the United 
 States. This result proved not to be temporary, but per- 
 manent, and from 1865 until the present time not only the 
 elementary teaching of boys and girls but the secondary 
 education of both has been increasingly in the hands of 
 women. 1 When most of the state universities of the west 
 were founded they were in reality scarcely more than second- 
 ary schools supplemented, in most cases, by large prepara- 
 tory departments. Girls were already being educated with 
 boys in all the high schools of the west, and not to admit 
 them to the state universities would have been to break with 
 
 the whole American people for nearly two-thirds of a century. The men of the 
 poorer classes have had, as a rule, mothers as well educated as their fathers, 
 indeed, better educated ; to this, more than to any other single cause, I think, 
 may be attributed what by other nations is regarded as the phenomenal indus- 
 trial progress of the United States. Our commercial rivals could probably take 
 no one step that would so tend to place them on a level with American competi- 
 tion as to open to girls without distinction all their elementary and secondary 
 schools for boys. In 1892, girls formed 55.9 per cent, and in 1898, 56.5 per cent of 
 all pupils in the public and private secondary schoools of the United States. 
 
 l ln 1870 women formed 59.0 per cent ; in 1880, 57.2 per cent ; in 1890, 65.5 per 
 cent ; and in 1898, 67.8 per cent (in the North Atlantic Division 80.8 per cent) of 
 all teachers in the public elementary and secondary schools of the United States 
 (U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. xiii, Ixxv). It has been frequently remarked that 
 the feminine pronouns "she" and "her" are instinctively used in America in 
 common speech with reference to a teacher. Moreover more women than men 
 are teaching in the public and private secondary schools of the United States (in 
 1898, women formed 53.8 per cent of the total number of secondary teachers, see 
 U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. 2053, 2069); whereas in all other countries the sec- 
 ondary teaching of boys is wholly in the hands of men.
 
 6 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [324 
 
 tradition. Women were also firmly established as teachers 
 in the secondary schools and it was patent to all thoughtful 
 men that they must be given opportunities for higher edu- 
 cation, if only for the sake of the secondary education of 
 the boys of the country. 1 The development of women's 
 education in the east has followed a different course because 
 there were in the east no state universities, and the private 
 colleges for men had been founded before women were suf- 
 fered to become either pupils or teachers in schools. The 
 admission of women to the existing eastern colleges was, 
 therefore, as much an innovation as it would have been in 
 Europe. The coeducation of men and women in colleges, 
 and at the same time the college education of women, began 
 in Ohio, the earliest settled of the western states. In 1833 
 Oberlin collegiate institute (not chartered as a college until 
 1850) was opened, admitting from the first both men and 
 women. Oberlin was at that time, and is now, hampered 
 by maintaining a secondary school as large as its college 
 department, but it was the first institution for collegiate 
 instruction in the United States where large numbers of 
 men and women were educated together, and the uniformly 
 favorable testimony of its faculty had great influence on 
 the side of coeducation. In 1853 Antioch college, also in 
 Ohio, was opened, and admitted from the beginning men 
 and women on equal terms. Its first president, Horace 
 Mann, was one of the most brilliant and energetic educa- 
 tional leaders in the United States, and his ardent advocacy 
 of coeducation, based on his own practical experience, had 
 great weight with the public. 2 From this time on it became 
 a custom, as state universities were opened in the far west, 
 to admit women. Utah, opened in 1850, Iowa, opened in 
 1856, Washington, opened in 1862, Kansas, opened in 1866, 
 
 1 In many cases in the west women made their way into the universities through 
 the normal department of the university, being admitted to that first of all. The 
 summer schools of western colleges, chiefly attended by teachers, among whom 
 women were in the majority, served also as an entering wedge. (See Woman's 
 work in America, Holt & Co., 1891, pp. 71-75.) 
 
 1 Antioch college opened, however, with only 8 students in its college depart- 
 ment, all the rest, 142, belonging to its secondary school.
 
 325] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 7 
 
 Minnesota, opened in 1868, and Nebraska, opened in 1871, 
 were coeducational from the outset. Indiana, opened as 
 early as 1820, admitted women in 1868. The state Univer- 
 sity of Michigan was, at this time, the most important west- 
 ern university, and the only western university well known 
 in the east before the war. When, in 1870, it opened its 
 doors to women, they were for the first time in America 
 admitted to instruction of true college grade. The step 
 was taken in response to public sentiment, as shown by 
 two requests of the state legislature, against the will of 
 the faculty as a whole. The example of the University 
 of Michigan was quickly followed by all the other state uni- 
 versities of the west. In the same year women were allowed 
 to enter the state universities of Illinois and California ; in 
 1873 the only remaining state university closed to women, 
 that of Ohio, admitted them. Wisconsin which, since 1860, 
 had given some instruction to women, became in 1874 unre- 
 servedly coeducational. All the state universities of the 
 west, organized since 1871, have admitted women from the 
 first. In the twenty states which, for convenience, I shall 
 classify as western, there are now twenty state universities 
 open to women, and, in four territories, Arizona, Oklahoma, 
 Indian and New Mexico, the one university of each territory 
 is open to women. Of the eleven state universities of the 
 southern states the two most western admitted women first, 
 as was to be expected. Missouri became coeducational as 
 early as 1870, and the University of Texas was opened in 
 1883 as a coeducational institution. Mississippi admitted 
 women in 1882, Kentucky in 1889, Alabama in 1893, South 
 Carolina in 1894, North Carolina in 1897, but only to 
 women prepared to enter the junior and senior years, West 
 Virginia in I897. 1 The state universities of Virginia, 
 Georgia and Louisiana are still closed. The one state 
 university existing outside the west and south, that of 
 Maine, admitted women in 1872. 
 
 1 In every case I give the date when full coeducation was introduced ; West Vir- 
 ginia, for example, admitted women to limited privileges in 1889.
 
 8 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [326 
 
 The greater part of the college education of the United 
 States, however, is carried on in private, not in state univer- 
 sities. In 1897 over 70 per cent of all the college students in 
 the United States were studying in private colleges, so that 
 for women's higher education their admission to private 
 colleges is really a matter of much greater importance. 
 The part taken by Cornell university in New York state 
 in opening private colleges to women was as significant 
 as the part taken by Michigan in opening state universities. 
 Cornell is in a restricted sense a state university, inas- 
 much as part of its endowment, like that of the state 
 universities, is derived from state and national funds. Nev- 
 ertheless, there is little reason to suppose that Cornell 
 would have admitted women had it not been for the 
 generosity of Henry W. Sage, who offered to build and 
 endow a large hall of residence for women at Cornell 
 university. After carefully investigating coeducation in 
 all the institutions where it then existed, and especi- 
 ally in Michigan, the trustees of the university admitted 
 women in 1872. The example set by Cornell was fol- 
 lowed very slowly by the other private colleges of the New 
 England and middle states. For the next twenty years the 
 colleges in this section of the United States admitting 
 women might be counted on the fingers of one hand. In 
 Massachusetts Boston university opened its department of 
 arts in 1873, an< ^ admitted women to it from the first ; 
 but no college for men followed the example of Boston until 
 1883, when the Massachusetts institute of technology, the 
 most important technical and scientific school in the state, 
 and one of the most important in the United States, admit- 
 ted women. This school, like Cornell, is supported in part 
 from state and national funds. Very recently, in 1892, Tufts 
 college was opened to women. In the west and south the 
 case is different, and the list of private colleges that one 
 after another have become coeducational is too long to be 
 inserted here. Among new coeducational foundations the 
 most important are, on the Pacific coast, the Leland Stan-
 
 I 20 western states and j territories 
 
 STATES 
 
 Total 
 no. cols 
 
 Coed. 
 
 Men only 
 
 Ohio 
 
 35 
 14 
 3i 
 ii 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 19 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 9 
 8 
 
 12 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 9 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 ii 
 
 17 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3R. C 
 2 R. C. 
 S R. C 
 i R. C. 
 i R. C. 
 i R. C. 
 2 Luth 
 
 i R. C. 
 2 R. C. 
 
 iR. C. 
 
 aR. C. 
 3R. C. 
 
 , i Luth., i P. E., Western reserve. 
 , i Luth., i Cong., Wabash college. 
 , i Ger. Ev., Illinois college. 
 
 , i Luth., i Dutch Reformed 
 , i Luth. 
 
 (professional dept. open) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 
 217 
 
 182 
 
 22 R. C 
 
 ., 6 Luth., i 
 
 Ger. Ev., i Dutch. Ref., i P. E., i Cong. 
 
 II 14. southern and 2 southern middle states 
 
 STATES 
 
 Total 
 no. cols 
 
 Coed. 
 
 Men only 
 
 
 Delaware 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 Delaware college. (The one coeducational colle 
 negroes.) 
 
 je is for 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3R. C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton and Lee, William and Mary. 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina 
 
 IS 
 9 
 
 IO 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 i R. C., 2 Presb., i Luth., i Bapt. 
 i A. M. E., College of Charleston. 
 2 Bapt., i A. M. E., i M. E. So., Univ. of Georgia. 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 6 
 
 
 i R. C. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i R C , i Bapt., i Presb , Ogden college. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i R. C., 2 Presb., i P. E.(Univ. of South.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 R C 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Bapt., i M. E. So. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 R. C., i M. E. So., i Cong., Louisiana State univ 
 
 , Tulane. 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 R. C., i Presb. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 3 R C., i Bapt., i Presb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 125 
 
 21 R. C., 5 M. E. So., 6 Bapt., 7 Presb., i Luth., 2 A. 
 P. E., i Cong. 
 
 M. E., i 
 
 III 6 New England and 3 northern middle states 
 
 STATES 
 
 Total 
 no. cols 
 
 Coed. 
 
 ( Men only 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 i Bapt. (Colby, limited coed.), Bowdoin 
 i R. C., i Cong. (Dartmouth) 
 Norwich university 
 2 R. C., 2 Cong. (Amherst), Harvard, Williams, Clark 
 Brown 
 i P. E. (Trinity), Yale 
 8 R. C., 2 P. E. (Hobart), i Bapt. (Colgate), Polytechnic institute 
 of Brooklyn, Hamilton, College of City of New York (boys' 
 high school), Columbia, Union, Rochester, New York uni- 
 versity 
 2 R. C., i Dutch Ref. (Rutgers), Princeton 
 4 R. C., i Luth., i Moravian, i Friends (Haverford), i Dutch 
 Ref. (Franklin & Marshall), Pennsylvania military college, 
 Philadelphia central high school (boys' high school), Lehigh 
 university, University of Pennsylvania, 3 Presb. (Lafayette, 
 Washington & Jefferson, Lincoln) 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 3 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 32 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 J 7 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 81 
 
 29 
 
 17 R. C., i Luth. ,3 P. E., 3 Cong., 3 Presb., 2 Bapt., i Friends, 2 
 Dutch Ref., i Moravian (The Univ. of Penna. admits women 
 to many departments, but not to full undergraduate work 
 leading to the bachelor's degree)
 
 327] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 9 
 
 ford junior university, opened in 1891, and, in the middle 
 west, Chicago university, opened in 1892. To show the 
 differing attitude toward coeducation of the different sec- 
 tions of the United States, I have arranged the 480 coedu- 
 cational colleges and separate colleges for men given in the 
 U. S. education report for 1897-98 in a table on the opposite 
 page. In matters like women's education, which are power- 
 fully affected by prejudice and conservative opinion, we find 
 not only a sharp cleavage in opinion and practice between 
 the west and the east of the United States, but also dis- 
 tinct phases of differing opinion, corresponding in the 
 main to the old geographical division of the states into 
 New England, middle, southern and western. 1 
 
 In the western states it will be observed there are, excluding Roman 
 Catholic colleges and seminaries, out of 195 colleges 182 coeducational 
 and only 13 colleges for men only. All of these except 3 are denomina- 
 tional ; 6 belong to the Lutheran, i to the Dutch Reformed, i to the Ger- 
 man Evangelical, i to the Episcopalian, and i to the Congregationalist. 
 The other 3 are, as we might expect, in the most eastern and the earliest 
 settled of the western states; one in Ohio, Western reserve, which teaches 
 women in a separate women's college; one in Indiana, Wabash college, 
 one of the three most important colleges in Indiana; and one in Illinois, 
 Illinois college. Roman Catholic institutions apart, in 14 states and all 
 3 territories every college for men is open to women (the one university 
 of the territory of New Mexico, not included in the U. S. education 
 report, is open to women). In the southern states and southern middle 
 states there are, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, out 
 of 161, 125 coeducational and only 36 colleges for men only. Among these 
 36, however, are the most important educational institution in Maryland, 
 the Johns Hopkins university; the most important in Georgia, the Uni- 
 
 1 In discussing coeducation I shall, therefore, disregard the divisions into north 
 Atlantic, south Atlantic, north central, south central and western, employed by 
 the U. S. census and the U. S. bureau of education. The New England, middle 
 and southern states are all, of course, eastern, and, with the exception of Ver- 
 mont, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, are all seaboard states, 
 Pennsylvania being counted as a seaboard state on account of its close river con. 
 nection with the sea. It will be noted that the inland southern states are rather 
 western than eastern in their characteristics. The northern middle states belong 
 on the whole by their sympathies to New England, the southern middle to the 
 southern states. Missouri, having been a slave state and settled largely by 
 southerners, is still southern in feeling. The District of Columbia also may con- 
 veniently be counted with the southern states.
 
 IO EDUCATION OF WOMEN [328 
 
 versity of Georgia; in Louisiana the two most important, the Louisiana 
 state university and Tulane university, and in Virginia the very import- 
 ant University of Virginia. 1 Roman Catholic institutions apart, all 
 the colleges in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida and West 
 Virginia are coeducational. In New England and the northern mid- 
 dle states out of 64 colleges, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and 
 seminaries, only 29, or less than half, are coeducational. The col- 
 leges for men only include (with the exception of Cornell) all the 
 largest undergraduate colleges in this section Harvard, Yale, Colum- 
 bia, Princeton, Pennsylvania. Maine and Vermont are liberal to women, 
 2 colleges (3 if we count the limited coeducational college of Colby) in 
 Maine and 3 in Vermont being coeducational, but, the total number of 
 students in college in these states is very small (in Maine only 843 men 
 and 189 women; in Vermont only 301 men and 99 women). The leading 
 colleges of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey and 
 Pennsylvania are closed, and in Massachusetts only 2 are open and 7 
 closed. 4 
 
 Of the four hundred and eighty colleges for men enumer- 
 ated by the commissioner of education 336, or 70 per cent 
 (or, excluding Catholic colleges, 80 per cent), admit women. 
 It would be misleading, however, to count among Ameri- 
 can institutions for higher education, properly so-called, 
 most of the coeducational colleges and separate colleges 
 for men included in this list, and it would be equally 
 misleading to compare the number of women studying in 
 such colleges in the United States with the number of 
 women engaged in higher studies in England, France and 
 Germany. 3 In order to obtain a better idea of opportunities 
 
 1 Two of the three next largest colleges in Virginia Richmond and Roanoke 
 admit women, but the advance in women's education in that state has been very 
 recent. Until the establishment of the State normal school in 1883 there was not 
 a scientific laboratory in the state accessible to women; in 1893 the Randolph- 
 Macon Woman's college opened with several laboratories, see Prof. Celestia 
 Parrish, Proceedings 2d Capon Springs conference for education in the south, 
 1899, p. 68. I am much indebted to the author of this paper for valuable data 
 in regard to coeducation in the south. 
 
 8 The Massachusetts institute of technology is classified by the U. S. ed. reps, 
 among technical schools. 
 
 8 The commissioner of education does not feel himself at liberty to discriminate 
 among the colleges chartered by the different states, but it is well known that in 
 most states the name of college, or preferably that of university, and the power 
 to confer degrees are granted to any institution whatsoever without regard to 
 endowment, scientific equipment, scholarly qualifications of the faculty or ade-
 
 4 s ~ t 
 
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 .. . Ji * 
 S ? "o o 
 
 b S ** 
 
 ^* C _ TJ 
 
 S g 8 
 
 3 III 
 
 o -3 is 
 
 0} S -a ^ 
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 (-1 X 
 
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 r 
 
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 y- 
 
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 ^- 
 
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 *: o
 
 329] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 1 1 
 
 for true collegiate work open to women at the present time 
 in the United States I have selected from these four hun- 
 dred and eighty colleges and from the numerous colleges for 
 women classified elsewhere, a list of fifty-eight colleges 
 properly so-called, employing for the purpose the four 
 means of classification most likely to commend them- 
 selves to the impartial student of such things. 1 Of these 
 
 quate preparation of the students. The majority of the so-called colleges and 
 universities of the south and west are really secondary schools. In most of them 
 not only are the greater part of the students really pupils in the preparatory or 
 high school department, but most of the students in the collegiate departments 
 are at graduation barely able to enter upon the sophomore or second year work of 
 the best eastern colleges. Throughout this monograph I have used the word col- 
 lege in speaking of institutions for undergraduate education, except when quoting 
 their official titles, and this whether the college in question is, or is not, included 
 in a larger institution providing also three years of graduate instruction. The 
 terms college and university are used in America without any definite understand- 
 ing, even among colleges and universities themselves, as to how they shall be 
 differentiated. Probably the most commonly accepted usage is to call an institu- 
 tion a university if it has attached to it various departments, or schools, without 
 regard to the standing of these departments, the preparation of the students enter- 
 ing them, or the work done in them. In this sense all the state universities of the 
 west are called universities because, although many of them are really high 
 schools, they have attached to them schools of pharmacy, veterinary science, 
 agriculture, and sometimes medicine or law. It is in this sense that many insti- 
 tutions for negroes are called universities, because they include various depart- 
 ments of industrial art as well as a high school department. Until very recently 
 the requirements for admission to the departments of law, medicine, dentistry, 
 etc., have been so low that it has been a positive disadvantage to have such schools 
 attached to the college department, and when lately the graduates of Harvard col- 
 lege decided not to allow the graduates of its affiliated schools to vote with them 
 for representatives on the board of trustees, they claimed with justice that the 
 illiberal education of the majority of these graduates would tend to lower the 
 standard of Harvard college. The use of the word university should be strictly 
 limited to institutions offering at least three years of graduate instruction in one 
 or more schools. 
 
 1 In this list of fifty-eight colleges I have included : first, the twenty-four col- 
 leges (indicated in the list by "a") whose graduates are admitted to the Associa- 
 tion of collegiate alumnae; second, the twenty-three colleges (24 are included in 
 the Federation, but Barnard has ceased to be a graduate school, see page 28) 
 included in the Federation of graduate clubs (indicated by " b "); third, the fifty- 
 two colleges (indicated by " c ") included in the 1899-1900 edition of Minerva, the 
 well-known handbook of colleges and universities of the world published each 
 year by Truebner & Co.; and fourth, the colleges which, according to the U. S. 
 education report for 1897-98, have at least $500,000 worth of productive funds 
 (indicated by " d "), and also three hundred or more students (indicated by "e"). 
 In the case of state universities the money they receive annually from national and 
 state appropriations may reasonably be regarded as a sort of supplementary 
 endowment ; I have, therefore, included the state universities of Maine, Iowa and
 
 12 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [330 
 
 fifty-eight colleges four are independent colleges for women 
 and three women's colleges affiliated to colleges for men ; 
 of the remaining 51, 30, or 58.8 per cent, are coedu- 
 cational, and a nearer examination makes a much more 
 favorable showing for coeducation. Of the 21 colleges 
 closed to women in their undergraduate departments five 
 have affiliated to them a women's college through which 
 women obtain some share in the undergraduate instruc- 
 tion given, the affiliated colleges in three cases being of 
 
 West Virginia, whose productive funds do not amount to $500,000. This list of 
 fifty-eight colleges, arranged according to the different sections of the country, 
 and as far as possible in the order of the numbers in their undergraduate depart- 
 ments, is as follows: New England and j northern middle states: Harvard (bcde), 
 Yale (bcde), Cornell (abcde-coed.), Massachusetts institute of technology (acde- 
 coed.), Smith (acde-woman's college), Princeton (bcde), Pennsylvania (bcde), Colum- 
 bia (bcde), Brown (bcde), Wellesley (abce-woman's college), Vassar (acde-woman's 
 college), Syracuse (acde-coed.), Dartmouth (cde), Boston (acde-coed.), Amherst 
 (cde), Radcliffe (abce-affiliated), Williams (cde), Lehigh (cde), Maine (e-coed.), 
 Wesleyan (acde-coed.), Vermont (c-coed.), Lafayette (c), Bryn Mawr (abed- 
 woman's college), New York University (cd), Barnard (a-affiliated), Hamilton (c), 
 Colgate (cd), Clark (bed-no undergrad. department). Southern and 2 southern middle 
 states: Missouri (bcde-coed.), Texas (cde-coed.), Columbian (bee-coed.), West Vir- 
 ginia (e-coed.), Tulane (cd), Vanderbilt (bed-coed.), Virginia (c), Johns Hopkins 
 (bed), Washington (St. Louis) (cd-coed.), Georgetown (c-Catholic), Catholic uni- 
 versity (cd-no undergrad. department). Western states: Minnesota (abcde-coed.), 
 Michigan (abcde-coed.), California (abcde-coed.), Wisconsin (abcde-coed.), Chicago 
 (abcde-coed.), Leland Stanford (abcde-coed.), Nebraska (ace-coed.), Ohio state 
 university (de-coed.), Indiana (cde-coed.), Illinois (ce-coed.), Kansas (ace-coed.), 
 Ohio Wesleyan (cde-coed.), Iowa (e-coed.), Northwestern (acde-coed.), Oberlin 
 (acde-coed.), Cincinnati (cd-coed.), Colorado (c-coed. ),_ Western reserve (bed), 
 College for Women of western reserve (a-affiliated). 
 
 The only attempt hitherto made in America to discriminate between colleges 
 of true college grade and others has beeei made by the Association of collegiate 
 alumnae. This association was organized in 1882 for the purpose of uniting women 
 graduates of the foremost coeducational colleges and colleges for women only into 
 an association for work connected with the higher education of women. In the 
 early years of the association there was appointed a committee on admissions, and 
 the admission of each successive college in the association has been carefully con- 
 sidered, both with regard to its entrance requirements, the training of its faculty 
 and its curriculum. The Association of collegiate alumnae concerns itself, of 
 course, only with colleges admitting women, but there is no doubt that the 
 fifteen coeducational colleges and seven colleges for women only admitted to 
 the association would, in the estimation of every one familiar with the subject, 
 rank among the first fifty-eight colleges of the United States. 
 
 The Federation of graduate clubs is an association of graduate students of 
 those colleges whose graduate schools are important enough to entitle them to 
 admission to the federation. The colleges in the Federation of graduate clubs 
 are the only colleges in the United States that do true university work.
 
 GROWTH OF COEDUCATION 
 
 Coeducational 30-7% 
 
 1870 
 
 For men only 69-3% 
 
 Coeducational 51-3% 
 
 I860 
 
 For men only 48-7%. 
 
 J L_f 
 
 Coeducational 655% 
 
 1890 
 
 For men only 34-5% 
 
 Coeducational 
 
 1898 
 
 For rrer> only 30-% 
 
 I have prepared the diagram for 1870 from the U. S. ed. rep. for 1870, pp. 
 506-516, and the diagram for 1897-98 from the U. S. ed. rep., pp. 1848-1867, and 
 from the table, opposite page 9 of this monograph. The diagrams for 1880 and 
 1890 are copied from the report for 1889-90, p. 764. For assistance in the prepara- 
 tion of this and other diagrams, and in working out the percentages given here, 
 and elsewhere, in this monograph I am much indebted to Dr Isabel Maddison. 
 
 If Catholic colleges are excluded, as in the map opposite page 10, coeducational 
 colleges formed, in 1898, 80 per cent, and colleges for men only 20 per cent of the 
 whole number a still more favorable result for coeducation.
 
 33 J ] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 13 
 
 enough importance to appear in the same list. Of these 
 five, four (all but Harvard) admit women without restric- 
 tion to their graduate instruction, and in addition Yale, 
 the University of Pennsylvania and New York university 
 make no distinction between men and women in graduate 
 instruction. The Johns Hopkins university maintains a 
 coeducational medical school. In this list then of fifty- 
 eight, which includes all the most important colleges in the 
 United States, there are, apart from the two Catholic col- 
 leges, only ten (Dartmouth, Amherst, Williams, Clark, 
 Princeton, Lehigh, Lafayette, Hamilton, Colgate, Virginia, 
 all situated on the Atlantic seaboard) to which women are 
 not admitted in some departments. Princeton is the only 
 one of the large university foundations that excludes women 
 from any share whatsoever in its advantages. The diagram 
 on the opposite page shows the steady progress of coedu- 
 cation from from 187010 1898.* 
 
 All the arguments against the coeducation of the sexes 
 in colleges have been met and answered by experience. It 
 was feared at first that coeducation would lower the standard 
 of scholarship on account of the supposed inferior quality of 
 women's minds. The unanimous experience in coeducational 
 colleges goes to show that the average standing of women is 
 slightly higher than the average standing of men. 2 Many 
 
 1 In only two instances, so far as I know, has coeducation once introduced been 
 abandoned or restricted in any way. The private college of Adelbert of Western 
 reserve, coeducational from 1873, opened a separate woman's college and excluded 
 women in 1888. As the college department was very small and the state of Ohio 
 in which the college was situated the most eastern in feeling of all western stalest 
 the change was seemingly to be attributed to a bid for students through under- 
 graduate novelty. The Baptist college of Colby, in Maine, coeducational from 
 1871, has taught women in separate classes in required work since 1890. Women 
 are not allowed to compete with men for college prizes or for membership in the 
 students' society, which elects its members on account of scholarship. Complete 
 separation, which was at first planned, has proved impracticable and from the 
 beginning of the sophomore year women and men recite together in all elective 
 work. 
 
 2 In an investigation made several years ago in the University of Wisconsin, 
 which has been open to women since 1874, it was found that the women ranked in 
 scholarship very considerably beyond the men. In the University of Michigan, 
 where women have been educated with men since 1870, President Angell has 
 repeatedly laid stress on their excellent scholarship. When in 1893-94 a committee 

 
 14 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [332 
 
 ' reasons for the greater success of women are given, such as 
 absence of the distraction of athletic sports, greater dili- 
 gence, higher moral standards, but the fact, however it may 
 be explained, remains and is as gratifying as astonishing to 
 those intersted in women's education. The question of health 
 has also been finally disposed of ; thousands of women have 
 been working side by side with men in coeducational institu- 
 tions for the past twenty-five years and undergoing exactly 
 the same tests without a larger percentage of withdrawals on 
 account of illness than men. The question of conduct has 
 also been disposed of. None of the difficulties have arisen 
 that were feared from the association of men and women of 
 marriageable age. Looking at coeducation as a whole it is 
 most surprising that it has worked so well. 1 Perhaps the 
 only objection that may be made from men's point of 
 view to coeducation in America is that it has succeeded 
 
 # 
 
 only too well and that the proportion of women students is 
 increasing too steadily. Not only is the number of coedu- 
 cational colleges increasing but the number of women rela- 
 tively to the number of men is increasing also. In 1890 
 there were studying in coeducational colleges 16,959 men 
 and 7,929 women; or women, in other words, formed 31/9 
 per cent of the whole body of students. In 1898 there were 
 28,823 men and 16,284 women studying in coeducational 
 colleges, women forming 36. i per cent of the whole body 
 of students. Between 1890 and 1898 men in coeduca- 
 tional colleges have increased 70.0 per cent, but women 
 in coeducational colleges have increased 105.4 per cent. 2 
 
 of the faculty of the University of Virginia asked the officers of a large number of 
 coeducational colleges especially in regard to this point the testimony received 
 was very remarkable. In England it should be noted that the question of the 
 success of women in collegiate studies has been put beyond a doubt by the pub- 
 lished class lists of the competitive honor examinations of Oxford and Cambridge, 
 In the discussions in regard to granting women degrees at Cambridge, it was 
 freely admitted that women's minds were " splendid for examination purposes." 
 
 1 For a discussion of coeducation in schools and colleges in 1892, see U. S. educa- 
 tion report for 1891-92, pp. 783-862. 
 
 8 U. S. education report 1889-90, pp. 761, 1582-1599, and 1897-98, p. 1823; account 
 is taken of students of true college grade only in the college proper. Through- 
 out this monograph I have corrected the figures of the U. S. ed. reps, which are
 
 333] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 15 
 
 There is every reason to suppose that this increase of 
 women will continue. Already girls form 56.5 per cent of 
 the pupils in all secondary schools and 13 per cent of the girls 
 enrolled and only 10 per cent of the boys enrolled graduate 
 from the public high schools. It is sometimes said that 
 men students, as a rule, dislike the presence of women, and 
 in especial that they are unwilling to compete for prizes 
 against women for the very reason that the average stand- 
 ing of women is higher than their own. If there is any 
 force in this statement, however, it would seem that men 
 should increase less rapidly in coeducational colleges than 
 in separate colleges for men. The reverse, however, is 
 the case. During the eight years from 1890 to 1898 men 
 have increased in coeducational colleges 70.0 per cent, but 
 in separate colleges for men only 34.7 per cent. 1 This is all 
 the more remarkable, because in the separate colleges for 
 men are included the large undergraduate departments of 
 Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and the University of 
 Pennsylvania. It is women who have shown a preference 
 for separate education ; women have increased more rapidly 
 in separate colleges for women than in coeducational colleges. 
 It will be observed, however, that the separate colleges for 
 women, like the separate colleges for men included in my 
 list of fifty-eight, are in the east ; it is in the east only that 
 any preference for separate education is shown by either 
 sex. 2 
 
 affected by the erroneous assumption that the undergraduate departments of 
 Brown, Yale, Rochester, New York Univ., Pennsylvania, Tulane and Western 
 Reserve are coeducational. In the University of Chicago women formed, in 
 1898, 54.5 per cent of all regular, and 70 per cent of all unclassified, students ; 
 in Boston university in the regular college course there were, in 1899, 299 women 
 as against 192 men. 
 
 1 In 1889-90 there were 19,245 men studying in 146 colleges for men only ; in 
 1898-99 there were 25,915 men studying in 143 colleges for men only, an increase 
 of only 34.7 per cent. (In enumerating students I have regarded the limited 
 coeducational college of Colby as coeducational.) Women, however, have 
 increased in women's colleges 138.4 per cent. 
 
 'The objection of men students in the east to coeducation seems to be mainly 
 in the apprehension that the presence of women may interfere with the free social 
 life which has become so prominent a feature of private colleges for men in the 
 east. These colleges are, for the most part, situated either in small country towns,
 
 1 6 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [334 
 
 Independent colleges for women Since independent col- 
 leges for women of the same grade as those for men are 
 peculiar to the United States, I shall treat them some- 
 what more fully. 1 The independent colleges here taken 
 into account are the eleven colleges included in division 
 A 2 of the U. S. education reports. 3 The independent 
 
 or in the suburbs of a city, in communities which have grown up about the college, 
 and their students live largely in college dormitories; the conditions, therefore, 
 are exceedingly unlike those prevailing in non-residential colleges and also unlike 
 those prevailing in the world at large. These exceptional conditions are a source 
 of pleasure and, in many respects, of advantage to the student. Undoubtedly 
 there is in coeducational colleges less unrestraint ; young men undoubtedly care 
 much for the impression that they make on young women of the same age, and 
 there is more decorum and perhaps more diligence in classrooms where women 
 are present. The objection to coeducation on the part of women students is, to 
 some extent, the same ; separate colleges for women in like manner are, as a rule, 
 academic communities living according to regulations and customs all their own ; 
 women also feel themselves more unrestrained when they are studying in women's 
 colleges. Then, too, coeducation in the east is still regarded as in some 
 measure an experiment, to the success of which the conduct of each individ- 
 ual woman may, or may not, contribute, and the knowledge of this tends to 
 increase the self-consciousness of student life. 
 
 1 In the case of the colleges in groups I and II these statistics have been 
 obtained through the kindness of the presidents of the colleges concerned; 
 they are for the year 1900, except the numbers of instructors and students which 
 are obtained from the catalogues for the year 189899; in enumerating the 
 instructors, presidents, teachers of gymnastics, elocution, music and art have 
 been omitted. Instructors away on leave of absence are not counted among 
 instructors for the current year. 
 
 * Women's colleges were first classified in division A and division B in 1887. 
 In these reports there appeared sporadically in division A Ingham university, 
 at Leroy, New York, and Rutgers female college in New York city. Nei- 
 ther of these had any adequate endowment and neither ever obtained more 
 than 35 students. Ingham university closed in 1893, Rutgers female college in 
 1895. 
 
 1 The women's colleges, so called, included in division B of these reports, are in 
 reality church and private enterprise schools, as a rule of the most superficial 
 character, without endowment, or fixed curriculum, or any standard whatsoever of 
 scholarship in teachers or pupils. What money there is to spend is for the most 
 part used to provide teachers of music, drawing and other accomplishments, and 
 the school instruction proper is shamefully inadequate. Few if any of these 
 schools are able to teach the subjects required for entrance to a college properly 
 so called; the really good girls' schools are, as a rule, excluded from this list by 
 their honesty in not assuming the name of college. The U. S. education report 
 for 1886-87 gives 152 of these colleges in division B, the report for 1897-98, 135. 
 When it is said that separate colleges for women are decreasing, the statement is 
 based on this list of colleges in division B, which are not really colleges at all; 
 and when it is said that women students are not increasing so rapidly in separate 
 colleges for women as in coeducational colleges, it is the students in these mis-
 
 335] EDUCATION OF WOMEN I/ 
 
 colleges for women fall readily into three groups : I. The 
 so-called "four great colleges for women," Vassar, Smith, 
 Wellesley, Bryn Mawr. It will be seen by referring to the 
 classification on page 12 that these four colleges are 
 included among the fifty-eight leading colleges of the 
 United States ; they are all included in the twenty-two col- 
 leges admitted to the Association of collegiate alumnae ; 
 two of them, Bryn Mawr and Wellesley, are included in the 
 twenty-three colleges belonging to the Federation of gradu- 
 ate clubs ; they are all included in the list of fifty-two lead- 
 ing colleges of the United States given in the handbook of 
 Minerva ; they are all, except Bryn Mawr, included in the 
 list given by the U. S. education report for 189 7-98 l of 
 forty-six colleges in the United States having three hundred 
 students and upward ; three of them, Bryn Mawr, Smith and 
 Vassar, are included among the fifty-two colleges of the 
 United States possessing invested funds of $500,000 and 
 upward, and two of them, Vassar and Bryn Mawr, are 
 included among the twenty-nine colleges of the United 
 States possessing funds of $1,000,000 and upward; three 
 of them, Smith, Wellesley and Vassar, rank among the 
 twenty-three largest undergraduate colleges in the United 
 States ; one of them, Smith, ranks as the tenth undergradu- 
 ate college in the United States. 
 
 called colleges who are referred to; for precisely the reverse is true of students 
 in genuine colleges for women. It is happily true that since better college edu- 
 cation has been obtainable, women have been refusing to attend the institutions 
 included in class B. Between 1890 and 1898 women have increased only 4.9 per 
 cent in the college departments of such institutions, whereas, in these same eight 
 years, they have increased 138.4 per cent in women's colleges in division A. The 
 value of statistics of women college students is often vitiated by the fact that 
 women studying in institutions included in division B are counted among college 
 students. Many of the colleges for men only and of the coeducational colleges 
 included in the lists of the commissioner of education are very low in grade, but 
 few of them are so scandalously inefficient as the majority of the girls' schools 
 included in division B. I have, therefore, in my statistics taken no account 
 whatever of women studying in institutions classified in division B. 
 
 1 See pp. 1821, 1822, 1888, 1889. Bryn Mawr had not 300 undergraduate students 
 in 1897-98, but the next year, 1898-99, passed the limit. I have excluded Western 
 reserve as it is not coeducational in its undergraduate department, and, in 1899, 
 had only 182 men in its men's college and 183 women in its women's college.
 
 1 8 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [336 
 
 Vassar college, Poughkeepsie, New York 1 Founder, Matthew 
 Vassar ; intention, " to found and equip an institution which 
 should accomplish for young women what our colleges are accom- 
 plishing for young men ;" opened, 1865; preparatory department 
 dropped, 1888 ; presidents, three (men) ; 45 instructors (16 Ph. D.s.) 
 35 women, 2 without first degree ; 10 men ; 584 undergrad. s., n 
 grad. s., 24 special s. ; productive funds, $1,050,000 ; a main building 
 with lecture rooms, library and accommodation for 345 students, and 
 two other residence halls accommodating 189 students; a science 
 building ; a lecture building ; a museum with art, music and labora- 
 tory rooms ; an observatory ; a gymnasium ; a plant house ; a presi- 
 dent's house ; five professors' houses ; total cost of buildings, 
 $1,044,365 ; vols. in library, 30,000 ; laboratory equipment, $33,382 ; 
 acres, 200 ; music and art depts., but technical work in neither 
 counted toward bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, $100 ; lowest charge, 
 tuition, board and residence, including washing, $400. 
 
 Wellesley college, Wellesley, Massachusetts Founder, 1 
 Henry F. Durant ; intention, "to found a college for the glory 
 of God by the education and culture of women," opened 1875;' 
 preparatory department dropped, 1880; requirement from stu- 
 dents of one hour daily domestic or clerical work dropped, 1896 ; J 
 presidents, five (all women); 69 instructors (13 Ph. D.s.) 64 
 women, 16, apart from laboratory assistants without first degree; 
 5 men; 611 undergrad. s., 25 grad. s., 21 special s. ; productive 
 
 ; i 
 
 1 To any one familiar with the circumstances it does not admit of discussion that 
 in Vassar we have the legitimate parent of all future colleges for women which 
 were to be founded in such rapid succession in the next period. It is true that in 
 1855 the Presbyterian synod opened Elmira college in Elmira, New York, but it 
 had practically no endowment and scarcely any college students. Even before 
 1855 two famous female seminaries were founded which did much to create a. 
 standard for the education of girls. In 1821 Mrs. Emma Willard opened at Troy 
 a seminary for girls, known as the Troy female seminary, still existing under the 
 name of the Emma Willard school. In 1837 Mary Lyon opened in the beautiful 
 valley of the Connecticut Mt. Holyoke seminary, where girls were educated so 
 cheaply that it was almost a free school. This institution has had a great 
 influence in the higher education of women; it became in 1893 Mt. Holyoke 
 college. These seminaries are often claimed as the first women's colleges, but 
 their curriculum of study proves conclusively that they had no thought whatever 
 of giving women a collegiate education, whereas, the deliberations of the board 
 of trustees whom Mr. Vassar associated with himself show clearly that it 
 was expressly realized that here for the first time was being created a 
 woman's college as distinct from the seminary or academy. In 1861 the move- 
 ment for the higher education of women had scarcely begun. It was not until 
 eight years later that the first of the women's colleges at Cambridge, England, 
 opened.
 
 337] EDUCATION OF WOMEN ig 
 
 funds, $7,000 ; 1 a main building with library lecture rooms and 
 accommodation for 250 students; a chemical laboratory; an obser- 
 vatory; a chapel; an art building; a music building; 8 halls of 
 residence, accommodating 348 students (new hall being built) ; 
 total cost of buildings, $1,106,500; vols. in library, 49,970; 
 laboratory equipment, $50,000; acres, 410; music and art depts., 
 but technical work in neither counted toward bachelor's degree ; 
 tuition fee, $175 ; lowest charge, tuition, board and residence (beds 
 made, rooms dusted by students), $400. 
 
 Smith college, Northampton, Massachusetts Founder, 
 Sophia Smith ; intention, to provide " means and facilities for 
 education equal to those which are afforded in our colleges for 
 young men;" opened, 1875; no preparatory department ever 
 connected with the college ; president, one (man) ; 49 instructors (13 
 Ph. D.s.) 27 women, 9 without first degree ; 12 men ; 1,070 under- 
 grad. s., 4 grad. s. ; since 1891 no special s. admitted; productive 
 funds, $900,000; two lecture buildings; a lecture and gymnastic 
 building; a science building; a chemical laboratory; an observa- 
 tory ; a gymnasium ; a plant house ; a music building ; an art 
 building; 13 halls of residence accommodating 520 students; a 
 president's house ; total cost of buildings $786,000 ; vols. in library, 
 8,000 (70,000 vols. in library in Northampton also used by the stu- 
 dents) ; laboratory equipment, $22,500; acres, 40; music and art 
 depts., technical work in both, amounting to between one-sixth 
 and one-seventh of the hours required for a degree, may be counted 
 toward bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, $100; lowest charge, tuition, 
 board and residence (beds made, rooms dusted by students), $400. 
 Bryn Mawr college, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania Founder, 
 Joseph W. Taylor; intention, to provide "an institution of learn- 
 ing for the advanced education of women which should afford them 
 all the advantages of a college education which are so freely offered 
 to young men;" opened, 1885; no preparatory department ever 
 connected with the college ; presidents, two (one man, one woman) ; 
 38 instructors (29 Ph. D.s. I D. Sc.) 15 women, 23 men; 269 
 undergrad. s., 61 grad. s., 9 hearers ; productive funds, $1,000,000 ; 
 a lecture and library building ; a science building; a gymnasium ; 
 an infirmary ; five halls of residence and two cottages, accommodat- 
 ing 323 students ; a president's house ; 6 professors' houses ; total 
 
 1 The founder of Wellesley expected to leave the college a large endowment, but 
 his fortune was dissipated in unfortunate investments. The splendid grounds 
 and many halls of residence of the college constitute a form of endowment, other- 
 wise its lack of productive funds would have excluded it from class I.
 
 2O EDUCATION OF WOMEN [338 
 
 cost, $718,810; vols. in library, 32,000; laboratory equipment, 
 $47,998; acres, 50; no music department; no technical instruction 
 in art ; tuition fee, $125 ; lowest charge, tuition, board and resi- 
 dence, 
 
 II. The women's colleges not included in the list of the 
 fifty-eight most important colleges in the United States 
 given on page 12, but of exceedingly good academic stand- 
 ing as compared with the greater number of the separate 
 colleges for men and the coeducational colleges included in 
 the four hundred and eighty enumerated by the commis- 
 sioner of education. 
 
 Mt. Holyoke college, South Hadley, Massachusetts Founder, 
 Mary Lyon ; seminary opened, 1837; chartered as seminary and 
 college, 1888 ; seminary department dropped and true college organ- 
 ized, 1893; presidents, two (both women); 37 instructors (7 Ph. 
 D.s.) all women ; 5, apart from laboratory assistants, without first 
 degree ; 426 undergrad. s., 3 grad. s., 9 special s., 3 music s.; pro- 
 ductive funds, $300,000 ; a lecture building; a science building; 
 a museum and art gallery ; a library ; a gymnasium ; a rink ; an 
 observatory ; an infirmary ; a plant house ; 9 residence halls 
 accommodating 478 students ; total cost of buildings, $625,000 ; 
 vols. in library, 17,700; laboratory equipment, $33,000; acres, 160 ; 
 music and art depts., technical work in both, amount limited by 
 faculty, may be counted towards bachelor's degree ; tuition fee, 
 $100; lowest charge, tuition, board and residence (beds made, 
 rooms dusted, by students, and in addition one-half hour of 
 domestic work required), $250. 
 
 Woman's college of Baltimore, city of Baltimore, Maryland 
 Founded and controlled by Methodist Episcopal church ; opened, 
 1888 ; preparatory department dropped, 1893 ; presidents, two 
 (men); 21 instructors (10 Ph. D.s.) n women, I without first degree; 
 10 men, I without first degree; 259 undergrad. s. ; o grad. s. ; 15 
 special s. ; productive funds, $334,994 ; a lecture building and three 
 houses adapted for lecture purposes ; a gymnasium ; a biological 
 laboratory ; 3 residence halls holding 230 ; total cost of buildings, 
 $55>7O3 ; vols. in library, 7,800 ; laboratory equipment, $47,000 ; 
 acres (in city), 7 ; music and art depts., but technical work in 
 neither counted towards bachelor's degree; tuition fee, $125 ; low- 
 est charge, tuition, board and residence (beds made, rooms dusted 
 by students), $375.
 
 339] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 2 1 
 
 Wells college, Aurora, New York Founders, Henry Wells 
 and Edwin B. Morgan; seminary opened, 1868; chartered as col- 
 lege, 1870; preparatory dept. dropped, 1896; presidents, two 
 (men); 13 instructors (4 Ph. D.s.) 10 women, 3 without first 
 degree ; 3 men ; 59 undergrad. s. ; o grad. s. ; 27 special s. ; 4 
 music s. ; productive funds, $200,000 ; a main building with lec- 
 ture rooms and accommodations for 100 students ; a science and 
 music building; a president's house; total cost of buildings, 
 $195,000; vols. in library, 7,300; laboratory equipment, $20,200; 
 acres, 200 ; music and art depts., technical work in neither counted 
 towards bachelor's degree; tuition fee, $100; lowest charge, tui- 
 tion, board and residence (beds made by students), $400. 
 
 III. Elmira college, the Randolph-Macon Woman's col- 
 lege, Rockford college and Mills college are here relegated 
 to a third group because of certain common characteristics. 
 Their endowment is wholly inadequate, averaging consid- 
 erably less than $50,000 apiece, reaching $100,000 only in 
 the case of the Randolph-Macon Woman's college. In each 
 of them a disproportionate number of students is studying 
 in the music or art department ; special students form too 
 large a proportion of the whole number of students ; the 
 number of professors is too small to permit college classes to 
 be conducted by specialists ; the college classes are too 
 small ; true college training cannot be obtained in very small 
 classes, and moreover, in view of the increasing number of 
 women now going to college, when a college for women 
 does not grow steadily it is reasonable to assume that there 
 must be some good- reason for its lack of growth. 
 
 Elmira college, situated at Elmira, New York, has, apart from 
 the president, 10 academic instructors (7 women, 2 without first 
 degree ; 3 men) ; 5 teachers of music, 2 of art. There are studying 
 in the college 70 regular college students, 17 specials and 61 special 
 students in music. 
 
 The Randolph-Macon Woman's college, situated at Lynch- 
 burg, Virginia, has, apart from the president, 12 academic instruc- 
 tors (2 Ph. D.s.) 7 women, 2 without first degree; 5 men; 9 
 instructors in music. Of the 226 students, 1 55 are regular college 
 students ; 44 registered for degree but spending one-fifth of time in 
 
 1 The numbers of students are for the year 1899-1900.
 
 23 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [340 
 
 music or preparatory work ; 16 special students ; 6 students of art ; 
 49 preparatory students ; 46 students of music. 
 
 Rockford college, Rockford, Illinois Opened as seminary, 
 1849; chartered as college, 1892; 13 academic instructors (2 Ph. 
 D.s.) all women, 3 without first degree; 4 teachers of music, I of 
 art ; 35 college s. ; 7 special s. ; 70 s. in music only. 
 
 Mills college, California Opened as seminary, 1871 ; char- 
 tered as college, 1885 ; n instructors (9 women, 3 without first 
 degree; 2 men); 8 teachers of music; 22 college s. ; 135 pupils in 
 preparatory department. 
 
 In addition to the existing colleges belonging to these 
 groups, a separate college for women, Trinity, meant to- be 
 of true college grade, will soon be opened in Washington 
 under the control of the Roman Catholic church. . 
 
 It is often assumed by the adversaries of coeducation that 
 independent colleges for women may be trusted to intro- 
 duce a course of study modified especially for women, 
 but the experience, both of coeducational colleges that 
 have devised women's courses and of women's colleges, 
 demonstrates v conclusively that women themselves refuse to 
 regard as satisfactory any modification whatsoever of the 
 usual academic course. At the opening of Vassar college 
 itself it is clear that the trustees and faculty made an honest 
 attempt to discover and introduce certain modifications in 
 the system of intellectual training then in operation in the 
 best colleges for men. They planned from the start to 
 give much more time to accomplishments music, draw- 
 ing and painting than was given in men's colleges, and 
 the example of Vassar in this respect was followed ten years 
 later by Wellesley and Smith. These accomplishments have 
 gradually fallen out of the course of women's colleges ; 
 neither Vassar nor Wellesley allows time spent in them to 
 be counted toward the bachelor's degree. Smith alone of 
 the colleges of group I still permits nearly one-sixth of the 
 whole college course to be devoted to them. Bryn Mawr, 
 which opened ten years later than Smith or Wellesley, 
 from the beginning found it possible to exclude them from 
 its course.
 
 34 J ] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 23 
 
 In like manner Vassar, Smith and Wellesley in the begin- 
 ning found it necessary to admit special students students, 
 that is to say, interested in special subjects, but without 
 sufficient general training to be able to matriculate as col- 
 lege students ; but their admission has been recognized as 
 disadvantageous, and has gradually been restricted. In 
 1870 special students, as distinguished from preparatory 
 students, formed 19.6 per cent of the whole number of the 
 students of Vassar; in 1899 they formed only 3.9 per cent, 
 and only 3.3 per cent of the whole number of Wellesley 
 students. Smith since 1891 has declined to admit them 
 at all, and Bryn Mawr never admitted them. 1 
 
 Again, Wellesley and Vassar in the beginning organized 
 preparatory departments with pupils living in the same halls 
 as the college students and taught in great part by the same 
 teachers. The presence of these pupils tended to turn the 
 colleges into boarding schools, and the steady and rapid 
 development of Vassar as a true college began only after the 
 closing of its preparatory department in 1888 ; until this 
 time the number of students in the college proper had been 
 almost stationary ; Wellesley closed its preparatory depart- 
 ment in 1880; Smith never organized one; Bryn Mawr 
 never organized one ; Mt. Holyoke, the Woman's college 
 of Baltimore, and Wells college have all closed their pre- 
 paratory departments within the last seven years. 3 
 
 1 To the women's colleges of group III they are admitted still in large numbers, 
 and they still form 35.1 per cent of all the undergraduate students in the affiliated 
 college of Radcliffe, and 35.7 per cent of all the undergraduate students in the 
 affiliated college of Barnard; in part, perhaps, because these colleges are largely 
 dependent upon their tuition fees, and in part too, no doubt, because the 
 presence of special students is less disadvantageous where there is no dormitory 
 life. 
 
 9 Colleges for women draw their students from private schools to a much greater 
 extent than do coeducational colleges; and it was the very great inefficiency of these 
 schools that induced the earlier colleges for women to organize preparatory 
 departments of their own. The entrance examinations of the women's colleges 
 are" the only influence for good that has ever been brought to bear upon the 
 feeble teaching of these schools. In 1874, before the numbers of women wish- 
 ing to prepare for college were great enough to influence the private schools, 
 & plan for raising their standard was devised by the Woman's education 
 association of Boston, at whose request Harvard university for 7 years con-
 
 24 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [342 
 
 It seems to have been at first supposed that the same 
 standards of scholarship need not be applied in the choice 
 of instructors to teach women as in that of instructors to 
 teach men, that women were fittest to teach women, and that 
 the personal character and influence of the woman instructor 
 in some mysterious way supplied the deficiency on her part 
 of academic training. For a long time not even an ordinary 
 undergraduate education was required of her, and there are 
 still teaching in women's colleges too many women without 
 even a first degree. But it has been found on the whole 
 that systematic mental training is best imparted by those 
 who have themselves received it ; the numbers of well- 
 trained women are increasing; and the prejudice against 
 the appointment of men where men are better qualified has 
 almost disappeared. 1 
 
 ducted a series of examinations modeled on the Oxford and Cambridge higher 
 local examinations which have been such an efficient agency in England. Com- 
 mittees of women were organized in different cities, and an attempt was made 
 to induce girls' schools to send up candidates for these examinations. In 7 years, 
 however, only 106 candidates offered themselves for the preliminary examination, 
 and only 36 received a complete certificate. In 1881 the entrance examinations 
 of Harvard college were substituted for these special women's examinations, in 
 the hope that the interest in reaching the standard set by Harvard for its entering 
 class of men might add to the number of candidates; but even after this change 
 was made comparatively few candidates took the examinations, and in 1896 the 
 effort was discontinued; the Harvard examinations have been used from that 
 time onward simply as the ordinary entrance examinations of Radcliffe college. 
 In Great Britain the Cambridge higher local examinations are taken annually by 
 about 900 women. There was needed some such pressure as is brought to bear 
 by pupils determined to go to college to induce private schools to add college 
 graduates to their staff of teachers. The requirements for admission to Bryn 
 Mawr college have to my personal knowledge been a most/ important factor in 
 introducing college-bred women as teachers into all the more important private 
 girls' schools of Philadelphia and in many private schools elsewhere; and every 
 college for women drawing students from private schools has the same experi- 
 ence. On the other hand, every relaxation in the requirements for admission, 
 such as the practice of admitting on certificate adopted by Vassar, Wellesley 
 and Smith, tends to deprive girls' schools of a much needed stimulus. Radcliffe 
 and Barnard, like Bryn Mawr, insist upon examination for admission and decline 
 to accept certificates. 
 
 1 Until Bryn Mawr opened in 1885 with a large staff of young unmarried men, 
 it had been regarded as almost out of the question to appoint unmarried men in 
 a women's college; now they are teaching in all colleges for women. The same 
 instructors pass from colleges for men to colleges for women and from colleges 
 for women to colleges for men, employing in each the same methods of instruc-
 
 343] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 25 
 
 It has been recognized that the work done in women's 
 colleges is most satisfactory to women when it is the same 
 in quality and quantity as the work done in colleges for men, 
 and it has been recognized also that they need the same 
 time for its performance. Domestic work, therefore, which 
 by the founder of Wellesley was regarded as a necessary 
 part of women's education, is at present, I believe, required 
 nowhere except on the perfectly plain ground of economy. 
 The hour of domestic service originally required of every 
 student in Wellesley was abandoned in 1896; a half-hour is 
 still required at Mt. Holyoke, but tuition, board and resi- 
 dence are less expensive there. The time given to domestic 
 work is obviously so much time taken from academic work. 
 
 In the matter of discipline the tendency has been toward 
 ever-diminishing supervision by the college authorities. 
 Vassar and Wellesley began with the strict regulations of a 
 boarding school ; it was regarded as impossible that young 
 women living away from home should be in any measure 
 trusted with the control of their own actions. Smith from 
 the first allowed more liberty, in part because many of her 
 students lived in boarding houses outside the college. In 
 all three colleges the restrictions laid upon the students 
 have been gradually lessened, and at Vassar there is at 
 present a well-developed system of what is known as " lim- 
 ited self-government," according to which many matters of 
 discipline are intrusted to the whole body of students. 
 Bryn Mawr was organized with a system of self-government 
 by the students perhaps more far-reaching than was then in 
 operation in any of the colleges for men ; the necessary 
 rules are made by the Students' association, which includes 
 all undergraduate and graduate students, and enforced by 
 an executive committee of students who in the case of a 
 serious offense may recommend the suspension or expulsion 
 
 tion. Some years since one of the professors at Smith college received at the 
 same time offers of a post at the Johns Hopkins, at Columbia, and at Bryn Mawr; 
 and among the professors the most successful in their teaching at Princeton, Chi- 
 cago and Columbia are men whose whole experience had been gained in teaching 
 women at Bryn Mawr.
 
 26 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [344 
 
 of the offender, and whose recommendation, when sustained 
 by the whole association, is always accepted by the college. 
 The perfect success of the system has shown that there is no 
 risk in relying to the fullest extent on the discretion of a 
 body of women students. 
 
 Affiliated colleges 1 There are five* affiliated colleges in 
 the United States Radcliffe college, Barnard college, the 
 Women's college of Brown university, the College for Women 
 of Western reserve university, and the H. Sophie Newcomb 
 memorial college for women of Tulane university. 3 The 
 affiliated college in America is modeled on the English 
 women's colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with such modi- 
 fications as are made necessary by the wholly different 
 constitution of English and American universities. These 
 modifications, however, it must in fairness be explained, are 
 so essential as to make of it a wholly different institution. 4 
 
 1 The following data have been furnished me by the courtesy of the presidents 
 or deans of the colleges concerned, except the data of the H. Sophie Newcomb 
 memorial college, for which I am indebted to Professor Evelyn Ordway. These 
 data are for the year 1900; the numbers of instructors and students have been 
 obtained from the catalogues for 1898-99. 
 
 8 In one instance only that of Evelyn college in New Jersey has an affiliated 
 college, once established, been compelled to close its doors. Evelyn, however, 
 partook of the nature of a private enterprise school, and was be^jun on an unaca- 
 demic basis in 1887. A certain number of Princeton professors consented to 
 serve on the board of trustees and give instruction there, but it was, in reality, a 
 young ladies' finishing school with a few students (in 1891, 22; in 1894, 18; in 
 1897, 14) pursuing collegiate courses. Music and accomplishments were made 
 much of, and in 1897 the college came to a well-merited end. 
 
 * Radcliffe and Barnard are the only two of the affiliated colleges that appear in 
 the U. S. education reports in division A of women's colleges. The students of 
 the other three are reported under Brown, Western reserve and Tulane respec- 
 tively, thus giving these colleges a false air of being coeducational in their under- 
 graduate departments. The endowment and equipment of these three affiliated 
 colleges, although entirely independent of the colleges to which they are affili- 
 ated, are given nowhere separately. ' 
 
 4 It is difficult for those interested in women's education in England to under- 
 stand the existence in America of independent colleges for women, and if Ameri- 
 can education were organized like English education they would, indeed, have no 
 reason to exist. In an English university, consisting, as it does, of many separate 
 colleges whose students live in their separate halls of residence, are taught 
 by their own teachers, hear in common with the students of other colleges 
 the lectures offered by the central university organization, and compete against 
 each other in honor examinations conducted by a common board of univer- 
 sity examiners, the colleges for women at Cambridge, Girton and Newn-
 
 345] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 2J 
 
 Radcliffe college, Cambridge, Massachusetts l Affiliated to 
 Harvard university, union dissoluble after due notice ; opened by 
 the Society for the collegiate instruction of women in 1879; incor- 
 porated as Radcliffe college with power to confer degrees in 
 1894; board of trustees and financial management separate from 
 Harvard ; B. A. and M. A. degrees conferred by Radcliffe ; Ph. D. 
 degree as yet conferred neither by Radcliffe nor Harvard ; degrees, 
 instructors, and academic board of control, subject to approval of 
 Harvard ; no instructors not instructors at Harvard also ; under- 
 graduate instruction at Harvard repeated at Radcliffe at discretion 
 
 ham, and at Oxford, Somerville hall, Lady Margaret hall and St. Hugh's hall 
 are organized in precisely the same way as colleges for men. They may, 
 or may not, be as well equipped as the best men's colleges, but the difference is a 
 matter of endowment, not of university organization ; there are differences also 
 between the various colleges for men. Examinations, again, play a far more 
 important part in English than in American education. There are in Great Brit- 
 ain only a few examining and degree-giving bodies, for whose examinations all 
 the various colleges prepare their students. The degrees mean that certain 
 examinations have been passed, and have a definite and universally acknowledged 
 value. A degree given by an American college means that the person receiving 
 it has lived for some time in a community of a certain kind, enjoying certain 
 opportunities of which he has conscientiously availed himself. For this reason 
 no one of the 491 colleges of the United States enumerated in the U. S. education 
 report for 1897-98 bestows its degree in recognition of examinations passed in 
 any other college. For this reason Harvard college has had logic on its side in 
 declining to confer upon the students completing their undergraduate course in 
 Radcliffe college the Harvard B. A. They have not lived in the same community, 
 nor yet had all the opportunities of the Harvard student. The certificate received 
 by the student of Girton or Newnham represents exactly the same thing as the 
 Cambridge degree; the B. A. of Radcliffe does not represent the same thing as the 
 Harvard B. A. What is represented by the degrees of different colleges in the 
 United States may, or may not, be equal, but never is the same. Nevertheless 
 Columbia, Brown, Tulane and Western reserve confer their degrees upon the 
 women graduates of their affiliated colleges for women. 
 
 1 The first American affiliated college was the so-called Harvard annex, which 
 was brought into existence by the devoted efforts of a small number of influential 
 professors of Harvard college, who voluntarily formed themselves into a 
 " Society for the collegiate instruction of women," and repeated each week to 
 classes of women the lectures and class work they gave to men in Harvard 
 college. The idea first occurred to Mr. Arthur Gilman in 1878. Girton college, 
 Cambridge, England, after which the annex was modeled, had then been in suc- 
 cessful operation for nine years. Mrs. Louis Agassiz, the widow of the famous 
 naturalist, agreed to become the official head of the undertaking, and she asso- 
 ciated with herself other influential Boston and Cambridge women. Mr. Arthur 
 Gilman became the secretary of the society. The president of Harvard college 
 declared that, so far as the university was concerned, the professors were free 
 to teach women in their leisure hours if they chose. The annex was opened 
 for students in 1879 in a rented house near the Harvard campus with 25 
 students.
 
 28 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [346 
 
 of instructors; since 1893 women admitted to graduate and semi- 
 graduate courses given in Harvard, at discretion of instructor, 
 subject to approval of the Harvard faculty; in 1899, 64 such 
 courses open to Radcliffe students ; 238 undergrad. s. ; 54 grad. s. ; 
 129 special s. ; productive funds about $430,000; a lecture and 
 library building; a gymnasium ; 4 temporary buildings used for 
 lectures and laboratories ; a students' club house ; no residence hall, 
 but one about to be built ; total cost of buildings about $110,000; 
 vols. in library, 14,138; access to Harvard library and collections; 
 scientific laboratories of Harvard not available ; cost of laboratory 
 equipment not ascertainable, inadequate ; acres (in city) about 3 ; 
 tuition fee, $200. 
 
 Barnard college, New York city Affiliated to Columbia uni- 
 versity, union dissoluble by either party after year's notice ; 
 opened in 1889; status very much that of Radcliffe until Janu- 
 ary, 1900, when women graduates were admitted without restric- 
 tion to the graduate school of Columbia, registering in Columbia, 
 not as heretofore in Barnard, and Barnard was incorporated as an 
 undergraduate women's college of the university, its dean voting 
 in the university council, and the president of Columbia becoming 
 its president and a member of its board of trustees ; Barnard's 
 faculty consists of the president of the university, the dean of Bar- 
 nard, and instructors, either men or women, nominated by the dean, 
 approved by Barnard trustees and president of Columbia and 
 appointed by Columbia ; courses for A. B. degree and all examina- 
 tions determined and conducted by Barnard faculty, subject to 
 provisions of university council for maintaining integrity of 
 degree; all degrees conferred by Columbia; after July I, 1904, no 
 undergraduate courses in Columbia, except in the Teachers' col- 
 lege, will be open to Barnard seniors as heretofore, complete 
 undergraduate work will be given separately at Barnard, not neces- 
 sarily by same instructors ; 131 undergrad. s. ; 76 grad. s. ; 73 special 
 s. ; productive funds, $150,000; one large building containing lec- 
 ture rooms, laboratories and accommodation for 65 students, cost, 
 $525,000; vols. in reading room, 1,000; access to Columbia, 
 library ; scientific laboratories of Columbia not available ; cost 
 of laboratory equipment $9,250; land (in city), 200x160 feet; tui- 
 tion fee, $150. 
 
 Women's college of Brown university, Providence, Rhode 
 Island Affiliated to Brown university; university degrees and 
 examinations opened to women, and their undergraduate instruc- 
 tion informally begun in 1892 ; women's college established by
 
 347] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 29 
 
 Brown university as a regular department of the university in 1897 
 under control of the university trustees ; advisory council of five 
 women appointed by trustees to advise with president of university 
 and dean of women's college ; funds of the women's college held 
 and administered separately by trustees ; all degrees conferred by 
 Brown ; women and men examined together ; required courses 
 given in Brown repeated to women by same instructors ; all instruc- 
 tion given by Brown instructors ; all graduate work in Brown 
 open to graduate women without restriction since 1892 ; women 
 recite with men in many of the smaller elective undergradu- 
 ate courses; 140 undergrad. s. ; 38 grad. s. ; 25 special s. ; a lec- 
 ture hall costing $38,000 ; no residence hall ; access to Brown 
 library ; scientific laboratories of Brown not available ; very 
 inadequate laboratory equipment ; no productive funds ; tuition 
 fee, $105. 
 
 College for women of Western reserve university, Cleveland, 
 Ohio Affiliated to Western reserve university; established by 
 Western reserve in 1888; degrees conferred by Western reserve; 
 graduate department of Western reserve open to graduate women 
 without restriction ; separate financial management ; separate 
 faculty 21 (9 Ph. D.s.) 14 men, 7 women; 165 undergrad. s. ; 18 
 special s. ; productive funds, about $250,000 ; a lecture hall, a 
 residence hall accommodating 40 students; total cost of buildings, 
 including land, about $200,000; 3 laboratories of men's college 
 available at certain times ; access to Western reserve library ; 
 tuition, $85 ; lowest charge, board, room rent and tuition (beds 
 made by students), $335. 
 
 H. Sophie Newcomb memorial college for women, New 
 Orleans, Louisiana Affiliated with Tulane university, but situ- 
 ated in another part of the city ; founder, Mrs. Josephine Louise 
 Newcomb; opened 1886; under control of board of trustees of 
 Tulane ; graduate department of Tulane university open to gradu- 
 ate women without restriction since 1890; separate financial man- 
 agement ; separate president and faculty ; 8 instructors (i Ph. D.) 
 5 women, 2 without first degrees ; 3 men, I without first degree ; 
 51 undergrad. s. ; 34 special s. (10 in gymnastics) ; 54 s. of art; 80 
 pupils in preparatory dept. ; art dept. ; productive funds, $400,000 ; 
 a lecture building, a chapel, an art building, a pottery building, two 
 residence halls accommodating 75 students, a high school building; 
 total cost of buildings about $225,000 ; vols. in library about 6,000 ; 
 tuition, $100; lowest charge, board, room rent (two in one room, 
 beds made by students) and tuition, $280.
 
 3<D EDUCATION OF WOMEN [348 
 
 In the smaller group, which includes the College for women 
 of Western reserve university and the H.Sophie Newcomb 
 memorial college, the affiliated college tends to become an 
 entirely separate institution ; in its instructors and instruc- 
 tion it differs widely from the institution to which it is affili- 
 ated ; it is, in fact, a different college called into existence by 
 the same authorities. In the larger group, which includes the 
 Women's college of Brown, Barnard and Radcliffe, the affili- 
 ated college tends to blend itself with the institution to which 
 it is affiliated in a new coeducational institution. The ideal 
 in view is a complete identity of instructors and instruction 
 and the law of economy of force forbids attaining this ideal 
 by the duplication of the whole instruction given. It is less 
 wasteful to double the number of hearers in any lecture 
 room than to repeat the lecture. It is in the Women's col- 
 lege of Brown that we find the closest affiliation and, 
 accordingly, the nearest approach to coeducation. The 
 corporation of Brown furnished the land on which Pem- 
 broke hall, the academic building of the Women's college, 
 was erected, and accepted the gift of the building when 
 it was completed ; Brown has from first to last openly 
 assumed responsibility for its affiliated college in fact as 
 well as name. In the graduate department of Brown there 
 is, as has been said, unrestricted coeducation ; and in many 
 of the smaller undergraduate elective courses women are 
 reciting with men. In the graduate department of Columbia 
 there is now unrestricted coeducation. It is in the case of 
 Radcliffe that there is least approach to coeducation. What 
 has made possible the policy pursued at Radcliffe has been 
 the self-sacrificing zeal of many eminent Harvard professors, 
 willing at any cost of inconvenience to give to women what 
 could seemingly on no other terms be given ; but the sacri- 
 fice is too great, and in the modern world too unnecessary ; 
 it is at present almost everywhere possible for the professor 
 interested in educating women to lighten his own labors by 
 admitting them to the same classes with men. Only the 
 affiliated colleges of the second group present in their inter-
 
 349] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 31 
 
 nal organization a type essentially different from that of the 
 independent college a type intermediate between the inde- 
 pendent and the coeducational. 
 
 / 
 
 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 Graduate instruction in the faculty of philosophy True uni- 
 versity instruction begins after the completion of the college 
 course, and very little such instruction is given by any 
 American university 1 except in the so-called graduate schools 
 belonging to the twenty-three colleges in the United States 
 included in the Federation of graduate clubs. 2 In the follow- 
 ing 1 6 of these 23 graduate schools women are admitted 
 without restriction and compete with men for many of the 
 scholarships and honors : Yale, Brown, Cornell, Columbia, 
 New York university, Pennsylvania, Columbian, Vanderbilt, 
 Missouri, Western reserve, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 Minnesota, California, Leland Stanford Junior; Bryn Mawr 
 and Wellesley admit women only ; Harvard admits them 
 to certain courses through the mediation of Radcliffe. 
 There remain, apart from the Catholic university, only 3 
 graduate schools excluding women : Clark, Princeton and 
 the Johns Hopkins university; and in the Johns Hopkins 
 they are admitted to at least one university department 
 that of the medical school. 3 
 
 1 The medical school of the Johns Hopkins university is a true university school, 
 admitting only holders of the bachelor's degree; the law school of Harvard uni- 
 versity is practically a university school, although seniors in Harvard college are 
 received as students. 
 
 3 Out of the 58 most important American colleges enumerated on page 12 only 
 23, it will be remembered, appear in the lists of the Federation of graduate clubs. 
 Unfortunately it must not be inferred that all these 23 colleges are doing true 
 professional work and offering graduate students a three years' course leading to 
 the degree of Ph. D. In some of them there are provided only courses leading to 
 the degree of A. M., which, like the degree of A. B., indicating general culture. 
 The affiliated college of Radcliffe appears in the list of graduate clubs, although 
 it can scarcely be said to exist independently as a separate graduate school, being 
 virtually the portal by which women are admitted to a limited amount of graduate 
 work at Harvard. In 1899-1900 only 12 graduate lecture courses and 3 research 
 courses were repeated at Radcliffe. 
 
 3 The graduate courses of Clark (which has no undergraduate department) are 
 few in number and attended by only 48 men ; the exclusion of women is, there- 
 fore, very surprising especially as the principal subjects of instruction, pedagogy,
 
 32 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [350 
 
 In 1898-99 there were studying in these 23 gradu- 
 ate schools 1,021 women, forming 26.8 per cent of the 
 whole number of graduate students. 1 In 1889-90 the U. 
 S. education report estimates that there were 271 women 
 graduate students out of a total of 2,041 graduate stu- 
 dents, or women formed 13.27 per cent of all graduate 
 students ; in 1897-98 the report for that year estimates that 
 there were 1,398 women out of a total of 5,816 graduate 
 students, or women formed 24.04 per cent of all students 
 a remarkable increase as compared to the increase of men 
 graduate students in 8 years. 
 
 Graduate fellowships and scholarships In 1899 there were 
 open to women 319 scholarships varying in value from $100 
 to $400 (50 of these exclusively for women) and 2 foreign 
 scholarships (i exclusively for women) ; 81 residence fellow- 
 ships of the value of $400 or over (18 of these exclusively 
 for women) ; 24 foreign fellowships of the value of $500 
 and upwards (12 of these exclusively for women). 2 
 
 experimental psychology and the like, are of peculiar interest to women. The 
 exclusion of women from all but the medical department of the Johns Hopkins 
 university is really of serious import, because the Johns Hopkins university, judged 
 not by numbers but by scholarly research and publication, the number of Ph. D. 
 degrees conferred, and the important college and university positions filled by its 
 graduates, has long been, and perhaps is still, the most important graduate school 
 in the United States. Its attitude toward women is to be accounted for in part 
 by its location, and in part by the fact that its management is in the hands of a 
 self-perpetuating board of twelve trustees appointed originally by the founder, 
 and without exception Baltimoreans, so that no pressure can be brought to bear 
 upon the corporation from more progressive sections of the country. 
 
 1 These figures are taken from the Graduate handbook for 1899, published by the 
 Federation of graduate clubs. Of these the greatest number studying in any one 
 institution in the west was to be found in the University of Chicago, and the next 
 greatest in the University of California; the greatest number studying in any 6*ne 
 institution in the east was to be found at Barnard-Columbia, and the next great- 
 est at Bryn Mawr. There were studying in the graduate departments of the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago (including summer students) 276 women; in the University of 
 California, 90 ; in Barnard-Columbia, 82; in Bryn Mawr, 61; in Radcliffe-Harvard, 
 58; in Yale, 42; in Cornell, 36; in the University of Pennsylvania, 34. The posi- 
 tion of Bryn Mawr in this series seems to show conclusively that an independ- 
 ent woman's college maintaining a sufficiently high standard of instruction may 
 compete successfully for students with much larger and older coeducational 
 foundations. 
 
 2 See Fellowships and graduate scholarships, published by the Association of 
 collegiate alumnae, Richmond Hill, N. Y., Ill Series, No. 2, July, 1899.
 
 Comparative table of the progress of coeducation and increase of 
 women students from 1890 to 1898 and 1899 in theology, law, medi- 
 cine, dentistry, pharmacy, schools of technology and agriculture. 
 
 
 1890 T 
 
 18992 
 
 1890 T 
 
 18933 
 
 
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 P* 
 
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 PH 
 
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 PL, 
 
 r5 
 
 PL, 
 
 Theology 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 reported 
 
 97 
 
 68 
 
 41.2 
 
 reported 
 
 I 9 8 
 
 2-4 
 
 Medicine (regular and irregular) 4. . 
 
 r 
 6 7 
 
 13 
 
 eporte 
 
 li 
 
 d 
 40.7 
 48.! 
 
 SS-2 
 
 22 
 
 69 
 12 
 4 
 
 44 
 48 
 
 74-+ 
 53-7 
 78.6 
 9-3 
 
 repc 
 854 
 53 
 60 
 
 rted 
 
 5-5 
 s.o 
 
 2.1 
 
 '47 
 1397 
 
 m 
 
 '74 
 
 o'o 
 
 2-4 
 
 4-7 
 
 
 Schools of technology and agricul- 
 ture endowed with national land 
 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 46.2 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 75- 
 
 774 
 
 "S 
 
 2381 
 
 16.1 
 
 
 1 The numbers of coeducational and other professional schools are estimated from 
 the U. S. ed. rep. for 1889-90. 
 
 2 Through the kindness of Mr. James Russell Parsons, Jr., author of the mono- 
 graph on professional education in the United States, published as one of this 
 series, I am able to insert the figures for 1899, see p. 21. By personal inquiry 
 I have been able to add four to his list of coeducational schools of theology. 
 
 8 The number of professional students for the year 1898 is taken from the U. S. 
 ed. rep. for 1897-98. 
 
 4 For the sake of clearness I have omitted from the above table the 7 separate 
 medical schools for women, although I have counted their students in the total 
 number of women medical students, both in 1890 and 1898. In 1890 there were 
 studying in the 6 regular medical women's colleges 425 women, as against 648 
 women in coeducational regular medical colleges; in 1898 there were studying 
 in them 411 women, as against 1045 in coeducational colleges, a decrease of 
 3.3 per cent, whereas women students in coeducational medical colleges have 
 increased 16.3 per cent. I limit the comparison to regular medical schools 
 because women have increased relatively more rapidly in irregular medical 
 schools and there is only one separate irregular medical school for women. It is 
 sometimes said that women prefer medical sects because the proportion of women 
 studying in irregular schools is relatively greater than the proportion studying in 
 regular schools; but in 1898, 85.7 per cent of the irregular schools were coeduca- 
 tional and only 46.6 per cent of regular schools, a fact which undoubtedly increases 
 the proportion of students studying in irregular schools. 
 
 5 The statistics for the schools of technology and agriculture are taken from the 
 U. S. education report for 1889-90, pp. 1053-1054, and from the report for 1897-98, 
 pp. 1985-1988. I have excluded schools of technology not endowed with the 
 national land grant. In 1890 there were 27 of such schools (5 of them coeduca- 
 tional); in 1898 their number had fallen to 17 (3 of them coeducational). Very 
 few women are studying in these schools; in 1898 women formed only 0.2 per 
 cent of all students studying in them.
 
 35 j] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 33 
 
 Theology, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary 
 science, schools of technology and agriculture Ten years ago 
 there were very few women studying in any of these schools. 
 The wonderful increase both in facilities for professional 
 study and in the number of women students during the last 
 eight years may be seen by referring to the comparative 
 tive table on the opposite page. 
 
 It is evident to the impartial observer that coeducation is to 
 be the method in professional schools. Except in medicine, 
 where women were at first excluded from coeducational study 
 by the strongest prejudice that has ever been conquered in any 
 movement, no important separate professional schools, indeed 
 none whatever, except one unimportant school of pharmacy 
 have been founded for women only. 1 It is evident also that 
 the number of women entering upon professional study is 
 increasing rapidly. If we compare the relative increase of 
 men and of women from 1890 to 1898 we obtain the follow- 
 ing percentages : increase of students in medicine, men, 
 51.1 per cent, women, 64.2 per cent ; in dentistry, men, 150.2 
 per cent, women, 205.7 per cent ; in pharmacy, men, 25.9 per 
 cent, women, 190 per cent; in technology and agriculture, 
 men, 1 19.3 per cent, women, 194.7 per cent. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 There are many questions connected with the college edu- 
 cation of American women which possess great interest 
 for the student of social science. 
 
 Number of college women In the year 1897-98" there 
 were studying in the undergraduate and graduate depart- 
 ments of coeducational colleges and universities 17,338 
 women, and in the undergraduate and graduate depart- 
 ments of independent and affiliated women's colleges, divis- 
 ion A, 4,959 women, women forming thus 27.4 per cent of 
 
 1 A private law school for women existed for some years in the city of New York, 
 founded by Madame Kempin, a graduate of the University of Zurich. At the 
 request of the Women's legal education society it was incorporated with the New 
 York University law school. 
 
 'See U. S. ed. rep. 1897-98, p. 1825, corrected according to note I, page 15 of this 
 monograph.
 
 34 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [35 2 
 
 the total number of graduate and undergraduate students. 
 The 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate 
 alumnae, which are, on the whole, the most important colleges 
 in the United States admitting women, have conferred the 
 bachelor's degree on 12,804 women. If we add to these 
 the graduates of the Women's college of Brown univer- 
 sity, 102 in number, and the graduates of the 14 additional 
 coeducational colleges included in my list of the 58 most 
 important colleges in the United States, we obtain, including 
 those graduating in June, 1899, a total of 14,824 women* 
 holding the bachelor's degree. 1 There is thus formed, even 
 leaving out of account the graduates of the minor colleges, 
 a larger body of educated women than is to be found in 
 any other country in the world. These graduates have 
 received the most strenuous college training obtainable by 
 women in the United States, which does not differ materially 
 from the best college training obtainable by American men 
 (indeed, women graduates of coeducational colleges have 
 received precisely the same training as men), and may fairly 
 be compared with the women who have received college and 
 university training abroad. In other countries women uni- 
 versity graduates, or even women who have studied at 
 universities, are very few ; 2 in America, on the other hand, 
 
 1 The number of women graduates has been obtained in every case through the 
 courtesy of the presidents of the colleges concerned. In some cases the women 
 graduates have had to be selected from the total number of graduates and 
 counted separately for the purpose. As the figures have never been printed 
 before, I give them below: 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnce : 
 coeducational colleges: Boston, 522 graduates; California, 440; Chicago, 267; Cor- 
 nell, 517; Kansas, 259; Leland Stanford, Jr., 289, Massachusetts institute tech- 
 nology, 45; Michigan, 940; Minnesota, 458; Nebraska, 263 ; Northwestern, 317; 
 Oberlin, 1,486; Syracuse, 508; Wesleyan, 118; Wisconsin, 620. Independent col- 
 leges: Vassar, 1,509; Wellesley, 1,727; Smith, 1,679; Bryn Mawr, 321. Affiliated 
 colleges: Radcliffe, 278; Barnard, 106; College for women of Western reserve, 135. 
 Additional colleges, 15 in number: Women's college of Brown, 102; Cincinnati, 99; 
 Columbian, 60; Colorado, about 70; Illinois, 131; Indiana, 282; Iowa, 340; Maine, 
 28; Missouri, no record; Ohio State university, 150; Ohio Wesleyan, 615; Texas, 60 
 Vanderbilt, n; Washington (St. Louis), 55; West Virginia, 17. Total, 14,824 
 women graduates. 
 
 * The number of women studying in universities in Germany in 1898-99 was 
 approximately 471, probably mainly foreigners (statistics given in the Hochschul 
 Nachrichten, Minerva, etc.); in France in 1896-97, approximately 410, of whom 83
 
 353] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 35 
 
 the higher education of women has assumed the proportions 
 of a national movement still in progress. We may perhaps 
 be able to guide in some degree its future development, but 
 it has passed the experimental stage and can no longer be 
 opposed with any hope of success. Its results are to be 
 reckoned with as facts. 
 
 Health of college women ' Those who have come into con- 
 tact with some of the many thousands of healthy normal 
 
 ! . ______ _ ' 
 
 were foreigners (Les Universite"s franchises, by M. Louis Liard; vol. 2 of Special 
 Reports on Educational Subjects, Education department, London, 1898) ; in 
 England and Wales in 1897-98, approximately 2,348. (See catalogues of different 
 colleges.) The total number of women graduates in England and Wales who have 
 received degrees, or their equivalent, from English and Welsh universities is 
 about 2,180. 
 
 1 Two statistical investigations of the health of college women have been under- 
 taken; one in America in 1882, which tabulated various data connected with the 
 health, occupation, marriage, birth rate, etc., of 705 graduates of the 12 American 
 colleges belonging at that time to the Association of collegiate alumnae (Health 
 statistics of women college graduates; report of a special committee of the Associ- 
 ation of collegiate alumnae, Annie G. Howes, chairman; together with statistical 
 tables collated by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor. Boston: Wright 
 and Potter Printing Co., 18 Post Office Square. 1885), and one in England in 
 1887 (Health statistics of women students of Cambridge and Oxford and of their 
 sisters, by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, Cambridge university press, 1890). The English 
 statistics dealt with 566 women students (honor students who had taken tripos 
 examinations and final honors, and women who had been in residence three, two 
 and one year) of Newnham and Girton colleges, Cambridge, and of Lady Margaret 
 and Somerville halls at Oxford. It was found that in England 75 per cent of the 
 honor students were at the time of the investigation in excellent or good health. 
 It was found that in America 78 per cent of the graduates were at the time of the 
 investigation in good health and 5 per cent in fair health. In estimating the 
 result of this investigation it is difficult to find a standard of comparison. There 
 is no way of knowing what percentage of good health is to be expected in the 
 case of the average woman who has not been to college. It is stated in the Ameri- 
 can health investigation, page 10, that Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, while obtaining 
 data for her monograph on the question of rest for women, found that of 246 
 women only 56 -|- per cent were in good health. The American statistics were 
 compared with the results obtained in an investigation of the condition of 1,032 
 working women of Boston, made by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of 
 labor; the comparison showed that the health of college women was more satis- 
 factory than the health of working women. The English statistics were com- 
 pared with the health statistics of 450 sisters or first cousins who had not received 
 a college education, and it was found that, at all periods, about 5 per cent less of 
 honor graduates were in bad health than of sisters and cousins. The compara- 
 tive tables showed that the married graduates were healthier than their married 
 sisters, that there were fewer childless marriages among them, that they had a 
 larger proportion of children per year of married life, and that their children 
 were healthier.
 
 36 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [354 
 
 women studying in college at the present time, or who have 
 had an opportunity to know something of the after-lives of 
 even a small number of college women, believe that experi- 
 ence has proved them to be, both in college, and after leav- 
 ing college, on the whole, in better physical condition than 
 other women of the same age and social condition. Since, 
 however, people who have not the opportunity of knowledge 
 at first hand continue to regard the health of college women 
 as a subject open for discussion, a new health investigation, 
 based on questions sent to the 12,804 graduates of the 22 
 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae, is 
 now in progress. The statistical tables will be collated a 
 second time by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of 
 labor and sent to the Paris exposition as part of the educa- 
 tional exhibit of the Association of collegiate alumnse. 1 
 
 Marriage rate of college women Here again no positive 
 conclusions can be reached until we know what is the usual 
 marriage rate of women belonging to the social class of 
 women graduates. Everything indicates that the time of 
 marriage is becoming later in the professional classes and 
 that the marriage rate as a whole is decreasing. An inves- 
 tigation undertaken simultaneously with the new health 
 investigation by the Association of collegiate alumnae will 
 -enable us to speak with certainty in regard to the marriage 
 rate of a large number of college women and their sisters.* 
 
 1 The health, marriage rate, birth rate, etc., of woman graduates will be com- 
 pared in every case with the corresponding statistics for the women relatives 
 nearest in age who have not received a college education; an attempt will also be 
 made to obtain corresponding statistics for the nearest men relatives who are 
 college graduates. 
 
 3 The health investigation of English women students showed that the average 
 age of marriage for students was 26.70 as against 25.53 for sisters, and that 10.25 
 per cent of the students were married and 19.33 per cent of the sisters, or, omit- 
 ting the students who had just left college when the returns were sent in, about 
 12 per cent of students. The rate of marriage of students after their college 
 course was completed and of their sisters seemed to be the same, the difference in 
 the total number of marriages being apparently accounted for by causes existing 
 before the termination of the college course, " possibly the desire to go to college, 
 or to remain in college may be among them, but having been in college is not one 
 of them." (See summary of results by Mrs. Sidgwick, page 59.) Mrs. Sidgwick 
 concludes as a result of the investigation that not more than one-half of English
 
 Marriage rate of college women 
 
 
 Opened in 
 
 Percentage of 
 graduates 
 married 
 
 Vas$ar ....i 
 
 1865 
 
 76 . I 
 
 Kansas 
 
 1866 
 
 31 -3 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 1868 
 
 24.5 
 
 Cornell 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 \- I87O 
 
 11. 
 
 ^^esleyan 
 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 I87I 
 
 24.3 
 
 Boston 
 
 1873 
 
 22.2 
 
 Wellesley 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Smith 
 
 j- 1875 
 
 18.4 
 
 Radcliffe 
 
 1870 
 
 16.5 
 
 Bryn Mawr 
 
 1885 
 
 15.2 
 
 Barnard ' 
 
 1880 
 
 IO.4 
 
 Leland Stanford Junior 
 
 1801 
 
 Q-7 
 
 Chicago 
 
 1802 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that independent, affiliated and coeducational colleges fall 
 into their proper place in the series, thus showing conclusively that the method 
 of obtaining a college education exercises scarcely any appreciable influence on 
 the marriage rate. 
 
 The marriage rate of Bryn Mawr college, calculated in January, 1900, will also 
 serve as an illustration of the importance of time in every consideration of the 
 marriage rate : graduates of the class of 1889, married, 40.7 per cent; graduates of 
 the first two classes, 1889-1890, married, 40.0 per cent; graduates of the first three 
 classes, 1889-1891, married, 33.3 per cent; graduates of the first four classes, 1889- 
 1892, married, 32.9 per cent; graduates of the first five classes, 1889-1893, married, 
 31.0 per cent; graduates of the first six classes, 1889-1894, married, 30.0 per cent; 
 graduates of the first seven classes, 1889-1895, married, 25.2 per cent; graduates 
 of the first eight classes, 1889-1896, married, 22.8 per cent; graduates of the first 
 nine classes, 1889-1897, married, 20.9 per cent; graduates of the first ten classes, 
 1889-1898, married, 17.2 per cent; graduates of the first eleven classes, 1889-1899, 
 married, 15.2 per cent.
 
 355] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 37 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the element of time is 
 very important, and in the case of women the later and 
 therefore younger classes are all larger than the earlier 
 ones, see table on opposite page). 
 
 Occupations of college women It is probable that about 
 50 per cent of women graduates teach for at least a cer- 
 tain number of years. Of the 705 women graduates whose 
 occupations were reported in the Association of collegiate 
 alumnae investigation of 1883 50.2 percent were then teach- 
 ing. In 1895 of 1,082 graduates of Vassar 37.7 per cent 
 were teaching ; 2.0 per cent were engaged in graduate study 
 and 3.0 per cent were physicians or studying medicine. In 
 1898 of 171 graduates (all living) of Radcliffe college, includ- 
 ing the class of 1898, 49.7 per cent were teaching; 8.7 per 
 cent were engaged in graduate study ; .6 per cent were 
 studying medicine ; 17.5 per cent were unmarried and with- 
 out professional occupation'. In 1899 of 316 living gradu- 
 ates of Bryn Mawr college, including the class of 1899, 39.0 
 percent were teaching; 11.4 were engaged in graduate 
 study ; 6 per cent were engaged in executive work (includ- 
 ing 4 deans of colleges, 3 mistresses of college halls of 
 residence) ; 1.6 per cent were studying or practising medi- 
 cine, and 26.6 per cent were unmarried and without profes- 
 sional occupation. 1 
 
 Coeducation vs. separate education It is clear that coedu- 
 cation is the prevailing method in the United States; it is 
 the most economical method ; indeed it is the only possible 
 
 women of the social class of women students or their sisters marry. The Ameri- 
 can investigation of 1883 showed that 27.8 per cent of the American college gradu- 
 ates, their average age being 28 1-2 years, were at that time married, and that, 
 judging by the indications of the marriage percentages among older graduates, 
 about 50 per cent were likely sooner or later to be married. In an investigation 
 of the marriage of Vassar graduates made in 1895, and not including the graduates 
 of that year, it was found that rather under 38 per cent of the whole number of 
 students, and about 63 per cent of the first four classes, were married, see 
 Frances M. Abbott: A Generation of college women, The Forum, vol. XX, p. 378. 
 Out of the total number of 8,956 graduates, including those graduating in June, 
 1899, of the 16 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae that 
 have kept accurate marriage statistics, 2,059 are married, or 23.0 per cent. 
 
 1 Mrs. Sidgwick's investigation showed that 77 per cent of all English students 
 reporting, and 83 per cent of honor students, had engaged in educational work.
 
 38 EDUCATION OF WOMEN 
 
 method in most parts of the country. Now that it has been 
 determined in America to send girls as well as boys to college, 
 it becomes impossible to duplicate colleges for women in every 
 part of this vast country. If, as is shown by the statistics 
 given in the successive reports of the commissioner of edu- 
 cation, men students in college are increasing faster far than 
 the ratio of the population, and women college students 
 are increasing faster still than men, 1 it will tax all our 
 resources to make adequate provision for men and women 
 in common. Only in thickly-settled parts of the country, 
 where public sentiment is conservative enough to justify the 
 initial outlay, have separate colleges for women been estab- 
 lished, and these colleges, without exception, have been 
 private foundations. Public opinion in the United States 
 almost universally demands that universities supported by 
 public taxation should provide for the college education of 
 the women of the state in which they are situated. The 
 separate colleges for women speaking generally are to be 
 found almost exclusively in the narrow strip of colonial states 
 lying along the Atlantic seaboard. The question is often 
 asked, whether women prefer coeducation or separate educa- 
 tion. It seems that in the east they as yet prefer separate 
 education, and this preference is natural. 2 College life as 
 
 1 Between 1890 and 1898 women undergraduate students have increased III. 8 
 per cent, and men undergraduate students have increased 51.2 per cent. 
 
 8 In the college departments of coeducational colleges the average number of 
 women studying is 48.4, whereas in the college departments of independent women's 
 colleges the average number of women studying is 331.91, and in affiliated col- 
 leges 192.8. In 1897-98 11.4 per cent of all the women studying in coeducational 
 colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, whereas 13.4 per cent of all the women 
 studying in independent women's colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, which 
 indicates probably that women prefer women's colleges for four years of resi- 
 dence. In the same year 13.3 per cent of all men undergraduate students obtained 
 the bachelor's degree. The average number of graduates of the 4 women's col- 
 leges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae is 1,309 per college, the 
 average age of the colleges being 23 years; the average number of graduates of 
 the 15 coeducational colleges belonging to the Association of college alumna is 
 only 469.9, although the average age of the colleges is 27.7 years. During the 8 
 years from 1890 to 1898, women undergraduate students have increased in coedu- 
 cational colleges 105.4 P fi r cent, whereas they have increased in women's colleges, 
 division A, 138.4 per cent. Precisely the reverse is true of men students (see 
 pp. 14 and 15, including foot notes).
 
 357] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 39 
 
 it is organized in a woman's college seems to conservative 
 parents less exposed, more in accordance with inherited tradi- 
 tions. Consequently, girls who in their own homes lead 
 guarded lives, are to be found rather in women's colleges 
 than in coeducational colleges. From the point of view of 
 conservative parents, there is undoubtedly serious objection 
 to intimate association at the most impressionable period of 
 a girl's life with many young men from all parts of the country 
 and of every possible social class. From every point of view 
 it is undesirable to have the problems of love and marriage 
 presented for decision to a young girl during the four years 
 when she ought to devote her energies to profiting by the 
 only systematic intellectual training she is likely to receive 
 during her life. Then, too, for the present, much of the cul- 
 ture and many of the priceless associations of college life are 
 to be obtained, whether for men or women, only by residence 
 in college halls, and no coeducational, or even affiliated, col- 
 leges have as yet organized for their students such a com- 
 plete college life as the independent woman's college. So 
 long as this preference, and the grounds for it, exist, we must 
 see to it that separate colleges for women are no less good 
 than colleges for men. In professional schools, including the 
 graduate school of the faculty of philosophy, coeducation is 
 even at present almost the only method. There are in the 
 United States only 4 true graduate schools for men closed 
 to women, and only i independent graduate school main- 
 tained for women offering three years' consecutive work 
 leading to the degree of Ph. D. There is every reason to 
 believe that as soon as large numbers of women wish to 
 enter upon the study of theology, law and medicine, all the 
 professional schools now existing will become coeducational. 
 A modified vs. an unmodified curriculum The progress of 
 women's education, as we have traced it briefly from its 
 beginning in the coeducational college of Oberlin in 1833, 
 and the independent woman's college of Vassar in 1865, has 
 been a progress in accordance with the best academic tradi- 
 tions of men's education. In 1870 we could not have pre-
 
 4<D EDUCATION OF WOMEN [358 
 
 dieted the course to be taken by the higher education of 
 women ; the separate colleges for women might have devel- 
 oped into something wholly different from what we had been 
 familiar with so long in the separate colleges for men. A 
 female course in coeducational colleges in which music and 
 art were substituted for mathematics and Greek might have 
 met the needs of the women students. After thirty years 
 of experience, however, we are prepared to say that what- 
 ever changes may be made in future in the college curriculum 
 will be made for men and women alike. After all, women 
 themselves must be permitted to be the judges of what kind 
 of intellectual discipline they find most truly serviceable. 
 They seem to have made up their minds, and hereafter may 
 
 be trusted to see to it that an inferior education shall not 
 
 t 
 
 be offered to them in women's colleges, or elsewhere, under 
 the name of a modified curriculum.
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITBD STATKS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 8 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 BY 
 
 B. A. HINSDALE 
 Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPH is CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 The agencies of an institutional character for training 
 teachers in the United States are the following: Normal 
 schools and colleges, teachers' training classes, teachers' 
 institutes, summer schools, university extension lectures, 
 teachers' reading circles, chairs of education in colleges and 
 universities, and teachers' colleges. None of these agencies 
 go far back in our history ; all of them, on the contrary, 
 sprang directly or indirectly out of the educational revival 
 that began to show marked power in the most progressive 
 countries early in the present century. We shall under- 
 stand the origin and development of these agencies the 
 better if we first glance at the preparation of teachers in the 
 period preceding this revival. 
 
 The first thing to be considered is the fact that the train- 
 ing of teachers, as the phrase is> now understood, had pre- 
 viously been wholly neglected throughout the country. 
 Teachers had no other preparation for their work than their 
 natural aptitude for the art, their knowledge of the subjects 
 which they taught, and such practical lessons as they learned 
 in their school rooms. As respects their academic prepa- 
 ration, they presented, as a class, a very motley appearance, 
 as a cursory view of the schools of the country will abun- 
 dantly show. 
 
 New England was much better supplied with schools of 
 all kinds than any other section of the country. Here were 
 found four of the nine colleges that existed at the time of 
 the revolutionary war ; here permanent grammar schools 
 and academies existed in larger numbers than elsewhere ; 
 and here were the only systems of public schools that had 
 been founded. The teacher was always highly respected by 
 the Puritans : but some of the accounts of teachers and
 
 4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [362 
 
 schools that have come down to us bear a striking resem- 
 blance to the descriptions of the state of education existing 
 in Switzerland and France in the youth of Pestalozzi. In 
 the early time we read of one town, for example, that 
 required its schoolmaster to perform the following duties in 
 addition to taking charge of the school : to act as court 
 messenger, to serve summonses, to conduct certain ceremo- 
 nial services of the church, to lead the Sunday choir, to ring 
 the bell for public worship, to dig graves, and to perform 
 other occasional duties. 1 Matters improved as time went 
 on, but Horace Mann wrote of Massachusetts as late as 
 1837 : " Engaged in the common schools of the state there 
 are now, out of the city of Boston, but a few more than a 
 hundred male teachers who devote themselves to teaching 
 as a regular profession. The number of females is a little, 
 though not materially, larger. Very few even of these have 
 ever had any special training for their vocation. The rest 
 are generally young persons, taken from agricultural or 
 mechanical employment, which have no tendency to qualify 
 them for the difficult station ; or they are undergraduates of 
 our colleges, some of whom, there is reason to suspect, think 
 more of what they are to receive at the end of the stipulated 
 term, than what they are to impart during its continuance." 2 
 The winter schools were taught by men, the summer schools 
 by women, the men being much the better fitted for the 
 office of instruction. 
 
 In the middle states education had never taken on a 
 strong institutional form. The four colleges of that section 
 Philadelphia, New Jersey, Queen's and King's were 
 much younger and weaker than Harvard and Yale ; acade- 
 mies and grammar schools were less firmly established than 
 east of the Hudson river, while common schools were wholly 
 of a voluntary or parochial character. Private schools and 
 domestic instruction were mainly relied on. The old Dutch 
 schoolmasters of the Hudson and the Delaware performed 
 
 'Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 12. 
 Life and Works of Horace Mann, vol. II, p. 425.
 
 363] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 5 
 
 quite as many offices as ever the New England schoolmas- 
 ters performed. They were forereaders and foresingers in 
 the churches, comforters of the sick, and church clerks, not 
 to mention other services, as well as pedagogues. 1 Presi- 
 dent Dwight, of Yale college, visiting the city of New 
 York early in this century, gives this account of the majority 
 of the schools that he found there : " An individual, some- 
 times a liberally educated student, having obtained the 
 proper recommendations, offers himself to some of the 
 inhabitants as a schoolmaster. If he is approved and pro- 
 cures a competent number of subscribers, he hires a room 
 and commences the business of instruction. Sometimes he 
 meets with little, and sometimes with much encourage- 
 ment." 2 And so it was, for the most part, throughout the 
 middle states. 
 
 At the south schools were still less firmly rooted. Here 
 was found, before the revolutionary war, but a single col- 
 lege, William and Mary, and academies of a permanent 
 character were infrequent. In the later colonial days, and 
 perhaps afterwards, it was common for southern gentlemen 
 to send abroad for university educated men, who were duly 
 installed as teachers in their families. Thus George Mason, 
 the distinguished Virginia statesman of the revolutionary 
 era, sent to Scotland for two teachers in succession for his 
 sons. 3 At an earlier time it was still more common in the 
 southern states for heads of families to buy teachers in the 
 market as the Romans bought them in the days of Cicero ; 
 such teachers being commonly redemptioners, men who had 
 sold their services for a term of years to a merchant or ship- 
 master in payment for their transportation to America, but 
 sometimes, also, convicts who had been expatriated. It was 
 common, too, at the south, and in a less degree in the mid- 
 dle states, for leading families to send their sons abroad to 
 
 1 History of the school of the collegiate reformed Dutch church in the city of 
 New York, etc. H. W. Dunshee, New York, 1883, passim. 
 
 1 Travels in New England and New York, 4 vols. London, 1823, vol. IV, p. 443. 
 
 The Life of George Mason, etc. Kate Mason Rowland, N. Y. London, 1892, 
 Tol. I, pp. 96, 97.
 
 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [364 
 
 be educated. Thus the father and two elder brothers of 
 Washington were sent to Appleby school in England. 
 Foreign trained teachers were much more common at the 
 south than at the north. Andrew Bell, author of the Mad- 
 ras system of education, taught in Virginia through the 
 period of the revolutionary war. 1 The Scotch-Irish race, 
 both in and out of the country, furnished a large number of 
 teachers, some of whom were as vagrant in their habits as 
 the wandering scholars of the sixteenth century. " The 
 whole southern country," writes one who has carefully studied 
 the subject, "was opened to the wandering teachers, all the 
 way from an educational tramp and a drunken importation 
 from a British university, to now and then, probably, a com- 
 petent teacher." Such men as these were met with every- 
 where, but more commonly at the south and west. 
 
 Following the revolution, as the different sections of the 
 union became more closely knit together, New England, 
 which had a surplus of teachers, such as they were, began to 
 send her overplus beyond her borders. Other states at the 
 north followed her example. Probably the practice ante- 
 dated the war ; but now the " Yankee " schoolmaster became 
 better known in the south and west than ever the Scotch 
 professor had been known in continental countries in the 
 middle ages. It may be worth recalling that it was one 
 of these New England schoolmasters, Eli Whitney, who 
 invented the cotton gin, which gave such an impulse to 
 cotton production and cotton manufacture. William Ellery 
 Channing taught as a private instructor in Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia, in 1798-1800; William H. Seward taught part of the 
 year 1819 in Georgia ; Salmon P. Chase carried on his select 
 classical seminary in Washington in 1827-28, while studying 
 law in the office of William Wirt ; and at a later day James 
 G. Blaine taught for a time in the Western Military institute 
 at the Blue Lick Springs, Kentucky. Women, as well as 
 men, went to the south to teach. Probably most of these 
 
 1 The Life of Rev. Andrew Bell, etc. By Robert Southey, London, 1844, vol. 
 I, chap. II.
 
 365] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 7 
 
 teachers returned north again after a period of service ; but 
 some remained and became identified with the country. 
 Thus .the gentleman quoted from above testifies: "In my 
 wanderings through the older Atlantic states, I have come 
 upon a good many old men and women who left New 
 England as teachers and married and settled among the 
 people." 1 It must be added that at the south, and in the 
 middle states in less degree, men of superior education 
 looked with little favor upon teaching as a vocation, being 
 more interested in the professions or in public life. 
 
 The general situation in the first quarter of the present 
 century may be summed up as follows : The teachers of the 
 best academies, grammar schools, and select schools were 
 educated men, a large majority of them trained in the col- 
 leges of the country, but some in the universities of the old 
 world, particularly of England and of Scotland. Not unfre- 
 quently these teachers were ministers of religion actually in 
 charge of parishes or churches. In fact, it had always been 
 common for ministers to teach, if not formal schools, then 
 private pupils in their own studies. Next to this group the 
 best educated teachers, as a class, were college students and 
 young men preparing for professional life the law, medicine, 
 or the ministry who had resorted to teaching for the time as 
 a means of supplying themselves with needed funds. John 
 Adams, after graduating from Harvard college in 1755, 
 taught for a time in the grammar school at Worcester, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Some of these persons, by reason of aptitude, 
 enthusiasm, and scholarly attainments, were excellent teach- 
 ers. The third group to be mentioned was composed of 
 persons who had studied in the academies and grammar and 
 select schools but had not attended institutions of a higher 
 grade. These were found not only in the elementary' schools 
 but in the grammar schools and academies themselves. 
 Schools of this grade, it may be explained, performed a 
 double function ; they sent young men to the colleges, but 
 a much larger number directly into practical life. Much of 
 
 1 Dr. A. D. Mayo, in private letter.
 
 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [366 
 
 the instruction that they furnished, especially the inferior 
 schools, was of a strictly elementary character. The fourth 
 group, found in the common schools, were fitted, so far as 
 they were fitted at all, some in the grammar school and 
 academies, but many more in just such schools as they taught 
 themselves. Sometimes, however, a college student, or even 
 graduate, was found in one of the common schools. 
 
 In America, as in Europe, the education of women had 
 been greatly neglected. In the first half of the eighteenth 
 century fewer than forty per cent of the women of New 
 England who signed legal papers wrote their names ; the 
 others made their mark. 1 Mrs. John Adams, writing of the 
 middle of the century, said female education in the best 
 families went no further than writing and arithmetic ; in 
 some few and rare instances music and dancing. It was 
 fashionable, she said also, to ridicule female learning. 2 
 Girls were not admitted to the public schools of Boston until 
 1769. When the first quarter of this century was well 
 turned some change for the better was apparent ; but even 
 then, there were slight manifestations of that splendid out- 
 burst of interest in women's education which was carried in 
 the bosom of the great democratic movement. All this was 
 the more unfortunate because a large proportion of the teach- 
 ers, at least in the northern states, were women, who were, 
 generally speaking, grossly incompetent and miserably paid. 
 
 Still it must not be supposed that, down to the educational 
 revival, no attention was given to the qualification and 
 preparation of teachers. That were a great mistake ; the 
 maintenance of colleges and academies was often advocated 
 on the ground that they would furnish teachers for the com- 
 mon schools. Dr. Franklin, for example, in urging the 
 claims of the Academy of Philadelphia, now the University 
 of Pennsylvania, remarked upon the great need of school- 
 
 1 The Evolution of the Massachusetts public school system, G. H. Martin, New 
 York, 1894, p. 75. 
 
 * The Familiar letters of John Adams and his wife Abigail Adams during the 
 revolution, with a memoir of Mrs. Adams by Charles Francis Adams. New 
 York, 1876, pp. xxi, 339.
 
 367] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 9 
 
 masters, and said the academy would be able to furnish 
 teachers of good morals well prepared to teach children 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, and the grammar of their 
 mother tongue. 1 But nothing was said or done, so far as 
 known, relative to instructing prospective teachers in the 
 science and the art of teaching. 
 
 it is clear, therefore, that, at the opening of this century, 
 there was urgent need of a general educational revival 
 throughout the country, and particularly of a revival, or cre- 
 ation, of interest in the training of teachers. Both of these 
 needs were the more pressing because population was largely 
 increasing, owing partly to its growing density in the old 
 states, but more to its rapid extension into the new regions 
 of the west. There was, in fact, no other part of the union 
 where the schoolmaster so much needed to be abroad as on 
 the western frontiers. 
 
 In fact, the two elements that have just been mentioned 
 could not be separated. In America, as in Europe, the 
 demand for better teachers was a marked feature of the 
 great democratic movement towards popular education ; per- 
 haps it may be called the feature of this movement. Early 
 in this century calls began to be heard in various parts of 
 the United States, at first in slow and then in rapid suc- 
 cession. These calls were not made according to a pro- 
 gram ; there was no central propaganda ; in fact, there 
 was little direct connection between the early discussions 
 and efforts to do something in different parts of the country. 
 On the other hand, these discussions and efforts sprang 
 from the forces or causes that produced the great educa- 
 tional uprising in this country and in other countries. Men 
 will differ as to the relative power of these forces, or perhaps 
 even as to the number ; but the best judges, it is believed, 
 will hardly dispute the assertion that, in America at least, 
 the democratic spirit was the most far reaching and effica- 
 cious of such causes. " Schools must be provided for the 
 
 1 History of education in Pennsylvania, etc. J. P. Wickersham, Lancaster, Pa., 
 1886, p. 606.
 
 IO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [368 
 
 people ", " the property of the state must educate the youth 
 of the state ", " the schools must have better teachers ", 
 became national watchwords. 1 
 
 I NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 The highly mechanical method of teaching that bears the 
 names of Bell and Lancaster, called also mutual and moni- 
 torial instruction, demanded much skill in its conductors. 
 Among other places, this method took root in the city of 
 Philadelphia, and there, in 1818, it called into existence the 
 model school, which was, no doubt, the first school estab- 
 lished in the country for the training of teachers ; it did not, 
 however, outlive the movement of which it was a part. 
 
 The first permanent normal schools were the three founded 
 at Lexington, Barrie, and Bridgewater, Massachusetts, in 
 1839-40. They were an outgrowth of the interest in popu- 
 lar education and especially of interest in schools for pre- 
 paring common school teachers, which had been increasing 
 for years, and particularly after German influence began to 
 be felt upon American education, that is, about 1820. These 
 primitive schools were in all respects on a small scale 
 studies, teachers and pupils. Candidates to be admitted 
 were required to be, if males, seventeen years old, if females, 
 sixteen years. They were required to declare an intention 
 to become school teachers ; they also took an entrance 
 examination, and submitted evidence of intellectual capacity 
 and moral character. The minimum term of study was 
 fixed at one year, and at its expiration the pupil, if deserv- 
 ing, was promised a certificate of qualification. The official 
 course of study, prepared by the state board of education, 
 said the studies first to be attended to should be those which 
 the law required to be taught in the district schools, viz.: 
 
 1 The writer has given a much fuller account of the state of schools in the 
 United States previous to 1837 in his work entitled " Horace Mann and the com- 
 mon school revival in the United States." New York, 1898, chaps. I, II. See 
 also chapters on various aspects of our educational history by Dr. A. D. Mayo, in 
 the reports of the commissioner of education, 1895, 1896, 1897. Also chap. XXIX 
 of the last named report.
 
 369] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II 
 
 orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography 
 and arithmetic. When these were thoroughly mastered, 
 those of a higher order might be progressively taken. Per- 
 sons wishing to remain at the school more than one year, in 
 order to increase their qualifications for teaching a public 
 school, might do so, having first obtained the consent of 
 the principal ; and to meet their needs, a further course of 
 study was marked out. The whole course, properly arranged, 
 was as follows : 
 
 (i) Orthography, reading, grammar, composition and 
 rhetoric, logic ; (2) writing, drawing ; (3) arithmetic, men- 
 tal and written, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, navigation, 
 surveying ; (4) geography, ancient and modern, with chro- 
 nology, statistics, and general history ; (5) physiology ; (6) 
 mental philosophy ; (7) music ; (8) constitution and history 
 of Massachusetts and of the United States ; (9) natural 
 philosophy and astronomy ; (10) natural history; (n) the 
 principles of piety and morality common to all sects of 
 Christians; (12) the science and art of teaching, with refer- 
 ence to all the above named studies. A portion of the 
 Scriptures should be read daily in every normal school. 
 
 A selection from the above studies should be made by 
 those who were to remain at the school but one year, accord- 
 ing to the particular kind of school it might be their inten- 
 tion to teach. To each normal school an experimental or 
 model school was attached, where the pupils could reduce to 
 practice the knowledge that they acquired of the science and 
 art of teaching. Every school was put in the immediate 
 charge of a principal aided by needed assistants. 1 
 
 Such was the program. Perhaps it is to-day most interest- 
 ing when viewed as a gauge of the time, or as a base line 
 from which to measure progress. 
 
 These primitive schools were the joint product of private 
 and public liberality ; both citizens and the legislature 
 shared in founding them ; moreover, they were an experi- 
 
 1 The Common school journal, edited by Horace Mann, secretary of the Massa- 
 chusetts board of education, vol. I, pp. 32-38.
 
 12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [370 
 
 ment, the legislature refusing at first to commit itself to 
 their maintenance beyond the period of three years ; but 
 they so commended themselves to the public that they were 
 soon regularly incorporated into the state system of public 
 instruction. Furthermore, not only have these schools 
 greatly grown, in number of pupils and teachers, in appli- 
 ances and breadth of studies, and in influence, but others 
 have been added to the list until Massachusetts has now 
 nine state normal schools. 
 
 The northern and western states have generally adopted 
 the normal school idea. In the west they spring out of the 
 soil and grow up side by side with the other institutions of 
 civil society. Nor is this all. At the close of the civil war 
 there was not a single normal school in the southern states ; 
 since that time, however, they have been generally intro- 
 duced as an indispensable feature of the common school 
 system. The places and times at which some of the leading 
 schools were established will illustrate the progress of the 
 movement. 
 
 Albany, N. Y., 1844. Framington, Maine, 1864. 
 
 New Britain, Connecticut, 1850. Winona, Minnesota, 1864. 
 
 Ypsilanti, Michigan, 1852. Chicago (Cook county), 111., 
 Boston, Massachusetts, 1852. 1867. 
 
 Normal, Illinois, 1857. Plattville, Wisconsin, 1866. 
 
 Millersville, Pennsylvania, 1859. Nashville, Tennessee, 1875. 
 
 Oswego, New York, 1860. Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1876. 
 
 Emporia, Kansas, 1864. Terre Haute, Indiana, 1870. 
 
 New York now has twelve public normal schools, Penn- 
 sylvania thirteen, Massachusetts nine, West Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Missouri, and Wisconsin seven each. No other 
 state has more than six, and a few have none. Ohio, how- 
 ever, is the only great state that has no state normal school. 
 
 Perhaps no school in this list has exerted a greater influ- 
 ence than the Oswego school. This influence has been 
 largely due to the practical application that was here made 
 of Pestalozzian ideas and methods, and to the great ability 
 and elevation of character of its founder, Dr. E. A. Sheldon.
 
 37 1 ] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 13 
 
 This development has been due partly to the quickening 
 example of Massachusetts, but far more to the general preva- 
 lence of the same causes that acted in that state. A high 
 educational authority has said that " all normal school work 
 in the country follows substantially one tradition, and this 
 * * * traces back to the course laid down at Lexington 
 in 1 839."' There is truth in this view, but the operation of 
 the same general causes was, no doubt, a more powerful 
 factor than direct imitation. 
 
 We come now to the question, What and how much are 
 the students in the normal schools doing ? Only a general 
 answer can be given. 
 
 Candidates for admission to the Massachusetts schools 
 must be graduates of approved high schools, or must have 
 received an equivalent education. The general two years' 
 course designed for intending teachers below the high school 
 comprises, (i) psychology, history of education, principles 
 of education, methods of instruction and discipline, school 
 organization, and the laws of Massachusetts ; (2) methods 
 of teaching English, mathematics, science, vocal music, 
 physical culture, and manual training ; (3) observation in 
 the model school and in other public schools. The Bridge- 
 water school has a regular four years' course embracing, in 
 addition to the foregoing studies, work of a more academic 
 character, as instruction in Latin and French, Greek and 
 German, English literature, history, etc. This course looks 
 to the preparation of grammar school principals and a grade 
 of high school teachers. Bridgewater also offers a three 
 years' course, a cross between the other two, while provision 
 is also made for advanced instruction for college graduates 
 and other approved candidates in all the schools. Diplomas 
 are given to graduates from all courses. 2 
 
 1 Dr. W. T. Harris, oration delivered at Framingham, Mass., 1888. See Pro- 
 ceedings of the semi-centennial celebration of the founding of state normal 
 schools in this country. 
 
 'See Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 
 1897-98, passim; also reports of the various normal schools, particularly that of 
 the school at Bridgewater for 1898-99.
 
 14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [372 
 
 The other state normal schools, while conforming in the 
 main to the Massachusetts type, present numerous variations. 
 The common standard for admission is not as high by at 
 least two years of high school study. Often, however, there 
 will be found a greater variety of instruction than the Mass- 
 achusetts schools furnish, and partly for the very reason 
 that the standard is not as high. On the whole, for some 
 years past there has been a marked tendency to raise the 
 standard of admission and to strengthen and diversify courses 
 of study. Advanced courses for normal school graduates 
 and other candidates having an equivalent education are 
 well nigh universal. Furthermore, the best schools in their 
 best courses give an amount of instruction that will carry 
 the student nearly, if not quite, to the middle of a good 
 college course. Naturally, therefore, many students pass 
 from the normal schools to the colleges and universities. 
 Special courses for college graduates are often met with, 
 designed to give, in a single year, a professional preparation 
 for teaching. 
 
 Some schools have assumed the higher name of college, 
 in connection with the assumption of some higher function. 
 Thus, the Michigan state normal college gives the degree 
 of bachelor of pedagogics to students who complete satis- 
 factorily its four years' course of study. It also confers the 
 corresponding master's degree upon those bachelors who 
 comply with some further conditions, none of which, how- 
 ever, involve the element of residence. 
 
 The Normal college of the city of New York, which has 
 as its main function the training of teachers for the schools 
 of that city, offers two main courses of instruction, the nor- 
 mal course of four years and the academic course of five 
 years. A special diploma is granted to those students who 
 complete the normal course ; moreover, such graduates may 
 obtain the degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor of science, 
 if they successfully pursue a two years' graduate course in 
 literature or science. The academic course, which con- 
 tains Greek, is crowned with the degree of bachelor of arts,
 
 373] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 15 
 
 and graduates in this course may receive the degree of mas- 
 ter of arts provided they afterwards pursue graduate studies 
 for at least two years. The degree of bachelor of pedagogy 
 or doctor of pedagogy may be conferred on any graduate in 
 either of these courses who has made a study of the science 
 and the art of teaching for a period of at least two years 
 after graduation. Graduation from an approved high 
 school, or an equivalent amount of education, is the educa- 
 tional qualification for admission. 
 
 One of the prominent institutions of this class is the 
 New York state normal college at Albany. This institution 
 is an outgrowth of the first New York normal school, founded 
 in 1844, tne reorganization taking place in 1890. It is a pro- 
 fessional school exclusively, not duplicating the instruction 
 given in literary colleges. The purely professional work in 
 both courses, the English and classical, is the same, and 
 graduates from both receive life certificates to teach in the 
 public schools of the state ; graduates in the higher course 
 also receive the degree of bachelor of pedagogy. Gradu- 
 ates from fifty colleges and universities have sought instruc- 
 tion in the college. 
 
 The two oldest public normal schools of Illinois are called 
 normal universities. The name, however, is purely historical, 
 and has no educational significance whatever. 
 
 The cities have followed the states in founding normal 
 schools, often called, however, training schools. The prin- 
 cipal reason for maintaining such schools is the urgent need 
 for trained teachers for the local system of schools, which can- 
 not be otherwise supplied. Other reasons, as the desire on 
 the part of local authorities to round out the system with a 
 professional school, and the wish of parents to have their 
 daughters prepared for teaching, also exert some influence. 
 Many of the public normal schools fall into this class. 
 Nearly all the large cities, and many of the small ones, have 
 their own independent schools. Greater New York has sev- 
 eral of them. These schools commonly make graduation 
 from the local high school, or an equivalent education, a
 
 1 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [374 
 
 qualification for admission, and they graduate their students 
 after a one year's or a two years' course. In 1895 the legis- 
 lature of New York passed an act which authorizes the 
 cities of the state and villages employing superintendents 
 of schools, to establish and maintain one or more schools 
 or classes for the professional instruction and training of 
 teachers in the principles of education and in the method 
 of instruction, for not less than thirty-eight weeks in each 
 school year. Such schools receive assistance from the 
 state funds ; the requirements for admission and the course 
 of study are fixed by the state superintendent of public 
 instruction, under whose general direction such schools are 
 carried on ; graduation from an approved high school or 
 academy has been made the test of admission. The results 
 have been so encouraging that the superintendent pronounces 
 the law the most important statute relating to its subject 
 which has been enacted in any state in the union. 1 
 
 With the single exception of the Philadelphia model 
 school, the first schools of the country to train teachers were 
 private schools, created and carried on by their owners and 
 managers, as means of livelihood and instruments of doing 
 good. Nor has the establishment of public schools driven 
 the private ones out of the field. On the contrary, the 
 private schools have greatly increased in number, and have 
 assumed the name normal. Some of them are the property 
 of corporations, some of private owners. A few rival the 
 public schools in number of students and teachers and in 
 equipment. They are more numerous, but have not so large 
 an aggregate attendance, as the accompanying statistics will 
 show. 
 
 The Peabody Normal college, Nashville, Tennessee, has a 
 unique history among American schools for the training of 
 teachers. It takes its name from the distinguished philan- 
 thropist George Peabody, a name well known in both worlds, 
 and derives the larger part of its support from the education 
 fund that Mr. Peabody created in 1867-69, committing it to 
 
 1 Report of the superintendent of public instruction, New York, 1898, vol. I, xxv.
 
 375] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS lj 
 
 a board of trust, with instructions to apply the income, at 
 their discretion, for the promotion and encouragement of 
 intellectual, moral, or industrial education among the young 
 of the more destitute portions of the southern and south- 
 western states of the American union. This board soon 
 made choice of the preparation of teachers as the best means 
 of carrying out the founder's wishes. In connection with 
 the trustees of the university of Nashville, an old institution 
 of learning that had fallen into decay, the board founded, in 
 1875, the-normal school, which has since expanded into the 
 college. The state of Tennessee has since come to the 
 assistance of the two boards of trustees. The general agent 
 of the Peabody fund says of it : " Giving to all the southern 
 states the benefit of improved normal instruction widened 
 the college from a local state institution into a college for 
 the south." And again : " In establishing the college there 
 there was no intent to favor Tennessee above other southern 
 states. The training of teachers for all the southern states 
 was the object. As the munificence of Mr. Peabody was 
 the stimulus and the means for establishing systems of public 
 schools in the states, so the normal college has pointed the 
 way and aroused the effort for the organizing of more local 
 but indispensable normal schools." ' The college is the 
 literary department of the university of Nashville, and con- 
 fers, in addition to the degree of licentiate of instruction, the 
 usual degrees conferred by the literary and scientific colleges. 
 The Peabody trustees, besides their other contributions to 
 the support of the college, provide a liberal system of 
 scholarships for the assistance of students who wish to pre- 
 pare themselves for teaching. 
 
 In the normal schools of the country women hold the same 
 relative preponderance as students that they hold in the com- 
 mon schools as teachers, as the statistics clearly show. 2 It 
 
 1 A Brief sketch of George Peabody and a history of the Peabody education 
 fund through thirty years, by J. L. M. Curry, Cambridge, 1898. 
 
 1 In 1896-97 the numbers of male and female teachers in the common schools of 
 the country, as reported by the bureau of education, were as follows: Males, 
 131.381 ; females, 271,949.
 
 1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [376 
 
 is interesting to observe, however, that they are far more 
 numerous, relatively as well as absolutely, in the public nor- 
 mal schools than in the private ones, which is owing, for the 
 most part probably, to the fact that tuition is free in the one 
 case and not in the other. 
 
 Kindergarten teachers are frequently trained for their 
 work in normal schools, and occasionally manual training 
 teachers as well. Mention may be made in particular of the 
 Chicago Kindergarten college, which aims to extend help to 
 kindergartners, primary teachers, mothers, or other persons 
 intrusted with the education of little children. The work 
 is distributed among seven different departments, of which 
 the teachers' department stands first, followed immediately 
 by the mothers' department. The teachers' department pro- 
 vides both central and branch classes. The regular teachers' 
 course is three years, the educational qualification for admis- 
 sion to it being a high school education or its equivalent. 
 
 Numerous and well attended as normal schools have 
 become, they still come very far short of supplying the com- 
 mon schools with a sufficient number of professionally 
 trained teachers. In this connection it must be considered 
 that a great army of teachers is required to carry on the 
 common schools of the country, and that a great majority of 
 this army serve for short periods. In 1896-97 the total 
 number was 403,333, and it increases by an increment of 
 many thousand every year. Assuming that ten per cent 
 pass out of the service every year, which is a very moderate 
 estimate, we see that more than 40,000 recruits are needed 
 annually to keep the ranks full, to say nothing of meeting 
 the growth of the country. But this number is more than 
 three times the number of normal graduates in 1897-98, and 
 more than one-half the total number of students in all the 
 training schools and classes in the country. No state 
 makes a better showing than Massachusetts ; but in 1897-98 
 only 38.5 per cent of her teachers in public schools had 
 received normal instruction, and only 33.5 per cent were 
 normal graduates. Of those who had not received such
 
 377] 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 instruction, the secretary of the state board of education 
 says a few have probably been appointed without reference 
 to their fitness for their work ; some have had a little pre- 
 liminary training in schools for the purpose ; some began to 
 teach before normal preparation had attracted the attention 
 of school committees that it has done in recent years, while 
 some are college graduates. 1 Unfortunately, we do not 
 possess the statistics that would enable us to make a similar 
 showing for the whole country. 2 
 
 STATISTICS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 
 
 1897-98 3 
 
 
 Public normal 
 schools 
 
 Private normal 
 schools 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of normal schools 
 
 167 
 
 173 
 
 HMt 
 
 Teachers instructing normal students. . . . 
 
 I 863 
 
 I OO8 
 
 2 871 
 
 Students in teachers' training courses 
 
 46 245 
 
 21 2Q1 
 
 67 m8 
 
 Male students 
 
 12 578 
 
 IO 5O7 
 
 21 175 
 
 
 ^ 667 
 
 IO 696 
 
 44 l6l 
 
 Number normal graduates 
 
 8 188 
 
 1,067 
 
 II 255 
 
 Male graduates 
 
 I S41 
 
 I 689 
 
 3 212 
 
 Female graduates 
 
 6 64^ 
 
 I 178 
 
 8 023 
 
 Volumes in libraries 
 
 566 684 
 
 IO4 A6o 
 
 761 144 
 
 Value of buildings, grounds, apparatus.... 
 Value of benefactions received in 1897-98. 
 Total money value of endowment 
 
 $19,980,222 
 33J.I85 
 i 472 865 
 
 $5,047,507 
 240,203 
 
 2 in 504 
 
 $25,027,729 
 576,388 
 3 784., J.^Q 
 
 Appropriated by states, counties and cities 
 for buildings and improvements 189798. 
 
 417.866 
 
 
 417,866 
 
 Appropriated by same for support 
 
 2,^66.1^2 
 
 10,60,6 
 
 2,585,828 
 
 Received from tuition and other fees 
 Received from productive funds 
 
 514,562 
 
 57,648 
 
 648,459 
 
 38,759 
 
 1,163,021 
 96,407 
 
 Received from other sources and unclassi- 
 fied 
 
 307,409 
 
 101,005 
 
 499,404 
 
 Total income for 189798 
 
 3,445,751 
 
 898,900 
 
 4,344,660 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 1897-98, 
 p. 148. 
 
 'President J. G. Schurman, of Cornell university, has calculated from data fur- 
 nished by the report of the commissioner of education that in 1891-92 the total 
 increase of teachers in the schools was less than two per cent, but that nearly 
 seventeen per cent of the whole number of teachers were inexperienced beginners. 
 Assuming that these per cents are typical, he infers that the average length of the 
 professional career of the American teacher is between seven and eight years. 
 From data furnished by the same authority, he calculates that only fifteen per 
 cent of the teachers then in the schools had passed through a normal school. 
 The Forum, Vol. XXI, pp. 174, 179. 
 
 This table is furnished by the commissioner of education in advance of its 
 publication in his report for the year 1897-98.
 
 2O THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [378 
 
 Dr. W. T. Harris has shown that in the past seventeen 
 years the enrollment in normal schools reported by states or 
 cities has increased from about 10,000 to something over 
 40,000. The attendance on normal schools formed and 
 supported by private enterprise has increased from about 
 2,000 to 24,000, though the increase has been very slow in 
 the last three years. In 1880 there were 240 normal stu- 
 dents in each million of inhabitants ; in 1897 there were 976 
 in each million. 1 
 
 The American normal schools answer, in general, to the 
 normal schools of France and Italy, the training colleges of 
 England, and the teachers' seminaries of Switzerland and 
 Germany. They differ, however, from all these schools in 
 important particulars. For instance, they offer at least 
 three points of contrast to the German teachers' seminaries. 
 
 First, in respect to the instruction furnished. While the 
 German schools confine themselves exclusively to training 
 intending teachers, including, to be sure, much academic 
 instruction, American schools generally do a large amount 
 of miscellaneous teaching. To a great extent they parallel 
 the high schools and to some extent even the elementary 
 schools. In the second place, this wide range of work 
 accounts in part for the much greater size of the American 
 schools. In 1888 only five of the 115 normal schools of 
 Prussia had upwards of a hundred pupils, while one had 
 less than fifty ; but several of our state schools count more 
 than a thousand pupils. It must always be borne in mind 
 that a large proportion of these American pupils are in no 
 proper sense normal pupils. In the third place, there is nec- 
 essarily a great disparity in the size of the respective facul- 
 ties. An ordinary Prussian normal school requires but nine 
 teachers, including the two in the practice school, while our 
 normal school staffs often number fifty or more persons. 
 
 It is clear, therefore, that we have not yet realized the 
 pure normal school type as Germany, for example, has done. 
 Nor can it be doubted that our schools as institutions for 
 
 The Educational review, January, 1899, p. 8.
 
 379] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 21 
 
 training teachers have often suffered greatly from their over- 
 grown numbers and large classes. In Prussia, once more, 
 the average number of pupils per teacher is not more than 
 twelve. It is accordingly to be hoped that in the future we 
 may realize the normal school idea in purer form than in the 
 past. 1 
 
 ii TEACHERS' TRAINING CLASSES 
 
 For the school year 1896-97 there reported to the Bureau 
 of Education 1,487 institutions which enrolled 89,974 nor- 
 mal students, or students pursuing courses designed for the 
 professional training of teachers. Those students who were 
 pursuing in these schools other courses of study are not 
 included in this total. The following table will show how 
 the students were distributed : 
 
 Schools Number Students 
 
 Public normal schools 164 43> T 99 
 
 Private normal schools 198 24, 1 81 
 
 Colleges and universities 196 6,489 
 
 Public high schools 507 9,001 
 
 Private high schools and academies 422 7,064 
 
 Nothing need be added to what was said in the former 
 division of this monograph concerning the normal schools. 
 
 But the normal students, so called, in the colleges and 
 universities are a less definite body of persons. The nor- 
 mal work that many of them do does not differ in character 
 from that done in the proper normal schools ; a smaller 
 number are taking the strictly professional courses leading 
 
 'On normal schools in the United States, see the following authorities: Henry 
 Barnard, Normal schools and other institutions, agencies, and means designed 
 for the professional instruction of teachers, Hartford, 1851. J. P. Gordy, Rise 
 and growth of the normal school idea in the United States, Washington, 1891. 
 G. H. Martin, The Evolution of the Massachusetts system of public instruction, 
 New York, 1894, Lecture IV. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common 
 school period in the United States, New York, 1898, chapter VI. S. S. Randall, 
 History of the common school system of the State of New York, New York, 1871, 
 passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsylvania, etc., Lancaster, 
 Pa., 1894, passim. A. P. Hollis, The contribution of the Oswego normal school 
 to educational progress in the United States, Boston, 1898. Proceedings of the 
 semi-centennial celebration of the state normal school at Framingham, 1889, 
 particularly the oration delivered by Dr. W. T. Harris.
 
 22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 . ' 
 
 up to the academic degrees, which will be explained in 
 another place ; some are members of what may be called 
 teachers' training classes. The training work done in the 
 institutions of this class is of very different degrees of 
 quality ; some of it, perhaps, amounting to nothing more 
 than attendance upon one or two courses of lectures, while 
 some of it is of strictly university grade. The statistics 
 given under this head are the least value of all, partly on 
 account of the facts just stated, and partly because the 
 returns are not complete. 
 
 The normal students in high schools and academies, more 
 than 16,000 in number, are, generally speaking, in training 
 classes. They may be divided into three groups. 
 
 First, many of these students in the private schools, and 
 no doubt some in the public ones, have had nothing more 
 than a fair elementary education, if indeed some of them 
 have had as much education as that. They are looking for- 
 ward to teaching, most of them in the district schools, and 
 have come into the high schools and academies where they 
 are found to enlarge their knowledge of the branches that 
 they expect to teach and to receive some professional instruc- 
 tion in addition. 
 
 Secondly, some instruction in the principles of education and 
 its history is often made an elective study in the last year of 
 the high school or academy course for those students who 
 are looking forward to teaching. The elementary schools 
 look for many of their teachers to the graduates of the 
 high schools and academies, particularly the public high 
 schools, and even the limited amount of training that 
 they receive fits them in a measure for teaching. 
 
 Thirdly, classes are sometimes formed in these schools 
 consisting of graduates who wish, or are required, to fit them- 
 selves more thoroughly for the teacher's work. Such classes 
 do not differ from the city training schools, only they are 
 less fully developed. They may be called rudimentary 
 training schools. 
 
 The training class is an old device for preparing elementary
 
 381] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2$ 
 
 teachers. Thus New York early sought to solve the teacher 
 problem for the common schools by providing instruction 
 for teachers in the academies of the state, under the man- 
 agement of the regents of the university. This experiment 
 did not prove to be as successful as had been hoped, and the 
 state supplemented it by adopting the normal school policy. 
 The earlier plan was never abandoned, however, but in 
 1889 the supervision of training classes was transferred to 
 the department of public instruction. In the year 1888-89 
 sixty institutions were authorized to organize and to carry 
 on such classes. In 1895 the legislature passed the law 
 referred to under the last heading, which has put the train- 
 ing classes on a new footing both as respects management 
 and instruction. 
 
 With a single exception the leading features of this act 
 have already been given. The omitted feature is that no 
 person shall be employed or licensed to teach in the ele- 
 mentary schools of any city or village authorized by law to 
 employ a superintendent of schools (that is, cities and vil- 
 lages having 5,000 inhabitants or more) who has not taught 
 successfully at least three years, or in lieu of such experience, 
 graduated from a high school or other school of equal or 
 higher rank, having a course of study of not less than 
 three years approved by the state superintendent of pub- 
 lic instruction, and subsequently received at least as much 
 professional training as that furnished by one of these train- 
 ing schools or classes ; local boards were left free to place 
 their requirements as much higher as they see fit. 
 
 The terms of admission to the training classes are the 
 same as those for the training schools organized under the 
 same law. The course of instruction embraces the leading 
 common branches, the history of education, school manage- 
 ment and school law, and the art of questioning. Instruc- 
 tion in the school studies includes both subject-matter and 
 method, together with some work in the observation and 
 practice school. In his report for 1897-98, the state super- 
 intendent says that in no branch of the work under his direc-
 
 $4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [382 
 
 tion have more gratifying results been secured than in the 
 training classes. For that year there were organized eighty- 
 three such classes, enrolling 1,278 students. The same year 
 fourteen cities organized training schools under the law with 
 an attendance of 523. 1 
 
 HI TEACHERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 The teachers' institute, which is an original American 
 institution for training teachers, has grown up side by side 
 with the normal school. The commonly accepted account 
 of its origin is that it dates from conventions of teachers 
 held in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1839 an< ^ I 84O, under the 
 leadership of Dr. Henry Barnard. That it met a popular 
 need is shown by its rapid spread. The first institute in 
 New York, and the first anywhere to bear the name, was 
 held in 1843 I tne ^ rst m Massachusetts and Ohio, 1845 ; 
 the first in Michigan and Illinois, in 1846 ; the first in Wis- 
 consin, in 1848, and the first in Iowa, the year following. 
 The institute system soon embraced the whole northwest, 
 and it was established in the south along with common 
 schools after the civil war. 
 
 At first the institute was a purely voluntary agency. 
 There were no funds for its support, save such as the teach- 
 ers attending and public-spirited citizens supplied. Often 
 citizens showed such interest in the work that they freely 
 opened their houses to receive the teachers, not as boarders 
 but as guests. But such an instrument of power could not 
 long remain outside the limits of the law. Massachusetts 
 appropriated money for institutes in 1846; New York and 
 Ohio, in 1847; Pennsylvania, in 1855. In course of time 
 the institution was firmly imbedded in state school laws, and 
 at present most of the states, if not all of them, give it some 
 legal recognition and financial support. Tuition is free, 
 unless, indeed, as is often the case, the teachers voluntarily 
 
 1 On teachers' training classes in the state of New York, see S. S. Randall, 
 History of the common school system of the State of New York, N. Y., 1871, 
 passim, and reports of the state superintendent of public instruction, 1889-90, 
 and 1897-98, passim.
 
 383] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 25 
 
 contribute out of their own pockets fees, in order to extend 
 the length of the session or to provide better instruction 
 than would otherwise be possible. 
 
 Institutes are of numerous types, presenting such diver- 
 gencies that it is difficult to define the species. There are 
 state institutes and county institutes ; district, city, and town 
 institutes. However, the best known type takes its name 
 from the county, which is the civil division that, as a rule, 
 furnishes the best unit of organization and management. 
 This type alone presents many varying features. Some 
 county institutes continue but a day or two ; some, several 
 weeks. Some are conducted by state authorities, as the 
 superintendent of public instruction or his assistants ; some 
 by local authorities, as county superintendents, or officers of 
 teachers' institute associations. Some are carried on much 
 like a school, with text books, set lessons, and recitations, 
 together with lectures ; some depend upon lectures alone. 
 Some are graded with a view to securing instruction especially 
 adapted to the different classes of teachers ; others are wholly 
 unclassified and the attendants all receive the same instruc- 
 tion. Sometimes two or more counties are thrown together 
 in one district, it may be for a year only, in order to secure, 
 through the concentration of funds and influence, a longer 
 term and better advantages. State institutes, which are 
 infrequent, commonly look more to the needs and interests 
 of the better teachers of the state. City institutes are con- 
 ducted with special reference to local needs. 
 
 Dr. Barnard called his conventions of teachers only as a 
 temporary expedient. In his first circular announcing his 
 purpose, he proposed to give those teachers an " opportu- 
 nity to revise and extend their knowledge [i] of the studies 
 usually pursued in district schools and [2] of the best methods 
 of school arrangements, instruction and government under 
 the recitations and lectures of experienced and well-known 
 teachers and educators." On these two lines the institute 
 has continued to move ; that is, it has combined, with fluctu- 
 ating emphasis, the two ideas of general and special prepa-
 
 26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [384 
 
 ration for teachers. Commonly the revision and extension 
 of studies comes through the instruction in methods, as 
 instructors or lecturers draw freely upon subject-matter for 
 the purpose of illustration ; but sometimes formal instruc- 
 tion is given in the more difficult parts of the several sub- 
 jects taught in the schools, as geography, grammar, history, 
 and the like. The professional instruction relates to the 
 science, the art, and the history of teaching, and school 
 organization, management, and economy. Mention should 
 be made, however, of what may be called the culture aspect 
 of the institute the lectures and other exercises that bring 
 forward literary, historic, scientific, and other similar sub- 
 jects. The institutes of the states taken together would 
 furnish a wide range of instruction and culture. In those of 
 Massachusetts for 1897-98, there were presented seventy- 
 three distinct topics, which no doubt considerably overlapped. 
 
 Putting all the facts together, we may give this definition 
 of a teachers' institute i A school for teachers having a short 
 and a vaguely defined course of study, and having as its 
 main object the instruction of teachers, and particularly non- 
 professional teachers, in the elements of their art and their 
 stimulation to excellence in scholarship and teaching. 
 
 The institutes are held in all seasons of the year, summer 
 being, perhaps, the preferred time. In Pennsylvania and 
 New York, in both of which states the work is well organ- 
 ized, they come in the months October-December and 
 March-May. 
 
 So long as attendance was purely voluntary the results 
 were gratifying but not satisfactory ; often, but not uni- 
 versally, the principle of legal compulsion has therefore 
 been invoked. In 1867 Pennsylvania passed a law requir- 
 ing acting teachers to attend their respective institutes. 
 A similar provision is in force in the state of New York. 
 When attendance is compulsory, the teacher's salary goes 
 on, the same as though she were on duty in the school 
 room ; at least if the institute is held in the school term. 
 In such cases the local school authorities are required to
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2J 
 
 close the schools, but when attendance is optional, they fol- 
 low their own counsel in the matter. 
 
 Statistics of teachers' institutes are not found in the recent 
 annual reports of the Bureau of Education. For the year 
 1886-87 the commissioner reported 2,003 institutes, with an 
 enrolled attendance of 138,986 persons. It would not be 
 wide of the mark, perhaps, to say that the annual attendance 
 equals one-half the total number of teachers in the schools. 
 
 Institute instruction is a more difficult art than class-room 
 instruction. It combines the best elements of the lecture 
 and the recitation. It is not surprising therefore that the 
 institute has created a class of professional instructors or 
 lecturers. The agents of the Massachusetts board of educa- 
 tion devote much time to the institutes, while New York 
 supports a special institute faculty. There has also appeared 
 a class of lecturers, some with and some without other edu- 
 cational connections, who move in much wider circles, visit- 
 ing institutes in widely separated states. Still, taking the 
 country together, the main reliance is upon men and women 
 who are regularly engaged in school work, as superintend- 
 ents, and principals of schools and professional teachers. Col- 
 lege and normal school professors are also frequently drawn 
 into the service. In fact, if the annals of the institute were 
 written in full, they would contain the names of many of the 
 most eminent scholars and teachers, men of letters and men 
 of science, of the last sixty years. Instruction in the methods 
 of the institute is often given in normal schools. 
 
 The so-called summer institutes, extending over a period 
 of from four to six weeks, which call together large numbers 
 of enthusiastic teachers and very able corps of instructors, 
 and which are becoming more common every year, do not 
 differ materially from the summer schools soon to be men- 
 tioned, in character. They are, however, carried on under 
 state auspices, while those schools are local or private 
 enterprises. 
 
 At first the institute was regarded as a merely temporary 
 expedient : it has already continued sixty years. Again,
 
 28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [386 
 
 while it was called into existence only as a means of helping 
 persons who were already engaged in teaching, it has, unfor- 
 tunately, sometimes been made an agent for preparing intend- 
 ing teachers for their work. Still, representative educators 
 have never for a moment regarded it as a substitute for the 
 school, either general or special. Pressed into a service for 
 which it was never intended, it has been the source of some 
 evil ; but the balance is overwhelmingly on the other side. 
 It has been useful in ways that the founders did not antici- 
 pate or fully anticipate. It has given teachers higher ideals 
 of education and teaching, enlarged their acquaintance with 
 educational men and with one another, created professional 
 spirit, and generated enthusiasm. It has also been an impor- 
 tant means of developing educational intelligence and inter- 
 est in society. Upon the whole, there is reason to think 
 that the teachers' institute possesses lasting usefulness ; in 
 other words, that it fills a place in our school economy that 
 no other agent can fill, and that it will become one of our 
 permanent educational institutions. 1 
 
 IV THE SUMMER SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS 
 
 In its more popular form, the summer school for teachers 
 is a sort of cross between the normal school and the teach- 
 ers' institute. Three types may be recognized. 
 
 The first type to be mentioned is seen in the schools that 
 form part of the summer assemblies sometimes called 
 " Chautauquas," which combine popular entertainment, rec- 
 reation and diversion, and social intercourse with serious 
 instruction and ethical and religious culture. 
 
 The next type is the familiar summer school, seen at the 
 normal schools, colleges, and universities. Such schools 
 
 1 Authorities on teachers' institutes. Henry Barnard, normal schools, etc., 
 Hartford, 1851; The American journal of education, vol. Ill, p. 673, XIV, p. 253, 
 XV, p. 276, 405, XXII, p. 557. J. H. Smart, Teachers' institutes, Washington, 
 1887. S. S. Randall, History of the common school system of the state of New 
 York, N. Y., 1871, passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Lancaster, Pa., 1884, passim. James P. Milne, Teachers' institutes, Syra- 
 cuse, N. Y., 1894. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common school revival 
 in the United States, pp. 136-138.
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2Q 
 
 have been stimulated by the example of Chicago university 
 in offering to students regular summer terms. At some of 
 the normal schools the summer school has already become 
 a regular summer session ; moreover, there are indications 
 that some of the colleges and universities will do the same 
 thing ; in fact, the University of Wisconsin has already taken 
 the step. 
 
 Schools of the third type are organized and carried on at 
 chosen seats by private individuals or by associations of 
 individuals. These schools combine both business and edu- 
 cational features. They are generally found at places offer- 
 ing attractive features as summer resorts, and so offer to 
 their patrons the combined attraction of an outing and a 
 term of school. Perhaps the best known of all these insti- 
 tutions is that of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, founded 
 in 1878 and chartered three years later. It is also called an 
 institute. It has twenty academical departments, counts 
 forty instructors on its staff, and enrolls annually five hun- 
 dred students. In the twenty-one years of its history it has 
 taught 9,000 or 10,000 persons. 
 
 Irrespective of type these schools commonly offer to their 
 patrons both general and special advantages ; in other 
 words, they teach both academical and pedagogical subjects, 
 and also introduce cultural elements of a considerably diver- 
 sified character. While they offer attractions to other per- 
 sons, and actually enroll some of them in their classes, the 
 great functions of these schools is to fit teachers and intend- 
 ing teachers for their work. Their faculties contain many 
 instructors and lecturers of marked ability and high stand- 
 ing in the world of letters, education, or science. All things 
 considered, serious instruction has not perhaps anywhere 
 been offered to teachers in a more attractive form than in 
 the best of these summer schools. These schools, no doubt, 
 approach nearer than any other agencies for fitting teachers 
 in the United States to the great summer meetings held for 
 the same purpose at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. 1 
 
 1 Balfour Graham, The Educational systems of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 Oxford, 1898, pp. 252, 253.
 
 30 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [388 
 
 V UNIVERSITY EXTENSION COURSES 
 
 University extension is an importation from England. 
 Here, as there, the idea is to carry the university to the 
 student rather than to bring the student to the university. 
 However, the "university" that is so carried is sometimes 
 nothing more than a secondary school. The method involves 
 a local center, a local committee of managers, local arrange- 
 ments, including the guaranteeing of a certain sum of money, 
 and an instructor. The university sends the instructor, who 
 gives a course of lectures on a subject previously -agreed 
 upon ; a class follows each lecture, essays are prepared and 
 corrected, and needed books are supplied. In its purity the 
 method involves a final examination and the granting of 
 certificates to deserving students. For some reason the 
 results of university extension in the United States have 
 been less satisfactory than in England. Ostensibly, the 
 movement takes no account of teachers as teachers ; and the 
 only reason for including it in this survey is the fact that 
 teachers are generally very prominent on the local commit- 
 tees and in attendance upon the classes. This fact has been 
 recognized by the occasional presentation of instruction suit- 
 able to their particular needs ; pedagogical courses are some- 
 times met with on extension programs. 
 
 vi TEACHERS' READING CIRCLES 
 
 The teachers' reading circle movement is believed to have 
 originated in Ohio. Mrs. D. L. Williams, a veteran teacher 
 of that state, threw out the primal idea in a paper read 
 before the State teachers' association in July, 1882. She 
 said she had for many years entertained the theory that a 
 course of reading, partly professional and partly general, 
 and reaching through several years, might be instituted 
 under the management of the association that would be of 
 extreme value, particularly to young teachers, and added 
 that since the Chautauqua literary course had proved such 
 an eminent success, she had more confidence than ever in
 
 389] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 3! 
 
 the feasibility of the plan. The suggestion was immediately 
 caught up by the association, steps being taken at once that 
 led to the immediate organization of a course of reading. 
 The next year the Ohio teachers' reading circle was fully 
 organized. The constitution embraced a board of control 
 to conduct the general business in connection with the state 
 association, a course of professional and literary reading, the 
 issuing of certificates of progress to the members, and the 
 granting of diplomas upon the completion of the course, 
 which was to extend over four years. In 1884 a member- 
 ship of more than 2,000 was reported, and in 1887 the first 
 class was graduated. 1 
 
 Such was the beginning of a movement that has extended 
 to many states of the Union. Naturally enough, the results 
 that have been obtained in different states and communities 
 vary considerably in respect to efficiency and value. It is 
 generally conceded, however, that the Indiana circle has 
 been conducted quite as successfully as any other of the 
 state circles, if not indeed more successfully than any other, 
 and this fact will be a sufficient justification for some 
 remarks of a more specific character. 
 
 This circle, which was organized in December, 1883, 
 derives its constitution from the State teachers' association. 
 The executive management is placed in the hands of a board 
 of directors, one of whom is the state superintendent of 
 public instruction ; of the six other members, one must be a 
 county superintendent, one a city superintendent, and four 
 practical teachers, all elected by the state association for a 
 term of three years. It is the duty of the board to plan a 
 course of reading from year to year to be pursued by the 
 public school teachers of the state ; to select the books to be 
 read ; to provide for examinations on the courses, and to 
 prepare questions for the same ; to issue certificates to such 
 teachers as pass the annual examination satisfactorily, and 
 to issue diplomas to such teachers as pass the examination 
 
 'The Ohio educational monthly, August, 1882, pp. 316, 323; August, 1883, 
 PP- 307, 308, 309.
 
 32 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [390 
 
 for four successive years. The board reports to the state 
 association at its annual meeting. The annual membership 
 is about fifteen thousand, twelve thousand teachers and 
 three thousand intending teachers. 
 
 The Indiana teachers' reading circle has been a powerful 
 influence in the education of the state. Several circum- 
 stances have contributed to its success. One of these has 
 been the wise management of the board of directors, which 
 has uniformly commanded the respect and confidence of 
 teachers. The circle has been strengthened by the official 
 recognition of its work by the state board of education. 
 This the board does by accepting the examinations of the 
 reading circle in literature and the science of teaching in 
 lieu of examinations in those subjects by the regular exam- 
 ining authorities. The character of the reading that is done 
 can best be shown by transcribing the list of books from the 
 beginning. 
 
 1884-85 Brooks' Mental Science; Barnes' General History; 
 
 Parker's Talks on Teaching. 
 1885-86 Brooks' Mental Science; Smith's English Literature; 
 
 Hewitt's Pedagogy. 
 1886-87 Hailman's Lectures on Education; Green's History of 
 
 the English People ; Watts on the Mind. 
 1887-88 Lights of Two Centuries; Sully 's Handbook of 
 
 Psychology. 
 1888-89 Compayre^s History of Education; The Marble Faun ; 
 
 Heroes and Hero Worship. 
 1889-90 Compayre"s Lecture on Teaching; Steele's Popular 
 
 Zoology. 
 1890-91 Wood's How to Study Plants; Boone's Education in 
 
 the United States ; with review of previous psycho- 
 logical studies. 
 1891-92 Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching; Hawthorne's 
 
 Studies in American Literature. 
 1892-93 Fiske's Civil Government in the United States; 
 
 Holmes' Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. 
 1893-94 DeGarmo's Essentials of Method; Orations of Burke 
 
 and Webster. 
 1894-95 Tompkins* Philosophy of Teaching ; Select Letters and 
 
 Essays of Ruskin.
 
 39 J ] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 33 
 
 1895-96 McMurry's General Method; Studies in Shakespeare. 
 1896-97 Guizot's History of Civilization; Tompkins' Literary 
 
 Interpretations. 
 1897-98 Bryan's Plato the Teacher; Hinsdale's Teaching the 
 
 Language-Arts. 
 1898-99 Henderson's Social Elements ; Bryan's Plato's Republic. 
 
 The Indiana circle embraces no important feature that 
 is not found in other states ; such special prominence as 
 it enjoys is due solely to good organization and wise 
 management. 1 
 
 It must not be supposed that where this work is carried 
 on efficiently it is left solely to teachers in their individual 
 capacity ; on the other hand, local classes or circles are 
 formed, with prescribed reading for prescribed periods, which 
 hold frequent meetings, conducted by a local leader, often 
 the superintendent- of schools. Enterprising educational 
 journals contribute their help to the work by publishing in 
 their successive issues articles that elucidate the books to be 
 read. 
 
 The future of the teachers' reading circle is not, perhaps, 
 fully assured. It is conceded that it has done much good in 
 arousing interest in the better culture of teachers, in organ- 
 izing courses of reading and study, and in giving the whole 
 work unity and consistent direction. Still, the question is 
 sometimes asked whether it would not now be better to leave 
 the whole matter to local initiative and direction, or to 
 entrust the powers now exercised by the state board of con- 
 trol or directors to local superintendents and their advisers. 
 There is good reason to think that the answers which are 
 given to this question are influenced not a little by the char- 
 acter of the work that has been done in the communities or 
 states from which the answers come. 
 
 VI CHAIRS OF EDUCATION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 
 
 The growing interest in training teachers was not long in 
 reaching the colleges and universities. The effect was first 
 
 1 Report of the superintendent of public instruction of the state of Indiana, 
 1898, pp. 449-462.
 
 34 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [392 
 
 seen in the academical sphere, but it soon declared itself in 
 the professional sphere. 
 
 A course of instruction in the science of teaching was one 
 of the features of the " new system " that President Way- 
 land sought to establish at Brown university in 1850, but that 
 system was not permanently successful owing to lack of the 
 necessary funds to support it. Horace Mann caused the 
 study of the theory and practice of teaching to be made a 
 part of the regular course in Antioch college, Ohio, on the 
 opening of that institution in 1853, but as an elective study. 
 From 1856 to 1873 a normal school formed a department of 
 the University of Iowa, and was then incorporated into the 
 institution as a chair of didactics. In 1867 the legislature 
 of Missouri authorized and required the curators of the State 
 university to establish a professorship in that institution, to be 
 devoted to the theory and practice of teaching and to call 
 some suitable person to discharge its duties. The chair 
 does not appear, however, to have been firmly established, 
 although some instruction was given for several years in the 
 subject, until 1891. 
 
 But it was at the University of Michigan that the teach- 
 ing of education in an American college or university was 
 first put on a solid basis. In 1874 President Angell, of that 
 institution, incorporated the following paragraph in his 
 annual report to the board of regents : 
 
 " It cannot be doubted that some instruction in pedagog- 
 ics would be very helpful to our senior class. Many of 
 them are called directly from the university to the manage- 
 ment of large schools, some of them to the superintendency 
 of the schools of a town. The whole work of organizing 
 schools, the management of primary and grammar schools, 
 the art of teaching and governing a school, of all this it 
 is desirable that they know something before they go to 
 their new duties. Experience alone can thoroughly train 
 them. But some familiar lectures would be of essential 
 service to them." 
 
 In June, 1879, t ^ e regents, on the recommendation of the
 
 393] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 35 
 
 president and faculty, established a chair of the science and 
 the art of teaching, the objects of which were declared to be 
 five in number : To fit university students for the higher 
 positions in the public school service ; to promote educa- 
 tional science ; to teach the history of education and of edu- 
 cational doctrine ; to secure to teaching the rights, preroga- 
 tives, and advantages of a profession ; to give a more perfect 
 unity to the state educational system by bringing the secon- 
 dary schools into closer relation with the university. At the 
 time the Bell chairs of education in the Universities of 
 Edinburgh and St. Andrews were the only similar ones in 
 English speaking countries. 
 
 At first only two courses of instruction were offered : A 
 practical course, embracing school supervision, grading, 
 courses of study, examinations, the art of instructing and 
 governing, school architecture, school hygiene, school law, 
 etc. ; and an historical, philosophical, and critical course, 
 embracing the history of education, the comparison and 
 criticism of the systems of different countries, the outlines 
 of educational science, the science of teaching, and the criti- 
 cal discussion of theories and methods. Two lectures a 
 week were given in each course. Before this time, how- 
 ever, the university had given to students, on their passing 
 examinations in certain subjects, a teacher's diploma, which 
 was, however, merely a certificate to the student's compe- 
 tency to teach those subjects. One of the two courses in 
 education was now added to the requirements for this 
 diploma. The field of instruction has continued to broaden 
 and the courses to differentiate, until, in the year 1889-1900 
 ten different courses are offered, viz. : One in the art and 
 one in the science of teaching ; one in school supervision 
 and one in the comparative study of educational systems ; 
 one in child study and one in the sociological aspects of 
 education ; and four in the various phases of the history 
 of education. The total amount of work offered, given in 
 one semester, now amounts to twenty-four hours. 
 
 Besides these courses in education, teachers' courses are
 
 36 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 offered in several departments of the university, as Greek, 
 Latin, German, mathematics, history, etc. These 'courses 
 are of two types, their character being sometimes deter- 
 mined by subject matter alone, but sometimes by the 
 method of presentation together with the subject matter. 
 In the first case, the professor gives merely a course that 
 he thinks the intending teacher should have, properly to 
 qualify him to teach the subject ; in the second case, the 
 professor also seeks to present, or at least to illustrate, the 
 method of teaching the subject in the school, commonly 
 dwelling more or less upon the peculiar difficulties that it 
 presents. 1 
 
 This somewhat extended account of what has been accom- 
 plished at the University of Michigan will not be thought 
 out of place, when it is remembered that the example thus 
 set has proved to be stimulating to other institutions of 
 learning. The same original causes that acted in Michigan 
 have also acted in other states. Since 1879 numerous chairs 
 of education have been established in colleges and universi- 
 ties, and additional chairs are being founded every year. 
 Education has come to be recognized as a fit, if not, indeed, 
 a necessary subject of college and university instruction. 
 Along this line of educational development the state univer- 
 sities of the northwestern and western states have been the 
 pioneers, owing in great part to the fact that these universi- 
 ties are organic parts of state school systems, and in part to 
 the fact that these sections of the country take kindly to 
 new educational ideas. 
 
 The courses offered by these chairs or departments of edu- 
 cation are purely elective ; they count towards the student's 
 degree the same as courses in philosophy, history, or politi- 
 cal economy. The theory is that courses in education are 
 just as informing and disciplinary to the student as courses 
 
 1 Contributions to the science of education. By William H. Payne, New York, 
 1886. Chap. XV, "Education as a university study," and Appendix, " The Study 
 of education in the university of Michigan." "Study of education at the uni- 
 versity of Michigan," B. A. Hinsdale, in The Educational review, vol. VI.
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 37 
 
 in cognate subjects. Not unfrequently, the institution gives 
 a teacher's diploma to the student who complies with certain 
 requirements. At the University of Michigan these require- 
 ments are the following : A university degree, eleven hours 
 of work in the department of the science and the art of 
 teaching, and a teacher's course in some other department 
 of the university. Not unfrequently, too, this diploma, 
 either directly or indirectly, is legally valid as a certificate to 
 teach in the public schools of the state. 
 
 At different institutions the pedagogical work, while con- 
 forming to a common type, has naturally been developed in 
 somewhat different directions. What is more, the services 
 of a single professor have not always proved to be sufficient 
 to do all the work that is called for ; but this phase of the 
 subject may perhaps be treated to better advantage under 
 the next division of the general subject. 
 
 vii TEACHERS' COLLEGES 
 
 Three hundred years ago Richard Mulcaster, master of 
 Merchant tailors' school, London, proposed a teachers' col- 
 lege as a department of a university. " I conclude, there- 
 fore," he said, "that this trade requireth a particular college, 
 for these four causes. First, for the subject, being the mean 
 to make or mar the whole fry of our state. Secondly, for 
 the number, whether of them that are to learn, or of them 
 that are to teach. Thirdly, for the necessity of the profes- 
 sion, which may not be spared. Fourthly, for the matter of 
 their study, which is comparable to the greatest possessions, 
 for language, for judgment, for skill how to train, for variety 
 in all points of learning, wherein the framing of the mind 
 and the exercising of the body craveth exquisite considera- 
 tion, besides the staidness of the person." ' This good seed, 
 however, fell into barren soil. Prof. S. S. Laurie renewed 
 the suggestion in a somewhat different form in the address 
 that he delivered in 1876 on assuming the duties of the 
 
 1 Positions wherein those primitive circumstances be examined which are neces- 
 sary for the training of children, etc. London, 1851, chap. xli.
 
 38 THE TRAINING OF TEACHKRS [396 
 
 chair of the theory, history, and art of education in the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. Vindicating the establishment of this 
 chair, he said : "It makes it possible to institute for the first 
 time in our universities a faculty of education, just as we 
 may be said already to have a faculty of law, theology and 
 of engineering." z No foreign country has yet taken steps 
 in this direction, and it has been left to the United States 
 first to realize the suggestion of a faculty of education, or, 
 more accurately perhaps, of a college for teachers. 
 
 Instruction in the science and the art of teaching was 
 included in the university scheme that was proposed for 
 Columbia college in 1858, but then without avail. Again, 
 President Barnard urged the same plan, which he now 
 worked out much more fully, upon the trustees of the same 
 college in 1881 and 1882. The next step forward was the 
 organization in New York city, in 1888, of Teachers college, 
 which was chartered the following year. While this college 
 was organized outside of the Columbia system, it was still 
 under the control, in great part, of Columbia men, and was 
 loosely affiliated with the college. The last step in the evo- 
 lution came in 1898, when Teachers college was made an 
 integral part of the educational system of Columbia uni- 
 versity. 2 The president of Columbia is president also of 
 the college, and the university professors of philosophy and 
 education and of psychology are members of its faculty, 
 while the college is represented in the university council 
 by its dean and an elected representative. The college, 
 however, continues its own separate organization, having its 
 own independent board of trustees, which is charged with 
 the sole financial responsibility of its management. 
 
 Teachers college is the professional school of Columbia 
 university for the study of education and the training of 
 teachers, ranking with the schools of law, medicine, and 
 
 1 The Training of teachers, etc., London, 1882. See inaugural address delivered 
 on the occasion of the founding of the chair of the institutes and history of edu- 
 cation in the University of Edinburgh, S. S. Laurie. 
 
 1 See an Article " The Beginnings of Teachers College," by Dr. Nicholas Murray 
 Butler, in Columbia university quarterly, September, 1899.
 
 397] 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 39 
 
 applied science. The university accepts courses in education 
 as part of the requirement for the degrees of A. B., A. M., 
 and Ph. D. ; while graduate students who prefer to devote 
 their entire time to professional study may become candi- 
 dates for the higher diploma of the college. The college 
 diploma is conferred upon students who have successfully 
 completed some one of the general courses, and a depart- 
 mental diploma upon those who have fitted themselves for 
 particular branches of school work. Undergraduate students 
 of Columbia and Barnard colleges may, if they desire, obtain 
 the diploma of Teachers college at the same time that they 
 receive the degree of bachelor of arts. The Horace Mann 
 school, fully equipped with kindergarten, elementary, and 
 secondary classes, is maintained by Teachers college as a 
 school of observation and practice. 
 
 These are the undergraduate courses : Secondary course 
 leading to the degree of A. B. and the college diploma; 
 general course leading to the college diploma in elementary 
 teaching ; general course leading to the college diploma in 
 kindergarten teaching. Then there are several courses lead- 
 ing to the college diploma in art, domestic art, domestic 
 science, and manual training. Candidates for the first of 
 these courses must be either college graduates or candidates 
 for the degree of A. B. in Columbia university. There is a 
 combined course of study prescribed for the degree of A. B. 
 in Columbia university and the diploma of Teachers col- 
 lege ; but particulars must here be omitted. Graduate 
 work is also well developed. For the year 1898-99 the 
 teaching staff counted more than sixty persons. 
 
 New York university school of pedagogy, established in 
 1890, aims to furnish graduate work equal in range to other 
 professional schools. The school is an organic part of the 
 university, having its own dean and faculty. More definitely, 
 its aim is declared to be to furnish thorough and complete 
 professional training for teachers. The plan of the school 
 places it upon the same basis as that of the best schools of 
 law, medicine, and theology. The work is of distinctively
 
 4O THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [398 
 
 university grade, and graduates of colleges and normal 
 schools, and others of equal experience and maturity, may 
 find in this school opportunity for the thorough study of 
 higher pedagogy. In 1898-9, the instruction was distrib- 
 uted in four major and eight minor courses, viz. : History 
 of education ; physiological and experimental psychology ; 
 analytical psychology ; history of philosophy ; physiological 
 pedagogics ; elements of pedagogy ; comparative study of 
 national school systems ; aesthetics in relation to education ; 
 sociology in relation to education ; institutes of pedagogy ; 
 ethics, school organization, management, and administra- 
 tion. Special facilities for research are offered in the semi- 
 naries. The degree of master of pedagogy is conferred 
 upon candidates who have completed five of the foregoing 
 courses, three of them majors ; the degree of doctor of 
 pedagogy, upon candidates who have completed the four 
 major and five of the minor courses. The school does not 
 attempt undergraduate work. There is no practice teach- 
 ing, but opportunity is given for the critical observation of 
 selected schools. The staff includes ten persons. 
 
 Clark university, opened in 1889, has given much atten- 
 tion to education from the first, and the subject has now 
 been made a sub-department in the department of psy- 
 chology, in which a minor may be taken for the degree of 
 doctor of philosophy. The work is intended to meet the 
 needs of those intending to teach some other specialty 
 than education but who wish a general survey of the his- 
 tory, present state, methods, and recent advances in the 
 field of university, professional, and technical education, 
 and of those who desire to become professors of pedagogy, 
 or heads of instruction in normal schools, superintendents, 
 or to become professional experts in the work of education. 
 The program for the year 1899 included (i) child study, edu- 
 cational psychology, and school hygiene ; (2) principles of 
 education, history of education and reforms, methods, devices, 
 apparatus, etc. ; (3) organization of schools in different 
 countries, typical schools and special foundations, motor
 
 399] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 41 
 
 education, including manual training, physical education, 
 etc., moral education, and ideals. Great stress is placed on 
 original investigation. The president, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, 
 has been from the first the leader of the child study move- 
 ment in the United States. " The Pedagogical Seminary," 
 edited by him, is the organ of the educational department of 
 the university. It is an international record of educational 
 research and literature, institutions and progress, and is 
 devoted to the highest interests of education of all grades. 
 One of its most valuable features is its digests of meritorious 
 contributions to educational literature. 
 
 The department of pedagogy in the University of Chicago 
 has as its primary aim to train competent specialists for the 
 broad and scientific treatment of educational problems. 
 The courses fall under three heads : Psychology and related 
 work, educational theory, and the best methods of teaching 
 the various branches. Stress is laid upon the relation of 
 pedagogy to other subjects, and courses are offered in the 
 proper departments in which the methodology of such sub- 
 jects is employed. For the year 1898-99 such courses were 
 offered in history, sociology, and anthropology, in the Eng- 
 lish, German, and Latin languages and literatures, in mathe- 
 matics, and in geology. The courses in educational theory 
 are preceded by the introductory courses in psychology, 
 ethics, and logic, given in the department of philosophy. 
 
 The University of Chicago has also established a college 
 for teachers on a somewhat novel plan. This institution, 
 which was founded in October, 1898, is an outgrowth of the 
 class study department of the extension division of the uni- 
 versity. It is a " downtown " college, and aims to provide 
 instruction of high grade for busy people ; or, more defi- 
 nitely, " for any and all persons qualified to do the work, 
 who are so engaged by other imperative duties as to make 
 continuous attendance at the other colleges of the university 
 impracticable." * The work of the new college is of the same 
 
 1 " The Unirersity of Chicago College for Teachers," in University record, 
 vol. III. No. 31.
 
 42 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [400 
 
 grade as that of the other colleges of the university. Stu- 
 dents may take much or little, according to their ability and 
 wishes, but when the requirements have been met, the work 
 is crowned with a degree. The school aims at scientific, 
 cultural, and disciplinary results. It distinctly denies that it 
 is in any sense a normal school. Moreover, while it is not 
 exclusively a teachers' school, the college, nevertheless, 
 emphasizes instruction suitable to the special needs of teach- 
 ers sufficiently to justify its name. The distinctively peda- 
 gogical teaching, like all the teaching, looks to knowledge 
 and scientific training rather than to practical applications. 
 At the close of its first year of life the outlook is an encour- 
 aging one. 
 
 The University of Wisconsin school of education is an 
 expansion of the former department of education. The four 
 main lines of instruction are the history, the philosophy, the 
 science, and the practice of education. The school aims to 
 afford practical and healthful instruction to intending teach- 
 ers, professors, principals, and superintendents, and to those 
 students who desire to pursue studies and investigations in 
 the science of education. 
 
 A wealthy and public-spirited lady of Chicago, Mrs. 
 Emmons Elaine, has declared her purpose to establish and 
 endow a teachers' college of high grade in that city, and the 
 initial steps have already been taken to carry out her plan. 
 
 The institution will be under the direction of Francis W. 
 Parker, formerly of the Chicago Normal School. 
 
 Besides the agencies for the training and cultivation of 
 teachers that have been enumerated, there are still others 
 that may be described collectively as miscellaneous in their 
 character. Particular reference may be made to the numer- 
 ous associations, societies, institutes, and clubs for teachers 
 of various degree that overspread the land. No other 
 country in the world, it is probable, is so well furnished with 
 these purely voluntary means of education. They con- 
 tribute not a little to the knowledge and cultivation of
 
 4 OI 3 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 43 
 
 teachers as well as to the elevation of educational ideals and 
 the formation of popular opinion. Then there are the 
 teachers' libraries, local and general. The organization of 
 such libraries has sometimes been carried to such perfection 
 that books of both a special and a general character are 
 practically sent to the teacher's own door. New York, for 
 instance, provides at state cost for the necessary expenses 
 of a state school library for the benefit and free use of the 
 teachers of the state, to be circulated under such rules and 
 regulations as the state superintendent may establish. This 
 law puts at the use of the teachers of the state an excellent 
 collection of books on the simple and easy condition that 
 they shall pay the postage on their return to the state capital. 
 The certification or licensing of teachers in the public 
 schools of the United States may almost be called a burning 
 question. To protect the schools or the public against 
 unworthy persons without burdening deserving teachers, is 
 the problem to be solved. Much of the difficulty attending 
 the solution of the problem arises from the highly complex 
 form of the American government, and the emphasis that is 
 everywhere placed upon local as opposed to central authority. 
 Education is a state, not a national function ; moreover, the 
 states, in accordance with the popular genius, vest this power 
 primarily in local authorities, sometimes town or city boards, 
 but more frequently county boards of examiners. In recent 
 years many of the states have set up state examining boards, 
 empowered to issue state certificates valid either for life or 
 for a term of years. None of the states, however, have 
 abandoned the earlier local boards, which still examine the 
 great majority of school teachers. In Massachusetts, which 
 is one of the states that have never adopted the new plan, 
 there are three hundred and thirty-three boards authorized 
 to grant certificates, not one of which, however, is legally 
 valid beyond the town or city in which it is issued. Many 
 teachers, and these generally the best teachers, naturally 
 look upon the existing system as being unreasonable and 
 burdensome, and insist that a wider validity shall be given
 
 44 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [402 
 
 to their certificates when they have once proved their ability 
 to teach. Sometimes the evils of the system are mitigated 
 and the system so rendered less intolerable through the legal 
 or practical recognition of the principle of comity, whereby 
 the attestation of one examining authority is accepted by 
 other such authorities. Still no satisfactory solution has 
 yet been reached. 
 
 At a meeting of college and university professors of educa- 
 tion held in Washington, D. C., in July, 1898, a committee 
 was appointed to investigate and report upon the certifica- 
 tion of college and university graduates as teachers in the 
 public schools. This committee has finished its work and 
 published its report, which consists, in part, of an exposition 
 of the existing laws and usages so far as the certification 
 of such graduates is concerned, and in part of the recom- 
 mendations of the committee. It will be germane to the 
 subject of this monograph to include in it the salient features 
 of this report. 
 
 The committee declares unqualifiedly in favor of the states' 
 making special legal provision for certificating college and 
 university graduates in the public schools, whereby they 
 shall be exempted, as far as may prove to be consistent with 
 the best interests of the schools, from the ordinary examina- 
 tions. This exemption should be made only in the cases 
 of graduates who have complied substantially with the fol- 
 lowing requirements : 
 
 (i) The graduate shall have received a good college edu- 
 cation terminating in a bachelor's degree. (2) He must, 
 also, have pursued a limited number of studies, not more 
 than two or three, of a congruous nature with more than 
 ordinary thoroughness that is, have had a degree of 
 specialization. (3) His certificate should not cover all the 
 studies of the high school course, but only those to which 
 he has devoted special attention, as just explained. (4) The 
 next condition is that the graduate shall have pursued, in 
 the college or university, or in some school having college 
 or university affiliations, the study of education. (5) He
 
 43] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 45 
 
 should also take one or more teachers' courses in the branches 
 of knowledge which he has studied most thoroughly, such 
 courses to include not merely the academical elements of the 
 subject, but also its pedagogical elements. (6) The com- 
 mittee also recommend that the candidate shall, if possible, 
 have had some instruction in the school of observation or 
 practice. The final conclusion is that the college or uni- 
 versity graduate who has fulfilled these conditions and who 
 has good health, good morals, and good personal cultivation 
 should, without examination external to the college or uni- 
 versity, be certificated to teach for a period of at least three 
 years ; and if at the close of this probationary term he has 
 shown himself to be a successful teacher, then he should be 
 certificated for life, provided he expects to continue in the 
 work. In the case of graduate students the committee urges 
 that they also should be certificated without formal exami- 
 nation if they make education either a major or minor study 
 and also take one or more teachers' courses as in the case of 
 the ordinary graduate. 
 
 Perhaps the most important paragraph of the report relates 
 to the study of education, and may be thus summarized : 
 This study should be elective, and should count towards a 
 student's degree as other elective work counts ; education, as 
 a study, is just as informing and disciplinary as history, phil- 
 osophy, sociology, or politics ; the minimum to be required 
 should be about twelve hours a week for one semester. It 
 should begin in the second semester of the junior year, 
 or not later than the first semester of the senior year, and 
 continue to the end of the course. Part of the work should 
 be prescribed and part elective : the prescribed work to 
 include one scientific and one practical course. The scien- 
 tific course should be built up on the basis of some knowl- 
 edge of physiology, psychology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, and 
 sociology, and should present an outline view of the facts 
 and principles of education ; the practical course should 
 embrace general methodology, some leading special metho- 
 dologies, as the language-arts, history, science, school
 
 
 46 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [404 
 
 hygiene, school practice, and management, the common facts 
 of school law, the general features of an American state 
 school system, etc. The electives would naturally be made 
 from a group of subsidiary courses bearing some of the fol- 
 lowing titles : The history of education in its various phases ; 
 a comparative study of educational systems ; study of chil- 
 dren ; the sociological relations of education ; the relations 
 of pedagogy to other sciences and arts ; school superintend- 
 ence ; the history of school studies and their value as edu- 
 cational instruments, etc. The particular election or elec- 
 tions would depend on the student, his preparation and his 
 plans for the future. 1 
 
 At present this is an ideal scheme, although most of its 
 features are met with in different institutions ; but it does 
 not seem extravagant to expect that it will influence future 
 practice. It may be added that the committee thinks that the 
 realization of inter-state comity on a large scale must depend 
 upon the improvement and elevation of existing standards. 
 
 It is not altogether easy to conceive the enormous growth 
 that education has made in the United States since the 
 beginning of the educational revival. Unfortunately, we 
 have no statistics that exhibit it on a national scale. We 
 shall, however, close the century with an annual common 
 school expenditure of more than $212,000,000, with more 
 than 426,000 teachers, and with more than 15,500,000 pupils 
 in the schools. There is no question as to the greatest 
 defect of this education. We must accept in good spirit the 
 judgment of the German critic, Dr. E. Schlee, delivered the 
 year of the Columbian exposition. 2 " If in every office the 
 chief factor is the man, and in school the teacher, we have 
 come to the weakest point in the American school system 
 professional teachers are wanting. That is to say, most 
 teachers are deficient in the requisite scientific and peda- 
 gogical preparation for their vocation." But it must be 
 remembered that this great system is the work of but sixty 
 
 1 The report is found in the. School review, Chicago, June, 1899. 
 
 3 Report of commissioner of education, 1892-93. Part II, chap. III.
 
 45] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 47 
 
 years. It has been impossible to train teachers as fast as 
 the schools required them ; the need has constantly outrun 
 the public ability, and still more, perhaps, the public ideals. 
 Under the circumstances, no people could have made the 
 supply equal the demand. Still, much has been done to 
 prepare teachers for their work, if not as much as should 
 have been done. The agencies that have been employed, 
 and are still employed, are of a miscellaneous character, 
 evincing plainly enough the versatility, not to say shiftiness, 
 of the American mind. The system is marked perhaps by 
 what John Stuart Mill once called "the fatal belief" of the 
 American public " that anybody is fit for anything." The 
 national inventiveness appears particularly in the efforts that 
 have been made to supply the deficiencies of non-professional 
 teachers. The success that has attended these efforts has 
 tended to produce satisfaction with mere temporary expe- 
 dients. Necessity has been the mother of inventions that 
 continued after the necessity had ceased. The fundamental 
 lack is education solid, sound, thorough education. Of 
 agencies that minister to discursive culture, we have more 
 than enough. Still, what is said above of teachers' institutes 
 may be said of these agencies taken together they have 
 done far more good than evil. 
 
 Our system undoubtedly appears very imperfect and inade- 
 quate to foreign critics who are acquainted with the more 
 highly organized systems of France and Germany ; but it is 
 not invidious to say that such critics are not always well pre- 
 pared to appreciate all the features of our civilization. In 
 the present instance, they may safely accept our assurance 
 that, however impossible our system might be in continental 
 countries, in America it works much better than they can 
 readily conceive. This is not said to conceal defects, which 
 are freely admitted, but only to secure recognition for unde- 
 niable merits. Whether new features will be added to the 
 system, or whether old ones will be lopped away, are ques- 
 tions that the future must answer. For the present, it is 
 reassuring to know that the conviction is constantly gaining
 
 48 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [406 
 
 ground that, whatever is done at its circumference, the system 
 must be strengthened at its center. The most competent 
 judges will not dissent from the proposition, that the bright- 
 est promise of the future is seen in the work, present and 
 prospective, of the colleges and universities of the country. 
 
 At the close of this monograph, it may not be amiss to 
 remark that it presents only a general survey of its subject. 
 All classes of institutions that deserve recognition have, it is 
 believed, been characterized ; but the characterizations have 
 necessarily been brief. In selecting the institutions that 
 have been specifically named, the sole purpose has been to 
 select those that are typical of their classes. The further 
 observation may be added that, of the 436 universities and 
 colleges reporting to the commissioner of education tech- 
 nical, professional, and special courses of study for the year 
 1896-97, 220 reported courses in pedagogy. 
 
 Additional authorities An historical account of the State 
 Normal College at Albany, N. Y., etc. ; Circular of the New 
 New York State Normal College, Albany, 1899; Columbia 
 University in the city of New York, Teachers college, 
 announcements, 1898-99, and 1899-1900, and President's 
 Report, 1898-99; Columbia University in the city of New 
 York, Division of Philosophy and Psychology, announce- 
 ment, 1898-99; New York University, School of Pedagogy, 
 announcements for the tenth year, beginning Sept. 27, 
 1899, etc. ; The School of Pedagogy, New York University, 
 its aims and opportunities to pupils ; Manual of the Normal 
 College of the city of New York 1897 ; Twenty-eighth annual 
 report of the Normal College of New York, for the year 
 ending December 30, 1898, etc. ; Courses of study and rules 
 for the government of training school for teachers, Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., 1897; John Fulton, Memoirs of Frederick A. P. 
 Barnard, etc., New York, 1896, chap. XVII; Martha's 
 Vineyard Summer Institute, 1899, Twenty-second annual 
 session ; Clark University, etc., Register and eleventh 
 official announcement, 1899; University of Wisconsin,
 
 407] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 49 
 
 announcement, of summer session for 1899; same, Bulletin 
 No. 29, etc., 1899-1900; Historical sketch of the State 
 university of Iowa, J. L. Pickard, etc., 1899; Catalogue of 
 the Peabody normal college for the year 1898-99.
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 UNITED STATES COMMISSION TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITKD STATKS 
 
 EDITED 3Y 
 
 NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
 Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 
 
 Q 
 
 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 BY 
 
 GILBERT B. MORRISON, 
 Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri 
 
 THIS MONOGRAPHS CONTRIBUTED TO THE UNITED STATES EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT BY THE 
 
 STATE OF NEW YORK
 
 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 
 
 The school house is an infallible index of the educational 
 status of the community in which it is located. It stands at 
 once a monument and a history of the mistakes or successes, 
 the ignorance or wisdom, the poverty or opulence, the par- 
 simony or generosity of the people who have erected and 
 maintained it. From the forbidding shanty on the country 
 cross roads in the backwoods to the palatial edifice in the 
 most enlightened city, this building tells a story in letters so 
 plain and so unmistakable that " he' who runs may read." 
 The school house teaches not alone a lesson in architecture, 
 but lessons in sanitation, in engineering, in aesthetics, and in 
 pedagogics. The building from the school-room furnishings 
 and devices for teaching to the finishing touches of the 
 exterior, is a composite resultant of the work of teacher, 
 superintendent, school director, engineer, and architect. 
 
 The growth of the American school house is commensu- 
 rate with the growth of American education. From the four 
 bare walls where the three R's were formerly taught to the 
 modern laboratory or art room in which are combined the 
 appliances for the best teaching and for the expression of 
 the best taste, these material evidences epitomize the educa- 
 tional situation in our country. The consideration of school 
 house building, therefore, becomes a question of the highest 
 importance. 
 
 The necessary features to be secured in building a school 
 house named in the order of their relative importance are, 
 i. Shelter; 2. Adequate space; 3. Warmth; 4. Ventila- 
 tion ; 5. Light ; 6. Interior furnishings and appliances ; 
 7. Beauty. 
 
 The ends to be attained in all of these features are essen- 
 tially the same for all types of buildings from the one-room
 
 4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [412 
 
 country school house to the most expensive structure built 
 in the city for high school or college purposes. The appli- 
 cation of the principles involved in securing these ends in 
 buildings of every variety of cost and function requires a 
 vast diversity of treatment. 
 
 In all of the above-named features of a building, the three 
 ends to be sought are hygienic, economic, and mechanical. 
 In all cases alike, it is mechanical skill and ingenuity work- 
 ing with the means at their command to reach the best 
 hygienic results. The features requiring the greatest skill 
 are warming and ventilating, and the general architectural 
 effect given to the building in its construction and in its 
 location. 
 
 In his book on " The Warming and Ventilation of School 
 Buildings," the writer has treated somewhat in detail the 
 principles underlying the subjects of the present essay, and 
 it is his object here to outline in the briefest manner to what 
 extent these principles have been put into practice in the 
 school houses of the United States. In order to do this, he 
 has thought best to select some of our best buildings as 
 examples representative of the various types, pointing out 
 their merits and calling attention to their defects, and sug- 
 gesting where improvements could be made. To fully treat 
 in a thorough and scientific manner the principles involved 
 in building a school house is beyond the scope of this article. 
 The object here is simply to embody into the discussion of a 
 few types the results of the best theory as exemplified in the 
 best practice. 
 
 THE COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 
 
 The majority of the children of the United States go to 
 school in the country. The country school house, therefore, 
 deserves its share of attention. On account of economic 
 conditions, the instruction must be carried on in a single 
 room of sufficient size to accommodate the children. In 
 many of the states the unsanitary conditions usually prevail- 
 ing in rural districts have been partially overcome by proper 
 oversight on the part of intelligent supervisors.
 
 413] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 5 
 
 As economy is the chief end to be considered in most rural 
 districts, a plan by Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd (Plate 
 I) is selected as meeting a sufficient number of the neces- 
 sary requirements to form an intelligent basis of treatment. 
 
 While this house can be built for about $600, it presents 
 a neat and attractive appearance. Its exterior reveals the 
 touch of the architect's hand, and the educational influence 
 of such a building when located on a well-selected site can 
 hardly be overestimated. 
 
 The building is 24x32 ft, outside measurement, and com- 
 prises a school room, a fuel room, a wardrobe for boys, a 
 wardrobe for girls and a porch ; it will furnish shelter for 
 thirty pupils in single seats, or thirty-six pupils in double 
 seats. The single seat should always be provided where 
 the rigor of economy does not positively forbid it. The 
 single seat is an American characteristic, and its moral influ- 
 ence on the pupils in the freedom it gives them from too 
 close proximity, as well as its assistance to the teacher in 
 maintaining order, commends it to universal use. 
 
 There remains very little to be said about the proper seat 
 to be provided in furnishing a school room. The seats now 
 on the market and furnished by all dealers in school furni- 
 ture are, in the main, models of convenience, comfort and 
 finish. It certainly stands to the credit of this country for 
 having invented and brought into almost universal use the 
 best seat which any country has produced. These seats are 
 graded in size to suit the age of the pupils. A room improp- 
 erly seated in the United States is at the present time only 
 chargeable to the grossest ignorance, indifference or neglect. 
 
 The heating is accomplished by means of a stove placed 
 in one corner of the school room. The time-honored prac- 
 tice of placing the stove in the center of the room has given 
 way to a better knowledge of the principles of heating and 
 ventilating. The function of the stove, when the demands 
 of economy require its use, is the heating of the room by 
 convection, not by radiation. While the radiated heat from 
 the sun or from an open fire is most cordial and beneficial,
 
 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [414 
 
 the reverse is true of radiated heat from a stove. The air 
 in a room can be heated almost as quickly by a stove placed 
 in one corner as in the center and by enclosing it in a jacket 
 of sheet metal the parching radiation is intercepted. In the 
 present case, the stove serves the purpose both of warming 
 and of ventilation. 
 
 The diminished specific weight of air when its tempera- 
 ture is raised and its tendency therefore to rise lessened 
 furnishes the basis for all methods of so-called natural or 
 gravital ventilation. 
 
 In this building, the chimney is divided into two parts, 
 one for smoke and the other for a foul air vent. A fresh air 
 duct leading from the outside of the building to an opening 
 directly under the stove supplies the fresh air. As the air 
 in the room becomes heated, it has a tendency by its specific 
 lightness to rise through the foul air vent in the chimney, its 
 place being constantly supplied by the cold fresh air as it 
 flows through the fresh air duct becoming heated as it passes 
 up between the stove and the zinc jacket enclosing it. 
 
 The foul air duct would become still more efficient if the 
 chimney instead of being partitioned had simply contained 
 the stove pipe extended to the top. A heavy galvanized 
 iron pipe should be erected and securely fastened by stays 
 anchored to the brickwork when the chimney is built. 
 
 The chimney for a single room should have an interior 
 cross sectional area of at least five square feet, and the pipe 
 should be placed in the center of it. By this means the 
 whole chimney not occupied by the pipe becomes a vent or 
 aspirating chimney in which an upward current is main- 
 tained by the heat from the pipe. The foul air reaches this 
 vent through a duct leading from a box beneath the teacher's 
 platform. The part of the floor under the platform is 
 lowered to form the under side of the box while the top of 
 the platform forms the upper side. The air finds access to 
 this foul air box through openings or registers placed in the 
 riser of the platform. 
 
 The total area of these registers, and also the cross sec-
 
 415] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 7 
 
 tional area of the fresh air duct should be about equal to 
 that of the chimney. A throttle damper should be placed 
 in the fresh air duct so that the air may be regulated in 
 severe cold weather or retained in the room during the night 
 to prevent its becoming too cold. The exit registers should 
 also be closed at night. 
 
 In order that the air may not be overheated as it passes 
 the stove, and thus rendered unfit for breathing, the stove 
 should be large, so that the increased area of heating surface 
 may obviate the necessity of extreme overheating. Besides, 
 the danger from overheating the air by highly heated sur- 
 faces, it should be remembered that iron when raised to a 
 red heat becomes pervious to the poisonous gases of com- 
 bustion. One of the products of coal combustion is carbon 
 monoxide (CO), a very poisonous gas, which, if allowed to 
 escape, will contaminate the air. 
 
 The method of conveying the foul air into the aspirating 
 chimney shown in Mr. Appleyard's plan has been modified 
 in various ways in different localities. In a plan drawn by 
 Edbrook & Burnham, architects, Chicago, used in some of 
 the school houses in Wisconsin and Illinois ; and in a simi- 
 lar plan drawn by Hackney & Smith, architects, Kansas 
 City, Mo., and used in some of the school houses in Mis- 
 souri, the exit registers are multiplied and placed in the 
 floor near the base board at intervals around the room. The 
 foul air gathering " box " thus becomes the entire space 
 between the floor and the ground below, the opening into 
 the chimney being below the floor, as in the former case. A 
 sanitary objection to this arises in the fact that in warm 
 weather, when the inside is cooler than the outside air, the 
 draft is liable to be reversed and the " ground air " under 
 the house drawn up into the school room. 
 
 In another modification, shown in plans drawn by John 
 R. Church, Rochester, N. Y., the numerous exit registers 
 are placed in the base boards and open into ducts rising in 
 the walls to the attic, where they converge and unite in an 
 opening into the aspirating chimney. A mechanical objec-
 
 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [416 
 
 tion to this arises in the interference with the free movement 
 of the air imposed by the large amount of friction in numer- 
 ous small ducts. 
 
 There is really nothing gained by multiplying details in 
 conveying air from a room. The simplest is always the best 
 way. An ordinary wing register placed in the vent flue just 
 above the floor is probably a better means of conveying the 
 foul air than any of the processes just mentioned. It is 
 simple, economical, direct and frictionless. 
 
 It should be remembered that the position of exit regis- 
 ters near the floor is here recommended, not because this is 
 the ideal position for them, but because it is necessary in a 
 room heated by a stove to trap the air in the upper part of 
 the room, and to keep it from escaping before it has been 
 utilized. This position of exit registers is also necessary 
 with all systems of heating which have heretofore been in 
 use in school-house building, but unnecessary in a stage of 
 pneumatic engineering which we are approaching, reference 
 to which is made on a subsequent page. 
 
 A still better means for removing the foul air is the open 
 fireplace. This is used in a few districts in some of the 
 northern states. It is to be regretted that the virtues of the 
 open fireplace in school buildings have not been more widely 
 recognized. Whether considered from a hygienic, economic 
 or mechanical standpoint, this old-fashioned but neglected 
 device is much to be commended. When it was discovered 
 that the open fire does not furnish an adequate means of 
 warming in severely cold weather, it gradually gave way to 
 more effective modern devices ; its value as a means of ven- 
 tilation, however, was not sufficiently appreciated to save its 
 almost total abandonment. When combined with a stove 
 so as to receive into it the smokepipe, the open fireplace 
 chimney is not expensive. In moderate weather when little 
 heat is required, the open fire would meet the demands of 
 warming and fulfill all the requirements of perfect ventilation. 
 
 The strong, upward draft through an open fireplace chim- 
 ney when the outside is cooler than the inside air, even
 
 417] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 9 
 
 without fire in the grate, is a matter of common observation. 
 Every country school house should have an open fireplace. 
 A small fire kept burning would ventilate the room, supple- 
 ment the heat of the stove, and produce by its cheerful, 
 radiating effect a wholesome influence on the pupils. 
 
 As the radiation from an open fire does not warm the air 
 except secondarily from the solid surfaces of objects inter- 
 cepting the rays, the open fire cannot be employed for warm- 
 ing except in mild weather ; but its other advantages here 
 mentioned make it a most profitable investment. 
 
 The lighting of the house shown in Plate I, while ample 
 in its aggregate, has the defect common to most school- 
 houses that of light on two sides. A school room designed 
 for academic purposes should be lighted on one side only. 
 The length of the room should exceed its width by a ratio 
 of about 3 to 2. While this ratio may vary within reason- 
 able limits, the width should not be greater than twice the 
 clear height. The windows on one of the longer sides 
 should extend to the top of the room, should be well shaded, 
 and as numerous as architectural requirements will admit. 
 
 The hygienic necessity of protecting the eyes of the pupils 
 by admitting the light at the left or the back has been uni- 
 versally recognized, but a like consideration for the rights of 
 the teacher has been generally neglected. 
 
 In a room lighted on two adjacent sides, either the teacher 
 or the pupils must face the light, and the teacher by com- 
 mon consent has been made the victim. This, more than 
 all other causes combined, is hastening the premature weak- 
 ness of the eyes of our teachers. In country school houses, 
 the light is commonly admitted on opposite sides, but this 
 is objectionable on account of the disagreeable and injurious 
 effects of cross lighting. The necessity of lighting on one 
 side only is recognized in common practice in Germany, 
 but it has been generally ignored in the United States of 
 America. The writer is aware that thoughtful objections 
 have been urged in this country against limiting windows to 
 one side of class rooms that the practice in Germany arose
 
 IO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [418 
 
 from the possibility there of admitting, light from the north 
 only, and that when admitted from the south, east or west, 
 the direct rays will dazzle the eyes of the pupils by falling 
 directly upon them and upon their work. 
 
 While these objections have some weight, they will not 
 stand when the facts are carefully considered. If there is 
 an objection to windows on a side which admits direct sun- 
 light on certain hours of the day, it is not plain how that objec- 
 tion could be removed by placing windows on two such sides. 
 
 When windows are distributed on two sides of a nearly 
 square room, as is the case in the conventional corner room 
 in most buildings of more than one room, neither side 
 alone is sufficient to light the room when curtains are drawn 
 on the other side. There are two reasons for this : First, the 
 window area is insufficient, and second, the distance across 
 the room of the common square form or lengthwise in rec- 
 tangular form is greater than the established standard for 
 the height of windows. 
 
 The objection to rectangular rooms lighted exclusively by 
 numerous windows on one of the longer sides may be even 
 though this side be on the south entirely removed by the 
 proper use of curtains. The curtains for such a room 
 should be of white muslin of light weight mounted on 
 spring rollers. A room 24x32 ft. with four large, full 
 height windows in one of its longer sides, facing south, will, 
 with such curtains drawn clear down, be fully lighted, when 
 the sun is shining, with a soft, subdued, well-diffused and 
 ample light. This has been fully demonstrated by the writer 
 who used such a curtain for several years in a large physics 
 demonstration room lighted on the south only by two very 
 large windows instead of the four, five, or even six which it 
 is easy to obtain in a building planned on hygienic principles. 
 
 The common practice of admitting light at the back of 
 the pupils and into the face of the teacher cannot be too 
 strongly condemned. It is wholly unnecessary, false in 
 theory, and pernicious in practice, as the ruined eyesight of 
 thousands of teachers can attest.
 
 419] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE II 
 
 The lighting on one side only is accomplished in the 
 country school house shown in Plate II, drawn by C. Powell 
 Karr, architect, New York city. The estimated cost of this 
 house is $1,200, and it may well stand as a model of build- 
 ings of this class. The school room is well proportioned, 
 24x33 ft., and with its seven windows on one side and a 
 14 ft. stud, it is amply supplied with direct and thoroughly 
 diffused light. 
 
 The stove with its air jacket is properly located in one 
 corner. The chimney is large and contains a properly placed 
 smoke pipe in the center. However, had the lower part of 
 this chimney been converted into an open fireplace, the 
 economic and hygienic ends would be still better served. A 
 coal room and a teacher's room add to the convenience and 
 symmetry of the building. 
 
 A separate entrance with lobby, cloak room and hall is 
 provided for the boys and girls a matter of no small 
 importance in a country school. 
 
 The back doors opening out of the halls make a proper 
 separation between the girls' and boys' walks to the out- 
 houses. These walks, let it be here noted, should always be 
 covered and the sides shielded by lattice work. 
 
 One improvement is here suggested in the arrangement 
 of the cloak and coat rooms. In order to secure light and 
 ventilation, they should be changed from the inner to the 
 outer wall of the halls where a window could be added to 
 furnish the necessary light. While window ventilation is 
 not generally recommended, its objection is less in a cloak 
 room than elsewhere. 
 
 This house is a model of neatness and, all essential points 
 considered, may stand as a type of the best of its class. 
 
 THE TWO-ROOM BUILDING 
 
 In small hamlets where the school population necessitates 
 adding another room, new problems present themselves. 
 As the hygienic requirements are the same for all rooms, 
 these problems are chiefly mechanical.
 
 12 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [420 
 
 A two-room building answering all economic and hygienic 
 requirements could not be found, but the plan shown in 
 Plate III, drawn by Warren R. Briggs, architect, Bridge- 
 port, Conn., is a fair representation of the best that has been 
 accomplished. 
 
 This building has two rooms, two hat and coat rooms, and a 
 basement. It is estimated to cost $2,000. The basement is 
 built of stone, and the upper part is frame. The architectural 
 treatment gives the house a neat and attractive appearance. 
 
 As we leave the one-room building and pass to those hav- 
 ing two or more, economy as well as convenience suggests 
 the centralization of the heating and ventilating apparatus. 
 The stove is enlarged, placed in the basement, and becomes 
 a "furnace." The cold air duct conveying the air to the 
 source of heat between the furnace and enclosing jacket is 
 substantially the same as for the one supplying the stove in 
 the single room, except that it has double the cross-sectional 
 area. The jacket instead of being open at the top is closed 
 with branch pipes leading to the rooms. 
 
 In Mr. Briggs' plan, the chimney and air ducts are situ- 
 ated centrally as they properly should be. The warm air is 
 admitted near the top of the rooms through the inlet ducts 
 and is supposed to go out at the outlets near the floor. 
 This it will do only when there is a considerable difference 
 between the inside and outside temperature, there being no 
 provision made to heat these outlet ducts. By making open 
 fireplaces of these ducts, they would be converted into 
 effective aspirating chimneys and would also serve for warm- 
 ing the rooms in mild weather. 
 
 In the method of heating here shown, we see in embryo 
 the " hot air " or " indirect " system which seems to be the 
 best means of warming small buildings with comparatively 
 few rooms, in which a steam or hot water plant cannot be 
 afforded, and where the destination of the hot air is not far 
 from the furnace. The furnace, however, in small buildings 
 should be large that the necessity of overheating may be 
 obviated.
 
 42 l] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 3 
 
 The fireplace before suggested should be heated only in 
 mild weather. In very cold weather it causes unnecessary 
 waste of air as well as of fuel. In fact, in extremely low 
 temperatures, ventilation generally takes care of itself unless 
 the room is very close. This is of course due to the con- 
 siderable difference in atmospheric pressure between the 
 inside and outside walls of the room. 
 
 The rooms in the building under consideration are well 
 proportioned 25x35 ft. and are well conditioned for 
 exclusive lighting on the longer sides. This would provide 
 a place for the teacher's platform, in the room shown on the 
 left side of the plan, at the end opposite the entrance, throw- 
 ing the light at the left of the pupils. The present position 
 of the platform sacrifices valuable space and makes the 
 teacher face the broadside light while seeing the faces of his 
 pupils in shadow. The changes required by these sugges- 
 tions while of the greatest importance are mechanically 
 insignificant and simple. 
 
 Excellent as is the present plan when generally con- 
 sidered, it is too expensive for the ordinary hamlet district 
 which would have to forego the luxury of a basement. To 
 meet the economic conditions in such cases, the writer sug- 
 gests a plan shown in Plate IV. 
 
 This plan gives well-lighted wardrobes with a convenient 
 arrangement of doors. 
 
 The heat is furnished by stoves placed in the corners of 
 the rooms. The angular position of the chimney makes it 
 serve well the purposes of both rooms. The position of 
 fresh air and smoke pipes are shown by the dotted lines. 
 
 The teacher's rooms, which are a convenience for many 
 purposes, may be dispensed with where greater economy 
 demands it. 
 
 THE THREE-ROOM BUILDING 
 
 With each addition to the number of rooms in a building, 
 the mechanical- difficulties incident to providing all the 
 hygienic requirements increase. To supply plenty of pure, 
 warm air to every room, to conform to the requirements of
 
 14 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [422 
 
 lighting and seating, to provide a well-lighted and ventilated 
 coat and cloak room adjacent to each school room, to have 
 ample and well-lighted corriders, to plan with a view to 
 beauty of design, and withal to keep within the bounds of 
 economy, requires a profound knowledge of principles, prac- 
 tical skill and sound judgment. 
 
 As an objective basis for discussion, another building 
 Plate V drawn by Mr. Briggs, has been selected. Although 
 not ideal, this house possesses many excellent features. 
 
 An examination of the plan reveals the same defect in 
 lighting two of the rooms that was pointed out in the two- 
 room building, a defect which is easy to remedy by blind- 
 ing the windows on one end and moving the teacher's plat- 
 form. The only other defect noticeable in this plan is the 
 use of the main hall for coat and cloak rooms. In the pres- 
 ent case, however, this defect is not without compensating 
 advantages. It gives freedom, room, and publicity in the 
 putting away and the taking down of wraps, and it econo- 
 mizes space. 
 
 The objection which usually prevails against the hall as a 
 place for wraps is the odor which is liable to come from the 
 drying of wet outer garments. This objection, however, is 
 partly answered in the present building by the position of 
 the heating and ventilating chimneys, which secures good 
 ventilation for the hall, and thus prevents any currents of air 
 from the hall into the school rooms. 
 
 The chief merit of this building is its centrally located, 
 compact and ample heating and ventilating apparatus. The 
 position, size, and quality of this breathing apparatus is as 
 important in a building as are corresponding features in the 
 lungs of an animal. The central location is economical and 
 gives a proper balance to the distribution of air. The hot 
 air pipes rising inside the large aspirating chimney produce 
 an upward current which draws the air from the rooms con- 
 nected with it through the registers. The cold air passes 
 in through the fresh air duct in the basement, is heated by 
 the furnace, and rises between the furnace and jacket to
 
 423] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 15 
 
 the pipes leading up through the large chimney to the upper 
 part of the rooms. The exit registers placed near the floor 
 open into the chimney. 
 
 The building has an artistic and stable appearance. Built 
 of stone or brick, the estimated cost is $6,600. But a frame 
 structure, providing the same conveniences, could probably 
 be built for $5,000. 
 
 It will be unnecessary to give details of plans for a four 
 and six-room building. Duplicating the plans for two rooms 
 will give a good plan for a four-room building ; and dupli- 
 cating the plans for three rooms will give an equally good 
 one for a building of six rooms. Staircases could easily 
 be provided for by enlarging the halls, and this without sac- 
 rificing any of the essential features. 
 
 THE EIGHT-ROOM BUILDING 
 
 In accordance with the established grading of primary and 
 grammar schools in this country, a building of eight rooms 
 one for each grade is typical of the complete unit for 
 this class of school work, and is the prevailing type in the 
 small cities and towns throughout the United States. For 
 this and other reasons now about to be mentioned, a care- 
 ful consideration of this building becomes highly important. 
 
 The method for warming a building is to be determined 
 largely by the number of rooms to be warmed and by the 
 means at the command of the builders. The proposition 
 to establish a steam plant for a one-room country school 
 house, would be about as absurd as one to warm a seven- 
 story building covering a whole block in a large city with 
 hot air furnaces in the basement. Considering the velocity 
 at which air moves through ducts, its rate of cooling and 
 the friction which it encounters in reaching its destination, 
 all methods of conveying air have their proper places and 
 their limitations. 
 
 In the growth of the typical school house from a one to a 
 fifty-room building, the stove, the hot air furnace, the gravi- 
 tal steam plant with its " direct " and " indirect " radiation,
 
 1 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 2 4 
 
 and the forcing fan all have their appropriate places. To 
 ask which of these means is the best is much like asking 
 whether it is best for an animal to breathe by absorption, 
 by spiracles, by gills or by lungs. It all depends upon the 
 building or upon the animal. There is a time when the 
 stove gives way to the furnace, the furnace to steam pipes 
 alone, and steam pipes alone to steam pipes supplemented 
 by mechanical power. 
 
 It is in buildings of the capacity of the one under con- 
 sideration that the battle between the dealers in hot air fur- 
 naces and the steam fitters is usually waged, and the argu- 
 ments commonly employed by both are as amusing to the 
 scientist as they are distracting to the average school director. 
 
 It may here be said to the credit of both factions that in 
 buildings of this size either method will answer the pur- 
 pose, but the writer wishes to give as his opinion that, in 
 constructing an eight-room building, the time has come for 
 the installation of a steam plant. 
 
 In order to secure the proper ventilation, the radiation 
 should be in the main " indirect ; " i. e., the steam pipes should 
 take the place in the fresh air inlet duct of that formerly 
 occupied by the furnace. Experience has proved that, in 
 purely gravital systems, this should be supplemented with 
 the direct radiation of a few radiators placed in the rooms 
 under the windows. For a fuller discussion of the princi- 
 ples underlying these statements, see " Warming and Ven- 
 tilation of School Buildings," chapters XVII and XVIII. 
 
 Another peculiarity which generally prevails in our eight- 
 room buildings is that, situated as the rooms are in corners 
 of the building, they are usually square and lighted on two 
 adjacent sides. This error is ingeniously avoided in the 
 fifth ward school building, Joliet, Ills., shown in Plates VI 
 and VII. 
 
 By blinding the windows on one side and by increasing 
 their number on the other, all the rooms are properly lighted. 
 By an equally ingenious and artistic architectural treatment, 
 the external appearance is made strikingly attractive. The
 
 PLA TE I 
 
 ONE ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 
 Win. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd, Architects, Lansing, Mich. 
 
 Floor Plan 
 
 Basement Plan
 
 PLATE II 
 
 MODEL ONE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
 C. Po -well A'arr, Architect, New York 
 
 Floor Plan
 
 PLATE III 
 
 
 
 A TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
 Warren R. Briggs, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 CQCOCGCDCO 
 COcCCGCGcatr 
 
 QIRLS' YARD. 
 
 <\1HLS - YARD. 
 
 Floor Plan 
 
 Basement Plan
 
 PLA TE IV 
 
 BOYS' YARD. 
 
 IRLS* YARD. 
 
 TEACHEBiS Sty / frUELROOM. \| TEACHER'S FfNT. 
 
 ! 
 
 PLATFORM 
 
 SCHOOL BOOM. 
 
 'COAT ROOM. 
 
 SCHOOL ROOM. 
 
 ,f 
 
 LOBBY. HAT-CLOAK ROOM. 
 
 SUGGESTED FOR AN INEXPENSIVE TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE
 
 PLATE V 
 
 A THREE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
 Warren R. Briggs, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn 
 
 BOYS' VXRD. | efKJS YHOX 
 
 Bore num. [ ^IRLT THUD. 
 
 Floor Plan 
 
 Basement Plan
 
 PLATE VI 
 
 FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. 
 F. S. Allen, Architect, Joliet, Ills. 
 
 First Floor 
 
 Second Floor
 
 FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. Basement Plan
 
 PLATE VIII 
 
 Fig. i 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 1.1 t I t I 
 
 4 i i t i 
 
 BASEMENT AND FIRST FLOOR PLANS OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
 PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 
 
 William Atkinson, Architect
 
 PLA TE IX 
 
 v- 
 
 Fig. i 
 
 ~ 
 
 SECOND FLOOR PLAN AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
 
 PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 
 
 William Atkinson, Architect
 
 PLA TE X 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY 
 
 C. B. J. Snydcr, Architect, New York 
 
 LL- 
 
 ,,lf 
 
 Basement Plan
 
 FLA TE Xf 
 
 JO. 
 
 Second Floor Plan 
 
 jni iBi fli 1 
 
 T ij ^i TSf 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING NO.
 
 PLATE XII 
 
 Fig. i 
 
 TT1 
 
 TT1I 
 
 SH HIR INLET. 
 
 PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A LARGE PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 
 
 PLAIT SUGGESTED FOR A SMALL PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL
 
 PLA TE XIII 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL XO. 20, XE\V YORK CITY 
 C. B. J. Snj'i/er, A rchitect 
 
 Roof Plaj'ground
 
 PLATE XIV 
 
 CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 
 Chamberlin &* Austin, Architects 
 
 7 Stoic rtiyvt 10 TcoihrrvTollet 
 
 9 r i*a<h*>V Room U Coat Room 
 
 FIRST FLOOR. PLAN
 
 PLATE XV 
 
 1 C.iriv Toilet 
 
 5 Store Room ] Coot 
 
 6 Botonkal bpccirona Room w 00 
 
 SECOND FLOOR PLAN 
 
 THIRD FLOOR PLAN 
 
 CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 
 Chamber lin 6 Austin, Architects
 
 PLATE XVI
 
 PLATE XVII 
 
 First Floor 
 
 Basement
 
 PLATE XVIII 
 
 Third Floor 
 
 Second Floor
 
 PLATE XIX
 
 PLATE XX 
 
 AT AN UAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY
 
 PLA TE XXI 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY
 
 PLATE XXII 
 
 CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW
 
 PLATE XXIII 
 
 Dca. 
 FXH: 
 10O 
 
 90 
 80 
 70 
 60 
 80 
 40 
 
 ao 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 A 
 
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 122496789 10 AMPERES. 
 
 
 
 
 
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 C 
 
 HEflT 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^x 
 
 p* 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 -"" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A HEAT DISTRIBUTES UNDER FLOOR., VITNTH.BTION KBOUE. 
 
 S HcRT DEL.TUCRO ON SIDE, VEKTILRTION BEUOW.. 
 
 C HEAT DELIVERED ON SIDE , VENTILATION ABOVE.
 
 PLATE XXIV 
 
 U 
 
 PLAN FOR OUT DOOR CLOSET 
 
 Fig. 2
 
 425] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE I/ 
 
 halls are wide and well lighted, and a wardrobe having both 
 school room and hall entrance is provided for each room. 
 
 The heating of this building is with hot air indirect, 
 supplemented by direct steam radiation. The writer is 
 informed by the school authorities of Joliet that it is not 
 wholly satisfactory in severe weather, and that in their newer 
 buildings they use both direct and indirect steam radiation. 
 In order to secure sufficient directness for the hot air as well 
 as a sufficiently large heating surface, it was found necessary 
 to multiply furnaces and to widely distribute them to differ- 
 ent parts of the basement. A single boiler could accomplish 
 the results easier and more economically by supply steam 
 for indirect supplemented by direct radiation. 
 
 The advantage of steam over hot air in such a building is 
 seen in cold and windy weather when the impossibility for 
 hot air to make its way against a strong pressure on the 
 windward side has been so often and so fully demonstrated 
 that argument is no longer necessary. Were the Joliet 
 building heated and ventilated by a steam plant properly 
 installed, the writer would not hesitate in classing it as a 
 model of its class. 
 
 Plates VIII and IX show floor plans, basement and sec- 
 tional view of an eight-room primary and grammar school 
 house which deserve careful study. 
 
 This plan is the result of an attempt of William Atkinson, 
 architect, to plan a school house possessing all the necessary 
 architectural and hygenic features at a minimum cost "to 
 reduce the cost to its lowest terms." To do this, Mr. Atkin- 
 son selects what is known as the " mill construction " which 
 consists of exposed iron I beams and timbers ; and inside 
 walls finished with faced brick instead of lath and plaster. 
 
 As to the economy of "mill construction," architects in 
 general do not consider it less expensive than that ordinarily 
 employed. The writer's observation of its use in a portion 
 of the manual training high school of Kansas City, Mo., is 
 that it costs slightly more ; however, this is excellent con- 
 struction and is growing in favor as shown by many recently-
 
 1 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [426 
 
 built houses in different parts of the country ; it is strong, 
 and being exposed the work must be faithfully done ; it is 
 especially recommended for laboratories and manual train- 
 ing workshops; it is "slow combustion" and when properly 
 constructed looks well. 
 
 But it is not so much " mill construction " as other features 
 which commend Mr. Atkinson's plan to careful considera- 
 tion ; its shape in simple parallelogram, and the small space 
 occupied by halls are certainly elements of economy. The 
 absence of a central hall makes it possible to heat and ven- 
 tilate the house by means of one large chimney in the center 
 and could be made a support for I beams if "mill construc- 
 tion" were used. 
 
 The position of the two halls confines the light to one 
 side of the school rooms which are 24 ft. in width and 32 ft. 
 in length. The five large windows evenly spaced and the 
 proportion of the rooms makes the lighting ideal. 
 
 There are four well-lighted wardrobes on each floor, one 
 for each room. Although these wardrobes are not in con- 
 junction with the school rooms, they are near to them, and 
 the inconvenience which their location would cause in dis- 
 missing the pupils would be small. 
 
 Another objection to the arrangement of the rooms is that 
 all of the rooms cannot be reached from a common hallway, 
 making it necessary to pass through certain rooms in reach- 
 ing others. This is unconventional, but the objection is in 
 reality insignificant when it is remembered that in a graded 
 grammar school such passing is only occasional, and is chiefly 
 confined to the movements of the principal in his visits to 
 the different rooms ; he could, when necessary, pass around 
 on the outside. 
 
 We have now reached the proper place to consider the 
 use of mechanical power as a means of ventilation. The 
 necessity of this means in very large buildings is no longer 
 a subject of debate, and is in use in all first class buildings 
 in our large cities ; but it is generally supposed that to buy 
 an engine and fans for ventilating an ordinary eight-room
 
 427] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 9 
 
 building would be an expensive luxury. This is not only an 
 error, but it may be safely said that the reverse is true 
 that it is expensive to do without engine and fans. 
 
 It is now generally accepted that 2000 cubic feet of air at 
 normal pressure is needed for each pupil per hour if the 
 requirements of perfect ventilation are met ; but the mistake 
 is commonly made that this amount is ever realized in sys- 
 tems of gravity ventilation where the air is moved by heat- 
 ing aspirating chimneys. It is not denied that this quantity 
 of air per pupil can be moved by the gravity method ; only 
 that it is not done in practice. 
 
 The most careful estimates place the amount of fuel 
 necessary for this purpose as about one-sixth in excess of 
 that required to supply the heating. So that to ventilate a 
 building properly by the gravity method more than doubles 
 the cost of heating without ventilation. It is plain that the 
 burning of such large quantities of coal in chimneys for the 
 purpose of ventilation is expensive and in view of a better 
 way wasteful. 
 
 Without burdening the reader with deduction formulas, 
 it may be reliably asserted that every pupil in school may 
 be supplied for a whole school year with 2000 cubic feet of 
 air per hour at a power cost of less than one centner capita. 
 As this statement will be reluctantly accepted by many who 
 are unfamiliar with such matters, a few words of explanation 
 will not be out of place. 
 
 It should be remembered that in securing this result the 
 exhaust steam is not wasted but is admitted directly into the 
 radiators and utilized for heating the building. The engine 
 simply converts enough of the steam as it passes through 
 into mechanical power to run the fans. The drop in the 
 temperature of the steam which this change causes is very 
 small, so small indeed that it might almost be neglected, and 
 it is this drop which supplies the entire expenditure for 
 ventilation. 
 
 In the complete combustion of a single pound of average 
 bituminous coal, there is liberated 13000 heat units; multi-
 
 2O SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [428 
 
 plying this by the mechanical equivalent, 872, we get 
 10036000 the number of foot pounds of actual work of 
 which one pound of coal is capable when the transformation 
 takes place without loss ; and this is precisely the case when 
 a fan is run by an engine and the exhaust steam used for 
 heating the building. 
 
 It will be interesting to note that this work, 10036000 
 foot pounds, when divided by 33000, the horse power per 
 minute, gives 304 plus as the number of minutes one pound 
 of coal will supply a horse power of work. One horse 
 power is the work necessary to ventilate an average class 
 room. We see then that one average sized school room can 
 by this means be amply ventilated for five hours with only 
 one pound of coal. At $4 per ton, this would cost one-fifth 
 of a cent ! 
 
 To move air at the same rate by burning coal in a venti- 
 lating chimney it would require for the same time an average 
 of 100 pounds of coal; thus the cost of mechanical ventila- 
 tion is only i per cent of that equally well done by gravity. 
 To ventilate an eight-room building by mechanical means 
 would require an eight horse-power engine and two three- 
 foot fans. The cost of an installment would not exceed 
 
 $350. 
 
 Twenty-one pounds per hour is the quantity of coal which 
 careful estimates place as necessary to ventilate a school 
 room containing 60 pupils. Now counting seven the 
 number of fire months, 20 the number of days to the 
 month, eight as the number of hours per day in which fire 
 will be needed, $4 the price of a ton of coal, the cost of ven- 
 tilating a building of eight rooms would be 
 7x20x8x8x21x4 = $376.32. 
 
 2OOO 
 
 Any less expense would imply that the ventilation is imper- 
 fect and short of that which would be supplied by engine- 
 driven fans. Thus, a power plant would pay for itself in 
 one year in the saving of coal alone. 
 
 But there are other compensations incident to this system
 
 429] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 21 
 
 in the installation. It should be remembered that all ducts, 
 both for fresh and for foul air, need to be only half the size 
 of those for gravity ventilation; this is because of a corre- 
 sponding difference in the velocity of the air in the two 
 systems. 
 
 Again, the indirect radiating surface is at least one-third 
 less, due to the higher steam pressure which may be carried 
 to supply the drop in temperature which takes place on 
 radiator surfaces when strong currents are passed over 
 them. 
 
 Taking, then, the great daily saving in coal consumption, 
 the trifling extra expense of first installation, and the cer- 
 tainty of the action and efficiency of the mechanical method, 
 what remains to be said ? Simply that in buildings of eight 
 rooms and upwards, mechanical ventilation should take the 
 place of gravital. Whether we consider the matter from an 
 hygienic, economic or mechanical basis, this conclusion is 
 inevitable a conclusion which has been amply verified by 
 the writer in the Kansas City manual training high school 
 during the past two years (Sept., 1897, to May, 1899), and 
 to which fuller reference is made in subsequent pages. 
 
 THE LARGE CITY WARD AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 
 
 As cities grow in population and as the price of ground 
 increases until in extreme cases it becomes necessary to mass 
 together 2000 to 3000 children under one roof, the problem 
 of meeting all hygienic and mechanical conditions becomes 
 serious and difficult. It is here that the factor of economy 
 must in the main yield to necessity, and the enormous expen- 
 diture of money is one of the inevitable means of solution. 
 
 The only standpoints from which the discussion of econ- 
 omy has any justification in these gigantic structures is in 
 the question of height and in that of architectural treatment 
 for aesthetic purposes. And even this is scarcely allowable 
 in great cities where the class of construction is practically 
 forced by the surroundings and where a certain measure of 
 beauty is demanded by the artistic spirit prevailing in met-
 
 22 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [430 
 
 ropolitan "air." Notwithstanding that the cost per school 
 room decreases with the number of stories, it requires with 
 the best management about $5,000 per room to construct a 
 building five stories in height in the city of New York. 
 This is five times as much as would be required to secure 
 conditions equally hygienic in the country, where the absence 
 of plumbing and mechanical ventilation is compensated for 
 in the unlimited playgrounds and free country air. 
 
 As to architectural effect, the writer believes that, consid- 
 ering the educational value of attractive surroundings and 
 the relatively small cost of securing them when artistic skill 
 is exercised, a due regard should be paid to the appearance 
 of our school buildings. 
 
 When the architectural treatment is undertaken in a true 
 artistic spirit a spirit which makes art conform to utility 
 instead of sacrificing it the additional expense is well 
 invested. It must, however, be confessed that there has 
 been much useless expenditure in an attempt at meaningless 
 ornamentation, resulting in a ridiculous exhibition of cheap 
 filigree and hodge podge, devoid not only of the first ele- 
 ments of beauty, but often sacrificing utility and convenience. 
 
 The two extremes of expense in building a school house 
 are found in the "factory" type, consisting simply of walls, 
 windows and roof, without ornamentation of any kind ; and 
 in the " hospital " type, which comprises not only all modern 
 improvements in sanitary plumbing, heating and ventilation, 
 but architectural effect as well. When properly done, a suf- 
 ficient architectural treatment can be given to a building 
 with a moderate additional cost. 
 
 The following from Mr. Edmon M. Wheelwright, city 
 architect, Boston, Mass., who has recently contributed to the 
 " Brickbuilder" a most valuable series of articles on "The 
 American school house," is so well said and so much to the 
 point that the writer takes pleasure in quoting it : 
 
 "In designing a school house, the architect should strive 
 to produce not an English college building, a French 
 chateau, or a ' Romanesque ' library, but a school house.
 
 43 J ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2$ 
 
 The practical requirements of the problem demand in most 
 cases symmetry of plan, and in all cases lighting of the 
 school rooms by wide and high windows. It is requisite 
 that these windows should not have transom bars, and that 
 either a flat roof or one of low pitch should be used. A 
 high, well-lighted basement is also a requisite of a school 
 house. The important rooms in the basement need ample 
 windows, and a stud of ten feet is none too high for the 
 proper installation of the heating apparatus. These require- 
 ments for the basement affect school house designing most 
 radically. 
 
 " Such being the general requirements which most influ- 
 ence the general expression of our school houses, it will be 
 found difficult to reconcile therewith features borrowed from 
 the late English Gothic and the early English renaissance. 
 
 " Aside from economy in planning, which certainly leads 
 to a balanced arrangement of rooms, the key to the external 
 expression of a school house is the size and distribution and 
 form of windows which experience has shown to be best 
 adapted for the needs of a school room. This consideration 
 of window treatment alone leads the architect who appreci- 
 ates the economic and practical requirements of the problem 
 to abandon picturesque treatments in a school house design 
 and to adopt those suggested by the brick architecture of 
 the Italian renaissance and by the Georgian work of Eng- 
 land and this country. Sufficiently varied motives for the 
 external expression of our school house plans can be found 
 in these styles. 
 
 " * * * The architect to whom the designing of a 
 school house is entrusted should accept the limitations 
 imposed by the pFactical conditions of the problem. He 
 should not seek to be * original ' or to gain the semblance of 
 a structure, however beautiful in its own time and for its 
 own needs, which does not meet the requirements of an 
 American school house." 
 
 Mr. Wheelwright concludes that " under ordinary condi- 
 tions, satisfactory architectural results may be obtained at an
 
 24 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [432 
 
 access of cost of not more than 5 per cent above that of the 
 most ' practical ' construction." 
 
 Public school buildings No. 165 (Plate X), and No. 20 
 (Plate XIII) are given as types of large city buildings, not 
 because they are considered perfect models of architecture 
 and construction for buildings of their class, but because 
 they are excellent buildings and have been erected under 
 the most trying and extreme conditions in the crowded parts 
 of America's largest city. 
 
 These buildings are heated by steam radiation and ven- 
 tilated by engine-driven fans located in the basement. 
 
 A mechanical error has been conformed to in having sepa- 
 rate engines for the different fans instead of deriving all the 
 power from a single unit and distributing it to the fans by 
 electric motors. A 50 h. p. engine with direct connected 
 dynamo of 40 k. w. capacity and two 15 h. p. motors would 
 be more efficient, more easily kept in repair, and more up to 
 date than the old method of furnishing an engine to each 
 fan. 
 
 It would also have been better to have divided the 
 mechanical movement of the air between the plenum and the 
 exhaust methods. The vacuum-forming tendency given by 
 an exhaust fan is always effective and greatly assists the 
 incoming air making its way against friction. And in cases 
 when the room becomes too warm and the fresh air is tem- 
 porarily closed off, the exhaust fan acts like a fireplace and 
 can always be depended upon. The power required in the 
 two methods is about the same. 
 
 In these New York schools, the air supply is estimated to 
 be 1800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil. 
 
 In planning very large buildings, two distinct types are 
 employed, known respectively as the open court type and 
 the letter H type. As to which it is better to choose, 
 depends on the size, shape, and location of the building lot. 
 
 The New York school, No. 165, is a good example of H 
 type, which is for the majority of cases the better for 
 crowded localities. In these districts, it is necessary to build
 
 433] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 25 
 
 close up to the party line ; this plan as seen in the present 
 building makes it possible to build a solid blank wall on the 
 party line with the windows all facing the open court which 
 may be beautified, and the view is unobstructed by unsightly 
 shops, smoky chimneys, and tenement houses. 
 
 The external treatment of building No. 165 shows an 
 attempt to conform to the Gothic type of architecture. 
 While utility has not, in this instance, been wholly sacrificed, 
 and making due allowance for differences in taste, the writer 
 is of the opinion that the high pitched roof, the pinnacles, 
 and the pointed dormers are not the most appropriate form 
 of decoration. The architect, Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, justifies 
 the space occupied by the roof by using it for a gymnasium 
 and for vent flues. 
 
 The building laws of New York require such a great 
 thickness of wall in high buildings that much valuable space 
 is gained in buildings over four stories in height by using 
 the steel skeleton type used in the large office buildings ; 
 this makes it possible to reduce the thickness of the first 
 story walls from 36 inches to 16 inches. 
 
 The introduction of manual training into the schools of 
 the United States has been met in school house building by 
 placing it in different parts of the house, from the basement 
 to the attic. In building No. 165, the whole fifth floor is 
 given over to manual and physical training and a gymnasium. 
 
 As manual training in grammar grades is still in a transi- 
 tory and unsettled state, the provisions for it in school house 
 building are as various and imperfect as is the knowledge 
 concerning its place, amount, and nature in the course of 
 study. In high schools, certain requirements and methods 
 have become established making more clearly definite the 
 functions of the buildings, as is pointed out further on. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion as to the necessity of an 
 auditorium in a grammar school. In New York city, a 
 demand for an audience room and a regard for economy are 
 two conflicting ideas which seem to have met and com- 
 promised as shown in building No. 165 in sliding door par-
 
 26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [434 
 
 titions between all the rooms on the second floor of the 
 central pavilion. An auditorium or general assembly hall 
 in a primary and grammar school is of doubtful utility so far 
 as the management of the school is concerned. 
 
 The lighting of building No. 165 is generally to be com- 
 mended. All the rooms except those in the ends of the 
 outside pavilions are lighted on one side only, by three very 
 wide mullioned windows occupying nearly the whole inside 
 wall space. It may be said of the end windows that they 
 are objectionable if the rooms are to be used for ordinary 
 class purposes. By using these ends for wardrobes, the 
 windows would not interfere with the requirements of 
 hygienic lighting and might still be left to furnish a justifi- 
 cation for the pretty Gothic window at the top. 
 
 A difference of opinion prevails among the leading archi- 
 tects of this country as to the form and position of win- 
 dows. Mr. Wheelwright objects to the use of mullions and 
 transom bars, while Mr. Snyder in his best New York build- 
 ings makes free use of both. The objection to mullions is 
 based on the uneven distribution of light which is incident 
 to unequal spacing. This, however, depends on the con- 
 ditions in each instance. There appears to be no objection 
 to mullions as used in the central pavilion of building No. 
 165 where the rooms are lighted on one of the shorter sides 
 and the windows, whose frames are 1 7 ft. in width and 1 1 ft. 
 in height, occupy nearly the whole of the available wall 
 space ; but in rooms lighted as they should be on one of the 
 longer sides better results can be attained by plain windows 
 evenly spaced than by any use of mullions. The use of 
 them, then, in school house building should be limited to 
 those exceptional cases which require practically the conver- 
 sion of one side of a room into a single, unbroken source 
 of light. 
 
 The use of transom bars, however, cannot be defended, 
 for they are obstructions to light and are certainly not justi- 
 fied if their only purpose is conformity to ancient ideals 
 which had purposes of their own quite different from those
 
 435] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 27 
 
 demanded in a school house. The highest art will give a 
 pleasing expression to the highest utility. 
 
 In determining the ideal length for a school room, the two 
 main considerations are the distance which an ordinary con- 
 versational tone of voice will carry, and the distance at 
 which ordinary blackboard writing can be seen. This dis- 
 tance may be taken, with liberal variations to meet particu- 
 lar cases, to be about 32 feet. 
 
 The width will depend on the height of the windows. If 
 the German standard of requiring the width to be not 
 greater than twice the clear height be accepted, then the 
 width of the rooms in building No. 165 might be 28 ft. 6 in., 
 as the height is 14 ft. 4 in. A room 28x32 ft. will comfort- 
 ably seat singly 56 pupils. This is as many as any teacher 
 should be called upon to manage in one room. 
 
 In determining the size of classes, there is somewhere a 
 proper balance between the economic and the pedagogical 
 phases of the question. As the child is the all-important 
 factor, it would seem that the maximum number of pupils 
 which can be admitted to one room without sacrificing their 
 health or individuality should be first determined and then 
 make the school house conform to the requirements. As 
 the limits of safety are not confined within fixed, hard and 
 fast lines, the writer believes that the limits of hygienic 
 teaching can be found in a room varying between 22 to 28 
 feet in width and 30 to 36 feet in length, accommodating 
 respectively 40 to 60 pupils according to conditions. 
 
 The mistake in school house building has been in making 
 rooms too large instead of too small as is sometimes charged. 
 The answer of Superintendent Philbrick of Boston, Mass., 
 to this charge when made some years ago against the size of 
 the rooms in the English high school of Boston which was 
 planned by him is worth repeating : " It has been said that 
 the rooms are not large enough. One might as well say 
 that a bushel measure is not as large as it should be. The 
 rooms are as large as they need be for the objects in view 
 in planning them."
 
 28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [436 
 
 In planning a school house the number, size and position 
 of the rooms should first be determined and the architecture 
 adapted to the requirements can then be selected. But the 
 architect too often first decides upon the outside appearance 
 and then makes the interior arrangements to fill the spaces ; 
 this frequently results in rooms of various shape and size 
 not well adapted to the purposes for which they were 
 intended. 
 
 One of the most important matters in large primary and 
 grammar schools is the number and location of the ward- 
 robes. The provision for these in building No. 165 are not 
 satisfactory. For purposes of order and convenience in 
 handling large numbers of small children there should be 
 one of these cloak rooms provided for each school room. 
 In the building under consideration there seems to be no 
 provision for these rooms in the central pavilion, and those 
 in the outside pavilion are not lighted. This defect could 
 have been corrected by placing windows in the blank wall 
 on the property line. Such windows, notwithstanding their 
 proximity to neighboring walls, would, if ground glass were 
 used, serve a purpose in lighting these cloak rooms without 
 opening a view to objectionable neighborhoods. 
 
 A provision for an amply lighted cloak room for each 
 school room is shown in fig. i, Plate XII, which the writer 
 suggests as an H plan for a large primary and grammar 
 school house. In this plan it is assumed that the building 
 occupies one-half a block having streets on three sides and 
 an alley on the other. In many available sites this condi- 
 tion can be secured ; but in cases like that of the New York 
 building the position of the corridors and school rooms in 
 the outside pavilions could be reversed without organic 
 change in the design. In this plan the following features 
 are secured : i. Ample shelter for 2000 to 4000 pupils, 
 according to the number of stories ; 2. Rooms 24x32 
 ft., the proper proportion ; 3. Ventilation by combination 
 of plenum and vacuum movements as shown by the num- 
 ber and position of flues ; 4. Four large windows in one
 
 437] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2Q 
 
 side provide ample light for the school rooms if the clear 
 height is not less than 13 feet; 5. A well-lighted cloak 
 room opening into each room and into the corridor, which 
 serves ideal convenience in dismissing the pupils. 
 
 This plan does not preclude the use of the space here 
 shown from being occupied by school rooms for other pur- 
 poses which local conditions might require, such as offices, 
 reception rooms, water closets, play rooms, etc. The plan 
 is intended to suggest a way to secure the above-named 
 features for every school room, and the arrangement would 
 conserve equally well the lighting, warming and ventilating 
 requirements for whatever use the space might be employed. 
 
 The position of the cloak rooms at the ends of the out- 
 side pavilions while unconventional, serves to preserve the 
 intent as to side lighting, while it does not preclude any 
 outside window arrangement which architectural treatment 
 would necessarily require. Fig. 2 illustrates the idea when 
 applied to a smaller building. 
 
 With the limited opportunities in the densely populated 
 districts of our large cities for exercise in the open air, the 
 question of play grounds becomes important. In building 
 No. 165, the open courts between the outside pavilions not 
 being sufficient, the whole first floor is given over to this 
 purpose. This is unnecessarily expensive. The prejudice 
 in New York city against any use of the basement except 
 for the heating and ventilating apparatus should give way 
 before the light of modern methods for the sanitary regula- 
 tions of basements. A properly constructed basement with 
 half-height top windows and properly supplied with fresh, 
 warm air is as wholesome as any room in the building. 
 
 It is especially important in providing for a system of 
 ventilation to carry the air from an elevated and pure source 
 instead of taking it from back alleys and beneath porches 
 and door steps as is too frequently the case. 
 
 The use of the roof for play grounds is a good solution 
 of the problem. Public school No. 20, New York city, 
 Plate XIII, is a good example of this use of the roof. The
 
 3<D SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [438 
 
 air at this height is generally pure and the sunlight is unob- 
 structed. By thus utilizing the roof and dispensing with 
 the waste space of a high attic under it, this scheme is advis- 
 able from an economic as well as from an hygienic standpoint. 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING 
 
 A study of the high school buildings of this country 
 reveals perhaps more than do buildings of any other class 
 the progress not only in school architecture but in pedagogi- 
 cal methods as well. From the first conception of secon- 
 dary education which consisted of adding four more to the 
 eight primary and grammar grades, the high schools have 
 developed a system of specialized work which is expressed 
 in a building planned and equipped to meet the many and 
 diverse requirements. 
 
 The first high school building which marked distinctively 
 an epoch in school house architecture in this country was 
 the Latin and English high school of Boston, Mass., which 
 was begun in 1877. This house was planned by Mr. Jno. 
 D. Philbrick, then city superintendent of the Boston schools, 
 and Mr. Clough, the city architect. The plan was inspired 
 chiefly by Mr. Philbrick after a study of the celebrated 
 building in Vienna the Academische Gymnasium which 
 is probably the best school building in the world. 
 
 The building is a pure type of the court plan and covers 
 a block of ground 423 feet in length by 220 feet in width. 
 The rooms and corridors are arranged in parallelogram form 
 around a central court which admits light and provides a 
 playground. The lighting for the school rooms is taken 
 principally from the street sides. 
 
 This building marks several interesting transitions in 
 methods and ideals of education, one of which is shown in 
 the large military drill rooms, 30x62 ft., a reflection of the 
 militant type of European education. Another is the 
 amphitheatre style of "lecture" room for the teaching of 
 science instead of the working laboratory method now in 
 vogue in the best schools. True, this building contains a
 
 439] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 31 
 
 working laboratory, but the dominant feature in the science 
 work of that time is seen in the care and expense lavished 
 on the lecture rooms. The building reveals a curious inter- 
 mingling of the ordinary graded high school, a military 
 academy, and a college of the conventional type. 
 
 But it is not for the purpose of calling attention to its 
 faults that this building is here referred to ; in many impor- 
 tant particulars it may stand as a model of the best that 
 has yet been realized. In the mattter of size, form, loca- 
 tion, and lighting of its 48 school rooms it undoubtedly 
 stands at the head of American school houses. Other 
 houses with more modern characteristics have in these 
 important features not preserved the perfect model which 
 this building furnished. These class rooms are of the ideal 
 size and shape, 24x32x14 ft., and lighted by four windows, 
 9 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. 6 in., placed on one of longer sides six 
 inches from the ceiling and four feet from the floor. They 
 will accommodate from 35 to 40 high school pupils seated at 
 single desks. 
 
 Another excellent feature of this building is the arrange- 
 ment of water closets, which occupy positions in wings from 
 the stairways, there being two stories of them for each floor, 
 one of the stories being entered at the half-way landings 
 between the floors. 
 
 The building is not sufficiently ventilated, there being 
 allowed but 800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil, instead 
 of 2000 cubic feet which is now considered necessary. There 
 also seems to be little or no provision made for the care of 
 the pupils' wraps, except some low box-like closets under the 
 windows, which proved entirely unsatisfactory. 
 
 The building was intended to be fire-proof, the corridors 
 being constructed with iron beams and brick arches plastered 
 upon the bricks ; the floors are of black marble ; and the 
 staircases built of iron. 
 
 The main idea which dominated the minds of the design- 
 ers of this building should not be lost sight of : that the 
 real width of any organic part of the house should be the
 
 32 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [440 
 
 width of one school room plus the width of the parallel cor- 
 ridor. Whether the construction be on the court or the H 
 plan, this principle is sound, and should be rigidly adhered 
 to in planning a very large school house. 
 
 One of the essential features of a high-school house as it 
 differentiates from one built for grammar school purposes is 
 the assembly hall, which in America is simpy a large school 
 room intended for general purposes of classification, and 
 the assembling of the school as a whole for general instruc- 
 tion, announcements, opening exercises, musical entertain- 
 ments, lectures, etc. It is not an imitation of the German 
 Aula, which is largely for general public purposes, and is 
 usually richly ornamented with costly architectural treat- 
 ment. The American high school assembly hall is strictly 
 for utilitarian purposes, and not " to represent the dignity of 
 the state." In the Boston school there are two assembly 
 rooms, both on the third floor in the central pavilion, each 
 capable of seating 800 persons. The purposes of the school 
 would have been better served had these halls been united 
 into a single room capable of seating the whole school. But 
 here again the building represents another transition in high 
 school development, that of separating the " classical " and 
 mathematical from the English and science branches ; 
 indeed, the block is divided into halves, one for the former 
 and the other for the latter branches. These two assembly 
 rooms were probably intended for the two schools. 
 
 The Cambridge English high school (Plates XIV and XV) 
 may be taken to illustrate the next important step in the 
 development of secondary education in this country. The 
 recognition of natural science to a place in the curriculum 
 came slowly, and the pursuit of it by the working laboratory 
 method came still more slowly. In this building, ample pro- 
 visions have been made for physical and chemical labora- 
 tories in two of the large corner rooms on the second and 
 third floors. 
 
 These laboratories are well equipped with demonstration 
 tables, chairs with writing-arm attachments, working desks
 
 44 J ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 33 
 
 plumbed for water and gas, shelves for reagents, and gas 
 hoods in the chemical laboratory for the removal of noxious 
 gases. 
 
 The building represents what may be called the physical 
 science stage in high school development where physics and 
 chemistry have secured their rights, but where the biological 
 sciences botany, zoology, and physiology are still in the 
 show cabinet stage, no provision being made for working 
 laboratories for them. 
 
 The building is constructed on the H plan with the end 
 pavilions short. The corner rooms are well adapted for the 
 laboratories and drawing rooms, which need an abundance 
 of light and in which light from more than one side is not 
 an objection. 
 
 Six of the corner rooms are used for class rooms a use 
 which does not show an ideal adaptation, as they are 4ox 
 28 ft., which is too large for the purposes of instruction ; it 
 is presumed, however, that they are used to accommodate 
 pupils who are studying as well as those who are reciting. 
 
 A more recent and a better method of providing for the 
 study periods of the pupils is the seating of them in rooms 
 or " study halls " planned for that purpose. In modern high 
 schools, the pupils change places every period as is the cus- 
 tom in colleges. These corner class rooms in the Cambridge 
 building are too large for class rooms and smaller than they 
 should be for study rooms as a teacher can easily manage 
 from 100 to 150 pupils in the study hall ; they serve to rep- 
 resent that phase in school house building before the func- 
 tion of a room for recitation and for study purposes became 
 differentiated. 
 
 The large assembly hall and the drawing room on the 
 third floor are well adapted to their uses, and the large room 
 in the center pavilion on the second floor called the " senior 
 class room " would make an ideal freehand drawing and art 
 room. 
 
 The number and position of the wardrobes ("coat 
 rooms ") is ideal from the grammar school standpoint ; in
 
 34 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [442 
 
 high schools, however, of more recent construction, these 
 rooms have been left out, and the wraps of the pupils dis- 
 posed of in individual lockers placed in large rooms in the 
 basement set apart for that purpose. This differentiation 
 from the grammar school plan, besides being economical, 
 presupposes that the age of high school pupils puts them 
 beyond the necessity of individual espionage while being 
 dismissed. 
 
 But the most distinguishing characteristic of the Cam- 
 bridge building is its external appearance, it being the first 
 building in which a rational and artistic treatment and utility 
 were happily combined. When visiting this building in 1 896, 
 while making an extended tour of school house inspection, 
 the writer was impressed with the simple, strong, artistic 
 elegance of its architecture. It is well proportioned, its 
 parts well unified without any attempt to obscure the uses 
 for which it was intended ; and it is free from fussy, mean- 
 ingless ornamentation. It stands for what it is a beauti- 
 ful school house. By referring to Plate XIX it will readily 
 be observed that these characteristics are reflected by the 
 manual training high school, Kansas City, Mo., started in 
 1897. 
 
 The Cambridge building was erected without special 
 regard for economy ; it is fire proof, and built of expensive 
 material ; the basement is granite, the first story Amherst 
 stone, and the second and third of terra-cotta brick ; its cost, 
 exclusive of ground, was $230000. 
 
 While this building stands as an architectural unit from a 
 high school standpoint, the course of study pursued in it is 
 unified with the manual training school, which is situated 
 on the opposite side of the beautiful grounds donated by 
 Mr. Frederic H. Ringe. 
 
 The new high school building at Springfield, Mass., Plates 
 XVI, XVII and XVIII, is given as representing the last 
 step in high school development preceding that of the 
 manual training high school. It exemplifies not only what 
 can be done when economy is not a restraining factor, but
 
 443] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 35 
 
 also illustrates the prestige at which secondary education 
 has arrived in this country. From architects who have 
 $300000 at their command, exceptional results are naturally 
 expected. In the Springfield building, which cost some- 
 what more than this amount, while not above criticism, our 
 expectations for excellence have in the main been met. 
 
 The external architectural design is based on the Italian 
 renaissance, and while it lacks the harmony of proportion 
 given to the Cambridge building, it is strong, dignified and 
 chaste. The foundation walls above grade are of pink 
 granite; the walls of the other stories of buff brick, and 
 the trimmings are of Bedford limestone. Every sixth 
 course of brick of the first story is indented ("six cut 
 work") which adds variety and strength to the general 
 effect. It is constructed on the central court plan, the rooms 
 occupying three of its sicies, r.nd a corridor completing the 
 rectangle. It is 203 feet by 173 feet, and built on a lot 400 
 feet by 270 feet. 
 
 The interior is rich with all the ornamental detail which 
 polished marble, plate glass, bronze trimmings and other 
 expensive materials can give. Mechanically it is a modern, 
 expensive and magnificent structure. 
 
 The heating is by indirect radiation supplemented by 
 direct radiation in exposed parts. The furnace and boiler 
 are installed in a separate house outside the main building. 
 This feature is much to be commended as it insures to all 
 the school rooms immunity from coal dust and escaping 
 smoke which are incident to a boiler house even with the 
 most careful firing. This plant has four horizontal tubular 
 boilers each 125 h. p. capacity. The indirect coils are 
 located in heating chambers near the four outside corners of 
 the building. The fresh air is supplied to these heaters 
 through main conduits extending around the parallelogram 
 directly under the corridor of the first floor. These con- 
 duits are very large, about 80 square feet cross sectional 
 area insuring an abundance of fresh air. The air enters 
 this conduit through an elevated shaft a highly commend- 
 able sanitary feature by which a pure source is insured.
 
 36 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [444 
 
 The plenum movement is accomplished by three large 
 fans located at convenient distributing points. The four 
 exhaust fans, four feet in diameter, are located near the top 
 of the four vent shafts. Separate fans are used to ventilate 
 the laboratories. 
 
 The heat is regulated by thermostats, another luxury of 
 modern engineering. This is in reality more than a luxury 
 in a school house ; it is a necessity, for experience has proved 
 that the regulation of the heat in school rooms cannot safely 
 be entrusted to the teachers, whose minds are not only pre- 
 occupied but whose judgment on such matters is not always 
 to be relied upon. 
 
 The lighting of this building, while in the main abund- 
 ant, is not altogether fortunate in its distribution. The 
 assembly hall in the center of the court is lighted from 
 above and by light courts at the sides. The school rooms 
 on the sides of the building are large 27 feet by 37 feet 
 well proportioned and well lighted by five windows on 
 one of the longer sides ; but the eight corner class rooms on 
 the first and second floors have the objection common to 
 such rooms used for this purpose light in the face of the 
 teacher. This defect is not necessarily incident to the court 
 plan of construction, and has been happily avoided in the 
 Newark, N. J., high school, Howard & Cauldwell, archi- 
 tects. Although the advantage of light on two or more 
 sides for laboratories is not recognized in this school. 
 
 It is the character and arrangement of the third floor of 
 the Springfield building which especially commends it as a 
 type of modern high school building. Here the recent 
 demands of the physical and biological sciences are fully 
 met, and the relative importance of laboratory and lecture 
 work properly apportioned. The whole provision on this 
 floor comprises seven working laboratories, three drawing 
 rooms and one lecture room. The latter occupies a central 
 position between the chemical and geological laboratories 
 on the one hand and two physical laboratories on the other. 
 The biological laboratories three in number occupy
 
 445] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 37 
 
 positions on the side of the building adjacent to the physical 
 laboratories ; and the drawing rooms are located on the 
 remaining side. The drawing room on the corner, with light 
 on two sides, is adapted to mechanical drawing, while the 
 long room, lighted on one side by seven windows, is admi- 
 rably adapted to freehand, perspective and art work. 
 
 A conservatory for plants and flowers is situated on the 
 third floor on the inside of the corridor extending into the 
 court. Above this is an astronomical observatory with 
 revolving copper dome. 
 
 But it is in the location and height of this observatory 
 that the enthusiasm of science has somewhat strained archi- 
 tectural possibilities. While the dome is a very good one 
 and looks well when viewed at some distance, it is practically 
 useless for astronomical purposes except for amateur work 
 of the crudest kind. Although " it rests upon a steel column 
 directly connected with one of the foundation walls," vibra- 
 tions are certain to occur on account of its height and its 
 connection with the roof of the building. The writer speaks 
 from experience with a telescope similarly located in a dome 
 above the third floor of the Kansas City central high school. 
 
 In the disposition of the pupils' wraps, the grammar school 
 characteristic has been retained. Wardrobes are located in 
 a quarter without light between the corridors and the school 
 rooms, instead of having individual lockers in large rooms 
 in the basement, as now found in many high-school houses 
 of recent construction. 
 
 An excellent use has, however, been made of the central 
 space in the basement of the Springfield building. A large 
 lunch room is here provided with double counters equipped 
 for furnishing light refreshments. 
 
 The question of lunches is one of the important and 
 unsolved hygienic problems in high school education. This 
 problem arises from the relatively short school day in sec- 
 ondary schools ; it is too long for one session and too short 
 for two. When put into one, the dinner hour is too late ; 
 when divided into two, the short cold lunch hastily eaten is
 
 38 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [446 
 
 equally objectionable and detrimental to the health of the 
 pupils. A large, well-appointed cafe in the building, where 
 it can be secured and managed economically for the pupils 
 is the best solution of the problem. This gives two short 
 sessions, with a light warm lunch given at the proper time. 
 
 THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 It has been noticed that the high or secondary school in 
 America started simply as additional grades to the eighth 
 grammar grade ; and that these grades confined the atten- 
 tion of the pupils to books only, differing from the work of 
 the lower grades only in the subject-matter found in them. 
 We have seen the school house for this work grow from the 
 ordinary school room type to that just described. 
 
 No less interesting is the growth of the manual training 
 high-school house which is as in the former case a material 
 expression of educational progress in this country. 
 
 With the growth of the high school and the multiplying 
 of branches of study, came a tendency too scholastic and 
 bookish for practical purposes, when science came in as a 
 balance. But laboratory science, excellent as it serves its 
 purpose, is inadequate. The applications of science to the 
 world of industry and art is not made a part of the pupil's 
 growth until he can make this application a part of his 
 training. 
 
 The first response to this demand for the practical ele- 
 ment was, as in the case of the high school, crude. It was 
 merely a better sort of apprenticeship a trade school. 
 Later, a little academic work was added just thrown in for 
 " a little book learning." Still later the use of tools was 
 generalized, the academic requirements enlarged by the 
 introduction of branches of high school grade. The curric- 
 ulum was adapted to pupils of high school age. The time 
 was divided between tool work, drawing, and book studies, 
 and the " manual training high school " became a reality. 
 
 It would be interesting to trace the growth and develop- 
 ment of these schools by giving plates from the first one
 
 447] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 39 
 
 which was built in St. Louis twenty years ago under the 
 direction of Calvin M. Woodward, and still a flourishing 
 school, to the latest and most improved ; but space forbids. 
 The first of these schools were supposed to be for those 
 who expected to be mechanics and were for boys only. It 
 was not till the establishment of the St. Louis school that 
 manual training was considered on an educational basis. 
 
 With the recognition of the educational claims of manual 
 training, apart from its practical utility, came the apportion- 
 ment of the academic studies and tool work in making out 
 the curriculum. In doing this, varying knowledge and con- 
 flicting ideas have been crystalized and recorded in the 
 school houses. In some cases, one or two shops were added 
 to the ordinary high school where the boys could work 
 " after school ; " in others built for manual training schools, 
 the shops predominated, and the mere mechanic fixed the 
 character of the school with too few of the academic 
 characteristics. 
 
 Later came the extension of the manual high school to 
 girls, and the modification of the training answering to their 
 needs along the lines of the feminine industries ; and this 
 correlated with the full academic, art and science provisions 
 of the ordinary high school. 
 
 Thus have the two types of school the purely academic 
 and the purely mechanical grown, developed, and con- 
 verged into one correlated unit forming the high school, par 
 excellence. The term " manual training," which at first had 
 its uses in distinguishing two distinct types has become some- 
 what misleading in its application tothe school of to-day ; 
 but it must still be retained for the want of a better means 
 of designating it from those high schools which have not yet 
 incorporated manual training into the curriculum. 
 
 The Kansas City manual training high school, Plate XIX, 
 is here given as a type of its class, not because it is in all 
 respects superior to others or because it is free from defects, 
 but rather because it was planned after others had been care- 
 fully studied.
 
 4<D SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [448 
 
 The public manual training high school building of to-day 
 should embody in its construction rooms specialized for a 
 four years' course in art, science, academic work, and man- 
 ual training for boys and girls ; and owing to the expense of 
 maintaining it above that of the ordinary high school, its 
 construction should be undertaken with the strictest economy 
 consistent with hygienic and architectural requirements. 
 
 The writer believes that more of these requisites have 
 been realized in this than in any other school house yet 
 built. When finished (the east pavilion completing the 
 design as shown is now, December, 1899, nearly completed), 
 it will be 190 feet in length and 140 feet greatest width ; it 
 is built on a lot 250 feet long by 165 feet wide, and has a 
 frontage on three streets. 
 
 The central and right hand (as shown by the cut) pavil- 
 ions were built in 1897 at a cost of $100000 ; this includes 
 heating, ventilating, plumbing, laboratory, equipment, fur- 
 nishings, and manual training equipment for first two years 
 of the course, but not the ground. The wing now being 
 built will, with its equipment, cost $50000 more, making a 
 total of $150000 for the entire plant. The basement walls 
 are of limestone blocks rough hewn and " pitch faced." 
 The upper stories are of Kansas City buff brick, the first 
 story being " six cut " work. The roof is of brown slate. 
 The architectural effect is pleasing ; it is plain, straight- 
 forward, and free from meritricious ornamentation. Flam- 
 boyant trimmings are absent. Something of the harmonious 
 effects which have been noted in the Cambridge high school 
 have been given to this with less expensive materials. The 
 arches which span the piers between the windows of the sec- 
 ond and third stories of the central pavilion, while suggested 
 by the Romanesque style of architecture, do not sacrifice 
 the lighting of the rooms, for the mullioned windows as 
 here employed give a larger opening than could be other- 
 wise secured. But the transom bars used in these windows 
 should have been omitted, for they obstruct light and do not 
 improve the appearance.
 
 449] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 41 
 
 The heating is accomplished by indirect, supplemented by 
 direct, steam radiation ; the ventilation by two Hope pro- 
 pellers, 6 ft. in diameter, one in the fresh air room serving 
 as a plenum, the other in the foul air room as exhaust. 
 
 The chief merit of this lies in the central location of the 
 plenum containing the indirect steam coils. The arrange- 
 ment is shown in the basement plan ; the plenum is the unlet- 
 tered room in the center. A change was made in the plan 
 which makes the plenum room slightly smaller than repre- 
 sented. This room with its heated steam coils and fresh air 
 supply are to the buildings what lungs are to an animal, and 
 its location in the center insures a balanced circulation. The 
 movement of the air is as follows : The plenum fan located 
 in the fresh air room receives the supply through vertical 
 shafts on either side of the front entrance. The openings 
 into these shafts are the large louvre windows shown in the 
 perspective, Plate XIX. These windows are on the north 
 side of the building far removed from any source of smoke 
 and high enough from the ground to insure purity. The 
 course of the air after it is forced through the plenum room 
 may be followed by referring to the cross section of the 
 building, Plate XXII. The section is made through the 
 fresh air, plenum, and foul air rooms and shows the position 
 of both fans. The air rises through the fresh air flues and 
 is delivered into the rooms about 8 ft. from the floor. It is 
 drawn out by the exhaust fan located in the foal air room 
 through the foul air flues which lead from the wall registers 
 near the floor to a sub-basement shown in fig. i. This sub- 
 basement is three feet high and extends the entire length of 
 the building the full width of the bicycle rooms ; four wings 
 extend from this subway so as to communicate with the four 
 sections of flues between the rooms. The exhaust fan 
 draws the air from this subway, thus connecting the lower 
 registers of every room with low pressure. 
 
 It would require a longitudinal section of the building 
 through the bicycle rooms to illustrate the movement of the 
 air toward the outside pavilions : but this is easily described.
 
 42 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [450 
 
 A "false" ceiling three feet below the floor over the bicycle 
 rooms provides an open free passage for the air as it is 
 forced from the plenum room ; this is virtually an exten- 
 sion of the plenum room to the openings to every fresh air 
 flue in the house without the use of distributing pipes. 
 
 By this means, all the friction which is incident to the 
 usual method of pipe distribution is eliminated. This being 
 a departure in pneumatic engineering, it deserves some 
 attention ; it was a concession on the part of the architect 
 and the result of a compromise with the writer who wanted 
 to extend this plenum chamber in the same manner beneath 
 the floors instead of near the ceiling by the conventional 
 method. 
 
 Let it here be noted that the economy in fuel when warm 
 air is delivered through the floors and so distributed that it 
 may be let out at the ceiling is enormous. It exceeds the 
 usual way by a ratio almost equal to that of the mechanical 
 system of ventilating over that of the gravital noted on a 
 preceding page. 
 
 The economy in warming when the air is properly dis- 
 tributed through the floors and let out at the ceiling, as 
 compared with the conventional way, has been carefully 
 tested by the writer by the use of an experimental model. 
 While these experiments are somewhat too technical to suit 
 the purposes of this article, a study of the plot, Plate XXIII, 
 will not be without interest. 
 
 The figures at the left show the difference in inside and 
 outside temperatures ; those at the top, amperes of electric 
 current used in heating iron coils as the source of heat ; 
 those at the bottom, relative heat units. It will be noticed 
 that these are the squares of the amperes above and thus 
 show the well-known thermal relation between the current 
 and its thermal equivalent. It will be understood that these 
 numbers are not real thermal units, but serve to show the 
 relative amount of heat at different readings of the ammeter. 
 
 The line AO shows the results when the air was distrib- 
 uted under the floor with ventilation above ; BO, when the
 
 45 J ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 
 
 43 
 
 air was delivered at the side with ventilation below ; CO, 
 when the air was delivered near the top and let out at the 
 top. Take an example : Suppose the temperature above 
 that outside of the room to be 50 degrees, this temperature 
 line crosses the resultant line at X, showing that it requires 
 2 1-2 amperes of current to maintain this temperature when 
 heat is applied below. With the same temperature when 
 the heat is applied at the side the line crosses at B, showing 
 10 amperes. Whence it is plain that the relative heat 
 required in the two cases is shown by the ratio of 6 1-2 to 
 100. In plain words, it would require only 6 1-2 per cent 
 of the cost by present methods to heat a building if the air 
 were properly distributed, delivered through the floors, and 
 let out at the top. 
 
 The writer fully realizes that the foregoing brief state- 
 ments will be somewhat unsatisfactory to those who are 
 unfamiliar with the details of the tests, 1 but he is confident 
 that this method of warming and ventilating has reached 
 the stage of successful experiment, and will as surely dis- 
 place the old way as that the electric motor displaced the 
 horse in street car locomotion. 
 
 Returning to the extended plenum chamber under the 
 corridor floors, it may be said that it works perfectly, and so 
 much of the " theory " has passed into history. 
 
 During the first two years of its use this system, with the 
 exception of the register in one room, has required no regu- 
 lation of the registers, notwithstanding the absence of ther- 
 mostats. The exceptional room is on the first floor just 
 opposite the plenum fan ; in this the delivery is excessive 
 unless the register is kept partly closed. The exception is 
 of so little importance, however, that the placing of a deflec- 
 tor in the plenum room has not been found necessary. 
 
 While the ventilation of this building has some of the 
 defects common to current practice, the writer believes that 
 
 'For full explanation and experimental details of these tests, see the writer's 
 paper in the Report of the Proceedings of the Mechanical Engineering Section, 
 American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Columbus, O., 1899.
 
 44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [452 
 
 it is the best ventilated school house in America, and, the 
 size of the building considered, the most economical. 
 
 The fans, when running at full speed, 400 revolutions, 
 move 60000 cublic feet per minute. This would supply 
 2000 pupils each with 1800 feet per hour. The average 
 daily attendance during the past year, 1898-9, was about 
 900. The fans were run 250 revolutions per minute giving 
 each pupil 2500 cubic feet of pure warm air per hour. 
 
 The lighting of this building is nearly ideal. The H 
 plan of construction provides light on three sides of all 
 rooms used for laboratories, manual training and mechanical 
 drawing ; including the lunch rooms and the engine room in 
 the basement there are 16 of these. The large windows at 
 and above the three main entrances furnish ample light for 
 the halls and corridors. The class rooms do not conform to 
 the ideal standard recommended in the preceding pages. 
 These rooms, while of ideal shape and size, are lighted on 
 the shorter instead of the longer side. But considering the 
 use of the entire available wall space which has been 
 employed for the mullioned windows lighting these rooms, 
 the height of the rooms being 14 feet, and the use which is 
 made of the rooms, this departure from standard require- 
 ments is not serious. It should be remembered that in high 
 school academic work there is comparatively little pen-writ- 
 ing done, the greater use of the eyes being confined to 
 blackboard work. The light in these rooms is ample for all 
 purposes for which they are ever used. 
 
 The assembly hall is as light as day itself, as may readily 
 be inferred by glancing at the third floor plan. With ceil- 
 ing 24 feet high, and light from 18 large mullioned windows 
 8 feet by 1 6 feet with arched windows above these, entering 
 from opposite sides, more light is provided than is called for 
 by any standard. This assembly hall is 120 feet by 84 feet 
 and has a seating capacity of 1600 persons; it serves for 
 lectures, concerts, study hall, and commencement exercises. 
 It is equipped for stereopticon projection work ; and although 
 there is a window area of 2800 square feet, the room is com-
 
 453] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 
 
 45 
 
 pletely darkened in 50 seconds by an automatic electrical 
 device which controls the raising and lowering of the dark- 
 ening shades and the screen back of the platform. 
 
 It may be noted here that provision for darkening rooms 
 for scientific purposes and for illustrated lectures is another 
 phase of modern school architecture, and not until recently 
 have the mechanical difficulties incident thereto been entirely 
 overcome. The mechanism in the Kansas City school con- 
 sists of a i h. p. Westinghouse motor with worm gear, mag- 
 netic clutch, and drum attachment which moves a steel cable 
 extending around the room under the windows and beneath 
 the floors. 
 
 The physical and biological laboratories provide for teach- 
 ing physics, chemistry, botany, and zoology, and all have 
 separate teacher's laboratory for research work. The work- 
 ing tables in the physical laboratory are each separately 
 wired for the individual use of the current by the pupils. 
 The brick pier (shown in the plan of the girls' lunch room) 
 terminates in the physics demonstration table furnishing a 
 vibrationless support for galvanometer experiments. 
 
 The chemical laboratory is furnished with students' work- 
 ing desks with solid slate slab tops. Six drawers to each 
 desk provide a locker for each pupil in which to keep appa- 
 ratus for which he is alone responsible. Three large gas 
 hoods located against the walls and in communication with 
 the exhaust fan give perfect ventilation and provide a place 
 to generate noxious gases. Another point of special con- 
 venience in these laboratories is the sliding door 16 feet 
 wide which throws them together with the adjoining large 
 class rooms. By this arrangement, the teacher may oversee 
 a laboratory division while conducting a recitation. 
 
 The tables in the biological laboratories are topped with 
 plate glass which has the advantage of smooth, easily-cleaned 
 surface for dissections. Wall paper of a neutral tint placed 
 under the glass relieves the eyes of the pupils. The main 
 corridors on the first and second floors are 19 feet wide and 
 serve the double purpose of corridors and exhibition halls
 
 '46 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [454 
 
 where at the closing week an exhibit of the yearly work is 
 arranged on long tables. 
 
 The large "geology and natural history room." on the sec- 
 ond floor will hereafter be used for a free-hand drawing and 
 art room, the north light making it ideal for this purpose. 
 
 The pupils' wraps are provided for in locker rooms in the 
 basement. 
 
 The outside pavilions are of the "mill construction" 
 which is especially to be commended for shops and labora- 
 tories. The inside walls are of pressed brick. The floors 
 are supported by large steel I beams running crosswise, car- 
 rying large, finished, wooden joists. One entire pavilion is 
 used to accommodate the manual training work ; while archi- 
 tecturally a unit with the other part of the building, this 
 pavilion is set off by an independent wall with a 4-inch 
 cushion of air between to prevent the communication of 
 vibrations to the class rooms from running machinery. An 
 additional precaution is furnished by the intervening locker 
 and wash rooms which serve the boys in preparing their 
 toilets after the shop exercise. 
 
 The entire inside finish is of selected yellow pine. The 
 building is not fireproof, except the " slow combustion " 
 which the mill construction secures to the parts just men- 
 tioned. The isolation of the building and a system of night- 
 watch signals make fireproof construction unnecessary. 
 
 The numerous class rooms supplementing the laboratories, 
 shops, drawing and art rooms provide conveniences for a 
 complete high school academic course correlated with labora- 
 tory science, manual training and drawing. 
 
 The stairs in this building conform to the standard require- 
 ments as to number and height. The double staircases at 
 either end of the main corridor and the single one at the 
 end of the central hall afford ample and free egress in case 
 of fire. The stairs are five feet in width with six-inch risers 
 and twelve-inch treads. 
 
 While the injury to the American school girl from stair 
 climbing has probably been exaggerated, it is undoubtedly
 
 455] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 47 
 
 true that girls of delicate organization have suffered much 
 from this cause. It seems to be the consensus of opinion of 
 all who have considered the subject that the six-inch riser 
 and twelve-inch tread makes the easiest stairway. There 
 should not be more than fifteen stairs between landings. 
 
 CLOSETS 
 
 The location of closets should be determined by the exist- 
 ing facilities for ventilation and drainage. Where there is 
 any doubt as to the efficiency of either, closets should be 
 placed in outside buildings ; but when a school house has 
 the advantage of good sewage and mechanical ventilation, 
 the place for pupils' closets is the basement. 
 
 The condition of closets and outhouses which usually 
 prevails in districts without sewage deserves the severest 
 criticism. It is here that the results of ignorance and care- 
 lessness are fully revealed. The privy vault should never 
 be tolerated, and the large receptacle surface tanks which 
 are usually " cleaned " two or three times a year are little 
 better. The following quotation from the report of the 
 state board of health of Maine for 1892-3 is good, and 
 covers about all which need be said of outhouse closets : 
 " All that is needed is a common closet, a supply of dry 
 earth, a water-tight receptacle beneath, and a convenient 
 way of disposing of its contents at quite frequent intervals. 
 
 " The receptacle should be wholly above the surface of the 
 ground, and may consist of a metallic-lined box, a half of a 
 kerosene barrel with handles upon it for removal, or, which 
 is better, a large galvanized iron pail. 
 
 " The receptacle may be removed through a door in the 
 back of the closet or in front of the seat, or, by having the 
 seat hinged and made to button backward, it maybe removed 
 that way. The earth should be common garden or field 
 loam and finely pulverized. Road dust does well, but sand 
 is not suitable. Coal ashes are good. Whichever of these 
 is used should be dry and screened through a sieve with 
 about quarter inch meshes. The dry earth may be kept in
 
 48 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [456 
 
 a box or bin so arranged, where it can be, that it may be filled 
 from the outside of the closet, or it is quite convenient to 
 have one-half of the seat hinged, and beneath it the small 
 compartment to hold the present supply of the earth. In 
 this box or bin holding the earth there may be a small tin 
 scoop which may be employed in sprinkling in the earth, a 
 pint or more each time the closet is used. The main thing 
 is to use enough of the earth to completely absorb all liquids, 
 and this requirement, of course, precludes the throwing of 
 slops into the closet." 
 
 Figure i, Plate XXIV, shows the construction of this 
 closet. 
 
 Arrangements could easily be made with gardeners or 
 farmers for the daily removal of the contents of these 
 receptacles for fertilizing purposes. 
 
 Closets under the roof of the school building should have 
 good sewer connection through a heavy cast iron soil pipe 
 which should have a vertical extension in a pipe 3 or 4 
 inches in diameter through the roof for ventilation ; an effi- 
 cient trap situated in a convenient manhole ; an automatic 
 flushing tank, and local ventilation for each separate seat. 
 
 It is important that provision be made in school house 
 closets against the stopping up of pipes and traps, and the 
 neglect incident to hand flushing, hence automatic latrines 
 are preferable to single closets. The mechanical conditions 
 of a perfect system of closets may be studied by referring 
 to the cut, Fig. 2, which shows a longitudinal section of the 
 automatic flushing latrine in the Kansas City manual train- 
 ing high school. 
 
 It was installed by Lewis & Kitchen of Kansas City. 
 The trough is made of cast iron lined with heavy enamel 
 and is perfectly smooth and durable. The bottom is so 
 constructed that the water stands only in the parts of the 
 trough directly under the seat. The trap is the invention 
 of J. H. Brady, engineer for the Kansas City board of edu- 
 cation ; it is hinged so that it may be raised up allowing all 
 accidental lodgements a free exit ; it is located in the bottom
 
 457] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 49 
 
 % 
 
 of a dry vault and may be reached with a hook in the hands 
 of the janitor or other person. There is no possibility of 
 needing the services of a plumber should the trap become 
 clogged. 
 
 The upper drawing in the cut shows the local ventilation 
 of each separate closet. The air enters just below the 
 front part of the seat and passes out at the back into the 
 vent duct which is in direct communication with the exhaust 
 fan. The ventilation in this method of transverse move- 
 ment of the air is better than it is possible to secure in 
 systems which ventilate the trough longitudinally, for even 
 when the lids of the seats are left down the air passing 
 under them from above will supply the current and prevent 
 the requisite flow from the end of the trough remote from 
 the vent. 
 
 The boys' urinals are of the stall partition type with 
 gutter trough ventilated at the bottom. The back, ends 
 and partitions are made of hammered glass, the t-ead and 
 trough being of slate. Glass is preferable above all other 
 material for this purpose as it is easily cleaned and free from 
 any tendency to disintegration. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BUILDINGS 
 
 The essentials of a normal school house are not materially 
 different from those of a first class high school. Class 
 rooms of ordinary typical construction serve the purpose of 
 "professional " work with training classes, and with modern 
 views now taking root respecting the amount of academic, 
 science, and manual training needed in normal school 
 courses, these functions have already been considered in 
 describing the manual training high school. The " Teachers' 
 college " in New York city is an interesting building and 
 might serve equally well the purposes of a modern manual 
 training high school. In universities, the work is specialized 
 in separate buildings which simplifies the task of the archi- 
 tect. The principles of sanitation and architectural treat- 
 ment indicated in the buildings already referred to apply so'
 
 5<D SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [458 
 
 well to special buildings that separate consideration is not 
 considered essential to this short monograph. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF LEGISLATION ON SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 
 
 The state of New York in 1887 passed a law authorizing 
 and directing the state superintendent of public instruction 
 to procure architects' plans and specifications for school 
 buildings ranging in cost from $600 to $10000. This was 
 a very important step and it resulted as was intended in 
 enlisting the best architectural talent in the country. Liberal 
 prizes for the most meritorious designs were offered, and as 
 a result some very creditable designs were secured. The 
 suggestions which these designs furnished have been acted 
 upon in many districts not only in New York but in several 
 other states. Following is the list of the names and resi- 
 dences of the architects who presented creditable designs : 
 
 Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd, Lansing, Mich. 
 
 John R. Church, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 John Cox, Jr., New York city. 
 
 Clarence True, Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 C. Powell Karr, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 J. C. A. Heriot and Corliss McKinney, Albany, N. Y. 
 
 J. Frank Lyman, Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 Warren R. Briggs, Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Fenimore C. Bate, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Proudfoot & Bird, Wichita, Kans. 
 
 In 1882, the state superintendent of Wisconsin invited the 
 competition of architects in furnishing designs at small cost. 
 Following are the names and addresses of architects who 
 made valuable contributions : 
 
 J. Bruess, Milwaukee, Wise. 
 
 W. G. Kirchaffer, Elkhorn, Wise. 
 
 Edbrooke & Burnham, Chicago, 111. 
 
 H. C. Koch & Co., Milwaukee, Wise. 
 
 G. Stanley Mansfield, Freeport, 111. 
 
 F. S. Allen, Joliet, 111. 
 
 F. W. Hollister, Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 In 1895, the state legislature passed a law which says
 
 459] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 51 
 
 that :- " Hereafter no school house shall be constructed in 
 the city of New York without an open-air playground 
 attached to or used in connection with the same." This law 
 has done much toward improving the hygienic conditions in 
 New York, and its influence has been felt in other cities. 
 
 The state laws of Massachusetts provide for the placing of 
 fire escapes in all buildings more than two stories in height ; 
 also " that every school house shall be kept in a cleanly state 
 and free from efHuvia arising from any drain, privy, or other 
 nuisance, and shall be provided with a sufficient number of 
 proper water and earth closets." It further provides that 
 " every school house shall be ventilated in such a proper 
 manner that the air shall not become so exhausted as to be 
 injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 
 
 The state laws of Kentucky provide that each school 
 house shall have a floor space of not less than ten square 
 feet to each pupil in the district ; shall be at least ten feet 
 between floor and ceiling ; shall have at least four windows ; 
 one or more fireplaces with chimneys made of brick or stone." 
 It also provides that each school house shall provide for each 
 child " a seat with back the height of the seat and its back 
 to suit the age of the child no desk or bench to be made 
 to accommodate more than two children." 
 
 The statutes of Vermont (1896) provide that : " The state 
 board of health shall within reasonable time and as often as it 
 thinks necessary issue a circular letter to the local boards of 
 health giving the best information as to lighting, heating, 
 ventilating, and other sanitary arrangements according to 
 regulations by the state board of health." 
 
 The laws of Connecticut provide that " every school house 
 shall be ventilated in such manner that the air shall not be 
 injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 
 
 In many of the states the only legislation is that doors in 
 school houses shall open outward. This is a precautionary 
 provision against accidents in fires, and seems to be more 
 generally recognized by state legislatures than any other 
 single necessity.
 
 52 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [460 
 
 In many other states there has been no legislation 
 whatever. 
 
 In view of the large benefits which have already been real- 
 ized from the little legislation that has been made in a few 
 states, it is to be hoped that this important means of enlight- 
 enment will become more general in the United States. 
 
 WORK OF SCHOOL SUPERVISORS AND ARCHITECTS 
 
 Next to the good which has been accomplished by state 
 legislation comes that which has been done by state superin- 
 tendents who, realizing the importance of school architec- 
 ture, hygiene, and sanitation, have from time to time embod- 
 ied in their reports valuable information as to the needs of 
 the schools and suggestions as to how to supply them. 
 
 In Wisconsin, State Superintendent W. C. Whitford in 
 1882 issued a valuable circular on " Plans and specifications 
 of school houses " for the country districts, villages, and 
 smaller cities of his state. In 1892 Supt. Oliver E. Wells 
 issued a valuable pamphlet containing suggestions and plans 
 for the ventilation and furnishing of school houses. 
 
 In Michigan, State Supt. Henry R. Pattengill in his 
 report for 1894 gave some valuable information on "School 
 grounds, school house architecture, and outbuildings." Also 
 Supt. John E. Hammond in his report for 1897 gives valu- 
 able information. 
 
 The state board of Connecticut issue from time to time 
 valuable school documents, among which No. 13 is a valu- 
 able scientific monograph on " School house warming and 
 ventilating" by S. H. Woodbridge. Documents Nos. 12 and 
 1 5 contain suggestions on ventilation, and show a large col- 
 lection of plans for school houses. 
 
 For the state of New York, Supt. Chas. R. Skinner has 
 issued several reports of great value, among which is a large 
 bound volume on " Recent school architecture," and contains 
 a large number of plates showing the plans and perspectives 
 of many of the best school houses in the state. 
 
 State Supt. Nathan C. Schaefer of the state of Pennsyl-
 
 461] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 53 
 
 vania has given in several of his reports many good sugges- 
 tions, and has been unsparing in his criticisms on existing 
 conditions in country schools, as a means of stimulating 
 effort toward the improvement of school buildings in his 
 state. 
 
 In Missouri, Supt. Jno. R. Kirk has done some excellent 
 work in the improvement of country schools and in his 
 reports of 1896 and 1897 he gives apian for a model country 
 school house which has been adopted by many of the country 
 districts in the states. This plan possesses the sanitary 
 features described in the other one-room building already 
 described. 
 
 Of the architects who have not hereinbefore been men- 
 tioned and who have done excellent work in school house 
 building may be named : Robert S. Roeschlaub, Denver, 
 Colo.; E. H. Mead, Lansing, Michigan, whose "three-room 
 building" shown in the Michigan state report for 1898 is 
 especially to be commended ; Arthur Bohm, Indianapolis, 
 Ind.; Hudson & Wachter, architects, Toledo, Ohio; How- 
 ard & Camdwell, Newark, N. J.; E. A. Joselyn, New York 
 city. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HOUSE ARCHITECTURE AND 
 
 SANITATION 
 
 Alcott, William A. Essay on the construction of school houses. 
 
 pp. 66. Milliard: Boston, 1832. 
 Barnard, Henry. School architecture, or contributions to the 
 
 improvement of school houses in the United States. Sixth 
 
 edition, pp.464. Norton: New York, 1854. 
 Bicknell, A. J. School house and architecture. Trubner : London, 
 
 1877- 
 
 Chadwick, E. Sanitary principles of school construction. Lon- 
 don, 1877. 
 Chase, C. T. Manual on school houses and cottages for the 
 
 people of the south, pp. 83. Wash. 1868. 
 Clark, Theodore M. Rural school architecture, pp. 106. Bureau 
 
 of education. Wash. 1880. 
 Construction and maintenance of school infirmaries. Churchill : 
 
 London, 1888.
 
 '54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [462 
 
 Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
 instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, with 19 com- 
 petitive plans. Albany, 1895. 
 
 Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
 instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, forty pages of 
 plans. Albany, 1889. 
 
 Dickson system of school house construction. 2000 feet of air 
 per hour for each pupil without mechanical power. School 
 House Construction Company, 215, 217, 219 South Adams street, 
 Peoria, 111. pp. 35. Peoria, 111., 1894. 
 
 Dukes, Clement. School construction. Lawrence : Rugby, Eng. 
 
 Dunham, C. A. The model school house, pp. 35. Burlington, 
 Iowa, 1894. 
 
 Eveleth, Samuel F. School house architecture. Illustrated in 17 
 designs in various styles, pp. 14, 67 plans. Woodward : N. Y. 
 1870. 
 
 Freese, Jacob R. Report on school house and means of promot- 
 ing popular education, pp. 13. Wash. 1868. 
 
 Gardner, E. C. Town and country school buildings. Kellog : N. 
 Y. 1889, contains designs, plans and descriptions. 
 
 Gove, Aaron. Public school house. Education 17 (March, 1897) 
 407-411. 
 
 Hints and suggestions on school architecture and hygiene, 
 with plans and illustrations. By J. George Hodgins. pp. 135. 
 Toronto, 1886. 
 
 Hodgins, J. George. The school house, its architecture, external 
 and internal arrangements, with elevations and plans for public 
 and high school buildings, pp. 271. Copp : Toronto, 1876. 
 
 Johonnot, James. School houses, with architects' designs by S. 
 E. Hewes. Schermerhorn: N. Y. 1872. 
 
 Public school buildings in the District of Columbia, pp. 48, 
 House of representatives miscellaneous documents No. 35, 47th 
 Congress, 1st session. Washington. 
 
 Report of the general agent (Massachusetts board of education) 
 on the condition of the school houses and giving plans and 
 descriptions of school houses suitable for country towns and 
 villlages. pp. 64. Boston, 1873. 
 
 Saeltzer, Alexander. Treatise on accoustics in connection with 
 ventilation ; and an account of the modern and ancient methods 
 of heating and ventilation. New York, 1872, 12.
 
 463] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 55 
 
 School houses and public buildings. How they may be safely 
 constructed and properly heated and ventilated. Drawings on 
 exhibition at World's Columbian exhibition, pp. 4, 1893 pp. 33 
 with plates. (Commonwealth of Massachusetts.) 
 
 Turnbull, G. B. New high school building at Colorado Springs. 
 School report, I (Dec. 1894): 682. 
 
 Walker, C. H. Suggestions on the architecture of school houses, 
 Atlantic, 74 (Dec. 1894): 825. 
 
 Plans for heating and ventilating school houses. In state of 
 Maine board of health report, 1891. 315-386. 
 
 School architecture and equipment (buildings and grounds) 
 
 Robins, E. C. Technical schools and college buildings, pp. 244. 
 Whittaker: London, 1887. 
 
 Robins, E. R. School architecture : planning, designing, build- 
 ing, pp. 440. Murray: London, 1877. 
 
 Wade, Rufus R. School houses and public buildings : How they 
 may be safely constructed and properly heated and ventilated, 
 pp. 35 34 plates of plans, designs, etc. Boston, 1893. 
 
 Wheelwright, Edmund M. Series of 17 articles in the " Brick- 
 builder," Boston, on " The American school house." 
 
 Ventilation and sanitation 
 
 Briggs, Robert C. Steam heating and exposition of the Ameri- 
 can practice of warming buildings by steam. Pp. 122. Van 
 Nostrand: New York, 1888. 
 
 Bryant, Walter, and Herman, Leopold. An exposition on heat- 
 ing and ventilating the school houses of Boston in 1846 and 
 1847. PP- 2 4- Bryant: Boston, 1848. 
 
 Colyer, Frederick. Public institutions: their engineering, sani- 
 tary and other appliances, pp. 219. Spon: London, 1889. 
 
 Griscom, John H. The uses and abuses of air. pp. 252. N. Y., 
 1850. 
 
 Jacob, E. H. Notes on ventilation and warming of houses, 
 churches, schools and other buildings, pp. 124. Young: N. Y., 
 1882. 
 
 Leeds, Lewis W. A treatise on ventilation, pp. 226. N. Y., 
 1882. 
 
 Lupton, N. T. On heating and ventilation, with special reference 
 to the school buildings of Nashville. (Nashville, 1878.)
 
 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [464 
 
 Marble, Albert P. Sanitary conditions for school houses, pp. 168. 
 Bureau of education: Washington, 1891. 
 
 Moore, Joseph A. Ventilation of school buildings in Massachu- 
 setts, pp. 15. Chicago, 1893. 
 
 Morrison, G. B. Ventilation and warming of school buildings, 
 pp. 22-173. Appleton: N. Y., 1887. 
 
 Morrison, G. B. Some thermal determinations in the heating of 
 buildings. Proceedings of "American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science." At Columbus, 1899 
 
 Nichols, W. R. Sanitary conditions of school houses. (Boston, 
 1880.) 
 
 Quimby, H. M., and others. Ventilation of school houses in 
 Worcester, pp. 24. Worcester, 1889. 
 
 Ross, G. On the ventilation of schools, hospitals, law courts and 
 other public buildings. Collingrade : London, 1874. 
 
 Young, A. G. School hygiene and school houses, pp. 399. 
 Augusta, 1892. 
 
 This is the seventh annual report of the state board of Maine, and is the 
 ablest discussion of school hygiene that has yet appeared from a board of 
 health. 
 
 Billings, J. S. The information necessary to determine the merits 
 of the heating and ventilation of a school building. Proceedings 
 National educational association, 1882. pp. 11-19. 
 
 Hubbard, T. Principles of warming and ventilation as applied to 
 our public schools. (In. pro. san. con. O., 1887. p. 54.) 
 
 Walker, William A. Report to N. Y. county board of education 
 on the proper size, construction and means of ventilating school 
 houses, and the arrangement of playgrounds. Docs, of N. Y. 
 city board of education. 1842-1850, pp. 5-12. (1846.) 
 
 Woodbridge, S. H. Connecticut school document, No. 13, on 
 " School house warming and ventilation."
 
 INDEX 
 
 Academies, 148; character of, 153 
 
 Accrediting system, 165 
 
 Adolescence, study of, 182 
 
 American college, the, 209, 238 ; aca- 
 demic honors, 224; administration, 
 235; alterations in the course, 214; 
 bachelors' degree, 214 ; changes, 
 219; elective courses, 227 ; ex- 
 penses, 235; its place and import- 
 ance, 209; list of colleges, 241; 
 modes of instruction, 227; organiza- 
 tion and administration, 235; pro- 
 posal to shorten the course, 212; 
 statistics, 239; student life, 229; the 
 college of to-day, 212 ; the old- 
 fashioned college, 210 
 
 American universities, xv 
 
 American university, the, 253 ; bibli- 
 ography, 316; contrast with Euro- 
 pean universities, 280; fellowships 
 and scholarships, 300; gifts and 
 endowments, 300; graduate instruc- 
 tion, 283; publications, 297; qualifi- 
 cations for admission to graduate 
 instruction, 290; statistics, 296, 314; 
 studies and degrees, 290; use of 
 word " university," 254 
 
 Average schooling per inhabitant, 139 
 
 B 
 
 Barnard college, 344, 346 
 Blow, Susan E., Kindergarten education, 35 
 Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, Secondary edu- 
 cation, 143 
 
 Bryn Mawr college, 263, 337 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, Introduction, vii 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., English high school, 
 plates xiv and xv 
 
 Catholic university of America, 255, 259 
 Centralization, tendency toward, 21 
 Chicago kindergarten college, 75, 376 
 City school systems, 12 
 Clark university, 255, 257, 398 
 Co-education, 321; attitude of various 
 sections of the United States, map 
 facing p. 328; growth, chart facing 
 p. 331; in colleges, 321; in elemen- 
 tary schools, 103; in fourteen south- 
 ern and two southern middle states, 
 table facing p. 327; in secondary 
 schools, 180 ; in six New England 
 and three northern middle states, 
 table facing p. 327; in twenty west- 
 ern states and three territories, table 
 facing p. 327; objections, 333 (note); 
 progress from 1890 to 1898 and 
 1899 in professional education, table 
 facing p. 351; statistics, 328 
 Co-education of the sexes, 103 
 Co-education vs separate education, 355 
 College (see American college) 
 College entrance requirements, 174 
 College, local influence, xv 
 Colleges for women, 324; Antioch, 324; 
 Boston university, 326; Cornell, 326; 
 Oberlin, 324; state universities, 324 
 Colleges, increase in number of graduate 
 
 students, 31; list of, 243 
 College women, number of, 351; health, 
 353; marriage rate, 354, and table 
 facing p. 355; occupations, 355 
 Colonial schools, 146 
 Columbia university, 269; Columbia col- 
 lege, 270; non-professional schools, 
 271; organization, 270; professional 
 schools, 271; publications, 299 
 Committee of fifteen, extracts from re- 
 port, 14 
 
 Committee of ten, on secondary school 
 studies, 169
 
 464-b 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Common school statistics, 130 
 Compulsory attendance, 97; statistics, 98 
 Compulsory education, 22 
 Cornell university, 272; departments, 
 
 273; opened to women, 326 
 Corporal punishment, 133 
 County system, n 
 
 Courses of study in secondary schools, 177 
 Crime and education, xi, 115 
 
 D 
 
 Differentiation of schools, 179 
 District system, 7 
 
 Draper, Andrew S., Educational organi- 
 zation and administration, 3 
 Dutch and English influence, 3 
 
 Federal control of schools, 23 
 Federal government, gifts from, 23 
 First state superintendent, 27 
 
 General government and education, vii, 
 22 
 
 H 
 
 Harris, William T., Elementary education, 
 
 79 
 Harvard university, 266; publications, 
 
 298 
 High school movement, 156; buildings, 
 
 438 
 Hinsdale, B. A., Training of teachers, 361 
 
 Education and crime, xi, 115 
 
 Education and industry, xiii 
 
 Education and the general government, 
 vii, 22 
 
 Education a state function, viii 
 
 Education at the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century, 6 
 
 Education, chairs of, in colleges and uni- 
 versities, 391; University of Michi- 
 gan, 392 
 
 Education, literature of, xvi, private 
 aid to, xvii; statistics of, ix; study 
 of, xviii 
 
 s 
 
 Education of women, 321 
 
 Educational organization and admin- 
 istration, 3; statistics concerning 
 enrolment, value of property, 
 teachers, students, institutions and 
 libraries, 30 
 
 Educational organization in the United 
 States, 94; land donated by the gen- 
 eral government, 95; schools sup- 
 ported by the general government, 
 96; the local unit, 105 
 
 Elective system in secondary schools, 172 
 
 Elementary course of study, 106 
 
 Elementary education, 79; general sta- 
 tistics, 126 
 
 Elementary schools, subjects taught, 109 
 
 Elmira college, 339 
 
 English and Dutch influence, 3 
 
 Illiteracy, xi 
 
 Indiana teachers' reading circle, 390; 
 
 books read, 390 
 Introduction, vii 
 
 Johns Hopkins university, 261; publica- 
 tions, 298 
 
 Joliet, 111., Fifth ward school building, 
 plates vi and vii 
 
 K 
 
 Kansas City manual training high school, 
 plates xix-xxii 
 
 Kindergarten children, characteristics 
 of, 44; digest of letters received by 
 Edwin P. Seaver, 44; digest of let- 
 ters received by Mary C. McCulloch, 
 63; letters received by Alice H. Put- 
 nam, 64; published statement, 68 
 
 Kindergarten college of Chicago, 75 
 
 Kindergarten departments in institu- 
 tions, 73 
 
 Kindergarten education, 35 
 
 Kindergarten, established by Froebel, 
 35; dangers, 71; growth, 42; Dr Har- 
 ris on early history of kindergarten 
 in St Louis, 39; list of states having 
 extensive provisions for, 42; other 
 early kindergartens, 36; private 
 training schools, 72; the experi- 
 ment in St Louis, 38
 
 INDEX 
 
 4640 
 
 Kindergarten in normal schools, 73 
 Kindergartens, 112 
 Kindergarten training schools, 72 
 Kirk, John R., reports of 1896 and 1897, 
 461 
 
 Library statistics, 30 
 Literature of education, xvi 
 Local influence of the college, xv 
 
 M 
 
 Manual training, in 
 
 Manual training high school, 446 
 
 Massachusetts normal schools, 371 
 
 Methods of instruction in secondary 
 schools, 183 
 
 Michigan state normal college, 372; de- 
 grees, 372 
 
 Mills college, 340 
 
 Moral influence of secondary schools, 
 1 86 
 
 Morrison, Gilbert B., School architecture 
 and hygiene, 411 
 
 Mt Holyoke college, 338 
 
 N 
 
 National government and education, vii, 
 22 
 
 Newcomb, H. Sophie, memorial college, 
 347 
 
 New York city public school building 
 no. 165, plates x and xi; no. 20, 
 plate xiii 
 
 New York, powers of state superintend- 
 ent, 20 
 
 New York state board of regents, 20 
 
 New York state normal college, 373; de- 
 grees, 373 
 
 Normal college of the city of New York, 
 372; degrees, 372 
 
 Normal schools, 368; admission, 371; ad- 
 mission to early schools, 368; ad- 
 mission to Massachusetts schools, 
 371; authorities, 406; buildings, 438; 
 comparison with foreign institu- 
 tions, 378; courses of study in early 
 schools, 369; early schools, 368; list 
 of early schools, 370; Oswego, 370; 
 statistics, 376, 377 
 
 Normal students in high schools and 
 academies, 380 
 
 Oberlin collegiate institute, 324 
 Oswego normal school, 370 
 
 P 
 
 Pattengill, Henry R., "School grounds, 
 schoolhouse architecture, and out- 
 buildings," 460 
 
 Peabody normal college, 374 
 
 Perry, Edward Delavan, The American 
 university, 253 
 
 Popular education, place of.'in the ideals 
 of the American people, 113 
 
 Private aid to education, xvii 
 
 Private institutions, 25 
 
 Professional teachers, 82 
 
 Public instruction, continuous system of, 
 162 
 
 Pupils, number in all schools, 126; in 
 common schools, 128 
 
 R 
 
 Radcliffe college, 344, 345 
 Randolph-Macon woman's college, 339 
 Revolutionary war, changes wrought 
 
 by, 5 
 Rockford college, 340 
 
 s 
 
 Salaries of teachers, 102 
 Schaeffer, Nathan C., report of, 460 
 School and college associations, 168 
 School architecture and hygiene, 411 
 School boards, 101 
 
 School buildings, 411; bibliography, 461; 
 closets, 455 (plate xxiv); country 
 school houses, 412; model plan, 413 
 (plates i and ii); heating and venti- 
 lation, 413, 416; high school build- 
 ing, 438; two-room building, 419 
 (plates iii and iv); three-room build- 
 ing, 421 (plate v); eight-room build- 
 ing, 423 (plates viii and ix); large 
 city, ward and grammar school 
 building, 429 (plates x-xxii); neces- 
 sary features, 411; normal school 
 and college buildings, 457; publica- 
 tions of different states, 460
 
 46 4<1 
 
 INDEX 
 
 School district system, 7 
 
 School funds, sectarian division of, 104 
 
 Schools and the colleges, 163 
 
 Schools in the United States, historical 
 beginnings, 117; average schooling, 
 139 ; Connecticut, 120 ; early city 
 superintendents, 124 ; early state 
 superintendents, 124; Horace Mann, 
 123; Massachusetts, 120, 121; New 
 Jersey, 121; New York, 120; normal 
 schools, 124; number of students in 
 all schools 1897-98, 126 ; number of 
 students in common schools, 128; 
 Pennsylvania, 121; Rhode Island, 
 120; statistics, 130; text books, 135; 
 Virginia, 120 
 
 School system of the United States, 6, 79 
 (see United States school system) 
 
 School system, what it consists of, 6 
 
 Secondary education, 143; academies, 
 148; accrediting system, 165; ado- 
 lescence, study of, 182; bibliography, 
 204; character of academies, 153; 
 college entrance requirements, 174; 
 colonial schools, 146; committee of 
 ten on secondary school studies, 169; 
 courses of study, 177; differentia- 
 tion of schools, 179; early schools, 
 144; elective system, 172; high 
 school movement, 156; methods of 
 instruction, 183; moral influence of, 
 186; public instruction, continuous 
 system of, 162; schools and colleges, 
 163; school and college associations, 
 168; statistics, 200; state systems of, 
 150, 191; students, 188; teachers, 
 190; the old and the new, 161 
 
 Secondary education, public, xiv 
 
 Sectarian division of school funds, 104 
 
 Sheldon, Dr E. A., 370 
 
 Skinner, Charles R., "Recent school 
 architecture," 460 
 
 Smith college, 337 
 
 Springfield, Mass., high schools, plates 
 xvi-xviii 
 
 State authority, dependence on, 18 
 
 State common school systems, 131 
 
 States and the schools, 17 
 
 State school funds, 18; sectarian divis- 
 ion of, 104 
 
 State superintendent, powers of, in New 
 
 York, 20 
 State systems of secondary schools, 150, 
 
 State universities, 276 
 Statistics of public education, ix 
 Students in secondary schools, 188 
 Study of education, xviii 
 Summer schools for teachers, 386 
 Supervision, 27; statistics, 100 
 
 Teachers' certificates or licenses, 401; 
 report of committee of college and 
 university professors, 402 
 
 Teachers' college of Columbia univer- 
 sity, 396; courses in, 397 
 
 Teachers' colleges; Clark university, 
 398; University of Chicago, 399; Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin, 400 
 
 Teachers' colleges, 395; Richard Mul- 
 caster's proposal, 395 
 
 Teachers in secondary schools, 190 
 
 Teachers' institutes, 382 
 
 Teachers' pensions, 134 
 
 Teachers' reading circles, 388 
 
 Teachers' salaries, 102 
 
 Teachers' training classes, 379 
 
 Text books, selection and supply in dif- 
 ferent states, 135 
 
 Thomas, M. Carey, Education of women, 321 
 
 Township system, 9 
 
 Training of teachers, 361; agencies, 361; 
 development, 361; normal schools, 
 
 u 
 
 United States bureau of education, 24 
 United States school system, 6, 79; graded 
 vs ungraded schools, 83; profes- 
 sional teachers, average in various 
 classes of schools, 83; rural schools 
 vs city schools, 83; statistics, 79 
 University (see American university) 
 University'extension courses, 388 
 University fellowships and scholarships, 
 
 300 
 
 University of California, 279; depart- 
 ments, 280 
 
 University of Chicago. 274; departments, 
 275; publications, 300
 
 INDEX 
 
 4646 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, 263; publi- 
 cations, 298 
 
 University of the state of New York, 
 192 
 
 University of Wisconsin, 278; depart- 
 ments, 278; publications, 299 
 
 University problems, 305 
 
 University publications, 297; Chicago, 
 300; Columbia, 299; Harvard, 298; 
 Johns Hopkins, 298; Pennsylvaina, 
 298; Wisconsin, 299 
 
 Universities united with colleges and 
 professional schools, 260 
 
 Vassar college, 336 
 
 w 
 
 Wells college, 339 
 
 Wellesley college, 336 
 
 West, Andrew Fleming, The American 
 college, 209 
 
 Whitford, W. C., "Plans and specifica- 
 tions of schoolhouses," 460 
 
 Woman's college of Baltimore, 338 
 
 Woman's college of Brown university, 
 344,346 
 
 Woman's college of Western reserve 
 university, 344, 347 
 
 Women, college education of, 321; a 
 modified vs unmodified curriculum, 
 357; affiliated colleges, 344; Antioch 
 college, 324; colleges not admitting 
 women, 331; Cornell university, 326; 
 independent colleges for, 334; Ober- 
 lin collegiate institute, 324; other 
 colleges, 326; preparatory depart- 
 ments in colleges, 341; state univer- 
 sities, 324 
 
 Women, education of, 321; college edu- 
 cation, 321 
 
 Women in school administration, 101 
 
 Women, professional education of, 349; 
 graduate fellowships and scholar- 
 ships, 350; graduate instruction in 
 philosophy, 349; theology, law, med- 
 icine, dentistry, pharmacy, veteri- 
 nary science, schools of technology 
 and agriculture, 351 
 
 Woodbridge, S. H., "Schoolhouse warm- 
 ing and ventilating," 460 
 
 Yale university, 268; departments, 269
 
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