' : I m . BRARY APR 19 1893 3ITV g CALIFORNIA -jAi^**! SA / Z^ ,^'i yVn. -^ ; ' STATISTICS OF HYDRAULIC WORKS STATISTICS OF HYDRAULIC WORKS AND HYDROLOGY OF ENGLAND, CANADA, EGYPT, AND INDIA COLLECTED AND REDUCED LOWIS D'A. JACKSON CIVIL ENGINEER AUTHOR OF 'CANAL AND CULVERT TABLES 'HYDRAULIC MANUAL 'AID TO ENGINEERING SOLUTION* ' AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE* ACCENTED LOGARITHMS ' ' METRICAL UNITS AND SYSTEMS ' 'UNITS OF MEASUREMENT FOR SCIENTIFIC MEN AND OTHER WORKS LONDON W. THACKER & CO., 87, NEWGATE STREET CALCUTTA: THACKER, SPINK & CO. BOMBAY: THACKER & CO., LIMITED; MADRAS HIGGINBOTHAM & CO 1885 \_All rights reserved, ,] PREFACE. A COMPILATION of that which has been done is one of the necessary aids to further doing. Its value is partly dependent on the sources, and partly on the theoretical and practical capa- bilities of the compiler in that special branch ; its completeness is limited by the space at disposal, and the larger or smaller period over which the data extend. Finality, or perfection, cannot be attained ; but if even that were possible, the end having then been reached, there would not be any future in which the book could be useful. One may not collect facts and figures with a purpose, for fear the purpose should warp them ; but, after collecting them, and after having undergone experiences connected with them of almost every sort, one is allowed to express the resulting retrospect and prospect. In Great Britain, progress in hydraulic works has been lately confined chiefly to works of improved water supply and of sewage-irrigation. The'development has now taken the permanent form of deep well-sinking for drinking-waters, of surface storage, and of tapping rivers for general purposes. These were all done, in special cases, very long ago ; but the large development is a recent thing, applying to towns and villages all over the land. Sewage-irrigation in Engand is also very ancient ; every Nor- thumbrian village or group of cottages has utilised its sewage on adjoining fields for ages ; but it is only latterly that this PREFACE. simple and useful practice has very largely extended, after the complete and unfortunate experience of precipitation and chemical processes. The combined effect of rational water supply and sewage utilisation has been to lower the death-rate, to diminish sickness and consequent poverty, and to encourage the life-preserving habit of personal cleanliness among the great " untubbed." Retrogression has, however, shown itself as regards canals, which have now sunk to the lowest state. It is fully known that water-transport for heavy goods is the most economic method ; but England suffers from an obstructive class the plutocrats holding railway shares, and the railway interest, who will do their best to prevent the people from obtaining cheap transport, from a fear of diminishing their own gains. It seems strange that, in a free country, systematic oppression should be allowed to hold its sway so long in this, and in many other things. U is one of the results of " Tradesman's Rule," under which every honest man is systematically fleeced, from cradle to grave; while the successful steady swindler is well protected by the law and the lawyers, honoured by the ignorant and the mercantile, and courted by the clergy and women. As for Canada, the want of personal experience in that country enforces a recourse to that of friends as well as to analysis of indisputable facts. Two things are noteworthy : the very slow development or extension of the canals and through routes, and the high expense of the works already constructed. Lands on the routes of works of public improvement are not compulsorily taken at a fair valuation, as should be the case, but the holders are allowed to block public works by choosing their own prices and terms ; an arrangement unworthy of a civilised Christian country. (A PREFACE. vii Moslem refuses all payment for his land taken for a public road, or for public wells, waterworks, or canals.) Next, there is a large amount of jobbery about public works, which could be entirely stopped. Public works loans should be absolutely safe and inalienable to other purposes ; they should form a secure investment for the people of the country, who profit other- wise by the works. These two changes must evidently precede the full extension of the here proposed Canadian Ship-route from Quebec to Hudson's Bay. In Egypt, irrigation from the Nile has for ages supplied^bread to its people, but the task of supplying the insatiable Greek and Israelite is far beyond its powers. Before prosperity can revive, any attempt to make an unjust bargain or agreement must be treated as burglary ; and respectable systematic swindlers, as well as all magistrates that support such claims, must be treated to expulsion or the rope. Once fairly relieved from oppression, Egypt will doubtless remodel the whole of her coarse works of irrigation on a more skilful and economic system, and remove that absurd French barrage. In India, the modern canals and reconstructed old canals are far in advance of the earlier ones as regards design and quality in construction ; the extension of irrigation around the old centres has also been large, involving great expenditure of money. Most of this development is due to, or centres itself round, the arrangements effected by the energetic influence and administra- tion of General Richard Strachey, 'which formed a stable per- manent basis of progress. The fact remains that, in or about 1869, the future of all Indian irrigation works appeared very gloomy, while the present triumph in the Indian supply of wheat to England alone affords a justification of the bolder policy carried out against much opposition. viii PREFACE. The next probable step will be the wider extension of irrigation in India beyond the old centres, and in each and every province. The works would necessarily be small, numerous and detached, dependent on meagre rain or supply, requiring skill in detail, and involving much inconvenience in many respects. The eventual necessity for them is clear, as India cannot yet bear up against two successive famines. The local obstruction of the covenanted Anglo-Indian civilians to such works would doubtless arrest matters ; hence a necessary preliminary would be the abolition of that service, or its rigid restriction to the originally legitimate duties of collecting revenue, without retaining any further power or authority of intervention in anything. Their law courts have already crushed the people by playing into the hands of the money-lender and the grasping landlord ; their own aggrandisement has been entirely based on the crowding of servile natives to ruin each other under the legal process of "duel by lying;" their mischievous intrigues have made India uninhabitable by any independent Englishman, and warped the efficiency of every Indian official department ; while their autocratic vulgarities have rendered them odious to all but themselves. When this anomalous bureaucracy of gharibpamvars is abolished or fang-drawn, Indian prosperity will commence, there will be less grovelling and more honest work ; useful and skilful men instead of being ousted will be welcomed ; and irri- gation, with the consequent gradual abolition of famine, will attain its highest development without obstruction. L. J. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. THE present volume is to a certain extent an enlargement of Part II. of Hydraulic Manual and Statistics, 3rd edition, 1875, with additions of later date. (The fourth edition of 1883 is purely Manual.) The older sources of compilation have been mentioned in the preface to that book. In the additions, as well as in the older portions, much has been obtained or formed directly or indirectly by myself; other parts have been taken from the works of various authors of practical and theoretical experience; and last, when the above have been insufficient, recourse has been made to Parliamentary and Official returns and records. The last resource has been only utilised where other modes failed, for the obvious and well-known reason that such transmitted information is often wanting in accuracy. In each case where the work of any author has been used, his name is quoted with the information, unless it happens to be a small amount appended to a larger one by some one else. The same mode has also been adopted with regard to any information, originally due to any person of experience, that may have been obtained through the medium of an Official report or return, when there mentioned. As to the later Indian information, since 1875, this has been mostly taken from various annual records supplied from the Record Department of the India Office, chiefly the Progress Reports, Irrigation Reports, and Chemical Examiners' Reports of the various provinces of India. A CKNO WLEDGMENTS. In this matter, as the bulk of Reports examined was very large, and more labour than my own was devoted, I wish to mention with thanks the help afforded by the gentlemen of ^the Record branch of the India Office ; also by those of the office of the High Commissioner for Canada. The cost of this work, which will, it is hoped, be of benefit to engineers of the Indian Public Works Department, has, in concurrence with their wish, been liberally supported by the Government of India, for whom it was undertaken. The projected set of coloured maps, in accordance with this book, will necessarily involve expenditure of money and time, and hence remain in abeyance for the present. My intention was not only to put collected information into form convenient for use, but also to deduce the complete Hydro- logical conditions of the Gangetic basin. This failure is not due to want of labour, but of facts and data. My fragmentary results show a decrease or drying up, which is probably due to an eastward pro- gressive movement of the centre of heavy (hill) rainfall. With regard to the Hughli tides, personal observations of an exten- sive sort would be needful before new light could be thrown on the practical effect of my theories. Possibly some future occasion m ay arrive for thoroughly re-investi- gating these interesting matters. L. J. LONDON, September, 1885. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. GREAT BRITAIN. PAGES RIVER- BASINS, AREAS, GEOLOGY, AND RAINFALL . . 3 15 CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS . . . '. .. .' v , 16 40 STORAGE WORKS, GENERAL TABLE . . . .- 41 46 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE; DISTRICTS IRRIGATING . 47 53 THE NINE COMPETING FARMS . . . 54 95 IRRIGATED CROPS; VARIETIES AND TREATMENT . : . . 96 108 ANALYSIS OF WATER, AND OF FACTORY EFFLUENTS . 109 120 LIST OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND GROUPS . i20A CHAPTER II. CANADA. RIVER-BASINS, AREAS, AND GEOLOGY CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS METEOROLOGY OF A FEW PLACES . 123125 126159 1 60 166 CHAPTER III. EGYPT. AREAS AND POPULATION OF PROVINCES . HYDROLOGY OF THE NILE . CANALS AND WORKS OF IRRIGATION GENERAL IRRIGATION OF THE LAND . ." IRRIGATED CROPS AND PRODUCTIVE VALUE . ANALYSIS OF WATER, SILT AND NATRON METEOROLOGY OF ALEXANDRIA AND CAIRO , 168169 170 189 190 213 214 219 220 231 232235 236237 xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER IN. INDIA. PAGES RIVER-BASINS, AREAS, GEOLOGY, AND RAINFALL . . 241 247 RIVERS, GENERAL TABLES 248 251 ,, BRIEF ACCOUNTS AND TABULAR DATA . . 252 284 CANALS, LISTS AND GENERAL TABLES .... 285 294 BRIEF ACCOUNTS AND TABULAR DATA . . 295 424 STORAGE WORKS. GENERAL LIST 425 BRIEF ACCOUNTS . . . . 426 449 ,, TOWN WATERWORKS . . . 450 459 RECLAMATION AND PROTECTIVE WORKS . . . 460 463 CROPS, IRRIGATED AND ORDINARY ; PRODUCTIVE VALUE . 464 499 WATER RATES, TOLLS, &c. . . . . . 500505 ANALYSES AND QUALITIES OF WATER, AND OF SOIL . 506 526 LIST OF GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS AND GROUPS. . . 527 530 CHAPTER V. CEYLON. DISTRICTS AND RIVERS 533 CANALS AND TANKS . 534 RESTORED WORKS 537 CHAPTER I. GREAT BRITAIN RIVER BASINS. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. STORAGE WORKS. IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. IRRIGATED CROPS. ANALYSIS OF WATER. NATURAL DIVISIONS, GROUPS AND BASINS. (Partly according to JOSEPH LUCAS.) DIVISIONS. In England and Wales. 1 o ri .S Area in Square Miles. Population in 1871. Principal Rock Formation. (Carboniferous, New Red I. North-Eastern 8 23 8 695 3 547 838 \ sandstone, Oolite, ( and Chalk. (Silurian, Carboniferous II. North- Western 7 40 7 866 4 089 621 and New Red sand- stone. (New Red sandstone, III. East-Midland 5 *3 10 876 3 452 737 Oolite, Lower Green sand, and Chalk. Silurian, Old Red sand- stone, Carboniferous, IV. West-Midland 4 34 10 075 2 234 350 and New Red sand- stone. Lower Wealden sand, V. South-Eastern 5 3i II 226 6 818 924 Lower Green sand. Chalk, and Tertiary. Devonian, Carboniferous, VI. South-Western ii 59 9 181 2 568 796 New Red sandstone, Oolite, and Chalk. Total ... 40 200 57919 22 712 266 Total in 1881 25 968 286 In North Britain. VII Eastern 8 28 T A. Oo6 Population in 1881 Silurian, Devonian, Clay slate, Carboniferous, VIII. Western ... IX Islands 8 42 14 yyu II 323 3*78*7 Limestone. Silurian, Laurentian, Mica schist, Permian, Carboniferous, Trap, Gneiss, Serpentine. 757 Various. Total 20 90 30 106 3735573 In Ireland. X. Central ..... XI, Marginal ... XII. Coast and) Islands f ii 4 5 25 90 5 20 837 8 302 3 377 (Carboniferous limestone Lower Silurian and Old Red sandstone. Varied. Very varied. Total 5T CO 8 "2O I2O 3 2 5 10 1 59 oy Total of Great ) Britain j 80 410 I2O 541 354573 GREA T BRITAIN. Groups. t^ I. NORTH-EASTERN. 1 Coquet ...... 9 2 Tyne ......... i 3 Wear ......... i 4 Tees 5 Esk .... ...... 2 6 York-Ouse ... 3 7 York-Derwent 8 Hull ............ II. NORTH-WESTERN. 9 Eden ......... 5 10 Lake-Derwent 7 11 Lune ............ 7 12 Kibble ......... 4 13 Mersey ..... 4 14 Conwy 15 Anglesey ...... i III. EAST-MIDLAND. 16 Trent 17 Ancholme 18 Witham 19 Nen . 20 Bedford-Ouse ENGLAND AND WALES. Chief Rocks. Coal measures, Mill- stone grit, Carbon- iferous limestone, and Trap Coal measures, Mill- stone grit, Carbon- iferous limestone Permian, Coal measures, Millstone grit, Car- boniferous limestone. Oolite, Lias, New Red sandstone, Coal measures, Millstone grit, Carboniferous limestone Oolite and Lias { Oolite, Lias, New Red, Permian, Coal measures, Millstone grit, Carboniferous limestone Chalk, Oolite, Lias, New Red sandstone Post-tertiary, Chalk, Oolite, Lias, and New Red sandstone New Red sandstone, Permian, Millstone grit, Carboniferous limestone, Silurian.... /Coal measures, Millstone grit, Carboniferous limestone, a little Permian The same as Group 10. (New Red sandstone, Coal measures, Mill- stone grit, &c ..... New Red sandstone, Permian, Coal measures, Millstone grit, Carboniferous limestone, Silurian. . . . Cambrian and Silurian. f Ditto with Carboniferous limestone Oolite, Lias, New Red, P ermian, Coal measures, Grit, & Car- boniferous limestone. Oolite, Ancholme Chalk, Chalk, Post-tertiary. Oolite, Chalk, and Fen Oolite and Fen f Chalk, Gault, Lower j Green sand, Oolite, ( Lias, and Fen Cn c Area in 1 Square Miles. (1 ( 9 i ( I 130 . i 45 6 * 2 2 3 *( 247 3339 - l* 95 1 3i 703 5 i 188 - \ ( 7 \ 7 "3 4 8l5 j t f 4 2 535 1 I 12 I 1277 268 { i 4052 c 834 I 1079 1837 ' ^ 3074 Annual Rainfall in Feet. Range. Mean, 2*00 to 4*20 2*00 to 4*20 2'OO tO 4*2O 2*00 tO 4*2O 2'00 tO 4*20 2*00 to 4*20 2-00 to 4*20 2 oo to 4'2o ! 2*573 2-50 to 6-25 2*50 to 6*25 2-08 to 6*25 2*08 to 6-25 2-08 to 6-25 3-33 to 6-25 3-33 to 6-25 2*08 to 4*17 2*08 to 4-17 2*08 to 4*17 2'o8 to 4*17 3*431 3*43 ! 3'43 J S'43 1 3-228 2'573 2'573 2*426 2*426 2-08 to 4*17 2*426 RIVER BASINS. Groups. | *o 'j 55 IV. WEST-MIDLAND. 21 Dovy 1 2 ENGLAND AND WALES. A.reain Annual Ra Square Chief Rocks. in Fee Miles. Range. I Ii8 Silurian ... '?''?'? to 62^ infall t. Mean. 3-846 2-047 281 22 Towy ... 14 'Coal measures, Mill- stone grit, Carbon- I 936 iferous limestone, Old Red, Silurian. ... 3*33 to 6*25 f Oolite, New Red, Coal measures, Millstone, 2 671 J Carboniferous lime- stone, Old Red, t Silurian. . .. 2'o8 to 6*25 23 Wye .. 7 24 Severn i (Oolite, Lias, New Red, Permian, Coal, Grit, Carboniferous lime- stone, Old Red, Silurian 2-08 to 6-25 r" Tertiary, Chalk, Upper Green sand, Gault, I 422 -1 Lower Green sand, Weald clay, and Lower I Wealden sand. .. .. 2*08 to "V^^ V. SOUTH-EASTERN. 25 Arun 9 26 Medway ... 3 27 Thames ... 3 28 Blackwater . 12 29 Yare 4 (Tertiary, Chalk, and I 210 | Wealden 1*83 to 2'6o T Tertiary, Chalk, Upper Green sand, Gault, 5 244 1 Lower Green, Oolite, { Lias 1-83 to 2'6o , { Post-tertiary, Tertiary, 1 86 9 i Chalk. . .... I 83 to 2'6o I 481 Post-tertiary and Chalk, i 83 to 2 % 6o {Oolite, Lias, Carbon- iferous limestone, and New Red sand- stone. 2*08 to 3*33 VI. SOUTH-WESTERN. 30 Bristol-Avon 2 01 Parret z [Oolite, Lias, New Eed 1 75 \ sandstone, and De- ( vonian 2*08 to 3'33 QO Taw ^ (New Red sandstone, Carboniferous lime- stone, Devonian, Dartmoor granite.... 3*33 to 6*25 <4Q J Carboniferous, Devonian, t and some Granite. ... 3'33 to 4* 1 ? 544 Devonian and Granite. 3 -33 to 4*17 (Carboniferous, Devon- ian, and Dartmoor granite. 3'33 to 6<2 5 33 Camel 6 34 Fowey 9 35 Tamar 9 Q Ex 4- (New Red, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Granite 3'33 to 6*25 07 Axe T 467 Chalk, Oolite, & Lias. 2-50 to 3*33 T o (Tertiary, Chalk, and 4v5 | Oolite 2'5otO3'33 38 Salisbury-Avon 39 Test 6 (Tertiary, Chalk, Upper I 232 J Green sand, Gault, { Lower Green sand... 2*50 to 3-33 134 Ditto and Wealden. .... 2-50 to 3*33 40 Isle of Wight i 6 GREAT BRITAIN. Groups. -g r Ocrmnyp cxviii. 114 1 02 Several I cxx, 67 / 73 Ouse Ixxxv. 2607 streams / 1 74 Wissey ... Ixxxviii. 243 o ^ Tr%^ "Plir .... cxxi. 81 20 4 o 75 Nat or) lxxxyii< Setchy j 131 d, 104 Taff .* cxix. 198 cxxii. 94 105 Rumney . 1 i 7 6 (Part of | lxxxyi> V Ixxxvi.) J 93 23 O- 1 106 Ebwy .... 107 Usk cxxiii. cxxiv. ! cxxv. 94 54 55 10 8 Several streams > 109 Wye cxi. i 609 24 no Severn .... ., Ixxxiii. 4350 10 GREAT BRITAIN. V. Sou Gronp. 25 1 d, 1 O a6 1 & O 2T - 1" J3 1 d. 3 O 28 fc- s M J5 s I g,r 29 oJ 1 II TH-EASTERIf. Basin. r Fff Arun ., , ENGL Number on Ordnance Map. clxxiii &XI> t Area in Squar Miles 370 & 56 205 75 121 312 88 373 157 680 314 4613 3i7 181 434 24 192 53 407 171 153 32 109 34 79 53 880 348 200 usi> WA VI. Sc Group. 30 lP c a PQ o < d I 31 U 1 1 d, 32 S d^ rj 1 I 33 0. "4; <4 CJ d, a 34 5. & 1 LES,. )UTH-WESTERN.. Number Basin - Ordnanc ,Map. 1 142 Avon . r*YY\ri Area in Square Miles. 8 9 I 106 101 197 80 562 135 41 47 455 336 10 108 8 149 15 43 (18) 69 29 76 12 40 66 50 80 120 71 I 112 Worthing 113 Adur... clxxiv clxxv 114 Brighton \ 115 Ouse clxxv: ., clxxvii 1 id.'? Yeo 116 Cuckmere 117 Oldhavert 118 Rother . clxxviii clxxix {144 Axe ,.,,., 145 Brue .... cxtv Cxlv 119 Hythe ... .. clxxxiv 120 Stour .... 121 Small streams 122 Medway . 123 Cray and Darent... 124 Thames and Lea 125 Roding' ... .. clxxxiii i clxxxii clxxxi cxxxvi. cxxviii. 146 Several streams 147 Parret cxlvi 148 Several streams / 149 East Lynr 150 Small streams 151 Taw 152 Torridge . 153 Bideford Bav ... \ cxli. t J cxliii l ex ! cxxxvii .. cxxxix .. cxxxviii j; C1XXXV f clxxxvi it clxxxviii h clxxxix cciii. ccix. unnum- bered ccvii. and ccviii 1 cox ccxiii. to ccxv. ccxit. ccxi cciv. 154 Bude Ba] 155 Pentirepoir 156 Alan or Camel 157 Several streams- 158 Small streams 159 S. Ives, 160 Small streams j " 161 Several: streams 162 Several streams 163 Falmouth.. 164 Small streams 165 Truro 166 Fal ' 126 Crouch .... PYYYV 127 Blackwater cxxxi. 128 Coast .... rvwi; 129 Colne .... 130 Coast. cxxx. 131 Stour .... 132 Gipping . 133 Deben .... 134 Coast cxxix. xcvii. xcvi. 135 Ore or Aide . ... h xciv. xciii. xcii 136 Minsmere . 137 Blyth. ..,.. 138 Lowestoft 139 Waverley ) and Yare J 140 Bure 141 Glaven j (part of) / xci. xc. Ixxxix. Ixxxvi. 167 Several ] streams J 168 Fowey 169 Several j streams j ccvi. cxc. cxci. RIVER BASINS. II ENGLAND ANI> WALES. SOUTH-WESTERN contimted. Number Area Group. Basin. on Ordnance in Square Map. Miles. '170 Lynfaer 171 Tamar cxcii. clxxxvii 100 385 & 172 Tavy and Don c 7o 16 Dee 765 {17 Blackburn & { Bervie, &c. j I75 18 North Esk ... 267 19 South Esk 266 20 Lunan&Dighty 195 t 21 Tay ... 2260 ^ Hi 22 Eden 208 ja / 23 Leven . 247 n is o 1 24 Forth T 011 p^ ^ -iq. i uiui * 2 33 . ( 25 Almond .. . 112 47 Nevis . . J 48 Leven and) Creran...} 49 Etive f-f o j 26 Leith and Esk 224 51 V 27 Tyne & coast 222 8 28 Tweed 1870 50 Orchy&Awe 51 Cantire RIVER BASINS. 13 WESTERI 13 < u 14 U- o 15 j^ 16 | NOTE.- the do ml * continued. Basin. 52 Fyne ^ N Area in Square Miles. y 936 I 580 2 7 8 234 87 .81 184 170 585 365 306 427 413 80 441 ORTH Highest Altitude in Feet. 3708 3301 3192 2403 1542 1865 2764 1750 1435 2764 2618 2231 2631 2269 oughly e >ort. Geolog BRITAIN. IX. ISLANDS. Basin. 17 Shetlands : 7 1 Mainland Area in Square Miles. 42O Highest Altitude in Feet. 1476 938 1555 2662 1992 3220 1500 2867 2505 1735 H57 2735 ins of cases Joubt- 53 Ruel 54 Eck 72 Unst Yell &c ce Long . 18 Orkneys : 73 Pomona 56 Lomond & ) coast .... Jj 74 Hoy and small islands I 160 ^58 Irvine & coast 59 Ayr & Coyl... 19 Hebrides : 75 Lewis 876 76 North Uist 61 Girvan \62 Stinchar & ) coast ... f ,63 Pallanton &) Luce j" 77 South Uist 78 Barra 79 Small islands 20 Adjacent Islands : 80 Skye 50 . 558 64 Cree with ) Bladeroch \ and Fleet J 65 Ken 8 1 Raasay, &c. 20 82 Rum and Eigg, &c. 36 83 Coll and Tiree 45 84 Mull ST 1 ? 66 Urr 67 Nith 68 Annan, &c. .. 85 Colonsay, &c. .. 86 Jura 22 214. 70 Esk (Solway) \ 87 Islav . .... 112 88 Arran .... 162 89 Bute fin Some of these areas are r Rivers Commission Rej nbtful, being taken from a ly rendered. 90 Small islands 10 estimated from the Map of River Bas The Rock-formations are in some ical Map in which the colours are ( 14 GREAT BRITAIN. IRELAND. X. CENTRAL LARGE BAS 1 Group and Basins. In the North : f i Bann and Neagh ... 64 c 2 Main , 6<; JINS. Area in Square Miles. ic88 278 129 166 582 212 195 722 1689 4 I 529 681 184 977 394 285 65 I 54 617 487 402 212 806 ! &! 2 198 707 1353 886 1255 865 500 2088 653 765 3039 602 OI2 471 3015 778 028 743 341 358 904 430 207 2QO XL MARGINAL SMALL E gj Group and Basin] 12 Northern Series : 26 Carey and ) ' p , c Glen Shesk} ^ & l8 27 Bush tfi ASIN. 1 1 Area 'in Sq Miles 36 130 150 38 "5 66 120 112 108 22 55 84 53 46 40 218 150 80 73 119 150 135 135 168 129 IOO 72 46 60 An S-s II 1368 1782 1774 1298 2240 1377 2019 940 1379 1546 1177 2197 1817 1287 946 1755 608 1919 2796 801 1385 1093 1 027 988 530 374 339 1765 2384 nfi-7 J j 3 Moyola ... 66 4 Balinderry 67 t 5 Blackwater 68 w f 6 Foyle 61 28 Roe AT 29 Four streams 36 to 39 30 Faughan ....,- AO 31 Mull, Crana & Burnfoot 32 Eleven streams ... 33 Swilly . 34, 351 & 9 f I, 4 to 8) 1 1 to 15} 2 1H 7 Finn 62 P"H I. 8 Mourne ... 63 3 9 Erne (flows West) 123 In the East : 4 10 Boyne 159 3d Leannan 2T JT -""" j. 35 Five | 10,32,33) streams ...J 29, 30] 36 Lackagh and Burn 9*7 & >% 37 Seven streams ...I 13 Eastern Series 38 Glendun an< 2 streams 39 Glenarm & ] 2 streams J 40 LarneWater 3 streams 41 Lagan . . 2, 3,20,) 21,24, to \ 26 j i 42 to 44 45, 46 1 &69 } 70 to 73 - 74 . 75 to 77 . 78 to 81 s 82 to 88 i 89 90 to 93 94 . 9S 96 & 97 [ 160 to 162 r 163 & 164 I. 165 to 167 169 170 k T*72 tn T7/I 5 n Liffey 168 6 12 Slaney 175 In the South : .j (13 Barrow ... 183 7 '3 \ 14 Nore ... . 184 m (15 Suir 182 42 Quoile and 2 Streams .. 43 Leitrim R. & 3 streams .. 44 Seven stream 45 NewryR. .. 46 Cully anc 3 others 8 16 Blackwater 190 . f 17 Lee . ... 228 9 oU 18 Glashaboy 193 " t ! 9 Owenna- curra 192 In the West : G ( 20 Shannon... 155 1n % J 21 Suck 156 10 jl22 Inny 157 $ US Fergus ... 158 -,-. (24 Corrib 143 125 Moy 1 10 47 P'ane 48 Clyde 49 Dee anc i stream 50 Nanny anc 2 streams .. 51 Broad Meado\> & I stream 52 Tolka anc 2 streams .. c 3 Dargle . . 54 Vartry 55 Potters and 2 streams .. RIVER BASINS. 15 IRELAND. MARGINAL SMALL BASINS Group and Basin. .^ 13 Eastern Series continued. 56 Ovoca 171 -Cont Are inSq Mile 252 122 60 56 40 43 33 56 59 55 30 la* 14 117 39 76 74 36 78 80 24 86 20 11 47 45 5 2 77 141 168 148 49 93 inued j-i 303 1356 428 400 629 2597 2443 2387 782 645 336 1558 1027 727 1600 1762 2321 2044 2003 i 762 MARGINAL SMALL BASINS l Group and Basin. ^ 15 Western Series continued. 91 Ballynahinch & 5 streams 13210 137 92 Erriff 131 cont Area inSq Mile 134 68 76 59 110 130 57 33 252 139 70 114 So 46 35 63 73 60 44 Sq. 7 4 . 16 2 inued. S jjjij 2393 I 691 26lO 957 1695 2 067 I 021 I 165 901 78 9 1778 I 685 1575 1399 1233 881 1400 2219 1649 1649 1568 i 71 57 Owennavorra, Clonough & Sow .... 17610178 93 Bunowen and , 3 others 12710130 14 Southern Series : 58 Ballyteige ... 179 59 Corock 1 80 94 Carrowbeg & 2 others 12410126 95 Newport and 2 others 10710109 60 Owenduff 181 96 Owenduff 106 61 Mahon 185 97 Owenmore ... 105 98 Glenamoy and 2 streams ... 9810 IOO 99 Ballinglen and 2 streams ... 101 to 103 loo Cloonamore ... 104 10 1 Easky and 4 streams ... in to 115 102 Ballysadare ... 116 103 Garvogue ... 117 104 Duff and 2 streams ... n8toi2O 105 Drowes and I stream 121 & 122 62Tay&Dalligan 186, 187 63 Colligan and Brickley ... 188, 189 64 Womanagh ... 191 65 Owenboy ... 230 66 Stick 231 67 Bandon 229 68 Argideen 232 69 Rowry ... 234 15 Western Series : 70 lien ... 233 71 Leamawaddra and 2 streams 235 to 237 72 Owvam and 2 streams ... 22510227 73 Glengariff and 5 streams ... 21910224 74 Sheen ?i8 1 06 Ballintra and I stream ... 59 & 60 107 Eask 108 Eany water ... 58 109 Oily and I stream 57 no Glen and i stream 55 & 54 7<% Rouehtv 2J7 76 Sneem and 2 streams ... 21410216 77 Inny and 3 others 21010213 2668 2542 2 42 in Owentocker ... 52 & 53 112 Owenaa and 56 2 streams ... 49 & 50] 113 Gweebara 48 78 Caragh and Behy ... 208, 209 114 Gweedore and I stream ... 47 & 22 115 Clady and I stream 23 & 19 XII. COAST SERIES. 16 North Coast: 116 28 Detached Pieces .. 17 East Coast : 117 49 Detached Pieces 18 South Coast : 118 1 8 Detached Pieces 19 West Coast : 119 91 Detached Pieces 20 Islands: 120 Area altogether 1636 1639 Miles. 27 18 61 69 02 79 Laune 207 80 Main and i stream ... 197, 198 8 1 Eight streams 19910206 82 Lee and Tyshe 195, 196 83 Feale 194 2239 2 169 3127 062 342 8 7 2 282 920 080 410 371 932 84 Cooraclare ... 154 85 Creegh and *' 3 others 150 to 153 86 Coolenagh & 2 others 14710149 87 Kinvarra 146 88 Kilcolgan ... 145 89 Clarin 144 90 Owenboliska and 4 others 138 to 142 CANALS AND INLAND NAVIGATIONS. THROUGH ROUTES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. According to Messrs. E. J. LLOYD, C.E. and J. H. TAUNTON, C.E. in May, 1883. Note. An asterisk (*) against the name of a Navigation indicates that it is owned or controlled by a Railway Company, thus affecting the whole Route. , Draft in the dimensions of locks denotes the greatest immersion at which any craft can pass through the Navigation. Name of Canal or | Size of Locl< Navigation. 1 Length. Breadth. Draft. 1 London to "^Regent's 8i Ft. in. Ft. in. QO o bv i tj o Ft. in. 5/-S Liverpool (First Route.) Grand Junction ... Oxford 101 80 o 14 6 No lock 4 6 Warwick & Napton Warwick & Birming- ham 15 22 72 o by 7 o 72 O 7 O 4 o *Birmingham I IT 72 O ., 7 O London to Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... "^Shropshire Unions River Mersey Total River Thames .... X J I* 68 10 245! 20 72 o 7 o 80 o 7 6 Open navigation Open navigation 4 o 4 o Liverpool (Second Route.) Grand Junction . . . Oxford 94 24. 80 o by 14 6 72 O ,, 7O 4 6 Coventry 27 72 O 7 O u ^Birmingham * 1 ri No lock Coventry J 2 ditto. *North Staffordshire Duke of Bridge- water's 6 7 rl 72 o by 7 o SA. o . ic o 3 6 A 6 River Mersey 34: 15 Open navigation 4 u Total . 26*1 CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 17 "Route Name of Canal or A/Tilpq Size of Lock Navigation. Length. Breadth. Draft. London to Liverpool River Thames Grand Junction 20 04 Ft. in. Ft. in. Open navigation 80 o by 14 6 Ft. in. A g (Third Route). Oxford c 72 O ,, 7 O q. \J 40 Warwick & Napton Warwick and Bir- mingham j *5 22 72 o 7 o 72 O , 7 O u 4 o 40 ^Birmingham It 72 O ,, 7O 40 Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... *North Staffordshire Duke of Bridg- water's River Mersey A 3 23 55 si J 5 72 o 7 o 72 o 7 o 85 o 15 o Open navigation 4 o 3 6 4 6 Total ...... 260! 2 London to ^Regent's 84 oo o bv i ^ o 50 u Hull (First Route). Grand Junction . . . Grand Union ...... 96 24 yvx uj A 3 w 80 o 14 6 72 O .. 7 O 4 6 40 Leicester & North- ampton T 8 80 o ,, I 1 ? o w 3 6 Leicester 16 7o o ,, 14. o o *< / 72 O ,. 7 O 40 ^Birmingham / 1-1 No lock Coventry 2 t-l ditto. *North Staffordshire Trent D 2 26 TQ2 72 o by 7 o OO O I ^ O 3 6 1 6 River Humber i8i Open navigation o Total 327 18 GREAT BRITAIN. Route. Name of Canal or Navigation. Miles. Size of Lock. Length. Breadth. Draft. 3 London to Severn Ports (First Route). London to Severn Ports (Second Route). London to Severn Ports (Third Route). London to Severn Ports (Fourth Route). River Thames Kennet 781 I* 74 ii 'Si Ft. in. Ft. in. Open navigation 120 o by 1 8 o 75 o 14 6 108 o 18 6 Open navigation 109 o by 17 8 78 o 80 72 o 17 6 \ Altered to \ I2 3 (72 o | 72 o 17 6 No lock 140 o by 22 o 109 o 17 8 90 o 14 o 72 o 12 6 72 o 17 6 Open navigation 80 o by 14 6 72 o 70 72 o 70 72 o 7 o 72 o 70 72 o 70 150 o 30 o 100 o 24 o Ft. in. 4 6 4 6 4 O 4 O 4 O A, O 4 6 18 o 4 o 4 6 4 6 4 4 o 4 O 4 o 5 6 6 o 6 o *Kennet and Avon... *Avon to Hanham.. Avon Tideway Total Thames i8ol 37' 20* 7 9 Wilts and Berks ... Thames and Severn Stroudwater Sharpness Docks, Gloucester and Berkeley, Section to Sharpness Total ... . Thames 180 28| 8 Thames and Severn Stroudwater to Tide- wav Total 20 94 5 7 ! 24 3 16 River Tham es Grand Junction Oxford Warwick and Nap- ton Warwick and Bir- mingham *Stratford-on-Avon. . . Sharpness Docks, Worcester Section Severn Gloucester & Berke- ley to Sharpness Total 224 CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 19 Name of \filpc Size of Lock Canal or Navigation. Length. Breadth. Draft. 4 Liverpool River Mersey 10 Ft. in. Ft. in. Open navigation Ft. in. to Severn Ports (First Route). ^Shropshire Union... Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... Severn 68 26f AA 80 o by 7 6 72 o 70 OQ O 2O O A 4 o 6 o Gloucester and Berkeley ft 16 100 o 24. o 6 o Total r6/i i Liverpool to River Mersey 1U^. 2 T cr Open navigation Severn Ports (SecondRoute). Duke of Bridg- water's A o el 84 o by i ^ o 4 6 *North Staffordshire Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... ^Birmingham .... D 4 55 2I| T cr 72 o 7 o 72 o 7 o 72 O 7 O 3 6 4 o 4O Worcester and Bir- mingham x j 5Q / * J / w 72 O . 7 O q 6 Severn O w ?o I c|O O .. ^O O 6 o Gloucester and Berkeley o w 16 100 o 24. o 6 o 5 Liverpool to Hull (First Route). Total ... Leeds and Liverpool Aire and Calder ... River Ouse 187! 127 35 8 70 o ,, 16 o 212 0,,22 Open navigation 4 o 9 o River Humber i8i ditto Liverpool Total ... River Mersey i88i 1C Open navigation to Hull (SecondRoute). Duke of Bridg- water's 26* 84. o bv i =; o 4 6 Rochdale -2 ? 7-? o ,, 14. o 4 6 Calder and Hebble (in course of im- provement) . 22 <1 O 14 O 4 6 Aire and Calder ... River Ouse River Humber 35 8 i8i 212 O 22 O Open navigation ditto 9 o Total ... 158* 20 GREAT BRITAIN. Name of VT :]_ Size of Lock Route. Canal or Navigation. Length. Breadth. Draft. Liverpool River Mersey I C Ft. in. Ft. in. Open navigation Ft. in. to Hull (Third Route). Duke of Bridg- water's J O 26| 84 o bv i ^ o 4 6 Rochdale I T\ o ,, 14 o 4 6 *Ashton 6 8V o , 86 4 6 *Huddersfield IQi 7O O ,, 7 O 4 6 *Sir John Ramsden's Calder and Hebble Aire and Calder (original improved) River Ouse A y 4 3* J 3 35 8 53 o 14 o 58 o 14 o 212 ,, 22 Optn navigation 4 6 5 6 9 6 River Humber iSk ditto 6 South Staf- fordshire Total ... ^Birmingham (average) . . i46f I 2 72 O bv 7 O 40 Mineral Dis- trict to Warwick and Bir- mingham 22 72 O ,, 7 O 40 London. Warwick and Napton Oxford J 5 c 72 o 7 o No lock 4 o Grand Junction ... ^Regent's IOI 85 80 o 14 6 QO O ,, I ^ O 4 6 So w 7 South Staf- fordshire Total .. ^Birmingham (average) .. 163* IO 72 O bv 7 O 40 Mineral Dis- trict to Liverpool (First Route). Staffordshire and Worcestershire . . . *North Staffordshire Duke of Bridg- water's 21* 55 72 o 7 o 72 o 7 o 84 O I J O 4 o 3 6 40 River Mersey i5 Open navigation South Staf- fordshire Total ... * Birmingham (average) . io6fc IO 72 O bv 7 O 40 Mineral Dis- trict to Liverpool (Second Route). Staffordshire and Worcestershire . . . * Shropshire Union... River Mersey i* 68 IO 72 o 7 o 80 o 7 6 Open navigation 4 o 4 o Total ... 8 9 1 CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 21 Name of Miles Size of Lock Canal or Navigation. Length. Breadth. Draft. 8 South Staf- fordshire ^Birmingham (average) . 21 Ft. in. Ft. in. 72 o by 7 o Ft. in. 4 Mineral Dis- Coventry m 1 C- No lock trict to Hull. *North Staffordshire Trent 26 IO2 72 o by 9 o QO O ,, IS O 3 6 T 6 River Humber i8 Open navigation 9 South Staf- fordshire Total ... ^Birmingham (averasfe) 179 IO 72 o by 7 o 4 Mineral Dis- trict to Worcester Section... Severn 30 3Q 72 o 7 o I^O O .. ^O O 5 6 6 o Severn Ports (First Route). Gloucester and Berkeley Section 16 TOO 24 6 o South Staf- Total ... ^Birmingham 86 7 72 o by 7 o 4 fordshire Stourbridge 7 72 o ., 7 o 4 Mineral Dis- trict to Severn Ports Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... Severn 12 AA 72 o 7 o QQ O ,, 2O O 4 o 6 o (Second Route). Gloucester and Berkeley Section 16 100 o 24 o 6 o South Staf- Total ... *Birmingham 86 IO 72 o by 7 o 4 O fordshire Mineral Dis- trict to Staffordshire and Worcestershire ... Severn 25 A A 72 o 7 o 00 ,. 2O O 4 o 6 o Severn Ports (Third Route). 10 Bristol and South Coast. Gloucester and Berkeley Section Total ... Bristol and Taunton * Grand Western Canal 16 95 4i 4.2 100 o 24 o No record 6 o Total ... 83 22 GREAT BRITAIN. CANALS AND INLAND NAVIGATIONS. SUMMARY OF LENGTH. England and Wales. North Britain. Ireland . Total. I. TT Under Independent Canal Companies Under Public Trusts 14771 I Ol^ir 8 4 J o 164 I 5 62i i 177! III. IV. Controlled by Railway Companies ... Converted into Railways or Derelict... I 35<>} 472i 106 9 2 1 A / / 4 I548J 472i I. CANALS BELONGING TO INDEPENDENT CANAL COMPANIES. Name of Canal. Size of Craft. Length. By the Board of Trade. ENGLAND AND WALES. Aberdare Canal, Wales Ft. in. Ft. in. 70 c by 10 9 Miles. 6 i Miles. 7 Aire and Calder Canal 212 O ,, 22 O 80 80 Barnsley Canal, incorporated with Aire and Calder ic Baybridge Canal No record 3! Birmingham and Warwick Junction Bradford Canal 7 1 o by 70 66 o . 1^2 J 2 Bridgwater, Duke of, Canal 84 O .. I ^ O 2C) ^Qr Britton Canal, Wales No record 41 oyi Bude Canal, Devon < 104 o by 29 6 ilS* v\ Caistor Canal, Lincolnshire 6 3 > X 4 7 No record | OJ2 4 oj'2 Calder and Hebble Navigation, leased to Aire & Calder Canal Co. Carlisle Canal No record IlJ 22 Chelmer and Blackwater, Essex ditto 14 14 Coventry Canal... 72 o bv 7 O r*i *2* Derby Canal QO O ,, 14. 6 3*2 18 3*2 18 Driffield Canal, York s Si *4 Erewash Canal 72 6 ., 14. 6 i if 8 Glamorganshire Canal, Wales 67 o , 10 6 2 ^i 26^ Sharpness New Docks & Gloucester and Birmingham Navigation, in- cluding Gloucester & Berkeley Canal < Droitwich Canal 163 o 29 6 115 o 29 6 81 6 13 6 82 o ,. 14. 6 ^02 !" 6 - 78* Droitwich Junction Birmingham & Worcester Canal 82 o 70 71 o 70 1} 3 CANALS AND NA V1GA TIONS. Name of Canal. Size of Craft. Length. By the Board of Trade. Grand Junction Canal (London and Northampton) Ft. in. Ft. in. 8 1 6 by 14 o Miles. I'zr Miles. i \^ Grand Surrey Canal . . . 4-3. OJ A% Grand Union Canal 7 1 O , 7 O 26 4f 26 Grosvenor Canal (part) j Hertford Union Canal & Regent's (pt.) Horncastle Canal, Lincolnshire 90 o 15 o No record ioj 1 1 6 Kid welly Canal, Wales No record ^ Leeds and Liverpool Canal < Leicester and Melton Mowbray 76 oby 15 2 66 o 15 2 70 o ,, 14 6 02 JI42 16 144 16 Leicester and Northampton Canal . . . Leven and Hull Canal , Yorks Liskeard and Love Canal, Cornwall Louth Canal, Lincolnshire 88 o 15 6 72 o 17 o No record 87 6 bv i ^ $ 24 3 sf 1 1} 24 3 Neath Canal, Wales No record 14 North Walsham and Dilham Canal Nutbrook or Shipley Canal ditto ditto 4^ Oxford Canal 71 oby 70 01 01 Penelawd Canal, Wales No record 4 Portsmouth and Arundel (part) Canal Rochdale Canal 80 o by 14 o T\ O ,. 14. 2 4 4.2 4 -?c; Saint Columb Canal 6 OJ 6 Shorncliffe Canal . . ___ ^o ?o Sleaford Canal Lincolnshire 60 o , 1 s o o^ I2x Somersetshire Coal Canal 70 o , 80 7+ 1 1 Staffordshire & Worcestershire Canal StourbridgeNavig. Woices. and Staffs. Stroud water Canal 71 o , 70 71 o , 70 72 o , 17 6 50 8 So 7 Surrey Dock Canal 4^ 4^ Tavistock Canal 74 O ,, 80 T-2 *T2 4 Thames and Medway Canal 04 8 22 8 9 Thames and Severn Canal < Warwick and Birmingham Canal 86 o 17 6 72 o 12 3 72 O ,, 7O >- 224 39l 224 Warwick and Napton Canal 72 O ,, 7O **2 I c I I4tt Wey and Arun Canal < 84 o 14 3 *3 I 20 18 Wilts and Berks Canal, and North Wilts Canal 81 6 14 3 78 o 80 J 68} 68f Wisbeach Canal ] 54 o 14 o I S J si 92 O T2 6 J Total I 2!Of 24 GREAT BRITAIN. Name of Canal or Navigation. Size of Craft. Length. By the Board of Trade. NAVIGATIONS. Arun River (part of) Sussex Ft. in. Ft. in. 78 o by 1 2 o Miles. i? Miles. Avon River (part of) Warwick 80 o ,, 16 ^ 2^ Driffield River, Yorks 6f 6f Medway River, Upper Navigation . . . Medway River Lower Navigation . . . Mersey and Irwell Navigation (with Duke of Bridgwater Canal) Parret Navigation Somerset Various 86 o by 23 o 84 o 15 o \ 57 16 I5 7f 57 Rother River, Sussex No record ii SoarRiver, orLongboroughNavigation Stort River, Staffordshire 70 o by 14 6 TOO o . 1^6 8 1*1 i 3 J Tamar Navigation Devonshire .... No record A O2 22 Trent River Navigation, Notts oo o bv i ^ o 72 72 y w ' '-'j x o v Total of Navigations 267 NORTH BRITAIN. Aberdeenshire Canal No record IO Borrowstorness Canal *5f 7 Caledonian Canal 2T. Crinan Canal * o oi Glenkenn's Canal y 2 2 c|. ^0* Total 8 4 i *-"+4 IRELAND. Under Independent Companies None. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 25 II. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS UNDER PUBLIC TRUSTS. Name of Canal cr Navigation. Size of Craft. Length. By the Bd. of Trade. ENGLAND AND WALES. Adur River, Sussex Ft. in. Ft. in. No record Miles. 14 Miles. Ancholme Navigation 70 o by 18 o igi 10 Arun River, Sussex < 78 o ,, 12 o y 2 I j*J A. von, Bristol 79 o 12 o No record j 31 ii4 Axe River, Somerset ditto 02 Bedford Level and Ouse ditto I-2C Bly the River, Suffolk ditto 1 9 l_ Bourne Eare River, Lincolnshire . . . Bure or North River, Norfolk ditto ditto 1 3 3* Q j 9* Colne River, Essex ditto 4 Dee River, Cheshire No locks IO IO Exeter Canal to coast No record c c Foss Navigation York ditto Mi Idle River Nottingham ditto *~2 IO Ilchester and Langport Navigation, Somerset . .. No record 7 Itchin Navigation 7 o o bv i ~\ o 14 Ivel River, Hertford and Bedford... Larke River Suffolk ditto No locks II II II Lea River, Hertfordshire andj branch Canals j 96 o by 20 o 96 o 18 o 06 o ,, 16 o } " 33i Little Ouse, or Brandon andWaveney Nene River 96 o 13 o 80 O .. 14 O j 22|- CO 24 Narr River, Norfolk No record 14 Ouse River, Sussex ditto ^o __ Ouse River, York 70 o by 22 6 60 60 Ribble Navigation, Lancashire No locks II Severn (Trust) < 270 oby35 o 150 o 30 o t 44 Severn (Free) 100 ,, 2O 99 o 20 o No locks 1 18 Stour River, Essex and Suffolk 20 20 Thames, from London Bridge . . . < Weaver Navigation Cheshire .. .. 140 oby 22 o 109 o 17 8 90 o 14 6 146 22 Welland River No record 37 = Wye River to Hereford (Free) No locks 37 26 GREAT BRITAIN. Name of Canal or Navigation. Size of Craft. Length. By the Bd. of Trade. Wye and Lugg (See Derelict) ft. in. Ft. in. Miles. \Miles. oni Wey River No record 20 772 2O Total TOT 7-t NORTH BRITAIN. Canals under Public Trusts - LWA o4 None 1 IRELAND. Grand Canal No record 164 ! 164. III. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS OWNED OR CONTROLLED BY RAILWAY COMPANIES. Name of Railway Company. Name of Canal or Navigation. Size of Craft. Length . By the Bd. of Trade. ENGLAND AND WALES. Ft. in. Ft. in. Miles. Miles. Lancashire & York- Manchester, Bolton, shire Railway. & Bury Canal .... 68 o by 15 o 15 16 London & North- Birmingham Canals . 72 o 70 169 160 Western Railway. Shropshire Union . < 80 o 15 o 80 o 76 j 203 203! Lancaster Canal... < 72 o 14 6 66 o 15 2 1 60 60 Huddersfield Canal . 70 o 70 19! 231 St. Helen's or Sankey Canal No record 12 i6~ Newport Pagneli (Converted) 71 o 70 3 Sir John Ramsden's . 53 o 14 2 3t 4 Total 47o| Manchester, Shef- Chesterfield Canal . 71 o by 6 10 46 46 field, & Lincoln- Macclesfield Canal . 82 o 73 26J 26-J shire Railway. Peak Forest Canal . 81 o ., 80 2T 15 Dearne and Dove . . . 57 o ,, 15 o 14 \ Stain forth & Keadby 68 o 17 6 13 ( i Dun Navigations ... 61 6 15 3 39 ( 2 Sheffield Canals 6 1 6 ,, 15 2 3i ) Ashton-under-Lyne and Oldh'am 83 o 89 J 7i ni Total i8oj CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 27 Name of Railway Name of Canal or Company. ' Navigation. Size of Craft. Length. By the Bd. of Trade. I ] Ft. in. Ft. in. Miles. Miles. Midland Railway. Ashby-de-la-Zouche Canal 7i obv 7o 26| 3 Oakham (Converted) 72 o 14 6 24 Cromford & High/ 72 o 14 6 1 8 16 Peak Canal ( 80 72 1 77 / i Total 66J Great Western Grand Western Canal No record 12 12 Railway. Bridgwater and Taunton Canal ... 60 o by 1 3 9 J 5i J 5j Kennet & Avon C ( and both rivers., j 120 O l8 i 08 o 18 6 \l 86| ( 75 o 14 6 ) Stratford-on-Avon ... 71 o 70 2 5: 2 5i Stourbridge Exten- sion 71 o ,, 70 9 3 Hereford & Glouces- ter (Converted) ... 73 o 80 34 34 Swansea Canal . . No record i7 17 Tone and Parret . . . / 12 Monmouthshire, Brecon and Aber- gavenny Canals... 68 6 by 10 o 54 54 Stover Canal, Devon 2 2 Total 3 Great Eastern Stowmarket Naviga- Ds A Railway. tion 76 o by 14 6 17 16 Lowestoft & Norwich / J \ Navigation No record 3 3 Total 47 Great Northern Fossdyke Navigation No record T^ / II ro$ Railway. Grantham Canal ... 91 oby 14 6 33i 33 Louth Navigation . . . No record 14 nf Nottingham Canal . 91 o by 14 6 15 Z 4f With am Navigation . 74 4 17 3 3 1 34 Total m 104! 28 GREAT BRITAIN. Name of Railway Company. Name of Canal or Navigation. Size of Craft. Length. By the Bd. of Trade. North-Eastern Railway Hull and Leven ... Leven . Ft. in. Ft. in. No record ditto Miles. 12 -3 Miles. Pocklington Canal . Market Weighton Canal 60 6 by 15 o 60 6 i 6 6 O 9 1 1 9 Ure Navigation ... .". No record 7l 7f Derwent River, Yorks AC o bv i ^ o / 4 4-Oi 38 T-J *"' *V *p * Total 83} North Stafford- shire Railway Newcastle-under- Lynie No locks 2 Trent and Mersey f Navigation { 72 6 by 14 6 *7O O *7 O O I" 8 118 Total 121 South-Eastern Railway. Gravesend & Roches- ter Canal No record 6| 61 4: 4 Regent's Canal & Railway Com- pany. Regent's Canal Ql ol "**} .74 .74 Furness Railway. Ulverstone Canal ... Ij i ^ NORTH BRITAIN. North British Railway. Edinburgh&Glasgow Union Canal No record 02 2 Caledonian Rail- way. Forth & Clyde Junc- tion Canal o- 6 c-? Glasgow and Sth. Wstrn. Railway Glasgow, Paisley, and Ardrossan Canal... Monkland Canal . . . II 10 II 10 Total 1 06 IRELAND. Midland Great Western Rlwy Royal Canal Total O2 02 y^ y* CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 29 IV. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS CONVERTED INTO RAILWAYS OR DERELICT. How Disposed of. Name of Canal or Navigation, Size of Craft. Length. By other accnts. ENGLAND AND WALES. Abandoned Alford Canal Ft. in. Ft. in. No record Miles. 6\ Miles. 6J T")pj-p1ipf Andover Canal 6 c o bv 8 6 U 2 2 2 1 22^ Derelict Basingstoke Canal 12 6 14 O 27-1 77-1. Derelict Combe Hill Canal 72 O .. 14 O o/ 4 4~ o / 4 jl Ahindonpfl Croydon Canal . Q 1 O2 9JL Derelict Glastonbury Canal ... No record 72 I4 2 I4i Abandoned ... Converted . Grosvenor Canal (part) Hereford & Gloucester 7-?o bv 8 o I ^4 I T.A Abandoned ... Converted . . Kensington Canal (part) Leominster & Hereford No record 2 2 Canal 71 O bv 7 O 46 22 Derelict Melton Mowbray Canal QI O ,, 14 O I4l Converted . . . Derelict Newport Pagnell Canal Oakham Canal (part) . 71 o 70 72 6 ,, 14 6 **r 3 24 li 1C Derelict Portsmouth & Arundel Canal (part) 80 o 14. o III 8 Converted . . . Somerset Canal (part) 70 o ,, So A1 7 71 Derelict ... Wey & Arun Junction Canal 81 o . 14 i 18 18 Derelict NAVIGATIONS. Avon River (Warwick part of) 82 6 .. is 6 16! i8j Nearly disused Severn River No locks 4 1-28 4 Derelict Wye (part of) 62 Total 47 2 -r _ .. - _ 30 GREAT BRITAIN. THE RISE AND DECLINE OF INLAND NAVIGATION. English Canals. Although there was in ancient times much internal navigation, it was then principally conducted on the rivers, some of which were canalised, having stanches of various sorts for maintaining a navigable depth. The canals of that time were few and small, like the Caer Dyke Canal, and the Foss Dyke Canal, improved in A.D. 1121 and 1134; and like the short canal in Cornwall, with an inclined plane, of very ancient date, perhaps pre-Roman. The modern period of canals in England began about 1755 A.D., through the efforts of the Duke of Bridgwater and of Brindley ; it continued until about 1845, when Railway Companies began to buy them up, in order to gain their traffic. The public rights to cheap transport of heavy goods by water were thus over-ridden by Acts of Parliament, obtained through the influence of those gaining by railways. It is said that in 1840, there were about 100 canals, com- prising 3000 miles of navigation, in full employment. Whereas in 1870, the aggregrate length of canals and river navigation, given by the Board of Trade, is 2 437 miles, of which I 636 miles were under the control of railway companies, and much of the remainder blocked or left unused, as well as being out of repair and unimproved for purposes of through traffic. Dividing this century of utilisation of canals into two parts, one before 1800, the other after it, the following were the chief canals made, in order of construction : B< un Name. Miles. Course. 1725 Topsham Canal ... 5 From Topsham to Exeter ( From the Mersey to Longford Bridge, 1758 .Bridgwater Canal 40 < from Longford Bridge to Man- ( Chester, and to Pennington. 1760 Sankey Canal ... } ""* 8 *** tO Sutt n 1761 Newry Canal ... In Ireland. 1770 Monkland Canal... 10 In North Britain. 1771 Leeds & Liverpool 130 From Liverpool to Leeds. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 31 Begun in Name. Miles. Course. ( From the Birmingham and Sheffield 1772 Birmingham Canal 22 J < Canal to the Birmingham and ( Fazeley Canal. 1772 Stafford an dWor- ) Al ( From the Severn to the Grand Trunk cester j -* \ Canal. 1775 Chester Canal ... 17^ From Chester to Nantwich. 1775 Cardiff or Gla- { "(From the Severn, near Cardiff, to morgan J ^ ( Merthyr. /; r-u c u r^ i e. f From Stockwith-on-Trent to Chester- 1776 Chesterfield Canal 46 < r- i -, 1776 Brecknock Canal 33 From Monmouthshire Canal to Brecon 1776 Dudley Canal & ) f From the Worcester and Birmingham branches J 13 J ( Canal. 1776 Dublin & Shan- ) , l j From Dublin to Moy on the Shannon ; non Canal ... j "| branches 38 miles. 1776 Loughborough J 9| J From the Trent to Loughborough . 1777 Grand Trunk . . 130 { A ff* of * e " L frO1 " L n ^. on to J ( Liverpool, on the Trent and Mersey 1777 Ererash Canal ... "fj^J 116 Trent l ^ Cromford unkn. Bristol&Taunton ) ( From Taunton Bridge to the mouth of Canal j ( the Avon. unkn. Edinburgh and ) f From Edinburgh to a junction at Fal- Glasgow j 5 I kirk with the Forth & Clyde Canal. unkn. Foss Dyke Canal i n j From Torksey, on the Trent, to the * j ( Witham (reconstruction). {From near Foxton, on the Leicester and Northampton Canal, to the Grand Junction Canal. 1 788 Royal Irish 68 Apart of the Grand Canal tothe Barrow. 1789 Thames & Severn ) j^ J From the Stroud water Canal to the Canal J 3 2 \ Thames. 1790 Coventry Canal ... 27 { On th f COurse fr0m London tO UvQT ' ( pool. 1790 Andover Canal ... 22 J From Southampton Water to Andover. 1790 Basingstoke Canal 37" From Wye to Basingstoke. 1790 Birmingham and ) ^ ( From Coventry Canal to Birmingham Fazeley j *] Canal. 1790 Fazeley Canal n j Between the Grand Trunk and the ( Coventry Canal. 1790 H Glouceste d r & } & { From Hereford to Gloucester. I79 o Oxford Canal I.. 9 4 { ^A Sn'al" ** * ^ 1790 Forth and Clyde ) , / From Glasgow to the confluence of the Canal j 37 * \ Carron and the Forth. 32 GREAT BRITAIN. Be un Name. 1793 Gloucester and ) Hockeril ...... f 1793 Haslingden ......... 1793 Aberdare Canal ... 1793 Grand Junction ( Canal ............ j 1794 Derby Canal ...... 1794 Cromford Canal ... 1796 Grand Western ) Canal ......... j 1796 Monmouthshire ) Canal ......... J 1796 Wyrley & Essing- ( ton ............ / 1797 Kingston and \ Leominster ... J 1797 Manchester and ( Oldham ......... j 1797 Montgomeryshire . 1797 Shrewsbury Canal 1797 Worcester and \ Birmingham... j Miles. 2oJ 13 j 7f I 147 - 9 43 I 1798 Neath Canal ...... 1798 Swansea Canal ) and branch . . . j 1799 Grantham Canal ... 1799 Lancaster Canal ... mingham 1799 Barnsley Canal Course. From Berkeley Hill, on the Severn, to Gloucester. From Bury to Church on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. From Glamorgan to Aberdare. From Brentford to Braunston on the Oxford Canal, on the course to Liverpool, and forming a junction with the lines to Hull and Bristol. From the Trent to Derby. From Cromford to Langley on the Erewash Canal. From Topsham, at the mouth of the Exe, to Taunton Bridge. 3 From the Fazeley Canal to the Bir- 35? mingham Canal. 45 f From the Severn to Kingston. 1 8 From Rochdale Canal to Huddersfield. 1798 Huddersfield Canal 19^ .. 14 { From Shrewsbury to the Shropshire Canal. From the Severn to the Fazeley and Birmingham Canal. From Huddersfield to the Manchester and Oldham Canal. From the Neath to the Aberdare Canal. 2o|- From Swansea to Hen Noyadd. 33l 76 1799 AVarwick & Napton 15 1799 Warwick and Bir- ) J 2 5 18 From the Trent to Grantham. From Kirby Kendall to Haughton. ( From the Grand Junction Canal to the \ Oxford Canal. ( From Old Birmingham Canal to the ( Warwick and Napton Canal. ( From the Calder near W T akefield to \ Barnsley. CHIEF CANALS OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. Milton Basin to the 1800 Peak Forest 21 1800 Thames & Medway From Chapel Manchester and Oldham Canal. 8 J < From Gravesend to Rochester. CANALS AN.D NAVIGATIONS. 33 Begun in Name. 1801 Croydon Canal ... 1 80 1 Grand Surrey Canal 1 80 1 Kennet and Avon 1 80 1 Wilts and Berks ... 1802 Glenkenns Canal... 1802 Nottingham Canal 1802 Somerset coaH Canal and Rad- > stock branch j 1803 Somerset & Dorset 1803 Caledonian Canal 1804 Ellesmere&Ches- ) ter and branches j 1804 Rochdale Canal ... 1804 Miles. Course. From Croydon to the Grand Surrey Canal. ' From Mitcham to Rotherhithe on the \ Thames. I From the Avon to the Kennet and \ Newbury Canal. | From the Kennet and Avon Canal to ( the Thames and Isis navigation. From Kirkcudbright to Dairy. ( From the Trent to the Cromford \ Canal. 12 57 55 27 16 From the Kennet and Avon Canal to Paulton. , From the Kennet and Avon Canal to 42 | theStour. 2 if From the North Sea to the Atlantic. 109 ( From the Bridgwater Canal to the i JL JLWHI nit jji nag wtitti v^cnidi tv, 3 1 ] Calder and Hebble navigation. 1804 Shorncliffe Canal... 18 1805 Aberdeenshire ( Canal j 1805 Ashby-de-la-Zouche 1805 LeicesterSrNorth- } amptonshire > Union J 1812 Glasgow and Salt- ^ coats j 1814 Regent's Canal ... 1815 Portsmouth and ) Arundel J \ 4o| 43i I From Hythe to the mouth of the \ Rother. i From Aberdeen to the Don. From Ticknall to the Coventry Canal. From Leicester to , Market Har- borough. i f A part of the Glasgow, Paisley and 33* | Ardrossan Canal as far as Johnstone. 9 From Paddington to Limehouse. L ( From the River Arun to a bay near Portsmouth. Finished in ,833. From the to the Arun " 1834 Birmingham and } ( Liverpool June- > -< One of the canals finished last. tion ............ j ( NOTE. The discrepancies in the details are sometimes due to alterations ; but all information on this subject is inexact and incomplete. 34 GREAT BRITAIN. DATES OF ACQUISITION OF CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS UNDER THE CONTROL OF RAILWAY COMPANIES. 'ACCORDING TO THE STATEMENT OF THE BOARD OF TRADE. Canal or Navigation. Miles. Act. ENGLAND & WALES. 1845. Huddersfield Canal ... 1 9 f 8 & 9, c. Norwich and Lowe- ) f 8 & 9, c. stoft Navigation J ^ 1 25 & 26,0. St Helen's (Sankeyl fi3 ( 8&9,c. Brook) Canal ...j ? |27&28,c. Sir J.Ramsden's Canal 4 8 & 9, c. Ure Navigation 7f 8 & 9, c. 1846. Ashby Canal 30 9 & 10, c. Name of Railway Company, and Conditions of Acquisition. 105 Amalgamated with Lon.&N.W. 45 I Purchased by Great Eastern. 117^ Amalgamated with the London 296 j and North- Western. 64 Purchased by London & N.W. Purchased by Leeds & Thirsk, now North-Ea stein. I04 203 Purchased by the Midland. ( Guarantee in perpetuity of 4 Birmingham Canal ... 160 2 & 10, c. 244 < per cent, by the London and ( North- Western Company. 358 Purchased by Man. Shfld.&Linc. 7 1 Leased for 894 years by the G.N. 155 Leased for 999 years by the G.N. Chesterfield Canal ... 46 9 & 10, c. Foss Dyke Navigation lo-J 9 & 10, c. Grantham Canal 33 9&io, c. Grave send and \ Rochester Canal j Ipswich &Stowmar- ) , (9 & 10, c. ket Navigation J ' \ 25 & 26,0 6f 9 & 10, c. 339 Amalgamated with S.-Eastern. Manchester,Bolton, ) ,-r, f^ i > and Bury Canal J ), C. 1 06 ) Leased by the Great Eastern 223 J for 42 years. ( Leased in perpetuity by the Macclesfield Canal... 26? 9&io, 0.267- Manchester, Sheffield, and ( Lincolnshire. J Amalgamated with the Lanca- I shire and Yorkshire. ' The Canal Company became a Railway Company in 1846, and the whole Undertaking, including the Brecon and Abergavenny Canal, was vested in the G.W. Railway Company in 1880 (c. no). 155 Leased by G. N. for 999 years. Monmouthshire Canals 20 9 & 10, c. 371 ^ Nottingham Canal ... 14! 9& 10, c. Peak Forest Canal ... 15 9 & 10, c. Stratford-upon-Avon) j & Shropshire Union ) 3 (9 & 10, c. Canals ............ / 2 3? { io&n,c , ( Leased in perpetuity by the - 7 ( Man. Sheffield, & Lincoln. 278 Purchased by the Gt. Western. 1 Became a Railway Company in 1846, and then leased in perpetuity, under an Act of 1847, to the Lond. & N.W. CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. Canal or Navigation. Miles. Act. Na e of Railway Company and Conditions of Acquisition. sion Canal ... J 3 9 & I0 ' c ' 2?8 Purchased b y Great Western. Trent and Mersey) . J ... R (Amalgamated with North Staf- Canals I I0} c< r 1 fordshire. Witham Navigation... 31! 9 & 10, c. 71 Leased for 999 years to G.N. 1847. Dearne and Dove) , (Leased for 999 years by the Navigation [ J ? (I 1 Manchr., Shffield,& Lincoln. Dun Navigation 39 10 & n, c. 291 Purchased by Man. Shfld.& Line. ( 10 & T T ^ ^ Louth Navigation 12 Pocklington Canal ... Stamforth & Kead-) by Canal ......... } 1848. Ashton and Oldham ) i Canal ............... j x 7 * * r 2 > c> g' Leased by Great Northern. 9 10 & n,c. 216 Purchased by the N.-Eastern q\ 10 & n, c. 216 Purchased by the N.-Eastern. n (Purchased by the Manchester, ' * I3 c< 29 | Sheffield, and Lincolnshire. (Leased in perpetuity to Man- ' | Chester, Sheffield, & Lincoln. Canal 1852. -,,* , , 7S Kennet and Avon) Q<1 . . Canals . 86| 15 & 16, c. 140 1862. Ulverston Canal Stover Canal . ,5 & *6, c. Purchased by the Great Wes- tern. The Board of Trade may, under certain condi- tions, regulate, the tolls. Furness Railway / Amalgamated with the More- o , tonhampstead and South 2 5 & 2 6,c. I2 8 De vo n Railway Company, I now Great Western. 1864. /- j -ITT , n i o (Purchased by Bristol and Grand Western Canal 12 a 7 & 2 8,c. 184 1 Enete, nowfteat Western. Caster Cana, ...... 60 2? & 2 8, c. Ne L w y ^ stl . e : u . nd . er :} ? ^ &2 8 )C . I 1865. Brecon and Aberga-) |28 & 29, c. 280} Purchased by Monmouthshire, venny Canal ...... j 34 ( 43 & 44, c. 1 1 3 ) now Great Western. 1866. Bridgwater and) l K , (Purchased by Bristol and Exeter Taunton Canal... j J j 29 & 3 ' C * 9 ( now Great Western. 34 33 & 34,c. 83 Vested in Great Wester, 30 GREA T BRITAIN. . . .... . , Name of Railway Company and Canal or Navigation. Miles. Act. Conditions of Acquisition. Cromford and High) j6 33 & ^ c 6 ^ Purchased by Midland. Jr eak. C_^anal ...... ) 1872. Swansea Canal ...... 17 35 & 36, c. 152 Vested in the Great Western. 1882. o p , (Vested in the Regent's Canal, The Regent's Canal 9} 45 & 46, c. 262 1 ^^ ^ Rail y Company ; Total in England and Wales i 259 NORTH BRITAIN. 1848. Edinburgh & Glas- j & Purchased by the North British. gow Union Canal) 1867. Forth and Clyde } , f Amalgamated with the Caledo- Jimction Canal...) 53 3<* 3', c. ioO| nan> Total inN. Britain. 85 IRELAND. ^ (Purchased by the Midland Royal Canal ......... 92 8& 9, c. n 9 { Great Western. Total Length in Great Britain and Ireland i 436 Board of Trade, May, 1883. CANALS AND NA VIGA TIONS. 37 THE CANAL COMMITTEE OF 1883. A select committee inquired into the subject of English Canals in 1883, and obtained some valuable evidence; of which the following is an abstract : Edward John Lloyd, C.E., and engineering manager of canals, drew attention to existing defects ; among which are: (i) The numerous companies owning parts of a through-course or communication. (2) The different gauges of these parts in waterway and in locks. (3) The faulty construction in section of waterway from sloping sides. (4) The present sections are not economic for steam-haulage. (5) The want of systematised through tolls. (6) That the canal companies do not all supply boats and haulage. (7) That the canal companies are not forced to give sufficient statistics relating to their canals and their traffic, the speed possible, the obstructions, and the wharfage available. (8) That the amalgamation of canal companies is hindered by railway control of links, by purchase and interference. (9) Bad condition of canals owned by railway companies. His proposals are : (i) That canal boats should be 1 10 feet long, n feet wide, 6 feet deep, capacity 120 tons ; and the waterways and locks altered to suit their size, being 1 20 x 12 x 7 feet, throughout through-courses. (2) That strictly mileage tolls should be charged on through-routes, and that these should be uniform throughout a route. William Brown Clegram, C.E., and engineering manager of canals, recommended: (i) Such a general improvement of canals as would enable boats of 40 tons of cargo to pass through all the waterways of the kingdom. (2) The locks to be 70 feet long, 7 to 8 feet wide, depth on sill of 5 to 6 feet. (3) That canals in a defective or imperfect state should be transferred to effective companies. (4) That all canals be emancipated from the control of railway companies. (5) That some public authority should be allowed to have compulsory powers in these matters of transfer. John Hooke Taunton, C.E., and engineering manager of canals, represented the inefficiency of some canals, the want of capital 38 GREAT BRITAIN. for carrying out repairs and improvements, and the loss of traffic owing directly to railway competition. Leveson Harcourt, C.E., of experience in hydraulic matters, says that: (i) The want of statistical information prevents improvement from being estimated ; that an investigation is necessary. (2) Thinks that all the canals should be under one administration. (3) Considers there are difficulties in the way of State purchase of the canals. James Abernethy, C.E., of experience in canal matters, re- commended that : (i) Canals should in any through-route follow the pattern of the Aire and Calder Canals. (2) That on through-routes enlarged locks be made to accommodate vessels of 1 50 to 200 tons. (3) That with steam haulage the times of delivery of goods should be regulated. (4) That the canal banks would require protection against waste. (5) In some instances recommends inclined planes or vertical lifts. (6) He considers restrictions and regulations in some cases necessary for the protection of the public ; also that there should be compulsory sale of canals owned by railway companies. (7) Advocates the purchase and administration of the canals by the State. (8) Mentions that some canals earn large dividends. William Hamond Bartholomew, C.E., managing engineer of canals, noticed : (i) The undue expense involved in bringing canal cases before the Commissioners in London. (2) He con- siders the cheapest haulage is that by steam tugs carrying cargo. (3) That canals require improvement generally before adopting steam-haulage. (4) That railway influence prevents amalgamation of canal companies. (5) Suggests that canal leases should provide for compulsory purchase at the end of lease, so as to facilitate amalgamations. (6) Notices the need of authority for enforcing through rates on any intermediate links of canal. (7) Recommends compulsory arbitration in most matters in preference to compulsory action of the Board of Trade. Francis Rcubillac Conder, C.E., of canal experience, thinks that : (i) About Q 000 per mile of canal should be spent on improvements. (2) That the locks on the Grand Junction CANALS AND NAVIGATIONS. 39 Canal, 88 x 15, should be generally adopted ; the depth increased to 7 feet. (3) That the State should not purchase the canals, but should remove impediment to their use, (4) Suggests a permanent scientific commission to deal with the subject. (5) Mentions the need of full statistics of canals published by authority. (6) Believes in the obstructive action of railway companies. (7) Necessity for full report in detail by competent engineers as to the whole of the internal navigation of the country. (8) Proposes loo-ton boats and endless chain haulage on through-routes ; but considers small canals and small boats sufficient for agricultural districts. (9) Believes in compelling railway companies to keep their canals open for traffic even when worked at a loss. (10) Considers that the restoration of canal traffic is necessary to the maintenance of inland manu factures. Fred. Morton, railway and [canal carrier, of large experience, mentions that : (i) Under the present unfavourable conditions of comparison, the cost of haulage for long distances by canal is greater than by railway; but for short distances it is less. (2) That canals have a great advantage in a continuous siding. (3) That there are great difficulties about tolls for through traffic. (4) That if 8o-ton boats be adopted on through routes, the canal traffic will be very large, much time will be saved, and the cost of transit will be reduced. (5) That if boats of 200 tons were used through, the cost of transit would be further reduced. (6) That putting canal boats to discharge into vessels in port effects great economy. (7) The improvement of the canal system would benefit British manufacturers greatly. (8) He proposes that powers should rest with the Railway Commissioners as to canal matters. General F. Rundall, of canal experience, suggests as arrange- ments for main routes, adaptation to steam haulage, and boats from 200 to 300 tons; locks 150 x 20, with 8J feet depth on sill ; a single control, uniform mileage tolls at a low rate, and, if necessary, purchase and administration by the State. James A llport, railway director, believes that : ( I ) In conveying coal, canal through-routes could not at all compete with railways. (2) That truck-loads are more convenient than boat-loads of coal. (3) That the interest of the public is, with the railways, 43 GREAT BRITAIN. not with the canals. (4) That the canal interest should be left to take care of itself. (5) That expenditure on through routes of canals would be very wasteful. (6) That, besides coal, all heavy goods and raw material can be more cheaply conveyed by railway than by canal on long through routes. (7) That railway companies would be wise to sell such canals as they have bought at the price of purchase. (8) That the disadvantage of canals consists in the necessity for locks, and the consequent obstruction of traffic ; that lifts or inclined planes have little advantage over locks. (9) That canals are good for short distances and for places unaccommodated with railways. The bulk of evidence was to the effect : (i) That canal transport is far cheaper for all heavy goods, on canals in suitable condition than on railways. (2) That the time of transit would be about the same. (3) That the emancipation of English canals from the control of the railway interest was very desirable. (4) That amalgamation of canal companies, improvement of waterways, and uniform mileage rates, were necessary. (5) That State or Municipal control would be necessary to prevent financial mismanagement, and to protect the public against the tyranny of vested interests, that might repeat itself in another form. TJie results that might have been effected by the Committee : (i) To declare that the compulsory purchase of all through canals, at original prices, was necessary. (2) To advise the creation of special Government funds for purposes of canals. (3) To recommend that all canals be placed under public trusts, or assigned to local boards or companies in trust. (4) To advise the construction of eight or nine enlarged through-routes, as soon as the details were determined by a conference of experts. The actual results were, to do nothing at all ; the treatment being parallel to that in the case of the water-companies, and many other cases of oppression under unjust free contract ; that is, in favour of the plutocrats and to the detriment of the public. Such neglects can only culminate in mob-rule. STORAGE WORKS. 41 pq H w OS M hH P4 to U! 3 o & * H O fc r/j <^ 5. pit o^ H "* 0> u g 3 w I & c: o X O 10 NO M WOO ro 10 vo o o to o ^r-3 ro 00 00 VO ro r^ S* o o O O O O o o o o ci vo 00000000 ooo^toooo OOOMOOOO OOOOOOfOOO 10 M MM co O CO o ^ o g 18 o o o o 000 000 VO O N 4S o ^ ^ I o SB I II! o o o o O *o OO vo O CO OO ON O HI O O O vo O 10 O , O ON O M O I . O 1 O CO O ^ O to s^ I .a 8 Q o S fj H o o o o O 00 M t~>. ro o o 000 O 10 O M 00 O 000 o Oo O 10 10 O VO 10 o o M O ro O M vOO 000 OOO 000 O toco 00 ro O O O 10 O O O M vo Tj-00 t^ HI CO O M 00 ON *> i.s^^ "0~0 oo oo-^o^oo^^tioooo SO OOOOOr-(OO(MOOOOiO O OOCOOOOOO-^HOSOOOCO O =< S ^ fe i__i o o V^/ o O v^ w i-H C : H 6 % ' UNIVERSITY 42 GREAT BRITAIN. I>-00 O vo - CM O O O O CO O "^f O O O O *O O rH O O *O W7) ^H O "^ ^HOOCOOt-O O CO cq COOO OOOOOO OO OO COOOOOOOOOCO PH ^ ii ^ ^ d, PH'O ^ PH ^. t3 eu^5 13 ^ dn^ndTJ ^ 73 ^ ^< H HrvrR Ci >- ^CJrx'cj'^ br^ t Cjl^ b "^ >; , O W o U ^^ fl S 5 3 K W W B W B K K -ITO A H 3 3 STORAGE WORKS. 5.8 8 .a CL,J3 rt 3 uu OCNfCQOOOOOO o\ w*>.comovooo MVO 1 rt- 1 vo | 1 cot- O O vo O Tf CO O OO ^-00 H ^ OOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOO O M O OOO^OO O O O r;O M 00 1000 O 000 o o * OOO O oo ON M M M M 10 I I I .hoo OOO 2 3" CL, CO 11 COMMM OO <^\ ro M O O iO\O MO v Ot^'-' w O ^t" lOOO O M O OOO CO M O O O O O t^OO OO to 10 O to OOO *-O V O t^* ^" ON M OO co M toOO ^O ON ON CO M OO O MM O ON O looo o M M CO M CO g.s I I 13 II co 1O o o oo o o T-H cq CO O CO GO *O O CO CO " rH o ^H o CO rH O T-I ^ cq ^ >o O to O <^O cOt^t^^o^CO tn-H-ioM ior^ioio coo ^h oo oo oo oo co t-oo oo oo oo co CO? 00 M OO PQfi Ill i*J 8.2 o ill* Jl " iii-s .gjg V 0< " 3 H o w- -^^ ^^^:^ to[3 o oj o o STORAGE WORKS. 45 5-1 ~? S 't?5 3 ^ * B ^ o J "S M t-^. CO ." 5 2 to CO M 6 > ONVO to l>-vO MM M CO to t^- ON ^ co t^ W rj- rj- CO co O O OO ON O CO M CO ^ fj MMMMTf-VOM O ^ JJ tovo ON O M toco O M toco ON O O O ~ o -^ O r^ t^- M OO O CO III I s 3" .2* S S ^P h-)^ g. g.S o pq oti)Cfl C ifJlfiJiJ c^i-i^cu.J-iScoPO pqC5GPPP^H% >% 42 ^ ^ o>* ^ HH ^r ^ 2 pq t "15 CO || . IS 1 a tn cl " !: (U OJ ^ o ^ 8 o 1 w T < VO ^ M O f"~ " t-H g uj * ^ l| o c W3 K,^ en co w , .SHft^'^fe'U l> n-^Hfi 4 * *> - Cgfl t^ c. CM r DO -rH CO CM H r- 1 CO CO ^^ O2 f5 ^ "X CO ^- 3 il r- 1 CO .T3 r^ w " ^ cq C G ^ al L^ g i - s Q H '%% ^ j 3 "^ CO ^O ^ C ^ CO TH 3 cq < P< UOpUJ3do r>. LO 1 to (N vo H CO Q g Ul S.1133^ JO 'OJSJ . . [ ENGLAI R.LI AMENTA HI a* i ' w - 8^^ O OO COCOOiO *S*i OO t^O5 rH O r- 1 O ''CO t- iOCD ^^OOt- Jf ^ So o ooco oocoo iO O CNb- OO-^XO "c'fiCO 00 O t-O ^OCMt^ CqCOOOt^ rHCOb-t>. rH 00 'Oi uop-ejado |O M 1 ^-co rfcococo 1 M Stream receiving effluent. Si S ^ > c gSggpj 13 c i |il f|. 1. 1 i | i i | H H H H H ^H , 0!mn , oa t^ioO^ot^- co OM MQOO M M O CO ON M XO *O M O M O COONVOCOM ON C4CO MQ^O OO'OON'OVO M VO iO CCONONO "^ M ON District. >0! . : s ^ S i * : QJ >-l O C/} D C ^ ,O Tl fl r^3 bfl C/i ^ < ^H G j *^O "^CJ CO 1-3 rS Si r* O ^ 4-J to * |{l|l|i | a> *- -*-> >> X! ^3 cJ GO bO 000 O vo O fO ro M si . ^'S I I 1 c ' O O CN ' *c *S .SS I -S'B I TH CO "S TH co 00 co ON N 1 ro M M 00 C C H H O rj-00 ** 2 M HI ro B I) 1) .S 73-0 ^'o.S O & & ft S ^ 55 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 51 Authority Expens ^5 C (^ C p$ 'p 0? *"CO 5 S rS S S rfs S 4 ^ I 8 5 S *l T3 .2 <3 * -fi T* c37*ci3Ti5ctf"r*'*- J C L O M 9 a 2 ^ ^ "ti ^ T5 ^ f ^ ^i *^ ^! ^Q ^T ^Q !3 n MI C ^n^Q ^5 C rO f^ ^ CJ C/) - i i . .2^ 8-S'a ""= ! I I I >. " V, S G *3 d ra R fl ^ " L" - < 00 ' 1 i i O O - 11s i o a 1 1 O H IT H as cq co CO t O 8 a 3 8 '& o ^H t~ CO CO CT co CO ^H CO CO SCO i-l o oo rH 00 00 Stream o Catchmen 0) 43 H (U J3 H -* O " -C ^ 0) 1 uopBjndoj 10 M VO N 10 VO VO vo O ** M O N ON O VO vo ON vo ro 00 O O t-i ro O O u-> , I u CO CO 1 1 OH O W pei 5T ^ fc t! CO CO l pq t .a Warwick Kendal C 1 52 GREAT BRITAIN. uthority fo Expenses. en tJ w en (U *H cu tJ W> t w G * 3 C "j gl^Lsl?.? s H 2^-*'T3c2f- ; >?-2jC & "^ ^c3'5art'Srt r w < lll^aii .gi ^^ ^^J I ^J p ^ ^^ p j _c No expen gn^ ^ O r. '3 u c 2 l 5 c/3 Ml M | tJ $ H 53 ^3 O 14 O "Q O ^J O W ^ g-g ^-i O 8 a | II <= co co r ~- . CO '3 '3 1 CO -S S w 85 C A 5 c uiftivaXjo i a # ^^ O "^ vo 10 ON vo t^* O VO too T|- VO s g'S o "3 O 8-S en o3 'cW .s s -s- 5 - in % D c S 11 ^ W 11 II penses. No expense 3 .-X s rt C 3 d g ^ C rt ^o *"* S T3 fl . O < w g js a, v- JO *- -i IS >- 3 o ^ ^<* r ^ ,_J H C T3 .iJ iJ 2-SlS2 *Bt*3Sg -4-3 0) 4^ ^gg'g ^ -^ ^ P-( - PH Pi 1 < 1 1 a! i.l ."73 j .2 I a> T3 1 1 i 6 j ; fe ^ 4) '^ o . j^ o CL) *"' " 1 ^j O h CG & ;=5 3 N O ^ O O M ir- I 1 * w> o M H-t i M 1 a co Factory, Refuse from . i ,4. ^- u-> | I ui sj^^X jo *o^j 1 1 3 . 1 1 J>> Jl IF B| ctf C H cJ _fi J_> C/3 a) D .^ 4) S S - 3 2 3 ffi H G 3| a s o u uoiiBjndoj o o o o o o CO CO 8 M 1 1 o 8 CO t^* ^*O 00 m oo 10 oo CO N : : : ^ _, : 1 J d 1? *C fl J5 jQ >N ^ - i I t 1 ^ g S 2 !- C4 < 3 CO 1 ^ P a I CLASS I. Acres. Acres. Persons Persons. Cubic ft. Miles Feet Year. Yrs. Small. . bO C i Aldershot... 104-0 99* 8 ooo 77 Si 28 ooo(?) - ' ' Flow 1864 15 un- "o^ known. nJ 2 Bedford ... 183-13 153- 1 8 690 102 122 152 ooo I-30 21 & 13 1868 ii 3 Guisbrough 24-23 16- 53o 219 330 1 8 ooo(?) 0*50 Flow 1870 9 un- known. 4 Wrexham . 104* 100*7 10 OOO 9 6 99 48 ooo near Flow 1869 10 to 80 ooo CLASS II. Large. 5 Birmingham 271-61 252-91 112 500 444 539 480 ooo 0*25 Flow 1867 12 and upwards. 6 Croydon ... 455-64 320- 55 ooo 121 172 1233000 0*50 Flow 1860 18 7 Doncaster . 304-82 229-42 21 OOO 6 9 92 91 ooo 2-00 5 2 1873 6 8 Leamington 764-19 161*06 23000 30 142 100 ooo 2-25 132 1871 8 to 140000 9 Reading ... 675- 76*06 33000 5 1 433 80 ooo 2 '43 43 1875 4 to 128 ooo IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 55 SEWAGE FARMS COMPETING IN 1879. Royal Agriculttiral Society of England. 8 .2 od ^/ K '5i) O I-N. c3 *i2 tJO- c | "S Z | e" - is a ! ^. 3 ~ 5 (j ^ 00 li^| *H ^ 3 ^^ mf~t fl < | ^(2 ^ * 'S gju >> 1 ^ ^ rt & ^ 1 ' j| *o b/) 1" 13 fr ;S 'Hi 1 9-1 OJ u ^ 3 1 rs 1 "rt 1 13 3 Years. Date. Name. Per- Soil. Per Subsoil. Per sons cent. cen None None Mr. Blackburn 25 Light sandy 36-2 Ferruginous Want of gravel storm outlets. 1875-78 31 Dec. '78 Mr. Collett ... 28 / Light sandy ( Loamy soil 347 43'5 ) Similar to 1 soil Sewers are liable to 1878-79 31 Dec. '78 Mr. Clarke ... 8 ( Clayey ... ( Loamy ... 54'3 49*5 \ Similar to ) soil flooding. Soil un- suitable / for pure 1876-78 i Feb.'79 Mr. Jones . . . 19 [ Sandy &peaty i Do. do. 61-5 80-0 1 Gravel and ) sand filtratn. None. 1878-79 31 Dec.' 78 Mr. Anscombe 28 ( Light peaty \ Stiff clayey 797 57-6 I Gravel Liable to ( Light peaty 103-0 Yellow marl 2 5'9 flooding. (Liable 1878-79 25 Mar. '79 Mr. Parrott . . . 94 < Gravelly 497 Open gravel 13-1 to excess 1878-79 2 Feb. '79 Mr. Brundell . 44 I Dark gravel ( Light sandy < Light sandy 24*2 28-8 Open gravel [.Similar to 9*4 of sub- soil wtr. None. ( Stiff clayey 47'3 ' 1876-78 31 Dec. '78 Mr. Tough . . . 46 ( Light sandy < Stiff 44'9 i Similar to High lift. O / T.VS ( Heavy . . . 56-6 r soil o f LJgfa 40*2 Gravel & peat 3 2 7 (350acres 1877-79 29 Sep. '78 Mr. Champion 88 \ Stiff Clay [6'2 are T"O O / 1 liable to (flooding. 56 GREAT BRITAIN. EXPENDITURE ON THE NINE SEWAGE FARMS M .5 !> w . i/r ^ "c^ C "^ 1? t/r || 1 11 t/3 B uu x g^g I 1 1, O C i X w W o 6 I S rt i 1 i Aldershot nil 2 Bedford 31 Dec. 1878 338 1111 1015 145 574 3 Guisbrough .... 31 Dec. 1878 5 X V/JLt-/ 44 -L o-t^ v 1 TC 90 4 Wrexham i Feb. 1870 476 / y tt f L> 5 Birmingham .. 31 Dec. 1878 1583 100 750 840 6 Croydon 25 Mar 1870 414 5 90R 900 , 1R1 i "/y tt J.: O -ul\y O A\J\J J.DJ. 7 Doncaster 2 Feb. 1870 350 - inn 799 j.o/y Ot/V/ JLUU 1 ^JZl 8 Leamington 31 Dec 1878 -900 183 1620 200 1836 81 9 Reading . 20 Sep. 1878 731 449 528 1 Qlfi 1 OX X */ J.L/ * The Leamington tenant pays 450 of this. IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. 57 DURING THE YEAR 1878, IN POUNDS STERLING. | oT 3 4) .J3 | i C/3 "^3 S oJ BE CO .ti 1 O 1 IS <^ in * 1 X tfl W^j tS ^ II H 1 rt | ^'1 O "} J g I 'S - Us II 1 i s> S3 *- C/5 fe 3 > * S Q Total. 145 175 74 118 increase 2244 8 38 10 unmentioned 190 20 11 24 12 16 increase 1018 125 252 651 1081 increase 14382 138 121 782 1198 133 156 44 1071 12163 128 43 769 204 275 3191 168 280 976 1538 126 _ 237 7 7252 79 1120 321 289 123 increase. f5203 f The rent for freehold land is not included in these two cases. GREAT BRITAIN INCOME OF THE NINE SEWAGE FARMS For the Year ending on i u 1 1 . Cereals. 1 in JU I 3 i Aldershot 2 Bedford n Dec. '78 184 48 409 971 273 3 Guisbrough ii Dec. '78 153 10 109 JL 4 Wrexham i Feb '79 io< ) 52 316 < Birmingham 7i Dec '78 7QO 173 166 550 6 Croydon 2tr Mar '70 1 200 128 172 36 376 7 Doncaster 2 Feb. '79 76 7 1049 8 Leamington . ti Dec '78 81 958 371 9 Reading 29 Sep '78 248 138 247 * Error of 60 in IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE DURING THE YEAR 1878, IN POUNDS STERLING. f 1 ri 1 .S t-C 1 * 8 * I i | T3 c PH M P 1 1 f J 00 "8* SI M 1 ^ < cf 1 CO v/2 "4} I j-> "e3 CJ 1 1 i C/3 fc 1 O 1 Total. 165 120 30 138 2338 (loss )244 94 -- none 272 77 82 451 115 21 10 56 1130 112 112 1271 843 99 1555 5447 1065 1065 2394 914 364 87 depr. 5671 ( loss 16497 loss 6497 948 (10) {balj 152 depr. 2926 ( loss 1265 loss 265 887 1714 2960 260 216 depr. 8179 *417 927 2166 1207 295 1775 6076 873 unesti- mated Leamington accounts. 60 GREAT BRITAIN. TABLE OF RATES PER ACRE OF EXPENSE AND PROFIT .5 5* -c c 1 E 1 . J3 C & H s Acres. Per acre. Per acre. Per acre. Per acre. i Aldershot . . . 4t IO4" not given. not given. Wj 4- 2 Bedford *i8 -i 0-70 22-656 7-508 5-543 3-926 3 Guisbrough * 24-23 0-90 not given. none. 1-816 3-714 4 Wrexhani *IO ' 0-75 8-990 23-183 4-577 4-413 5 Birmingham ... 271-62 0-90 50-473 16-340 12-146 3-129 incomplete. 6 Croydon *4^-64 0-90 12-681 10-980 11-430 6-018 X_L ^r?J\/ 7 Doncaster * 3 o4-8 2 0-95 16-895 16-377 3-123 2-697 8 Leamington *764-I9 0-70 9-253 10-860 2-120 2-664 o Reading 67V 0-90 12-025 15-916 fO'782 3-176 / j incomplete. * These areas are employed to reduce the rates in the Report of the Judges ; t Accounts incomplete, as complete NOTE. The economy effected by purifying the effluent should IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. (\\ OF THE NINE SEWAGE FARMS, IN POUNDS STERLING. "3 a l if < 06 .S | 00 *>. oo & oo oo .2 1 ted Mean Annual ply of Sewage. , . .! '1 ^ D fe E c o ^ g S3 s 9 1 S CO CO CO CO -ipuadxg; pj}oj, o oq o c S o CO CO rH C0> fc- 'Bb co 00 t- fr* 10 O iH t- 1O t- rH oo CO I I I 111 9 oo oq S CO CO ^ sSutpimg; CO g CO 00 00 Oi I 00 CO o ' S5 l :lo A\. uo aanjtpuadxg; J CTi O rt CO 00 00 I I \ o CO CO 1 CO sdtunj Qfl 1 II sSujptmg O g I 00 oo cn> CD CO cq I I I I -a f *! b -2 -g 1 1 J 1 ff 1 IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. 63 ABSTRACT FROM THE JUDGES' REPORT ON THE SEWAGE FARM COMPETITION, 1879. i. ALDERSHOT. General Statement. There is very little detail given of the sewage and farming operations at this place owing to the approaching termination of the tenant's lease. Before 1864 the sewage of the Camp was badly dealt with at a cost of 1 600 yearly, and the land now converted into a farm was not worth five shillings per acre. Capital Account. The tenant expended his own capital in creating the farm on the faith of a Government subsidy to be paid annually. The sum of 6 000 capital was spent in preparing the land, making sewage carriers, roads, tanks, farmbuildings, lodge and cottages. Sewage. The whole of the sewage from the Aldershot Camp passes on to the farm ; the storm-water outlets are never used, so that all the liquids are employed in irrigation. The effluent water passing from the farm drains is clear, bright and inoffensive ; the purification of sewage is perfectly satisfactory. The fresh sewage from the Camp, which is stronger than ordinary town sewage and refuse, is collected in subsidence tanks, of small size, on the farm, from which the liquid matter alone is allowed to flow direct on to the land. Three sludge-tanks, formed by earthen banks coated with a mixture of gravel and tar, receive the more solid matter at a lower level, as well as the flushings from the subsidence-tank. Their dimensions are 1 1 1 x 21 x 2\ in feet. The sludge is allowed to drain and consolidate in them, and in certain seasons is carted on to the land. The liquid sewage runs entirely in earthcut carriers, the sides of which are protected with heaped grass sods. The land is divided into two-acre plots, which are also subdivided by subsidiary carriers. The distributing-carriers are ploughed out from time to time, when the crops are ready for the sewage. Pumping. Although only nine acres of the farm are not com- manded by simple flow of sewage, yet pumps, a high pressure steam-engine, and engine-house have been erected at the lower part of the farm. These are, however,, not only used for lifting sewage on to the nine acres, but serve for raising water from a 64 GREAT BRITAIN stream to dilute the sewage in dry weather, and enable a part of the effluent water to be again used on the land. Drainage. Parts of the land are under-drained to a depth of four to six feet x the drains being thirty to sixty feet apart. It appears doubtful whether more perfect drainage would not be advisable, for, after continuous wet weather, some of the farm land becomes flooded, and not only are the crops spoilt, but the fertility of the soil is much deteriorated by the flooding. The Crops. Crops of all sorts have been grown on this farm. Mangolds have been tried, but apparently the soil is not well suited to them. The Potatos grown are singularly free from disease : this may be due to good selection of varieties, to gqod management of the sewage, or to the use of gas-lime, with which the land is occasionally dressed. The crops of the year 1879 consisted of Potatos 57 \ acres, Rye- grass 40 acres, Rhubarb 1 1 acres, Cabbage plants \ acre ; Total 99 acres. (See Irrigated Crops.) Live Stock. Until recently a large number of cows were kept on the farm by a sub-tenant ; but there was only one during the past year. Four horses are also kept for farm cultivation. Health. The report as to residents and labourers states that they have lived free from ill-heath and epidemic disease during the fifteen years. The effluent passing into the streams is satisfac- torily purified. 2. BEDFORD. General Statement. The farm is held by five owners, to whom the Corporation of Bedford pays rent. Some of the land is liable to flooding from the Ouse. Irrigation is effected on 153*25 acres out of the 183*12 acres of farm. Half of the land is very unfertile but is hired at a rent about three times its just value for ordinary tillage, thus absorbing much of the fair profit from sewage farming. Capital sunk. The details are given in the tabular statement. Sewerage. The whole of the sewage of the Borough of Bed- ford is collected at the site of the pumping station, where the solids are screened by a grating, and a storm-overflow into the river used in times of flood. At other times the pumps lift the liquid sewage on to the farm to a height of 13 feet for 123 acres, and to 21 feet for 30*25 acres, the pumping being carried on in the day- IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 65 time only. At night the sewage is stored in the sewers. The average weight of coal used daily is 21 cwt, and the average amount of sewage pumped, daily is 1 52 ooo cubic feet. The screened sewage is pumped through an 1 8-inch iron main-pipe, having a 1 5 -inch iron branch pipe leading to one part of the farm. The carriers are earthenware pipes 18 inches to 9 inches in diameter, laid in banks above the surface of the land. The distributors are earth-cut channels, ploughed or dug from time to time as required. The screened solids are used on the land. Drainage. Only five acres are underdrained to a depth of three feet with 2-inch pipe-drains placed 60 feet apart ; the rest is drained by deep ditches round all the fields, dug as low as the outfall admits. Crops. A large variety of crops, partly market-gardeners' have been grown from 1875 to 1878 without very much fluctua- tion from year to year. The following is the acreage of each crop for the year 1878, and the average value of yield per acre : \cn 24- 7'5 35*5 Crops in 1878. Acres J3 ( Italian Rye grass ... . { Permanent pasture . Mangolds Swedes 2-5 Carrots 8-5 Parsnips 175 Potatos 9*25 Onions 16-63 /Wheat 18- (Oats Beans Spring Cabbage ... . Savoys Cauliflowers Kidney Beans Celery... Cucumber Rhubarb Asparagus Prickly Comfrey ... Currant Trees ... . New Asparagus ... . Total i7' 3-87 3* 3'37 0*25 o*5 0-13 0-13 0-25 o'5 i'25 i57-8i F value Value of per Acre. Crop. ^7-66 ...^184- 6-37 47-85 13-67 ... 485-25 13-38 34-70 15-28 ... 129-87 20- 35- 16-84 ... 155-76 33-28 ... 553-31 10-95 ... 197-17 12-48 ... 212-20 13-11 50- 11-42 ;., 34-27 14-02 50-85 30-22 ... 101-99 24-96 6-24 36- 13-50 13-35 6-67 11-50 1-43 56- 7- 10- 2-50 2 309-62 66 GREA T BRITAIN. A Meadow of 22 J acres is also sublet at an annual rent of 119. The following remarks apply chiefly to the crops of the year 1879. (See Irrigated Crops.) Rotation of cropping cannot be carried out regularly, on account of some part of the farm being liable to flooding ; but on part of the land the following is the rotation : ist, rye-grass for two years; 3rd year, mangolds; 4th year, cereals; 5th year, onions or potatos. Live Stock. Six horses are kept for farm work ; they are fed in summer on rye-grass, in the winter on beans, oats, chaff, carrots and mangolds. Health. The report of the health of the resident labourers and of the horses states that they are particularly healthy ; free from ill-health and epidemic disease. The condition of the effluent water is not reported. 3. GuiSBOROUGH. General Statement. The peculiarity of this undertaking con- sists in the attempt to purify the sewage of a borough of 5 300 inhabitants on a small plot of 16 acres. The motive seems to have been a charitable wish of a landowner to aid the borough in its difficulties. The result of the experiment after eight years has been fairly but not perfectly successful, as the effluent water is not thoroughly purified ; yet in later years the landowner has not suffered any direct loss from the farming operation. Capital Account. The expense per acre in preparing the land is very heavy. The capital is recovered by the annual profits and its interest by a permanent annual charge of 5 per cent, interest separately ; the rent remaining fixed' at the same rent that was charged before the sewage farm was established. The following table shows the gradual amortisation of the capital ; the decrease in value of the crops is due to diminished demand for farm produce, on account of the depression of the iron trade in the district : IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. G7 Value of Crop per acre. Profit. T Unredeemed Loss< Capital. 1870 ... 1 691-58 1871 ;ll-25 ... ^2-38 ... 1689-20 1872 ... 12- 17-17 ... 1736-37 1873 17-07 ... 45-16 ... 1691-21 1874 ... 24-30 ... 163-04 ... 1528-17 1875 26-32 ... 140-54 ... 1387-63 1876 ... 19-95 ... 50-31 ... 1337-32 1877 ... 15-81 ... 8-17 ... ... 1329-15 1878 ... 16-25 ... 10-84 ... 1318-31 420-44 47-17 Total in 1878 ... 373-27 ... 1318-31 The valuation of stock in hand annually is included in the receipts for each crop. Though crops are not consumed on the land, a large portion of the produce is sold to the estate at a deprecia- tion, an arrangement that precludes some of the real profits from the accounts. The Sewage. The sewage employed consists of the town refuse and simple sewage of 5 300 persons of Guisborough ; also the surface drainage and road drainage, and the water used by the town and the waste of the tanyards. The Waterworks supply daily 1 1 228 cubic feet of water ; besides, well water is used. The daily average supply of sewage is not mentioned. A special out- fall-sewer of earthenware, 1 5 inches in diameter, branches off from the town sewer, 3 feet by 2 feet, above a small dam in it, and conveys the sewage to the head of the sewaged land. There are two storm overflows, one at each end of this outfall sewer, which discharge into a brook. The main sewage-carriers on the land are two 1 2- inch earthenware pipes, laid in banks ; they bifurcate from the 1 5-inch pipe. The branch carriers are 6-inch pipes, placed at dis- tances of 3 3 feet along the main carriers; but the distributing carriers are earth-cut trenches formed newly as the crop or the land may require. The soil is unfavourable to the filtration of sewage, and the effluent is impure. In winter five acres of fallow are employed to receive and filter the whole of the sewage, which flows alternately for a week on each plot of 2\ acres, during four months of the year. 68 GREAT BRITAIN. Drainage. The whole of the land is underdrained ; the main drains are 8 inches by 6 inches in diameter ; the branch drains vary from 4" to 3" in diameter, and are laid 5 J feet deep ; the subsidiary drains are about 5 feet deep, and are laid 33 feet apart ; the whole are puddled at the joints with clay. At one or two places where spring- water is met, the drains are 15 feet apart. The shrinkage of this underdrained clayey land causes minute fissures, through which unpurified sewage may find its way into the drains at some seasons of the year. Crops. Those of the year 1879 consisted of Rye-grass 10*14 acres; Turnips, Mangolds and Carrots 5 '60 acres; Rhubarb 0*31 acres, (See Irrigated Crops.} Health. The report of the health of the resident labourers is favourable ; there is no live stock on the farm ; and no complaints have been made about the effluent, although it is discoloured and impure. 4. WREXHAM. General Statement. The land is let on a lease of 19 years. It consists of 5 1 acres of pasture and 49*67 acres of arable land, the rest being occupied by roads and buildings. Capital Account. Before the present tenant hired the farm, ;400 had been spent in preparing the land and making a sewage carrier ; this amount is not included in the tabular statement, as it was virtually wasted. Settling tanks had been made at a cost of -700, The present tenant then expended 935 of capital, which is being recovered by annual payments out of profit. At present, in 1879, there remained 792 as capital charge after five annual payments. The accounts are given for the years 1876, 1877, 1878, each closing on 1st February of the year following. The valuation of stock includes 670 for live stock, &c., sold to and held by the sub-tenant. The Sewage. The sewage of Wrexham flows into two settling tanks at the head of the farm ; the liquid matter flows on to the farm in earth-cut carriers, earthenware pipes being used only in a few cases. All liquid matter in excess of 80 200 cubic feet daily, which is the wet weather supply, passes into a brook by storm overflows. The solid matters are removed from the tank, drained, IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. 69 thoroughly dried by an engine-driven fan, and sifted. It is then mostly made into artificial manure with bone dust and sulphate of ammonia, and sold, or is used direct on the land. About 300 tons of dry sludge is annually removed from the tanks. Drainage. About 4 acres are underdrained with 8-inch and 6-inch pipes, 6 feet deep and 120 feet apart. In wet places, isolated drains, constructed with 6-inch, 4-inch and 3-inch pipes, are laid 3j feet deep where required. Very little surface-effluent passes off the farm ; the effluent from the underdrains is clear, and apparently very pure. The Crops. The rotation is Rye-grass for three years, fourth year Cereals, fifth year Mangolds. The acreage of crops for 1 879 was : Acres. Pasture: Hay, grazing spring and autumn 34 Grazing only 17 Arable: Italian Rye-grass 1675 Black Tartarian Oats n Barley 6 Mangolds 6'8i Swedes and Potatos 3'6o Market Garden 5 100*16 (See Irrigated Crops.) Live Stock. At the time of inspection there were 26 cows in milk, three dry, six calves and one bull on the farm. The dairy stock is tied up all the winter and part of the summer. In the summer the cows are fed night and morning on rye-grass, and graze in the meadow ; in winter they are fed on hay, mangolds, cabbage, maize, meal and grains. The calves are invariably reared on skimmed milk and linseed. The average yield of milk is i \ gallons per cow per day ; it is sold in Wrexham at 2d. per quart, though the usual retail price there is ?>d. per quart. Fourteen horses and ponies are kept on the farm, and in constant work at all seasons ; but are fed on rye-grass from May to November, and on rye-grass, meadow hay, home-grown oats and maize in the winter. About ten pigs are kept ; they are fed on skimmed milk, garden stuff, maize-meal and swill, Health. The resident labourers suffer from common catarrh 70 GREA T BRITAIN. and coughs ; one case of acute rheumatism. The children suffer from whooping-cough, mumps and measles ; there are no other ailments. The cattle are generally healthy ; there was a very mild outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, and occasional cases of milk fever. The health of the horses is particularly good. The effluent water from the farm is pure and creates no nuisance, nor causes any ill-health or disease. 5. BIRMINGHAM. General Statement. Apparently a greater extent of land would be desirable for operations of! this special class. The peculiarity here consists in the farm being actually a sludge-farm conducted on masses of town refuse. The farm and sewage treatment are both under a manager appointed by a District Drainage Board, who hold 169*62 acres in freehold and 102 acres under lease. The farm is situated between the Tame and the Rea, and is liable to flooding. Capital Account. This includes 808 for embankment of the rivers ; no rent is charged against the farm for the freehold land; yet no abatement is made for the 54 acres of farm land occupied in sludge-working. The rent chargeable for the whole is about its value to an ordinary farmer, as two adjoining farms are let at 2 and 3 5s. per acre. The Sewage. The whole volume of sewage from the popula- tion, 450000 of the united district, is, in dry weather, about I 924 800 cubic feet daily ; three-fourths of this are heated chemically and passed into the watercourses of the district ; only one-fourth of it, or 48 1 200 cubic feet daily, flows on to the farm land. At the gauge-dam, which is 4 feet wide, the gauging was 10! inches deep on 4th June, and 10 inches on nth August last year ; these showing flow of sewage to be daily rates of nearly one million cubic feet, and 930 ooo cubic feet. There are sewaged areas of three classes : one part, 30 acres, receives the simple sewage ; a second, of 20 acres, receives unprecipitated sewage mixed with lime ; the remainder of the farm receives effluent sewage after subsidence in tanks, all in earth-cut surface carriers. As to the lime treatment : lime from Dudleyis ground in water with a mill, and the slaked lime flows direct from the mill into IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 71 the sewer at a spot about a quarter of a mile from the outfall. In this way about 14 tons of lime are added daily to the sewage as it flows. The subsidence treatment : there are three large settling tanks, 390 x 90 x 5| feet, at the outfall, into which the sewage first flows ; these are used alternately for a fortnight while the sludge is removed. There are also 16 small settling tanks, each receiving one-sixteenth of the sewage coming from the large tank em- ployed. In these more sludge is deposited, and the effluent sewage is allowed to flow off from them on to the land. The sludge is differently treated as semi-fluid sludge, which is pumped up and pushed on to the land in elevated wooden troughs .by men with poles ; and as heavy matter, consisting mostly of road-drift, which is removed with a steam-crane. About 500 tons of moist sludge are raised daily, and 54 acres of land are required for receiving it in a year. The whole farm has already received one dressing, and a part of it two dressings of moist sludge. The land is prepared for its reception by raising small embankments, and then dividing it into a series of small tanks ; after the sludge has consolidated in these, which takes a few weeks, it forms a deposit about a foot deep, and. then it is dug into the land to a depth of two feet. The operations of preparing the land and digging in the sludge cost 12 per acre, chargeable to the farm when perfectly completed. The land is afterwards turned up with a steam plough every two years. The sludge appears not to amalgamate with the soil, and remains a mass of worthless fibrous matter on the ground for at least two years. The character of the soil, after the admixture, is altered, its absorbent properties being increased. Samples of Sludge taken in August, 1 879. Moist Sludge Consolidated from Trough . Sludge . Water 8o'6o 47-65 Dry matter 19-38 52.35 Total ... ... ... 100 100 Samples of Sludge taken in November, 1879. Sludge from Sludge from Consolidated Large Tank. Small Tank. Sludge. Water ... 86-05 8 7' J 3 6 3-9 Dry matter ... 13-95 12-87 3 6 ' 10 Total ., 100 100 100 72 GREA T BRITAIN. Analysis of air-dried Sludge of 2Qth September, 1876, by Dr. Wallace, City Analyst of Glasgow. Sludge from large Sludge as dug Settling Tank. into the land. Water ... 12*70 ... 13-16 Organic Matter 19*19 ... 20*04 Phosphoric Acid "40 ... -72 Sulphuric Acid 1*45 ... -35 Carbonic Acid 7*62 ... 8*53 Lime 11*19 I2 '74 Magnesia -90 ... 1-37 Oxide of Iron 2*70 ... 3-20 Alumina 2*68 ... 2*58 Sand,&c 41*13 37*93 99*96 100*62 Phosphate of Lime -87 ... i*57 Nitrogen -52 ... *49 Equal to Ammonia -63 ... *6o Calculated value per ton 10s. d. lls. 5d. Drainage. About 197 acres of land is closely underdrained by drains 6 feet deep X 33 feet apart; in some places they are 66 feet apart. The effluent at the outfalls appeared like spring water. The Crops. No regular rotation of crops is observed, as much land is yearly sacrificed to sludge deposit. The crops most suitable are : ist, Rye-grass ; 2nd, Mangolds ; 3rd, Cabbages while market gardening appears least so. The cropping for the year 1 879 was thus : Acres. 12 4 7 o*75 Rye-grass Grass Land Wheat Oats ... Acres. ... 68 ... 26 ... 9 Potatos Kohl-rabi Cabbage Peas Barley 26 Seeds Mangold Turnips Swedes . 7*-* Rhubarb Total... IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 73 ' Besides The land used for Sludge was 17-5 occupied by works 18-68 Roads and Stream 25-90 (See Irrigated Crops.} 62-08 Live Stock. There are 34 cows in milk, 10 feeding cows, 6 yearling heifers and I bull, The cows are kept in full milk about six months, and are fed in summer on dry stuff twice a day and on green food thrice a day ; the food being rye-grass, cotton cake, and bean, oat, or maize meal. When feeding on grass, each cow receives 2lbs. of cotton cake and 4lbs. of meal. The dry and barren cows are fattened on cut hay, linseed cake and bean meal. In winter they are fed on brewer's grains and meal steamed. The average yield of milk in the milking season is 2| gallons per cow daily; this is sold at d. a gallon in summer and $\d. in winter. In February, 1879, there were 42 ewes, which produced 72 lambs in the year. They were pastured on rye-grass, and received cotton cake and kibbled maize ; they were sold fat after a year's keeping. There were 45 pigs, which were fed on unsaleable vegetables steamed with sharps and pea-meal. There were 9 working horses, 4 colts and a foal. Health. The report states that the men employed are, as a rule, very healthy ; but two men engaged on tank work died. 6. CROYDON. General Statement. The principal features in this sewage- farm are: 1st, that it is the oldest in England among those of modern times ; 2nd, that it is worked at a farming loss on account of the immense rent, rates, tithes and taxes, though otherwise and under better control of the sewage, it might be made profitable ; 3rd, that an epidemic and diseases, formerly occurring in the neighbourhood, clearly traced to fouled sources of drinking supply contaminated by bad local drainage, distinct from that of the sewaged farm land, have given the sewage farm an undeserved bad reputation as regards health. In 1857 the sewage of Croydon was applied to 15 acres of grass land. In 1860 the present farm was rented by the Croydon GREAT BRITAIN. Local Board, and 100 acres of it were irrigated out of 301 ; after- wards as much as 240 acres were irrigated at one time. In 1871 the farm was extended, there being then 5575 acres freehold and nearly 400 acres of leasehold. A farming company then worked the farm for three years, and lost ;7 072. In 1874 the Croydon Local Board appointed a manager to work the farm for them, and this arrangement still continues (1879). . Not more than 360 acres are irrigated at any one time ; and as some crops are not irrigated continuously, 320 acres is the greatest extent irrigated throughout the year at one time. Capital Account. The total cost of works is comparatively small ; and this would induce a belief that if sewage farming would pay a profit anywhere in England, it would be profitable here ; but the causes above mentioned prevent it. As to valuations of stock and plant : these were made only at the beginning and end of the financial years 1874 and 1878. For intermediate years they require interpolation by rate, as shown by the following table: INCOME. Valuation 25 March, 1877 Receipts. Year ending 2 5 Mar., 1875 1876 1877 Balance loss in 3 years . 5 181 7256 6760 7 162 8 007 336 EXPENDITURE. Valuation 25 March, 1874 Expenditure. Year ending 25 Mar., 1875 1876 1877 4 732 10 636 9578 9390 336 This shows an annual loss of 2 669 during those three years. Although some of the recent loss is due to passing an excess of cold springwater on to the farm, thus ruining crops and spoil- ing the land ; yet there is an evident steady annual loss, accounted for by the enormous rent, tithes, taxes and charges. For if such charges were reduced proportionately to those at Birmingham, Leamington, &c., a profit would be recorded. Actually the profit from farming exists, but is swallowed in rent. The Sewage. Though the soil of the farm and the disposi- tion of the land is well adapted for irrigation, the sewage appli- cation suffers from want of storm outlets ; for all the liquid con- IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. tents of the Croydon sewers have to be employed at all seasons. The amount of sewage was increased in 1878 by admitting sub- soil water into the sewers ; and amounted to about I 233 ooo cubic feet daily in addition to the local annual rainfall of 33 inches on the farm itself. The rainfall on Croydon itself is mostly conveyed into the natural watercourses and does not enter the sewers. The sewage is brought on to the Beddington farm in two outfall sewers by direct flow ; one from Croydon proper, the other bring- ing the drainage from the southern side of the Norwood hills. Extractors are employed on the farm for the removal of solid matter from the sewage in accordance with Mr. Baldwin Latham's method. The liquid sewage is conveyed and distributed in earth-cut carriers. Drainage. The farm is not drained to any great extent, and is partly waterlogged, owing to the want of surface and subsoil drainage, and the enormous amount of subsoil water and sewage that it is compelled to receive. Notwithstanding this, the effluent water is at all seasons clear and limpid. The Crops. A great part of the farm consists of worn-out Rye- grass. The rotation followed is for the first three years Rye- grass ; 4th, Cabbage or vegetables ; 5th, Mangolds; 6th, Cereals. The following were the crops in the year 1879. Acres. Italian Rye-grass 180 Permanent Pastures 120 Mangolds ... 40 Parsnips i Cabbage 3i Savoys ... 20 Colewort 10 Oats . Carried forward Brought forward Vegetables Rhubarb Seedbeds Osiers Acres. Waste 5i 4 i If 427! 28 455i (See Irrigated Crops.) Live Stock. About 45 milk cows are kept ; also 14 bullocks. The cows are fed in summer with rye-grass and cotton cake, and are turned out to grass ; in winter they are stall fed with hay, pulped mangolds, distiller's wash, brewer's grains, cut straw, and cotton cake. The cows yield daily two to three gallons of milk, 76 GREA T BRIT A IN. which is sold at one shilling per gallon. The condition of the ani- mals and their stabling admitted of improvement. Eighteen horses are kept on the farm. The farm is also a grazing lair for cattle and horses at a weekly charge ; these greatly damage the herbage and spoil the ground, v/hen moist. Health. Since 1874 there has not been any epidemic, and the health of the residents and neighbours has been good. There was one case of sickness of a man who attended the sewage extractors. The horses on this farm are very subject to grease. The effluent from the farm is pure and does not cause com- plaint. 7. DONCASTER. General Remarks. This farm was leased to the present manager after being partly laid out by the Corporation of Doncaster. Capital Account. The Corporation expended .4 500 in preparing land and in buildings ; the tenant completed these at a further expense of ^650. The pumping station and main sewer together cost ^18 000. As to 'valuation of Stock, the tenant invested 4 000 in working the farm, of this, ,972 was paid as a valuation on entering, and ^295 was afterwards expended in improvements, making the estimated valuation 1 267. The farming capital invested is thus not much more than that required for an ordinary farm. The ordinary rent of adjoining agricultural land is thirty shillings per acre, while the rent of this sewage farm is 3 per acre. The Sewage. The sewage of the town is collected at a low point in the town near the river Don, where it is raised 52 feet by pumps, at a yearly expense to the Corporation of about ;350. The following were the quantities pumped in the years 1 874 to 1878: Cubic feet. Daily average. 1874 94960 1875 87397 1876 96 156 1877 87476 1878 90301 Average through five years 91258 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 77 At the pumping station there is a storm overflow into the river, which is occasionally used. The sewage is partially screened before pumping. At night it is stored in a tank sewer, holding 40 ooo cubic feet ; and the delivery on to the farm takes place only in the daytime. A 21 -inch cast iron main, about two miles long, conveys the pumped sewage to a storage tank on the farm, which is now little used. The sewage on arrival is usually distributed direct in earthenware pipe-carriers, 18 inches to 9 inches in diameter, working under a small head ; these are in earthen banks or below ground, and supply earth-cut carriers, which conduct the sewage to the land. Drainage. The soil is light and very porous, absorbing large quantities of sewage. About 90 acres of the farm are under- drained, the drains being placed at distances apart varying from 33 to 1 20 feet. Their depth in porous soil is 6 feet, in the loamy soil 4^ feet. There is no surface effluent, and at the time of inspection there was hardly any drained effluent. A plot of 5 acres had been at one time prepared as a filter bed, being more closely drained ; but as it was not wanted as such it was afterwards cropped' like the rest of the farm. This farm forms an excellent example of careful, cleanly and econo- mical working. The Crops. The sewage is applied to various crops in the spring and summer, also in the winter to a few crops, but more largely to fallow land. The following are the volumes and equivalent vertical depths of sewage applied to various crops in the year 1878 : Volume. Vertical depth. Cubic feet per acre. Feet per acre. Rye-grass 630180 14*42 Permanent Grass ... 171423 3-67 Mangolds .- 231347 5-33 Beans 6738 0*16 The rotation of cropping varies with the soil. For 3 years. 4th. 5th. On light land . . . Rye-grass Roots Barley 1st. 2nd. 3rd. On loamy soil . . . Roots . Wheat . Seeds . . . Wheat ... On stiff soil . ... Wheat . Clover. Wheat ... Beans . . Fallow 78 ORE A T BRITAIN. The following are the crops of the year 1879 : Rye-grass and Clover Seeds Acres. 75 46 3i 34 2 27 7'5 Brought forward ... Peas Acres. 272-5 4'5 5*5 i'5 i '5 3 Mangolds Beans Turnips and Swedes Potatos Currants Gooseberries&Raspberries Osiers Fallow Wheat ... TforlpV Oats 288-5 Rve 12 4'5 305* -i-vjrw Carried over . . . Buildings &c 272-5 (See Irrigated Crops?} Live Stock. There are 12 milk cows, I bull, and 31 heifers and steers (in 1879). The cows are kept in summer on the pastures, with a little rye-grass besides ; in the winter they are fed on roots and hay. Steers are fed on roots, cake and hay, and sold for beef. The cows yield about i| gallons of milk per head per day. Owing to local objections to milk from sewage farms, very little is sold at lod. per gallon. There is no local demand for rye-grass. The difficulties to profitable farming are thus very great. There are 1 50 breeding ewes, producing on an average 200 lambs ; they are all sold fat and' fed on turnips, mangolds and seeds. Fourteen pigs, including 2 sows, are kept and fed on skimmed milk, meat and vegetable waste. Twenty-six horses and foals of different sorts are kept on the farm, and fed on sewaged rye-grass. Health. The health of the residents and labourers on the farm is generally good ; there has not been any epidemic, nor any death. The horses are free from grease and thrive well. The flock of sheep suffers slightly from foot rot. The cattle are healthy. The effluent drainage does not produce any nuisance or complaint. 1RRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. 79 8. LEAMINGTON. General Statement. The details of the application of sewage to crops on this farm are given with completeness, so also the accounts ; and as this is a particularly well-managed farm every detail of working and account is interesting in example and useful for future reference. These are therefore given in full. It happens to be a profitable farm, owing not only to good management, good quality of sewage, and suitable soil, but to local facilities for sale of produce of all sorts. Pumping the sewage to such a high lift seems the only disadvantage. The details of the irrigable land are these : Acres. Rent per acre. 86-59 Arable Land ... 284-37 Heathcote Farm Grass Land ... 86-59 \ ] Park Grass Land ... 345'7o I r-i K Arable Land ... 4T5^ I ^ 764-22 Lands of adjoining farmers irrigated in - 1878 ... 45 809-22 Capital Account. The details of capital expenditure to the sum of 31 071 are given in the general table. It further costs the Corporation of Leamington nearly 900 annually to lift the sewage ; half of this, or 450, is repaid by the tenant as pay- ment for sewage. The tenant incurred the expense of works necessary for conveying sewage to adjoining lands, and sells the sewage thus applied ; he has also some privileges with regard to grazing in the park lands ; apparently these arrange- ments in their entirety are considerably to his loss. But this does not affect the justly estimated profits of the sewage farm. The details of the valuation of live and dead stock, mentioned at 8 299, are not given ; probably the cost of converting the old farm buildings into improved and more suitable buildings is included in this. The Sewage. The farm receives the sewage of about 23 ooo inhabitants of the Borough of Leamington Spa. This is collected at a site near the Learn in two receiving tanks, one 80 ORE A T BRITAIN. covered, having a capacity of about 80 ooo cubic feet, the other open and of double that capacity ; at this site there are also storm overflows into the river, and a pumping station. Here there is a pair of condensing beam engines, with 36-inch cylinders, and a stroke of 8 feet ; each engine works a pair of single-acting pumps, 26 inches in diameter ; the pair of engines when in full work make n to 12 strokes per minute; the indicated pressure on the rising main was 65 Ibs. to the square inch during inspection. The engines are usually employed for 10 hours daily. There is telegraphic communication from the pumping station to the farm. As far as possible all the sewage solids are pumped with the liquid ; any solids that cannot pass, are removed by manual labour, and are disposed of by the Leamington Corporation. The lift is 132 feet ; the iron rising main is 20 inches in diameter for the first half mile, and 18 inches for the remaining if miles to the farm. On the sewage farm are two tanks at the ends of the delivery pipes, one a small brick tank which intercepts a small amount of the solids. At the end of the branch delivery main there is a large open excavation for storing sewage, but this is now little used. After delivery, the sewage is in some cases conveyed in earthenware pipe carriers,but mostly in simple earth-cut trenches; the distribution is in earth-cut carriers. The quality of the sewage is good ; and the whole of the farm is capable of being irrigated by it. The quantity of sewage used annually, from ist January in each year, is shown in detail in the following tables. The results, tabulated in cubic feet per acre, are deduced from the tonnage of the original report, taking a ton at 35*883 foot- weights, or cubic feet at the density of water : as the actual density of the liquid sewage is not mentioned. IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 81 During the Year 1872. Number Volume Equiva- Average Crop. No. of Field. of water- ings. Acres. per acre in cubic feet. depth in feet. a water- ing. Italian Rye-grass ... 64 2C 23 26 10*46 io"*6 317 117 ^6^ 272 7-28 8'1A 0*317 O'722 Cabbage 20 21 6 6*AI IOI 222 * OT- 2"^2 \j $f* O*787 Market-garden ... . 22 2 7'7Q (^26"* 7/12 * O* C^6'oq w o"/ o'^o^ Maneold . , A.A. / / y 6-86 'r/* v o /T- 1 1- C 7 o ^ V / 2*66 " o^o 0*20^ Italian Rye-grass 65 27 10-82 - 1 - A J / W -?6o ^Q'? 8-48 O'llA Fallow for Beans 54 / j 9'A.I o"y ovo 7^ 182 1-68 1*684 Permanent Pasture... 67 Italian Rye-grass 27, 28 Permanent Pasture 50, 41, 45, 63, 46 Fallow for Wheat ... 5 8, 5 9 Seeds 66 5 23 3 2 7 T-O 6-85 17-36 4I-OO 20'10 io'6< / o A< 65559 322927 44124 325 21 QQ /l66 r 5i 7-41 I'OI 075 2-28 0?3<>3 0*322 o*337 o'373 0*^61 Mangold .. , ..^i. st **"3 i8"u yy ^.wv I2Q 877 2'o8 O'l-?! Rye-grass after Wheat 48 Fallow 1 3, 7 1 4 11-23 20'^Q 66768 e8 A7O * y i'53 I'lA w OO X 0-376 O*'2'2C Seeds 47 j j w o,y IO"2O 3" ^fo^ i ^8 642 x OT- 3'f\A w OoD 0*771 For Grass 43 9-Q^ 6^ i8< W T- I 'A.1 u oJ 1 0*^68 w o T"' 223-68 Equivalent Total Sewage in 1872. Cubic feet. Cubic feet per acre. depth in feet over the whole. On 223*68 acres ... ... 30 163 900 ... 134850 ... 3-10, Supplied to farmers 3 134 100 ... Total pumped in 1872 ... 33 298000 ... G 82 GREAT BRITAIN. During the Year 1873. Number of water- ings. Acres: Volume of sewage per acre in cubic feet. Equiva- lent depth in feet. Average depth of a water- ing. Crop. No. of Field. Cabbage 24 4 7 i 16 3 7 5*33 17*06 29-44 875 20-09 12-66 59628 107 561 27090 214 820 5M03 101 293 i*37 2 '47 0*62 4*93 1-18 2'33 0-342 0'352 0*622 0-308 0-393 o'335 Seeds . 44, 47 Permanent Pasture 41, 45, 46, 67, 26 Italian Rye-grass ... 42 Mangold 58, 59 Market-garden 13 It. Rye-grass part of 2 7, 2 8 Savoys .. part of 27, 28 24 2 3 30 i 38 13-00 0-76 11-23 9*5 2 10-36 349 170 443 J 7o 514866 13023 527560 8-02 10*17 11-82 0-30 I 2 ' 1 I o'334 0-442 '394 0-299 0-319 Italian Rye-grass ... 48 Fallow 69 Italian Rye-grass ... 25 54 8 9*43 115 702 2-66 0-332 43 Fallow 13 35 4 7 i ! 9-03 12-66 10-82 779 487 200 66 600 92 480 11396 11-18 r 53 2'12 0-26 0-320 0-382 0-307 0-262 Stubble 65 Cabbage 22 ^7'93 Cubic feet Equivalent Total Sewage in 1873. Cubic feet. per acre. feet ovS the whole. On 187-93 acres 33990000 ... 180863 4' 1 5 Supplied to farmers ... 12351000 ... ... Total pumped in 1873... 46*341000 ... ... IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. During the Year 1874. Number of water ings. Acres. Volume of sewage per acre in cubic feet. Equiva- lent depth in feet. Average depth of a water- ing. Crop. No. of Field. Cabbage 27, 28 3 4 5 i 7 22 27 2 9 7 33 33 i 2 2 3 22 I 7 5 21 4 3 9 2 I 1376 10*46 14-08 5*33 1376 6*00 9*02 10*35 21-48 9*02 9"43 10-46 19-36 11-23 12-54 4*00 13-76 1376 875 IO'2O I0 *35 5'33. IO*00 20*09 40791 61 087 84353 26693 96 611 3245 7 250 652 409 980 106 128 483 287 453 187 16676 41 410 3293 8 3 309 630 5 T OI 99850 64 921 275 982 50123 42623 127 200 6 614 24 608 0-94 1*40 i '94 0*61 2*22 7*45 575 9-41 2-44 11-89 10*40 0-38 '95 7-56 7-11 i'i5 2-29 1-49 6-34 i-i5 0-98 2-92 0*15 0-56 0-312 o*35 i 0-387 0-613 0*317 0-338 0-213 0-324 0*348 0*360 '3i5 0*382 o-475 0*329 0-323 1*150 0-327 0*298 0-302 0-288 0*326 '373 0*075 o'S^S Fallow . . . 64 Italian Rye-grass, pt 21, 22 Barley fallow ... 24 Cabbage fallow 27, 28 Seeds 20 & part of 21 Italian Rye-grass, pt. of 43 25 Mangold '.... 65,66 part of 43 Italian Rye-grass... 54 Parsnips & Carrots . 64 Perm. Pasture... 41, 45] 46 Italian Rye-grass ... 48 . 13 Turnips 20, 21, 22 Second crop of Cab- bage . .. 27 28 Rye-grass after Cab- bage . 27 28 Italian Rye-grass ... 42 )) 55 " 47 Second crop of Cab- bage . 2^ "-'"&'- 3 Italian Rye-grass ... 24 Permanent Pasture 67 Stubble . 58 59 272-55 Equivalent Total Sewage in .874. Cubic fee,. <$% pthta the whole. On 272-55 acres Supplied to farmers Total pumped in 1874 39 329 ooo 7 734 ioo 47 063 TOO 144 300 3*31 84 ORE A T BRITAIN. During the Year 1875. Number Volume Equiva- Average Crop. No. of Field. of water- ings. Acres. per acre in cubic feet. depth in feet. a water- ing. Italian Rye-grass, part of 1 3 Cabbage part of 13 18 1 7 8'54 4*00 245 022 288 Til 5-62 6-6^ 0-312 O'TOO Italian Rye -grass, 2O, 21, 22 24 35 4.Q 14-19 5 "ii. uu too 458520 087 4.^0 io'53 22*67 ov v 0-301 0*4.62 Cabbage 2 c T-y 14. 66 10*76 y u / T-J^ 121 622 * 2'7Q 0*180 Italian Rye-grass ... 27, 28 Maneold .. ,. 4.0, ^ & ^6 42 1376 S'oo 988 380 C2 76"? ^ / V 22*69 1*2 I o'545 O'lO'? Italian Rye-grass ... 47 36 vw IO'2O O^ 1 / **O 585 636 I3'44 0-373 55 " 54 25 9'43 375 707 8-63 0-345 Cabbage, Straw- berries, & Rhubarb 64 4 8-47 67417 r 55 0-387 Fallow for Mangold 65 Seeds 72 2 <2 10-82 9*4.7 30431 52616 0-70 1*21 0-349 0*4.01 Permanent Pasture, 41, 45, 46, 50, 67 v) 7 T/ 37'H 64432 I* 4 8 * ^-^o 0*211 Fallow for Mangold 42, 43 2 3 14*02 34684 7- 9 6 0*346 160*70 Equivalent Total Sewage in 1875. Cubic feet. Cubic feet per acre. depth in feet over the whole. On 160*70 acres ... 44 721 ooo ...278 290 ... 6-39 Supplied to farmers ... 7378600 Total pumped in 1875 ... 52 099 600 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 85 During the Year 1876. Number of water- ings. Acres. Volume of sewage per acre in cubic feet. Equiva- lent depth In feet. Average depth of a water- ing. Crop. No. of Field. Italian Rye-grass 23 3 1 47 47 56 21 22 20 6 3 2 7 8 17 H 3 ii 6 7 9 10-37 6-85 1376 5*33 7*79 12-27 10-36 6-43 4*00 17-77 10*36 26*21 12*11 10-46 9 '43 6*41 8'54 I I '2 I 779 I 97'45 439687 597463 643 775 758l65 277447 310580 36122 99652 54444 24510 101 867 107299 249 983 193211 44639 184186 86258 102759 124 726 10*09 13-72 1478 17-41 6 '37 7'*3 0-83 2-29 1-25 0-56 2'34 2*46 574 4'44 I'02 4^3 1-98 2- 3 6 2-86 0-326 0*292 o'3 I 4 0-311 0-303 0-324 0*041 0-381 0-416 0*281 '334 0-308 o'337 0*317 '34i 0-384 o*33 o'337 0-318 A2 21 28 A i ) *< 24. 22 Seeds 61 Fallow 60 . 2O, 21 part of 1 3 A2 A1 Cabbage 2$ Perm. Pasture 4 1, 45, 46, 67 ---S ^! Mangold, Strawberry and Rhubarb 64 Bean Fallow 54 Mangold 20, 21 Italian Rye-grass, part of 13 Rye-grass after Wheat 48 Grass Fallow 22 Total Sewage in 1876. On 197*45 acres Supplied to farmers Total pumped in 1876... Cubic feet. Cubic feet per acre. 42 569 700... 215593 ... IO 552 200... 53 121 900... Equivalent depth in feet over the whole. 4'95 86 GREAT BRITAIN. During the Year 1877. Number Volume Equiva- Average Crop, No. of Field. f water- ings. Acres. of sewage per acre in cubic feet. lent depth feet. depth 01 a water- ing. Italian Rye-grass (7 \ acres) and Perma-( 4 *'45> nent Pasture (26 ( 4 ' 7 ' acres), together in ) Italian Rye-grass ... 42 2^ . 29 26 27 33' 8-00 8'qo 395417 383357 -206 7^7 9-08 8'8o O'll 0-313 0-338 o"^7 11 36 4'OO =524880 I2'CX o'^-?4 22, and part of 2 1 Ital. Rye-grass, Straw- berries & Rhubarb 64 Fallow for Oats, 20, and part of 2 1 Mangold 24 14 18 20 15 8-00 10-46 7-00 ro8 206 050 247 434 288 340 218 *s8 473 5-68 6-62 5-01 0-338 0-316 0-33 1 o"i^4 Cabbaee . Dart of 4^ s A'2< 1^7 QOI 3-17 ? o'6^^ part of 27&2S 4 C'ZO 61 856 1*42 o'^S'i Mangold ...24, pt. of 27&2S 2Q 13 23 14*34 7'oo 224127 100 722 5*15 6*90 0-396 0*300 Turnips partof27&28 2 3.00 37 474 0-86 0-430 Italian Rye-grass ... 48 Savoys . ...part of 48 3 2 2 11-23 2'OO 458970 38987 io'54 0*90 0-329 0*448 Fallow for Turnips 58, 59 Italian Rye-grass ... 65 25 Parsnips andCabbage part of 43 Permanent Pasture 50 Fallow for Turnips 54 5 5 2 IO 4 4 20*OO lO'OO 10-36 5-02 10*90 9-43 75354 37677 39028 321 663 57610 66 590 i'73 0-86 0*90 7*38 1-32 *53 0-346 0-173 0-448 0-738 o-33i 0-382 197*07 Total Sewage in 1877. On 197-07 acres Supplied to farmers . . . Total pumped in 1877 Cubic feet. Cubic feet per acre. 47 158000... 239297 6817 800... 539758oo... Equivalent depth in feet over the whole. 5*49 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 87 During the Year 1878. Number Volume Equiva- Average Crop. No. of Field. of water- ings. Acres. per acre in cubic feet depth in feet. a water- ing. Italian Rye-grass 22 6 6x6 84. t^oi I '04 O"2,23 2 1 20 IO"?7 AO7 A I -2 Q"2C O''?2 / ? jj *a 2C ^1 io"?6 T- w / ^ A O 4.2Q 7O3 y oo 0-86 w o^o 0-^18 Mangold 27, 28 21 IV76 T-^y /^o 206 ^80 6'8i O"12A Italian Rye-grass 42 II 8'75 y** 3** v 14.8 ii< V4O O"?OQ 21 11*22 -?OI 'JO^ 6'02 O'^2Q Cabbage .. A.A 17 6-86 O WJ - O J 2J C 78^ w y^ 4,'QC w j-*y O'2QI Italian Rye-grass 65 2O 10-82 r*g /"D 266 046 T- yo 6-n o'^oc; Cabbage and Italian 13 Rye-grass Oat Fallow 24 II 12-66 V3"3 l62 840 122 380 374 2-81 0-340 O'7I2 Potatos & Savoys ...20,21 Perm. Pasture 41, 45, 46, 67 Mangold .. 54 6 7 2 i 6-41 26-21 9*4-3 82212 ioi 243 206 040 1-89 2-32 6-80 V J*-* 0-314 0-33 2 O"?24 Fallow .. .2 .ST s^ 3^ In Crops. ^ S Feet. Feet. Field No. 13 : 12-66 acres. Field No. 25 : 10-36 acres. 1872 Fallow 4 i"34 T Q>7^ RVP srass 26 8"?4 1873 Market Garden 7 J i 2*33 T 87 -7 .^8 w OT" I2'II 1874 Rye-grass 22 7-11 T 87/t 2Q 0'4I 18 5-62 i74 Jj 2nd Crop, Cab- y T-* 75 i Cabbage !7 6-63 base ^ 0-98 T o, 6 | Rye-grass 1876 \ Fallow* 6 * 1-98 1-25 8 - Cabbase 14 2-79 2"\A. I R fi 7 1877 Rye-grass \J 36 12-05 1877 Rye-grass 2 OT- 0*90 T o,o f Rye-grass ... 1 1878 \ Cabbage / ii 374 1878 31 9'* 6 Fields Nos. 27 and 28; 13-76 acres. Field No. 22 : 7-79 1872 Market Garden . acres. 2 6*05 1872 Rye-grass 23 jgy^ 24 7-4I 8-00 1 87^ Cabbage i ! 0*26 1874 Cabbage Fallow. 7 .7 2'22 1874 Rye-grass 5 i '94 1875 Rye-grass 4 2 22-62 1875 35 I0 '53 1876 47 1478 1876 Grass Fallow .. 9 2-86 1877 Mixed Crops, various 1877 Rye-grass 14 473 1878 Mangold 21 6-81 1878 1-94 Fields Nos. 41, 45 and 46 : i9'3 6 Field No. 24 : 5-33 acres. acres. 1873 Cabbage 4 i'37 1872 Perm. Pasture ... 3 I -01 . /T 1874 Barley Fallow ... i 0*6 1 1873 > x 0'02 1875 Rye-grass 49 22-67 1874 o 1876 c6 17-41 1875 7 1.40 1877 Mangold o ic / T^ C/OI 1876 ... 8 2*46 8 COat Fallow ..... D 9 J 2-81 1877 ... 29 9'08 1 1 i Rve-2rass 7 2.4-? 1878 ... 7 2-32 IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. 89 ABSTRACT OF YEARLY SUPPLY OF LIQUID SEWAGE continued. V- 5 **-. ' -5 In Crops. 8.1 11 J| In Crops. <3 .S ^o Er 15 -5 S c ^ t_, Ifc " lit s2^ Feet. Feet. Field No. 67 : 6-85 acres. Field No. 64 : 10-46 acres. 1873 to 1878. 1872 Rye-grass 23 7*28 Permanent Pasture with watering similar to fields 41, 45 & 46. 1873 Not Irrigated... {Parsnips and Carrots . . . i 0-38 Field No. 48 : 11*23 acres. Fallow 4 1-40 *J 1872 Rye-grass after 1875 Cabbage, Straw- berries, and Wheat 4 !"'>'? T^ Vmharh , . .. - 1 873 Rve-errass .. T^ 30 11-82 1876 Mangold, Straw- 1874 2 *-? *7 * 6 V\rf"iY"ri oo dfirl 1875 Wheat o __ Ph h 'h C 4" 4'AA. 1876 Rye-grass after Wheat 7 2 . 36 1877 Rye-grass, Straw- berries, and *H 1877 3 2 I0 '54 Rhubarb 18 r-^Q 1878 21 6*92 Field No. 54 : 9-43 acres. Field No. 65 : 10*82 acres. 1872 Bean Fallow ... i 1-68 1872 Rye-grass 27 8-48 1873 Rve-prass 8 2-66 1873 Stubble 7 2*12 1874 5 ? 10*40 1874 Mangold / 7 2 '44 L w / T- )J 1875 OO 8*63 1871; Mangold Fallo w 2 0-70 1876 Bean Fallow ... 3 ^v) I '02 # J o 1876 (None) ... 1877 Turnip Fallow 4 1 '53 1877 Rye-grass 5 0-86 1878 Mangold 21 6'8o 1878 Rye-grass 20 6'II The cropping for 1879 was as follows : Acres. Acres. Italian Rye-grass ... 49' 2 3 Potatos 4* Pasture 86-so Oats 18*03 1. clolUi o ... ... ... Seeds ... ou ^y 16*64 Barley ... 18-50 Mangolds 23-96 Wheat ( 38-72 Carrots 2*7^ Cabbage 6' Parsnips * / D 6*85 Beans ... 45^6 Turnios 2roo Rhubarb . ... -0*50 (See Irrigated Crops."] Live Stock. Cattle, sheep, horses and pigs. 90 GREAT BRITAIN. Health. The health of the residents and persons in the neigh- bourhood has been exceptionally good ; there has not been any complaint of nuisance or effluvia, nor any fever or illness attributable to the farm or its produce. The horses are not subject to grease ; the cattle and sheep are healthy. The drained effluent is small and unobjectionable. Accounts. The following is an abstract from the accounts of Leamington Sewage Farm for the three years 1876, 1877, 1878 : INCOME FROM IST JANUARY IN EACH YEAR. 1876. 1877. 1878. Valuation at end of Year Received for irrigating adjoining land Improvements charged to Capital Sale of Wheat 8157 60 100 489 8366 49 75 902 8299 40 213 801 Barlev 101 132 Oats 30 45 26 j, Mangolds 91 90 61 ,, Turnips ... 38 Carrots and Parsnips Potatos 50 85 . \ Cabbage Beans 84 25 225 18 - 300 Rhubarb Grass 10 814 10 484 426 Hay and Straw Provender for estate horses, game, &c. carriage horses Sale of Cattle Sheeo 665 808 316 1927 522 512 753 371 2084 648 384 626 261 2186 673 Pigs 93 64 fi7 ,, Horses 371 118 34 Milk . . 1 177 1 352 1 541 Wool... 127 147 Grass keep 161 67 43 Horse hire . . 108 146 Use of horses, steam-engine, &c. Miscellaneous . . . 174 12 38 48 3 16494 16713 16477 IRRIGA TION WITH SE WA GE. EXPENDITURE FROM IST JA.NUARY IN EACH YEAR. 1876. 1877. 1878. Valuation at beginning of Year Rent . . 7684 1 309 8157 1430 8306 1 430 Rates, Taxes and Insurance... Veterinary, Blacksmith and Harness Implements purchased and repaired Provender 227 146 92 1121 158 110 102 1432 190 126 168 976 Artificial Manure 92 158 82 Management, Wages and Beer Live Stock Cattle 1988 1415 2048 1 375 2035 1458 Sheep . . 86 103 50 Pigs 3 Horses 156 111 30 Seed- Wheat 69 57 66 Barley . . 15 22 21 Oats 41 21 30 Mangold 24 Potatos 96 60 40 Beans 48 Grass 123 126 123 Railway Bills 9 10 8 Coal 51 39 47 Drainpipes, Ashes, &c Steam Cultivation 58 9 17 6 34 Repairs to Buildings, Roads, &c., and Paint New Buildings 8 2 2 General Expenses 30 26 23 Miscellaneous... 69 129 Wages paid for Agricultural Society Leamington Corporation, for Sewage Balance, Profit 36 450 1 042 450 567 450 478 16494 16713 16477 92 GREAT BRITAIN. 9. READING. General Statement. The farm-land consists of 688 acres out of 770 purchased by the Corporation of Reading for QQ 300 in- clusive of all compensation. It consists of 350 acres of pasture, 325 arable, and 13 let in allotments. At the time of inspection 76-06 acres were ready for irrigation, and 54 acres more were under preparation for it. The drainage of Reading is from 40 ooo persons; but of this amount only that from 33000 persons is conveyed to the farm. The soil is porous, and well suited to the object, but the land is liable to be flooded to the extent of 350 acres. Capital Account. Apart from the sum of ^80 300 expended in farm land and compensation, the site of the pumping station cost ;804 ; the rest of the details are given in the tabular state- ment, the whole amounting to .44 948, in which is included the sum of;5 091 spent on farm buildings, farm engines and cottages. The Sewage. This is collected and screened at a pumping station in the town, on the banks of the Kennett, where is also a storm water overflow. The waterpower of the river drives two turbines out of three, which work four single-acting force-pumps, 1 8 inches diameter, of maximum stroke 30 inches. Steam-power is used when the river is in flood. There is a pair of horizontal high-pressure condensing engines, each having a cylinder 24 inches in diameter, and 42 inches stroke; these drive a pair of plunger pumps 30 inches in diameter, of 36 inches stroke. The sewage is pumped during 1 1 hours in the daytime to a lift of 43 feet ; at night it accumulates in two receiving tanks and in the outfall sewer. The pumping of the sewage, which varies between 80000 and 128 ooo cubic feet daily, in addition to the cleansing and flushing of the sewers, costs, on an average of two years, l^>\ annually. The sewage is conveyed from the pumping station to the farm, a distance of 2^43 miles, partly in a 24-inch cast-iron main, 1*55 miles long, which discharges into a 36-inch brick culvert 0*86 miles long ; on arrival at the farm the sewage is conveyed in earthenware pipes as main carriers below the surface, and dis- tributed on the surface of the land in earth-cut carriers. IRRIGATION WITH SEWAGE. Drainage. The sewaged land is under-drained in some parts 4 feet deep, with drains 30 feet apart, in others 1 5 feet apart ; but over the greater part they are 60 feet apart. An area set apart for nitration was completely waterlogged, The Crops. The following table gives the cropping for the year 1879 : Acres. Rye-grass 5 1 ' Mangolds (irrigated) S 1 '?^ (not irrigated) 7' Wheat 3 J '5 Oats ... 9 6 ' Cabbages (irrigated) 8' Beans 38' 263-25 Land under preparation for Sewage 140' Grass-land ... 2 7 1 '75 Let in allotments 13' 688- (For account of the condition of the crops, see Irrigated Crops) Live Stock. There were 257 head of cattle on the farm, of which 8 1 were cows in milk. The cows are fed in summer on rye-grass, also receiving some fine pollards, and in winter on cut hay, mangolds, fine and coarse pollards, and occasionally some crushed oats. These yield, on an average, two gallons of milk per head daily throughout the year. The milk sells in Reading at 10 b b b b b b b b b b b b GOO OOO MOO M M Ch rOOO O ^ O fO t^ O MMMMCOMMMCO > M ON M CO IO ^ M IO ON co O O ONVO T^* co O OO co ON XO M IO MMOOVOOOONMM : : J S3 i | : C/3 OT T3 S3 : "d : Rock ngs Sand Gravel and F Rain Water Ooliti Hasti Chalk Drift Simpl p p p p p p JO yo O JO O O O O O CO N CO M OO O Tf* covo ONVO ^f" OO to to MMMf^MNMWONlOMMMCOt^ M co /-> M M ON N M t- co co M Tf ON covb M OO co M u-> CO M M M O O O O O M oooooo qS P o o M Tj" M O O O b b b vO co to O CO rj- N CO T}- O t> ON ^ ^t~ t" * ONOO i>* t^* M i>* O n M \o OO -T^^ ON ON ^" 110 GREAT BRITAIN. O 10 N IO og OU ges rj- t^- t-^ ON ioO O CO vO ON O woo O ^ t^oO O b b b b b b b b b OO O>vO M3 t^OO O CO co \O M co ^t COO xo ON M O O O M O CO N Th COCO !> ON M O M Z>> t^ co co 10 N 10 r^OO ^tNCOnoocoTfco M M VO N r^O OsOsO>t^.^ i ^-coON COCOO Tj- rf t^vo CO CO N Tt" !> t^.OO ON co vo M O ONVO t-^OO tot^M ONO IOCOCM N M COION CO II (J 1/5 31 r *7 u v-/ O OT- 5nC 22* Well at Plumstead 55 2 co8*o 2 5 7 70'6 o 31 n-8i O* T T U D ^^8 ** J 46*0 fWell at Belvidere i /IOC ' 2 3 u 2 2 '4 T *OO O" '27 Q 6 6 2O'7Q 2-2'tf {Well at Charlton ^'-'O * Q28'O ** ** 42'6 T 1Q u 61 0-28 * O ^ / y 9*0 1 JO IQ7'O New River Company. From the Lea Intake r* w "> C" *7 1 oy 0'87 n-fi7 WJ. 2-81 i8'o at Hornsey Wheelhouse after Subsidence and ) Filtration f o44 329-0 22O'O 2 5 7 24-2 16-6 3'75 2'2 0'59 o*43 0*05 0'O2 3 OA 3-71 1-86 17*0 16-5 * No Subsidence Reservoirs. t Probably now abandoned as polluted by sewage and manure. 114 GREA T BRITAIN. COMPARATIVE COMPOSITION OF WATER, &c. continued. LONDON WATER. 1 o | a g. 1i I January and February, C/2 ai '5 C tl> g || J 1873. o c bfl,Q *- ^ ^ U H 6-1 ^ Unfiltered Thames Water 246*0 I ' 2Q o 1*88 16*0 Thames Water Filtered through 91 -o Fresh Animal Charcoal -. IQA'O j r -o O'2Q O'O7 o* 13 I "Q4 16*0 JP The results of analyses of Thames water before and after passing through various filtering mediums, and filters, which were undertaken by experts at the Health Exhibition, Kensing- ton, in 1884, are not yet available. But Spencer's Magnetic Carbide has been declared the most effective medium. There has always been much difficulty in procuring the material. ANALYSIS OF WATER. COMPOSITION OF POTABLE WATERS. Results of Analysis expressed in Parts per Million. NORTH BRITAIN. WATER OF STREAMS. The Ness, at Loch Ness, 8 March, 1 872 t/3 rs *o I Dissolved Matters. 11 i Ammonia. Nitrites and Nitrates. Combined Nitrogen. Chlorine. 33 32 15 20 57 29 34 99 29 42 62 73 147 89 43 35 335 not 112 135 104 88 54 118 124 f\ T 3-6 3;5 2'0 I'l 3'9 6-8 0-8 r8 I'O i'6 1-6 0-9 i -9 i '5 give 4-2 07 3*4 47 2'6 watc '55 0-44 0*14 0*19 0*26 0*13 0'2I o'o8 O'2O 0*15 0*15 0'12 0'I5 0'27 O'22 n. 0-59 0-07 O'll 0'49 '37 0-52 0-32 jr, si Goi it qu filt( O'O2 O'OI o o O'OI o 0'O2 0*04 O'OI o o O'O2 O'OI 0-03 0-03 O'OI 0*02 0'02 0'O2 milai bals. ality, iring o 0-23 0'39 7-89 o'8i 0*62 3-82 o'i8 0-28 r to but 0-14 0'I 9 0-27 0'I 3 0'2 3 '55 0-08 0'2I 0' 3 8 0'5I 0' 7 6 0-16 0-29 8-13 1-41 0*69 3*93 0*69 0*60 0-36 tha req 9;s 3'5 I2'O 6'8 6-8 9-0 67 7-0 8-0 8-9 8'4 I2'0 7'5 9-0 38-0 I2'6 I2'8 II'I IO'O 14*0 14*0 11*2 t of Liires The Dee, above Balmoral, 9 March, 1872 The Gelderburn, above Balmoral 3 9 March, 1872 The Don, below Alford, 11 March, 1872 TheTay, above Dunkeld, 15 Sept., 1870 The Tay, above Perth, 15 Sept., 1870 The South Esk, at Gladhouse Mill, 16 July, 1871 The Tala, near its source, 3 April, 1871 The Megget, at S. Mary Loch, 20 June, 1871 ... The Ettrick, above Selkirk, 2 April, 1870 The Heriot, near its source, I April, 1871 The Slitrig, above Hawick, I April, 1870 The Tweed, above Kelso, 4 April, 1870 The Eivan, above Mines, 22 July, 1870 The Leven, below Loch Lomond , 23 July, 1870 WATER OF STORAGE WORKS. Berwick water supply, 4 April, 1870 .. Dumbarton ,, . Dundee water supply, 12 March, 1872 Edinburgh (Swanston), 6 April, 1870 Galashiels water supply, 2 April, 1870 Glasgow (Gorbals), 3 Aug., 1870 Greenock water supply, 26 July, 1870 Hamilton ,, 28 July, 1870 Kilmarnock ,, 7 April, 1870 Paisley ,, 21 July, 1870 Port Glasgow / S ood Stirling .. (of exceller 116 BRITAIN. t>t ON I I ON , p a I < "-=3 i. I I O vp io CO VO 10 vo COO 1 Jo ^2 M O i>N N oo S TJ- N oo co b VO CO DIU3S4V pauiquioQ PUB S3}ujijs[ OIUBS.IO I I I I ON ON b oo vp p g" u-> p b w ? J W CO W^ O O a o o rt- vO b b S> eg b b 8 s o\ &\ ^4- OO O N f^ yOO 3 _1 OO 00 a ^ N 10 O iMTj-o op p p p g ^ vo 5 ON "3 -i vo vo n ^ "p co oo tC g CO O O C 1-1 O Tt- vo co O N VO O CO !>. O co N K. M b co CO h-1 N O O VOO O O ^" O r NONC r>. 3 vb ON t>xOO co N o ANALYSIS OF WATER. 117 co 10 O ss 3 upHl*lo X p . vo 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 to WL o oo ojo p vo ON OJ Tf CO co Os CO rt ^ M W ^5 p ooo ^- I OIUB2JQ i JT O vo I O TJ- N VO Os CO t^ CO OS vo io i CJ Td-COl- N N - CO a C/3 ,-", K i 00 N 00 CO CO !? 1 S28^^* omasay o o^ OO OS , N N O O O O OO 1 VO >H i- CO NH M o O CO CO C) !II B: ' 3 M b b b b b b b b b b XO Tt O vo p p p . . 3UUOJTI3 Os vo vo O N ON ^f r?t,r CO t^ Tj- 18 vS 5 1 usSojii vn in 5^ CO N M 1 p 9 u iq u:o b do ON fo HI cot>. vo O * O co OS CO i-i CO if (4 pu?SS N vo *> P o . o o o o CO CO o ! BIUOUIUIV p .8 b K. 88 o N O O ON < V, ^ vb K. 00 - b l-l b b b\r^d fi usSojji^j VO tQ ^ CrSoo OIUB3JQ o w "2 b b-^ CO OO Os 10 t^ CO 9 O^S oiuSjo fx t*H ^* O ** '^ ^ ^" ^o ^* co l-t^t-t>. VOf^COt>.COCO O\ N oo o * ' I M IC^" 9; M N oo o o vo .spips F;O X ^ co i M i-i CO COVO vo t>> rj- N i-i co COVO CO O VO 000 TfrOO VO T^- t^ VO VO s N i-c cOtxt>.N i-i ^ M ^^- -. ; K. ^-, : : f^r * ^* : oo oo O&O !j" FACTORY EFFLUENTS continued. III. POLLUTION BY STARCH FACTORIES. vater of the Clyde Basin in the Douglas, 15 Man 2 polluted by Starch Works in the Espidair Burn, 21 Ji ige from Starch Works tanks at Paisley, 14 March, Lge from other Starch Works at Paisley, 15 March, . POLLUTION FROM BLEACH WORKS OF LINEN AND JUTE. any Bleach Works in the Dighty, 4 May, 1871 ... Claverhouse Bleachfield in the Dighty, 14 Sept., 18 Bleachfields, Ballunie Bridge, in the Dighty, 4 May, liquor, of ist boiling of 2nd boiling of chloride of lime of sulphuric acid V. POLLUTION FROM FLAX STEEPING. | ^ 5 J* 1 1 a. a, 5o oo u n O ^ o .g* o ^H ^J^ VI. POLLUTION FROM JUTE DYEWORKS. oo C/3 M 1 S 1 I 1 $IH Ml t-H Jill 11*1 a H QQ ^MM^ ^ UNIVERSITY 0' 118 GREAT BRITAIN. to vb ON ON r>. r- op vp N CO CO t> 31U3SJV 10 p vp OO ON OO ** OO Tf , pauiqmoQ & K 8 m vb O ON to to to N co r*N HH -*-& 3- ^ b tr T* o F uoq-reo 5; s, ON rt- O to f^ N OO CO CO p p < s vo to & > =3 S-s g O < "8 pL! >, ftJ < t O o3 5 5 O w 2 .g 2 - S R 6 J^OO I a^ K>( ^ a | ANALYSIS OF WATER. 119 10 \p \p - . o\ ob c>o 1 1 \b OIU3SJV Biaouituv o o o f ON O O io o oo i-i C ON k. b co vO N HH co m 00 |li 8 Kv 8 ooo ^ g; 8 s t>. CO 25 $ <*> CO Io ^ b fc i? * S PHS I^oj, O i-i M T^-lOl-l SO Tt- . oo o CO *H O 0> CO ON CO <- 8 . rf a f g i >^ 1 1 5 1 1 i " g 3 C' S- 43 . . I 111 3 a 1 :! 2 120 GREAT BRITAIN. KH O s o o o 1 1 1 1 1 1 in o DIU3S4V 1 1 1 1 1 rhCX) VO o rt o b b fi O O vp N vo in 3- 2 |^ ON CO I b vo b co b ptre oooo ON -BTUOUIUIV t-. M b ON O O b b * vo co CO 1-1 C* b b b t^ H4 N O O o * o oo * b vob b b t^ M CO O N t>x VO VOCO CO 1-1 OO b M b ^ b b O 0\Th O vp voN in ON M Vf vn vn co CO CO CO i ^ = H I ^iiil WWW ' 'C a, FORMATIONS AND GROUPS. I20A Permian Carbonife- rous j Upper Lower Devonian Silurian ... Upper Lower Cambrian Upper Lower Laurentian GREAT BRITAIN. Recent and Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene Eocene.., Upper Middle Lower Cretaceous Upper Lower Jurassic ... Upper \ Middle Lias Triassic ... Upper Lower LIST OF FORMATIONS AND GROUPS. Newer Alluvial gravels and Peat mosses, &c. Cave deposits and Glacial drift. Boulder clay and older Glacial drift. Norwich crag. Red crag and coraline crag. Hempstead beds. Betnbridge, Osborne, Headon and Barton beds. Bracklesham beds and Bagshot sands. London clay, Woolwich and Reading beds, and Thanet sands. Upper white chalk, Lower white chalk, Chalk marl, Upper greensand, Gault, and Blackdown beds. Lower greensand. Speeton clay. Weald clay. Hastings sands. Purbeck beds. Portland stone and sand. Kimmeridge clay. Coral rag. Oxford clay. Kelloway rock. Cornbrash and forest marble. Bath oolite. Stonesfield slate and Inferior oolite. Upper lias. Shale and limestone. Marlstone. Lower lias. Rhretic. Penarth beds. Upper new red sandstone. Red shales with rock salt. Bristol dolomitic conglomerate. Lower new red sandstones (part). Lower new red sandstone (part). Magnesian limestone, and marl slate of Durban. Trappean, breccia and red marls. Coal measures of England and Wales. Millstone grit. Yore- dale series. Mountain limestone. Lower coal measures of Scotland. Lower limestone shale or carboniferous slate. Old red sandstone. Sandstones of Dura Den, Yellow sand- stone of Ireland. Petherwyn group. Pilton, Ilfracombe and Linton groups. Upper Ludlow and Downton limestone. Aymestry limestone. Lower Ludlow, Wenlock and Woolhope limestones. Upper Llandovery sandstone. Lower Llandovery slates. Bala or Caradoc beds. Llandeilo flags. Arenig or Stiper- stones group. Tremadoc slates. Lingula flags. Menevian beds. Longmynd group. Harlech g.its and Llanberis slates. Fundamental gneiss of the Hebrides. CHAPTER II. CANADA. RIVER BASINS. NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. METEOROLOGY. DOMINION OF CANADA. RIVER-BASINS AND LAKE-CATCHMENTS. Provinces. Area of Land. Area of Water. Sq. miles. Sq. miles. Prince Edward Island ... 2133 Nova Scotia 20 907 4 200 New Brunswick 27 174 Quebec 188688 21000 Ontario 101733 20000 Manitoba 123200 Assiniboia 95 ooo Saskachewan 114000 Alberta 100 ooo British Columbia and ) Vancouver Island f 341 3 5 Total i 114 140 Northern Territories not included Cultivable Area. Census of 1881. Acres. Population. i 126 653 5 396 382 3 809 621 12 625 877 19259909 2 384 337 108 091 440572 321 233 i 359027 i 923 228 65954 41 216 ooo 441 255 49459 86 260 034 4 268 364 300 ooo ooo 56446 386 260 034 4324810 Total 3470392 As it is impossible yet to obtain accurate delimitation of all the basins, and hence also to obtain their areas, the areas of provinces are given as useful adjuncts. The navigations and canals to be mentioned hereafter being entirely in the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and the Winnipeg region of Manitoba, Assiniboia, and Saskachewan, the following estimation of catchment areas is confined to them. The Divisions of the series of Catchment Basins in the main Canadian Dominion and beyond the United States boundary are estimated from the maps of 1883. 124 CANADA. DIVISIONS. I. The Great Lakes Catchment II. The Saint Lawrence River-Basin III. The Lake Winnipeg Catchment IV. The Nelson River-Basin... I. Catchments of the Great Lakes Groups. Sq. miles. Sq. miles. Chief Rocks. 1 T f\\re> cinnpnW in C*nxr\* 2CCn) f Lower Laurentian, Huronian, and Cambrian. 1. Lake bupenor in Canada 2255 l 6 j Much protrusive granite and a little diorite. Lake Superior in United States 22 706 J ^ 3 { Q r b e e n c to ^ oup ' Chazy ; a Iittle Huronian and 2. Lake Huron ia Canada 38 702) * { ^sTfurkTand DewnTan ian ' Cambr - silurian ' f 55 2 76 (Coal measures, Gaspe sandstone, Chemung Lake Huron m United States Io574 j and Hamilton; small quantity of Buona- ) v ventura. 3. Lake Michigan , 47 344 { *^^l^> Ga$pe sand ' 4. Lake Erie in Canada 7973) Devonian and Silurian. Lake Erie in United States 20 7 66| 28 739 { G S^ u 'SSc?' ****** Hmestone ' and 5. Lake Ontario in Canada 8803] j Cambro-Silurian, Silurian, and Lower Lau- \ 25 344 ( Gaspe sandstone, Hamilton, Medina and Lake Ontario m United States 16541 \ Hudson rocks; small quantities of Niagara / ( and Clinton rocks. 6. Surfaces of the Great Lakes. Altitude Mean depth e r , , ,-, in feet. in feet. Surface of Lake Superior 31990 ... 598 900 Lake Huron, &c 24210 ... 574 45 o ,, Lake Michigan 23032 ... 578 looo Lake Erie 10510 ... 564 90 Lake Ontario 7470 234 ... 412 Total Great Lake Surface ... 97 212 II. The Saint Lawrence River-Basin Groups. 1 T-h* rkf * -n^' ( Lower Laurentian, Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian ; 1, The Ottawa Basin 62790J small quantities of Huronian, Trenton, I Hudson, Chazy; some granite and syenite. 2. Affluents from the north-west, including all \ , ( Lower Laurentian ; small quantities of Cam- WCSt Of Point des MontS .. f IO O476^ bro-Silurian, some granite, gneiss and ( syenite. 3. South-east affluents in Canada, including all) f Cambrian, Silurian, Cambro-Silurian, Lauren- west of Point des MontS .. f2O5&3 1 tian > Huronian ; small quantities of Upper i. Laurentian, and protrusive granite. 4. South-west affluents in United States IS'rSc \ Lower Laurentian, Cambrian; small quantities * /0 -> J at Trenton, Quebec, and Potsdam rock. RIVER-BASINS AND LAKE-CATCHMENTS. 125 Groups. 5" In Canada. Square 78028 190 129 348 832 29363. In the United States. miles. 123931 13785 49918 Total square miles, 201 959 203914 398 75 29363 4~ Q I *9 646352 187 634 833 986 III. The Lake Winnipeg Catchment Groups. Sq. miles. Chief Rocks. ( Cambro-Silun'an and Devonian Cretaceous, 1. The Great Saskache wan River .................. 913171 Laramie - .in the mountains Carboniferous V and Devonian overlying Cambrian. 2. The South Saskachewan River ................ 63332 ^^ Laramie< In the mountains as 3. Old Wives-Lake Catchment ..................... 12 192 { Ch j c e e fl n y e r ^ mie ; some Cretaceous and Mi ' 4. Winnipegosis and Manitoba, or Western) direct Catchment, including a North- 36 920 { D cKSous " hmestones; some western piece ................ .................... j 5. Assinboine River and Qu'Appelle ............ 64 492 Chiefly Cretaceous ; some Laramie. 6. Red Riverin Canada ............................. 9282 {^^^S^^ 013 ^ Devonian and ,, in United States ........................ 36472 Hamilton and Trenton rocks, some Potsdam. 7. Lake of the Woods in Canada .................. l8 535 { ^St?"' Huronian; some P rotrusive ,, in United States ............ 13446 Laurentian. 8- Winnipeg River and affluents .................. 35 266 AS in No. 7. Canadian portion. 9. Berens and Albany series, or Eastern direct ) , Catchment I 749 (3 Chiefly Laurentian; a little Huroman. 10- Surfaces of the Larger Lakes. Lake Winnipeg Surface ........................ 8 143 Lake of the Woods Surface .................. I 200 Lake Winnepegosis Surface .................. ] Altitude Mean depth in feet. in feet. 710 Lake Manitoba Surface Old Wives Lakes Surface. / Included in Catchment < 1042 770 Included in Catchment. Not given. IV. The Nelson River-Basin 1, From Lake Winnipeg to Hudson Bay 29 363 Laurentian, Huroman, and Silurian. The few meteorological data given are not sufficient to establish the hydrologic condition of these regions. NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. ials Canals of the St. Lawrence Series Richelieu Navigation Ottawa Navigation Rideau Navigation Trent Navigation Short Passages The Welland Canal Future Projects RIVER IMPROVEMENT WORKS. The Saint Lawrence beloiv Montreal. The Saint Lawrence, from Montreal to the ocean, is the natural main line of navigable communication for Canada. It is, however, closed to sea-going vessels by ice for about five months in the year, and tide water reaches only to a place called the Three Rivers, 74 miles above Quebec and 86 below Montreal. Between Montreal and Quebec there were several shoals that formerly restricted the navigable draught of vessels to 1 1 feet. The chief of these shoals was near the confluence of the Richelieu River, and near those of the Yamaska and Saint Francis, where is a group of numerous islands, below which the river expands itself into Lake Saint Peter, about 8 miles wide, and 40 miles long, but of small depth. Since 1850, a channel 300 feet wide has been dredged through all obstructions, allowing the passage of vessels of 22 feet draught from Montreal to the ocean. The effect on the com- merce of that town between 1857 an d 1875 was very marked. In 1876 the works of river improvement were making progress in further deepening the channel throughout to a depth of 25 feet ; and thus making Montreal a port for large sea- going vessels; an advantage before confined to Quebec, 160 miles below. The dredging operations were then being carried on with the following plant : eight dredges, costing ^91 000 ; seven tugs, costing ;14 800, and barges, scows and stone lifters to the value of 11 800 ; in all valued at 111 600. The cost of dredging, raising, towing and depositing is stated to vary from NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 127 per i ooo cubic feet for small and large boulders to 4. '232 per i ooo cubic feet for soft clay. As a necessary sequence, works of harbour construction and increased wharfage at Montreal followed the re-commencement of the works of River Improvement. Galops Rapids Improvement. These works commenced in 1880. Their object was to blast and dredge a channel 200 feet wide, and to give a safe navigable draught of 14 feet at low water for a distance of 3 300 feet through the Galops Rapids. These Rapids were the most shallow .of the three passed by the Galops Canal (to be afterwards mentioned) ; the shoals to be excavated were the " Island Shoal " and the " Lower Bar." In 1884 the passage through the former was complete. The work in the latter began in 1883. It consists in drilling, blasting and dredging the limestone rock in a depth of 10 to 20 feet of water with a current of 14 feet per second> and is dangerous and difficult. CANALS OF THE SAINT LAWRENCE SERIES. These are all between Montreal and Lake Ontario, being mostly short, and occurring at rapids and places where navigation on the main river would be difficult or impossible without them for vessels beyond a certain draught. They are : CANAL. 1. The Lachine Canal 2. The Beauharnais Canal 3. The Cornwall Canal ... 4. Farran's Point Canal... 5. Rapide Plat Canal ... 6. Galops Canal To Lake Ontario ) (Kingston) J Length in miles. Least depth of Fall in feet. Length Name of of River Rapids. between, water. in miles. 8 40 13 44f . Saint Louis. II 25 . 9. 82^ . Cascade & others 'Si II 'So . 9 . 48 . Long Sault. 32} '75 . 9 . 4 . Farran's Point. 5 4 . 9 . ni . Rapide Plat. 4 7 63 . 9. !5l . Galops & others. 4* 66J 43*53 206J 128 The three last are collectively named the Williamsburg Canals. Some of the details of each will now be given separately. 128 CANADA. i. The Lachine Canal This canal was commenced in 1821 and opened in 1825. It extends across the southern corner of the Island of Montreal, from the city of that name to Lake Saint Louis, a wide reach of the River Saint Lawrence, above the Saint Louis or Lachine Rapids, but below the main conflu- ence of the Ottawa River. The fall to be overcome was nearly 45 feet in a total length of 8-4 miles, but the greater part of the fall was concentrated in 3 miles. The depth of water in the canal was 5 feet, and the width 1 1 feet. The locks were seven in number, in- cut stone, each 100 feet by 20 feet, with a depth of 4^ feet on sills. The cost of the canal was ^109 601. In 1843 the canal was enlarged, the works being finished in 1848. The depth was increased to 10 feet, the bed width to 80 feet, and the water width at surface to 120 feet. The number of locks was reduced to five, of dimensions 200 feet by 45 feet, the three upper having 9 feet depth on sills, and the two lower 1 6 feet. The greater depth given to the lower ones was given to admit sea-going vessels to basins connected with the canal. The total cost of the canal from its commencement to 1867 was ,527 282. In 1875 it was decided to further enlarge the Lachine Canal at an estimated cost of \. 500 000 ; the works began that year. Though it was at that time probable that the whole of the Saint Lawrence series of Canals would be enlarged to pass the largest vessels navigating the lakes, . the enlargement was then restricted to this canal alone, for the reasons that it had to accommodate the combined traffic of the Ottawa and the Saint Lawrence Rivers, and that its lower portion required immediate enlargement for the passage of sea-going vessels to docks and wharves near Montreal. The following details of the canal, as existing in June, 1876, during the visit of Mr. George Walch, C.E., have been gathered from his account The canal entrance, commencing at the harbour of Montreal, is formed by a pier of cribwork, extending for 250 feet from the south wing of the lowest lock into the river. Vessels can moor by this pier. Lock No. i, the lowest, has an extreme lift of 13 feet. Between it and Lock No. 2 is a basin, 580 feet by 1 80 feet, with dressed stone walls ; along the northern side of it NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 129 is a wharf. Lock No. 2 has a lift of 1 3 from this Basin No. I to Basin No. 2. The latter basin is 2 200 feet long, with a surface of nearly 14^ acres, it is lined with masonry walls, and has extensive wharfage. At its north-western end, two other Basins, Nos. 3 and 4, open out of it ; these are parallel, and about 1 30 feet apart ; their areas are 32450 and 90000 square feet respectively, with an aggregate of 3 590 linear feet of docking. Two " slips " or basins with pitched slopes, also open out of the canal at points respectively 100 and 700 feet beyond Basin No. 2. The canal continues through the town for nearly a mile from Lock No. 2 to Lock No. 3 ; it is flanked by mills and ware- houses. Lock No. 3 has a lift of 8f feet. Lock No. 4, which is 9 400 feet beyond it, has a lift of 9 feet ; near this are several mills, factories and elevators worked by water from the canal, an arrangement that creates an increased current in the canal and causes great inconvenience to vessels passing. Lock No. 5 (the guard lock) has a lift of 9 feet and is about 4i miles beyond Lock No. 4 ; it opens into a channel formed by a cribwork pier, or wing dam, 4650 feet long, extending up the river and parallel to the shore. This was made to raise the water at the . canal exit; vessels are moored by it, and there is a small lighthouse at its extreme end. The channel leads t nto Lake Saint Louis. The locks are all 200 feet by 45 feet in width between quoins. They are built of stone in hydraulic mortar and are founded on timber platforms, under which is a bed of concrete in cases where the bottom is soft. The sills of both gates are at the same level, a breast wall near the entrance to the upper bay retaining the canal bed. This mode of construction is adopted because elevated sills are unable to withstand the shocks given to gates by heavy vessels. These gates are sometimes rammed away, and the damage is easily repaired, as no injury is done to masonry below water. All the sills are timber trusses, bolted down to large cross timbers lying in trenches 8 feet below the floor ; the space between them and the flooring being filled with rammed puddle. The gates are two-leaved, not framed, but built up of solid longitudinal timbers, 1 8 to 20 inches thick, bolted together with large iron bolts running through the whole height of the gate, and strengthened by vertical posts or binders. There are four 130 CANADA. wickets in each leaf for admitting water into the locks, these are 4 feet by 2 feet, and are closed by iron turning-valves worked by screw gearing at the top of the gate. No other mode of admitting water is provided (culverts in side walls are open to great objection locally ; the severe frosts of Canada acting on them and injuring the walls). There are no separate heel or mitre posts ; the ends of the longitudinal timbers being shaped to the quoins and mitres. The gates move on pivots at the heels, and are suspended by a wrought iron strap on each side, attached by turn-buckles to a wrought iron strap passing round an iron pin, held directly over the centre of movement by a timber, which is bolted to the side wall and lying on it. This system of entire suspension is found far preferable to the roller system, with its liability to obstructed roller paths. But the gates are sometimes provided with rollers, clear of tracks, to be used when a suspension bar breaks. The gate tops are held in position by the ordinary arrangement of collars and anchors. These large gates work with unusual ease and smoothness. The opening mechanism adopted for the gates consists of drag chains worked by crabs. But in two cases, the upper gates of Locks Nos. i and 3, are worked with the pole arrangement so much in favour in Holland ; two men working these ponderous gates with ease. The pole, a piece of hard wood, 8 inches broad by 5 inches thick, is fastened to the leaf about 10 feet from the mitre on a vertical pin or pivot, round which it can move. It travels over three friction rollers on the coping ; these are respectively ii, 2\ and 3^ feet long. A chain fastened to each end of the pole is passed round the drum of a crab, which stands on the coping across the pole, so that when wound one way the pole is forced forwards, and when wound the other way it is dragged back, at the same time turning horizontally on the pin on the gate, and accommodating itself to the varying directions due to curved movement. Under the crab the pole passes between two cheek-pieces, \\ feet apart, which restrain swinging, and act as stops to a pin running through the pole at the exact spot suiting the mitreing position of the gate. These are useful in holding a leaf, if the other is bumped open forwards by a heavy vessel, a case sometimes happening ; they assist the clapping cell in retaining one leaf NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 131 till the other springs back into position. The pole arrangement if used for lower gates is very liable to injury from boats in the lower chamber. Swing bridges are used throughout the canal to enable high- masted schooners and steamers with hurricane decks to pass freely. Out of six, three are over locks. They are all timber trusses, varying from 79 to 86 feet long and from I \\ to 15^ feet in width of roadway. That over Lock No. 2 is worked by water- power from the canal, another by horse-power, and the remain- ing four with gearing worked by hand. Their construction was thus described in 1867 by Mr. J. G. Sippell. The timber bridges are formed of string pieces, braced horizontally with timber and iron cross braces, the side of the bridge forming a vertical truss, composed of diagonal cross braces of timber placed between the stringers and top rail, held in their places by iron tie-bolts, with nut and screw at each end. A ballast-box is formed at the heel of the bridge to counter- balance the weight of the toe. A gallows frame is erected at the pivot beam, over which the suspension chains pass, for supporting the toe of the bridge, when open. The length of these chains is graduated by means of screw-buckles. Two rollers are attached to the heel of the bridge, traversing on an outer segment of cast iron, secured to a stone foundation. Rollers are also placed near the centre of the bridge, traversing on an inner segment, secured to the stone pier, for supporting the pivot. On the smaller bridges this pivot is placed in the centre of the pivot-beam, and 8 feet 8 inches from the face of the abutment wall. On the two larger bridges at Montreal, they are placed at the side, about 2 feet from the face of the wall, and secured to the under surface of the corbel below the stringer. The works of enlargement, commenced in 1875, comprised the following intentions, which have probably been entirely carried out: The canal, from Basin No. 2 to Lock No. 3, to be enlarged to 200 feet mean width ; between Locks Nos. 3 and 4 to 175 feet mean width ; and between Locks 4 and 5 to 1 50 feet mean depth ; the depth of water throughout to be maintained at 13 feet ; excepting at entrances and in certain basins. All the new locks to be 270 feet by 45 feet ; their lifts to 132 CANADA. remain as before, being built near the old ones on timber plat- forms ; their sills, as before, wooden trusses, both on the same level ; the top of the breast-wall, retaining the upper canal bed, to be 1 8 feet below water surface in Locks Nos. I and 2 ; and in the other locks 14 feet. A new entrance to be made from Montreal Harbour, and another at the Lachine end, the latter to be 15 feet deep and 200 feet wide, formed by a continuous pier of cribwork 6 200 feet long. Basin No. i (before mentioned) to be increased in depth to 19 feet ; and a second basin, of the same dimensions and increased depth, to be made parallel to it and connected with it. The old Basin No. 2 to be increased in depth to 13 feet, and to have a channel 19 feet deep running through it. A new basin will be connected with it, 19 feet deep, and of dimensions I 250 feet by 225 feet, surrounded by masonry dockwalls ; this will be called the "Wellington" basin. The details of work, seen in pro- gress by Mr. Walch, present the peculiarity of a "frost batter," or very sloping rear batter to the back of "the dockwall for the topmost five feet of it. (This is intended to permit the frozen soil to travel upwards instead of pressing the dockwall outwards.) Regulating weirs to be made in connection with each lock. These will, like all masonry works on the canal, be built on tim- ber platforms ; and in these cases they will be laid 5^ feet below water surface of the lower reach ; the portion between the rear wings being covered by an extra course of 2-inch planking as a floor. Four ranges of sheet-piling, 5 feet deep, will run across the foundations. The " breast-wall " to be 4 feet wide at the top and 9 feet at the bottom ; the crest i J feet below upper reach level, and 49 feet long, divided into two bays by a centre pier, 3^ feet wide, to carry a foot bridge. The eight vents in the weir to be rectangular, 5 feet high and 4 feet wide, with sills at level of bed of upper reach ; these will be closed by wooden gates turning vertically on centre-pivots and worked with turning rods, 3 inches in dia- meter. These will run through clips built into the face of the wall, up to 6 inches above the level of the wooden platform, which will be placed over the weir just in front of the breast wall on the upstream side. The gates will close on oak frames fixed NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 133 to the edges of the vents. The upper wings and bridge pier will have grooves for stop-planks. The lower "raceway" walls will, for a distance of 70 feet beyond the end of the weir, have a plank lining 7 feet high, fastened into wall panels 2 inches deep. (This is a peculiar instance of the use of timber in Canadian hydraulic works.) The whole bed of the lower raceway will be covered by a plank flooring running under the side walls as foundations ; under the floor will be several cross rows of sheet piling, 6 feet deep. Masonry culverts to be built so as to admit of a future deep- ening of the canal-bed by 2 feet ; that is to a depth of 1 5 feet of water. In 1883 the construction of the two new basins at Saint Gabriel was commenced, and is still proceeding. The channel leading to Wellington Basin from the harbour was dredged to afford a clear navigable depth of 18 feet. The completion of the Lachine entrance, for a width of 200 feet and navigable depth of 14 feet was completed fully in 1884. In 1884 this canal consisted of one channel with two entrances at each end, and two sets of locks, old and new. The latter are 270 feet by 45 feet, with depth on sills of 1 8 feet on two lower locks, and 14 on the three upper, and all permanent works are built to correspond with a navigable depth of 14 feet. 2. The Beauharnois Canal. At the beginning of this century there were four short canals for navigation round the " Cascade, " " Cedars," and " Coteau " Rapids : their locks were only 6 feet wide, with a depth of 2\ feet on sills ; the fall to be overcome in the three rapids is in all 82^ feet in n miles, but mostly concentrated in 7 miles, including the two level reaches between the three rapids. In 1817 these canal locks were enlarged to 12 feet wide, and 3i feet deep on sills. In 1843 the present Beauharnois Canal was begun; it was opened in 1845 \ and its cost, with additions and improvements until 1867, amounted to ,402 856. It begins at the foot of the " Cascade " Rapids, the entrance being formed by piers, 535 feet long, of cribwork below water level, and of a timber superstructure. The canal runs for its whole length \\\ miles, close to the south bank of the river, entering it again 134 CANADA. at the eastern end of the river-widening named " Lake Saint Francis," just above the " Coteau " Rapids. The water section of the canal is 10 feet deep, 80 feet in bed width, and 120 feet in surface width. The locks are nine in number, each having a depth on sill of 9 feet, and of dimensions 200 feet by 45 feet ; they resemble the old locks of the Lachine Canal, described on page 1 29. The other principal works are 13 weirs, 9 timber swing bridges, of which 8 are over locks, and 10 culverts under the canal. There are recesses in the canal banks with planked vertical sides, for the convenience of ferry scows plying across the canal. The details of the works generally resemble those of the Lachine Canal. In 1884 a railway bridge over this canal was commenced. 3. The Cornwall Canal This canal was made between 1834 and 1843 at a total cost up to 1867, exclusive of repairs and management, of ^"483 288. Its entrance is at the town of Cornwall at the head of Lake Saint Francis ; and it runs close along the northern edge of the river, except in two parts, each about half a mile long, where it cuts across projecting points of land. Its total length is I \\ miles, in which it overcomes the 48 feet fall of the Long Sault Rapids. The water section of the canal is lofeet deep, bed width 100 feet, water face 1 50 feet. The north side of the canal is everywhere in cutting, but on the south side the water is retained and the tow- path formed by an artificial bank, founded chiefly on the bed of the river, and protected from wash on the river slope by stone- pitching, and on the canal side by dry stone facing, 2 feet above and 2\ feet below water surface. There has been much settling and sliding of this bank. The locks are seven in number, of which one is a guard lock ; the remaining six are liftlocks with 9 feet of water on sills ; their dimensions are 200 feet by 55 feet. The three lowest of them are only about 200 feet apart, an arrangement liable to cause delay of traffic. One timber swing bridge carries traffic over the canal ; it is 10 feet wide and 56^ feet in span between abutments. There are also four road-tunnels under the canal, these are 12 feet wide, 6 feet high at side walls, and 10 feet high to crown. They NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 135 are moderately effective and generally passable for foot- travellers and carriages, but they have to be cleared out once a month, and the river backs up into them. The estimated cost of enlarging and improving this canal, to correspond with the new Lachine Canal, is ;540 000. In 1884 the new works were well advanced : the lower entrance had been enlarged ; two new locks had been con- structed to take the place of three old ones ; also a basin 825 feet long between them. The locks were 270 feet by 45 feet with a depth of water of 14 feet. 4. Farran's Point Canal. This with the two other Williams- burg canals (5 and 6) were made between 1843 and 1847 5 with subsequent additions down to 1867, exclusive of repairs. and maintenance, they cost .330 164. The fall of Farran's Point Rapids being only 4 feet, the corresponding canal has only one lock ; of dimensions 200 feet by 45 feet. The canal is only three-quarters of a mile, in length, with a depth of water of 10 feet, and of 9 feet on lock sills. In 1884 the works of enlarge- ment had not commenced on this canal. 5. Rapide Plat Canal. This is 4 miles long, and has two locks to overcome the fall of iij feet in the rapids of the same name. The dimensions of channel and locks correspond to those of Farran's Point Canal. In 1884 the entrance and the channel above and below the guard lock had been much enlarged and deepened. A new lock and a waste weir to the old lock had been made. The works were progressing to give a new depth of 14 feet. 6. The Galops Canal. This is 7! miles long, and has three locks to overcome the collective fall of 15! feet of the three rapids named " Point aux Iroquois," " Point Cardinal," and " Galops." Their dimensions are 200 feet by 45 feet, with 9 feet depth on sills. The locks and other works on these three Williamsburg canals (4, 5, and 6), are similar to those on the other canals of the Saint Lawrence series before described. In 1884 the works of enlargement of the upper entrance and the deepening throughout to 14 feet were in progress. The Williamsburg canals are not used by ascending passenger steamers : these can 136 CANADA. save two hours by keeping to mid-channel course in the river. The estimated cost of enlarging the Williamsburg canals to the same dimensions and capacity as the New Lachine Canal is ;527 000 ; and that of deepening the river channel in the two reaches between them, about 8 miles, is 12>1 250. From the head of the Galops Rapid to the head of the Saint Lawrence proper at Kingston, Lake Ontario, the river navigation is unobstructed, though it is intricate in some places, especially near the Thousand Islands. The distance is 66| miles. Remarks. The works for improving the whole of this series of canals, from the Beauharnois Canal upwards, had not been completed in 1884, though they may be this year. When com- pleted they will afford a navigable depth of 14 feet throughout the whole route from Montreal to Kingston. The expense would perhaps be about two millions sterling ; as for direct financial results in the form of tolls and rates, apparently they are deemed quite a subsidiary matter, as road tolls. Hence such works would in any country of transient occupation be termed unproductive, for the indirect returns and advantages might not come into full operation before the territory had lapsed to other rulers. Such a distinction fortunately does not exist in Canada, where the official Chief Engineer of public works thus reports : " It is well known that none of the canals have paid the interest of the money expended on their construction, or indeed very little more than the working expenses. Still, few who compare the past with the present condition of Canada will doubt that they have been of far greater benefit to the country than the aggregate amount of their cost" Here is a clear instance of the need in every country of establishing a purely Public-works Public Debt, in shares held by its defenders, free from all risk of official misappropriation and financial swindling. THE RICHELIEU NAVIGATION. The Richelieu is a tributary of the Saint Lawrence, joining it at Sorel, 46 miles below Montreal, after a course of 81 miles NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 137 from Rouse's Point, Lake Champlain, which is near to, but beyond the frontier. The river forms part of a navigable route between the Saint Lawrence and New York ; the remain- ing part consisting of 330 miles in all; in miles of Lake Champlain, and the Champlain and Erie Canals to the Hudson River. The traffic is chiefly in sawn timber and grain from Canada to the United States. Part of this navigation was improved and opened in 1843 ; other parts between 1844 and 1849. The lowest part of the river from Sorel to 14 miles above its confluence, appears to have been always navigable. From Saint Ours for 32 miles upstream to the Chambly Basin, a navigable minimum depth of 7 feet is maintained by a dam at Saint Ours. The river at this place is divided into two channels. Across the main or western one the dam, made of stone-filled cribwork, is 690 feet long ; it has an apron 40 feet wide of similar work, well founded in clay. Across the smaller or eastern channel is an earthen dam 300 feet long, having the water face pitched ; it has a top width of 25 feet, and slopes of two to one, and the lock for navigable passage is in the middle of this dam. In freshets the water passing over the western cribwork dam is 8 to 10 feet deep. The Saint Ours Lock is of cut stone, 200 feet long between quoins, and 45 feet wide, with 7 feet as the least depth of water on sill, and an average lift of 5 feet. Piers of cribwork extend above and below the lock for distances of 270 and 420 feet respectively. The reach of the Richelieu from Chambly Basin, a natural reservoir, to Saint John consists entirely of the Chambly Rapids, more than 12 miles long. The navigation is taken by a canal from the foot of the rapids for a distance of 12 miles ; it has a bed width of 36 feet and a surface width of 60 feet. The locks on it are all of masonry, nine in number, of which one is a guard lock, and the rest have a total lift among them of 74 feet ; their breadth is 23 J feet, and they have 7 feet depth of water on sill. The smallest lock chamber of the nine is 122 feet by 22 feet. The other principal structures connected with this part of the 138 CANADA. navigation are, 6 timber bye-washes and waste-weirs, 3 culverts under the canal, 8 timber swing bridges 10 feet wide, of 56 feet span, and I 600 feet of wharfage. The distance from the upper end of the Chambly Canal to the frontier is 23 miles. The total expenditure on this navigation down to 1867 was ^189 063, of which about a sixth was spent on the lower part at Saint Ours. The Richelieu River above Saint John is navigable and free from obstruction up to Lake Champlain. In 1884 some parts of the navigation near Saint John and Chambly were deepened to 8 feet ; the pier at Saint John was lengthened and raised, and five lighthouses were built. There have been several proposals to make a canal direct from Saint John to Lake Saint Louis on the Saint Lawrence above the Lachine Canal. It would certainly be the shortest and best route for traffic from the Ottawa and the upper Saint Lawrence, having a total rise of only 29 feet ; but there are not any returns of the present amount of this traffic, or its probable future increase, and degree of permanence. From a strategic view, it would be extremely unadvisable. TEIE OTTAWA NAVIGATION. The Ottawa River is a tributary of the Saint Lawrence, about 700 miles long from its source to its confluence ; the City of Ottawa, capital town of the Dominion, is situated on its banks at about 100 miles above the confluence. The Ottawa joins the Saint Lawrence by four channels, between which are three islands, the He J4sus, Island of Montreal, and the Perrot, the last being comparatively small; the channel between the Perrot and the Island of Montreal is most suited to navigation, as regards shortness of course, but there is a fall of 3 feet concentrated into a rapid between the reach of the Ottawa above the island and the Lake Saint Louis below it. The difficulties of navigation hence begin here, at about 1 5 miles above the upper end of the Lachine Canal. The following are the short pieces of canal on the lower reaches of the Ottawa : NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 139 Length. Fall. Name of River Course. Miles. Feet. Rapids. Miles. From Lachine Canal 1. Saint Anne Canal \ ... 3 ... Saint Anne 15 2. Carillon Canal ... f ... 16 ... Carillon 27 3. Blondeau Canal ... ... (3!) ... Blondeau 4f 4. Grenville Canal ... 5f ... 45! ... Long Sault if to Chaudiere Falls, Ottawa 56 6f 6 3 f 115* 1. Saint Anne Canal. These works, constructed between 1840 and 1843, consist actually in a mere lock with long approaches formed by piers of cribwork, situated on the Island of Montreal, to the east of the rapids. The lower approaches are piers i ooo feet long on the land side, and 67 feet long on the river side, raised to 9 feet above water level. The upper approaches consist of a wing dam 840 feet long on the river side, extending beyond the head of the rapids ; and on the land side a pier 1 60 feet long, with four detached guide piers beyond it. These keep the water in the lock at the level of the water in the higher reach of the river. The old lock is of masonry, 190 feet between the gate quoins and 45 feet wide, with 6 feet depth on sills, built on a timber platform which rests on inferior sandstone. The mitre sills are of wood, the gates are solid, and the construction generally resembles that of the older locks of the Lachine Canal, before described. The cost of these works up to 1867, including some deepening of the channel, was ;33 614. In later times, a new lock has been built in addition to the old one, with the same rise ; its chamber is 200 feet by 45, with a depth on sills of 9 feet. 2. The Carillon Canal This was made between 1820 and 1828; it is on the north bank of the river; its length is 2\ miles, its bed width was 30 feet, and surface width 50 feet. Its locks were three in number, all of masonry : two of them lift altogether 21} feet, the third or upstream one dropping again 13 feet; a summit level having been made to save expensive cutting ; the least depth of water on sills was 6 feet. 140 CANADA. The cost of construction is unknown, the records having been burnt in 1852 at a conflagration at Montreal. In later times, a dam was built across the Ottawa River at Carillon, raising the water 9 feet, and elevating the level of water in the river for 7 miles upstream. It was undermined and breached in 1883, and a very deep passage in the bed was scoured to the depth of 30 feet (?) (sic). In 1 884 this was thoroughly repaired; and guide piers and booms added to direct rafts to the slide in the dam, According to recent accounts the canal is now 100 feet in bed width and no feet wide at water surface. The locks now give a total lift of 1 6 feet ; being two in number, each of dimensions 200 feet by 45, with 9 feet depth on sills. 3. The Blondeau Canal was made about the same time. It is on the north bank of the river and is one-eighth of a mile long, cut in solid rock with vertical sides ; its width is 30 feet. It has one lock cut in solid rock, and lined with dressed masonry at the quoins and recesses. Its dimensions are 130 feet by 32 \ feet, with a lift of 3f feet, and 6 feet depth on sill. The cost is unknown. The effect of the Carillon dam has been to reduce the lift here to zero, and to diminish the current of the rapid. Hence this canal is now used only at times of very high water, when the current is very strong. It is now proposed to improve the river channel at this place by blasting and dredging. 4. The Grenville Canal, also made between 1820 and 1828, is on the north side of the river ; it is 5f miles long, partly in earth and partly in rock cutting ; its bed width was from 20 to 30 feet, its surface width from 25 to 60 feet. There were seven locks in all, of which one was a guard lock, and four were combined in two sets of two The lengths of chambers vary from 107 to 130 feet, their breadths from 29 to 32 feet ; the least depth on sills was 6 feet, and the total lift of the whole was 45! feet. Cost unknown. By the modern works of enlargement, commenced in 1871 and completed in 1884, this canal has been increased to 40 to 50 feet in bed width and 50 to 80 feet width of water surface, and a depth of 10 feet of water. There are now five locks, of dimen- sions 200 feet by 45, with a least depth of 9 feet on sills. The NA VIGA T10N AND CANALS. 141 old locks are now entirely obliterated. The main channel has crossing basins at intervals of half a mile, and the entrances have been enlarged. The details of the older works on this series of short canals pre- sent little interest; they generally resemble the construction described on the older works of the Saint Lawrence series of canals. Originally they were military works constructed under the superintendence of the " Royal Staff Corps " in order to form a communication with the Rideau River navigation, and to pass military stores by this route to Lake Ontario, and the larger lakes. They were handed over to the Provincial Govern- ment in 1853, and have since been managed by the Canadian Department of Public Works. As the Ordnance Office of Montreal was burn tin 1852, records of their cost are unavailable. The recent works for improving the series of Ottawa canals now (1885) give a navigable depth throughout of 9 feet of water ; and the locks are now increased to dimensions of 200 feet by 45- The Upper Ottawa Navigation. Above the Chaudiere Falls, near the City of Ottawa, the river appears to be much smaller and broken by rapids for a distance of 200 miles to Matlawa. These are the Duchesse, the Chats, the Chenaux, Portage du Fort, and the Grand Calumet, which obstruct the river as far as Culbute or LTslet, 107 miles above Ottawa City. Here are two dams 625 feet long, and three locks, 200 by 45, with 6 feet on sills, giving a total rise of 18 to 20 feet, surmounting the Culbute Rapids ; these give 37 miles of upper navigation to Des Joachims. In 1884 shoals were removed at Grand Calumets and dams constructed at Rocher Fendu ; these afford a navigable least depth of 7 feet for 80 miles to Culbute; altogether 117 miles. The distance from the bend at Matlawa, where the river turns from south to east, to Lake Nipissing and to Georgian Bay, is very variously given according to maps. Apparently the distance from Matlawa, along the Matlawa River and expanses, to Lake Nipissing is 35 miles, across Lake Nipissing to French River 40 miles, and the course of French River to Georgian Bay is 40 miles, with a fall of only 59 feet In the onward course along the inner lakes to Lake Superior the 142 CANADA. distances are to the foot of Saint Joseph Island, 1 50 miles, and onwards to Sault Saint Marie, 47 miles ; or 197 miles of lake navigation. This seems the natural line for a very important communication between Ottawa City and the great lakes and Lake Superior, that has not yet been made. Perhaps the shallow- ness of Georgian Bay and the deficiency of present traffic are deemed great obstacles. THE RIDEAU NAVIGATION. The River Rideau is a long tributary of the Ottawa River. Its headwaters are only 40 miles from Kingston, near Lake Ontario, on the Saint Lawrence. After a course of about 86 miles in a generally direct course it discharges itself over a fall of 45 feet into the Ottawa at Ottawa City." From the headwaters of the Rideau to the headwaters of the Kataraki River is an intervening distance of only one mile. The latter river after a winding course of 40 miles discharges into Lake Ontario at Kingston. The two rivers are obstructed and consist of rapid streams spreading into deep lakes and ponds in some places ; the works of river improvement and navigation consisted in removing and overcoming the obstacles and falls, by short cuts, or reaches of canal, and in uniting the two rivers by a short navigable canal. The whole duty of keeping the water to its proper level is effected by the reserves, given below in detail. They may be divided into three systems : 1. The supply from the Lake Wolf system to the summit level. 2. The supply from the River. Tay system into Lake Rideau, which maintains the reaches descending towards Ottawa. 3. The supply from the Mud Lake system into Lake Openacon; maintaining the reaches descending to Kingston. Lake Openacon receives the waters of Buck Lake and Rock Lake. These waters, supplemented by those of Lake Loughboro, flow into Cranberry Lake, and discharging through Round Tail outlet, form the Kataraki River. The Kataraki is made navigable by a series of dams down to Kingston. NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 143 PIECES OF CANAL, LOCKS, AND DAMS ON THE RIDEAU NAVIGATION. Place and Distance. Length of Cut. Locks. Dams. Number. Lift at low Water. Number. Length in feet. g,j, E.S Miles. Ottawa. .... o Miles. 1 r4' 00 ) 0-13 0-13 1-50 '5 '5 '33 0-13 o'o6 0*25 0-13 1-25 0-06 1*25 0-13 o'o6 0*25 175 4-25 0-25 ' 8 2 2 I 3 i 2 I 3 i i 2 4 I I 82-0 22*O !3'5 IO"O 27-0 10-5 15-2 10-5 25*0 47 10*9 i5'5 337 7-8 4' 3 i i 3 2 I I 230 I3 20 1616 100 320 300 850 240 500 481 ISO 270 343 250 600 260 600 18 33 14 28 60 12 68 14 9 16 6 8 8 20 24 5 9 15 60 20 12 14 Hartwells 4^ TTofrsback ^A- Black Rapids oA Long Island .. i4x Burritt 40 \ Nicholson 43 Jr Clowes 44^ Merrickville 46^ Maitland 55 Edmunds 59^ Old Slys 6oJ Smith's Falls 6iJ Punamallie 64 Narrows ^3i Total rise at low water . . . Isthmus 87^- 33 292-3 19 8430 i i i 4 2 I 4 4* 12-5 9* 60- 19- 14-2 467 Chaffey's 02 300 300 200 2OO 6 042 Davis 94i Jones's Falls 97 i Brewers Upper Mills 108 Lower Mills no Kingston Mills 120 Kingston 126^ Total fall at low water 14 165-4 5 7042 Total 16-46 47 126-9 24 15472 The total length of this navigation, which was effected by the Imperial Government between 1826 and 1832, is I26J miles, of which only i6J miles are artificially excavated canal, and these are in 20 separate portions ; the canal portions have a bed width 144 CANADA. of 60 feet in earth, and of 54 feet in rock, with a navigable depth of 4| feet. As much of the line consists of broad expanses of water, there are not any tow-paths, and steam is the only motive power used. The total number of locks in the whole navigation is 47. Those ascending the Rideau are 33 in number, with a total lift of 282! feet; and those descending the Kataraki are 14 in number and have a total descent of 164 feet at high water. The locks are 134 feet by 33 feet, with a navigable depth on sills of 5 feet, but the water is seldom kept up throughout the year to full height. There is a full description of the works on this navigation in the earlier volumes of the Papers of the Royal Engineers ; but the following details are given by Mr. George Walch, C.E., who visited the works in 1 876. The entrance from the Ottawa River is by a flight of eight combined lock-chambers. Situated at the mouth of the rocky ravine running at the foot of the hill crowned with the Parliamentary Buildings. The total lift of this flight of locks is 82 feet. In all the locks of this navigation the chambers are 134 feet long from mitre to mitre, and 33 feet wide, with 5 feet depth of water on sills. The walls are of ashlar, and between them is a stone invert. The gates are ordinary double-leaf gates, worked by balance beams, which are moved by chains attached to their ends, and winches. Water is let in and out of the lock through a culvert 4 feet by 3 feet, running round the back of each gate ; the valves closing these are worked by crab-winches and chains. As the gates have not any suspension bars or diagonal ties, they probably run on rollers. At 4^ miles above Ottawa are two more combined locks like the former, and above these is a cut-stone waste weir with an overfall of about 18 feet down to a sloping cut-stone apron, at the bottom of which is a timber floor. The weir-crest is at full water level, and has not any shutters ; but in the middle of the breast-wall is a gap, running down to bed level, of 3 feet in width closed by planks. At about a mile above this, the canal joins the river, which NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 145 is ponded back for 4 miles by an earthen dam 320 feet long and 50 feet high. (At this place two or three masonry dams have been carried away.) At the end of this dam is a wooden bulk- head with 5 openings of 20 feet each in width, their sills being 1 6 feet below water surface. These openings are closed by stop-logs dropped into grooves, and lifted with chains and winches. The apron below this bulkhead is 100 feet long ; it is a timber floor on cribwork bolted down to the rock, and from its edge there is a pitch of 15 feet on to rock. Both bulkhead and apron showed injury from ice and logs. Beyond the bulkhead a bye-wash, 1 50 feet wide, affords an escape for excess of water into the river-bed. At this place, known as " Hogsback," are two combined locks, the walls of which are bulged and cracked. Near Kingston Mills, at the southern end of the navigable route, the River Kataraki has, at the head of some falls, been dammed and ponded up for about 10 miles by an embankment nearly a mile long, and in parts 20 feet high. On the lower side of this bank was a dry stone retaining wall 15 feet high, 9 feet thick, built of flat limestone slabs on edge, having their true beds all vertical ; it was standing well. The escape-weir of this pond has a crest 20 feet long, on which stop-logs are dropped into grooves, and are lifted with a winch and chains at each end. Out of the lake above the embankment, one lock drops into a masonry basin, and from that a flight of three chambers combined drops 45 feet into the bed of the stream, the channel of which is used for navigation down to Kingston Harbour, a distance of about 5^ miles. In 1883 the dam, waste-weir, lock and bridge were seriously damaged ; they were replaced and rebuilt in 1884. The actual cost of the works down to original completion was ;803 774 ; subsequent improvements until 1867 raised the amount to \. 020 632. The traffic is small on^this navigation, which is of military and strategic value, but as it saves no distance either as a westward or as an eastward route, is of local rather than of general use. In 1884 proposals were made to connect Gananoka town by a branch navigation with the Rideau system ; also to augment the supply to the Rideau at Bedford Mills by new branches from some lakes on the Devil Lake system. L 146 CANADA. The Tay Canal. This will, when finished, be a branch of the Rideau system, affording communication from Beveridges Bay on Lake Rideau, to Perthtown, a distance of 6 miles ; it involves one dam, two locks, and the deepening of the River Tay; these were not quite completed in 1884. THE TRENT NAVIGATION. This was projected by Baird in 1835, but only partly executed. It still consists of an unconnected series of river reaches and lakes between Trenton, at the mouth of the Trent, on Quinte Bay, Lake Ontario, to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. In 1837 the works were commenced for carrying out a complete navigable communication through the River Trent, Rice Lake, the River Otonabi, and Lakes Clear, Buckhorn, Chemong Pigeon, Sturgeon, and Cameron to Lake Balsam, "the summit water," about 166 miles from Trenton. From Lake Balsam by a canal and the River Talbot to Lake Simcoe, and onwards by the River Severn to Georgian Bay. Altogether 235 miles. The execution of the works being afterwards deferred, parts of the navigation were completed, as shown in the list, by means of certain detached works, also mentioned. Reaches and Detached Works. Distances. Length of Reach. Miles. Miles. Miles. Trenton to Nine Mile Rapids 9 9 Unnavig. Chisholm's Canal lock and dam isi Nine Mile Rapids to Percy Landing 28^ 19! Navig. Percy Landing boom 28J Percy Landing to Heeley's Falls 4*1 14 J Unnav. Campbeliford booms 34i Middle Falls 4 dams and 2 slides . . . 37i Crowbay boom 38 - Heeley's Fall dam and slide 42| Heeley's Falls to Peterboro' 94i 5 if Navig. Crook's Rapids lock, dam and slide 84! Whitlar Rapids lock, dam and canai 92i Little Lake 3 piers and a boom 94 Peterboro' to Lakefield 104 9^ Unnav. Burleigh timber slides IOI Lakefield to Burleigh 116 1 2 Navig. NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 147 Reaches and Works continued. Distances. Length of Reach. Burleigh Rapids Miles. 125 Miles. 117 124 I2 5 Miles, i Unnav. 7 Navig. i Unnav. Burleigh Rapids to Buckhorn Rapids Buckhorn Rapids . . Buckhorn Dam Bobcaygeon dams, locks and canal Fenelon Falls slide and boom Lindsay Lock ... Buckhorn dam to Lindsay I 4f 155! i6*i 36^ Navig. BRANCH OF NAVIGATION. From Lindsay to Port Perry at head of \ L. Scugog. j 190 28 J Navig. Out of the whole 190 miles, 155 miles of detached reaches were navigable for vessels of light draught. In 1855 parts of the works were transferred to a committee of traders in lumber ; but eventually were reassumed by the Government, as they failed to carry out the conditions. In 1879 the old Lindsay lock became useless and the Government of Ontario built a new one 134 feet by 33 with 5 feet of water on sill ; this re-extended the navigation to Port Perry. It was intended to follow this type of lock throughout this route. In 1884 the works for completing this navigation were in progress. At Burleigh Rapids a canal of 2\ miles; at Buckhorn Rapids and at Fenelon Falls two short reaches of canal. New dams to replace the old ones at Lakefield and Young's Point, five miles above. Their completion will open the route from .Lakefield to Balsam Lake, and thus form 150 miles of continuous navigation from Heeley's Falls to Port Perry. SHORT PASSAGES. The Murray Passage. This is now being made. It will be 4| miles long, with two entrances, altogether 9 J miles of work. It is a cutting from the Bay of Quinte through the Isthmus of Murray ending at the village of Brighton, in Presqu'ile Harbour. It was commenced in 1882. 148 CANADA. Burlington Bay Passage. This is another navigable passage half a mile long through a sandbar separating Burlington Bay from Lake Ontario. Its width varies from 108 to 138 feet, and its navigable depth is 10 feet. It gives access to Port Hamilton, also through the Desjardins canal to the town of Dundas, and is in full operation. THE WELLAND CANAL. This is at present the most important of the Canadian canals as a detached work. Its object is to afford a navigable communi- cation for large vessels between lakes Erie and Ontario ; the ordinary watercourse being the River Niagara, with a cataract of 316 feet and several miles of dangerous rapids, having a total fall of 330 feet in 30 miles. In the neck of land between the two lakes, which is about 35 miles broad, and nearly double that in length, there is a trans- verse river, the Chippewa, also called the Welland, which dis- charges into the navigable part of the Niagara River below Navy Island and above the great Niagara Fall. In 1829 the first canal, made by a private company in five years with help from Government, was opened. Its course was from near the mouth of the Welland down to Lake Ontario, probably near the end of the existing canal, and it passed vessels of 85 tons burden. But landslips occurred in the deep cutting, thus stopping further traffic. In 1833 works of improvement and extension of the canal were completed, partly on a fresh course. The extension from the Welland to Lake Erie at Port Colborne was opened, as well as a feeder 22 miles long from Dunville on the Grand River ; but at that time the locks were all'of wood, and of dimensions vary- ing from no feet by 22, to 130 feet by 32, with a navigable depth of 7\ feet only. In 1841 the Government acquired the canal by purchase at a total cost of ;462 857 ; and works were recommenced the year following. In 1845 some enlarged masonry locks were opened, of dimen- sions 150 feet by 26k feet, with 9 feet depth of water on sills ; and the whole canal, with its 26 locks, was finished in 1850. During the succeeding 17 years various improvements were NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 149 effected, deepening the depth on sills to ioj feet and widening to 50 feet, bringing it up to its condition in 1867, when steamers of 400 tons could pass through. The following is an account of the older works existing in 1876. The canal has three separate navigable entrances, the chief one at Port Colborne ; the second at Port Maitland near the mouth of the Grand River, also on the Lake Erie side ; the third at or near Chippewa, a small port on the Niagara River, two miles above the Falls. The supply of water for the canal is taken from the Grand River at Dunville, conveyed by a cut to near Port Mait- land, and onwards into the main canal by the feeder branch. The exit from the canal into Lake Ontario is at Port Dalhousie, nearly due north of its entrance from Lake Erie. The length of canal and navigation may be thus estimated in detail: Main Canal. *%*> *% s's . 5-P-8 | o C/3'S From shore of Lake Erie to Colborne ) A Lock No. 27 / From Lock No. 27 to Junction 7^ From Junction to branch into Chippewa River Onwards to Port Robinson, and second entrance to Chippewa River Fall. Onwards to Allanburgh Lock, No. 26 ... 2\ 15 J From this to Thorold Lock, No. 25 ... 3^- 13^- From this to Twelve-mile Creek 5f 306 Onwards,to LockNo. i, near Lake Ontario 3^ o / 3 4 Grand River Feeder and Branch. Fall, Dunville supply channel to Junction ... 5 9 From Junction to junction with main ) canal . ........... ....................... } l6 9 Branch to Port Maitland .................. if- 9 7^ 22f Chippewa Navigation. From Port Robinson to Port Chippewa 8J Altogether 150 CANADA. The bed width of the canal varies from 50 feet to 70 feet ; in the rock cutting where the sides are vertical it is 58 feet ; and through the rest of the " summit level," including the " deep cut, " if miles long between Port Robinson and Allanburgh Lock, it is 50 feet wide. The canal is regulated for the passage of vessels 145 feet long, 26 feet broad, and 9 feet draught; the tonnage of the largest vessels using it is 400 tons, but they seldom carry more than 300 tons, or 4 ooo barrels of flour or 1 8 ooo bushels of grain. There are 24 locks 150 feet by 26 feet; 2 large locks, Nos. I and 2, which are 200 feet by 45 feet, and a guard lock, No. 27, which is 230 feet by 45 feet ; the least depth on sills is 10 feet. The details of these and other works, now superseded by modern improvement, correspond to those of the Lachine Canal gene- rally, which have been described. The entrance from Lake Erie is formed by piers of cribwork, the western one i 600 feet long, the eastern one 500 feet ; at the shore line they are 150 feet apart. At the land end of these piers is a basin I 475 feet long, extending to Port Colborne Lock No. 27; the basin has an average width of 265 feet, and a depth of 1 1 feet to 1 8f feet, varying with water level of the Lake. Colborne Lock has a rising lift of 8 feet to a summit level reach, which extends for 14^- miles to Allanburgh Lock No. 26. In dry seasons the supply from the feeder is barely enough to maintain the navigable depth required. The existing depth of cutting through the ridge of land is 45 feet, and, unfortunately, 15 feet deep of spoil has been piled near the edge of this, making in all 60 feet ; while the soil, composed of stiff clay resting on shifting sand, is liable to landslips. After the fall of 15^ feet at the Allanburgh Lock is a reach crossing the "Beaver's Dams Creek" between high embankments, passing "Marlatt'sPond," a natural sheet of water, and ending at Thorold's Lock No. 25. The next reach passes through the village of Thorold and descends 306 feet by means of 24 locks in a distance of 5f miles ; dropping at the end into " Twelve-mile Creek," which is ponded up by a dam at its outlet near Lake Ontario for 3^ miles. Lock No. i passes the navi- gation from an inner basin of about 40 acres, by this ponded creek, into an outer basin of about 8 acres. From this, crib- work piers i 800 feet long and 200 feet apart run out, pre- NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 151 serving a sheltered channel, which is maintained by dredging, into deep water in Lake Ontario. The branch and feeder from Dunville has a navigable depth of 9 feet throughout its entire length ; the aqueduct across the Chippewa River is about one mile below the junction of the branch ; it has four arches of 40 feet span and 7 feet rise ; near this is a lock having a drop of 17 feet, communicating with the Chippewa River. The towing on the long " summit level " reach is generally done by steam tugs, that on the short reaches between locks by horses. The trip through the main canal takes 20 to 24 hours in steamers, and 30 to 48 hours in towed sailing vessels. The cost of the works up to this period of complete construction in 1867 is said to be \ 527 648. For several years after the construction of the works just described, the canal and its locks were large enough for all craft then existing on the lakes. In modern times economy of freight has caused larger steamers and vessels to be made there, which could not pass through. In August, 1873, new works were commenced at an estimate of 2 310 000 for enlarging the Welland Canal so as to render it fit for the passage of the largest vessels likely to navigate the lakes 250 feet long, 38 feet broad, and drawing 14 feet of water; with a depth of hold of 2 1 feet. The size of such a vessel was then determined from local economic considerations, being larger than the Erie Canal could pass, and about the largest that could conveniently pass into Lake Huron and the upper large lakes over the various rapids and shallows, and would admit of easy handling in the lake harbours. But before the completion of some of the enlargements in 1881, far larger vessels were used on the upper lakes for economy of grain transport: about 20 vessels existed of more than i 500 tons while 40 vessels of more than 2 ooo tons were then being built. Thus the providential arrangements did not include everything ; while as regards passage of i 500 ton vessels to the ocean for winter employment, the shallowness of the Cornwall and Beau- harnois Canals presented a further obstacle to be remedied. In August, 1 88 1 , the works of enlargement were so far complete as to allow of the use of the Welland Canal in its altered and enlarged condition. 152 CANADA. The Recent Works. Among the achievements effected are : 1. The supply of the whole canal direct from Lake Erie. 2. The enlargement of the bed width to 100 feet, and the depth to 1 5 feet of water. 3. The enlargement of locks to dimensions 270 feet by 45 feet, with depth on sills* of 13 or 14 feet ; all of them being single locks, and having regulating weirs attached. 4. The separation of all locks by reaches of I ooo feet, originally determined, has not been rigidly adhered to ; a few are about 800 feet apart. 5. The construction of side reservoirs and side channels to reduce the immediate loss of navigable depth in short reaches caused by lockage. 6. A new alignment of canal from Allanburgh Lock down to Port Dalhousie, with longer and more gradual descent. 7. Extensions and improvements of the harbour and basins at Port Colborne. The new portion of canal from the junction to Port Dalhousie is I \\ miles long ; while the total length from Port Colborne to Port Dalhousie is 267, saving nearly three-quarters of a mile of distance, as the old line was tortuous, though the detour from the straight was less in the extreme. The summit level of the new canal extends from above Thorold, though it was originally intended to deepen and use the old reach of 3^ miles. The trace passes then through a ravine forming the head of the " Ten-mile Creek," and descends the Niagara escarpment at the bend it forms at the extreme east of the canal trace. From this point it turns to the north-west and has a nearly straight reach to a point east of St. Catherine's Cemetery, where it bends again to the west. Partly following May's Ravine, the new canal has its third and last reach, which ends in the harbour of the " Twelve-mile Creek," opening into the basin of the old canal, about half a mile from Port Dalhousie. There are 25 locks in the new canal, of which 7 are below St. Catherine's, and 18 above it ; also one guard lock. The extreme difficulties imposed by the railways and roads have been met by six swing bridges passing over the canal and two tunnels passing under it. The extensive modification of the NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 153 aqueduct over the Welland River down to a lower level is a matter requiring plans for explanation. The estimated cost of this part of the works (the new portion) was jl 295 000 ; the estimated quantities were : Squares.* Planking, reduced to i J inch thick by Board > 40 ooo Cubic Rods.* Earthwork 94 5 Rock 47 2 5 Masonry 8910 Timber i ooo measure. Proceeding to details of these works on the new portion of canal : The side slopes of the canal, both in bank and in cutting are 2 to one, without any berm ; the tow-path is 15 feet wide and 3 feet above water surface ; the inner slope is protected against wash by a pitching of quarry chips, for two or three feet above and below water level. In the work of excavation, ploughs and excavating scoops drawn by horses were largely used for surface work ; for facework in earth in deep cuttings, the " Otis " scoops, worked by portable steam-engines, were used ; for facework in rock, steam drilling and blasting was followed by the use of the Otis scoops in the same way. In dredging the channel in Dalhousie harbour, the Otis dredgers brought up clay and loaded " Scows " and mud barges with it. All the locks, even on stratified limestone, are built on plat- forms of pine timber. On a very soft bottom, concrete is laid below the platform. Baulks one foot square are laid half a foot apart, the spaces are filled with concrete or rammed puddle ; over them is laid a three-inch course of planking, over that a two-inch course of planking. Under sill trusses the baulks are laid side by side and screwed together with wrought-iron screw-bolts. There are also rows of sheet-piling five feet deep at the upper and lower ends of each sill, and at the lower end of each tail-bay. In sound rock the sills are bolted down to the rock. The masonry in the lock walling is made of a blue limestone quarried near the Niagara escarpment ; also of a light grey lime- stone from the bank of the Niagara ; the coping-stone from Point Pelde on Lake Erie. The mortar used is one part of hydraulic cement, made from stone near at hand, and two parts of coarse * The Cubic Rod of I ooo cubic feet, and the Square, or Square Rod, of 100 square feet, are the units above used. 154 CANADA. sand. All backing consists of stones not less than four square feet in area and half a foot thick, laid level, no pinning being allowed. Puddle three feet thick is put at the back of the walls. The details of the design of the locks can be best obtained from drawings. The lock gates resemble those of the newer sort on the Lachine Canals already described ; they are worked with drag chains and winches, and have pairs of cast iron valves, worked with cranked rods, for letting water in or out. Culverts are not used at all for this purpose. The regulating weirs are built on timber platforms, close to each lock, and have an upper and a lower channel attached for receiving water from an upper reach and discharging into a lower one ; these with the side reservoir beyond the weir form the regulating works. Their spillways are 58 feet long and their details resemble those on the Lachine Canal generally . The swing bridges are built on timber platforms, and have roadways 15 feet wide; the rest-piers, 6 feet wide, are in the middle of the canal, but have a through archway for passing water. The tunnel for the Great Western Railway is 16 feet wide, with a clear height of 18 feet above rail level to crown of arch. The arch is composed of limestone blocks in a ring 26 inches deep. The drainage works are very small, as the canal is nearly parallel to the chief drainage line of the tract of country. The small amount to be dealt with is mostly diverted, and passed in an inverted syphon of two arched vents, each of 8 feet ; the foundations for these are of timber (sic\ laid loj feet below the bed of the canal ; there is a fall of three feet between the top of the upstream well and that of the down stream well. The whole culvert is covered with a bed of puddle 2 feet thick. The improvements at Port Colborne consist of an extension of the basin to an increased area of 12 acres and depth of 15 feet; a channel entrance 15 or 14 feet deep; and a new outer harbour of 40 acres formed by a breakwater 2 ooo feet long on a reef running out from the shore in a diagonal direction. The improvements near Port Dalhousie, in the harbour of the " Twelve-mile Creek," consist of an enlargement of the basin to an area of 16 acres, and of its depth to 17 feet; thus providing shelter for more than 100 vessels. NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 155 Probably some further improvements and alterations were made after 1881 ; but about this progress details are not given. In 1884 the condition is thus stated in the Annual Report : Passage is now afforded, at all stages of water level in Lake Erie, to vessels drawing 12 feet of water, except at the point where the canal is in aqueduct over the Chippewa River. Here the neces- sity of using the old work during the building of the enlarged aqueduct renders care needful ; self-propelling vessels should not exceed \\\ feet in draught, and vessels in tow 12 feet. Also, during strong easterly winds, combined with low water level in Lake Erie, the draught of any vessel should not exceed \\\ feet. The Welland Canal has one entrance from Lake Ontario at Port Dalhousie, and two entrances from Lake Erie ; one for the main canal at Port Colborne, the other for the feeder at Port Maitland ; it has also still an. entrance from the Niagara River at Chippewa town. The enlarged route lies between Port Dalhousie and Port Colborne ; from Port Colborne to Allanburgh, 1 5 miles, there is one enlarged channel; from Allanburgh to Port Dalhousie, nf miles, there are two channels, the old one and the new one. The details in 1884 were thus : Main Canals. Total length of canal in miles 2 6| miles Number of locks (excl. i guard lock) ... ... ... ... 25 Dimensions of locks all 270X45 feet. Total fall between lakes 326! ,, Depth of water on sills in feet 12 Welland River Branches. Length from Port Robinson Cut to River Welland ...2 622 feet. From Canal at Welland to river by Aqueduct lock . . . 300 From Chippewa Cut to River Niagara 1020 Number of locks: i at Aqueduct, i at Pt. Robinson ... 2 Dimensions of locks 1 50 X 26 J feet. Total fall from Canal to River 10 , , Depth on sills 9f Grand River Feeder. Length of canal 21 miles. Number of locks 2 ; Dimensions ... i5oX 26J and 200X45 Total fall to junction 7 to 8 Depth on sills ... 9 156 CANADA. Port Maitland Branch. This is if miles long, and has i lock, 185 by 45 feet. The total fall is 7 J feet, and the depth on sill 1 1 feet. Half the new Aqueduct was finished and used ; and the rock cutting between Humberstone and Port Colborne was nearly completed in 188,4. The minimum depth on sills at ports was thus during the season of 1883 : Old lock. New lock. Port Colborne 12 feet 14 feet in November. Port Dalhousie 13 15^ Sault St. Marie Canal. This is a short canal across a point of land at the entrance to Lake Superior ; it is about a mile in length, and has one lock with the large lift of 18 feet. Its chamber is 515 feet long and 80 feet wide, with 16 feet depth of water on sills. This canal is in United States territory ; but is here mentioned as it completes the chain of navigable communication, and as there is not any corresponding canal on the Canadian side of the frontier that serves the same purpose. PROJECTS. Connection with the Winnipeg Catchment. After the future com- pletion of any intended Canadian navigable communication into Lake Superior, independent of the Saint Marie Canal, the next important extension should evidently be a navigable opening into the Winnipeg series of navigable communications. It is noticeable that the frontier line on the west of Lake Superior falls most unfortunately as regards the public advantage both to Canada and the United States. There are wedges of the Winnipeg catchment belonging to the United States ; while further west, strips of the Missouri catchment are in Canadian territory; a state of things requiring mutual concession and re- adjustment in the interests of both countries. The Winnipeg catchment possesses great advantages in natu- ral lines of waterway ; the Great Saskachewan River rising in the Rocky Mountains is I 500 miles long, of which the I ooo miles below Fort Edmonton are navigable for steamers ; the South Saskache- NA VIGA TIONS AND CANALS. 157 wan River is navigable below Medicine Hat to its confluence ; the Red River of the North is navigable for 400 miles ; also parts of the Qu'Appelle and the Assiniboine for 320 miles. Lake Winnipeg, 280 miles long, discharges into the Nelson River, which affords a short communication of 212 miles with Hudson Bay, where it discharges at a port, partly blocked by a sand bar, which is open for four months in the year to ocean traffic. The connecting navigation (Superior and Winnipeg) would not be excessively costly in construction. Through Ship Route. The entire navigation comprised in the before-mentioned existing and intended parts, would extend from Quebec through Lakes Superior and Winnipeg to Port Nelson in Hudson Bay. Eventually sea-going vessels of i ooo tons should be able to pass through. The early completion of this achieve- ment will create the prosperity of the Dominion on a scale not to be attained by any amount of railway extension. It is not possible to obtain the distances and heights above mean sea level of points all along this route with accuracy ; the following are partly approximative. 1 P a o W Distances. Elevation. Tidewater at Three ) Miles. Feet. Amherstburg Miles. 692! Feet. Rivers j o Windsor 7 IO r Montreal 86 12 Foot of S Mary's ) / W 4 Lachine OArr e6 Island . . / 7351 Beauharnois V'4-2 ioo4 D u l 1 1Q Sarnia 768? St. Cecile LW !74 121 x oy 4 Foot of St. Joseph's ) 1 WW 4 Cornwall I C 3-*r 187! Island j io 3 8f 58o Dickinson's Landing Farran's Point i o6^ i65j I7O-L - 10 / 4 TQ T-i Head of Sault S.Marie Pointe aux Pins io86f I OQ ^-r- 598 Upper end of ) j. /^ Port Arthur ... . x w yo4 I 3CCQ^r co8 Croyles Island J Williamsburg 171 i8ij ~~ Lake Shebandowan . . . Kawatin x ojy4 I 405 I 7O^ jV" Head of Galops ) Rapids J i97f 2l8i Winnipeg Lake, Ft. ) Alexander . . . J A / W J I 825 710 Prescott 2CX Playgreen Lake 2 TO^ 7 IO Kingston W 3 264 2 ? A Port Nelson Har- ) * V / w Port Dalhousie ... A.1A *J*T 21A bour.. j 2317 Port Colborne 4^4 A6o* ^OT- $64. 158 CANADA. Of the difficulties presented by any project of a through ship route, there is no doubt. A navigable depth of 14 feet throughout would be necessary. At present it is said that generally throughout Lake Winnipeg the ordinary navigable depth is 12 feet ; though a deep channel might be found. As to the course of the Nelson River; this falls 710 feet in 312 miles, draining an area larger than the Gangetic basin, it is obstructed by numerous falls and rapids, both above Split Lake and below it ; and terminates at Port Nelson an open roadstead, 160 miles from the nearest good natural harbour, Churchill Harbour. The difficulties would, however, not be insurmountable nor incon- venient for descending vessels; there are, besides, alternative routes, one below Split Lake by the Little Churchill River to Churchill Harbour, the other by Knee Lake and Hayes River to York Factory. At one time the idea of ocean-shipping traversing the Saint Lawrence was deemed chimerical. Other future Projects. Among these, the most probable appear to be : i. A short cut from Lake Winnipegosis to Cedar Lake. 2. A short cut from the river Assiniboine into the Swan River near Port Pelly. 3. The improvement of the Qu'Appelle river. 4. A supply to the upper part of the Qu'Appelle river from the Old Wives' Lake catchment, and perhaps also from the South Saskachewan River at The Elbow or at Thunder Creek. If these latter are practicable, the next would be : 6. Through navigation by the Qu'Appelle and the South Saskachewan to Medicine Hat, and perhaps higher, to near the foot of the lower ranges of the Rocky Mountains. NAVIGATIONS AND CANALS. 159 ^^^OO^ < OVO O 1 ^- O~~lO"Tj-OO O Thtoeo^-N roroN M M M ro 1O O rj- M uado sX'Bp ^ M wOO OH ft !-ri>-iH>H^rib'^=*='=! ON IO M N O W >^^^ M O -^-WMD M ON OS 10" O C7\MVO OsrOCO MOOMDOOO N NNMMMMNMNrONro MMWWMN^NM^ i_i \JD O O O MM MCO '-OOMTj-ONWvOONMWVOWCOMMMMTtM M ON CO Q t~- I o M ^ t^ >% > >% uado jo O oo MOO o ONMD O i>.00 CO CO 00 00 OO ONVO O vo ^-VO O W t iiiillliililliliillliiiii uado jo laqumsj OHM t>.vO 00 t- 10 t^vo COCO HI I t^ rOOO ONM aaais... f f f f lit ^SSSS<;S O 10 to M M N && u9do s^-ep M rf ONVO VO OO ONCO ON M 10 f 10 M O O N cowiol>-,OvO to ON M M M r^-OO rf 10 M uo N MM >> >^ >^ >^ ^ ^ ^ a a a a- a a a -- . . OO ON O HI pi CO 4- IOMD l>-o6 O\ O M N CO ^ OVO t^OO ON O M N *r^ *r*\ ^f*} VJ^ V^5 v*Q VO VO VO *^O VQ VO -t^-* J>* l>* t^ t*^ t^ t^* t>* ** t>* OO OO OO cc oo oo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 160 METEOROLOGY. METEOROLOGY. 161 01 a - M M 00 N M w vo O vo covo O M ^ K O H II O M ON N TJ- VO OsCC ON ON Ch VO O ONOO 00 to t- vo ON ON t^OO OO OO OO ON vo ON covo N ON t- VOOO voco COM O O CO C/3 m a f. Tj- M CO O TfOO rj- M 00 00 to O ^CO ^-rj- rf ^ ^" CO vo Tf . ON N ONOO co OOrf MON MON O T|- ^ 3 w ovo t> O vO l> VO VO'VO VO VO OO vO Tj- vO O>vo vo co VO 1 ^- vovo VOVO vo Tf vo >< VO CO M VO Tf ONN vo^ T|- N vo rf ^ s o g O oOO N CO CO vo ONON OON NONOO N l~*^ vO vo vO t^^ VO vo ^* t^. M . N N vo 00 N MONVOVO OO 00 00 CO w M M M tOVO "t 00 00 00 OO 00 rt-OO O 00 M to CO Th CO !> t> t> 00 !> -!> OO 00 at w r O N ON CO !> MVO MM r^-Q CO CO J^ H < ovo vo O M 00 00 00 ON ONOO OM VOVOVO"^ N M ONOO t^.00 00 00 00 ON CO ON . N O vo N 00 CO vO vO w M rj- O M t^ fc 8 "3 o ON !> ON 0$ CO 00 00 OO ON ON OJ ON OO t^* vO co x> to ONOO *>-00 00 00 OO ON VO ON 1 M vo vo vo ON ONM - ovo VO ON O co CO 00 00 ON ON ON O voOO CO ON OO M CO ON i>* CO OO "** ^** ON 00 H . a vo vo a rh MON NOO ^"^ t>. CO ^ 1 1 ovo OO vo CO t* t> *>.00 00 00 !> M t> f CO to ^- M CO OO vo J> t^ t* *^ CO 00 :s C4 OO vo co ON OO^OOM VON VO CO ^ g P^ ^ o !>. M t^ W OO VO !> -t> t^VO COM vovo cor^ M << ^- t>.vo vo vo vO vo vo vo 00 | ONOO O voOO OOJ>OOO MM M VO ^ PH 1 M 01 N O VO to vo vo vo vo M co toco N ON ON OO vo ^- ^h ^h vo Tt* T}- co VO . Tj- N N 00 ON covo O ON t^ co OO vo CO H 5 O Tj- VO M VO T}- rf rf VO ^ ^d- COt> MON VOCO M VO Tt~cO ^co r ^'^l' ^ co VO , ON M co co ON t^N OOO Tj-t^.00 VO ^ A o ro to **- CO O O oo ON ^.oo oo t^- 5 H : : : : : : 'S : : AVERAGE HIGHES i S ; i ; f o ; : : ^ p *>. CO ON H M N CO M . ON lOOO 00 COOO OO to ON M J> N |>. 1 N N to N VO N VO to N MOM MM M 1 1 1 1 1 II II M 10 00 Tf N III! oo ON w o O IOTJ- ooo t*^ t** t^*. oo to 1 Tj- CO H M O COCO N t^- MM M 1 VO ON CO OO N MM M W 1 ONOO N co CO ONVO O O t^ t^ N M ti o rf 00 O vb O 00 to io O tO Tj- N OO *"* N N CO N j CO COVO NO N rf Of*- 1OVO Tt" M CO 1 ^t" vO ONOO O M vo M co CO co N N co rf- co <* co VO CO O^ VO VO tO CO CO N co Tj* io M t-^oo O to ^vO CO ^ M T}- t> 1 "^ ^ TfVO f- N to OO M Tj-TJ-Ti-cocO to^h ^rf Tj- M 10 O ON Tj- ^ N to ON N W d N CO . NVONCOO Tt-tO W Tf CO x> > O t^ 1 O ONMN\OM r^i>. b t- MddMM MM MM ON Tf Tj- M M M M M CO , Tl-MMMM lOON N^t t^ CO O co to i N N to w CO *O\00 M CO M " J II II II O Tt- N ON vb N M II 1 1 TJ-MQtOtO MOO T}-N O to t^ N CO i r^. M co tovc N t-*. vo to I 1 1 1 1 II II CO to to CO to 1 1 1 1 1 M tovp t^ t>. N co ON N CO O ON t^. 4, O**..MI>.ON b M'O N CO M d M d 1 1 1 1 1 II II vb vb io io t-* M CO 1 1 1 1 1 < fi ^ |l1lll|il|j|| Halifax Sydney Prince Edward Island . Charlottetown Manitoba. Winnipeg British Columbia. Spence's Bridge METEOROLOGY. 163 rt N M OO vo ONVO vo t-OO OO M vo cooO g rt e ON co ^J" . ON 1 s ** ON co ON CO ON ON.VO CO . s 3 Si N M o ONOO vo vo M M M 9 J; fc 1 P^ . H MQOOOOONMCOTtMOO o G $* 00 N CO O 00 ON t^ i > 00 -^ to M ONVO vo COOO OQ \O O t~~ ON rf ONOO O vo ON co t^vo OO ^ O co Q g Q G C/3 tt * N M O M HI N O vo CO Tj~vO MOO f o o O ri "3* ^J- ^ O ON vo vr. 9 "o ONVO ^i* COCO vo ONOO OO N ^" N ^" O CO ^-vo ON vo t^.00 vo OO O O VO vo . co <3 ^ b M b M c/3 b b en COCON COCOCOM ^*N CO vo CO CO O Q M bb NOO M OVO M t-^ONl>.M t^.00 N t^- d N CO N 00 N VO H 3 O ** ^t" vO co vo c^ oO t>* vo O *-l" *~4 "^ * r* Vo b oo N Vo^ M M ^ COM ri-(N . M VO t> ON ON CO i > CONNO* N M M N W COM COCOCOCOCOCOO H C * c/3 vooO r}* vO vo vO M M cO I>VO ^ M OO w . VO vo N OO M rj- O JD rt N CO O ON O N vo VOOO M rj- rj- t^ t^. o rt 10 i>- ON M vo r^- O O 2 s COCOCOM CON N T}-N T^-CON N O C/3 1 M M M CO N M t" ^" M o ON CO O ^** ^* co O co t^ O M O K O ON ON ON N M ON t-. M rf OO VOOOCOCOMMMMO ONOO N PH H. w vo M M CO O 00 00 g M OO *O ON O f" J N N W CO MMCONNMN04M M H M co O\ N 00 < ^ oO CO 10 O CO W M M CO 5 a. J5 s c^ I 00^*1-1 10 vo w o oo co ON 10 ^~ IOCQ oo ^o *-i ^ vo oo o i** 10 o co NMNMMMMCOW MwaM aco MMMMMMM OOOOO O^O^O ojU Oo Oo Oo c^O 5z; 0- W ) O ON N t> COOO OO C3 MNNMMMMNMNM _rO IsJ g Ufl 1 J ' = M o ON co O M 00 00 M r ^ 11 jz: o ,Q^ i . Jlfl 5i;<-& " oog- ON O M N co rj" irjvo t~OO ON O M M co ^ vovo t^OO ON O H CJ co ^f- oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo METEOROLOGY. 165 TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, AND PRECIPITATION, AT MONTREAL. From the Record of the McGill College Observatory^ C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. (Saturation 100.) RELATIVE HUMIDITY. Month. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. Mean for the Month. January 81 78 70 81 82 78 70-8 February 78 77 78 72 7 s ; 74 75'7 March 76 77 76 72 82 60 7T3 April 67 68 62 7Q 62 60 67-8 May 69 70 60 7O 62 64 65-8 June 72 73 67 64 74 67 60'^ Tuly 7r T\ 68 62 71 67 60*3 J "V August / 77 6q 76 71? 7O 68 72X September 76 81 71 7C 74 74. 7T2 October 80 7Q 78 78 71 78 77'3 November 80 8^ 84 82 70 70 8l'2 December 84 82 82 80 80 82 817 Yearly Means. 76-4 75'9 73'4 74*2 73*5 72-5 74'3 TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS ON WHICH THE MEAN TEM- PERATURE HAS BEEN BELOW ZERO, 30, 40, &C., AT MONTREAL. Year. At and below Zero. At and below 32. At and below 40. At and below 50. At and below 60. At and below 70. At and below 80. At and below 90. 1875 1876 1877 .. 23 II 7 145 118 no 1 86 181 16* 239 228 208 262 275 2AQ 336 317 32O 365 362 ^6q 365 366 l6q 1878 1879 1880 5 9 12 95 137 130 156 164 173 190 198 206 253 264 252 O' 61 - 330 342 307 o w o 362 365 366 o w o 365 365 3 66 Means ... II 122 170 211 259 325 364 365 The mean temp, of the air during Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. & Mar. (1875 to 1880) was 21 I 59'S 25-2 74'4 85-6 8-5 64*4 92-2 max. min. mean max. min. mean max. min. April, May, and October, June, July, Aug. and Sept. > j> CANADA. RAINFALL IN INCHES AT MONTREAL. Mean Month. 1875- 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. of Six Years, January O'OO 1-87 O'I2 0*40 O'OO 1-27 0*16 February 0*42 o'34 0-28 0-03 I'M 0*55 March 0-80 0-74 273 0-58 1-23 0*04 I'02 April ri8 1*03 1-98 3*55 0*27 3-17 i'86 May 5* I 3 3'45 0*62 4-11 0-80 2-97 2-85 June 3-26 3*21 2 '35 ri8 4-82 3' 2 7 July 3-64 4'33 3-65 5*47 479 5*35 4'54 August 2 '59 1-98 3*50 3*95 1*40 i '44 2-48 September . . . S'5 1 1*50 3-18 2-83 3'3 October 474 2-64 3-19 5*39 170 4 '44 3-60 November . . . 0*50 176 4*31 3*47 2-81 2 75 December . . . 0-68 O'OO 1-17 270 1-74 0*29 I'lO Means & Sums 28-12 27-64 25-46 32-67 22-77 29-84 2775 SNOWFALL IN INCHES AT MONTREAL. * Mean Month. 1875- 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. of Six Years. January 35' 27-4 23*3 30'5 39'5 16-3 28-7 February 12-9 27'5 3'6 10*2 27-4 26*0 17-9 March 14.6 45 * 6 22-4 19-4 32-6 25-1 26-6 April 7'3 I2'0 10-2 2'3 6-9 8-6 7'9 May o-o 0'3 O'O I'O O'O O'O 0*2 June July j August September . . . October O'O 1*0 5*4 O'l O'O 3'i 1-6 November ... 21.7 0-7 5'i 14-6 16-8 12-7 11-9 December ... 24-2 2-36 4*3 32-8 37'4 17-6 23'3 Means & Sums "57 138-1 74-3 no"9 i6o'6 109-4 118-2 NOTE. The depth of melted snow is taken at one-tenth the snowfall. CHAPTER III. EGYPT. AREA AND POPULATION. RIVER BASINS AND RIVERS. CANALS AND IRRIGATION. IRRIGATED CROPS. METEOROLOGY. 168 EGYPT. EGYPT. AREA AND POPULATION ACCORDING TO Mudiriah. Districts. Towns. Villages. In 1872. Area irrigated. Feddans or Acres, t Upper Egypt- Middle Egypt- Lower Egypt E. - sj Rural Egypt ., -i. Esnah 3 4 4 5 2 5 4 4 IO2 .188 131 740 263023 330176 421 IO2 2. Kenekossir 3. Gireah... 4. Assiut -i. Miniah and Benimazar 2. Benisuef 3. Fayum -i. Gizah 16 15 658 I 146 O4'I 4 3 3 2 3 I 259 69 86 392 778 228 782 206 056 10 6 414 827616 3 3 5 4 5 10 5 3 3 ii 4 13 36 22 160 429 437 3.3 1 484 170943 181 115 404 493 429 636 352253 747 883 364 240 2. Galliubiah 3. Sharkiah ... ... ... 4. Dahkaliah 5. Manufiah 6. Garbiah 7. Behera,,i 35 92 2253 2650563 61 H3 3 3 2 5 4 624 220 Large Towns. Cairo Alexandria Damiat Rashid Suez Port Said Ismailiah Urban Population All Egypt t The feddan used in these AREA AND POPULATION. 169 OFFICIAL RETURNS IN 1872 AND 1882. Rural Egyptian Population, II March, 1872. Migratory Arabs in 1871. Population in 1882. 251 742 297614 378237 433 in 19470 70 182 200 256195 ' 322 920 582435 i 360 704 19540 i 343 750 325 096 !255n 154167 2 500 58 9 6 344 775 176 015 202 510 604 774 8 39 6 723 3 153745 190 964 401 287 500 304 447917 629763 213556 2 OOO 22O 70 900O 245 835 240 255 400 030 414275 55 3 X 5 686 610 259685 2537536 II 290 2 75 2 05 4503014 39226 4819055 Egyptians in 1872. 333780 164 718 29333 14992 II 098 4461 4236 Europeans in 1871 ? 19 120 47316 50 IO 2 400 4 210 I 110 446 144 227 040 29 665 13870 9715 I55IO 8421 562618 74216 750365 5 065 632 II3442 5 569 420 __^__ tables is an English acre. EGYPT. RIVER BASIN. The following are the main divisions of the Nile basin : Square Miles. I. Lake Catchments, and Lake Surfaces ... 205781 II. Elevated Tablelands 282308 III. Plains South of Khartum ... ... ... ... ... 505427 V. The Nile Valley North of Khartum 175116 Total ... i 168632 These four main divisions may be thus sub-divided in accord- ance with meteorologic conditions : I. LAKE SERIES : Square Miles. 1 The lake surfaces of Nyanza, Baringo and Lutanzige ... 44 593 2 Their catchments, mostly in plains 161188 II. TABLE LANDS : 1 The elevated Table-lands of the Sobat Basin 70 382 2 Those of the Yabus and Gojeb Basins 85785 3 Those of the Abai or Middle Abyssinia .. ... ... 92424 4 Those of the Takazza in Northern Abyssinia 33 714 III. SOUTHERN PLAINS : 1 Plains and Hills of Darfur ... ... ... ... 139081 2 Those of the Basin of the Ghazal 161897 3 Betwen the White Nile and the Sobat long strip ... 86 453 4 Between the White and Blue Niles 54087 5 Plains right bank of Blue Nile 63909 IV. THE NILE VALLEY BELOW KHARTUM : 1 Valley from Khartum to Takazza confluence 44 428 2 Takazza confluence to Cairo ... ... 122082 3 Surface of the Delta 8606 RIVER BASIN. 171 Navigability of the Nile in Nubia and Dongola. From Khartum downwards. Khartum to Shendy Shendy to El Kab El Kab to Umderas Umderas to Gerindid Gerindid to Dalah Dalah to Wadi Haifa Wadi Haifa to Philce Philoe to Assuan . . . Miles. navigable 114 3 cataracts 267 continuous rapids 22 7 cataracts 50 cataracts- 367 9 cataracts 86 navigable 249 T cataract ... , 7 Assuan to Esnah navigable Esnah to Siyut navigable i 162 99 231 NOTE. The official reductions are full of mistakes. 33<> Lengths and Surfaces of the Nile in Egypt. From Assuan downwards. Mudiriahs. 1. Esnah 2. Kenah 3. Girgah ... , 4. Siyut ( i. Miniah and Beni- | mazar j ( 2. Benisuef i. Gizah Dam to Damiad Dam to Rashid Total, with branches Length, in feet. 744 ooo 540 ooo 45 6 9 6 432 ooo 422 520 288 ooo 387 132 3 264 348 Average Width, in feet. Surface , in acres. 2 400 to 3 ooo 48 673 2 400 29 754 3 900 to 4 320 42519 3 ooo to 4 200 46 579 2 700 26 19 6 ooo to 7 200 41 158 2 400 to 3 ooo 26 468 261 341 744OOO 720 tO 2 484 31647 738 492 i 440 to 2 160 31 233 I 482 492 4 746 840 172 EGYPT. The altitudes along the course of the river are these Mean Altitudes in feet. On the White Nile. Distances, in miles. Falls, in feet. Slopes. S. per 1000. 3553* Lake Nyanza to Karuma ... 186- 304- 3249* Karuma to Lake Lutanzige ... 106* 912- rapids 3337* Lake Lutanzige to Galuffih ... 112' 88- 0-1500 2249* Galuffih to Gondokoro ... 149- 230- cataracts. 2019* Gondokoro to Lake Noo ... 615- 295-5 0*0900 i723'5 Lake Noo to Khartum 777' 410- 0*1000 1945- 2239*5 On the Blue Nile. 1667-5 Fazokl to Khartum ... 466- 354' 0-1500 On the Main River. 1313*5 Khartum to Assuan ... ...1181- 9 8 4'5 0-1580 329-0 Assuan to Cairo ... ... 622- 285-5 0*0870 43'5 Cairo to sea at low water ... I2O* 43'5 0*0687 1923- 1313-5 RIVERS. The Nile. The generally correct knowledge of the hydrology of this river seems to have been first diffused by the experienced Lombardini in 1864, after the explorations of Burton, Speke, Grant, and Baker, and subsequent to the observations of Kloden, Linant, Penny, and Petherick. His account is hence the basis from which more recent observers diverge. Climatology. Collecting the then available climatic data for the catchments of the Nile, that were used by him : I. Near Lake Nyanza, in 1862 the observations of the expedi- tion gave 240 rainy days in the year, with tolerably equable distribution of 4*345 feet of rainfall ; two rainy seasons, one for three months from March to May, giving 1-398 feet of rainfall, the other for two months, October and November, giving 1*250 feet. The mean monthly temperature was 70 F. ; the lowest minimum monthly 53 in December, and the highest monthly 88 in August (Galton Proc. Geogr. Soc., 1853). II. To the table-lands of Abyssinia the rain is brought from the Indian Ocean by the E. and S.E. winds, and the humidity of the air is excessive; the rainy season, or Kharif, is the winter. The rainfall at Intetshao (lat. 14 17') in 1841 was RIVERS. 173 during April, May, and June 0*583 feet ; during July, August, and September 1*986 feet; in all. 2*569 feet. In the mountains, rain or snow falls throughout the year at intervals, but the winter snow falls on them before the vernal equinox. The temperature in the Kollas 4 600 to 6 500 feet above mean sea level, varies from 77 F. to 98 ; in the Vainadegas, altitude 6 500 to 8 500, it is between 57 and 80; in the Degas, altitude 8 500 to 9 800, it is between 32 and 62 F. III. As to the Southern Plain catchments. First, for Darfur little or no information is available ; but for Kordofan, there is solely the small amount gleaned at El Obed (lat. 13 5'), by Kinzelbach in 1862, that no rain fell before 22nd June, and that the temperature in May varied from 86 to 99 F. In the Ghazal Basin, the observations of Brun-Rollet in 1856, at lat. 9 16', near its confluence with the Nile, shows three falls of rain in April, eleven in May, four in the first ten days of June, after which they probably continue till September; the temperature varied between 77 and 102 F. For the plains between the White Nile, or Kir, and the Sobat, there are some observations taken at Gondokoro,lat, 5, by Dovyak in 1853. The periodical intertropical rains prevail throughout the whole year in the regions from the Equator northward. There are two rainy seasons at Gondokoro, one from February to May, in which there were 44 rainy days ; the other lasting during August only, in which there were 12 rainy days, the rest of the year giving only 31. The amount of fall was not recorded ; but the mean yearly temperature was about 83 F., while that for from June to November was only 79. For the plains between the White and Blue Niles, there were observations made in Sennaar, between lat. 15 and 11, in 1860. The rains there commence in May and end in October, the fall occurs generally at night, and they are of a stormy sort ; the heat is excessive after rain. At Khartum, the observations of Dovyak in 1852 gave 21 rainy and 1 2 cloudy days out of 144; there is rarely rain in May and June, the annual rain falling between July and October. The mean day temperature in the shade was 90, the extremes being 83 and 94. For the plains on the right bank of the Blue Nile there is no climatic information beyond that given generally for Sennaar. IV. For the conditions of the Nile Valley from Khartum 174 EGYPT. to Assuan, the valley is generally nearly rainless. In Middle Egypt, from Assuan to Siyut, the rainfall is exceedingly small, the mean temperature is from 93 to 101, but on one or two occasions ice has been seen in January. At Cairo, the average number of rainy days is 7, giving a fall of O'io foot ; the mean of the annual maximum temperature is 72 F. ; the mean monthly temperature varies from 55 in January and February to 86 in July and August. At Alexandria, there are 40 showery days on an average. At Port Said, in 1863, the total annual rainfall was only 0*53 foot. Water Levels and Discharges. It seems that the variations in the water level of Lake Nyanza, as well as those of the other two equatorial lakes, are now small both annually and from year to year ; also that the discharges from them are now com- paratively insignificant. If such be the case, the balance of rainfall and evaporation must on the whole be very even, and the data of supply may be roughly these : Supply from Lake Catchments. Cubic feet per second. 4*4063 feet of rainfall in a year. 3-9371 evaporated 0-4692 feet drained from 161 188 square miles = 57 707 Supply from Lake Surfaces. 2*9528 feet of rainfall in a year. 3-9371 evaporated 0-9843 feet of loss, from 44 593 square miles = 33 492 Rate of annual discharge = 24 215 If this be divided in the ratio of the three lake-surfaces, it gives only 2421 cubic feet per second as due to Lake Baringo, the rest to the other two. We may assume from the observations of the explorers that the whole of this efflux passes eventually into the White Nile ; that from Lake Baringo passing into it through the Assua at Galuffih. The above quantities are in accordance with the observed low water discharge at Khartum after the reception of more supply from other streams. They also agree with the account given by Speke of the channels leading out of the lakes ; the chief one from Lake Nyanza having a breadth of 443 feet and a current of 6 feet per second. At or near Gondokoro, the Kir, or White RIVERS. 175 Nile, was 656 feet wide, and from 5-9 to 8*6 feet deep according to Knoblecher (Kloden) ; also at a point one degree below it he gives the current at 3*28 feet per second. Taking the average depth at 7*22 and the section at 4 736 square feet, the current at 4*1 feet per second at Gondokoro, the discharge there would be about 19424 cubic feet per second. There would thus be a loss of about 5 ooo cubic feet per second, between the lakes and Gondokoro, which may be accounted for by some escape into the Jeji, and other overflow to waste. Dovyak, who was at Gondokoro in 1853 an d 1854, relates that the Kir begins to rise in May, and during May and June the rise oscillates between 2 and 3 feet above zero. In July the rise is 4^ feet ; in September, the greatest rise on the 4th Sep- tember was 6 feet, and the water fell in the same month to 4 feet. In October the rise was between 3 and 4^ feet above zero ; this remained during November and December. On the 2Oth January, 1854, the water fell to 3 feet, but in January, 1853, it had fallen to 0*16 foot below zero. Noticing that the before- mentioned discharge of 19424 cubic feet per second was at low water, and at this zero ; the high flood of 4th September, 1853, would be about 50 504 cubic feet per second, or even as much as 56 507, bearing a torrential nature, while the mean flood or high water stage of December, amounting to 31 785 cubic feet per second, was constant, and of lacustrine origin. In lat. 6, or one degree below Gondokoro, the Kir begins to take a marshy charac- ter, which continues until it joins the River Ghazal at Lake Noo : the whole of this territory is a swamp divided by many channels. At i below Gondokoro, Harnier, in 1861, described the Kir as rising suddenly on I7th April for several feet, and falling suddenly the next day. The waters were discoloured and reddish, as in the flooded Nile in Egypt. On nth May, after some days' moderate rain, there was a violent storm and very high torrential flood. June was rainless, but storms occurred in the middle of July. The river continued to rise till the end of September, an excep- tional case, and did not begin to fall till the 2Oth October. At a mile below the Makedo Rapid, a place 80 miles from that of Harnier's observations, Dr. Penny, in (July?) 1861, found the average depth of the Kir to be 17-6 feet, the width 147-6 feet, and the greatest velocity in the section 9*84 feet per second. Applying a coefficient of 0*80 to deduce a mean velocity, 176 EGYPT. the discharge would be 19 848 cubic feet per second ; thus agreeing with the result due to the observations of Knoblecher. He also mentions that the low-water state of the Kir in February and March is permanent, excepting a flood of a few hours on 1 3th February rising 2 feet. As to the region west of the Kir, and the Upper Ghazal, very little is known, in spite of the attempts of Petherick, Poncet, Brun-Rollet, and Morlang. After 1864, Petherick made some results known, which do not affect the discharge materially. The vast region watered by the River Ghazal and its affluents, above Lake Noo, is also little known, its marshy nature rendering hydraulic observations difficult. The rainy season there com- mences in May, and the rains are strongest in July ; but the discharge from the Ghazal commences only in June ; thus the marshes detain all rainfall for at least a month. Heuglin measured the mouth of the Ghazal in February, 1863 : it was I 050 feet wide, with an extreme depth of 1 3 to 20 feet, but with low banks submerged to great depth in high flood. Below Lake Noo, the Keila River after a long course, from Darfur, is joined by the Chidi or Shelengo from Darfertit, and the combined marshy stream joins the Abiyad or White Nile ; its water-levels and discharges are unknown. The Zharaf, an affluent on the right bank, also marshy, is perhaps an overflow from the Kir. Its discharge is unknown. The Sobat, another affluent on the right bank, is a large river, but of very small depth in the dry reason, hence torrential by nature. Its mouth, according to Heuglin (1862-63), was 525 feet wide, with lofty banks of clayey soil that are just submerged in high flood. According to Knoblecher its width was 635 feet ; and from its conditions its probable high flood discharge may be 7 063, or even 8 476 cubic feet per second. Below this confluence the White Nile here called the Abiyad, receives no important branch above Khartum. The floods of the Kir arriving at Gondokoro in May, and leaving the Ghazal in June, would naturally not arrive at Khartum until July. At Khartum as well as at Cairo there is a daily gauge record. Noticing the observations of Linant Bey in 1 849, near Khar- tum, which gave RIVERS. 177 At Low Water. At High Water. For the White Nile 10 489 213 455 Cubic ft. per second. For the Blue Nile ... 5615 220629 ,, For the combined streams 423 730 Difference from sum 10 354 Lombardini divides the difference proportionately between the two streams, to correct the separate discharges at high water, making them 208 545 and 215 575 cubic feet per second. For the discharge of the Takazza, about 186 miles below Khartum, Lombardini calculates it roughly from the catch- ment to be about I 555 cubic feet per second at low water, and 54812 cubic feet per second at high water. Adding these discharges respectively, to obtain Nile discharges below the Takazza, Lombardini constructs from them a sectional discharge- formula for various heights of water level above datum, The datum is set at 6*234 feet below low-water level. Q = 3310-2 (H-3'i82 5 )t This formula gives H. Q. Height in feet. Cub. ft. per second. For low water .. 6-234 17645 For ordinary flood ... ... ... 30*578 474650 The curves of the annual gauged levels for Khartum are generally unbroken rises and falls of great regularity, owing to the large marshes on the White Nile. At Monfalut below Siyut, Girard estimated the low-water discharge on 2/th March, 1799, at 23 945 cubic feet per second, the section being 12 159 square feet, and the velocity of the thread of the current 2*4614 feet per second. His deductions of flood discharges are faulty, owing to assuming too great a hydraulic slope for them. Lombardini assumes that the flood slopes are parallel to the low- water slopes. He estimated a low- water discharge and a mean flood discharge at Cairo, and constructed on that basis a sectional discharge-formula Q= 2056-2 (H-2*2 9 66)t giving discharges Q corresponding to heights H, above datum. This datum is set at 6*004 f eet below low-water level. This formula yields the following results, which accord with his observations : N 178 EGYPT. Feet. Cub. ft, per second. At low water ... H= 6*004 Q= 14676 In ordinary flood 30-283 304 425 For high flood of 1800 32-120 334887 From such calculated data, in addition to the gauge records of a year, he obtains the annual discharges. (The gauge records have been kept at Cairo since 1799, and perhaps much longer.) From the pair of hydrometric formulae the annual discharges at Cairo and at the confluence of the Takazza in millions of cubic feet may be obtained with the help of the annual gauge records of water-level ; but it is more convenient to use rates of discharge in cubic feet per second, at the distinctive periods. The Cairo discharges are taken out for the two years, 1799- 1800 and 1800-1801, and the mean for the two years is used. Rates for Annual Dis- Rates for Annual Dis- charge below the Takazza. charge at Cairo. Cubic feet per second. Cubic feet per second. Low water ... ... 1605.7 ... ... 6374 Rising flood ... ... 3 374 : I 9 77 Highest flood 61638 2 93!3 Falling flood 21176 55 324 Annually ... 129245 110781 In comparing these two sets of discharges, it must be noticed that at the beginning of the rise of flood the interval of time between the two places is about two months, at the speed of I '68 miles per hour; while at highest flood the interval is about one month, at the speed of 3-11 miles, per hour ; so that these two conditions are at Cairo nearer to each other. The loss of water between the two places may also be thus estimated : Cubic feet per second. Loss by evaporation in these rivers from Khartum, at 1 1-483 feet annually, over 784 square miles 6 869 Losses by effiltration and evaporation in overflows above Assuan, at 3*281 feet annually, over 309 square miles 7 737 Losses by effiltration and evaporation in overflows in Egypt above Cairo, at 2-625 f et annually, over 966 sq. miles i 935 Total loss annually at the rate of 16541 Whereas the difference of annual discharges before given is 18 464 RIVERS. 179 The inexactitude may be considered trivial, as the discharge at Cairo in 1800 was nearly double that in 1799, and the mean has been used ; while the discharge used for Khartum is that of 1849. But if the same year had been adopted in both cases, the probability still exists of the error being increased. Lombardini meets this difficulty by showing that there are losses not simply annual that may be taken into account. First, the filling of the river bed from low water to flood, is a volume 24*61 feet deep, 2 625 feet wide, and i 803 miles long; or about 61456 millions of cubic feet; second, the effiltration from overflows that return to the river after high flood, estimated at 23309 millions; together 84763 million cubic feet. The first volume is partly lost during the flow from Khartum to Cairo, over the period from low to high water ; it is also partly recovered during the period from high to low water. The second volume, the loss in effiltration of overflows that actually do return to the river, is indeterminable, but of its existence there is ample proof furnished by the experiments of Girard, near Esneh. His borings there at a period of low water showed the following differences of water levels in the soil at various distances, and in the river-bed : Difference. At 3 938 feet from the river in6 feet At 5 907 feet ,, ... ... 14-38 At 10 502 feet 16-31 These are the first known data that establish the law of flow of underground water. They also indicate that some losses must result during the period of return of the water to the river. The amounts of loss thus indicated do not admit of simple determination in annual rates. The following water-levels and rates of discharge on the first day of each month in a year, help to illustrate the con- ditions of flow of the Nile with reference to their separate datum levels : Here the datum level for Gondokoro is a mean bed-level : those for Khartum and Cairo are their respective low-water levels. Inexact or approximate data are bracketed. 180 EGYPT. On ist of each month. At Gondokoro. 1853-4. At Khartum below theTakazza. 1849-50. Near Cairo. 1849-50. Feet. C. ft. p. sec. Feet. C. ft.p. sec. Feet. C.ft.p. sec. May 7'22 (19424) 1-44 31 044 ( 2 '49) 343 2 8 June 9-19 2-46 42 628 (i'57) 26841 July 10-17 (31 785) 7-84 H5593 2-07 30796 August 10*17 (31785) I 17^6 293908 8-76 99594 September... 12*14 (5 54) 22-70 419637 19*72 256474 October 11*16 22*31 409 333 23'30 3*955 November ... 10*17 (31 785) 14*80 242 733 18*77 241 322 December ... ! 10-17 (31 785) 8*04 119478 11*98 140561 January ... lo'ii 4*27 64 489 9-87 112 695 February . . . 10*04 2*30 373 6 5 8-56 97 262 March (7*22) (19424) r8o 358n 6*27 70528 April ... ! (7-22) (19424) 1-48 32421 2'95 38248 Although a comparison of the discharges below Khartum and at Cairo for the same complete year is impracticable, Lombardini compares the discharges of the former for a year from ist May, 1849, to those of the latter for a year, from ist July, 1849, taking the same four corresponding positions on the curves of discharge as in the former case. Rates for Annual Discharge of the Nile. Below the Takazza. At the Delta-head Dam. Cubic feet per second. Cubic feet per second. Low water 11407 8736 Rising flood 31823 ... ... 14702 Highest flood 59758 46266 Falling flood ... 25258 38393 Annually ... 128246 108097 In this case the losses, amounting to 20 149 cubic feet per second, are more than in the former case, and though there is a difference of 12 miles in length of river course, they show the need of the extra annual allowance before explained ; by which Lombardini accounts for the difference of discharge below the Takazza at Khartum, and at Cairo. Yearly Variation. This variation is shown in the following table, giving 1 2 years' record of heights of water-level above low- water level at the Delta-head, that is, at the French Barrage. The actual discharges in cubic feet per second, due to these recorded heights H in feet, may be calculated by Lombardini's formula suited to this section and datum. Q = 2276-1 (H + 3-609)' The mean discharges tabulated, are those to the mean heights for the 12 years in each period of 10 or 1 1 days. RIVERS. 181 -- - ;~mr^ i 1 ill 1 rj- vo OO *~~- ^t" vo vo ON O co to to c$ ^J- 00 ON M "^ ON CO M M O VO ONVO ON N M CO 10 ONOO ONOO CO rj- CO VO COVO (M Cv) ^O VO VO M *> t> M M OO ON CO ON N -^J-co ON M vo ONcot^ioM ON r to tovo io ON ONOO J>VO VOtO"tf-^COCOCOM N M W M CO ^t-oo ONOO ^- w ON IO ON N g uinuimij^ OO ON M to "** coco ^^ -t^* c^ ONVO d O M O oj oj ON O oo O of vOtoto^-cocONNMMOOOOOOOO VO O 1 ON TJ- io ON co r^co OO O ON w t-^ M tovo M M o ON ON COCO VO CO !> M ^^I>.O lOMOO M CON ONVO < uinuiix^H O ON ONCO oo oo ^* i> vo to "*$" ^J" co co c^ co co ^t" * l> t^* CO O vO 00 O ON ^" CO t^ to ON W OO N to ON M ^f OO N toco vo M ONVO co "^ tovo O t- 00 CO 9 OO M H-l M vo to M CO to ON O "^- ^tvo O to O vo rf ONVO CO ON ON Tf- w vo > OO M CO ONCO OO t^ f^VO IO Tj-^COCOf^NMMMM ON M < vS ON r--oO OO vo t^ O tovo O M M LOVO vo O O O M cotocotoO N cocoO toOCO COM o N M ON O ,-r M ONCO l>- t^vo vOTt-coa-OO ON t^ M to ON lOOO M to M M M t^ M t-^VO CO M vo ONVO N ONCOOVO O coco ON M M VO w CO M ONCO CO *>VO toio^cocococi COCON COCOCO ON . CO ON IO M CO M M VO to to M w co M OO M < to ONVO oo O ^" ON O ^* 10 c*i w co co O ^" ^^ ^>* M O TJ- rh to t^ O toOO rj- O i>- ^f N ONVO OO 00 vo ON t O vo & CO ONOO^VOtO^^COCOCON^MMMMMCO ON M HEIGHTS OF j ctf Q ^ % 3 ^ O t | 2 p ^ o " ^ Jj P **< * ^T* c A fe ^ . COO 00 vo ONVO M to O CO M to co O M ONCQ M OO 00 CO OO O M rfOvO O ONOO OO CO f" !> O O CO t^OO !>. t^ CO vo -^f OO s > M Ci CO CO toOO vo ONO O M co to -^ co d ONX>.-^-M M M MMMNNNWWOJMMMMMMM "^F VO NCOvo O M NVOIO to O vo co !> covo to COIOOVOOO O>O O O O O ONVO N M O O\ CO O N CO tOOO ON W CO rf O ON d VO r. d d CO d CO M rf" Tj- Tj- ^- 00 O to ON CO CO ^t* M t^ ON O M d to Tj 1 W b ^> to '"^h to t^. M T}- N O\ O> covo vo 00 t^vo iOVO ON CO to w CO O OVO O MOOVOOO -t^-O CNM COlOM t^t^ONONONO M COM MMMMMMdddd M M O VO M O t~- ^t-VO ^Tj-i-i M MVO rJ-co-^-J>.OSM cOt^COOOOVO M M t^oo u-)COO N Tj-TtOSM O M t- ON ONOO COCO O O CO to N CO Tf VO rj- VO vo ON O CO t- 10 IO ^- rh ONVO b co COCO r*" r* to co vo rt- 00 ON CO co M VO vo co CO ON O OO 10 M *-< M ^o ON coco t^ ^-OO **- t^vo M ON ^ N Tf M VO 00 COVO OwoONOMiOMOOOON CO COCO O 00 ON ON ONOO vo t^ M ONOO OO O M COONTJ-ONNVO ^^1^100 ^ vo iO OsOO N iO IOVO O COM J>-OVO NVOVO M MOO ONOO M ^00 CO ON ON O ON ONOO t>. M ONOO 1> vo vo t" t^vo u^vo ONVO CO 10 ON O OO t~-M ONCOCOCOI> t^.vo -^O ON TJ--VO OO M o O Ovo ONO M M cOcOd OVO "^t" co MMMWMMMdMNMMM M l>.Tt-ONO OO CO^N lOOO ON O w lOOO M tovo OO O lO^i-Ot^io^N O ON ONOO OOOVO -^-tOM COONCOMOOt^MOO Tt" p f^N tO.OO CO to to lOOO OO CO ON ON ONOO CO to CO Tf O ONOO ON to ON t^- CO O ON tovo vo r^- rj- Tj- oO O covo covo TfOO t^ covo COVO M i>- b O t^OO CO CO M t- io co M O ON 00 rj- covo 00 vo ON a cs ONOO rj- N ON M CO M O CO CO COVO MVO COCOiOONNCQ i^. to co VOCO O tovo ON tOOO ON ON O ON ONOO CO CO M ON ON r-+ ~ ~ ~ *-* * ^ Q NQ ^^(j, a 8 ; | % ' ~o & p - OOMOOMOOOOOMOOOOO N OO vO co ON CO CO CO M CO M CO O to RIVERS. 183 HEIGHTS OF HIGH WATER AT CAIRO ON THE RHODA GAUGE ABOVE ORDINARY Low WATER. According to ISMAIL SADIK PASHA. Date. Cubits anc Digits. Metres. Feet. Estimation. 1848. 2 Oct. 24 6 770 25-27 Very high 1849. 7 Oct. 24 5 7-68 25-20 Very high 1850. 19 Sept. 21 20 6-46? 21-20 Moderate 1851. 3 Oct. 24 9 777 25^0 Very high 1852. 31 Aug. 21 8 6'35? 20-84 Moderate 1853. i Oct. 24 9 777 25"5 Very high 1854. 29 Sept. 23 23 7-55 24-78 Full 1855. 10 Sept. 2O 18 6*2O 20-35 Deficient 1856. 2 Oct. 24 8 775 25'43 Very high 1857. 13 Sept. 21 22 6-48 21-27 Moderate 1858. 6 Sept. 21 14 6-40? 21'00 Moderate 1859. 27 Oct. 21 7 6-32? 20-74 Deficient 1860. 17 Oct. 2 4 5 7-6 7 25'I7 Full 1861. 27 Sept. 24 16 7-92 25^9 Very high 1862. 22 Oct. 23 7-04? 23-10 Moderate 1863. 20 Sept. 25 i 8*ii 26*62 Excessive 1864. 20 Sept. J 9 21 5'95 J9-53 Very deficient 1865. 18 Oct. 22 23 7-02 23-04 Moderate 1866. 27 Sept. 25 II 8-31 27-27 Excessive 1867. ii Sept. 21 22 6-46? 2I'2O Moderate 1868. 27 Aug. 19 J 3 5-87 19*26 Very deficient 1869. ii Oct. 25 J 5 8-40 27'57 Excessive 1870. 14 Oct. 24 i7 7'9 2 25-99 Excessive 1871. 27 Sept. 23 16 7-38 24*22 Full 1872. 20 Oct. 24 3 7-65 25*IO Full NOTE. There is evidently much error in the official reduction and in the original records (dresse par M. Tissot). CONDITION OF THE RIVER. In Nubia, below Khartum, the course winds greatly, and is broken by rapids or cataracts in rocky soil or among hills, specially between Dongola and Wadi Haifa. The banks are generally sterile, and irrigation by inundation canals is exces- sively rare ; although flood deposits, at a level higher than that of the flood itself in the adjoining river bed, indicate the possibility of effective irrigation from off-takes taken higher up stream. Navigation is difficult on account of the rapids ; in 1857 two steamers arrived at Dongola after much effort. Malezieux proposed a navigable canal from Korosko to Abu 184 EGYPT. Hamid, supplied by water pumped from the Nile, but the expense would be enormous. In Egypt, below Assuan and the first great cataract, the river is winding, and variable in depth, there are also shallows and local currents, rendering navigation difficult Below Siyut the river is regular in course and in current ; the result of the resistance of its clayey banks to the action of the river ; and is freely navigable. At about 500 miles above Cairo the river enters a valley liable to submergence by flood to a mean width of about nine miles. Parts of it, however, are above flood level. The edges of the valley, bordered by deserts and hills on the Lybian and Arabian sides, are generally lower than the middle, where the river-bed runs in a self-raised embankment, due to successive deposits of silt. Irrigation is facilitated by long dykes transverse the valley, and by inundation canals. The basin of Madinat el Fayum is also supplied during flood by the Bahri Yusuf, a watercourse partly canalised at one time, which receives Nile water near Siyut, and conducts it along the Lybian edge of the valley. The expenditure of water is on the whole very large. The depth of slime deposited by the water is estimated at 0*40 foot in 100 years, even in the river bed : its qualities are highly fertilising. About half the extent of the valley in Upper and Middle Egypt consists of irrigated and cultivated land, amounting to nearly \\ million acres of cultivation dependent on the floods of the Nile. When these do not rise to 20 feet, or when they exceed 26 feet, the crops suffer seriously. Famine and desolation result, the people are then forced to borrow from Greek and Jewish usurers under crushing bargains, and are thus periodically driven to utter ruin. There is not any existing canal for supplying irrigation water throughout the year. In 1875 two low- water canals were pro- jected, with headworks at Keremat and Echment, east and west of the river ; but these projects were not executed, as the scope of their irrigation was nearly limited to the Delta, and the works were costly. In the Delta. The bifurcation at the head of the Delta begins at 12 miles below Cairo ; there are now only two main channels ; the Bolbitine, discharging near Rashid, and the Phatnetic, discharging near Damiad. These were embanked, and a large number of inundation canals and channels constructed before RIVERS. 185 1840, under the rule of Mehemet All. The irrigated land in Lower Egypt, that is in the Deltaic lands which extend from Lake Menzalah to Lake Mariut, and close up to Cairo amounts to about 2 million of acres. One crop is grown with inundation water, and in many places a second and even a third by the aid of water raised with sakias and shadiifs from pits or wells, generally not exceeding 10 feet in depth. In order to utilise the low water supply of the Nile in irrigating the Delta throughout the whole year, a dam was constructed at the Delta head. This highly ornamental project for raising the level of the water dates from 1846, and was nearly completed in 1850, under M. Moujel, Director of Works. It is one of the worst examples of hydraulic works. In fact, the French Barrage is a byword of reproach ; it can hardly raise the water level to six feet, its self-acting sluices do not act, its base is exceedingly weak and bad and the whole structure is in a very dangerous state. A project was drawn up by English engineers in 1876-77 for constructing a dam adjoining it which should raise the water- level to a height of 15 feet, and thus effect the necessary irriga- tion ; but this has not yet been commenced. The work of the Fonts et Chaussees being ineffective, the condition of the Delta as regards utilisation of the Nile remains little better than at the end of the rule of Mehemet Ali. AVAILABLE SUPPLY OF THE NILE. (According to LINANT.) Low Water Supply. This varies very much from year to year, sometimes it is insignificant for a few days before the beginning of the floods, Taking three cases observed (at the head of the Delta), Cubic feet per second. In 1840, at highest part of low water supply 14682 In 1834, the observations gave ... ... ... ... 61645 In another year it was ... ... ... ... ... 23882 These three give a mean low water discharge ... ... 33403 Provided that one-fourth of this can be drawn off in perennial canals and utilised in irrigation of Lower Egypt, it amounts to 8 325 cubic feet per second. 186 EGYPT. Now the sufficient mean watering for the summer irrigation of crops in the Delta, including the small existing proportion of rice cultivation, is one cubic foot per second to 120 acres. If rice cultivation were adopted throughout, one cubic foot per second would water only 100 acres. Using the former figures Acres. The available supply is enough for 999 ooo Whereas the actual summer irrigation in Lower Egypt is a cultivation of... ... ... ... ... ... 950000 The perennial canals do not, however, carry a sufficient supply from the Nile to water them properly by simple gravitation. Flood Supply. The available flood supply from the Nile is that inundating Upper and Middle Egypt, between Jabal Kilkilli and Cairo, and is equal to the difference between flood discharge at the former place and highest flood discharge at the latter. Setting aside two exceptional floods at Cairo of 343 987 and 33493 cubic feet per second, Cubic feet per second. Of the remainder the highest flood at Cairo is 288418 And the highest flood at Jabal Kilkilli 447 325 Difference ... 158907 Assuming that an effective good flood remains stationary for 20 days, (it varies from 15 to 20), and neglecting the balance during a few days of the earlier fall of flood ; also assuming that the cultivable land above Cairo is i 920 ooo acres, of which I 500 ooo acres are below flood level, the results are thus in total quantities Cubic feet. 20 days' supply at 158 907 cubic feet per second 274 591 296 ooo Loss by evaporation 749296000 Utilised on i 500 ooo acres 273842000000 Which is equal to a supply in cubic ft. per second of 158 565 c.f.p.s. This represents the ordinary flood cultivation carried on for ages, and experience has shown that it is sufficient for good RIVERS. 187 crops. Taking out the rates per acre and per cubic foot per second of supply from the above they are Total supply for each acre 182561 cubic ft. Total depth of irrigation over the whole ... 4-19 feet. Current supply to each acre continuously during 20 days 0*1057 c.f.p.s. Acreage irrigated by i cubic foot per second con- tinuously during 20 days 9-46 acres. ALTITUDES ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL OF PLACES IN NUBIA. Collected by M. TISSOT. Dista from K o 114 199 218 38l 403 453 664 712 820 906 H55 nces by river hartum, in miles. Altiti Khartum; at confluence of the Blue Nile Shendy. High water Level in 1866 Low water ,, 1867 Confluence of the Atbara ides in feet. 1240-53 1192*07 1164*27 1166*36 1147-99 964-53 935^2 773'3 687-12 674-09 626*17 420-07 331-16 Berber El Kab Umderas Gerindid Hannak ; at cataract Kaibar Dalah Wadi Haifa Philoe (7 miles from Assuan) ALTITUDES ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL OF PLACES IN EGYPT. Collected by M. TISSOT. Distances by river, from Assuan in miles. Altitudes in feet. o Assuan (levels unconnected with Siyut series). 330 Siyut, ordinary low water of 1872 at off- take of Ibrahimiah i47'4 379 Dairut, Plinth of Sluice-bridge of the Ibrahimiah Canal ... ... ... ... ... ... 125-04 415 Miniah, at Quay Shekh Fuli 132-61 Plinth of Sluice-bridge of the Ibrahimiah ... 116-01 ,, High water Level of 1870 ... ... ... 131*73 Ordinary low water of 1871 107-28 491. Fashan, ordinary low water of 1871 ... ... ... 82-87 511 Benisuef, ordinary low water of 1871 75'o6 583 Cairo, top of parapet at gauge, I. of Rhoda 67-92 Level of great Mastaba to the west 44*40 188 EGYPT. ALTITUDES ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL OF PLACES IN EGYPT Continued. Distances by river in miles. Altitudes in feet. 583 Cairo, Level of Mastaba of the Pharaohs to the east 35*62 Zero on the Gauge of cubits 28-27 Theoretic ordinary low water of the Rhoda gauge ... 39-71 High water of 1869 ... ... ... ... 67-31 Quay of the Waterworks Co., Old Cairo ... 67-39 Zero of the gauge at that Quay ' 31*05 ,, Theoretic ordinary low water on this gauge ... 39*26 High water level of 1872 ... ... ... 64-36 Kasr el Nil Bridge, pavement of footway ... 77*78 ,, Theoretic ordinary low water at this bridge ... 39*05 High water level of 1872 ... ... ... 64-16 599 Delta head, Mouj el's Dam, zero of gauge ... ... 35*3 ,, Lowest water observed in 1859 34*46 ,, Highest 1869 61-76 632 Benah (Damiad branch) high water level of 1863 ... 47*29 Ordinary low water 22-84 674 Kafr Zayat (Rashid branch), high water level of 1869. . . 33*02 Mean low water ... ... ... ... ... 4-33 Zero of the gauge at the bridge ... ... ... 2-49 708 Atfah (Rashid branch) at off-take of the Mahmudiah Canal, high water level of 1869 ... ... 14-60 High water level in the canal 8-04 ,, Ordinary water level in the canal ... ... 4*92 756 Alexandria, high water level in the Mahmudiah Canal at the outlet 7-29 ,, Ordinary water level in the canal ... 4-17 ,, Highest sea level known, 9 Feb., 1860 ... 2-36 ,, Lowest sea level known, 10 March, 1860, below mean sea level, or negative ... 1*58 ALTITUDES ABOVE Low WATER OF THE MEDITERRANEAN OF VARIOUS PLACES IN EGYPT. According to LINANT. Altitudes in feet. Low water in the Mediterranean ... o-oo High water 1-25 Low water in the Red Sea at Suez 2-43 High water 7-94 Land at Shaluf ; low water of Isthmus basin ... ... 11-29 lowest water 6-10 Serapeum, near the Monument 16-07 hillock of Monument 42-65 RIVERS. 189 ALTITUDES ABOVE Low WATER OF THE MEDITERRANEAN OF VARIOUS PLACES OF EGYPT. According to LINANT. Continued. Altitudes in feet. Ruined Canal at the fork towards Shek Ennedak towards S.W 9-84 towards S.E. near the fork 12-20 Lake Timsah, mean ... ... ... ... ... 9*84 to 16*40 Gisr, on land bank highest point 5 2 '49 Marshes of Fardanah ... ... ... ... 2*95 Mean level of Wadi lands from Saba Biars to Abassah 21 -65 Abu Balah, neighbourhood ... ... ... ... n '94 to 14*76 Wadi, Old Pilgrim's Lake near Gawarni dyke 9-84 Zagazig, off-take of Wadi Canal in Baha Moez, low water W76 high water* 33'6 Off-take of the Khalig of Cairo, low water 46*13 high water 71-17 DISTANCES IN NUBIA AND THE SOUDAN ON TELEGRAPH LINES. According to COLONEL STEWART, 1883. Khartum to Shindi Shindi to Berber Berber to Dahaid Dahaid to Debbah Debbah to Dongola Dongola to Haifa Berber to Goz Rejeb.. Goz Rejeb to Kassala Kassala to Fillik Fillik to Suakin . . Kassala to Relloh Relloh to Amadeb Amadeb to Koren Koren to Massuah Miles. 90 95 I2O 95 IOO 225 725 180 70 40 230 520 52 4<1 74 no 280 Khartum to Messelemia Messelemia to Senar . . . Senar to Fazogla Khartum to Abu Gurad Abu Gurad to Korti . . . Korti to Bara ... ... Korti to Obeid Obeid toFoggia Khartum to Abuttaraz Abuttaraz to Gedarif... Gedarif to Kassala Gedarif to Gallabat Gedarif to Ghizah Messelemia to Kana Miles 80 75 1 80 335 135 10 25 175 85 120 I 3 2 337 130 Probably this is an error ; but the reduction is right. 190 EGYPT. CANALS. EXTENT AND NUMBER OF CANALS IN Navigable Canals. Mudiriah. Number. Miles. Acres. f i. Esnah 2 48 723 In J 2. Keneh <*? 1 3- Girgah V4. Assiut 8 40 7 79 302 1x6 735 3960 2679 ( i. Benimazar and Miniah 2 151 3233 Middle 1 2 . Benisuef ... Egypt. ( 3< Fayum 5 I 96 14 1 339 Total 61* 826* 12985* . i. Gizah o o o H r ( 2. Galliubiah ... 7 71 I 136 - E ^ 3. Sharkiah ... 18 389 8737 PI* ( 4. Dakkaliah ... 2 85 I 272 c C J 5- Menufiah ... 17 223 3815 5 .', ( 6. Garbiah 8 239 5604 ^W. 7. Behera 2 184 I 620 Total 52 i 091 22 184 Total for all Egypt ... _ i 917 35 169 * NOTE. These three totals are incorrect. The official returns for 1873 contain much discrepancy, CANALS. 191 EGYPT IN 1873, ACCORDING TO OFFICIAL RETURNS. Canals of all sorts Unnavigable Canals. begun between 1863 and 1872. Number of Hydraulic Appliances. Number. Miles. Acres. Number. Sakiahs. Shadufs. Tabuts. Steam Pumps 9 3 1 93 I 910 5808 M 132 859 1353 7473 ... *9 S 2 156 383 32929 ... 63 '54 i 143 ... 704 14633 ... ... 7i 200 6i5 ... 2 3 715 ... 5 2 119 477 ... 107 715 ... in i 078 i 3 2 3 ... 448 413 ... ... 339 i 766 4666 o 4928 62686 ... ... 9 198 i 769 27 223 964 9 3072 912 181 i 135 4716 17 4675 5245 346 33 28 361 4644 9 8 ooo 445 4400 100 24 209 695 21 4 127 53 693 64 75 702 6 252 40 4891 6i5 195 196 73 1989 34203 16 39i 102 I 292 83 417 4817 53243 112 2 5 156 7 822 6 926 .476 756 6583 57 909 112 30084 7 58 and perhaps intentional misstatement. The statistics were afterwards suppressed or recalled. 192 EGYPT. LOW-WATER DISCHARGES OF PERENNIAL CANALS (SEFI), corresponding to a river discharge of 33 403 cubic feet per second at the head of the Delta, according to Linant. Cubic Clearance Region. Canal. &At r, annually in second millions of cubic feet. Upper Egypt : The Ibrahimiah Provinces East of the Damiad branch : The Ismailiah ^ TheSherkawah ... 202-75 9 g The Bessussiah ... I0 5'95 34 O The Wadi Tumilat M Bahr Moez Metyahecha 80-67 si "rt 4= "rt" Donded ... 44-19 si f^l Bukiah 44-19 5i ^ JS^S Mansuriah 127-14 10 OcflQ Sherkawah (branch) 54*77 7 N CO ^t Nahran 659-66 45J Deltaic Provinces : Manufiah _ _ Sersawah 70-31 4i Baguriah 211-90 4 a j BahrShibin 706-34 247 l| Ataf 70-63 Messid el Khradar . 82-43 13 ^ o Bekerem 61*22 4^ invd Sahel 1202-83 272! Provinces West of the Rashid Branch The Bekera cj The Khatatbah ... 198*05 64 g The Mahmudiah . . . 183-94 88 PQ 381-99 152 Incomplete Total 2244-48 470 CANALS. 193 The Drainage Channels of Egypt, according to Linant's " Memoire sur les Principaux Travaux executes en Egypte." Paris 1872-73 (Bertrand). Region. Drainage Channel. Discharging into Upper Egypt . . . The Sohagiah . . . The Bahr Yusuf. The Bahr Yusuf ... The Fayum; also on west of the Rashid branch. The Fayum ... The Bahr Bela Ma ... Lake el Korn. The Bahr Neslat . . . Lost towards the S. Provinces east of the ) Wadi Tumilat (Bulbds) Lake Timsah Damiad branch . . . ) Abu el Ardar (Pelusiac) . . . Lake Menzaleh. Salahieh Canal Bahr Moez (Tanitic) . . . Lake Menzaleh. Bahr Serayer Bahr es Sagir (Mendesian) Deltaic Provinces ... The Baguriah The Bahr Shibin ..ALake Burlos and The Bahr Kalin The Bahr Saidi Provinces west of the ) The Terriah and Qthers ( Lake Mariut Rashid branch . . . ) \ Lake Etko. Works under Mehemet Alt. Most of the modern irrigation works of Egypt have been made during or since the time of Mehemet AH. Every year the greater part of the population nearly all were at work on them. Annually 400 ooo men, or 800 ooo workpersons including women and children, worked in the levy ; while others constructed the small channels and dykes near their own villages. The contingents of labourers under village sheikhs made their separate pieces of canals which were afterwards joined, sometimes curiously. The engineering was haphazard, the direction was ill-managed, and probably entirely unpaid. In 1830, a Direction of Works was constituted ; in 1835, a Minister of Public Works was appointed, and a body of engineers formed by Linant under a bureaucratic system. The contingents of labourers were doubtless often supplied O 194 . EGYPT. from villages that did not participate in the advantages of the canal or work on which they were employed. Even in annual clearances this happened continually, as, for example, in the Khatalbah Canal, for which 30 ooo men are required for forty days ; the province of Behera, benefited by it, could only supply 1 5 ooo men. In most cases the forced levies benefited themselves by their own labour, but certainly not in all. The earthwork done in one year, 1846, amounted to I 800 million cubic feet. The period of Mehemet Ali was from 1816 to 1850. The larger perennial canals began about 1836. The works of his time were : 1. The construction of the interior new Abukir Dyke. 2. The construction of the Pharoniah Dyke for closing the Pharoniah Canal, which drained the Damiad branch to the benefit of Rashid. 3. The construction of the Bibah Dyke, protecting Lake Menzaleh and the land on its banks from flooding from the sea, during the low-water state of the Nile. 4. Reconstruction and revetment of the Koshekah Dyke. 5. The construction of the Bahr Bela Ma Dyke, and re- building of the Tamiah Dyke. 6. The new Illaun Dam, at the entrance of the Bahr Yiisuf into the Fayiim ; the old one was made in the time of Yiisuf Salahuddin. 7. The Canal Mahmudiah. 8. The Dock and Basins of Alexandria. g. The Bahr Shibiri regulating Dam. 10. The Survey of the irrigated lands and canals of Lower Egypt. Projects of the time of Mehemet Ali. 1. Navigable passage of the Cataracts of Wadi Haifa and Assuan. 2. The Jabal Kilkilli Canal. 3. The Reclamation of Lake Mariut. 4. A navigable Canal from Damiat to Rashid. 5. The conversion of the Khalig Cairo Canal into a perennial canal. 6. Khalig Zaffranah Canal. 7. The Dam at the Delta head, begun in 1847. 8. Some deep borings for water supply. CANALS. 195 Later works in Egypt. In 1857, under Said Pasha, the water- works of Alexandria, and the waterworks of Cairo. 1859-69. The Ship Canal from Port Said to Suez. After 1863. The Ibrahimiah Canal, navigable. The Ismailiah Canal, navigable. In 1865. Moujel's Dam at the Delta head. In 1867. Port Ibrahim at Suez, under Ismail Pasha. In 1870. The enlargement of the Port and Harbour of Alexandria. In 1872. The Behera Canal, navigable. The Manufiah Canal and the Sherkiah Canal, commenced about 1847. Probably these were abandoned, and recommenced in modern times. Ship Canals. The canal from Port Said to Suez was begun on 22nd April, 1859, and executed by forced labour until 1864, when steam dredgers were employed in greater number ; it was inaugurated as open on I7th November, 1869. The surveys, the project and general design were those of Linant Bey, a Frenchman in the Egyptian service ; the financial management and speculative establishment of this great under- taking was chiefly that of Ferdinand de Lesseps. The expense of construction and establishment until the end of 1870 amounted to 17 681 836 : this was provided by a share capital of 8000000; by 4000000 raised on bonds; 4 560 000 con- tributed by the Egyptian Government, apart from shares held by them. The Government also incurred the cost of 400 000 for the Wadi domains, 860 000 for the fresh-water canal, and for other accessory works at harbours, lighthouses, &c., incurred an expense of 8293080. The total amount of excavation was 265 million cubic feet ; excavation for maintenance was afterwards continued at the annual rate of 17600000 cubic feet. The minimum depth of water is 26^ feet; the mean depth 28 feet, the bed width 72 feet ; the width at water level varies from 190 to 328 feet. It will be needless here to enter into the details of the course, and of the works and excavation : the former is familiar to 196 EGYPT. all who have frequently passed through the canal, and the works afforded little novelty or engineering interest, as far as execution was concerned, beyond the employment of steam dredgers and shoots on a large scale. The canal would probably never have been attempted by free labour in the first instance, and would never have been completed by steam power, had it not been supported so strongly by the Viceroy throughout. The initiation of the undertaking and the causes leading to its execution are of interest, as they indicate an amount of intrigue, conflicting with the rights of the projector, that amounted to nearly perfect robbery. This was supported by some thousands of shareholders of the same nationality for their own advantage with utter shamelessness. Ancient ship canals from the Pelusiac Gulf to the Erythrean Sea certainly existed. One made under Nekhos and Darius ; that was never perfectly complete, though it was certainly used during the Ptolemaic period after further improvement, about 284 B.C. Under Hadrian, A.D. 1 17, a canal existed, probably a modification of the former, perhaps a mere restoration. In the time of the Khalif Omar (A.D. 663) a canal was made by Amru to Kolzum (Suez ?), which was used by ships for a com- paratively short time. All of these canals followed the natural course of such works when left to take care of themselves : they silted up. The ruins, traces, hillocks, &c., were found by Linant in his researches and during his levelling operations. The more modern projects that arose from time to time show that the matter had not been entirely forgotten. In 1519, Sultan Selim, after his conquest of Egypt, had some intention of re- opening the communication. In 1621, Sultan Mustafa, son of Muhamat III., Sultan at Stambul, sent Baron de Tott to investigate the matter. In 1766, fresh emissaries were sent from Stambul to Egypt to make inquiries and studies. The first purely Egyptian initiative was that of Ali Bey, in 1788 (who had ruled for nearly 28 years?) ; he built ships on the Red Sea, and certainly had the intention of proceeding further. In 1799, during the French occupation of Egypt, Monsieur Lepere, official chief engineer, drew up a project, which was good and careful in design, but also slightly erroneous on account of errors in the survey and levels. The records of his operations and designs appear to have been utilised afterwards ; though CANALS 197 the expulsion of the French from the country rendered them useless at that time. Under the belief that the difference of level between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean amounted to nearly 33 feet, the project of Lepere was not that of a direct canal from sea to sea. Seeing also the difficulties and large expense involved in establishing a good port or roadstead in the Mediterranean, his project was for a canal, or series of reaches, suited to vessels drawing 13 to 16 feet of water, communicating with the Bahr Moez and the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, but supplied in part of the course by fresh water from the old canal of Trajan leading from Cairo. Probably he intended also to deepen the Pelusiac branch, which at low water was in some places only 5 feet deep ; or he may have intended to form a communication navigable at high water. Even at its best, this was certainly a very defective project at a time when steam-dredging and steam- ships were unknown. Had it ever been executed, it would probably have resulted in something parallel to MoujeFs Dam, as regards effect and reputation. But there is little doubt that Lepere contemplated more direct communication with the Mediterranean by an additional reach of canal ; though this did not form part of his project as drawn up. The present project, that of Linant de Bellefonds, a French engineer in the Egyptian service from 1825, was mentioned by him in 1830 and 1833, to Messrs. Mimant and De Lesseps, then French Consuls in Egypt ; this project was entirely ready in 1840, and was then communicated to various European Ministries. In 1841 some arrangement was effected with Mr. Davidson, Director of the Peninsular and Oriental Company; in 1842 the Indian Government welcomed the proposal. In 1845 the Due de Montpensier took Linant's plans and reports to France, and supported the proposal ; eventually, in 1 847, a French company (or syndicate) was formed to consider the subject. This resulted in the despatch of three sets of engineers from France, Austria and England, to examine the levels and soundings. At that time the Viceroy, Mehemet Ali, disbelieved in the eventual success of the project, but appointed Linant to aid the expedition in every possible way. The levels resulted in showing a difference of level of 8*56 feet between the quay surface at Suez, and low water in the Mediterranean ; and the 198 EGYPT. greatest fall at high water between the two seas at 7-5 feet. Yet, in spite of these results, nothing was done to further the project until July, 1853, when M. Favier, a French official engineer, published a letter, casting doubts on the levels of 1847, and supporting the levels of 1799, in which he had taken part. Opinion hence remained divided. On February 3, 1853, Linant received orders from the Viceroy Abbas Pasha, to verify the levels. These operations showed a difference of level of 7-94 feet between low water in the Mediterranean and extreme high water at Suez. Allowing for some differences in datum employed in the series of 1847 and 1853, the difference in actual result amounted to 0*6 foot. The probable cause of error in the levels of 1799 was traced to the bed level of an old canal, filled up with sand brought by wind. This formation was probably treated as simple bed level ; and thus accounts to some extent for the error of 25^65 feet. These verifications appear to have decided the matter, for in November, 1854, the speculator, De Lesseps, announced to Linant that the project was decided on, and that Linant was to be the engineer in charge of the works indicated in his own project. Shortly afterwards, Moujel was associated with Linant as colleague, with the view of superseding him, after utilising all his information and experience. A fresh set of small plans was furnished by Linant, for use in France, to draw public attention to the scheme ; and about this time the Emperor Napoleon III. expressed his extreme pleasure to De Lesseps. Whether at this early period this speculator had represented himself as the proposer and designer, or had merely allowed it to be believed, is a matter unknown generally ; but it seems clear that he obtained firmans of concession in his own name. Preliminary works in picketing the course of the canal, staking sections, &c., were then undertaken by Linant. In September 1855, Linant joined De Lesseps in France to aid in the formation of the Suez Canal Company. A commission of engineers and others, formed under the auspices of De Lesseps, arrived at Suez on I5th December, 1855, and left on 3ist December. A second firman was obtained by De Lesseps from the Viceroy, which ousted Linant from the general engineering management, and reduced him to the post of Resident Engineer on the works. Conrad, a CANALS. 199 Hollander, was appointed engineer in charge of the whole. Linant, not wishing to embroil the scheme, consented to this arrangement after it was effected ; and delivered his series of plans. The levels were again verified in 1855 and 1856, with results varying to about i'6 feet from those of 1853. The engineers appointed by the Suez Canal Company departed very little from the designs of Linant, and merely superintended the work of the contractors, which was in accord- ance with his plans. Later there was some pretence about setting aside these plans, ignoring them, and about having acted on others ; as money had been voted for the purpose in July, 1857. The acknowledgment of Linant's plans was made in the proch-verbal, dated 6th June, 1858, by De Lesseps and Ruyssenears. This proch-verbal was annulled on i6th January, 1859, at the desire of Said Pasha, who at last understood the treachery of De Lesseps towards Linant, and saw that he himself was being manipulated also. After 1859, Linant retained his position as Director of Egyp- tian Public Works, and superintended the construction of the Ismailiah, or fresh-water canal. The works commenced actually in April, 1859 ; but in 1863, after the death of Said Pasha, when forced labour was abolished by his successor, difficulties arose with the company about the concession. At that time the excavation had been 154 million cubic feet, effected by 18 ooo labourers at a cost of ,110 000, of which about a half had been paid to them for work. There remained 837 million cubic feet of dry excavation to be yet done. The Egyptian Government was compelled under arbitration to pay heavily for withdrawing the privilege of employing' forced labour. These details, showing the amount of intrigue carried on in matters of concession and of public works, are the more needful, as even in 1884, some English newspaper editors remain who write of De Lesseps as engineer of the Suez Canal ; whereas the whole credit of the affair, apart from market-rigging, justly is due to the hydraulician and real engineer, Linant de Bellefonds. Even in France, where they should have been better informed, it was necessary that the journal L'Epargne should expose the deception in an article of 3ist March, 1872. 200 EGYPT. The stupid opposition to the Canal scheme by Stephenson and other English engineers (so termed) is accounted for by the fact that they were almost all merely rich speculative en- gineers, destitute of engineering ability, and of experience in hydraulic matters. While this opposition remained at full height, the compiler of this book declared the advisability of the execution of the Suez Canal, pointing out also that the expenses of efficient maintenance would necessarily be high. These views were also stated in his " Hydraulic Manual," first edition ; written several years before its publication. The project of doubling the .Suez Canal to accommodate the increase of traffic is now receiving public attention ; the difficulties lie in matters of cession of power and of admitting the principle of the claim to double vested rights that are already too large. The utilisers of the canals are trying to reduce the powers of the proprietors before further shackling themselves. Mutual concession must evidently precede the execution of any such project. Canals in Upper and Middle Egypt. I. The Ibrahimiah Canal. This large canal has its head works at Siyut, it flows by the side of the river to Mankabat, and continues to Manfalut, crossing the Bahr Yusuf, and supplying it with water for the irrigation of the Fayum ; it afterwards ends by joining the old canal Fechn. The canal Fechn has its off- take opposite Madinat-el-Jahel and delivers into the canal of Benisuef, which has its off-take near Balanka and Mataya. The dimensions of the Ibrahimiah channel at its off-take are, in bed width 1 1 5 feet, and at ground level about double that. Its summer depth of water is nominally 4*8 feet, but, owing to imperfect clearance, is actually at low water only 3 feet ; the fall of the bed is 6*5 per I ooo. The section diminishes at Mellawah, and is more reduced further on ; the fall also is not uniform. With an assumed velocity of 0*564 foot per second, the discharge would be 344 cubic feet per second (such are correctly reduced values) ; with an evaporation from a surface of canal i 940 ooo square feet, amounting to 71 cubic feet per second ; the net discharge utilisable is 273 cubic feet per second, or sufficient for irrigating 22 228 acres, at the rate of i cubic feet per second to CANALS. 201 81-4 acres of sugar-cane crop. Another calculation, on the assumption of clearance to a greater depth, involves a reduced section with the same velocity; the discharge is hence reduced, and then only 12 320 acres are irrigated. The mean supply utilisable is hence given at 212 cubic feet per second, which will irrigate 17 270 acres of sugar crop. These results are low, allowing for irregularities and exceptional circumstances, including those of unusually low water. In flood the flow is more irregular than at low water, and the velocity in the Nile can never be predetermined for any water level. For the flood season lasting 100 days in the Seifi canals below low water, the section of the Ibrahimiah may be taken at 493 748 square feet, and the velocity 4-32 feet per second, this gives a discharge of 2 161 cubic feet per second ; adopting a mean between high flood discharge, the calculation can be based on i 169 cubic feet per second throughout the 100 days, and allowing a depth irrigated of 10 feet of water over the land, the acreage irrigable by its flood is 2 1 3 206 acres of low land, mostly in the Fayum. The advantage of summer irrigation by a Seifi canal is doubtless very great, but the inconveniences resulting from large quantities of silt, and from high velocities during flood, are very serious. The length of the Ibrahimiah canal is given as 93 miles, and the amount of earthwork executed in it as i 342 million cubic feet. Its breadth is 230 feet throughout the first 38 miles, and 161 feet for the rest of its course. 2. The Sohagiah is a natural overflow channel or drainage channel, taking its supply from the Nile during flood, between Siyut and Manfalut ; its course is then N.W. for some distance until arriving at the watercourse level, skirting the Lybian desert and running in the depression between it and the elevated Nile valley. Continuing in this natural depression it eventually arrives at Geldah, west of Mellawah, where it tails into the Bahr Yusuf or Yusufi, which is a continuation of the same depression. Such has been its course certainly since 1832, and perhaps for ages ; as it is not known when the Nile first overflowed its banks at the head of the Sohagiah. The Sohagiah serves as an inun- dation canal along its course through the districts of Sohag and EGYPT. Tahta ; its length being in all 41 miles ; and its surface 2 434 acres. Its head was probably regulated for some time by tempo- rary headworks or off-takes of brushwood and mud ; it now has permanent headworks, one or two stopdams at intervals for controlling its supply, and, however irregular its course or its section, it is now a permanent inundation canal. Its breadth is given in the returns as about 475 feet ; perhaps erroneously. 3. The Yusufi, or Bahr Yusuf is a watercourse or overflow channel of the same sort as the Sohagiah, but of greater length, and more utility. It breaks out of the Nile about 18 miles above Rhoda, takes a N.W. course for about 15 miles, and then, uniting with the tail of the Sohagiah, follows the depression between the elevated Nile valley and the skirt of the Libyan desert, until arriving near Illaun, the gorge of entry into the Fayum basin of depression. Its course as far as that point is about 150 miles, during the whole of which it serves both as a drain- age channel for lateral overflows of water from the artificial basins of the Nile valley, and as an inundation canal for the land near its own banks. As it is fed by springs in its bed, resulting from infiltration from the Nile above it, it is also a dry season or perennial canal to some extent. It has now permanent head- works at its off-take, and a few stopdams in its course. At one time, perhaps in the time of Saltari of Yusuf-ud-diri, it had none, or only temporary headworks, and was in an entirely unregulated, uncanalised state. At present it serves important objects both as a flood canal and as a perennial canal, although its condition throughout most of its course is rough, untrimmed, and varying little from its original natural state. From the fork at the Illaun gorge, one branch of the Yusufi enters the Fayum through a regulating dam, and continues to a storage basin, near the town of Madinet ; on this the whole of the province is dependent for irrigation water, both in flood and in dry weather. In the Fayum therefore the Yusufi assumes the conditions of a river. From the fork at Illaun, the other or direct branch of the Yusufi proceeds northward, skirting the Libyan desert, and continues as far north as the head of the Delta. Beyond that even there is some depression of the ground continuing as far as Lake Mariut, and this might, also be termed a continuation of the Yusufi, as it probably was so at some remote period. But CANALS. 203 that must have been before the floods of the Yusufihad forced an entrance into the Fayum, and enabled it to spend so large a portion of its water in that province. The silting up of the northern branch of the Yusufi, or its drying up, must necessarily have followed that event. The following are the lengths of the Yusufi in the various provinces, according to returns : In Siyut 33 miles, in Miniah 8 1 miles, in Benisuef 38 miles, and in Fayum 14 miles; altoge- ther 1 66 miles. But the continuation of the Yusufi in the Fayum takes some local name, 4. The Bahr Beta Ma. This is one the natural drainage channels of the Fayum, formed by an overflow from the Yusufi, near Awarat el Makta. It takes a northerly course, and acts as an inundation canal, continuing to Tamiah, where is a regulating dam for storing and drawing off water. The course of this ravine continues nearly northward to Lake El Korn, or Kerun. 5. The Bahr Neslat is a large ravine, formed by an overflow of a large basin supplied by the Yusufi; its outfall is partly regulated by a dam in a large dyke, built for this purpose. It acts to some extent as an inundation canal to lands below. Its course is southwards, and it appears to lose itself in that direction, proba- bly supplying some natural depression with the remnant of its flood waters, which speedily evaporates. Canals in Provinces east of the Damiad branch of the Nile, in Galliubiah, Sharkiah, and Dakkaliah. i. The Ismailiah Canal. This canal was originally intended to follow the course of the ancient canal of Trajan, from the Nile near Cairo to the Red Sea. It was provided in the firman of 30th November, 1854, that it might be constructed as an adjunct to the ship canal. The intentions were to form two branches from it at Lake Timsah, one going to Pelusium, the other to supply drinking water to Suez, and to irrigate 100 ooo acres during flood ; while the main channel was to be navigable for barques and small steamboats from the Nile to the ship canal. The amount of supply appeared afterwards sufficient to enable dry-weather irrigation of 60 ooo acres to be effected. The design was drawn up by Linant, in December, 1856. The French company proposed several important modifications ; 204 EGYPT. but eventually a commission approved of the following design, which was partly executed. The project consisted in taking water from the Nile at Kasr- el-Nil, through a dam provided with sluices and a lock for navigation, into a canal following the course of the ancient Khalig Zaffranah as far as Kafr Hamza, thence to Menayer, onwards skirting the desert to Gawarnah, where, crossing the Wadi Timulat, it afterwards follows the northern part of that Wadi as far as Nafishah, near Abu Balah. The bed level was nowhere to be below ordinary low water of the Nile. During the low-water season the supply was to be effected by hydraulic machines raising water into it to a height of 6*56 feet. The canal to be divided into several reaches by regulators, to economise water and reduce the fall. During flood, from July to February, each reach to be filled to the level of the land to be irrigated. The four regulating dams with sluices and locks to be placed at Kasr-el-Nil, Kafr Hamza, Bulbeis, Gawarnah ; at the last reach, and in each of the two branches going to Suez and to Lake Timsah, three locks besides. This canal was capable of irrigating 3 1 ooo acres of additional or unirrigated land on both banks during flood. The company engineers afterwards altered this canal by abolishing the reaches, and adopting free-flow ; and by making it partly a Seifi or dry season canal, increasing its depth to 6-56 feet below low water of the Nile. They then reverted partly to original project. Eventually the canal was abandoned to the Egyptian Govern- ment. A mixed project, consisting of several reaches of canal having different depths, and stop-dams acting to different levels was the result. A temporary supply of water through the Shubra Canal was employed, and the works left in an incomplete condition, without any headworks at Kasr-el-Nil. The length of the Ismailiah Canal is given as 61 miles, and the amount of earthwork in it as 388 million cubic feet. 2. The Sherkawah Canal, made in 1840 under Muhammad Ali, has its off-take near Cairo, above Shubra, near the village of Mansurah. It is to the south of the remaining canals, and has a far larger discharge, owing to its greater fall and direct course. Its off-take is free from silt. It supplies water to the whole province of Galliubiah, and divides into two branches, the CANALS. 205 Shibin and the Kanater, which fall into the canal going from Zagazig to the Wadi Tumilat Canal ; it supplies the Ismailiah Canal, and continues beyond the Wadi Canal to Horbait, Salhiah, and the marshes near Lake Menzaleh. It also irrigates rice-fields from Mansiirah (town) to Damiat. Its length is 1 8 miles. 3. The Wadi Tumilat Canal. This is not supplied direct from its off-take in the Bahr Moez at Zagazig, but depends on the Sherkawah and the Bessussiah Canals for supply ; also on a provisional off-take from the new canal from Shubra to Nemriah, or intended freshwater canal for the supply of Suez. The Wadi Canal was made in 1828 expressly to supply a part of the Sherkiah province, lower than the rest, called Wadi Tumilat. This Wadi was formerly supplied in excess during floods from the neighbouring higher lands. A drainage channel was first made to Abu Balah and Lake Timsah, but it was not deep enough to carry off the collected waters. Besides this disadvantage, the Wadi Tumilat did not receive any water in the dry season ; hence no crops could be grown at any time in the year. Muhammad Ali then caused dykes and channels to be made to stop the flooding and to drain the land into lake Menzaleh. He also made the Wadi Tumilat Canal for summer supply ; but originally it drew its water from the Bahr Moez, in which there was plenty available. Afterwards, when the supply in the Bahr Moez dwindled to little or nothing, the Wadi Tumilat Canal drew on the other canals before-mentioned. 4. The Bahr Moez. This was the Tanitic branch of the Nile ; in 1837 it was navigable all the year round, but latterly silted up. It had headworks at Mit Radi, near Benha, on the Damiad branch of the Nile, and after a course of 92 miles entered Lake Menzaleh near the ruins of San, an ancient town. It was named after Moezuddin Sultan, about 970 A.D. 5. The Nahran Canal, watering the district of Azizi, in the province of Sharkiah, is 167 miles long, and has a water surface of 685 acres. 6. The remaining four perennial canals of these provinces, mentioned in the list, carry their waters northward. The Mityahecha irrigates land between Semballawenah, and the 206 EGYPT. Bahr Moez. The Bonded and Bukiah supply lands of Sembal- lawenah, Telbani, Shubra, Kor. and between Sunah and the Bahr Serayer. The Mansuriah waters land as far as Mansurah, and supplies the Bahr Serayer for cultivation as far as Menzaleh. The discharges of these four canals are given in the list ; but no details of the works are forthcoming, beyond the fact that they all have regulating dams at their off-takes. Canals of the Middle Delta in Manuffiah and Garbiah. i . Bahr Shibiri Canal. The Bahr Shibiri is an old watercourse or natural drainage channel ; in time of flood it also served as an inundation canal ; and from the large amount of water it then delivered was productive of much damage. It hence required regulating as a flood channel, and was at the same time partly formed into a perennial canal, by making a regulating dam on it, forming a new or altered course, and supplying it above the dam through a new channel of supply. Thus the old watercourse was transformed into a canal. In 1839 and 1840, the Karinein regulating dam was constructed under Linant, not merely for the amelioration of the Bahr Shibiri, but. rather to serve as a preliminary to the construction of the larger dam at the head of the Delta, the designs for which had already been made under the joint labours of Linant and Moujel. The Karinein dam was built to one side of the old Bahr Shibiri channel, in a depression that afterwards became the new water channel. The dam with its wings was 328 feet long, and 121 feet wide over all, with a footing 33 feet wide above the dam itself, in stone-boulder work. The foundation walls were in rubble, 4-2 feet thick, with a course of brickwork 1*64 feet high, bonded with a facing of ashlar throughout the length, and piers of ashlar. It had ten arched passages, 16*4 feet wide, the inter- mediate piers being 9-8 feet wide and 29-5 feet high to the level of the crown of the arches ; the whole being in ashlar. The foundation surface was 6-56 feet below ordinary low-water level. On the right bank was a lock for navigable passage, 23 feet wide and 23 feet long, having a movable sliding wooden bridge over it. The foundations were set dry ; and the water used below water-level was a mixture of quick-lime and clayey alluvial CANALS. 207 earth, finely ground and well mixed. Above water-level the mortar used was common lime mixed with sand, and some artificial pozzolano. The lock-gates were of wood of ordinary construction, but the sluice doors were never made according to the intended design, which was deemed expensive : vertical bars or needles, were substituted for them. No foreigners, or European machinery of any sort, were employed in the whole work ; the native labourers were educated to their work under Linant, and the native appliances, katuas (baskets), shadufs (beams) and tabuts (Persian wheels) were em- ployed. During the absence of Linant, a spring of water burst in during the excavation of the foundations at a depth of eighteen feet below ordinary low water. The Nile then began to rise. The following year the spring was built round and enclosed in the shape of a pier, and the masonry work was commenced. The excavation amounted to about 1 5 200 ooo cubic feet ; the masonry, including rubble, ashlar, and brickwork, I 766 ooo cubic feet ; and the cost ;40 000, or about double the estimated cost, which was enhanced by delays. When the regulating dam and new channel were perfectly ready, the old channel of the Bahr Shibiri was closed by an earthen dam, joining the wing wall of the masonry dam, and pitched with rubble facing. The whole remained in perfect order till 1873, and preserved the provinces of Menufiah and Garbiah from the effects of flood. More than half the dry season irrigation in those provinces is supplied through the Bahr Shibiri Canal, whose summer discharge is 700 cubic feet per second, and length 85 miles. It reaches the sea at Achetun. The Bahr Shibiri has, however, a very strong tendency to silt up. One off-take silted up, another was made higher up at Mit Afifi, which also silted, and was abandoned. The amount of annual clearance is very large and is a serious draw- back. 2. The Baguriah Canal, the next largest of the old perennial canals, of the two Middle Deltaic provinces, has an off-take with great natural advantages ; it carries little silt, and seldom requires any clearance. Its discharge is 212 cubic feet per second in the low-water season. 3. The Manufiah Canal appears to be a modern large Deltaic canal, having its off-take at the Delta head, and alimenting several 208 EGYPT. of the here-mentioned Deltaic canals of Manufiah and Garbiah. Details of this canal are not given in the official statistics received. But it was certainly commenced by Linant about or before 1847. ($ ee Linant, p. 470.) 4. The Sahel Canal is also a canal of the province of Garbiah, watering the districts of Jafiri, Zaflah and Mahallah ; its length is 79 miles, and its surface of water I 436 acres ; further details are not available. 5. The other four small perennial canals of the Deltaic provinces, namely, the Sirsawah, the Ataf, the Messid el Khradar, and the Bekerem have discharges varying from 60 to 80 cubic feet per second in the dry season. Their off-takes are like the two larger ones, all on the Damiat branch of the Nile, whose waters are higher than those of the Rashid branch. Their overflow and drainage go to the waste lands, El Berriah, bordering the marshes and Lake Burlos. Canals in Provinces West of the Rashid branch of the Nile. i. The Mahmudiah Canal. Mehemet Ali caused this canal to be made to supply water to Alexandria, as well as to irrigate land, and to create a navigable passage from the Nile to that town. The work was done by a forced levy of 320000 men, supplied with picks and shovels, and rations of bread or biscuit. Its length is about 48 miles. Its coarse was for some distance nearly that of the old canal of Alexandria, which had its off- take at Ramaniah, and passed Zawet el Gazal on its way to Alexandria ; this was small, unnavigable, in very bad order, and merely supplied the cisterns of the town during flood season ; it had a winding course, in order to avoid embankment on low ground, about Malagat Diessi and the marshes near Lake Etko. The off-take of the Mahmudiah was made at Atfah below Fuah, and much below the old off-take, so as to avoid fall in the ground, and to secure a better position for an off-take. Many of the sinuosities in the course are due to the mode of con- struction in those days : work was started first, the course and the design hurried into afterwards, by joining the pieces of canal made at hazard. Much of the excavation was in mud, some in rock; parts in CANALS. 209 embankment riveted with masonry extended for about 8 miles. It is said that 360000 men were employed on it. The supply of the Mahumdiah was increased by water collected in the low- lands of Malagat Dieschi, which thus served for storage. At Atfah there was originally no rock, and merchandise was transferred into other boats at that place for many years ; but in 1842 a lock for navigation was made at Atfah and another at Alexandria, where it debouches in the Old Port, after a course of 47 miles. The course from Atfah to Zawat el Gazal soon silted up ; a fresh off-take was then made higher up, but this new reach shared the same fate. An additional supply was then obtained from the Khatatbah Canal, whose off-take is about 30 feet higher than that of the Mahmudiah .at low water ; thus a navigable depth in the Mahmudiah could always be secured. The defect of this arrangement consisted in the enormous quantities of silt and earth brought from the temporary earthen dams of the Khatatbah. Dredging was adopted to mitigate this, but with little effect. As to irrigation, at first less than 4 ooo acres of perennial (sefi) irrigation was effected by the Mahmudiah Canal ; this gradually increased to u 545 acres in 1849, for which the summer supply of the Mahmudiah was insufficient. The Khatatbah at that time had not enough water for more than 20 ooo acres of perennial irrigation, while the direct demands on it were equal to those on the Mahmudiah, besides the indirect supply through it. In 1849, Moujel and Arnaud set up steam pumps at Atfah for augmenting the summer supply of the Mahmudiah Canal from the river. These only effected one-tenth of the intended results ; yet they served to keep up the navigation with difficulty. The perennial irrigation was gradually nearly doubled ; and the supply of the Khatatbah was largely employed in cotton cultivation ; besides, the series of cisterns in Alexandria were allowed to fall out of use. Hence, not only was navigation on the Mahmudiah nearly impracticable, but in 1869 and 1870 the water supply of Alexandria failed. 2. The Behera Canal, having an off-take at the head of the Delta, was completed soon after 1872. It was intended to supply the whole of the Behera province, and remedy the shortcomings of the Mahmudiah and the Khatatbah Canals. p 210 EGYPT. The details of this large canal are not given in the official reports, but it appears that as early as 1847, Linant was employing 80 ooo men on the construction of this canal, and the Manufiah and Sharkiah Canals (p. 470 of Linant). The length of the Behera Canal was given as 26 miles, and its amount of earthwork at 353 million cubic feet in the official returns for 1873. 3.. The Khatatbah Canal. Some information about this canal has already been given under the head of Mahmudiah Canal, as the latter canal is supplied by the former. The Khatatbah has its off-take near Benesalamah and Abu Neshabah ; its length is about 8?. miles, and it waters the Behera province, in flood as well as in the dry season. Its chief branches are the Amin Aga, and the Abu Diab, but these act mostly in the flood season. There are several permanent dams on the Khatatbah, as well as the temporary dams of earth and straw that cause so much harm in silting up this canal, as well as the Mahmudiah. Other Works of Irrigation. Moujel's Dam. Muhammad Ali having noticed that the closing of the Pharaoniah Canal did not augment the supply in the Damiad branch of the Nile, but that the Rashid branch was receiving more supply than before through the Chabagan and Darawah cross channel, wished to construct a dam at the head of the Delta. His notion was to close the supply to the Rashid branch entirely, and to divert the whole of the Nile into the Damiad branch, from which all the Deltaic canals take their supply. He thought that he would then be able to introduce a perfect sheet of perennial irrigation over the whole cultivable surface of Lower Egypt, that is, over 3 800 ooo acres, of which, at that time, only 2 150000 acres were irrigated in flood, and very little in the dry season. In 1833 he gave orders that this should be done, but, on the advice of Linant, modified his intention, and ordered a regulating dam to be made across the whole of the Nile at the head of the Delta. A committee was then appointed to consider the matter, and it was then proposed to carry out the intention, and to supply from above dam three large canals the Sharkawah Canal for the provinces east of the river, the Manufiah Canal for the Deltaic provinces, and the Behera Canal for the western provinces of Lower Egypt. CANALS. 211 After six months of preliminary work with I 200 forced labourers, without bread, lodging, or tools, arrangements were made under which the foundations of the dam began in earnest under the direction of Linant, the general design of the super- structure not having been worked out. Some difficulties were also caused by Court intriguers. In February, 1835, the works were suspended on account of a plague. In July, 1835, Linant had completed and delivered a complete series of plans for the dam and works connected with it ; but intriguers seem to have influenced Muhammad Ali against the proposed works, and his attention was also diverted to political matters and war in Syria. The works came to a standstill. In 1837 a committee on the proposed dam was appointed ; yet, contrary to their recommendation, Muhammad Ali declared that he did not want a dam. In June, 1842, Moujel, a French engineer, who had been employed in making a dock at Alexandria, had induced the Viceroy to order Linant to deliver to him all his plans and documents relating to the dam. Moujel then drew up a modified design, sent it to Paris, and obtained the report of a council of French official engineers on it in January, 1843. The opinion expressed was generally very unfavourable ; yet the Viceroy very soon ordered Moujel to begin the works. An interval of eight years had thus elapsed, and the works were to be recommenced on a fresh design and under new control. Some of the chief differences between the two designs may be noticed. 1. The estimate of Linant put the complete cost at ,840 000, while the actual cost of that of Moujel had, in April, 1853, amounted to l 680 000 before completion, without any allowance for the forced labour that had been employed. 2. The general dimensions of the dam (and its passages) as designed by each, are about the same : the heights above datum level, &c., correspond, but the piers in Linant's design were wider. 3. The position of Moujel's dam is rather above the dam of Linant, and has not the same advantage, namely, of having old and firm soil under the foundation ; but the distance between the two actual dams on the branches is less. 4. The works of Moujel in the actual river beds required European skilled labour and management, while those of Linant, 212 EGYPT. to be executed in a bend, followed by a diversion, could be done by natives. 5. The width of Linant's foundations was nearly double that of Moujel ; but in some respects the arrangements of the former appear to have been defective in the original design. 6. The up-stream and down-stream shutters of Linant were coupled, to balance the water-pressure. The sluices of Moujel were complicated, and depended on the action of compressed air. In June, 1847, Mqujel commenced putting in concrete for the foundation of the dam on the Rosetta branch, hoping to finish it at low-water season ; he was also hurried in the work by the peremptory order of the Viceroy. This alone was, perhaps, sufficient to account for much of the defective work ; in addition, the low-water level in 1847 was about three feet higher than that of the year before. It seems that much of the concrete thrown in on the sandy, shifting bottom never set properly ; the dredging was, perhaps, never carried to a sufficient depth in some places, while the excavated soil was heaped up on both sides, close to the exterior edges of the foundation, to a height of 26 feet, causing pressure and serious slips. An attempt was made, by crowding men on the works, to remove the excavated soil to a distance ; but this seems to have been either ineffectual or too late. The concrete foundations had probably been already forced up in some places. Besides, in the deeper parts of the bed, the lower part of the foundations were made of random stone thrown in to settle, and on this the concrete course was set on a level with that in other parts, where it rested on sand. If this was the case, it was a very gross error : sure to involve uneven settlement, or undermining in some form, for which Moujel cannot be excused ; unless he had been already worried out of his senses. . There yet remained one possible error to be made, and Moujel was forced to make this : the superstructure of piers was commenced before the foundation was finished, under peremptory orders. In March, 1852, Abbas Pasha wished to abandon the works. In April, 1853, a committee was appointed to examine them on the departure of Moujel. In spite of the then fully known CANALS. 213 defects in the foundations, the piers, arches, and superstructure generally, including the sluices, were continued under Mazhar Bey. The damaged portions became gradually worse. In November, 1861, a committee appointed to examine the works recommended that the foundations should be rendered perfectly secure, that a diving-bell should be used, and that the sluices should not be closed until the foundations were in a perfectly sound state, especially the part in random stone. In 1863 another commission made recommendations to the same effect; but they were not carried out. In 1865 a diving- bell arrived, but it was left unused for a long time ; when, at length, an attempt was made to use it, it was useless for immediate work, and required repair. Finally, in . spite of these repeated warnings, the sluices were closed against a rise of about 5 feet of water ; and this completed the mischief. In the flood of 1867 it was discovered that nine piers and nine arches were cracked, also that this portion of the dam had moved slightly down stream, detaching itself from the rest. There was also a movement near the large lock, where the foundation had been made on random stone. The expenditure on the works, with the loss of interest on the capital at 10 per cent, during so many years, combine to form an enormous loss. Linant did not, in 1873, despair of putting Moujel's dam in good order ; but recommended an expenditure of one million sterling more, to reconstruct the defective parts of it. The history of this dam reminds one of the ancient story of Job: an honourable man, with many opposers, was here replaced by an honourable and skilful man with the bureaucratic oppo- sition of the infallible French Fonts et Chaussees, who set up Moujel. The same story has been repeated in India very often, terminating in the expulsion of Job. Yet in Egypt, under a despotism, Linant was less severely treated ; though doubtless accused of want of tact and superseded, he was not entirely ousted from service in Egypt. IRRIGATION. The General conditions of irrigation in Egypt, described by Linant, are of two sorts : first, that from floods, and through canals, channels and watercourses supplied by flood water only (nili) ; secondly, the perennial irrigation, or dry weather supply (sefi), through canals having their off- takes below low water level of the river. The former is ancient ; the latter, as far as known, is entirely modern, and due to the introduction of cotton cultivation. The superimposition of the latter on the former, though adding to the amount of cultivation, is supposed to be disadvantageous generally, causing deterioration of the soil, and injuriously altering the old conditions of the river channels. These results are gradual, and if not counteracted will eventually produce serious harm. Flood irrigation in Upper Egypt. As the channel of the Nile is in a slightly elevated ridge, formed by its own deposits, its floods pass over its banks and water the land on both sides, passing off in watercourses beyond. For convenience in taking off and in retaining this water on the land to the west of the river, where the breadth of cultivation is greater, a series of dykes with openings in them have been made, which probably have existed for ages. There is a long dyke along the river bank and another along or near the desert edge ; there are also large transverse dykes between them. The irregular rectangular basins thus formed are of different sizes, the largest being nearly 40 ooo acres in extent ; but some of them are sub-divided again by dykes placed lengthwise, to separate the higher land near the river from the lower land near the desert. Almost all of them have special channels of supply, which have their bed level at 10 to 12 feet below the lands and the flood level; which is also about 10 to 12 feet above summer level of the Nile. The bed levels of these channels are so arranged as not to receive any heavy silt from the river, but IRRIGATION. 215 merely the light suspended fertilising matter. They are hence supplied only after sufficient rise in the river ; sometimes one channel supplies several basins successively, there are then regulators at the intermediate dykes. Ordinarily, after one basin is rilled, the water flows off through sluices in the dykes in the natural water-courses away from the river, as the Sohagiah and Bahr Yusuf ; but the supply may be reduced by flow either to these watercourses, or towards the Nile at will ; as there are also outfall sluices leading to it, near the lower corner of the basin along the river course. On the east bank of the river the basins are all detached, as the high ground comes close to the river in several places. In the event of a very high flood of long duration, it is impossible to discharge water from a basin into the river at any required time ; it may then be compulsory to allow water to remain late on the lower part of the basin ; worms are then bred which destroy any grain sown and spoil the crop. If the flood be low and late, some water may remain late in the lower lands of a basin ; if this is eventually passed off into an inferior basin where sowing has begun, the sowings are thus spoilt by the second watering supplied in this way. The land west of the Bahr Yusuf is also divided into flood basins watered from it, from its off-take down to the Illaun Gorge, where it enters the Fayum. The flood channels (or nili canals), before mentioned, diminish gradually in depth, their beds terminating by arriving at ground level of the last land to be watered from them ; their falls are hence dependent on the two conditions : first, of starting from the river with a bed level about 13 feet below land at that off-take; secondly, of ending at ground level on the last field to be watered ; these conditions both depend on the fall of the land. The details of these cases would not be valuable, for they do not seriously affect the supply. Flood irrigation in the Fayum. The flood water of the Nile is almost entirely supplied to the Fayum through the Yusufi or Bahr Yusuf channel which enters the Fayum through a regulat- ing dam at the Illaun. (For details of its course, see under Bahr Yusuf, among Canals,) But this dam connects two dykes one directed to the S. W. joining the Sediment Hill, the other to N. W., to Gisrat Gadallah, and this latter also has sluices towards 216 EGYPT. Fayum, for drawing off excess of flood water from the next northern basin down the Nile Valley, in which water is retained by the large Koshekah dyke. The flood supply to the Fayum is plentiful ; the land is divided into basins formed by dykes, and smaller sluices and susidiary channels supply the different parts of it. The level of the land varies greatly ; it is generally a large depression or basin, whose lowest part is occupied by Lake El Korn, or Birkat Kenin ; the rest consists of three plateaux, successively lower from the sill at the Illaun Gorge down to the lake, the whole difference of level is about 203 feet, but the lake is below sea level. Flood irrigation in Lower Egypt. The general mode is the same as in Upper Egypt, and has been so, certainly since 1823. The floods, coming down the two branches of the river in the Delta towards Rashid and Damiad, overflow the banks and spread over the land ; which is divided into large inundation basins by dykes at right angles to the course of the river. The overflow or drainage from these basins takes different courses, forming the permanent drainage channels of the Delta, and of Lower Egypt to east and west of the two branches. These discharge into the various large lakes and swamps near the coast. It will be noticed that everywhere the irrigation effected by floods under this system supplies light fertilising sediment to the soil, thus maintaining its productive power ; while heavy deleterious silt, resulting from local scour in the river channel, &c., does not interfere with either the channels of flood supply (canals nili) or with the land. The crops of the flood season are generally wheat, beans and barley ; in the north part of the Delta rice is also grown as a flood season crop. Perennial Irrigation. Although there was doubtless some perennial irrigation in Egypt in ancient times, the amount of it was probably small, and it was obtained entirely by lift, with such appliances as chains of pots, beams, and buckets, &c. A strictly perennial (or saifi) canal, drawing a supply from the Nile in its low stage, and supplying land direct from it by flow, is comparatively modern ; dating from the introduction of cotton- growing, by Jumel and Maho Bey in the time of Muhammad Ali. The earlier perennial canals have their off-takes at a level 3-5 to 4*5 feet below mean low-water level of the river ; most of IRRIGATION. 217 them, especially those from the upper part of the valley, are dug to about 28 feet below ground level at their commencement ; their depth diminishing gradually until their beds arrive at ground level at the furthest land to be watered. Their courses are very long, so as to carry water as far north as possible. Their falls are less than that of the river at low water, and are hence very gradual, as the object is to water without any need of lift ; but one result of this very slight fall is that the discharge is small, particularly so in unusually dry seasons. They serve chiefly for watering cotton, rice, and sesamum, also maize ; the sowing takes place at the end of April and the beginning of May ; the watering from them continues until July, or till flood season begins. The clearances of their channels and off-takes, which are loaded with heavy, coarse silt, also are effected between April and flood. The ordinary mode of watering land from these perennial canals is to block the passages in permanent dams, or to build small temporary dams in the canals at various distances apart, dependent on the fall, and thus raise the water level in them up to the level of the land to be watered. The land is then watered through simple cuts in the canal banks ; and the silting up of the channel seems to be disregarded. In places far above the first dams, and on the banks, the water is obtained by lift from the canals, from the river, and from collecting shafts. Some crops are, however, not watered continuously ; as cotton baali, which is watered perhaps only twice after sowing in the beginning of May, and may remain unwatered to the end of June ; it then receives a plentiful flood supply ; the resulting crops are of course scanty. In better cases the crops receive about half the fully suitable amount of watering. The full amount would be one cubic foot per second to 120 acres generally, or to 100 acres when rice alone is grown, at this season. Double Irrigation. However beneficial the effect of growing dry season crops may be to Egypt, it is needful also to notice the effects of superimposing perennial irrigation on land irrigated in flood. The primary or flood basins of the land have parts divided off in them by dykes for perennial basins of irrigation ; these dykes keeping out the flood waters that are mostly not wanted ; that is to say, apart from half season crops. Hence the amount of 218 EGYPT. flood water utilised has been much decreased since olden times. The results are that the drainage channels of the region carry off less water ; the old flood canals are less used, less filled, and become unnavigable ; and the river channels are filled in flood to a very high level. Also the land from which the floods are shut out loses the fertilising silt it would otherwise get, and the soil thus deteriorates greatly by gradual exhaustion. Besides, though the flood water may be shut off from the surface, there is yet a certain amount of infiltration from below which may produce efflorescence in the dry weather, and spoil the soil ; for almost all the land is impregnated with salts of some kind. If the land is thus allowed to remain unflooded for several years it become sterile. The use of old manure from ancient ruins for hastening maize Crops, and clearing the land before the Nile becomes too low for convenient watering, increases the before-mentioned tendency to sterility ; for that manure contains salts in abundance. The natural remedy is to flood and wash the land, as well as to drain it well ; but this involves loss of the crops of the season, and perhaps of the whole year ; hence it is perpetually deferred. [For the perennial crops of cotton, maize, and rice sown in May, June, or even sometimes much later (in August), are harvested during the flood season.] Last, the introduction of perennial canals has involved an enormous amount of needful clearance of silt, annually ; while much of the cleared silt is washed back again by the next flood or two. The amount of annual clearance necessary is given in the tabular statement or list of perennial canals. At a rough estimate, it is the removal of 500 million cubic feet to a distance of 200 feet, and to a height of perhaps 40 feet. When effected by manual labour, it is the loss to the population of 60 days' work, besides coming and going; for the average day's work, in wet silt, under the conditions of the case, does not exceed 18 cubic feet, though in the upper or dry silt it is 24 cubic feet ; and some of the districts are unable to supply enough men for the clearance of the canals supplying their own district. Even if steam power be used during the available four months of the year, the annual expense would be about half a million pounds sterling for the clearance of the perennial canals of Lower Egypt alone. IRRIGATION. 219 There is no doubt that much of the silt difficulty is due to the use of temporary earthen dams in the perennial canals ; but even if the large expense be incurred of building the large number of masonry or brickwork regulating dams necessary to replace them, the evil would merely be mitigated, not removed; for wherever a current is checked, silt will fall. Remedies. While there are many and conflicting views as to the best possible means of extending perennial irrigation in Lower Egypt whether by a dam at the Delta head, or by a large, long canal with headworks opposite the Fayum, or by enormous expense in steam pumps it may yet be considered whether perennial irrigation, strictly as such, and on a large scale, is absolutely necessary to Egypt. A moderate amount of it might suffice. As for the rest, in the form of anything to replace the hitherto wished-for remainder, it is very possible that the remedy may be arrived at by some new agronomic develop- ment of half-season crops, or early and late crops of produce of selected suitable sorts. Good gardening, training, and agricul- tural management of an advanced type could doubtless supply this development. There are at present some half-season crops grown in Egypt, and there is no apparent reason why skilful gardening may not introduce many more. Such crops could be supplied with a moderate amount of water from the Nile in its intermediate stages only, and the expense of so doing would be comparatively small, as the lift would be less everywhere, the silt difficulties would be very greatly reduced, and the various anticipated contingencies dependent on the larger strictly perennial schemes would cease to become subjects of dread and of dispute. Perhaps this suggestion may be utilised to the benefit of the Egyptian people. 220 EGYPT. THE CHIEF CROPS OF EGYPT, ESTIMATED FOR 1871, ACCORDING TO ISMAIL Month of Amount of Produce, Upper and Total Chief Crops. fcJO _c 'S .1 9 M I Middle Egypt. Lower Egypt. All Egypt. 6 ",3 3 o PQ 3 to Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Wheat of Upper Egypt . . . of Lower Egypt ... 1-2 1-2 2 -3 2 -3 3-4 3-4 6863717 I OOO OOO 14 419 468 21 283 185 Barley of Upper Egypt ... Lower Egypt ... 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 747 059 II 855 221 > *I4 602 280 Maize Saifi ... ,, Nili 4 7 5 9' 6 10 4 066 335 H4555 12 681 655 I 658524 > 18 520 069 Sorgho, summer winter 4 7 5 9 6 10 } - ... not given. Rice o 4.64. 212 464 212 Beans of Upper Egypt Lower Egypt ... 12 12 i i 2-3 2-3 6 348 230 T- W T- * ^ 6 596 583 1 12944813 Lentils I 2 3 j 318044 131 404 i 449 448 Lupins I 2 3 106 659 77 238 183897 Peas 2 3 4 160 874 58891 219 765 C lover f Egyptian ... Hijaz 12 1-2 1-2 5' 11 4 8-1 1 | 873810 356314 i 230 124 Sesamum ... 6 8 10 525 25326 25851 Hemp 4 2OO o 4 200 Linseed II 2 3 T" ** ^v 49847 113841 163688 Centals. Centals. Centals. Flax > 8 270 33786 4 2 056 Cotton 3 5-9 9-11 70163 i 936 300 2 006 463 Sugar Cane... I-I2 i I 527 100 158247 i 685 347 Tobacco 12-2 5 6 ( 16366 ( incomplete / . 3 055 ( incomplete f 19421 \ incomplete Other crops are garden produce, halfa, dyes, drugs and fruit trees. * Shows error in the original. t In excess of pastured fodder. The radeb or cubic cubil is nearly 7 cubic feet English. IRRIGATED CROPS. 221 SADIK PASHA; WITH DETAILS OF SUGAR CANE AND COTTON CROPS. Sugar Cane Cultivation. Cotton Cultivation. jl 8 d cJ 1 Amount Amount Mudiriah. N! 3 5 B Private v- C d -M of ^CJ of O.(J "rt 2 c Lands. 2 c ' 1 s Produce. > Produce. Acres. Acres. Centals. Acres. Centals. Esnah 5018 185 148 8 . . . 85 Kenekossir ... o 2 182 163 950 75 ... Girgah 183^ 4587 2 5 ... ... ... Assiut 10 OOO 25 500 20 Miniah & Benimazar 31356 26 287 i 182 915 45 . . . .... Benisuef 2 397 35 ... ... 26 78 3 Fayum 6 oio 5 175 ooo 35 ("20000 30000 *4o ooo Upper & Middle Egypt 54781 3373i i 527 ioo 20 026 70 163 Acres. Acres. Centals. Acres. Centals. Gizah T 93 ... ... .... 5l Galliubiah ... 440 93060 211 32 no 68 240 H Manufiah ... 411 61 779 X 5 72939 218 917 3 Sharkiah ... 285 ... . . . 125 ooo 437 5 3i Garbiah 284 3408 12 237 258 711 744 3 Dakkaliah ... ... 500 ... . . . 126933 380 799 3 Behera ... 134 ... , ... 64 73 1 119 070 if Lower Egypt 193 2054 158247 698 971 i 936 300 All Egypt ... 54974 35785 i 685 347 718997 2 006 463 The English cental of ioo Its. is nearly the Kantar. IRRIGATED CROPS. THE PRODUCTIVE VALUE OF LAND IN EGYPT. (From a Memorandum by MR. NiGOLSON, Cairo, April, 1883.) The gross productive value of an acre of the richest land in the most fertile province, based on rotation crops for a period of three years, varies between ;6'85 and ;9*60, average ;8*38. The radical difference between these results lies in the estimated amount of cotton produced per acre, for as to the value of other crops raised per acre the differences are small. If the average return of cotton per acre be taken at 5 centals (of 100 Ibs.), the data corresponding to the above would be, for extremes 8 '60 and 9-60, average 8'99 for the best land. The rotation of crop would be 1st year, cotton and bersim (clover) ; 2nd year, dura (maize) wheat, and bersim ; 3rd year, dura, beans, and bersim. Cotton is the most valuable crop ; in some rare instances as much as *j\ centals per acre have been produced in one year. For this the ground is prepared in September, the sowing takes place in March, and the gathering in October. A crop is raised only every third year. Bersim is cultivated as fodder. Two cuttings may be obtained in a year, but the second is often allowed to die in the ground, as it possesses great recuperative power. Taking the gross productive value of an acre of rich land in the Delta at 9, it appears, from the examination of statistics, that the net value of the produce is an interest of 9j per cent, on the capital. The actual value of an acre varies greatly. It is, in some cases, as high as QO or 70. On the Domain lands the average value of an acre is 12 in Upper Egypt and 20 to 25 in the Delta. A large landowner in Upper Egypt estimates the value of an acre there at 20, and states that, under sugar and maize, it would give 6 per cent, interest, and under other crops, 2j per cent. IRRIGATED CROPS. 223 The following table shows the letting value of Domain land, per acre, and the extremes of rent in various provinces : Province. Teftisha. Lands. Acreage. Lowest Rent per acre. Highest Rent per acre. Taxes. Assiut Beni Rafa ... ( Beni Shokir 604 ( Tataliah 32 1-85 3-35 1-23 1-47 Benisuef ... Achment . . . ( Bahbashinah 90 ( Tezment 80 5-00 6-00 0-14 1-20 ElFayum... El Fayum . . . The whole 46 139 1-08 0-31 Gizah Bedrashin ... The whole 12 228 2-70 1-31 Galliubiah Shubra ( Birket 32 \ Shubra 120 0-50 6-18 0-52 1-49 Sharkiah ... / Abu Kebir \ Tel Hawin Abu Kebir 48 Tel Hawin 24 0-45 5-30 0-71 1-02 Dakkaliah Tommay . . . ( Zafar 40 { Karmut 690 0-36 5-35 0-29 1-20 Garbiah .... ( Dokmera I Safiah Kadmiah 205 Nosfaul Chabas 44 0-10 10-18 0-25 1-62 Behera Dessunes ... ( Kardud 135 ( Bissentawai 36 0-06 6-50 0-17 1-03 The taxes are paid by the landowner in all cases. ' The gross value of an acre under rice cultivation varies from ;5'65 to 8'00. The expenses of growing rice are very heavy. In the rice districts wheat and maize do not grow readily, though barley can be produced, and cotton serves as an alternative crop. The gross value of an acre of sugar cultivation in Upper Egypt is 18-75. An estate of 100 acres of rich land in the Delta furnishes the following details as an average yield yearly in three years cultivation : Maize Wheat Beans Cotton 80 ^500 Total, ^875 Per acre. ^8-75. The acre was here valued at 40, and the net produce showed an interest of 9^ per cent. 224 EGYPT. THE PRODUCTIVE VALUE OF LAND IN EGYPT. (Extract from the Report of M. SUAREZ, 1883, fro?n personal experience in the province of Garbiah.} The tenure of land in Egypt is divided into three classes large holdings, medium holdings, and small holdings ; they are all worked differently. 1. In large holdings the landowner manages his estate through inspectors and agents. The labourers receive daily in money ;0'02 per man, and ^0*015 per child, and in kind a quarter of the nili maize crop, besides allowing each father of a family an acre of land for support of himself and his cattle, at a rent equal to the taxes on it. The landowner supplies irrigating machines, but utilises the manure of the labourer's cattle. 2. In medium holdings there is a joint arrangement with the labourer. The landowner incurs the taxes, expenses of irriga- tion, seed, implements, and material. The labourer supplies labour until the harvest, when he receives one-fifth of the summer (sefi) crops, cotton and legumes ; one-fourth of the nili maize crop, but no part of the (chatuwi) winter crop. The collection, preparation, and storing of the crops is charged to the landowner. The labourer has an acre for clover, and supplies manure from his cattle as in the former case. There are also other modes of division which are less usual. 3. In small holdings the labourer is his own landlord,. He cultivates his own land with the help of his wife and children, and incurs all the expenses of production. Such holdings are the most numerous, and yield the greatest return. Rotation of Crop. As there may be crops of three sorts in the year the chatuwi (winter), the sefi (summer), and the nili (intermediate) it must be noticed that the land employed for a nili crop will afterwards yield a sefi crop ; also that if there be a want of water in the sefi, or dry season, there cannot be a sefi crop. But as this report deals with the best land, where irrigating machines are employed for two months in the year, it is presumed that water is available, and every arrangement for securing good crops is made. If the sefi and chatuwi crops were alternatively grown each year on the same land exhaustion of the soil would result eventually ; hence the following arrangement of rotation, over IRRIGATED CROPS. 25 three years, for an estate of 300 acres, is the mode usually adopted. The 300 acres are divided into three portions, A, B, and C, of 100 acres each, worked correspondingly and in rotation in each period of three years, thus First Year. Acres. Acres. Maize (nili), Clover (nili), Cotton (sefi) 100 A Wheat (chatuwi) 100 B Beans (chatuwi) 50 C Clover (chatuwi) 25 C Allotment to labourer for clover 25 C 300 Second Year. Beans (chatuwi) 50 A Clover (chatuwi) ... 25 A Allotment to labourer for clover (chatuwi) ... 25 A Maize, Clover (nili), and Cotton (sefi) 100 B Wheat ... 100 C 300 Third Year. Wheat (chatuwi) 100 A Beans 50 B Clover ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 B Allotment to labourer for clover 256 Maize, Clover (nili) and Cotton (sen) 100 C 300 Some minor details require explanation, in order that the following detail of expenses may be clear. They are these : i. The clover (nili) or baali is sown among the maize, half at a time, to secure succession of crop ; the second half hence alone has to be watered after the maize is cut. 2. In the chatuwi harvest there are 1 60 acres to be harvested, out of which 10 acres are of clover reserved for seed. 3. Cotton stalks, used as fuel for the pumping machinery, are estimated by the hemlah, which is about the fifth of the yield of an acre. The hemlah is equivalent to two centals of coal, and is sufficient for one watering of two acres of land. Assuming successively the three conditions of tenure before explained, and this rotation, the expenses and income will be Q 226 EGYPT. thus in detail for 300 acres of the best land. The reductions have been effected on the approximate basis of taking a feddan as an acre, and 100 piastres at 1 sterling ; the error in the former being about J per cent, and in the latter 2\ per cent, both in diminution of average values commonly used. GENERAL EXPENSES ON 300 ACRES. Taxes on 300 acres at ;1'64 per year ... ... 492-00 Fixed salaries and wages : monthly One inspector, i manager, and i clerk &' Four cattle-drivers ... 3O Three watchmen or caretakers ... 1*8 For 12 months at 10-3 =-123-60 Seed Maize (nili) for 100 acres, 147 cubic feet at ... ,0086 = 12-60 Clover (baali) 0-214 = 31-45 Clover (meshawi) for 25 acres, 44 ... 0-214= 9-42 Cotton for 100 acres, in ... 0-107=12-75 Wheat ,,ioo 350 ... 0-136=47-50 Beans 50 233 ... 0-121=28-33 142-05 Lift of water during 2 months One mechanic, i stoker, and 2 labourers 9-00 Fuel, cotton stalks for 6 waterings of 100 acres at the rate of ;0-10 for 300 hemlahs 30-00 Fuel, cotton stalks, for 4 waterings of 50 acres, at the rate of ;0-10 for 100 hemlahs 10-00 Oil, 90 pounds, at ^0-013 = 1-572 \ Grease, 60 pounds, at 0-021 = 1-350 > 3*92 Rags, &c., for cleaning 1-000 = 1- ) 52-92 Food of Cattle during 4 months for 20 oxen, 3 camels, and 7 mules or donkeys. Beans, 688 cubic feet, at ^0-85 = 83-93 i Straw, 80 hemlahs, at 0-10= 8-00 j Total general expenses ... ... ... ,902 -50 IRRIGATED CROPS. 227 Wages of Labourers Two men preparing manure for 8 months at Two lads for moving manure, &c. , Spreading manure on 100 acres ;O040 = 0-015 = 0-080 =' 7-20 8-00 24-80 On watering the second half of) d , kbour at . Q2 Q . 50 100 acres of clover (baah) J For clover (meshawi and tashif) of 25 acres^ Labour on 25 acres 2 men per acre at ^"0*02 ... 1-00 Sowing of - J man 0'24 Eight waterings ,, J man 1-92 Wages expended on the Cotton crop, 100 acres First preparation of land, 3 men per acre Second 2 men Third i man Tash if, or breakin g clod s ......... Takhrit, or trenching, ^ man per acre ..... Tracing, or setting out land ......... Takhrit, in water-channels, 3 men per acre . . First watering ...... J man per acre Nine waterings ...... \ man per acre . . Days' Labour, = 300 = 2OO = IOO 20 = 33 4 = 300 = 2 97 3-16 Sowing 0-015 per lad Thinning the crop Weeding 4 times per man for 3 men per acre 3 lads per acre 2 men per acre 4 men per acre i 304 = 26-08 Days' Labour. Four watchmen for 2 months at ^"0-60 per month Labour under Contract. Gathering cotton 500 centals at Gathering stalks 100 acres at Managing channels ...;0-15 = 75- ... 0-25 = 20- 10- 51-30 105-00 ,210-84 223 EGYPT. Carried forward 210-84 Wages expended on Wheat crop, 100 acres Days' Labour. Preparing land twice ... ... ... ... 200 Levelling in plots and sowing ... 200 First watering ... ... ... ... ... 50 Second watering 33 Two watchmen for a month 60 ^0-02 per man for 543 = 10-86 Wages expended on Bean crop, 50 acres Days' Labour . Preparing land 50 Sowing ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 Levelling in plots ... ... ... ... ... 50 Two waterings 50 Two watchmen for 2 months ... ... ... 120 ;0'02 per man for ... ... 307 = 6*15 On the chatuwi harvest, 160 acres Days' Labour. Threshing 10 men per acre ... ... ... i 600 Watching barn-floors 2 men for 4 months ... 240 per man for i 840 = 36-80 Miscellaneous Expenses : Unemployed cattle 3 at ^20 . . . Implements and repairs Total expenditure on labour General expenses before given Total expense Or about ;4'19 per acre. 30 - 90-00 , 354-65 , 902-50 .^1257-15 IRRIGATED CROPS. GROSS INCOME FROM 300 ACRES. From maize (nili) ioo acres at 35 cubic feet ... = 3500 Less one-fourth for labourers, and a deduction for carriage of 4 per cent. 896 or at a price of ,0-0857 per cubic foot 2 604 = 223-20 From clover (baali) grown with maize, and sold green, ioo acres at 1*50 = 150-00 From uncleaned cotton, 500 centals, at "3-20 =1600-00 From wheat, ioo acres at 35 cubic feet ... ... 3 500 Less deduction for carriage of -J per cent. ... 28 or at a price of ^0-133 per cubic foot 3472 = 471-20 From beans, 50 acres at 28 cubic feet ... ... 1 400 Less for carriage 14 or at a price of ,0-121 per cubic foot 1 386 = 168-30 From second cutting of clover on 10 acres 29*75 Cotton stalks from ioo acres ... 50*00 Straw, of all sorts, from 160 acres... ... ... ... ... 32*00 Rent of 25 acres from the labourer 41*00 Total gross income ^2765-45 Or 9-22 per acre. Total expense 1257*15 Or 4-19 per acre. Total net income ,1508-30 Or 5-03 per acre. To estimate the return on land purchased, as rent is not included in the foregoing account, the estimated value of the best land of the State Domains of Santa, El Hayatem, and El Safia, in the Mudiriah of Garbiah, is assumed. This is fixed at a mean price of 50 per acre, including brokerage. 230 EGYPT. CAPITAL ACCOUNT (300 ACRES). 300 acres of land, at ;50 per acre \& 000 i pump, and engine of 10 horse-power ... ... ... 500 20 oxen, 3 camels, &c. 481 10 ploughs, flails, and implements, carts, &c 319 ;16 300 The return on this capital is 9! per cent., according to the foregoing account. But it must be noticed that the amount of cotton and its value form the principal part of the gross income. The cotton crop may be attacked by worm, or may suffer from want of water ; if it suffer from both causes, the yield is only 322 centals per acre ; if from want of water alone, it is 5 to 6 centals ; but a good crop yields nearly 7 centals ; hence the valuation at 5 centals adopted is a rather low average. With improved irrigation it would certainly be 6 centals, raising the return on capital from 9! to 1 1 per cent. 2. With medium holdings and sharing of crop, as before mentioned : EXPENSES ON 300 ACRES. Taxes ... 492-00 Seed, as by former detail 142-05 Fixed salaries 123-60 Lift of water 52-92 Food of cattle 91-93 Gathering cotton 75-00 Miscellaneous expenses 90-00 Or ^3-55 per acre 1067-50 GROSS INCOME FROM 300 ACRES. Gross income, as by former detail 2765-45 Less one-fifth of the cotton crop 320' Or ^815 per acre 2445-45 Net income ^1377-95 Or ;4'59 per acre. IRRIGATED CROPS. 231 This amounts to 8 per cent, on the capital ; and as the labour is more carefully done, the yield of cotton may also be greater, in which case there is an additional advantage to both landowner and labourer. 3. With small holdings under peasant proprietors, worked by themselves and their families : EXPENSES ON 300 ACRES. As by detail in No. 2 1067-50 Clover seed for 25 acres of allotment .. ... 9-37 1076-87 Less fixed salaries and gathering cotton 198-60 Or ^2-93 per acre 878-27 GROSS INCOME. Maize (nili) 3 500 cubic feet, at OO85 300 Clover (baali) i cutting, 100 acres at 1-50 150 Clover (meshawi) 3 cuttings, 25 acres at 3*00 75 Uncleaned cotton, 500 centals, at 3-20 1600 Wheat, 3 500 cubic feet, at 0-136 475 Beans, i 400 cubic feet, at 0-121 170 Second cutting of clover, for seed, 140 cubic feet ... ... 30 Cotton stalks, 500 hemlah, at 0*10 50 Straw of all kinds, 320 hemlah, at O'lO 32 Or ^9-60 per acre 2882 Expenses 878 Or ;6'67 per acre net income ... ... ... 2004 This represents 12| on the capital before estimated. 232 EGYPT. to 4 oo i I 1^ Q K 525 W tA w H ^ < H t" w O h U O copq * O CO - t^ ON g c^ IOMM MMij-II CO CO O ONVO -^ vo vo MOOCO co co t^ONM MVO v ON o 2 w v 5 M - *~i O ONVO rt- ^t- M t^ ON rj- to CM to CM "ON i^. M M n- CM COCO p CM CO O ' cb 2 i) ONVO M U CMOOOO Tj- O Tt- M ON M ri-vp 10 CO *CA M t^ "o 60 cb CO to l-i CM v M CO t^ CO M 10 COCO M vb CM ri-vb oo M o CM 0000 oo O *H b b LO t~ CO O O M b b vO vo COCO p p b "o CO VO M b b t^. co oo Tf M b b ON CO p" 2 b b VO M O W b "o M CO O M b b M o t-* o o M CO M o I <** X ! o o o o VO ON O 00 o .tJ I 1 4> ,_) 1 -S | 5 g-s^ s M ^ CO xn vo "d- i^ ^- O N M ro .a - KM W k, W u g s O O i. --S a.S-^ y _9 '3 ** s _c "f 3 . po ' is is is I g tS P S g o w o O p 10 amorphic, Jurassic, Tr aniorphic, Gneiss, Gr amorphic, Silurian, G amorphic, Silurian, Lo explored) ; Tertiary O OO O\ rf t-s M CJ CO 4x0 RIVER BASINS. 243 oooo o a s s a s rt ri ci rt eJ ri y* o **"> *o o ""> o L, 6 b b Jl o b .2 3 * l 111 IP ;^H I '^g-3 ||J *j tl^J C v d H a : & t^ j*.2 rt S '" ;J .... JlfMI i JI{ if&ijjj fii3vf8jiii' D ^ ~* " rt -i t^ O N >O i^ >O CO H< CO O Q cS -^ 11511^ if ! : <9i?i CO ^ to CD J> 00 05 O rH Ol 00 iH iHiHiH "2 a 'y'g.S !>2 rt ." o>'t;rt t/3t ; *S 2 2 2 2 2 S.H SaaaSs^f S -L to 1 llifiiil ?il.| - tall jjrniiil g -a - s ^ S ^ s tifi.iiil ^^ 2 S c^^ ^c,o^ g S5 2 rtJH w^rQja c s rnTDcjos^-yaja) tyj ajg r ^c/}S33 WS 2 rt ^ o I g ^ PH ^^S ^ i'S^PPSlI S M ri A 4 XOMD RIVER BASINS. 245 o o o 11 - 1 p p p p p p -^ p PP o^ o^ o io^voocq2 >^o VO vo 000 'rt VH OOOOOO ^0 O O O 10 O O 3.9 oooooooo^o 1010 VO VO vo vfl OO ^ NMOOO^N coco "d . . . . . c3 : . rt u . % . . >> O : 1 1 ' " -:::::: . . | -u : - :::::::.: .a .a a ^ /& 43 :f : : : :| :g :::::: o o > 4; (n :r. ^ ^t rt rt rt la:: S ,*s ,*^ O > rt C * QQ Q^ O >H ^H 3S 246 INDIA. o o o o P +3 M3 io In 2> 225 2 S I o o * 2 O< :::;:: C/3 I 0, S Q> . 1 . . ^ . . 1 < HH P u * o o " - -H "2 o" o ^ o o 'S o .a " 3 ' H P O g <* OOOO t^vo vr> Tj- t>.NOO^OOC\O OOON t-iON-'d-iom^rooo \OI>.N OOONi-iOi-icSvO N t^rf-i-i O CO llii CD i> o O)rHC4coo co i> iHrHrH iH iH rH iH d CJ OJ CJ 04 02 OJ OJ > ^ >> X pj (U ^ oj oj ? j-^ rt ^ ^ cj y ^3 .y > O> in E3 S^dd^'CrC^ J^ g C/3 ' rt gnC/2 ' c/3 a HH o o55*^2 .2 . 2 2 .rtSo u o o 2 2 2 2 3 2 M 2 'Q S S S ? s s ; s - '2 'cl'i ^Q Q QQQP -. 0) 'o ^ ^^ t^ ""* ^""* ^ 'o O "^ o t^^ |HH-l.2j-(J >> l U SW OJ r/^ rt ex, o ^^3 & w o W ^ ^ ^ JP<^Pn^ ^^ <5 2j(j o ^ C C c m g-^t-M^t-vo oo ON^t^oo2'-'2 c W 1-1 ^ ^ rjtnjn - ^- J? ^? 2"vS 2"-g c?^ c i t/3 S S3 r . ..... c . o ..... *-*^ . . . H- 1 * * & * 22 ^ r2 > ^ ^ CH ....cicS.S. rt ... .0,0,... tn C C C fi w Basins and Sub-Divisi( Bili"fii^Mi| 5^ ^ i.s^^ S ce^^ cM S g g g"^ c^_rtg!C S3 ^o rt ;:.^|: s Iliilll I lla||l| t | ^^^c.ro^-^ vo ^^3K^ EASTERN DRAINA . Malacca, East Ceast ... . Tenasserim East Coast . Me Khlaung Me Nam Me Kong A namese Coast Song Kai r-ioi O3^jocc5i>od 05 O rH (M CO S o rt P oL ^ 2 8 w . S 2 'H j? o5 S ^ _G 2 VO M U^ IT) O * G W M M N i O 00 M O ^ O OO OO O IOVO OcOTt MOO O O O M COCOO M O N O ILOO t-vO M xO OO t"* O rj-Tj-MMMVOMMM lOt^-Tt" y OOOOOONVOO OO O O O O ^ 10 v~)\O M O ^T CO co ON M M M co >~ f^ *4 | . -S s 52 P cJ 1 O O q 1 ^ $> J M ^^ o ^ |^ M o w 1 I 1 s * ' 2 R 2 - 1 & f4 M ^ ^ ^ ^ J p5 iz; o 5 M CO s VM/ fc S . OT t) W H C ^ QJ s ^ ^ ^ VT 1 p>^ 5 > r-H ^ v ^^ *s *x . ^H ^ Ci H ~ 5 1 O 1 * tf f ft : S ^ S S 1 s , M s H CO 1 1 s , 1 1 8 u-) M CO M c^ W .Is ^>- to o S ^ ^ f^ T3 5 H|m H|rti ec|* . CO M H | (J) M ^ M M M jL, M W O 1 tn CO co ^{00 JU ^ ^ -i-> -g O C 1 s SD ' ^ s R ^ cS S to 'O VARIO rt u , *^ oo o H 1 * lH l' !t< f"" U _ N nn to N M CN CO 2 "^ O to O o * r ^ t> 5 oT :::::': 8, -i. : - w H ^OJ P -< 9 *3 *~ ^ o S ^ JS to jj cd : c bo .S ^ ^ T3 S PQ K H CO .2 "S P c T; TO ^ o . n . 1 1 1 M : *S -8 ^ .0 ^ ^ - -S ^ OT O ^ ^ CK ci * IB' 1 a w O J-H -J t^, ,C .g g N '" x c w .2 """ 2 T3 r O" H 3rfi"g N E ^ r ^ flj^ CO ^^ CU ^ c3 E5 -Ej 1 Q 1 J - 1 1 , 1 1*" 1 | I a s ^ s s s ^ S^ PI - a . -S c^' ^ ^^|^^^88 S I J 1 S 5/ g E S ^ ^3 "TJ a ^ ^ ^ S 'o S c 3 S o a ^ H-l < RIVERS. 251 I u 6 | vO C2 F ~ H v *> m 10 in M O vo in 53 *G . ^ C/5 M N CO M N O O c o 1 _0 -** g *>-Oini-ioovooo 5 - C, M M M M w - - ^5 o [25 o 1,-c o S o 5SS 00000000 "S OOOOOOOO 000 000 o o o o o o o ^ t-> w mooooooo woo o moo m ^ '5 c". rf invo t^ t^ rj- CO HH M CO M M s*- * s ( rj- covo vO OO O ^t" vO O O M N OO O ON c ^ JH OMONOOO^CO N co Tt 1 M N in N M M 3 1 VO "3- "3- O 00 O rj- 2 ^ VO CO t>OO ON ON CO CO Cs M co m M co a I caches of River. to rt 2 w c * 9 1 < OP^ :.tj g.Ji, c^'^o 4l!i|ilt 16^ j-aa.! H ^ 2 ^ "73 2 *~~* o 2 ^ ." 2 2 lliifl.II rt.2-3 > g b g 1 ^4 w bJD C b3 c ^ O r O O * *""{ C " r^ ^5m(SSf2rtp3 sis a 6f3a 252 INDIA. BRIEF ACCOUNTS OF INDIAN RIVERS. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. The Indus Delta. The first useful survey of this delta was made by Lieut. Carless, I.N., in 1837. The Delta commences below Tatta, at about 50 miles from the sea. The Setta, or Eastern arm, is the main channel, dis- charging fresh water in the dry season ; it throws off the Titiah at 35 miles from the sea ; and nearer the sea divides itself into the Hajamri, the Kediwari, and the Wanyani channels, mouths, or creeks, all of which give a small dry season discharge, the Kukiwari being the grand discharging mouth. The wet weather channels, carrying off inundation water to the sea, are I, the Fuleli, branching off from the Indus above Haidarabad, and discharging at the Kori mouth ; 2, the Pinyari, branching about half-way between Haidarabad and Tatta, and discharging at the Seer mouth ; 3, the Baggaur, from the Delta head, and forming a large western channel, from which the Phitti, Pintiani, Juah, and Richel mouths branch ; 4, the wet weather channels, branching from the Setta, named the Kukiwari, Kaher, and Mai. But the changes of course of the deltaic channels are frequent, very rapid, and sudden : practised pilots are liable to error from the want of visible objects on this dreary waste. The tides are irregular, the tidal rise is only four feet in some places, and ten feet in others, and the shore current setting E.S.E., is feeble. The coast navigation is carried on from October to March ; soundings are trusted everywhere as the coast shelves gradually. In February there are occasional gales from the west and a heavy sea ; but the Indus is considered closed for the season by the middle of March. The Hajamri mouth has a navigable channel I 800 feet wide; the Kediwari entrance is a little wider : the Kukfwari has a much- divided, intricate mouth, a mile wide, the principal channel being i 500 feet wide. The average width of the Setta, up to the Titiah, is about 2 100 feet, its current 2\ -miles per hour as an average, in a few places 3|. Between the Titiah and Tatta there are shallows and intricate navigation ; the average current is 3^ miles per hour, in some places 5. At Tatta, the banks are \\ miles apart, the waterway occupying only a third of this space ; above it intricate navigation recommences, and a con- RIVERS. 253 tinuous channel up to Haidarabad gives only 5 or 6 feet of water, the greatest depth in this section being 8J feet. As to the periodical rise of the Indus, as first observed by Lieut. Wood, at Haidarabad it is 15 feet ; just below Tatta the swell overtops the banks ; at the confluence of the Hajamri, 22 miles from the sea, the rise is 13 feet ; and as the banks are ii feet high the land is inundated. At Vikkur the rise is only 6 feet above high-water mark of the ocean tides ; and on the coast-flats it is only 2 feet. During the swell the high tide causes a heavy bore at most of the mouths, but it soon loses force, as it ascends for only seven miles. In the Delta the inun- dation water is retained by dykes 6 feet high along the banks, and small banks are thrown up round villages. The silt, deter- mined at from 3 to 4 cubic inches in a cubic foot of inundation water, contains fine clay, carbonate of lime, micaceous sand, common salt, carbonate of soda, and nitre. The soluble consti- tuents in the water are common salt, carbonate of soda, and nitrate of potash. The water is not very pleasant for drinking, and the natives consider it unwholesome. There are exceptional floods of great force at long intervals, which alter the channels very much ; also serious earthquakes and upheavals that have affected the Kori mouth very greatly. The Indus Valley. Lieut. John Wood, I.N., first surveyed the Sind or Indus River throughout up to Attock in 1838. The following table gives the number of days occupied in transit by country boat on the navigable stages of the river, upwards as far as Kalabagh, downwards from Attak : this latter place is 942 miles from the sea by river, or 648 miles in a straight line. STAGES. Upwards. Dry season. Freshes. Down Dry season. wards. Freshes. Seaport to Haidarabad 15 7 at 2 Haidarabad to Sehwan 8 4 3 2 Sehwan to Kori 14 7 7 4 Kori to Mittan 14 6| 6 3* Mittan to Dera Ghazi Khan . . . 10 4 4 2 D. Ghazi to D. Ismail Khan.., 19 10 10 3* D. Ismail Khan to Kalabagh 12 7 7 2 Kalabagh to Attak 15 (impract.) ii I 107 45* 41 2O The river above Attak, the confluence of the Kabul river, up to its sources near Gangri or Kailas Parbat in Thibet, is little known. 254 INDIA. Steamers were employed on the Lower Indus at an early date, about 1835 ; steamers, drawing flats, arrived as high as Dera Ismail Khan in 1862. The freshes commence in March ; sometimes at the end of April. High flood is most frequent in August, and the lower stage commences at the end of October. The current in the dry season varies from 2\ to 3f miles an hour ; in the freshes from 5 to 7, arriving sometimes at a maximum of 8-| miles an hour ; in the Kalabagh gorges it exceeds 10 in freshes. The ground currents are very little less than the surface currents. The fall per mile from Attak to Kalabagh is 17 feet; from Kalabagh to Mittan 07 feet, and from Mittan to the sea 0*5 feet. The width of the water surface in the dry season averages 2 ooo feet, or varies from I 500 to 5 ooo feet. The greatest soundings in dry seasons vary from 9 to 1 5 feet, in freshes 24 feet ; but an exceptional sounding in the Kalabagh gorge gave 186 feet. The lowest ordinary soundings as fair averages for a continuous course are thus : Feet. In the Delta, in December and January 6 Up to Sehwan, in January and February ... ... ... 6 and 4^ Up to Bakkar, in February and March ... ... -... 4^ Up to Mittan, in April ... ... ... ... ... 3 Up to Kalabagh, in May, June and July 3 But there are numerous shallows in some parts "precluding at some seasons a draught of more than 2 feet, even with the aid of experienced pilots. The maximum rate of discharge is estimated at 446 080 cubic feet per second in August, and at 40857 in December ; the total annual discharge at 5 383 600 934 400 cubic feet. Some of the values thus given by Lieut. Wood are quoted from the Memoir of the expedition of Captain A. Burnes, and were observed by Captain Sir Keith Jackson and others at a time when such observations were of a rough, incomplete nature. The later information about discharges is as given following. The source of the Indus having been determined approximately by the explorations of Pandit Nain Singh, its total length is about I 800 miles. At Attak, certain recorded velocities were as follows : In hot seasons, opposite the fort, velocity 13 miles an hour; at tunnel site, in cold season, $ to 7 miles an hour in hot season, RIVERS. 255 13 to 14 miles an hour ; surface velocity at centre, Dec., 1869, 9 miles an hour. The rise of ordinary floods is from 5 to 7 feet in 24 hours only, and is 50 feet above cold weather level. The flood of 1841 was 92 feet above cold weather level, and that of 1858, 80 feet. The fall of the Indus near Bakkar is 075 feet per mile. Discharges At Kalabagh. Cubic feet Cubic feet per second, per second. In December, 1871 ... 21 220 January, 1872 ... 18 657 January, 1873 ... 20 781 January, 1873 ... 20 541 December, 1872 ... 21 878 At Dera Ghazi Khan. January, 1873 ... 18 657 Average gauge readings monthly At Dera-Ghazi-Khan. April, 1872 ... 6-27 May, 1872 ... 7*32 June, 1872 ... 9-28 July, 1872 ... 9'Si August, 1872 ... 7-97 Sept. 1872 ... 6-19 October, 1872 ... 4*83 November, 1872 3-98 Dec. 1872 ... 3-46 Jan. 1873 ... 3-55 Feb. 1873 ... 3-23 March, 1873 3'5 8 The River Kuram. Cub. ft. p. sec. In Jan., 1873 ... 545 (included with the Indus discharges). Barra River, at the Labor and Peshawar-road bridge, 7 miles west of Peshawar, the waterway allowed is 180 lineal feet. In the flood of July, 1861, the flood rose 18 feet in 5 minutes, and had a surface velocity of 1 5^ feet per second. The soil of the bed consists, first, of 1 8 feet of silt and loose sand, then 8 feet of firm sand resting on clay. Sohan River, Punjab, at Labor and Peshawar-road, east of the Indus, has a catchment area of 573 square miles ; maximum flood depth, 15 feet ; mean velocity, 8 to 9 feet per second ; slope of bed, 14 feet per mile; calculated mean velocity, 1 3 feet per second ; flood discharge, calculated from sections 91 ooo cubic feet per second = J inch over the catchment basin ; the perennial stream is never less than I foot deep. Bed at surface, boulders at 1 1 feet conglomerate blocks ; at 1 6 feet, a hard, dry foundation ; width of river at site I ooo feet, but a little above only 750 ; clear water- way of bridge, 945 lineal feet. A second Sohan, above it, is also called the Tutar or Tutalnas. The J he! am. Mr. Forster reported on the navigable condition of this river in February, 1861. He states that after passing the 256 INDIA. town of Jhelam, it flows S. 60 W. for 50 miles to Find Dadun Khan and 45 more to Kushab ; afterwards in a course S. 9 W. for 70 miles to its junction with the Chenab, near Trimmo Ferry ; but the whole distance is increased by windings to 200 miles. The breadth of the stream is generally 750 to 900 feet, but varies from 120 to 2 100 : the navigable channel from 75 to 240 feet wide, but sometimes extends from bank to bank. The general depth is 5 "to 7 feet, at extremes 1*5 foot and 22 feet. The current averages \\ miles an hour, seldom exceeds 2, but after rain may be 4 miles an hour for a day or two. The banks are 8 to 10 feet high ; below Kushab they are 20 to 25 feet. There are few snags above Kushab, but more below it. There are no rocks or stones except near Jalalpur at the foot of the Salt range and at Jhelam. The shallows, shoals, and intricacies are the obstructions to navigating vessels of more than 1*5 foot draught during the low water season. A pilot for every 25 miles is necessary. The unfavourable parts of the course are, at 4 miles below Jhelam, for mile ; and from Malikpur to Jalalpur for 4 miles. At five miles below Jalalpur, at Find Dadun Khan, and at Bhera, there are shoals, shallows, and difficulties from the tortuous course between Bhera and Kushab. From Kushab to Trimmo, a depth of 2 feet can be generally depended on ; but in this part there are two bad places, at Bakki and Shahkikot. . The Ckenab.TAr. Forster reported on the navigability of the river in 1861. From Trimmo Ferry to Multan 80 miles, the river is navigable all the year to a draught of 2*5 feet. The current averages 2\ miles an hour, but sometimes more. The worst part is at Rangpur, about 12 miles above Multan. The Ravi, the Satlaj, and the Bias. The following are recorded discharges of these rivers : The River Satlaj. Discharges in Date. Place. c. ft. p. sec. 21 Jan. 1856 ( Proposed site for {2781 12 Feb. 1857 jheadworks of Canal j 4 135 26 Jan. 1859 ,, ,, 4027 20 Dec. 1859 ,, ,, 4663 21 Jan. 1861 N.B. Perhaps these are in excess. The River Bias. .p.. , Discharges in Date. Place. c. ft. p. sec. 19 April, 1872 At Naushehra 7498 19 Oct. 1872 8797 19 Dec. 1872 ,, ,, 4901 19 Jan. 1873 ,, 5117 19 Mar. 1872 At Pakhovval 3464 RIVERS. 25 The River Ravi. Discharges in Discharges in Date. Place. c. ft. p. sec. Date. Place. c.ft.p.sec. r, 94) 1 19 Tan. 1873 Bhatiah .. 271 19 Dec. 1872 ( miles. 1 703 19 April 1872 Sidhuri 7689 f Alpah, below e: ;cape ) 21 Sept. 1872 > I345 2 19 Dec. 1072 [ 147 miles. j 79 19 Dec. 1872 j 1866 19 Dec. 1872 Bhatiah ... 509 20 Jan. 1873 2296 19 Jan. 1873 Shahdera ... ... 687 19 Mar. 1873 > 3579 19 Jan.- 1873 Alpah ... 478 River Markanda (affluent of the Ghaggar*). Observations by C. J. Campbell, Esq., C.E., at Hassanpur, in 1859. The bridge site, where the banks are well defined, is about three miles below Hassanpur. Width of channel Sectional area ... Hydraulic slope Mean velocity Discharge Flood of 1845 Flood depth ... Ordinary flood depth Waterway of bridge Height of roadway The soil of the bed is ...... i 577 feet. ... ... 6 938 square feet. 2-72 feet per mile. 5 1 5 feet per second . 35 370 cubic feet per second. 47 838 cubic feet per second. ... ... 10 feet. ... ... 6 to 9 feet. ... ... i 073 lineal feef. ... ... 24 feet above bed. ...... Sand and silt for 40 feet in depth. NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. The Jamna. The course between Delhi and Agra, about 30*0 miles, was surveyed by Mr. E. Battie, in October, 1855, to July, 1856. He states that there are shoals at every mile. For boats drawing more than 2 feet of water it is not navigable, as the passages are intricate and change constantly. There are sand shoals, kankar shoals, and block kankar. At the Sirsawa bridge of the Delhi Railway, 37 miles S.E. of Amballa, the waterway allowed is 2 376 lineal feet. At this place the Jamna is constant for six months, from April to September, being snow-fed : it rises in March, and falls in October. At the site the soil is gravel and coarse sharp sand ; above the bridge site it consists of large 14 Ib. boulders. Its flood velocity is 8 miles an hour, scouring the bed, carrying along the boulders and depositing them 30 feet below the ordinary bed of the river. In 1 867, the river rose in flood to 2 feet above its banks; in 1868, to 3' 17 feet. The floods of the Jamna at Allahabad were recorded by Mr. Sibley, C.E., from 1861 to 1865, observations being taken daily at 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. The extreme variation of ordinary level within the five years' observations was 2 feet ; the extreme s UNIVERSITY r^. > J 258 INDIA. variation of lowest level was generally also 2 feet. The lowest water occurred between the ipth and 28th April, when the rise from snow melting begins. The great rise due to the periodic rains generally begins on the I9th or 2Oth June. The highest flood generally occurred between 22nd and 26th of August ; the highest flood recorded was in 1832, a little higher than that of 1861. Flood-gaugings of the Jamna. Feet. In 1 86 1 R. L. high flood 161*6, 8 days over 155, and 4 days over 160. 1862 R. L. ... i44'5 lowest recorded flood. 1863 R. L. ... 155- 1864 R. L. ... 152 -5 The floods of 1861 were exceptionally long in duration. The lowest recorded flood was 30 feet above low water level, the average 40, and the maximum 50 feet ; the maximum velocity was 12 feet persecond, and for 12. days remained more than 10 feet per second. At the period of greatest discharge the mean surface velocity was 10 feet per second, and the mean sectional velocity 9 feet per second ; the sectional area at that level being 145000 square feet, the discharge per second was i^ million cubic feet. The fall of the Jamna at Agra is 1*25 feet per mile. This river supplies the Eastern Jamna canal with about I 065 cubic feet per second, the Western Jamna canal with about 2 500, and the Agra canal with 800 cubic feet per second. Discharges of the River Jamna. Cubic feet per Date. Place. second. 6 June 1872 Mandawala i 388 6 June 1872 Bud 5 126 29 July 1872 Chaogaon 144 890 19 Dec. 1872 Railway bridge 2 128 19 Dec. 1872 West Ghat 2 037 19 Jan. 1873 Railway bridge 2 554 20 Jan. 1873 West Ghat 2 934 The Sohan River, in Bahar, is 425 miles long, rising near Ammar Kantak in Central India, the first 325 miles of its course are in rocky country ; it emerges from the Kaimor hills at Rhotas, 100 miles from its confluence with the Ganges at Patna ; the last 100 miles being in the plains. The river is three miles broad at Telothu ; and generally in- the plains is two miles in breadth ; for eight months in the year the stream is a quarter of a mile broad. The extreme flood discharge is said to represent RIVERS. 259 2f inches of rainfall over the whole catchment area in 24 hours (the heavy floods never exceeding four days); in this state half the water is thrown over the country below Massaura. The lowest discharge in dry seasons is 4 ooo cubic feet per second. During the rainless year referred to in the table of discharges, the rain from June to October inclusive was at Shahabad, 2.1-3 inches; at Bahar, i8'9 ; and at Patna, 19*6: it is generally 35 inches at each place ; though in the year following that rainless year the fall at Patna was 50 inches. At Dehri, a town 65 miles above Patna, are the headworks of the Sohan canals, and the causeway of the Grand Trunk road. The channel of the river here varies from 2 to 2\ miles in breadth, and has a fall of from 175 to 3 feet per mile, and its flood rise, or difference between summer and high-flood level, is from 14 to 20 feet ; its discharge varies from 4 ooo to one million cubic feet per second. The bed is composed of shingly sand to a great depth. It is unfortunate that the diagrams of discharge of this river, as well as those of the Ganges, the Kodra, the Kura, Punpun, Durganti, Chandarprobah, Kuramnassa, Morhar, and Sura, prepared by the engineers of the Sohan canals in 1872 and 18/3, are not yet available in England. Discharges of the River Sohan, Bengal. cubic feet per Date. Place. second. 8 Jan. 1855 At causeway and headworks of canal. 5 750 i Feb. 1855 4 624 i Mar. 1855 ii 020 Ordinary minimum 4 ooo Extreme drought 960 The Gogra. This river was surveyed in March to May, 1852, by Gaskoin, from Faizabad in Oudh to its junction with the Ganges at Chaprah. The average depth of water was 8 or 9 feet ; but in many places 20 feet, in some 30 feet ; nowhere less than 4 feet. The impediments to navigation consisted of tortuous parts, snags, kankar islands, and hard sand ridges (masina) at right angles to the current. There is also much quicksand. The river is very straight, and the current is strong. The channel is generally broad, but in three short reaches it is only 70 feet wide. The navigation is reported good up to Bairam Ghat, 30 miles above Faizabad. 260 INDIA. The Ganges. Length I 514 miles. The older discharges of this river, given in the tables of Beardmore's work, were taken under the following conditions : ist. The quantities at Banares were taken from a section by Prinsep, on the 25th April, 1829, after a long interval without rain : the area of the section was 48 650 square feet, the width i 400, the mean depth 3475 feet, the mean velocity 0*39 feet per second ; the maximum discharge at the same place was com- puted when the river was 3 ooo feet wide, and had an average depth of 58 feet, and sectional area 175000 square feet, the mean velocity being about 7-33 feet per second. 2nd. The gauging at Kot, near Balliah, was taken by Lieu- tenant Garforth, in the first week of May, 1850, when the river was at its lowest ; the sectional area was 5 876 square feet, width at water level I 125 feet, mean velocity 2-35 feet per second ; the maximum velocity in mid-channel was 3-30 feet per second, which greatly exceeded that in other places where the river was deeper ; the maximum depth in this section was 9*42 feet in a narrow place only 120 feet wide, the remainder of the section varying from 4 to 6 feet in depth. 3rd. The gauging at Sikrigali was taken on the 9th March, 1829. At this place, 30 miles above the Delta, the Ganges has received the Gogra, the Gandak, Kusi, Sohan, and other rivers, whose united volume is frequently more than that of the Ganges proper, Jamna, and other affluents which form the river at Banares. The data for gauging were as follows : breadth about 5 ooo feet, depth 3 to 5 feet, sectional area 1 5 ooo square feet, mean velocity about i;43 feet per second ; in extreme freshes the breadth is about 10000 feet, mean depth 28 feet, sectional area 280000 square feet, the mean velocity being about 7*33, and the maximum lO'OO feet per second. The three sets of deduced discharges were thus : Mean Max.&.Min. Catchment. Mean Discharge. Max.&Min. Discharge. Discharge per Discharge per Depth run off. Sq. Mile. Square Mile. Ganges Sq. miles. C- ft. p. s. C. ft. per sec. C.ft.p. s. C.ft.p.s. Feet. At Banares ... 180000 250 ooo I 285 ooo 1-38 7-15 1*57 At Kot 192 ooo (min.) 13 800 (min.) '071 At Sikrigali... 330 ooo 500000 I 800 ooo 1-5* 5'45 171 The Ganges seems to have preserved its general course for ages down to Suti, 34 miles below Rajmahal, where, at some period within the range of tradition, some alteration in the banks RIVERS. 261 caused it to be diverted from its former western course, now known as the Bhagiratti as far as Naddia, and below it as the Hughli (not an indigenous name) to its present eastern course by Rampur-Bauliah and Jellinghi, which joins that of the Brah- maputra to form the Megna estuary. The fall of the Ganges at Sukertal is 1*5 feet per mile ; from Gurmaktesar to 60 miles south of it it is 1*25 feet per mile, and from Khanpur to Allahabad it is 075 foot per mile. The fall of the Bhagiratti, between Rajmahal and Mirzapur, in 190 miles is 0-28 1 foot per mile. Details of the curves of the Ganges are given in Fergusson's table on page 251. There is a lamentable want of available accurate modern information as to the physical conditions and discharges of the lower part of the main river. The Hughli is formed by three offshoots from the Ganges, the Bhagiratti, the Jellinghi, and the Matabangah ; and by many independent rivers that fall into the Bhagiratti, named the Banslo, Brahmiri, More, Ajai, and some smaller ; at 40 miles below Calcutta the Damuda joins it ; at 48 the Rupnarain ; at 72 the Haldi ; at 92 the Rasalpur, near to the mouth. There is only one offshoot, Channel Creek, branching at 30 miles from the sea. Tidal influence extends in the dry season to Naddia, 170 miles from the sea, or 70 above Calcutta. The Ganges has an average flood discharge of i 35 5000 cubic feet per second, maintaining a high-water level from the middle of June to the middle of October. In its dry weather state it discharges 80 ooo cubic feet per second, the water being then 26 feet below the banks, or 20 feet below high flood. The beds of the offshoots from the Ganges are generally above the low-water level of the Ganges itself,hence they do not receive any water from it in dry weather. The aggre- gate discharge by the three offshoots is thus in cubic feet per second : in June, 50 ooo ; in July, 150 ooo ; in August, 200000 ; in September, 150000 ; in October, 100000 ; in November, 20000. As to the tributaries, their supply from October to May is very small, even nothing ; but during the rainy season their average united supply is 70 oco cubic feet per second. Their high floods occur about once a month in the rainy season, and last three or four days ; in such a state their aggregate supply to the Hughli is about 700 ooo cubic feet per second. The tributaries below 262 INDIA. Calcutta supply during high flood Damuda, 100000 ; Rupnarain, 600000 ; Haldi, 100000 cubic feet per second. And their floods are like those of the upper tributaries. Their ordinary rainy season supply is about a quarter of that in high flood ; their dry season supply is trivially small. There is also a dry weather supply of fresh, clean water oozing from the porous banks of all the channels. This was measured at 20 ooo cubic feet per second at a point 30 miles above Calcutta and is the dry weather supply of the Hughli. Its rainy season supply from June to September varies from 300000 to 500000 cubic feet per second at Calcutta to 40 miles below it, where it is, perhaps, doubled. The average velocity is 4 miles an hour, the highest 7 miles an hour. The amount of silt in floods at Calcutta is -^-^ of the water, or about 108000000 cubic feet yearly. At Saugor Island this annual total is nearly doubled. The following table shows the tidal height during the height of the rains, and during high tides of the dry season, which are unaffected by rain : Average tidal levels, in feet above zero of gauge. Saugor Island Mud Point July to October. Wet Season. November to June. Dry Season. Spring. Neap. Spring. Neap. H. W. L. W. H. W. L. W. H. W. L. W H. W. L. W. 18- 20*5 20' 2O' 20'5 i'5 2'5 3' 4' 5* *5 14' 14*25 I4'25 J4-5 6'5 r 7-25 7-5 8- *TS 19- 18- i7'5 17* I* I' I* 1-25 i '5 ii* 12' *s II' 10* 6- 6- 5' 5* 4'5 Diamond Harbour Fultah Calcutta The capacities of the rivers as tidal reservoirs in holding spring tides are thus estimated : Cubic feet. The Damuda for 30 miles of length i 647 millions. The Rupnarain for 50 miles ,, ... ... 5051 The Hughli above Calcutta ... ... ... 5943 ,, As to current : during the rainy season the flood-tide affects it very little, sometimes not enough to swing moored ships, although the tidal level may be nearly at full. During the dry season the fresh water supply hardly affects the tidal action, which gives a full tidal volume of about 400 ooo cubic feet per second at Calcutta ; the flood lasting five hours, the ebb seven RJVERS. 263 hours. Dividing the dry season into two parts ; while the N.E. wind blows from November to February, the spring tides run 3 to 3i knots per hour, the neaps ij to 2 ; while the S.E. wind blows from March to July, the spring tides run 4 to 6 knots an hour. As to the navigation below Calcutta : the estuary from the sea up to Saugor Island is in a condition about corresponding to that in 1836. Between Saugor Island and Mud Point the courses have altered, and are continually changing. The river has become very much worse from Mud Point to Kalpi, but from Kalpi to Calcutta it is very little changed. Some attempts were made to scrape and harrow away some shoals in 1863. In 1864 Mr. Leonard, C.E., proposed some works for improving the channel. Mr. Obbard, River Surveyor, compiled the history of the various channels and shoals from 1745, and supported the proposal to divert the Damuda into the Rupnarain. Apart from the above information, compiled from Mr. Leonard's report, there is no doubt that the river is seriously deteriorating, and that the tidal action and principles are very imperfectly understood by the officials dealing with the matter. The Damuda. This tributary rises in the Sonthal Hills, the upper portion of its basin being comparatively unknown ; it becomes a single and defined channel at about 23 miles above Raniganj, and passing through the coalfields of that tract, enters the yellow clay of the delta near Burdwan, 52 miles below Rani- ganj, whence it continues to Selimabad. At Selimabad, 16 miles below Burdwan, is an old branch of the Damuda, which flows into the Hughli above the town of that name ; but the present course is by Ompta to the Hughli, opposite Fulta, a length of 60 miles. This river is interesting on account of its floods fre- quently inundating the country; remedial measures, the im- provement of its embankments and the damming up of the old branch, were unsuccessfully attempted in 1857 by various military engineers. There is a large amount of Governmental correspon- dence on this subject, but no valuable hydraulic data ; in fact, the velocity tables of the floods give as a maximum 77 feet per second, or 5 miles an hour, or less than a half what it must be. In 1872-73 some hydraulic observations were made by the civil engineers employed on the Orissa canals, but the records are not yet available. 234 INDIA. The Damuda, with a catchment basin of 7 coo square miles, has a flood discharge representing O'i25 inch per hour of rainfall. The Brahmaputra. Major Rennell traced this river in 1765 to 400 miles above its conflux with the Ganges, in lat. 26, long. 91 ; rinding it larger than the Ganges, and approach- ing within 1 20 miles of the Sanpu river. Chevalier found it navigable for 600 miles. During the course of 400 miles, from its entry into the plains in E. long. 96 to Goalpara, where it turns southward, the Brahmaputra has three large branches, the Bramakund, the united Dihong-Dibong, and the Subansiri. The Bramakund, explored by Griffith in October, 1836, was 150 feet wide, the bed was 300 feet wide, and the flood-rise, by marks, was 8 feet. The exploration of Captain Bedford's party in 1825-26 showed that the Dibong was also a small stream knee deep, and only 90 feet wide, on I4th December, 1825. The Dihong, in lat. 28 5', was 600 feet wide, calm, with a slow current ; but in flood probably 900 or I 200 feet wide, and of immense depth ; the discharge at this place was about equal to that at its con- fluence, 50000 cubic feet per second, according to Wilcox. The Dihong is reported to be formed of two large branches, one from the East, the other from the West. Wilcox examined the Subansiri (or Kamla), on the 28th November, 1825 or 1826; at its confluence its discharge was 16000 cubic feet per second ; he compared it to the Ganges at Allahabad in December. In 1869, Cooper ascended the Dihong for a few miles in the plains, when at high flood (in September or October ?), it had a deep, swift current, and was a quarter of a mile wide at its narrowest part. Abbe Desgodins believed that the fall at Bramakund is that of the Maghang Sanpu (also called the Nari Chu Sanpu), into the Brahmaputra (" Annals of the Thibetan Missions," March, 1877). It must be noticed that there are several Sanpu rivers in Thibet, and that the word may be a generic term, as it is applied to the Chachu, the Charta, and the Raka, tributary affluents of the Maghang. The Sikung Sanpu is the Kamlapani, a stream independent of all the former. There are probably also several other Sanpu valleys to the north-east of the Sikung. In 1878, Harman surveyed I 500 square miles of country RIVERS. 265 on these upper tributaries, and measured the following discharges : Width. Feet. Area. Square feet. Discharge Cubic feet per sec. Subansiri at Pathali- paan / 25-28 Feb. ) \ at low water J I 077 9 6 37 16945 United Dihong and Dibong, i mile below confluence J 24-27 March, I | at a rise of 3 ft. j 2295 ..- 25 I0 5 no on Dibong alone, at i mile above the confluence J 27 March, ( ) at a rise of 5 ft. j 948 to 992 47 383 Brahmaputra, 9 miles above Sudiya ... f 2-6 Apr. | \ at a rise of 3 ft. j 2981 16396 66 251 Brahmaputra at 3 miles above Di- brugurh j 4- 1 8 March, ) | at low water. ( I 90S 24477 116 115 The Dihong has lately been traced to 94 52' 8" long.; 28 30 lat. ; elevation 7 ooo feet. An explorer, N-m-g, under the instruc- tions of Harman, followed the Maghang Sanpu river down to Gyala Sindong, about 94 12' 8" long, and 29 43' lat. ; elevation 8 ooo feet. On November 3Oth, 1874, Nain Singh had followed the Maghang Sanpu to Chitang ; he described it as very sluggish, in a bed J 500 feet wide, and 20 feet deep at the utmost ; its valley being several miles wide. Its discharge was hence about 30 ooo cubic feet per second. Probably some river from one of the neighbouring Sanpu valleys supplies the Dihong branch of the Brahmaputra, but the com- municating stream is not determined with certainty. At Goalpara the Brahmaputra is 4 500 feet wide, and of rapid current. Its depth is variable. Its lower tributaries are the Suma, Barak Gumti, the Tista, and the Megna river. Its banks are marsh and jungle, subject to inundation from March to September on large reaches. Its course is tortuous. After joining the Ganges, the estuary formed is 20 miles wide, termed the Megna estuary. Its down tide runs at ip miles an hour -in some places. 266 INDIA. SOUTHERN INDIA. The Subanrikah. The survey of this river was effected by Messrs. Fennesy and Brine before May, 1861, when large pro- tective dykes were commenced. The neaps, sections, and descriptive accounts apparently have not been reproduced and printed, or do not accompany the official correspondence about the Hijalli dykes. The Mahanaddi, lengtJi 490 miles, and its Tributaries. The following are reduced levels of the flood and low water sections of the Mahanaddi for last 200 miles. At Miles. Sonpur ... ... ... ... ... o . Barmul Pass entrance ... ... ... 60 . Do. exit ... ... ... 72 . Kantilu 94 . Flood. Feet. 245 '5 Low-water. Feet. 335'5 175*5 107 "5 135 144 172 200 I 4*5 129-5 92-5 77'5 37'5 5'5 110-5 87-5 655 Baidessur Chirchika Naraj Kattak Mouth of Katjuri, Jaipur Mouth of Mahanaddi . . . Mean Sea Level The Mahanaddi is navigable from Devighat near Sheonarain, a point where the river Sheonath joins it, to a point near Padampur, a distance of 60 miles. From Padampur, by Sam- bhalpur to Binka, above Sonpur, the river is unnavigable on account of rocks. From Binka to Kattak, 150 miles, most of the channel is navigable permanently throughout the year, the rest being navigable for less than half the year. From Kattak to the mouth the distance is about 60 miles ; thus about 270 miles out of 450 are more or less navigable. The Tributaries of the Mahanaddi. Near Distance above Width of Nature Nature of Fall of bed in Torrents. village of. Kattak. Mouth. of bed. stream. feet per Miles. Fett. mile. Kaligiri ... Baidessur 371 200 Alluvial. Komi . . . Kantilu 48 * 320 Rocky above. Burtung... Bentpara 6 4 f 300 Sandy and rocky. S Salki ... Above Boad 120^ 465 Ditto, Perennial. Baj Dayah I 3 6 700 Ditto and very rocky. Perennial Mirni ... Lowpara 141 400 Sandy and rocky. Tel Sonpur M3 3470 Ditto. Perennial RIVERS. 267 The navigable upper tributaries are the Tel, for 1 50 miles out of 200 ; and the Sheonath, for 75 miles out of 195, up to Nandghat. The smaller affluents, the Hasdu, Mand, Kailu, and Ib are each navigable for about 20 miles from their confluences with the Mahanaddi. The Mahanaddi and Katjuri have in high floods velocities of 7 feet per second. At Naraj the Mahanaddi emerges from a rocky ridge, only f mile wide, into a wide basin, 3 miles broad and 4 miles long, reaching to Kattak. The head land of the delta at Naraj divides the Mahanaddi north of town from the Katjuri south of town. The upper affluents of the Mahanaddi are in hilly country, and may be said to be unexplored. From gaugings at Kattak it appears that the ordinary embanked channels of the delta could only carry off a flood rising to 20 feet on the gauge, and half a flood rising to 27 feet hence the devastation so often caused ; a flood over 2oJ feet may last seven days, although they remain at full height for only 12 hours. There is a sounding cf 80 feet of water in the bed between Baidessur and Dewakot, being i6J feet below mean sea level. The Banki reservoir covers an area of 1 50 square miles, having a mean flood depth of 20 feet, and gives one-third of the relief from flood that is required. Total flood discharge from 27th July to 3rd of August, 1855,761 billion cubic feet ; of which 545 billions can be carried off in the river channels, leaving 216 billions in 7 days=4OO ooo cubic feet per second to be provided for by reservoirs, cuts, and special arrangements. Discharges of the Mahanaddi and Katjuri. Flood of 1855 ... Below junction with the Beropa ... i 040 ooo Flood of 1855 ... The Katjuri and Kokai ...... 780000 Mahanaddi Series, Total i 820 ooo The historian of this river is Captain Harris, who laboured many years in endeavouring to mitigate the effects of its floods. In 1863, Mr. W. Armstrong recommended to Government the construction of a canal for 130 miles from Chandarpur to Dholpur, in preference to improving the bed of the river. The engineers of the East India Irrigation Company were then preparing INDIA. the project which took definite form in April 1864, for a canal combining irrigation and navigation, aided by storage reservoirs. TJie Narbadda. The peculiarity of this long river is its present unnavigable condition throughout the greater part of its course. There is no doubt that, in spite of all alleged difficulties, the most useful part of it could be rendered navigable. It rises near Amarkantak, 5 ooo feet above sea level, com- mencing a course of about 800 miles. In the upper reaches it runs in basalt, with falls, rocky barriers and rapids, and is utterly unfitted for improvement into a navigable course, until it arrives at Beira Ghat, opposite Jabalpur, about 500 miles from the sea and nearly I 200 feet above sea level. About this place the river enters its first upper-level large valley, about 200 miles long, from Beira Ghat to Hindea. In the first 1 20 miles of it, from Jabalpur to Hoshungabad, the fall is only 50 feet ; thus the latter place is i 150 feet above mean sea level The intricate navigation and impeded course extends between Hindea and Barwai; for this distance 60 miles the fall from the first large valley to the second valley is nearly 400 feet ; but the greater part of this fall is concentrated in 40 miles of it. The second large valley commences above Barwai at a level of about 750 feet above the sea, and extends for about 100 miles to Chikalda, and has a general fall of nearly 200 feet. Intricate navigation, falls, rapids, &c., commence near Chikalda > 583 feet above the sea, and extend to near Tallakwara, 250 feet above the sea ; thus giving a fall of 333 feet in about 90 miles. At Tallakwara the lowest or sea reach begins, and extends for 60 to 80 miles of tortuous course to near the town of Baroach and the sea. Among the disadvantages met on this river are that 1. The wind is generally against stream. 2. In the shallows there is only one foot of water. 3. The current is 4 miles an hour. 4. The mansun freshes rise to 70 and 90 feet. 5. The banks are very high in the level valleys. Also that Captain Fenwick's journey in 1848, July and August, taking down 1 1 tons of Narbadda coal on the river, seems to have acted as a permanent deterrent instead of an inducement to improve the navigation of a district where marble, coal and iron were plentiful. RIVERS. 269 The Godavari, length 898 miles, rises at Nassik, lat. 20 o', long. 73 47', and passes south of Aurungabad, through native territory for 450 miles, until it joins the Pranhita at Sironcha. Above Sironcha it is unnavigable, and had a discharge in February, 1866, of only 300 cubic feet per second. From Sironcha to Palmilla, about 38 miles, the fall of the bed is O'5 feet per mile, and this part of the river is navigable ; the Pranhita having contributed a discharge of 726 cubic feet per second (February, 1866). From Palmilla to Enchampilli is a barrier of rock 14 miles long ; known as the second barrier of the Godavari, above which the river is 3 900 feet wide. From Enchampilli to Dammagudiam 270 miles, the river has a fall of I foot per mile. At Dammagudiam there is a barrier of rock 8 miles long, known as the first barrier of the Godavari ; at this place the river is 5 280 feet wide, the discharge being I 875 cubic feet per second in May, and 9375 cubic feet per second in January, having a current of 3 to 5 miles an hour. At Gollagudium, about 20 miles below this barrier, the discharge in February, 1866, was 2 825 cubic feet per second. At Palaveram the river emerges from the hills, 80 miles below the first barrier, and 20 miles from the town of Rajahmandri, which is 4 miles from Dowlaishwaram, the head of the delta : for these 104 miles the fall is about O'S feet per mile. At Palaveram the river gorge is only 600 feet wide (February, 1866), but the floods rise to 60 feet above the February level ; very high freshes occur three times in the man- sun and last for four or five days ; the general velocity of the stream then being 6 miles an hour. The river is navigable from Sironcha downwards, excepting at the barriers, during the mansuns only, i.e., from December to May. It has three un- navigable tributaries : the Indrawatti, joining it above the second barrier, which is 300 miles long, discharging 1 50 cubic feet per second (February, 1 866) ; the Sibberi, 200 miles long, discharging 500 cubic feet per second (February, 1866), and joining it below the first barrier ; and the Jal, 100 miles long. From Sironcha to the first barrier the river channel has no per- manence of form, it shifts its course, and forms large banks and shifting shoals ; the banks are soft, and the rocks that occur are sandstones and sometimes limestones. From the first barrier to the head of the delta the channel is comparatively permanent, the banks are tough, the sand is large and coarse grained, 270 INDIA. requiring a powerful current to displace it, the rocks are unstratified, and form natural groins, which aid in giving per- manence to the channel. From the delta head downwards the river runs in a natural embankment, 6' to 24 feet above the level of the country ; its bed falls 0*5 feet per mile, the summer water surface 07 feet per mile, and the high flood surface 1*25 to 1*50 feet per mile, down to the mouth, 40 miles below. In the delta the river, when in full flood, has a width of 2,\ miles, and a sur- face velocity of 4.^ miles an hour ; the rise of surface varies from 20 to 50 feet ; the last two feet of rise being never maintained for more than two hours. From the middle of June to the middle of September the volume is always more than 12 ooo cubic feet per second ; during the rest of the year 3 ooo cubic feet per second is considered its ordinary minimum supply. In exces- sively dry years the discharges have been as follows : December, 1 6 875 cubic feet per second ; January, 8 047 ; February, 3 825 ; March, 2 782 ; April, 2 047 ; May, I 687 ; first half of June, I 500 cubic feet per second. The Tributaries of the Godavari. These are first, the hill streams in the neighbourhood of Nasik ; then the Prawara and the Mula from about Akola, which join it near Newasa. Above Nander, it is joined by the combined Dudna and Purna ; and below Nander by the Manjira, which has a very tortuous course and drains a large tract. The Manair also joins it just above its confluence with the Pranhita. The Northern Tributaries of the Godavari, that together form the Pranhita, which is 90 miles long from Tallodhi to Sironcha, are the Warda, 250 miles long, which rises in the Satpura range, and after being joined by the Wunna at the falls of Dindora be- comes navigable for the last 100 miles of its course; the Painganga, which rises in the hills south of Berar, and after an unnavigable course of 320 miles, joins the Warda above Chanda ; and the Wainganga, which rises in the Satpura range near Seoni, takes a course of 430 miles, unnavigable, and joins the Warda at Tallodhi. The Pranhita is, like the lower portion of the Warda, navigable for three months in the year, from Tallodhi to Dewalmarri, where there is a barrier of rock 36 miles long ; below this to Sironcha it is navigable for four months. The fall of its bed is about I foot per mile, so also is that of the Warda in its RIVERS. 271 navigable portion. Above this the Warda falls 4 feet per mile, and the Wunna 2 feet per mile. The Wainganga has a fall of 546 feet in 192 miles, from Kampti to its mouth, or 2'S feet per mile. In 1864-67 an attempt was made by Col. Haig, aided by Captains Roberts and Jackson, to open a navigable commu- nication from Dindora to the coast ; it was, however, at last abandoned, on account of its excessive expense. The Kistna, length 800 miles, rises north of Sattara, Bombay presidency, in latitude 18, and enters the sea 35 miles S.W. of Masulipatam. It is a perennial river, entering the plains at 80 miles from its mouth, and there becoming a large river, is utilized in deltaic irrigation. In the dry weather, from November to June, its supply is very small, being derived principally from springs in its bed; from July to October it varies much, even falling as much as 10 feet in 24 hours. In full mansun there is a constant stream 20 feet deep, the crest of its banks is from 20 to 40 feet in height, and its section from if to 2j miles broad. At Bezwara, the head of the delta, 60 miles from the sea, where are the last out- lying spurs of the hills and the anicut or dam, the river is I 300 yards wide, and has a depth in dry seasons of from 5 to 6 feet, in average freshes of 31, and in highest freshes of 38 feet. In the delta it runs on an elevated ridge, having an average fall to the sea of I foot per mile, varying from 0*9 to ri feet; the fall of the country on both sides towards the sea being 1*5 feet per mile. The irrigation of the delta, commenced by Captain Orr, provides for taking off 3 500 cubic feet per second for each side of the river ; but the irrigable area on each bank is capable of utilizing 32 ooo cubic feet per second during the season of cultivation. The Tributaries of the Kistna The Upper Kistna, or Krishna, in Satara, is joined by the Koyna near Kanad, afterwards by the Yerla and the Warna, above Miraj ; two other affluents join it near Kurundwad. After a tortuous course it is joined by the Ghatparbha, near Bagalkot, and the Malparbha, with its tributary, the Nawalgund Stream, at a point near Hungund ; these two rivers, from Belgaum and Dharwar, being of torrential character. The large affluent, the Sina, joins the Kistna near Raichur ; the other large affluent, the Tungabaddra, joins it below Karnul. There are several lower tributaries from the north, the chief being the Musi and the Muniyer, which have large catchments in 272 INDIA. Haidarabad territory. The following are the falls in feet per mile on these tributaries : The Krishna, Sattara, above Kursi ... 47 Kursi to "Bahey ... 1-9 Bahey to Yerla ... 1-4 below Yerla ... cr6 The Yerla, Krishna to Chikli 8 -8 The Koina, Helwak to Karrar ... 1*3 Karrar to Bahey ... 0^4 above Bamnoli ... 6 - o The Malparba, Belgaum i -25 to i "5 Tfie Gatparba, Belgaum, below Gokak i- to 2- The Sina affluent. The Bhima rises in the Ghats above Khed; after being joined by several hill streams in that neighbourhood, the Mulamutha, from Puna, joins it, also the Ghornaddi, or combined Ghod and Kukari, near Dhond. The Nira, a large stream from Bhor, joins it below Indapur ; the Man joins it near Mangalvedha, and last it joins the Sina proper in the neighbourhood of Sholapur. The Upper Sina, or Sina proper, rises near Ahmadnagar, and follows a very direct course, with few affluents, by Purainda and Sholapur. The combined Sina-Bhima is joined near Wadi by a large affluent composed of the Mulamari, the Benathora, and other streams from near Pargi ; the whole flows south to join the Kistna opposite Raichur. The following are the falls in feet per mile on these tribu- taries : The Nira, Puna, above Ramlishwar 4-6 The Indarauni, Puna ... 275 The Bhima, Puna, Sar wali to Deksal ... 275 The Sina, Sholapur, above Undogaum ... 275 The Man, Diguchi to Manswar ... 5*5 The Tungabaddra affluent has a length of about 213 miles from Gutal, where its upland tributaries, the Tunga, the Baddra, and the Choardi join the Warda, to its junction with the Kistna, at about 81 miles below Karnul. These four upland tributaries drain an area of 3 754 square miles in the province of Maisur, a portion of which is hilly country, having a downpour of 135 inches, the remainder being plains with a downpour of only 24 inches. Of these, the Warda, draining 610 square miles, has merely a few small anicuts on its feeders ; its ordinary mansun discharge is roughly assumed to be 5 ooo, and its maximum flood discharge RIVERS. 273 30 ooo cubic feet per second. The fall of the Warda in Dharwar is 2 feet per mile. The Haggri joined by its affluent, the Chinna Haggri, which falls into it near Mukalmuru feeds the large Eyenkaira and Maddak tanks in a comparatively rainless district, and may eventually also supply an intended large reservoir at the Mauri Kunawai pass, where its discharge has been gauged for two years, giving as an ordinary mansun discharge 4 500 and as a maximum flood discharge 50 ooo cubic feet per second. The Tunga, after being joined by the Baddra at Kudli, is joined by the Choardi at 10 miles above Harihar, and at Harihar itself by the Sulikerri ; the maximum flood discharge of the combination of the three at the large bridge at Harihar has been determined to be 207 843 cubic feet per second, and the ordinary mansun discharge roughly calculated to be 30 ooo. At Wallabapur, after a course of 5 5 miles, the Tungabaddra is joined by two tributaries, and at its i2Oth mile by the Haggri, after which it passes Sunkesala at its I75th mile, and Karnul before joining the Kistna. The fall of the Tungabaddra in Dharwar varies from 2 to 2*5 feet per mile. At Sunkesala are the headworks of a series of canals flowing thence to Kaddapa ; and Wallavapur is the proposed site of headworks for a high-level canal, thence passing Ballari to Karnul. In order to afford further supply to these canals, it was proposed to enlarge existing reservoirs and make others on the upland tributaries of this river ; and with this view some gaugings were made on them for six months from June to November, 1865, giving the following results : Sq. miles. Million cub. ft. Inches run off. The Tunga, at Shemuga ... 950 . 229662 . 108 The Baddra, at Benkipur ... 884 . 125928 . 63 The Choardi, to Maddak tank 486 . 54 ooo . 50 in floods. The Haggri, at Heriur ... i 400 . 1350 The Tungabaddra, at Wallabapur . 356 940 The Tungabaddra, at Sunkesala - , 569*700 The proposed reservoirs on the tributaries, intended to store the above supplies, and render the present Tungabaddra canals perennial, are the Mudaba on the Tunga, the Lakkawali on the Baddra, the Masur on the Choardi, and the Mauri Kunwai on the Haggri. Further information about the upland tributaries in Maisur is given in the following tabular data : 274 INDIA. ""> . O . ^o C4 10 _i in^ra ~,rS ~j M rrt o .T 2 ' g S g ^ 2 ? 13 ll 1 i* t^ 1^- J "3 ^R flj &i c 2 ^5 * ' 1O Pn rt PH M "0 c4 j= '3 H S J ri oS S '12 2 .so 10 ^ jr M to O t~- CO so O rj- OJ M iiiiii ? O 00 M O to Os t- Os vo OS M OfM Illpl s CO \N i-i u ,J2 ^ t* "5 u *-" "* -S vi jg O 10 ro Tf M S s 2 ^ T *" SO rj- M 10 M SO 1 3 : : : | *c Ofi W) 11 a ^ t/> ^ T> oj rt 'S ^_, qj ci *C ^ : 1 1 ff 2 J3 3 & O H T3 . y cJ *3 PQ in .S 6 It W H i |~~ ^ OJ en aj -iK BM W fllvi y RIVERS. 275 The Penner, length 355 miles, rises in Maisur, about 150 miles above the Madras Railway bridge, down to which point its catchment area is 4 500 square miles. At Perur, where its upland tributaries have joined it, the channel is larger and more permanent ; from this point its course is about no miles in length, without having any important tributary, to its junction with the Chittravatti above Jamalmagdu, where the catchment area of the latter stream is 3325 square miles: the maximum flood discharge of the Chittravatti is 23 100 cubic feet per second, and its ordinary mansun discharge is about one-tenth of that. About 40 miles below this its tributaries, the Kunder and the Papagni, rejoin it, the one having a catchment area of 3000, the other of 2 460 square miles : the latter has a maximum flood discharge of 5 244 cubic feet per second, and an ordinary mansun discharge of about one-tenth of that. At 32 miles below this the Sugaler and the Cheyer join it. At 18 miles below this, and at 70 miles from its debouchment into the sea, is Someshwaram, where the river leaves the Western Ghats, the site of the proposed headworks for a deltaic canal to irrigate the Nellur side of the delta. The total length of the river from Perur to the sea is about 270 miles. Its upland tributaries in Maisur are utilized (see following tables of the tributaries), but for the rest of its course down to the head of the delta the river now flows on unutilized. On the Kunder, at 25 miles above its junction with the Penner, is the Rajoli Dam and subsidiary headworks of the chain of canals from Sunkesala to Kaddapa ; the tributaries of the Kunder are also utilized in the same way, affording irrigation to the large valley of the Kunder. For the greater part of the year the Penner, as low even as the Madras Railway bridge, is dry at the surface, though at from i to 4 feet in the bed plenty of water can always be found. The ordinary mansun floods are 6 to 8 feet deep ; the extra- ordinary floods, 13 feet At the bridge-site the river is 1550 feet wide ; the soil is clay for 5 feet, gravel mixed with clay and kunkur nodules for 4 feet more, resting on a layer of sand, superimposed on hard, dark green kunkur. The Patarhas its upland course in Maisur (see tabular data) ; its lower course in Madras is not described in any available official account. It has a long narrow basin. 276 INDIA. "0 C^M cS _O p Q-J *~^ t-J J J5 S s ; 1/3 w -22 r*3 ( J Q ^ rt +j a | Si I Ti- "^ >H rt I w (S C T3 "S Jij la .tfj c || ) -.3 t ^ $4 rt - . "5 G O M-i 'c 1 'j's ij I J i .,rt fr d i Cl lil|||ll |1 *- c ! 5 1 11 ! : l!l C c *2 IS u ^ ^a ^ >< J8 p fc < u ^ 41 ,_, 2 'o ""^ k> S ^ "o S IO M vO 5 gig, V^ t^. o aj t-*. ^* O 00* b IO N vo ON 10 00 & PL, M M g i.| J o vO Tf t- 1 S^ ri o +- > g 10 Ov " vO ^O ON 00 M CO O ON ^" CO M 10 1*| N M M M g^'^ljS | 1! :3 N M co VO VO ON O ON S |f g 1 'I g LO O ON ^t 10 ON ON CO 10 vo N CO I'tll^s ^cr ** M M M g|'2 .a.g u J5 o ,_ S o N ' > CO -s~ :; -d O ^j rt flW I c '""S ^ si 3 1 1 iTs ' 3 | 11 II ^|pts 1 i c4 Q. ***-* f r H ^f-^ c/i ^~^ E H RIVERS. 277 The Kavari, length 472 miles, rises in the Western Ghats, and has a catchment area, together with Its delta, of 32 ooo square miles. It is fed by both mansuns, and its volume is abundant from the beginning of June to the end of December. The discharge on the 4th December, 1833, at the head of the delta, was 16875 cubic feet per second, according to Col. Cotton : but in high flood the discharge is as much as 320 625 cubic feet per second. These discharges represent respectively 0*53 and 2*85 cubic feet per second per square mile of catchment ; the latter being 75 per cent, of the estimated downpour, or a depth of O'6o feet run off annually. From January to May the discharge is small, much less than 16000 cubic feet per second; though there are freshets in March and April due to local storms. Above Srinagram, in Tanjor, the Kavari divides itself into the Kavari and the Kalerun branches, which irrigate the delta, none of the Kavari water reaching the sea in dry seasons ; this is due to the grand anicut of Srinagram constructed by the Telinghi rajas in remote antiquity, and restored and remodelled by Col. Cotton, between 1830 and 1836. The slope of the main stream above the bifurcation is 3*5 feet per mile; from that to Srinagram, that of the Kalerun is 2 feet per mile ; from Srinagram to the sea coast, its average slope is I foot per mile. The general fall of the main Kavari branch is 0*4 feet per mile less than that of the Kalerun. Before 1830, 12622 cubic feet per second were utilized in irrigation from the Kavari branch and 4 125 cubic feet per second from the Kalerun, or 16474 cubic feet per second in all, out of 16875. I* 1 l %33> the works con- structed by Col. Cotton utilized 9 375 cubic feet per second from the Kavari and 7 500 from the Kalerun, the latter suffering as much from excess as the former from deficiency. In 1845 Col. Sim made a regulating dam across the head of the Kavari, and lowered- the Kalerun dam 2 feet, since when the regimen has been perfectly under control. The Kalerun is now not only a channel of irrigation, but is also the great drainage channel of the delta ; the Kavari is a channel of irrigation only, its entire volume being subdivided into small channels, and entirely utilized, although in its upper portion it is a mile in width. Information about these works is given under the head of the Kalerun deltaic canals. 278 INDIA. The Tributaries of the Kavari, consisting of the Upper Kavari the Somavatti, Hemavatti, Lachmantirth, and Lokani, join above Sriringapatam. Their combined maximum flood discharge at Bannur, below that town, has been roughly determined to be 239 ooo cubic feet per second ; the ordinary mansun discharge, for a depth of 8 feet, is about 36 ooo cubic feet per second. The other tributaries are the Kabbani, the Arkavatti, and the Shimsha ; the maximum flood discharge of the Kabbani at Nanjengod is calculated to be 63 700 cubic feet per second, its ordinary mansun discharge about one-tenth of that ; the maximum and ordinary mansun discharges of the Arkavatti at the Mangadi-road bridge are calculated to be 50000 and 3 500 cubic feet per second ; the discharges of the Shimsha are assumed to be identical in quantity with the latter. Some further information about these tributaries in Maisur is given in the tabular data. RIVERS. 279 , V .^; 'C o-d rt u rt >_ S3 CS ^ i ^ .2 > . S c >-" o --4 1 N *^ \\ en 13 5 M "^ 1 II g"J rt^ ii fa S >>J .S 1 G o *o > XI > rt en (5 M i *O i > W rt 1 ">-O M fi ^2 > ^j ^3 13 % in ?3 u a 4 -; rt \~ ON to vO M VO > 1 141 CT 1 M M H CO M H X* ^* fe ** M ^.E2 J o d vo to to ON n- 00 ON ON CO M ON vo 1 S rt O G ^ g|-2|S <5 ^-S.S.S 6^ vo M M " to 1 S-s'2 a -a ^ IS M to ^ CO to O vO ^ ^ _fi rt "^" "^ ^ ^ 00 CO -** OO 00 ^4" 00 Tf V rt ^o G .S ^i 'J3 2 N M vo CO oo 1_O HH to i- Ic 3 57jgi CT 1 M M to N "S ? T-J O CO S ^ t/5 tj] . * CO 1^,, f-^. ^" >^ CO fO to |_| 1^ M co vo (N oo t^ \o Feeders in Maisur. Upper Kavari... Surnavatti Hemavatti rt bJO 1 Lachmantirth... 1" Kabbani Shimsha Arkavatti 'rt .5 1 I 8 ; 1 US c E Si 1 > G h* pBj CO tmt O A i U-, M M > ^ rf^ ~ 1 & ' M.S h 280 INDIA. 6 -d 2 ^5 1 g 0) li 1= 1 H ^ S & S rj 1 : ll a o * 3 2 w 3 D ^o" 5 jN =s 1 IHai 1 8 : 8 : o p AO ^j ^ rA ^ ^ *,. o V^Q ^ ^ "o ^ M M ON ^S "o t *" < S cr 1 H g OJ I Sl'S'S^i ^ o5 x y M ON VO N O CO VO "b/i fl ^ ^ rj* MM M fj 98 H vo M I | : : : : o : a 1-1 en OJ If * 1 : -S - c | : n . a 1 I n* "1 trt S3 ^ $ ' 0,13 > d 'O G c ^> 2 g | fe 2 2 *- ^ ,S 6 ^ S & o * tn c3 c *o : en 1 : g g s ^ ^ o -2 ^ " rt S O "* H RIVERS. 281 The Tambmpurni, length 80 miles, rises in the Western Ghats, having its principal source in the valley of Papanassan, drains a large tract of hilly and woodland country under the influence of both mansuns, and falls into the sea south of Tuticorin. Its catchment area is 200 square miles ; its course for 20 miles is in forest-covered mountains, where the annual rainfall is from 200 to 300 inches ; and for 70 miles in plains at the foot of the hills, where the rainfall is from 20 to 30 inches ; for the remainder of its course it receives a rainfall of only 18 inches. Its fall at Papanassan, and that of its tributary, the Chittar, at Kurtallam, are renowned for their beauty, and are considered sacred. There are seven native anicuts on the Tambrapurni, four on the Chittar and two on the Mannemubuar : in addition to the modern one constructed at Strivigantam by the English. Its floods commence in June, when they are sometimes 10 feet deep, and frequently recur during the next six months, or during the north-east mansun. The drainage from the hills keeps up a stream, at Strivigantam, of about 314 cubic feet per second, in the hot weather, and of never less than 198 cubic feet per second in March ; during the six months of full supply the discharge is not less than 600 cubic feet per second. The amount of its discharge utilized for irrigation is thus estimated in the Govern- ment records : 864 cubic feet per second, for 225 days for ist cropr. 405 for 45 days for 2nd crop. iQ2f for 45 days for 2nd crop. Average depth at Strivigantam 7 feet, fall 2\ to 3 feet per mile, velocity 5 to 5*6 feet per second. The Vaipar. The discharge of this stream has not been measured, nor are any observed velocities mentioned in the Madras Government records, but its flood discharge has been thus approximated to by calculation. Its catchment area is 342 square miles, and it is supposed that there is a maximum rainfall in 24 hours of 8 inches over one fourth of it, of 4 inches over another fourth, and of 2 inches over the remainder, and that the stream carries off one-fourth of this, three-fourths being lost by absorption and evaporation. This gives a flood discharge of 8 850 cubic feet per second. 282 INDIA. BURMA. The Irrawaddi. Discharges were measured at Saiktha from July, 1872, to September, 1873. Below this the floods pass over the left bank into the Rangun branch. Formerly some went over the right bank into the Nawoon river or Bassein branch. Between the years 1870-77, the least annual discharges occurred in 1873 and 1876; and the greatest annual discharges in 1871, 1875, and 1877. An average discharge throughout a year is at 469040 cubic feet per second. The low-water peiiod is from December to May ... i2\ per cent. High water June to November ... 87 1 100 High flood happens in July, August, or September. Mean flood does not exceed i 200 ooo cubic feet per second at Saiktha. Cubic feet per second. Least measured discharge at Saiktha on 3 March, 1873 79000 Least estimated discharge 5 March, 1877 ... ... 46000 Greatest on 20 Aug., 1877 2000000 The Irrawaddi is 3 to 4 miles wide near Mandalay above the influx of its lower tributaries. The measurements of Heath- cote, at Sagaing, 3 miles below Mandalay, in October, 1854, gave 316580 cubic feet per second, at a section of 105300 square feet in ordinary flood. At Bhamo, 800 miles from the sea by river course, the river is l mile wide in flood, and I mile at low water ; but it is broken into three channels by islands ; the rise from low to high water is 60 feet. The estimated high flood discharge is I 200 ooo cubic feet per second. At the Tshenbe defile, 5 miles above Bhamo, there, are rapids and rocks ; here navigation for steamers ends. The Mogoung tributary enters above the defile. This defile is about 20 miles long, and at one point is only 180 feet wide ; its depth varies RIVERS. -283 from ii to 25 fathoms ; and its current is 12 to 15 miles an hour when not near the highest stage. At the Muntgoung defile (lat. 26 N.) Mr. Thettell, in February, 1874, found the river divided into two branches, one 150 feet wide, the other about double that, with 6 feet of water in the deepest part; this narrowed to a gorge just below Munt- goung, the highest point reached yet by any European. Tributaries of the Irrawaddi. The four affluents, mostly navigable for large vessels, are the Ringthi, the Mogong, the Bhamo, and the Lungtchung. Their depths are tolerably uni- form ; the tide is not excessive, though it comes in with a rush ; there is not a bore as on the Salwin. Table of Flood Levels in the Irrawaddi. Distances. a M | 8 a pi r-^. |j PLACES. ^i^i ^> rt . M OO 00 oo 8.1 I* I* JTS s & <* o t/3 1 o 1 o 5 Q 1 <5 E 6 g Miles. Miles. Miles. , Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Saiktha Myanoung ... Kanoung Shwaygyeen.. Nyoung Yo . . . Loodanzoo ... 13 20 31 45 15*5 22-7 35 230 2I4'5 207-3 i '95 179 166-5 3942 30-18 20'01 I4-44 68-47 66-19 52-07 70-15 67-23 60-50 53-77 49-02 77-86 70-91 68-07 61-34 53-77 79-74 71-87 62-09 54-10 Nawoon* Henzada Zaloon . . 61 69 86*5 72 84 I OI 158 146 T 2O 41-19 44-76 42-48 4570 43-48 4378 Donabyo 112 130 1Z 9 IOO 99 o 35 47 35 99 24 47 36 4 1 Setkaw T 2 C 86 T Q.O n Baudeef 138 165 o 10-99 Water Level above M.S.L. of 1877. * This is at i mile down the Nawoon river. f This is at 13^ miles down the Patanaw river. The Sit Toung. This river has a long, narrow basin between the Irrawaddi and the Salwin ; the main channel passes by the towns of Tounghoo and Sit Toung. The Salwin or Nukiang, also called the Mulmen river. Dr. Richardson visited this river on I4th February, 1837, crossing it 284 INDIA. in latitude 18 16' 22'', at about 200 miles from its mouth ; it was there 900 feet wide, its rainy season channel being double width, with steep banks ; having a probable highest flood discharge of 600 ooo cubic feet per second. He reported the river unnavigable beyond 60 or 80 miles from its mouth. Sconce and Watson examined the river on 3Oth December, 1863, in latitude 18 50', and found the channel and probable discharge there corresponding to the data of Richardson. O'Riley visited the rapids between those two points, where the river was com- pressed to 360 feet wide, and blocked with boulders and shingle; unfit for navigation, except when the river is full and for a short time. Davenport crossed the Sal win on 3Oth April, 1876, by an iron suspension bridge, of two spans of 500 feet in all, on the high road from Bhamo to Yunan. The span over the deep bed was 270 feet wide ; the stream was deep, rapid, and turbid. This river has a long, narrow basin without any large lower tributaries ; it is much broken by cataracts, and is subject to a bore, sometimes 20 feet high. Its length is unknown. The eastern bank of much of the main stream is Siamese territory. The Me Khlaung and the Me Nam are in Siamese (Thai) territory, and have not been explored. The Me Kong is the great river of the Burmese peninsula, with an enormous delta in Camboja. The Song Kai is the most eastern river of this peninsula. These four latter rivers drain eastwards and have been but little explored. CANALS. LIST OF NAVIGABLE CANALS OF INDIA, CONSTRUCTED OR IMPROVED BETWEEN 1848 AND 1859. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. PANJAB. There is not any navigable canal yet open, in 1859. The Bari Doab Canal, under construction, is a navi- gable channel for 469 miles, having cost ^620 000. The sum of ;730 000 will be required to com- plete it. SIND. Karachi Collectorate. The following old canals have been improved, and are suited to country boats only during the inundation period, from June to August : Miles. Cost. Khanani Canal ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*5 Makri Canal 475 Makri and Nasirabad and Khanani ... ... ... 13 '5 Chandan, Khanani and Makri 7 Mahmudwah Panyari and Shorwah, Chandan and Satah I 5' 2 5 Satah Chandan, Shorwah, Mahmudwah, Panyari and Shorwah ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 Nasirabad and Makri Fattah ... ... ... ... 7 Satah and Khunta 5-5 Azul Canal to the Indus (perennial) 10- Fattah ... 1-75 Nine canals in Jerrak and Shah Bandar districts ... 51*0 Haidarabad Collectorate. New Sangatwah Canal expenditure 0-75 128 Shikarpur Collectorate. Biggari Canal 75- 17000 Nurwah Canal 19- 2300 Total in Sind 224- 22109 286 INDIA. Miles. Cost. NORTH EASTERN INDIA. NORTH-WEST PROVINCES. The Western Jamna Canal. | The Eastern Jamna Canal. \ Not much used for navigation. The Ganges Canal, open in 1854. ) BENGAL. The following are tidal canals : Uttadangah Canal from Dhapah to Uttadangah ... 4 7 208 Canal from Kaurapukar Thai to Charrial Khal ... 8 749 12 7957 SOUTHERN INDIA. BOMBAY (Malabar}. In this presidency, excluding Sind, there are not any navigable canals. MADRAS. Rajahmandri District. Improvement of Upper Godavari ; spent 14052 Estimate for half a million pounds to make the river navigable as far as Berar cotton districts Palkol Channel, from Dauleshweram to Narsapur, to serve for navigation and irrigation ... ... 30 16138 Thubah Bagah Channel from Taddam to Kokanada ; navigable and irrigating ... ... ... ... 26 38082 The Ralli Channel 28 14551 The Samulkottah Channel, with extension to Tuni ... 28 11 902 Masulipatam District. High level Channel, from the Godavari anicut to Ellor ; this will be extended to Bezwada 38 19248 The Apprau Channel, to the right of the Godavari ... 7 3481 The Bodemer Channel 23 8955 The Weyleru Channel 29 24235 The Puleru Channel 32 17663 The Mopedani Channel 22 4556 Gantur District. The Tumbaddra Channel 40 7660 The Mizamapatam Channel 32 16260 Extension of the High level Channel to Niganampad, joining the East Coast Canal. Carried forward ... 335 ^1 96 783 CANALS. - 287 Brought forward South Arkot District. Improvement of the Khan Sahib Channel Canal from Kaddalur harbour to Porto Novo on the river Vellur Miles. 335 20 II Cost. 196783 576 10628 Tanjor District. Canal from Trimulvassel on the Umbenam to the Kalerun river 10 4227 Improvement of the Maniar river 36 3500 Malabar District. Canal between Punani and Teruvangaddi ... ... 12 514 Opening the Kalikut Canal 8 1 936 Canal from the south bank of Punani river to the backwater 12 1 450 From the Puraparamba lake to the Tanur Canal 2 838 Madura District. Improvement of the Paumben Channel ... ... 3 5059 Eastern Coast Canal. Eastern Coast Canal 62 31685 The whole now open for traffic is 174 miles. The entire length will be 588 miles from Tuni to Point Kalamir. Total for Madras Presidency ... 512 ,257196 Remark. With the exception of the rudimentary East Coast Canal and some of the Rajahmandri and Masulipatam channels, these Madras canals are suited to local traffic, having a depth seldom exceeding 4 feet. ' . BRITISH BURMA. Tcnasserim and Martaban Provinces. Canal across a bend in the river Sittang below Shoay Gyin ; navigable but not completed 0-28 Canal from Dannu to ihe Sittang; and Zamathway ) 85-00 creek, open for steam traffic from June to October / 17* Total for Burma 102*28 75 600 30 705 Total for India and Burma in 1859 ... 850- 287 967 -288 INDIA. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CANALS OF INDIA, EXISTING IN 1874. NORTHERN INDIA. Perennial Canals fully Developed. Supply, Name. Province. Source. actual or intended. C. ft. per. sec. The Western Jamna Canal ... Panjab ... The Jamna ... 2 372 The Eastern Jamna Canal . . . N. W.P. . . . The Jamna ... i 068 Half Developed, or undergoing Re-modelling. The Ganges and Lower Ganges Canals The Ganges ... 5 100 The Ban Doab Canal ... Panjab ...The Ravi ... 2 201 The Dun Canals ... ... N.W.P 123 The Rohilkand Canals ...N.W.P unknown. Under Construction. The Sarhind Canal Panjab ... The Satlaj ... 3 ooo The Agra Canal N.W.P.... The Jamna ... 2000 The Sohan Canal Bahar ... The Sohan ... 5 300 The Sakhar Canal (Sind) ... ...The Indus ... unknown. Inundation Canals. The Upper Satlaj Canals ... Panjab ... aggregate length 224 miles. The Lower Satlaj Canals ... ,, 418 The Chenab Canals... 222 The Jhelam Canals unknown. The Indus Canals in the Panjab ,, 577 miles. The Indus Canals in Sind ... Sind about 500 SOUTHERN INDIA. Perennial Canals (not completed.} Supply. The Orissa Canals Orissa ... The Mahanaddi various. The Tungabaddra Canals (not yet rendered perennial) ... 3 ooo Minor Canals of Bombay in Kandeish, Sattara and Ahmadnugar. Deltaic or Inundation Canals* The Godavari Canals ... Delta ... aggregate length 2 69 miles The Kistna Canals ... ... Delta 225 The Pen nar Canals Nellur ,, unknown. The Palar Canals ... North Arkat ,, unknown. The Kavari Canals ... ...Tanjor ,, 200 miles. Channels from anicuts in Maisur. Channels from anicuts in Madura and Tinnevelli. CANALS. 289 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CANALS OF INDIA IN 1882-3. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA (Indus basin, 6-v.). . Canals. The Western Jamna Canal The Bari Doab Canal The Sarhind Canal Lower Satlaj and Chenab The Upper Satlaj Canals The Indus Canals of the Panjab The Jhelam Canals Minor Canals of the Panjab ... The Indus Canals of Sind- Hathmati Canal, Ahmadabad ... Province. Panjab ... Sind ...Guzrat Supply. Jamna. Ravi. Satlaj. Satlaj, &c. *i Indus. Jhelam. Various. Indus. Hathmati. NORTH-EASTERN INDIA (Gangetic basin). The Eastern Jamna Canal - The Ganges Canal ... \ The Lower Ganges ... I The Agra Canal ... - The Sardah Canal The Eastern Ganges Canal Minor Canals in the Dun, Rohilkhand, and Bijnaur ... Bandalkhand Canals Bandalkhand, &c. The Sohan Canals Bahar The Midnapur Canals Bengal SOUTHERN INDIA (Peninsula). North-West Provinces Oudh, &c. ... Gogra-Ganges Doab . . . The Orissa Canals Bombay Canals The Tungabaddra Canal ... The Godavari deltaic Canals The Kistna The Pennar ,, ,, The Palar The Kavari ,, ,, Minor Canals in Maisur ... Minor Canals in Madura... Orissa Kandesh, Sattara, &c. Karmil, &c. ... Delta Delta Nellur North Arkat ... Tanjor Maisur ... Tinnevelli, &c. Jamna. Ganges. Ganges. Jamna. Sardah. Ganges. Various. Betwa. Sohan. Hughli. Mahanaddi. Small rivers. Tungabaddra. Godavari. Kistna. Pennar. Paiar. Kavari. Small rivers. Vige, &c. U 290 INDIA. I $ g ,8 g ^ u Ill CD sT u j 3 VO g 1 i 1 1 VO *2 ^ kd C "S m tt ON .10 O N ^ cT ON ON If Tj- N < ON rj- TJ- ro ^ 1 r^ ides this tra . ^ GO o ^* SU CO O5 O GO co cq 'I iS S? <^ ! | CO T~H CO | ^ u -1 r-i 8 i a, rt I <1J CO i{ rH Oi CO % g CO O CO * 50 . 0) O Q S? CO 1 T? K^ rH CO 8 i ^ T? 1 CD 1 ferred tot 3 GO GO CNI CO GO O CO I CO GO was trans ^ O 772" S? CO TF i ( CO 05 kj 3 ** ^ ^ CO ' b rH GO i 1 ^ rH 3 'a, "^ i ^ u 2 1 ^ oo 1 : | 00 I < ) " H- T}- 10 oo co M to Ch 00 CO O cq O cq CO rH cq CO 10 |o ^ C50 00 co o co cq il b- O5 CO ^tH CO >rH 10 ^ CO O Ttf cq co oo O5 rH CO "* CO O5 IO SS ' 2 - C s^ co co oo cq o oo GO O5 b- CO O5 cq 05 co CO rH CO t- ,Cq rH CO CO CO CO CO O5 co >o cq co CO CO VO *O coco cq GO t- cq co oo CO ^ co co cq t- CO rH CO CO O CO O2 CO cq co rH co 05 IO O5 CO 05 cq t- ^ co co ^ cq o 10 co t- cq o co cq O5 o os cq co cq CO O5 Cq 10 t^ rH ^3 ^ 31 3 51 ^ CO CO GO t- CO rH t>* tr^ ^O ^^ rH rH Cq CO CO Cq rH cq CO cq O5 CO 05 CO j< s -^ .s -<3 -1 p ' ^ * ^ '3 fj > ^ ' 'rt rt 15 ^ .3 e ococ^rj ^ lS Q Sfe g- ^ INDIA. Abstract of approximate results from remunerative works of irrigation (exclusive of 'tanks) , in the Madras Presidency for 1872-73. Deltaic Carals from Rivers. District Irrigated. Up to end of 1 872-73 For year 1872-73. Percentage of net profit. Total Capital Outlay. Total Gross Income. nterest & Main- enance. Gross Pro- ceeds. SOUTHERN INDIA. Godavari Godavari ..'. 544788 3 427 377 36023 214 304 327 Kistna Kistna 358254 782 199 24 669 69303 12-5 Pennar Nellor 93395 89142 6200 8954 2-9 Four anicuts . . . Chinglipat . . . 12411 32133 743 8346 63-2 Palar Chinglipat ... 21493 23233 955 5723 Palar North Arcot 75086 34139 3718 2648 Total Palar 96579 57372 4673 8371 3-8 Poini North Arcot 15420 34987 702 641 deficit f Alliabad & ) \ Cheyar ... j North Arcot 20207 24450 1407 2542 5 '5 ( Vellar and ) I nine others J South Arcot 52055 395 809 4961 33321 53-8 Lower Kalerun South Arcot 12974 1 106 873 2399 41193 Lower Kalerun Tanjor 43974 66118 1892 1967 Upper Kalerun Tanjor 24066 1 757 08 1165 67083 Total Kalerun 81014 293007 C 5456 110243 I28-3 Nandiar Trichinopoly 7855 9640 406 944 6-8 Four channels... Coimbator . . 22961 24288 3216 2844 deficit Yenamakal Malabar .. 425C > 5408 296 141 deficit N.B. The capital outlay does not include deduction for wear and tear, nor, in some instances, the cost of the distributaries. The interest is 4 per cent on the outlay up to the beginning of 1872-73. CANALS. 293 B? to 10 N * M o N ^O 00 TJ- to ' ON to o O\ to 10 tOCO tx- O O 00 10 ON 10 CO ^0 M CS ^ ON Q OO ON fl tOM.2 O C0 CO T* cq cq cq O5 OO j b- 05 cq -rs cq cq CO 8-ts cq tc o I I I >^ 3 O gs^sss ?^H Cq b- b- rH O ^H V GO IO rH O rH b- 00 IO O5 gCq cocq cocq t^co co CO GO O b- O GO cq cq cooo 'ooco COCO cocqoo cq 10 o O CO co Cq co b- cocq cq oo cq CO rH ' 294 INDIA. 1 K 45 o fc u I O rrl 00 to 0< of 8 a M CO C O f^* H O M to 10 t> TJ- M oo ci H0 a* fO OO VC j TJ- M ro Q N ONVO fO'Z3 ^ JH CO d h HOO^Orj o>llHls O cj HJ M to W OO tf> '> g - co COCqCO b-rHCO^^J 1 1) s^ ' ^ '^ 1) t- 4 JrHGOO Cqb-b-^^S tf Td "^ rH g8 3 C co co cr cq co b- 5b-CqO OiOCOCOOi -rH^XO OCqOOb-O3 5^^b- I^OOOOb-CO s s, ^ IQ co a CO rH r- )COGOrH COrHCO^CO < co cq TH , 3 Cq rH O S, S S i } O CO CO b- CO O5 b- > cq co co cq cq oo cq ) iO b- O CO rH O3 O I 1 S c4 ^ CO CO b- co cq r- TH co cq o os o H IO GO rH CO rH - rH w oJ O rt <" ^ i i b- O rH rH 1C Cq b- rH cq cq 10 cq co cq rH co o co cq co 1-1 0) ~ ' CO XC Cq rH CO rH rH rH - rH rH 'CO *T CO C rjl IO W )^tlCOCOb--HH- ! *COCOO >CqcOrHOCqrHO5OiO 5OO*ocqocqoc^^ ' x 1 ,2 * S3 t- -* o ^ CO b- C ^H b- COCOO*OrHCOCOb- COcOCOrHCOCOCOCO i ICOrH rHrHrH IO "3 _ , 1 [ O 3 a 00 tf TH 03 C cq co co i-O Oi co co cq 10 O CO -HH CO 00 rH ^ cq >o o co O5 cq b- U bJO S? b- b- O icqo IcqcorHcocqio C ^ co cq ci > Cq Cq ' O rH rH s 3 b- 1 Q T 1 * JH 1 < : 1 1 -3 z^ ... J2 rt I 1 ^ 5 J3 ^ S ^ 1 ^ I 1 ,1 4 il'pfjl ' >5 sg g^.H G :'S 5 S I*' J* i tl ? B .^ Slial.S'Si C CJ ^ t: O . W3 K "-^-"0 C C g y, > 3 S3 -C 3) rtr g-S J^C fi PjQjJHg^ ^ c/> ^-* C3 ^ C TJ-*^ c ^^JS^o gO |U |h o .2 O CO CT5 ^> % s? I 1 1 cq cq ^o rH 1 c HH ' b- o cq o cq cq oo oo co oo I Net Revenue. 5c3g8 ^05 b- CO CO ^00 rH rH 05 Cq oo cq cq o rH rH T 1 rH GOOOOOrH OiOCqOOOi rHb-Ob-O b-CDrHCqC5 rHOb-b-CO COCOrHOOO 10 xo rH co o cq oo cq TH o co o co O5 cq o co co t- as rH rH rH I bio SN 1 1 li "'0 ^cq cq cq cq cq COCOCOCqcO GOrHGOrHCO iOiOCqOib- rHGOCqrHCO cqcqrHiOoo coiocqooo in ro CO sj 00 CO CO CO CO b-b-OCOb- COb-OiOiO COOOrnCOOO COCqrH pi o 48 i .. . 00 g 3 g B P4 T 1 rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH | ^e W3 w 12 c O b- rH CO rH GO rH CO b- CO rH CO *O CO O5 O5b-rHOOb- rHCOCqrHb- CqCOOOiOO *O*OCOrHrH a Hh- X w ^slss b-COb-GOrH rHb-OOOb- CO CO 00 00 rH rH rH T^ r^ ^H 1 *rt IHil coocoorH cqcocqb-cq rHiOCOCOCq OOCOOOOilO Cq rH b CO O5 b rH iQ Cq O5 *: C3 a I. b o rt r t Q "^H XO t>* O^> T~H cq cq cq cq oo rH T 1 Cq GO O COOOOOirH OOGOOOGOb- ^OOCOCqcO CO CO rH rtf *O CO b b CO CO 1 h c3 3 J3 g U "I Cq 1C rH b- CO CO rH CO 00 rH rH rH O3 ^O *O CqCOrHrHrH CDlOOJCOiO ^O O5 CO CO *O GO CO CO b CO * g *B ^co cq co co co Cq b ( 10 h^. f~*$ r{} ro 1O 10 t- i rH rH rH rH rH CqrHOXOOO Oir^CO^HXO 1 ^ CN 1 s? s s Average Average o c * 2 Rainfall Yeir. Supply admitted. Supply utilized. Kharif. Rabbi. Total. II tH of the Year. fi C. ft. p. sec. C.ft.p. sec. Miles Feet. 1863-64 I 254 35 1 537 1864-65 i 800 I 784 197673 237 291 434 9 6 4 >> t/5 53 fe 1865-66 i 615 I 442 196 271 201 692 397 9 6 3 If o'6 to 3*1 1866-67 1833 I 790 211 103 236 068 447 J7 1 "- - n-i 1-91057 1867-68 1875 1499 186887 144 150 33i 37 3s 3 re rt 0-8 to 2-6 1868-69 2 277 198 670 288 208 486 878 re 1 H J? C o'8 to 2-6 1869-70 2372 234465 262 078 496 542 it o'5 to 2 '6 1870-71 2 067 i 797 218535 244 172 462 707 tjj 5 r^J /) I'2 tO 4*0 1871-72 2 147 i 928 187647 2 5 6 738 444 385 .s 0-9 to 5 -9 1872-73 2 125 i 802 202 370 149 450 351 820 i2 2 1 7 to 3*8 The area of double cropped land is about 13 per cent, of the to'al acreage in 1872. The Irrigating capability varied from 430 500 acres in 1864 to 536 580 in 1871. Mileage of canal open from 1860 to 1873: main canal, 102; branches, 313 Statement of Water utilized on the Western Jamna Canal z# 1872-73. Month. Supply at head. Dis- charged from escapes. Utilized. Month. Supply at head. Dis- charged from escapes. Utilized. Kharif. 1872. April Cub. ft. per sec. 2359 Cub. ft. per sec. 234 Cub. ft. per sec. 2 125 Rabbi. 1872. October ... Cub. ft. per sec. 2413 Cub. ft. per sec. 353 Cub. ft. per sec. 2 060 May 2523 555 1968 November . 2 540 374 2 166 June 2 446 288 2I 5 8 December . I 941 396 I 545 July ...2319 229 2 090 1873- January ... I 242 34i 901 August 2 142 562 I 580 February ... I 872 249 I 623 September I 62O J43 * 477 March ... 2 084 !5 2 I 932 Average 2 234 335 i 899 Average 2 015 3n I 704 Average I of year f 343 i 802 CANALS. - 303 I . 1 s uado 3UB}nqu}siQ ! 10 to to in to ^3 e* w N 'O ro' S 'siatuvo 3^u\lid j^pua ^o MS \o vo MD u ,a CM ' ^^ ^~^ 00 O lO^ *** ^ vo P f^? 3 -toNrt- O^OMiofO t/5r^Tj-OOON rj- -^ O\OO t^ vO 00 vo ^ rh ^COtot^rOOO *>-OOu-)Tj-a\ "^-vOtotoN ^VOVON-^-M MN Osvo f^ 00 O 10 O rf ^ CO (^'O Tj- 10 MOOOMDO OSM\OOt^ ^^-^^co corororoto rocONrorO 1 I-H ! (X) 00 N OO O t^ OsvO tO ON M rj- CO rf O OjOt^t^COtO M- *O T|- to^O fO VOMMI^M rOMvot^-t^ S > MNOJMW MMMMN NMMMM TJ 0) .2 *R -^ oj t-.nN NQNVOfO rl-OO 00 COOO Q. 1 O O O VO O\VO ^ M N t-~ M tOOO v^l OsOoo i>- * a 00 ON MOO rj-vo r 1 M >, 5, (X K TD jU 1 M TJ-T^-VO t^r^MQO NVO -^-oo < ^- CL, IOCSN oorOMr-co in w N M ON 1 ^ Mtot-i NTfOsOOs MNOsOOs MNN CJMMM^ MMMMM & re u | I .2 rs a j t^toOs t^MinOsin sOtovOOcO ON SO OS -^-Tj-NOO t^iOMintO ^ vo VO OO t^OO MQto OSONOOCO * & a M T3 jy I < MMTf tOtOMTj-OS VOOOOOMO "it lOOt^co rOOSMQt^ MOOMOOO^ a| JOSOSN OOmMtO OMCOTJ-IO ^j MMN MNNNCJ NMNNW . Os O M M ro Tj- tovo r^-oo ON O M N fO :T OO O\ O M M ro ^- iovo f OO ON O M N oooooooooo oooooooooo oooooooooo 1 204 INDIA. The Western Jamna Canal. Capital Account to the end of 1872-73. Detail. Previous. In 1872-73, Total. A. Temporary Head Works (to main- SUDD!V) 78 ^ 7 B B. Cost of Land C. Masonry Works. i. Main Canal and branches a. Dams, and regulating works b. Falls and weirs ... c. Aqueducts 3316 2487 9050 248 563 29 1017 336 3345 3504 9387 248 563 4 Supply of tanks 5. Road bridges 8. Buildings D. Earthwork. i. Main Canal and branches . . . 1555 1679 201 18542 330 948 1555 1679 350 19490 3. Drainage works E. Miscellaneous 1714 1312 138 1714 1450 Total Main Canal, and branches . . . Distributing Channels. C. Masonry works. d. Irrigation Out- lets 40486 2877 576 43364 576 Expenditure on general works up to 1863-64 194 341 194 341 Total on Works 234 827 3453 238 281 Direction 908 4430 m Survey ... 5417 Total on Establishment 56645 10755 67400 Total on Tools and Plant ... 1407 19 1426 292 879 14228 307 107 Add or deduct fluctuations of suspense balance : for stock, sales, and advances ... Total 5158 -572 4586 Total Capital Outlay ... 298 037 13656 311 693 CANALS. 305 The Western Jamna Canal. Capital Account in 1883. Detail. Previous. In 1882-83. Total. (i) Headworks Works, land and buildings (2) Canal and Branches Land 44866 16268 211 4 44866 16479 Regulators Falls and Weirs Cross-drainage works Bridges . . 15686 24241 10290 44938 6 417 737 4 755 15692 24658 11027 4Q fiQ3 Escapes 21 918 321 22 239 Navigation works Mills and Buildings Earthwork Plantations Miscellaneous, preliminary, and maintenance (3) Distributaries Land . . > 68730 7699 96289 413 8840 4116 23392 4 1077 52 1901 368 92121 7703 97366 465 10743 4484 Works 13233 5339 18572 Earthwork Miscellaneous, preliminary, anc maintenance (4) Drainage and Protective Works Land 14467 2639 660 4062 775 34 18529 3414 694 Works 2329 767 3096 Earthwork Miscellaneous and preliminary .. 2636 459 286 50 2921 509 Total on Works since 1863-64... to end of 1863-64 400 717 192 412 44553 445 269 192 412 Total on Works 593 129 44 553 637 681 ,, on Establishment, from beginning ,, on Tools and Plant ,, Suspense Account 170 922 10649 11391 11195 337 (- 1 694) 182 117 10986 9698 Grand Total 786 091 54391 840 482 X 306 INDIA. The Bari Doab Canal, from the Ravi in the Panjab, is the fourth of the large perennial canals of Northern India. It was commenced in 1850, with an original estimate of .530 000, and the greater portion of the main canal and works were finished in 1 869 ; as no account of the detail of progress is forthcoming, it will be best to describe the project as contemplated. The canal is taken off from the left bank of the Ravi near .Madhopur, and after a length of 28 miles throws out the Kasur branch at Tibari : at the /th mile of the Kasur branch, the Su- braon branch takes off; these two branches will be 90 and 67 miles long respectively, the former tailing into the Kasur nallah at Aljowan, the latter into the Tatti nallah at Subraon. The portion of the main canal from the head of the Kasur branch to that of the Lahor branch, which is situated in the 52nd mile near Aliwal, is designated the Upper main branch, and is 24 miles long. The remaining portion of the canal, from the head of the Lahor branch to the Vahn escape, into which the canal tails, is called the Lower main branch, and is 88 miles long; this passes the town of Amritsar, and discharges itself through the Vahn escape into the Ravi. The Lahor branch from Aliwal passes Lahor, and tails into the Ravi at Nizabeg, 9 miles below Lahor : its length is 59^ miles. The section of each branch is as follows : Breadth at head. Breadth at tail. Depths. Bed. Mean. Bed. Mean. Highest. Lowest. Mainline ... ... 112 120 112 120 4/9 2^5 Upper main branch ... 84 92 80 88 5-6 2*8 Lower main branch ... 70 77 56 63 4-6 2-3 Lahor branch 50 55 38 43 3-3 r6 Upper Kasur branch ... 60 66 60 66 4*0 2 - o Lower Kasur branch... 46 51 20 25 3-0 1-5 Subraon branch ... 50 55 20 25 3-3 r6 The highest depths given are those with the full supply of 3000 cubic feet per second, the lowest, those with the lowest recorded supply of I ooo : the mean width is that of the wetted section at full supply. The mean velocity, with a full supply depth of 4'9 feet, is 5-3 feet per second, and that with an average depth of 4*2 feet at the canal head is 4 feet per second. CANALS. - 307 The canal is capable of irrigating 654000 acres with full supply at a duty of 2 1 8 acres per cubic foot per second. The distributaries and escapes are as follows : Number of Total From distributaries, length. Escapes. Length Miles. Miles. Mainline 15 93 Malikpur ... 7 Upper main branch "... 10 75 Gulpur ... 9 Lower main branch ... 16 256 Sirkian ,-. 6 Lahor branch 23 291 Aliwal ... n Kasur branch ... ) , f Vahn ... 16 Subraon branch } Not 7* Cammed \ Nizabeg ^ In the neighbourhood of Pathankot, there are two hill torrents, the Jennah and the Chakki, which with their branches cross the line of the canal, and had to be diverted. In 1856 it was found that the cost of the canal would not be less than 1. 350 000, and work was therefore concentrated on the first 55 miles down to the Lahor branch. In 1859 water was admitted, and it was then found that, as in the case of the Ganges canal, the declivity of bed allowed was too great, the consequence being extensive channelling out in the sandy tracts and deep holes below the falls ; it was also discovered that the minimum supply of the Ravi, calculated to be 2753, was actually only i 414 cubic feet per second, or less than the works were designed to carry. In 1860, a native canal, the Hasli, yielding 84985 by direct - returns, and 86 387 by enhanced land-tax, was incorporated in the account of the Bari Doab Canal, which then yielded nothing. In 1870, or eleven years after the above-mentioned discovery, the remodelling of the canal was commenced, and the Kasur and Subraon branches proceeded with, but as an additional supply from the Beas involved fresh works, the estimate of the canal and branches rose to 2 000 000. Progress in the remodelling was going on in 1872-73, and the headworks at Madhopur were nearly completed. In 1872 the aggregate length of main canal completed was 212 out of 247 miles, and of distributaries, 692 miles. In spite, therefore, of everything to the contrary, the irrigation from this canal in 1872 brought in a gross return of 81 876, or a net return of 50 216, or nearly 4 per cent. 308 INDIA. The acreage of the principal irrigated crops grown during four years was as follows : Sugar-cane, annual 1864-65. 1865-66. 1866-67. 1867-68. 9878 9 181 9 i5 6 10 600 29 212 53564 57 615 63661 3881 5 2 36 12511 21 101 97 722 59827 108 707 122 720 Cereals, Rabbi The estimated value of the irrigated crops grown 'is as follows, for several years : In 1 860-61, 256 024 ; in 1861-62, 307 238 ; in 1862-63, 192668; in 1863-64, 241969; and in 1872-73, 913706. Mileage of canal, from 1860 to 1873 : main canal, 140 miles ; branches, 59 miles. Full irrigating capability, 654000 acres. Details of the development of the works between 1872 and 1882 are not available in the official records. It appears that the length of canal, main and branch together, was 211 miles in 1878-79, and from 1879-80 to 1882-83 it was 354 miles ; proving a large increase in 1879-80. The principal crops grown are : 1878-79 1879-80 Sugar Cane 8 746 10718 Rice 36719 42772 Cotton 23036 25913 Wheat 171936 197865 The estimated value of produce grown in 1882-83 was 953 466. Details of the irrigation and the revenue from this canal are given in the tabular statistics. Bari Doab Canal. Abstract of Financial Statistics. 1 880-8 1 12397 44594 23 3M- 219838 1881-82 12 707 32582 28712 178743 1882-83 12 245 39783 29353 I 5 6 54 Year. Capital Outlay. Charges. Direct Income. Total Income. Net Income. 1860-61 957 441 14797 22687 1861-62 17992 30593 1862-63 27523 32316 1863-64 1 129 941 30591 35126 1864-65 1 140 822 39813 49066 1865-66 1 151 381 35506 46759 54613 1866-67 31710 58475 66328 1867-68 26911 CANALS. 309 The Bari Doab Canal. Statistics of Irrigation. Acreage Irrigated. 1 Year. Supply admitted Supply utilised. Kharif. Rabbi. Total. || Rainfall. Q C.ft.p.s. C.ft.p.s. Miles. Feet. 1861-62; I 387 134362 1862-63 i 45 59476 66 540 126 016 409 1863-64 340 I 193 64195 70167 134362 554 1864-65 228 66 370 126313 192 683 1865-66 43 1 91 378 84 602 175980 623 1866-67 688 92699 *35 753 228 452 671 1867-68 53 2 106 043 156085 262 128 696 1868-69 899 I 649 855^ 214315 299834 706 o'4 to 2*7 1869-70 948 1578 115 524 118403 233927 710 1-6 to 2-8 1870-71 2 201 2 069 88 643 190567 279 210 710 07 to 4*0 1871-72 12073 1 95 76412 210 658 287 079 712 0-8 to 5-4 1872-73 I 838 i 208 96718 132078 228 796 716 1*6 to 4-4 The area of double cropped land from 1870 to 1873 was 8 per cent. of the whole acreage. Statement of Water utilised on the Bari Doab Canal in 1872-73. Month. Supply at head. Dis- charged from escapes. Utilised. Month. Supply at head. Dis- charged from escapes. Utilised. Kharif. 1872. April Cub. ft. per sec. 2 198 Cub. ft, per sec. I 060 Cub. ft. per sec. I 138 Rabbi. 1872. October ... Cub. ft. per sec. 2 202 Cub. ft. per sec. 989 Cub. ft. per sec. I 213 May . ... 2 208 I 046 I 162 November 2095 915 i 180 June July 2 146 I 776 54 850 I 642 926 , December 1873- January . . . I 640 782 471 217 i 169 565 August I 796 768 I 028 February . . . 880 49 831 September I 986 56i 1425 March 2 342 125 2 217 Average 2 Ol8 798 I 220 | Average 1657 461 I 196 Average ) of year j I 838 629 I 208 310 INDIA. a Distribu- taries open. "I MMTfN VO VO MD VO *O . rj : ON ON ON O OOOOO O vo VO vo VO "^ VO VO VO !> !>. !>. !>. -I-*. !> t^ CO 00 CO CO t^-CO O Tf ^- VO N t^CO O VO N rj- ON to i S 3^^ N -i H Vo b b co co M V}- Oc3 f M M H H M M H ( It H< ior^OO*O VOCOCNMIO cOf^ONio CONMt^OS Tt-MO\MCT\ lOMOOOW ooChMOi>- MOOor^CA locooovo ONCOONf-OO MCN^J-MVO X>.CO COOO CO Ch co t^OO -MOvo NC>. covo 10 MMNaa NNMCSN coco^coco .1 M ^s S K m co t^oo co coONTj-Tj-M IOM-OO^ . M O VO 10 t^ co C\vO MD co OCO J>- co Tf S8 CO ^ IOVO O MIOWONCO OCOCNMM ^CO OON MWMVOM MCOMM1>. <1 MMO^CO COONMMOO MTt-co^hO 't^MMWM MMMM NNNWM (*M jq 3 ON T|- CO N CO CO T}- VOOO ^ COVO Tj" N M MMTj-MM MMCO TfVO MD CO O *< t^ v to vo^o * ^ ON 04 co t^vo -^ ^ M oo -^h o vo IOGO VOMO O*^NIOVO VOONMOVO .oo M Tf to w TJ- i B vt vo co coco ON^COCNM vO^OON ONCO o. O co ON O 10 10 Os^O t^ a vo w vo VO ^ '. co O\CO M Tt- ON COCO O\ ON O ONVO CO 2 U> | P$ r O N ON ONCO 10 CJn t^VO COM COOVQIOIO CO COVO J> r ^ MMMM WNMMM MC^NMd C3 ,fl Admitted. w ON M O 00 CO ON ONCO co M M ON TJ- to X . M O O M ONt^-^N OOlOlON jr ;-^-toNO toaoo t^oo O 10 ~- ON t~* GO O *O OS CO b- CO OO GO O o cq cq b- b- a i i ' CO CO co CO CO O O O b- CO O CO rH 100 O rH (M rH rH Cq O ^O OS CO OS 10 co cq cq b- ^M OS b- CO GO 10 co cq T- i os cq co co co cq Direct Revenue. >O OS OS GO OS , ^H o o cq co CO b- CO rH CO rH b- O CO CO rH b- O 1O CO 1O OS CO 00 OS co o cq os co CO b- CO 1O CO OO O b- CO CO CO CO b- CO "rH "^tl 1O rH b- CO OS ^ OS CO rH CO O rH O O rH rH rH rH bjQ "> CJ QJ II OS 1O b- rH O ^f9 t O GO O CO O CO CO Cq b- rH CO CO Tfl CO CO OS CO "^H 1O OS 1880-81 239906 1881-82 248593 ... ... 17897 436733 1882-83. 259385 33675 15366 18310 511416 Sidhnai Canals . This inundation canal, in progress of con- struction, has its head works at Theyraj on the Sidhnai reach of the Ravi. It will command an irrigable area of 192000 acres, and actually irrigate 48000, in the Sarai Sidhu and Multan tahsils, with a supply of 785 cubic feet per second. The Ravi here is sometimes without flow for a month in the cold season, and its greatest discharge does not. exceed 18000 cubic feet per second. The proposed weir will be 770 feet long, the length of main canal 40 miles, and of distributaries 80 miles. The fall of the Ravi appears to be o - o8 per thousand ; while that of the main canal will be 0*125 for some distance, and afterwards 0-174 per thousand. This project, drawn up by Mr. L. F. Maclean, seems well considered, and very advantageous to the cultivation of this dry region. 324 INDIA. The Swat Canal. The surveys for this project commenced in 1871. The supply of water to be drawn from the Swat River is for the irrigation of wheat in the Yusufzai district of the Peshawur valley, lying to the east of the rivers Swat and Lundi. Details are not available. Canals in Sind. The Sakkar and Shahdadpur perennial canal, from the Indus in Sind, commenced in 1861 with an estimate of 72 982, was opened in 1870 ; it is 63 miles long, will irrigate 140000 Sindian bigas of land, and is expected to yield a revenue of 210 000. The Sind Inundation Canals are of native origin, their names and lengths in 1 872 are as follow : Length in West of the Indus. Head. Miles. The Sind ,.. 21 miles below Sakkar ... 66 3 branches. The Ghar ... 23 miles below Sakkar 2 branches. The Western Na'ra 27 miles below Sakkar ... 70 300 ft. wide. The Bigari ... unknown ... 48 40 ft. wide. East of the Indus. The Eastern Nara, Rori, improved in 1859. Acres. The Mitrau branch of the E. Nara (British), 190 miles, irrigates 157 ooo The Thar branch of the E. Nara ... 38 ooo The Fuleli ... Natural branch of Indus irrigating Haidarabad. It is very doubtful whether a large proportion of these canals are not improved natural channels ; there is very little information about the irrigation effected by them ; they will probably be made eventually to serve as distributaries to perennial canals, having their heads at Sakkar, at Jhirk, 250 miles below it, and at Kotri. Between 1872 and 1882, these canals have been improved and extended ; they now can irrigate about two million acres. There is no detailed information forthcoming about the progress of the works, and the development of their construction. Probably most of the canals are now perennial. The actual condition as regards irrigation effected and revenue obtained is shown in the following statistics. CANALS. lintenance and :oairs. &r.. O^ -^H rH CO rH r- 1 00 t- O5 XO O5 CO O CO r ^O -sH OO CO O5 CO CO T\CO CO O CO GO t^ CO the whole inches. O vo t- oo CN CO CO M o t- to O ON rf N o M M M M & & n CM CO rH CO CM TH co ^n cq o o co t ^ O O CO ^H t- O5 o.S 11 $ *-> o o o o CO . : "*"* J> T}- M t> vo N . M ^P . N .^ O CO VO O 3 ; b- O CO Oi ^H CO N , ^" ^ , ^- -^ JL E?^ cq co cq cq co co OO 00 M i* J N 10 ON N 00 lONCO^fNOOVOON o \o CO CO ^* to to ro "^t" ^ ^^ ^"S. ttf Sco oo t- co cq T-H o o cq *o . ^ S n d 52 Share Consolid Revenu , 1 TH t- cq co o cq A 1 CO O t- ^ -^ O co as t- co co cq cq cq cq cq co co 8 1 fa M r I OCOOOO vO Ol>.OtoiH t^.vo 00 w ^1- O O to M w>vo t^ t^. O vo Tf O JMOONM O MVOOOTj-'^-lOOSt^ ^MOOOM o r^rfONt^Tj- M g I 13 **-" rn ro O\CO ONVO CO vo 00 w vo OO ON S IS M M 3 "8 ^ o |3 T5 3 CO E? o I OO vo rj- M M CO ^ I! * ^ o S . ^ O O O o 1 M O H rj- ro to .-^-voM gOOt^VO Tj- MlOVOMt^ vj s^ I* M M Tj- CO N 10 v^,' ! ^ ^ Total, rovernment. H to to CO M ON n w vo M tovo N ON -iiOMMOO O tofONVOOO'-iVON & O M O O vo OsCO OO VO M -^ ^OO ^tOrot^O OO f-OO^fONtOMM eS M co M M M vo g U 53 > ^j 3 ^ 5* OO to ON COOO M M || pj U 1 . O 1 1 OJO\MI>.M NOOVO "00 W MOOVOOOVO ^M QtONlOtOM ^ Cq tO 01 M M tt !'l 8.3? N ' ^ Illl 2 i i. if| i 1 a CO O vo O "3-OO M !>. O rt- M 00 O ON in M ONtotocOMVO 2ilH COCO^tM O M Jy} ON ON co M r^VO CO 15 . J ^ H . | U i : : : : ! Q d, : -glj 1 : PS rj 'ff CTJ 1 <3|- S 1 S >^ t^-OO O* O M N to !>. t^ t^OO OO OO OO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 VO *>-OO ON O IH M **. t^ r- t^oo OO OO OO OO OO 00 OO 00 OO 3 <3 a*l 1 3 'S jjj S B '-5 bo ^* co ^* "^3 > ~~ l CL> -a as ^3 iS P PQ SWH W ^ 326 INDIA. Ill ^^ o|| Vtf OoSrHOoSS! CO C^l 00 O^ ^^ ^^ O^ CO C^J JJ o > ~^ r- 1 00 O rH *O 10 CO Cq rH rH O5 rH rH rH T 1 rH rH CO CO 1 ON N voOO M t-. CO .MCOONON VO g ON ONVO M vo t^ 1 M CO VO Tf t^ ' t^ vO -t*** ^" 10 tOVO ^O ^O *^ 1 N co s CO^O CO O M CO T}- O vo X s - ON N t-t CO vovo ON O * ^ ON vo N N M O *>.vO MT}- M CO N ON M JJ l>. t^ J>. CO N VO t> M 00 N M ON r^ * M .^ "5 C tA JQ CM CO ^"^ N T+ t^ yo *^ CO t- CO VO5 N O M N CO CO 2 2" ^ N ^ v!2 M S N ^ M ^ M ^^" l M $? ^u s .1 ^ *s ^ 'rt rt , -^ S Q G "~< ._, rj . c ^c ; j o3 ' f O *d ^ * C$ r \ ,__i (3 .i|l^1 -g ; - Iljllill Qcq^CJpqc^^c/5 -asllllllsll lillliliMw ^ r- -^- _ ^ 1 cw 73 to * g U o : g ^ 73 g o o = 03 i-^ a 1 ? J^ s 5 s" pq w o w CANALS. 327 *rH CN O l>- CO O CD rH O5!X)coocr5o<^xo t^C5a^CO^THOrHa500O cq 10 o TH TH cq TH os t- co T* ^ TH cq rH co cq rH c- 00 rH cq M M f^ vo ON to rf M M M -rf VO to t-^. M T^- ro rOOO OO TJ- N O O ^O MVO N rooo OvO O\O t^-M M O toC\O r- w M r^i-Ot^M W CO N t^-00 w O>OMt->.at^ M COONCO t^ON to rJ-OO rh 00 to 10 M covo C\^OM M fOM NVO t^rt-t^ OO"O MO O t> N to t> *>. O M M tOOO OO rj-oo to t>, t>. t^ to lO r^^O t>-OO tOt-^ ON ON rj-vo O N M O tOO ONt>O r- *> co t-. r O vO ThO rttOCSMMMVOCOM to Ch N VO lOOO N M M CO t- M ^IO*H t^.10 Nl^ONtotoOvo rj- N -^-N N MVO ONOO vo t>. M VO rj- N MM Tf M 10 Tf-vO Tf- M TfcO VO N ^ *^00 M3 rf rf-VO ONONMOC M ONO tOtOO tOiOONONM M M M JO W vo to M r}-ONVO ONtOtOM toO CO * ' tOtOO tOiOONONM M M M JO W vo to M MMM MMMMMM M M MM I - 323 INDIA. to 00 I M oo 00 I I , rH Ttf CO CO Ttl rH CO Ttl CO CO co h- Oi cq cq o o s "oj 'C v^JO CO CO O5 rH cq rH CO CO rH CO b- f* to o b- cq Ttl to CO O 03 cq ( 1 1 | CO ,| cq CO 1 b- rH Oi CO Ttl O ^^TjH CO b 1 cq co Tti -HH o CO O5 b- b- t CO b- Tjl CM CO CO CM 1 2 CO O T^ CO T^i rH T^H cq ^O 1 Q M rH cq rH CO ' *j ^ CO CO CO 3 rH rH rH 3 to g CO tOrH b- o cq 00 C75.00 o cq CO tO rH Cq b CO rH cq rH S3 to C CO b-XO b- CO ^ CO CO CO b- CS1 '- 1 > O 53 rH O5 CO rH rH rH 3 CO rH CO rH tO 10 rH cq CO cq rH rH to rH o co co cq cq CO O5 O5 rH CO CO b- cq rH o 4-S tj H b- cq co O5 T^H Oi rH CO CO co Tti cq o cq cq CO Ttl CM rH rH T-H rH cq CO 1 8 t 3 ' O 3 a- *Q_. < <-> * co cq co to TJH cq " CO cq cq S3 1 || to CO 1 'En 03 u 9 T$< G5 O T^ Ttl ' Ttl 00 o 5 - rH CM **: % Q . . . . | " 3 .1 5 ^^^ g c ^ l^ll-Sd ^ Cu Cj V- ^^ ^ 1 |s ^U rt ^5 M U N(J ^S tH'Cg a S 3 il | ^ O) .^ w S 8 ^ s 1 S 0^ CANALS. Canals in Guzrdt. The Hathmathi Channel and the Khari Cut, are canals in the basin of the Sabarmatti and in the Ahmada- bad district under the Government of Bombay, although in North- Eastern India, north of the Vindhyan range. They are also near the smaller Ahmadnagar. The Hathmathi Channel is 21 miles long, and commands 44 744 acres, with a discharge of about 50 cubic feet per second. The Khari Channel is 4 miles long, and commands 3 890 acres. The two streams of supply have the same names. The Hathmathi and the Khari afford a very small amount of constant discharge, and are liable to high flood ; hence the need of storage reservoirs, which are only now contemplated, though they should doubtless have been treated as the principal part of the works. These so-called canals resemble the other canals of the Bom- bay Presidency in Southern India. Their petty size, as well as the conditions, show that they mostly are mere channels -fit for carrying supply from tanks ; but that the tanks were for- gotten in the first instance. Such works are usually treated as simple storage works, not as canals. The above being in Guzrat are exceptional by locality ; the following figures show their statistics : Statistics of Irrigation and Revenue from Canals in Guzrdt. Revenue. HATHMATHI CANAL. Capital. Acres. Working Expenses. Rainfall. Assessment Receipts. > Feet. Before 1875 98 1875-76 720 167 -69 1333 2-4 1876-77 I 400 319 217 1088 2-3 1877-78 I 043 222 354 466 1*2 1878-79 I 902 418 214 609 3'4 1879-80 I 187 338 517 968 2-6 i 880-8 i i 534 444 266 854 3'3 1881-82 2 521 522 394 733 3' 1882-83 51212 1958 588 820 1003 2-3 KHARI CANAL. Before 1881 __ 1881-82 78 62 10 18 2-8 1882-83 11744 378 197 60 2 2-9 330 INDIA NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. North- West Provinces. The Eastern Jamna Canal is generally very similar in cha- racter to the Western Jamna Canal ; it was constructed in about the same time and the same manner, being an old, fully developed, and very remunerative perennial canal : its cost was about two-thirds, and its average irrigated acreage about one-half of that of the latter. It is also a restoration and enlargement of an old native work, commenced by the British in 1823. The first action in the matter by the British Government was the despatch of Lieutenant Tod, who made some surveys, fol- lowed by definite proposals, subsequently acted on ; these sur- veys were continued by other military men. Captain Smith commenced the works in 1823, which were finished in 1830. The Eastern Jamna Canal takes its supply from the Jamna at Kharrah and passes it down the old bed of the Jamna for 4 miles, to Nayashahr, where is the regulating dam with 30 sluices and head of the main canal. In the first 10 miles it crosses the mountain drainage at right angles, having dams at each of the torrents, and then continues on the highland of the country, on the watershed between the Hindan and the Jamna. The canal is in embankment for 40 miles, its water level being from 6 to 1 2 feet above the level of the country. The course of the canal is through the Saharanpur and Muzaffarnager districts, into the Mirath district, where it tails into the Jamna at Salimpur. In 1830, water was admitted through its main canal, after an expenditure on works of 31 124; in 1837, the capital account had increased to 46 000, and in that year, which was one of famine, it yielded 10084 in water rate, and about the same amount in increased land revenue, or in all about 20 000 or 44 per cent; the acreage then being only 96000; the value of crops saved by irrigation was 488 494, or eleven times the cost of the canal. In 1846-47, the capital account was 81 460, and the acreage was 106705, yielding 12 175 as water rate, and 14965 as increased land revenue, or as gross returns 25 per cent, on the capital. The works completed up to that time were as follows : Channels, main and branch, 465 miles ; irrigation CANALS. - -331 outlets, 136; dams, n; drainage outlets, i; aqueducts, 7; bridges, 71 ; inlets and escapes, 26; falls, 14; mills, 12; work- shops and station houses, 43. As to the amount of irrigation effected by this canal in its earlier stages of development, comparatively little is known ; in 1832-33 the tract irrigated was 276 square miles, yielding 248177 in water rate, and 136742 in increased land revenue; while in 1850-51, tne irrigated tract was 497 square miles, yielding 384919 in water rate, and the same amount of increased land revenue as in 1832. A portion of the canal was remodelled in 1854, and new escapes were made, which have since formed injurious swamps: in fact, even in 1872, the necessary drainage works can hardly be said to have been fairly taken in hand. From the year 1863-64 the water rates were enhanced, and the repairs to distributaries carried out by Government, and charged to maintenance ; certain improve- ments were also effected by drainage works. At this period, a large amount of water was usually sold by contract, 288 villages taking it in that manner. The acreage of the principal irrigated crops grown, of which wheat, barley, and indigo form the greatest portion of the Rabbi or cold weather crop, was as follows for four years : 1864-65. 1865-66. 1866-67. 1867-6$. Sugar-cane, annual 28530 29034 20847 26987 Rice ll^Wif/ " 28 2 39 91 37 I22 4I345 Cotton J \ ... 14405 2887 5080 2646 Wheat and barley ... ... 79490 74327 139257 96489 The canal system consisted in 1872 of 130 miles of channel and 625 of distributaries, watering a tract 120 miles by 15. In 1871-72, the gross returns amounted to nearly 30 per cent, on the capital. The data of the works, the finance, and the irrigation for recent years will be found in the tabular statistics. In 1876, a large amount was expended in drainage. cuts, to very good effect. In 1882, the mileage of canal was 130 miles, of distributaries 918 miles, and of drainage cuts 270 miles, in all i 018 miles. 332 INDIA. The Eastern Jamna Canal. Abstract of Older Statistics. Capital Outlay, || Total "o r^ Official Year. Original Works. Estab- ishment & other Total to end of Working Expenses. Direct Revenue Indirect Revenue Yearly Return. !> || Irrigation. charges. i ccir. | Acres. 182310 1830-31 131124 12 726 43800 \ 1830-31 ) to V49074 4907 97781 97522 21454 1846-47 1 1847-48 1435 143 99360 6904 12503 14965 _ _ 106 705 i 848-49 3254 325 102 939 7042 15055 1849-50 3460 346 106 745 8016 16183 1850-51 304 30 107 079 7392 15914 1851-52 2558 256 109 893 7726 13079 3057 306 113 256 8279 17325 1853-5^ 5315 531 119 102 7872 14993 1854-55 16376 1688 137665 9565 14479 1855-56 12691 1637 151 994 8188 9688 1856-57 5180 691 157 865 13540 12997 1857-58 1351 223 159 440 7691 6645 1858-59 2260 337 162 036 9255 12483 154 006 1859-60 393 81 162 510 10575 20924 227489 I 860-6 I 973 141 163 624 11376 28941 261 327 1861-62 603 3071 167 298 11305 22873 231310 1862-63 1346 -300 168 343 8518 25696 3800 29496 13 184232 1863-6; 1218 1732 171 283 10799 23217 6000 29217 ii 181 331 1864-65 3366 432 174 981 .12 518 36539 6000 42539 18 225 266 1865-66 2876 1612 179 469 13061 41463 6000 47463 20 160355 1866-67 2844 2269 184 582 12247 43131 17269 60900 27 239555 1867-68 4930 1816 191 328 14208 56560 17769 74329 33 182 544 1868-69 4904 1246 197 479 15488 50624 17769 68393 28 274 101 1869-70 2779 282 200539 16508 65728 17769 83497 34 251 067 CANALS. 333 Eastern Jamna Canal. Supply of Water and Irrigation. Year. tJ3 q ^ "3 M a 03 J^ 1 ""^ P-i ?n g ,. c JS O >- -.3 6 & '& .J O : 'is flf t i Total Irrigation. Double Cropped Land. Distributaries open. Mean Annual Rainfall. 1862-63 C.ft.p.s. i 043 C.ft.p.s. Acres. Acres. Acres. 184 232 Pr.ct. Miles. 602 Feet. 1863-64 932 71 I2 9 IIO 202 181 331 602 1864-65 I 025 107 496 117 770 225 266 602 1865-66 80 225 80 130 160 355 596 1866-67 I 068 82 138 157 417 239 555 596 1867-68 . 78 606 103 938 182 544 596 1868-69 102 141 171 960 274 101 603 1869-70 T 020 119 163 131 904 251 067 606 . 1870-71 951 951 98 112 114 603 212 715 606 1871-72 982 938 72 404 120 345 192 749 606 2-3 to 5'o 1872-73 I 050 998 79 699 104 455 184 154 625 2-3 to 3-9 1873-74 70 478 97 57o 168 048 i874-75 82 813 101 272 184 085 625 2-4 to 3-5 1875-76 i 079 87 294 108 552 195 846 619 2-5 to 3-1 1876-77 97 774 84 135 104 397 188 532 5'2 619 2-0 to 3'9 1877-78 989 103 632 103 100 206 732 618 1878-79 i 006 no 722 181 228 291 150 9*4 618 1879-80 i 042 98 032 142 2OI 240 233 5-8 618 i 880-8 i i 019 107 454 128 408 235 862 5 '4 618 1881-82 i 118 I 001 104 197 I5O 689 254 886 5 '5 618 i '9 to 2*6 1882-83 i 046 998 112 483 142 030 2545 X 3 6-8 618 2'2 tO 3'5 334 INDIA. to 05 00 r cq cq to co co ~G < 1 1 CO cq CO cq co CO o CO cq CO t- cq rH g s 8 g K l 1 1 rH CO s s rH CO rH to co CD cq CD 05 to g rH rt G u >-> 05 to r-> Oi CO cq to j-^. ^-H GO Oi to CO G $ I cq 05 rH CO rH Oi to rH CO Oi JO 8 to 00 G 5 l 1 O5 CO O5 O rH GO Oi o rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH i 1 o rH O rH .9 in 1 1 1 rH 2 05 CO S Oi I cq CO 05 to to to s to CO CO 1 1 * ^P O ^ O CO rH CD CO cq CO o CO CO rH 8 cq CO i M * oo -"-> flj 05 05 05 05 05 05 CO CO ^ cq CO CO CO CO CO M IP, CD CO CO CO Oi 8 rH rH 8 CD co to rH to rH to rH to rH .2 -o > J^_ ^_ r^. ^ CO CO cq cq cq cq cq cq cq cq cq H cq rH CO cq cq H cq cq l"--^. o oo CO O | ^ rH CD CD to to co CO to CD t ^ CO oo S t/3 | rH to cq cq gi cq cq CO b- tO rH rH 05 O5 05 cq to G P to rH o^ O O^ CO O ^sH co CO CO O^ rH "t^ > & to rH CO rH CO rH 05 rH cq cq o cq CO cq rH o cq O cq rH cq rH cq CO rH rH cq p i to ^ oT -I Oi CO- to t- cq 05 CO CO CO 05 5" CO CO O5 c3 jTlS ^H S CD rH g rH CD O5 rH CO cq 05 rH i\ cq CO 4-1 in OH 05 8 CO O CO b- o i I rH CO Jo rH CO cq CD cq O5 CO g J3 rH cq cq CN cq cq cq C4 CM cq cq cq cq cq CN G ' i 1 1 |l rH 8 cq CO cq cq cq i CO cq cq s co o rH rH cq cq to c- 8 rH CO rH to cu O U-f CD CO cq cq rH rH rH rH cq rH cq CO rH cq CO to CO a 1 G OT s G tt P 13 ON . M N to Tt- VO VO *> oo ON o M N CO in 1 1 1 1 I | | | I 1 1 CO 1 | p kg 00 OS M * 10 OO ^ O 00 00 oo 00 00 00 00 00 OO oo 00 oo oo OO oo < CANALS. .335 The Eastern Jamna Canal. Capital Account to the End of 1872-73. Detail. Previous. In 1872-73. Total. Works. Main Canal. C. Masonry works. Syphon . 14 14 Bridge ... 103 583 686 Buildings .. ... ... 182 182 D. Earthworks. Canal banks 49 49 Drainage works sheds 545 44 590 Other works 158 737 158 737 Total Main Canal . . . 159 385 872 160 257 Distributing Channels. The cost of these is not shown, they were made by the cultivators. C. Masonry works ... ... ... 683 683 D. Earthwork... 120 120 Escape 45 220 265 Other works 8936 8936 Total on Works . t . . 168 366 1895 170 261 Establishment. Direction 2328 180 2508 Executive ... 26600 250 26850 Total on Establishment 28928 430 29358 Tools and Plant ... ... 621 42 663 Profit and Loss 20 30. Fluctuations of Suspense Balance 7000 -1119 5881 Less Receipts -6 -6 Net Outlay . . . 204 935 1242 206 177 Add Simple Interest 243 272 9310 252 582 Total Capital Outlay ... 448 207 10552 458 759 333 INDIA. Eastern Jamna Canal. Remodelling 1882-83. Works. Outlay to end Detail. During 1882-83 Total. (2. MAIN CANAL. B. Land .. 73 D. Regulators 11 225 E. Falls and Weirs F. Torrent Works G. Brid r es 59 (-563) 279 4702 (-563) 588 H. Escapes ... ... *.. 162 162 I. Navigation 1658 J. Mills K. Buildings ( -157) (- 157) .L. Earthwork 487 3558 28 10247 (^ ) DISTRIBUTARIES. 709 4892 (4) DRAINAGE WORKS... 3188 37595 Total on Works Total on Establishment Tools and Plant Suspense Account 3926 820 436 52734 13 650 1981 3733 (Capital Account is ^272 194.) Net Outlay 5182 72098 The new classification of expenditure was adopted for the first time in the North-West Provinces in the accounts of the year 1878-79. After that year the pro- gress reports take a diminished and altered form. The Ganges Canal, commenced in 1848, and opened in 1845," is the third of the large perennial canals of Northern India made by the British. The earliest proposals leading to this work were that of Captain Debude in 1827, and the suggestions of Colonel John Colvin, before or about 1835, who recommended an offtake near Hardwar. The success following the opening of the East Jamna Canal in 1830, followed by the terrible famine of 1837-38 and its train of calamity, induced the Government to send Major Cautley to examine and report on the Hardwar site CANALS. in 1839. His proposal to make 256 miles of main canal and 73 miles of branches at an estimated cost of 260 000 was supported by the Court of Directors in 1841. A committee ordered to examine and report, recommended taking 6 750 cubic feet per second in a single main canal from Hardwar by the Solani course to Khanpur to supply irrigation to the whole of the Ganges Jamna Duab ; which would yield ,148 642 anually, apart from other receipts. The works began in 1842, but were soon stopped. A general survey of this Duab was made in 1843-44; but Lord Ellenborough checked the whole by deciding on making it a purely navigable canal, directed to Allahabad. A mixed project was formed in 1845, an d the works were abandoned on account of the Sikh war. In 1847 a committee recom- mended the resumption of the work as a purely irrigation- canal ; and this was vigorously started. In 1848 Colonel Cautley resumed the charge of the works ; some modifications in its alignment were made in 1850 ; and the canal was opened in April, 1854. It was very soon closed on account of the defective condition of the embankments near the Solani Aque- duct. After repairs, water was again admitted in November, 1854. A second closure was needful, and the canal was newly opened in April, 1855. Irrigation from it commenced in the month following. During 1855, the area irrigated was 54734 acres, besides a small supply to save crops from entire drought on 166000 acres. At this time 450 miles of main canal were open, the mileage of the distributaries open being 225 at the beginning of the year, and 436 at the end of it ; though as much as 633 miles were under construction. Most of the navigation then consisted in rafts of timber passing along the upper reaches down to Mirath ; there was also some small boat traffic. The canal falls were also utilised for corn mills ; and some revenue was obtained from the sale of grass and fuel grown. In 1872, the canal resembled the Bari Doab Canal, being merely half-developed, in contradistinction to the Eastern and Western Jamna canals, which had their irrigation fully de- veloped. The principal head of the Ganges canal is about 2| miles above the sacred town of pilgrimage, Hardwar, or Hardiwar. z 338 INDIA. In the first 18 miles of its course the canal passes the Ratmu, the Ranipur and the Pattri torrents, the former torrent passing through at the same level, and the two latter in masonry super- passages over the canal. At the i8th mile, above Rurkhi, the canal crosses the Solani river in a masonry aqueduct ; the embankments of approach are about 30 feet above the valley, and are 3 miles long ; the aqueduct itself is 920 feet long, in fifteen arches of 50 feet span, and 30 feet in height. From this point onwards the main canal nearly follows the watershed between the Ganges and the Jamna for about 181 miles to Nanun, throwing off branches and cuts for irrigation and navi- gation. From Nanun the eastern branch, 170 miles long, continues to Etawah, where it falls into the- Jamna, and the western branch of the same length continues to Khanpur, where it falls into the Ganges. There are also two smaller branches, 83 and 10 miles long respectively. This canal is of immense size ; it carried a supply of 5 100 cubic feet per second in 1870, and utilised 90 per cent, of it ; besides this it has an irrigating capacity of I 205 ooo acres. As to dimensions, the first four miles from Hardiwar are in natural channel, a branch of the Ganges. From Mayapur, where the artificial canal begins, and for a distance of 50 miles, the canal has a constant bottom width of 140 feet, a depth of 10 feet, and a slope of bed of 1*5 feet per mile. From the 5Oth mile where the Fattahgarh branch takes off, down to the noth mile, where the Bulandshahr branch takes off, the bed-width is 130 feet, and the depth 9 feet : from the off-take of Bulandshahr branch to that of the proposed Koel branch, the bed-width is no feet, and the depth 8 feet ; thence to Nanun the depth remains the same, but the bed-width varies from 96 to 80 feet. The Fattahgarh branch was in 1872 83 miles long, the Bulandshahr branch 54 miles long ; the Khanpur and Etawah branches are each 80 feet in bed-width at their heads, diminishing gradually to 2O feet at their lower extremities. Of the details of the works as originally contemplated, there is ample information given in the large work of Colonel Sir Proby Cautley, the designer and constructor of this canal, of whose energy, patience, and perseverance it is impossible to speak too highly, when reflecting on the difficulties, both political as well as other, that he had to encounter. CANALS. ~33D In spite, however, of the large amount of energy and money spent upon this canal, it is a particularly unfortunate one. It was defective in several important respects, the inclination allowed to its bed was far too h igh, its bed retrogressed and its falls were damaged, so that it could not carry its full supply until about 1866, when a large additional outlay had been made. In fact, the whole of the canal, main and branches, had to be remodelled throughout ; and the distributaries had been so badly laid out, that hundreds of miles of them have been abandoned at various times. The partial remodelling of the canal commenced in 1864 ; and it is to be hoped that it will eventually carry the full supply originally intended, without increasing the capital account, now 2 605 178, to much beyond 3 000 000. While 4 700 cubic feet per second is the highest amount of supply yet utilised on this canal, it is probable that eventually it may rise as high as 5 500, the supply for which it was originally designed and intended being 6 750 (or 7 ooo ?) cubic feet per second ; should it, however, after complete remodelling, arrive at that irrigating power, it will then have only six times the supply of the Eastern Jamna Canal, at a cost of about twelve times as much as that of the latter. The acreage of the principal crops irrigated during four years was as follows : 1864-65. 1865-66. 1866-67. 1867-68. Sugar-cane, annual 50 159 58 416 46 338 55 232 Rice l Kharif f 22 466 23134 30539 36365 Cotton J | 42026 10496 19094 5616 Indigo ... 35 166 47 714 70487 75 684 Wheat and barley... 338971 362679 400444 319715 About two-thirds of the irrigation effected by this canal is flush, or delivered at the ground surface, the remainder is delivered at a low level, the water being raised to the surface by native mechanical contrivances. In order to carry out the irrigation of the whole of the tract intended, it was proposed to make a secondary head works at Raj ghat on the Ganges, and to supplement the Ganges Canal by new works, named the Lower Ganges Canal ; these were commenced in 1872. From 1862 to 1873, the mileage of main canal was 519 miles ; the branches 127 miles until 1867, when 8 miles were added. In 1876, the works in progress were, permanent weirs and 340 INDIA. dams to form head works above Hard war, some new weirs and locks, improvement and extension of distributaries, and a large amount of drainage cuts. In 1 880-8 1, the Khanpur and Etawah branches, with their dependent works, were transferred to form part of the Lower Ganges Canal. In 1882, the mileage was 445 miles of main canal, 2 561 of distributaries, 867 of drainage cuts, in all 3 873 miles of channel of every sort. Details of expenditure on works, and of irrigation during late years, are given in the tabular statistics. CANALS. -341 S *t M W N vo N [[BJUIBNJ JU o H t->. CO tO t^ tO [Bnuuy u to N N M C -IMVOt>-MCO "^"ON CO U t HCOOt^COM NVO ON V) T^- < ^VOlO'^'tOTt' MON M CO Tf . m bi) CO vO O CO CO M x$ tn CO ^" ^* VO ^" C^ 1 N CO 1 ON -tf- ON Tf to M O H * > ti) a j ON H M < H x>. vo O ON rt" vj to ON -3- O ON s^ fl rt- CO N M M ^ w * 1 cO t C Tf C 0-^-vocotoM t^vo co ) N TJ- O O to co vo O cT ' p CO M ^ t-* l CS M tiJo M IO W W TJ- CO 2 * O CO t^ N n M Tf * ON rj- O VO to * 1 J CO C4 N N I 5 f co i o N 10 M 10 t^ to D ON i> c/i c^ ON N to ON rj- o ON **S ^- CO M W M k W 1 i ON ' < DMCOIO^M CON o v]Tj-voiOMi>. t~*O CO ^ rj- ( v| vo TJ- to CO CO ""tf" > w CO rj- Jo w 1 i 1 rrt M O N i>. ON co -3 . M rj- CO M CO 2 C ON TJ- CO N rt .So I C>1 I JS CO N M M g'^ -i Ci 1 bJO f ) IH O W CO rf rd ^ 1 9 CO C JiOMrJ-COto S* " 1 q J ^tOONTj-OCO ^<*H CO N (N M ^ a W H S C3 f :::: || . n> L) |Jb C P- ^ Nj : c 1 . CT (i *c bC^ Main and Northern Vattahaar ! S 1 ! ! 1 |J : : 342 INDIA. Ganges Canal. Supply of Water and Irrigation. (Later returns.} Year. Supply passing Rurkhi. Supply Utilised. Kharif. Rabbi. Total Irrigation effected. 1ft Distri- Dutaries open. Mean Annual Rainfall. 1862-63 c.f.p.s. 4850 c.f.p.s. Acres. 90693 Acres. 114 912 Acres. 205 605 p.c. Miles. 2266 Feet. 1863-64 4 028 97538 352 250 449 788 ' 2337 1864-65 4 026 161835 404 682 566517 2 440 1865-66 43 X 4 176 544 396 585 573 129 2777 1866-67 3940 357 181 658 453076 634 734 3039 2-15 1867-68 3952 3299 185 137 348319 533456 3040 3-81 1868-69 4946 4649 344 266 734133 i 078399 3112 1-32 1869-70 5 100 4590 341 846 438 560 780 406 3069 2-34 1870-71 4299 3827 266 682 499 932 766 614 3069 3-16 1871-72 4i93 3224 232 688 373867 606 555 3078 3-01 1872-73 4787 4 221 247 191 437979 685 170 3 Il8 275 1873-74 287 842 507472 795 3M 3272 274 J 874-75 288615 608 815 891 430 3346 3*27 1875-76 55i 3*7325 571 842 889 167 3386 2-53 1876-77 4779 316 282 592951 909 233 3403 2-31 1877-78 4895 54I3I3 53 7 1045013 34*7 1-27 1878-79 5034 483 35 6 725872 i 209 228 20'0 3538 i '95 1879-80 5 103 5072 401 529 5573i6 958 845 I7-I 3652 3' 02 1880-81* 3835 305 554 359373 * 664 927 15-6 2554 1881-82 5 018 3598 296554 475 837 772391 I9-2 2554 1882-83 5012 3702 335570 520465 856 035 2 560 * Transfer of portion to the Lower Ganges Canal. CANALS. - 313 t- CO OrH CMrH co Oi co co cq TH t- t>- o t i i co t- rH cq CO t-- rH rH OS TH CO 1O CO CO rncqcqasco CO ^H rH 10 CO *Ot^-COCOO Si coco rH CO CO O 01 CO Cq O rH cq COrHCOCOCO o cq co o co -HHO CO lO CO rHOO COrH CqcOiOCOGO b-GOCqrHrH O O t- GO TH COCOCOt-GO COCOt^COCO Cq Cq O ^ O Oi*O COCT)COiOG5 OirHOOO GOO rH t>- t- 00 rH CO O ^ t- O rH rHrHrHrHCq CqcqrHrHCq Indirec Revenue O5 CO COOOCOCDt^ co o^cMcqo^o rH lOt-t-t-00 T I'xHOS ^ CO COOOOCq^H T-trHCMCqcO rHiOOOOb- t-OOGOCO^H T-HTHOOOCD GOCOCqcOt- COOCOCOCO "^ CO T IT 1 T-l rHOiOOO ooocococo Direct Revenue CO CM CO Gi CD O CO Cq COGOOt^^O coo^coco r>-OiCDCOCO CO 00 Cq ^1 CO OCOCOOO rHi locsco -- t- t CO *O O5 CO b- rH O5 cococqotio cqcococot^ CO GO O 00 CO CO CO O O Cq rH GO co co cq o CO Cft CO GO 00 01 rH GO CO 00 O5 O oq GO co CO CO cq t>- en O rH rH rH cq cq cq cq co co t>- cq cq I I CO CO O , I |v^_ /-"V O O coco cq t- co o co rH t^ CO CO O 10 o cq co co cqcqcq cqcqcqcqco cococqcqcq rH O CO CO rH ^H I ^H 0) CO I rr\ r^ I O5CO rHOCOiOt- OOO O5COCOOOO O^CMTH^Ot^ ^cq cocqiocqo ascocqrHcq C\ O M N ^O TJ- 1OVO t*CX) O O M M tO VO t^ t^ t^* X^* ^** t^ t""* X*** t^* X > ^ OO CO CO CO I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ro Tt* tovo t">> OO ON O w N to ^ i-ovo t^ OO ON O w M VO 'O VO ^O ^O vO ^O !> i^* t^* 4*"* t^ 1 * f"* ^** X^* ^** t^OO CO OO OOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOCOOO OCOOOOCOOO OOOOOOCOOO vo vO ^O *O 'O 344 INDIA. The Ganges Canals.. Capital Account to the End of 1872-73. Detail. Previous. In 1872-73. Total. Works. (i) Head Works C. Masonry Works. Weirs... 2457 2457 (2) Main Canals and Branches B. Cost of Land 8 8 C. Masonry Works. Falls and Wiers 8559 8559 Bridges 11894 11894 Buildings 289 289 Navigation Works 534 534 D. Earthworks. Canal Embank- ments, &c 620 620 F. Miscellaneous. Loss on Bricks... 1557 1557 Escapes 1077 1077 Drainage Works 1856 1856 Other Works (?) 1 698 817 ... 1 698 817 Total Main Canal and Branches . . . 1 698 817 28851 1 727 668 (3) Distributing Channels. Preliminary Operations 234 234 B. Cost of Land 944 944 C. Masonry Works ... 4570 4570 D. Earthworks 4155 4155 (4) Other Works (?) 450 169 ... 450 169 Total on Works ... 2 148 986 38754 2 187 740 Establishment. Direction ... 55081 1615 56696 Executive ... 232 302 3866 236 168 Remodelling 16671 16671 Total on Establishment ... 304054 5481 309 535 Tools and Plant 16725 1473 18199 Profit and Loss 7101 ... 7101 Fluctuations of Suspense Balance 109 146 -17 153 91993 Less Receipts -9282 -107 -9389 Net Outlay ... 2 576 730 28448 2 605 178 Add Simple Interest 1 941 670 116 660 2 058 330 Total Capital Outlay ... 4 518 400 145 108 4 663 508 CANALS. -345 i .'si Buland- shahr Branch. ^1 III M 1 1 1 CO CO 11 O CO O 00 C rH CO CO O O" oo co cq o t* g35 2 .Th rH CC S^ S Dasna Channel. ^1 III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : : : * -ll w co cq Oi co - CO CO rH O5 O5 O5 Cq O5 t CO OO Cq rH *O *O O5 CO ^co o co cq os co ^H oo ooo cq >o cq co t co ^ 02 rH rH rH rH O cq ^H 05 Cq rH rH rH CO *O O cq co ^_> : 4-. W gS.& , S-^J 8 - Deobaud Branch. t^O5 -^ ocqo coco coco cq ** *o co oscq ^ GO rHlOCqO 050 ^ T-I ^I^^TH cqco rH O5 CO ^1 O5 rH 1 O5 ^3 g t c*.a rt p4 r HP ^WH ^ 11 O5 XO^Cq^COCO OrH rH "rHiO-*iOCOCq O'* . COrHO5GOCOO -<^rH ^ Cq CO Cq rH O O5 rH ^H rH CO rH CO Cq rH i co 1 175 005 rH rH t o cq o ^H ^ 0> 1 ""i" H S 11 cq cq s*M 1 M ^ | 1 co ' ' ' rH 1 1 rH O5 rH CO O CO 8<=8 : : ' a ~ .9 * O 6 '| nd pi, Q t/3 : .1 " J2 J3 S^ ^ :: ^-1 : 53 ::::::: u^ ^ ^ ^ C v t j !ijii tl j -ii-i iiialgf Iflll- K J3 v-^.>-s SBS 3 S^ pLiHjgP^turtMH^SWKP Miscellaneous Maintenance. Totals.. istributaries . . rainage and Prc J.-g g III ; C C! o o o "73 "o * < pq CJ P W ri C X M ^^ >4 < ;OPH* QQ H 346 INDIA. The Lower Ganges Canal. This is now treated as a work separate from the original Ganges Canal, to which it is an. adjunct. The unfortunate condition of that great canal caused a committee to recommend, in 1866, that a further supply, or a second canal, should be taken from the Ganges at Rajghat, with which the lower part of the Ganges, Jamna Duab, should be irrigated, thus relieving the original canal. Colonel Strachey, R.E., made a definite project of construction in 1869; this was further developed by Major Jeffreys, R.E., and Colonel Brownlow, R.E. The design arranged for a supply equal to that of the old canal, namely 6 500 cubic feet per second in the rainy season, and 3 500 in the dry season, from permanent headworks. These, with 555 miles of main canal and accessories, were estimated to cost 1 825 845, and yield a net income of 195 000. But the actual cost of the old Khanpur and Etawah branch canals thus absorbed, amounting to about 400 000, was to be debited to its capital account. These works commenced in 1872, and the headworks were finished in 1877. The river was diverted in course between Rajghat and Narora, where the Weir and off-take were made. The weir, estimated to cost 316 500, is a substantial one, resting on cylinders 20 feet deep usually, but those near to the under- sluices, or 56 out of 366, rest on the clay, and are 32 feet deep. The front and rear curtain walls rest on wells, driven down to the firm clay stratum. The weir is 3 800 feet long, in section lo'x 10'; below it is a paved floor at 3 feet below dry-weather water level. Most of the material is brick ; concrete is also used. The foundations of some parts consist of blocks, 10' x 10' X 10'. The weir sluices on the flank next to the off-take are 42 in number, each 7^ feet wide. The off-take has 30 openings, each 7 feet wide ; the entrance lock, at some distance from it, has a chamber 1 50 X 20 feet. The sill of the canal entrance is nearly at low-water level of the river. The weir crest is 6J feet above it, and this may be raised to 10 feet by shutters. The main canal, for the first 26 miles, has a bed-width of 216 feet, a depth of water in full supply of 10 feet, and a slope of nearly cri per thousand. It will continue,' after throwing off branches, with a reduced section, giving a navigable communica- tion with Allahabad, where it terminates. One branch will CANALS. 347 supply water to the old Khanpur and Etawah branches. This will be navigable, and will maintain the navigable condition of those branches. Other branches are the Bhognipur, the Ghat- ampur and the Jhinjak branches, intended chiefly for irrigation. In 1877 the project seems to have been modified and recast, the revised scheme being intended to bring under irrigation 462 ooo acres of kharif crop, and 740 ooo acres of rabbi crop, as the utmost possible. At the end of 1878 about 100 miles of main canal were excavated and water admitted. The accounts were separated from those of the Ganges Canal entirely in the year 1 880-81, the arrangement having then been made that the Khanpur and Etawah branches, with their irri- gation, were transferred, and that I ooo cubic feet per second of supply should be passed from the Upper to the Lower Ganges Canal. The new divisions of the canal consisted then of the Narora, Mainpuri, and Bhognipur divisions, besides the two old ones. In 1882-83 the mileage comprised in the Lower Ganges Canal consisted of 556 miles of main canal, I 742 of distributaries, 249 of drainage cuts; in all, 2 547 miles. The discharges of the Ganges were approximately determined at Narora, throughout the year 1882, from gauge-readings and declivities, as follow : Above Weir. Above Weir. Below Weir. Date. Cubic ft. Date. Cubic ft. Date. Cubic ft. per sec. per sec. per sec. 3 January . . . 2 301 5 April ... 2 728 24 November 3468 20 3939 17 2 681 28 3 5 6 3 February 3098 25 , 4 U7 3 2 768 2 March ... 33H 8 May i 936 2 December 2 838 7 2 876 14 1521 4 2 773 13 2 260 15 3 250 6 2 805 22 1 739 23 3 223 ii 2 463 27 i 562 20 December 2 170 18 2 309 348 INDIA. Lower Ganges Canal. Supply of Water and Irrigation. Year. Divisions of the Series. Average Supply. c. f. p. s. Kharif, Rabbi. Total. T3 J !! o o Distributaries Open a f U {Old Div. Acres. 155257 Acres. 283251 Acres. 438 508 per cent Miles. Miles. I 880-8 I New 28 713 117 250 144 963 Total 2513 183 970 400 501 583471 I 442 494 Old Div. 138045 278 421 416 466 1881-82 < New 66527 148 223 214750 . Total 2 955 204572 426 644 631 216 22 I 623 53i f Old Div. 1882-83 < New (Total 3050 J 99 I]C 5 406 910 606 025 24 I 742 555 Lower Ganges Canal. Revenue Account in Pounds Sterling, based on Assessments. Year. Capital expended Total Outlay. Work- ing Ex- penses. Direct Revenue. Indirect Revenue Net Returns. Interest. Net Profit. I 880-8 I 182 438 2 373 153 43609 131 539 20783 108 712 95180 13532 1881-82 117 024 2 490 793 54348 151 956 20783 118 391 90231 28160 1882-83 98832 2 589 624 67181 153 609 23783 107 211 94177 13034 CANALS. 349 gj CO s HH CO O t-- CD CO *O GO o cq o cq 10 co co HH cq cq as 10 cq HH 10 oo cq r- HH cq rH CD cq wm CO CD O5 05 02 , l t I CO CD I I O I cq 05 co 02 CDHH OHHO HHCOCO I^OOt^ O 'CO Cq rH CO CO TH TH cq CD I <* I f ~CO O i GO iO CD CO i O5 i CO O S^ CO|HHTHGOCO|cq|HHCO CO HHt^COHH TH THrH TH Cq rH CO *o o cq 10 HH CO HH t- CD O CO iH H^ O5 CO o cq cq oo oo O CO b- , CO CO HH 10 cq 1 o CO t^ CO rH S^S o^ o^ ^o ^ OrH i ^1 CO t** cq co co t- o o cq co o cq CO o cq cq cq co 05 oo rH -^ cq tr- 00 rH t>- O 10 HH CO rH rH co cq co CO O CO cq o co HH CD cq cq to CO CO 05 cq co ^ CD S ii .. ^lS.-EooaS^S^-S '.H^ pq cj Q W P^' O ft C5 p^ CO GO" O CO s S 05 O5 O rH *Q S 05 CD CO o cq o co O5 O5 O5 -rtf rH CO O rH cq CD -^ co GO Cq rH CO O CO rH IO HH cq 10 rH CO CO 00 grH cq I cq t- 8 . c & o .% s-is. to HW r-w sss O rH 1O O5 CO CO .22 ^D cj ! O en 2 ' O S3 C HCO U 0) i a f 350 INDIA. The Agra Canal is a modern perennial canal irrigating a tract on the right bank of the Jamna, between it and the Khari Naddi, from below Delhi to the Utangan river below Agra. The total length of main canal is 140 miles, its bed-width at the head, 70 feet ; its supply I 100 cubic feet per second in the Rabbi season, and 2 ooo cubic feet per second in the Kharif season, requiring respective depths of 7 and 10 feet. The ir- rigable area is about I 200 square miles, of which about one- tenth was unculturable waste, and one-fifth was irrigated from wells. . The supply of the Jamna at Okla having been found to fall occasionally below 800 cubic feet per second, in May, 1870, having been only 472, and in January, 1871, only 756 cubic feet per second ; the supply of the Hindan, which is capable of giving 300 cubic feet, was also used in supplementing the canal, giving altogether 800 cubic feet as a certain minimum supply, according to which the depths needful for navigation are determined. The fall of the canal from the head to the 32nd mile is O'5 feet per mile; at this point is an overfall of 575 feet, and beyond that to the 86th mile, the gradient is ro per mile ; after which it varies from 0*33 to roo feet per mile ; below the H7th mile it becomes a simple distributary. The intended depths, discharges and velocities are as follow : Mileage. Head to 32 32 to 40 40 to 50 to 60 to 70 80 to 5 60 70 80 Bed width. Feet. 70 58-8 53'4 47'4 '4 30 to 85! ... 24*2 85! to 95S 95^ to 100 24*2 24-2 Depths. Feet. Mean Velocities. Discharges, c.f.p.s. 5-8 ( 1-82 i 800 mm. 10*6 \ 2- 3 6 % 2 OOO max. 4*i f 2-25 587 55 7-0 i 2-76 I 262 4'3 1 2*29 ' 574 H 7-2 i 2-88 i i 239 ,, 4*1 i 2-28 f 485 j) 6-9 { 2-82 ' . i 044 J) 4*i j 2-27 429 jl 6-8 i 2*75 910 4-2 i 2'26 f 326 6-8 i 2-69 670 ,, 4'4 6-6 f 2'20 2-62 ' 276 535 " 4'9 j 1-24 176 7-0 ( I*4I 39 ,, 4-8 f 1*22 172 7-0 \ I'4I 303 CANALS. _ 351 From 100 to 117 miles the bed widths vary from 21 to 1 8 feet; the depths from 37 to 5*2 feet, the velocities from 1-5. to 2 - 3 feet per second, and the discharge at the n/th mile is from 130 to 203 cubic feet per second. The head works at Okla were begun at the end of 1868, and generally open in 1873 ; the supplementary headworks on the Hindan, below the Railway Bridge, are connected with the former by a canal having a bottom width of 24 feet, and dis- charging 291 cubic feet per second with a depth of 5-6 feet ; it is 9 miles long, and enters the Jamna at one mile above Okla, where there is a lock to prevent the return of flood water. The distributaries have discharges varying from 140 to 25 cubic feet per second ; the principal works, bridges, escapes, and weirs are comparatively inexpensive. The total estimated cost of the Agra canal was 540 188, of which 124 200 is that of headworks ; the total area of irrigation is calculated at 704000 acres, and the probable net income when the irrigation is fully developed is expected to be 51 875, in addition to 4000 from navigation and mill rent or about 10 per cent net. Up to the end of 1872-73, the capital account stood at 432 267, of which 302 692 was incurred on account of works and plant, and 73 183 on establishment, this amount having been spent in five years. Of the above outlay, 30 131 was spent on plant, 106 444 on earthwork, 80 014 on falls and weirs, 37736 on bridges, and 11 522 on buildings, and the remainder on miscellaneous works. The formal opening of the Agra Canal was performed on 5 March, 1873-74. The supply passed down the canal to the 35th mile, where it was returned to the Jamna ; the headworks were then complete excepting in lockgates. In 1874-75, a ll the works and distributaries of the first division of the canal were completed excepting the Hindan cut. The works of the second division were completed at the end of 1876; and in 1877 navigation between Delhi and Matthra was opened. In 1882 the mileage of the Agra Canal was 140 miles of main canal, 370 of distributaries, 17 of drainage cuts ; in all 527 miles. The mileage of main canal having remained the same since 1878-79- 352 INDIA. The discharges of the Jamna have been approximately deter- mined from gauge readings and declivities at various sites, as follow : At Khara ...... At Khara ...... At Okla, 2 miles below weir At Agra Taj ...... At Agra Taj ...... C.f.p.s. 15 Jan. 1882. 3 243 J. Blandford 19 Dec. 1882. 2 928 } 12 Oct. 1882. 4 002 P. Denehy. 3 Mar. 1882. 5350 G. E. Coles. 31 Oct. 1882. 1840 CANALS. 353 Agra Canal. Statistics of Supply and Irrigation. Average Supply Irrigation. 1 1 at head. o 3 . o (3 cqt- H O t^ \ jioco cqrHcqcoco iooocoast- PH \ rH rH rH rH rH ., K* $2 to Cr^ Oi rH Cq rH G5 ^O rjH t>- t>- cq OO5 . t ^H t^" rH o^ cq t^* rH ^o cq co co o^ oo S< t^rHO OCOCOt-t- OOOOOOrHrH cqcqcq cqcqcqcqcq cqcqcqcqcq >2 ** C i O % 1 v\ rHGi OiCqrHCOrH COOrHCqCO S^ |cqa5.t-rHO^oocq cqt^rHcoo * OCOGO cooio^o>o rH rH rH T \ rHrHrHrHrH 1 - CO O t- 00 rH CO 00 00 t- 10 cqcq cqcqcqcqrH cqcococorH | >K cq 1 *c3 43 IO COCO tr-rHCOrHCO t-OCOrHC^ t ~ (CO |OO*O OCOOOO t-COrHrHCO S< |CO jt>-Cq OCOCOCOrH rH t- t^ t^ t- I HO rH Ot^ t^Q5OrHCq COCOCOCOCO "3 cqcocq rHcocqoocq rH rH^co'orio ^ .2 >, "a. M rt C ^,0 \ \ t-rH CO t- Oi CO rH S C^ "V ? ^ rH rH rH | -L-L U'g 1 .3 II 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I ? rO r|~ io The Rohilkhand and Bijnaur Canals. These consisted of a number of ancient, badly designed lines, which were worked at a loss in 1872, though after remodelling may yield very good results ; they are : {Baigul Group ... 108 miles. KitchaDhora Group 32 Paha Group 13 Kailas Group ... ... ... 32 ,, Biinaur / Nagina Group ) , g \ Nehtor Group / 3 * The combined outlay till April, 1861, was W 830 ; and in that year of extreme famine the income ?> 667 first exceeded the charges and maintenance 3 274 as the irrigated acreage was nearly double the usual amount. But even then the average water rate was only eightpence per acre, though the staple crops of this province are rice and sugar. The combined outlay up to 1872-73 was 103 600 ; the direct, indirect, revenue, and working expenses for the year 3 438, ,2261, and 5 132 respectively; the acreage, Kharif 21 204; Rabbi 34 446 ;, total 55 650 acres. The length of distributaries was increased from 180 miles in 1867-68 to 294 miles in 1872-73. In 1882-83, the Rohilkhand Canals, apart from the Bijnaui- Canals, consisted of 94 miles of main canal, and 225 miles of distributaries ; in all 319 miles. The following are the Channels or Rivers in detail : Miles. Miles Baror River ... ... 3 Paha Canal 53 Kicha Canal 81 Dhora River 8 Bahgul Canal ... ... 115 Absara River ... ... , Absara Channel ... 10 Nakatia River ... ... Kailas Canal 73 Sankha River ... ... Dhorania River In 1882-83 the Bijnaur Canals consisted of two canals, the Nagina Canal, having four distributaries of an aggregate length of 19 miles ; and the Nihtor Canal, with three distributaries of an aggregate length of 14 miles ; including the main channels in each case ; these being each g\ miles long. 360 INDIA. Rohilkhand Canals. Supply of Water and Irrigation. Year. Average Supply. Irrigation. Double Cropped Land i !* B p 1 1 Annual. Kharif. Rabbi. Total. 1871-72 C.ft.p.s. Acres. 5 9 J 4 Acres. 16 481 Acres. 16 936 Acres. 39 33i Pr.ct. Miles. Feet. 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 - 1875-76 58769 1876-77 74319 1877-78 23 072 7 04 30 076 1878-79 21 679 57 237 78 916 ; 1879-80 10 257 8770 66 231 85258 i 880-8 i 10 239 47 162 30 228 87 629 1881-82 8 876 27 221 48 369 84 466 1882-83 ii 306 21 368 46833 79 507 225 * NOTE. The accounts of the Bijnaur Canals were formerly mixed with those of the Rohilkhand Canals. Bijnaur Canals. Supply of Water and Irrigation. Year. Kharif. Rabbi. Total. Acres. Acres. Acres. 1875-76 '.. . 3046 1876-77 ... ... ... * . 4433 1877-78 ' ... 1878-79 ... .;. 1879-80 656 1730 2386 1880-81 ... 2 808 2 041 4849 1881-82 2 894 2 136 530 1882-83 2 298 3207 5415 CANALS. Rohilkhand Canals. Revenue Account in Pounds Sterling^ based on Assessments. Official Year. Capital during Year. Total Outlay. Working Expenses. Direct Revenue. Indirect Revenue. Net Returns. | z z z z z 1870-71 ... 4039 56359 1871-72 ... 9397 65756 8062 2288 1351 (-4423) 1872-73 ... 19822 96604 4885 2486 3261 862 1873-74 ... 15497 112 101 6577 3819 3261 503 1874-75 ... 17248 129 349 5175 2763 5007 2596 1875-76 ... 6349 135 698 4798 4011 5007 4219 1876-77 ... 8917 144 614 5297 5576 5306 5586 1877-78 ... 3593 148 207 7082 2760 5108 786 1878-79 ... 5620 153 827 6456 5482 5112 4137 1879-80 ... (-166) 159 244 7744 6193 5007 3456 1880-81*... ( -252) 165 989 10333 8367 5824 3858 1881-82*... (-116) 165873 ! 12339 7510 5834 995 1882-83*... 2752 168625 1 11288 7011 5824 1547 * Bijnaur Canal included. Bijnaur Canals. Revenue Account in Pounds Sterling, based on Assessment. M c . cT . i a ^_; Official s . "3 o 3 i oJ 11 If it 1 Year. 3 * O CL, 3 ft p^ v "3 1 ^ W M tf ~& ^ S H * ^ ^ 1872-73 6997 251 436 185 315 (-130) 1873-74 6997 434 550 119 315 (-196) 1874-75 6997 346 340 817 810 315 496 1875-76 6997 237 432 817 1013 315 698 1876-77 ' 6997 748 695 859 806 315 491 1877-78 6997 610 609 857 855 315 540 1878-79 6997 304 253 824 774 315 459 1879-80 6997 261 348 817 904 315 589 i 880-8 I* ' ___ 1881-82* " 608 789 _: - 1882-83* 1047 660 *-U?i * Included with Rohilkhand Canals again. 362 INDIA. The Bandalkhand Canals, from the rivers Betwa and Dassan, proposed by the late Captain A. H. Bagge, of the Bengal Engineers, still remain as incompleted works ; detailed surveys were, however, commenced in 1873. In 1882-3, the Betwa Canal was partly constructed ; the pro- posed site of weir for headworks being at Paricha. The discharges of the Betwa were approximately determined in 1882 from gauge readings and declivities, thus : At Paricha. Date. Cubic feet per second. Date. Cubic feet per second. 22 July 560575 12 October I53 26 543429 25 896 21 426348 25 November 394 17 290 630 12 December 335 20 286831 1 6 January 193 16 278455 4 February 145 19 80959 20 March 3* 15 855H 21 June 49996 12 July 12 110 5 9 826 At Moiat. The Sarun Canals. The effect of the works is to supply four old river-channels, of a deltaic sort, with water from the Gandak ; the irrigation is partly effected by lift, of 8 to 15 feet, and partly by backing up the canal water into natural channels ; the supply is nearly perennial. The irrigation from the Daha Canal, Ganduki Canal, Dhanaie Canal, and Gangri Canal in 1882-83 amounted to i 741 acres, of which i 099 was rice crop ; the gross revenue was 1 803, the cost of maintenance 3 360. Besides the above, much indigo is irrigated and not assessed, and water is supplied to indigo factories, for which no direct payment is made. In the true sense, these works are productive ; according to the official sense, they are not. Other projected canals in Bahar are the Tirhut: and the Hughli and Damudar projects in Bengal. CANALS. 3G3 The Sohan Canals. These constituting a portion of the Bahar project of Colonel Dickens, were designed to provide high-level navigation for 295 miles from Mirzapur on the Ganges through Dehri, the headworks on the Sohan, to Manghir on the Ganges, and to irrigate the country on both banks of the Sohan, between this line of navigation and the Ganges. The Western main canal, from Dehri to Mirzapur, was to be 125 miles long, commanding the irrigation of an area of 2 100 square miles ; the Eastern main canal from Dehri to Manghir, 170 miles long, com- manding 3 ooo square miles. The main canals were designed to carry 5 300 cubic feet per second, with a depth of water of 9 feet, and a bottom width of 1 80 feet ; in the Eastern canal the fall from the Sohan to the Ganges, of 123 feet, to be overcome by a series of locks. It was originally intended that these and other works should have been carried out with English capital, under the East India Irrigation Company in 1867; they were, however, commenced in 1870 by the Public Works Department, under Mr. Levinge, aided by about twenty English engineers. The Western main canal was nearly completed to full dimensions for a length of 22 miles by the end of March, 1873 ; and its bridges and siphons were in progress. The Eastern main canal was then also nearly completed for eight miles. On the Arrah Canal, which is to be 70 miles long, end will irrigate 430000 acres, ground had been broken over 60 miles; and six locks, two bridges, and seven siphons were in progress. On the Patna Canal, which will be 84 miles long, and will irrigate 390 ooo acres, two-thirds of the earthwork was executed in 1872-73. At the headworks, the masonry well-blocks of the upper breast- wall of the weir were sunk right across the river in 1870- 71, and in 1871-72 those of the lower breast- wall, as well as parts of the head and under-sluices and head locks ; the stone being brought by locomotives from quarries seven miles off. The following is an abstract of the estimate of cost of the works ; 364 INDIA. > 295 miles of high-level main canal at per mile ... 4 000 1 180 000 240 miles of main irrigation and navigable canal, at 3 000 720 000 928 miles of main irrigation distributaries ... 500 464000 261 ooo acres irrigated in detail ,, 2 522 000 326 250 acres of minor drainage works ... 08s. 130500 Headworks 225000 Workshops, shelter, &c. 43 000 3 284 500 Superintendence at 1 2 -5 per cent. ... 410500 Tools and plant 80000 3 775 OOP The capital account is as follows : Works and Plant. Establish nent. Total. Up to April ist, 1872 368 036 77 456 445 493 During 1872-73 210951 40635 251587 Up to April ist, 1873 578 987 118 091 697 079 The Sohan Weir is 2$ miles long and 8 feet high, and is especially interesting as an example of the most modern con- struction, exhibiting like the weirs on the Orissa canals, also designed by civil engineers, a vast improvement over everything done before in works of this class in India. These canals were partly open in 1875, and were working in 1877; the details being according to the following tables. CANALS. 365 co oo I w 00 oo 1 I1J t>5 N N N .SCO oo j g M t^ CO M M -l r-, t- M VO xo C << O Tj- rf ON g CO Tf LO M U M W c/5 H|d HIM C/3 Ctf , M ON 10 to /*"^ "S Q M IS) O * g CO Tf CO M i J , f g i ^^ OO M M I-- O VO Tf OO 00 '> cJ r^ oo t^ to M ^u ' 1 c * S rt r ^ : o y : g "S ' ^ PH W nd ^ J ||| 5 a3^3 S "*^ C"3 C/3 I t "8 * O OO VO to to Tf ON M 10 N i>- N *e3 C/3 ^ O tovo O 00 H 1 M t^ o t-^OO co 1 Tf ON co O t^ t^ M M M M M M o! 8 * ON 00 1 1 1 1 *^ ^ KS QQ ! 1 1 N | M 2 1 O 10 Tf IO I I | I | N xo d u 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO Tf - 1 Tf t^ M Tf OO t^. M IO ON M to N ON t->- S) vJ I IOO VO M M OO N i ^ ON ON r^ co w to . (U 1 OO O vo O to ON M COVO ON ON ON 1 OO Tf M M t^ ON J I 1 I Tf f^ M O VO 10 M I>.VO IO CO M * $ 1 t^ Tf M OO IO Tf oo vo co o to M 1 O ON M W CO 10 3 * 1 r-~ ON M rh to to O ON Tf co too M M d c3 tO Tf *rrt n N N S M U ON ON |l 1 1 1 1 ISS i I - U O w M 10 Tf M o ON O a .OO M 111 . SM CO lOOO ON O >-i N M M M 1 . ^ vo t~OO ON O M w co 3 - t^-OO OO OO OO 1 1 1 1 I 1 vo i>OO ON O M M 00 oo oo co oo oo oo oo O ' o 8 O CO s 'i 366 INDIA. I I **3 "crt ^ (S Q *5 N M oo cp N vo 10 rj- 1 PH 13 O O5 CO v, 1 * 2 S CM r-{ 1 ,3 u t~ cq Tfl O CO CO 1 cq t- 05 ^* 1 t- >o cq Maintenance. ^ CO T^ CO O CO S* I ' 1 t- co cq o cq o CO CO ^H o & i-t O S^O CO i-4 t~ r-( CO CD. -^ ot-ococot-coco T-H rtl iO TH t>- CD "rt tf ^O O5 O5 CO ^ CO CO CD CO ^ CO CD iO >, H 1 ^O O5 CO *O S? 1 05 CD 1 cq CD CO CO cq cq 3 g S *i i . i iij-n | P x T' t ^7'V' coc ^ c ^ c ^ 5 COCXDOOOOCOOOOOCO CANALS. 367 The Midnapur Canal and the Hijalli Tidal Canal. The Midnapur Canal, opened in 1871, connects Midnapur with tide water in the Hughli, 16 miles below Calcutta, and forms a communication between that river and the Kusi, Rupnarain, and Datnuda. It will be 52 miles long, and will effect the irrigation and drainage of 200000 acres: it was in 1873 capable of irri- gating 72 ooo, but its distributaries and drainage channels were still incomplete. Its estimated cost was ,931 000. These canals are in Bengal proper ; but as the account of these is in the earlier official records mixed with that of the Qrissa canals, it will here also be found under that head until 1873. From 1867 to 1873, the works having been sold by the East India Irrigation Company to Government, were carried on by the Public Works Department. On 1st April, 1873, the capital account amounted to ;695 812, including the Hijalli Canal ; and the state of the works was thus : - c !* *!!? if {* A 1*1 !s l|l O O ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ 1876-77 6146 13699 14689 17128 )? 1877-78 5348 17009 18047 20381 )) 1878-79 8501 17071 15081 17284 )) 1879-80 13014 24723 13069 15440 9283 I 880-8 I 11296 21647 16568 18922 2725 1881-82 783 231 11859 25007 20258 23847 1150 1882-83 12178 795 410 10406 26 801 20364 24650 2151 CANALS. 369 SOUTHERN INDIA. THE ORISSA CANALS. Canals in the Orissa delta (also those in Bengal at Midnapur and Hijalli included in the general scheme until 1873). The headworks proposed for these canals consist of three weirs across the Mahanaddi, the Katjuri, and the Beropa, 6 400, 3 900, and I 980 feet long respectively ; the two first 12*5, and the third 9 feet high ; they are of modern design, having movable iron stanchions and shutters that admit of being lowered to allow floods to pass over them. The canal for the irrigation of the central delta, between the Mahanaddi and the Katjuri, is taken off from the right flank of the Maha- naddi weir, and a junction canal connects it with the Kat- juri. The Taldandah Canal also takes off from the right flank, and runs to Taldandah, the limit to tidal navigation, and it, with its branch, the Machgong Canal, will eventually irrigate 155000 acres of the central delta; they can, in 1873, irrigate 30000, being in use for about one-third of their lengths, or 52 miles of each. Two canals are led off from the Beropa weir : the one from the left bank is the high-level canal, designed for navigation from Kattak to Calcutta ; of this the first 32 miles to the river Brahmani are open, and the greater part of its distributaries for the irrigation of 80 ooo acres are completed ; the other from the right flank of the Beropa weir, intended to irrigate the country between the Mahanaddi and the Brahmani, is called the Kendrapara Canal ; it is 160 feet wide and 7 feet deep, and is intended to irrigate 27 oooo acres of the northern delta, at a duty of 120 acres per cubic foot per second of supply ; the distributaries have an aggregate length of 171 miles, and will irrigate 85000 acres; also its Pattamandi branch taking off on the fourth mile, and running to a port on the estuary of the Brahmani, will irrigate 113 ooo acres. The present estimate of the cost of these works is 2 598 200, and they are intended to irrigate i 600 ooo acres. The history of the Orissa Canals is as follows ; The preliminary designs, drawn up by Col. Sir Arthur Cotton, in May, 1858, were estimated to cost 1 300 000, and intended to irrigate 2 250 ooo acres. A charter was granted to the E. I. 2 B 370 INDIA. Irrigation Company in June, 1861, and capital was raised to the amount of one million as a first issue. Surveys, preliminary designs, and estimates were drawn up afterwards under Col. Rundall by May, 1863 ; the estimate amounting to two millions, and the proposed amount of irrigation one and a half million acres, at a duty of 133 acres to one cubic foot per second. Certain Initiatory Works were estimated in detail thus : 1. Headworks, comprising the Naraj Weir, the Mahanaddi anicut, the Beropa anicut, and the Kattak head- works, i 500' long x 7 J' high 165996 2. First Section of High-level Canal, 32 miles from the Mahanaddi to the Brahmani 58 449 Its distributaries, 112 miles for 87 ooo acres ... ... 13 050 3. Kendrapara Canal, 40 miles, Kattak to False Point ... 33 537 Its distributaries, 180 miles for 270 ooo acres ... 40500 4. Midnapur Canal, 48^ miles, Midnapur to the Hughli... 152342 Its distributaries, 160 miles for 148 500 acres ... 22 275 5. Hijalli Tidal Canal, first two reaches, 27 miles from the Rupnarain 49119 535 268 Stores and management 30 per cent. ... ... ... 160580 Surveys of general scheme, purchase of a fleet of boats, London Offices, and preliminary expenses had already cost... 123935 Interest already paid to shareholders ..._ 112477 Total estimated cost of initiatory scheme . . . ,932 260 Estimated return. Navigation to repay establishment and management, and the irrigation of 505 500 acres, at 5 Rs. per annum, to yield a gross return of 36 per cent, on the ^695 848, and deducting 5 per cent, for repairs and maintenance, 31 per cent, net; or 21 per cent, on the million of total expenditure estimated. The works were begun in December, 1863. Irrigation was first available in December, 1865, was first taken up in April, 1 866, and began to yield returns in October, 1 866. Navigation began to yield returns in March, 1865. The Company sold the Orissa undertaking in December, 1867 '> the works constructed and returns being as follows : CANALS. 371 The total amount of work done by May 3ist, 1867, under the heads of the preceding estimate, was i. Headworks open, but not complete. 2. High-level canal, 10 miles open, 12 nearly ready, and 17 miles of distributaries open. 3. Kendrapara Canal, 30 miles open, to a reduced width, and 72 miles of distributaries open. 4. Midnapur Canal, 28J miles under construction, 10 nearly ready, and 46 miles of distributaries open ; 5. Tidal canal, 27 miles open without locks. Water was then available for 153 400 acres of irrigation. Between May and December, 1867, further work was done on the above canals, details of which are wanting, as well as 23 miles of uncompleted work on the Taldandah Canal. Expenditure up to October ^ 1867. Expenditure on works up to June, 1867 620000 from June to October 187 936 from October to December ... not known. Total expended on works in India 807 936 Total on all accounts 884 861 Balances 58 671 Receipts, not including Government loan of ,120 000 ^943 532 The earlier returns until October, 1867, were thus : Navigation. Water Rate. Total. Irrigation. Year. Acres. 1863 876 ... 876 1864 843 ... 843 1865 1089 ... 1089 1866 1145 ... Oct. 878 2043 2346 1867 Aug. 1669 ... Feb. 1208) - 1Qft / 4328 Oct. 2253 / 513 t 9836 5622 4339 9981 In February, 1867, water was available for 60000 acres, and in October, 1867, for 153 ooo acres. In 1867 water for 13 ooo acres, valued at 2 500, was stolen. At the time of sale, the Company had water available for 200 ooo acres, which at 5 Rs. per acre would yield ^100 000, or about 10 per cent, on the total expenditure, had the cultivators 372 INDIA. taken the water ; as, however, they did not, and the Act had not then been issued (passed in February, 1870) to recover rates from land brought under water-command, it would have been unwise to extend the works, and the Company were then forced to sell up at par to the Government. From 1867 to 1873, these works were carried on by the Public Works Department. On April 1st, 1873, the capital account of the Mahanaddi Project, including the Brahmani and Baitarni Series, amounted to 1 221 577; and the state of the works was thus ; ^3 ^ d> TJ to **cJ in . i OJ 3| 2 S-g I H u " * Canal. * j ^ ff 5|| w ^s -4-> -" ||f o 4> ^ ^ ITj .^ S o, .a ft w^8 ^ I o q Miles. Miles. Acres. Acres. / High-level Canal 37 002 1 74 600 42 660 3618 203 KendraparaCanal 40 0032 313000 100 ooo 2116 129 Taldanda Canal Machgong Canal 6 2 0042 0040 | 155 ooo / 15 336 ( 16829 1398 716 109 95 The expenditure mentioned does not include establishment nor proportionate cost of headworks. The supply provided for the areas was at the irrigating duty^of one cubic foot per second for 133 acres. The discharge passing down the Kendrapara Canal varied from 500 cubic feet per second in August, to 126 in March, and in the high-level canal from 350 in July, to 115 in March ; each of the canals were closed for repair for about two months in the cold weather. In 1869, the water rates having been lowered from 10s. to 2s. per acre, the gross revenue amounted only to ;441; in 1869-70 it amounted to 5 235 ; in 1870-71, the acreage actually irrigated was 22 128 acres ; and in 1871-72 only 11652 acres, demands for water rate being abandoned by the revenue collectors, and o n ty ;! "772 being actually collected. The following tables indicate the extension of works, and finan- cial condition of these canals from 1872 to 1882. It will be 9bserved that the spread of possible irrigation has been small, CANALS. 373 while the increase of actual irrigation has been large. The people, who have suffered greatly from floods for many years, perhaps for ages, were too stupid and ignorant to appreciate the advantages of irrigation, and refused to irrigate for many years The advisers of the Government, instead of striving to induce the spread of irrigation, recommended the tedious process of allowing the natives time to learn, and advised that the distri- bution works should not be extended. It appears that after these 10 years the natives began to learn, and then irrigated two-thirds of the area for which distributaries existed. In 1881-82, when this stage had been reached, estimates for extending the distribution, and for making 70 miles more of canal, were framed ; they were sanctioned in 1883, an d the works have been resumed. Some details of these works and their esti- mated cost are given in the following tabular statements. Their effect will be to increase the irrigable area to 653 236 acres, which was about the area contemplated in 1867. As to the financial condition, it seems due to several causes : to reducing the water rate from ;0*5 to ^0*15 per acre; and to contracting the irrigable area ; but chiefly to the general policy of waiting for the natives. Apart from the liability of the lands to inundation, against which protection is required, these deltaic works are capable of high financial success, when carried out to full development. The Orissa Coast Canal. This canal was in progress of con- struction in 1881-1882. 374 INDIA. Area Assessed. . vo 00 Tj- ON N ON w vo O ON M M 01 JJ CO O 1 lr^ 00 ^ VO "fr N 1 Tt- 10 00 M O CO co HI Barrah. 1 vo ON co rt- co rvo co M Tj- M M b/D d 3 $ 810 O O OO O co g CO 1 1 1 M M ^ to CO Minimur cooo oo covo toco oo M M | CO O CO VO VO 11 S t- ' ' 1 Tf tOTJ- c3 00 M CO T}- oo I 5 rt 1 Lximum. O ONOO ""O *O O ON toOO M VO t^ O ^t" ^" OO OO OO M 1>>F7! to N M M CO *v a Under Command, O O O O MONlOOtOOO gj MNNOWVOM y M M M t^. tO W O ^ O M to M i>. rt- M M o to ! .3 I 1 N tovO co t~ t~ vo vo to t VO , M CO IO M M M OO M | rf ON M O CO M M ON M MM CO (M ^ oo 1 M 00 oo M H M M O O O OO CO NtoOvOMMOO 4) rJ-MVOONtoON-rf CO vo t I '3 Mini mun N M CO OO> MOM VO COCO i to rf CO M vo to ON 1 CO * O ONOO M VO M M 1 O g O O\ t^ tOOO ON Tf N M N VO M ^ VO M CO to CO a 1 cimum. w O ^ OO t^ co ^tvo Tt"VO j2 4O to VO CO ^ 1 . 1 * 1 1 Distributa | SI 1 I#H to VO i t | M ONOO O co VO co rt- O cooo , M CO co M co ON O 00 ON to M vo O 1 M M ON to M M M I 1 | S5^>?^?^ vo M M ! 1 Minimum. O TJ-VO j>. t^ ONVO OO toto^O, t>r-~ Ocot t^OO t- M CO COCO IO N t^ CO M M M 5 . : '.... 1 Canals.- 1 .1 'x vo 5 M O^'o * N ^ * > " . . . t d 1 a : ::.... : 1"! ' 'rt 1 Year and Mor 00 m ro 00 O OO M ^ < 00 -11 ^^-s 'S>,g>>>o ^5 1 CANALS. 375 CO oo oo I S I Navigation. b* D N Mt-^vow-^-OOvON rt rj- i CO to CO tOVO M 00 to O to tovO ir- O N M OO "<3" H " M M M M 1 1u rf- COOO vo ON M O O *> ON 1 ^ covo to co co to to t^ ^ ' r "rrigation. tn *$ O ** ONOO O vo M M O O ^ ONVO CO O OO t* w co "^ ' ' ON ON COVO to to to N VO 00 If (^ CO M ON ON N to O 00 M OO OO <3 jj ' COCOCOCOCOCOOOOO oJ , - CO CO COOO CO 00 CO ro N ON COVO to 1 1 CO to tOCO O O M N W M | 1 to to to tOVO VO VO VO NO I IM || IS) \ Itototovovovovovo ^ a 1 IMMMNOVOVOVOVO - f) B J *~* rt P j; to to to to jy b cococooNMcbcbcb 15 M OOOOtotoiOto fe ~; 31 3I3AV 1 1 ! 1 1 1 II -S M M u co co ^t 1 tovo t^oo ON O *-i M co 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M w co "^t" tovo r-00 ON O w M oooooooooooooooooooooooo V) 'a fl B 1 a 376 INDIA. 'rf b/j o & PUB "^ OS Oi CM COCN C5OTHrHCO THcqcqcqcM d"^H coco co GO t-cq CO OCOCDCqaOCJ 00 rH 00 t- 00 Oi | CO 1 iOCO O^iO^rHXOOO T-HOO CDCOOOO^THiOl 1 CDiQ xOiOiOCOt-OOt-l 1 CO OO 00 00 4 1 ft *C rt - oo OVO THiOi CDO5 OCOrHCqairHXC | cq cqcocococoio^ OO^H CO O OO C5 COt- r- 1 CO ^ CO ^ iO O5 TH rH rH T 1 rH TH CM r- 1 COOO coco OOCO CO.iO CM T-\ cq cq cq co O *O O O O co ^ *o t~ co rH Oi OO CO ^O CO CO | o 1 rHCqCOt- co co co oo ^n t- o cq co Ot-COC^GO-^O ^H rH rH 10 t- Cq 00 s? I I I I II I1 1 t-^CO OO CO 00 \ O w M ro oo oo oo oo I I I I I I I .CO ON O M W oooooocooooooooooo 1 CANALS. 377 Orissa Canals. Details of Cost of Works and Extensions proposed in 1882. Detail. Works Sanctioned. Extension Contemplated Total Esti- mated Cost. Headworks 460 542 , 460 542 Main canals ... ... 780 855 249 595 1 030 450 Distributaries ... 150 196 426 884 577 080 Drainage and Protection works... 110 276 349 551 459 827 Cadastral Survey and Boundary ) pillars } Total for Works Establishment ... 221 666 221 666 1 524 035 1 026 031 2 550 065 413 274 256 508 669 782 Tools and Plant Total 183 322 71822 255 144 2 120 631 1 354 360 3 474 499 Deduct Receipts on Capital \ Account ... ... J Total direct charges Capitalised value of abated ) Revenue ... ... J 7298 4515 11813 2 113 333 1 349 846 3 463 179 9199 9532 18731 Pension and Leave allowance . . . 53000 64127 117 127 Loss on Exchange in England . . . 29409 29409 Interest during Construction ... Total indirect Charges Total Cost... 1 041 923 1 662 342 2 704 265 1 133 531 1 736 001 2 869 532 3 246 864 3 085 846 6 332 710 These works, with slight modification, were sanctioned as a whole by the Government of India on April Qth, 1883. 378 INDIA. Orissa Canals. Extension of Irrigation sanctioned in 1883. Works and Extensions. Area Irrigable. Canal Distribu- taries. Village Channels. Reduced works, officially sane- ) tioned in 1876 j Actual works existing in 1882 Proposed Extensions Acres. 224308 Miles. 224^ Miles. 552 Miles. 192 965 224J 525 184 Kendraparal Canal Distributaries 35 Io 100 33 Do. Extension 7 ooo 20 7 Patamundi Canal 5 1 250 170 49 Gobri Canal 54 ooo 2 5 179 5 1 High-Level canal, range I. sec. 3 13785 31 13 )> 55 II- }> ! 40 ooo 9 1 38 II. 2 10 000 23 9 '* >) 3 70 ooo 158 66 III. 57500 130 54 Taldandah Canal Extension . . . 60 028 24i 282 57 Machgong Canal Extension ... By all Extension proposed Works contemplated in 1882 ... 61 608 20| 198 58 460 271 70* i 409 55 653 236 2 94l i 934 589 Works contemplated in 1867, ) for which the headworks \ were designed j 662 ooo CANALS. 379 THE CANALS OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. The Jdmda Canal, in Kandeish, was commenced with an estimate of \$ 000, and was opened in 1869. The Krishna Canal has its headworks at Karwar, in Sattara, its estimate was .58133; in 1872, 32 miles of canal were finished, and 2 038 acres irrigated, yielding a revenue of ^955. The Ahmadnagar Canal, estimated to cost ^21941, was opened before 1870. The above comprise the whole of the canals of the Bombay Presidency in 1872. Information about them was then very scarce. The accounts of the canals being mixed up with those of the tanks in official returns, there is some difficulty in separating them, as it is not always possible to discover whether prospectively the canals will be dependent mainly on storage works, tanks, and reservoirs, or mainly dependent on natural river supply. The irrigation now effected is of small extent. Bombay Canals. Irrigation in 1882-83. River 1 ^1 i i u Acres. Acres. Acres. Lower Panjhra River works JaiiMa Canals Pdnjhra Girna Khandesh 13117 46 288 12 627 31538 I 003 I 080 Kadva River works Kddva Nasik 40373 32723 I 241 Pravara River works Pravara Ahmadna- gar 119 689 99 93 1 2741 Mutha Canals Mutha Puna 88087 45 136 9 089 Revari Canal Vasna Satara 3812 3624 519 Upper Man River works . . . Man i) 3470 3 066 300 Chikhli Canal Nandni I 870 1477 217 Krishna Canal Krishna " 27407 25533 3023 Total ...19 213 380 INDIA. Krishna/ /) M M Tf- o OOOO M O *O O ON 10 10 o oooo o^ovoa COCOCOCOCONCONM ! Mandni. hfl in co COOOMO ON OO OO OO CO rf t>- 't M JJ M CO CO M CO 5; i 1 fc/)N M MVO VO O Tf-VO CNMOO CO M Tt N M VO N M & g w: t^ c ^ ^ rt J tuO in ^ M in co c$ l o ^ ON O vo *> vo m M N rt w w OJ W M M Cj c ^ 2 rt i ^ .V, cj I .gcOONTt \ O-^J-ONO ^ M M M o in n M ^ M rtONcocooN cococom ^ !> in ^ CO M M M ON f=4 M M M $ rt | a CO ^ ^ * '* ? ! s o .Cr-^vowM \ NOMOO g M vo vo m a ^cOMcocoll r4MNw ^OVOMOO cooooooo ^NMM COCOCOCO "c5 M o C C3 cT ^ 5 I f ^ 1 S .2 ^ CO N N \ 1 O VO IO s ' ^ rtTt-vooNCO \ ioOr- g N rj- rt Tf- M 4 & cf "2 M CO 1O ^~ < O S S INDIA. The so-called Yerla canals are admittedly supplied solely from the Nehr tank, hence they are channels of storage works. The Kalala Canal, in Dharwar, is apparently awaiting its tank, and is perhaps in the same category. The nature of the remaining nine canals may be judged by the hot weather discharges of their streams of supply. Most of these will probably be converted into channels from storage works, which should have been originally made at the same time. Their names are given attached to the revenue account of the works for 1882-83. The Mukti reservoir is evidently merely a subsidiary or sup- plementary work; the Pingti tank seems of doubtful nature, also the Mutha tank. CANALS. 383 THE CANALS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. The Tumbaddra Canals. The principal headvvorks of these canals consist of a weir across the rocky bed of the Tumbaddra at Sunkesala, 4 500 feet in length of clear overfall ; the section varies, but is everywhere 8 feet broad at the top, the alternate stones of the coping being I foot thick, 8 feet long, and weighing each I J tons. The mortar used is Karnul kankar, except for the coping which is in Portland cement. The height varies from 6 to 26, averaging 1 8 feet ; and the highest registered flood rose 7i feet over the crest. The main features of the canal are as follows : The first 75 miles are designed to carry 3 ooo cubic feet per second at the head, and, after parting with one-fourth of this for irrigation, to convey the remainder through the Metakandal watershed cutting at its other extremity. There I9I2'5 cubic feet per second can be discharged into the Kali, and 337'5 carried down the con- tinuation of the canal. Of the 1912*5, 750 are taken up at a fresh off-take at Jatur, and 375 at Rajoli, leaving 750 for irrigation below Kadapa. The minimum section of the canal in the first 75 miles has a bed-width of 90 feet, with 2 to I side slopes. For the first 45 miles, the fall is adapted to a maximum depth of water of 8 feet, below the 45th to one of 9 feet. The gradient of the canal is generally from 0*3 to O'5 feet per mile, but in one or two deep cuttings 1*5 feet. Below the 75th mile, the natural watercourses of the Kali and the Kunder become the main channel of supply. The ist branch channel forms the canal from the 75th to the 95th mile ; it has a head sluice and lock at Lockinsula, from which it is an irrigating channel 6 feet deep for the first 6 miles, with a flow of 337*5 cubic feet per second. Below that it is a still-water canal, of a minimum depth of 5 feet, and a bottom breadth of 45 feet, having a fall of 180 feet, overcome by 7 double and 5 single locks, of chambers 120 x 20; the greatest fall of a double lock being 21, and of a single one, 13 feet. The 2nd branch channel forms the canal, from the Jatur Weir at the 95th mile, to the I46th mile ; it is adapted for a depth of 6 feet of water down to the ist drop lock at the iiSth mile. The weir is 6 feet broad at the top, on foundations of shale ; it has head sluices, scouring sluices, and an entrance lock, with a water 384 INDIA. cushion below the fall. Irrigation ceases at the i3Oth mile. From the uSthto the I46th mile the canal consists of level reaches with 5 feet depth of water ; having 17 locks to overcome a fall of 1 88 feet, the maximum fall in any single lock being 14 feet. The bed-width throughout is 50 feet. The 3rd branch channel, from the Rajoli Weir at the I46|th to the iSoth mile, has also a bed-width of 50 feet, and with 5 feet of water will discharge 375 cubic feet per second. The Rajoli weir is made of limestone rubble, and built on rock ; its top thickness is 5 feet, its front batters I in 2, and its lower face is vertical. Across the Penner at Adanimayapilli are the headworks and off-take of the projected continuation of the canal to Nellor ; the weir is mostly founded on wells in sand ; 8 miles of this canal are open, and supply 375 cubic feet per second for irrigation. The Hindri aqueduct, carrying the canal, 90 feet broad and 8 feet deep, at an elevation of 32 feet over the Hindri by fourteen 4<>feet arches, is a large work. No modules are used on these canals. The ordinary hand sluices are of two sizes, one 5 feet broad, and of 375 feet lift, the other 1-5 feet wide, and I foot lift ; each is worked by turning round a vertical screw that lifts a cross head, to which the cast-iron shutter hangs ; each turn of the screw raising the shutter I inch and being easily worked in cast-iron grooves by one man against an average head of water of 6 feet. The cost of the canal for the first 75 miles averaged 8 000 a mile, and for the rest of its course & 900 a mile. This Tumbaddra project was first brought forward by Colonel Haviland ; it was carried out by the Madras Irrigation Company, having been commenced under the auspices of Lord Derby, and sanctioned in 1861, the estimate by Government officials amounting to one million sterling : the headworks were opened, and water admitted, in 1864: as the works could not be com- pleted within the estimate, a loan of 600 000 was made to the company by the Government in 1866, under the condition that these works should be completed in July, 1871. They were completed by that date : 216 miles of canals and 377 miles of distributaries, commanding 91 567 acres, being opened. In 1872-73, the acreage commanded was 156 570 acres, being in excess of that necessary, when taken up, to repay the 5 per cent, interest, namely 1 30 ooo acres. The actual acreage irrigated, and returns up to the present time stand thus : CANALS. 385 In 1870-71 ... i 478 acres, yielding ^897 1871-72 ... 9980 3541 ,, 1872-73 . 9505 5020 1873-74 ...19791 8161 The small acreage in 1870-71 was due to the damage to the canal caused by unprecedented storms ; and for which insufficient escape had been provided. In 1871 this was repaired, and the canal improved, and in 1872 water was again admitted through- out the whole length of the canal, to a depth of from 2 to 5 feet. In 1873-74 the canal carried 375 cubic feet per second, having a depth of 4 feet of water throughout. The eventual irrigating power of this series of canals is assumed to be limited to 250 300 acres of rice cultivation, at a duty of 66 acres to I cubic foot per second in places where the waste water is lost, and of .50 where it is again taken up by the canal ; this is, however, on the supposition that these canals re- main dependent on the rainy season supplies of theTumbaddra ; should storage reservoirs be employed, as intended, to render the canals perennial, this acreage may be doubled. On July 6th, 1882, these canals were purchased for the sum of 1 763 500, and transferred from the Madras Irrigation arid Canal Company to the Government of Madras. On July 1 8th, 1882, a flood breached the Sunkesala dam for 300 feet, and the north flood bank and temporary dam were carried away by a high freshet in November, 1882. Navigation and irrigation for the year was stopped ; though unusually heavy local rain saved the crops from ruin. The water rates were very largely reduced on transfer to Government ; and to holders of 50 acres in block, water is supplied free for the first five years, and at half-rates for the next five years. The extension of the distributaries was com- menced, and will be completed probably in three years. The area irrigated during 1882-83 was 1 S OI acres, and the revenue realised 5 090. It is hoped that in future the revenue will repay the cost of maintenance. THE DELTAIC WORKS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. The Kdvari Deltaic Works. The river at the delta-head is 4400 feet wide, with a depth in high flood of 12 feet, and a 2 c 386 INDIA. maximum flood discharge of 284000 cubic feet per second. The river and its tributaries are fed by both mansuns, so that its supply is abundant for nine months in the year. It commences in the middle of June ; a fuller stage commences in the middle of July and lasts till the end of August ; in September it is very low, but there is then local rain ; in October and November there are small freshets ; in the middle of November the supply culminates in very heavy floods, after which it diminishes gradually until March. The three months from March to June are the dry-stage season. The earliest Deltaic Irrigation Works must have here existed in some rough form for ages, certainly long before any perma- nent masonry weir or works in stone were ever made to regulate them in any way. The local conditions, so favourable to irrigation, both as regards natural disposition of the land and deltaic river channels and with respect to continuity of water-supply and local rainfall, exist nowhere else in India on so large a scale with equal advantages. In this remote period of rough irrigation, the deltaic course of the Kavari, below the Srinagram fork, was that of a large, well- defined deep river, running in an elevated ridge, and discharging into the sea ; while the Kalarun, or second branch of the fork (now the actual river), was the drainage or overflow channel of the delta, and was subsidiary. The local origin of irrigation consisted in the Kavari bursting through and overflowing its banks, thus giving flood irrigation in the delta in high-flood season, and forming high-level drainage channels as well. That is to say, natural causes formed both off-takes and channels of supply long before the Telingi rajas made any anicuts there. The natural cause was the natural tendency of an elevated deltaic river, of tortuous course, to silt up and flood its sloping banks : the result was flood irrigation of a fitful, uncontrolled sort. The next step was doubtless due to human ingenuity or love of improvement. Brushwood, reeds, or matting and clay, aided by a small amount of excavation, were means adopted to improve the breaches into manageable off-takes ; while the amount of cut- ting must have been very small in slightly deepening these short breaches, or natural off-takes. The results were at first, flood irrigation in parts of the delta from November to February, CANALS. 387 that is for four months. Such irrigation was then amply sufficient for the needs of the cultivation, and may have lasted in this form and way for many centuries, as well-controlled flood-season irrigation. The third era was the result of natural causes ; the silting up of the deltaic Kavari had progressed to such an extent that its flood-season discharge (three to four months) failed to maintain sufficient waterway section to enable any dry-season discharge at all to pass direct into the sea. This change was a turning point ; from this time the deltaic Kavari carried less water, while the supply to the Kalarun increased. In other words the Kalarun ceased to be a subsidiary deltaic branch ; its course being more direct and its fall greater, it could discharge more rapidly the water that the deltaic Kavari failed to pass into the sea ; and from the time that the Kalarun began to do so, there was a change of fluvial regimen, also a change in the conditions of flood irrigation. , The deltaic Kavari carrying less water from the fork downwards, and having a diminished declivity, had become comparatively mild in its lowest reaches ; the crops were there less liable to damage from unbridled flood ; the amount of water for the crops of a comparatively small area was enough on the whole; but as the Kavari at its lower end had at this period a reverse slope, or perhaps a dead level, for several miles in the lower reaches, the cropped area formerly irrigated from these reaches now received sufficient water. The cultivators in this part of the delta hence adopted the remedy naturally applied to a mild, shallow river channel: they annually made temporary matwork or brushwood dams, or weirs, filled with earth or clay ; these elevate the water-levels slightly, and more water is drawn off for immediate wants. But the remedy produced permanent ill-effect in increasing the silting- up of the bed of the deltaic Kavari. Eventually some unusual flood in the main river rushed down, dividing itself along the Kalarun and the Kavari ; the latter from its advanced, silted con- dition being unable to dispose of its share in simple flow, formed a breach at the narrow neck of the delta, only 17 miles from the delta-head ; thus forming a permanent large spill into the Kalarun. The whole of the irrigation on the remaining 90 miles of the deltaic Kavari being now threatened with extinction, the 388 INDIA. cultivators decide that their only safeguard consists in closing this large breach by a dam or anicut, thus stopping any future permanent outflow into the Kalarun from the upper reaches, beyond that of a controlled flood escape. They hence apply to the despotic rajah for orders to execute this intention. The Telingi Anicut resulting marks the fourth era in the fluvial regimen ; the time elapsing between the first era and the fourth, when a large rough stone weir was first made, may have been twelve centuries or more, it may possibly have been as short as six centuries, but certainly not less. There is, however, yet another alternative theory generally believed, but, accord- ing to this author, quite untenable. It is that the Telingis entering Tanjor after conquest, instituted irrigation, there as a novelty, and ordered the anicut to be made to close a natural old channel from the Kavari to the Kalarun, so as to obtain it. These Telingis came from the neighbourhood of the Godavari and Kistna, in the second century ; and ancient anicuts on rivers dating from before that time, did not exist there, as far as human knowledge, historical or archaeological, can direct; not only that, but the conditions for agriculture and irrigation are generally there far less favourable than those of Tanjor, both as regards the single mansun rainfall, and the fitful nature of rivers in flood, and the convenience of periodicity of the Tanjor rainfall supplying the hiatus in continuity of river supply. In the northern provinces, storage was the natural mode of supporting irrigation, not river-weirs. It is also notorious that the anicut tanks had no flood escape- weirs ; hence the invading Telingis probably knew nothing about anicuts until they had arrived in Tanjor. Even if we grant that they had not remained long near the Godavari, but had been driven out of Northern India shortly before, they probably did not bring thence any knowledge of stone anicuts. For these Hindus came from Audh, and Upper Bengal and Bahar, Gour and Gayah, where the rainfall was ample for the crops usually grown at that epoch and stone anicuts were not needed ; irrigation from shallow wells was there usual. Setting aside this alternative theory, we will assume the more rational one that the Telingis caused the large anicut to be built of stone to meet local demands dependent on a whole CANALS. 389 series of pre-existing local conditions, as before explained. The great rajah would even then get the traditional credit for every- thing, although he may have merely given the fiat or huhm. This principle still exists among the bureaucratic Anglo-Indian officials, and among the plutocratic engineering managers of Westminster, to the present day : both types induce people to term them eminent engineers, although they do not engineer ; so did these rajahs of Tanjor and Trichinapalli ; similarly also they drew large profits on account of presumed eminence. It is difficult to assign any date to the Srinagram anicut. Some clever archaeologist may yet do it ; but this to be correct would be based on the actual stones, as well as on ancient inscriptions ; either separately would form insufficient evidence of date. Any belief in its extreme antiquity is annulled by evidence .of comparative lateness of the causes leading to its construction. There is not any useful historical detailed record of the extent or mode of irrigation under the control of the Telingi anicut. In 1804, when Tanjor was ceded to the British, the Grand Anicut of Srinagram was a continuous mass of rough stone or causeway, I 080 feet long, 40 to 60 feet wide, and 15 to 1 8 feet in depth ; rather irregular and of serpentine alignment. Its crest is (now ?) about 7 feet above the bed of the Kavari. Later exami- nation showed that the exterior facing alone was formed of rough granite set in mortar, that much of the interior consisted of granite set in mud, and that the whole had a mud core. The amount of irrigation then existing must have been large, for even as late as 1825, before any English weirs were made, 505000 acres were irrigated from the Kavari branch, and 165 ooo from the Kalarun branch. Probably, even long before 1804, a new dam of earth and grass, &c., was made annually across the Kalarun at the delta-head to force a supply into the Kavari ; for it was a constant practice between 1813 and 1822. But, however rough and clumsy the whole mode, the Tanjor natives had in full action extensive and nearly fully developed works of deltaic irrigation, of which the chief part was not the Grand Anicut, but consisted in a vast extent of channels of irrigation developed out of natural overflow channels on the soundest principles of economy and utility. This system has been the parent of all subsequent deltaic 390 INDIA. irrigation in India ; even some of its incidental defects, such as sand cores, miserably shallow foundations, packed drystone talus of moderate batter, requiring annual renewal, have been servilely perpetuated in other works, without much exercise of judgment as to suitability or improvement. In fact, this was carried so far as to treat ignorance of Tanjor conventionalities as ignorance of hydraulics ; in the same way as opposition to, or neglect of, Westminster routine is now treated in England as engineering ignorance. More remarkable was the subsequent claim of the imitators to the deltaic irrigation of Tanjor, as their own doing ; an attempt that eventually was overruled. The English Anicut of Cotton and Sim marks the fifth era in the fluvial regimen. Considering it as a whole, which it now is, it was built between 1835 and 1845. Though these great men apparently were the originators of permanent deltaic weirs as headworks, their first efforts were imitative, then tentative, and subjected to failure ; but they were officials with plenty of time for maturing and improving their tentative work. The causes leading to their intervention in Tanjor were these. In 1804, Captain Caldwell, of the Engineers, had noticed the progressive diversion of the supply to the Kavari into the Kalarun at the delta-head, and foretold the annihilation of the deltaic Kavari as an irrigating stream, if some remedial measures were not taken. This meant the ruin of Tanjor. Besides the progressive continued silting-up of the bed of the Kavari branch, breaches occurred in flood at parts of its low embankments, and silt was carried over large tracts of land, thus spoiling it. In 1806, Captain Caldwell raised the Telingi anicut by a few feet, also much of the embankments. These measures for holding more water in the Kavari channel and protecting the land were continued until about 1822; but they were unequal to Nature in the contest, and it became evident that a serious catastrophe would eventually occur, if something different were not done. In 1828, Captain Cotton examined the condition of the Kavari, and in 1829 Major Sim, of the Engineers, proposed scouring sluices from the Kavari into the Kalarun to remove the silt from the bed of the former. His proposals were carried out about the following dates : CANALS. 391 Date, Sluices. Place. Cost. Dec. 1829 ... 10 vents 4/X 3' in the Telingi anicut ... 1715 Jan. 1831 ... 12 ,, 4/X 3' at Vadavagudi ... 2383 Apr. 1832 ,, at Permakovil ... 1107 Feb. 1833 ... 20 ,, 1 2' x 5' near Delta-head ... 2396 and 1834 ... a waste weir attached to them. These were exceedingly effective in reducing the level of the bed of the Kavari, and relieved all immediate danger of breaches in the embankments. In 1834, Captain Cotton's proposals were made, in 1835 they were sanctioned and his works commenced. They consisted originally in a permanent weir at the delta-head, but over the Kalarun branch only, to replace the old annual mud weir, and to force water into the Kavari. The weir was in 1845 prolonged at a lower level across the Kavari branch. His expenditure was thus : 1835 ... 9838 ... Original works : weir, lock, and sluices. 1836 ... 1486 ... Rebuilding breaches made in it. 1837 ... 1061 ... | 1838 ... 1048 ... I Subsequent improvements, and wall protect- 1839 ... 1876 ... f ing the island at the fork. 1840 ... 113 ... ) 1843 ... 2494 ... Extension of works, and lowering the crest. 1845 ... 195 1845 ... 7274 ... Extension of weir across the Kavari branch to a low level, by Major Sim. 1846 ... 2297 ... Enlargement of under-sluices, Kalarun branch, and extending the apron. 27682 The complete weir, or English anicut, across the delta-head was then completed so as to adjust the ordinary flow in the Kavari and Kalarun branches as required, to carry off excess of water into the Kalarun, and to clear accumulations of silt into it from above the river. Some alterations and repairs effected in 1858 and 1871 were comparatively very small. The following is a brief description of the existing weir in its present condition. In the portion across the Kalarun branch, the foundations con- sist of two rows of wells, 9 feet deep, and 4^ feet external 392 INDIA. diameter, filled with concrete ; above these is brickwork 6 feet broad and 3 feet high to bed-level. The body-wall resting on this is 7 feet high in the northern section, and 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 10 inches high in the southern section. Below is a masonry apron 2 feet thick, and 3 1 to 40 feet broad, supported by a retaining wall 3 feet high, resting on wells 6 feet deep. Below this is a rough stone apron 12 feet broad. On the north bank are the off-takes of the lyen and Peruvelli channels ; on the south end of it is a masonry wall 14 feet high running round the point of the island of Srinagram, or delta- head, and continuing till it joins the portion of weir crossing the Kavari branch. The portion across the Kavari consists simply of a flooring 3 feet thick, of which the upper part is in cut stone, on the level of the bed of the river, resting on two rows of wells 6 feet deep and of 4i feet external diameter, filled with concrete. The up- stream side is protected by a rough stone apron g feet broad, and the down-stream side by one 21 feet broad. There is also a row of wells 12 feet from the flooring, intended to carry the rear retaining wall of a bridge, whose foundations alone have been built on this portion. Over the Kalarun section there is a narrow bridge, 6 feet wide, of 50 arches. The total length of the weir is as follows : Feet. Feet. ( North branch. Sluices ... 48 ) Over the Kalarun- T , , Weir - 345 / ] Island 660 I South branch. Sluices .. in ) Weir ... 1625] > not give Over the Kavaii. Weir flooring between wings ... i 950 Delta-head. Masonry connecting wall round ) delta-head . f not lven ' Length, excluding delta-head 4739 Proceeding to other works, below the delta-head, executed about this early period, 1835 to 1846, and in the succeeding twenty years till 1866, when official accounts commence in detail, the regulating and escape works were as follow : CANALS. 393 1830... Ten sluices in the Telingi anicut 1834... Sluice and passage from the Kavari to the Vennar 1 834... Improvement of the Vetar channel 2306 i839...Koviladi escape-weir 1839... Improvements and bridge over the Telingi anicut 851 1 85 1... Kavari and Vennar regulators 4992 The following minor miscellaneous works were also carried out in the delta between 1858 and 1857 : ^ 1850... Improvement of the Valavanar 724 ...Drainage channels... 474 ...Escape-weir and bridge, Govinden Kalagam ... 332 1 85 1... Improvements of channels and their off-takes ... 1284 1 85 2... Improvements of channels and embankments ... 3 195 1 85 6... Reconstruction of Adapar weir 336 ,, ...Dam across the Vennar ... ... ... ... 263 ...Rendering the Muniyar navigable 3354 ...Tulnoyer Kottagam Tank distribution 2652 ...Improvements of channels 2022 14636 The above were all works charged to capital account. From the foregoing it appears that the distribution effected under native rule was generally allowed to remain in its pristine state, apart from repairs, for a long time after the English headworks were made. The following are the details of receipts during this period : Area Revenue Saved in Total Revenue Year. Irrigated. Receipts. new Main- tenance. Total. of Tanjor District. Acres. 1830 546 820 388 751 1837-3^ 668 386 17949 14030 31979 368 986 1846-47 704591 50943 14030 64973 422 381 1856-57 709 305 37260 14030 51290 420 378 1866-67 74i 454 55756 14030 69786 410030 These results prove that at least one-fourth more irrigation recovered was due directly to the headworks, besides the salvage 394 INDIA. of the whole previous irrigation. The success of this achiev- ment of Colonels Sim and Cotton led to the later undertakings in the Godavari, Kistna, and Penner deltas, as well as others. Modern and recent Improvements. These mark a new stage in the Kavari deltaic works, beginning about 1870, or certainly after 1867. Their object was a regulated and improved distri- bution, apportioning due supply to all the channels, and the exclusion of injurious floods. The location of the rivers, canals, and channels of distribution must be mentioned before referring to works connected with them. It is naturally difficult for anyone that has not resided long in that part of the country to describe local matters accurately, even with the aid of maps and such knowledge as official and other records give ; and it is impossible to avoid error entirely. The half-dozen Kavaris, the difficulties about local names, and those due to native technical terms applied to things widely different in point of technical effect, have all been used as scares against intruders in these mysteries of defective distribution and river control bequeathed by the natives to local Anglo-Indian officials. Some error is hence pardonable in any attempt at brevity, and this will not necessarily invalidate general remarks and technical deductions. The total irrigated area of the delta amounts to 822 ooo acres, and this is fully supplied at the rate of I cubic foot per second to 66 acres by a supply of 12 330 cubic feet per second passing over the English weir at the delta-head, with a depth of 57 feet on its section across the Kavari. The main channels of supply are the Kavari itself and the Vennar, which branches off southwards from it at a point nearly 1/j.J miles from the delta-head, and about 2j miles above the Telingi anicut, or principal spill into the Kalarun. The accompanying tabular list of other deltaic channels, with their approximate lengths, &c., will help to explain matters, although details of irrigation are not available. The irrigated delta may be roughly divided into three parts. A strip between the Kalerun and the Kavari, varying from o to 16 miles in width ; the central part, between the Kavari and the Vennar, a triangle about 68 miles long and 40 broad ; and the southern part south of the Vennar, which above the city CANALS. 395 of Tanjor is narrow, but below it is a triangle about 35 miles long and 35 broad. The proportions of water-supply and irrigation in the gross are thus : Percentage of Supply. Acres. In Low Flood. In High Flood. Under the Kavari ... 429000 ... 70 ... 78 Under tqe Vennar ... 393000 ... 30 ... 22 Total ... 822 ooo 100 100 At present, when there is a high flood, corresponding to a depth of IO'5 feet on the gauge at the English weir its disposal, after entering the Kavari, is effected by passing 39 per cent, of it over the Telingi anicut into the Kalarun, while 39 per cent, continues along the Kavari, and the remainder is taken by the Vennar. Floods of gauge- readings ii'3, 11*9, 12*5, and 13*3 feet have occurred ; in the last case (in 1858) the land was thoroughly inundated. It may be observed that all flood in excess of a fixed supply cannot be passed down the Kalarun at the English weir at the delta-head, for fear of damaging a weir on it much lower down, called the Lower Kalarun Weir ; also because the waterway of the Kalarun is irregular and ill-suited to rapid drainage. The capability of dealing with such an extreme flood as that of 1858, giving about 284000 cubic feet per second into the deltaic Kavari at the English weir, without damage to land or works, is hence one of the objects of modern regulation. Also it appears that, even with ordinary conditions, much damage is done : for, from 1860 to 1870 the annual remissions of revenue, due to excess and want of water, were 1 068, of which nearly two-thirds were for lands watered from the Vennar, the rest from the Kavari. (The Vennar appears unprovided with escapes.) So that the whole arrangement of distribution requires regulating. As to the regulating works already made, the old works are : the escape made by Colonel Sim in 1834, at 3 miles from the delta-head ; the Koviladi escape, built in 1839, at 19! miles from the delta-head ; the Kavari- Vennar regulators, built in 1851, at a cost of 4 992, to regulate the apportionment of supply to these two rivers, at 14^ miles from the delta- head ; 396 INDIA. the Telingi anicut, at 17 miles from the delta-head ; also the Kuchamangalam anicut, an old native work, 8 miles below the head of the Vennar. These have proved inadequate. The more modern works are : Date. Unknown Unknown 1868 1868 1870 Dist. from Cost. Delta-head. Miles. 26f ; dam of 442' 9945 32f ; weir of 109' 46|; dam of 210' 1606 6o; dam of 133' 1173 32^ ; 47 vents of 10' .., ) 57i; 27 10' ... 64^; 16 10' ... 65!; 14 10'... 1 20773 745 43| ; 26 10' ... 3138 The Kodamurte regulators The Vadavagudi escape The Arasillar regulators The Verasholen regulators Vetar regulator sluices Pamaniar and Korayar ,, ... Pandoviar do. ,, ... Villayar do. ,, ... Surplus dam on Anunda 1877 ... Tirumalrajen regulator sluices In 1880 it was proposed to construct a reservoir on the Bhavani, a tributary river, to hold 27 ooo million cubic feet, and to occupy 30 square miles, with a canal 100 miles long, which would supply 50 ceo million cubic feet of water annually to the deltaic lands. In March, 1882, an expenditure of 68 800 was sanctioned for new headworks to the Kavari and the Vennar, as well as other regulators and alterations ; whence it appears that the works of 1868 to 1877 were insufficient by themselves ; and that the perfect control of the distribution will not be effected before 1887. When finished, the Kavari deltaic works will have become English throughout in every respect. CANALS. 397 Kdvari Deltaic Works. Detail of Irrigation. Chief Deltaic Channels. Distance of off-take from Delta-head. Approx. Length. c .0 .1 h- 1 Proportion of Supply taken from the parent stream at the off-take. Miles. Miles. Acres. Per Cent. North from the Kdvari. Munniyar 33'I9 5' 34527 Palavar 4476 40- 19501 Vikramanar 69-50 10* 12524 South from the Kdvari. Kodamurti 2677 47-40 114889 . Arasillar 46-66 28- 80 IO2 Verasholen . 60-50 25* 55 125 North from the Vennar. PillaiVoikal 2 2.' I 2 10* 8 136 Vetar 32-S7 C7* Q4. ^AT 3 7 Shembaga O 1 * / 36'50 o / 14' VT* JT- x 61 Ragunada 4I-5 13* Pandalliar 64' 20* 21 365 56 Vellayar 65- 20* 357^3 37 Siuth from the Vennar. Anunda 22'12 16- . 3865 Vadavar 32-00 42- I30I4 Pamaniar 57-20 30- 33546 16 Korayar 58-20 40- 113 216 34 Minor Channels. From the Kavari group 82489 From the Vennar group 44876 Irrigated by surplus ... 54619 398 INDIA. I 1 1 'Si! w SJ ft ro t^ M N ~ o to o" j3 op to N oo ON co t-- ooo M "^ in ^f M g f^-oo oo oo *# " oo ^ CO cq 00 TH rH rH 05 O5 OS C> rH rH r-i rH ~~ ~~ rH rH rH r- IrHrHCq 95 CO COt-COGOGOGOGOGOO5GO CO CO O5 O GO O5 cq O5 i iC)O5-^ICOOCO"^lr- IO5 CO ^^ CO "^^ CO 1O C^ 1O ^ . . ^ ,- . . "tf CO 1O CO O rH . . S^GO t- CO b- O O5 Oi O5 O CM rH CO COt-t !>-O5O5CpOOCp cq ^H 6? ^>_^ ON O M M ro T^J- io^O t^CJO C^ O w M n vO \O ' S O l>* -t^* -t"^* -T^* t^ IT 1 ** !>* r 1 ** -t^* I>* OO OO OO CO i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii ^O t CO ON O M oj co ^ io^O f-*OO ON O M vO vO ^O ^O t^* t^ r** f^* t^* 1>* t^ t^* X^ t^ CO 00 ^tlj CO cococooooooooooococooooooooococo ro oo >-, M CANALS. ; 399 The Godavari Deltaic Works. The Godavari, at its delta-head, has a maximum flood discharge of I 210000 cubic feet per second ; its delta commences about 40 miles from the sea, and has an area of about 2 020 square miles. About the end of last century, Michael Topping reported to the Government his proposal to irrigate the delta. In 1833-34 a severe famine in the Rajahmandri districts occurred, and the population was much reduced by it. The special commissioner deputed to make inquiries was Sir Henry Montgomery, who had had experience in irrigation matters in Tanjor. He recommended, in 1844, the thorough examination of the delta with the view of reviving the scheme. In 1845, Major Cotton proposed the construction of a dam at the delta-head, and the construction of channels to com- mand an irrigable area of 615 ooo acres. It appears that at that time the cultivators had already utilised some natural channels to irrigate 81 600 acres for fifty days in the year. The first estimate of Major Cotton, sanctioned in December, 1846, amounted to ^47 557, of which about three-fourths was for the dam, its locks and sluices ; and the v/orks began in 1847. ^ n September, 1848, an augmented estimate was sanctioned, in- cluding other sluices, which brought the whole to 61 467. A third estimate, amounting in all to 91 121 for past and future work, was drawn up by a special committee, and was sanctioned by the Court of Directors in July, 1849. During construction the works were breached by severe floods, and extensions of works were considered necessary. Two additional sums, 2 571 and 6 574, were sanctioned in 1851. In April, 1852, the dam was completed in accordance with the design ; but it was not sufficiently high to afford enough water at a convenient level ; hence 2 217 were then spent in raising the crest 2 feet by means of iron posts and shutters. Apparently this condition of the dam remained for ten years. In 1861-62 the general raising of the whole dam by 2 feet, making its wall 14 feet high, was effected on an estimate of 28254; this was afterwards increased to 30000. In 1867 the total expenditure on original works amounted to 126 379, a sum less than the sanctioned 130 977. In 1882 the sum of 6 461 was spent on under-sluices, the whole being then brought up to 132 840 as cost of headworks. The headworks at Dauleshwaram consist of a dam or weir 400 INDIA. across the river, hereabout 18000 feet wide, and three sets of sluices and locks, from which the three main channels irrigating the eastern, the central, and the western deltaic regions are supplied. The river width is broken by islands to a total length of 4 500 feet, on which earthen embankments connect the portions of masonry weir. There are also flanking embankments raising the earthwork to 7 ooo feet in length, as well as wing walls 2 500 feet long in all ; the masonry weir itself consists of four portions, altogether 1 1 946 feet long. The first or eastern portion is 4 940 feet long, adjoining the off- take for the eastern delta ; it is founded on shafts 6 feet in diameter, sunk 6 feet ; it is 19 feet thick, consisting of a core of rock sand, faced by a curtain wall 7 feet high, and 4 feet thick at the base, having also a masonry counter-arched fall 28 feet broad and 4 feet thick ; the wasteboard of cramped stone is 4 feet thick and 19 feet broad, the massive stone apron 80 feet broad ; on both flanks are masonry wing walls and revetments ; on the east flank a lock, under-sluices for silt, and the head-sluices for the eastern main canal. Beyond the first island, Pichaka Lanka, is the second portion of the weir, 2 860 feet long ; this has a core of rough stone, and extends to Babber Lanka, the second island, where are the head-sluices of the central main canal. The third portion of the masonry weir is I 548 feet long, extending to the third island, Maddur Lanka. The fourth or western portion of the weir is 2 598 feet long, and has on its western flank the head-sluices of the western main canal, a lock and under-sluices. The three sets of head-sluices have the following dimensions : eastern, 13 vents of 6 X 8 feet ; central, 15 vents of 6 x 8J feet ; western, 15 vents >j\ feet high, and of width varying from 5j to 6 feet. The total sections are thus, 624 square feet, 765, and 654 ; or, altogether, 2 043 square feet. Ordinarily, the river begins to rise about the middle of June, and remains in flood through July, August, and September ; it falls gradually throughout October, and until December, which is the end of the cultivating season. The delta is fully supplied when the water is 3 feet above the crest of the weir. The development of the canals in the three deltas did not follow any general plan ; but the dates of successive estimates sanctioned will indicate the gradual mode in which it was effected. The annual expenditure is given in the table. CANALS. 401 In the eastern delta, November, 1849, 5 316 ; February, 1852, 17636; November, 1853, 4174 for distributaries; March, 1853, 4823; June, 1854, 1119; November, 1856, 11734, but this was for a navigable canal for communication with the port of Kokanada ; in 1864, 8 400, which, in September, 1868, was augmented to ,13 120 ; May, 1871, 94 540, which included 46 940 for drainage ; March, 1874, 23.320. The total com- pletion estimated for works alone then amounted to 131 400, besides establishment and plant. In 1882 the total was 142 000 for works, and 70 838 for establishment and plant. The mean supply to the eastern delta during the cultivating season June to December is 2 826 cubic feet per second, and this represents the carrying capacity of the eastern main canal ; its distribution through the canals to the land is detailed in a subjoined table. The acreage was formerly 188 170 acres, but this is now reduced to 170000. In the central delta one main feeder as far as Ralli existed before the weir was made ; the successive sanctioned expenditure on the canals of this area were thus : November, 1849, 3 401 ; in February, 1852, ^"13 865, which, in May, 1853, was augmented tO;16894; July, 1853, 1 599; November, 1853, ,5 840. In this year the works were twice greatly damaged by floods. In April, 1854, 1 545 ; April, 1855, 3 611. From this time until 1863 the expenditure was trivial; in 1863, ,935; October, 1868, ;2 142. In 1878 there was damage by flood; June, 1879, .1285. The completion estimate of March, 1882, was fora total of ,118 207, of which ^92 000 was for works alone. The carrying capacity of the main central canal is I 745 cubic feet per second ; the former extent of irrigation in the central delta was 95 ooo acres ; it will shortly be extended to 122420 acres. The details of distribution through the canals, are given in the table following. In the western delta there was irrigation from the Weyeru Channel before the weir was made. The successive expenditure on the canals afterwards was thus : In 1851, 7 640 ; in 1853, 7 138 ; in 1854, ,28 764 for the Ellor Canal, and 1 251 for drainage channels; also, in 1854, ,11320 for the Narsapur Canal ; in 1857, ,13484 for a canal of which only part was in the western delta, valued at ;4 500 ; in 1859, ,5391, and perhaps more ; in 1862, ;8 012 ; in 1867, 10 400. After 1867 2 D 402 INDIA. the details appear to have taken the form of sanctioned com- pletion estimates as totals. In 1869, ,10549 was sanctioned. The completion estimates sanctioned in August, 1871, gave a total for works of ,130 464. The revised completion estimates of March, 1882, gave a total of ^206 036, of which 153 000 was for works alone, apart from establishment and plant. The extent of acreage irrigated in the western deltaic region was, in 1871, 202438 acres, with intention to extend to 296 300 ; the future probable extension is now to 319580 acres, with a supply of 3 945 cubic feet per second passing through the main canal. The details of distribution, through the canals, are given in the subjoined lists. The expenditure on the works after 1866-67 seems to enter a new phase of account, as the official returns show, in mentioning total expenditure, which thus means total, exclusive of expen- diture before 1866-67. From the following tables it will be observed that it is intended, after improvement of the distribution in some parts, and a general improvement of the channels of the central delta, to extend the total irrigation to 612 ooo acres ; that is an increase of about 60000. The original scheme of 1847 was intended to apply to 615 ooo acres, or about half the gross cultivable area of the delta. The area under water command is now 771 624 acres, and the supply of water carried by the canals is enough for the intended area. The length of navigable communication will be nearly 500 miles. The project will then be treated as completed, any fresh extension of works being nominally independent. It will then have cost \. 108 870, and will yield a net profit of 127 per cent. It will be noticed that the chief differences between this project as executed, and the original scheme as laid down by Major Cotton, are (i) the whole drainage of the delta is effected ; (2) the extension of canals for navigation ; (3) the superiority and completeness of the whole destribution. While these three points affect the cost, the present mode of complete account, including establishment charges and interest, also affect the figures showing cost and profit. Remarks. The whole remains a marvel among economic irrigation works. Even after allowing for the low cost due to CANALS. 403 the very shallow foundations usually adopted in Madras, the project of Michael Topping should certainly not have been shelved in the last century. It now supports a population of two million human beings, whose annual imports are valued at ;500 000 sterling ; their exports at about double that amount. The wisdom of Sir Henry Montgomery's furtherance of a scheme, then considered hare-brained, has been amply proved. Godavari Deliaic Works. Expenditure on Works only from 1847 to 1867. Year. Head- works. Eastern Delta. Central Delta. Western Delta. On all Works. I n 1847 to 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 ... .., ... 1856-57 1857-58 1858-59 1859-60 i 860-6 i 91121 4787 2217 4941 4491 7188 16141 533 7559 4739 368 5891 328 850 21586 5244 10805 16575 10321 3321 506 441 1144 1666 6517 8103 14661 24277 16135 8013 3981 4782 6294 98578 37381 22752 41607 45385 34015 16073 4855 11114 7 766 1861-62 1862-63 28254 1236 2 150 3320 4066 6570 8 135 39380 14 3^1 1863-64 1864-65 1865-66 1866-67 2475 1436 239 4067 1318 261 141 4647 3753 1779 3187 11189 6507 2279 4251 Totals to 1866 126 379 64638 83966 122 500 397 483 404 INDIA. Godavari Deltaic Works. ; :3",. Position of Head. Total Length. Length actually navigable in 1880. To be made navigable. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Eastern Delta Channels. Main ... o* 4-15 4'I5 4'I5 Samalkot 4-I5 34*35 3 2 '94 3 2< 94 Kokanada 4'i5 2 7"35 2 7"35 27-35 Mandapetta 6-56 1 3 '44 1 3 '44 J 3'44 Bank 0-81 39-00 34"o 39-00 Koringa I3'04 24-46 22-30 22-30 Injeram 21-86 ii'ii ii'ii ii ii 153-86 !45' 2 5 T 5o-3i Central Delta Channels. Main ... o- 8- 8- 8- Gunnaram 8-0 44' 28- 37'5 Bank 8-0 41' 35' 35' Ama'iapur 8'5 3 I- 5 27- 3i-5 Billakarru 22*0 4'5 4'5 4*5 Bendamur 3' 14* 2' 14* i43' I04'5 r 3o-5 Western Delta Channels. Main ... o- 6-08 6'08 6-08 Kakaraparru 6'06 10-36 10*36 10-36 Gostanadi, &c. 7*44 34'3i 2877 34'3i Bank 14-88 2577 2570 25-70 Mukkamala 15-06 2-40 2-40 Narsapur 16-42 29-84 29-84 29-84 Ellor 6-06 40-34 40-34 40*34 Attili 6-86 J 5'94 1 5 '94 J 5'94 Junctions, &c 9-69 3*54 3'54 3-54 Weyeru, &c 13-22 29-92 29-92 29-92 Undi !9'59 15-82 15-82 15-82 214-31 2o8'44 211-91 Totals, &c 5' r 7 458-25 492-72 CANALS. Details of Irrigation. Discharge originally pro- posed. Water to be utilised. Acreage originally pro- posed. Highest effectual Irrigation. In 1882 Acreage estimated for future. Duty per cub. ft. per sec. Cub. ft. per sec. Cub. ft. per sec. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. 581-41 482-32 695-98 483-85 253*45 3-00 581-41 482-32 606-48 483-85 27 701 38761 32155 40399 3 2 257 16897 32047 43970 27 151 18591 30 903 200 29 ooo 44 ooo 28 ooo 20 000 32 ooo 1 6 800 66 69 75 58 33 66 66 2912-52 2826*02 188 170 168033 170 ooo 60 I OOO 66 68r 423* 447* 36583 24294 26666 47 880 2 9 650 31350 70 179- 10 127 12540 7o I745- 95 ooo 97670 122 420 7o 97'5 45* 337'5 T2- 487-5 294' 6 ooo 36 200 23 800 1313 8 690 36946 28 079 I OOO . 8500 39 ooo 28 ooo 83 82 80 95 765* 682-5 487-5 765- 682-5 475-5 56 500 48 200 34 200 59812 55526 32881 59 ooo 55 ooo 33000 77 80 69 375* SIS' 612- 32500 58 900 52972 46 141 48080 48 ooo 93 78 3945' 3945* 296 300 322 360 319580 81 6857-52 8516- 579470 588066 612 coo 72 406 INDIA. I I I 1 .1 (1) -*-J fs .S *J 1. 2 "'53 OQ g 'i> Q CO O O*O wvo *-H O ThO'OCO *o ONOO oj 10 "^" ^* O*N^O O ^ O^ ^O ^O i-O M "- ON ^o os ro w O O^ vO t^*vO O w 1000 ^O O^ Tj-COt^ONt^OOOO ONO NOO -^-OOVO rf Tt-^rj-rh^Tt-Tt-TtvoiOVo^OVOiOiO rH iH i 1 i 1 1 iH O CO O 00 GO t> ^O tr* 00 O^ tr^* OO C^ O^ "^H ^O tr^~ OO O^ O^ ^O Gocqcqcqcqcqcqcococococococococo cq co tr r ^00 O-COrHOCOCO-tfl CO O COrHr- lTHrHrHrHT-li- TH ea K. A *A A "^cqoodci r^oo ON O M N ^0 ^f vo^O J>-00 ON O M N M t^t^t^t^r^t-r^t- r^oo oo co . co I | ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I "2 I VO t^CO ON O M N CO "3- iO"O t^OO ON O -< CM VO VO ^O ^O t^^ t^ l^* t*^* "* t^* t^ x^** r^* t^^ oO OO ^ oo cooooooooocooooooooocooooooocooo 4->oo .-^'o p JD s a CANALS. 407 Godavari Deltaic Works. Outlay between 1866-67 and 1881-82. Pre virus. In i8i-82 Total. i. Headworks Buildings ... 621 3 621 2. Canals and Branches Land 2 205 38 2 543 Regulators Falls and weirs Cross-drainage Bridges 4280 1728 2960 1 761 345 (-2) 4280 1728 3 305 1 759 Escapes 3027 \ */ 276 3 303 Navigation works Earthwork and miscellaneous 3. Distributaries Land 62047 59537 1 239 (~66) 155 23 61981 59692 1 V&K Works 15 750 1 191 16941 Earthwork 4. Drainage and Protective Works Land 12276 1 8^9 908 134 13274 1 Q87 Works r> OQR 1 667 6 765 Earthwork 41062 2272 43334 Total 914. QIC 7 331 999 147 *Outlayon Expired Sanctions (till 1871) 429 907 429 907 Total on Works 648 344 7331 655 675 Total on Establishment Tools and Plant Suspense Account 162 086 8545 3103 1709 876 163 795 79 4'21 3103 Total Outlay on Construction 892 078 9916 901994 Indirect Charges Simple Interest 175 734 745 090 1805 35 881 177 539 780 971 Total Capital Outlay 1 812 902 47602 1 860 504 The expenditure up to 1871 is thus given in total : Cost of Works ^429^907 Establishment 89369 Tools and Plant 51 732 Total 008 408 . INDIA. The Kistna Deltaic Works. : _ The delta commencing at Bezwada, 60 miles from the mouth, or 45 miles direct, is divided into two parts, the eastern. and the western deltas, between which the Kistna runs in an elevated channel. The maximum flood-discharge at Bezwada is 736 ooo cubic feet per second, the river there being 3 900 feet wide, emerges from between two rocky hills ; but lower down is from if to 2f miles wide. The total deltaic area is given at i 160 square miles on each bank, or 2 320 in all ; but this is probably under-estimated. In 1766, there was some irrigation in both deltas : in the eastern through the Budemer and Pulleru drainage channels, amounting to 16611 acres ; in the western through the Tunga- baddra channel and others, amounting to 2355 acres ; but this was dependent entirely on high flood, and hence precarious, the supply being taken through cuts in the river bank, above ordinary flood level. Near the close of the century, these works had fallen into disrepair, and the population was scanty. In 1792, Major Beatson proposed to restore the cultivation by building a weir at Bezwada ; but apparently the first design for this work was made by Michael Topping, who took. the needful levels in 1795. The disturbed state of the country was sufficient to prevent anything more from being done then. The famine of 1833-34 devastated the, country and drew attention to irrigation in 1835. Eventually, in 1847, Major Cotton and Captain Lake proposed a project of irrigation, and the con- struction of the Bezwada weir to a height of 12 feet above summer level, or 19 feet above the deep bed of the river. A committee afterwards recommended an increase of 4 feet in height. Finally, in "January, 1850, the Court of Directors sanctioned an expenditure of ;150 000 on the works, of which about a half was to be devoted to the weir ; construction was begun in 1852. Treating the works as divided into headworks, eastern deltaic, and western deltaic works, the expenditure on them from 1852 to 1866-7, is given in the' attached table. The whole of this amounted to about a quarter of a million sterling in 15 years, of which G6 254, with Q 434 more for establishment charges, was spent on headworks before October, 1855, when the weir was completed. In recent times 2 000 more was spent in improving them. CANALS. 409 The Headworks. The length of weir is 3 198 feet from wing towing ; its crest is 6 feet wide and placed at 15! feet above the level of the top of the foundations, which is the ordinary summer level of the river. The total width of apron below the crest wall is 257 feet. The foundations consist of a double row of wells, 7 feet deep and 4i feet in diameter. There is a set of under-sluices at each end, in all 30 vents. of 6 feet. The head-sluices at each end are of the same dimensions, but have their sills 6 feet and 5j feet below crest level at the western and eastern off-take. The crest being too low for the required supply, a temporary dry-stone wall, 4 feet high, is annually built on it, and the stone is afterwards used in annual repair to the apron. (This is probably dry-pitching of the Madras type.) In future, shutters will be used instead, 13 000 having been granted for improvements to headworks. The history of the construction of the two sets of deltaic canals, is, like, that of those of Godavari, far from interesting or instructive. The sanctions to expenditure seem to have been fitful, and the works to have been carried out in scraps, perhaps with some intention of system. But in 1862 the Government ordered a complete scheme to be drawn up for the whole of the remaining works. Colonel Anderson estimated the necessary expenditure, for works only, at 309 211. At that time the total irrigated area was 190000 acres, and the proposed works were intended to extend it to 470000. But as no complete scheme was forwarded, the matter remained in abeyance till 1876 (sic in Official Report, p. 97), owing to want of establish- ment (engineers) and other causes. In December, 1876, fresh estimates for extended works were made, but not any complete scheme. In 1876-78 8 234 was spent on extending the Kom- mamur Canal as a Famine Relief work. On February 9th, 1882, the completion estimates of the Kistna deltaic works were sanc- tioned, amounting to 647 000 ; hence the works are now in progress for completing the extended irrigation mentioned in the tabular list of channels. Nearly the whole of those channels will also be rendered navigable, in addition to the Budemeru drain, 37 miles long, in the eastern delta. The present navigable length of canals is not mentioned, but the tonnage conveyed on them was 101 446 in 1880, and 121 579 in 1881. The complete drainage works form an important part of the intended extension, at an 410 INDIA. estimated cost of ^"255 613. The supply allowed is I cubic foot per second to 66 acres of irrigation ; the details of supply through the channels are not given in the official returns ; the season and conditions of supply probably vary little from those of the Godavari works. The water rate mentioned in the returns is an average of three rupees an acre over the whole area. Kistna Deltaic Works. Details of Irrigation. Channels. Position of Head. Length. Irrigated in i876and 1874. Intended Irrigation. Miles. Miles. Acres. Acres. Eastern Deltaic Channels Main 0-64 Ellor 0-56 40- 19362 31 ooo Ryves 0*64 21-84 30 ooo 35000 Masulipatam 0*64 40*09 17 ooo 34000 Bank 4-64 (37*75) 60 ooo Pulleru 12-59 26-78 38639 no ooo Pamurru Junction 3i'25 0*50 Polraz 39'34 16-64 Bantumilli... 39'36 14-25 - 169-73 137 723 270 ooo Western Deltaic Channels Main 13' 5 Bank 8- 45'75 17868 70 coo Nizampatam 13' 27-98 21545 50 ooo Kommamur 13' 56-5 38654 80 ooo 143-22 76 067 205 ooo Total 312-95 213790 475 ooo CANALS. 411 I i ^ I s I I : II a K V ** to N N N n 00 ON O 00 t" M r-^oo O ro "^ M oo "* r-* ON M 1000 M ON ON O M M QO cqcococooocqococooo GOT l cqcq ^ 00 CO t- CO THcsjcqcqcqc>qcNcqcqcMcq CO CO CO Oi OOT-l'xHrHCq^COrHXOOiO TH O^> ^^ ^^ CO QO iH G^l 00 T~H ^O ^O O^ ON! 1^*^ CO COT IT irHiHTHi icqcqcocqcqcqco^co t O 00 O> CO O C9 CO CO i-l <* O JO CO iHiHi (THTHT-HrHrHi IT 1 s CO , CTi ^%o 1 i ICO COCqiOt- COCOt-t- CD co cO 'CO cq cq rH cq cq ^OOCAOMNfOTi- lOVO t^OO ON O M M ^ vo v o t>* t"*" t^* t^* t^** t^ t"** j> t^^* t^* oo co oo <*-. I I I I I I I I I I I I I O t^oo ON O M w ro T}- vo^o r^oo ON O M . vO ^O VO t^* t^* t"^ t^* f"^* ^* ^* ^* t^* ^* OO OO ^oooooooooooooooocooooooooooooo ^MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM o 8 CO CO 1 412 INDIA. Kistna Deltaic Works. Outlay between 1866-67 and 1881-82. Detail. Previous. In 1881-82. Total. - (i) Headivorks Works 37 ; 37 (2) Canals and Branches Land 1242 279 1521 Regulators 5442 5442 Falls and weirs 1175 1175 Cross-drainage 3953 2833 6786 Bridges ... 2142 79 2221 Escapes ... 657 45 702 Navigation works 12596 1424 14020 Buildings 293 293 Earthworks 66663 4092 70755 (3) Distributaries Land 72 5 77 Works 1386 36 1422 Earthworks 9741 (-11) 9730 (4) Drainage and Protective Works . Earthworks 305 305 Total 105 704 8782 114 486 Outlay on expired Sanctions till the end of 1866-67. 308 176 308176 Total on Works 413880 8782 422662 Total on Establishment 104 944 2485 107 429 Tools and Plant 31553 207 31760 Suspense Account ... 5531 5531 Total Outlay on Construction . . . 555 908 11474 567 382 Indirect charges 43842 554 44396 Simple interest 436 359 22466 458 825 Total Capital Outlay 1 036 109 34494 1 070 603 CANALS. 413 Kistna Deltaic Works. Expenditure on Works only before 1867. Official Year. Headworks. Eastern Delta. Western Delta. On all Works. 1852 to 1855-56 ... 66254 31258 8926 106 438 In 1856-57 ... 7835 21344 29179 1857-58 ... 5782 3909 9691 1858-59 ... 4900 1660 6560 1859-60 ... 7308 1141 8449 1860 61 ... 10318 1674 11992 1861 62 ... 7963 5195 13158 1862 63 ... 364 7419 13941 21724 1863 64 ... 8530 12214 20744 1864 65 ... 50 4397 11400 15847 1865 66 ... 790 2560 6673 10023 1866 67 ... 168 1935 7384 9487 Total ... 67 626 100 205 95461 263 292 The Pennar Deltaic Works. These works are small, the delta being only 15 miles wide. Formerly the delta below Nellor was irrigated by floodcuts, or channels supplying a number of tanks ; these were the Jafir Sahib, the Labur, Idur, and the Sarvapalli channels ; the tanks, about 40 in all, are not large ; there are four or five comparatively large. The supply from the Pennar being thus very precarious, Captain de Butts made a definite proposal in 1849 for making a weir and off-take at Nellor. In 1853 it was commenced under a sanctioned estimate for 8 555 ; it with its head-sluices were completed in 1857 at a cost of about ^9 300. It was breached in 1857, and rebuilt ; also again in 1858. Reconstruction began in August, 1859 ; the work was delayed by freshets, but was finished in March, 1 862. In 1869 some alteration was made; in 1870 it was seriously damaged by a high flood and repaired. In 1874 a flood cut a channel round its wing-wall ; and the weir was then lengthened by about 500 feet. The improvements and connections with existing channels, enlargements of tanks and extensions of embankments, were made between 1857 and 1862. Further distribution works were carried out in 1868 and in 1876, but these were connected with additional storage. The site of this weir was badly chosen, and the results proved the wasteful economy of building a weir of low cost in preference to a better and more expensive one in the first instance. 414 INDIA. The existing weir is 2 039 feet long. The old portion consists of a body-wall 9 feet high on 3 feet of solid foundation, resting on two rows of wells 9 feet deep, of 7 feet external diameter. There is no direct overfall, but a series of aprons 33 feet, 25 feet, and two of 30 feet wide, divided by retaining walls with a total fall of 9 feet ; and finally a loose stone apron 60 feet wide. The new portion of the weir has a body-wall of the same height, but with solid foundations 3! feet deep and 1 1 feet broad, resting on wells 6 feet deep ; the aprons being like those of the old portion. There is a set of under-sluices at each end, the northern set having 10 vents, and the southern set having 5 vents, alj of 5 feet each. The original head-sluices consisted of 9 vents of 6 feet broad, the additional ones of 6 vents, 10 X 3j feet each ; the sills are 8 feet below the weir crest. The whole was built on the sandy bed of a river, and at a place of contracted waterway, in order to save in length and cost. The channels are thus : Existing in 1862. Bed Width. Irrigation possible. Discharge. Actual Average Irriga- tion in 1870. 1st Crop. , 2nd Crop. Main Channels. Feet. Acres. C. f. p. s. Acres. Acres. Main canal 120 64 ooo I 087 Jafir Sahib 30 21 950 33 ooo 500 Sarvapalli Cut 54 42 050 21 OOO IOO Distributaries. Labur 21 14 ooo Idur 12 7 ooo Sarvapalli ... 41 30 5 8 Kistnapatam 14 ii 542 _ I 800 1 The outlay against expired sanctions mentioned in the table consisted of ,31 819 on headworks, and ^20 793 on channels, in all 52 612. The remunerative character of these works was not permanently established till 1877-78. The account of revenue credited seems to have been that of the collector. The area nominally commanded by these works is 64 ooo acres to the south of the river. The land to the north of the river is higher, and will be irrigated by works in course of construction at the Sangam weir across the Pennar, 20 miles above Nellor. CANALS. 415 Pennar Deltaic Works. Details of Cost of Works. Detail. Previous. In 1881-82. Total. (i) Headworks Works ... 14375 14375 (2) Canals and Branches Land ... 2731 2731 Regulators 3491 3491 Falls and weirs ... 610 610 Cross-drainage ... 1245 1245 Bridges ... 2561 2561 Escapes ... 200 200 Earthwork 17335 17335 Storage works 10369 10369 Miscellaneous, Preli- minary and small 334 334 (3) Distribution Storage works 1470 1470 Land ... 213 213 Works 1244 1244 Earthwork 1319 1319 Miscellaneous 24 24 (4) Drainage and Protective Works Earthwork 1267 1267 Miscellaneous and small 34 34 Total 58822 58822 Outlay on expired Sanctions 52612 ' U\J \J*J*J 52612 Total on Works 111 434 111 434 Total on Establishment 27858 27858 Tools and Plant 2786 2786 Suspense Account 808 ' ' 808 Total Outlay on Construction 142 886 142 886 Indirect Charges 23630 23630 Simple Interest 96023 96023 Total Capital Outlay 262 539 262 539 1 416 INDIA. Pennar Deltaic Works. Areas irrigated from 1860 to 1882. Year. ist Crop. 2nd Crop. Year. ist Crop. 2nd Crop. Year. ist Crop. 2nd Crop. Acres, Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. I 860-6 I 26 824 1 8 1867-68 48498 179 1874-75 45 66 1 443 1861-62 26524 202 1868-69 52962 372 1875-76 51367 365 1862-63 28 109 78 1869-70 54 15 196 1876-77 16531 8 1863-64 3 1 654 125 1870-71 53584 175 ! 1877-78 5 1 707 5935 1864-65 32964 121 1871-72 50747 6 9 1878-79 54291 820 1865-66 33 543 237 1872-73 5 604 182 1879-80 56 106 i 158 1866-67 46 750 190 1873-74 50820 *45 i 880-8 i 57162 549 1 1881-82 57207 658 Pennar Deltaic Works. Revenue Account after 1877. 1877-78 1878-79 1879-80 i 880-8 i 1881-82 > Total capital outlay, j exclusive of interest ) 165580 165 725 166 516 166 516 166 516 Gross direct receipts . . . 9538 9JL45 9850 10168 10272 Working expenses 3205 4740 6054 4273 4928 Net direct revenue 6333 4405 3796 5895 5344 Total direct and in- ) direct revenue . . . ) 21433 21359 22219 23063 23133 Deduction for revenue] due to former irri4 10622 10765 10812 11 330 11304 gation works j Net revenue due to the new Pennar Deltaic - 10810 10594 11407 11732 11829 works J Ditto otherwise credited 3587 3763 3872 3879 3871 Simple interest 4^ p.c. 6378 6394 6414 6430 5715 Net profit 3542 1774 1254 3344 3500 Liability of works re- } presenting total pro- > 8925 fit from beginning... ) CANALS. 417 Lower Kalarun Irrigation. There was probably irrigation from the lower reaches of the Kalarun in ancient times through the Vadavar channel and four others supplying the Veeranam tank and land in the neighbourhood of it on the north bank. But details about it are not forthcoming from official reports. The large Veeranam tank has a bank 12 miles long, and con- tains 5 400 million cubic feet ; it is doubtless ancient, and could never have been fully supplied by mere surface drainage. When Captain Cotton diverted much of the Kalarun supply into the Kavari in 1835 and 1836, by constructing the English weir at the delta-head (see Kavari Deltaic Works), and at the same time caused much silting up at that place, he endeavoured to mitigate the loss of water to existing irrigation from the lowec Kalarun, by constructing there a weir specially designed for that purpose. The lower weir was built to a height of 6 feet in 1836, and 2 feet were added in 1837 ; but in this year it was breached, in 1838 it was repaired. The estimates appear to have been 13 524 and 3 093 ; but the cost of the weir is given as 7 374. In 1856-57 the weir was extended, and a bridge made at a cost of ,15 145. In 1862 the weir was damaged again ; in 1864 much of it gave way, and it was reconstructed at a cost of 11 086 ; in 1868-69 additions were made to it costing Q 968. This weir, situated about 30 miles above Devikota, the mouth of the Kalarun, and 67 below the delta-head, consists of two parts connected by an island. The dam of the northern part is 8J feet high, in two steps each 4 feet broad, they rest on 3 feet of solid (masonry ?) built on wells 6 feet deep. The dam of the southern part is similar, but its height is less by 0*5 foot. There are two masonry aprons of a total breadth of 24 feet ; their lower ends are supported by a retaining wall resting on founda- tions like those of the dam. The northern part has 60 pairs of sluices, and the southern part the same number ; each sluice is 6 feet broad, the estimated waterway of the former being i 020 feet, of the latter I ooo feet, through sluices, and 96 feet for both through sluice arches. The linear distance occupied by the island is I 285 feet. Two new channels were made : one the North Rajah Voikal, to supply an area north of the Kalarun, before dependent on four 2 E 418 INDIA. small native channels ; the other the South Rajah Voikal, to supply a small area to the south of the Kalarun, in the north-east corner of the Kavari delta. The area dependent on the weir through the Vadavar channel and North Rajah Voikal was, in 1870-71, 74617 acres. The total area to north and south irri- gated from the weir was, from 1874 to 1880, according to the following table : 1874-75- 1875-76. 1876-77. 1877-78. 1878-79. 1879-80. Area in acres . . . 109 443 109 521 109517 108 649 120357 123412 Increase of Re- venue due to the works . . . 32505 26840 26600 31703 26045 33977 The account of these works was formerly blended with that of the Kavari deltaic works, to which they seem to be a most unfortunate adjunct, as they interfere with the carrying capacity of the main-drainage channel of the whole delta. Perhaps their abandonment would be beneficial in that respect. Considering these works, however, from a constructive point of view, their design and execution resembles a series of experi- ments to determine the theoretical weir just strong enough to stand against the conditions of the case, without any margin of safety. As such, they are exceedingly interesting and instruc- tive. Details about the various floods and minute details about the works would be valuable. The Anicuts of Madura. The Suruli, the principal tributary of the Vaiga, joining it after a course of 36 miles from Gudalur, is entirely utilised in the irrigation of the Kambam valley ; there are ten anicuts across it, with channels and tanks ; the first is situated at half-a-mile from Gudalur, whence a canal on the left bank irrigates rice lands for 5 J miles, and eventually falls into the Kambam tank ; the others irrigate a narrow strip of rice cultivation on each bank in the lower part of the Kambam valley. On the Vaiga itself are two masonry anicuts, the Perani and the Chitani, situated 22 and 18 miles respectively above the city of Madura, which are said to have been built by two favourite dancing girls, favourites of one of the Naik kings of Madura ; the channels from them are in bad order. Below the Chitani there are no dams, the slope of the ground allowing channels to be taken off without the aid of anicuts. The CANALS. 419 supply of the Vaiga is so deficient in its lower parts, in the Ramnad, that any irrigation from it is only on a very small scale. The supply of the river Gundu is very small, the local rainfall being only 18 inches yearly ; on it, east of the town of Kamudil, 1 8 miles from the sea, is an anicut large dam, made of loosely built stone ; a channel from it takes its water to the Kallavi lake. On the river Vaipar are several stone anicuts, and on its tributaries are storage tanks ; the amount of irrigation effected from these two latter rivers is unknown. The Anicuts of the Tambrapurni. There are seven anicuts on this river. The first is the Thalay anicut, just below the falls of Papanassam, it is renewed annually with stakes and brushwood ; it has two channels, one 10 miles long on the north bank, and one 6 miles long on the south, each ending in a tank. The second is the Nathiani anicut, 6 miles below the former, it is a very ancient structure, consisting of large blocks of stone placed obliquely across the river, and is 468 feet long ; only one channel flows from it, for 12 miles on the north bank which irrigates I 119 acres, yielding a revenue of l 297. The third is the great Kannadien anicut, built of cut stone, it is 9 feet high, and has a top width of 6 feet ; it has also a large rough apron varying from 35 to 1 60 feet in width ; the anicut is divided into two pieces by a rocky island. A channel from it on the south side is 22 miles long, irrigates 9 574 acres, and yields a revenue of ^"17 981 ; the Kannadien channel flows through the town of Serun-Mahadevi, 9 miles west of Tennevelli. The fourth is the Kodagan anicut, six miles below the last, it is 2 287 feet long, of cut stone roughly put together ; it has one channel from it on the north side 10 miles long, irrigating 5 433 acres, and yielding Q 106 of revenue. The fifth is the Palavur anicut, 2 miles east of the town of Serun-Mahadevi, it is 2 532 feet long, its channel on the south side is 26 miles long, supplies 54 tanks, and terminates near Palamcotta, and irrigates 2 865 acres, ' yielding 5 468. At a mile and a half below the Palavur is the sixth or Sutamelli anicut, 2 miles east of the town of Serun- Mahadevi, divided by a rock into two portions, its channel on the north side is 14 miles long, supplying two distributaries, passing through the town of Tennevelli, which irrigates i 806 acres, yielding 3 299 of revenue. 420 INDIA. The seventh anicut, 18 miles below the last, is the Murdur anicut, 27 miles from the sea ; it is of horseshoe shape, 4028 feet long, and supplies a channel on either side ; its escape weir is of beautifully cut stone work. Its channels run in and out of several large tanks, and irrigate 14400 acres, yielding a revenue of 17 700. Below this anicut are four channels, irrigating 4 280 acres, and yielding 4 980 of revenue. The total amount of irrigation effected by these native works is 39 578 acres, yielding 56 828 ; the repairs only cost I J per cent, on the revenue. The estimated amount of water from this river that is utilised for irrigation is given in the brief account of the river Tam- brapurni, page 281. The English anicut at Srivekuntam, 12 miles below Murdur, will be I 380 feet long, 6 feet high, and 7^ feet broad, founded on wells ; it will irrigate 1 5 ooo acres on the north and 1 5 ooo on the south bank, and supply Tuticorin with water ; it was com- menced in 1869, on an estimate of 83 160 ; in 1873 76 878 had been spent on construction ; it was, therefore, then probably nearly completed. In 1882-83 revised estimates were prepared for the develop- ment and completion of these works. The following represents the condition at that time : Capital Outlay. Charges Irrigation. Year. During Yea^ Total. of Year. of Year. 1st Crop. 2nd Crop. Acres. Acres. 5881-82 ... 122 445 18770 15680 1882-83 .. 1363 123 808 2563 9635 19546 17647 Palar Anicut. The narrative of these works in Chinghput and North Arkat is not available. The following figures illus- trate the condition in 1882-83 : Capital Outlay. Irrigation. Year. Charges of Year. Revenue of Year. During Year. Total. 1st Crop. 2nd Crop. Acres. Acres. 1881-82 ... 173 183 64 560 26 221 1882-83 (-13 983) 159 200 4293 11813 66 212 20 584 CANALS. 421 Pelandorai Anicut. Similarly also with these works : Year. Capital Outlay. Charges of Year. Revenue of Year. Irrigation. During Year. Total. 1st Crop. 2nd Crop. Acres. Acres. 1881-82 ... 33142 2 155 31 1882-83 ... 2212 35354 4776 527 3386 J 74 Buckingham Canal. For this work completion estimates were forwarded in 1883. The works suffered both from drought and flood in this year. The following are the figures : Year. Capital Outlay. Charges of Year. Receipts ^ of Year. Traffic. Ton Mileage. During Year. Total. 1881-82 473 349 12006 12 134 232 1882-83 15904 489 253 16155 10787 "755375 NOTE. The ton of measurement of 50 cubic feet is here adopted. Other Canals and Anicut Works of the Madras Presidency are grouped in reports with tanks and storage works as minor works of irrigation. The Anicuts of Maisur. General description of Works. The ordinary stone dam or anicut in Maisur varies from 7 to 25 feet in height, it consists of a mass of dry rubble, faced with large stones, placed on a rocky site ; the front casing of stones 3j' X ij' X i'; the rear aprons of large stone blocks 9' x 3j' X 2', each stone projecting for one- third of its length beyond that above it, or about 2 J feet ; the interstices are filled with small rubble ; these works are unstable and leaky, allowing ail the summer discharge to escape, and only supplying the channels in season of flood, when again they are easily damaged and breached ; the dams are curved and point up stream, having a length about double the width of the river, the crown is lower near the head-sluices to relieve the pressure against them in flood. The head-sluices consist of rough stone uprights, 4 or 5 feet apart with stone caps over them ; the openings being stopped with brushwood or earth filling ; they are very inefficient during floods, which frequently enter uncontrolled and make breaches. The channels are rough trenches generally following the 422 INDIA. undulation of the country, and very badly levelled and set out ; the irrigation water is taken direct from them through cuts made in their banks, the escapes for surplus water are made in the same way ; the channels suffer much from silt brought down by cross-drainage, also from breaching by the same cause ; although there are rough-stone silt dams as well as solidly constructed outlets at low levels for holding up and scouring out the silt from the channels. Results. The financial results, as shown in the tabular statis- tics, appear meagre in the extreme ; the causes being that not half the irrigated land is assessed, and that the irrigation water is surreptitiously taken. It appears that if all the irrigation were paid for, the tanks of the Maisur division would yield 56 900, and those of the Hassan division S4 450 more than the revenue collected ; or that, roughly for the whole province ;200 000 a year remains unrealised. According to paragraph 14 of Major Pearse's letter of March I4th, 1866, two British officials, Major Montgomery and Colonel Clerk, after several attempts to induce the landholders to pay for the water, were obliged to give it up. Works recently reconstructed. The Maddur anicut, on the Shimsha, is founded on rock, and is 900 feet long ; it raises the water-level 14 feet, and feeds eight tanks ; capital outlay 9 200, net returns, 4 145. The Sriramadevara anicut, on the Hemavatti, completed^in 1870, has a length of I ooo feet, an average height of 22 feet, and a delivery of 400 cubic feet per second ; outlay 35 000, estimated net returns 9 600, at a duty of 40 acres to the cubic foot per second supply, and a water rate of 1 2s. per acre ; this gives a percentage of 27 per cent, on the capital. The Marchalli anicut, on the Lachmantirth, has a length of 268 feet, and raises the water 12 feet ; outlay 2 388, estimated returns about 27 per cent. Later information is not available in 1882, as the province has passed out of British administration. CANALS. 423 The Anicuts of Maisur. Statistics for 1 8 6 4-6 5 . Aggregate Revenue Division. Rivers utilised. length of realised Channels. in Miles. 1864-65. I. Maisur ...KaVari, Lachmantirth, Shimsha, Nugu 461 24025 II. Hassan ...Ka'vari, Himavatti, Yegachi, its branches, Shimsha 232 5910 III. Kaddur ...Vadvutti, Biranji, Kirisandisamudram 148 3456 IV. Naggar ...The tributaries of the Tungabaddra 362 3791 Total ... i 203 37182 I. Abstract for the Maisur Division. Name of Anicut. Length of Measured Dis- Irrigable area at a Assessment due at the Revenue realised Channel. charge. duty of late of 153. in 40 acres. per acre. 1864-65. From the Kavari. Miles. C.ft.p.sec. Acre?. Saligram 13 40 I 600 1200 717 Mirlao 40 151 6 060 4545 1924 Chanchamcattai 24 123 4920 3690 1212 Tippur 22 83 3320 2490 616 Chikdeoraj 75 448 17920 13440 6070 Davroi 8 73 2 920 2190 468 Vijjianaddi 35 240 9 600 7200 3262 Bangardodi 9 90 3 600 2700 758 Ramasami 118 4720 3540 2369 Do 30 118 4720 3540 1287 Talkad 18 153 6 120 4590 1288 From the Lachmantirth. v Hanagod Kattai Malwadi 17 14 335 140 13400 5 600 10050 4200 239 Harganhalli 12 150 6 ooo 4500 237 Do. 17 224 8 960 6720 289 Sagar 20 498 Cholenhalli 6 148 From the Shimsha. Maddur 12 56 2 240 1680 728 From the Nugu. Lachmanpura ... 4 i35 5400 4050 704 Total , 461 2 677 107 100 80325 24025 Average per cubic ft. per 1 second of discharge ...J i 4 ^30 ~ 424 INDIA. The Anicuts of Maisur. Statistics for 1864-65 (continued?) II. Abstract for the Hassan Division. Names of Rivers. Yegachi KaVari Himavatti Branch of Yegachi . . . Shimsha Number of Number of Anicuts. Channels. Length of Channels. Revenue realised in 1864-65. Miles. 4 J 5i 472 2 53 2010 . 8 2821 4 T 4<5 2 588 i 5 19 Total 232 5910 III. Abstract for the Kaddur Division, including Chikmaglur. Names of Rivers. Number of Number of Length of Anicuts. Channels. Channels. Reelu Vedavatti Billah ... 56 i 75 i Miles. I20J 3086 23 Biranji Kirisandisamudram . . . 6 i 6 2 340 7 Total 64 82 138 3456 IV. Abstract for the Naggar Division, Shemogah and Kaddur. District. River System. ^'nkuts^ ^hannef realised in 186465. Miles. Sagar J Sheravatti ... "(Warda 46 22 8*1 14 j 878 Naggar ... Sheravatti ... IQ 75 Kaulidrug ... Tunga 7 6 2 69 Lakawali f Baddra \ Tunga 2 [ 7 J , 518 Surab ... Warda 22 406 Shikarpur J Choardi "t Warda 8 3 *4 J 183 Shemogah ... Tunga 22 63 900 Honuahalli ... Tungabaddra 3 22 Terrikerrai ... Baddra 4 2 i 5 (Warda 4 Si) Anantapur ...< Choardi ... 4 8 t 135 ( Sheravatti . . . 5 ii j Wastara ... Biranji 64 77i 600 Total 250 362 3791 425A STORAGE WORKS. > - 05 O 05 CO O5 CO ^H CO CO O O cb cb ob o cq 1 1 CO g> i-l bfl - 3 ^ v ^3 1 1 1 1 S ^ I 1 1 1 cq rH 1 1 4 ! i ** 02 o o 1 cq co o "^ o v.j^o ^o co cq I co t>- 00 CO rH 1 00 CO CO cq co CO 1 - t>- t S^oo Cf: co o co cq I 1 cq 00 S o ^ !B ^ 'a *< * >g rH CO rH Cq rH O CO rH cq <3 3 5? <-> |l|-i1 * * ;* rH CO -^ !>. cq v^co cq co cq cq rH t>" IQ u5 -^JH CO CO 38 00 1 rH 1 f -1 '~ 0o t* 66rHr^o rH w .-a 1* ^ 41 _M Jjp rH oo cq ^ t- o ^rH rH rH rH rH IO cq CO CO rH 1 to ^co I ll< O *^ H C^ J CO M Tj- N in t*vo t- rj- 10 in C^ O M M 1 1 c ^ c3 bO m .S cv 1 S^'S'd s|-g| Q oo in co vo jj M Tj- OO VO M . >. i^. 1 o ^ o *^ cJ CO o c *5 3 ^ 4> 888888 ^ vo * O O O N ^ in O co co rf ON QH N in to to N co C/} 10 co ON ON ^ ON ON vo t > * t^ ^** co M M 1 1 j* CQ s ^ ' ' ' -, ' ' 1 : : 2 'o tt 1 en s 3 4 s .00 ( M N co "^t" invo ^J 430 INDIA. 4 % > C5 CO *O VO rH rH O ^* Ttl O *O 1 O5 iO O O CO 00 ^ cq ^ ^H co rH rH | rH rH o cq 1 CO "3 & CO rH s a in CO CO O5 i i ^ O O5 ^< 00 rH CO g XO CO O5 00 rH O5 rH co co co t- cq cqrH cq cq 00 g CO "o O V ^ CO rH 05 o rH . 3* o co cq CO O5 -rH CO CO CO O CO O rH CO O rH CO 5 rH CO a %* uo ^ Cq t^ rH o t- T I ^ CO G5 O O5 cq rH cq rH rH o .2 OO 1 M II -g ON CO ON CO o o o o N o 1 a CO OO O o n. tL> W OJ C4 rH 00 o +5 d g -g 10 t^ o - N O co O co O CO - 9 *c3 i .j IO T*. t ** \D <$ O\ M VO 1 1 I S vO vo ON g N N w co 00 M N COVO IO CO IO O VO ^ vO *o M VO CO M IO IO 1 i ci vo *t WJ 10 d *-* & S H- 1 O 5 snl PtO 's^ex *N S^T H STORAGE WORKS. 433 NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. The Dehli and Gurgaon Irrigation Works. These works, con- sisting of lakes and reservoirs, have for their object the irrigation of the country south of Dehli, and in the Gurgaon and Rohtuk districts, a great deal of which is broken by small ranges of low hills. Attention was directed to these districts by the fearful famine of 1860, and the Government of the Panjab then ordered that works should be commenced to relieve the fearful destitu- tion and starvation then existing ; the country was therefore examined, and surveys and projects made by the assistant engineer in sole charge, for the construction of storage reservoirs in the Gurgaon and neighbouring districts. The larger reservoirs and artificial lakes in the Dehli districts, originally constructed by the Mughal emperors, Akbar, Firoz Shah, Aurang Shah, and Firoz Toghlak, have been reconstructed and renewed since British occupation. The natural basins in the Dehli district are ; 1. The Najafgarh Jhil, filled by the Sahib and its affluents. 2. The combined Kotila, Chandni, Malab, and Rajira Jhils. These collect the drainage of the surrounding country, and saturate the land submerged ; the water is then drawn off by escape channels, and the beds of the jhils are cultivated. The superintendence of these works was originally under Mr. Batty. The artificial reservoirs, twenty-four in number, are formed by damming streams and brooks, or outfalls of natural lines of drainage ; they have weirs and escape channels ; irrigation is thus given to the lands above the embankment, which are cultivated after submersion, and to lands below by means of the supply given through the channels. The names of these reservoirs, forming a separate charge, were : In the Dehli District. 1. Tilpat. 5. Khirki. 2. Palam. 6. Naryanah. 3. Yahia Nagar. 7. Toghlakabad, No. i. 4. Chattarpur. 8. Toghlakabad, No. 2. In the Gurgaon* District. 6. Raisinah. 7. Bar Gujar. 8. Dahina. 9. Nand Rampur Bas. 9- 10. Bijwasan. Aurangpur. u. Ambarheri. 12. Badli. 10. Bahari. ii. 1. Tharsa. 2. Gwalpahari. 3. Ghatta. 4. Pattri Katal. 5. Kala. * NOTE. In more correct spelling, this is Gurgariw. Jhand Sarai. 12. Garhi Harsaru. 73. Banarsi. 432 INDIA. Besides the above-mentioned, the others affording irrigation, but not paying water rate, were : Dehli District. Talkatora. Naryanah. Malcha. Mahpalpur. Harjokri Shikargah. Basantnagar. Hauzkhas. Humayunpur. Saltanpur. Also at some of the places and villages mentioned there are two reservoirs ; and some of these supply irrigation to lands in two districts. Both the jhils and the storage reservoirs are entirely dependent for their supply on the annual rainfall, and many of them being shallow, the loss from evaporation is very great : unfortunately also, several of the reservoirs constructed in and shortly after 1 86 1 were very defective, both in level and in alignment, their construction having been entrusted to native clerks of the collectors' law courts, in preference to the engineer that pro- jected them, who was the author of this book. Some of these dams were of equal height from the ground, that is, of vary- ing crest level; others were serpentine in plan, following village boundaries in alignment ; these specialities, as well as others more curious, being due to Mr. Ford, Deputy Com- missioner of Gurgaon. Even under these extreme disadvantages, the works paid in 1872-3 as much as loj per cent, although the water rate was increased only two years before. Of the total acreage irrigated in 1872-73, 10 919 acres were under crops, three-quarters of which were wheat, and 168 acres in grass; 7666 acres being supplied by the reservoirs, and 3 421 acres by the natural jhils. The estimated value of the crops of the year was 40 207, irrespective of the plantations, which at present consist of 14300 trees. Later returns for 1868 to 1878 are given. In 1870 the Tilpat reservoir was removed to make way for the Agra Canal works. Possibly most of the rest became subsidiary to them after 1878 ; but there is no account of it available. The works are, according to figures, not very remunerative ; this was partly due to the interference of civil officials, collectors and magistrates, both with the arrangements for original construction and with those of payment for irrigation. STORAGE WORKS. 433 One of them was so aligned as not to retain any water at all perhaps others did. The water rates appear to have been fixed not on fair principles, but at will, at rates of 3 annas and 6 annas an acre, or fivepence to tenpence. At other places, where natives were the real, not the nominal landholders, the rates have been fixed by the collectors at one-fourth the produce generally, or at a half on waste land irrigated and leased. The only remedy for such difficulties would be to forbid British officials from holding land anywhere in India, either in their own names or the names of natives ; and to subject them to instant dismissal for breach of this rule, or for neglecting to aid in introducing irrigation proposed by competent persons. The actual income from these works principally consisted in an enhancement of land revenue of 2 453, which was per- manent for several years about 1870 ; and in results from sales of timber and grass, the actual water rate being small. Dehli and Gurgaon Storage Works. Later Returns. Year. Capital Account. Repairs and Working Expenses. Gross Total Income. Irrigation. Annual Rainfall. Acres. Feet. 1868-69 3 6 3 1*34 1869-70 18383 1214 9746 1-64 1870-71 18383 1779 2873 8391 1-38 1871-72 18383 1152 2971 7794 I'37 1872-73 18383 1096 3019 ii 087 1873-74 18341 1413 3214 16 533 1874-75 18 341 2376 2928 9428 1875-76 18341 1258 433 8414 1876-77 18341 1230 455 933 1877-78 18341 490 649 2 098 ~ NOTE. The discrepancies are due to new mode of account. 2 F 434 INDIA. K | I L, ^ I ^ ^ Q 5 .. I I I i | P O, 3 I & G R Increased Land Revenue. *^f M t-^ OsO to u~3 :::::: ^ O O O O O O O ^ M M Q M M O M 10 t^. M O to^O M rt* t^. 3 1 I S "^ TV ^ ^ ^ ^ J 1 I l-O O <-O lO ^t" VO OO tO - - W M VO t OO a 00 t IOOO o ^ ^^ cO *O O t^* w O ^*^ t^ CO M ' ^^^ ^~ n t>* CO ^^ rH C^l O^I G^ "'d'i CO Ot) ^^ r^ CO ^O T IT icqcqcqcqcqcqcqcqcocococo o g, ^^ iOCDOt^OOrHT l^liOQO^OCqcO CJ^r- 1 Cq r- ICOCOCOT-liOQOt-CO COCOCO O^cq O t- O> rH CO O t* Q CO O CD CO co OCOi 1 CD '(7^1 t>- Cq t- OCDCMt-COOiCOOOCqt-THCDO COiHr- IrHrH^OOO^OOOOOOO ^HiOiOiOO^T IT "3* S> r_J VOOOt^COONONMVO si uMou^un ^unouiy u b/) i 1 . g "G i . s ^s^sas^s JJ i Q pO IO t- i-O ON t^ lOOO CO ^ 11 t "E o M r-.vo o VO t^ ON ^t" co M O *-i rG MMCON^COCO g* cs c 1 . C o tC ^J ^ H-. -43 *- rt 1 "K 5 UD as TH o co cq cq o o * R n >5 Ji 1 t/J "5 - j CD 00 rH CD ^ 0> 00 fr* 1 & is o Q ^ rH rH 1! 3 13 Q a S ^ H 1 1 3 ^ . OrHCOCOOvOxOCO * QJ *f"l u| cq co io co t- t^ t- J & H'S '* MOVO *-00 ON M N ro iS evo v ? v ?i i f T l^TT" t^ .Vi^OOCOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO u 138 INDIA. I . txi 1 I V J t . lO^ CO^ iHT r-T t s O5 lO^ oo^ rH co 10 c 75 l| PH 1 CO 1O rH O Cq S2 CO CO -^ "^ 1O CO rH CO rH CO rH 1 1 v-L' > F ~*s a >, p O co' t- cq co t- N$ cq rH rH cq cq co CO CO CO CO CO CO t- co CO CO CO CO CO CO t- O C co o c CO CO C >q % w ij t _ 1 1O CO O5 1O O5 $ rH 00 rH 1O C O"i TJH "^ ^H ^l ^ J- !L JL >* cq rH cq rH Cq C ^q $ g 10 10 10 10 o o S2 10 10 10 10 co co 8 8 g CO CO C^ T 1 O C 3( 3 cq cq cq cq rH rH rH rH rH rH O Direct Revenue. ,i|rm cq rH CO 10 CO rH CO CO a CO rH C. O5 O O cq TH ^ D I &H o t ot> co co !s ^9 1 cq '^^ t cq co 10 10 t co co o O5 10 t- co S o o co c cq cq c o 10 * n l> H . cq cq cq cq c I Si v.) 1 10 o -^ 10 10 ^< 1 05 cq -rtH cq cq cq g CO cq 05 cq O^ O5 O cq cq c A q CO t- t- 00 CO CO CO 00 00 co co a D 1.1 , . 10 O 00 b- >^ 1O OO CO rH 1 10 1 1 | | rt c *o os cq co 'i ... ... M CJ CO ^J" IO ^^ oo ON M M C o 1 III! O M N co rf 10 I VO 1 1 CO ck I i M C >q co co co co oo co CO oo oo 00 oo co c* 5 STORAGE WORKS. 439 SOUTHERN INDIA. The Tanks of tJie Central Provinces and of Bardr are, like those of Bombay, comparatively few and generally of small size ; the Kanhan reservoir project, which involves a storage reservoir covering 41 square miles, a main canal 142 miles long, and minor channels of 400 miles in the aggregate, is still not com- menced. In Barar, a fertile cotton producing province that would gain enormously from the advantages of irrigation, the tanks are few, small, and in a neglected condition : it was at one time imagined that any large storage projects for irrigation in this province would be perfectly impracticable owing to the configuration of the country; yet in 1870, three large storage reservoirs were proposed at Donad, Balapur, and Akola, as well as several smaller ones, by a civil engineer appointed by the Government of India. Most of these detailed projects were then set aside by the provincial head of the Public Works Depart- ment, a military man incapable of judging about matters of irrigation. In this province the opposition of the magistrates to irrigation was so great that they turned out a civil engineer from a rest-house, while helpless from choleraic attack, in the hope of ending him. Under more enlightened auspices, Barar would have become a well irrigated and permanently prosperous province. Between 1872 and 1878, the irrigation department of Barar having been abolished, the larger projects were set aside ; but some of the smaller projects, as well as a few village tank restorations, were carried out by an assistant under the buildings department of Public Works. These were : Buldana Chikalda Karinja Sindkher Yotmal Tallagaon Arali Wun Shiagaon Fattahkalda Kayar Kutasa Ambona Chatwan Kher Gossir Rissod Rel Some small dams were also made at Akola and Balapur, in 1873; but not in accordance with the larger projects before mentioned. The Nalganga and Wagdo large projects were not even attempted on the petty scale of village tanks ; which the obstructive tax collectors usually permit. Since 1878, the construction and restoration of village tanks have entirely ceased ; and no irrigation works have since been attempted in Barar until 1883, or later. 440 INDIA. The Tanks of the Bombay Presidency are comparatively few, and there is little information about them available in 1872. In the district of Nimar in the Narbada Valley, is the lake of Lachma, a tank three miles in circumference ; this with 105 other tanks have been restored since the British occupation. The Chuli tank on the Chuli ravine, and the Mandleshwar tank on the Chapra, both in the Narbada territory, were restored in 1846 by Captain Trench. In Gujrat a reservoir project, in connection with the Tapti, intended to irrigate 194000 acres, was being carried out in 1872. In Khandesh, a storage reservoir in the Girna Valley, and the Mukti reservoir, near Dhulia, were then being constructed : the latter has a catchment basin of 50 square miles, which, with a rainfall of i6J inches, will collect 477 million cubic feet, of which the tank will hold about 346 millions. The Hartola tank, in the same district, was nearly completed in 1872. In Dharwar, the Madak tank had recently been constructed.; and some storage works in the valley of the Yerla, a tributary of the Krishna, were being made in 1872. The Ekruk tank on the Adila, a tributary of the Bhima, in the neighbourhood of Sholapur was completed in 1869, and supplied water for irrigation in 1871. The Mutha tank has been included among canals ; also the Mukhti and the Pingli tanks. (See Canals of the Bombay Presidency.) The irrigation from tanks in 1882 is shown in the two following tables. Details of the Ekruk scheme, the largest of them, are given separately. The Larger Tanks of the Bombay Presidency. Irrigation in 1882. District. Tank. Com- manded. Irrigable. Irrigated. Gross Receipts in 1882-83. Acres. Acres. Acres. Khandesh . . . Hartala 584 527 IOI 8 Mhasva 4 647 2 145 187 112 Ahmadnagar Bhatodi 15 126 12 124 I 023 176 Puna Matoba 10 700 7 133 I 932 494 Kasurdi 597 478 160 23 Shirsuphal . . . 4 5 2 500 200 12 Bhadalwade... i 900 I 520 131 34 STORAGE WORKS. 441 The Larger Tanks of the Bombay Presidency (continued}. District. ; Tank. Com- manded. Irrigable. Irrigated. Gross Receipts in 1882-83. Acres. Acres. Acres. , Sholapur Koregaon ... 17 Ashti 15 6 32 13 459 248 95 Ekriik 17 149 i5 3i8 I 306 820 Satara Nehr 8 510 7 i59 749 435 Maini 4876 4 625 742 429 Dharwar Dambal Mavinkop . . . 3 955 3885 21 58 85 Gadikere 371 Madag ... ... 2 2 55 i 730 482 210 Kalala ... ... Total ... 7 282 3379 i Tanks Collectively under Supervision of Collectors. Collectorate. No. of Tanks. Irrigation. In 1882-83. Gross Receipts in 1882-83. Ahmadabad Kaira ... 108 I 671; Acres. 8782 15 754 Acres. 10 368 8 301 1218 3019 Broach Surat 20 I 641 768 17 848 10 872 4725 Nasik Khandesh Ahmadnagar ... Puna . . . . 889 94 2 6 39 490 ii 584 146 <66 27 641 8 945 148 464 14929 5580 33 422 Sholapur Satara ... IOT I 1 925 9 .89 34 Belgaum Dharwar Kaladgi Kanara ... ... ... Ratnagiri 1 55 3 150 32 226 3 *5 999 no 176 i 372 24 512 i 105 7768 61 678 890 i 105 2363 11511 250 499 Total 9003 250 117 138 269 44584 44-2 INDIA. The Eknik Tank. The following are the data of the original project, which was carried out by. F. D. Campbell, Esq., C.E. Catchment area 141 square miles, minimum annual rainfall 12 inches; flood discharge of Adila River 37000 cubic feet per second ; a flood lasting five days gives 1 1 ooo cubic feet per second ; fall of Adila River 7 feet per mile, or I in 754. Area of reservoir 6^ square miles, maximum depth 60 feet. Contents of reservoir 2 222 millions cubic feet = 6J inches over catchment area. Calculated maximum velocity over waste weir 10 feet per second. Waste weir discharge 250 x 5 X 10 = 12 500 cubic feet per second. Total length of dam 7 200 feet, including 2 730 feet masonry. Maximum height of earthwork 72 feet, or 7 feet above flood line. Height of masonry 3 feet above highest flood, exclusive of 3 feet of parapet above. Evaporation of 7 feet deep during eight months 750 millions cubic feet. Unutilised residue in bottom of tank 20 millions cubic feet It has three canals of discharge. i. The lowest, perennial 28 miles long ; its head is 20 feet above the level of the bottom of the tank, having a discharge of 44 cubic feet per second, an area irrigable from it of 25 square miles, 8 months, 912 millions cubic feet. ii. The next for a four months' supply, 18 miles long, having a discharge of 42 cubic feet per second, an area irrigable from it of 21 square miles, 4 months, 435 millions cubic feet. iii. The next for a four months' supply, 4 miles long, having a discharge of 21 cubic feet per second, an area irrigable from it of 10 square miles, 4 months, 217 millions cubic feet. The discharge of one four months' channel will be compensated by the mansun supply. The duty of water for rice alone is fixed at 96 acres per cubic foot per second, and that for all crops together at 1 50. Acreage under command, 35 840 acres. The water rate for perennial crops is 16s., and that for one season crops 8s. The calculated cost of the works was .100 937, including 15 per cent, for establishment ; the probable gross revenue will be eventually 11 820, and the cost of maintenance 2 323, at STORAGE WORKS. 413 3 per cent, on the outlay ; this will yield a net revejme of 9 491, or 9 per cent, on the capital expended. The Tanks of Haidarabad are extremely numerous, the whole of the eastern portion of this state, which consists of black cotton soil, is thickly studded with them. They are all of the Madras type, similar to those of the neighbouring districts of Karnul and Ballad, and were in a very bad state of repair in 1870. There are also a few large artificial lakes, as, for instance, the Hosen Sagar near Sikandarabad, and traces of others, that at one time must have supplied a large amount of irrigation. There is unfortunately no information available as to their number or effective power, Kaidarabad being an independent state extremely jealous of external interference. Latterly, how- ever, about 1871, the Nizam had engaged the services of two or three English civil engineers, and it is hence very probable that he then commenced the repair and reconstruction of these tanks with the view of re-developing the irrigation of his province. Since then a permanent Public Works Department has been maintained, and though its efficiency has been much marred by native intrigue and parsimony, important results have been achieved. Details are not available. The Tanks of the Madras Presidency are exceedingly numerous, and some of them are of immense size. They were made under the auspices of the Telingi rajahs. It is said that in the fourteen districts of Madras there are 53 ooo tanks, having probably 30000 miles of embankments, and 300000 separate masonry works, weirs, and escapes, yielding a revenue of 1 500 000, and having a capital sunk in them of 15 millions sterling ; yet in 1853 not one new tank had been made by the English, while a very large proportion of them had been allowed to fall into disrepair. The Viranam tank, a very ancient work, in Tanjor, has an area of 35 square miles, and an embankment 12 miles long; it is still in full operation, and secures an annual revenue of 1.1 453. The Chembrambakam tank in Chingliput resembles a large natural lake, its embankment is more than 3 miles long, and it has six waste weirs with a total width of 676 feet of escape ; it supplies 10000 acres of rice cultivation. This tank was enlarged in 1867, at a cost of 41 000, In 1882-83 its capital account had reached 62 454 ; and the revenue for the year 444 INDIA. was ;3 265, the irrigation being 12763 acres of first crop, and 3 216 acres of second crop. The Madrantakam tank in Chingliput yielded a gross return in 1872 of ,\ 697, and a net return of 1 607 on a capital outlay, probably spent in repairs or reconstruction, of 2 248. The Kavari-pak tank in North Arcot is also of great antiquity ; it is fed from the Paler River, and has an embankment nearly 4 miles long, reveted with stone along its entire length ; it irrigates about 7700 acres. In 1872 its banks were much damaged by an extraordinary flood, and some repairs were therefore made. In the deltas of the large rivers of Madras there is a large number of tanks, the irrigation from which is mixed up with that from the deltaic canals in the official reports and returns. These have ceased to be storage works in the proper sense, having become distributing tanks ; but there are many other large tanks that have not been transformed, about which there is no separate detailed information available. In 1869, the author of this book was deputed by the Govern- ment of India to visit them and collect information, but was so soon transferred to other work that the results were small. The irrigation from the Madras tanks in 1882 is given collec- tively in the following table : STORAGE WORKS. 445 Madras Presidency. Tanks and Minor Works of Irrigation, collectively. Collectorate. Imperial Works. Minor Works. Irrigation 1882-83. Total Irrigation Revenue. Irrigation 1882-83. Total Irrigation Revenue. 1st Crop. 2nd Crop. 1st Crop. 2nd Crop. Acres. Acres. 4 Acres. Acres. Ganjam 82476 74 13035 112 280 908 13576 Vizagapatam ... 28 911 64.11 18763 5253 Godavari 32326 895 4480 31 146 5 2 5 3168 Kistna 22 274 35 5764 16 231 66 4418 Nellur 118 200 6379 41087 33i88 2924 10256 Kadapa* 53584 1 6 600 24162 123 211 31 224 41145 Karnul 19 842 6 670 9688 23875 4 048 7883 Ballari 28 963 ii 119 16059 24347 7482 7023 Anantapur 28871 7405 10582 5 340 13627 15916 Chinglipat 198661 35676 50999 126933 17867 27532 South Arkat*... 212534 20 382 65727 I 4 2 843 15306 42203 North Arkat . . . 96477 22 844 33937 141 611 54162 50177 Salem 21 926 19932 10475 75 246 67 926 25086 Koimbatur 88371 4 3^2 51885 10 810- 3268 4150 Tan j or* 40750 2 603 10017 32089 i 809 6014 Trichinopalli ... 67572 26 107 22572 64 049 20332 16863 Madura 89 298 4853 24580 68547 26399 12942 Tinnevelli 129 369 104777 103 198 68881 37 i34 37080 Old Works ... 13220 Total I 360 405 370410 517 887 i 165 389 305 006 330 686 Grand Total ... 2 525 794 675416 848 563 Land Revenue 318 304 Total Revenue ' 1 166 867 * These figures are approximate. 446 INDIA. The Tanks of Maisur are of native origin ; they are exceed- ingly numerous, the whole country being amply supplied with irrigation by many series or chains of them ; they are, however, owing to the configuration of the country, of small size, excepting in a few cases. They are in a very deteriorated condition, and have suffered greatly from silting up and want of repair and good management. The large amount of water utilised in tanks in Maisur, is indicated in the tables of the rivers of that 'province. It is unfortunate that the irrigated acreage due to tanks and anicuts are inseparably mixed in official records. Maisur, although it is a plateau elevated from 2 ooo to 3 ooo feet above mean sea level, has, with the exception of the Mulnad or rainy tracts of the Western Ghats, a small amount of rainfall, thus forcing water storage as an absolute necessity on its population ; it, on the other hand, has the disadvantages of a sandy, and hence leaky soil, and comparatively steep surface slopes, the longitudinal slopes varying from 10 to 20 feet per mile in the flatter portions, and 60 to 80 in the steeper portions of the country, and more rapid transverse slopes ; the former enhancing the cost of storage, the latter diminishing the breadth of irrigation from the channels of distribution. Stone is abundant, and is worked into rough forms, though too hard to be dressed for ordinary work. It is a gneiss of horizontal cleavage, which splits into sheets 3 to 24 inches thick, and 25 to 35 feet long, and is excellent for slabs and pillars, too hard to be dressed for ordinary work. For pitching, natural boulders are used, which are generally very round. Clay, on the other hand, is very rare ; and lime is generally to be found only at great distances, and is hence often dispensed with in anicuts and overfalls, which are made to depend for stability on the size and position of the boulders. Description of an average Maisur Tank. Length of dam \ to \\ miles ; 18 feet high, 12 feet top breadth, 60 feet base. Front revetment of rough stone, with a batter of I to 2, its facing 1*5 to 3 feet thick backed with the same thickness of loose rubble ; sluices I to 3 to each tank ; section of vent 2\ feet x 2 feet, length 30 to 1 20 feet, form of section sometimes barrel-shaped, sometimes rectangular; they lead off from the lowest point in the tank. Inlet cistern 3 feet high, 6 feet square, outlet cisterns the same ; plug pole and gibbed stones for orifice; escape weirs STORAGE WORKS. 447 I to 4 for each tank, 30 to 300 feet wide, made of the largest stones, water front 3 to 9 feet deep ; dam stones 3 feet apart, 4i feet high, which when dammed give 2 feet more water ; wing- walls 3 to 6 feet high, converging and afterwards diverging ; tail paved either sloping for a long distance or horizontal ; a lower stone wall is sometimes placed across the tail at some distance off to intercept some of the escape water, which is taken off by a channel. Earlier Returns. In 1853 there were 6450 tanks in Maisur, of which 4 106 were large irrigating reservoirs, 13 737 small, and 8 609 un irrigating, i.e., in a useless condition ; giving about I effective tank per square mile in the gross ; the area of Maisur being 27 269 square miles, of which 60 per cent, is under the tank system. In the seven districts of Kolar, where there are moderate conditions of rainfall, and no very large reservoirs, there were 3 611 tanks, of which 2 950 were irrigating, giving ro7~tanks to a square mile, and an approximate average quantity of wet cultivation of 10 acres to each tank. In the comparatively rainless tract, comprising portions of six districts, on which the annual rainfall varies between 10 and 20 inches, there were I 009 tanks, giving 0*31 irrigating tanks per square mile, and 2*5 acres of wet cultivation as an average to each tank. After that time a certain amount of money was spent in repairs. In 1 866, how- ever, the Executive Engineer of the Bangalur Division had reported that fully half the tanks under his charge were breached ; in Chittaldrug 285, or one-third of the recorded number, were out of order; in Tomkur, 530 out of I 124; in Shemugah, 2496 out of 4520; and in the Maisur Division, 705 out of 1409. Hence, it appears, that there were in all about I 500 larger tanks requiring repair at a rate of ;300 each, and 3 oop smaller at ;150, and that a total outlay of ,900 000 was necessary to put them in good order. In 1872-73 as many as 249 tanks were breached. The Irri- gation Department of Maisur is now dealing with the matter gradually, by bringing the tanks up to a certain standard of repair, and then handing them over to the superintendence of the tax collectors ; by these means it is hoped that the tanks of Maisur will be economically brought into good condition. Among the very large reservoirs requiring special notice, are the Naggar Sulikerrai, on the river of that name, which has a 448 INDIA. margin of about 40 miles, and an embankment I ooo feet long, 84 feet high, and 600 feet breadth of base ; the Maddak tank on the Vedavatti, whose embankment is I 220 feet long, and 90 feet high, having a breadth of base of 660 feet ; and the Motitalao, on a feeder of the Lokani, having an embankment 1 17 feet high, 225 feet long, and a breadth of base of 375 feet. These are in specially favoured situations, between two hills guarding the outlets of large valleys. The proposed Mauri Kunawai and Kumbarkattai reservoirs have similar sites. Later information in 1882-83 ls n t available, as the province is now under native administration as an independent state. Maisur Tanks. Catchment Areas. River Basin. Total Length of main Rivers with their Afflu- ents. Drainage Area unin- tercepted by Tanks. Drainage Area inter- cepted by Tanks. Total Area of each Catchment Basin. Proportion of whole Area under the Tank system. I. Kistna River ... Miles. 6n Sq. miles. 4814 Sq. miles. 6 217 Sq. miles. 11031 Percentage. 56 II. Palar 47 I 036 I 036 100 III. Penner 167 334 I 946 2280 85 IV. Pennar 32 222 1319 I 541 85 V. Kavari 646 5526 5 769 II 295 5i VI. Western Coast rivers Totals for Maisur and Kurg 103 i 181 !88i o i 606 12777 16287 29 064 56 Deduct for Kurg ... Total for Maisur only ... 1 795 1 795 i 516 10 982 16 287 27 269 60 STORAGE WORKS. 449 Maisur Tanks. Irrigation and Outlay. Period. Under wet and Garden Cultivation. Expenditure on Repairs other than the Astagram Channels. Average yearly Outlay. From 1837-38 to 1841-42 Acres. I 705 150 47018 9404 1842-43 ,, 1846-47 ... i 849 759 43225 8645 1847-48 ,, 1851-52 ... 2 087 929 58644 11729 1852-53 1856-57 ... 2 160 309 70021 14004 1857-58 ,, 1861-62 25 years' total outlay 2 169 040 80762 16152 299 670 11987 25 years onchannel repairs 25 years on tanks only 57537 2301 242 133 9686 450 INDIA. STORAGE WATERWORKS OF INDIAN CITIES. BOMBAY. The Vahar Reservoir, by Henry Conybeare and Walker. Bombay was the first of the Indian cities to carry out for itself waterworks on a modern system, and call in the aid of English civil engineers to design and superintend their execution. In 1854 Mr. Henry Conybeare determined that the Vahar basin, in the valley of the Goper, was adequate to the collection and storage of all the water that would be required for Bombay for some years ; the works were therefore confined to the formation of one artificial lake, and their execution entrusted to Mr. Walker, as Resident Engineer, in 1856. The catchment area was 3 948, and was capable of being extended by catch- water drains to 5 500 acres ; the annual rainfall 124 inches, of which it was calculated that six-tenths or 74-4 inches would be available, would in these cases supply 6 600 millions, or 9 ooo million gallons. The storage capacity allowed was 10 800 million gallons ; deducting from this the loss from evaporation, which at 6 inches per month for the eight dry months of the year, would amount to I ooo million gallons, the available supply would be 9 800 millions. As the annual rainfall on the gathering grounds greatly exceeded the annual consumption of Bombay, it was evident that the water would continue to rise in the lake from the commencement to the end of the rains, or for three months, leaving only nine months' consumption to be provided for. Hence, the reserve allowed in the lake was equal to 9 800 3 700=6 100 million gallons, at an allowance of twenty gallons per head per day for a population of 700000 during nine months, and was thus nearly equal to two years' supply. When filled up to the level of the waste weir, the maximum depth of the Vahar Lake is 80 feet ; it covers an area of i 394 acres, and stands 180 feet above the general level of Bombay. The three dams by which the water in the lake is impounded, are respectively 84, 42, and 49 feet in extreme height, and 835, 555, and 936 feet in extreme length at the top, and they altogether contain the following quantities as totals : earthwork 406066 cubic yards; puddle, 55059; broken stone under STORAGE WORKS. 451 pitching, i 983 cubic yards ; and pitching, 53 617 square- yards. The top width of dam No., I, which carries a road, is 24 feet, and that of the two others 20 feet ; the inner slope of all three embankments is 3 to i, the outer 2j to I ; the embankments were specified to be formed in regular layers less than 6 inches thick, watered, punned, and consolidated. The puddle walls are 10 feet wide at the top, and batter i in 8 ; the trenches for foundations were excavated through the surface rock and past all surface springs into the solid basalt below ; the slopes and tops of the dams were covered with 1 2 inches of stone pitching over 12 inches of broken stone. The waste weir is 358 feet long, and has a top width of 2O feet, faced with ashlar. The water is drawn from the reservoir through a tower, provided with four inlets, at vertical intervals of 1 6 feet, having a diameter of 41 inches, and provided with conical plug seats faced with gun-metal the plugs being suspended from a balcony, and worked by cranes at the top of the tower. The inlet in use is surmounted by a wrought-iron straining cage, covered with No. 30 gauge copper-wire gauze, and fixed to a conical ring, fitted into the inlet orifice in the same manner as the plugs, and equally capable of being raised or lowered at pleasure : the strainer has a surface of 54 square feet. The strainer is so affixed to the cage as to admit of its being changed in ten minutes from a boat, and a plug substituted for the cage. At the bottom of the inlet well, and exactly over the entrance to the main, is another conical seat, into which a similar straining cage, having a surface of 90 square feet of No. 40 gauge copper-wire gauze is inserted. The objects of this arrangement were to utilise the whole head of water, including that due to the depth of the lake, which would have been lost had the water been strained at the outside foot of the dam ; and to avoid the use of heavy sluice-valves, in positions in which it would be difficult to get at them. Without this, the utmost head obtainable would have been insufficient for a distribution by gravitation alone. No filtration arrangement nor sludge- pipe were considered necessary. The supply main traversing the dam is 41 inches interior diameter, and its metal if inches thick : it is laid in a level trench excavated in the rock and filled with concrete : the portion traversing the puddle trench is supported on ashlar set in 452 INDIA. cement, puddled to a depth of 6 inches, and then arched over with four rings of brick in cement ; two teakwood washers being affixed transversely on the pipes to prevent any water from passing between the pipes and the puddle. At the sluice- house, situated at the outside foot of the dam, the large main, 41 inches in diameter, bifurcates into two mains, each 32 inches, which continue for a distance of nearly 14 miles to Bombay. The supply is distributed through the town by branch and street mains in the usual way : the hydrants are self-closing, and of a design that admits of their closing either with or against the water pressure, the counterweights being adjusted to the resistances at the various levels of the town : the sluice- valves, 32 inches diameter, are so constructed as to be capable of being closed or opened under the severest pressure, with a very trifling exertion of force ; the smaller valves are on Underhay's system, which admits of the removal of the valve seat and valve, without disturbing the laying of any portion of the mains. The water is delivered under a pressure of from 165 to 1 80 feet. The actual delivery of water commenced in March, 1860. The original estimate of these works was ^"250000; their cost, including interest, was ^655 000. The result was a supply of excellent water to Bombay of 8 ooo instead of 9 800 million gallons daily, bringing in an annual revenue of ^"38 000. At present, in 1873, when the population has increased to 800000, the supply per head amounts to only 10 gallons daily, and an additional supply is required. Various projects, having this object in view, have been proposed by Mr. Russell Aitken, Captain Hector Tulloch, and Mr. Rienzi Walton, C.E., municipal engineers, and a very large amount of time has been spent in discussing them. MADRAS. The Cholavetam and Red Hill Reservoirs. For Water Supply and Irrigation by W. Fraser. The original estimate of the works was as follows : i. A dam across the Cortelliar Stream 3170 ii. A channel with the head and other sluices, bridges, and other requisite works, for 8J miles from the dam to Cholaveram tank 2206 STORAGE WORKS. 453 iii. The enlargement of this tank by raising its embank- ments 18 feet 15239 iv. A channel 2| miles from the Cholaveram to the Red Hill tank, with sluices, bridges, and other works .... 6596 v. The enlargement of this tank by raising its embank- ments 15 feet 11793 vi. A channel from Red Hill tank to the Spur tank in Madras, with sluices, bridges, and other works ... 2 803 Sundries, compensation, superintendence ... .., ... 13348 63693 In consequence of alteration of design and increase of rates the subsequent revised estimate amounted to ^104 264. The dam as erected was 469 feet long, and 6J feet high at crest, resting on a solid foundation 4 feet deep, on the top of a double row of wells 9 feet deep, which were carried down to a clay stratum ; the body wall was made of laterite. The head sluices consisted of ten vents 5' X 8' high, having piers and abutments 3 and 5 feet thick, built on 9 feet wells and 3 feet foundation connected with the dam ; the sill of sluices is 6 feet below the crest of the dam ; these works are made of dressed gneiss and laterite. Supply channel 8J miles long, inclination 2 feet per mile, bottom breadth 30 feet, slopes I J to i, berms 15 feet each, the ordinary excavated soil to be used for embank- ments in low places ; intended supply 2 700 million cubic feet in 35 days. Cholaveram Lake dam as existing I mile long, extended and raised 18 feet on hills of laterite and gravel ; escape weir 200 feet long made to discharge 94 million cubic feet, or a quantity equal to the total capacity of lake up to sill in twenty- four hours, with a depth of discharge on sill not exceeding 12 inches ; this quantity is assumed, because these tanks have been filled in twenty-four hours of mansun in extreme cases. Supply channel in laterite, which can be utilised, section as before, fall 3 feet per mile. Red Hill Lake embankments 9 ooo feet long, only slightly extended, as the ground rises rapidly, and raised 15 feet. In reconstructing the embankments, the old work is stepped and the new earth laid in thin layers, sloping inwards, the puddle 454 INDIA. wall is carried up simultaneously, outside which is a 1 2-inch layer of gravel and stones, and beyond that 1 8-inch stone pitching. Surplus weir 400 feet long, to discharge and keep the surface down to 2f feet above sill : two irrigation sluices, and the head sluices aid in this ; these are similar to those for the Chokveram Lake. Bridges 14 road bridges; 7 foot and cattle bridges; 12 siphon culverts for under drainage and irrigation. Data of -Supply. The Cortelliar gives 450 millions of cubic yards in 30 to 40 days of mansun ; its small summer channel is perennial. Drainage area 770 square miles ; the above mansun yield of which is only 6 inches over the surface, or about one- fifth the downfall. Two other streams also yield 540 million cubic feet per annum, which is also intercepted. The Chola- veram Lake formerly held 91 million cubic feet, but when raised will hold 983 millions cubic feet. The Red Hill Lake formerly held 553 millions cubic feet, and now 2754 million cubic feet ; the two together 3 737 million cubic feet ; this, after deducting the amount of water to which the Mirasidars have a right, will leave 2 522 million cubic feet; of this amount 162 millions will be used to irrigate 8571 acres of rice, at I 890 ooo per acre, yielding ;600 at 14s. per acre, and 891 millions for water supply. Assuming that the population of Madras will increase from 170000 to 500000, and will require a supply of 20 gallons per head daily, their wants will not exceed 594 million cubic feet per annum. The distribution of the town supply from the Spur tank forms a separate municipal undertaking ; the municipality of Madras agreeing to pay i rupee per 27 ooo cubic feet of water taken from it. The original rates of work per cubic yard were earthwork of all sorts, 2f to 4 annas ; puddling, 6 to 8 annas ; revetment, 8 annas ; stone work complete, 3 rupees to 3 rupees 4 annas ; thus, quarrying and squaring, i rupee 8 annas ; cartage, 2| miles, i rupee ; building, 8 annas. These rates were afterwards increased. The capital outlay up to the end of 1871-72 was .104 772, but some further sums were spent during 1872-73 ; from which it would seem that the Madras waterworks were then nearly in perfect working order; the income and cost of maintenance up STORAGE WORKS. 455 to 1872-3, was 222 and 2911 respectively; and during 1872-73, 1516 and ,667. These waterworks, which Mr. Fraser was not allowed to com- plete, have been particularly unfortunate. Some earthwork in the tank-dam, in 1869, was done quite at random, so that pro- spective failure seemed inevitable, in the author's opinion. In later times, after mishaps, the works have been altered and extended. In 1882-83 the capital expenditure was 147296, and the irrigation revenue 2 100 on about 10400 acres of crop, including first and second crops. This covers more than the working expenses. NAGPUR. The Ambajheri Reservoir, constructed by Mr. A. Binnie. The name of the projector of this scheme, which is an enlarge- ment of a native tank, is not mentioned in the official records : it was chosen from among other projects for the supply of Nagpur, by Mr. Binnie, in 1869, and laid before Government in two forms one combining irrigation, and the other without ; the second was adopted. Data. Population, 84000, catchment area 6'6 square miles, bare and basaltic, having an annual rainfall 4073 inches, mansun rainfall 37*52 inches. Proportion run off in an average mansun 0^43, minimum 0*268, maximum o - 6. The evaporation is based on Conybeare's measurements at Vahar, Bombay, which give 2-5 feet in eight months of dry season, or J- inch daily, hence allowance is made for 3*5 feet in eight months as a maximum for Nagpur. The rate of silting determined from observation to be 2-5 feet in 80 or 90 years = 0-375 inches annually. Supply allowed 7 gallons per head daily, and as this is all wanted nearly at one time, the pipes are made to deliver 1 5 gallons per head daily. There is no filtering arrangement, but strainers of copper-wire gauze are used, being fixed in wooden frames in the inlet tower. The siphon is 2-5 feet in diameter, length 185, rise 1 5, fall of 2 feet to overcome friction : air pipe 3 inches diameter. The siphon joints are turned and bored, flanges packed with wood, bolted and fastened with hoop iron, bolts and washers. The maximum head is 78 feet or 34 Ibs. per square inch, hence the pipes are tested to 130 Ibs. per square 456 INDIA. inch. The formula used for the discharge of pipes is Young's Eytelwein, v 50 / f- Y There are scouring valves at low points. The embankment is in layers 12 inches thick, inclining inwards I in 6, retentive clayey material alone used ; its surfaces of hard material, covered with 12 inches of rough hand pitching; its slopes are outer if to I, inner 2 to I ; its founda- tion is stepped and benched. The escape weir is of basalt rubble, its sill of angle-iron 3 X 3 X J welded and bolted to blocks. The waste watercourse is 18 feet broad at bottom with slopes i to i. The main pipe is carried on walls of rubble, or in a bed of concrete 3 feet thick, stepped into the embankment ; in the valve house it is laid in concrete. Pipes above 13 inches diameter to have wide sockets, caulked with spun yarn, and lead driven in with caulking tools ; those of less than 1 3 inches turned and bored, fixed with Roman cement. All pipes to be tested under pressure by hammer 7 Ibs. weight. Angus Smith's process ap- plied to all pipes inside and out after fitting. Distributing pipes to bear on solid ground, in trenches 4 feet to 2\ feet deep, filled and rammed. The puddle wall in the centre of the dam is 5 feet wide on the top and 10 below, and 30 feet high, made in layers of 8 inches. The above project, drawn up in detail in 1869, was sanctioned in April, 1870; the contemplated irrigation being deferred. The estimates amounted to 32 535 ; the reservoir was opened in October, 1872, but the distribution was not carried out by that time. The reservoir has a top surface of 370 acres, and a storage of 257-5 million cubic feet, of which 240 millions, or i 500 million gallons, are available. The cost of excavating the puddle trench, including pumping, was 2 368, at the rate of Is. per cubic yard ; the cost of puddle, 6 659, at 4s. per cubic yard ; the cost of embankment, in i foot layers, rammed and watered, was 4: 277, at 5|d. per cubic yard ; the rates for pitching were from 5s. to 10s., and for turfing, 2s. per loo superficial feet ; the total cost of the outlet, including strain- ing-tower, foot-bridge, well and valve house, was 2 893, and that 'of the escape weir, 821 ; the rates for ashlar, basalt, rubble, and concrete being from 27s. to 54s., from 10s. to 16s., and 8s. per cubic yard. STORAGE WORKS. 457 The distribution source is a public one, the water standards being placed 100 yards apart along the streets. The main pipe was 4 miles long and IT feet in diameter, and the distribution pipes 10 500 yards long and I foot in diameter ; the pipes were delivered in Bombay at 7 5s. per ton, and in Nagpur, at .11 14s. The works were completed within the estimate, and a supply of 1 5 gallons daily per head can be maintained in years of extreme drought. A KOLA. The A kola Reservoir. A Project for combined Irrigation and Water Supply of Akola, by L. D'A. Jackson, Executive Engineer for Irrigation in Bar dr. The proposed works consist of i. A reservoir formed on the Morna River by a masonry dam and earthern embankments east and west of it. ii. An irrigation channel 5 miles to the first watershed, and 3 more to the third watershed to the east of the river, and irrigation channels 15 miles to the west of the river. iii. Filter beds, drinking and bathing basins, with a fountain at the town gate of Akola, with pipes to it i^ miles in length. 1. Masonry Dam 625 feet long, extreme height 36 feet; area of section of superstructure down to 30 feet 0*3 H 2 , and of founda- tion below that 2ik ; strengthened by buttresses 50 feet apart from centre to centre ; the wing-walls rise to 8 feet above the sill level and revet the embankments, which are 8 feet wide at top, slopes 2 to i and 3 to i, and have a section IO'5 H ; length of eastern wing 2 75 1, western 9 057 feet. 2. Reservoir, extreme length and breadth about 2 J miles, area of water-spread 2 500 acres : of which I ooo are under cultivation, and on which there are only a few small huts. Contents available for perennial irrigation, cubic feet 411 055 831 Available for town supply ... 58 427 360 Waste or standing water ,, ... 8 843 139 Total contents ... 478326330 Beside this, there will be available for mansun irrigation in season of extreme drought at least five times the above total from the perennial flow of the river. 458 INDIA. 3. Channel. Section 45 square feet, slope I in 3 ooo, discharge 100 cubic feet per second below original ground level in section. In eastern channel 8 super passages in each, having section of 60 square feet and discharging 150 cubic feet per second ; 8 road crossings ; 2 under .passages through embankments, being 2 feet pipes enclosed in masonry culverts. In western channel 9 super passages, 12 road crossings, and 2 under passages. The small trenches of distribution to be made by the landowners, aided, if necessary, by loan. 4. Town Supply. Main pipes, 4 inches in diameter, having a fall of i in 500, and each discharging 0*2 5 cubic feet per second. Beds and basins excavated in rock, with walling above ground. Filter bed and bathing basin each 50 feet square and 10 feet deep. Drinking basin octagonal having the length of each side 40 feet, and having a jet in the centre, the water for which will be purified by a filter on the ascending principle passing through perforated walling and tiles, then large and small pebbles, sand, and magnetic carbide. 5. Supply of Reservoir. Catchment area 220 square miles, minimum downpour 12 inches, of which 6 inches run off, give 3 066 million cubic feet in a year of drought, and fill the reservoir six times. The extreme flood discharge over the weir sill, using a local coefficient of 12 for the formula O =12 x ioo (N) 1 , = 67 200 cubic feet per second; and assuming a flood velocity of 13 feet per second, this gives a flood section of 5 170 square feet The waterway allowed is 8 x 125 =5000 square feet; the measured flood sections are in support of the sufficiency of this. Irrigation. Land under water command on the east bank 45 square ^ miles, west 30 square miles; total 75 all fertile; the perennial supply for irrigation during the eight dry months 15410 million cubic feet, or 19-5 cubic feet per second, which at a duty of 200 acres will irrigate 3 900 acres. The mansun irrigation supply for four wet months exceeds any demand that is likely to occur ; the probable maximum acreage for this will be about half the irrigable area, or 20 square miles on one bank and 15 on the other, being in all 35 square miles or 22 400 acres ; the channel of supply is designed to carry sufficient to irrigate the total area of 75 square miles. RECLAMATION WORKS. 419 Cost of Works and extension on the west bank ... 31 301 Compensation and Road diversion ... ... ... 1000 Establishment and contingencies 20 per cent. ... ... 6 869 170 Probable return, when the works are fully developed : Perennial, /.&, 8 months, 3 900 acres at 14s. ... ... 2 730 Mansun, *>., 4 months, 22 400 acres at 4s ,. 4 480 7210 Collection, repairs, establishment, 8 per cent. ... 577 Result, net return on capital of ,40 000 at i6| per cent. > 633 Or, deducting capital spent in town supply, a result of 19 per cent, on the outlay on the capital spent in irrigation, independ- ently of the water rate charged to the town. Water Rate. The classification of water rates for various crops is that adopted on the Ban Doab Canal, but the rates themselves are doubled, as the cost of labour in Barar is double that in the Bari Doab. Hence the rates assumed for Barar are : 1st class, sugar-cane, 1 4s. ; 2nd, rice and garden produce, 19s. ; 3rd, all ordinary field crops, not elsewhere mentioned, 10s. ; 4th, alt millets, pulses, and grass crops, 6s. ; 5th, a single watering, 3s. These may be expected to yield mean rates of 14s. and 4s. at the least, as it is most probable that sugar-cane will be extensively grown ; all sugar being now imported into Barar. 460 INDIA. RECLAMATION AND PROTECTIVE WORKS. The sole Reclamation Works of large extent in combined India and Burma at present consist in the Irrawaddi Works, under Robert Gordon, a Civil Engineer of special experience. The Irrawaddi Reclamation Works. The delta of this enormous river, consisting of valuable agricultural land liable to periodic inundation uncontrolled by any efficient protection, afforded an excellent site for reclamation works. Before 1862 a few light embankments were thrown up by voluntary labour, under the guidance of unskilled officials, mostly British magistrates and tax collectors, and employes of the Indian Public Works Department. A high flood in 1861 swept the delta and brought ruin to the agriculturists ; it also directed the attention of the Indian Government to the need of direction, and of the expenditure of money on a large scale. In 1862 Colonel Short, an officer of experience on works of embankment in Bengal, was deputed to report on the project of generally embanking the Irrawaddi in the delta in permanence. The name of the projector is not officially mentioned ; but the plans under which the works begun are named as those signed by Colonel Short. These works were carried out by Mr. Bennett until the close of 1868 ; they consisted mostly of banks about 1 6 miles below Saiktha, near the town of Myanoung, having for an object the control of the floods at the junction of the Patashin River, and the recovery of about 250 square miles of land. A dam near Kyangheen, above Myanoung, designed and executed by Mr. Fennessy, C.E., was made in 1864; the length of bank being then in all io|- miles. It appears that these banks were generally from \\ to 2 feet above high flood, and were never nearer than 100 feet to the river edge. In 1868 a high flood breached much of the unfinished work ; and the question of general design was reconsidered. It had been the original intention to close the Nawoon or Bassein branch, which was gradually closing itself: it was now determined to leave it open, and the project hence took a new form. This practically consisted in embanking both the Nawoon and the Zaloon RECLAMATION WORKS. 461 branches, from the head of the delta (above Otpho) a4ong their courses to the S.W. and S.E., in addition to the upper works for the control of the main river above, between Kyangheen and Otpho, From this time, 1868-69, the project departed from the protective type, and became one of more pure reclamation on an immense scale. It virtually consisted in the recovery of the whole of the upper part of the delta, as permanently useful agricultural land, by means of banks on the inner or deltaic sides of the two branches. The area of this from Otpho or Thambyading down to near Bassein on one branch, and to near Shuayloung on the Zaloon branch, is about 2 400 square miles, roughly involving about 180 miles of single embankment, besides accessory works. Such a design involved a thorough study of the whole of the hydrologic conditions of the Irrawaddi, as well as extensive surveys. About this time Mr. Robert Gordon was entrusted with the whole management of the works, having before executed parts of them. His laborious examination and studies of the river, and the execution of the project are deserving of the highest respect. His voluminous report on the Irrawaddi should be perused by all interested in hydrology. The first four miles of the Nawoon embankment were executed in 1869; operations were then suspended till 1871. In 1871-72 the first 25 miles were completed ; they afterwards progressed at the rate of about 15 miles yearly until, in 1875-76, about 75 miles of it (to Toboo) were finished. On the main Irrawaddi Channel (or Henzada Zaloon branch) work commenced in 1869, some few miles of bank were made, and Henzada was enclosed ; in 1872 the bank was extended about 14 miles to Zaloon ; and in 1875 it had reached Donabyu. The alignment is generally 300 to 400 feet from the edge of river ; in some cases it was more economic to follow the higher ground, in others to cut across bends, and save in length. As to section, the earlier works varied greatly ; but their top widths generally were from 4 to 6 feet, the height 5 to lo feet, and the slopes various. In later works a uniform top width of 14 feet was adopted for convenience of road traffic, and the height uniformly fixed at 3 feet above recorded flood marks on the Zaloon branch, and at 2 feet minimum on the Nawoon branch similarly; the slopes 2\ to 2 to I on ordinary soil, but more on light sandy or sliding clayey soils. 462 INDIA. The cost of the banks was about 1 700 per mile; in some parts 1 000, and in others as low as 656 ; the whole of the main works, about no miles constructed since 1818, have cost on an average 840 per mile. In 1877 a high flood damaged the old Kyangheen embank- ment, but the Myanoung embankment did not suffer. On the more recent works, the bank at Zaloon was breached on the I5th of August, 1877. In 1879 a breach occurred in high flood at the 2Qth mile of the Myanoung embankment, but this was due to neglecting a leak. In October, 1879, when the official record ends, the proposal to continue the Donabyu embankment as far as Shuayloung, had not been sanctioned. As to projects for further reclamation in the neighbourhood of the Irrawaddi River, these are various and are necessarily on a large scale. The entire confinement of the Irrawaddi between banks, from Suiktha to Thambyading, and along the Zaloon branch from Thambyading to Yandoon, would reclaim a very large strip of submersible land on the east bank, nearly up to the Rangoon Prome Railway. A similar treatment of the Nawoon branch to near Bassein would be less effective. In 1882-83 the capital on May in the western embankments amounted to 305 000 ; the net revenue was 46 289, and the working expenses 8 733. Protective Works.* Such works, intended for the protection of towns or special localities from the encroachment of large rivers, are generally very restricted, and to be successful are also costly. Besides, they require skilled engineering of the highest order in addition to energetic management ; a change of engineers proves fatal to such schemes that require the personal care of the special indi- vidual capable of carrying out his own intention in the work. It is hence useless to attempt to give details of means and materials employed in the more successful works of this class ; the engineer will hence be simply mentioned. * The term " protective works" is sometimes applied to mere irrigation works in Indian official records. STORAGE WORKS. 463 Lahor Protective Works. The spurs on the stream, 2oo-feet wide, which were effective in diverting it, were carried out by Lalla Kanhya Lall. Pkillawur Protective Works. The Phillawur bridge was protected from the encroachment of the Satlaj by Mr. Anderson, C.E. The Gandak Works. These were carried out by Mr. Stony, C.E., who gives an account of the works and the success achieved ; he also mentions that temporary works of this sort can only achieve a temporary success ; that intermittent attempts may fail immediately they are discontinued. There is no such thing as leaving a river safe for any long time after turning it. The Indus Works. In 1861, after the failures of several engineers to divert the river Indus from destroying the town and cantonment of Dera Ismail, the method adopted and carried out by a very young engineer of hardly two years' experience in hydraulic matters, was successful, and resisted the floods of the year 1862. This success was specially remarkable, as the works were carried on in spite of violent opposition of the civil magistrate and his police, who repeatedly attempted to seize the labourers, boatmen and boats. Certainly they were beaten off from time to time, and the works were continued and saved ; but this energetic self-sacrifice was followed by burglary, and a plot to murder the youth at night, in which the civil authorities connived by refusing help. Further self-defence was followed by a deplorable but legal attempt to murder the youth; this perjured evidence culminated in his expulsion. In 1863-64 the works were entrusted to others, and failure resulted. Other failures followed, with much expenditure of money. In 1875 fresh works were undertaken which achieved merely a partial success. The Satlaj Works. These were carried out by Mr. Graham, C.E., in 1874, and were successful in guiding the river through the Adamwahan bridge, thus saving the bridge. Madras Presidency. The protective works, as officially classed, seem merely to include temporary works for closing breaches in tanks and in canal banks ; they are thus works on a small scale generally ; the expenditure of the whole Presidency being, in 1882-83, only 6425. 464 INDIA. IRRIGATED CROPS. NORTH-WESTERN' INDIA. The Punjab was formerly a fully irrigated country, traces of its thorough canalisation exist everywhere ; it was formerly, perhaps in the time of Porus, the granary of India, and the most civilized province. It has since become an arid country, comparatively depopu- lated. Perhaps there has been a climatic as well as a political change ; the Indian desert may formerly have been one-fourth of its present size ; and the rivers of the Panjab may have given nearly double their present supply of water. At present the Panjab is in a state of partial recovery ; canals and irrigation exist over perhaps one-tenth of its formerly irrigated area. From a modern view, and as regards irrigated crops, it is virtually a mere extension of the North- West Provinces of North-Eastern India, in which the crops that suffer most from drought exist but very partially. Hence the following accounts of the crops of those provinces will serve as a basis without recapitulation. (See Crops, North-east India.} Noticing, therefore, by way of comparison : the larger cereals are magnificent in the Panjab, gram and lentils also ; but, apparently, the lesser millets and the lesser pulses are purposely neglected, and rice is naturally rare. The breadth under oil- seeds is comparatively small ; green fodder crops are also small in extent, bhusa or chopped straw being more used. Among the special crops (dyes, drugs, spices, and fibres) cotton alone figures largely ; indigo and sugar-cane are relatively in very small proportion ; tobacco and opium are grown in small quantities ; capsicum is largely grown. In the returns of canal irrigation there are a few crops peculiar to the Panjab, though of small extent ; these are mehndi, a rose dye from the Himalayas ; also munj kana, cheral, zlra, but these may be mere local names. The crops of the Western Jamna canal are grown partly within the Gangetic basin, nominally in the Panjab province, but actually out of the Panjab ; they may hence mislead as a whole. IRRIGATED CROPS. 465 H i u a; bO rt.S -o 8 to tf f rt C -o-C +J <" \n tJ 1^ ci W M M N O J OO M M IO IO H M co ro t-i M ro 1000 00 M t^ CA C4MMNN M 2 o 'S.rt'o' S o.S'a, -^-00 10 O o o o o% o K" *J 4- *J O ^5 ^ M MM M CO fO (J ' >^ tij cj Ss 22 o ooo 1OVO 00 lO M 10 lO lO /te/tf-Coriandrum sativum 863 5 600 2-30 w Halaun Phaseolus rostratus .. 5 600 2-30 % | Ajwen Ptychotis ajwen 400 2- w Fenugreek- J^//'-Trigonellafcenugrcecum 23 400 2- Great Mi\\Q\.Jowar Holcus sorghum 4203 680 2-70 Italian Millet-^fl^^w-Panicum italicum 43 600 2-60 M Spiked Millet-.Zfa/ra-Penicillaria spicata 347 520 2-5 ^ Millet Chena Panicum miliaceum ... 96 520 24 3 Maize Makki Zea mays 893 600 2-5 Wheat Gehun Triticum vulgare 93599 520 3-20 Barley -Jau Hordeum coeteste 3 602 I2O 1-5 * Oats Walayatijau A vena sativa 19 200 2-4 Common Gram-Cte0-Cicer arietinum 7796 4OO 2-25 w Lentil Masur Ervum lens i 679 4OO 0-60 3 Urad Phaseolus Mash 410 44 2-80 Mung Phaseolus mungo 4 44 1-80 , Moth Phaseolus aconitifolius 77 440 1-80 J Lucerne Sinji Medicago sativa 313 3 200 2- 3 "{ Grass Ghas Triticum repens 46 4 800 0-75 ( Great Millet Charri Holcus sorghum 193 3 200 040 Miscellaneous unknwn. Fallow 6 300 Single Waterings 10 485 Total 554190 IRRIGATED CROPS. 467 PAN JAB. Value of Irrigated Crops per Acre. Bari Doab Canal in 1882-83. On the Bari Doab Canal. Kharif. Rabi. Total. Produce per acre. Value of Produce. Value of Crop. per acre. Acres. Acres. Acres. Lbs. Sugar-cane 12 241 4 12 245 2 OOO 81636 6-7 Garden produce . . . 289 284 573 3787 6-6 Rice 39744 39 39783 I 600 90931 2-2 ( Wheat I5 6o 54 i5 6 54 I 520 474 404 3-0 Barley I 726 i 726 I 120 2417 1-4 M Maize 25 664 25 664 2 240 71859 2-8 V { Great Millet ... 21307 21307 I 280 28409 1-8 Italian Millet... 412 412 I 6OO 1319 3-0 Chena Millet... 106 106 I 2OO 133 1-2 ^ Mixed Grain... 3079 3079 I I2O 5389 1-7 CO ( % ) CommonGram _ 13086 13086 I 360 22247 1-6 13 ) Lentils PH ( 648 648 480 346 0-5 Fodder and Grass 2679 21795 24474 22898 0-5 | Til 959 959 170 639 0-6 "oS Toria 5 130 135 640 253 1-8 Ji Linseed 34 34 160 23 0-7 o Sarsun 850 850 720 1912 j 1 Cotton 2 9353 i 29354 720 88063 3-0 p Hemp 358 358 400 716 2-0 4 Indigo i i 1 1-0 of ' Turmeric 5 5 960 32 6-4 Q* Safflower \ i 86 1 3-0 |f P Poppy 45 45o 320 3602 8-0 E U2 \Tobacco 150 52 202 2 OOO 2527 12-5 E Vegetables 1 295 956 2 251 8103 . 3-6 Orchards 2 098 i 45 1 3549 23428 6-4 Miscellaneous 7814 4365 12 179 18336 1-5 Fallow ... f ... 544 i 302 i 846 Single Waterings... 1553 73i 2 284 Total 146471 207 144 3536i5 953 466 468 INDIA. THE PAN JAB. Canal Plantations in 1872. Detail of Trees chiefly grown. Western Jumna Canal. Number in 1872. Bari Doab Canal. Number in 1872. Local Name. Botanical Term. Kikar or Babul . . Acacia arabica 394718 173 124 Shisham ... . Dalbergia sissu 119 611 45J566 Shahtut Mulberry . . Morus alba 72 526 54458 Shahtut China . . Morus tatarica (Mulberry) 2 130 Tun . Cedrela tuna 33789 31853 Jaman . Sizygium jambolanum 17 214 ,, . Prunus Padus 4887 Bakain . . Melia azedarach 16 764 ,j . Melia sempervirens . . . 5966 Sir us .. Acacia speciosa 16 870 47 292 Gular .. Ficus cunia ... H755 Jand . Acacia leucophlcea . . . 7205 Jand . Prosopis spicigera ii 55 1 Nim . Azadarachta indica . . . 7 152 Bans . Bambusa stricta 4911 Amb ... . Mangifera indica(Mango) 3 774 -Pipal . Ficus religiosa 2 004 Phulai . 71 710 Plum . i6735 Phagara . Ficus caricoides 9 760 Mudasu 6 178 Altar . . Dodonaea burmaniana 4850 Beli . Zizyphus flexuosa ' 4689 Sembal . Bombax heptaphyllum 8013 Miscellaneous of 80 descriptions ... Miscellaneous trees of 83 descriptions -'. - Total of all sorts ... 809779 955 567 IRRIGATED CROPS. 469 Experiments in Watering Crops of Wheat and Rice on the Bari Doab Canal. (By E. C. PALMER, C.E., in 1871.) The average of the experiments made and tabulated show that an average depth of 0^24 feet on the whole surface, repre- sents a thorough watering of the average soil of the district under consideration, and for sandy soils 0*31 feet, and the amount of water necessary for an average watering of one acre, is O'24 x 43 560= i o 454 cubic feet. Wheat in a dry season requires five waterings ; the first, for preparing the land for ploughing, at 10 500 cubic feet, and four for the standing crop of 8 ooo cubic feet, give 42 500 cubic feet in all necessary for each acre of wheat. Rice requires ten floodings ; the amount of water necessary for each flooding is the amount necessary to saturate the soil, the average of which, given above, is 0^24 feet, together with 0*50 feet of standing water : or in all, 075 feet in depth over an acre represents the quantity of a flooding, or 075 x 43 560 = 32 670 cubic feet ; and the quantity necessary for a crop of rice is, therefore, 326 700 cubic feet. The land under consideration principally consisted of holdings on an average of 52 acres, requiring 22 acres of Kharif, and 30 of Rabi irrigation ; for such a farm an irrigating outlet or pipe 0*4 feet in diameter, working under a head of 0*4 feet, was found sufficient ; the discharge being 03323 cubic feet per second, and allowing the farmer eight days to prepare his 22 acres of Kharif ploughing, and eleven days for the 30 acres of Rabi ploughing. As the best season for this purpose lasts about six weeks, and the outlets are allowed to flow for eight days in the month at the utmost, this arrangement allows twelve days of constant flow during that season ; and thus a single pipe, irrigating only 27 acres per day of twenty-four hours for ploughing, or 5*4 acres of standing crops, is sufficient for all the purposes required in keeping up the irrigation of a holding of 52 acres. These data apparently support the amount mentioned in official returns as the average supply per acre given on the Bari Doab Canal, 44 ooo cubic feet ; the latter probably including also single waterings over a certain amount of acreage. 470 INDIA. o f* U 11 c4 rt || |il o3 * rt ii I* c S ^1 -g" sl '3 o III O b2 "S 1 !j o2 II i Sown in Mar from wells, and 1 in May. (fl p, *{ 8,fl * rt N "1s fjij "ill ; date of Water- ing. 'Is C CO M O ft bb 3 *o g)4J 2 ^ "o "5 CO M (4 u ^5 a S PH QJ 8 "^ O W ^ ^ CO 3 5 IO M -)-> *- to | M 1 s 1 || l| *0 ^ ^ g.s t/3 (-] >% -4- u^ IO fO 10 si 'U"" 1 M M cj S ^ *""* to 2 O >~, 5! |ri "to en C/2 C3 10 2 i M M M Ci M M bb s ^ > p c/a *" ^ M & ft ^ p 3 ^ P. ti 2 c 'CM fl ?- ^ rfi C/2 ^g* jjH ~> M M IO t (-t 1 "^ ** 2 M I* S ' i i ' ^^ . 5 : J J ; ; J 5- J ! ^ | s a JS g | 1 o s C! It 'S 2 ^ PQ ^ IRRIGATED CROPS. 471 BHAWALPUR. Irrigated Crops in 1 866-6 7 . Sugar-cane Great Millet Sesame Spiked Millet Rice Mung, Muth and Mash Cotton Indigo Vegetables f Wheat j Barley (Jau) ... I Gram Maithra and Peas Mustard and Ussun Nanghi and Sanwak Tobacco Produce per Centals. Acres. acre in Centals 2 400 on 329 7-30 280 ooo 58 270 4-81 5 600 2 391 2- 3 6 160 ooo 33 900 472 640 ooo 137 860 4-64 ii 200 3574 3*13 9 600 2 218 4'33 4 8OO 22 2O7 0'2I not given ~~~ 600 ooo on 72 500 8-28 22400 3 708 6*04 6 400 2 132 3'00 not given i 879 3 200 987 3*24 not given 997 S^o 383 1-46 English Centals of ico Ibs. are used above. Note. A Bhawalpur beegah is given as \ acre ; a beegah=;io khanas ; a khana = 16^x16^ ft. = 21 780 sq. ft. The local maund is taken as an Imperial maund of 40 ser. RAJPUTANA. Crops Irrigated from Tanks in 1882-83. Sugar-cane Garden produce Vegetables Wheat Barley... Maize ... Rice ... Great Millet Spiked Mil'et Mixed Grain Acres. 31 53 327 411 28 464 Gram ... Mung, Moth, Urad, Chaulaand Kulath Til Cotton .... Tobacco Poppy Miscellaneous Grand Total Estimated Value Acres. 694 230 144 I 821 680 58 3632 472 INDIA. SIND. The Watering of Crops. The following details were compiled by Mr. Robert Brunton C.E., in 1867. He states that in the Government Gardens the mode of lifting water by " wheel and bullocks " is very clumsy and expensive. On the right bank of the Indus the irrigation from the canals is effected by flow ; on the left bank the land is high, and there are 18402 nars (two-bullock wheels) and 29921 hurlas (one-bullock wheels) constantly employed. The canals here have their beds seldom .more than 7 feet below the average level of the land ; and the independent wells vary in depth from 10 to 20 feet. A " nar," with four men and four pairs of bullocks, can irrigate 1 1 acres of cultivation, the total cost per acre of watering is 1'5. A " hurla " is worked by two men and two pairs of bullocks, and keeps 6 acres watered. A sufficient flooding is estimated at 3 inches of depth, or 10 800 cubic feet to an acre ; the necessary number of floodings per crop, is Crop. Period.' Number. For wheat, barley, and rape; 4 months 4 For bajri ... ' 5 For jowari ... ... .,. ,, ... ... 6 For sugar-cane ... ...12 months ... ... 52 Mr. Brunton remarks that the Spanish method is far superior and less costly than the Indian one, and points out that by the adoption of an improved " noria " with a small tank as an adjunct, and an improved system, the cost of watering might be reduced to less than a tenth of 1'5 per acre ; while the advantage to the province of freeing two-thirds of the men and bullocks would enable three times the extent of land to be brought under cultivation. IRRIGATED CROPS. 473 NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. North-west Provinces. The following are the agricultural conditions, mostly according to Messrs. J. B. Fuller and J. F. Duthie in 1882. Nearly half the province consists of land actually cultivated, while about a quarter more is cultivable. The land revenue and cesses amount to about four shillings per cultivated acre ; the rental is double the revenue. Two-thirds of the population are supported direct by agriculture, out of a whole population varying from 466 to 978 per square mile of cultivated area. The alluvial soil of the plains varies little generally ; the distinctive terms used, are these Clay soil ... ... ... ... Matydr Very stiff clay ... ... ... Dokra Poor clay ... ... ... ... Dhaukar Pure sand Bhur, balua Saline yellowish and saline reddish clays Usar Light yellowish unfertile soil ... Rankar Loamy soil Domat Special loams Rosli, sewai and seolah Light reddish loam ... ... Pilota, pilia, saigun Stiff black loam or cotton soil ... Mar A paler cotton soil ... ... Kabar A grey loam Parwa In some places the usar tracts amount to 4 per cent, and in others 1 1 per cent, of the whole area. Kankar (carbonate of lime) occurs, both in its nodular form and in blocks, in beds a few feet below the surface, scattered throughout the province. The usar salt efflorescence (reti) (sodic sulphates and sodic carbonates chiefly) and kankar are formed under the same natural conditions of an impermeable subsoil concentrating the action of formation. Nona mitti is the nitrate of potash efflorescence on soil near villages, and on mud walls. Khdri pani y the brackish water from wells, contains nitrate of soda ; it is of great manurial value to growing crops but checks germination. Manure. Most of the cattle-dung is used as fuel. The 474 INDIA. refuse of vegetable matter and ashes find their way to the soil, but these are not systematically arranged and applied, excepting near large towns. The belt of land (gauhdn or bard) close to a village is highly manured naturally by the inhabi- tants ; the next belt (manjhd) is manured from the muck heap every third year ; the outer lands (barha or pdlu) are never manured, and hence are taken at a lower rental. Nona mitti is used as manure for tobacco crops ; Khari pani is also used generally. Crushed bones are not used, and indigo refuse is most commonly used as fuel for glass making, though in Bahar it is used as manure. Tillage. Some of the ploughing is mere scratching of the surface with a very light plough drawn by weak cattle; but repeated ploughings, generally eight, even twelve to fifteen, and sometimes twenty, prepare an excellent soil for the valuable crops. The common ploughs vary from 18 to 50 Ibs. in weight. There is also the ndgar plough, weighing 320 Ibs., drawn by eight bullocks, which tears up the soil to a depth of 18 inches (the Indian as well as the English cubit). Levelling and breaking up clods is done by the heavy flat log (henga, mai patela or p&ta) drawn by two pairs of bullocks ; a lighter one is termed maira. A roller (lakkar) formed of a trunk of a tree is also used in sugar-cane cultivation. There is on an average one plough bullock to every 4! or 5 acres cultivated ; buffalos are seldom used for ploughing. The Seasons. The kharif season is the summer and autumn, from April to September inclusive, in which tropical crops are grown : rice, maize, cotton, millets, &c. In the earlier three months of kharif, termed said, melons and common millet are grown ; these ripen in June. At the end of May or beginning of June indigo and maize are sown in irrigable land. Plough- ing begins actively at the beginning of the rains at the end of June or beginning of July ; and is followed by sowing cotton, rice, great millet and spiked millet ; the land for rabi crops is also ploughed at the beginning of the rains, and reploughed at least four times in July and August. Sugar-cane, termed a kharif crop, is exceptional ; it is sown from January to April, and cut in the following cold season. The mansun rains begin about the end of June, and are over IRRIGATED CROPS. 475 by the end of September generally ; breaks in the rams may spoil the maize and rice crops, and irregularities in the rains, early or late, may ruin any of the kharif crops, except, perhaps, the common millet. The rabi season, or cold weather season, from October to March inclusive, is the period of crops of temperate climates : garden and vegetable produce, wheat, barley ; the cabbages, &c., brocoli, turnips, carrots, lahi and ramdana are sown about the middle of September; but the sowing of the more important rabi crops including the cold weather cereals, begins in the middle of October and continues till the middle of November. The dates of harvesting vary much, but all of them are off the fields by the middle of April. The winter rains are light, and fall about the end of December generally ; the rabi crops are partially dependent on them, as well as on the moisture in the soil retained from the mansun rain ; but the winter rains are very shifty. The nature of the subsoil hence has an important bearing on these crops. Irrigation. The annual rainfall of the region, from 2 to 3 feet may be concentrated in the mansun of three or four months, and this may be deficient, early or late, or with long breaks, or in excess. Each one of these five causes of ruin to the crops has to be guarded against ; four of them are those of deficiency at certain times ; hence the need of irrigation. The source of irrigation from wells, tanks, and canals, in these provinces is chiefly not local but Himalayan rainfall. The irrigated area is at present about one-fourth of the cultivated area. The percentage of the irrigated area, according to sources of irrigation, are, from wells about 56 per cent., from canals 24 per cent, and the remainder from other sources, streams and tanks. Well sinking involves much risk, as the well is generally a failure if a clay stratum is not met at a moderate depth, or if the well is sunk through numerous- or continuous layers of loose sand. Wells more than 60 feet deep to water are considered unprofitable. A spring well, tapping a water- bearing stratum under a clay stratum, of the depth of about 30 feet, is the desired object ; a mere percolation well, ending in loose sand and dependent on collected drainage, is seldom of 476 INDIA. much use. The lifting appliances used are chiefly the leather bucket, holding 12 to 25 gallons, and, in fewer cases, the (rahat) chain of pots, and the lever and counterpoise (dhenkli) ; also the simple wheel with two balanced pots (charkhi). The watering effected in a day varies from one-eighth to one-sixth of an acre in wells from 40 to 20 feet deep. Streams and toTz&r. The locality in which irrigation from tanks is practised is the Banaras division, where the rainfall is greater and the soil more retentive ; also on the border of the Central-Indian hill ranges, where are many magnificent tanks made by the Chandel princes, as appendages to temples. In the Sub-Himalayan tract temporary dams and watercourses from streams are used for irrigation. The lifting appliance used is the swing basket of bamboo (beri) or of leather (bauka) ; the economic lift is 3^ feet ; and two-fifths of an acre can be irrigated per day : the maximum single lift is 5^ feet; for a total lift of 10 to 15 feet they are worked in stages. Canal irrigation. A large portion of the area now irrigated from canals of sure supply was formerly irrigated from precarious wells dependent on rain supply. The more valuable crops are now raised on land close to some distributary channel, from which a timely supply is certain. In other cases, where the land is farther off, there are the risks of not gettng a timely supply of water to a crop, as the period of taking water is fixed for each village, and as the demand for water on land higher up may be great enough to monopolise the supply for some time. Another source of irregularity is that greatest of all curses, official caprice. The under-officials that control the distribution of the water are often afflicted with lofty but unjust principles. Woe to the land when the servant is master ! This is an evil almost inseparable from large concerns with divided interests. Ap- parently, in such cases as these, the fair remedy would be that the individual suffering should impose a fine on the authorities collectively, and that a fund be set aside to meet these demands. The comparative cost of three waterings to a wheat crop under various modes is thus given by Mr. Fuller : IRRIGATED CROPS. 477 rt . d (2| . ' - ^> 2 r _. ft ^ Mode of Supply. 5 ^ s *O . to an acre. Suffers from heavy rain. Yield 400 to i 120 Ibs. Light soil. Seed 10 Ibs. to an acre. Irrigated from wells. Precarious. Yield 560 Ibs. Straw useless as fodder. Light soil, grows even on saline. Seed 10 Ibs. to an acre. Suffers from blight and excessive rain. Yield 720 Ibs. Grown on the poorest lands. Average yield 160 Ibs. per acre. On poorest soil. Seed 12 to 20 Ibs. to an acre. Yield 800 to 960 Ibs. unhusked. Suffers from insects. On heavy clay. Sotoioolbs. Unirrigated. Suffers from frost or cold. Yield 640 Ibs. Also on any soil as a mixed crop with wheat or barley ; irrigated ; also with rape and linseed. On all soils. 80 Ibs. to an acre. Produce, unirrigated 640 Ibs. ; irrigated 960 Ibs. On very heavy clay ; in mire and rice stubble. Very hardy. The grain induces paralysis. Heavy soil. 120 Ibs. per acre. Yield, unirrigated 560 Ibs. ; irrigated 800 Ibs. Chaff same weight. Correspond to common peas, but are less prolific. On light soils ; mixed crop with cotton or millet. It withstands drought, and does not impoverish soil. On heavy soil, mixed with cotton or millets. Suffers from mildew. Resembles mung. On the worst land as a sole crop ; gives a heavy outturn. Yield 640 Ibs. Mixed with bajra. Mixed crop with cotton or millets. If alone it yields 400 Ibs. per acre. 480 INDIA. Botanic Term. Indian Names. Sown in. Cut. Pigeon pea Cajanus indicus Arhar, Thur Dal. Mansun break Apr. (Climbing bean) Dolichos Lablab Sent, Sembi. Cyamopsis psoralioides, Guar, Kudra. Mansun break Oct. Khulh, Oil Seeds. Eruca sativa Duan, Taramira. Sept. to Nov. April Rape Brassica campestris Sarsun (pila 6 kali) (Accomp. its mixed crop) (Toria) Brassica campestris Tori, Toriya, Khetiya. Cut in Feb. (A mustard) Brassica juncea Rai,Lahi. Cut in Mar. Sesame Sesamumindicum 7/7, Jinjili. Mansun break Oct. Castor plant Ricinus communis Rendi, Eranda. Just before Mansun. March Linseed Linum usitatissinum Alsi, Tisi. Rabi crop Gourds, &c. The cucumbers, gourds, melons, pumpkins, &c., are extremely numerous. April. June Dyes, Drugs, Fibres, &c. Sugar-cane Saccharum officinarum Ikh, Ukh. February January Indigo Indigofera tinctoria Nil. Before or at Mansun break. Aug.or Sep. Safflower Carthamus tinctorius Kusumbh, Kar, Oct. Feb. & Apr. Karar. Poppy Papaver soniferum Posta. Oct. March Tobacco fNicotiana tabacum Desi, tambaku. j July p^ Rustic Tobacco (^Nicotiana rustica Kalkattia tambaku. I Nov. Apr. Cotton Cossypium herbaceum Kapas, Ban Bdri. Mansun break. Octtojan. Hemp Cannabis sativa Bhang. May Sept. San hemp Crotalaria juncea San, Sania. Mansun break Oct. Roselle hemp Hibiscus cannabinus ( Am bar i, Patsan, \ . \Pitwa,LattiaSan.} Vanous IRRIGATED CROPS. 481 SOIL, CULTIVATION, AND PRODUCE. Any soil, as mixed with cotton or millets. Killed by frost. Leaves and stalks are valuable* As a green vegetable, not for grain ; as a border crop, but never alone. A green fodder crop ; also for grain. Yield 800 Ibs. per acre. Any soil. Mixed with gram, barley or bsjhar, or in cotton fields ; for food oil and lighting oil. Mixed with wheat or barley. Suffers from aphides. Oil is \ weight of seed. 160 Ibs. per acre. Sole crop. Alone it yields 320 to 480 Ibs. per acre. Mixed with wheat, barley or peas. 240 Ibs. per acre. Oil is J weight of seed. Light soil, rough cultivation. Seed 16 to 24 Ibs. per acre. Ruined by heavy raia. Yield 400 Ibs. Border crop to cotton and sugar-cane. Seeds yield \ the weight in oil. Cut down after a year. Heavy soil ; also in rice stubble. Yield 480 to 800 Ibs. per acre of seed, for oil ; unirrigated and irrigated. In any light soil, without any care. Exceedingly prolific in islets, river beds, &c. Good loam, manured ; after a year's fallow. Manure 6 to 8 tons per acre ; ploughings 12 to 25. 20 ooo cuttings per acre ; 3 hoeings, 2 weedings. Yield I 600 to 2 400 Ibs. of sugar per acre. Annual export 80 ooo tons. Loam, or light sand ; after sugar-cane or cotton. Not manured. Ploughings 4. Seed 16 Ibs. to acre. Waterings 2 to 6. Weedings 2. Yield 6 400 Ibs. per acre. Light soil. Seed 20 to 25 Ibs. Often mixed crop ; irrigated. Suffers from insects. Yield 60 Ibs. dry florets. Manured good loam. 6 to 8 tons per acre. Irrigated with nitrates and saltpetre dressing. Ploughings 8. Seed 3 Ibs. per acre. Waterings 5. Weedings 3. Suffers from cater- pillars. Yield 2D Ibs. opium per acre. Highly manured loam; irrigated with nitrates and saltpetre dressing. Ploughings g Transplanted 6 inches ap a rt after three months. Waterings 8. Suffers from frost and grey mildew. Yield 800 Ibs. tobacco. Good loam, with manure or not. Seed 8 to 12 Ibs. per acre. Ploughings 4. Weedings 2 to 4. Little watering or none. Good drainage. Suffers from grubs and caterpillars. Yield 100 to 200 Ibs. clean cotton. Highly manured soil of any sort. Seed 60 Ibs. to acre. Yield, charas 6 Ibs. ; fibre 320 Ibs. Seed 70 Ibs. Light soil, not much manured. Ploughings. 2. Seed 80 Ibs. to an acre. No weeding or watering. Yields 640 Ibs. of clean fibre (arjha san) per acre. Border crop with indigo or with cotton. Fibre used for sacking. Yield 50 to 300 Ibs. fibre per acre. 2 I 482 INDIA. NORTH-WEST PROVINCES. Varieties oj Crops according to Fuller. Wheats Some of the chief varieties and terms used are Daudi or dudia, a variety of soft white wheat. Paighambari. A variety, round berried. Badha. Term for hard white wheats. Pissi. Term for soft red wheat. Kathia or lallia. Term for hard red wheat. Mundia. Term for beardless wheats. A mixed crop of wheat with barley is termed gojai ; a mixed crop of wheat with gram is gochana^ or birra. Barleys. The six-rowed variety, hexastichon, is most com- mon ; the two-rowed variety, distichon, is rare ; a sub-variety of distichon, termed gymnostichon or paighambari or rasuli, of Arabian origin, also exists ; its flower-scales drop off in thresh- ing ; it yields as much as I 720 Ibs. to the acre. A mixed crop of barley with gram is termed bejhra. Oats. This is a crop of English introduction. The old method was that an Englishman supplied seeds for the agricul- turists to grow on soil prepared for a barley crop, but more frequently for fodder (three cuttings) than for the grain. Rice. The chief classes are three 1. Tall, feathery, protruding ear ; thin yellow husks. 2. Shorter and more erect ; less protruding ; thick husk, red or yellow. 3. Commoner sorts, short stems, partly enclosed ear ; husk dark or black. Varieties of the first class are naha,bdnsmatti, bdnsphal^jhilma. Varieties of the second class are seondhi and sumhdra. The chief and commonest variety is sathi, a rapid crop grown in sixty days. The wild rice is termed passari or phasahi, and a sub-variety of it as tinni. A rice crop sown broadcast, and grown without transplanting, is termed munji; these are the commoner varieties, sown at mansun break, termed bhadoi or kuari, according as the crop is cut in August (bhadon), or September (kudr). A rice crop, transplanted two or three weeks after sowing, and of the superior sort, is termed aghani, being cropped in Novem- ber (aghari). IRRIGA TED CROPS. 483 Hot weather rice, termed boron or jethi, is sown in January, transplanted in February, and cut in May. Unhusked rice is termed dhdn ; husked rice, ckdwal, and rice straw, pial. Great Millet. Very numerous varieties, both white-grained and red-grained. The three chief are 1. The double-seeded, with two grains to each husk. 2. The short variety, with stalks only three or four feet. 3. Chdhcha* A variety in which the grain is com- pletely covered by the husk, and suffers less from birds. Juar is grown for green fodder, chart, or for its dry stalks and leaves, as dry chopped fodder, karbi; also for its grain, the staple food of the inhabitants. Spiked Millet. The two distinct varieties are 1. Bajra, with large grain of greenish colour. 2. Bajrl, with smaller grain of reddish colour. The small Millets. The varieties of these have received little attention. Pulses. Gram. The chief classes of varieties are 1. The large-grained, markedly reddish grain. 2. The small-grained, light-brown grain. 3. The Kabuli, very large grain, white ; resembling the Garbanzos of Spain and the Spanish colonies of South America. 4. The black grain, corresponding to the Portuguese small beans, and those of Brazil, but smaller. In all sorts ; the tops are cropped as a vegetable, sag, and the straw (bhusa) is excellent as food for cattle. Lentils are vetches', vicia, of the same tribe as gram, during growth resembling them much ; but the leaves of lentil are alternate, and nearly sessile, while those of gram are in pairs, and serrate. Kassar is also a vetch ; its seed is a slightly- flattened pea. Mung. The ordinary mung has green seed and dark green leaves, but there are two other varieties having yellow seeds and black seeds ; the bhusa is excellent for cattle. Urad is a variety 434 INDIA. of mungo, with dark-brown large seeds, rather long, and hairy yellowish-green leaves. Moth is different in many respects, and has small light-brown seeds, oblong in form. Lobia is also different, having small foliage and reddish purple flowers, while mung, urad and moth have yellow flowers ; but all are of the tribe Phaseolus. These Indian pulses are greatly superior to the small millets, from not impoverishing the soil, from their hardiness against drought, from the excellence of their bhusa for cattle, and of their seed for human food. The pigeon-pea is a phaseolus, having many varieties ; Sein also, but this is grown as a vegetable for its green pods, not for grain. Gudr, or khulti, of the tribe Galegese, having large trifoliate leaves, is excellent as green fodder as well as for its dry pulse. Oil-seeds. The oil-yielding Brassiceae are very numerous in variety, under the four classes given in the general list ; the varieties require a botanical expert of high order. Sesame yields the sweet oil used over the greater part of India. There are two varieties, one with black seeds, til; the other with white, till. It is not grown in rainy tracts, where the oil-yielding makua tree (Bassia latifolid) abounds, and a crop of til might suffer. Castor oil plant is grown for lighting oil and lubrication ; the stalks for thatching. Linseed is grown for its oil and for the oilcake, not for fibre. The common linseed is brown, but there is also a white-seeded variety, especially useful for colour-mixing, which is also generally superior. Qther Crops. Sugar-cane. Edible cane is eaten raw and as a sweetmeat ; its principal variety is termed paunda, and has a soft, thick, juicy stalk. The chief varieties of the non-edible cane, grown for pro- ducing sugar, are (i) dikchan or barokha, a cane ten feet high, soft and very juicy ; (2) agholi or matna, five or six feet high, yielding less but thicker juice; (3) chin, a tall, hard, reddish cane ; (4) dhor, a short, white, hard cane. The two latter are grown on inferior land, with less care. IRRIGATED CROPS. 485 Indigo. There are several wild varieties of this legume, as well as the cultivated ones ; the only two mentioned as classified are the indigofera atro-purpurea of the Himalayas, wild ; and the indigofera anil, cultivated in Southern India. The asarpi unirrigated indigo system forms the old staple crop in this province. It is sown at mansun break, and reaped in Septem- ber. The roots are left, and a ratoon crop (khunti) is grown from the roots in the following rains. Under the V*KW jamowa system the chaiti indigo is sown and cropped a month earlier ; the soil is ploughed and prepared for a rabi crop. This necessitates irrigation, but enables two crops to be had from the land in the year. When a seed-crop is wanted under the jamowa system, the roots are left for a ratoon seed-crop in December. Indigo is not a popular crop, as it involves the factory system, carried out under unpleasant driving. Safflower. The varieties are 1st, the wild safflower of the Panjab, carthamus oxyacantha ; 2nd, the ordinary thorny-leaved safflower ; 3rd, a smooth variety, murilia. Poppy. There are numerous varieties of the white poppy, which in this province is preferred to the malwa or red purple poppy. In the Panjab the same preference is shown for the ragged-edged white poppy. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum is probably of Arabian introduc- tion, corresponding to Latakia ; it has pointed leaves growing on the stem, or sessile, and pinkish headed flowers. Nicotiana rustica is that of Turkey and of the Philippines, with stalked and rounded leaves rather crumply, and flowers pale yellow and short in the tube. The modes and seasons of culture vary much ; apparently it might grow at any time, except during frost, as it is otherwise a sure crop, not attacked by insects. Sdwani tobacco is sown between July and August, in small seed-beds, with wood ashes ; transplanted in October, and cut in February. Asarhi tobacco is sown in November, planted out in February, and cut in April or May. The cultivation is of a high order, and expensive about ^5 per acre. All the risk is in the curing of the tobacco, which requires perpetual skilled superintendence. Cotton. This hibiscus forms the staple crop, with little apparent variety, under the widest appellation of bari, its other names not indicating varieties. These produce fibre of short staple at the end of the rainy season. There is also the narma 86 INDIA. or manua gossypium arboreum, with more fleshy and shiny leaves, and an improved sub-variety termed radya. These occupy the ground longer, and produce fibre of long staple in the hot season. Hemp. This crop is chiefly confined to the valleys and tracts bordering the Himalayas (Tarai), where it grows wild. In some places it will yield fibre worth extraction ; in others it will yield the intoxicant charas, the most noxious of all stimulants to the human constitution, when habitually used. Low-caste men alone will cultivate hemp. The varieties are not mentioned. San. The varieties of this leguminous broom, with rattling seed-pods, are not mentioned. Its fibre is used for ropes and string. It resembles arhar in appearance while growing. Rosette Hemp. This is a hibiscus, yielding a soft, whitish, silky fibre, used for sacking (tat) or gunnybags ; also for cords for drawing water, dot. Its leaves are rather like hemp leaves. IRRIGATED CROPS. 487 NORTH-WEST PROVINCES. Value of Irrigated Crops in 1882-83, Ganges Canal in 1882-83. Area. Produce in Ibs Value of produce. Value of crop from one acre. Acres. Lbs. Sugar -cane 109 261 706807 6-5 Garden produce, including ) orchards and water-nuts J 9007 59466 6-6 Rice 30531 26 070 080 151 486 5-0 ^ Wheat 343 34 410 549 840 1 302 200 3-9 Barley 75 148 80 295 200 182 700 2-4 dj I Maize 20413 II 707 680 19445 0-9 $1 ! Great Millet 2047 I 2O2 080 3718 1-8 10727 17776 1-6 ^ and mixed crops ) ra-8 . g in Oil-seeds, 2 } . Miscellaneous, 138 j " 140 248 1-7 Fodder Lucerne, Chari & Misc. 95 r 5 31 184 640 9687 1-0 ^Cotton 22 966 68 898 3-1 & Flax 4 8 123 2-5 2 Indigo 140 974 281 948 2-0 fQ- Miscellaneous i 084 2472 2-3 E-a JQ fl Opium ... no 352 3-2 * Tobacco 174 783 4-6 Total 8 53 493 Insufficiently irrigated 2542 856 035 2 936 051 488 INDIA. BAHAR. Value of Crops per Acre 1 882-83. On the Sohan Canal, 1882-83. Area. Produce. Value. Value of crop, from one acre. Acres. Lbs. Sugar-cane 18653 46 424 960 120 506 6-2 Garden produce 13 536oo 86 5-4 Paddy ... 20 54 495 280 91095 1-7 /Wheat ... 888 7 , 9 322 720 25051 2-9 ri 1 Barley 5 809 5 33 560 8701 1-6 'cs j Barley and wheat 157 125 600 262 1-6 ft 1 Barley and peas 2 i 600 3 1-5 U Oats ... 5 5440 8 1-6 Common Millet (chena) 22 22 l6o 55 2-5 w . ( Gram 13 12 40O 21 1-5 | J Peas 996 696 080 1115 1-1 3 ] Lentils 2 240 4 2- 4 (Rahar (Arhar?) 5 440 9 1-8 | Mustard 4 2880 14 3-5 < Linseed 43 20 160 95 2-2 ( Castor nuts 4 2 560 9 2-2 , J (Khesari 12 II 52O 19 1-6 ^5 < Murwa 10 15 200 22 2-2 Jj ( Burreah 5 3600 11 2-2 ^ (Indigo 362 2880 760 2-1 >>&.! jSafflower 25 3920 28 1-1 qc^ 1 ( Opium... i 065 22 72O 22223 20-9 Miscellaneous 31710 29593440 54352 1-7 w C Five-year lease Kharif . . % -j Five-year lease Rabi ii 581 28 279 120 5 627 200 41410 9887 1-2 0-9 >2 ( Five year lease Sugar-cane 6 290 10 097 040 28266 4-5 Total i737oi 404 012 ~- IRRIGATED CROPS. 489 BAHAR. Plantations of the Sohan Canals in 1882. Name of Tree. Eastern Sohan. Arrah. Baxar and Western. Babul ... Bakain Gumur Gular Jak Jaman Mango ... Mohua ... Number. 21 514 4 no 475 807 46 1477 2925 907 Number. 2 085 282 782 1465 2 l6l 2 828 Number. 336 320 139 16 1584 598 ?7e Nim Pipal Siris 13 068 i 008 1 1 8^Q 3504 6l 3 1A QQ1 2 680 309 I 14^ Sissu ... o "oy 38 020 Ai f yyo 16 4.84 *T J c 177 Tamarind Tar 749 4, O^8 i 027 x / / I 418 Teak Tun ... Others t v^>-/ 199 21493 ii 594 i 864 864 6 260 I 412 545 Totals 136 269 55302 17 123 Total in 1882 208 694 | Total in 1881 178467 BENGAL. Crops and Plantations. The crops grown under the influence of the Midnapur Canal are almost entirely rice the staple crop of Bengal ; occasionally, perhaps a little boro dkan, or hot season rice, and some small cold weather crops may be raised. This being a region in which the annual rainfall ranges from 3 to 6 feet average 4*5 feet it became important to decide whether irrigation effected any increase of crop. Experiments on a large scale, extending over ten years, have proved that the advantage from irrigation is manifest, excepting in years of excessive rainfall ; apart from the undoubted advantages of sav- ing all the crops in seasons of drought and of irregular rainfall. The following table illustrates the results of the experiments, as regards weight of produce ; it is also possible that irrigated produce may be of better quality and command higher prices, but this is not stated. The weights are in maunds of uncertain value (80 tollahs?) and are hence not reduced to English weight. (The Imperial maund = 40 ser = 3 200 tola.) 490 JADIA. 8 ^ > M ON O . ONVO ON co ^ ON CO CM 10^ CO ON M M CO CO CM VO M COCO tO M T$- M CM M O M CM M P > O ^OQ ON M M O O O 15 N '5 N CO VO ^" VO VO to ^* ^* M 1O M !>. M M T^- s . to t^ O M to O ^J" O CO O ^ t^co IOMCO COM o J^ f* O co t^ COCO O O CO Si ^ ON CM t^ CO 'o M Vj- CM vb O i>-vo M rj- CM ON co TJ- CO !> CO to N IO ^VO . S'S ^rj-CM O t O COCOO O * O CM H N M O to M VO TJ" VO VO to O CM M "* S' D 13 Vt- M ao oo b iovb b o vo ca ON TJ-CO vo i>- co O c * ^ a . OCOtoO M Ot^O -^-O ^ to ^ N o to ^ ^ O to to CM Tj- t^OO O N O tO CM M tO O to M M >-i CM CM VO to ON M VO ONCO T}* CO to ON O VO ^ TfCO toco covo -^-vo to t^ 1 .s > Is ^ CM VO O VO VO ^^ M O OO to O CM TJ- r^- o O covo ! "^ VO CM COCO CO CO N M ON OSM M COONMVO ON MCONCONCOCMCM I ! I S ^ N tovo CO ON coco w ON ON -d M 00 CM rj- ONVO to ON CO "t C MMMMHNCMCM ONVO M CM M CM Tj- VO CO CM ^00 MM M s t3 JJ vo *> *O to TJ- M O VO VO CO 2 T^-CO ^co cototocococo W CM CO M CM COCO VO VO CO ONVO M M IO tOOO OO BENGAL.- | .bj w tovo O N VO co l>- ONCO co SJvoco t^t-^r^co MVOVO 10 ^ covo ^J- N M toco ON ONCO M rt-O ONtot^O ON VO ** CO M M M IO M toi>.toO VOONM r^ tOM NVO ONQM ON i lu VO to ON ONCO ^ !> ON o CO MMt^OMlOMt^ a 1 M VO VO to ^ CO toCO "^ b t, *SJ K% 1'3 ^iS | ^ | ^ ^ tovo t^*oo ON O M c^ S ^oococooococococococo cococooooooococo IRRIGATED CROPS. 491 Midnapur Canal The plantations chiefly consist of babul, coconut, rain tree, or jiin, karunja, mango, and khiris ; the extent of the plantations in 1882-83 was not large. SOUTHERN INDIA. THE WATERING OF CROPS IN ORISSA. The Late Crops, watered between June i and December i : 1. Sarud rice 2. Biyali rice On ground from April to Feb. May to Oct. 3. Laghu rice On ground from May to Nov. The both Season Crops, requiring perennial watering : 1. Sugar-cane ... 2. Turmeric and ) ginger j On ground from April to Mar. June to Mar. On ground from 3. Yams May to Feb. 4. Brinjal ... June to Jan. 5. Pan and plantain Whole year. The Early Crops watered between December i and June i : i. Dalua rice * 2 . Wheat *3. Barley *4. Gram and peas ,, ,, 5. Achua cotton Nov. to July. On ground from Feb. to May. Nov. to Mar. *6. Tobacco *7. Coriander ... *8. Onions and ) On ground from Nov. to Apr. Oct. to Feb. garlic Nov. to Jan. 9. Achua castor oil Nov. to Feb. The Dry Crops not requiring irrigation are :- Late Crops. 1. Mandia. 2. Biri pulse. 3. Black kulthi. 4. Black mug. 5. Jute and hemp. 6. Haldiya cotton. 7 . Haldiya castor oil. Early Crops. 1. White kulthi. 2. White mug. 3. Harar chaitra. 4. Mustard. 5. Linseed. Both Season Crops. i. Harar nali. *2. Til. Pulses generally. NB. The crops marked (*) are rarely cultivated. 492 JADJA. The usual rotation of the dry crops is, 1st year, Biyali rice (which, like Laghu rice, can be grown without irrigation), followed by pulses, kulthi, mug, linseed, or mustard ; 2nd year, cotton, turmeric, ginger, or sugar ; 3rd year, fallow. The country cotton is an annual ; of oil seeds, castor oil is the only one that profits from irrigation ; pulses and linseed suffer from rain ; ginger and turmeric require only one or two waterings ; sugar-cane is sometimes planted as early as February and cut in November. There is a rice of coarse species grown in swampy tracts called Boro dhan. The yield of Sarud rice, the staple crop, is said to be doubled by irrigation, and amounts to 10 cwt. per acre. IRRIGATED CROPS. 493 ORISSA. Value of Crops per Acre in 1882-83. On the Orissa Canal, 1882-83. Area. Value of Produce. Value of Crop from one Acre. ] Acres. * Sug ar-cane 398 10045 25-2 r Turmeric 55 839 15-2 Garlic ... 28 5-6 8 Brinjal 32 252 5 200 660 f Rice, Oriza sativa Different 5 60 !5 200 600 Ambari, Hemp, Hibiscus o cannabinus 10 July 3 90 120 So bundles Baru, Flax 10 July 2 60 90 ioo bundles f Bhadti 10 July 5 60 75 120 Muth Ph. aconitifolius... 10 July 5 9 I0 5 80 c QO I2O 80 * Udidh 10 July j 7 y 90 105 240 * Mug, Phaseolus mungo 10 July 4 *5 I2O 300 /-> * Tur q QO I2O 180 t Ginger, Zingiber offici- *J 7 nale J ul y 12 700 I COO I IOO Red Pepper, Capsicum annuum. The Jarayat Rabi, or late 1 dry crops. f Wheat, Triticum vulgare 22 Sep. 5 I0 5 J35 200 330 t Tobacco, Nicotiana ta- bacurn Sep. 8 90 150 2OO 480 Kardi 25 Sep. 5 90 135 120 Lakh \ 1 60 Gram, Cicer arietinum 160 fuwas 1 (Lentil) Masur ... [ 9 Oct. 5 105 135 80 80 t Vutanu 1 60 Gadmol I 80 Rough data of increase of yield to the above crops by irrigation. Jowari, one half more. Rice, four times more. * Supplementary crops, sown among others, t Crops that may be assisted by irrigation. 496 INDIA. BARAR. The Irrigated Crops. According to L. JACKSON, Exec^tt^ve Engineer for Irrigation. Baghayat or wet crops grown on land perpetually irrigated or kept damp by rain. Usual da*e of sowing. Shoots after. Buds after. "5 O jj H o Produce per acre, excluding straw, &c. , Days Days Days Average. Max. Ibs. Ibs. Maize, Zea mays 5 75 I0 5 IOO . Pepper, Capsicum perennium i July 7 105 370 2 000 Bengan or Brinjal, Sola- nu m melonga nu m 7 120 370 4 ooo Bhoimug) Phaseolus mungo > 5 9 120 800 Ganjd) Cannabis sativa 8 J 5 !5 I 600 Onion, Allium cepa 25 Sept. 7 37 T20 Garlic, Allium sativum 5J 5 37 120 J/itf/z/,Trigonella fenugrsecum J) 7 3 120 Carrots, Daucus carota )) 8 75 75 Kand, Batatas edulis )) 8 i35 '35 I 2OO Opium, Papaver somniferum i Nov. 5 75 90 10 20 Sangmurla ... jj 5 75 90 Rajgura ii 5 90 120 240 Wheat, Triticum vulgare . . . 5 i5 120 300 Sugar-cane, Saccharum offici- narum March 12 300 300 i 600 7 500 Sang of Goor 7 37 75 Bhend y Abelmoschus escu- lentus M 7 40 80 Karli 7 75 9 Turai (Cajanus indicus?) ... j> 8 9 120 Kaivala )5 5 90 120 Chawala )> 5 37 75 Plantain 23 May 3 360 45 400 trees. Betal,P0, Piper betel Fruit trees CROPS AND WATERINGS. 497 THE WATERING OF CROPS IN BARAR. 1. The following crops are watered daily in the hot season^ and at intervals of from one to seven days throughout the rest of the year as required : sugar-cane, pan, plantain, bengan, sag, bhaji, and green vegetable produce ; when the sugar-cane is one foot high, the supply of water is reduced. 2. The following crops are watered once in three days in the hot season, and at intervals of from three to seven days through- out the rest of the year as required : ganja, opium, onions, garlic, perennial pepper, bhoimug, fenugreek, carrots, kand, chika, chakut, sangchawali, and the common produce of small vegetable gardens. 3. The following crops are watered once in three or four days at all seasons, generally : anise, saffron, turmeric, ginger, ratalu,. goradu, pendia, wangi. 4. The following crops are irrigated once a week generally : sang of goor, bhend, karli, turai, kawala, chawala, sangmurla, and rajgura. 5. The remainder are: wheat, once in fifteen days; maize, three waterings to the crop ; young fruit trees, once a week ; older trees, four or five times a year. The ordinary conditions of well-irrigation in Barar are thus : The wells have an average depth of 30 feet, and are each worked by one pair of bullocks for nine hours daily, which raise a leather bag (mot) containing 300 Ibs. of water. They can thus water half an acre daily well, but for a continuance cannot keep watered more than 3 acres of ordinary irrigated crops. The prime cost of a common unreveted well is ,30, the bullocks ;15, gear 5, in all 50 ; the daily expenditure is, feed of bullocks Is., labour of two men, at Is. each, in all 3s. ; or about 50 a year. Produce of Crops at the Experimental Farms in Bardr, 1870. Yield of clean cotton in Ibs. per acre. Umraoti Sheagaon. Banni ... 184 86 Jarri ... 66 150 Umraoti Sheagaon Hinghanghat ... 180 56 Dharwar ... 14 24 Manured land yielded 430 Ibs. of clean cotton per acre. The following were the yields of other crops : jowari, 538 Ibs.; wheat, 745; gram, 312; muth, 300; linseed, 278; peas, 408 Ibs. In ploughed land, jowari yielded 660 Ibs. 2 K 498 INDIA. THE IRRIGATED CROPS OF The Principal Crops Acres. Wheat Great Millet ... Spiked Millet ... Rice Maize Chino, Rala and Wara Barley ... Other cereals 6 617 2 561 2 341 1947 108 III THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Irrigated in 1882-83. Sugar-cane Vegetables Fodder and Lucerne Fruit and other Trees . Other Garden Crops 221 Total Ground Nut Gram, Urad and Mug . . Other Pulses Total 14037 6685 Total Acres. 5011 768 383 739 60 6 961 Condiments Oil seeds... Drugs . . . Sundries... Total Grand Total The total depth of watering considered necessary is : For rice crop ... 4 months ... ... 1*5 feet For sugar-cane ... u 3'o A good well will keep irrigated from four to six acres of inferior garden crop. THE CROPS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY AND THEIR SEASONS. Local name. Cholam Kambu Tennai Chamai Godambai Makkai *Nellu Kevaru Thovarai Kadalai Ulandu Pacha pay aru . . . Pattani Tulkapair Botanical Terms. Sorghum vulgare Penicillaria spicata Panicum italicum Panicum miliaceum Triticum vulgare Zea mais Oriza sativa Eleusine coracana Cajanus indicus Cicer arietinum Phaseolus aureus Phaseolus mungo Pisum arvense Phaseolus aconitifolius... Sown in Cut in September December. April June. September January. July ... January. July ... December. July ... October. July ... October. June October. July ... April. July ... April July ... February. September December. September December. December March. CROPS AND WATERINGS. 499 Local Name. Botonical Terms. Sown in Cut in t 'Avert Indigofera tinctoria November March. f Manjel Curcuma longa August ... February. RI Inji Zingiber officinale September February. 1 Emburchai . . . Rubia cordifolia (Madder) October... February. *s Kusamba Carthamus tinctorius ... November March. 1 Kasakasa Papaver somniferum . . . October. . . March. S Poghrielli Nicotiana rustica January... April. iParati Gossypium herbaceum May ... January. Ganja (Hemp) Cannabis sativa \ I sv ~* Allivarai (Jute) Corchorus capsularis [ Six months at any time. 1 Allivarai (Flax) Linum usitatissimum ' Tanupanar Crotalaria juncea August ... March. ^Pulchi Hibiscus cannabinus ... August ... March. ^ iSittamunak ... Ricinus communis August ... November. $t \Kadagu Sinapis, three varieties . . . September February. ^\Yellu Sesamum orientale January ... April. 3 \Katamilli ... Coriandrum sativum ... December March. iPusani kai Cucurbita maxima July ... December. g FjFWUf Tricosanthes cucumerina July ... December \Kothaverai ... Trigonella fcenugraecum July ... October. ^ < /7V/fo #/ Cucurbita citrullus February April. j| F*//m Cucumis sativus April July. ^ \Molam Cucumis melo April July. ^ \Sathakupa ... Anethum sowa December March. * Many varieties of rice are grown in the Madras Presidency : one is a cold weather crop, and another is left a long time standing ; but that above-mentioned is the staple crop, its period being coincident with the rainy season. The Watering of Crops in the Madras Presidency. The general allowance of water to rice crops in the Madras Presidency is i cubic foot per second of supply to 40 acres ; to sugar-cane, gram, plantain, and garden crops, i cubic foot per second to 120 acres; ordinary field crops are rarely grown in places where irrigation is available. 500 INDIA. 5 WATER RATES AND TOLLS. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. On the Bari Doab Canal y from 1862-63 to 1869-70. s. d. For all crops, per acre per crop ... 2r. 6a. 8p. or 4 10 Lift irrigation, one-half the above rate. Since 1869-70. I. Sugar-cane, per acre per year ... 120 II. Rice, per acre per crop ... '"^96 Garden produce, per acre per half-year ) III. Kharif crops. Cotton, hemp, indigo, turmeric, sesa- mum, waternuts, vegetables, orchards, fruit trees . . . Rabbi crops. Wheat, barley, mixed grain, linseed, sarru, taramira, mustard, opium, tobacco, tukhmba- langa, safflower, chillies, vegetables, per acre per crop ' IV. Kharif crops. All millets, maize, and crops not else- \ where mentioned ... Rabbi crops. All pulses, all grasses, fallow lands, > 3 and crops not elsewhere mentioned, per acre per crop J V. Single waterings, and Rabbi crops not requiring water after December, per acre per crop 16 For lift irrigation, one-half the above rates. Average supply per acre, 44 ooo cubic feet. On the Western Jamna Canal, from 1862-63 to 1866-67. On all first-class lands, per acre per crop ... ... 2 3 \ On all second-class lands, per acre per crop 1 4 For lift irrigation, two-thirds the above rates. Since 1866-67 the rates have been identical with those of the Ganges and Eastern Jamna canals. WATER RATES AND TOLLS. 501 NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. On the Dehli and Gurgaon Irrigation Works, from 1862 to 1 870, the rates were for grass crops, per acre, 5d. ; and for all other crops, per acre, 9Jd. Ganges and Eastern Jamna Canals, from 1862-63 to 1865-66. s. d. I. Sugar-cane, per acre per year ... ... ... ... 8 9 II. Fruit, nursery and vegetable gardens, all cultivated grasses, rice, waternuts, ajawen, and similar herbs, per acre per crop ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 III. Indigo, cotton, tobacco, wheat and oats (rabbi), per acre per crop 3 4 IV. Barley, all pulses and millets, maize, safflower, oil seeds (kharif), per acre per crop 25 From 1865-66 to 1867-68. Gardens, and all lands taking a perennial supply, were trans- ferred from Class II. to Class I. ; and the rates then became for Class L, 10s. ; II., 6s. ; III., 4s. 6d. ; IV., 3s. 4d. Since 1867-68, the fruit, vegetable, and nursery garden pro- duce have been transferred again into Class II., but the rates for the various classes have otherwise remained the same as before. For lift irrigation, the rates have always been two-thirds of those by flow. The other sources of revenue are, for watering cattle, 12s. per 100, per year ; sheep and goats, 4s. ; supplying tanks, rent of corn mills, sale of grass, timber, fuel, and fruit, fines for tres- pass, &c. Dun Canals, from 1862-63 to 1865-66. For garden produce, sugar-cane, and first-class rice, 2s. 6d. per acre per crop ; for tea, Is. 3d. ; for wheat and inferior rice, Is. From 1865-66 to 1867-68. per acre. s. d. I. Tea, sugar-cane, garden, and perennial watering, per year 10 II. First-class rice, tobacco, opium, and waternut, per crop 6 III. Indigo and cotton IV. Inferior rice, wheat, oats, and other crops ... 26 502 INDIA. From 1867-68 to 1871-72, tea and sugar-cane remained in Class I., the garden and orchard produce being transferred to Class II. ; but the rates for the various classes remained unaltered. Since 1871-72, the rate for tea has been altered to Is. 6d. for each watering ; leaving sugar-cane alone in Class I. ; the rates for other produce on some of the Dun canals have been lowered For lift irrigation, the rates have been always two- thirds of those by flow. Rohttkand Canals. per acre, s. d. I. Garden and orchard per crop 4 II. Sugar-cane, tobacco, opium and waternut, per first watering 1 III. All cereals, pulses, and oilseed ... ,,06 In Classes II. and III., half rates for every subsequent watering. For lift irrigation, the rates are half of those for flow. The number of waterings prescribed on the Naginah Canal is : For fruit gardens per year 8 waterings. Hemp per crop 5 Rice, sugar-cane, indigo, tobacco, cultivated grasses and herbs ... 4 Cotton, cereals, and pulses ... 3 Bahar and Bengal. The later rates are not specified in the returns available. For others see Brief Accounts of Canals. Navigation Tolls in Northern India. The Western Jamna Canal transit dues are tabulated according to a most complicated code, the rates for various sorts of timber varying from Is. 3d. to 4 per score for the whole course of the canal, with a reduction for intermediate distances ; the rates by weight being about 6d. per ton for the whole course of the canal. The Bari Doab Canal transit dues are : For rafts of all sorts of timber ... l^d. per ^10 value at starting. For rafts of bamboos fd. per thousand. For rafts of firewood, hemp, flax, and grass d. per 4 tons, or 100 mans. For rafts of reeds, sirkanda ... d. per thousand bundles. WATER RATES AND TOLLS. 503 The Ganges Canal transit dues, since 1872, have been : s. d. For boats, per month 9 Rafts of logs, per mile ... ... ... per 100 cubic feet 1^ Rafts of sleepers, &c., per mile ... ,, 0| Rafts of bamboos, per mile Rafts of firewood, per mile ... ... per i ooo cubic feet 0^ The Eastern Jamna Canal is very little used for navigation. SOUTHERN INDIA. Orissa. The water rates and tolls apparently have varied much from time to time ; it is difficult to discover them from the available returns. For earlier rates see Brief Account of Canals, n the Bombay Presidency there is generally a combined land and irrigation assessment. The lands are divided into three sorts, and classified according to depth of soil, in cubits of 18 inches, and with respect to their special advantages and dis- advantages. It is considered that no advantage arises from more than two cubits in depth of soil, as it cannot imbibe and retain more effective moisture; the disadvantages taken into con- sideration are the presence in the soil of kankar, coarse sand, loose or stiff soil, excess of moisture, and liability to be flooded. In a moist climate the better and worse descriptions of land are considered more on a par, the latter benefiting more from moisture than the former. The general assessment, per acre, is as follows : s. d. s. d. For unirrigated or dry crops 3 6 For ordinary irrigated or garden crops 8 For special irrigated crops in some places ... 14 to 30 The rates allowed on the Mukti project are : For sugar-cane, 56s. ; for rice, 20s. ; for wheat, 10s. per acre. And those allowed on the Lakh project and Bhatodi tank are : For perennial, or 1 2 months, irrigation . . . per acre 18s. For wet and cold season, or 8 months, irrigation 10s. TTrr manciirt rvr A mnnfTio' it-rinroti/M^ Ac; For mansun, or 4 months' irrigation 504 INDIA. In the Madras Presidency there is generally a combined land and irrigation assessment. The consolidated revenue, including the water rate, is two-fifths of the value of the produce, but is sometimes less, according to the market price of rice. The general assessment per acre is as follows : s. d. s. d. For unirrigated or dry crops 4 For rice 9 6 to 16 Sugar, at the same ratio, would be sometimes as much as 120 But the general range of assessment is from ... ... 4 to 50 The water rate allowed by Government on the Tum- bhaddra Canal of the Irrigation Company is ... 10 to 12 In Maisur, the general rate per acre is 12 to 15 On the Tumbhaddra Canal (also called the Karnul Canal). Reduced rates introduced in 1882 : Flow. Lift. s. s. Single wet crop, per acre 8 6 Second wet crop on irrigated land ... 6 5 If compounded, for two crops for a term of not less than 5 years 12 9 Sugar-cane, betel and garden crops remaining on ground for time of two crops ... ... ... ... ... 12 9 Single dry crop ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 1^ Second dry crop on irrigated land 2 1^ Garden crops, of class 2 of old rates 6 4=i A reduction of 50 per cent, on these rates for the first five years, and of 25 per cent, for the second five years for lands not cultivated within the last ten years. For waste lands in blocks of 50 acres and more, free irrigation is given for 5 years, and at half rates for the second term of 5 years. BASIS OF WATER RATE. Water rate should, if possible, be based on the difference between the value of a crop per acre and the cost of producing it ; but as land rent may be arbitrary, and wages and the value of produce may vary, that method may fail when an irrigation scheme comes into operation. A comparison with other works and rates in actual operation, therefore, forms a second basis, to which modification the observed local circumstances can be WATER RATES AND TOLLS. 505 applied. The statistics and statements of Anglo-Indian magis- trates and tax collectors, &c., should not be trusted in such matters ; independent information is alone of any value. When comparing the water rates in vogue in different parts of India, the average wages of a day labourer, or coolie, should be borne in mind. The following are approximate data : In Northern India 3d. to 4Jd. InBarar 6d. to 9d. In the Bombay Presidency ... 6d. to 9d. In the Madras Presidency ... 2Jd. to3fd. In Maisur . 3d. to 6d. 506 INDIA. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. Analysis of Constituents per Gallon. Place Date | Total hardness 4-2 Permanent hardness 2 '8 Grains of oxygen required per million grains ... 0-51 Ammonia ... ... ... ... present Phosphoric acid traces Nitrous acid Grains of nitric acid in 70 ooo Total solids in 70 ooo grains of filtered water 9-7 Volatile matter ... 0*45 Mineral matter 9-25 Earthy salts, silica, oxide of iron, insoluble 5-07 Lime, as carbonate 3-46 Silica Soluble salts Chloride of sodium O '6 Sulphate of soda .. 2-64 Carbonate of soda Kabul, at Naushera, May, 1868. 2. Kabul, I mile above Naushera. 24 December, 1868. 8-8 O'lO traces 1575 14 15-61 0-8 3- Kabul, near Fort Michni. January, 1870. 1072 475 0-80 none trace trace none 18-1 i -60 375 present 53? i, 2, 7, 8, and 9, by Dr. Center; 4, 7, and 8, Dr. Sheppard ; 3, 5 QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 507 the Water of the Rivers of the Panjab. 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- Ravi, at Mian Mir ? Jhelam, I ^ miles below Rawalpindi. Satlaj, at Bhawalpur. Gaggar, at Mubarikpur. Gaggar, 8 miles from Amballa Harru, above Camp- bellpur. 1 6 December 1868. 10 May, 1869. 28 March, 1870. 21 December, 1867. 28 November, 1868. 13 October, 1867. 5'95 2*22 7-16 6-3 6-9 8-5 2-92 1-27 3'55 2'5 37 6-7 0*29 1-38 0-25 0-24 0-29 0-50 none none none . traces none traces traces traces none none none none none traces 11-70 77 11-85 15-2 15-48 17-4 0*64 0-7 0*40 o'34 0-7 1*2 10-06 7-0 1 1 '45 14-88 1478 16-2 879 6-15 10*9 9'7 4-70 0-80 in 1 4-40 8-4 6-3 0-88 : 2-27 1 5-30 3-8 5-07 0-32 1-47 f I'20 3*30 0^2 2-6 075 2-23 0*42 0'95 i-3 2 '5 0-6 Dr. Harvey ; 6, Dr. Hutcheson. 2, river at its lowest. 508 INDIA. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. Analysis or the Water of Constituents per Gallon. Place Date Total hardness 3-3 Permanent hardness 4-3 Grains of oxygen required per million grains 0-5 1 Ammonia ... Phosphoric acid traces Nitrous acid Grains of nitric acid in 70 ooo Total solids in 70 ooo grains of filtered water 5-14 Volatile matter 0-35 Mineral matter Earthy salts, silica, oxide of iron, insoluble 3-7 Lime, as carbonate 3-0 Silica 3 Soluble salts Chloride of sodium - 2I Sulphate of soda Carbonate of soda .. Indus, at Attak. 23 June, 1868. 2. Indus, at Attak. 24 December, 1868. 5* 0*16 traces 10-15 0*42 973 5'39 4*34 0-42 2'6 3- Indus, at Dera Ismail Khan. 28 April, 1869. 4-8 2*5 0*69 none none none none 1073 0-81 9'93 4-64 3'4 unk. 5-29 1-31 i'35 0*24 i, 2, 4 and 5, by Dr. Center ; 3, Dr. Thomson i, water rising rapidly, nearly QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 509 the Rivers of the Panjab. 4- 5- .6. 7- 8. 9- Harru, i| miles above Saidan Baoli. Leh, above Rawalpindi. Swat, near Abazai. Tovey, 2 miles above Kohat. Kurram, 5 miles from Bannu. Bainganga, ij miles above Kargra. 24 November, 1868. 25 September, 1869. January, 1870. 2 October, 1870. 14 November, 1870. II May, 1870. 9-63 87 6'6 I5-9 8-Si 3* 1 67 47 2'2 8-2 7 7-11 2 '04 0*19 o'39 0-24 0*19 0-28 '59 traces trace none none none present trace none none none present none none none none o-S traces none none 17-8 19-5 io-45 29-4 16-8 5'6 o-3 i '5 i-4 1-26 i'4 07 '7-5 18- 9'5 28-14 15-4 4'9 14' 7* 2 5 14-14 r 2-8 Il't 8-6 4*5 9-8 5-46 r6i 2-31 traces 0-98 trace 4' rS 14- 8-4 2*1 0'49 0-63 o'45 2*52 1-68 i-oS 0-8 !'4 4-36 2-16 traces 0-9 0-27 3-8 378 0*76 6, Dr. Harvey, 7, 8, and 9, Dr, Whit well, at its height ; 2, river at its lowest. 510 INDIA. NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. Analysis oft Place | Constituents per Gallon. Date! i Near Allahabad. April, 1867. 2. Above Danapur. 25 May. Below Khanpur. May, 1867 Total hardness T8 6* 4'1 Permanent hardness 2'Z 3 '2? 3' ? Grains of oxygen required per million grains Ammonia O'62 present ^D 016? j 7'3 r\vpcpvjf Phosphoric acid abund nrACpnf flV\T1TlH Nitrous acid... Grains of nitric acid in 70 ooo Total solids in 70 ooo grains of filtered water Volatile matter 11-9 3 traces 10*9 T *OC o 11*06 Mineral matter 5 R'A 1 5 9Q C 8r- ., Earthy salts, silica, oxide ol iron, insoluble Lime, as carbonate ... o 4 4*06 5 6-8 /:.*. 54 5' 2 5 Silica 2 9 o 7 Soluble salts,.. traces traces Chloride of sodium ... 4 34 35 3' 2 9 Sulphate of soda 1-05 ''OS .QQ 0*8 Carbonate of soda ... r 5 2 88 J'54 2'O 1-07 0*9 i and 3, by Dr. Milne j 2 and 4, Dr. Jameson; 5 and 6, Dr. Compigne The Ganges is believed to suppl QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 511 Water of the Ganges and its Tributaries. 4- Below the Sohan, at Danapur. 4 Oct., 1867. 5- At Allahabad. 21 Oct., 1867. 6, At Khanpur. 14 Nov., 1867. 7- At Fattahgarh. i May. 1869. 8. ^ mile above Chunar. i Sept., 1869. 9- Bhagaratti, opposite Barhampur. 28 Oct., 1867. 10. The Sohan, at Danapur. 6 Oct., 1868. 5'8 8-26 4'5 3*7 7-0 5'35 3'5 3'9 3' 2 3' 2 I -8 3' 1 2'73 2-8 035? 0-48 0-4 07 o*45 1-07 0*61 ' f o none traces traces o none none traces traces none none .'.' traces none none under i gr. i4'3 8-4 9-2 9-1 875 i3'o5 10*22 2-3 07 Q'5 1 r 75 i'4 1-26 3-01 I2'I 77 8-69 7'35 7'35 1179 7-21 7'0 5*25 7*4 4*37 6-65 8-9 5-25 5'i 3'i5 ? 3'29 4*9 37 378 traces 07 traces 3'i5 r68 5'i 2'45 1-29 2*97 07 2-8 1*96 1-26 1-05 0*42 1*05 074 0-63 0*42 2'34 ? ? 1-92 traces o*4 o*45 i'5 0*47 076 076 0-8 0-44 7 and 8, Dr. Whitwell ; 9, Dr. Thomson; 10, Dr. May the best river water in India. 512 INDIA. NORTH-EASTERN INDIA. Analysis of the Water of the Jamna Place j Constituents per Gallon. Date] i Jamna, above Dehli. 28 Sept., 1866. 2. Jamna, 2 miles above Agra. 14 Dec., 1866. Jamna, above Agra. 25 April, 1867. 4- Jamna, opposite Allahabad April, 1867. Total hardness (\'i 8.Q Permanent hardness Grains of oxygen required per million grains Ammonia 45 2-86 '5 o 7 2'95 '35 3 9 I*O 0-48 4-6 072 Phosphoric acid Nitrous acid... traces Grains of nitric acid in 70 ooo Total solids in 70 ooo grains of filtered water Volatile matter 1 1 '64 r\'h 2 14-8 16-8 2'8 present 21'O Mineral matter u 7-2 IO'Q2 i vi6 I V\ 5 I'7'C Earthy salts, silica, oxide of iron, insoluble Lime, as carbonate ... w y* 8-62 3'l]9 7-64 6-4 A o o 5'53 unknown 1 1 9-1 4'27 Silica 1 O OX8 traces *r * Soluble salts w ^t 2'2Q 5'o6 7'77 8*0 Chloride of sodium ... 0-84 yvy 1*44 2*1 _> y 4*4 Sulphate of soda I*I*i i -6 unkno wn ^'6 Carbonate of soda ... 0-86 unknown o w 4 '2 i and 5, by Dr. Sheppard ; 2, Dr. Jameson ; 3, Dr. Cameron ; 4, Dr. Milne ; The Jamna water is invariably reported QUALITY OF WATER, SILJ\ ETC. 513 and of Southern affluents of the Ganges. 5- Jamna, above Dehli. 17 May, 1867. 6. Jamna, at Allahabad 23 Oct., 1867. 7- Jamna, i \ miles below Matthra. 26 June, 1868. 8. Morar, I mile below town. 26 Sept. 1867. 9- Morar, above bend. 18 July, 1868? 10. Morar, above bend. 13 August, 1868? ii. M orar, 3 miles above Morar- Bazar. 7 February 1870. 12. Umram, above Nagod. 3 April, 1868. J3 Betwa, 5 miles irom Jhansi. 14 Nov. 1867. 47 878 4'i 5'l 5*9 5*4 77 i3'3 3'4 3'95 2-36 2'0 0-9 0-6 I '2 5' 2-4 17 0*06 o'6o O'26 0-6 0-36 O'2I 0*46 '59 O'22 o present none present present present none trace o trace present none o '5 trace none 10*04 11*2 13*3 10-3 i5'54 9-8 1575 18-9 9-8 o'34 '35 0-8 I "2. i '3 i*3 o'9i 1-9 ro 97 10-85 I2'5 9'I 14-24 8*5 14-84 17-0 8-8 7-16 7-91 7-6 4*9 ' 5' 8-4 IO'O 47 4'9 6'5 4*2 3' 2 6-0 3'3 574 8-8 2-8 '^3 traces traces 2-13 2*1 0-42 3'54 2-94 4*9 4-2 3 '5 6-44 7-0 4'i 072 r6 i'37 I'2 3-01 !'5 i'47 17 I Many algae. Guzrat j Kha^hoda ... Jan. May 49-0 111-3 22'I 55'3 0'2I 072 i '04 0-82 \ Algae and paramecia. Ahmadabad, Filter Tank ... une 37-i 7'4 0-03 0-31 Protozoa. Nasik, Trimbak Kushawarta Sep. 21'0 2'0 i-33 1-26 Numerous algae. Bombay, Butcher's Island... Aug. 5-6 O'l 0-32 0-52 Algae and paramecia. f Diu Vtay 5'4 6-4 0*05 0-18 Protozoa. Kolaba-^ Wadan 49-0 15-8 '59 0-48 Protozoa. 1 Shahabag Aug. 5*3 0-08 0*62 i Algae and rotifera. fDavircherru Dec. 23; i 7 0-05 0-36 j} Husen Sagar '4 0'2I 0-32- }j Haida- rabad, - Dakhan Ibrampatan Ch. ... Patek tank Kutwa Mir Alam 19-6 19-6 19*6 22-4 '4 '4 i 0-09 0-13 0-13 0-08 0-45 0-19 0'20 0-32 - " j Good it Bad Rather abundant vege- - table debris, diatoms , and a few paramecia. Mir Jhare Hauz i O'OI 0-32 ) y Tuka Hauz .;.. 21 '0 '4 0-05 VI from another Series by the Chemical Examiner, Panjab, 1882. Ajmir (Abu Lake II'O *5 0-16 0-19 AUBUkj I &c. | Ana Sagar Lake ... Nov. 11-9 2'I 0-40 0-52 Bad f Confervae, paramecia, ( rotifera. Calcutta, Dr. Warden's tank n'3 1-9 0-42 0-64 /Brown residue, blacken- { ing much on ignition. Dum-Dum, Digla Jan. I0'2 0-8 0-13 0-43 (Yellowish, slight black- { ening. Dacca, Manikganj Apr. 7'3 07 0-06 0-41 Do. do. Howrah, Hadua Sep. S9'6 9'5 0-40 0-54 (Decaying vegetable tissue { no entomatozoa. Nagpur, Ambajari Jan. 7-0 07 O'OO 0-16 Good Protozoa. Bombay, Vehar Mar. 6-3 0-6 O'OI 0-24 j> QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 519 RESULT OF ANALYSIS OF THE AVERAGE WELL WATERS OF STATIONS IN NORTHERN INDIA, ACCORDING TO VARIOUS ANALYSTS. Situation, Date of Examina- tion. Grains per Gallon, or parts in 70000. f't 1*8.8 fr-a O erg Character and Remarks. Total Solids. Volatile Matter. Chlo- rides. NORTH-WEST Peshawar ERN INDI May, 1 868 A. 27-4 27 2'0 0*50 Indifferent. Naushera May, 1 868 18-2 0-98 0-8 0-27 Verywholesome. Attak May, 1 868 I23-3 3'8 28-0 Very bad. Rawalpindi .. Sep. 1867 28-9 3'5 0-6 Q'5 1 Pure and good. Mian Mir .. Dec. 1868 59'3 i*4 3'3 0-63 Very bad. Amritsar Dec. 1869 56-2 6-1 156 Good. D. Is mail Khan Apr. 1868 37'2 i'S 5'8 0-47 Fair. D.GhaziKhan Mar. 1869 427 r8 87 O f 62 Fair. NORTH- EASTE Dehli RN INDIA 75*o 7-8 unk. Very bad. Matthra Dec. 1867 39-6 2'0 10-8 0-51 Fair. Agra r an. 1868 45 '4 4'i 1 1 '2 0-47 Bad. Jhansi ^fov. 1867 25-1 4'9 2'4 '53 Wholesome. Murar Aug. 1868 29-6 2'I 57 o'Si Bad. Faizabad "an. 1867 18-6 i '3 1-8 0-17 Good. Fattahgarh ... Apr. 1869 34'3 2*2 4-6 o'54 Doubtful. Aligarh Aug. 1 869 35'i 2-6 57 0-44 Very foul. Allahabad . . . Mar. 1860 33' 1 1*1 3'9 Fair, but hard. Banaras Dec. 1868 25'9 i'3 2'8 Good Chunar Sep. 1869 34-3 i'4 4*3 Hard and bad. Danapur Sep. 1868 59'2 5'5 10-3 0-31 Very bad. Barhampur ... Nov. 1867 3*'i 2'3 87 ; Bad. 520 INDIA. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA. Peshawar. The drinking water is obtained by open canal from the river Barra, which also fills reservoirs ; the water is excellent, but sometimes muddy ; the reservoirs are frequently drained, but contain frogs, also Typha angustifolia, Potamo- geitons and Confervae. The Peshawar Marsh being specially renowned for its mala- rious effects, an account of the flora that thrive there, will there- fore be of interest. On the higher ground, which is covered with saline efflorescence, grow several species of Salsolaceae, Franknia pulverulenta, Tamarix, Salix Babilonica. The ordinary plants that grow in and around the marsh are : Epilobium occasional ; Lycopus, abundant in parts ; Lippia nodiflora and Herpetis monneira, about ditches ; Utricularia, rare ; Eclipta erecta, not uncommon; Ranunculus aquatilis and Ranunculus sceleratus, common; Limnanthemum cristatum, a species of Lium ; Typha angustifolia, abundant ; Nelumbium, cultivated ; Butomus, rare ; Sagittaria sagittafolia, Alisma equisetum, two species of Juncus, rare. Of Sedges, the following are common : Cypicus exaltatus, Cypicus mucronatus, Malacochaete pectinata, Scupus maritimus, Carix Wallichiana, Eleocharis palustris. The common grasses about and near the water are : Agrostis alba, Polypagon monspeliensis, Andropogon Bradlii, Cynodon dac- tylon, an Arundo, a Saccharum. The following are the floating and submerged plants : A Ceratophyllum (demersum ?), Pota- mogeiton crispus, P. pusillus, Potamogeiton plantageneus, rare ; Hydrilla verticillata, Marsilia quadrifolia, Chara, most abundant; Nitella, occasional ; Confervse, profuse. Two species of Riccia, a Semno, and an Argola, are abundant in some places. Haidarabad in Sind. The wells are supplied by inundation from the Indus. The water is said to be soft, good, and whole- some, a few wells only brackish : yet the wells swarm with animal life. Like most wells in Sind, they may be exhausted by an ordinary Persian wheel in twelve hours. Nasirabad.M.ost of the wells are so salt that they are unfit for use. The water from the same well varies considerably in saltness, being sometimes palatable, clear and hard ; that from a wholesome well was found to contain, after evaporation to dryness, organic matter in the large proportion of i in 200, as well as chloride of sodium and sulphates of alumina and potass, besides other chlorides and sulphates. QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 521 Disa. Well water clear, agreeable, devoid of smell, almost free from organic matter, with an inconsiderable amount of aline or mineral ingredients. Ahmadabad. The well water, after long use, is apt to induce disease of the spleen, which the river water does not ; the former has a higher specific gravity than the latter. AVERAGE WELL WATERS OF STATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA (according to old accounts). Baroda. Well water clear, soft, and of good quality ; it contains no sulphates, phosphates, or nitrates, nor any salts of lime ; it is alkaline ; it contains principally chloride of sodium ; also carbonate of soda, and a faint trace of lime, but no iron. Surat. There is not a single well of fair drinking water with- in the station. All are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen- Dhulia. Well water good, soft, devoid of smell, of an agree- able taste, but of a rather blue colour. Malligauni. The wells require clearing from sediment once a year, and would otherwise become unwholesome. Bombay. Well water brackish, containing a large quantity of lime, also sea salt. Vahar reservoir water is considered pure. Serur. Well water hard, but good and wholesome ; it con- tains a little lime. Satara. Wells and tanks in trap rock; the guinea-worm is found in them. Sholapur. Wells supplied by percolation from the tanks ; water very good, soft, pure, uninjurious, and colourless ; when filtered has a specific gravity of 1000*4 an d contains 30 grains of solid matter to a gallon : under microscopic examination was found to contain no organic matter beyond a little shiny film. The tanks contain Flosaquse, as well as ordinary grasses and rushes, and among the infusoria the encapsuled amalae pscillatoria, and aedogonium ; in dry weather, when the floss decomposes, the malaria is most noxious. Ratnagiri. Well water very good, as soft as rainwater, and free from taste or smell. Belgaum. Well water clear, good, soft, wholesome, and free from taste and smell. It contains chlorides, sulphates of lime and magnesia, and a salt of iron. Dharwar. The well water has the reputation of being very good and wholesome, but also of giving rise to guinea-worm among the natives. 522 INDIA. RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF THE AVERAGE WELL WATERS OF STATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA AND BRITISH BURMAH. (By Drs. Harvey, Hastings, Sinclair, and Nicholson.) Station. No. of Wells examined. Date of Examination in 1871 or 1872. TotalSolids per 100 ooo Nitric Acid per ioo ooo Hardness. Character. Kattak 13 Oct. '72 40 to IOO unkn. 15 to 20 Very salt. Jabalpur May, 1868 3 unkn. unkn. Wholesome Kamthi 6 Oct. to Nov. '72 40 to 70 2 to 6 15 to 20 Fair. Sitabaldi 2 Nov. & Dec. 72 30 to 40 i to 4 7 to 27 Fair. Sikandarabad 27 Jan. to July, '72 31 to 90 i to 4 12 tO 30 Bad. MADRAS PRES IDEN CY. Ballari 16 Feb. to Apr/ 7 2 30 to loo O'l tO 10 15 to 40 Bad. St. Thos. M'nt. 12 Aug. to Oct.'7i 30 to loo o'i to 0-2 15 tO 20 Good. Palaveram . . . 8 Mar. to May, '7 1 50 Under i 15 Good. Punamalli . . . 6 Nov. & Dec .'7 1 30 to 70 Under i 6 to 15 Pure. Vizagapatam J 9 May to June,'72 50 tO 20O i to 15 20 tO 40 Salt. Vizianagram 8 July, '72 50 to loo unkn. 25 to 80 Indifferenf. Barhampur ... 7 Sept. '72 25 1050 i to 2 8 to 20 Indifferent. Bangalur 77 During '71 2O tO 200 Variable Bad. Kannanur . . . 2 5 Feb. to Apr.'72 15 0-2 to 0-5 2 to 4 Very good. Trichinopalli 32 June to Sep.'72 15 to ioo 0-3 to 0-5 10 tO 20 Indifferent. Mangalur 4 Nov. '72 IO unkn. 4 to 8 Good. Quilon 3 Dec. '72 22 unkn. 2 to 5 Good. Palamkatta ... 3 Dec. '72 20 tO 30 i 10 Good. Vellur T Dec. '72 56 unkn. 14 Fair. BURMAH. Thayatmyo ... 30 Dec.'7itoFeb.'72 50 to ioo i to 2 20 Safe. Tonghu 26 June toSep.'72 15 to 30 0-3 tj i '5 2 to 5 Bad. Mulmein 14 Nov. & Dec.'72 5 to 10 O'O tO O'l 2 to 7 Good. Shwayghin ... 4 Nov. & Dec. '7 2 3 to 4 0'2 tO 0'5 i to i -5 Good. QUALITY OF WATER, SILT, ETC. 523 10 1^. 22 8-1 rt H|e,00 OM so M 00 VOVOCO oo rj- O "* N n O O jz +- +- Tj- "t O OJO 6 c> o to > 60 S o g oo ^ *^ and alluvial deposits. Kankar. Detrital laterite of ^ Bhagalpur and Bengal. Pleistocene 1 Khadir f Gangetic basin. Bhangar of Gangetic basin. \ Sub -Himalayan high-level gravel. Pliocene. Miocene. Middle Eocene. Lower Eocene. Dehing group of Assam. Mammaliferous beds of Himalayas. Upper and middle Siwaliks of Sub-Himalayas. Tipam group of Assam. Nahan group of Lower Himalayas (Siwaliks) continued in Garhwal and Kumaon, also in Nipal (Churiaghati). High-level laterite of Bandalkhand and of Bhagalpur. Eocene. \ Kasauli and Dagshai beds of Sirmur group. Sirmur group. Nummulites of Garo Hills (Assam). { j Apparently wanting. Coal measures of Assam. iDisang group of Assam. Upper cretaceous of Khasi Hills. Sandstones and Shales of Garo and Jaintiah hills. Local coal basins also. Traps. Lower traps and Intertrappeans, near Sirguja, and in Malwa. (Rajmahal beds of the Upper Gondwana series. Dubrajpur beds. Mahadeva beds and Jabalpur beds in the valleys of the Sohan and the Damuda. Silhet trap (perhaps cotemporary with Rajmahal trap). Triassic. Apparently non-existent in the Eastern Himalayas or in Assam. Damuda. Permian. Panchet group of Raniganj and the Damuda Valley. Damuda beds of Sikkim and Bhutan. Damudas of Raniganj, Ironstone shales. Barakar, Karharbari and Talchir groups from Rajmahal to the Satpuras. Infra Krol shales of Mansuri. Krol beds in Sirmur. Blaini and Infra Blaini slates of Simla. Silurian Fossiliferous beds in the north of Kumaon. 77- ji, ftUpper Vindhyan beds of Bhanrae, Rewah, Kaimur, and Malwa. \dhyan. j fLower Vindhyan beds of the Sohan and Ken valleys. Semri beds. (Upper Transition rocks of Gwaliar. Bijawar series of Bandalkhand, Shillong series of Assaui. Transition rocks of Bahar. The Arvalli (Transition). Champanir beds. (Transition). Lakhiserai and Shekpura Conglomerates. Gneissic. - Gneiss of Bahar, Rewah, and Chutia Nagpur. Dome Gneiss of Bengal. Gneiss of Assam. (Syenitic lower Gneiss.) Central micaceous Gneiss of the Himalayas. Darjiling Gneiss. Bandalkhand Gneiss, and Arvalli Gneiss. t t The age of the Vindhyans and Transition rocks is unknown. 2 M 530 INDIA. SOUTHERN INDIA. LIST OF FORMATIONS AND GROUPS. Recent and Pleistocene. \\ I Supracretaceous. Dakhan Traps of Cretacean Period. Marine Cretaceous. Marine Jurassic. Upper Blown sand, soils, regur, Sec. Recent alluvial deposits. Raised shell-beds of Coast. Low-level laterite. Older alluvial deposits. Cave deposits. Pliocenes of Surat and Baroch. Miocenes of Surat and Baroch. Ratnagiri plant beds. Eocences (iron-clay) of Surat. Travankur and Kollam limestones and lignites, sands, and clays. East Coast or Gudalur sandstones. High-level laterite. Upper Dakhan traps, and Upper Intertrappeans of Bombay. Middle Dakhan traps. Lower Dakhan traps, and Intertrappeans of Nagpur, the Narbada Valley, of Rajamahendri, Barar, and Mekalgandi. Lameta group of Infratrappeans. Rajamahendri Infratrappeans. Arialur group (near Tan j or and Pondicherry). Trichinopalli group. Utatiir group (near Trichinopalli). Bagh beds of the Lower Narbada Valley. Ellor beds. Tirupatti sandstones. Ragavapuram shales. Jabalpur group. Kotamaleri group (on the Pranhita). Gondwana I Snpermatur and Sattavedu group. Ongole plant-beds. Series of \ Ra J mahal beds occurring at Atgarh (Kattak) and Golapilli (Ellor) Jurassic Period. Manad eva series at Bagra, Denwa, and Pachmarhi. ' V Almod beds of the Southern Pachmarhis. Dubrajpur beds. Damuda ( am E 1011 ? f the Godavari ; Bijori group of the Satpuras. -! Series or Lower\ Hen &* r g rou P i n Orissa ; Motur group of the Satpuras. Gondwana \ Bar ^ kar beds in the Mahanadi, Narbada, and Godavri valleys. I Vindhyan. Transition. Gneissic. Talchir beds in the Brahmini Valley. Lower Vindhyan beds of the Karnul series. Palnad limestone. Bhima limestones and shales. Penganga sand- stones. Chattisgarh and Sambalpur sandstones. Upper transition beds of Kadapah; Papagni, Cheyer, and Nallamale groups. Upper transition beds of Kaladgi. Krishna group. Bijawar beds in the Dhar forest, Bagh and Jobat. Lower transition beds of Manbhum Singbhum, and the Garhjat States. Gneiss of the Arvalli type, near Bagh in the Narbada Valley. Main Gneiss of Southern India, (pink hornblendic). Granitoid Gneiss of the South Mahratta country. Granitic Gneiss of Orissa. CEYLON. DISTRICTS AND RIVERS. CANALS AND TANKS. RESTORED WORKS. CEYLON. DISTRICTS AND KIVERS. The Districts of Ceylon in February, 1881 : District. Area, Popula- District. Area, Popula- sq . miles. tion. sq. miles. tion. Northern. Southern Jaffna 875 265 583 Galle 537 209 680 Mannar 43 2 21 348 Matara ... . ., 548 I 5 I 9 2 3 Mulaittivu 927 7638 Hambantota .. 895 71 917 Vavuniyan ... ... 937 793 1 Eastern. Nuwara Kaliawiya Puttalam Kurunegala 2547 i 184 i 840 44 146 78 154 215 173 Battikaloa Trinkomalli Tamankaduwa . . 2595 . I 062 . I 500 105 358 22 197 22 OOO Negombo 248 116 691 Central. Colombo 54i 389 788 Kandy .. 904 288 332 Kegalla 651 105 874 Matale ... . .. 982 86655 Ratnapura i 434 JI 9955 Badulla ... , 3790 165 692 Kalutara 58i 165 O2I Nuwara Eliya . 353 98682 The whole area is given at 24 700 square miles, and the population was 2850000; there are 4000 square miles of mountainous country, 3000 to 7 ooo feet above mean sea-level. The four central districts comprise 6 ooo square miles. The rivers of Ceylon are mostly unnavigable ; the following are the names of the chief rivers : Rivers. Catchment, sq. miles. Flowing North. Kana Karayan Aru . . . Flowing West. Arivi Aru Kala Oya Mi Oya Deduru Oya Maha Oya Kelani Ganga Kalu Ganga Bentota Ganga 100 ooo 800 I 300 800 Catchment, sq. miles. Flowing South. Gin Ganga Nilwala Ganga Walawe Ganga Magama Ganga Kataragam Ganga ... Flowing East. Kumukkan Aru ... Patipal Aru Mundini Aru Maruru Oya Mahaweli Ganga 4 300 (And an unnamed Horowapotane River.) i ooo 700 2 N 53i CEYLON. The annual rainfall varies between 27 feet at Mannar to 187 feet at Padupolla ; the day rainfall as a maximum is 9 to 12 inches, but occasionally 18 inches. The mean daily evaporation at Colombo was O'2i2 inch, and the mean humidity of the air was 75. The depth of water necessary for a rice crop varies in parts of the island from 12 inches to 18 inches; but even this may be reduced in some parts, allowing for timely rain. If two crops are grown in the year, a depth of 24 to 36 inches is necessary. ANCIENT TANKS AND CANALS. The early Sinhalese kings of Seren Dip, to whom some of the larger works are ascribed, lived at the following dates : Panduvassa, 5046.0., second king of Ceylon. Dvenipia Tissa, 307 B.C. (Name not given) 104 B.C. Maha Sen, A.D. 66. Tissa, A.D. 201. Maha Sen, A.D. 275. Dhatu Sena, A.D. 460, makes the Yodi Ela Canal. Dappula, A.D. 795. Wijey Bahu I., A.D. 1071, restores many of the works. Prakrama Bahu I., A.D. 1153, makes the Ellehara Canal. These works consisted in numerous tanks, as well as a few canals with weir off-takes from rivers ; most kings made 1 5 to 30 tanks ; Prakrama made I 407, and repaired I 395. Even in 1867, after centuries of neglect, there remained 4 903 tanks in Ceylon in various stages of disrepair ; and these could hardly represent more than 10 per cent, of the original number, either large or small. The larger works were evidently intended to supply water and irrigation near the two capital towns, Anuradha Pura and Pollunawara, in the now North Central Province, or in the old districts of Nuwara Kaliawiya and Tamankaduwa. Whole districts in other parts were, however, irrigated for corn growing, as Ponpurrippu, " the golden plains," a district in the North-West Province, and the Seven Korles, or " granary of the Kandian Kings." The districts of Mannar, in the extreme north, as well as those in the extreme south, were well supplied with irrigation. ANCIENT TANKS AND CANALS. 535 Some of the works were very large, and some showed en- gineering skill ; but most of the works were village tanks, and it is very probable (judging from analogy of the tanks visited in Southern India) that some of them could never have been of much use at any time. It is very difficult to trace the general design and even the localities of the larger works with the aid of books and maps ; for the reasons that they are not technically described by qualified persons, that the names of the same places are given differently by different writers, and that the same names apply sometimes to different places. The Kala Oya Series. On the upper part of the River Kala Oya was the large tank, or enlarged lake, called Kala Weva, or Kalabalulu Weva, having a catchment of about 120 square miles, and 10 square miles in area ; its dam is 5 \ miles long, 20 feet top breadth, and 50 to 60 feet high. It is still in good order, except at the breached waste weir, where the Kala Oya flows out. The Kala Weva tank was made in A.D. 460. From it there appears to have been two or three old canals. ist. The Yodi Ela, 53 miles long and 40 feet wide, to the capital Anuradhapura, which supplied three large tanks : the Tissaweva, the Bassawakulam, and the Bulankulam. 2nd. The Jaya Ganga Canal, also leading from it to Anurad- hapura, made in A.D. 1153, and probably supplying tanks near the former. 3rd. There is also a Pandaweva tank on the Kalamunu Oya, covering i 400 acres. This may be either the same river or a branch of it ; and the tank itself may be subsidiary to the Bassawakulam tank, which was made by Panduvassa, the same king, about 504 B.C. This completes the series ; but it must be noticed that the three large tanks before mentioned were probably made at different times, and the series was not complete until A.D. 1153. The Amban Ganga Series. On the upper part of the Amban Ganga a branch of the Mahaweli Ganga, was the Ellehara dam The dependent works are : I . A canal from Ellehara dam to Kondrowawe, 24 miles long, consisting of a series of lagoons, formed by a long earthen 536 CEYLON. dam, 40 to 90 feet high ; and continuation of canal for five miles in cutting to Minery Lake. 2. A canal from Minery Lake to Kanthalay tank (also called Gantalawe, and, perhaps, also Kandela, and Kandely), 28 miles. 3. A dam on the Kara Ganga (another branch of the Mahaweli Ganga ?) near Matale ; and a canal from it to the Minery Lake. 4. The Kaalinde Canal from the Minery Lake, going north- ward. The Minery Lake, near the capital Pollunawara, and the Kanthalay tank, were made and improved at various times. There is not any account available of any third complete series of ancient irrigation works. The other- large tanks appear to be detached, and independent. They are : Detached large Tanks. I. The Padivil tank, in the northern province, perhaps also called the Padawiya Lake, covering 15 square miles ; dam 1 1 miles long, 30 feet wide at the top and 200 at the bottom, faced with large squared stone; built, probably, A.D. 66. Still in ruins. 2. The Topaweva tank in Tamankaduwa district ; built about A.D. 307. 3. The Battikaloa tank, in the district of the same name, in the Eastern Province. 4. The Oorobokke dam, near Galle, in the Galle district. 5. The Tissa Maharama tank, near Hambantot, in the Southern Province. In the same province a tank, mentioned as the Tissaweva, near Kattregam Temple, built 307 B.C., may or may not be the same. 6. The Kalaa tank is mentioned as a very large tank in old native records ; perhaps there are no traces of it now. MODERN NAVIGABLE CANALS. During the occupation of Ceylon by the Hollanders, A.D. 1656, to 1797, 1 20 miles' of navigable canal were made ; these, probably, were entirely round the backwaters of the coast between Galle and Colombo ; details of these works are not forthcoming. They were entirely neglected by the British until recent times, when they were repaired, and 47 miles more were made. WORKS OF RESTORATION. 537 WORKS OF RESTORATION. The credit of the initiation of the undertaking is due to Sir Henry Ward, Governor of the Colony, from 1855 to 1860. Of village tanks in the North Central Province, which is a new combination of the two districts Miiwara Kaliawiya and Taman- kaduwa, 117 were repaired between 1874 and 1881, at an expense of 25 799 labour, besides valued at 38 741. The expenditure on irrigation works completed, restored and improved between 1868 and 1881 (excluding village tanks) was thus : Province. Northern North Central 3 Central North-Western 9 Western Eastern 22 Southern 24 Total ... Other Works. Bassawakulam tank ( VavuniyaVelankulam( tc Yodi Ela Canal (in progress) ... Total Expenditure on irrigation works in Ceylon from ) isestoissx f*> 3: Less recoveries by water rate and sale of land 67 534 Expenditure. Irrigable Area in Acres. I 1081 200 3 17 637* 2 300 8 8953 7 730 9 22 030 5460 12 3757 1 577 22 81094 57070 24 78372 79 212 923 90 068 ) 6071 supply } ! 081 54550 ... 25 ooo acres. 264 504 Future Works. The old works in the Northern Province are being surveyed with a view to restoration. In the Eastern Province, the anicuts of Pattamputti, and the Irakkaman tank and channel are in progress. In the North-west Province, the next proposed restoration is the Pandaweva tank on the Kalamuna Oya, surface I 400 acres, eventual irrigation 2 500 acres. *This includes expenditure on 13^ miles of Yodi Ela Channel (of which the head works and 40 miles remain). 538 CEYLON. In the Southern Province, the next restoration is the Tissa- maharama tank, near Hambantot, in progress. The designs of most of the restoration works were made in Ceylon, at the office of Major Woodward. It appears that some failures were made in the works of restoration, more especially at the Oorobokke dam, near Galle, in the Southern Province, and at the Battikaloa tank in the Eastern Province. There is no doubt that for works of this class expe- rienced hydraulic engineers are absolutely necessary, and even with them works may fail from causes beyond their control. As the author's personal experience in Ceylon was short and confined to sketching and snipe-shooting, the information above given is due to others; chiefly to the paper read by Mr. J. R. Mosse, at St. James's Hall on I3th May, 1884, and to two books on Ceylon by Mr. John Ferguson, Newspaper Editor, written in 1878 and 1884. WILLIAM RIDER & SON, PRINTERS, LONDON* AN XHIKAI. OVERDUE. YD 02855